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THE

CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S

JOURNAL

SCIENTIFIC AND RAILWAY GAZETTE.

VOLUME III.— IS 40.

LONDONi

PUBLISHED FOR THE PROPRIETOR : 57, KING STREET, WESTMINSTER ;

II. HOOPER, PALL MALL EAST; GROOMBRIDGE, PANYER ALLEY, PATERNOSTER ROW; J. WEALE, 59, HIGH HOLBORN; J. TAYLOR,

1, WELLINGTON STREET, STRAND; J. WILLIAMS, 106, GREAT RUSSELL STREET, BLO0MSBURY

WILEY & PUTNAM, NEW YORK.

LONDON :
THOMAS BURROWS, 57, KING STREET, WESTMINSTER.

PREFACE.

This year lias been less remarkable for great events than for the steady and gratifying progress which has been made in every branch
of the two professions, to recording the labours of which our Journal is devoted. The financial embarrassment of the country, and the
course of political events, have been far from favourable either to the promotion of existing undertakings, or the formation of new ones.
With regard to architecture, it must have been gratifying to our readers to have witnessed the increasing interest which has been shown
by the public of late years on this subject, manifested by the demand for competitions, and the extended discussion of architectural topics
in the higher class of general periodicals, while a strong feeling seems to prevail as to the necessity of enlightening the public mind, and
bringingit to bear upon this as upon other branches of the arts. Architecture has at last been recognized as a subject for collegiate
education, by its introduction into King's College, and by the formation of architectural schools in the national dockyards. The Royal
Academy has given signs of a more liberal disposition towards the profession, by the election of Barry, notwithstanding his known con-
nexion with the Royal Institute— a step highly important. The Institute of Architects of Ireland has been established, and the royal
patronage bestowed upon it. The Revival style, as we announced last year, has now gained a footing in this country, at the same time
that considerable progress has been also made in internal decoration by Parris, Latilla, Owen Jones, and other artists of talent ; so much
better disposition is now shown to unite this branch of the arts with architecture, that there appears every prospect of the Houses of
Parliament being painted in fresco, although we hope not, as has been suggested, by foreign hands. The temple of EngUsh freedom
should never be desecrated by strangers.

We have not this year, as previously, to regret the loss of many great edifices, although York Minster has suffered considerably by
fire. Among the ancient buildings in which restorations or improvements have been carried on, may be mentioned Westminster Abbey,
the Temple, St. Aldate's, York Minster, Tliorney Abbey, St. Mary Nottingham, St. Michael's Basingtoke. Few buildings of any note
have been completed, although many are in a satisfactory state of progress; we may, however, mention the Reform Club, the Club
Chambers Association, the Princess's Theatre, and the Manchester Unitarian Chapel. Several fine railway stations have been erected,
and cemeteries opened in London and different parts of the countr)'. The subject of a change in the system of prison discipline now in
agitation, seems to promise, at an early period, extensive employment for the profession, as also the question of national education, and
the construction of school-houses consequent thereon. The profession in Ireland has been largely employed in building union work-
houses, some of which are on a large scale; a prospect also exists of similar employment for our Scotch brethren. It will be a matter of
gratification to consider that the important question of the architectural and sanitory police of large towns is now attracting much atten-
tion. Something therefore may be expected to be done.

Among the architects whose loss we have this year to regret, are Sir Jeffry Wyatville, AlbertoUi, and Mr. Whitwell.

The engineering profession although having greater obstacles to contend with than the architects, have shown rather more vigour,
and will require therefore a more lengthened statement of the progress they have made. Engineering education is making still greater
advances, a new faculty has been established at Glasgow, and the first Regius Professor of Engineering appointed, the other faculties
have been improved ; at King's College the architectural instruction has been extended, and a lower school formed for elementary in-
struction. To the Mining schools we shall hereafter have occasion to advert; we may farther mention the increased qualifications re-
quired of enginemen by the Admiralty, the examination of officers on the steam engine, and the delivery of lectures at the Royal Naval
College, the establishment of a College for Civil Engineers at Putney, and the project of a School of Practical Engineering at the Poly-
technic Institution. While at this point we may mention that honorary degrees have been conferred by the universities, upon several
engineers, and also upon Junius Smith, the great pnimoter of Atlantic Steam Navigation. The University of Edinburgh have ordered
from Chantrey, a statue of Watt, being the sixth of that great man, and the Institute of Civil Engineers have this year offered premiums
fur memoirs of eminent engineers; we regret however, to remark, that no disposition has been shown by the Government to bestow the
same honours upon this as upon other professions. Prizes have been awarded by an Association at Glasgow, for improvements in safety
valves. The local exhibitions of arts and manufactures have acquired this year still greater extension, and probably we shall not long
wait for a national exhibition in the metropolis.

The railway system has in several ways prominently attracted public attention. We shall first adveit to the number of lines which
have been this year either wholly or partially opened. Among these are, the Great Western, Brighton, Blackwall, Eastern Counties,
Northern and Eastern, North Midland, York and North Midland, Manchester and Leeds, Hull and Selby, Glasgow and Ayr, Glasgow and
Paisley, Maryport and Carlisle, Preston and Wyre, Lancaster and Preston, Chester and Birkenhead, Chester and Crewe, Manchester and
Birmingham, Birmingham and Gloucester, and Taff Vale. On nearly all the great lines most fearful and unprecedented accidents have
within the last few months taken place without any satisfactory cause for their extent, they seem indeed to be the result of a similar
mysterious visitation to that by which steam navigation was afflicted last year and the year before, and from which it has been this year
free. Government have been as usual meddling this year, and we regret to say with greater success than before ; besides employing parlia-
mentary committees and itinerant commissioners who have been employed on the Scotch and Holyhead routes, an act has been past for
giving the Government an unprecedented control over the lines. Only one bill for a new railway passed last session. The system of
leasing small lines to other companies, and of the union of lines has been much extended. Rope traction has now been shown on a con-
siderable scale on the Blackwall railway, on which wire rope is proposed to be used, and a large experiment has been made of the pneu-
matic system, on the West London Railway. Electric telegraphs have received some improvements, and their utility for railway pur-

- ?^ 6 ?

PREFACE.

posps may now be considered as finally recognized. The French government have this year shown a better spirit as to the railways, but
tlu'y make but small way, the Paris and Rouen projectors have however raised large sums in this country. The Russian government have
sent an engineer to this country to prejiare for the formation of raihvaya in Russia on a large scale, and it may be observed that generally
the European nations are making progress as to the introduction of the system.

The use of wood pavement for the streets has greatly extended both in London and the provinces, and the use of asphalte also seems
to be established. Measures are in progress for running locomotives on common roads.

The appointment of commissioners for inquiring into the state of our coasts, has been a measure long called for by the mercantile
interests of this country ; but whether the recent labours of the harbour commissioners will either prove satisfactory or useful, yet remains
to be seen. During the year improvements have been made at Leith, Fleetwood-on-Wyre, the Bute Docks at Cardiff, Ramsgate, Rye,
and Woolwich. In this latter establishment we may also call attention to the introduction of the steam machine fur making shot. At
Granton a pier has been erected ; in the Downs a safety beacon on a new principle ; and this year we have seen the first application of
the screw pile system to the erection of a lighthouse at Fleetwood-on-Wyre. Considerable attention has been devoted to the embank-
ment of the Thames, into which subject Parliament has inquired ; the river works of the new Houses of Parliament have been completed,
and hopes are entertained that either by the city or goverment, works will be carried on so as to improve the whole north bank of the
river; an extensive embankment on the shores of the Thames and Medway has been made by Lord de Vesci. The propositions for
draining the Lake of Haarlem, and for recovering land in Morecambe Bay and the Wash, have caused mauy engineers to direct their
inquiry to improvements in draining, as far as regards the application of mechanical power to such purposes. The Chard and the Ulster
Canals have both been opened, and some extensive works completed on the Hereford and Gloucester. The repairs of Blackfriars Bridge
have been satisfactorily ended, while great progress has been made with those carried on at Westminster Bridge ; some majestic viaducts
have been constructed on the railways. The application of Rendel's system of floating bridges has been extended to Portsmouth and
Calcutta.

The interests of steam navigation having been seriously threatened by the proposed application of stringent government measures,
we considered it our duty to awaken the attention of the marine engineers to the subject, and we congratulate our readers on the success
which attended our eflTorts, such a union of the profession having been organized, and such effective measures taken, as to compel the
authorities to postpone the intended bill. The importance of steam ships as a part of our marine, has been shown by recent hostile
events, when the agency of this arm, both in Syria and China, has been so exerted. The government have shown their sense of it
by giving higher rank and privileges to the enginemen in the naval service, by directing schools for their instruction to be formed in the
dockyards, and by making an acquaintance with the marine engine a part of the studies of the superior officers. The French government
have greatly enlarged their engine factory. The investigation of the properties of the Archimedean screw has been continued, and its
utility recognized, at the same time that the question of modes of propulsion has been the subject of extensive experiment. The appli-
cation of propellers to sailing vessels, as in the Earl Hardwicke and the Vernon, has been successful. The introduction of steam navi-
gation on canals, has also tended to direct attention towards propellers, and to the use of iron as a material for steam canal boats and for
passage boats, of which the Lee, the Nonsuch, and the Alice are examples. Iron has been so extensively used as a material of construction
for steam boats, as already to have given a great deal of employment to marine engineers. Abroad, iron steam boats have been introduced
on the Danube and the Elbe. Iron has been applied considerably for constructing sailing vessels; it has also been used for a floating
fire engine. The experiments continue on the application of electro-magnetic power to navigation, but with no tangible result. Steam
navigation has, this year, been greatly extended; Fleetwood-on-Wyre has been added to the steam ports; the Mediterranean service has been
more efficiently organized ; in the Atlantic the number of steamers to the United States has been increased, and a line to Boston established,
communication with Madeira has been opened ; in the Pacific, steamers are now running along the western coasts ; in India, increased
means of communication with England still occupy the public mind ; attention has also been directed to the capabilities of the Indus
and its tributary streams.

Mining is greatly advancing as one of the branches of the profession, or a branch likely to be promoted by the measures taken for
giving instruction in it. The munificence of Sir Charles Lemon has established in Cornwall a special school for mining, and professorships
also exist in King's College, London, and at Durham. Instruction in mineral chemistry, so much required, has been promoted by the
establishment of the government school attached to the museum of economic geology, and by the courses delivered in several public
institutions. The powers of Cornish engines have been the subject of serious discussion among our engineers, and the attention of the
Dutch government has been directed to them to ascertain their applicability for economical draining.

Among the engineers who have been this year lost, we have to mention with regret, Sir Robert Seppings, Lieut. Thomas Drummond,
and Mr. Hazckline, an engineer employed on the Menai and Conway bridges.

Having thus disposed of the interests of our readers, it remains that we should ask their indulgence while we recall to them the
exertions we have ourselves made in fulfilling our duties towards them. For this we appeal with confidence to the volume just con-
cluded, where they will find that our correspondence has increased in value and interest, and that no exertion or expense has been spared
to render the work worthy of the increased patronage it receives. Our readers will find in it 432 pages, 21 plates and 214 engravings,
forming a mass of informal ion which, for value and for cheapness, is not surpassed by the periodical works of any profession. Such have
been our endeavours in our communication with the professions through the medium of these pages, but we have not hesitated, neither
shall we, to exert ourselves for them, when and where we may have it in our power, by acting in a public capacity. Such we considered
to be our duty on the steam navigation question, as we shall on every occasion where the interests of the professions require it, and our
humble effoits can in any capacity be exerted in their defence.

INDEX.

Bilingual inscription,
; tumulus at Bougon,

-Bartholomew, A., 259,

Air, passage of, through pipes, 300,

Antiquities: — Egyptian, 12; St. Mary Aldermary;

25; Perranzabuloe, 90;

132; tombs at Cscre, 209;

231.
.\quecluct at Dijon, 398.
.Arabesque decorations, 94,
Arch, expansion of, 133.

origin of, 354.

pointed, 318.

skew, 109, 116, 152, 179, 197, 230, 231

232, 274.

.Architects, vide biography

301, 330, 365 ; Blore, E., 255, 257 ; Brown, 54 ;
Cottinghara, C, 249 ; Donaldson,?. L., 2, 147,
209; East, F., 322, 354; Francis, F., J. 337;
Fripp, S. C, jun., 105 ; Godwin, G., jun., 210,
217,249,258; Harris, \V., 179 ; Jones, Inigo, 3 ;
Poynter, A., 94; Pugin, A. \V., 197, 215, 225,
228, 257, 272; Tattershall, R., 2 ; Thomson, J.,
261,321; Tite. W., 223, 258; Walker, T. E.,
25, 39 ; Watson, J. B., 215 ; Wightwick, G., 254,
272. 301. 352.

table of, 112, 140, 147, 183.

Architects, Royal Institute of, 09, 93, 130, 209,
211, 248, 261, 285.

Architects of Ireland, Institute of, 132.

Architectural Society, 35, 248, 427.

Architecture, vide I3uildings, Ecclesiastical, Archi-

tects, Engineering, Stone, Iron, Timber, Arch,
Competition, Ralph, Candidus, Rambles by Philo-
musaeus, Medieval Architecture, Gardening.

• Abbotsford, 3 ; Architectura Domestica,

34.

arch, origin of, 354.

at home and abroad, 90.

beauty of outline in, 329 ; Blenheim, 262 ;

British Assurance Office, 225 ; Buckingham pa-
lace, 156 ; buttresses, 365.

Byzantine style, 219.

Cambridge libraries, 32 ; Capitol, Wash-
ington, 293 ; capitals, 373; churches, 75 ; church
pews, 225.

■ chronology of styles, 143 ; columns, 143,

156,373; cornices, 250, 329 ; distinctive causes
of Greek and Roman, 337 ; East India House,
293; Edinburgh, 156; German architects, 91;

Government school, 327.

horizontal and vertical line, 137, 186,

210,228; house decoration, 363 ; Italian, 156
landscapes abroad, 4 ; landscape gardening, 52.

history of Enghsh, 2.

Liverpool, 356, 410 ; Mansion House,

294, 399.

•Medieval in France, 143,219; Municli,

91 ; National Gallery, 3.

origin of vertical line, 137.

original composition, 261.

Architecture, painted glass, 217, 249, 255, 258, 270,
373; Pantheon, 293; Parisian houses, 310; pin-
nacles, 365 ; pointed arches, 318.

porticoes, 293, 356, 389.

profession in France, 7; public walks.

257.

187.

85.

Reform Club, 75, 141,329; revival style,

■ Romanesque style, 143 ; Royal Academy,

■ Russian, 93.

St. Genevieve, 293 ; St. Martin's, 203,

294; St. Paul's, 227, 329; St. PaiU's, Covent
Garden, 293, 373.

shops, London, 43.

simplicity of plan, 3.

slate, 73.

Soane museum, 155, 301.

table of buildings erected in Paris in the

19th century, 203.

table of porticoes. 389.

Vanbnigh, 262, 321.

Vatican, 94.

Whitehall, 3, 264 ; windows, 3.

wire fences, 49.

York column, 156.

■ naval, vide Ship-building, Steam-boat,

Boat.
Armstrong, R., on Cornish engines, 4 ; on steam

INDEX.

figine technical terms, 89 ; on indicating power,
Ijj.

Artesian wells, 20, 51, 90, 118, 249, 2G4 ; absorb-
ent, 118.

Aspballe, artificial, 21.^, histon,- of, 427.

Ualil, \V., on the Brooniielaw Wier, 415.

Barrett, 11., on moving ijcacli, 19.'>.

Ilcach, inovinj, 195, 237, 239, 258.

Beam, tnisseil, Laves's, Kil.

Beaufort, Dnke of, mansion, 22fi.

Biagrapliv— .Vlbertolli, 147; Alison, Rev. A., 24 ;
ArHirr', T., 249; U.azley, C, 147 ; BroHerip, C,
112; Davy, Kev. II., 23 ; Driimmond, T., 164;
Dudley, 390; Telford, 30; Gilljert Davies, 66,
99; Johnston, F., 1S3; Lushington, E. L., 21;
Muss, 217; Perry, Capt., 108 ; Pelerborongh, Bp.
23; Pitts, T., 164; Prevost, P., 2 1 ; Prony, De,
24 ; Uepton, 52 ; Rigaud, 23 ; Sannders, 24 ;
Seppings, Sir R., 211 ; Telford, 30; Whiterell,
211 ; Wyatvillc, Sir J., 130, 286.

Bhsting, vide gunpowder. Royal George, 215 ; un-
der water, Dresser's plan, 341; limestone rock,
by Bald, 165.

Blowing up Cannon-mills Bridge, 291.

Boat, iron canal, 175.

Boring, 198, vide Wells.

Botanic Gardens, Regent's Park, 173.

Brick machine, BakeweU's, 160; Bedborough's, 175;
V,"liite's, 184.

Bricks, 144, 155, 160, 175, 180, 255, road, duty
free, 255.

Bridges, vide livdraulie, arcli Ardrossan, 29 ; Belleek,
344; Blackfriars, 28C, 327; blowing up, 291 ;
Broomielaw, 415; Calcutta, 398 ; Cliinese, 268 ;
Enniskilleen,344 ; floating, Portsmouth, 215, 398;
Gloster, 31 ; Ilann's, 31 ; iron, 101 ; Mcnai, 193,
268; Portsmouth, 137; rope, 208.

Suspension, Dredge's, 193, 286 ; Haslar, 384 ; theory
of, 208; fall of, 345.

Teignmoutli, 38; timljer, 358, 422; trellis, 152;
trussed, Lives's, 161; Victoria, Bristol, 193;
Westminster, 177; wire, 268; wood, 125, 161,
175.

British Association, 357, 386, 420.

Budc light, 18.

Building— Arch, 109, 116, 133, 152, 179, 197,230,
231, 232, 274, 318, 354; beam, 161; cement,
266; concrete, 120; covering roofs with plank-
ing, 424; mica, instead of glass, 346; papier
mache, 201; porcelain letters, 176; puzzolana,
266.

Buildings, vide Ecclesiastical, Architecture, Theatre,
Ashton Court, 52 ; Assize Courts, Liverpool, 158,
190; nank, London and Wesminster, 84 ; ditto,
Rochdale, 255; ditto, Savings, Finsburr, 217;
ditto. Union, 183; Bielefeld's w^orks, 8, 160;
Blenheim, 202, 286 ; Capitol, Raleigh, 394 ; Chats-
worth Picture Gallery, 286; Claverton Inn, 130;
Cobham Hall, 53; Collegiate Institution, Liver-
pool, 255; Courts of Law, 210; Elizabetlian
shop fronts, 257 ; Fitzv\illiam Museum, 88 ; Hos-
pital, Uedworth, 39 ; Jail, Petcrboro, 2" ; Man-
sion House, 294, 399 ; Market, Llandovei-y, 39 ;
ditto, Bodmin, 179 ; Merchant Seaman's Institu-
tion, 251; Pantheon, 195; Pavilion, Brighton,
53; Polytechnic Institution, 321 ; Reform Club,
75,141,329,409; Redl.'ourne Hall, 257; Roval
Exchange, 07,132, 199,210,224,399; South-
wark lubtitution, 363 ; Theatre, Adelphi, 394 ;
ditto. Princess, 394 ; Townhall, Ashtan-undcr-
Lyne, 2.55 ; ditto, Helston, 179 ; Victoria Rooms,
liristol, 411 ; Warwick House, Birndngham, 128;
Woolwich Workhouse, 68.
Calculating balance for engineers, 21.
Canal boats, iron, 175, 31 1 ; Chard, 327; Erie,124;
friction dynamometer, 381; Gloster and Here-
ford, 1 78, 398 ; lockage, 384 ; lock valves, 396 ;
Stafford and Worcester, 215 ; steam navigation,
398; trafhe, 311, 376; Ulster, 344; Wyerlev,
177.
Candidus's Note Book, 3,75, 118,155,224,271,

301,333,373,402.
Cannon boring, 172.

Carriages — Adams vertebrated, 50 ; break, 26, 175 ;
Curtis's truck, 5 ; draught of carriages, 20 ; effect
of curves on, 267 ; friction wheels, 291 ; resistance

of, 169; screw jack, 386.
Cement, 266.

Chain cable, recovery of, 395.
Chapels, vide Ecclesiastical Buildings.
Chatterton monument, 105.
Churches, vide Ecclesiastical Buildings.

on rebuilding old, 190; Catholic, 197.

Clarke, Hyde, on absorbent Artesian wells, 118,
Coal, combustion of, 412; India. 216 ; properties

of, 423.
Coalfield, Forest of Dean, 34 7.
Cotferdam, Neville, on pressure of water on, 78 ;

new houses of parliament, 283.
College for Civil Engineers, 57; King's, 68, 426.
Column, Nelson, 178, 211, 327, 355, 379, 413.
General Clavton's, 181.

Colours, Nobili's, plate of, 207.

Compass pivots, 422.

Competition Designs, vide Exhibitions, 7, 61, 130,
132, 158, 173,224,331,371, 378, 406; Bury St.
Edmund's, 331, 371,406; Cardiff, 61; Ireland,
378; Oxford, 378 ; drawings, exhibition of, 194.

Concrete, patent, 120.

Cotton gins, experiments on, 313.

Curtis's railway truck, 5.

Cycloidal paddle-wheel, 35.

Dageuliam breach, stoj}]nng of, 106.

Dock— Bute, 167; Chatham, 120; Liverpool, 362;
Woolwich, 27, 37, 120, 362, 363.

Draining, vide \A'ater, Hydraulic, Fleet sewer, 398 ;
Haarlem lake, 327 ; Fiskerton, 362 ; Fairbairii on,
412.

Dry rot, 26, 27, 418.

Dyer, C, Victoria Rooms, Bristol, 411.

Earthwork in cuttings and embankments, method
of computing, 334, 413.

East, F., on the origin of alpliabetic writing, 403 ;
on the horizontal line in architecture, 186, 228.

Ecclesiastical Buildings, vide Architecture, Ashted
church, 399; Aries, St. Trophime, 144; Ash
church, 215; Attleborough church, 39 ; Athens
cathedral, 220 ; Atherstone convent, 393 ; -Avig-
non cathedral, 143, 144; Basingstoke cluirch, 339;
Bedford, St. Paul's church, 288 ; Bethual Green
church, 362; Birmingham church, 179; Black-
heath church, 71 ; Boston Weslevan chapel, 399 ;
Bow church, 200, 329 ; Caen, St. Peter's 329 ;
Calcutta cathedral, 71 ; Camborne church, 171 ;
Catholic churches, 228 ; City cemetery, 363 ;
church pews, 225; convent, Birmingham, 215 ;
Darlington church, 32 ; Dukinfield Unitarian
chapel, 2; Falmouth church, 255; Flushing church,
255; Freiburg cathedral, 329; Golden Hill church,
327; Great Haywood church, 399 ; Guilsborough
church, 254 ; I'landsworth church, 215 ; Hill Top
church, 327; Horsham church, 255; Keswick
church, 32 ; King's College chapel, 329 ; Lanncr
church, 255 ; Lower Beeding church, 255 ; Lee
church, 288; Liverpool, St. Barnabas, 71 ; Mess-
ing church, 215 ; Mile Enil cluirch, 39 ; Monetes
Keras, 221 ; Moscpie, Armedabad, 329 ; New
C.itton church, 288; Nottingham, St. Mary's, 215;
organ, 357 ; painted windows, 217, 249, 255, 258,
276, 373, 399 ; Panagia Lycomido, 220 ; Ply-
mouth, Trinity, 254; Poitiers, St. John's, 144;
ditto, Notre Dame, 221 ; Portreath church, 255 ;
Ravenna, St. Vital, 219; Ramsgate church, 303;
Rome, St. Paul's, 179; Ryde church, 409; Rus-
sian churches, 93 ; St. Bride's, 329 ; St. Dunstan's
in the East, 330 ; St. Paul's, 227, 329, 330 ; Sa-
lisbury cathedral, 329 ; Sancta Sophia, 220, 221 ;
Salt church, 179; Scrgius and Bacchus church,
220; Stone church, 318; Temple church, 255;
Thornev abbey. 255 ; Tours, St. Martin's, 143 ;
Westminster abbey, 249, 276, 302 ; Wolver-
hampton church, 39, 71, 399 ; York Minster, 211,
276.

Electro-chemistry and metallurgy, 324.
Embankment, !)H/e Hydraulic. Moreeombe Bay, 71 ;
near the Medway,' 258 ; Thames, 258, 359, 383 ;
Lough Foyle, 346.
Engineering, vide Arch, beam, blasting, brick,
bridge, canal, college, concrete, dock, gas, geology,
harbour, hydraulic, lime, lighthouse, machine
manufacture, mining, }>ave!nent, pier, jjump, rail-
way, river, road, steam, surveying, wall, water.

Alexandria, 39; .\mcrican, 123; arches, skew,
109, 116, 152, 179, 197, 230, 231, 232,274;
earthwork, method of computing, 334,413; pho-
tography, 385 ; profession in France, 7 ; teachers
of. One 'who has sull'rred, &c., 148, 189.

Engineers, wV/e Biographv. Armstrone, R., 89,12";
Bald. W., 165, 197, 309 ; Barlow'] W. IL, 275 ;
Buck, G. W., 197, 231, 274, 308 ; Coekerill, J.,
39; Curtis, W. J., 5, 70,129; llodgkinson, E.,
248 ; Hughes, S., 334 ; Mitcliell, A., 322 ; Ne-
ville, J., 78 ; Nicholson, P., 230, 274 ; Parkes, J.,
282; Rennie, G.,25, 133; Rennie, J., 237 ; Sea-
ward, J., 374 ; Smith, Junius, 400; Wicksteed,
10, 282, 307.

Engraving, galvanic, 148, 164 ; daguerreotype, 280.

Exchanges, history of, 223.

Exhibition, designs for Roval Botanic Garden, 173 ;
Royal Acadeni^y, 187, 222, 257.

Fairhairn, M'., on draining, 412.

Fine Arts — Rouen, 39 ; Arabesque, 94 ; British
Museum, 12, 84, 394, 404, 417; Chatterton
monument, 105; Fresco, 226. 278; Soane .Mu-
seum, 155, 301; Gallery of Arts, 132; glass
painting, 217, 242, 255', 258, 276, 373, 399;
Hampton Court, 164 ; School of Design, 164, 250;
Huskisson statue, 86 ; July column, 250 ; painted
window, 431; Napoleon monument, 327; Red-
bourne Hall, 278 ; Rouen, 39 ; Oxford memorial,
286, 393 ; stone and bronze, comparison, 355 ;
statues, 394.

Fleetwood-on-Wyre, 400.

Fresco i)ainting, 226, 278,

French historical commission, 171.

Fuel, 134, 176; Edward's, 363; combustion of,
412.

Gardening, public walks, 85 ; landscape, 52 ; wire
fences, 49; botanies, 173.

Gas, vide Bude light. Antiquity of, 263 ; account
of, 137 ; bituminous schist, 308 ; regulator, 386 ;
Seguin's, 29 ; Val Marino's, 26.

Geological Society, 68, 99.

Geology, vide Harbours, Mining, Stone, Lime.

Bcndable stone, 183; Bourne river, 103;

Cornwall, 39 ; coal, India, 216; ditto. Forest of
Dean, 347; earthquake, 71 ; economic, museum
of, 380; encroachments of sea, 39, 64, 167, 189 ;
fossils, Horsham, 255 ; landslip, 71, 216 ; London
clay, 249; moving beach, 195, 237, 239, 258;
petroleum oil well, 303 ; Sheppy, Isle of, 25, 189 ;
solubility of silica, 282; Venice, 71; Vistula, 210.

Gilding metals by electricity, 277.

Glass, flint, manufacture, 316.

Mica as a substitute, 346.

Painting, history of, 217, 258, 276, 373.

Great Western Steam-ship Company, meeting,
158.

Groundrope apparatus, 87.

Gunpowder balistie clock, for proving, 21.

Harbour, inde Lighthouse, Geology, Dock, Beach>
Hydraulic, Tides.

Aberdeen, 29; Ardglass, 146; Algiers,

265; beach, moving, 195, 237, 239, 258 ; Beachy
Head, 240; Brighton, 286; Broadstaiis, 237;
Crane, 28 ; Cuxmere, 239 ; safety beacon, 345 ;
Dantzick, 229 ; Deal, 195, 237, 25'9. 345 ; Dover,
21, 146, 167, 195, 238, 240, 259, 321 ; Dublin
Bay, 146; Fleetwood, 132, 181 ; Folkestone, 21;
Hastings, 238, 259; Kiugtown,146; Leith,71; Lit-
tlchampton, 240, 259 ; Lowestoft, 145; Margate,
237, 240, 259 ; Newhaven, 239, 259 ; Pagham,
240 ; Penzance, Palmer's Report, 2! ; Port-
rush. 146 ; Ramsgate, 21, 195, 237, 259 ; refuge,
Mr. Barrett, 145 ; report on South Eastern, 236,
259,321; Rve, 238, 259; Sandwich, 237, 253 ;
Slioreham, 38, 239, 259 ; Swansea, 21.

Harvey and West's valve, 41.

Hooper's letter weights, 88.

Hydraulic Works, vide Harbour, River, Canal, Pier,
Dock, Water, Pump, Drainage.

Algiers, 2li5 ; aqueduct at Dijon, 398 ;

balance gates, 42 ; colTre dam, Neville on pres-
sure of water, 78 ; ditto, houses of parliament,
283 ; Dagenbam breach, stoppage of 106 ; drain-
ing. Fleet sewer, 398 ; ditto, Fiskerton, 362 ; ditto,
Haarlem lake, 327; ditto, Lough Foyle, 346;

I N^ D E X.

embankment near the Medvvay, 258 ; ditto, More-
eambe Bay, 71 ; ditto, Thames, 258, 359, 383 ;
land-springs, 120; Lough Erne, 343; Louglis
Fovle and Svvillv, 346 ; mortar, 266 ; piling, 29 ;
puddling, 30.
Institute of Civil Engineers, 97, 133, 211, 248, 282,

314, 346, 384, 423.
Iron, anthracite, Ystalyfera, 342.

coach, 327; corrosion by water, 424.

corrosion, Neilson's patent, 363.

ditto, Wall's, 429.

history of, 390.

lower deck beams, 398.

malleable, in Persia, 296.

manufacture. Guest's improvements in, 396.

—— pillars, experiments on, 248.

schooner, 397.

steam boats, 37, 69, 104, 177, 211, 212, 252,

288, 292, 325, 348, 362, 388, 397, 398.

strength of, for ship building, 388.

-water and air, action on, 387.

Jackson, G. B. W., on computing earthwork, 413.
King's College, 426.

Lardner, Dr., lectures on railways, 128, 168.
Leeds, table of architects, 112, 140, 147, 183.
Lighthouse, Wyre, screw pile, 132, 181, 229, 251,

322 ; Ugbts for, 283.
Lime, 176, 266.
LimekUn, Menteath's, 176.
Limestone, 309, 340; blasting, 165; in Ireland,

198.
Lough Erne improvement, 343.
Locomotive Engines, vide Steam Engine, Carriage.

. adhesion of the wheels of 18 ;

alarum, 322 ; American, 289, 347; common road,
254, 280; Great Western, 168, 178; Hancock's,
280; Hull and Selby, 427; London and Bir-
mingham, 315; manufactory, 32; power, 101,
168 ; Rudge's, 364 ; wheels, 357 ; wheel, wood
tyre, 386 ; ditto, metallic, 401.
Machine, vide Steam Engine.

Brick, 160, 175, 184 ; cannon boring, 172;

draining, 412; gunpowder, proving, 21 ; ground-
rope, 87; planing, 172,291 ; plough, steam, 160 ;
propeller, 25, 49, 157, 292, 397 ; pump, 26, 273,
363 ; refrigerator, 21 1 ; saws, 26 ; screw jack,
50, 386 ; shot, 363 ; turbine, 420 ; washing, 28,
90.
Manufacture, — Gilding metals bv electricity, 277 ;
glass, 217, 258, 276, 316, 346,'373; iron, 37,69,
104, 177, 211, 212,248,288,292, 29G, 325,327,
342, 348, 362, 387, 388, 396,397,398; lime,
176, 266 ; papier mache, maps, 201, 286 ; paper,
396; patent felt, 367.
Memorial, vide Column, Statue.

Chatterton, 105 ; Neale, 288.

Mica, use of, instead of glass, 346.
Mining, vide Geological Society, Lime, Coals, Iron,
Stone, Gas.

asphalte, artificial, 215 ; blasting limestone,

165 ; burning coal mines, 179 ; coal, India, 216;
iron, 390 ; lead, 284 ; limestone, 165, 176, 198,
266, 309, 340 ; mines, 99 ; Persian iron, 297 ;
raising water, 419 ; Rayas, 352 ; safety lamp, 36 ;
slate, 73.
Monument, Napoleon, 406.
Monument, vide Memorial.
Moorsom, Capt. W., on embankments, 406.
Momay, A. A., on railway cur\'es, 15 ; on the theory

of the steam engine, 59, 149.
Neale testimonial, 288.
Nelson column, 178, 211, 327, 355, 379.
Paper manufacture, Martin's, 396.
Papier mache maps, 286 ; ornaments, 201.
Parliament, proceedings in, 69.
Parris's, Mr., decorations, 278.
Patent, Sharp's, 428.
Patents, 27, 40, 72, 104, 139, 175, 180, 216, 256,

292, 328, 364, 40fl, 429, 431.
Pavement, wood, 67, 164, 215.
Pedestal, Hyde Park Corner, 362.
Peppercome, Mr., 256.
Pier, vide Hydraulic.

Aberdeen, 29 ; Algiers, 265 ; Granton, 324 ;

Margate, 37.
Planing machine, Rennoldson's, 291.

Porcelain letters, 176.

Pott's pict\ire hanging, 400.

Power, improvement in obtaining, Poole's, 314.

Poynter, A., on arabesque, 94.

Pump, I'ide Valve.

Gravel, 26.

Rotatory, Sutcliffe's, 273.

Stuffing box. Home's, 363.

Puzzolana, 266.

Railway, vide Locomotive, Carriage.

Act for regulating, 381; American, 430

Altona and Lubeck, 308; atmosplieric, 104, 253,
259, 379 ; Belgian, report on, 288 ; Birmingham
and Gloster, 38, 139,214, 289, 399, 406 ; Black-
wall, 38, 178, 213. 290; bridges of timber, 358,
Brighton, 38, 103; Bristol and Exeter, 213;
Cheltenham and Great Western, 214, 254 ; Crov-
don, 38, 137; curves, 15, 74, 128, 169, 385;
curves, effect of, on carriages, 267 ; dial, 397 ;
Dublin and Drogheda, 398 ; Dundee and Arbroath,
70 ; Eastern Counties, 38, 290 ; economy of, 422,
Edinburgh and Glasgow, 70, 179, 289; fares,
278, 311, 376; friction dvnamometer, 381;
French, 254; Glasgow and Ayr, 38, 215,290;
Gloucester and Newport, 430; gradients, 168;
Grand Junction, 38, 168 ; Great Western, 38, 71,
103,168,178, 179,290; Great North of Eng-
land, 71,231,254 ; Greenwich, 103, 430; ground
rnpe apparatus, 87 ; Hull and Selby, 38, 70, 245,
289, 290 ; Lancaster and Preston, 178, 215, 290,
326 ; Lardncr's, lectures on, 1G8 ; Llanelly, 254 ;
London and Birmingham, 71 ; London and Dub-
lin, report on, 190; London and Norwich, 398;
management, 414 ; Manchester and Birmingham,
139, 178, 214, 290; Manchester and Leeds, 39,
103, 399; Marvport and Cariisle, 70, 290 ; Mid-
land Counties, 139, 179 ; North Midland, 38, 103,
178,214,289; North Union, 326 ; Northern and
Eastern, 214 ; Paris and Rouen, 215 ; pneumatic,
164, 253, 398; power, employed upon, 6, 63;
Preston and Wyre, 214, 256,' 290; Rangeley's
322, 372, 388 ; report of select committee, 137,
278; rope traction, 6,213,393; into Scotland,
report, 241; screw jack, 386 ; Sheffield, and Man-
chester, 6, 70, 178; sleeper, cedar, 346 ; South
Eastern, 2, 39, 179, 430; South Western, 71,
103, 215 ; speed on, 265 ; Taff Vale, 398, 430 ;
telegraph, 279, 323 ; Thames Haven, 430 ; traffic,
278, 311, 370; trains, stopping, 429; water,
power on, 393; West Cumberland, 241; West
London, 164, 253, 398; wheel, Dirck's, 401;
working expenses of, 1 74 ; York and North Mid-
land, 290.

Ralph's Review of the Public Buildings of London,
199, 227, 263, 302, 339.

Rambles by Philomusaius, 4, 84, 155.

Refrigerator, Davison's, 211.

Report on harbours (South Eastern Coast) 235, 259,
321.

plans for preventing steam vessel acci-
dents, 245.

railways, 137, 278.

London and Dublin, 190.

into Scotland, 241.

Belgian, 288.

steam navigation, France, 360.

Thames embankment, 382.

Trafalgar-square, 255, 286, 304.

Retort upon retort. 259.

Reviews — Arcbitectura Domestica, 33 ; Bartholo-
mew's specifications, 319; Bielefeld's papier ma-
che, 130 : Brees's Railway Practice, 276; Brees's
Glossary of Civil Engineering, 276, 393 ; brief
description of plans for supplying water to the
metropoHs, 203 ; Bruft"s Engineering Field Work,
317, 354 ; Claxton's Memoir of a Mechanic, 31 ;
Comic Latin Grammar, 34 ; Companion to the
Almanac, 32; Cooley's Propositions, 130; Cooley's
Euclid, 34; Cresy's Stone Church, 318; Creuze's
Naval Architecture, 250, 277 ; Day's Parallels,
250; Egerton's Mexico, 351 ; France's Geology,
317, 394 ; France's Trignometrical Surveying, 34 ;
Gandy and Baud's M'indsor Castle," 250 ; Gilks's
Wood Engraving, 130 ; Hann's Theory of Bridges,

' 29 ; Heath's Picturesque Annual, 131 ; Kittoe's

Illustrations of Indian Architecture, 203; Lou-
don's Arboretum, 102 ; Manchester as it is, 32 ;
Musbet's Papers on Iron and Steel, 317, 390,
414 ; Nicholson's Guide to Railway Masonry, 34 ;
ditto, Treatise on Projection, 250 ; Ornamental
Gates of the Parks, 34 ; Pamhour's Locomotive
Engines, 415; Parkes on Steam Boilers, 100;
Page's Guide to Ornamental Drawing, 130 ; Penny
Cyclopedia, 203, 389 ; Practical Inquiry into the
Laws of Excavation, 391 ; Radford's Construction
of the Art, 174; Reid's Chemistry, 250 ; Rendel's
Plymouth Railway, 393 ; Repton's Landscape
Gardening, 52 ; Ricauti's Rustic .\rchitccture,
207, 393 ; Richardson's Arcliitectural Remains,
276, 320; Robert's Galvanism, 393; Rooke's
Geology, 250; Royal Lodges, Windsor Park, 102 ;
Scott's Practical Cotton Spinner, 393 ; Standish's
Seville, 351 ; Tredgold's Elementary Carpentry,
102 ; White's Harbours of Refuge, 102 ; Wight-
wick's Palace of Architecture, 352 ; Year Book
of Facts, 130 ; Y'oung's Practical Arithmetic, 174.
River Erne, 343 ; improvement of, 284 ; Medina,
37- New, 291; Shannon, 288; Severn, 31;
Thames, 258, 283, 359, 382 ; Trent, 398 ; Vis-
tula, 210, 229.
Road, Perth to Elgin, 37 ; profile of, 385.
Royal Society, 22. 69, 93, 207, 247, 281.
Safety beacon, Bullock's, 345.
Saws, circular, 26.
Scientific Society, 426.

Screw jack, tr.iv'ersing, 50, 3SG ; universal, 386.
Sculpture, Newton's, copying machine, 429.
Sea, depth of, 55.
Sewer, Fleet, 398.

Ship- building, ride Steam-boat, iron lower deck
beams, 398: French, 277; sliding keels, 349;
iron, 388, 397; mast carrying, 4,0; form of
vessels, 421.
Shot machine, 363.
Smoke, consumption of, 356.
Society of Arts, 10.
Statues, stone and bronze, comparison of, 355 ;

Huskisson's, 86.
Steam as a moving power, 426.
Steam Boat, vide Steam Engine, accidents, 103 ;
Archimedes, screw, 192, 252, 325 ; Alice, iron,
69 ; American, 117, 162 ; Atlantic. 37, 213,361 ;
Australian, 397; Brigand, iron, 288; British
Queen, 37, 15.3, 177, 213, 325; canal, 398;
Clyde, 430; Courier, iron, 212; Cyclops, 36;
Dover, iron, 252 : Duchess of Lancaster, 252 ;
dredging, 430 ; Daldia, iron, 325 ; Eari of Hard-
v\'icke, 325 ; East Indian, 286 ; Eclipse, iron, 292 ;
Elbe, 212 ; Elberfeld, iron, 325 ; engineers, 69 ;
engine, 73, 142, 153, 157, 159, 172,212,245,
358, 374, 385, 386 ; Enterprise, iron, 37 ; Father
Thames, iron, 362 ; Ferry, 398 ; fire, extinguish-
ing, 357 ; Fire King, 251 ; France, report on,
360; German, 213; Great Western, 3, 70, 153,
158, 213, 398 ; India, :i25, 348 ; iron, 37, 69,
104, 177, 211, 212, 252, 288, 292, 325,348, 362,
388, 397, 398,430; ditto, durability of, 211;
ditto and timber, comparison of, 348 ; ditto, test-
ing of, 101. Junius Smith, 400 ; Lee, iron, 177 ;
Liverpool, 213, 253; Mermaid, iron, 430 ; Mail,
177; Monarch, iron, 430; Mongelielle, 398;
Nemesis, 70, 137, 348 ; Nonsuch, iron, 3l4 ;
Oriental, 253, 325; Orwell, iron, 37, 104,212.
Paddles, Boulton's, reefing, 76; ditto, Hall's, reef-
ing, 76; Peru, 287, 362, i98 ; Phlegethon, iron,
252 ; Polyphemus, 397 ; power for long voyages,
386; President, 70, 173, 176. Propeller, 397;
propellers, experiments on, 25, 49, 157 ; ditto,
new, 292, 430 ; Proserpine, 104 ; Pylades, 37 ;
Queen Victoria, 212; Rose, iron, 397; Royal
Mail, 253; Ruby, 251; sliding keels, 349:
smoke, 170; Sons of the Thames, iron, 37,
104, 177, 212; Swallow, iron, 235; Swedish,
177 ; Thames floating engine, 325 ; Thistle, iron,
397; tug, 287; United States, 173; Vernon,
325 ; Warrington, iron, 430.

Steam Engine, vide Fuel.

boiler, Curtis's, 76 ; ditto, Poole's,

175 ; ditto, proving, 430 ; ditto, Moindron's im-
provement, 327; ditto, clothing, cedar, 346;

INDEX.

ditto, ditto, patent felt, 367 ; ditto, incrustation,
397 ; ditto, water regulator, 291, 328.

condensation, 358; Cornish, 4, 133,

153, 282, 419 ; ditto, and Lancashire system of
working, 4 ; Craddock's imnrovement, 39G ; East
London Waterworks, 7, 05 ; epicycloidal, Clark's,
87 ; explosion, prevention, 385 ; factory, French,
400 ; fires, lighting, 3Gi ; friction, 375 ; fuel,
134, 176.

■ furnace, Moore's plan for feeding,

162 ; ditto, smoke consumer, 216.

Iluel Towan, 314 ; indicating power.

127 ; manufactory, Fawcett and Co.'s, 172; Fair-
bairn's, 32.

■ marine, 73, 142, 153, 157, 159, 172,

212, 245, 358, 374, 385, 386 ; ditto, Maudslay
and Field's, 73, 157 ; ditto, trunk, Broderips's,
142, 159 ; ditto, ditto, Humphry's, 142, 159 ;
ditto, employment of expansive principle, 153;
ditto, oscillating, 212 ; ditto, accidents, report on,
plans for preventing, 245 ; ditto, temperature of
condensation, 358 ; ditto, long and short stroke,
374 ; ditto, power, 386; ditto, Alice, 385 ; ditto,
Seaward's, 374 ; ditto, connecting rods, 424.

• power, 28, 65, 100,127,170; ro

tary, 397 ; ditto, Moore's, 158 ; safety valve,
216, 251,359,385 ; smoke, consumption of, 216,
356.

• theory of, by Mornay, 59, 149 ; va-

cuum, 164.
Steam fire engine, 431.
plough, 160.

Steam shot machine, 363.

solubility of silica by, 282.

vessel inquiry, 85, 108, 163.

washing machine, 28, 90.

Stone, bendable, 183.

new Houses of Parliament, 189, 309, 340.

Talacre, 209.

Storms, effect of fire in preventing, 39.
Survey, trigonometrical, 366, 431.
Surveying, azimuth cap, 315.

calculating balance, 21.

chain, llindle's, 310.

change of pins, 379.

computation scale, 324, 379, 405.

copying drawings, 354.

irregular plots, instrument for, 55.

level, Browne's, 283.

poles, Dempsey's, 108.

railway curves, 15, 74, 128.

roads, profile instrument, 55.

Sang's hvpsometer, 403.

Thames Tunnel, 216, 249.

Theatre, Adelphi, 394 ; Hanover, 162; machineiy,

Steplienson's, 363 ; Princess's, 394.
Tide gauge, 342, 394.
Tides of the ocean, 229.
Timber, dyeing, 183; effects of worm on, 424;

felling, 341 ; prevention of decay of, 26, 27, 328 ;

white cedar, 346.
Tottie, C, on the Napoleon monument, 406.
Turning, 172, 175.
Valve cocks, Topham's, 121.

Varnish of dextrine, 25.

Vessels, form of, 421.

Voltaic engraving, 35.

Walls, iron ties, experiments on, 41.

Warming and ventilating buildings, 358.

Water, vide Hydraulic, Steam Engine, Well, Pump.

Bourne, 103.

balance gates. East London Water-works,

42.

• company, new, 250.

■ filter, 207.

• plans for supplying the metropolis, 207.

- power, application of 291.

■ raising engine, Adcock's, 279, 299.

Brighty's, 291.

Cornish, 419.

De rOsier's, 51.

Fairbairn's, 412.

Hall's, 128.

Harvey & West's, 41.

Jeffrey's, 386.

- Thames, analysis of, 192.

- Weir, Broomielaw, 415.

• wheel, vertical, Curtis's, 129.

Wells vide Artesian, 99.

Whitworth on surfaces of metal, 421.

Wickstecd on the supply of water to the metropolis,
10, 45 ; and the balance gates of the East Lon-
don Water Works, 42.

Williams, C. W., on the combustion of coal, 412.

Wire fences, 48.

rope, 431.

Ashton Court, 52.

Balance gates, 2 plates, 42.

Bank, London and Westminster, 1 plate, 73.

Savings, Finsbury, 217.

Union, 183.

Beams, trussed, 6 cuts, 161, 322.
Bielefeld's papier mache works, 8.
Boidton's reefing paddles, 2 cuts, 74.
Brick machine, Bakewell's, 160.

White's, 8 cuts, 184.

Bridge, Ardrossan, 29.

East London Water-works, 2 plates, 42.

iron, 102.

James River, 1 plate, 125.

Suspension, Dredge's, 1 plate, 193.

Victoria, Bristol, 193.

Buttresses, 4 cuts, 365, 366.
Capitol, Washington, 293.
Cathedral, Athens, 2 cuts, 220, 221.

Avignon, 2 cuts, 143, 144.

Freiburg, 329.

St. Paul's, 2 cuts, 329, 330.

Salisbury, 329.

Chapel, King's College, 329.

Unitarian, Uukinfield, 1.

Cbattcrton's monument, 3 cuts, 105.
Church, Aries, St. Trophime, 144.
Bow, 329.

Caen, St. Peter's, 322.

Mone tes Koras, 221.

Panagia Lycodimo, 220.

Poitiers, Notre Dame, 221.

St. John, 144.

INDEX TO PLATES AND ENGRAVINGS.

Church Ravenna, St. Vital, 219.

St. Bride's, 329.

St. Dunstan's East, 330.

St. Genevieve, 293.

Sergius and Bacchus, 220.

—^— Stone, Kent, 8 cuts, 318.
Tours, St. Martin's, 143.

Cobham Hall, 53.
Cofferdam, 7 cuts, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83.
Column, General Clayton's, 181.
Cornice, Reform Club, 336.
Curtis's boiler, 2 cuts, 76.

ground-rope apparatus, 3 cuts, 87.

railway truck, 3 cuts, 5.

Custom-house, Liverpool, 3 cuts, 410.
Dempsey's surveving-poles, 3 cuts, 108,
Dublin Bay, 146'.

East London Water-works, 2 plates, 42.
Electric telegraph, 323.
Elizabethan shop front, 1 plate, 257.
Embankment, Thames, 258.
Fairbairn's draining machine, 412.
Harbour, Ardglass, 14 6.

Beachy Head, Dover, Foreness, 1 plate, 240.

Kingstown, 146.

Lowestoft, 147.

Portrush, 146.

Hooper's letter weights, 88.

Iron furnace, Persian, 7 cuts, 296.

ties in party walls, 2 cuts, 41.

Lewis, 30.

Merchant Seamen's Institution, 1 plate, 251

Minaret, Armedabad, 329.

Pantheon, interior, 1 plate, 195.
Rome, 293.

Pavilion, Brighton, 53.

Piling, Telford's, 2 cuts, 29, 30.

Polytechnic Institution, 1 plate, 293.

Public road, 2 cuts, 54.

Pump, rotary, SutcUffe's, 7 cuts, 273.

valve, Harvey & West's, 1 plate, 41.

Quay, Aberdeen, 29.

Railway, atmospheric, 1 plate, 260, 4 cuts, 407,
408.

Rangeley's, 1 plate, 372.

wheel, Dirck's, 5 cuts, 401.

Reform Club, 141, 4 plates, 336, 409.

Repton, portrait of, 52.

Safety valves, 2 cuts, 251.

Sang's hvpsometer, 4 cuts, 404.

Ship-building, 5 cuts, 349.

Slide valve cocks, Topham's, 4 cuts, 121.

Steam-engine, Broderip's trunk, 2 cuts, 142.

Clark's, 2 cuts, 87.

Maudslay's Two Cylinder, 2 plates,

73, 2 cuts, 157.

-rotary, Moore's, 148.

Surveyor's scale, new, 354.

Traversing screw jack, 50.

M'arwick House, IJirmingham, 1 plate, 104.

Water engine, Adcock's, 3 cuts, 299.

De I'Osier's, 1 plate, 51.

filter, 2 cuts, 203.

wheel, Curtis's vertical, 3 cuts, 129.

Wire fences, 6 cuts, 48.
Wyre Lighthouse, 182.

DIRECTIONS TO BINDER.

Plate 1. — Harvey and Vl'est's Patent Valves
„ 2 & 3.— East London Water Works
„ 4. — De L'Osier's Apparatus for Raising Water
„ 5 & G. — Maud.slay and Field's Improved Steam

Engine with two cylinders
„ 7.— London and Westminster Bank
„ 8. — Bridge over the James River in Virginia
„ 9. — Warwick House, Birmingham
„ 10. — Dredge's Suspension Bridge

opposite page 41
42
51

73

84
125
128
193

Plate 11.— Pantheon, Oxford Street

„ 12. — Harbours of the South Eastern Coast

British Seamen's Hospital
„ 13. — Shop front in Oxford Street
„ 14. — Clegg & Samuda's Atmospberic Railway
„ 15. — Polytechnic Institution
„ *15 & 1(5.— Reform Club House
„ 17. — Rangeley's Rotation Railway
„ 18 & 19.— Reform Club House

Opposite page

201

1*

23V

It

251

$f

257

'y »

260

f»

321

t»

336

372

409

THE

CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S

JOURNAL.

PRESBYTERIAN (UNITARIAN) CHAPEL AT DUKINFIELD.
Mr. R. Tattersall, Architect.

l«M

ECCLESIASTICAL EDIFICES.

It is our intention under tins title to give illustrations and descrip-
tions of such new edifices dedicated to religious purposes, respecting
which we can obtain information. We hope that this may serve as a
stimulant in directing public attention to this now neglected subject,
and particularly in rousing the self-esteem of members of the esta-
blishment. At present those entrusted with the erection of churches
seem to consider it their first object to make as much pew room as
possible, regardless of all otlier objects, on much the same principle
as they would construct sheep pens — crowd the animals in, and care
nothing for their comfort. Why does the church appeal so powerfully
to the beautiful monuments built by our ancestors, why does she de-
pend on that devotional feeling which the contemplation of our hal-
lowed sites suggests, if she hei-self thinks it beneath her to keep up
thediguity of tlie estate she has inherited. Oh! how eloquently can
her ministers dwell on the solemn thoughts inspired by the long drawn
aisles of our ancient cathedrals, how energetically can they remind us
of our childish preddection for the ivy covered spire ! but when it
comes to the expenditure of the vast sums under their control, how
totally do they neglect their favoured dogmas, how selfishly do they^
consult their own interests at the expense of the establishment of
which they are members ! Empirics are employed, the men who can
do the dirty work cheapest, nothing is allowed for architecture, nothing
for the decorative arts— the worthy pastors think they best consult
the wishes of their flocks by making the sheep pens as numerous as
possible. They totally forget that it is not their own money they are
expending, but the produce of public grants or private benefactions ;
that they are only trustees, and that they are not to look to their own
interests only, but pay some regard to the purposes for which the sums
were received, for surely it is more gratifying to the donors to see a
handsome edifice rather than the barn-like structures with which the
public have been of late so abundantly annoyed. A Union Workhouse
would beat most of the new churches hollow in almost every point of
its construction. We can only say that unless the members of the
establishment reform their system, they will be beaten by the other
religions, Jews, Catholics and Dissenters all surpass them ni elegance
and costliness of construction, and surely their necessities are not less,
nor their revenues more abundant. We regret indeed that one of our
first examples, the Unitarian Church at Dukintield, should be the
work of Dissenters, and a shame to the dispensers of the public money.
Sure without any parliamentary funds, without any rich endowments,
and with but a "small portion of the wealth of the nation, first rate
talent has been employed, and a noble monument erected.

No. 28.— Vol. III.— January, 1840.

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[ J A N U A R T ,

DuKiNFiELD Chapel.
This chapel is now erecting on the site of the former edifice, C«hose dilnpi-
<latefl condilion and inadequacy in supplying room for the largo congregation
asscmljling therein, rendered the erection of a new and more commodious
building absolutely necessary,) from the designs of Mr. R. Tattersall of Man-
cliester.

The style of architecture which has been adopted for the structure now in
lirogress, is that which prevailed at the commencement of the fourteenth cen-
tury, when our architects began to add refinement in the details to the many
beauties which characterise their works, and to introduce those changes in
the early English style which immediately precede and ultimately form and
distinguish the decorated style.

The plan of the chapel is cruciform, with a lofty nave and transepts
lighted by clerestory windows, the nave h.iving aisles lighted by lancet windows.
Tlie cast and west ends of the nave project beyond the ends of the aisles ; in
the west projection are the principal entrances with a children's gallery over,
whilst the east projection contains the vestry and private entrance with a
gallery over aflording ample room for a powerful organ and numerous choir.
The principal elevation into which it has been thought advisable to intro-
duce whatever decoration might be used, consists of two octagonal turrets
flanking the west wall of the nave, strengthened by massive doub'e buttresses
in three stages, the lower part terminating m weathered canopies, the middle
having weathered offsets, and the upper being formed into niches, surmount-
ed by canopies, uniting with the weathering of the turrets, and the parapet
moulding of the west gable. The lower and upper canopies to the buttresses,
are terminated by appropriate finials. At the termination of the buttresses
the turrets become isolated and ^e continued in two stages to the base of the
pinnacle, the lower stage having shafts at the angles with moulded bases and
capitals supporting pointed arches, and in each face of the octagon is a nar-
row slit or opening in the form of the ancient ballislraria, whilst the upper
stages have plain shafts at the angles, with a narrow lancet opening, having
the tooth ornament in the hollow surrounding the same, on each face of the
turret. The turrets finish with lofty pinnacles having shafts at the angles,
and terminating in finials, the highest part of which will be 73 feet above the
surface of the ground. One of these turrets will contain a bell, and the other
is to serve for the clock weights. The turret in which the bell is to be sus-
]iended will contain a winding staircase for access to the clock-room in the
roof the nave.

Between the turrets to the west front are three doorways forming the prin-
cipal and gallery entrances to the chapel. These are boldly recessed, the
eentre door being much wider than the side ones, and are formed into one
group by the arrangement of their shafted joints, moulded archivolts and
the triangular canopies with which they are surmounted. The moulding
over each canopy, unites with the hood moulding of each door, and termi-
nates upon carved heads, whilst the apices of the canopies finish with carved
finials, the centre one being quite isolated in the opening of the window over.
Kach canopy is filled in with deeply cut tracery. In the hollows of the arched
heads and between the shafts of the jambs, it is intended to introduce those
Very effective enrichments, known as the ball flower and leaf ornament and
the tooth ornament. The three doors will be of oak, relieved by the quaint
and beautil'ul ramified iron scroll-work so characteristic of this style of archi-
tecture. Immediately over the doors is a four hght window formed with
shafted mullions and jambs, and filled in with the rich and elegant tracery,
which we find immediately preceding the flowing lines of the decorated style.
The ball flower and too h ornaments will be introduced into two of the
hollow mouldings of the jambs and head, and the window will have a hood
moulding terminating on carved heads. Above the window, and in the gable of
this front will be placed the clock dial, wdiich it is intended eventually to
make transparent. This is in the form of a multifoil surrounded with bold
mouldings, and in the intervals of the cusps will be placed the figures of the
dial. The gable of this front which is very lofty, (as are all the others owing
to the high pitch of the roof), is surmounted by a richly carved finial, and
in the mouldings of the parapet the ball flower ornament is again introduced.
The whole of the plain ashlar to this front is to be neatly tooled, but the
moulded work and dressings are to be rubbed or polished. The remaining
fronts of the building are of a much plainer and simpler character, and are
to be faced with neat hammer dressed walling stones, the dressings being
tooled. All the exterior of the chapel is to be faced with the best Yorkshire
stone.

The sides of the aisles are divided mlo compartments by buttresses of an
early character, having a single off-set, and uniting at the top with the
parapet, which is supported between them by quaintly cut corbels, and
finishes with a tablet or coping formed by the moulded cast-iron gutter. In
each comj^artmcnt of the aisle are plain lancet windows, with neat hood

moulds terminating on carved heads. The transepts project some little be-
yond the sides of the aisles, and there e.>;ternal angles, as well as those to the
east end of the nave, are flanked by plain buttresses of a s milar character to
those of the aisles, and divided into three stages with plain off-sets. The
three gables are covered by a plain coping, terminating in canopies at the
lower ends. In the gables to the transepts and east end of nave are openings
for light and ventilation to the roof, and the same kind of corbels are intro-
duced to support the parapet as are used to the aisles. In the end of each
transept are triple lancet windows united together by their hooii mouldings,
the centre being higher than the side ones. The clerestory is divided
into compartments by flat buttresses ranging with those to the aisles, sur-
mounted by a parapet and coping of a similar description to those already
mentioned. In each compartment are triple lancet windows having hood
mouldings terminating on carved bosses. The principal entrance door opens
into a porch or vestibule formed between the two staircases to the galleries,
from which it is separated by screens ornamented with tracery, and having
doors of communication. From hence, inner folding-doors open directly into
the body of the chapel, which is divide<l as before described into nave and
transepts, the former being flanked by aisles from which it is separated by
light piers formed of clustered shafts, supporting on richly moulded pointed
arches the clerestory walls, in which there is a narrow lancet window over
each compartment. The aisles are also open to the transepts from which they
are separated in like manner. The galleries will e-xtend across the west end
of the nave over the aisles and across the transepts. The nave and transept
ceilings arc to be groined throughout with moulded ribs on all the intersec-
tions of the vaulting, and against the wjlls, springing from corbels formed
by clustered, shafts affixed to the clerestory walls. The ceiling to the aisles
is to be fonned into neat plain p.anels. A neat screen extends across the
east end of the nave in a line with the ends of the aisles, separating the vestry
from the chapel, against which is to be placed the pulpit, to be entered from
the vestry through an opening therein. The pulpit will have a highly en-
riched canopy or sounding board, and the whrle is made to harmoiuKe with
the screen and the general character of the building. Around and beneath
the pulpit, which is supported by a cluster of shafts, is the space allowed for
the communion altar on a raised platform enclosed by a neat railing. Be-
yond the screen and over the vestry is the organ gallery, and it is intended
that the front of the organ-case shall be made to assimilate with the screen
as much as possible. At the opposite end of the nave, and over the principal
entrance is a gallery capable of containing upwards of seventy childre ,
leaving an uninterrupted view of the four light window in the west front.
Vaults are tbrmed under the west entrance, and there is a cellar under the
vestry for warming the chapel with hot water.

The e.\treme length of the building will be 94 feet, and the width across
the nave and aisles 50 feet, that across the transepts 61 feet.
The chapel will contain sittings for 977 persons. 194 of which arc free. It
s expected that it will be completed and ready for divine service towards the
latter part of this year. The cost of its erection will be defrayed by sub-
scription.

HISTORY OF BRITISH ARCHITECTURE.

Mr. Editor — Being anxious to make myself acquainted with the
history of architecture in tliis country, I regret to find how inadequate
are the records hitherto collected by writers on the subject, to enable
one to form an accurate conception of the vicissitudes of the art in
England. This has excited in me the desire to collect such materials
on the subject, as may be useful to my professional brethren. I beg
therefore to appeal Sir, through you, to all parties who may have any
information to give of men of such standing as Vanburgh, Hawksmoor,
Gibbs, Carr of Vork, Morris of Bath, Kent, Gandon, Taylor, Chambers,
Dance. I shall feel much obliged either by being referred to sources
of information, or by being furnished with the lists of the works which
such men as these may have executed. I of course confine myself to
no period ; on the contrary, I would wish to embrace the earliest, as
well as the most recent, epochs of the history of English Architecture.
I am, Sir, very faithfully, your's,

Thos. L. Donaldson.

7, Hart Slree/, Bloomsbitry Square,
Dtcembtr 20, 1S39.

Soulh-cnstern Railway. — The rapid progress of the works of the South-
eastern Railway is giving quite a lively aspect to Folkestone. TliCibridge
across the Canterbury and Dover roail is also completed; and the adviince-
ment of the line on either side is going on in a highly satisfactory manner.
— Dmcv Chronicle.

IS40.1

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

CANDIDUS'S NOTE-BOOK.
FASCICULUS XII.

" I must have liberty
Withil, as large a charter as the winJs,
t'o blow on whom I jilcase."

T. From all the views and drawings I have ever seen of Abbotsford,
lalvrays considered it to be a very trumpery specimen of architecture,
but I was not before aware of the exceedingly whimsical taste of Sir
Walter Scott, until I saw the view of the dining-room given in the
ninth volume of Lockhart's Life of him now publishing. Will it be
believed that that dining-room contains one of the oddest and most
impertinent pieces of furniture imaginable for such an apartment?
Had it been a Rumford cooking apparatus or something of that kind,
its convenience might have excused its oddity and homeliness, but
what shall we say to a four-post bedstead in a dining-room ? There
certainly is no accounting for tcistes; and the idea is a sufficiently original
one. Perhaps it was intended as a refinement on the Roman mode of
lying recumbent at table upon couches. But I trust that no one will
thintc of imitating Sir Walter in that particular fancy of his, or people
will henceforth strip and get into bed, instead of sitting down, to table.
At least that should be a privilege exclusively confined to persons of
genius, — not extended to ordinary mortals, good reader, like you and
me. Well, there certainly must have been comical doings at Abbots-
ford, if such was the custom of the place; and we insignificant no-
bodies may be very well content with dining-rooms without beds in
them.

II. The Abbotsford dining-room remhidsme of the Scott Monument
at Edinburgh. How is that getting on ? — or how happens it that we hear
no more about it ? Is it, like the Edinburgh Parthenon, the monument
of a monument that was to have been ; or like the Nelson Mon\iinent
in Trafalgar Square, altogether an imaginary, immaterial fabric, Certes,
monuments are not things of mushroom growth.

III. We are, now it seems, all at once going to be filled with ad-
miration of Inigo Jones; which is passing strange, considering that
they abound with the very faults that are found unindurable when they
occur in modern buildings. With what consistency of taste, those
who are shocked at the impropriety of half columns and broken en-
tabljtures, can affect to see anv supereraineut beauty in his building
at Wliitehall, which has the further impropriety of an upper order
above a lower one, — it is for them to explain. Possibly, — since they
cannot but allow that the circumstances just referred to are egregious
defects in themselves, they will assert that there are merits and ex-
cellences in his designs which amply atone for all their blemishes, —
not to call them vices. That such is really their opinion must be
taken for granted ; but then, wherefore do they not vindicate theiu-
selves from the appearance of inconsistency, by plainly discriminating
between the defects they reprobate and the beauties tliey admire, and
informing us in what the latter consist ? Or are we to suppose, that
they are of the sort of critics extolled by Sterne for being pleased they
know not why, and care not wherefore ; — for which in ray opinion no
very great power of criticism is required ? Perhaps Sterne was think-
ing at the moment, only of the kind of critics he himself wished for, — ■
and there are otheis besides him, who look more to the quantity than
the quality of the praise they get, but for my own part I would rather
obtain the approbation of one critic who could tell why he bestowed
it, to that of a scoreof others whose compliments seem to have no mean-
ing, consequently carry with them no proof of sincerity.

However correctly and exactlv general principles may be laid down,
they can never be made to comprehend every specific application of
them; but there will invariably be, more or less, something that, al-
though based upon them does not obviously appear to conform to them,
nay perhaps may seem at variance with them, on which account those
who are not acquainted with the mysteries of art, becomes perplexed,
and are at a loss to know whether they ought to censure or are at
liberty to admire. It becomes the duty of criticism, therefore to elu-
cidate such apijarent contradictions, and in every particular case, to
explain how it happens that the disregard of certain established rules
may have been attended with beauty, or, cice ivrsa, how the adiiereuce
to them has failed to secure it: — again, to point out wherein frequently
consists the very great difference between two buildings, very similar
as to style and design, yet altogether uulike in regard to the impres-
sion they make.

IV. Very far more stress tlian ought to be, is generally laid upon
simplicity of plan. For my own part, I very much question it being a
merit at all, when I perceive that so far from conducing to any beauty,
it generally constitutes a defect, inasmuch as it excludes all variety

and combination, together with contrivance. While it leaves nothing
to the imagination, it does not present itself to the eye as a beauty
the entire plan not being seen at once ; nor do I understand what par-
ticular pleasure can be afforded to the mind, by knowing that with
regard to the distriliution and form of the several rooms there is no-
thing more than what has been seen over and over again. Nay,
I will not be quite sure that I understand what is meant by sim-
plicity in such cases : yet if it be meant that the plan is such that
any stranger can at once comprehend every part of it, by merely
going over the building at a single time, should say that so far
there would be very little to approve or admire; — certainly no
evidence of skill or ingenuity, and very little of either picturesque
effect, contrast or variety, because where they do not result almost
entirely from accident, they are produced by a study which aims at
something more than mere simplicity of plan. While the latter tends
to make a large house seem smaller than it is, a certain degree of in-
tricacy and complexity causes a moderate sized one to appear con-
siderably larger, especially where the arrangement is such that rooms
mav present themselves unexpectedly after we suppose that we have
gone over the whole. Still there are limits to be observed: com-
plexity ought not to be carried to perplexity ; but some degree of the
former greatly heightens every other merit.

V. Itis odd ; but now after the abuse throwTi upon the poor Nfi-
tional Gallery, because the rooms are no bigger than closets, — dis-
gracefully confined and mean, some one starts up and assures us that
thev are utterly unfit for their purpose, because they are very much —
too'large! So' at least says a writer in Blackwood's Magazine, who
contends that spacious and extensive galleries, such as that of the
Louvre are utterly unfit for showing pictures as they ought to be seen ;
and that the collection should be placSd in small rooms, — not more
than three or four paintings in each. This is surely running quite
into the other extreme ; but there certainly can be no doubt that as far
as enjoying pictures themselves, and not the display of a parade of
them, is the object, it is best obtained by hanging them so that each
when looked at can be distinctly seen and examined, with nothing to
distract attention from it.

VI. How people can reconcile themselves to windows without dress-
ings in buildings where any degree of ornament or finish in other
respects, is aimed a.t, is almost incomprehensible. Not even on the
plea of economy h;is any one yet thought of entirely omitting capitals
to columns, though it might be done with as much propriety and con-
sistency ; for if a window will answer all the necessary purposes of
one, whether it be a mere aperture in the wall, or one properly defined
and finished by its own architectural border, — so also will a column
answer its purpose equally well, whether the top of it be fashioned as
an ornamental member of it or not. Nor would it, though certainly
more remarkable, be more solecistical and contrary to architectural
principle to introduce columns without capitals among dressed win-
dows, than naked windows among well dressed columns. Or if there
be any thing to render the latter, and more common mode less prepos-
terous than the other would be, it is because the columns themselves
are generally quite superfluous, therefore were their decoration
to be omitteil, they might be dispensed with altogether. But then,
on the other hand, so much the more absurd is it to have recourse to
columns at all — at least for decoration, — under circumstances which
forbid not only corresponding embellishment, but even ordinary finish
in any other respect. Next to omitting window dressings entirely, is
the fault of making them so poor and plain as to be hardly visible, as
is the case in many of our modern Greek buildings, in which the
dressings to the windows consist of a mere border distinguished by an
insignificant moulding around it, so as to occasion equal sameness
and insipidity.

The Great Western Stemn-sJiip. — Tliis noble vessel, the pride of Bristol and
the queen oi' the ucean, was Ijrought up the river on Saturday morning, 1st
ult, and is now in Cumberland Basin, preparatory to her Ijeing placed in dock
and undergoing various alterations, and tor general examination and repair.
Durin" this week the puljlic have had the privilege of viewing the interior of
(his splendid sieam-ship on the payment of sixpence for each person, the
receipts to be equally divided between the General ILspital and the Infirmary.
We understand thai nearly 2U00 ! ! persons paid to inspect the vessel on Mon-
day, and miny hundreds on each following day. This is the first time she
has entered the dock gales since she left tor London, to receive her sp'endid
and powerful engines ; her paddle w h^^els have been removed to enaLile iier
to enter the gates. Her approach to the basin at seven o'clock last Satur-
day morning was announced by the discharge of cannun, &c. The recepta-.n
she met with upon arriving (at the dock ga.es) was very enthusiastic, arising
Irom the loud and deafening shouts which emanated from the persons assem-
bled '• to do honour to her appearance.' It is intended for her to resume the
station she has so ably and successfully filled, on Saturday, the 15th ol Fe-
bruary, 1840. nhich will be the commencement of her twelfth voyage across
ihe broad Allaniic. — Railway Magazine,

B 2

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[January,

RAMBLES BY PHILOMUS^US.— No. IV.

LANDSCAPES ABROAD.

:VER advantage foreipi nations may derive by the education
e to beauty irom the contemplation of objects of art, it is

WllATEV:

of the eye ,

pretty certain tliat they will not easily surpass us in the scenes of na-
ture. They may possess the same or liner outlines, they may bear
the ])alia fo'r correct drawing, but it is to us they must concede the
chiar'oscuro, and what disputes with drawing itself the magic touch
(if colour. To carry out our artistical allegory, foreign landscape is
of an Eginetan cast, severe and correct in its form, but destitute of
that animation and finish which mark the later and more cultivated
school. It is perhaps from the contemplation of our highly finished
scenes, that our painters succeed in colour, and show such proficiency
in landscape and cattle; that our poets excel in the descriptive; and
that whatever is rural with us, is beautiful without coarseness or rus-
ticity.

An Englishman passes from the tertiary scenes of our beautiful
south, to tlie assimilated district in the neighbouring country of France,
he can recognize the same smooth slopes, the same gently swelling
knolls, the same richness of soil, and the same softness of character,
but he finds a tameness, a want of animation and relief both in broad
features and in details, which tell him at once that he is in another
and a foreign country. He glides down the beautiful Seine and from
St. Germain to below Rouen he perpetually finds a country spoiled
from want of care, and a district of great capability wearing the face
of a comparative desert. None of the bright fields of his native land,
none of its varied and picturesque timber, no beautiful cattle spread-
ing over the distant scene, he misses the hedge and the hedge-row,
and above all he misses the dispersed population, the pretty seat or the
lowly cot. Instead of these he finds no houses but in villages, little
meadows and no variety of timber. From St. Germain to near Havre,
there is nothing hardly to be seen but poplar, alder and willow, miles
in length of distant forest, or long lines of well drilled poplars spreading
along the roads or the divisions of estates. Now the maypole-like
poplar is just the very last tree to be paraded thus in single file. The
scenery has all the uniformity of foliage of American landscape, and
there is only beauty enough to cause the traveller to regret that the
whole does not show to equal advantage. On approaching Elbeuf,
however, the scene changes, green meadows make up the foreground,
the mottled cattle swarm among the pastures, oak and other dark
trees, firs and the coniferous tribes, throw shade into the landscape,
and the traveller as he looks at the tree-clad hills and grassy slopes is
glad to find himself in a land of beauty.

In Flanders we find the same — long ranges of deformed limes and
horse chesnuts making the straight roads more horrid, the brooks
fringed with pollard willows, poplars like Cleopatra's needles running
in lank rows as divisions of property, Scotch firs in patches to fertilize
the land, and without meadows, water or cattle, one scene of stiffness
and formality. The unhappy trees too are topped off' into mopsticks
so as to render horror more horrid.

The Dutch, however, if they have a poor country have a rich green
sward, the weeping willow, and fine cattle ; and an Englishman if he
finds little to relieve, tind no nakedness to distress the eye.

CO.MPARATIVE EFFECTS OF THE CORNISH AND LANCA-
SHIRE SYSTEM OF WORKING STEAM ENGINES.

Sir, — As it is not now disputed by any one, that the Cornish or
high-pressure expansive system of working the Boulton and Watt
engine is more economical than that usually followed in the manufac-
turing districts, it may probably be interesting to a ))ortion of your
readers to have offered to their notice, an easy method of stating or
comparinp; tlie duty or effects obtained by tlie two systems, for the
purpose of shewing hereafter, the amount of saving that may really
be expected by the adoption of the Cornish system; and also to have
that saving expressed in terms that are generally understood and
adiiiilted by practical men.

The following cases are selected, because they have been recently
laid before me for the purpose stated, by parties who are interested
in having a careful examination of the subject, and who have also
furnished me with the facts.

The engine from which the data for the Cornish system are taken,
is that lately erected for the East London Water Works Company.
The cylinder is 8U inches in diameter, stroke 10 feet, speed lu strokes
a minute, and doing a duly of 7- millions of pounds raised one foot
high (or one bushel, or 'J4 pounds of coal, the steam being cut off at

two-fifths of the stroke. The area of the cylinder, of course, i>
80 X yo = 6,400 circular inches. The load on the piston is obtained
by taking the counterweight which is 29 tons, or 64,9G<J pounds, and
adding thereto half a pound per circular inch, or 3,200 pounds for the
friction of the engine itself, making 68,160 pounds for the total gross
load ; which gives 10*65 pounds per circular inch, for the average
pressure of the steam in the cylinder. The velocity of the piston
being 10 X 10 =: 100 feet a minute ; the pounds raised one foot
high per minute, will be 68,160 X 100= 6,816,000, and the gross
horse power exerted, is this number divided by 33,000, or 20G'54
horses power.

The Lancashire system is illustrated by a pair of double acting
sister engines working in a cotton factory in this country, and attached
to the same crank shaft. Each engine has a cylinder of 40 inches
diameter and 4 feet stroke, and makes 25 turns in a minute. The
gross consumption of coal at the factory is 46 tons a week, the engine
running 69 hours in that time. That portion of this consumption
used for other purposes than working the engine, is usually estimated
at 30 per cent., which includes that for steaming the factory, getting
up the steam every morning, waste during meal times, &c. (particu-
lars of which are given in the new edition of my work on steam
boilers,) leaving about 32 tons or 71,680 pounds for the net consump-
tion of the engines alone. The area of each cylinder is 40 X 40 =
1600 circular inches, the average pressure of the steam in the cylin-
der as taken by the indicator is 10 pounds per circular inch, and the
whole load on the piston is 1600 x 10 = 16,O0O pounds, which, of
course includes the friction of the engine. The velocity of the piston
is 4 X 2 X 25 = 200 feet a minute, therefore the pountls raised one
foot high per minute, is 1,600 X 200 — 3,200,000 ; and the horse
power exerted by each engine 96*96, or a total of 194 nearly.

Comparative Duty.

a. Pounds raised one foot high per

minute .....

b. Gross horse power exerted .

c. Consumption of coal per week of 69

hours, in poumls . = d -)- 69

d, = c -^ 69, ditto per hour ^ e -j- 60

e, =r d -;- 60, ditto per min. = a -=- f

f, = a -f- e. Pounds raised one foot for
each pound of coals ^ g -^ 94

= f + 94 Pounds raised one foot

high for 94 of coals
d -^ b. Pounds of coal consumed per

hour, for each horse power

Lancashire.

g

6,400,000
194

71,680
1038-8
17-31

369,728

34,754,432

5-35

Cornish.

6,816,000
206-5

36,804-6
533-4
8-89

765,957

72,000,000

2-58

The letters in the above table indicate the mode of calculation, and
it will be perceived that the results in the second column (except
the two first lines and the two last,) are obtained by reckoning from
the bottom of the column upwards. It must be borne in mind that
the horse power exerted by the factory engines as stated above, in-
cludes that required to turn the whole of the shafting, about one-
third of the whole, which reduces the 7iet effective power expended

194
in turning the machinery to (194 — — s~) = 1294 horses nearly, or

o

64J horse power for each engine, and making the consumption ot

5-35
coal equal to half as much more as before, or (5-35 -| ^— ) = S-02

pounds per horse per hour. What the net effective power of the
Cornish engine is, of course, cannot be ascertained without measuring
the water delivered, but it is not at all necessary for the purpose of
this comparison.

Should the above be considered a fair method of stating the sub-
ject, and it is respectfully submitted to the correction of the advo-
cates of either system, I shall be glad, with your permission, to go
into the question of the cauets concerned in producing the great
difference observable in favour of the Cornish system, and also the
comparative cost or expenditure of fixed capital for the two kinds of
engines when doing an equal quantity of work, with a view to test
the propriety of adopting the Cornish system in cotton factories.

I am, sir, yours, &c.

R. Armstrong.
Manchealer, Dec. 1839.

1840.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

CURTIS'S PATENT RAILWAY IMPROVEMENTS.

RAILWAY TRUCK.

Fig. 1. — Side elevation.

Fig 2.— End elevation.
0 O

Fig. 3.— Plan.

G^I -p K

DE.SCRIPTION.

Figure 1 is a side view, figure 2 an end view, and figure 3 a plan of
the macliine, the same letters refer to the same parts of the machine
in each figure, so far as the jjarts are thown in each. A is the framing
of the machine, which is suspended below the axle in the usual way,
B the hind wheels connected with the shifting frame C, whicli frame
is held in its place by the bolts D D D D, or oy any other usual and
suitable means. EE are two eccentrics hung upon the cross shaft
F, upon one end of which shaft the ratchet G is hung, and upon the
other the head I, into the holes of which the lever K is inserted, when
it is required to turn the shaft F rounil, so as to bring the eccentrics
into contact with the rails or otherwise. L is a windlass placed upon
the front bar of the machine round which a rope coils, so that when a
carriage is required to be placed upon the machine, one end of the
rope is made fast the carriage, and the other end to the windlass, then
a man turning the windlass round by means of the handle M, tlie car-
iage is drawn upon the machine ; the machine is connected to the
train by means of the coupling N in the usual way, and the diagonal
bars are placed as shown, in order that the concussion of the train may
be transferred to the main frame of the machine A. OO OO are the
wheels of a carriage placed upon the machine, the body and carriage
is omitted in the drawing, as It is not material to the explanation of
the invention that they should be shown.

The mode of operation is as follows : — when a carriage is required

to be placed upon the machine, the eccentrics are brought upon the
the rails and made to occupy the position shown by the red lines in
figure ), the ettect of which is to raise the end of the carriage to which
the shifting frame and wheels are attached, a space equal to that in-
cluded between the shaded line X and the red line Y, and to support
it whilst the frame C and wheels B are withdrawn, then the eccentrics
are turned back until they occupy the position shown in the drawing,
when the end of the machine is lowered to the ground and occupies
the position shown by the blue lines Z Z. The carriage is then brought
to the machine, the rope from the windlass is made fast to it, the fioor
of the machine being formed into an inclined plane, the carriage is
dragged upon the machine by the windlass with great facility, when
placed upon the machine the eccentrics are again brought into the
positions shown by the red lines, which raises the end of the machine,
the shifting frame C and wheels B are connected with the machine,
and made last by the bolts D, the eccentrics are then brought into the
position shown in the drawing, riding clear of the rails ; the ratchet G
and paul H are provided to retain the eccentrics in any position they
may be placed in, the best way to effect all these operations is to place
the machine upon a turn table, the fore wheels and the eccentrics
being upon the table when the machine can be disengaged from the
wheels and placed to receive the carriage in a very simple and easy
manner, the same operations apply if the machine is employed for
goods or cattle, or any other purpose.

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[January,

REMARKS ON RAILWAYS,

WITH REFERENCE TO THE POWEK, &C. EMPLOYED UPON THEM.

Sir — Tills subject has ocpupied mv attention for some time past,
but I liave been more particularly led to address you by seeing the
description of Mr. Curtis's endless rope apparatus in the last number
of the Journal.

It has often been a subject of surprize to me, that so few attempts
have been made to limit the enormous outlay of money in forming
modern railways. When almost every branch of^mechanics, manu-
factures and tlie arts are receiving the attention of scientific men, and
when patentees without number are enabling us to do that for six-
pence vidiich used to cost us a shilling, ought we to be satisfied with
expending all our ingenuity in examining the relative merits of brass
anil copper tubes, or in ascertaining the best form for rails and chairs,
I think not ; and though Messrs. Stephenson, who are unquestionably
the first railway engineers, may tell us, that without locomotive en-
gines, railways would be nothing, and though by this craft they have
their wealth, yet nothing daunted, I will give you my ideas on the
subject. We will suppose, for example sake, a railway is to be con-
structed from one town to another, say from Sheffield to Manchester,
where the country is so hillv as to require a summit of upwards of
900 feet, and a tunnel 3 miles long, where the inequalities of the
ground are such as to require embankments and cuttings in some
places of 9 ; or 100 fi^et, and in many of 40 or 50, in order to make it
at all suitable for locomotive engines to travel upon. We all of us
know, that under ordinary circumstances, 50 feet per mile require the
engines to be nearly three times as powerful as those which would be
required upon a level, consequently, three times the weight of coke
and fuel, as well as a great addition to the weight of the engine and
tender, therefore, it becomes a question of some importance to ascer-
tain whether a cheaper power cannot be adopted than locomotive
engines. About ten years ago, Messrs, Walker and Rastric gave it
as their opinion, that Mr. Thompson's plan of reciprocating ropes
would be found more economical for the Liverpool and Manchester
railway than locomotive engines. And be it remembered, this rail-
way is uncommonly favourable for locomotives, compared with nearly
all the others in England, with the exception of the two inclines.
The only advantage gained by locomot've engines over the stationary
system, since their report, is economy in the consumption of fuel, by
having tubes instead of a large flue, and though this is a very great
improvement, how is it that with a consumption of fuel not one-
fourth of what was anticipated, we are told they cannot aftbrd to
take goods so as to leave a reasonable profit. The only solution to
this problem is, that the expense incurred in levelling and forming
railways, so as to make them fit for locomotive engines, together witli
the original cost, wear, and tear of locomotive engines, tenders, and
rails, is such as to demand a larger toll upon the goods than can be
afforded. Not to weary your readers by going into calculations, I will
assert that the plan of endless ropes will be found in the case of the
Sheffield and .Manchester railway, or any other railway, with one con-
tinued rise to the smnmit of 35 feet rise to the mile, to be far more
economical and efficient than locomotive engines. If we reject loco-
motive engines, the f ice of the country will not want excavating or
embanking, exceplingina vervfcw cases, which will save probably one-
half of the original outlay, viz. i' 100,000., and the interest of this at
!> per cent., which is £ ;0,000. per annum, will be saved to the share-
holders ; other things being the same, and that other things are as fa-
vourable must be our next business to prove. Any person acquainted
with the country in question, will admit that reservoirs may be
f irmed and water collected to almost any quantity, (of course without
iajury to the mill owners,) at or near the level of the s\nnmit, for a
trifling expense, which will furnish us with sufficient power without
hiving recourse to locomotive engines. We will pass over the in-
termediate steps of engine-houses, water-wheels, &c. from an anxiety
to kee|) these remarks within reasonable limits, and not from an in-
ability to go into them. The principal objections to the reciprocat-
ing plan, or any other plan with ropes I have seen, are that the trains
must all arrive together, stop at the stations to be hooked on and ott",
and in some of them cross over to the other rails. We will not
dwell upon these objections, but provide the remedy, which is to
divide the line into lengths of one mile each, and to have a station
at the end of each mile, these will be divided into two kinds, the
first contain the engine, water-wheel, or whatever the power may be,
and are placed evi'ry other mile ; we will call them No. 1, 2, &c.
The second stations are, where the two drums, or large pulley wheels
are placed, and occur every other mile, being placed halfway between
the first mentioned, wo will call these A, B, &c. From one of these
stations to the other, extends an endless rope of two miles long, or
one mile from wheel to wheel ; one eed passing round one of the
whcL'ls at the numerical stations, and the other round one of the

wheels at the alphabetical, there being two wheels at each station,
capable of working in concert, by means of which two endless ropes
can be worked by one engine in both directions. It is not intended to
work more than one at once by one engine, but onlv to give a signal to
the man at the station No. 2, that he must set the engine or water-
wheel going, and at the same time it is intended to couple them so as
to ensure a uniformity of speed between the two ropes, before the train
changes from one to the othf r, therefore one engine will be working
at each ena for a short time, there being two endless ropes coupled
together working between them. This system of signals to be ob-
served throughout the line ; the object of it is to prevent any jerking
or breaking of ropes, &c., as there are no stoppages at the stations,
the first endless rope being liberated and the second taken when the
train is at full speed. The way this is done is by a long iron bar
fixed obliquely in the gronnd near the rope, nearly in the same di-
rection, and as the first carriage passes over this bar, one side
of the claws or holders of the rope, slides along the bar and is forced
open, which liberates the rope ; the impetus of the train carries it
forward to the rope at the second station, (twenty or thirty yards
would be sufficient,) where another bar fixed in a manner similar to
the bar alreadv described, again opens the claws, and a fork likewise
fixed in the groimd under the rope by the same operation, throws the
rope between the claws, they close upon the rojie and the train
proceeds. The relative distance of claws, bars and rails being always
the same, this part of the machinery can never get out of order,
nor require anv superintendance.

To elucidate the system proposed still farther, we wiU suppose a
train is about to leave one end, when none of the ropes are in motion,
it is first brought along the railway a little in advance of the station
No. 1, then a pair of claws fixed on the first carriage, (which open
by a lever and close by a strong spring,) grasp the ro^ie, but without
injuring it. The water-wheel or engine is then put in motion, and
along with it the drum or pulley-wheel, endless rope, and conse-
quently the train. The speed is got up to the maximum, and thus it
proceeds till it arrives within 2U0 yards of the station A, being the
first half-way station. The man at this station by a conical coupling,
spring coupling, or in any other manner, which will gradually elFect
the same, connects the pulley-wheel of the first endless rope, or the
one already described with the puUey-wheel of the second endless
rope. The second endless rope is set in motion, and by this signal,
viz. the moving of the rope, the man at the station No. 2, puts on the
power, and before the train has got to the second rope, the speed of
the rope is the same as that of the train. As soon as the man at the
station No. 1 judges the train has left the first rope, he takes off the
water or steam, and the first endless rope leaves olf running. It is
not needfu' to describe the trains' progress forward, for the same
thing occurs at every change. It is evident from the foregoing de-
scription, that the going train always keeps to one side, and the
coining train to the other, and as the rope is the propelli. g power,
or means of power, one carriage can never overtake another. A car-
riage to be taken up at any place on the line, may either be done in
the manner described by your corresjiondent, or by an incline, to set
the carriage in motion long enough to get up its speed before it is
fixed to the train. In conclusion, I will make a few general remarks;
upon considering the subject, two important facts force themselves
into view ; — the first, that almost any number of undulations may
occur in the line of the railway, provided there be no convex curves
in the section of the ground in the space of one mile, (concave curves
would not signify, for they would diminish the friction of the rope
rather than a^ld to it.) The second is, let the country be as moun-
tainous as the Simplon, railways may with advantage be made over
it, provided there be a considerable traffic. The first of these will
enable us to make railways at one-half the cost of the present system,
the other to choose our own ground, and not be obliged to go in a
particular direction or level, to suit locomotive engines, leaving large
towns entirely out of view.

Here we can have a railway at one-half the expense of the other,
at one-half (he wear of rails, have no collisions between trains, and at
no greater annual expense, but we won't have it; — and why? because if
sncli a thing were attem])ted, Demetrius and the craftsmen, (and they
are a very powerful body,) wimld run about the share-market and
shout with a loud voice, " great is Diana of the Ephesians," and all
the directors and shareholders in the railways already made, would
stifle all argument with the cry of "great is Diana of the Ephesians,"
and at last, like poor sil'y sheep going to the slaughter, the projectors
of and subsciibers to contemplated railways, would join in the cry,
and louder and fiercer than any shout "great is Diana of the Ephe-
sians— great is Diana of the Ephesians."

Sk^Uld. Diogenes.

(To be conlinucd.J

1840.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

PROFESSIONS IN FRANCE.

"They do these things better in France," has been echoed by
Sterne's Starlings ahnost for the last century, and that we may enable
our readers to pick out what good they can, and eschew the evil, we
have thrown together some notes, based upon oflicial documents and
upon the almanacks and directories. With regard to the directory,
by the bye, it conies from the hand of an editor with many tails, and
is dated'in the 3-2d year of the publication, and in the lUth year of
our reign, or as it phrased X'' de la continuation par I'Edtttur actuel
(Edtteur, usually means publisher.) '

We shall throw our notes together just as they come, and leave
their connexion to the industry of our readers. One of the first
things that strikes us, is a dealer in essence of mahogany (taunce
d'acajoii,) though what that is, we do not know. The list of country
architects is, to a great degree, filled up with surveyors, as they are
there called geumttrts dii cadastre. Among the cement dealers we
find Impermeable Mastic Powder of the Romans, Stone-coloured
Mastic, Adialyte Roman Cement, Lucidonic Colour, Economic Bitu-
minous Painting, (we presume tarring fences,) Hj'drofugic Mortar,
Eydrophyluctic Mortar, &c. One brick-maker has an establishment
for making moveable terra cotta letters for shop boards ; the master
carpenters are formed into a body by a police ordonnance of the 9th
December, 1&U8, for internal government, for inspecting the solidity
of buildings, and for preventing pieces of carpentry from being
placed so as to cause fires. Their tools must be stamped with a
punch bearing their family name at full length ; no journeyman must
work on his own account beyond two days, without a previous decla-
ration at the Prefectore of Police. Oh, blessed state of affairs! when
shall we have the advantage of protection from the authorities of
Scotland-yard, and be under the enlightened directors of the nearest
station-house. The masons and locksmiths enjoy the same privi-
leges ; the paviors -Jso, by a police ordonnance, are prohibited from
undertaking any work without being inscribed at the Prefectore, and
having their tools stamped with their names.

The number of well borers is ten ; designers of bronzes, carpets
and ornaments, ten ; designers of paper hanging, twenty. There are
several offices for doing specifications, drawings, measurements, esti-
mates, &c. The gas fitters are twelve. Of engravers, there are in
mezzotinto nearly a hundred ; architectural, twenty ; topographical,
thirty; in wood, twenty ; for paper hangings, ten; of lithographers,
fifty. The engineers are all government functionaries, dispersed over
the provinces, except about thirty civil and practical engineers at
Paris. The steam-engine makers are six-and-twenty ; the modellers,
eleven; moulders of effigies, fifteen; mosaic factories, five; scene
painters, seventeen; decorative painters, fifteen; painters of artifi-
cial marbles and woods, thirty ; glass and enamel painters and gilders,
thirteen; platina manufacturers, twelve. The surveyors are about
two hundred and fifty in number.

The next portion of our subject, will be the immense mass of go-
vernment functionaries, one of the best tests of professional inde-
pendence, whatever it may be of national encouragement. The first
that comes in our vv'ay is the royal household, direction of crown
buildings, with thirty-three architects of all grades. The next is
the private domain of the king, with another board of architects.
We then have the home department, directors of public buildings
and monuments, with twenty-one employers of the general board,
and a hundred and five district functionaries employed in different
public works. The Prefecture of the Seine, almost equally ]jrolific,
has about a hundred and fifty. The Prefecture of Police has also a
number of good births — the division of architecture alone, sixteen.

The engineers come oft' as well. In the war department, they are,
of course, well provided for; but the ministry of public works, is
their great support, there are to be found the names of fifty. In the
Prefecture of the Seine, about as many.

COMPETITION DESIGNS.

Sir — You will perhaps favour me by inserting the following in an
early number of your useful Journal.

Derby, Your's respectfully,

13th Dec, 1839. B.

Two advertisements for designs have appeared in the "Times"
this month, one for laying out 26 acres of ground near Ipswich, for
which premiums of 30.'., 20/., and 10/. were liberally (?) offered; the
designs to be sent in by the 30th of this month ! The other design
required was for the Lincoln Diocesan School, to accommodate 2U0
boys ; with a master's house attached, to have accommodation for 40

boarders, which was to be furnished by the 17th of this month (!) the
board to assemble on the ISth, to make their selection (!!!) A short
time since, designs were requested for a gaol at Peterborough, which
were to be sent in by tirelrt o'clock of the 30th November, ichtn the
magistrates would meet to select the design! These last two cases,
if the designs were really selected at the time announced, form a
beautiful contrast to the dilatoriness of which Mr. Dionysius com-
plains in the Sunderland AtlieuiEum committee. The gentleman, Mr.
Billington, wdiose design is adopted by that body, is an architect, sur-
veyor, and civil engineer, as well as joiner and builder, in Wake-
field.

It may be satisfactory to the "young architect" to know that ten-
ders for the works were advertised for certainly three months since,
as he may ascertain by reference to the " Leeds Mercury " of about
that date.

The exertions of the Manchester Architectural Society are entitled
to great praise from the profession. It is their intention, with the
concurrence of the competing architects, to exhibit the designs for the
Lancashire Independent College, which were advertised to be sent in
bythe 19th of October last. The building to cost £12,000.

Of the favourable result of such exhibitions, I am very sanguine —
as thev will awaken an interest in, and a taste for architecture among
people in general; besides acting as a check upon the judges in com-
petition. . , . ,

But what are the Institute and the London Society doing ? It
is now three years since the first part of the first volume of the
" Transactions of the Institute " appeared. Are we to have no more ?
The non-appearance of part the second does not speak rohimes in
favour of the interest of the communications that the Institute has
received ; unless, indeed, the publication of the Transactions was a
failure. As to the Society, as far as we provincials are concerned, it
is perfectly barren. Why do not tky follow the example of the In-
stitute, and throw open tfitir competitions to the profession at large?

I consider that the Institute might exert itself very beneficially on
behalf of the profession, by interfering in competitions.

I suggest that a sub-committee be appointed, which might be called
the Competition Committee, whose business it would be, when de-
signs are advertised for, to direct the Secretary to obtain particulars ;
and should they consider the time allowed too brief, or the premium
too small, to urge upon the parties advertising the desirableness of
increasing either. By thus bringing the matter home to the different
bodies, I apprehend that the profession would be generaKy thought
more respectable. The exertions of such a body, would be more
likely to succeed than the isolated efforts of individuals.

To parties about to advertise, if requested, the Committee might
furnish manv useful hints. In addition to this, they might have ex-
hibitions of the designs in remarkable competitions, and thus obtain
some increase to the Institutes' income.

If, following the example of the Useful Knowledge Society, they
would appoint local committees throughout the country, they would
have their trouble lessened, and would unite the profession more in-
timately than it is. These committees, it is evident, may collect
much useful information; as every provincial architect is not ^o-
ionally acquainted with these metropolitans. It should not, 1 think,
be considered essential that the local committee be members of the
Institute, but provincial architects, of whose professional standing the
council was satisfied, might be requested to act. Though these sug-
gestions may not meet with approbation, I must regret that neither
the Institute, nor the Society, have opened an exhibition of the Royal
Exchange designs. The gods will not help them who will not help
themselves, neither will the world assist an apathetic profession.

It is to hoped that the Liverpool Society will exert themselves to
obtain an exhibition of the Assize Courts designs ; though the non-
exhibition of the designs for the St. George's Hall argues a great
deal of inactivitv or apathy on their part.

That competition seems "to have reached a satisfactory conclusion,
For, though some may think that a better design might kave been
selected, nobody will question the honourable conduct of the " Liver-
pool gentlemen,"

COMPARATIVE POWER OF STEAM ENGINES.
The following calculation by Mr. Wicksteed, the engineer of the
East London W ater Works, exhibiting the saving of fuel to be eftected
by using a single acting expansive engine and an overshot water-
wheel, instead of a double-acting condensing engine of the ordinary
kind will be found interesting. This was made at the request of His
Excellency Edhem Bey, ambassador from the court of Egypt, upon
his late visit to this country.

8

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[January,

A double-acting low-pressure engine of the ordinary construction of
50 liorses power for spinning cotton, will consume from 10 to 15 Its.
of coal per horse power per hour, say on an average 12 1ft. This is,
however, a low estimate for Lancixshire, where the consumption is
generally much greater, coal being there less expensive than in several
other parts of England. If we allow 311 working days per annum of
12 hours each, we shall liave the total consumption of the above en-
gine for one year = 50 X 12 X 12 X 31 1 = 2,23;l,200n>. = 999 tons,
12 cwt. 3 qrs. 12 tts., say 1000 tons at 508 * = £2500.

A single-acting expansive engine on the Coniish plan of 50 horses
power, if used fur raising water to turn an overshot water-wheel, will
not produce a power of 50 horses available for working the cotton
macainerv, since the effect of the water, when applied as a motive
jiower, through the medium of the overshot water-wheel, will not
exceed C'j per cent, of the power required to raise the water. Now
()G : 100 : : 50 : 76 = the number of horses power of the engine
which will produce the same mechanical effect by this plan as by the
usual mode.

A Cornish engine of 76 horses power will consume from 2 to 24 lbs.
of coal per horse power per hour, say 24 Its. ; thus the consumption
for one year will be equal to 76 X 2-5 X 12 X 311 =: 709,080 Itis. =
316 tons 11 cwt., say 317 tons at 508. = £792 10s.

COMPARISON.

The cost of coal per annum by the common mode is £2500 0 0
Ditto by the proposed mode . . 792 10 0

Saving per annum = 68 = £1707 10 0

The irregularity of the action of the steam in ordinary low-pressure
engines is very nearly counteracted by the use of a fly-wheel ; never-
theless, in some of the cotton factories, (for instance, that of Messrs.
Lane, of Stockport) two engines are employed to work the same ma-
chineiy, the cranks being fixed at right angles to each other, as in
marine engines. Shis arrangement equalizes the action of the steam
still more, yet the motion is not so regular as that of an overshot
water-wheel, where the supply of water is uniform, as it would be in
this case, the speed of the engine being regulated by the use of the
cataract, to any given number of strokes per minute, and the delivery
of water consequently uniform.

It should be observed that no large quantity of water will be re-
quired, as the same water may be used over and over again with very
little loss.

When this calculation was made, very little practical knowledge of
the consumption of coals for a Cornish engine in London had been
obtained, and although we have never disputed the reports from Corn-
wall, yet many engineers of great experience had doubted the correct-
ness of the accounts from Cornwall ; it has now, however, been proved
that the great engine lately erected by the East London Water Works
Company at Old Ford, does not consume upon an average more than
2,% As. of coals per hour per horse power, and as the coals used are
the refuse of Newcastle coals, the largest piece not being greater than
J inch in diameter, we can have no doubt that Mr. Wicksteed's esti-
mate of 24 lt)s. of coals per hour per horse power of large coals may
be safely relied upon.

T This is the price of coal in Egypt.

BIELEFELD'S PAPIER MACHE WORKS.

If fi '"^--"^--mim^

BIELEFELD'S PAPIER MACHE WORKS.

A no less singular than conspicuous object, the building lately
erected in Wellington Street, North, can hardly fail to attract notice,
vet at the same time is likely to puzzle the architectural critic. It
has idreiidy been spoken of both in the Companion to the Almanac,
and in an article on Loudon Shops and Gin Palaces, in the December
Number of Eraser's Magazine ; nor do we see reason to dissent greatly
from the opinions there expressed. The defects of the design is that
there is very little sort of agreement between the upper and the lower
portion of the building, either as to style, cliaracter or material.
While the latter is exceedingly plain and sober, the other is fanciful —
not to say freakish in the dressings given to the fiist flour windows,"
which, uevertheless, du nut pussess the degree of richness, which would
reconcile the eye to what, it nm.st be acknowledged, is outri' in man-
ner, and which therefore required to be treated not with coldness, nor
even sobriety.

We do not object to an intermixture of stone and red brick ; on the
contrary, we are of opinion that it might frequently be rendered pro-
ductive of considerable effect ; but then we should like to see the two
materials combined throughout, from the gromid upwards, and not, as

is here the case, have a building look as if begun and carried up to a
ce. tain height in stone-work, and then completed in brick with only
stone dressings. Again, the piers below look narrow and weak com-
pared witli those between the windows of the first floor ; — a fault that
might have been obviated by arching the openings between them, and
making the entresol windows in the heads of the arches. This would
also have diminished the formality now occasioned by the numerous
horizontal lines of those windows and openings, and unnecessarily in-
creased by those of the horizontal rustic joints.

In one respect, indeed, the whole possesses a certain merit, because
there is hardly a possibility of mistaking what the building is intended
for. Its aspect at once announces it to consist not only of a sh6p be-
low but a manufactory in the upper stories. It likewise contains spa-
cious show-rooms, relative to which and their contents we shall pro-
bably be able ere long to give a more detailed account. The building
stands at the corner of Wellington and Exeter Streets, the narrower
front or end, being towards the former, the longer one towards the
latter ; but in regard to this some liberty hits been taken in the cut, for
though the whole of the South side of the building is shown, not more
than the first two windows from the corner of Wellington Street would
be visible in the direction here chosen, owing to the narrowmess of the
other street.

1840.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

r>

ON THE TESTING OF SURVEYS BY CALCULATING THE

LINES OF CONSTRUCTION.

Bv S. Hughes, C.E.

In transferring to paper the measured lines of a large survey, it is
always considered by the surveyor a nratter of great satisfaction if the
lines prove or fit in to each other as it is called.

That tlie meaning of this term may be understood by those who are
not conversant with the practice of surveying, suppose three lines
have been measured in the form of a triangle, A, B, C, and a fourth
line B, D has been measured from one of the angular jioints to D in
the opposite side. It is evident that the three sides of the triangle
being given, the length of B D is determined, and ought on the ground
to measure neitlier more nor less than the distance in a direct line
from B to D.

Now, if on laying down the above diagram on paper it be found
that the distance between B and D either exceeds, or is less than that
measured on the groimd, the presumption is that an error has been
committed, and the work shouUl forthwith be examined in order to
discover it. B D is called a proof line, and the above example is
given to illustrate the nature of these lines.

The object of this paper is to investigate a fe\y simple formulEe for
determining the lengths of proof lines by calculation, in order to save
the trouble of laying down at an inconvenient time the main lines of
extensive surveys, and to guard against the danger of error in laying
down the lines on paper.

Pros. 1st. — Let a, b, c, be the three given sides of a triangle, it is
required to determine the perpendicular A B from the vertex to the
opposite side c, and also the segments into which the side is divided

by such perpendicular. Put .r = one of the segments, and we have
a-^—x'=:b-^—(c—,vy or a-'—x'^=b^—c-—x--\- 2 c .r add .»■', and a-=r
b''—c-+ 2 c .1-; subtract^ 6» — c' and a^ — 6^4-c^= 2 c x: Divide by

a'—b''+c2 'a^—b' , c
2 c and ~ =.v or — • -f-=.i-the greater segment.

Now the difference of two squares is equal to the product of the
sum and difference of their roots. Let s and d be the sum and differ-

ence of the two sides a and 6, then -

2

2c

=: X the greater or less

segment, according as the positive or negative sign is used in the
fornnda. The perpendicular A B of course will bo y'a- — .r-. From

the nature of similar triangles it is also=:— where x is the lesser

0

xb
segment, and ^ " — vvhere x is the greater segment.

Suppose an obtuse angled triangle, then a' — (c+.f)^=62— .r' or a' —

c' — x' — 2 c .r=6-' — ,1-2. Add ,i-' and a' — c-' — 2 c x^^b
and a- — c" = 6- + 2 c r. Subtract 5- and divide by 2 c,

- =:,r, or substituting as before the sum and difference
^i c

-'. Add 2 c*-

, a- — 6-
then ^;

of (I and b we

l);ive =,r, and the perpendicular here will be ^b' — x^.

2c 2

Api'lication I. — Given the three sides a 6 c of an acute emgled

JS.

triangle, also B D, and consequently D C the segments of the b.ise c,
required the length of the proof line A D.

Put BD=rf the perpendicular AP as found by the preceding pro-
blem=^, and, the segment B P also found by the prublem=s, then

Case II.— Let the triangle be obtuse as ABC, thou retaunng the
same letters as above A^p'+(d — s)-— A D.

Case III.— In the triangle ABC, the three sides are given, also the
distances B A', B D' required the length of the proof line A'D'.

B— p D 1'

Through the point A draw AD parallel to a A'D', then B A' : BA : :
BD' : BD and AD may be found as shewn in case I. Then we have
BA : BA' : : AD : A'D' the length required.

Or suppose the two sides B A, and B C arp given also B A', B D' and
A' D' and the length of the proof line AC be required. Through A'
and A draw A'P', and A P perpendicular to B C and find the length of
A' P' by the problem. Then B A' •. B A : : A' P' : AP find also the
length BP, and then VAP^+(BC— B P)==AC.

Corollary. By means of the formula in tliis case maybe determined
also any proof line measured on the opposite side of the base line to
that on which the triangle has been constructed.

Thus let A B C be tlie triangle of which the sides are given, and of

which one of tlieni A C has been Continued to D, and its extremity
connected by the line D E, with another of the sides B C also pro-
duced to E. Draw A F and G D perpendicular to B E, and find the
length of A F by the problem, then AC : CD : : AF : DG. The
distance CG will then be= j/CD'-DG-. And ED=: vGD'+(BE- BG)'

10

TJII'J ( 1\JL ICiNCaNKLK AM) AllC'HITi:crS JOURNAL.

[January,

ON THE SUPPLY OF WATKU TO THE METROPOLIS.

Obstrvatiuns on llw jktsl and prtnuit snpjjli/ of Wa/ir to lltv Mcliv-
fulis. liii Tiio.MAS Wkk^tkkd, Ciril Engima: Jiail hi fore Ik
Sodclij vj'./Jrh, jMaij 21, Is^.'j.

[Tliis ]);i|)rr wliicli wc now present tmr ri'uders was oriifin.illy piili-
lisjicil in till' TiMns;ic(i(ins of tlic Sncicly of Ails: ;i5 we coiisiilcr il>
merits enlille i( Id a nunc exloiuled lirciilalicjn, «e lli>iLii;lil tli;il we
conlil nol ilu ;i lu'tler service lu ils nnlliur ;iiul llie jiiiblir, ilinii (o l;ike
tills ii|i|iorliniily of iMllint; atlcnlioii Id il.]

I TAKK III!' liberty dI' [irefaeiiir; tlie Dl)ser\.UiDns I ;ini iil)DUl Id nuiKc-
n|)Dn I he piist mv\ present su|i|ily of water to tlie Metropolis, liy staling
thai it was at Ihe lepealeil recpiest of my vahieil frienil Mr. Aikin that
1 was inihieed to think of attcmj)tinc; to amuse the Soeiety for an
honr; anil, slinnlil I lie nnsuceessful in the endeavour, I trnst credit
w ill lie given nu' for trying, at least, to make a return, however trilling,
for Ihe pleasure and instruction 1 have derived from this yociely
during the last twelve years.

It will be my object to show Ihe great advantages the inhabitants of
tills Metropolis derive from the abundant sujiply of good water which
fliey now have, in comparison with the scanty supply in ancient
times.

Supply ijnviom lo a.D- 1230, by Rumiiiig Brooks.

The inhabitants of London ami ils suburbs pre\ iously to the year
12U<t, in the reign of Henry 111., were snpplieit with water not only by
the Thames, but also by Ihe following sireams, namely, the River of
Wells, Old-bourne or Hill-bmnnc, Wall-brook, and Lang-bouruc.

The River of Wells, so called from its being forined by Ihe united
streams from several wells in Ihe neighbourhood of the Charter House
and .Sniilhtield, Mowed lo Holborn Bridge. The Old-bourne, <n- Hill-
bourne, so calleil fnuu ils running down a lull ,rDse near Holboru Bars,
and nniuiug west, joined the River of Wells at Holborn Bridgi'; from
tlience tlio united streams Howed between the Fleet and Bridewell
into Ihe Thames near lilackfriars Bridge. In 1307, at a Parliament
held at Carlisle the 3.'ith of Edward L, Henry Lacy, Earl of Lincoln,
complained that whereas I'orruerly the watercourse under the Fleet and
Holborn Bridges was snliicicully deep and wide lo allow tenor twelve
ships at once, loaded with merchandize, lo come up lo Holboni Bridge,
but that in 1 1'.li', in the lirst year of his reign. King Joliu had granted
io the Knights Teiuiilars ground to erect a mill upon, at Castle Bay-
nard, and the whole of Ihe water in this w alercourse (vvhieli was aftcn'-
waids called Turn Mill Brook) to work if; owing to which diversion
chiefly, and also to Ihe lillh of the Tanners choking it np, and divers
other impedimeuts, vessels could not now enter as they were winit ;
he therefore prayed that the mayor and sherifVs of London might be
directed to view the watercourse to substantiate his statenieiits. It
was in consecpiencc cleansed, but was never again of the depth or
breadth that it had formerly been. In 1502, the 17th of Heury VII.,
the whole course of Fleet Dyke, then so called, was ert'ectuallv cleansed
so as to allow boats with lish and fuel lo navigate as far as Holborn
Bridge.

In I5y0, in the 3!st of Elizabeth's reign, the Common Council of
the city granted a tifteenlh for the cleansing of this brook, or dyke,
and for this |iur|iose Ihe springs on Hanipslead Heath were c<illei'te(i
into one head and c(jnvey(»l by means of a channel to Fleet Ditch, to
scour it out ; but after spending a large sum of iiumey, the work proved
a failure, and the banks falling in, the Ditch was ( hoked up nujre than
ever.

In 1GG8, in Charles the Second's reign, after Ihe fire of London, it
was again cleansed, and a handsome canal was made with brick walls
and wharfs on each side as far as Holborn Bridge, 2100 feet long, 40
feet wide, and 5 feet deep at a middling tide ; but the expense of
making this canal, wharfs, ice., (aniDunling to iR'arly i'2><,000,) and
the annual cost of keeping it free from mud was so great, that in 1733
the cilizens obtained ]iowers from Parliament lo fill up the ditch
between Fleet Street and Holborn, and to build a market thereon, the
act providing that two spacious arches, nf 10 feet high and li feet
wide, should be made and mainlaiued as common sewers, to carry oil'
the waters of the rivulets and sewers thai used to fall into the ditch ;
and in I7li0, in George Ihe Third's reign, when Blackl'riais Bridge
was built, the reinainiug part of Ihe Fleet Ditch, from Fleet Street "to
the Thames, was filled in, and the sewer was extended.

It would appear that Fleet Ditc h was the channel into which tin-
River of Wells, from the east, and the Old (or Hill) Bourne from the
west, flowed, and that the tide flowing up to Holborn Bridgi- made il
navigable so far. That at one liiae it was c died Ihe River of Wells
because that was the largest rivulet that ran into il ; aflerwards Turn
Mill Brook, when if was rendered unnavigable by the erection of the
Knights Teinjilars' Mill, and the consonnent diversion of its waters f

afterwards, when (he mills were removed, and it wa.s cleansed again
and rendered navigable, Fleet Dyke, so called because il was a water-
course allowing many vessels or -.i Jlitl to pass up; — and afterwards
Fleet Ditch, when Ihe imsnceessful atleinpl to scour it, by means of a
channel (which channel is now also called Fleet Ditch,) from the
Hanijistead springs, had been made. The Old (or Hill) Bourne is now
co\ ered over.

Wall-bidok derived ils name from the eircinnsfanee of its being the
only running brook that passed through (lie City walls.

It entered (be Cilv near to the east end of lielli'em Hospital, he-
tweeu Bishojisgale and Moorgate, [lassed on to Lothbiirv, under St.
Mildred's cluinh, Bucklersburv, Wallbrook Street, and Dowgate Hill
into Ihe Thames. It is said to have been in ancient times navigable
as far as Bnckleisbury. It is now arched over, and liouses are built
over it in many (ilaces.

Laiigliouriie-water was a long and gre, it stream of v\ater breaking
out of the ground at the east end of Fenchundi Street, and running
directly west, nearly to the end of Lombard Street, turned lo Ihe south
and divided into seTeral rivulets, some falling into the Wall-broidc,
and others running in separate streams to the Thames at Dowgate;
(he division, or s/mnng, of the stream gave the name to Sharebourne
(or Sherbourue) Lane.

A watercourse intersected th« Strand at Salisbury Street, and
another near Somerset House.

Supply prtrioiis to a.D. 123(5 by Springs.

Besides these running streams there were a great many wells and
pools, namely, Holywell, in Shoreditch; Clement's Well, in St. Cle-
ment's Inn ill the Strand ; Clerks' Well, near Clerkenwell Cluireli, so
called from the parish clerks of Ihe City of London, who used formerly
to meet there for Ihe jmrpose of representing certain parts of the
Serijiturcs in a theatrical manner. "These wells," says Fitz Stephen,
who was ill the service of the famous Thomas a Becket, and wrote a
life of that celebrated |)relate, "maybe esteemed the jiriucipal, as
being much the best freipiented, both by scholars from the schocils,
and the youth of the City, when in a summer's evening they were dis-
posed to take an airing." Xear lo Clerks' Well was Skinners' Well,
where plays were in ancient times performed.

More eastw aril, tow ards the Charter House, were Fagges-well, Tods-
w ell, f.oders-well and Red-well, which, with another in Smithfield,
called Ihe Horse Pool, united to form the River of Well.,.

"Damc-Annis-the-Clear" Well, in Hoxton; and, somewhat west of
this. Perilous Pool, now called Peerless Pool.

Without Cripplegatc there was a large pool supplied by Crowder's
Well, on the north-west side of St. Giles's cluirchyard.

There was a fountain in New Palace Yard, Wesfininsler.

There were two wells in .Shadwell, one of which, a fine and clear
spring near lo St. Paul's clinich, gave this suburb ils name.

Besides those herein eiminerated there were iiiany smaller ones, the
siluation of which may still be discovered by the names of the streets
and alleys or places in their neighbourhood, such as Monks' Well,
Bride W>ll, formerly called Bridget's Well, &c.

London siijipliid by Conduits stibseqiiinlly to 1230.

Stow says, "The said River of Wells, the rinming water of Wall-
lirook, the bournes afore named, and others the fresh wafers that v\pre
in and about this City, being in jirocess of time, by eucroaclnuent for
buildings and otherwise, utterly decayed, and (he numlier of citizens
inightily increased, they were forced to seek sweet waters abroad,
whereof some" i^prings, "at the request of King Henry the Third in
Ihe 2 1st year of his reign, were, for the iirofit of the City and good of
the whole Realme thither reiiairing, granted to the citizens and their
successors by one Gilbert de Sanford, with liberty to convey water
from the towne of Teiborne by ]ii))es of lead into their City." The
Tybourne rivulet ran though Tothill Fields to Scholars' Pond, and
thence info Ihe Thames; it is now a common sewer. The grant w'as
made in 1230; the work was commenced in 12s5: the waters from
Tybourne were conveyed by a six-inch leaden pipe to dialing Cross,
and from thence to several conduits in the City, the first and greatest
of wliiih was erected at the Cross in Clieapside, at the end of Wood
Street, in 12^.5, the distance being about three miles and a half, and
for the yirsl time water was conveyed by pipes into the City.

lu 1101 the prison-house called the " Tun onCornhill, was converted
into a cistern for the Tybourne water, and was afterwards called the
Conduit oil Cornliill.

hi 1123 water was brought from Tybourne to Billingsgate, Paul's
Wharf, and to a cistern in the wall of St. Giles's church, Cripnlegate.

In 1 130 w ater was brought to the Standard in Clieapside, near
Honey Lane,

In 1132 water was conveyed to the gaols of Newgate and Ludgate.

18^0.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

TI

In 1 1"3m water was brought from Tyl)OnniP to comluits in Fleet
Strpot and Alilcrnianbiiry, and from Highbury to a concbut o])i)osite
Cripplogat.e cliiirch.

In 1 V.i'.) thp Abluit of Wpstminstor grantpd the City one hpad of
wator, containing abont SUO sqnaro yards, or thp sixtli of an acre, fo-
gptlipr with all its springs in the manor of Paddington, ;;ronc/i'/ the
intended wurlc did not (Iraw the water from tlie aneient wells in the
manor of llida; showing bv this proviso that fo\n- hnndred years back
it was <liscovered tlial any great dranght from one well wonld be likely
to leave the other neighbouring wells dry. This grant was contirmed
by Henry the Sixth in 11-11 ; and other .advantages were granted by a
writ of Frivv Comicil, to enable the citizens to bring water by means
of leaden pipes \mder the ground for "above three miles" to a conduit
in ('lieapsid(>, which was erected in ])lacp of the old one at the Cross,
which Cross was also re-edified at the same time; and thi.s conduit
was used as a reservoir for the supply of other conduits. The water
was conveyed from the springs to cisterns at Tybourne, from tlience to
Charing Cross, and thence to the City.

In 1443 a new conduit was erected ncxr St. Paul's Gate, at the up[ier
end of Cheapside.

In tlie 0\A 13ailey, a little lower than the Sessions House, was a large
cistern with divers cocks, which received the waste water from the
prison of Ludgate, for the use of tlie neighbouring inhabitants.

In 1471 a fresh supply of water was brought liy leaden pipes from
Tybourne to a conduit erected in Fleet Street, at the end of Shoe
Lane, and to other conduits, for the benefit of the])eo])le; viz. " for
.the poor to drink, the rich to dress their meat."

In 117s a cistern was added to this conduit to hold tlie waste water,
and another at Fleet Bridge.

In 1401 a conduit was erected in Grasse (o» Gracechnrcli) Street.
In l4i>S a conduit was erected at Oldbouriie Cross, and was again
new made in 1577 by William Lamb, citizen, who having drawn toge-
ther several springs of water into a head at the up|)er end of Ued
Lion Street, which was called Lamb's Conduit, conveye<l the same to
a conduit on Snow Hill, by a leaden pipe 2IX)0 yanls long.

In Ijll'.t a stone conduit was erected in the Stocks Market wdlich
stood at the north comer of Wallbrook.

Aljout the year la 13 a conduit was erected in Bishopsgate Street.
About the year l.VJS a conduit was erected at LoniUm Wall.
In l.'>3.j water was brought from Hackney to a conduit ere<teil in
Aldgate.

In 1543, notwithstanding the vast expense the citizens had been at
in bringing water to, and erecting conduits in, the City, the supply
was very ineUicient; and an Act was passed in theolst (d Henry Vlll.
empowering them to bring water from Hampstead Heath, St. Mary le
Bon Hackney, and Muswell Hill, upon their compensating the owners
of laixl for damage done by digging or otherwise.

In I54(> water was conveyeil in great abundance from divers springs
Iving between Hoxtun and Islington to a handsome condtiit erected at
tlie west em\ of St. Margaret's church, L(Hhbuiy.

The Charter House was supplied from White Conduit Fields;
Christ's Hospital, from Hie Devil's Conduit, north-east of Brunswick
Square.

Stow mentions amongst the remarkables in the City of London a
well at Aldgate curbed with stone of a great depth, ami rising into a
house two stories from the ground, wdiich is peculiar, "for I have not
seen tlw like in all this City to be raised so high."

There were other C(mduits of less note than those now enumerated,
and wells witk buckets or pumps in Threadneedle Street, Leadeuhall
Street, S;c.

Sir John Evelyn writes that about the accession of Quv-en Elizabeth,
in 1558, the waters of Dame-Annis-the-Clear Spring at Hoxtou were
called to the breweries in London, at an expensi; of sou/, per annum ;
and alHjut the same time wells were dug and pumps erected in every
corner of tlie City and suburbs.

Ifakr raised/mm tlie Thames hy Machinery.

Ill 15tj8 a conduit was erected near the top of Dowgate Hill, w hich
was supplied with Thames water by means of a giiiii, or machine fur
raising water, fixed iifar the river, — most probably what is termed a
horse-wheel.

Tliis appears to have been the iirst machine used in London for
raising water for Uie su|)ply of the public to a higher level than could
be dcjiie by the common pump.

Thus it ajipears that London was supjilied, first, hy running brooks
and springs, and secondly, when thes<' failed, oy water brought from
a distance through leadf^u pipes, the sources being at a sutiicieiit ele-
vation to allow the wat<>r to run into the conduits. In a few instances
ttie waste water from .these conduits ran into cistems adjacent to theWj

for common or public use; but water was of too much value at that
time to allow this to be done generally, and in cases of fire the supply
was miserably deficient, which, togetlier with the ci.cuiustance of tim-
ber being the common material used in the buildings, accounts for the
number of destructive fires in ancient times.

Although bringing water by means of pipes from distant sources
was a great improvement, so far as respected an increased iprintity;
nevertheless, the inconvenience and expense of carrying it from tlie
conduits to each house still existed, and it was not until the erection
of the Lonilou Bridge Water-works, in 15S-2, that this dilliculty was
overcome, when the |irinciple of conveying water into dwelling-houses
by means of small load-pipi's was adopted ; this, the greatest improve-
ment in the mode of sup|ilying water, by substituting the power of
machinery for human drudgery, has not been surpasseil, and is the
plan now used, two centuries and a half after its first introduction;
improvements have been made in the practice of it, — ^the principle
remains unaltered.

London Bridgi TVakr-ii'orks.

In l.')Sl, or 1. '582, Peter Maurice, a Dutchman, obtained a lease of
the City of the first arch of London Bridge, on the North side, and
erected a water-wheel, to be worked by the tide, and a set of force
]mmps to raise Thames water for the supply of the neighbourhood.
The water was raised to the top of a wooden building I'Jo feet high,
and passed from thejice through pipes to supply the dwelling-houses
in Thames Street, New Fish .Sirei't Hill, and Gracechurch Street, as
far as a Standard on Cornhill, wliic'h was erected in the middle of the
street where the four ways meet. The water which was to spare,
after supplying the beforenamed streets, flowed from the Standard
through four pipes branching to Bishojisgate, Aldgate, the Bridge,
and Wallbrook, which supplied Ills dwelling-houses in the neighbour-
hood, and cleansed the gutters in these streets. The site of the Stan-
danl was supposed to be the highest ground in the City. The (juantity
of water raised was equal to about 3, 17o,0;tO imperial barrels per
annum, or an average ipiantity of 2 Hi gallons per minute, or about
5ths per cent, of the quantity raised by the water-works for the sup])ly
of the Metropolis at present. There were 111 pumps worked by this
wheel, each 7 inches diameter ami 30 inches stroke. Mr. Smeaton
ascertained from registers that the juimps made 3025 strokes jier
tide; and, as there are 70S titles per annum, (allowing one-fifth tor
loss through the valves, according to Dr. Desagulier's statements,) the
quantity raised may be calculated. Imin-ovemenfs, however, had been
made before the above purticnlars of the pumps were imblished, and
therefore the quantity given will be the extreme probable quantity
raised in 15S2.

In 15s3 or 1581 machinery was fixed in the second arch.
Improvements were maile and the works continued in Maurice's
family until l7ol, when thpy were sold, (after an engagement had been
made with the (,'ity for a lease of the fourth arch,) to Richard Soams,
citizen and gohlsmith, for 3i'>,000.'. Soams formed a company, and
divided the property into 300 shares of 5U0/. each. In 17iil ma-
chinery was erected in the third arch; in 17G7 machinery was erected
in the lifth arch, and alsn in the second arch from the Surrey side lor
the supply of the Borough. The large wheel erected in the firth arch
by Mr. Smeaton was added in consequence of tlie reduction in the fall
of water occasioned by enlarging the water-way under the bridge
when two arches were" thrown into one. And aliiuit this time an at-
nuispheric engine was eriM'tcd of tun horses' power to assist the wheels
at neap tides," and as a safeguard in case of fire happening in the City
at the turn of the tide, when the wdieels, of course, could not work.

In consequence of the City being obliged to pen up the water to
work the wheels, according to an Act passed in 175(1, in the 2'.lth of
George 11., the blocking up of t"lie arches became such a nuisance to
the navigation of the Thames, that an Act was obtained in 1822, the
3.rd of George IV., for the removal of the London Bridge Water-
w'orks, and they were removed accordingly, and the district was sup-
lilied bv other companies, chieily by tlie New River At the time of
the des'truetion of these works the number of tenants was 10,4 17, and
the quantity of water raised by them was eq\ial to 39,481,000 barrels
per annum, or 2704 gallons per minute ; showing an increase ecpial to
twelve times tlie quantity liist raised in 1582 by Peter Maurice.

In 1583 two conduits for Thames water were erected near to Old
Fish Street Hill.

In 1594, for the better supply of the City, Bevis Bulmar erected a
large horse-engine and four pumps at Broken Wharf, to raise Thames
water for the inhabitants of Clieap.si<lp, St. Paul's Churchyard, Fleet
Street, &c., which, MaitlamI says, was removed previous to the date
of his worl<^ 175H, on aceoimt of other companies being able to supply
water at a cheaper rate.

12

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[January,

New Rirtr Head Wakr-mirks.
Tli(> £;ri'atest and most splcmliil work tlva) was ever iinilertaken for
\\\c su|i"iily of a iiioclern city with water was roniinenced in James the
Kir-it's rfip;ii.

Ill l(ior>, the oril of James the First, tlio sujipiy of water was fomiil
t(i lie ina(lei|iiate to the waiit.s of an increased population; and as at
lliat time the discovery of the steam-engine had not heen made, it
was nocessaiT to seek abroad for more powerful springs of water than
had hitherto been discovered, and at a sullicieiit elevation to allow the
water to run to London: these were met witli in the neighlionrliood of
Hertford, above twenty miles north of London, and the citizens con-
ceived the vast plan of bringing these springs by means of a channel to
Islington, and for that purpose obtained an Act of Parliament, em-
)i(i\\ering them to bring a stream (d' water from the springs of Chad-
well ■.iiiA Amwell in the county of Hertford, between the towns of
llerl ford and Ware By this Art, ■3rd of James the First, they were
I'liipowered to make a "trench, channel, cut, or river" ; the width of
the ground to lie purchased, being limited to 10 feet ; and as thesa
springs were situated in the valley of the river Lee, and, consequently,
ran into the said river, they were bound to comjiensate, not only the
owners of ])roperty througli whose lands the river was to be carried,
but also, " all such persons as shall sustain any damage, loss, or hind-
rance, in their mills standing upon any of the rivers or streams from
which the water shall be taken through the said new cut, or river."
That this was a proviso of great consequence may be supposed, when
at the present day it is stated that one of the springs yields a quantity
of water equal to about 3770 imperial gallons per minute, or i\ mil-
lions of barrels per annum.

Surveyors were employed by the City to jdan the execution of the
work; but it was discovered that, as the Act limited the width of the
property to be purchased to 10 feet, it would be impossible to convey
the waters across the hills and valleys to London: the City therefore
applied to Parliament again the following year for power to make
tunnels, where necessary, either to be laid in the earth or formed upon
arches, and an Act was passed accordingly in the 4th of James the
First. Even with these additional powers the course of the river was
extremely circuitous, being above 4U miles in length.

Notwithstanding the powers which had been obtained, it appears
that the work was not executed until some years after.

In ItJOS .Sir Hugh Myddleton, citizen ;mil goldsmitli, offered at his
own charge to carry the Acts of James into execution; and to this
great and enterprising man were the inhabitants of the Metropolis in-
debted for one of the greatest blessings that conld be conferred upon
any city.

In IblO the citizens, by an Act of Common Council, made over their
powers to Sir Hugh Myddleton; and in 1G12 this Act was confirmed
by an indenture.

The work, however, appears to have been commenced in 1608, and
was completed in 1(>13.

Maitlan<l states that Mr. Henry Mills, the then engineer to the Com-
pany, measured the length of the river accurately in 1723, and found
il to be 3SJ miles and Hi poles, to which it was reduced by the con-
traction of its sinuosities above two miles.

That there were 215 bridges over il, and that it was carried over
two valleys in wooden troughs lined with lead, one at Bush-hill, being
GliO feet long and 30 feet high ; and the other at Ilighburv, 402 feet
long and 17 feet high. He'fiirtlier says, "As this New River is in
some ])laces wafted over hills and vales, so in others, mole-like, it
forces its way through subterraneous pass;iges, and arriving at the
place unjustly called its Head, in the neighbourhood of Islington 'tis
ingulfed by 5s main pipes of bores of 7 incdies ; w herebv 'tis conveyed
into the several streets, lanes, \:c. of the City and suburbs of London,
to the great convenience and use of the inhabitants, who, by small
leaden pipes of half inch bore, have the water brought into their
houses;" the number of tenants amounting in I75(; to 3o,liOO.

It was o|)ened and the water admitted into the basins at the Ne\V
River Head at Michaelmas, 1013, with great (loiii]! on the day that
Sir Thomas Myddleton, brother to Hugh, was elei ti-il Loril Mayor.

In 11)19 a charter of incoporation was granted by James I. to Sir
Hugh Myddleton, citizen and goldsmith, in conjui'iction with other
wealthy citizens, and they were styled " the (jov'ernor and Company
of the Xeu River Ijiought from Chadwell and Amwell to London." It
empowered them to improve the river, to prevent nuisances being
committed therein, vndtr ptnally of the King's dinyltdnmr, subject to
the laws for the contenmers of the King's authority ; ■mu\, iiiidtr tlic
samepinal/y, all other parties were prohibited bringing water for the
supply of the Cities of London and Westminster, and the Borough of
Southwark, without a licence from the Governor und Company of the
Kew River.

The King subscribed towards the undertaking, and was thereby en-
titled to ;i moiety of the profits. The work was said to have cost
500,00(1/.: the capital was divided into 72 shares, of which the King
had 3li ; but so poorly did the scheme answer at first, from ignorance
of the gre;it advantages that the Metropolis \vo\dd derive from this
splendid work, that .Sir Hugh Myddleton, who had spent the whole of
his fortune, was ruined, and the proprietors did not for 30 years di\ ide
more than 5/. per share, or about Is. f>d. per cent. The King, how-
ever, who was entitleil to a moiety, relinipiished his share, reserving
only .500/. per annum out of it. Although the King's share was in
private hands, they took no part in conducting the aHairs of the Com-
pany.

Previous to the year 1738 the supply from the springs was tound to
be insufiicient, and arrangements were made w ith the trustees of the
river Lee, to enable the New River Company to abstract water from
the said river. This was done, first by pipes, ;ind afterwards by a cut
and trough into the New River, the dimensions of which wen; ileter-
mined by Act of Parliament, passed in 1738, in the 12th year of the
reign of George the Second.

This supply, however, was not found to be suHicient, although e(ju.d
in the aggregate to nearly 17 millions of gallons per diem, or nearly
172 milli(ms of barrels (ler annum; for in Is22, when the New River
Company undertook to supjily the London Bridge Water-works dis-
tricts, it was one of the conditions that they shoidd have a steam-en-
gine to pump from the Thames, in case of failure in the supply of the
New River, occasioned by frost or draught ; and a 100-horse power
engine was accordingly erected at Broken Wharf.

Objections having been made of late years to the water occasional I y
raised by this engine from the Thames, and to the exposed state of
the New River, ;illowing boys to bathe in it, ;ind other nuisances; the
Company, upholding the character for enterprise which was bequeathed
to them by the great founder of their works, are now applying to Par-
lianu^nt for powers to improve their supply, by relinquishing their
station on the banks of the Thames, and in lieu thereof, raising water
from the river Lee; and also by fencing in the New River to jirevent
nuisances being committed tlierein.

( To be coiilinmd.)

BRITISH MUSEUM.— No. V.

(From the Times.)
Egyptian Antiquities.

The collection of anticpiities in the great saloon of the British Mu-
seum, unconnected with the edifices of which thev formed part, to the
artist are comparatively useless. The monstrosities they represent
can neither excite his emulation, nor improve his taste ; while to the
general visitor they are only regarded as matters of curiosity : he lin-
gers round the mutilated blocks of granite, in vain endeavours to find
the meaning of the strange and luieouth figures he sees so innumerably
engraved upon them; on turning to the pages of the synopsis, he
simply finds the nanu>s of Amenothoph, of Raineses, of llojith, of
Shishak, or of Pthanenoph, and his curiosity remains unsatisfied. A
short and more particular description of some of the most important
may not be unacceptable.

In the central room a c;ise has lately been opened, in which are two
figures, apparently designed to represent a mother and daughter. In
beauty of design and execution they are hardly surpassed, it equalled,
by any in the collection ; they seem to belong neither to the temple
nor the tondi, and, whatever they may he called, possess all the ap-
pearance of family portraits. They are sitting on a couch, the legs of
which terminate in lion's paws, ;ind possess more of the Greek than
Roman fashion; the height of the elder figure is 5 feet 0 inches, that
of the younger 5 feet 2 inches ; in the right hand of the mother, which
is extended downwarils, is the mysterious instrument resembling a
key, called the "Ian," which is commonly a mark of the priesthood ;
the other, which is singular in Egyptian sculpture, is placed upon the
daughter's; the faces of both are handsome, that of the youngest
miglit be lliought beautiful; the exjiression of innocence and modesty
is finely pourtrayed ; the eyes are large, the lips Imve nothing of the
Ethio))ian character, the mouth is beautifully shaped, the nose small
and delicately formed, and happiness is thrown over the countenance ;
the figure is slender, the shaiie of the bosom and shoulders perfect ;
the hair, which is in u thousand curls, covers the ears, and on the fore-
head is so arranged as to form a tiara ; the dress descends nearly to
the ancle, and is intended to represent the finest muslin ; around the
edges of which is m edging apparently of lace ; it is crossed over the

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THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

13

breast, and passes through a ring, from which is suspended an amulet
in shape like a cross ; the feet are bare, the hand and arm perfect. A
great likeness is observable in the faces of both the figures, but the
lips of the elder are thicker, and the nose and face are altogether more
Egyptian; the hair of the latter is also curled, but is not so thick as
that of the yovniger, and the ears are shown, in which are earrings ;
the ilress, which is much shorter, is not so full over the person, but
equally tine in the texture ; on the feet are sandals, the fastenings of
which are nunutely executed, and are entirely diH'erent from the Greek
or Roman style. Some remains of colours are to be observed on the
dress, blue and red. There does not appear to be any hieroglyphical
inscription on it. Innnediately under the columns which separate tlie
saloons are two colossal lions which were given by Lord Prudhoe ;
they are of red Egyptian granite ; on each are two tablets or car-
touches, on which the learneil hare read the names of Amenothoph,
the second and third; there are also on them two other tablets, the
characters of which Ir.ive not yet been ilecipliered ; they were brought
from Nubia, from Delphi, MO miles beyond the Cataract. The atti-
tuile which is given them, although from the locality whence they
wore removed evidently betokens their great antiquitv, is more true
to nature than in the generality of similar figures of Egyptian (h^sign ;
one is lying on the right, and the other on its left side ; the right fore
leg in one is under the body, all but the [law ; the left is stretched
across the chest, and the paw, tinned flat down, rests on that of the
right, the under of which is turned upwards; thus the two paws meet
like two hands when brought flat together : the eves are very long,
and have nuich resemblance to those of Egyptian human statues. There
are two small lion sphinxes which much resemble these ; they were
found by Captain Caviglia when he uncovered the sphinx of the Py-
ramiils, in a small temple, placed between its legs ; they are of soft
calcareous stonc^ and have been painted red ; their length is about aU
inches ; one has a head in the style of the sphinx, and on a plinth are
some figures, which are no part of the original design, they are not
hieroglyphics. Of the other, the lower part of the face is gone ; this
has also a low head-dress, and a mane carved in lines down the breast,
and wliat is singular, neither of them possesses much of the Egyi>tian
character, though found in such a situation. No. 1 1 is the figure of a
liawkheaded spliinx, which was found by Belzoni at Ipsamboul, The
ram's head in this room, which formed the head of a colossal sphinx,
was taken from the avenue at Carnac, and is of soft calcareous stone ;
the face is 3 feet 0 inches in length, and the horn in the curve 4 feet
11 inches, the tip of which is broken off; on the top of the head is an
oblong hole, 44 inches by 4 deep. From the spirit shown in the
sculpture of this head, as also in those of the lions, it is to be seen
that the Egyptians excelled far more in their delineation of animals
than of the human form ; that hardness and inanimation, which is the
characteristic of the latter, is not to be complained of in the other.
What was the origin of the sphinx, and they are found in Europe,
Asia, and Africa, wdiat mystery was hidden in so strange a shape, ami
still wrapped in obscurity, the general opinion of antiquaries, that a
lion's head, united to a woman's body, was to denote the rise of the
Nile, when the sun is in tlie signs of Leo and Virgo, will not suit those
witli a male head or a ram's head. Winkleman thinks the Andro-
sphinx typifies the male and female principles of worship united in
one form, and it is so found in India; the (jreek sphinx was a female
and a lion ; the Egyptian and Jewish, a lion with a man's head ; in
Arracan, it is a female ; in Java, half a woman and half an elephant ;
and in hidia the fourth incarnation of Vishnu is a man lion. Tliere
are in this room two obelisks of black marble ; they are the only ones
in the Museum ; the one on the right as you enter is that mentioned
by Niebur in his travels; it has been broken into two pieces ; they
are now together; the lower part, which is perfect, is about S feet in
height ; it was found fixed into the side of a doorway of a house in
Cairo, and the broken part ser\ ed for a sill ; the north side has a car-
touche under the usual symbol of the goose and dise, and another per-
fect, supposed to contain the name ; they are repeated on the oijjiosite
side, and nowhere else ; the hieroglyphics on the north and south sides
are the same; those on the east and west are different, but resemble
eacli other ; the first are much better executed than tlie other ; the
bird is perhaps one of the best specimens of sculpture found in Egypt ;
the arch on which it is chisseled out is rounded with great skill ; the
shadow thrown by the edges formed by the erasion in the stone, added
to the shadow cast from the rounded pait on the deep incision, gives
a line relief to the lighter and higher jiarts ; the feathers of the wing
are also beautifully raised, and the eye is well delineated. The one
opposite, which is about the same size, is not so well executed ; it has
the same cartouche cut on the four sides ; the hieroglyphics are the
same on both of these obelisks, but differently placed ; the sistrum is
shown on both, and what is supposed to be the proper name on the
Alexandrian sarcophagus, as also the pveuomen, is the same which

appears on these. It was the opinion of Denon that obelisks and gate-
ways which are often found insulated before the temples were votive
orterings to the collective gods. The colossal head on which is the
mitre, called the Teshr, was found by Bel/.oni at Cainac, east of the
Nile; it is of red granite, and is highly polished, and of much larger
dimensions than the one opposite, called the lesser Memnon; the face
has much more of the Ethiopian character, and does not possess the
softness which is seen in the other, and is evidently of an earlier date;
the height from the top of the mitred crown is It) feet; the beard-case
and left ear only are destroyed ; the colossal arm lying near it belonged
to this statue, and from its being straight and in a falling position
shows it must have been an upright one ; in the hand are the remains
of a staff or sceptre. The cap is fastened with bands under the chin.
From the position of the arm and head its height must have been at
least 2(i feet, and it is observable in this, as in almost all the Egyptian
figures, that the ear is placed too high on the head.

The colossal figure marked 21 was discovered in the ruins of a
temple behind the Colossi at Thebes, between the Memnonium and
Medinet Abu ; it is an exact model of the great figure of iMemnoii at
Thebes, the exact height of which is 7o feet; it is in a sitting posi-
tion, and has a close-fitting cap on the head, on the front of which is
the as|)ic serpent. The beard and lower part of the chin are broken.
The stone is a breschia, and Uioks black, but it is a dark gray, and has
bright yeUovv particles in it, and is the only statue of that kind of
stone in the collection. The hair is curiously gathered behind, and,
from a number of radii collected in a convex form, is gathered into a
long tail ; it has a nether garment, of corduroy appearance, attacheil
to a belt round the waist, and overlaps in parts on the thighs, on which
are exteuiled the hands, which are b idly executed. At the back ot
the throne is a S(|uare colunm, and the cartouches there inscribed con-
tain, as we are told, the name of Amenothoph or Jlemnon, being the
s;ime as those on the Thebau colossus.

A colossal head of Jupiter Amnion, of white stone, marked 30, is
finely executed ; it was in the collection of Mr. Salt, found by IJelzoni,
at Carnac. Fart of tlie face is destroyed, but as it remains, the difi'e-
rence of expression observed on viewing it is remarkable. In the iront
it possesses the general character of Egyptian composure ; on the
northern side it is grave and severe, and on the eastern it has the
same smile as is seen on the face of the lesser Memnon.

Another head of ei[ual size, on the left of the room as you enter, is
the only Egyptian one in tlie Museum on which the beard is seen ; in
all the others it is placeil in a sort of case, but here it is sculptured on
the stone ; flat lappets descend on each side of the head, the breadth
of which are of the same size as the fringy beard. The stone of
which it is forineil is a brownish breschia, peculiarly diflicult to cut.
The great sarcojiliagus on the left, near the entrance, given by Colonel
Vyse in ls3'.1, is of red breschia, and is well deserving inspection.
The hieroglyphic-i are highly finished ; they are not so numerous as
those on the tomb of Alexander, or the one opposite called the Lovers'
Fountain, but of better execution. It has a lid of circular form, which
tits with a ledge; there is a band of hieroglyphtcs on each side : in
each band are 12 figures 4 inches in length, all different, and divided
from each otlier by a tablet of inscriptions; 11 of these figures are
faced by one at the end, a band of hieroglyphics reaches halfway
along the cover, another crosses this, and then there are G more, 3 of
which are but half the length, to give room for 3 figures of mummies,
of which there was probably 3 within the monument. Above this
there is a face deeplv cut, the features of which are completely of
the negro character.' It has the usual "oskh" or cunicular tippet
worn round the neck. The length is 9 feet, and the breadth 3 and a
half. The colour of the stone forming the top is much lighter than
the lower jiart of the sarcophagus. No. lU, which is supposed to
have been the tomb of Alexander, consists of a single block of stone
ten feet in lei gtii, four in height, and about five in breadth. It is ;i
particular kind of prismatic congloinerite, resembling that which is
uiRler the second porphyry formation, and is entirely covered with
hieroglyphics in lines. ' On his death, we are told by Curtius, his
body was enshrined in golden chasework, over which was put a purple
vestment, and then his armour: on his arrival at Alexandria it was
there deposited, but whether in this sarcopliagus or not has been mat-
ter of dispute. He was worshipped as the thirteenth god of the
Egyptians ; three centuries after his death his body was seen by
Augustus. Tacitus says the tomb was again opened by Caligula, and
the brea'st()late taken out and worn by him. When the body was re-
moved is unknown, but the Mahometans had always revered and con-
cealed this sarcoghagus from the Christians till seized on by the
Frencli.

The engraved tablet of black basalt, called "the Rosetta-stone,"
the " criLV antiquarionim," contains three inscriptions — one in hiero-
glyphics, one in the ancient spoken or enchorial language of Egypt,

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[Janvarv,

ami the othor in (ireek. The lemniHi liave read, that Ihev record (lie
scrvici's whii-h PlnhMuy V. li.iil rendered tu hi^ [•unntry, and that tlicy
were engraved by (lie nrder of (lie prie.tthdoil assenihlCd at i\leinpiiis,
tcir (he ]iiir|i(ise (if inveslinr; him wilh the ri'gal piiwer';. Till the clis-
rovciy of this sdmi-, whieh was fmiiul liy (lie Knnich in digging (lie
fomnhuion of Fui( St. Julian a( Uose(tii, iio(nitlistandiiig the lahonvs
of Kireher and other*, (he iimumeralile inseriplioiis and (he monsd-nsi-
(ies which are found engraved or p-,uii(ed on every reli(( of Egvpdaii
aiitiipii(y remained matler of doiib( and wonder, anil were veiled in
(he darkness of eoiijecfure. The arrival of this s(one was (herefore
hailed wilh erpial joy by (he learned, as would (he reeoverv of the
key of an unpiukahle Hraniali by its unhappy loser. Upon the en-
graving of this block a wondrous system has been raised, wdiich, if i(
is |)erfecled, is destined (o enlighten ns in "all (he wisdom of the
lOgyptians," and lay open (o (he inquiring mind of the l')th ceiitnrv all
(lie knowh'dge uliieli is thonght to be contained in (hose inscriptions,
(he amoiiiU of which, taken Colleclively, would till 10,UOIJ volumes.
.Some sliort account of the deciphering syslem pursued mav no(, in
connexion with (lie whole of (he Egyptian monuments, be uuaccept-
nble.

The first author who meudons the writings of (he Kgv))tians says,
they had two kinds of characters, one called sacred, and the other
popular; but he does not say that (hey had any allini(y with
each other. Diodorus Siculiis mentions the sauie, with (lie addition
that (he first were peculiar (o the iiricsts, and (he odier was taught (o
all. Concise as (his is, it is all the inforinalion (hese authors give.
The next is the celebrated passage in (he works of Clemens Alexan-
drinus, in which (he diirerent kinds of writing are given wi(h con-
siderable precision. He says (here were three kinds — (he Epis(olo-
graphic, the Hieratic or sacred, and (hinlly, the most complete of all,
(he Hieroglyphic, which he (ells us is expressed by means of the Hrs(
or iiiKial element of words, (hat is, by reference (o (he inidal sounds
of words uhiidi deiiole (hese objec(s in (bespoken language of the
country. I'pon this scanty foundation the most extraordinary theories
have been built ; (he six folios of Kircher, according (o his interpreta-
tion of (he hieroglypiiical inscriplioiis, which succeeded equalU'
Wlielher he began a( the beginning, (he middle, or a( (he end of (he
text, arc found to be tilled with (he cabalistic science and slrange fan-
cies of a refined system ofDaemonism. The Abbe FInclie has disco-
vennl that they are all astronomical, or expressive of (he doctrines
connected with the science of asth)noiny, and the division of time in
(he calendar ; and the author of a work entitled * L' Etude dcs Hiiro-
gij/p/iiques, publislied at Paris in Is 12, found in the inscription on the
temple at Dendera a translation of (he lOlKh Psalm of Daviil, a foreign
language, which most likidy the inhabitants of the country never un-
derstood. Count Palin has persuaded himself that the hymns of
David are but Hebrew translations of (he consecra(ed rolls of Egypfian
pa|iyrus. All these fantastic reveries have, however, given way to (he
system of Dr. Young, the invention of which has been dispu(p.d by M.
Chainpolliim ; he followed the idea of Warburton, (llal (he hieroglyphic
or sacred ch.iracter, was not so called because peculiarly appropriated
(o sacred subjects, but that they constituted a written language appli-
cable to all the ])urposes of life, that (hey were not used to represeii(
things or ideas, lm( (hat (hey represen(ed sounds or words, (ha( thev
were al|dlabetical, and (hat they exhibited things (U- olijec(s, (he coin-
mott names of which in the sjioken language began with (he sounds i(
was wisheil to express. To make (his more intclligibli" we give the
lollowiMg example : — If (here was no other manner of wriling (ban by
pictunN, or symbols, and (he spoken language of England (lie same as
it now is, and it was required to write the name of James, this name
being a mere sound could not lie intimated (o any one by a picture or
symbol ; but if it was nnderslood (ha( the key of this name was to be
obtained by reference to a scries of picdires of familiar objec(s, the
names of which in the spoken language begun with the sounds which
were successively to be expressed, and which when taken togedier in
(hat order mnde up (he name, (bus, for the soiinil now ex|iressed by
(he letter J (he figure of a jug or jar was si'( down, for an A an ape or
an accnn, for an .Vl a man or a mouse, and for an S a spear or a sjiur;
the name of James wimld (hen by a sort of symbolic acrostic be inti-
ma(t>d (o all who read the figures in the spoken language. This is (lie
basis of (he principle of l_)r. Young, Do Lacy, and Cbampollion, and
(he literati have proceeded upon this to decipher the Egyptian biero-
glyphios. To what extent they have succeeded yet remains a ma((er
of doubt ; but in consequence (lie visitor to the Museum, when passing
on from viewing (he dilapiila(ed remains of Egyptian scnl])ture in (In'
lower saloon, regretdug his ignorance of the strange writing and
figures on all <if tbem eiigrayeil, is agreeably surprised when he enters
tlic gallery above to recover his mistake; here li(> finds all is known
and decipheve<l ; he reads these are the remains ofPefaakims siir-
lll*nedO«kliouoiwn(ie, Aviditor of the Royal palace; that the next is j

Panamoun, iiriest of Animon ; that a lady lying near is latsbabem,
ilaugh(er of Pe(kons, portet of Ainoun, and born of lamaak, lady of
the house; he is sfartled at the immorilKy; (hat another is I'ena-
inaiim, an incense-bearer, son of Ohnolie, son of Hor and id' Ijaenrow,
daughter ofSaklous; and he supposes that want of space has alone
prevented a full account of (heir lives and acdoiis, easily to be read on
(heir insi'riptions, from being given in the synopsis ; liiit lie will find
on inquiry tha( serious objecdons may bo raisecf even to (he valiilKy
of (he names adached, much more to any particular account of (heir
oflices or actions.

All (he modern expounders of hieroglyphics hare raised the struc-
ture of (heir expositions on (he (rilingual inscripdon seen on (his
Rose((a s(one, tuid jirincipally depend upon it. Dr. Young, (he most
celebrated of them all, did not begin his researches till after its dis-
covery ; he knew nothing of it, but from (he French accoun(, and it is
upon that accounl alone (lia( the genuineness of the inscripdon de-
pends ; it is true that some other s(ones with tri|)lica(e inscrijidons
have been found, but (hat would be (he necessary consequence of (he
first being made ; (he size and nadire of all of them evidently show
lha( they were not in ancient times kept concealed, and if (hey are so
ancient and genuine as we are to believe, why did not the Roman
writers go at once to these inscriptions scattered about the country (o
interpret that which they all regret was lost ? It may be said that it
would be almost impossible to have forged the inscriptions on (his
stone, it would only have made (he last or (ireek one, and when we
look at the manufacture of ancienf E{ruscan vases and cameos in S(af-
fordshire, the (ricks of the Parian marbles, (he manuscripts of Shaks-
peare, (he copies of Raphael, and read (he as(ounding tale (hat Pro-
fessor Hou((on, of the Aledico Hotanical Socie(y, produced a bulbous
root found in the cranium of a nuiminy, in a situation in which it iiad
probably lain 2,dO'.) years, (hat it germinated when exposed to the at-
mosphere, though w hen discovered in a state of perfect dryness, and
on being placed in the ground it grew wi(h readiness and vigour, and
also know (hat mummies are inanufac(ured every day, and consider
(he authority on which it rests, (he impossibility of this monument not
being genuine is very diHiculf (o believe, hi Pompeii ardcles are
Constantly buried to he found when wanted, and it has always been
observed that the higher the rank of the visitor to those remains the
more successful is he in his antiquarian sealch. There may be 101)
Rosetta stones discovered, but the inore that are found the more difli-
ciilt it is to account for the ignorance of Clemens and others on the
subject. The plan both of ChampoUion and Young, of making many
phonetic signs for one letter, will make them speak whatever (he ex-
positor desires, and proves that arbilraiy figures which are not hiero-
glyphics may lie made to give any meaning he may ])lease. If this
inscription on the Uosetta stone is genuine, why did not Clemriis,
who livc'd at Alexandria, go to it (o remove his ignorance, which the
]iassage in his work on the subject proves, and why did not .Strabo
also? They both could have read (he Greek, which the best Scodis
can now hardly understand. But wliat more dearly proves tha( (he
meaning of (he hieroglyphics was unknown in (he Roman times, is the
fact, that one of the hrst emperors otrered a reward for the decipher-
ing of those on an obelisk he brought to Rome. The ignorance of
Diodorus, strabo, and Clemens is a pre{ty good proof that the inscrip-
tions found on the trilingual stones are modern f.dirications, else why
are so few found, and none on the temples and statues (hemselves?
Whether the Fremdi scavaiis were the inventors and fabricators is
cerlainly diflicuU to determine, but (ha( is far more likely (ban that
the authors we have mentioned, and the Roman emperors, should have
been ignorant whedier hieroglyphics were in use in their (ime or not.
Neidier Sdabo nor Diodorus says tha( (he hieroglyphics were known
in (heir day; yc( if diey had" been, why have not (hose authcu-s
quoted (hem in (heir histories of the Egyptian mythology? It is
more than probable that (hese inscriptions were never intended to be
read bu( by (hose wllo had (he tradition of their meanings, and that
the priests having been massacred in the Persian conrpiesl by Cam-
byses, that (radidon was lost. The same W'ould have been the case
with the tradidonary learning of (he Maxicans had not the Spaniards
preserved it. Ijoth Dr. Young and Clmnipollion have found by (heir
process (he names of Roman emiierors on the same monument with
(hose of (he Pharaohs and Ptoloiuies, in situations where they could
not have been erased. How can the)- account (or this ? If the names
of Ptolemy and Cleopa(r;\, and (he Romans, are to be found on the
buildings and obelisks wriden in hieroglyphics, of course they could
not have been lost in (lie time of Strabo aiid Clemens, yet any one who
at(eii(ively considers the passage in his work, and that passagi' is the
foundation of all modern explicatiwi, must come to (he conclusion that
the obscurity in which he has enwrapi)ed it was purposely done to
conceal his ignorance of that whidi he pretended to descriVie.

To the plan of Pr, Young and other learmnl expositor? of jeading

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THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

15

tlie liiciof^lypliics l]y .v|il>lying llio first Icltors oS ligy|)ti;in words of
the iMinininii vorn;Hiil,ir tongue now in nse — viz., (lie Coptic — it would
be- salisl'iiclorv to imply tluit it mnst always liave remained the same,
or nearlv so. It is (rue, we are told nodiing changes in the East; bu(,
no(wi(hs(anding, it is impossible not (o believe but (hat tongue, ad-
niKd'd (o have always been the spoken language oldie eiiuntry,*l);^ss-
ing through the crucible of conquest by (lie F.iliiopian, (lie Shepherd
Kings, (he Israelites, the Persians, the Greeks, (he Romans, and the
Saracens, during a period of 3,1)00 years, nuis( have been so dislocated
and altered as to have rendered it impossible to read (he symbolic or
liiemglvphic language of Sesosfris in the Coptic or the oldest Coptic
books now extant.

RAILWAY CURVES.

I\ compliance wi(h (lie request of several members of the profes-
sion, we nave carefully perused (he (Munninnications of our corres-
pondi'n(s on the subject of railway curves, and, after a careful exa-
minalion of (he various methods (herein |Ud]iosed, we cannot but
concur in their o|)iiiiou, that the quesdon has not yet been satisfactorily
seKled. We therefore engaged Mr. Arislides iMornay, a gentle-
man well known for the accuracy of his calculations, to construct a set
of (allies to facilKate the execudon of a jilan which we shall luesenlly
explain, after having ottered a few remarks on the pro|iosals contained
in the above mentioned coinmnnications, which were published in the
Journal during the past year.

In (he January number Mr. Murray, under the signature of " A Sub.,"
lunposes as an improTement upon (lie system of running directly from
a s(raiglit line to a curve of Ih, -, or -'i miles radius, that a curve of
y, 4 or .5 miles radius for a short dis(ance should be made use of to
ooimect them. He adds that ludjectiles (where the resistance is
equal) assume the parabolic curve, to which the plan he proposes is
an ajiproxiniation.

This observation about projectiles is projierly answered in the
unmber for March, by "R. W. T.," who also justly observes that "if
the curvature is not equable," which would be the case if Mr. Mur-
ray's advice were followed, "some parts of it must be sliarper than if
the same radius were used all through,"

In the Ajiril number Mr. Ely denies the correctness of " R.W. T.'s"
statemen(, on the ground that Mr. Murray's object is to " begin curving
sooner, and make the radii of portions of the curve ii-m/Zt/." This
objecdon would onlyob(ain, if the object were, besides beginning vvidi
a curve of greater radius, to terminate also with a curve of greater
radius, which would join the straight continuation of the line farther on
dian tile single curve of uniform radius originally su|iposed. This
however was not Mr. Murray's iutendou, as is evident from his own
iliagram and ilescription in the Noveinlier luiiuber. He has assumed
a certain point to be arrived at, without considering diat the direction
of die continuation of the railway is also determined before-hand.
These two conditions being given, it is obvious that (he junction must
either be ell'ected by means of an uniform curve of a radius deter-
mined by the given circumstances, or by commencing the curve sooner
w itii a longer radius, and terniiuatiug w ith another of shorter radius.

Widi rl'spect to the queries of"" An Assistant Engineer," in the
April number, it appears Mr. Brulf has not exactly comprehended the
lirs(, or at least has not expressed hiinsclf very cleady. If the case is
as represented in "An Assistant Engineer's" diagram, the solution of
his problem is impossible : it woukl be necessary to use a curve of

A"

A

B"

greater, instead of less radius to join the two given curves. It would,
however, be better, if those two curves are indispensable, to connect
them by a tangent, as suggested by Mr. Bruff ; or, if the two given
curves could be altered, it would be still better (o increase tlieir radii,
so as to make tliem meet, and form an S curve together. We con-
sider this far better tlian tire plan proposed by"R.W. T.," in the
September number, for two reasons; Jint, because the line is shorter,
and secondly, because the curves are not so sharp. If it were desired
to begin one of the curves farther up on the tangent, as recommended
by " R, W. T.," the distance to be gone uijon the tangent may be
found much more easily, and with mathematical correctness by a
method which would iratnediately suggest itself to any one at all con-
versant \^ ith geometry.

A'

We now come (n the second query, the solution of which is (he
main object of these remarks: viz. "Which is (he most correct mode
of seldng out railway curves ?" Mr. Foster Charlton's method, re-
commended by Mr. BruH', and extracted from " Weale's ScientiHc Ad-
vertiser," is correct; but we do not think i( |nai'(icable, as it is neces-
sary to construct a triangle of which the lengths of (he sides are
given, which operation must be exceedingly ditlicult when two of the
sides are several chains iii length. " B. W. T.'s" method, giviui
in the May number of our journal, is incorrect, and is not sulliciently
explained to enable any one to put it in practice.

The mode described by " .Surveyor," in our June number is a correct
one, and [lartly (he same as that we ju'opose ; but the measurement of
the angle contained between (he two straight Hues to be connected is
perfectly unnecessary, and he does not appear to have been pre[)ared
with a practical mode of laying off the second tangent.

The method ilescribed by our correspondent " Jl." in tlie.July num-
ber, as that usually adopted, besides not being matlicmalically correct,
must be attended with much dillicnlty in practice, on account of the
necessity of coiistrncling triangles whose sides are given; but that
proposed as a substitute, aldiongli perfectly correct, if the work is
accurately performed, is nearly, if not quite as ditficult of execution as
the former.

It only remains for us now to explain (he method we propose for
setting out railway cur\es, which we think will be found (o be appli-
cable in all cases, and generally easier of execution than any other
correct plan. The explanation is illustrated by reference to the accom-
panying diagram.

Let A" A be (he direction of the railway before curving, and A (he
|)oint at wlii( h the curve is to conunence. Produce A" A to A', mak-
ing AA' any convenient length, and at the point A' erect the perpen-
dicular (A' B or offset) on the line AA', which is a tangent to the
required curve, and make A' B (the oltset) equal to the length given
in the column u of the accompanying tables ; B w ill be a point of the
curve. In the figure we siqipose the radius of the curve to be a
quarter of a mile, or 20 chains, and the tangent AA', 5 chains. The
table gives A' B=l);5'.") links. Eroin the ])oiut A, measure on the tan-
gent AA' a distance. AI3" equal (o the length found iu the colunni / of
the table, v\hich is in (lie present case 2 chains .")4 links, and through
the points B" and H (already found), draw the straight line B" B B',
making 15 B', which is a new' tangent to the curve, equal to A A', or
any other convenient length ; set off B'C at right angles to B B', and
ecpial to A' B if B B' was taken equal to A A', otherwise equal to the
length given in the column u under the length of tangent equal to BB'.
C will be another point of the curve, and by proceeding iu the same
manner we can determine as many ])oints as may be desired. By
taking on anyone of the tangents, such as A A', a number of inter-
mediate points, ((, n', a", so that Aa, Ao', Aa" shall be equal to
lengths of tangents given in the table, the corresponding oll'sets, ali,
u'li', <i"b", which are given iu the colniun o under the resjiective
lengths of tangents, will uerve to determine as many intermediate
points cd' the curve, h, h', b", situated be(v\een the points A and B. In
the ligurc we have taken B B' eipial to A A', or 5 chains, but the next
tangent, C C, for want of room, has been made only 3 cliaius long, so
that the offset CD is only 22'ii links, as we find in the column v under
the length of tangent 3 chains. The portions Aa, BP and Cy have
been made each 2 chains, (ur which length of tangent we find the oll'set
= 10 links, and the other distances Pc, P'c', P"c", &c. having been
taken each ecjual to 1 chain, the tangents are 3 and i chains, and the
offsets 22-G and -10- 1 links.

'^^^

10

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

rjANUARY

'- >

TA13LE 1—

-CURVE.S FROM

5 CHAINS TO >sO

CHAINS, OR ONE MILE

RADIU.'^.

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3 U

Lkxgth ok the T.

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10-2

••

•2

• •

::

r4

1-4
1-4

••

2-0

2-5

••

4-0

4-0

;:

5-8
5-7

, ,

7-9

7-8

••

10-2
10-1

••

12-9
12-8

100
15-8

1 ••

k.

I.-L.

2-5

••

3-9

••

50

••

7-7

10-0

••

12-7

■•

15-6

1S40]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

17

TABLE II.— CURVES FROil 85 CHAIN'S TO 280 CHAINS, OR 31 MILES RADIUS.

5

Lkngtii ok thk Taxgext IX

Chains.

1

o

3

•1

5

C.

7

S

;)

10

' 1 «

i

0

t

0

t

0 ■

/ ' 0

t

0

t

0

i

0

t

0

I

"

Chains.

Links. 1 Llvs.

Lks.

Lks.

Lks.

Lks.

Lks.

Lks.

Lks.

Lks.

Lks.

Lks.

Lks.

Lks.

Lks.

Lks.

Lks.

Lks.

Lks.

Lks.

8.')

500 i 0'6

1000

2-4

150-1

0-3

200-1

9-4

250-2

14-7

300-4

21-2

350-6

28-9

400-9

377

451-4

47-8

501-7

59-0

'.Ill

2-2

150-0

5-0

S-9

13-9

300-3

20-0

2 7-3

400-8

35-G

4.31-1

45-1

501-6

55-7

11.')

.. i 0-5

2-1

4-7

8-4

13-2

19-0

350-5

25-9

400-7

00' /

451-0

4-2-7

501-4

52-8

101)

. • i • •

2-0

4-5

8-0

12-5

18-0

350-4

21-6

400-6

32-0

450-9

40-6

501-3

50-1

11).-.

1-9

4-3

7-6

11-9

17-2

23-4

.30-5

38-7

501-1

47-7

Ill)

1-8

41

7-3

250-1

11-4

300-2

16-4

350-3 i 22-3

400-5

29-1

4.50-8

36-9

501-0

45-5

ll.'i

. .

0-4

1-7

3-9

7-0

10-9

15-7

. ,

21-3

27-8

450-7

35-3

43-5

120

3-H

6-7

10-4

15-0

20-4

400-4

26-7

450-6

33-8

500-9

41-7

12.)

10

3-6

6-1

1 0-0

14-4

19-0

25-6

32-4

500-8

40-0

no

1-5

3-5

200-0

6-2

9-6

1.3-9

18-8

24-6

450-5

31-1

38-5

13.-.

3-3

5-9

9-3

300-1

13-3

350-2

18-1

400-3

23-7

30-0

500-7

37-1

140

1-4

3-2

5-7

8-9

12-9

17-5

22-9

29-0

35-8

IJ.^

0-3

31

5-5

8-6

12-4

.. '16-9

, .

22-1

450-1

28-0

500-6

34-5

l,-)0

1-3

30

5-3

8-3

12-0

16-3

21-3

27-0

33-4

1. '■>,-)

2-9

51

8-1

11-6

, ,

15-8

20-6

20-2

500-5

32-3

160

1-2

2-8

5-0

2500

7-8

11-3

15-3

400-2

20-0

25-4

31-3

165

2-7

4-8

7-6

10-9

350-1

14-8

19-4

450-3

21-6

500-4

30-3

170

2-6

4-7

7-3

, ,

10-6

..

14-4

18-9

23-9

29-4

175

. ,

11

46

. ,

7-1

10-3

14-0

18-3

23-2

28-6

180

, ,

2-5

4-4

G-9

, ,

10-0

13-6

17-8

22-5

500-3

27-8

185

, ,

2-4

4-3

6-7

9-7

13-2

17-3

21-9

27-1

190

, ,

4-2

6-6

, ,

9-5

, ,

12-9

16-8

21-3

26-4

105

1-0

. ,

2-3

41

. ,

6-4

9-2

12-6

16-4

450-2

20-8

25-7

200

0-2

J..

40

6-3

9-0

12-3

16-0

20-3

, ,

25-0

205

2-2

3-9

6-1

8-8

12-0

400-1

15-0

19-8

21-4

210

3-S

fi-0

8-6

.. 11-7

15-3

..

19-3

23-8

215

0-9

2-1

3-7

..

5-8

8-4

.. 11-4

14-9

18-8

23-2

220

3-6

..

5-7

8-2

.. 11-1

14-6

18-4

22-7

225

, ,

2-0

. ,

5-6

8-0

, .

10-9

14-2

18-0

500-2

22*2

230

3-5

5-4

7-S

10-7

, .

13-9

, ,

17-6

21-7

235

1-9

, ,

3-4

5-3

7-G

10-4

13-0

17-2

21-3

240

0-8

3-3

5-2

300-0

7-5

, .

10-2

, ,

13-3

16-9

20-8

245

1-8

5-1

7-3

10-0

13-0

16-6

20-4

250

3-2

5-0

7-2

9-8

, ,

12-8

16-2

20-0

255

'

3-1

.. ! 4-9

7-0

9-6

12-5

450-1

15-9

19-6

260

1-7

4-8

6-9

9-4

12-3

15-6

19-2

265

0-7

3-0

4-7

6-8

9-2

12-1

, .

15-3

18-8

270

, .

4-6

6-7

9-0

11-8

..

15-0

18-5

275

..

.. 1

1-6

2-9

, ,

4-5

6-5

8-9

11-6

14-7

18-2

280 .. .. 1

-•

• 1

6-4

8-8

••

11-4

14-4

17-9

TABLE III.— CURVES FROJI 300 CHAINS TO 640 CHAINS, OR 8 MILES RADIUS.

0)

Length of the Tangent in Chains.

2

4

G

8

10

12

11

IG

18

20 j

I 1 0

i

0

t 1 0

_ 1

t : 0

t

0

t i 0

0

t ' 0

t

0

/

0

Chains.

Links.

Lks.

Lks.

Lks.

Lks.

Lks.

Lks.

Lks.

Lks.

Lks.

Lks.

Lks.

Lks.

Lks.

Lks.

Lks.

Lks.

Lks.

Lks.

Lks.

300

1000

0-7

200-0

2-7

300-0

6-0

400-1

10-7

500-1

16-7

600-2

24-0

700-4

32-7

800-6

42-7

900-8

54-0

1001-1

66-7

320

0-6

2-5

5-6

, ,

100

15-6

, ,

22-5

700-3

30-6

800-5

40-0

900-7

50-6

1001-0

62-6

340

2-3

5-3

9-4

14-7

21-2

28-8

800-4

37-7

900-6

47-7

1000-8

58-9

360

..

2-2

5-0

400-0

8-9

13-9

20-0

700-2

27-2

, ,

35-6

45-0

1000-7

55-6

380

0-5

2-1

4-7

8-4

13-1

19-0

25-8

33-7

900-5

42-7

52-7

400

2-0

4-5

. ,

8-0

12-5

000-1

18-0

21-5

800-3

320

900-4

40-5

1000-6

50-0

420

1-9

4-3

7-6

11-9

17-1

23-3

30-5

38-6

47-0

440

1-8

4-1

7-3

11-4

16-4

22-3

800-2

29-1

36-8

1000-5

45-5

460

0-4

1-7

3-9

7-0

10-9

15-6

21-3

27-8

900-3

35-2

, ,

43-5

480

3-8

6-7

10-4

.. 15-0

700-1

20-4

26-6

33-8

41-7

500

1-0

3-6

, ,

0-4

10-0

14-4

19-0

25-6

32-4

1000-4

40-0

520

1-5

3-5

, ^

6-2

500-0

9-6

13-8

18-8

. ,

24-6

, ,

31-2

38-4

540

3-3

5-9

9-2

13-3

18-1

23-7

30-0

1000-3

37-0

560

1-4

.3-2

, ,

5-7

8-9

12-8

17-5

22-9

900-2

28-9

35-7

580

0-3

31

5-5

, ,

8-C

12-4

16-9

22-1

27-9

34-5

600

1-3

3-0

, ,

5-3

8-3

12-0

16-3

800-1

21-3

27-0

33-3

620

2-9

5-2

8-1

11-6

1.5-8

20-6

26-1

32-3

640

•-

2-8

5-0

7-8

••

11-3

15-3

■20-0

•■

25-;i

100l)-2 31-3 j

18

THE CIVIL EiNClNEEil AM) AUrillTKCTS JOURNAL.

[J ANl' AR V,

THE BUDE LIGHT.

In coiiscqueiice of a strttPinent in uur Journal relative (o an accidciit
at Messrs. Hancock ami Rixon's, Pall Mall East, causeil by tlit^ explosion
of a bag of oxygen gas, a correspondent of the Timii sent to that
pajier a letter, of which we subjoin a cojiy.

T,) THE EDITOR OF THE TIMES.

Sir — In the new nuiubrr of the Ciril Enr/incer and Arcltiircl'n Jntirnal^
tlicre is an accoaiit of a fearful cxijlosion of a hag of oxygen at the picinises
of Messrs. Hancock ami Uixoii, t^w the 7th iilt., tlui'ing some cxiieriiiients <tn
tlic IJiuIe lijvht. Everything in the room ai)[)cars to have been sliaticred to
pieces, one pci.soa llung into the shop wiiulo^v. another projeetcil up .T stair-
e.ise, ;nitl all present more or less injured. The cause of all this seems iu-
\ohcd in mystery. It is tlierefoie important that luihlieity should he given
t() the ntVior, that it may he tlinroughly investigated, j)articnlarly as it is pro-
posed to adopt this light lor the Houses of ParUament. It may be recollected
by some of your readerj that an explosion of oxygeu occuiTcd a few months
.Tgo at the Lowihcr .\rcade, the c.iusc of which was not satisfactorily st.-.tcd,
though it was conjectured to he owing to its being contained in a Mackietosh
bag.

Pure oxygen is considered by chcunsts to be pcifcetly iuexplosivc and un-
inflammable. Faraday and (turney have said this in their evifienee on light-
ing the House; therefore some other gas must have been accidentally mixed
w ith it ; and what thai gas was, and how it got there, it seems at the present
moment particularly importaat to ascertain.

I remain. Sir,

Limrlon, Your's obediently,

Dcccmhrr 2. J. K.

In reply to this (he foUowine; letter ap|iearefl on the next day in the
same jiaper, from Mr. (jioklsworthv Gnrney, the Inventor and Patentee
o{\\\CUud,: Lti^hi."

TO THE EDITOR OF THE TIMES.

SiB.. — Your paper of this morning contains an exaggerated statement of a
gas accident at Messrs. Hancock and Rixon's, said to have been occasioned
by the explosion ol" oxygen, during some (experiments on the Budc light. I
beg most positively to stale, th.at the accident so erroneously noticed was in
no way caused by the Budc light, neither is the cause involved in any mys-
tery, as your correspondent supposes ; it was occasioned by common carbu-
rettcd hydrogen gas. Oxygen used for the Budc light is not inflammable.
Coal gas, oil gas, vr.pour (if naplha, or other intlamnialde aeriform bodies,
mixed in certain projiortious with the atmosphere, which contains about a
quarter part of ox\pen, or i)urc oxygen, becomes explosive ; in the IJude
light no such mixture ever occurs. In those lamps in which an inlhanimable
gas and oxygen arc both used, they are never allowed to come in contact.
In the Budc light at the House of C'ommnns no intlannnable gas of any de-
scription is employed, and exiilosion of any kind, therefore, as Adly borne
out by the evidence taken before the cnuunitlce, is physically impossible.

I am. Sir,

lonihm, Your obedient scnant,

Vccemder 4. Goi.dpwoutiiy Gurnky.

It will ho seen that Mr. Goldsworthy Gurney's 19 a flat contradiction
of (mr sl.itement, and we liave conse(|uently deemeil it advisable ta
exandne into the ease more minutely and nnire critically than we
otlu-rwise slu old have (hnie. Mr. Gurney might have been satished
witli (MU' report, hut as lie has chosen to designate it an exajrgerated
(uie, and to state that the accident was in no way caused by the " Hude
l.iglit," we have to inform him that our statement was from an eye
w itncss and snIVerer by the accident, whom we have again consulted
on (he suhjeet, and who positively states that it is in no wise "ex-
aggerated," exce]>ting that part which stated that one of the party
was throw n " inlu the silioji iiiiidviv," it should have been iii/o the
cuiiiiltiig hoiiM. The remainder of the statement he fully maintains, to
be s(distantially correct; and we will now add a few more particulars
to show Mr. Gurney that our information was obtained from a party
present. So far are we from having exaggerated, it a|ipears tliat
we have nnderrated; one gentleuuin was stunned, and did iKjt recover
his senses for some minutes, another was so seriously bruised about
the body lliat he was obliged to be taken to Ur. Stone in Spring (iar-
dens — one of the .Messrs. Uixons was also considerably injured — one
(d' the persons had his thigh cut, and indeed the wliole parly
were either more or less seriously injured. The damage done to the
|ireinises by the explosion was sin h, that a compensation has been paid
to Messrs. ilancoek and Co. by the Insurance Ctmipany.

We understand from one of the party that to the best of his recol-
leeHon the accident occurred in the following inaiuier: — .-V. bag was
lying on the floor ccnitaining oxvgeii gas, to wdiieh was attached a
llexihle tube; astlie attendant w^as .i outto apjily the tube to the lighted
lamp, he heard .^oiue (Uie s ly "Now put on the weight," but at the instant
the tidie was being applied to lla- light, the accident look jdaee, as
descri'ied by us last niuid,U. Hy the explosion, the hag, wliieh wss
made of Macintosh's prepared cloth, was completely rent into pieces.

Wo have al.so seen some of the other ji.irties who were present, and
they all confirm our report of the accident, excepting as to the before
mentioned error, that one of the party had been forced into the shop
window. The whoh? alfair is so unsatisfactory that we nnist esrtainly
express our mistrust as to e\ en the alleged causes of the accident.

We shall now give a letter addressed to us hy Messrs. Hancock and
Co., in w liicli the accident is iittrilmted to carburetted hydrogen.

TO IHE EDITOR OF THE CIVIL EXGINEEr's JOUR.N.M.

Sir — \Ve beg the favour of your inserting the following statement in your
.Io\irn,Tl, ill reply to the exaggerated and incorrect account of the explosion
which took iilaee upon our premises, and which appeared in the last month's
nundicr, the cause of ^^luch was unwarrantaltly cast upou the Budc light.

The facts are these: — a bag of oxygen gas was sent to us, which had prc-
\iously been used for carburetted hydrogen, and which had not all been emp-
tied out when the oxygen was put in, there heiug sutlicient hydrogen left in
the bag to render it an explosive mixture.

The Ibide light can only be jirodiiced by pure oxygen, which every one
knows is not cxploiive ; and we hope that any stigma that may have been
cast upou the Ilude light hy being the attributed cause of the accident, will
now he rcniovcil.

AVe are. Sir,

Your most obedient servants,
Hancock, Rixon & Dunt.

After a careful perusal of this letter, can the public be satisfied
without having a strict enquiry made into the whole affair .' Public
safety is too seriously threatened to be thus trifled with. We should
like to know how this bag came to be used previously for the purpose
of holding Hydrogen Gas, — for we are very fearful that Messrs. Han-
cock and Co. have been misled upon the subject. — witnesses ought to
be brought forward who filled the bag with the carburetted hydrogen
previouslv, and to state for what jnirpose it Iiad been used, and the
(juantity that was likely to have been left in the bag- — at any rate it is
undoubtedly a fact that oxygen gas is highly explosive, if it be slightly
contaminated with carburetted hydrogen, the same as gunjiowder
would be if a spark were applied.

Having laid before our readers the above particulars, we will leRve
it to them to judge xvhether we are liable to be impugned for the ac-
curacy of our statement. < )ur own impressions are justified lioth as to
the propriety «f demanding an enquiry then, and as to the necessity of
its being made now. We entertain no ill will towards Mr. Gurney, but
we are bound to jusHfy to the public any attacks upon our editorial
character, at the same lime that it is our duty to protect the public
interests.

ON THE ADHESION OF THE WHEELS OF LOCOMOTIVE
ENCilNES, by W. K. Casey, C. E., of the Umkd States.

[We are indebted for the following communication to the kindness
of its able author, by whom it was prepared for ihe ^dnurican Rail-
rood Journal.]

Pow"Ki!KOr, loC(nnotive engines will seldom be required for passenger-
trains, and, lip to this time, the (piantity of freight carried over any
railroad in the Cuion, as far as ! can ascertain, falls short of lllO,(XIU
tons per annum, whilst the average, according to De Gersfner, is only
l."),UOii tcnis, carried over each railroad in the (Mnintry. This is about
the one hundredth part of what can very well be done on a well located
railway with a single track.

We may however confidently expect that railways will very soon
be used for the transportation of freiglit on a scale sulliciently exten-
sive to prove their capaeitv for this object. As yet there can be little
danger in asserting, that theru is not a railroad in the country, which
has been located, constnieted, and subsequently managed, so as to be
even tolerably well adapted to the traiisptu-tation of a large quantity
of freight. 'I'lie Heading railway will be first in the field to show the
power of this new mear.s of coniinunieation, and it TTould he difficult
to fisd a better (diampion for the cause (d' railroads. On the Heading
road there is, however, no ascending grade in the direction of the
greatest trade, and the common 8 or \) tons engine will easily draw
I'lO to -UtJ tons on a level' — the greatest resistance oifered with the
admirable grades of that road ; but, where inclinations of from 41J to
(it) feet per mile are to be surmounted, engines of that weight are
utterly inadequate to the task, wdiilst heavier or more powerful ones
require a more substantial and consequently more costly superstruc-
ture.

The question then naturally suggests itself — cannot the power of
llie engine be increased without an increase of weight ? which again
iinniediatelv leads us to consider, what it is which limits the power of
the loeomoiive steam engine. This is well known to be the friction,
ur, as it is generally termed, "the adhesion" of the wheel to the rail

IS^O.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEICU AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

19

whii'h all good engines built during flie l;ist 4 or 5 years liave been
able to overcome; tluit is, where the load was suflicientiv great, to
make the driving wheels revolve without causing the engine to ad-
vance. Strange as it may appear, no experiments have yet been made
to determine this all important point, and the "friction of iron on iron"
given in treati::es on mechanics, as equal to about ime-fuurth of the
weight, has been hitherto used in all calcii'ativiis as the maximum,
though numerous well authenticated pei/nrtnaiica: have shown, that
the ratio of the adhesion to the weight must have been nuich greater
than this. In a pamphlet written so late as year ISJ^S Messrs. Knight
and Latrobe, speaking of a performance of the Stonington locomotive,
which showed the adhesion to be equal to ^'jj; of the weight, sav " As
this is greater than we have known in any other case, it is presumed
that a portion of the weight of the tender was traid'erred to the engine,
&c. ; but performances of the engines of Baldwin and Norris on the
Philadelphia and Columbia railway, long before this pamphlet appear-
ed, go very far beyond this.

In 183t), engines built by Mr. Norris, not exceeding 8 tons in weight,
drew loads equal to 400 tons on a level, which, if the weight on the
driving wheels was correctly given, showed the adhesion to exceed
one-third of the weight. Mr. Baldwin's engines have, however, since
exceeded even this, and have drawn loads equal to above 7i)() tons on
a level. Estimating the traction at 10 pounds perton, this will recpiire
a force of 700U pounds, and the weight on the driving wheels of Mr.
Baldwin's first class engines being stated at 12,ll!0 ])ounds, the adhe-
sion must have been equal to -^}j^ of the weight, if this did not ex-
ceed 12,120 lbs. or even adding 4000 pounds for the tender, equal to
n'^ of the insistent weiglit.

After making every reasonable deduction, it appears beyond all
doubt, that the adhesion has been very much underrated, and, though
this alone keeps the power of locomotives within their present range,
I have never heard of a single direct experiment to determine this im-
portant law. In the edition of 183 1 of Wood on railroads the adhe-
sion is stated at one-twelfth, subsequently it is assumed by Mr. Knight
at one-eighth, or " half the friction of iron on iron," w liich value was
not determined by experiment but was merely deduced from the load ;
so again in the pamphlet already referred to, as late as last year, -^'^^
is " greater than we have known in any other case."

Since writing the above, I have seen the experiments of Mr.
Rennie on friction, as detailed in the 5th vol. of the Journal of the
Franklin Institute, 1830, and he there shows, that there is an increase in
the ratio with the increase of weight, the surfaces in contact remaining
he same. The extreme weights in 11 experiments, [p. 9,] are l"lj(5
cwt. and 5 cwt. per square inch, and with these pressures, the ratios
of the weights to the adhesion are respectively ;is 4 and 2-44 to 1.
The results of the experiments are very irregular, and though in this
particular case the ratio varies very nearly as the sipiare roots of the
weights, there is nothing to point out the law of increase, so as to
enable us to continue the table with any confidence.

On the next page [10] it is stated that with ii'j cwt. Jier square
inch, cast and wrought iron abrade, and the friction is to the weight
as 1 to 2-3. Now, as the weight on the driving wheels is generalh'
2i tons on each, as the friction of wrought iron ou wrnuglit iron is
greater than on cast iron, as this difference is rendered the greatest
possible Vjy the parallelism of the fibres of the tire and rail, and as the
surfaces in contact can scarcely be one-fourth of a square inch, it is
evident, that tlie power required to produce motion, when the pres-
sure is 2i tons on a surface of much less than 1 inch s(piare, nuist
be more than ^'^^ of the insistent weight. It is stated, [p. 10,] that
hardened steel abraded with 10 tons per square inch, but the ratio of
the power to the weight is not given.

The laws of friction, are however, only applicable as long as no
abrasion takes place, and this falls very far short of the case under con-
sideration, w here the pressure is often sutilcieut to cause even hardened
steel to abrade. Still these experiments and numerous performances
of the engines of Baldwin or Norris would lead to the conclusion, that
the adhesion is at least twice as great as that which Messrs. Knight
and Latrobe designate as "greater than we have known in any other
case."

"The most interesting performances of locomotives which have
fallen under my observation are those detailed in the Franklin Journal
of June 1S3'.), wdiere an engine on S wheels, constructed by Messrs.
Eastvvick and Harrison, started, on a grade of .7 feet per mile, a load
of 2i)5 tons, subsequently overcoming with the same load, a rise of 35
feet per mile. This took place on the bad and crooked road between
Broad-street and the Schuylkill-bridge, where the traction must have
been 10 pounds per ton on a levo', and the entire force exerted by the
engine equal to 6000 pounds. In this engine there nre/utir driving
wheels, on wdiich the weight was 18,059 pounds, showing thus, that
the adhesion was equal to one-third of the weight even with the wkeli

coupled. The weight on the driving wheels of Baldwin's eno-ines of
the first class, is one-third greater than on ««e pair of driving wheels
of the engines of Messrs. E. and H., and any sudden lurch of the engine
which, Willi the ordinary construction, will throw more than half its
entire weight on one wheel, will, with these engines, be distributed
on two wheels, and there can be little doubt, that an engine with the
usual weight on i driving wheels, will be more injurious than one with
twice that weight on f)ur drivers, as arranged 'bv iMessrs. R. and H.
Here is an engine which will with ease, draw 10;) tons n.'lt, up an
ascent of GO feet per mile, and which requires, on M.;// inclination, a
superstructure no more substantial than is required bv tlie lightest
engines of Baldwin or Norris, on roads varying from a'level to'20 or
30 feet per mile — and Una too witli aiitliracitc fiul.

In the interesting pamphlets of Messrs. Knight and Latrobe, -already
referred to, those gentlemen state that the Camden and AndKiy Coiu-
pany " is now buildiiig, and have nearly completed, an engine' ujion S
wheels, and having two cylinders of IS inches diameter°by a 3 feet
stroke ; the wdiole supposed to weigh IS tons." **+'*" The
adhesion upon the rails of all the S wheels, is to be brought into action
by means of cog-wheels, &c." * * * * "This engine is designed
to lead burthen trains at moderate rates of speed ; but must be viewed
as yet in the light of an experiment."

It is difficult to conceive howsucli, in other respects, keen observers
could pass by with cool indifierence the most striking fact related in
either of their interesting iiamphlets, and which, even without being
completely successful, would be attended with results infiuitelv more
important than the benefits resulting from all Americ;in improvements
in railroads and locomotives imited. In illustration, not explanation,
it may be proper to observe, that of all the engineers and machinists
with whom I have conversed for the last two or three years on this
subject, I have only found two engineers [the machinists would not
listen to it] who had given the subject that serious attention to which
it is, in my humble opinion, pre-eminently entitled. One of these
gentlemen, Mr. H. R. Cam])bell of Philadelphia, showed me, nearly
three years since an engine on S wheels and 4 drivers, which he was
then building to burn anthracite coal, and which certainly bore an
astonishing resemblance to the drawings of Messrs. Eastwick and
Harrison's engine in the Franklin Journal, and to the advantages of
which I have already alluded.

We liave seen that with the 8 wheeled engine and 4 wheels coupled,
the adhesion was ecjual to one-third of the weight on the propelling
wheels, and if, with the 18 tons engme of Jlessrs. Stevens, we suppose
the adhesion equal to only one-fourth of the weight, we shall have a
machine capable of drawing lOOJ tons on a level, without greater in-
jury to the superstructure than the ordinary 8 or 9 tons engines of
Philadelphia, Baltimore, New York, Lowell," &c. An 8 wheeled en-
gine, weighing 10 tons, acting by the adhesion of its entire weight
distributed equally on the 8 w heels, will draw 9'J tons nett up an ascent
of liO feet per mile, and there will be no inducement to lessen this
weight, as it is on'y li tons per wheel, or the same as that on each
wheel of an ordinary freight or passenger car, w hen loaded.

It is well known, that the ra])id destruction of wooden rails is not
caused so much by the natural decay of the timber conse((uent on its
exposed situation, as by the crushing under the driving wheels of the
locomotive, which destroys the lateral cohesion of the fibres of the
wood and admits water, the grand agent of decomposition. Notwith-
standing this disadvantage, the repairs of the wooden track of the
Utica and Schenectady railroad, do not exceed the repairs of the best
roads about Boston, (from 300 to 350 dollars per mile jier annum, the
renewal of the iron being neglected in both cases) and if an engine of
10 tons will not be more injurious to the superstructure, than an ordi-
nary car, it may yet appear, that this improvement alone, will reduce
the repairs and renewals of the common superstructure, below those
of the best road in the Union, omitting the assistance wdiich may rea-
sonably be expected from Kyan's, or some other mode of preserving
timber.

It has frequently happened, that horse power has been used for a
short time after the opening of a road, by which the nice adjustment
of the rails as received from the hands of the engineers, has been little
if at all aU'ected. After the road has been travelled bv the engine,
however, even for a single week, with the very same cars, depressions
and inequalities will be found greater, as well as more numerous than
those which would be produced by the action of the cars only in sis
months or more. Timber as well as iron will bear a certain strain
without the least injury, but a slight increase beyond this, produces a
permanent set or deflection, hence, in reducing the weight from
2i to \\ tons per wheel, the relative strength of the superstructure is
not merely doubled, but is increased in a much greater ratio. This
proportion will be affected by the dimensions of iron and timber, kind
of wood, arrangement of parts, nature of earth, &c., but as a general

D 2

20

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[January,

niU- it will be gn-ntpst where most needed — for iiistunce, when a light
su|)eistniclure is lieddeil in clay, in a northern climate.

'I'he (listribntion of (he weight ol the engine on S wlieels, instead of
throwing three-lifths or more on 2 wheels, is therefore intimately con-
neeteil \\ ith the conliiiuance of a cheap superstrnclure, which has been,
ane will be, even with the present engines, extensively nsed in many
parts of the coimtry, where capital and good mechanics are scarce and
timlier and axe-men abnndant. Owing to the increased deflection of
the wooden rail there will of coiu'se be a loss of power, bnt this, even
now not verv important, will be reduced one-half by the distribution
of the weight on all the wheels, besides which the only fear is, that
full loads will only too seldom be obtained for the lightest class of
engines, bnilt on this principle, even with grades of from 40 to GU feet
per mile.

I have been informed by my friend Mr. E. F. Johnson, (the other
engineer alluded to in a preceding paragraph) that a trial of this new-
engine has been made, and that it appears to work well. Time and
ex])eriencc can however alone develop its powers, expose its defects
and give unerring proof of its general and successful adoption. But
sn])posing, what is most unlikely, that this experiment should lead to
no useful result, we have still the S wheeled engine of Messrs. East-
wick and Ihirrison (or Mr. H. R. Campbell?) which is capable of
ih-awing \W tons nett up an inclination of GU feet per mile, and wliich
will be less injurious to the su])erstructure than the ordinary S or '.)
Ions English or American engine.

An extremely interesting and still more useful experiment may very
easily lie made with the engine of Messrs. E. & II., or still better, with
that of the Messrs. titevens. Remove the couplings so tliat the engine
may act by the adhesion of one pair of wdieels only, and ascertain the
maximum load without slipping the wheels ; then couple 2 pair of
wheels, repeat the experiment and the increase of load will show the
value of the improvement of Messrs. E. & H. With the S wheeled
engine, 4 such experiments should be made, by which the advantages
of this mode of construction would be determined with considerable
accuracy, and all requisite information afforded on this vital, and
hitherto much neglected principle, of working by the adhesion of
more than '2 wheels.

The successful introduction of engines with the weight distributed
equally on, and acting by the adhesion of 8 wheels, would form an era
in the hisloiy of railways in tlie United States, second only, to that
which determined the general question of the practicability of loco-
motion by steara — in other words, that which gave its present im-
portance to this unrivalled mode of comniunication.

ON THE DRAUGHT OF CARRIAGES AND ON SECONDARY
FRICTION. By M. Dupuit, C. E.

(Translated from the French.)

1. Draught of Carriages.

By allowing wheels of diameters varying from 4 feet to 7 feet to
run down an inclined plane, and by measuring the spaces run over on
horizontal ground, by virtue of the fall, we find that they are propor-
tional to the scpiarc roots of the diameters, and height of the fill,
whatever may be the weight or breadth of the tire. From this we de-
rive the four following laws : —

The draught is proportionable to the jiressure;

independent of the breadth of the tire;

independent of velocity ;

in inverse ratio of the sijuare root of the diameter.
These four laws are the same as established by the author of this
paper in his Essay on the Draught of Carriages, published in ls37,
and which lie had found by means of a simple dynamometer. The
three last are completely in contradiction to those whicdi M. Morin
deduced from the experiments made with his <lynainometrical ap-
paratus.

2. Secondary Friction of Rolling.

The resistance which opposes the rolling of a body is nothing
more than the molecular action, wdiicli fakes place on contact. This
reaction, always equal to the pressure, passes by the normal when the
boily is at rest, and advances in front by a certain quantify 5 when it
rolls; it therefore resists the rolling with a power marked F5.

Following up this single property of solid bodies, of being an assem-
blage of molecules in eipiilibrium, we arrive at the following expres-
sion of the friction of rolling :

which gives all the properties of this resistance in friction with one
of them. If we follow up that of being proportional to the pressure,
which is not denied by any one, we rediscover the three other laws
pointed out above, wliiidi establishes a mutual confirmation of the ex-
periments and the theory. The friction of rolling being an immediate
consequence of the imperfect elasticity of bodies, we may, by its proper-
ties, ascertain those of elasticity ; wdience we deduce the following: —
When we subject the surface of a body to pressure, we obtain under
this pressure a certain instantaneous sinking t', which reduces itself at
last to a slight impression f, when the pressure ceases. This impres-
sion f is proportional to the square root of the definitive sinking «'.

g

The friction of rolling is proportional in the relation of in such

l/ ('•
a way that it is determined by two coefEoients which define the elas-
ticity of a body. For want of these two coefficients we may substi-
tute two others. Knowing 1st, The friction of iron upon iron, and of
iron upon marble, we may deduce immediately from it the friction of
iron upon copper. Thus for twenty surfaces, forty coetlicients would
be enough to determine 3S0 to which their combinations two by two
would give rise.

When two curved surfaces roll one ujion another, the result of the
molecular action, eqnal to the pressure, no longer passes in the direc-
tion of the normals, but parallel in the direction of the velocity, at a
distance, proportionable to the square root of the product of the rays
or radii of curve, divided by their sum or ditlerence, accordingly as
they are both convex or one of them concave.

This formula resolves all the problems relating to the calculation of
the resistance to roUing, and it is capable of numerous practical ap-
plications.

3. Action of Wheels upon Roads.

Although the draught is to a certain point the expression of the de-
rangement of the materials of the road, it is quite inaccurate to con-
clude therefrom that the degradation is proportional to the draught.
By keeping the roads constantly •ven, which is always possible, the
passages are divided uniformly on the whole pavement;* then the small
displacements which they occasion destroy each other. Besides in a
number of cases the result of the passage of a carriage is to produce
an improvement. In a good system of road making, the roads are
never degraded, whatever may be the traffic, they are only worn. It
cannot be a question, in a road law, of having good or bad roads, but only
of spending more or less for their maintenance. Every restriction of
the freedom of a road is to the carriers a cause of increased expence,
greater than the saving which might be made in the expences of keep-
ing up the roads.

v/

2R V«L4/2K/'

PAPERS ON ARTESIAN WELLS.

Obserralions undertaken for the purpose of estimating the height to which
the IVaier might rise in the H'^ell lured in the Jjbattoir de Grtnelle,
1)1/ M. Walferdin. lltad before the Academic des Sciences.

The water w Inch springs up from Artesian sources does not always
rise above the level of the soil, sometimes it is several yards lower,
and in this case it is brought to the surface by mechanical means ;
sometimes it reaches it ; and at other times it rises more or less above
the surface. That as it is well known depends upon the dift'erence of
height at wdiich the water arrives across permeable strata, between
the impermeable strata which contain it, and that of the point at
which they ascend.

I have considered that in the advanced state of the borings at Gre-
nelle, that it might be useful to compare the heiglit at which are
filtered the waters which form the supply which is sought under the
Paris basin, and that of the surface of the soil at Grenelle.

If, by ascending the natural slope which the waters follow to the
surface of the earth, we seek the chalk boundary in the southwest di-
rection, we find it cease in the neighbourhood of Troyes. Then the
gault marls and clays which the bore now crosses at Grenelle succeed
the chalk, and at about eleven miles from Troyes, near Lnsigny, the
green sand appears, and forms the orifices by vvhicli the waters begin
to filter.

The height at wdiich the waters thus penetrate the sands being near
Lusiguv, 13:") or 140 yards above the level of the sea, and that of the
surface at (irenelle'4U yards only, it follows that when the bore
reaches the layer of water at Paris, that the water will rise sensibly-
above the surface.

* It must be remembered that M. Dupuit is talking of French roads. — Ed-

1840.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

21

CALCULATING BALANCE FOR ENGINEERS.

BY M. I.KO LALANNE, C. E.

(Tramlakdfiom the French.)

It is often necessary to multiply by each other the terms of two se-
ries, and to iliviile tlie sum of tlie products l}y tlie sum of one of llie
series. Tllis calculution, wjiicli gives a kind of mean, is that used to
iind the centre of gravity, to determine certain prohabilities, and to
solve various questions, which occur in all the mathematical and phy-
sical sciences. M. Lalanne has conceived the idea of jierformiiig this
operation by means of a kind of Roman balance loaded witli different
weights, and on which the quotients required can be reailnrt'ona
scale, and obtained with that degree of approximation which allows
the representations of numbers by distances and weights.

The plan of tliis machine is' formed on the following considera-
tions : — If we distribute on one of the arms of a balance weight, which
are proportional to the terms of a series, and if we place them at
distances from the point of suspension, which represent the terms of a
second series, if on the second arm of the balance we suspend an equal
weight to the sum of the weights already placed on the first arm, it is
clear that the distance at which this total weight nuist be made to act
for the equilibrium, will be the sum of the products of the op-
posed weights, multiplied respectively by their distances from the
axis, and divided by the sum of the weights. So nuich the more ex-
actness will be obtained in this result if the weights and tlistances are
more exactly proportional to the terms of the two series which are
to be operated upon, and iis the balance is made more sensible.

M. Lalanne intends his instrument principally to assist engineers in
calc\ilating the mean distances of transports. We know that in these
calculations we must take the sum of the products of the cubes to be
transported by the distances which correspond to them, and divide
the sum of these products by the total cube. If, then, we take
weights which represent partial cubes, and if we place them on one of
the arms of the balance, at distances which represent those of the
transports ; if, at the same lime, we place a partial weight on one side
of the balance, an equal one is placed in a scale suspended from a very
precise point of the other arm, and this point may be moved about
until equilibrium is effected, its distance from the axis of suspension
will represent the mean distance sought.

In M. Lalanne's balance, the upper part of the beam is divided into
150 compartments, each two millimetres broad ; upon it are placed
the weights — the distances thus taken from a hundred and liftieth
part nearly up to (JUU metres. The volumes are represented by tlie
weight, a cubic metre answering to five milligrammes, a total of 2U,0()U
cubic metres, may easily be operated upon witli the approximation of
one of these units.

An experiment was made on the comparative duration of the times
necessary to obtain a mean by this instrument, and also by ordinary
arithmetical calculation — a calculation which required fifty minutes
to execute once without verification, was done by the machine in
twenty minutes, with only the chance of a very slight error. Thus the
time necessary is reduced at least by two fifths, giving besides a security
against great errors, and it would be reduced to a quarter if the ordi-
nary arithmetical calculations had been verified. Although the in-
strument can only give an approximation, and as in all grapliic oper-
ations, we have not the exact figure of the result, nevertheless the
saving of time is great enough to show the utility of it to engineers.

BALISTIC CLOCKS,

FOR ASCERTAINING THE POWER OF GUNl'OWDER.

( Translakdfrom the Fniich.)

These clocks were constructed in 1S3(), in the Arsenal of Metz,
the Woolwich of France, by Messieurs Piobert and Morin, and from
the nature of the experiments made with them, were formed so as to
fulfil the following conditions: —

1st The suspension of the cannon clock must be susceptible of
receiving easily and at little expense, cannons and howitzers of every
calibre.

2nd The machine must be sufficiently light for its susceptibility to
be great enough for small calibres, and small charges, and ne-
vertlicless the recoils must not exceed certain limits in heavy
charges.

3rd The balistic receiver must be susceptible of receiving without
injury, the shock of projectiles of all calibres, propelled with the
greatest speed that powder can communicate to them, and be entirely
constructed of metal to avoid tlie effects of hygrometricitv and the
corrections which it necessitates for wooden clocks.

4th The mechanical requisite of having the centres of oscillation
on the line of fin' being absolutely necessary for all calibres, required
easy means of effecting it.

The detailed reasons which led the inventors to adopt forms almost
totally different from those of the old productions of Huttou, and th(jse
which had been estal)lished at the powder factory of Esquerdes, have
been already published by them.

From a summary description of the apparatus, M. Morin shows, by
the results of experiments conducted by Captain Didion, Professor at
the School of Application at Met/,, how great is tlie accuracy of these
instruments. Thus, in the fire of asixteen-pounder, (about eighteen
English,) loaded with a charge of 41b. Coz., of four shots fired with
charges prepared with care, the speed given to the ball did not differ
more than 2 feet 7in, ^ of its mean value, 4l)2-7 metres.

Among other remarkable experiments, these instruments have been
used by M. Didion to determine in an accurate manner the charge of
powder, beyond which the velocity ceases to increase in 12-povmdeis
(French), and which more than l7ilb., that is to say, much more than
the weight of the ball.

Besides, this extraordinary fire, the same apparatus has been used to
measure results much superior, since by their means have been ascer-
tained velocities of (KJO metres in a second, communicated by particular
powder to a 24 pounder shot.

In fine, by firing with a 12-pounder garrison gun, common shells of
12 inch calibre, weighing 4.U10 kil., with a charge of (i kil., they ob-
tained a velocity of 74j'3metres in a second, which is the greatest that
man has ever yet been able to communicate to moveable bodies.

The machines have satisfactorily answered the purposes for whicli
they were intended, so that the Minister of War has had others made,
which have just been set up at the powder works of Bouchet, near
x\rpajon, and he has ordered a third set for that of Toulouse.

In conclusion, the principle, and general arrangement, of these clocks
has been applied by M. Morin to the construction of a wooden clock,
of which the receiver closed with a wooden Ixirrel, five feet diameter,
will receive the shock of a projectile fired at variable distances of
5U, 100, or l.'iO yards to determine the effects of the resistance of the
air. These experiments are already in course of operation by Cap-
tain Didion, at Met/., and they afford positive data, and the bases of
experimental balistics, so necessary for artillery practice.

PENZANCE HARBOUR.

Ez tracts from tlie Report on the improvement of the Harbour of Penzance, by
Henry R. Palmer, F.R.S.

Gkntlkmen, — In obedience to llic instnictiou of the Town Council, given
to me throagli ticorge IJ. John, Esq., the Town Clerk, I have endeavoured,
as far as lay in my power, to acciaaiut myself with all those circumstances on
which the imiirovcniciit of your harbour depends ; and by a careful consider-
ation of them to prciiare such suggestions as I trust may he coiifonnalile with
your wishes.

The principal oljservations which I collected referred to an undulatory mo-
tion of the water which is invariably felt when the wind is high, and to an
occasional " lifting" of the waters arising from distant causes.

The undulating motion of the water is cxiierieiiced at the extremities of all
hays, the beds of which form a gradual slope towards the shore, like that
which is under consideration, and the effect can only be reduced by an alter-
ation in the form of the surface, and by a protection from the action of the
winds.

It being obvious that the iinprovcinciit of the harbour must consist mainly
in the erection of an addilioiml pier, I was anxious to have the opinions of
the nautical men as to the best sitnatioii and form of the entrance ; and,
also, upon the width of the opening. Upon the situation of the entrance
southward and northward, there was no important difl'erence of opinion ; hut
it was thought a<lvisahle to advance the entrance, if practicable, into deeper
water than tliat at tlie head of the present pier. The relative positions of
the pier head were discussed at some length; and there was a manifest dif-
ference of opiuion on that point It is, indeed, one on which it is very diffi-
cult to decide a priori. I am not acquainted with more than one pier har-
bour, the entrance to which was so designed originally as to he in all respects
satisfactory when carried into effect ; and in lajing down the plan, wliicli 1
have now the honour to sul)mit to the council, I have thought it prmlent so
to arrange the position of llic pier heads, as to admit of their lieiug finally
adjusted as evperience acquired in tlie progress of the work may dictate.

For the satisfaction of the council, I have deemed it advisable to lay before
theiu plans of other pier harljours. By help of tliese, some comparisons may
be formed witli that [iroposed for Penzance, not only in relation to tlicir ex-
tent, hut also to their security. They ai-e as follow :—

Rarasgate — Dover — Folkestone — Swansea.

The harhour of Ramsgatc is entirely artificial; and is constructed on a
shore directly opjioscd to the prc\ailiiig winds. Its security is tliercfore ex-
clusively derived from the piers by which it is enclosed. The width of the

22

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[January,

cntiaiico was origiiiallj- 300 feet, and ojicii due. soutli. The exposure to
vessels miioreil in the liarhoin', was swch as to iiichioo the necessity for an ail-
illtional protection ; and the eit»tern jiier was extended as sliown in the
drawing, and the width of the entrance reduced in 'JOG feet e\]i03eil directly
to the south west, or tlie most prevak'nt winds. I'Vom this circumstance it
nir.y he readily inferred, tliat, (hninj g.iles from the quarter last mentioned,
Kamsgate harhonr offers hut little security.

Dover harhour is less exposed than that of Ramsgate, but it is frequently
rendered iiiaeeessihle iiy the accumulation of shingle, of which the beach is
composed. The direction and position of the jiiers, which define the entrance
to Dover liarbour, liavc been, for the most jiart, designed with a view to
avoid tlie dilllcullies arising from the accumulation of the shingle, rather than
as a jnotection .igainst the etfeet of the winds. The entrance is 150 feet in
width, and is open near due S.E.

Folkestone harbour has advantages over all the others on the s.ime coast, in
reference to its position. It is the most easily accessible, and is well jiro-
tected against the effect of tlie south-westerly winds. It is, however, ren-
dered very imperfect, and the entrance to it sometimes ira|iracfirablo by the
same causes, which so much deteriorated the value of Dover harbnur. It is
frequently necessary to remove the shingle from the mouth of it by manual
labour. But, in other repects, the position of the entrance in relation to the
prevailing wind is very favourable. The mouth faces the S.E.E., and is 100
feet in width.

Swansea harbour is the most extensive artificial harbour on the British
coast. It is situated in the Bay of Swansea ; and has the advantage of a
river flowing tlirough it, by which a considerable portion of tlie bed is cleansed,
and its <leptb preserved. The mouth is 300 feet in width, and is exposed
nearly due S.W. The slope of t!ie bed is such as to occasion a considerable
ground swell when the wind is strong from the prevailing quarter.

The chief qu.ility of the entrance to Folkestone harbour is derived from
the angles of the line of its mouth with that of tlie prevailing winds. The
angle is about 39 degrees, which forms an angle 210 degrees with the line of
action of the wind referred to.

The wind agains iwliicb the most protection is required at Penzance is
S.S.E. The angle of the line of entrance as drawn in the plan is 45 de-
grees with that bearing, or 200 degrees with the line of force. As before
observed, the positions of the pier heads are so arranged, that that angle may
be increased, if by experience the necessity for so doing may be evinced.

With reference to the width of the entrance of the intended hai'bour, the
same latitude will be preserved as witli the direction of it, for it is imjiossible
to determine beforehand with certainty, what width will, under all the cir-
eunistances, he most advantageous. In the first place I have assuiiied 1 75
feet.

Having adverted to the first and most important point to be decided, I
have now to describe the general design for the harbour.

In the first place, I have endeavoured to include as great an area of ground
as possible within the limits of the property of the corporation. The northern
pier is drawn near about the line of low w.ater of spring tides. Its direction
forms an angle of 20 degrees with that of the S.S.E. wind. — The capability
of the pier to resist the action of the sea is therefore satisfactory. Tlie sur-
face of the pier is proposed to be 30 feet in width, exclusive of the parapet
wall. The pier is proposed to terminate at the northern extremity of the
town property.

The iiier is jiroposcd to be constructed with granite, and the interior be-
tween the walls to be filled with the stones obtained by the excavation in the
harbour. A consideralile lenglh of the northern portion of the pier need not
he walled in tlie substantial manner required where it is more exposed, and
in deeper water. Rubble work, laid with a long slope on the face in the part
referred to, will not only be more economical, but will also form a better
termination than a perpendicular wall, in as much as it will gradually divert
and disperse the action of the sea.

It being the opinion of many of the nautical men that some advantage
would be derived by the extension of the southern pier ; and considering that
the extremity of it m.iy rcijuire repair and supjiort, I have proposed an addi-
tion to it of 50 feet.

It may be proper here to remark that although I have inchtded hy the pro-
posed pier the greatest area available within the limits of the eoi-poration
property, the pier as designed will cost a less sum than wouhl have lieen re-
quisite for a more limited inclosure in the northern direction.

The whole area thus to be enclosed will exceed 10 acres ; and there ean
be no doubt that such a work alone would be one of great v.ilue and iuiport-
anee ; but still it woidd be deficient by the total recession of the tidal water
from it. The area, however, is such as to allow of a portion being abstracted
from it for the ]mrpose of a floating dock. In the plan I have represented a
jiortion so abstracted to the extent of ten acres, a communication being made
between the harbour and the dock, by means of a lock, capable of passing
vessels of 500 Ions burthen.

The division wall is represented near to a lane called Neddy Bettey's Lane.
The lock is so placed as to enable vessels to be passed through conveniently
and with safety.

It is proposed to form a quay along the boundary of the dock, which will
admit of the erection of warehouses, which being built upon arches, will not
prevent the traffic of carriages along the quays.

1 have not laid down any design for a quay along the front of the town,
bnt, have represented by a dotted line what I conceive shoidil be tlie limits of
« quay if su«h should hereafter be decided upon.

At the southern extremity of the harbour I have represented a boundary
line, including a space which appears to me to he peculiarly suited for a ship
yard, in ps much as if will be a convenient situation for launcliing.

In considering the various circiinistanees affecting the general design, I
have had especial reference to the pr.acticable operation of executing it. —
This is peculiarly important, where the work is exposed in its progress to the
violent action of the sea; and I have no hesitation in slating distinctly that
for the execution of the work, with due regard to economy, and to avoid
damage to it by the sea whilst it advances, it will be iicces>iary to eommeuce
at the northern extremity, and proceed regularly, making all its parts perfect
as they are severally produced.

This view of the case constitutes an additional, if not alone a sutTicicnt
argument in favour of continuing the sea wall to the point mentioned.

In conclusion, I must beg permission to state that the shortness of the
time within which it has been necessaiyfor me to furnish myidan and report
has not been permitted me to obtain and furnish them in so complete a state
as they should have been presented in.

Certain sections, soundings,aiidmeasurements, are necessary, and yet want-
ing, and, indeed, before the subject can be continued beyond what is neces-
sary for the Parliamentary jiroccedings, a comiplete survey made for the par-
ticular objects in view will be indispensable ; and it will be equally important
to obtain a scries of observations upon the tides, about which I have not yet
lieen able to collect ant precise or valuable information.

In forming an estimate of the expcuce of the works, I have been obliged,
from the absence of sufticient accurate data, to assume a larger consumption
of materials than I lielieve will he required, in order that the error may be on
the safe side ; and hence, I can, with confid^'uce, state that the sums annexed
will be more than sufficient for the execution of the w orks proposed.

ESTIM.\TE OF EXPENCR.

Erecting a northern pier, as represented in the drawing. Making
an addition of 50 feet to the jircsent pier; and thus constituting
a safe and commodious harbour i'2-1,000

Erecting a cross wall for the construction of a floating dock of ten
acres in area, with a ship lock, and tide gates, and swivel bridge,
and forming qii.iys along the boundary of the dock 8,500

Parliamentary and law expenses, engineering, &c., say 2,500

-f 35,000

ROYAI, SOCIETY.— THE PRESIDENT'S ADDRESS.

The following is the address of the President (the Marquis of Northamp-
ton), at the meeting of the Society on the 5th ultimo.

Gknti.embn^A year having now clasped since you conferred upon me the
highly honourable office of your President, it becomes my duty, in accord-
ance with the example of my predecessors, to address you. The first and
most agreeable part of my task is to express my feelings of gratitude to those
(ientlcmen whom you were pleased to select as my Council. * *

The past year has indeed been to that portion of the Royal Society which
takes an active jiart in its affairs, one of more th.'m usual labour and exertion,
— of labour and exertion, destined, as I hope, to produce rich and ample
fruit. The great and marking peculiarity which has attended it, has been
the sading of the Autarctic Expedition. The impoitance of following uj) in
the southern regions of the globe the magnetic inquiries so interesting to men
of science in Europe, was strongly felt by one of our distinguished Fellows,
Major Sabine, ami by him brought before the notice of the British Associa-
tion at their meeting at Newcastle, as he had also previously done at Dublin.
That great assemblage of men of science, conciuTing in the views of Major
Sabine, resolved to suggest to Her Majesty's Government the propriety of
sending out a scientific expedition; and the Royal Society lost no time in
warmly and zealously seconding the recommendation : and, in compliance
with the request conveyed to us by the First Lord of the Admiralty, the
Council tr.ansmitted to the Government a body of bints and instructions in
difterent branches of science, which I trust are bkely to be of material use
both to the principal and to the subsidiary objects of the Antarctic Expedi-
tion. These hints and instructions would have been far less extensive and
efficient if the Council had not been able to have recourse to the several
Scientific Committees, of whose formation the Society is already aware. The
Expedition has now sailed, amply provhled with the best scientific instrumeuts,
ami furnished with ample scientific instructions : it is commanded hy oiiC
well ac(iuaintcd both with magnetic imiuiry and nautical research. We may
therefore hope that, with the blessing of Providence, it will return with a
store of knowledge viiluable to the geographer, to the geologist, to the me-
teorologist, and to bini also who stuilies the marvels of vegetable and animal
life. In addition to all this we may hope, that the main object of the E.\-
pedition will be accomplished by additional light thrown on the obscure pro-
blems which still attend the magnetism of the earth, and that by such dis-
coveries Cajitain James Clark Ross may not only add to his own reputation
and bis country's glory, but also give to the adventurous mariner increased
facility and security in traversing the jiathways of the ocean. The .\ntaretic
Expedition was not the only measure recommended by the Uoyal Society and
tiie British Association to ller Majesty's Government. Another important
recommendation, which had previously been brought forward hy Baron Hum-
boldt, was the cstablishmcut of fixed magnetic obsenatories for the purpose

1840.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

23

of making simullaiicous observations in rliffcrcnt jiarts of our colonial pos-
sessions. These reeommendations have l>ecn readily acceded to, liotli by the
Government and by the Directors of the East India Company, and probably,
ere many months shall have elapsed, the observatories will be in full activity.
I have stated, tientlemen, that your Council had recourse to the Scientific
Comniiftees for assistance in drawing up instructions for the Expedition in
different branches of knowledge; those romniittccs, who were named only
two years ago, were at first apparently more a matter of form than substance ;
t hey have now been found capable of doing excellent service. Not only has
your Council consulted them on the questions already alluded to, but also,
ol)serving that the several Committees arc composed of the most competent
judges of the merits of the raentoirs in the respective departments of science
communicated to tlie Society, they have, in general, referred the papers to
them to report upon previously to coming to a decision regarding tlieir pub-
lication. The Royal Society, from its character of pursuing every branch of
phjsical science, is evidently in a different position from other societies pro-
fessing some one science .ilone. It may be reasonably expected, that in the
Botanical or Ocological Society, for instance, the whole Council should pos-
sess a certain degree of botanical or geological knowledge. This, however,
cannot he the ease with us. Our Council will comprise a few astronomers, a
few zoologists, a few botanists, and a few persons well acquainted witli geo-
logy and medicine ; but no single science can monopolize a large nundier of
its members. In difficult questions we have therefore felt that it is more
satisfactory to ourselves, and we think proliably more so to the general body
of the society, and to those who have favoured us with ]iapers, that we should
ask the opinion of a larger nundicr of men conversant with the immediate
sciences in question. At the same time, the Council retains its responsil)ility
for its acts, and the chief otticers of the society are officially members of each
of the scientific committees. The Covnicil have derived a further assistance
from these Committees in the adjudication of our medals. In naming these
Committees, the Council has had both a difBcult and a delicate task. Con-
vinced that bodies, when too numerous, are little adapted for business, they
have also felt that the power of giving their attendance might be more im-
|)ortant than .absolute superiority of scientific attainments. Some mend)ers
have, however, been selected, though really non-resident, because it was be-
lieved that their colleagues miglit wish to consult thcni by letter. With these
objects and views, the Council have done their best ; but they have little
doubt that some gentlemen have been overlooked and omitted, whose pre-
sence in the Committees might have liecn very desirable- The Society must
consider this as in some degree a new system, to be perfected and improved
by experience alone. Another question has occupied a share of the time of
the Council during the last year. We have felt that the testimonial of re-
commendation for new Fellows has scarcely been sufficiently definite and
precise in stating the grounds on which the candidate was recommended to
the bodv of the Society. We have therefore thought it desirable to draw up
forms of testimonial, some one of which may he adopted as most fit for each
individual so recommended. We have tboiight this more fair, at the same
time, to the meritorious candidate and to those electors who are otherwise
left in the dark with respect to liis claims for their suffrages. We hope and
trust that this new regulation will not stand in the way of any caudiilate who
would be a desirable addition to our number.

The vacancies in (he li.st of our Foreign Members have been supplied by the
election of .\I. Savart of Paris, Siguor Melloui of Parma, M. Quetelet of Brus-
sels, M. Hansteen of Christiana, Prof. Agassiz of Xeufchatel, ,and M. von Mar-
tins of Milnich, as those Fellows who were present at their election will re-
jnember.

I have to announce to you, Gentlemen, with great regret, the retirement of
Captain Smyth from the otHce of Foreign Secretary, in consequence of his
leaving his present residence for one at an inconvenient distance from Lon-
don.

I have the honour, Gcnllenicn, to inform you that the Council have, by an
uuanimous decision, awarded the Royal Med.als to Dr. Maitin Bariy aad Mr.
Ivory, and the Copley Medal for the year to Mr. Robert Brown; and I shall
now beg leave to address myself to those three Gentlemen.

Dr. B.\RHV. — It gives me sincere pleasure to bestow this medal on a gen-
tleman who has so well deserved it, by researches in a ilifticult and important
portion of animal physiology. Your merits have been appreciated Iiy men
much more e.'ipable of mnlerstauding the subject than I can pretend to be —
by men selected by tlie Council of the Royal Society for their physiological
science, who have felt the great value of the discoveries you have iiuide by
accurate and diligent research, aided oy the skilful use of the microscope. I
trust that the award of this medal will encourage you to persevere in the
same course, and that future discoveries may add to your reputation and to
that of the important profession to which you belong.

Ma. Ivory — It is not the first time that you have been addressed from
this chair, and it gives me great satisfaction to follow the steps of my prede-
cessors. Sir .loscph Banks and Sir 11. Davy, by .again bestowing a medal on
one who is an honour to the Royal Society, and pre-eminently distinguished
for his nLtthematical attairiuients. The laho\irs of your life arc too well
known to the scientific world to require any culogium from me, and I con-
sider that in this tribute to your jiaper on astronomical refraction, we are
rather doing an honour to ourselves than to you.

Mil. Brows — In conferring the Copley Medal on yon for your v.alnable
discoveries in vegetable impregnation, 1 am quite sure that the voice of scien-
tific Europe will respond to the decision of the Council of the Royal Society.

The Academic des Sciences has already pronounced on your merits, as also
on those of Mr. Ivory, by electing you as well as that gentleman to a seat
among their foreign members : and the University of Oxford has also, by an
honorary degree, given you a similar testimonial. That you are one of our
Fellows is to myself a circmnstance peculiarly agreeable, as it m\ibt be to the
whole body over whom I have the honour to preside. Your discoveries in
the particular botanical question, for which I have to give you the Copley
Medal, ai'c so important, not only in a botanical, but also in a general scien-
tific point of view, by showing the close analogies of animal and vegetable
bfe, that the Committee of Zoology have felt it as much their province as
(hat of the Committee of Botanj , to recommend that the Copley Medal
should be bestowed upon yon ; and the Council have come to an unanimous
resolution to give it, though at the same time other gentlemen were recom-
mended by otlier scientific committees, with whom even an unsuccessful
rivalry would be no mean praise. I liope, Mr. Brown, that you may long
enjoy life aiul leisure to pursue researches so valuable to science and so hon-
ourable to the country of which you arc a native.

In drawing up the following notice of the losses wliich the Royal Society
has sustained during the last year, in conformity with the practice of my pre-
decessors, I have availed myself of the assistance of one of the Fellows, whose
acquaintance with the labours of men of science peculiarly qualified him for
the execution of a task which 1 could not myself have ventured to undertake.
I therefore will not longer occuj)y your time by any fmther remarks of my
own, but will conclude liy the expression of my pre.!ent wishes for the pros-
perity of tlie Royal Society, and for its success in furthering the noble ends
for which it was instituted.

The Rev. Martin Davy was originally a member of the medical profes-
sion, which he followed, during a greater part of his life, with no inconsider-
able reputation. He became a medical student of Cains College iu 1 787, and
was elected to a fellowship iu 1793, and to the mastership in 180.'!, the late
illustrious Dr. Wollaston being one of his competitors. One of the first acts
of his administration was to open his College to a more large and lilieral com-
petition, by the abolition of some mischievous and unst.atutablc restrictions,
which had been sanctioned by long custom, ami also by making academical
merit and honours the sole avenue to college preferment : and he lived to
witness the complete success of this wise and liberal measm'e, in the rapid
increase of the number of high academical honours which were g.iined by
members of his College, and by the subsc quent advancement of many of thera
to the highest professional rank and eminence. Some years after his acces-
sion to the m.istership, he took holy orders and comnuited the degree of
Doctor of Medicine for that of Theology, and in later life he was coilaled to
some considerble ecclesiastical preferments. Dr. Davy bad no great ac-
quaintiince with the details of accurate science, but he was remarkable for
the extent and variety of his attainments in classical and general litcr.ature ;
his conversation was eminently lively aiul original and not less agreeable from
its occasional tendency to somewhat paradoxical, though generally liarmless
speculations. He died in May last, after a long illness, deeply lamented by
a large circle of friends, to whom he was endeared by his many social and
other virtues.

Dr. llEunKHT Marsh, Bishop of Petcrboroug'i, and one of the most acute
and learned theologians of his age, became a member of St. .lohn's College in
the University of Cambridge in the year 177.'i, and took bis B..\. degree in
1 7f 0, being second in the list of Wranglers, which was headed liy his friend
and relation Mr. Thomas .loncs, a n\au whose intellectu.al powers were of the
highest order, and who for many ye:irs filled the oitlce of tutor of Trinity
College with unequalled success ami reputation. Soon after his election to a
felIo^v3hip, he went to Germany, ^vbere he de\'oted himself ilin-ing many years
to theological and gcm-ral studies, and first became known to the public as
the translator and learned commcnt.ator of .Mich.iclis's Introduction to the
New Testament. It was during his residence abroad that he pubbshed iu the
German hinguage various tracts in defence of the policy of his own country
in the continental wars, and more particularly a very elaborate " History of
the i'olitics of Great Britain and France, from the time of the Conference at
Pilnitz to the Declaration of War," a work which produced a marked im-
pression on the state of public opinion in Germany, and for which he re-
ceived a very considerable pension on the recommendation of Mr. Pitt. In
1807. he was elected Lady ilargaret's Professor of Divinity in (he University
of Cambridge, an appointment of great value and importance, which he re-
tained for the remainder of his life. On the resumption of his residence in
(he University, he devoted himself with great diligence to the preparation of
bis lectures on various important branches of Divinity, interposing a great
number" of occasional pubUcations on the CatboUc Question, the Bible So-
ciety, and various other subjecis of political and theological controversy. In
1S16 ho was .appointed Bishop of Llandaff; and three years afterwards he
was translated to the see of Peterborough. * * Dr. Marsh was a man of
great learning and very uncommon vigoiu' of mind, and as a writer, remarka-
ble for the great precision of bis language and his singuhar clearness in the
statement of his argument.

Professor Rigauo. — The father of the late Professor Rigaud bad the
care of the King's Observatory at Kew, an appointment whi^h proljably in-
fluenced the early tastes and predilections of his son. lie was admitted a
member of Exeter CoUege, Oxford, in 1 791, at the early age of sixteen, and
continued to reshle there as fellow and tutor until 1810, when he was ap-
pointed Savilian Professor of Geometry. He afterwards succeeded to the
care of the Kadcliffo Observatory, and the noble suite of iuitrumcnts by Bird,

24

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[January,

witlt wliicli it \% furnishcil, was augmented, on his rcconinieiulation, li} a new
transit and circle, so as to lit it for tlie most refined purposes of modern prac-
tical astronom)" : and we venlurc to e:^i)ress a hope that it will sliorlly I)ecojne
eipially etiicient and useful with the similar establishment which exists in the
sister university. Professor lligaud j)nblishcd in 18.S1, the miscellaneous
works and correspondence of UratUey, to which he afterwards added a very
interesting gnpplement on the astronomical ])a])ers of Harriott. In 1838, he
]>ublished some curious notices of the tirst jiuhlieation of the Principia of
Newton ; and he had also projected a I,ife of llalley, with a view of resening
the memory of that great man from much of the ohloipiy to which it has hecn
exposed ; he had made extensive collections for a new edition of the mathc-
uintical collections of Pappus : and he was the author of many valuable coni-
innnications to the Transactions of the Royal Astronomical Society, and to
other scienlifie journals, on various sulijecis connected with physical and as-
tronomical science. There was probably no other person of his age who was
equally learned on all subjects connected with the history and literature of
astronomy, lie die-i in London in March last, after a short but jiainful ill-
ness, which he bore with a fortitude and resignation which might have been
expected from his gentle, patient, and truly Christian cliaraetcr.

Mr. Wii.kins, Professor of Architecture to the Koval Academy — (see
Journal, Vol. II. page 388.)

The Kev. AiiCHiHAi.D Alison, senior llinislcr of St. Paul's Chapel, Edin-
burgh, was born in 1757, became a member of the University of (ilasgow in
1772, and of Baliol College, Oxford, in l"7.i, and the degree of B.C.L. in
1784 : he soon afterwards took holy orders in the English Church, and was
presented to several ecclesiastical preferments by Sir William Pulteney, Lord
Chancellor Loughborough, and Uisbop Douglas of Salisbury. In 1784 he
maiTicd the daughter of the celebrated Ur. John Gregory of Edinburgh, with
whom be lived in uninterruiited happiness for forty years of bis life. In
1814, he published two volumes of sermons ; and at a later jieriod, a very
interesting memoir of his accomplisheil friend the Hon. Fraser Tytler Lord
AVoodhousIce. Mr. Alison was a man of very pleasing and refined manners,
of great cheerfulness and equanimity of temper, of a clear and temperate
judgment, and possessing a very extensive knowledge of mankind. He was
habitually pious and bumble-minded, exhibiting, in the whole tenor of his
life, the blessed inlluencc of tliat Gospel of which he was the ordained minis-
ter. All his writings are characterized by that jjure and correct taste, the
princijiles of wliich be had illustrated with so much elegance and beauty.

Ed.viuni) Law Lisiiisgton was born in l/liG. at the lodge of St. Peter's
College, Cambridge, of which his grandfather. Bishop Law, was master. He
became a student, and afterwards a fellow of Queen's College in that Univer-
sity, and attained the fourth place on tlic mathematical tripos in 1787. After
practising for some years at the bar, he was appointed Cliief Justice of Cey-
lon, a station which be filled for several years with great advantage to that
colony, (^n his return from the East, he was made .Auditor of the Exche-
(juer, and also received from his uncle Lord Ellenborough the appointment of
Master of the Crown Olticc. He was an intimate friend of WoUastou ami
Tennant ; and tbo\igb willidrawn by his jmrsuits from the active cultivation
of science, he continued throughoul his life to feel a deep interest in its pro-
gress. His acquaintance wiili classical and general lilcrature was unusually
extensive and varied, and he had the happiness of witnessing in his sons the
successful culiivation of those studies wliich other and more absorbing duties
had compelled him to abandon. Mr. Lushington "was a man of a cheerful
temper, of very courteous and ])lcasing manncis, tenijierate and tolerant in all
his opinions, and exemplary in the discharge both of his public and private
duties : few persons have ever been more sincerely beloved either by their
friends or by the members of their families.

Mil. Gkorgk Saunders was formerly architect to the British Museum,
where lie built the Tow nley Gallery ; be was a diligent and learned antiquary,
and the author of a very interesting and valualde )iaper in the twenty-sixth
volume of the Archa:ologia, containing the results of an inquiry concerning
the condition and extent of the city of Westminster at various periods of our
bistoiy.

The only foreign members whom the Royal Society has lost during the last
year are the Baron de Prony, one of the most distinguished engineers and
niatheniaticians of the age ; and the venerable Pierre Prevost, formerly Pro-
fessor of Natural Philosophy in the University of Geneva.

Gaspabu Ci.air Frax<,'ois Marie Kichi; dr Puonv, was born in the de-
partment of the Rhone, in 1755, and became a pu])il at an early age, of the
ficole des Pouts et Chaussces, where he pursued his mathematical and other
studies with great application, and with more than common success. He was
subsequently employed as an adjunct of -M. Perronet, the chief of that school,
in many important works, and particularly in the restoration of the Port of
Dunkirk ; and in 1 780, he drew up the engineering plan for the erection of
the Pont Louis XVL, and was employed in superintending its execution.
M. de Proiiy had already a|ipcarcd before the public, first astbc translator of
General Hoy's ■' .\ccouiit of the Methods employed for the Measurement of
the Base on Hounslow Heath," which was the basis of the most considerable
geodesical o]icration which had at that time been undert.aken ; and subse-
quently as the author of an essay of considerable merit, " On the Construc-
tion of Intermediate Equations of the Second Degree," In 1790 and 1707,
ajipcared his great woi'k in two large volumes, entitled Wotivcllc Architect iire
JlydratUitjiie, which is a very complete and systematic treatise on Mechanics,
Hydrostatics and Hydraulics, and more particularly on the principles of the
steam-engine and hydravilical engineering. In 1 792 he was appointed to su-

perintend the Cadastre or great territorial and ninnerical survey of Trance — a
gigantic undertaking, the subsequent execution of which, during the revolu-
tionary government, coinbincd with the establishment of the bases of the de-
cimal metrical system, gave employment and developemcnt to so many a. id
such important scientific labours ami discoveries ; among many other labo-
rious duties the formation of the extensive tables devolved upon M. de Prony,
who, in the course of two years organized and instructed a numerous body of
calculators, and completed the inuiicnse Tattles dii Cndaxtrc, which are still
jireserved in MSS. at the librarv of the Observatory in seventeen enormous
foUo volumes. M. de Prony became Directenr-Gcneral des Fonts et Chans-
sees in 1704, and was nominated the first Professor of Mechanics to the Ecole
Polytcchnique — an appointment wliich led to the publication of many very
important memoirs on mechanical and bydraulical subjects, and on various
problems of engineering, wliich apiie.ared in the Journal of that celebrated
school. lie declined the invitation of -Napoleon to become a member of the
Institute of Eg)'pt — a refusal which was never entirely forgotten or par-
doned. In the beginning of the present century he was engaged in execution
of very extensive works connected with the embankments towards the em-
bouchure of the Po, and in the ports of Genoa, Aneona, Pola, Venice, and the
Gulf of .Spezzia ; and in 1810, he was appointed in conjunction with the ce-
lebrated Count Fossombroni, of Florence, the bead of the Commissiotw de
V A(jro Rnniano. for the more eft'cctual drainage and improvement of the Pon-
tine Mashes. The result of his labours in this very important task, which he
prosecuted with extraordinary zeal and success, was embodied in his Des-
crijition Ifydro(/raplii(jiie et UistorUjue des Marnis Ponthis, which appeared
in 1822, which contains a very detailed description of the past, present and
prospective conditions of tliese pestilential regions, and a very elaborate sci-
entific discussion of the general principles which should guide us, in this
and all similar cases, in etl'ccting their permanent restoration to healthiness
and fertdity. After the return of the Bourbons, M. de Prony continued to
be employed in various im]iortant works, and more particularly in the forma-
tion of some extensive embankments towards the mouth of the Rhone. In
181 7 be was made a member of the liurenv des Lmiyitudes, and in the follow-
ing year he was elected one of the fifty foreign members of the Royal Soci-
ety : in 1828 he was created a Baron by Charles X., and was made a peer of
France in 1835. He died in great tranquillity at Aonieres, near Paris, in
July last, in the 84th year of bis age. The Baron de Prony was a man of sin-
gularly pleasing manners, of very lively conversation, and great evenness of
temper. He was one of the most voluminous writers of bis age, generally
upon mathematical and other subjects connected with his ]irofessional pur-
suits; and though we should not be justified in placing him on the same
level with some of the great men with whom be was associated for so many
years of bis life, yet he is one of those of whom bis country may be justly
proud, whether v\e consider the extent and character of his scientific attain-
ments, or the great variety of important practical and useful labours in which
his life was sjient.

Pierre Prkvost was born in 1751, and was originally destined to follow
the profession of his father, who was one of the pastors of Geneva. .\t the
age of twenty, however, he abandoned the study of theology for that of law,
the steady pursuit of which, in time, gave way to his ardent passion for li-
terature and philosophy : at tlic age of twenty-two he became private tutor
in a Dutch family, and afterwards accepted a similar situation in the family
of M. Delescrt, first at Lyons, and afterwards at Paris. It was in this latter
city that he commenced the pubheatiou of his translation of Euripides, be-
ginning with the tragedy of Orestes — a work which made him advantageously
known to some of the leading men in that great metropolis of literatiu-e, and
led to his appointment, in 1780, to the professorship of philosophy in the
college of Nobles, and also to a place in the Academy of Berlin, on the invi-
tation of Frederick the Great. Being thus established in a pesition where
the cultivation of literature and jihilosopby became as much a professional
duty as the natural aecomplisliiuent of his own wishes and tastes, be com-
menced a life of more than ordinary' literary activity and productiveness.
He died on the 8th of April, in the 88th year of his age, surrounded by his
family, and deeply regretted by all who knew him.

Use of Varnish of Dextri.ne in the Fine Arts. — In the sitting of
the Academy of Sciences, Monday, 26tli August, Baron De Silvestre made
the following remarks on the occasion of M. .\r.igo'5 communication on the
preservation of photographic images. He observed that it would be inte-
resting to try dextrine for this purpose, as he himself, for more than two
years, bail successfully used this sulistanee for varnishing pictures newly
painted in oil, water colour drawing, coloured lithographs, .and for the per-
manent fix.ation of pencil dr.awiiigs. He had also obtained from dextrine a
glue, which he found superseded with .iilvantages all other gluey substances,
and particularly mouth glue. In these difl'erent iipplications dextrine is
mixed with water in different iiroportions ; two jiarts to six of water for vai--
nisb, and in equal parts for glue. He observed that he always added one
part of alcohol in the composition of the varnish, and half a part in that of
the glue. The mixture should be .always filtered before being used for var-
nishing pictures and fixing drawings, and in this latter case, a tine wet muslin
should be s)n-ead over the drawing, before covering it with the mixture of
filtered dextrine. The description of these jirocesscs, and of the results
obtained, is given in the Bvllelin de la Societe d' EnQOuragement pour I'Jiidus-
tr'w Nalionale, for the 2nd of August, 1837.

1840.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

25

ANTIQUITIES OF THE CITY OF fcONDON,

.'!iu — H;iving been calleil in by the Rector of Saint Mary .Alder-
man/ and Saint Thomas the Apostle, to inspect the North Wall of the
Church of Saint Mary Aklermary, WatUng-stroet, I was led to the
follow iug conclusion, after a most careful examination, as to tlie anti-
quity of jjortions of that wall, which may prove interesting to many of
your readers.

In rebuilding the church after the memorable fire of London, it
seems that Sir Christopher Wren not only retained the original line of
the north wall, but finding it unnecessary to puU it down entirely, left
it untouched as far up as a string-course which formerly ran along the
whole length of the church, under the sills of the windows of the north
aisle, traces of it being perfectly discernible to an eye familiar with
the remains of antiquity, from the north-east angle of the building to
the north doorwaj'. There are also remains of the original basement-
moulding, and the original buttresses still exist with the stringcourse
profiled round them, they are five in number, and, in one or two places,
the face of their ashlar is as perfect as when first worked. The
original ashlar of the whole of this wall still remains from the level of
the ground to that of the string-course before mentioned, and indeed
a small portion of it is left some five or six feet above the string-
course, immediately adjoining the easternmost buttress. The re-
building is clearly defined by the rough masonry of this wall above the
level of the string-course, which seems to have been intended at the
time ;is a party-wall between the church ami the glebe-houses, not
only on account of its not being faced, but also on account of the entire
absence of openings for light. The north doorway, with its discharging
arch in rough masonry is evidently an insertion in the original wall,
the recesses over the doorway seem to have bceii left as cupboards for
the adjoining house, as the masonry of their arches is coeval w ith that
of the discharging arch over the doorway. Before the fire, I have no
doubt, this wall was quite unincumbered by buildings, first, because
the ashlar still remaining shows a fair face; secondly, because the
buttresses still exist, showing also a fair face; and thirdly, because
remains of the basement-moulding and the string-course, both being
exterior features, can be clearly pointed out. There nmst therefore
have been a space, originally, betw een the church anil the glebe, which
seems to have been used as a burial-place, as human bones were some
years ago found near the footing of tliis wall. This space, on account
of Watling-street having been either widened at the time or removeil
farther southwards, (212i feet were cut oft" from the glebe land in
front towards the street, see Oliver's Survey, vol. -2, p. 155,1 was, by
the Decrees of the Judges, made part and parcel of the glebe ; and
this accounts satisfactorily for that wall having been, in the rebuilding,
made a party-wall, and also for the right of way having been reserveil
to the parishioners from the street, through the glebe, up to the north
doorway of the church.

I have made a careful drawing of these remains, which I shall be
most happy to show to any one who, like myself, may take an interest
in old gotliic buildings.

Youi-'s, &c.,

Thos. E. Walker.

2, Keppel-street, Russell-square, Dec. 3, 1839.

ISLE OF SHEPPY.
S[R — Having read an extract from the Cincpie Ports Chronicle in
this mouth's journal, on "The Encroachments and Recessions of the
Sea," in which the only reason assigneil for the former is the action of
the sea in its ceaseless beatings against the shore ; I am induced to
bring to your notice the Isle of Sheppy, where from another cause the
sea is making a more rapid encroachment than perhaps any other part
of England : so much so, tliat I think in a very few years the greater
part of Minster Hill, the Station Houses at East End Lane, and Hens-
broche will be swalloweil up by the sea. Indeed the extent of bank
left at low water, particularly during spring tides, and the very great
ilistanoe from the beach that the stone for cement is dug up, (1 be-
licve the Rudis Helmontia) prove that the island was once of much
greater extent than at present, and from my observation of the land
slips that have taken place since I came here in Juno last, I should
certainly say they were caused by underground springs endeavouring
to find an outlet, and that by proper drainage much valuable land
might be sa\ed. Indeed the shelving beach or strand caused by the
former destruction of the island is now a strong natural protection to
it, and that the present almost daily loss is owing to want of care in
directing the numerous springs into a proper channel.
I am. Sir, your obedient servant,

C. F. Parkinson.
Captain 73rd Regiment.

STEAM BO.\T PROPELLERS.

Eijieriments by Georye Rennie, Esq., communicated to the Editor of tlie
Railway Magazine.

I HEREWITH send you the average result of a series of experiments I have
made on the comparative merits of several instruments wliicli have i)ecn tried
for propelling vessels through water, mider similar circiuustances. In order,
therefore, to arrive .it this knowledge, three diftereut sets of experiments
were tried : first, on a model wheel, of two feet in diameter, fixed in a trough
of water, and moved by a weight falling through equal height ; secondly, by
means of a boat to which the ditTerent kinds of ])ropcl!er were adapted, so as
to render the circumstances sinular in even,- respect; thirdly, by means of a
small steamer, of moderate dimensions, so as to enable the experiments to be
made in still water, and tluis obtain more accurate results than could possibly
be obtained in a tidal river like the Thames. The following are the results
on the model —

No. of
Experi-
ments.

Diameter

of
wheel.

Time

in

seconds.

Area of
floats im-
mersed.

Weight

sus-
pended.

Area of
one
float.

f Rectangu-
\ lar floats,
f Trapeiium
\ floats.

6
6

2 ft.
2 ft.

15-5
151

12 in.
9 in.

4 lbs.
4 lbs.

6 in.
3 in.

An experiment was then tried by immersing the rectangular floats to twice
their depth. The result was to increase the time of the 41b. weight falling
to 32 seconds, ordoul)le the resistance when immersed to the ordiu.ary depth
of the float, while tlie trapezium-shaped float, doubly immersed, only required
IG seconds for tjie 41b. weight to fall through the same space ; thus, proving
the great defect of the paddle-wheel, .as apphedto all sea-going steam-vessels,
so that when deeply laden with coals at the first part of their voyages, the
engines can only make half their proper number of strokes. The Ilritish
Qireen, for instance, the engines of which are frequently reduceil to nine, in-
stead of seventeen or eighteen, the full number of strokes. These experi-
ments have been repeated again and again, before competent witnesses, and
always with the same results.

Secondly— with dittercnt kinds of propellers attached to the same boat.

The following are the comparative results i —

Tntjle ill which are compared tlie Performances of the Screw. Propeller,
Conoidal'Propeller, and Paddle-wheeh.

Distance
travelled
in feet.

Time

in

seconds.

Revolu-
tion of
winch.

Revo-
lution

of
winch
p. min.

Speed

of

boat in

milea

p. hour.

Conditions of Experiment.

660

2010

140-7

42-0

2-2

Screw Propeller, 17 in. dia-
meter, 226 ins. area ; re-
volved with a velocity five
times that of the winch.

600

155-25

108-25

41-8

2-8

Paddle-wheel with 12 rect-
angular floats, each float
95 X 4; area of floats im-
mersed 228-8 ins.; extreme
diameter of wheel, 3 ft. 3 in.

660

155/5

1-20-75

46-5

2-8

Paddle-wheel, with 12 tra-
pezium-shaped floats {obtuse
endsdown),eachfloat9.V < 4;
area of floats immersed, 103
ins. ; extreme diameter of
wheel, 3 ft. 6i ins.

660

1535

121-75

47-5

-9

Paddle-wheel, with 12 tra-
pezium-shaped floats {acute
ends down), each float 9 i x 4 ;
area of floats innnersed, 107
iivs. ; extreme diameter of
wheel, 3 ft. lOJ ins.

660

135-5

89-6

39-6

3-3

Conoidal propellers, 17 ins.
diameter; 144 his. area ; re-
volved with a velocity five
times that of the winch.

N.B. — The above experiments were made with a boat such as is used in
the whale fisheiT; its length was 27 feet, its breadth 5 feet, its depth 2 feet
1 inch, and its weight, with ballast and persons on board, 2828 lbs., the area

E

'2i>

THE CIVIL KNGINEEll AND ARCM1TECT\S JOURNAL.

[January,

III' ils iuiilslil|i^t'elion -183- Miiiaic iiiilu".. In each c.vpcriinciit llie wiiuli was
ilrixcn Ijy two men.

('iiiirliisiiiiis. — I'roiii tlie preeeiling talile il ajiiiears tliat tlie relative merits
cif the serew |irii|ieller, tlie eoaoidal iiro]ieller, ami (lie ednimini and Irapezium-
>liapeil iliiats are ]ireei.-elv in the order in which the\ stand in the talile; tliat
the seiiM is infeiiiir to the eiininnm ]iadd!e-\\heel in the ratio of '^'^ to 2S,
with the s]iear-pointeil paddle^ as 'l-'l to '2-'.l, ami with theeonoidal propeller
as 2-2 to 3-3 ; tlial of (he trapezium-shaped tloals as 28 to 2-0, and that witli
the ol)tuse angle down is ei|nal. It may he olijeotcd to these experiments,
that the hoat lieiiig worked hy men, the rcsidts cannot he de]iciideil iipmi.on
account of the irru:-;nlar, and, pcrliaps, over-zcalons netion of aiiinial )iower.
nut, alicr a few trials, the action soon hecomes as rei^ular, and may he cal-
tul,''.ted upfiU with nearly the same accuracy, as a steani-eniiine.

'li.ii'Jly — liy means of a sleam-lioat. This hoat was kindly h nt hy the
loiidun and Westminster Steatu-boat Company; ami is of the following-
diiiien^ious ; —

Length -u feet.

Breadth C feel.

Depth 3 feet.

Power — two engines (vibrating) of .'i horse power — 3(! strokes
per minute.
Talh in ivhich are comparfd the Performances of Reclmiynlar and Sjiear-
s/iaped Floats, with tite " I'ink" steamer, in the ll'est India Import Dnci-,
in November, 1839.

Revolu-

Speed

Distance

Time

Revolu-

tions of

of

travelled

in se-

tions of

cranked

boat in

Conditions of Experiineiits.

in feet.

conds.

cranked

sb.ift

miles

shaft.

per. miH.

p. bcur.

1320

1.38-

Sl-O

3G-.5

C-7

Wheels fitted with 10 rec-
tangular floats 23 0 ins. ^
207 s. ins. ; area of floats
immersed, G3.''i-G s. ins.; ex-
treme dianieler of vvlieel.

1320

145'7^

87-0

360

C-34

Wheels (itled with 10 tra-
pczium-sbaiied floats (aeule
.and doini), 18 x 1U = 103-5
s. ins. ; area of floats im-
mersed ■132-2.'j ins.; extreme
diameter of wheel, 8 10.

Conf/iisioiif!. — From the residts of these experiments we are justified in
concluding that the trapezium-shaped float, containing only one-half of the
surface of the eommon jiaddle, and one-third of its w idtli, will have equal hold
of the water, and propel llie vejsel equally as favt, with a less expenditure of
power ; hut its properties arc not only confined to this.

In the first iilaec, they are less weight and first cost, by at least one-half.

Secondly — 'I'liey present less surface the wind, |iarticularly against a head-
wind.

'I'birdly — They enter the water without lite shock and \ihratioiis which are
experienced wilh the eoniuion wlieid, and without laising tin! cascade of
water aiijiertainiiig to the old form of p.nddle.

I'onrtbly — 'l'lie\ woik nearly as well when dec|ily immersed, with the ex-
ception of the slight resistance arising from the edges of the amis.

All which properties have been witnessed and tested hy competent judges

C;,\S PRODUCED liY A NEW PROCESS.

.■\.\ cxiierinieiit in gas-lighting by the Cimite de Val Marino was made on
Thursday evening on a jiieee of waste ground at the hack of I'etter-latie, in
the presence of :e\eral scientific gentlemen, who were invited to v\itness the
result. A small gasometer vvasen-eted for the purpose, which was connected
l)y tubes with a fiunaee hnilt of btiik, and roiitaiiiing thice ri'torts, one of
which was supplied with water fjoni a sipbon, another was filled with tar,
and both being decomposed in the tbii'd retort, formed the sole materials by
which the gas was iiroduced. The process ;ippeaied In he extremely simple,
and IbiMiovelty of the experiment consisted in the fact, (hat the principal
agent rmployed to produce the gas v\as ennimon water <iiMiliijied with tar;
but, aecordiii!-' to the tlief.r) of the iiiveiilor of this new species of gas, any
sort of bituniiiious or fatty matter would answer the purpose ei|iially as well
as pitch or tar. After the lapse of about half an hour employed in the ex|ie-
riment, diiiiiig xvhii'h time the process was explained til Ihii company, the
gas was turned inlii the hurncrs.and a pure ami jiowerfnl light was produced,
perfectly free from smoke or »7iy uiiiilca.^.i.nt smell. The puilty anil inlensc-
ncss of the flame were testeil iu ti very salinfuetory manner, and those who
witnessed the experiuient apjiearcd perft/clly ^allblted with the result. The
great advantage of this sort of gas over that produi'cd from coal consists, it
■tvas said, in the cheapness of the materials employed in its production, the
facility with which it is m.anufactnred, and the perfection to which it is at
Onee brought, withotit (he necessity of its undergoing the tcdigns and expen-

sive process of coiidettsation and purification; for in this instance, as soon as
the iircliminaries were com|>leted, the Ught was produced in a jierfcct state
vwthin a fi'w feet of the gnhomeler, which, allbougb of inferior si.'C, was said
to he capable of ;ilfording light for 10 hours to at least .'>00 lamps or hurners.
A\"itli regard to the coniiiarative expense, it was also stated that 1000 cubic
feel of gas maunfaetured hy this jiroeess, could be su|iiilied to the public for
about one third the price now charged by the coal-gas companies; and it
was said to he cipially available for domestic use, and more safe than the
common gas, inasmuch as small gasometers might, at a trifling exjiensc, be
fixed at the hack' of grates in ]iriva(o dwellings, from which the gas could be
conveyed in India-rubber bags to any part of the bouse, thereby ]ireveuting
the many accidents which occur by (he use of tubes and pipes. The fViunt
de \u\ Marino, who has eoni|Uered the diflicnlty hitherto experienced in
bringing this spiTics of gas into use, superintcuded the arrangements, and
evinccil a natural anxiety to bring bis experiment to a successful issue, lie
has taken out a j>atent for bis discovery, and be has im])roved upon the
burners now in use, so as to render the light jirodnced more ]mre and intense.
For this inqirovement he is also secured hy a patent. How far gas of this
descri[)tiou can he brought into general use, or whether in point of economy
the public would he benefited by its ado\ilion, are questions which we have
not the means of deciding, and, without liazarding any opinion on the sub-
ject, vvc can only say that the experiment, as far as it was tried iu this instance,
appeared to be quite successful. — Times.

AMERICAN PATENTS.
(From tlie Juiirnal of the Franklin Institute.)

For " An imjirored Eccentric Brukc, for urrestiny the motion of Railroad
Cars." Ephraim Morris, lUoomfield, Essex county. New Jersey, Scjit. 10.

ISctween the two wheels on each side of a car there is to be a cam wheel,
one pari of which is to he a segment of a circle, resendding the periphery of
one of the wheels ; another portion of the periphery of the cam is in a straight
line, ]irobably of two feet or more in length, and the cam may be made to
roll round on its circular, or curved jiart, and to bring this slraight part upon
(be rail, which, whilst it bears 0)1011 it, will lift the wheels, at one or both
ends, Iherefrnm. The straight portion of the cams are furnished with flanches
which embrace the rail. This iiart, by its friction ujion the rail, is to operate
as a brake upon an inclined plane, or elsewhere. The claim is to the fore-
going aiTangcment of the resiicctive parts.

When it is desired to relieve the brake, this is ctfceted by backing the cars,
when the ordinary wheels arc ni.ade to rest ui>on the rail, the lower side of
the brake being then free from them ; there are, of course, some jiarticular
devices described which we have not noticed, nor do we think it necessary,
being apprehensive that the contrivance is not destined to be adopted.

For "J Machine for cuttinij the Teeth of Cireular Saws." Tbaddeus Sel-
lick, llavcrstraw, Rockland county. New York, September 19.

One, two, or more, steel plates, prepared to have teeth cut upon them, are
to be placed upon a vertical siiindle capable of revolving on its two ends.
These plates arc to be made to beai' against a revolving cutter, consisting of
an endless screw, the thread of which is in such form as to cut a saw tooth.
A cutter two inches iu diameter and half an inch in thickness, has been used
for the purpose. The revolution of the cutter will c.iuse that of the saw
plates, which arc hin-ne U|i against it. It is remarked that the teeth of straight
saws ma)' he cut by a similar device.

" M'b.il I claim, is the cniiiloyuient of a circular revnlvhig cutter, having
a thread or channel on ils |ieriphery, running in the manner of an endless
screw, and so arranged and combined with tlie other jiarts of the inachiuery
eiO|doyed, as to cause (he cutter to cut, and (0 feed (be |ilates to itself, by
its oxvn action, the whole operating stdistantially in the m.iuncr above set
forth."

For " .//( Ini/irorenient in the mode of preserriny Timber." Edward Earl,
Savannah, fleorgia, September 20.

We iiublished in our last iiniuhcr, the specification of a patent for n similar
puiiinse. the gentleinan above named being one of the patentees. The mode
of iiroeednre in the ]u-eseiit case is like that deserihed in the former jutcnt ;
that is, the timber is (o be boiled in (be sohidon by which (be preservadve
(piality is to he eommuuieatcil, which solution is (o consist of sulphate of
copper, (blue vitriol,) and sulphate of iron, (copperas,) dissolved in water.
One jiart of snliib.ate of copper to three of sulphate of iron, are to be taken,
and about three jionnds of the mixed salts added to every gallon of water.
The timber after being bored through its length, is to be boiled, and after-
wards sufl'cred (o cool in this solution. The claims made, are to " the boil-
ing of timber as described, iu a solution of sulphates of iron and of copper ;
apiilyiug this solution to the interior as well as the exterior of the timber, by
means iif the central perforation when (he size of the timber requires it, as
the most clh'ctnal mode of jirotecting it from the rav.ages of insects, and of
rot. I do not claim the saturating of timber by a solution of sulidiates in
water when aii|died cold, but confine my claim (o boiling it, as above set
forth, in (hat solulion, during from two to five or six hours, or more."

For " A Grncel Pnm;!." l.aura Rice, adnunistr.atrix of J. J. Rice, and
Ebeaezer Rice, Salina, New York, August 15.

" This pump, or machine, is inserted in a wcU, or shaft, which should be

IS-10.]

THSC VIML I:N(;1N 1:1:11 AND AIKIIITIXIS JOUKNAL.

27

propoiiy (ulied with cast ov shod iron, ur otlii_'r jiviipcr inuU'iial, witli si)acc
(u iicntiil it to jiass icaiUly, and having a rope, ur cunls, connected with thi^
end of the piston, is worked in tlie manner of a pump nntil -snlliciently charged
with the su))stance to I)e removed, wlien it i;^ raised liy a winilhiss, or otlier
|")wer. It is partienlarly adapted to the c\ea\ation,s of sliafls for brine, and
Avas diseovoreil wliilst excavating wells for that pnrposc, as no instnuneiit was
Known wliicii wonhl readily raise the gravel from the hetis withont great de-
lay and dillicnlty, and at the same time leave tlio sides of the well liare and
|icr\ioiis to the transmission of lirine, tlie ordinary process of drilling merely
crowihng the staves from the shaft, and rendering the sides of the well coiu-
l)act, hard, and nearly evelnding the [lassage of small streams of brine into
the well.''

The form of the exterior of the machine is that of two cylinders differing
iii size, the smaller standing above tlie larger; tlie lower cylinder is to be
aljoiit II or 12 inches in diameter, and 21 in litight; the upper one may he
s;, inches in diameter, and 15 in height; they are connected liy an oiriet,are
hollow, and made of cast iron ; the upper cylinder forms a pump chamber in
w hieh a piston is to work. The lower eyiimler constitutes a receiver to re-
tain the sand and gravel drawn into it by the action of tlie pump. In the
tiottoui of the lower cyliiuler there is a round opening of si\ inches in diame-
ter, and tlic ujiper and inner edge of this opening is surroumlcd by pieces of
whalebone, or other elastic material, which rise from it so as to foim a cone
somewhat like that of the pointed converging wires ill some rat traps; these
may be six or seven inches long. They allow of the pass.agc of stones and
gravel into tlie chamber, and prevent their return. This clastic material is
surromided by a sleeve of cloth, w hich admits sand to p.iss u]i and around it.

The claim is to "the manner of connecting and combining the respective
parts of the above described machine, for the pur|iose of excavating wells and
shiitts, and the removal of sand and gr.avcl thereffom ; that is to say, the
coiubination of the exliaes.i.ig apparatus with the cylinder, the conical bars
of whalebone or otlier material, and the canvas surrounding the same, con-
structed and operating in the manner set forth."

PRESERVING TIMBER 13Y LIME WATER.

Specification of a Patent fnr an improvement in t/ie mode of preseri'iiii Tim-
ber. Granted to Samuel Rini/yold, of Florida, and Edward liarle, of
Savannah, State of Gcoryia, Any. 0, 183S.

(From the Franklin Journal.)
Tlie n.iture of our invention consists in applying heat, by boiling in strong
lime-water, to the interior as well as to the exterior of timber, accoriling to
the size and kind of timber, and the use in which it is to be empIo\i'd may
admit, or rctpiire, for the destruction and prevention of worms in it. ami for
the correction or removal of the corruptible sa|), and the occup.ation of its
jjlacc by a jirescrvative substance.

\Vc tirst bore the timber, if it he of a size siiliicieiit to admit of it, through
the centre, making the perforation of a calibre projiortioncd to the size of
the piece, say from half an inch to an inch and a half, or two inches. Then
we boil it in strong lime water for a length of lime proportioiit'd to its size,
.as four to six hours, if it be twelve inches sipiiire, and so in ]noportioii to its
substance : and when the timber has had the heat and lliiid convc\ed through
its whole substance, it is to he removed to a shed, wlicre. protected from the
sun and wind, it may gradually dry. Finally, before it is used, the pcrfo-
ratitm through the centre is to lie completely tilled with dry lime, or with
pclroleuni, or coal tar, as the purpose for which it is iiitcmled may make
preferable, and plugged by wood of the same kind, and prepared in the same
maiuier. .Mso, if the use to whieli the timber is destined he such as to admit
of it, the exterior may be payed, or coated with hot petroleum, or coal tar.

What we claim as our invcution, and desire to secure by letters patent, is
the boiling of timber in lime water, as above set forth. We ajiply the fluid
to the interior as well as exterior of the timber, by means of the central per-
foration, when the size of the tindier reuiiires it. as the most etfectual mode
of preserving it from the ravages of insects, and from rot. Wc do not claim
the saturating of timber by a solution of lime in water when applied cold, or
when heated by that heat which is geiicrateil in the slacking of the lime, but
conline our claim to the boiling it in lime water during one, two, three, or
more hours.

Remarks liy the Editor.— "Yhc plan of impregnating timber with lime, by
soaking it in lime \vat;r, is ipii^e old, but we have never yet seen any evidence
of its utility. This is an a,oi"ned effect, but one which, we believe, yet re-
iiiains to be proved. Toe oaly substantial difference in the plan above pro-
posed, and that foriiier'y assaye:', is in the boiling process, and this we think
of a very doub.ful ul^li-y. Tin-'.er may be rapidly seasoned by boiling, the
moisture within it being co.uerted into vapour, and consccpiently escaping
through the pores, a condition not the most favourable to the entrance of a
solution ; the allowing it to cool in and with the liiptor, might probably pro-
mote saturation. There is another fact of some importance in the process,
provided the thing itself is of any value, namely, that the colder the water
the greater is the (piantity of lime held in solution, and of course more wonhl
enter the pores in a cold than in a heated vessel. It is not worth wliilc,
however, to extend our speculations upon the best mode of getting the lime
in nntil wc have ascertained the fact that whdi it is th"rc it will proaicc
some good result.

IIEK M.\JESTY'S UOCIx-YARl), WOOLWICH.

l'jXTfc;N;.tvK works are at present in operation at the west end of the yard,
for the formation of a large giavingrloek, which is to allord accommodation
to the tirst class government steamers. The site for the new dock is the
south side of the basin m wet dock, which is principally used for tilting out
steamers; the situation thus chosen allows of room for another dock of like
dimensions being constructed to the eastward of it, in the event of sncli ex-
tended accommodation being rccpiired. The works, which are contracted for,
ami being executed by, Jlessrs. (irisscll and I'cio, under the direction of Mr.
Walker, the engineer, are of gieat magnitude, comprising likewise the for-
mation of a wall across tlic enlrauce to the old concrete dock, which was
undertaken by Mr. Ranger, and constructed of bis patent concrete ; this ma-
terial was not found sutHcient to keep down the land springs, and has, coii-
se<iucntly, been reUiKpiished. For the formation of the new dock, a cotlcr-
dam has been constructed in front of the proposed cntiauee, nearly a hundred
feet in Icngtii, consisting of parallel rows of close iiiliug driven info the solid
ground, as that portion of the basin wall vvilhin the collcrdam will necessarily
have to be removed, great strength is retpiircd in the framing of the timbers
for its supjiort, which appears to liave been amiily proviilcd for by the excel-
lent arrangement of shoring adopted. Considerable progress has lieen made
with the excavation foi' the dock, which has been taken out for nearly its
entire surface, to a depth of from twenty to thirty feet below the cpiay level ;
to prevent the slopes of the excavation from slipping, and likewise to save
room, the whole .".rca of the (hick is Ijcing enclosed with sheet piling, which,
as tlic masonry of the siile walls advances, vviU be removed if found advisable.
The dock will be constructed of granite, eitlicr from the New Granite Co.'s
(piarries, near I'lymoutb, or from the Uaytor ipi.arries in Ucvoiishire. A
large quantity of stone is now upon the ground partly worked. The length
of the dock will he 2ti."> feet from the semicircular bead to the inside of the
gates, the width at top HO feet and at bottom 37 feet, the clear width at the
entrance 05 feet, the ilcpth 2li feet from the ipiay level to the invert, being
cfpnil to 22 foot dc|Kli of wafer at high water. Trinity standard ; the entrance
gates and plan of working them will be according to the most approved con-
struction.

The sides of the dock will be formed in steps or altars, varying in height;
from nine to sixteen inches, and in width from nine to liftcen inches, with
the exception of one called the liroad Altar, about midway down which will
be eighteen inches in width; the object of these altars is for the convenience
of placing the shores against the hull of a vessel at any height, and for rest-
ing the ends of spars for staging; that called the Broad Altar is made wider
than the others, for walking upon in examining the sides of the vessel under
repair; the curve given to the .altars is caleulatcd to suit nearly the form of
a vessel, and likewise all'ords, as Iieforc stated, the opportunity of shoring at
any height, which is precluded by the common form of docks where very
deep altars are used, and they will also enable the workmen to get up ami
down at any part of the dock with great facility, but for general purposes, a
staircase of more easy ascent will be constructed at the head of the dock;
slips for letting down and raising timber, iSve., will be formed at the head,
and likewise on each side of the dock. The stones of the invert forming the
bottom of the dock will radiate, as likewise the altar stones as high as the
Broad Altar, the whole thus forming an arch to resist the upward pressure,
and the masonry above, as likewise the coping, will be in stones of large
dimensions, tlie whole backed with brickwork and concrete. The walls at
top will be four feet thick, and at bottom 25 feet ti inches, and the total
width of the foundations will be ti8 feet, under which a body of concrete
three yards thick will be carried down to the gravel. The a]iron at the en-
trance will be supported upon bearing piles, and protected in front with sheet
piling made water-tight. As an engine and pumps will be required for emp-
tying the dock, a pumiiing engine is now being constructed by i\Icssrs. Bolton
and Watt, and will be fixed ready for working by the time the dock is finished,
Large brick culverts, furnished with iirojier penstocks, will be formed for
drainage to the engine-well, and also for filling the dock when required for
floating a vessel out. During the works, the large area excavated for the
dock will be kept clear of water by a temporary engine and pumps, which
are in course of erection. From the above some idea may be formed of the
magnitude and importance of the works now in progress at Woolwich Uock
Yard, which, with other improvements now being executed under the direc-
tion of Captain Brandrcth ami Lieut. Dcnnison, of which we hope shortly to
give an account, will render this yard a vciy complete establishment for that
miportaut department of Her Majesty's navy, the steam marine. We will
endeavour, at some future opportunity, to give further particulars of these
interesting works during their progress.

Prierhiirn'. — The .lustiees fm- this liberty.' at their meeting on .Salurday the
.3O1I1 u!t.. adopted the phuii of Mr. Dunlliuroc, of Hanover-street. Loiulcn.
for the new gaol .about 10 be erected lor ibis liberty. Many very meritorious
plans were sent for the insiieeticm of the.liisaes; and anioniAsi ibem. those
of Mr. Sililey, ol tlreat D.inond-slieot. and Mr. Alexander, of Adam-,>treet,
Ailclphi, London, and ol i\lr. \\"aller, of Cambridge, elicited ihe grralcst ap-
prolatiou. Mr. Blore. «ho is crnmcuuslv stated by a cotemporary to have
been the successful candidate, did nut send in a design. — SlainJ'i'rd Mercury.

% 2

28

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[January,

ON THE l'0\\i:U OF THE STEAM ENGINE.

At tlic last mcoling of I lie ('ornw.ill I'olylecliuic "Sooiety, Iiclcl .if Falinoutli,
Mr. Snow Harris yc:u\ an abstract of an inlorcstini!; and valnalilc ])aiier on the
Sleani-nigiiio, )iy Professor Moseley, lie^asset! a liigli eulogintn on lliat gcn-
tli-Mian \vliose pajter, lie said, possessed a great deal of infciest to the wm'kiiig
engineer and praelieal miner. The details of the paper wonhl, however, he
too tedious to hringhefore aniixed audience, and he had tliercforc alistracted
the principal |ioints which it was necessary to hring under their considertion.
I'rofessor Moscley ajijjcared to think that the eflieieiicy of a steam engine
could Ite nicasiu'ed only hy ohseiTations of the cylinder itself, hecanse tlie
estiroafe at any other ]daee was less than tin; ai'tnal deficiency on account of
friction and other canscs. Hence they conh! not U'U t'l /iriori of what the
engine was capable. If tlicy had a good mcasurenieni of the ctliciency at the
cylinder, and also of the work actually ])erfornied, they should then arrive at
a true estimate of the power of the engine, and also of the loss hy friction,
i\c., by subtracting one from the other, in the Cornish engines they had
already the eflieieney of the working parts ; they rcquireil, therefore, the only
observations at the cylinder. It was the dirt'erenee of these which was the
efficiency for the pit work, and of so touch importance to the adventurer and
engineer. Professor Moseley jiroposcd to arrive at the efficiency of the
cylinder by connecting a seeoml smaller eylin<Ier with it. of aluint six inclies
diameter, so as to allow of the steam acting u])on a sju'ing through the me-
dium of a solid ])lng in the latter. Tlie writer thought the cft'cctive pressure
upon this plug as indicated hy the (piantitatum measurement by means of the
steel spring will be always equal to thai njion an equal area of the piston of
the engine; so that knowing one of these pressures they coidd always deter-
mine the other — namely, tlie eircctivc ))ressiire. The author proceeded to
explain by diagrams a practical method of carrying out bis general principle.
lie further thought that they not only wanted to know the eft'ectivc ])ressure
throughout the whole duration of the stroke, but .also how much of the stroke
was described under any given pressure. The author furnished methods for
arriving at this important clement which were well worthy of attention, and
were such as to apply either to a long period as a month, or a short ]ieriod
of six hours. The Professor considered that the o>it as well as the in stroke
should he registered, and he gave an arrangement for the purpose, and the
results were registered iijion indicator diagrams, diflerent from those of M'att,
and upon an area sixty times as great. There seemed but little doubt that
the author of this paper, which must be considered as an extremely imjiortant
one to the practical miner and engineer, bad succeeded in inventing methods
for arriving at the efficient power of the steam engine. It was the mechani-
cal details which rcquireil consideration. They must obtain very perfect
sjirings calculated to yield through spaces proportioned to the jircssures. This
was a vital affair, for should not such be the case the indications would be
erroneous. The author thought th.at this property could be given to s]iiral
sjirings, as well as to bow springs of a given form ; and that w ith due correc-
tion for the friction of the small cylinder, the method might be m.ide practi-
cally perfect. Mr. Jordan, with his iisu.al ability, had given a drawing of the
indicator, and had contributed largely to its meeh.anical .advancement. Pro-
fessfu* Moseley projiosed to call this instnnoent the pif vork counter, because
it indicates, by eomi>arison with the counter in present use, the amount of
the pit work. Mr. Harris concluded by observing that this was a brief ab-
stract of the \ery valuable jiajier furnished by Professor Moseley, and he was
only sorry that the time allowed him had not jiermitteil him to do Professor
Jloscley more justice than he had on the present occasion.

Steam Apparati's.— There is in the Oxford Union workhouse a steam
apparatus by means of which the whole of the clothing and other articles
used in it are washed, dried, and ironeil, in an incredibly short space of time.
M'e have lately been atforded an ojijiortnnity of witnessing this useful jiieee
of meebanism in o]>cratioii, on whicli occasion no less than 123.') articles of
wearing .apjiarel, bed-clothing, &;c., were washed, dried, and ironed, in two
da>*s. wilh the assistance of only eight v\<)men and two girls from the school.
It is the invention of James \Va]ishare, V,f'\., of liatb, for which we under-
stand he has obtained a jiatent, and was some time since erected in one of
the wings of the Imilding solely devoted to the ])urposes of a laundry, at the
cxjicnse of the chairman of the Board, the Kev. N. Hudson. The ajiparatns
consists of a small steam boiler, with two pijies for the conveyance of steam.
J!y the one pipe the steam is conducted to the coppers used for boding the
clothes and supplying the washers with hot water, by the other the steam is
carried to a closet in which the linen is to be dried. The exterior of this
cJoset is a wooden frame covered with /.inc, within it is fitted uji with pipes,
increasing in number ai'cording to the extent of drying ]iower required.
These ]ii]ies are arranged horizontally one above another, resembling a turn-
pike gate; excepting that the mils are connected at one end only by a bend
or turn, thus finniing a continued duct for the steam. The steam is admitted
at the upiicrpipe, and p.asses its conilensed water at the lowest. t)ii either
side of tliis tier of pipes is a movable clothes horse, xvbich is drawn out to be
hung with clothes. Ujioii the construction of these horses the ojieration of
drying in a great measure depends. They are made close at the toj) of the
box, so that no heat may escape over tlieiii, and the clothes arc so disposed
on them as to form an entire sheet, completely enclosing the pijics, and ]ire-
venting any escape of the heat radiating from the jiipcs, except by passing
through the clothes to be dried. Tliis disiiositiuii of the clothes is easily

accomphshed. but difficult of description. On the outside of the horses, or
on that side which is not next the jiipes, a valve or oiieiiing is made on the
top of the box', and a cmTCut of air being admitted at the bottom, the steam
from the clothes is carrieil off as fast as it is generated. One set of these
pipes, with two horses, would be sufficient for any moderate family. In an
establishment so extensive as an Union house more is required, in the closet
erected arc three ranges of pipes, and consequently six horses or two to each
range, having an air space, with its valve between each set of horses. At-
tached to the flue that suiTounds the boiler is a sm.ill oven for heating the
irons, so that the whole operation of the laundry, as far as heat is required,
is simultaneously effected by one fire. — Oxford llci'altl. [We insert this
notice, not for its novelty, but for its ulility, and to show the a])])Ii<>ation of
steam to domestic purjioscs, in the erection of extensive buildings intended
to contain a large number of inniales. We cannot, from the above descrip-
tion, ascertain what claim Mr. M'ajishare can have for a iiatent, as similar
arrangements have been adopted many years past. — Eo. C. E. iV \. Jour.]

Hakkoor Crank. — A crane eajtable of raising great weights at the har-
bour having been found indisiiensahle, a considerable time since, Mr. Leslie,
engineer to the harbour, executed a jilan for a machine cajiable of raising
thirty tons. The merit of the design hasbeen very extensively acknowledged
among professional men, and those who are initiated in mechanics. Mr.
Peter Borric, the contractor for the work, has been eng.iged for sometime
past in easting the diflerent ]'arls of the crane. The novelty of the design,
and the magnitude of the work, evince the skill antl attention which must
have been bestfiwed upmi its comjilction. The gross \\eight of the post, in-
cluding the back and side tension-bars, friction collar, hoops, &'C., is no less
than twenty-five tons, or within ten tons of the weight which it is intentled
to lift. The pedestal for this crane is a beautiful piece of nmsoiuT ; and
rising considerably above the quay, /it was ne<'essary to raise the post to an
elevation of fifty-five feet before it could be put into its jilaee. This was
done by two tackles and crab windlasses of great power — the upper blocks
being fastened, at a height of sixty feet, to the apex of three shear poles.
The whole time oceupieil in the transit of tl«' axle pole, and in raising and
lowering it into the east-iron cylinders, did not exceed six consecutive hours.
Ten men were found adequate to perform the whole ojicration of raising and
lowering the ]iost, and adjusting it to its jnoper position in the cast-iron
cylinder. The extreme length of the jiost over all is nearly forty-five feet.
.\s the crane is not yet completed, we cannot speak of it as a whole ; hut
there cannot be a doulit that it will be a great advantage to the large class
of steamers, especially to our yet unrivalled I.omlon steamers. And we
understand that as soon as it is ready, and disengaged (for the steamer Perth
has secured the first turn), a very large steamer from a distance is to be
brought to Dundee in order to get in new boilers. In this way, we have no
doubt, an ample recompense xvill be olitained for the great aeeommodation
now to be given for the shipping at the port. Much woik, auda consider-
able amount of shore-dues, may, in eonsequence of the facilities afforded by
the crane, be brought to Dundee, which otherwise would have been lost to
it. The testing of this vast machine will be a process of some interest ; and
we have no doubt the successful result will add to the well earned rcjiutation
of Mr. Ueslie; and be highly creditable to Mr. liorrie, by whom the work
has been executed. — Dutulcr Courier.

Skgui.n's Ammai. Gas .Vpparaths. — In a memoir on the compression of
gases, and on the reduction of vari.ible pressures into regular pressure, M.
Segiiin gives the Academy of Sciences a description of a new |)um)), with a
regulating apparatus, for the compression of gas for illumination obtained
from the distUlation of animal substances. The pump is so .arranged as to
give the maximum force at the moment of the course when the gas presents
the maximum of resistance by the dimimitiou of its volume ; to work in a
vertical jiosition without loss of gas, and without the jiiston being immersed
in fluid ; and lastly to avoid, by means of a particular mode of transmitting
power, the use of guides, which would cause a friction in the piston-rod,

Articsiax Vkli.s. — M, ^'iollct b.as eommnnicated to the Academy of
Sciences the residts of the experiments which be has made at Tours, to aseer-
tiiin the quantity of water supplied by an .Vrtesian well, after some repairs
imdcrtakcu for the purpose of remedying a considerable diminution which
took place in the jiroduee. The repairs executed under the direction of M.
Mullot had complete success, and the well now serves to supply motive
power for the silk mill of M. Champoiseau. The well, which in July, 1834,
immediately after its comiiletion. only supplied lOOfl litres jier minute to the
surface, has since given the following results ascertained by gauging kept up
from the loth to the 23rd of May last.

0-JO metres above the surface 34S0 litres per iiiitiute.

i-7^ . . . 1620

5-7.'> . . . IMO

The well having been put into .action, anil supplying its water from the
23ril of .May from a new orifice, situated 5 metres above the surface, I found
by gauging, on the 2iid of August, a jiroducc of 1702 litres per minute, in-
stead of the IG20 only, which the orifice at A'7l> metres gave in the 23rd of
May. The iiroiliice li.as, since then, still further increased, which progressive
increase is attributed by M. VioUet to the alimentary channels being cleared
by the rejection of the s.and brought to the surface by the water of the v\ell ;
but it is imirartaiil, ,as it leads to the hope that the unfortunate diminution of
siipiily will not again occur. [\Vc cannot entertain the confidence of M.
Viollet, but must feel, to some extent, distrustful of wells sunk in sandy
strata, which arc exposed to many incynvcnicnccs,— Eb. C. E. & A, Jour.]

1S40.J

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL,

29

REVIE'WS.

Theory, Practice ami Architecture of Bridget. The thonj hy James
Hann, nf King's College, and the practical and archilecliiral treatises
iy William Hosking, F.S.A., &c., Vol. I. London: John Weale.

Our present remarks will be confined to Mr. Hughes's paper on the
" Foundations of Bridges," as we have previously noticed most of the
other articles. Mr. Hughes commences his paper by taking a review
of various methods of laying foundations by mean of caissons, next he
explains tlie manner of building liridges on dry land, the stream being
afterwards diverted from its old course and made to pass imder the
new bridge, — he then explains the method of building piers called by
(ho French encaissemiiit, practised by Belidor. Afterwards comes the
method of laying, in deep water, ioumlations of piers, bridges, &c.,
without the aid of a coffer dam. As this portion of the paper will
best explain the talents and capacity of its author, we shall give a
lengthened extract, accompanied by tlie wood engravings, liberally
furnished to us by the publisher.

The first work of the kind I shall describe was projected by Mr. Telford,
aiul executed under the suiHriutcndence of Mr. David Ilcniy, at Ardross.in
Harbour, in Ayrshire, N. I!. ; and as the mass of stones used in the founda-
tion was tliere set in toleraldy regular order under water, without the aid oj
coffer-dam, or caisson of any kind, there can be no douljt of the same system
being equally jiracticahle in many cases of bridge foundations.

The stones at Ardrossan were of veiy large superficial (hmensions, varjing
from six to ten feet long, and tl\ree to five feet wide ; they were first held
fast by an implement, technically called nippers or devil's claws, auti were
then lowered by a crane through a depth of six or eight feet of water on to
a hard and solid foundation. The lilocks were placed etui to eiul, the i)Osi-
tion of the last stone lowered being found by jirobing with a slight iron rod ;
and as soon as each stone was in its place longituihnally, the claws were (hs-
cngagetl, and the stone allowed to rest upon the course Ijelow, as seen in fig.
1. The com'scs were continued entirely througli tlie whole thickness of the
l>ier; and when a sxifticient nunibcr had been laid to bring tiie work up to
the height of low water spring tides, tlie whole heeadth was levelled, and all
the mie<iual projections chipped off, in order to prepare a bed for the firs
co\u-se of dressed masonry. The work then proceeded in the regular man-
ner, consisting of alternate headers and stretchers of properly squared ashlar

Fig. 1.

Hiifft

^iT-J— «=n

I'-l.r Lii-

I

JMiiiii-*iiiiii ' iiiiui - mil I

4 Wutir

in front, with dry stone hearting of squared scapple dressed rubble inside,
and in this way was carried up to the full height required.

When the writer visited this work, in the year 1818, it had been advanced
a consideraole distance into the sea ; and although parts of it had been ex-
jiosed to some very hea^T storms, neither flaw nor settlement coidd he dis-
covered in any part of this excellent piece of dry-hnilt masonry.

From an account of some foundations similar to that described above in the
recently published life of Mr. Telford, it may he seen that the practice has
been much more extensively adopted, and a far holder attempt carried out
by Mr. Gibb, of Aberdeen, than the one acted upon in the other work at
Ardrossan. The pier at Aberdeen is extended into the sea, with a bicadth
at the base of seventy-five feet, the bottom consisting entirely of irregularly
shaped masses of stone, which having been conveyed to the spot in boats,
were tumbled in by chance to the depth of ten or twelve feet. In the draw-
ings composing the Atlas, which accompanies the hfe of Mr Telford, the low
^^■ater mark is shown about foiuteeu feet above the bottom, and in the narra-

tive of this work by Mr. Gibb, he states, that the bottom under the founda-
tion is nothing better than loose saud and gravel, and that tlie front ashlar
commences at about one foot under low water mark, and is carried up to the
top of the iiier, which the drawing shows to be about thirty-three feet iu
height from the bottom to the top. The rise of the tide is shown to be
fourteen feet, the breadth of the pier twenty-eight feet, the sides carried up
with a slope inwards. Fig. 2, describes the method adopted by Mr. Gibb.

Pier at Aberdekx

^^?Si§>^:>Sj$§5;?i5Sss:S5^^~

The author next proceeds to describe an economical method of
building the foundations of a pier as practised by Mr. Telford at In-
verness, to avoid the expence of erecting a coffer dam. This is well
deserving of notice on account of its simplicity, particularly the part
explaining the " lewis."

At the site fixed upon for the intended jiier, the depth of water, at the
lowest spring tides, was never less than foin- feet, and at ordinary low water
five or six feet; the bottom a very hard gravel, uuited with clay. The whole
length of the breast work was about one hundred and sixty feet, and through-
out this distance the bottom was dredged out, to the widtli of eight feet, and
depth of two feet, to receive the masonry.

A simple system of piling was however driven previous to fouuthng the
masonry. The piling consisted of two bearing piles, twelve feet long, and
eight inches diameter, driven down at intervals of twenty feet ; and across
the heads of these piles, and level with low water mark, cross pieces of elm
planking twelve feet long three inches thick, .and one foot wide, were fasten-
ed xvith trenails. On the top of these were laid longitudinal half timbers,
one foot wide, and six inches deep, secured to the cross pieces and Ijcaiing
piles by rag bolts, driven into each pile head.

The accompanying sketches, figs. 3 and 4, will amply illustrate the forms
and (Usposition of the timber work in the foundation. In addition to the
bearing piles, a row of timber slabs, of inferior quality, was also driven down
a few inches into the bottom, at intervals of about ten or twelve inches ;
these had a spike driven through them, near their heads, and into the longi-
tudinal logs of half timbers ; there were merely to answer the pmpose of
guide timbers, to set the stones by, and to determine the guage or breadth of
the work, and were afterwards removed.

The bottom on which the pier was to be founded being now made as level

Fig. 3.

30

THIC CIVIL ENGINEEll AND AlKIIITECTS JOURNAL.

[January,

Kk;. 4.

a~- possHilc by niraiis uf dredging \vit!i tlio coiiinion Iiag and spoon apparatus,
the stones were brough to tlic place in lioats, and lowcreil 1)\ a crane, iiisnch
a way that as soon as each stone was placed in its proper position the tciois
cunhi be withdrawn without dillicnlty.

This will be understood on referring to fig. 5, which represents the lewis
fi\ed in a stone, ready preiiared
for being lowered tlirougli the
water into the foundation. The
lewis eoTisisted of two pieces of
iron 1! and I), and in older to
use it a part of the stone must
be cut out, sutlieieiitly wide at
top to receive the base of the
p.irt 1!, the base of thi' ojicning
of the stone Iteing cipial to the
luiitcd widlli of I) and U; A is
the chain suspended from the
arm of the crane,* and E a small
rope or siring, of which the end
is kept above w.iter, to ]inll
out the rectangular part U of the
lewis.

It is easy to see the method of using this instrument : the piece B is first
inserted, and 1) is then put in tosecm-e it, when it is evident that the heavier
lh(; stone may be, provided it be strong enough, the more securely will it be
held by the lewis when suspetuled from the crane. Coueeivc the stone now
to have been lowered through the water, and carefully laid in its proper place
in the founilalion ; the chain from the barrel of the crane is then loosened,
and the part 11 of the lewis being slightly knocked with an iron rod from
abo\e, is e.isily made to ilrop down into tlie vacant space C. It is evident
that the fastening piece I) will then be loose, because between this and li
there is a sp.ice left e(|ual to the ihtt'creiu'c between the base of li, and the
base of the opening in the stone. D may therefore be drawn out by lueaus
of the string E, and II will readily follow on pulling the chain A, and the
lewis is again ready to be inserted in another stone.

All the front stones of tlie foundation were laiil with a lewis of this kind,
as well as the backing of scpiared stones, which were jireviously scapple-
dresscd at tlie ([uariT. The whole of the stones in any one course, for the
length of tlic jiicr, were Laid of equal thicknesses ; they ranged from four to
seven feet long, and from three to four feet wide. As soon as one course was
comiilete another w,is laid, and the length of each stone being marked on the
longitudinal beams above the piling, it was easy to set them so as to break
bond, ami the whole process of tlurs building under water was eti'ected with
the utmost regularity, and with less dirticidty tlian could have been autiei-
])atcd by the most s,anguinc advocates of the plan.

When all the building was carried up ,is high as the sni-facc of the lowest
water mink of a s)n-ing tide, any irregularity on the top was taken off, and
the wlude surface carefully levelled, .iiid on it tlie ashlar masonry was com-
luenecd and carried up with a vertical batter. This work consisted of stones
with piclicd fronts and ehiscl-dranghts round the edges, the cmls, beds, ami
face, pro]ierly squared. The backing was of good conunon rubble, and the
whole being raised to three feet above the highest spring tides, was linished
otf with a heavy coiiing, inoperly dowelled, cramped, and securc<I with lead.

" It is (piite evident that by any oilier mode of suspending the stones ex-
cepting that of the lewis, which could be diseii^atJed inider water, even an
approximation to a close joint could never have U'cu eftcclcd iu the situatiun
now UescribcJ,

This work, from its situ.ition, is called the Thorn Hush Tier ; the dale of
its coiislriictioM wa^ IKl.'i.and uji to the present time no ajipearance of failure
or imperfection has been ol)served.

Mr. Hughes then reverts to llie consideration of roller dams, and
)Hiiiils o\it as good examples the eorter (l.\nis of the new Houses of
r^irlianient, and the one constrncled at St. Katharine's Doi'k, IhiIIi of
which, wc are liappy to say, liave beendescrilied in the first and second
volumes of our joMnial, acconiiianied by the specifications. We con-
sider the latter ontjlit at all limes, if possible, to aeconi])anv the draw-
ings, as lliey at once convey to llie ))rofession the minntiie of the i-on-
struction, and of the inalerials used. As we liave so fully explained
to our readers the eonslruclion of the above works, we shall not avail
ourselves of any extracts from the able eonnneuls of the author in the
pajier now before us, but shall |iroceed at once to the otlier portion
explaiuing the advantages of building inverted arches. The author
reconiuiends, where the bottom is unsounil, to cover it entirely over
will) cross sleepers of iMeuiel logs, and on them to lay a covering of
planks closely jointed. In support of thisniethoil of construction lie idles
an example of the late Mr. Ueiinie,who introduced it fur the foundation
at the Albion Mills, close to Hl.ickfriar's Bridge. We cannot give our
consent to this mode of building, being decidedly averse to the intro-
duction of planking and piling, excepting for hydraulic works w hen
both are constantly niuler water ; we would at all times risk a good
bed of concrete over the whole surface as adopted at the WcstniinsUr
Bridewell, or a broad fotindation as adopted by Sir Robert Sniirke at
the Penitentiary, (he latter example is alluded to by the author in a
subsequent part of the paper. The marshy nature of the land on which
both those buildings were erected, and their jnvsent appear.uice in
]ioint of stability clearly show that concrete may be used with safety in
almost, if not all situations: we have seen such ill elVects of planking
lor foundations of land buildings, that we dread tlic very name of it,
not only is it liable to rot, but also to be crushed. We sliould think
that the timber lonuiiig the bottom of the caisson upiui which the piers
of Westminster Bridge stand lias been crushed full an inch ini thick-
ness; here it was of no consequence, as the timber was always inider
water, and remains to this day sound as on the day when laid down,
but there are situations in which the crushing of an inch in thickness
may he partial .uid cause considerable settlements in the building,
particularly if tliere be many openings w ith arches in the superstruc-
ture. Tlie foUowing observations relative to Mr. Telford are well de-
serving tlie attention of the junior nieuibers of the profession.

Mr. Telford in his i)r.actice as an engineer was exceedingly cautioiH, and
never allowed any hut his most experienced and contidential assistants to
have any thing to do with exploring the foundations of any buildings he was
about to erect. This scrutiny into the (|ualilieatious of those employed about
the found.itions extcudcil to the subordinate overseers, anil even to the work-
men, insomuch that men whose general habits had before (lasscd unnoticed,
and whose characters h.ad never been inquired into, did not esrajie Mr. Tel-
ford's observations when set to work in operations connected with the founda-
tions. He was accustomed to examine men so employed whom he thought
unsteady, and, if necessary, would reprimaud the overseers for emidoying
such men about the foundations in any capacity. It is evident from tliesc
I)recautions that Mr. Telford was well convinced how dangerous it was even
to receive a report of the strata from men of careless habits or inelHeient
knowledge, and that he also knew the consequences which might follow from
careless pile-driving, and, in short, from the absence of proper care in all the
operations connected with the coinmencement of an important structure.

In tlie third ilivision of this paper the author makes some judicious
remarks on foundations of sand. Mr. Hughes then proceeds to ilescrilie
a very strong «)tVcr dam for a river where there is a great depth of
water, from this jiart of the paper containing some excellent instruc-
tions, we take the following extract relative to " puddle."

Considering only the two extremes of very hard and very soft plastic clay,
it will be finind that the former of these, when broken np and thrown in be-
tween the piles, will seldom or never form a perfect dam. On the contrary,
vacuities will remain between the broken pieces, and it will be found exceed-
ingly difficidt to be.at down clay of this kind into a body snihcicntly lirm,
compact, .and solid to resist the eflbrts of the water to penetrate through it.
If, again, clay of a very soft plastic nature lie introduced, it will jiartially dis-
solve and combine with the water when thrown into it, so that the space be-
tween the piles will be tilled with a kind of mud puddle almost in a lluid
state, of no greater consistency and no greater capability of keeping out water
than mud itself. It is evident therefore that either kind of da; liy itscV
woidd not answer the purpose intended of forming a solid water-tight puddle.
All the clays, when useil in a colter-dam, require a mixture of gr.ivcl and
sand, or a portion of poundeil chalk will he found an excellent materkal to
give solidity to the soft portion of the clay, and to fill the vacuities and in-
terstices which may be expected to exist where the clay is of a hard and
lumpy descriptisn. However general may be the opinion, it is certain that
ouc more erroneous was uevcr entertained than that clay alone is a proper

1840.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

31

iiuiterial to make a good iiiuMle-clani. Clay liy itself is subject to great
rlianges, according to "the alternations of heat ami cohl, drought and moisture.
In very ilry weatirer, and when exposed for a time to the inlluenec of tlie sun,
all moisture will lie extracted; and the clay will invarialdy crack and separate
into a nmnher of irregular fragments, which will never afterwards unite so as
to form an adhesive water-tight sulist.ancc. The ililhculty of compressing
clay, when placeil in a dam of any considcrahlc depth, into a solid mass with-
out ImUows has heen already noticed. If in addition to this olijection we
consider the immense weight and i)ressure of clay so coniju'csscd against the
jiiles forming the sides of the dam, and the consecpient strain on the piles,
wliicli ought only to he employed in resisting the pressure of the water from
without, we shall see sufficient reason to decide, on these as well as on othej-
grounds, ag.ainst the in-actice of puddling entirely with clay. From the very
iiest information which can he hrought to hear on tins s\dijeet, namely, that
derived from long and w.itehful ex]ierience, accom)ianied hy the knowledge
that he has himself, as a contractor, lost large sums of money on account of
too great a faith iu clay jinddlcs, the writer is enabled to speak very positively
on tlie nature of this material, and in achlitiou to the ohjections .already ad-
vanced begs to add his own personal observations of the fact that puddles
composed entirely of clay have usually bulged, given way, ami been foinid in-
ap.alile of keeping out the water wUcji of considerable dci)tli, and that in
^nv ease a puddle with an admixture of gravel, chalk, and sand will make a
jafer water-tight dam than clay alone.

The fourth division treats on the value of concrete as a substitute
for stoiie or timber in foundations, and describes the various qualities
of lime and sand, and their proportions in which they inicfht to be used.
The author has given some remarks on the defective construction of
jiart of Gloucester Bridge, from tlie settlement id' the wing wall on the
Gloucester side which is fractured from its base to tlie top of the
parapet, where, he states, there is an opening nearly three inches
wide. We rather suspect that some other settlements have escaped
the eye of Mr. Huglies, when we were at (iloucester about two years
since, we observed some fractures over the arch which had been stopped
up with cement, and instead of the wing walls only having gone down,
we consider that the abutment on the (iloucester side has also gone
down, or is forced a trifle from its perpendicular position in consa-
ipienoe of the giving way of the wing walls, i.nd has caused the settle-
ments we liave named.

Mr. Hughes next explains the causes of settlements in the wing and
abutment walls of bridges by using for the backing a |)uddle of clay ;
he observes, that the cracks and iissures which attend the drying of
clay, when much ex|H)sed, are so exceedingly dangerous, as atlbrding
lodgement for water to press against the w all, that there is every reason
to expect, at some time or other, fractures and dangerous settlements
in walls which have been thus backed. We have heard of several in-
stances of bridges constructed on railways, where the abutments and
wing walls have been forced out of their places, although built with
a considerable batter, to nearly perpendicular, owing to the backing of
clay having swelled through additional moisture. Where it is re-
quisite to build retaining walls in clay cuttings, it is nece.ssary if the
strata have any dip to build the upper retaining wall thicker than the
hiwer one, and also to give the slopes of cuttings on the upper sicU' a
greater deolivitv than the lower one, as the clay is naturally inclined
to slip on its bed.

In the concluding portion of the paper Mr. Hughes has made some
very able connnents on the principal clauses of a contract deed whicli
the contractor is required to sign ; but as we have already so copiously
extracted from the paper, we must, in justice to the publislier, resist
intruding any farther. With his remarks oii the various clauses we fully
concur, and we trust that it will not be long before a more equitable
spirit breathes through tlie conditions of a contract. We feel con-
vinced that it is the only way to obtain opulent and respectable con-
tractors to undertake large works, the present stringent clauses throw-
ing the whole on\is of the construction on the contractor, and removing
all responsibility from the engineer, is a premium for ignorant ]ire-
tenders to enter the profession, many of whom, probably, have obtained
a line theinetical education, and are abie to make very pretty draw-
ings, which they fancy entitle them to the initials C. K. at the end of
their names, but wliich are very far from assuring a sound knowledge
of construction.

Before we close onr remarks we must allude to the "getting up of
the work," the first volume contains 1 10 engravings beantifulTy exe-
cuted, and posiessing considerable merit in jioint of construction, and
as examples of bridge building. The letterpress contains 5 papers, No.
I. Theory of Bridges, by Mr. Ilann ; II. Transl.itions from Gauthey ;
III. Theoretical and Practical papers, by Professor Moscley ; IV.'A
series of papers on the Fonnd.itions of Bridges, by Mr. T. Hughes ;
V. Account of Hutcheson Bridge at Glasgow, by Lawrence Hill,
Esq., and the Specification by Mr. Robert Stevenson, of Edinburgh.
Most of these papers, as they appeared in numbers, we had eccasion to

speak of witli the highest )iraise, and we feei much pleasure in tiiuling
that the concluding |)art of the first volume is quite equal to the former.
We have no hesitation in saying that it will be one of the most
valuable publications which the profession can wish to possess.

Henfh's Pictitrt^qiic ./in una I for 1840: Wiiuhur Cag/le. and its En -
riioiisi, hy Lkitch Kitcmik, Esq., loilh Fifteen Engra rings. Lon-
don : Longman and (Jo.

We recommended the preceding volume of this annual, as eontain-
ing among other illustrations of Versailles, several highly linisln-d
architectural interiors, — a class of subjects all the more welcome, be-
cause, although exceedingly interesting, they are very rarely treated
by the pencil; ami the two views of the kiiiil here given, ntiinely, of
St. George's Hall and tin- Waterloo Galler}', only cause us to regret
that there should be none of any of the other apartments; not even
one of the corridor, ov any portion of it, to convey some idea of its
architectuiMl character, it certainly was not ow ing to want of subjects
that the choir of St. (ieorge's Chapel — the architecture of whicli, by
the by, is sadly disfigured by the barbarous design of the pointed win-
dow over the altar, which looks just like Carpenter's Gothic ; — was
selected as one of the three interiors; while the subject is very well
known, having been given inPync's Royal Residencus, and other lutli-
licatioiis. We certainly would very gladly have exchanged it fur
something else. We pass over the other engravings, because although
manv are executed witli great spirit and ability, they are chiefly of
scenery in dift'erent parts of the Park, and are connected only nmotely
with the Castle, which is removed farther olV than we could wish. Yet
although architectural subjects generally may not be so jjopular as
landscape scenery, we should imagine that like ourselves, most other
persons would not have been <lispleased had tliere been a majority of
the former class, on this occasion. We sliould have been grateful l(i<i,
liad the editor in some degree supjdied this deficiency by treating at
great length of Windsor Castle as it really is at the present ilay, and
entered into some more exact description of the jirincipal apartnieul-^
their architecture ;uid decorations. However, as description (jf that
kind does not appear to be by any means the editor's forte, there is
less reason to regret that he has been so exceedingly sparing of it. It
appears, however, from what is here said that we are likely to obtain
a full architectural account of Windsor, it being stated — upon snlli-
cient authority, we presume, that Sir Jeliery Wyattville himscdf is
now preparing a series of drawings and other materials for the pur-
pose.

Tlie view of the Ruins at Virginia Water after a drawing by Hard-
ing, is one of the most attractive of the landscape subjects, ipiite a
poetical scene in itself — and one of which we have never behire met
within any representation; and tlumgh the same cannot be said of the
view of the Fishing Temple and Lake, that is a very (diarming conqio-
sition bv the same tasteful artist, and admirably engraved. Most un-
doubtedly we should have been better gratilied ha<l the illustrations
been confined entirely to the Castle itself, and to the newer portions
of the edifice ; but we must also admit th;it tlio proprietor had to con-
sult the taste of tin' purchasers (jf Annuals. We hope, In.uever, lli.it
he will yet bring out some graphic ]mblicalion expressly devoted to
that cla.ss of subjects — namely, architeotural interiors, of which Ver-
sailles and Windsor have furnished some specimens.

Mnnoir of a Mtclimiic, king a Skitc/i of the Life of Timothj C/ei.rlon,

ivritlen hi/ himself, logellier with JMiseelleimonti Papers. Boston,

United States; (i. VV. Light, 18311.

This, although )iiiblishej at the same time by a dill'erent author, is
a kind of American version of the Hints to Mechanics, by Mr. Claxton,
but although derived from nearly the same sources, is not quite so
interesting. Boston, like Edinburgh, has dubbed itself an Athens, lias
the same mania for lionizing, and the same want of philosophers for
their academic groves. In this emergency they have laid hold of Mr.
Claxton, and although they might find a mure majestic lion, a more
useful one thev will not easily discover. Like the works of Franklin,
it is a ])laiii, practic.d maniud of advice to the working classes, which
instructs in the best way, thtit of example.

It says nincli for the literary ajipetite of Boston that they can devour
such a work, and it says still more for them that, knowing how thin-
skinned their couiitrymen generally are, that they slioulJ have allowed
Mr. Claxton to give free vent to some of his old country prejudices,
which we know go so greatly against the grain.

32

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[jANrARY,

Companion to /lie Almanac fur 1640. Lomlmi : Knight & Co.

A<; \is\ial this publicaficm contains a great doal of highly interesting
architectural mailer, in the way both oT descriptions oi^ and comments
upon, new buildings and other iniprovementu, illustrated with several
clever wood engravings. Of these latter the subjects are, Mr. Wild's
two churches at Blackheath and ,Southami)ton, tlie new church I\irk
.Street, Bankside, the Club-house Clianibers, Regent .Street, and plans,
Ulc. of iMr. Cockerell's new buildings at Cambridge for the Public
Libraries, vVc. Among those buildings which, although not accom-
panied w ilh any cuts, come in for a large share of notice and remarks
are, Mr. Harry's Reform Club, and Mr. Tattersall's chapel at D\ikin-
tield, as does likewise the new building in Wellington Street, for
Bielefeld's Rapier Maclir Works.

The counnents on the plan of the Cambridge Libraries are pertinent,
—though, jierliaps, the architect may be disposed to prefix an im to
that epithet — and judicious; for it certainly does appear that the
building w ill be more irregular than even the awkwardness of the site
reipures : nor that onlv externallv but internally too, because many of
the piincipal apartments will be thrown quite out of square, one of
them sloping off instead of being parallel to the opposite one. It is
therefore to be hoped that that part of the jjlan will be reconsidered
before it shall be actually began.

\Ve shall quote only two of the minor paragraphs:

KcKii'ick i'hitrch. Lately erected by Mr. Salvia, is a stone edifice in the
early |ioiii1ed style, of about the time of Henry II, with a tower, burmomited
by a low spire, and a small octagonal huilding, attaclu'd to the south side of
the church, for a vestry room. This latter is covered l)y a very steep, or
spirc-iliaiictl roof, and forms a very striking feature ill the design, to winch
it imp.irls a great degi'ce of jiiclarcsiiiie variety. This church was corn-
men ed by the late John Marshall, Jan., Ksq., and has been completed by
his widow. It i:, ant capable of containing more than 412 persons, viz., 48
in pews aod ."iljl in free seats. Cost, .I'tJ.'JHl).

Dmimi/lon r7(«;-e/(, another work by the same architect, is very different
in design, being a long and low but high-rnofed stnieture, of rather primitive
character, with small and jdain jiointed windows, at irregular intervals, and
a square tower (in whlcli is a jiorch) on the north side. It was built by sub-
scriptions and dunatiims for the sum of i.'3,ii5t ; yet, although the cost is
little more tlian iialf that of the ))rccciling laulding, it is cai»uhle of aeeoru-
niodating more than doable the number of jiersons, viz., l.OltJ ; 1 10 in pews
and GOO in free sittings."

In a previous part of the volume is a section upon "Railways,"
containing much statistical iiiforniation on that subject.

Mancltcster as H is, witli numerous S/ed Engravings and a J\Iap.
Manchester: Love and Barton.

Tins is a verj' useful and interesting little work, descriptive of all the pub-
lic buildings, institutions, evhibitions, canals, warehouses aiul manufactories,
in short it appears to contain all the infoi'matioa that a visitor may wish for
as a gui<le to Manchester. We select the following extracts to show the
nature of the work.

STEAM ENGINE M.VKIXG, AND F.NGINEEniNG.

One of the i)rincii)al establishments in Manchester, in these departments,
is that belonging to William Fairbairn, Esq., situate in Canal-street, Great
Ancoats-strettt. To jicrsons \mac(ptainted ^^ith the nature of working in iron,
an admission into these works aftords, perhaps the most gratifying spectacle
wbicli the town can j)rescnt of its nnmnfactnixvi in this metal. Consetiuently,
abnosl e\t'ry person of tlistinction visiting the town contrives to jn'oeure an
introduction to the proprietor before leaving it. In this establishment the
lieuvit'st description of machinery is manufactured, including steam engines,
water wheels, locomotive engines, and null geering. There are from r)50 to
GOO liamis employed in the various dei)artnu:nts ; and a walk through the ex-
tensive premises, in which this great niunber of men are busily at work,
atlords a specimen of industry, and an evainple of lU'actical science, which
can scarcely be surpassed. In every direction of the works the ntnmst xi/xfem
prevails, and each mechanic appears to have bis iieeuliar description of work
assigned, with the utmost economical sididivisiou of laliour. All is activity,
yet without confusion. Smiths, strikers, moulders, millwrights, mechanics,
boiler nnikcrs, pattern makers, appear to attend to their respective employ-
ments with as nmch regularity as the working of the niachineiy they assist to
construct.

In one de]tartiuent mechanics are employed in building those mighty nut-
chines \\bicb have augmented so inuneusely the mannfacturiag interests of
tlrcat liritain, naujcly, steam engines. All si/.ca ami dimensions arc frequently
under hand, from the dinunutive size of 8 horses power, to the enormous
magnitude of 400 horses' power. One of this latter size contains the vast
amount of 200 tons or upwards of metal, and is worth, in round nundjcrs,
from .15,000 to .fC,000.
The process of easting metal is 90n(lu«tc4 here on a very large scale, Cast-

ings of twelve tons weight are by no meaus unconuuon : the beam of a 300
horses' jiower steam engine weighs that amoiuit. Fly-wheels for engines, and
water-wheels, though not cast entire, are inunense specimens of heavy cast-
ings. .\ fly-wheel, for an engine of 100 horses' power, measures in diameter
twenty-six feet, and weighs about thirty-live tons. In this establishnuait
some of the largest water-wheels ever manufactured, and the heaviest luill-
geering have been constructed ; one water-wheel, for instance, lueasuriiig
sixty-two feet in diameter. The average weekly consnui]itioii of metal in
these works in the process of manufacturing, owing to the (piantity of wrought
iron used, and the unmcnse bulk of the castings, is CO tons or upwards, or
3,120 tons anuuidly.

The preparation of jiatterns, — wood fac-similes of the castings, — is a \ery
costly process. Every piece of machinery, before it can be cast, nmst be
constructed in wood; and these path-nu, Af, they are termed, arc made to
form, in sand, the mould into which the liquid ore is pom-ed. Fifty men are
daily employed in making patterns. The patterns, which are part of thepro-
jirietor's stock hi trade, are worth many thousand pounds. .Vfter being used,
the most important are |>Hinted and varnished, and laid carefully aside, in a
dn room, to be ready for use when machiucs may accidentally get broken, or
to ai<l in the construction of new ones. The patterns are made frequently of
mahogany.

A most curious machine is employed for the purpose oi plainiiy iron ; and,
by means of its aid, iron shavings are stripped off a solid mass of metal, with,
apparently, as nmch ease as if it were wood, and w ith the greatest regidarity
and exactness. Not the least interesting department of these works is that
appio|)riated to boiler making. Boilers, for steam engines, are composed of
a nmnber of jdates of wrought-iron, about % of an inch in thickness. They
are livetcd together, with rivets about J of an inch diameter, holes to receive
whica are punched through the plates, by a ]>ovvcrful, yet simple, machine,
with as much facility as if the resistance was mere air. 'The process of rivet-
ing was, on the old nudlwd, an extremely noisy one ; hut a new jilaii, is
adopted here, and by it the work is performed silently, and nmch more etli-
ciently. .Some time ago about 50 boiler makers were employed by Mr. Fair-
bairn. The " strnck," as it is termed, because their employer infringed, as
they considered, upon their privileges, by introducing a few labourers, not in
" The I'nion," to jierforni the drudgery connected with the work. On this
occurring, Mr. l''ai.-bairn and Mr. liobert Smith invented a machine which
superseded the labour of 1.'! ont of the 50 of his boiler makers. The work is
performed by the machine much quicker, more systematically, and, as before
said, without noise.

LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE .\ND TOOL-MAKERS.

Uniler this head may be classed several extensive works, in and about
Manchester.* One of the largest is that possesseil by .Messrs. N'asmyths,
Ciaskell & Co., situated at Patricroft, four and a half miles distant from Man-
chester, and innncdiately adjoining the Liverpool and Manchester Railroad,
at that part where it crosses the liridgewater Canal, which great national
work forms the boundary or frontage of the ground on which the above esta-
blishment is erected, and w Inch, in consequence, has been named, " The
liridgewater Foundi^."

These works hiive a frontage to the railroad, as well as to the canal, to the
extent of 1,051) feet ; which circumstance supplies every possible facility for
conuuiuucation, either by laml or by water carriage. One of the " stopping
stations" of all the second class trains being opposite, persons desirous of
vishing these works, can he set down .at the entrance gate. The distance in
titne, from Manchester, is only from ten to fifteen minutes.

The above establishment is of very recent erection, having been in existence
only about two and a half years. There are employed at present about 300
men : the greater part of \vhom, together with their families, live in cottages
which the proiirietors have elected for their aceonunodatioii. The situation
of these works is not only most admirably adapted for the purposes forvshich
they have been erected, but it also secures, in a great degree, good health to
the inen employed ; for, being surrounded on all sides with green fields, and
being, moreover, on the west side of Manchester, a very long lease of pure air
is secured ; a circumstance of no small importance, as regards the health and
conjfort of the vvorknu'n employed.

The whole of this establishment is divided into departments, over each of
which a foreman, or a responsible person, is placed, whose duty is not only to
see that the men under his superintendence produce good work, but also to
endeavour to keep pace with the productive powers of all the other depart-
ments. The departments m,iy he thus specified : — The dr.iwing office, where
the designs are made out ; and the working drawings produced, from which
the men are to receive the necessary information. Then come the pattern-
makers, whose didv is to make the patterns, or models in wood, which are to
be cast in iron or' brass ; next comes the foundry, and the iron and brass
monhlers ; then the forgers or smiths. The chief part of the produce of these
two last named pass on to tlie turners and planers, who, by means of most
powerful and complete machineiy, execute all such work on the various arti-
cles as require cither of these operations; besides which, any holes that are
required are at this stage bored, by a great variety of drilling machines, most
of which are self-acting. Then come the fitters and filers, who, by means of
chisels and files, execute all such work as requires manual labour, and pcr-

* Messrs. Sharp, Roberts, & Co.'s, Messrs. Peel, Williams, & Co.'s, are
among the first in importance.

1840.J

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

33

form such delicate adjustments as require tlie individual attention of tlie
operative : in conjunction witli this department h a class of men called erec-
tors, tliat is, men wlio put together tlie framc-work, and larger parts of most
machines, so that the two last departments, as it were, hring together and
give the last touches to the ohjects produced by all the others. A machine
having passed through these departments, is now ready for a coat of iiainf,
which having received, it is taken to pieces (after all the parts are marked,
so as to enable its being i>ut together when it arrives at its destination), the
bright parts are smeared with tallow, and, if lequired, placed in jiacking cases,
which are then handed over to the foreman of tlie labonrers, who, by means
of the crane or railroad, place them in the canal boat or railway waggon.

With a view to secure the greatest amount of convenience for the removal
of heavy machinery from one department to another, the entire estahhslmient
had been laid out with this object in view; and in order to attain it, what
may be called the straight line system has been adopted, that is, the various
workshop* ai'e all in a line, and so jilaced, that the greater part of the work,
as it passes from one end of the foundry to the other, receives, in succession,
each operation which ought to follow the preceding one, so that little carry-
ing backward and forward, or lifting up and down, is required. In the case
of heavy jiarts of machinery, this arrangement is found exceedingly useful.
By means of a railroad, laid through, as well as all round the shops,* any
casting, however ponderous or massy, may be removed with the greatest care,
rapidity, and security. Thus nearly all risk of those frightful accidents,
which sometimes occur to the men, is rcmovcil. The railroad system is now
beginning to be as much attended to, ami its advantages felt in concerns of
this nature, as it is in the transit of goods and passengers.

Nearly one uniform width is preserved throughout all the workshops of
this extensive concern, namely, 70 feet ; and tli« height of each is twenty-one
feet to the beam. The total length of shops on the ground floor, already
bnilt, amounts, in one line, to nearly 400 feet. There are, besides, four flats
of the front building, each twelve feet high, 100 feet long, and 60 feet wide.
Into these rooms a perfect flood of light is admitted by very large windows
on the side walls, as well as through sky-llglits in the roof.

The Foundry occupies one portion of this building, namely, 130 feet by 70
feet, in which great apartment or hall there is not a single dark corner: a
point of vast impoiiance where the oj>crations are conducted with a black
material, namely, the moulding sand. The iron is melted in one or more of
four cupolas, according to the weight of the casting. The cupolas vary from
three to six feet in diameter, and when all are in active operation, melt thirty-
six tons of iron. The great cauldron, or pot, in which the metal is contained,
' is idaced, during its transit from the furnace, on a carriage, which moves
along a railroad in front of the four cupolas ; and thus any i)ortioii of melted
metal can be received and conveyed, with the most surprising rapidity and
ease, to any point of the surface of this great hall. These great pnts contain,
at limes, each six or seven tons of melted iron, and, by means of a crane,
whose arms sweep every part of the foundry, arc banded iVom place to jilace
as if wlndly devoid of weight. The crane posts are two great cast-iron columns,
around which the crane arm swings. The columns ssrve at the same time as
supports to the roof, and by proper ties, the strain of such great weights is
diffused over the whole building, and each brick made to share the load. The
blast of air for the furnaces is supplied by a fanner, five feet in diameter,
made to revolve at the rate of 1,000 revolutions per minute, the air or blast
being conveyed under ground in a brick tunnel, from which it is distributed
to each furnace by sheet-iron pipes, varying from three to nine inches, accord-
ing to the si/.e of the furnace at work at the time.

There are at present fifty-six turning lathes, of all sizes, at work in this
establishment, several of which are what is called self-acting, t — that is, the
work has only to be placed in the lathe, and the tool set, and the maehine
does the remainder of the work with unerring accuracy and ease.

Planing machines arc extensively used here. The immense power of one of

* Abbreviation of " work-shops."

T " Wu may here with propriety say a word on the subject of self-acting-
tools, the more so because it is by means of these admirable adaptions ut
human skill and intelligence that we are giving to the present age its peculiar
and wonderful characteristic, namely, the triumph of mind over matter.

•' Hy whom or when the slkh principle was first introduced we need not now
enquire; suffice it to say that, by means of this prii ciiile, a most wonderful
substitute has been found for tlie human hand in the fabrication of almost all
parts of mechanism, whether the substance to be operated upon weighs tons
or grains. The slide principle is that which enables a child, or the marhhie
itself, to operate on masses of metal, and to cut shavings oil' iron, as if* it was
deprived of all hardness, and so mathematically correct that even Kuclid
himself might be the workman! It is by the slide principle that we are en-
abled to tix a steel cutter into an iron hand, and constrain or cause it to
move or slide along the surface of a piece of metal in any required direction,
and with the utmost precision. By means of this priiKriple all the practical
iliftieuUies hitherto encountered in the extending and improving of machinery
generally, were, at one blow, cleared away, lly its means the formation of
every geometrical figure became a matter of the greatest ease, and a princi-
plo of absolute ;md unerring exactness took the j.lace of manual dexteiity.

"The impulse given by the slide princi|ile, to the manufactures of this
country, in the construclion of machines for forming other machines, can
scarcely be imaginetl. On the application of an unerring principle to ma-
chine-ma/dug machinery — whicli totls may be defmeil to be — the mechanical
energy of Great Britain, sprang forward at unce to that supreme station
which she now maintains, and which, if her artisans keep pace with the
limes, she will ever retain." — Note l)i/ a Pruclieal Engineer,

these macbines may he imagined, when it is considered that the amount of
resistance against the c<lge of the knife which planes the iron is, in a large
machine, as much as thirty tons. This fact leads to the consideration of the
hardness of the instrument which has to encounter, for perhaps a day together
without becoming inoperative, this immense resistance. By means of this
admirable machine every variety of geonietrical figure can be jirodnced with
the most absolute accuracy — such as the plane, the cylinder, the cone, and
the sphere. And as all possible varieties of machinery consist merely of these
figures in combination, there is now every facility for producing whatever
may be required.

Besides the manufacture of every description of engineers' tools, another
branch of business for which this establishment has been erected, is that of
locomotive engines, a branch of business which is rapidly acquiring great
importance, and which will have few rivals as to magnitude. Lancashire
appears to be completely taking the lead in this manufacture, which, frotn
its very nature, can he carried on only on a large scale.

The room occui>ied by the steam, in a locomotive boiler, is ordinarily
equivalent to ten cubic feet. Ten cubic feet of water will proiUice in steam,
when expanded to the density of the atmosphere, as much as would occupy
18,000 feet of space. The steam is confined in the boiler by a pressure ihree
times that of the atmosphere, so that, escaping from its confinement, it eX'
pands to three times the space it there occupied.

ArcMectttra Domestica, von Alexis des Chateauneuf. Lirgj t
London : Ackermanii and Co.

Recent circmnstances have given thii volume atJditional interest
and recommendation, its author Itaving obtained the second |)reinium
in the cofnpetition for the Royal Exchange, owing to which liis name
is no lofiger a stranger to English ears ; and it may, perhaps, be wortli
while to remark tliat it had actually appeared prior to that event,
consequently it was not the distinction he had so obtained whiclt in-
duced M. de Chateauneuf to bring it out in this country. \Vh;ttever
may have been Ifis motive for publishing it here, we hope he will
have no reason to rejient having done so, although we dare not flatter
him by saying that he could not Itave selected a better market ; be-
cause, if tife truth may be spoken, there is far less encouragement
given to works of this class here in England than on the Continent.
However, we liope that M. de C. will find that there are exceptions to
the rule, and that his own case is one of them. Still, one inconveni-
ence we suspect has been occasioned by the work havifig been got up
here, namely, that the author has in consequence been obliged to
trust too much to others ; and although as far as correctness and in-
telligence of fortn go, he could not, perhaps, have employed a more
able engraver than Mr. T. T. Bury, we must say that delicacy of out-
line has been carried by him somewhat to excess. The breadth and
depth, or rather the fineness of the lities, is so uniform as to produce
a general faintness of effect ; whereas, variety of line would hava
given not only greater vigour but distinctness, also to tnatiy of tlies
plates. Mr. Bury would have done well to have looked at some of
the architectural subjects in Penier's work on decoration; which,
independently of thfeir intrinsic ititerest, captivate the eye at the first
glance, by the ufiiou of firmness and delicacy, wliich gives adequate
relief to every object. This tameiiess in the execution of the plates cer-
tainly does not att'ect the designs thetuselvcs, otherwise than it exhibits
them somewhat to disadvantage, atid sometimes is attetided with a
degree of insipidity that may unluckily chance to be attributed to the
subject, instead of the engraver's treatment of it. These retnarks,
we think, are called for, even in justice to M. de Chateauneuf, for there
are one or two designs, which, had they been better expressed, would
have been considered of more importance than they are now likely
to be.

To come now to matter of the plates, we scruple not to say that
although the designs display great inequality, on account of the very
great difference of their subjects, some of the designs being for very
small and unpretending buildings, while others afforded more than
usual scope for invention — they give evidence of real talent and
originality. Yet, being nearly all those of buildings executed for pri-
vate individuals, the author lias, in all probability, been more or less
checked or thwarted, if not directly by his employers, by circum-
stances he was obliged to keep in view, and which prevented him
from giving free scope to his own taste and imagination. What is
most important is, that many excellent ideas and suggestions may be
obtained from them. One of the happiest is that shown in plate 5 —
namely, a perspective interior of a Holstein barn converted into a gar-
den or rustic saloon, and retaining just enough of the original charac-
ter to show what has been the arcliitect's motive. It might, perhaps,
be pursued still farther, and thereby be found to lead to very much
more ; especially as regards the form of the ceiling, which tiiight
either througliout or in the centre compartment of such a room,
be carried up higher than the walls, in two inclined planes, following

34

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND AHCMITECTS JOURNAL.

[January,

(he s1o|)p of (he h\Tgc truss lirackcts suppditing the horizontal heaiiis
<jf the ceiling. The style is holh well imaginecl and veil kept up, ami
the wliolc is exceedingly jileasiiig, ronsistent, and liarnioniuus, tlio\igh
(ibnoxious to olijeclion tVom (hose who would indiscrimiuatelv ])rciscribe
every thing tliat is nut supported by actual precedent, aidiough indul-
gent enough touartls all wliicli is so authorized, no matter how bad it
may be in itself, (iranting the merit to be equal, or nearly so, in
other respects, we should say that a design which brings forward
Kome novelty is (lie belter suited for publication ; p.irficularly in
works of «hirh (he object either is or ought to be to bring forward
fresh ideas, and such mii/hxn of )>lan or decoraliun as may be turned
to account, by being adopted as a liint, without being cither copied or
even so treated as to lead at once to the source of it. This has not
always been so well attended to as it ought to have been, else we
shoulil not meet with so ni.niy piiblislied designs as we now do, which
aflford no other instruction than what might just as well be obtained
from almost anything else of the same kind. Such, we apprehend,
will be found to be the case with the subject following the one we have
just been speaking of; which consists of the jilan and perspective
view of a villa erected near Lubeck, for Dr. Buekholtz ; but which we
are by no means disposed to receive as earnest of what the author
would be capable of producing, if at liberty to abandon himself freely
to the impulses of his own taste. Most certainly will not bear com-
parison with that of an Knglish house of the same size ; the arrange-
ment is uniloubfedly sinijjle enough, but too simple fin' either conve-
nience or eli'ect, and would, therefore, have, perhaps, been all the bet-
ter, had some positive difficulty occurred, which it would have been
necessary to combat.

There is no doubt tliat such difficulty has mainly led to much of the
beauty and variety.of plan observable in Dr. Abendroth's house at
Hand)urg, built by the a\ithor between thi^ years l83'-!-(i, and which
liere forms (lie principal subject of his volume, being ilhistrated not
only by four plans, and elevation, and a section, Imt by two perspective
views, (one of the staircase, the other of a semicircular apartment),
lint also by several plates of details. The facade of this mansion or
jiaUizzo is in what may be called a Grecianized Italian style, much of
the detail being evidently of the former character, though the com-
])osition and its general features stamp it as decidedly belonging to
the latter. Although it is asliilar, or columnless, it is greatly more de-
corated tlian almost any sjiecimens of (be class we have in London —
much more so, in fac(,than two which are likely to be quoted as among
the very few that can be named at all, viz., Sutlierland House, and that
of the Duke ui Wellingtim ; since both of them are in an exceedingly
cold and bald style of architecture, and with a remarkable poverty of
feeling about them ; and extreme nieagerness and Hatnessof detail. It
is, however, in the interior of this mansion that the architect has
cheiHy manifested his talent, by much happy invention, contrivance,
and taste ; and a careful study of the plans will show that there is
a great deal of effect whicli is not very apparent upon a cursory in-
sjiecticm of them. So far from conqilaining that this single subject
occupies too many of the jilates, we conid have wisheil one or two
more had been deviated to it, either as additional sections, or exterior
views, one of which ought, of course, to describe the small oblong
hexagonal cabinet, with a semicircular alcove occupying the side
facing the ccn(re window; which unusual form — so pleasing in itself,
and (browing so nundi variety into the suites of rooms, lias been occa-
sioned enlirely by (he awkwardness of the site, and tlie disagreeably
sharp angle, (be (wo fronts would else make at that corner of the
building. The slair-casi- is exceedingly tasteful, and exhibits what
we take to be iiltogether a novelty — having never before met widi,
nor lieard of, any similar instance, namely, an internal pediment over
the colonnade, produced by the ceiling being composed of (wo in-
cliiK'd planes, each half of which, where lliey unite at their ridge, is
glazed lo serve the |Mirpose of a sky-light.

"The great saloon is adorned with casts of Thorwaldsen's frieze of
the- triumphal en(ry of Alexander into liabylon, the more valiiabh^
because the greater part of the casts were taken from tlie clay models
<d' the master.

" Tlie colossal busts of (he divinities in the niches of the stair-case,
are tlie work of Seigel. The images of the planets and lixeil s(ars of
the painted glass ceiling are from the designs of Edwin Specker.
The corner cabinet of tlie principal story is decorated willi arabes-
ques, after designs by the same master, painted in encaustic, by
JJlilde. Uiihtippily, it was too diHieiilt to represent such sportiv'e
fancies in their forms and colours in these outline plates."

Alter making some of the remarks we have done, it would be pre-
posterous in us now to say tliat the volume ccmsists entirely of the
author's best specimens; (linugli it contains mncli (hat is of great in-
terest, we are persuaded (hat M. d(? Clieteaimcuf could render it
more valuable ; and we hope that eitiier uuotlier edition, or anothe

collection, will alVord him the opporlunity of prolitiug bv our criti-
cism; and if our praise has been somewhat qualified, wliere we have
bestowed it has been sincere — and had there been less striking merit
in some of the designs, we miglit, possibly, have thought better of
others among them, than we now do.

Euclid' g Elements of Plane Geomelry, nilh Explanatory Appcndir, and
Siipplemailarij Propositions. By W. D. Cuolet, A. B. London :
Whitfaker and Co., 1S40.

Mr. Cooley, in producing this work, seems almost to wish to con-
tradict his own motto, that " there is no royal road to geometry," for
following in the steps of Playfair, he has considerably diminished both
the volume of the work, as well as the labour of the student. He has
carefully gone over the elements, and greatly reduced the amplica-
tions and reiterations, which made former editions prolix, and he h;is,
wherever it was possible, substituted the ordinary arithmetical ami
algebraical signs. As he himself says, without in the slightest degree
injuring tlie work he has reduced to r2(» duodecimo pages tlie Six
Books of the Elements.

Prefixed to the Elements are some remarks on the study of mathe-
matics, as valuable for the elegance of their style, as for the correct-
ness of their reasoning. The importance of departing from the ordi-
nary school rate of teaching cannot be too strongly enforced.

At the end of the work are some notes and exercises on the several
books, in which Mr. (,'ooley gives his reasons for inserting a few fan-
ciful definitions of Playfair. To Playfair we are much indebted, but
it must not be forgotten that he was often led away by his turn
of mind into mere \'erbiage, making distinctions without a dif-
ference.

Outline of the Method of a Conducting Trigonmetrical Survey, by Lieu-
tenant FrOiME, Royal Engineer, F.R.A.S., and A.LC.E. London :
Weale, 18 iU.

This is the production of one of (he Professors in the Military Col-
lege at Chatham, and supplies a great desideratum in professional
literature. Lieutenant Frome is both, practically and theoretrieally
qualified for this task, and has, therefore, produced a work valuable
fur its own original merits, and for its careful collation of the best au-
thorities. It shows very strongly the mischief of a government system
that a man of such experience and capabilities should be only a Lieu-
tenant, waiting like his less talented and less employed brethren for
the Procrustean reward of a rise by seniority.

The w'ork is well arranged, and of a high character going into the
practical details of the sulijeet much more deeply than its modest title
would induce the reader to believe. From a work of this nature it is
difficult to make any selection, but we intend at some future period to
extract two or tin-ee supplementary ])ortions. We must leive it,
therefore, to our readers to take our word for the valuable character of
Lieutenant Frome's work.

Ornamental Gaits, Lodges, Pallisading and Rails of the Royal Parks,
S)-c. Part 1, containing 25 Plates, Edited and Published by John
Weale.

The designs are iirinci|)ally the Park Lodges and Entrance G;ites of
Ucgent's Park and Hyde Park — the elaboratuly enriched gates to the
royal entrance of the New Palace, and the gates and railing to the
entrance of (he Sultan's Palace, at Constantinople. There are also
plans of St. James's Park, Kensington Gardens, and Regent's Park.
The whole are very delicately and beautifully engraved in outline.

The Guide to Railway Masonry, by Peter Nicholson.

This work is a complete treatise on the Oblique Arch, and contains
numerous engravings, illustrating the subject. The autliin' has de-
voted considerable pains in giving every detail by which a working
mason may be able to set out any part of the stone work of a bridge
with faciiity.

The Comic Latin Gramar has been sent to us, a work most admira-
bly illustrated. Whether the design be jest or earnest we do not
know, but it is likly to be an equal favourite with the elder as well a?
the juvenile part of the tonimuiiity.

1840.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

35

Voltaic Engraving. — Considerable: interest lias been lately excited in
t'le seientitie world by Mr. Spencer's new process of copying medals and
other works of art in copper, Iiy the agency of voltaic electricity. It is with
great pleasure that we bear that tliis process is already beginning to be cm-
ployed in certain of om* manufactures, ami that thus electricity will soon be
numbered amongst the agents employed for practical and useful purposes. In
our former account of Mr. Spencer's invention we spoke highly of the merit
of the discovery, and the probable uses to which it miglit be appUed: the
result has borne out our anticipations. In the manufacture of plated articles
ami ornaments, it is often desirable to copy ornamental work, such as leaves,
flowers, and arabesque mouldings ; this is both difficult and e.xpeusive, and
from these causes often impossiljlc. Mr. Spencer's invention, however,
affords a chca]i and easy method of performing what is retpiired, and thus,
ornaments on rich ancient plate are copied with the greatest perfection and
ease, and without injury to the original. The great advantage consisting of
tlic means of olitaining, at very small expense, a fac-simile in copper, of the
ornaments required to be copied, which may then be silvered or gilt. In
another art, the voltaic process is, we arc informed, being successfully intro-
duced. The makers of buttons often require to have two or three of a par-
ticular pattern to comjdete a set of which they have not the die. To take a
cast from the button is, for many reasons, inconvenient and objectionable ;
and the voltaic process, at the cost of a few hom's and very little labour or
expense, furnishes a perfect fac-simile of tlie button, which then only reqiures
to be gilt. It has been said that there is a difficulty in obtaining perfect
copies, and that the deposited copper is brittle, porous, and full of lioles ; bnt
whoever will read attentively the process of Mr. Spencer and follow it, must
succeed. Tlic cast of medals transmitted to us by Mr. Spencer, aitd also
those made by Mr. E. Solly and Mr. J. Xewmau, and cxhibitcil lately at the
meeting of the Society of Arts, were very pure ami compact copper, and the
surface was as brilliant and jicrfect as could be desired. The process, indeed,
is simple, and so far from its requiring, as is generally supposed, either ox-
pensive and complicated apparatus, or deep scientific knowledge, nothing can
be more easy, as the observance of a few rules renders the success of the pro-
cess quite certain, and, as regards the expense of the api)aratus, the whole of
it may be easily procm'cd for a few pence. — Atheyiicum.

IiA'W PBOCSEDINaS.

THE CYCLOIDAL I'ADDLE-WIIEEL.

Ml'. CaUoiroi/n patent rights which has been disputed ever since the patent
was (/ranted, leas brouyht on for trial in tlie Court of Comnton Pleas, on
Friday and Saturday, November 29 and 30, before Lord Chief Justice
TiNU.VL, and a Special J unj; it occupied tlie Court two days.

GAI.I.OW.VY AND ANOTHER V. BLEADEN".

The case on tlic part of the plaiutill's was that Jlr. Galloway had invented
an improved paddle-wheel for propelling steam-vessels, for which heolitaiued
a patent on tlie IStli of August, 1835. The invention consisted in a division
of the floats into segments, and so arranged in a eycloidal curve as to cause
all the five or six segments into which each float was divided to enter the
water at the same time, and at such an angle as most diminished the shock
occasioned to the vessel by each stroke of the paddle; \^■hilst the segments,
when the float reached a vertical position iu the water, became joined to-
gether as it were, so as to present an undivided surface to the water, and so
increase the power of propulsion ; ami lastly, the float, when passing out of
a vertical position, by becoming again divided, olVered less resistance to the
back water, and, consequently, less retarded the speed of tlic vessel than if
undivided. The action was brought against the defendant, as secretarj- to
the Commercial Stcam-p.acket Company, for an infringement of this patent ;
to which he pleaded, in addition to the general issue of not guilty, that the
invention was not new, as it had already been discovered and used by Mr. Field
in 1833; and that the specification was not sutlieiently intelligible to render
tlic invention of general utility to the public. Several models illustrative
of the alleged invention, were produced, and a comparison made bclwccn
them and models of the wheels of two of the defendant's vessels, the Granil
Turk and the Chieftain, to show that the latter were made upon the principle
of (he plaintiff's specification. Witnesses were also produced to prove tliat
workmen of competent skill could make the patent wheels from the informa-
tion contained in the specification, and that the improvement in question was
not known in the trade previously to the date of (be plaintifli"s patent.

The defendant's counsel relied mainly on the ground that the invention
had been discovered and used long before the date of Mr. Galloway's patent
by Jlr. Field, of the firm of Maudslay and Field ; and that gentleman, being
called as a witness, stated that in 1833 he constructed a Viheel on the im-
proved principle now in question, which, upon application to the Lords of
the Admiralty, he obtained a promise from them that he should have au op-
portunity of trying upon the first vessel that came to be prepared ; that op-
poitunity, however, was never afiorded him, but he made an experiment upon
a steam-boat, called " The Endeavour," plying between London and Eicb-
niond, by substituting one of his improved wlieels (of which a mode! was
produced iu court) for one of the Endeavour's wheels. At the end of six
weeks, however, the new wheel was removed and the old wheel replaced;
because, according to the statcuient of the captain, the boiler was uot large

enough for the luaehineiy to work it properly. Iu that same year he entered
a. caveat at the I'atcnt-oifice ; and in 1835 be made a great number of expe-
riments on the subject at his manufactory; but it was uot until the spring of
1836 that be fitted up a vessel called the Dover castle with wheels upon the
improved iiriiiciple, which were similar to the wheel tried upon the Endea-
vour in 1833.

The defendants, it was urged, bad twice acknowledged the plaiulilVs patent
right, having on one occasion purchased their patent wlieels for one of their
vessels, ami on another, in 1837, paid tbeiB 50/. for a licence to use theu-
specification iu constructing wheels for them.

The Lord thief Justice summed up the case to the jury, and left three
questions for their ileeision ; namely, whether there had been any iiifriiige-
mciit of the plaintiff's patent by the defeudaiits : w hether the iuventioii was
new and unused at the date of the plaiutirt"s iiaient ; and whether the speci-
fication was sufficient. With respect to the jiriueipal question, as to whether
or not the invention was new, the mere fact of a scries of experiments having
been prosecuted previously to the attainment of the olijeet to which they
were directed, could not prevent another inventor from availing himself of
the experiments, and then adding the final link which was necessary to bring
them to a successful issue. If, therefore, the jury thought that up to the
month of August, 1835, the date of the plaiiitilV's patent, all that Mr. Field
had done rested in experiments, those experiments afforded no ground for
disturbing the plaiutiff's patent, and in that case their verdict sboiUd be for
the plaintiffs.

One of the jury wished to ascertain whether the wheel tried ou (he En-
deavour was on the principle of the eycloidal curve ; or, if the model of it
were not iu evidence, whether it might not be examined and compared with
the original by some competent person.

This question gave rise to some discussion between counsel; ultimately,

The learned Judge said that, as the person who had made the model was
uot present, he could not allow it to go before the jury.

The jury theu returned a verdict iu favour of the plaintiffs, with uomiiial
damages.

PROCEEDINGS OP SCIEKTIPIC SOCIETIES.

ARCHITECTURAL SOCIETY.

INSTITUTED A.D. 1831— SESSION 1839-1840.

hth Nov., 1839. — William Tite, Esq., President, in the Chair.

This evening's meeting, the commencement of the session, was devoted to
a conversazione. It was very fully attended. The Secretary read the
report of the committee. The President read a highly interesting paper " ou
the sculptured writings found on the architecture of the Egyptians, with a
notice of the discoveries which led to their being deciphered."

■The attention of the meeting was directed to the several works of art
which were about the room — noticing more jiarticularly various models iu
terra-cotta, from Messrs. SoUin, Monton, and Co.'s cstablishnicnt, of the
Strand ; also a model of an Egyptian obelisk in black marble, together with
other models of buildings, iScc. Some origiual sketches by jilr. George
-Moore ; portfolios of prints, by Uawkins and others.

Report of the Committee,

Gentlemen — This evening being the opening conversazione of the session,
it may natnr.ally be expected by the visitors and members who have kindly
favoured us with their attendance, that the Committee should state tlie views
they, on behalf of the Society, intend to adopt iluring the present session,
and at the ensuing evening meetings; and they trust that the suggestions
which have been oll'ered, and which they propose to adopt for the further
carrying out of the objects of the Society may produce an increased interest
in their evening meetings, and may meet with tlie conetUTence and personal
exertions of the members generally for their fulfilment.

The Committee first remark that they have been successful in securing the
assistance of iMcssrs. .\ddams ami E. AV. 15r.aley, jim., (as Frofessors) to deliver
lectnrej.at the monthly meetings, and that on the intermediate evenings of
meetings they ]ia\ e procured the iiromise, on the part of several of their own
members, to ileliver lectures, or otherwise to read jiapcrs having reference to
matters of architectural practice and interest, the subjects of which, iu
all cases, it is proposed should be announced at the xirevious evening
meeting.

Secondly — the Committee considering that tliis mode of instruction (by
lectures) is provided, more particularly for their class of .Student Members,
propose, as a means whereby these advantages may be made the more avail-
able to the interest of tli.it class, that the Student Members should take
notes of the several Professors' lectures, and as a stimuhis to a due atten-
tion to this portion of the benefits olfered to them by this instifutiou, have
deterniinod tli.at the subject for the prize usually given for the best essay
should be "Tlie best fairly transcri!)ed notes of the Professors' lectures."

.\ud while on the subject of jirizes, the Couiiuittce have the pleasure to-
anuounce that they li.avc received the list of the subjects fioni th.e Sketching
Coiumitlee, for which the premiums w ill be awarded to the class of Student
Jlembers, at the close of the present session.

F 2

36

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[January,

The ])ri/cs to be .-iwavded are— in the first class, design, a pair of silver
eoniiia.ises ; scroiid class, drawing, Cliamhers's Civil Architecture (tiwilt's
edition) ; third class Tith vohnni? of Hiitton's Antiipiitics. licside these
prizes, whicli arc given hy thr' Society, the Committee have the pleasure to
announce that Mr. George Mair has signified his intention to award tlie
usual prize, entitled tJcorgc Mair's prize, to he given to tliat student who pro-
duces the greatest nnud)er of the most a|iproved skitches from gi\en
suhjects; the sketches to be made in accordance with tlie directions of the
Sketching Committee.

FIRST PRIZE.

The sulijcct for tlie design is a enncerf room, with the pufr.-ince. vestibule,
ami cloak rooms— the length of the concert room to be 8I> feet, witli a gal-
lery at one eml. The orchestra to consist of an isolated raised platform on
the ground floor.

Tlie sfvle to be either the Greek or Koman arcliitectme.

The drawings to consist of plan, longitudinal, and transverse sections,
front and side elevations, to a scale of l-(ith of an inch to a foot ; to be ac-
compiinicd by a prespective view, and the drawings to be finished in Indian
ink, or Sepia

SECOND PRIZE.

Tlie subject for the measured drawings is the colonade to Uuilington

House. , r r i ^

Tlie drawings to consist of the plan and elevation to the scale of 1-Cth o
an inch to a foot, with the plan and elevation of one compartment to thp
scale of I an inch to a foot, and details of the order J the real size.
The wliolc of tlie prizes will be inscribed.

The Committee, not unmindful of the advantages and encouragement the
Society receive from the Amateur Members, lieg to state they have deter-
mined'to extend the privileges of that class of members, and that those gen-
tlemen iiiav henceforth, in addition to their former jirivilcges, also h.ave re-
ference to.'and the use of, the Society's library and documents at all times
of the dav, without any restriction ; and flic Committee trust that tliis ar-
rangement, which places their privileges on a level with those of the mem-
bers themselves, so far as the use of the Society's rooms is concerned, may
meet the views and wishes of that portion of their niemljers.

In conclusion, the Committee have the pleasure to remark that during the
recess several additions have been made, both to the liliran- and mnseiim,
and it is hoped that, under the able counsel of their excellent President, the
united co-operation of the members themselves, and the flattering support
elicited from the attendance of the visitors, that the Architectural Society may
have the gratification of finding that the meetings of this session may lie
as advantageously and as satisfactorily concluded as those of its former
sessions.

\9fh Nov. — William Tite, Esi/., President in the Chair.
Mr. Blyth read a paper on commemorative monuments.
The President announced that Mr. John Blyth (Vice-President) had com-
municated his intention to give a prize of the value of live guineas
for the best drawing of a plaster east of the human figure, from some sjieci-
men in the possession of the Society. The prize to he awanled at the close
of the session, and to be described accordingly.

At the solicitation of the student members, the President announced the
subjects which had been ; selected for the prizes, and the resolutions
passed last session, assigning the qualifications for the competitors for the
prizes were referred to, and read as follows: — "That no studiMit shall be
allowed to compete for either of the prizes awarded by the society, who shall
have completed his articles, and that the society only award the prizes to
students under articles."

Also, " That the same regulation do apjily to any private jirize, which
may be offered for the further encouragement of the class of student incm-
bers."

3rd December, 1839. — William Tite, A'vy., President, in the Chair.
The President gave notice that the subject selected for Mr. lilyfh's prize
was the figure of " the Atlas." The figure to be drawn IS inches high, and to
he shaded in lines with pencil or ink.

The meeting was then favoured by a very interesting and instructive lec-
ture hy Mr. Ilemmiug, the subject of which was "Iron." *
llth Decemlter, 1839. — William Tite, Esq., President, in the chair.
The President gave notice that the Hon. C. Cavendish had given his assent
for the students to measure the colonnade of Biirlingtou House; and that,
hy the obtaining of which the coniniittcc were enabled to complete the list of
subjects for the prizes to be delivered at the close of the session.

■The President re.id the list of subjects as prepared by the committee, toge-
ther with file rules and regulations to be observed by the students
competing for tlie same. The list of subjects, iSic, was ordered to be
be hung up in the society's room.

The President announced a donation from the .\rcliutcctural Society of
Berlin of the third volume of the Architects' Album, published by that
body.

Mr. Addanis delivered a lecture "On the strength of beams to resist pres-
sure and impact." He referred to iron as well as wood ; and in the course
of the lecture gave some excellent tables, whereby an easy cakulation
might be made as to the weight any iron beam would carry.

Mr. Pocock explained to the meeting a new material be had manufactured
for the purpose of roofing in lieii of slating, &c., a specimen of which was
lying upon the table.

STEAM NAVIGATION.

THE 'CVCLOP.S' STEAM ENGINE.

On- Friday the Kith of December, this splendid vessel left her moorings at
Blaekwall, for a trial trip down the river, and to proceed to Shecrness to
t.ake in her guns and equipments. This being the largest steam frigate in the
world excited much attention, and thronglioiit her passage down the river,
WHS an object of great curiosity and admiration.

The trial was made under the directions of the Lords of the Admiralty and
their officers, several of whom \\ere on board, viz.. Sir C. Adam, the Secre-
tary of tlie Admiralty .\lr. Moore O'Pcrrall, Sir E. Parry, Sir William Symonds,
Captain Nutt, Captain Austin, fic. &-C.

ller performance was most excellent, the speed was found to be about 10
knots, or 11. I miles, her engines working 21 strokes; and it was universally
remarked that there was an entire absence of the unpleasant tremulous motion
so generally found in otiier steamers.

After proceeding close to the Nore Light, she turned and met the " Fear-
less" Admiralty steamer, which accompanied her down, and their Lordships
embarked in tiiat vessel to return to Woolwich, while the "Cyclops" pro-
ceeded up the Medway, and made fast to the buoy ofT Shcerness Dock-yard.
This vessel was ]ilanned by Sir WilUam Symonds, and built under his im-
mediate supeiinteiidanee at Pembroke dock-yard; she combines in a most
eminent degree the qualities of both sailing and steaming, together with such
improvements as have suggested themselves to her designer from the exiieri-
ence of the " Gorgon."

She is propelled by two engines of ICO horse power each, made by Meiirs.
J. & S. Seaward and Capel, on the new princijile adopted by them, by which
they dispense with the large cast-iron side frames and sway beams, the cross
heads, side rods, &c., &e., and thus bring the weights of these engines to 70
tons less than they would have been, had they been made on the common
beam principle; and thereby also effect a very important saving of sjiace in
the length of the engine room. These engines are fitted with a contrivance
(which is protected by patent) for warming the feed water on its passage to
the boiler, by causing it to jiass through a number of cojipcr jiijics around
which the spent steam from the cylinder circulates, on its way to the con-
denser ; by which means the teniperature of the feed water is elevated about
60 degrees' above the usual temperature, at which it enters a boiler, and a
saving effected in the consumption of fuel of seven per cent.

There are four copjier boilers for supplying the above with steam, made
entirely of copper, and ]ilaced in pairs, hack to back, with a fore and aft stoke
hole; these boilers are clothed on the system first used by Messrs. J. and S.
Seaward and Capel, and since introduced into the navy for Her Majesty's
steam ships, for the jirevcntion of the radiation of heat ; the advantages of
which were evident in the surprising coolness of the engine room. A baro-
meter placed against the side of the boilers only rose to 68", and another in
the stoke-hole to only 72' .

The boilers are fitted with a patent apparatus for detecting and indicating
the state of saltness of the water in the boiler; and also with a receiver and
apparatus for blowing out, when the time for that operation has arrived; by
means of which all danger from salting the boiler, or blowing out the wafer
too low, is entirely obviated ; and the boiler may be worked as long with salt
water as with fresh.

There are coal-boxes placed on each side of the vessel the whole length of
the engine room, and holding when full about 450 tons of coals. The con-
sumption of fuel by actual weight (the coals being weighed during the trial)
was 17 cwt. per hour, equal to 6 lbs. of coal per horse per hour.

The " Cyclops" is commissioned by Post Captain Austin, l.nte of the Medea,
being the only steam frigate in the navy besides the " Gorgon," of that rank.
Her engine room crew will consist of four engineers, twelve stokers, and four
coal trimmers. — The actual number of hands including officers and a lieuten-
ant's party of marines, will be two hundred and ten men.
Jler dimensions are as follows : —

Feet. In.

Extreme length 217 9

Length of upper deck ..-..- 19.5 2
Width across jiaddle-boxes - - - - -57 0
Length of engine room - - - - - - 6'2 0

Width of beam 38 0

Depth of hold 23 0

Engines — Diameter of cylinder 0 64

Length of stroke ...-.56

Diameter of paddle-wheel - - - - 26 0

Width of wheel 8 0

Weight of engines, boilers and water 280 tons.
Weight of coals for 2.'j days consumption, 4.')0 tons.

Draught of water with all her guns, ammunition, engines, coals and stores
for six mouths, 16 feet 6 inches.

Tonnage, 1,200 tons. — Power of engines, 320 horses.
The armament of the "Cyclops" will consist of — on the upper deck two 98
pounders; one at the stem, and one at the stern. — Eoiu' 48 pounders.
On the gun-deck, sixteen long 32 pounders.

1S40.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

37

Ri-ssiAN AVAR Stkamkr, " Pvlades," axd "Thk .Sons of thk TuAMrs."

Tins vessel is tlio last of throe which were ordered fnr tlie Russian govern-
ment, and of wliieh the two others have already proceeded lu their destina-
tion. .She went down the river on Wednesday the ISth nltimo. on an experi-
mental trip to (iravesend. aecumpanied by the Riis.sian Coiisnl and a lar^ie
party invited hy Messrs. Miller and Ravenhill, Die engineers Mio manufac-
tureil her machinery, In witness this first trial of her engines, we repaired
to Blackwall a little before 11 o'clock (ihc intended hour of deparluie). and
found that the Pylades had not yet left the docks, and that some time would
still elapse before she could be out into the river, in eoiisrtpience of a large
vessel Iwingthen on Ihe poiict of entering the docks. This delay aflorded us
an opportunity of observing the form of the steamer's hull, wh-eh was binlt
by Mr. Pitcher, from drawings hy Mr. Ditchburn, to whose talent as a naval
arehiteet, the model, if we may judge from the part which appears above
water, docs great credit.

During this time our attention was directed to a sm.all iron steam-boat,
liuilt by Mr. Ditchburn, and fitted with a pair of engines of 28 horse power
each, by Messrs. Mil'er and llavenhin. She was also going down to Graves-
end on her first trial, and \\hile waiting for tlie Pylades she made several
trips in front of the dock entrance to the admiration of all present. She was
evidently going at a great speed, but seemed at the same time to cleave the
i^ater with sueh ease as to cause no disturbance whatever in the lliiid for
there was neither .spr.ay nor any perceptible wave against her bows, which
speaks strongly for the correctness of the principles tollowed by Mr. Ditch-
burn in laying oft' her lines.

As .soon'as the Pylades could be got out of the docks, which was not until
about 1*2 o'clock, we proceeded down the ri\er. but owing to some little ad-
justments which it was discovered were still required to ije made in the en-
gines, in order to allow them to workup It) their power, the performance was
not so good as eould be wished, notwillistauding which the engines worked
vcrv smoothly, causing little or no vibration in the vessel. The time of run-
ning the measured mile at Long Reach was noted on our way down with the
tide, but against a rather strong head wind ; the distance was performed in
J min. '17 sec whicli gives a speed of nearly 10^ miles an hour over the
ground. To a.'certaiii the rate through the w ater it would le necessary either
to deduct or eliminate the velocity of tlie tide : but, as the engines were not
working up 10 their speed, it was not considered worth while to make the
experiment against the tide, so we went on to (iravesend. where we arrived a
little before 2 o'clock, and found the " Sons of the 'Vhanies" waiting for us.
As it had been arranged that the whole party should return to Blackwall on
board that boat, she was brought along side of the Pylades, and took the
company on hoard, ly which time it was 20 minutes past 2 o'clock; wo then
started, the Planet, belonging to the Star Company, having loft the pier a
quarter of an hour before. In the course of one hour we overtook her, and.
having gone a li tie farther, we jmt about and returned some distance to take
a gentleman on board, and passed the Planet again before we arrived at
Blackwall. having in the mean time gone completely round her. It is calcu-
lated tliat, in order to do this, we must have been going at the rate of 1.SJ to
Hmilesan hour through the water. This comparative speeil with the Planet
is the more astonishing as the ".Sons of the Thames'' lias two engines of
only 2S horse power each, whilst the PI net has two engines of JO horse
pow er each.

It may not perhaps he generally known that the iron steam boat, the Or-
well, now running between Limdon and Ipswich, which we believe equals, or
even excels the '* Sons of the Thames " in speed, was also (itteil with I'ligines
by Messrs. Miller, Ravenhill and Co.. ami built by Messrs. Ditchburn and
Co., so that we may confidently look forward to the time (which we believe
not to be far distant), when the speed of our steamers on the Thames shall
not only come up to, hut even exceed that said to be attained in America.
and that with a comparati vely small expenditure of power; for if it is not
notorious, it is at least known in this country, that the power put into the
American steam boats is most gigantic.

\ciii Iron Steamer.— On Satur.lay the 7th ult., the iron steamer "Enter-
prise," built and fitted out by Mr. Borrie. of the Tay Foundry, started on a
trial trin to New burgli. The model of the hull is certainly beautiful, and at
first siglit any one must be of opinion that the elements of forai calculated
to promote rapid sailing are possessed by the " Knterprise " in a very eminent
degree. The entrance and runs are very sharp, which, united with the great
bearing in the floors render the vessel buoyant, and secure an easy passage
through the water. The anticipations forineil other speed were fully realized.
She seiiled a measured distance of four miles marked on the shore in Ihe
space of 12 miuules. The tide was in her favour, and admitting it to have
been running at the rate of four miles an hour (although it was under tliat
rate) would make Ihe actual distance performed hy her over the ground at
tlie rate of 16 miles an hour, a speed that has not hitherto been attained by
any steamer, ll may be remarked that this speed is not .so much attributable
to the great pow er of the engines as to the form of that pari of the hull im-
mersed in the water ; and indeed Mr. Borrie states, that in making his cal-
culation for procuring a given speed, he placed a greater reliance on lessening
the resistance that would be experienced by Ihe vessel in passing through
the water for obtaining a high velocity, than by dependence on great pro-
pelling power. In this he has decidedly succeeded, as the result amply proves.
The vessel measures 280 tons, and has two engines of .3.3 horse power each,
which is a now er much less in projiorlion to Ihe tonnage than thai of many
sleameis wliich would not sail 10 miles an hour, and at the same lime having
a seetion-il area of resistance not greater than that of the " Knterprise." A
striking feature in the " Enterprise'' is Ihe consumption of smoke. This is
elfectert by a plain and very simple contrivance in the interior of the furnace.
The furnace bars instead of being straight are curved on the upper surface,
and are so adjusted in the furnaces as to form a veiy acute angle with the
front of the boiler at the furnace doors, whilst towards the posterior extremi-
ties they arc horizontal, in other respects lliey are similar to those in general
use The fvirnace covers deflect ahout 18 inches into the furnaces, within

two feet of the inner end. which forms a water chamber. The dislanee be-
tween the upper surface of Ihe coals when the furnaces are fully charged, and
the under surface of the dellector. is about six inches. The coals tor every
new feed h ing dejtisited in the anterior part of the furnace, which is fully
two-thirds longer than the posterior part or space behind the dellcclur. it
follows that the coals liefcu'c requiting to be pushed back into Ihe space be-
hind the deflector must h.ive become very highly ignited and the component
parts w'hich cause the emission of smoke entirely disappear. Then Ihc pos-
terior lire chamber being always charged with fuel w hich only emits a |)Ure
and intense flame, the smoke arising from the coals in the anterior chamber
having to pass umlerneath the dellector come immediately into conlaet with
the flame in the posterior chaiuber, and having to pass through in us way
to the flues is exposed to its most intense action, whereby it is immediately
consumed. The dimensions of the " Enterprise" are,— Length of keel, 116
feet ; breadth of beam, 21 feet ; depth of hold, 8 feet. — Dundee Courier.

Steam Nnvif^ntiov aeYosa the Atlnntie. — Early next spring, and during the
year, there will be placed on the several lines three new steamers to ply be-
tween England and New York, and Mr. Cunard's steamers to Boston, by the
way of llilifax. will go into operation. Two of the three, Ihe Ncic York and
Presiiietit — the formenfor the Transatlantic Company, and the latter for the
British Queen Association — are nearly ready for launching ; and the Nem
York will jn'obably leave Englaiui in April or Ma\'. and the Presiiiet/t in Jun
or .luly. The third is now building for the Great M'estcrn Company, andwil
be construc'ed ol iron. .She will not be ready before next .September or Oc-
tober. These, together with Mr. Cunard's, which will commence running in
May next, will keep open a free communication with Europe without the aid
ol " w indy '' vesseki. Together, they w ill form a line so that there will be two
departures from England and two from the United States every monih. In
adilitiim to thes!% the keel of another steam ship, to he of 1,4-30 tons, and 130
horse-power, has already lieen laid fnr the Transatlanfie Steam Company, to
run in eonneelion with Liverpool and New York. .She will not be finished
before Ihe spring of 1841 : and also bv that lime there will be two large and
splendiil steamers ready to start from ihe Clyde, and run across to New York.
With steamers, as with sailing packets, the builders improve with every new
vessels. It it said by those who have seen the plans of the new steamers,
that the improvements adopted will ])laee them oil a par with our packet-
shins in point of eomlort. &<■. The Atlantic will soon lie as thickly doited
Willi steain-shi[is as with sailing vessels. — Xew York paper.

Port of Fleetwood. — The commissioners from the Court of Exchequer, sent
down for Ihe purpose of surveying and setting out the boundaries of the Port
of Fleetwood, fini.^hecl iheir task ycslerday se'nnight. They commenced on
the previous ^hmday to survey the coasts and creeks between Lancaster and
Preston, and dotenniued the limits of the port as follow ; — To eominen<e at a
run of water called Ihe Hundred lOnd. aliout two miles to Ihe west of Ilesketh
Bank, continuing up to Preston, thence along the coast on the north side of
the river to Lytham. round the coast to Blackpool, and on to b'leetwood ;
thence to the river Broadfleet, four miles froai Sea Dyke, including both sides
of the Wj re, and the river Broadlleet. — Prestoii Pilot.

The British Queen is not intended to le started for New York on the first
of .lanuary, as previously advertised, Ihe proprietors being of opinion that
one very serious impediment to th • speed ol Ihe vessel is in the inferior con-
struction of the paddle-boxes: anrl, acctirdingly, a new description oi padt.lle,
called "The Rceflng Paddle," is about to be substituled — this new padille
being the invention of the celebrated Mr. Samuel Hull. — Midland Counties
Herald.

ENGINEERING 'WORKS.

The null Dock cotnpamj are ahout applying to Parliament for m.iking an
extensive dock and entrance for the large class of steam ho.ats, &c. on the
east side of the river Hull.

Jl'oolirirh Doct-i/nrd. — In the Noveinlier lunnber, we inserted a p.aragi'aph
from the " Times,"' stating that the new dry dock, making at \Voohvich, and
other works, were under the charge of Lt. Deiinison ; upon enquiry, we find
that the new dry dock now on hand at the east end of the yard, is being
constructed under the direction and superiuteudance of Mr. Walker, by
Jlessrs, Grissell and Peto.

New Pier at Alarfsate. — This pier, which is intended to rival that of Rams-
gate, as a refuge harbour for her Majesty's steam-vessels. Sec. is, we hear,
to commence at flie ^\'ayland and Eulsam rocks, from the facility arising
from their receiving the piers on a foundation of solid chalk, exiending 1000
feet from the gateway to the sea at Wostbrook. The second point, opposite
tlie fort, next the East Cliff, is intended to be .300 feet, leaving an opening
for vessels to the extent of 400 feet. — Adeerliser.

Cowes. — It is now expected that Sir .lohn Ronnie's plan for deepening the
Medina will be carried into execution. A spacious town-quay will also he
erected, and it is rumoured that !lio members of the Royal Yacht Squadron
are about removing Iheir rendezvous from this 'place to ihe anchorage off'
Norris. on which estate a splenihd club-house is to be built for the accommo-
dation of its members. — Hampshire Teleffraph.

Proposed new road from Perth to Elfin. — A meeting was lately held at
Elgin on this important subjoel, when a number of piopriotors and gen-
tlemen of the town attended, including Ihe Duke of Richmond. Mr. A.
Mitchell, civil engineer, Pertli. attended with a report he had drawn up on
the subject, as to the probable expense. &c. of the new line. The estimalos,
framed on a minute survey he calculated would not exceed £23,000. The
probable revenue to he derived from tolls, Mr. Mitchell estimated in all at
£1530. After Mr. Mitchell's statement and report, the meefing pas.sed a
series of resolutions, appointing a committee to prepare a memorial to Go-
vernment soliciting pecuniary assistance, as also the aid of the members of
Parliament connccled with the northeru counties and hurghs.

as

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[January,

Slmrt-hum Ifarhour. — Tlio iK'U' pier at Iho ontrancc of tlic Irirboui' has been
carried a con^idtM-ahle (lislanro inio liie sea, and tlionjii it Mill d'Uiljlle'^.'i
impriivc llie Iiarl)c)iir. it elueks tlic IruvrllintI on the Ijcacli Ijcluei'ii Brighton,
and in case o^ liigli tides mtiy ueeasioii consideraljle iucoiivei;ieiieo. — Biii^htdn
Herald.

Trignmoulh Briilge. Devon. — It may l,e ficsli in the fecolleclien of our
readers that a very coiisidi'raMe port on of this bridge suddenly fell iuJune
1B3H. caused by tlio destruction of the timber piles from the ravages of the
worm. 'J'lie restoration Avas only cnmmencod in the early part of the autumn,
by direction oi Her Majesty's C'ummissioncrs for Kxcliequer Rill Loans, from
ll'ie plans of Messrs. Walker ahd Iinrpes. If we mny jndi^e fioin the progress
airciKly made, and the number of workmen emi'loycd. there is every pros|)cet
of the bridge being agtiin made iiassaiile to the public in the course of a
couple of months. We regret having omittrd noticing this work before, as
ue attach .greater hiterest to works of this description (after failure) llian in
the (irst construction. We hope a;jain to refer to this subject witli ;i more
ilelailed account of the plans adopted.

PROGRESS OF RAILViTAVS.

Ciiiiiul Juiwticiii Itailirai/. — A coud deal of inconvenience and trouble h ere
occasioned a few days ago to the passengers on the railway, and the servants
of the company, hv " a slip" or tall of a great portion of bank, about seven
miles on this side Birmingham. At that point there is a very deep cutting,
the bank on one side of w liieh. liaving been loosened by the late incessant
rains, was sliaken down by the passing of the six o'clocl^ train, on .Saturday
morning last. The engine was partially covered by the mass of earth, but
providentially no iiijury amis sustained by any of the passengers. Another
on.;ine A\as oljtained to foj'ward the train. ui)ieli was. of c urse. delayed con-
siderably beyond its usual lime, as were al.'O the other trains which followed :
the jiassengers and luggage having to he transferred from one train to .another
bi'fore they could proceed, both lines of rails being entirely covered A\ith a
vast ((uanlily of earth. We understand that the line was not cleared so as to
allow of the passage of trains until Monday.

Great. Western RaUway.- — The A\'orks of this railv\av, between Diidast and
Farringdon, are so fer advanced, that we understand the directors confidently
e.xpect to open the line nearly thirty miles beyond Reading, about the same
time as to that town itself ; in which case, upwards of sixty miles of the
London division w ill be open for public use in the spring, and the line between
Bristol and Bath at the same time.

Nnrtli Mhlhniil RailiiHUi. — The contracts for the Eckinglon, Chesterfield,
and .Soulli \\'ing(ield stations have been lot to the following parties : — Eck-
ington, to Messrs. Smith and Brown, of .ShelTleld ; Chesterfield, to JTessrs.
Leatlier and Waring; .South Wingfield. to Mr. Radford, of Alfreton. Total
amount, j£7,000. The Helper contract is not yet let. — Derlni J!ej>iirler.

Hull find Sclbjj Raihvaij. — On this line all the works continue to be prose-
cuted as ttipidly as the very unfavourable weather allows. About two-thirds
of the whole of the iron wiirk of the supcrstnieliire of the bridge over the
nver Ouse. at Selby. are now on the spot, and the nu'n arc busily engaged in
li.singit; the whole of the ironwork of the bridge over the river Uerwent,
iiciir Wresscl Castle, has arrived there, and two of the ribs are fixed across
llie river, the greatest portion of the entire length of therail'.\ay is ballasted,
and the contractors are busily engaged in laying the permanent v.ay. We
luidersland that it is highly probable llii.-. railway will be eomplete.l by Mid-
siunoier next, and that in the course of the year, there will be a complete
railway communication between Hull and London. — Mtillaiid Cimiit/cs Herald^

(ilasgow and Aijrshire Railway. — It is truly gratifying to find that the
highest anticipations formed of the success of tliis railway, prcmiise to be
fully rctdir.ed. as a fraflie on the limited p(U'tion of the line tilretidy ojiened
s being created, far more extensive than the most san.guine etinld have ex-
ipecled. Indeed, this undertaking atfords a more than ordinar)" illustration
of the fact, that facility of eonununication srcures traflic lor itself. Before
the line was opened to [rvine. tlie intercourse between these places was so
very liiniled, that ijublic aceoinmodalion did ncd demand more than a one
bor>e coach, thrice a Meek. Now, however, that railway coa(dies run to
and from Irvine thrice a day, and there is a coach stationed at Irvine to
(.iiry forward |)assengers to (dasgow, this route has become quite a thorough-
i.ire. ;\nd well do the shareliokicrs of the (ilasgow and Ayrshire R.^ilway
nieiil so Mattering a prospect of the success of a speculation fraught with
sikIi unspeakable advanttiges to the west of Scotland. The recent return of
the iiiunber of |>asscngeis that have travelled trom Ayr to Irvine, during the
three months ending the .Tib current. (3li.S32) must give them great confi-
dence, that when the entire line to Glasgow is opened, the trafiic upon it will
;;reatly exceed the cslimtile laid bef re parliament. Indeed, we liclievc that
the ]iaili;imentary proof went no further than to warrant i]io aiininil traflic in
pa>engers of 32.000, 4,83'2 less th.an have already travelled in three months!
The line from Irvine to Kilwinning being now on the eve of completion, will
be opened in .lanuary next, when a large increase of trallic must necessarily
follnw, from the surrounding populous districts, including the towns of Dairy,
KiU'irnie, Beith, Stevenson, S.iltcoats, Anlros.san, &c. The entire line to
i.las-.;ow, .as is now jireliy well known, is expected to be opened in June,
IK 10.— ./;/!■ .Iilvertiser,

Niirlh Midland Railway. — The Leeds station, or terminus, we understand, is
to be let by contract to-morio.v. The Belper station, we hear, is to be built
by Hugh M'Inlosh. b'.sq. The bridge for the turnp'ke ro.Td, near Diiflield,
alreaily known as Moscow -bridge, is nearly completerl. Milford tunnel is
eouipleted. the last brick remaining only to be bud. The enormous mass of
masonry at Belper is rapidly progressing, and the tem[:orary bridge over the
wide part of the Dervvent, called Bclper-pool, is taken up. iinil the permanent
one, nearly 600 teet long, iiromises to be eomi)lctc before New \ etir's Day.
The new bed for llicnvcr, ucar Amber-Biate, is proceeding with great aclivity ;

and the immense briilge of live arches, at the same place, promises completion
soon, as we ob.erve centres fixing for the arches, the greater part of two years
having been spent, night and day, in getting in the foundations and piers.
On the embauKments in this neighbourhood, great portions of tiio permanent
way are laid. The difficult undertaking at Bull-bridge, m passing over the
turnpike road and under the bed of the canal at the saine time, has been
easily ncconijdished, and is all but finished. We observe here water and land
piled four stories, one on the other, in a singular manner, thus: — there is
first the river Amber, over which goes the turnpike road ; over this goes the
North Midland Railway ; and over the r:dlway flows the Cromford canal.
Such a eoiTiplication of bridges is seldom to be met with. At the station here
(Derby) the grcatfst activity prevails; and there is every indication of an
e irly opening of this line in the spring. A committee of directors, with K.
Stephenson, Esq., arrived here by a special train on Monday last, to inspect
the works. — Derby Reporter of Thursday.

Crlnnrrster and Birmingham Railroad. — The works of this railway, in the
neighbourhood of Cheltenham, contiiuie to progress most satisfactorily. The
extensive range of buildings near the oilices ana lodge, already erecteJ, which
are designed tor the engine-houses, workshops, S:c., of the depot, are in a
\eyy forward state, and, unless retarded by the weather, will l)e ttU roofed
over in the course of a few days, A powerful locomotive engine is now con-
stantly empUiyed in removing ballast, &e., along the line between Cheltenham
and Tewkesbury, which portion is so far ready for use, that it is the intention
of the directors to make their first experimental trip along it some day next
week. The ultimate prospects of this company seem to be most promising. —
Bristol Mercury.

Eastern Counties Railway Company. — The bridge built by this company over
the brook leading from Brentwood to M'arley is now finished, and persons
travelling that way will find the hill considerably lessened. — Clielmsfnrd
Chronicle.

Croydon Raihrai/. — The first six months from the opening of this line ter-
minated on Ihe4tli inst. ; during that period 311.310 passengers have travelled
on the railway, and the money received is ilT.GljS Il.s. Sd, — Sun.

Blarhwall RaiUeay. — We understand that the Directors have determined
upon fitting up an electro-magnetic telegraph along their line, similar to that
which we recently noticed as having been ibr some time in successful opera-
tion on the Great Western Railway. In addition to the facilities wliich such
an arrangement will afford in the working of the railway, (an arrangement
peculiarly adapted to this line, as w c shall take a future opportunity of show-
ing.) the public will be benefitted in no small degree by its application to
other purposes. For instance, a vessel coming up the river can, before reach-
ing Woolwich, easily communicate by si.gnals with the railway terminus at
Blaekwall. and the information being inste.ntaneously conveyed to the Fen-
church-street station, in the immediate vicinity of the great seat of business,
parties who are expecting the arrival of friends will at once be prepared to
meet them in town, without the necessity of waiting fm- hours about docks
and whar's; or, if so inclined, can join them at Blaekwall, almost as .soon as
the vessel has reached that point. In the case of s eam-boats especially, tliis
will be of great advantage as there can be no doubt that the « hole of the
pas.^engers by these vessels will at once avail themselves of the railway to
avoid tlie always teilious. and sometimes dtnigerous, navigation of the I'uol.
We are glad lo find that the works of this short but most important line are
proceeding with much vigour, and that the prospects of the Company are in
the iiighest degree satisfiiclory. — Railway Times.

London and Briglilmi Railway.— >ih;co. the opening of the tunnel on the
Shoreham branch of the railw'ay, the cutting on New I'mgland Farm has
made ra)>id progress; and judging from Ibe appearance of the works, we
should suppose that two or three weeks wcmld be sullicient to complete iC.
The remainder of the line, at the Shoreham end, w ill, we imagine, take even
le s lime, as only a very fevf yards of embankment remain to be made, and
the permanent rails are already laid on the level of the meadows immediately
contiguous t,i Shoreham. A great number of spectators assemljle at New
England daily, to witness the ingress and egress of the engine to and from
the tunnel. The viaduct over tlie New England Road, for the London line,
is nearly completed ; and tlie pro,giv.ss of the works there, is, we learn, equally
rapid and satisfaciory with thato't the works on the Shoreham Br.anch, nearer
home. — Br i fill ton Gazette.

(Ireul Western /?f(//H'oi/.— The progress of lliis immense national undertaking
is beginning now to be a work of admiration. Bclwixt Loivlon and Bristol
there are many points of observance showing the wonderful daring results
of science which our forefathers never could have antieip;vted. The won-
ders of Egypt dwindle into nothing in the comparison. 'Inere are gigantic
labours without use. the mimuments of pride and folly ; here n.sc, ornament,
and durability seem to try lo surpass each olher.and their several excellences
are so adjusted as lo show the foundation of future national prosperity be-
yond all jiower of calculation— not only the prosperity of trade by the rapid
conyeyance of merchtindisc. but intellectual prosperity, national progress as
to mind, by bringing all parls of the empire into more frequent intercour.-fe
wilh large towns, and especially with the metropolis. The most costly por-
tion of the line will be the tunnel at Box. This will ever be in itself a mag-
nificent proof of the skill and enterprise of the age ; but these can never be
truly esiimalerl. wilhout a knowledge of the overwhelming dilfieulties en-
countered in its progress. Uf these no evidences w ill be presenlcd by the
work il.self, they will l.'C matters only of history. The compmy deserve high
ap;,r drition if not nation,il grali;ude for their liberal ende ivour to iniike
every point of observance tin additiontil Ixi.auty lo its locality. Even in Bath,
Ibe most beaulirul cily in Kngland, where every thing seenn to harmonise in
splendour, even here we find the line (d' works adjacent addiii'' to Ibe general
lungnifieence. The centerings of the arch over the Wells-road, at the bottom
of Hollow, ly, hivve been removed, and erected at the phice where the r.ailway
will cross Claverton-strect. The arch and the two golhiit lowers are pro -
noune.'d to be excellent specimens of workmanship ; ami the entire viaduct,
from the taste cviucctl in its dcsimi, will form, when completcvl, 'luite an or-

1840.]

THE CIA^L ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

39

iwmont tu tlie iieiKliljiHiiliooil. The ciilliji- ilam in tlie Avuii. in uliicli iho
miildle siipporl of Ihc iiroposcil bridge will be eivcte.l, has not yet been cleared
of water. Init every effort is being made to effect that object. At the tunnel
near Ralhwick-terraee the workmen have commenced the formation of a per-
manent wav ; and near llimpton-row great advance has been made during
the last live or six weeks. At Hampton and the fields beyond, the cuttings
and embankments are in a forward stale. Close by the stone bridge, between
Hampton and Bathwiek, the works are also beginning to alter the face of the
landscape. — Biitli Journal.

South Enslerii Ilailma/.— The rapid progress of the works is giving quite a
lively aspect to I'olkestone. The bridge across the Canterbury and Dover
road is also completed; and the advancement of the hne on either side is
going on in a highly satisfactory manner. — Dort'r Chronicle.

Li'cih mill Manchester Ralhmji. — Uapid progress is making in the con-
struction of the tunnel at the summit lietween Liltleborough anil ."<o Imor.lon,
and it is gener.ally expected that the whole line will be conipleied in the
autumn of the year 1 840. Tlio numlxM- of passengers now travelling in the
railway carriages betv\'cen Manchester and Littleborongh is perfectly amazing
and approaches nearly to 3,000 a day ; nor is this to be wondered at, « hen it
is considered tiuit it is actually cheaper for a labouring man to ride upon the
railroad than to walk upon the higmvav. as the journey of thirteen miles is
performed in half .an hour by steam, which would require four h(}Urs for a
foot passenger, and the fare for travelling in the stand-itp-carriages amounts
only to one penny a mile. — Derby Reporter.

rjE-W CHURCHES, &c.

Warw'idcshlre. — A new Church is about to be erected at Attleborough, in
the parish of Nuneaton, on a site the gift of the Earl of Harrowby. There
.are upwards of three acres and a half of land, which it is his lordship's w ish
should be laid out advantageously for the benefit of the clergyman, and it is
in contemplation, reserving saflicient for the church, burial ground, parsonage'
house, croft and schools to form a street of comfortable duelling liouses, the
proceeds of which are to form part of the endowment. It is designed by Mr.
Thomas L. Walker, in tlie early pointed style, with a handsome triple «est
window, ami a small tower at the south west angle, containing a cloclc-room,
belfiy, ringer's floor, and a staircase leailing to a west g.allery. At the east
end is a semicircular apsis, on each side of which, against the east wall of the
cliurch, the pulpit and reading-desk are placed. It is cruciform in plan, a
i-obing-room and a porch forming the arms of the cross. The dimensions of
the body, inside the walls, are 73 feet by 39 feet, and is calculated to accom-
modate 472 persons, viz. 112 in pews, and 3G0 on benches.

jill Saint's Church, Spicer Street, Mite End New Town.— On the 2M\ of No-
vember this church, erected and endowed at the expense of the Metropolis
CInirches Fund, was consecrated by tlie Bishop of London. It is designed
in the Norman style by Mr. Thos. L. Walker, and has a tower, situate on
the South side, tabled off and terminated in a neat square bell turret with an
octagonal roof, llie body of the church metisui'es 74 ft. G in. liy 54 ft. (i in.
in the clear inside ; the roof is in one span, with a queen truss ojien to the
straining piece, it is slightly ornamented, and the timbers are chamfered ; the
tie-beams are supported by brackets springing from ornamental stone corbels,
Tlie pulpit, designed it is presumed to Imitate stone, by the details made use
of, is rather inappropriately grained heart-of-oak ; it is chaste in style, open
underneath to admit of an enuance into the re.ading-desk. The altar piece
is cleverly managed, at a small expense, by arched recesses being formed in
the brickwork,; wherein the Commandments, the Lord's Prayer, and the
Belief, are written in appropriate but perfectly legible characters, the initial
letters in red and blue, the rest in black on a stone-coloured ground. The
chancel is lighted, not from the east as usual, but from the north ,and south ;
by this means the ghire, which often proves distressing to the congregation,
« hile regarding the preacher, is avoided, while the rays of light, falling upon
the alt.ar table trom the south, during the greater part of the day, must tencl
to produce a pleasing effect. Attached to the Church is a spacious vestry,
24 feet by lli feet, w ilh a neat Norman tire-place executed in IJath stone, and
is provided with coal -cellars, &c. Ther« is accommodation for 1110
persons: the church and vestry were contracted for by Mr. West, of Can-
non Street Koad, at £4095.

New Churches in H'otverhanipton. — On Friday, 22 Nov., the plans for a ne\r
church in Horsley Fields, one ot the intended three new churches in Wolver-
hampton, were submitted to a meetnig of subscribers, in the large room in the
Swan Hotel. The plans were 21 in number, and many of them very elegant
designs: they were all ui the Gothic style. Five of them were selected for
further consideration, and were exhibited to the subscribers at large, at the
same place. — Stajfontshire Advertiser.

FUBIjIC buildings, Acc.

Warwickshire. — All extensive Hospital, or range of almshouses, is in course
of erection at Bedworth. near Coventry, from the designs and under the su-
perintendence ol Mr. Thomas L. M'alker. The main building forms three
sides of a cloistered quadrangle, which sets back 90 feet from the street ;
towards the street, on the right hand is a porter's lodge, and on the left a
tenement to correspond, each with a neat oriel window, leavin"; the quad-
rangle open to view, and an iron palisade, with ornamental brick piers and
stone caps, complete the street frontage. It is calculated to lodge 40 pen-
.sioners, 20 m.ale and 20 female, each h.aving a separate bedroom and pantry ;
a sitting-room is provided for every two. In the centre of the quadrangle is
a spacious dining-room for the governors of the charity, a committee-room,
a steward's office, and a kitchen, with accommodation fur a nurse. The

dining-room is in the form of the ancient halls, and Ii:is four bays attached
to it : the porch occupies one, the butler's pantry another, and the two others
are open to the room : an orniimental screen at the lower end parts off the
passage leaihng from the porch to the committee-room, 8cc.; over the two
front b lys are strong-rooms for deeds, one opening into the steward's office,
the other is asceniled by a circular stone staircase from the hall itsidf. From
the roof of the h;dl rises an ornamental bell turret, and clock-room in tlie
form of an ancient Louvre. The whcde is designed in the la'e Gothic style,
(he windows being square-headed, with niullions and transoms, except those
of the hall, which are four-centre-pointed, with mullions and tracery. The
whole is to be faced with red bricks, and to have stone dressings to the doors
and windows and stone motings. Mr. .lohn Toone, of Ix'amington, is the
contractor for all the w ork.«, except the hall r.iof and clock turret, at £8.51)0.
rjanhwcri/, Carmartlicnshire. — The committee appointed to examine and
rei'Ort upon the designs for a market, met in ticcor.lancc to an advertisem.'iit
oIUm ing a premium tor the best design, have adopted the design of G. Clin-
ton, architect of Cardiff.

iaiSCEI.LANEA.

EFFECTS OF LARGE FIRES IN PREVENTING STORMS.
(Translated from the French.J

M. Matteucci had pointed out the practice recently introduced into a
parish of Koinagna of lighting large tires for the pin-pose of preventing the
formation of storms, and remarked that during three years that this practice
had been adopted, the parish, which until then had every summer been ra-
vaged with hail, had been spared, while the neighbouring parishes had not
escaped.

M. Arago, when quoting tlils fact in his notice upon thunder, {Jmiuaire
(III, Bureau des Longitudes, 1839^, remarked that such short experience
would not allow us to consider the residt conclusive, and added that more
exact data would doubtless be obtained on this subject, by comparing with
those of the neighbouring agricultural districts, the meterological observa-
tions of certain districts in which high chimneys and large factor}' tires arc
used are very numerous. This comparison, said he, had been already made
in England, but the results although in favour of the preservative influence of
large tires, did not show this influence free from doubt. In fact high fur-
naces in Euglaiul are particularly numerous, where there are many mines ;
tlie rarity of storms therefore in these places may just as well be attributed
to the nature of the soil as to the action of the large fires, which are required
for the reduction of the minerals.

M. Matteucci has now pointed out another locality in which this influence
of metallic veins is not mixed up \ritli that of large fires. While travelling
in the .Apennines, he found that those districts in Hhich charcoal and sulphur
are prepared, are not much subject to storms, and are free from hail. He was
told that about five years ago a hail storm burst over the piu'isli where the
sulphur furnaces are, but the place where they arc established was preserved.
The place mentioned here is Perticaja, near Rimiuo, where there is a number
of these furnaces.

Mr. CocJcerill's Manufactory. — Advices from Liege state that Mr. John
Cockcrill has set out for St. Peter.-iburgh, taking withhim one of the chief
persons employed at h s works, and three engineers. The I'auperor Nicholas,
it is added, has advanced Mr. Cockcrill 10,000,0001'. at 5 per cent, secureil on
all his establishments in Belgium, Russia engaging to purchase tinnually. to
a certain amount, machinery to be manufactured in them, which is to uimi-
ni.-.h annually, as the Kmperor, assisted by Mr. Cockcrill, shall ha\e created
similar establishments in his own dominii ns. — Midland Counties Herald.

Rouen. — A design li r a tonil) to receive the heart and statue of Ivichard
C'o'ur de Lion, in the style of the 12th century, has been prepaicd by M.
Deville, conservator of monuments in the Cathedral of Kouen. It is proposed
to place it in the Chapel of the Virgin in the cathedral, near the tomb of
Cardinal d'Aniboise ; and it is supposed that the execution of it will begin
bef(pre the end of the present year. — French paper.

Encroachment of tlie Sea. — The sea, it is said, is encroaching upon every
part of the Cornish coast. In the memory of many persons still living, or
but lately dead, the cricketers were unable to throw a ball across the Wes-
tern Green Ijel ween I'enzance and Newly, which is now nut many feet in
bre:idth, and the grandfather of the late vicar of Madron is known to have
received tithes from the laud under the cliff of Penzance. At a very remote
period, we are assuri .1 by tradition, that a considerable part of the pre.sont
bay especially that comprehended within a line drawn from near Cudilon
Point, on the east siile, to Mousehole on the west, was land covered with
wood, but which, by an awful convulsion and irruption of the sea, was sud-
denly swept away. There is a letter extant, written in the reign of Charles II.,
to the then proprietor of an estate, which included part uf the Western Green,
and that part is there estimated at 3H acres of p.isturage,— Pe«x«Hcc Gazette.

Egypt.— Machmes have been brought from Kngland to drain the marshes
at Alexandretta, where the stagnant waters fill the country wiih malaria. The
same cause propagates fever in the Egyptian army at Jlarasch, Adana, and
other places, 'ihe hospital service is very badly arranged.

Royal Beli^ian Steamers.— The Belgian Government, in the budget of the
Minister uf 'Public Wo:ks, alluding to the marine, notifies that "a separate
project will be submitted to the Chambers to meet this expense, whether by
nietins of a transfer, or by m/ans of a special cr.'dit, destined to complete the
system of the railroad by some steam-boats." This measure of M. Nothumb,
which is considered, even by the leaders of the Opposition, to be the ablest
one projected since the .settlement of the country, is the favourite of M. de
Tlieux, and said to be impressively sanctioned in the highest quarter.

40

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[January,

tlST OP NEVr PATENTS.

r.RANTKl) IN KNCI.AXD FROM 2nD DECKMBKU TO 24tiI DKCEMBEIl, \S'.W.

fii;oii(ii: Davky, of lilandiulno. County of Carnarvon, Mining Agent, for
" rt« Improvrd nioilr of applying irulcr-pmrer." — Sealed Uecember 2 ; six
montlis for enrolnie)it.

LttKK HKnKRT, of Iiirmlnq:liani, l*atent Agent, for ^^ improvements in thf
mec/ta/iiym ami procesn of packinij tnid prefiahtti vnrions artinles of commerce."
Coniinuiiicatcd by a foreigner residing a)iroad. — December 2 ; six months.

Miles Uerhv, of Chancery I.anc. Patent Agent, for " cer/aiti iiiiprore-
vieiifs hi iiiachlnfry or oppardfim for mftking or iiianufnctnrhuj phis and
slicking them in paper." Communicated l)y a foreigner residing abroad. —
Ueccml)cr 2 ; six montlis.

CoDFRi'.Y Anthony Ermf.n, of Manchester, Cotton Spinner, for " certain
improremen/s in machinery or ajtparatns for .sjtiiniing, doubling, or tirisfing
cotton, far, wool, silk, or other filjrons materials, part of which improve-
ments are applicable to rnachinerg in general." — December 2 ; six niontlis.

John Evans, of Birmingliani, Pa[)er Maiver, for " improvements for che-
vncallij preparing and cleansing of felts used bg paper manufacturers." —
December 2 ; six niontlis.

Henry Duni.ngton, of Nottingham, Lace Mannfactnrer, for " improve-
ments in mae/iinerg emploged in making frame work knit, or stocking fabrics."
■ — December 2 ; six months.

J.\MEs Guest, Junior, of Birmingham, Merchant, for *' improvements in
locks and other fastenings." — Deceml)er 2 ; six monllis.

Georoe Saunders, of Hooliuorton, Clerlv, Oxford, and James Wii.mot
Newricry. of the same ])]ace. Farmer, for "improvements in machinergfor
dibbling or setting wheat and other grain or seed." — December 2 ; six months.

Henry Trewhitt, of Newc.astlc-on-Tyne, Esq., for " certain improve-
ments in the fabrication of china and earthetuvare, and in the apparatus or
machinery applicable thereto." Communicated by a foreigner residing aln'oad.
Dccendier 4 ; six moutlis.

Christopher Nicki.es, of York Road, Laml)cth, Gentlemen, for "im-
provements in propelling carriages." Communicated l>y a foi'cigner lesiding
abroad. — Decendjer 4 ; six monttis.

Pierre N'arcisse Cronier, of Fricourt's Hotel, Saint Martin's Lane, for
^' /mprovernents in filters, and in the means ef clransiag the same, and for
separating, colouring, and tanning matters for filteralion. and for improvements
in employing such tanning matters hg filteratiun." Partly communicated by
a foreigner residing .ibroad. — Decenilicr 4 ; six months.

James Mayer, of Ashley Crescent, Saint Luke, Gentlemen, for " an im-
proved machine for cutting splints for mntclies." — December 4 ; six months,

Gkorc;e Lowe, Engineer to the Chartered Gas Company, and John
KiRKHAM, Engineer to the Imperial Gas Company, both of London, for " im-
provements in the manufacture of gas for purposes of illumination." — Decem-
ber 4 ; six months.

James Nasmyth, of P.itricroft, near Manchester, Engineer, for "certain
improvements applicable to railway carriages." — December 4 ; six months.

John Heaton Hall, of Doncaster, Chemist, for " improvements in pre-
senting and rendering woollen, and otlicr fabrics, and leather waterproof." —
Dccendier 5 ; six months.

Harroi.d Potter, of Manchester, Esquire, for "certain improvements in
printing calicoes, 7nnslius, and other fabrics." — December 9 ; six months.

Samuf.i. White, of Charlton, Mai-shatts, Dorset, Esquire, for "improve-
ments in preventing persons froai being drowned." — December 9 ; six months.

Moses Pooi.e, of Lincoln's Inn, Gentleman, for '* improvements in the
manufacture of caustic, .toda, and carbonate of soda." Communicated by a
foreigner residing abroad. — December 9 ; six montlis.

Thomas RiciiARnsoN, of Newcastle, Chemist, {or " a preparation of sul-
phate of lead, applicable to some of the purposes for which carbonate of lead
is now applied." — Deecmber 9 ; six months.

John Leslie, of Conduit Street, Hanover Square, Tailor, for " (/H/irow-
ments in measuring the human figure." Communicated by a foreigner resid-
ing abroad.— December 9; six months.

John Juckes, of Shropsliire, Gentlenuan, for " improvements in furnaces
or fire-places for the better consuming of fuel." — December 9 ; six months.

Pierre FKEnKiiicK GoNiiY, of Tavistock Street, Westminster, Watch
Maker, for "an improvement iu clocks, wotc/tes, and ot/ier time-keepers." —
December 11 ; six months.

Robert 1Ier\'Ey, of Manehestcr, Drysalter, for " certain improvements in
the mode ofprejiaring and purifying alum, alumina, aluniiuous mordants, and
other aluminous combinations and solutions, and the application of such im-
prorements to the purposes of manufacture." — December Ki; six months.

Roiiert Gill Ransom, of Ipswich, I',iper Maker, and Samuel Mill-
uouRN, foreman to the said R. (1. Ransom, for " improvements in the manu-
facture of paper." — December l.'l; six months.

Angier March Perkins, of Great Coram Street, Civil Engineer, for
" improvements in apparatus for transmitting heat by circulating water." —
December 13 ; six montlis.

Jacob Brazill, Governor of Trinity Ground, Deptford, for "improve-
ments in obtaining motive power." — December 16; six months.

Henry Seymour Moore Vandellur, of Kilrush, Ireland, for "im-
provements in paving or covering roads, and other ways." — December Ki;
six months.

Samuel Walton Faxton, of Park Village East, Regent's Park, Surgeon

for " au apparatus to be applied to the chimneys of gas and ottier burners, or
lamps to improve combustion" — December 16; six months.

■MoNNiN Jai'Y, and Co.nstant Joufi'roy Oumery, of George Yard,
Lombard Street, Geatleinen, for " improvements in rotatory engines, to be
act Hated by steam or water." — December 16; six months.

Daxii) Morison, of Wilson Street, Finsbury, Ink Maker, for " imy^roff-
men/s in printing." — December 16; six months.

Damu Navmir. of Copley Mill, Halifax, Manufacturer, and John Crioh-
TON, Junior, of Manchester, Machine Maker, for " certain improvements in
machinery for weaving single, double, and treble cloths, bg hand or jiower." —
December 16; six months.

George Wilson, of Salford, Machinist and Engineer, for " certain im-
provements in steam-whistles adapted for locomotive engines and boilers, and
other purposes." — December 16; six mouths.

John Robinson, of North Shields, Engineer, for " an improved steering
apparatus." — December 16 ; six months.

John Wood, of Burslem, Stafford, Manufacturer of Mineral Colours, for
'* a new method or process in the applieation and laying on of the substances
used in the printing, colouring, tinting, and oimamenting of china, porcelain,
earthenware, ami other v^ares of tfie same description, by which such icares
can he printed and ornamented with fiowers and other devices in a much
cfieaper and more simple and ejpeditious manner than by any process now iu
use, and colours of all or any variety may be printed, shaded, mixed, and
blended toyettter in one of and tlie same design or pattern, and hardened or
burnt into the substance of the aforesaid wares by a sinyle process of firing or
hardening iu the enameliny kiln." — December 16 ; two months.

James William Thompson, of Turnstile Alley, Long Acre, Upholsterer,
for " improvements in lite construction of bedsteads, which improvements are
particularly applicable to the use of invalids." — December 16; six months.

William Newman, of Birmingham, Brass Founder, for " certain im-
proved mechanism for roller blinds, which it is intended to denominate Simcoj'
and Company's patent blind furniture." — December 10 ; six months.

Joseph Giuus, of KciHiington, Surrey, Engineer, for "an improvement or
improvements in t/ie machinery for preparing fibrous substances for spinning
ami in the mode of spinning certain fibrous substances." — December 21 ; six
months.

George Lindsay Young, of Hackney, iu the county of Middlesex, Gen-
tleman, for " an improved surface for paper, mill or card board, vellum and
parchment." — December 21 ; six months.

Henry Francis Richardson, of Ironmonger Lane, Gentleman, for " i(«-
provements in omnibuses." — December 21 ; six months.

John Cutts, of Manchester, Machine Maker, and Thomas Spencer, of
the same place. Mechanic, for " certain improvejnents in tlte machinery or
apparatus for making wire cards for carding cotton, silk, wool, and other
fibrous subslances."~Decemhcr 21 ; six months.

Laurence Wood Flbtcher, of Chorlton-upon-Medlock, Manchester,
Machinist, for *' an improvement or improvemejits in t/ie manufacture of
woollen and other cloths, fabrics, and in tlte application of such cloths or fa-
brics to various useful purposes." — December 23 ; six months.

Thomas Firmstone, of Newcastle, Coal Master, for " improvemenia in
the manufacture of salt." — December 24 ; six months.

Alexander .Mac'Rar, of the London Cotfee House, Ludgate Hill, Lon-
don, for " improvements in machinery for ploughing, ftarrowing and other
agricultnral purjMses, to be worked by steam or other power." — December
24 ; six months.

Thomas Hardeman Clarke, of Birmingham, Cabinet Maker, for " cer-
tain improved fastenings fur window sashes, tables, and such like purposes," —
December 24 ; si.\ mouths.

TO CORRESPONDENTS.

R. H. — Till' Marquis of Tweeddale's brick and tile-making machine is patented,
and lirenrcs are. granted for using it in various parts of tlie kingdom.

The eummuuivatiou of M. N. 0. will appear ne.rl month.

A Catliolir must e.rcnse us fur not publishing his last eoininunieatinn.

The Kpgryeloidal Motion fur a Steam Engine is not new.

A lithogi'aphic drawing of a Chureii was rereivetl from Norwich by our pub-
lisher, but uufiirttiuatehf it huis been mislaid, we were charged 2s. Sd./ur carriage
and porterage fur it, we t'-uat that uur eorrespuiideiit will not iu future put us to
that i'.tpntce.

If'e have been obliged to postpone some important Eugraviugs, which we could
nut get ready in time, until next month.

Cummunications are requested to be addressed to "The Editor of the Civil
lOngincer and Architect s Journal," Ko. \], Parliament Street, tl'est minster,
or to Mr. (Irooinbridgr. Pauyer Alley, Paternoster Rutv ; if by post, to be di-
rected to the former place ; if by parcel. In be directed to the nearest of tlte two
places where the eoaeh arrives at iu I.oudau, as we are frequently put to the
ejpeuee of one or two shillings for the piirterage only, of a eery small parcel.

Books fur review must lie sent early in tlte mouth, eommuuieatiuns on or before
the 20th (if with wood-cuts, earlier), and advertisements on or before the 25th
instant.

The First Volume mav be had, bound in cloth and lettered in gold
Price 17s.

*,* The .Seconb Volume mav also be had, Price 20*.

eitae.,1.

//ff/irr & West's

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1840.]

THE CIA IL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

41

HARVEY AND WEST'S PATENT IMPROVED VALVE /o;

MacJiitics for Raining Water and other Liquids.

SPECIFICATION.

Now know ye, that our iinproveii valve resembles, in appearance,
a valve known bv the name of the " ilouble beat valve," used in certain
steam engines ; our improvement consists in making the same self-
acting, so that it can work without the aid of machinery for opening
and shutting it, and tliereby is applicable to machines for raising water
and other liquids.

In our improved valves the area of the u])per part of the seat, on
which the top of the valve beats, is made less than the area of the
lower part of the seat, on which the bottom of the valve beats, the
valve being made of course to correspond, and the difference in area
between the two must be such that, when the valve is used in the
place of the lower valve in a pump through which the water passes
into the pump barrel, tlie pressure of the atmos))here upon the under
side of the valve (brought into action by creating a partial vacuum
upon the upper side of the valve when motion is given to the piston,
bucket, or plunger-pole of the pump,! shall be sufficient to overcome
the weight of the valve, and cause it to rise, and when the valve is
used in place of the upper valve, through which the watei- is forced
out of the pump barrel, or when used in lien of the valves upon the
pump bucket, the difference in area must be such that the pressure
upon the under side of the valve, (caused by the motion of the piston,
bucket, or plunger-pole forcing the liquid through it,) shall be suffi-
cient to overcome the weight of the valve, and cause it to rise ; the
opening in the top will be less than the opening in the bottom of the
valve, and the surface of the ring upon the top of the valve, which
will be equal to the difference between the area of the two openings,
must be made proportionate to the weight of the valve itself, the ac-
tion will be more fully understood by reference to the drawings and
explanation thereof hereinafter given.

The advantages to be obtained by the use of our improved valve,
are 1st, That as the area of the valve exposed to the pressure of the
column of water, or action of the piston upon its return stroke, is con-
siderably less than in the ordinary circular, hanging or butterfly valves,
the blow and consequent vibration caused by the shutting of the valves,
is considerably diminished, and less costly foundations are therefore
required. "2d. The loss of water upon the shutting down of the valve
is considerably diminished. Our improved valves may be used for
the upper and lower valves of all varieties of pumps.

In order to explain more clearly the construction and action of our
improved valve, we will now refer to and describe the drawings, re-
presenting plans, elevations, and sections of it. The same letters of
reference are marked upon all the figures.

Figure 1 is an elevation of the valve and its seat, the valve being
shut. Figure 2, a top view thereof, the valve being open or shut.
Figure 3, a vertical section through the valve and seat, the valve being
shut. Figure 4, a vertical section through the valve and seat, the
valve being open. Figure 5, an elevation. Figure ti, a plan. Figure
7, a vertical section of the valve detached from its seat. Figure b, an
elevation. Figure 9, a plan. Figure 10, a vertical section of the seat.
Figure 11, a horizontal section of the ribs tlirough the line a b, in fig.
10, and plan of the bottom or lower beat; cc c c the seat made of cast
iron or other metal, upon which the valve del works. The valve may
be made of cast or wrought iron, gun-metal, brass, copper, or other
metal, according to the size, the quality of the water, or other circum-
stances. The rings e' e' ee are faced, that is are turned true, and when
shut, fit accurately to the beats/'/' and //upon the seat c'ccc;
//is the lower beat, and/'/' is the upper beat. In fig. 7 e' e' is the
top opening of the valve, and ee the bottom ; the beats may either be
formed by a raised ridge cast, or wrought npon the seat, and faced or
turned true, or by introducing into circular grooves, cast in the seat, a
ring of wooden wedges, or of soft metal; the top surface in either
case to be faced or turned true, to receive the valve — we prefer wood
or soft metal; ^g represents a circular groove cast or wrought, on
the under side of the seat, into which leather is introduced, so as to
prevent leakage when the seat is bolted down in its place. A A is a
cylinder cast upon the seat and turned true, so as to form a guide for
the valve to work upon, and to keep it in its right place, j i is a me-
tallic featlier attached to the cylinder, and projecting into a groove
formed in the valve, to prevent any circular motion in the valve ; and
A: A is a cap bolted upon the cylinder to prevent the valve rising be-
yond a given height, or being displaced. The dotted lines / //, ///,
fig. 4, represent the direction that the water takes when the valve is
opened, m m represent the surface of tlie valve that is exposed to
the pressure of the atmosphere, or force created by the motion of the
piston, and wliich when proportioned as hereinbefore described, by
No. 29,--Voi., III.— February, 1840.

making the difference in area betvi'eeu the space by the rings circum-
scribing the top and bottom openings of the valve, sufficiently great to
allow the force applied to overcome the weight of the valve, will
cause it to rise.

Having now described our improved valve, and in doing so, having
also described certain contrivance and constructions, which we do not
claim as our improvement, but the description of which was necessary
to elucidate our improvement; we hereby declare that we claim as
our improvement that part of the contrivance only which makes the
valve self-acting, by making the area of the top opening of the valve
less than the bottom, and making the seat to correspond thereto, which
area must be varied according to tlie size and weight of the valve,
and must be proportioned thereto.

IRON TIES THROUGH PARTY WALLS.

Experiments tried at Chatham on the dth of December 1839, in res^
to iron ties passing through party leal/s to form a continued bond for the
floors of adjacent houses.

In the course of practical architecture taught to the junior officers
of the Royal Engineers of Chatham, the floors of two adjoining houses
are connected by ties, each consisting of a strap of iron jiassing through
a party wall, and bolted to the sides of two girders, in the same alline-
nieut, which sort of tie-bond maybe supposed to be continued throuo-h
the whole extent of a range of barracks, or of a row of houses, as was
done by Messrs. Baker in their new houses on the north side of the
Strand, near Exeter Hall.

The utility of tliis sort of continued bond could scarcely be doubted,
but a query having often suggested itself, whether the destruction of
the floors of one house by fire, might not heat the iron-lies passing
through the party walls, on each side, so far as to endanger the floors
of the two adjacent houses ; Colonel Pasley directed Captain Williams
to try the following experiment, which must be considered conclusive.

In the accompanying figures, w is a 9 inch brick wall, (j courses high,
representing a portion of a jjarty wall between two adjoining houses.
For tlie convenience of applying the fire, it was built upon the hearth
of a smith's forge. The 4 inch walU,f, were added merely to enclose
the fuel, and to increase its heat. These walls were built the day
previous to that on which the experiment was made; and as common
lime mortar would have required considerable time to dry, cement

Fig. 1. Plan.

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p six pigs of iron ballast, each 50 lbs. to prevent the brickwork separating
by the heat. Ii Hood. G. L. Ground Line.

42

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[Februart,

mixed witli sand was used instead of limo ; g- is a piece of Memel
timber, 3 feet long, 6 inches wide, and 1 1 inches deep, representing
part of a girder, having an interval of one inch between the end of it
and I lie partv wall ; ; is the iron strap, 3^ feet long, 25 inches wide,
and ' inch thick, bolted to tlie girder g, and passing throngh, and ex-
teniling beyond the wall to within one inch of the no/zle n, of the tew
iron iilMlie'bellows. One foot fonr inches of its lenglli was exposed
to (he lire, which was lighted at ten o'clock a.m.

Bv eleven o'clock the" tire was in good action thronghont ; the coals
were well heajied over and about the iron strap to witliin ."> or U inches
of the top of (lie wall, and the heat was kept up to the greatest prac-
ticable intcnsitv, bv (he miinterrnpted action of the bellows, till four
o'clock P.M.

It was one o'clock before that part of the iron strap in contact with
the girder became too warm, even close to the wall, to render it ne-
cessaiy to withdraw the hand from il, and even at fonr o'clock, by
wliich time 5 inches of the end nearest the tew iron were burnt com-
pletely away, there was not sulheient heat in any part of it outside the
parly wall, either to discolour dry wood shavings or paper, or to ignite
naptlia. At G inches from the wall the hand could be continued on
the iron without inconvenience during the whole period the experi-
ment occupied, and at no time was the party wall red hot.

There can be no doubt but that the lire 'might have been kept up
long enough to consume the whole of the iron sniTOunded by it, with-
out snflicient heat being communicated to the girder to set lire to it.

The bulb of a thermometer (hat happened to be at hand, was ap-
plied to the iron, where it entered the party wall, but the degree of
heat couhl not be determined, as the tube extending only to US
degrees of Fahrenheit, was very soon filled by the quicksilver, and was
then willidrawn to prevent it from bursting.

The cement mortar in the joints of the brickwork nearest to the
lire was reduced to dust. In this state. Colonel Pasley oidered some
balls of it to be mixed up with water, into the consistency of a stiflish
paste, which set rather slowly, but in the course of a few days became
extremely hard, in consequence of the cement having been calcined
by the fire, and thereby restored to the same state, in which it had
been received from the manufacturer.

BALANCE GATE.S.

Erected at the JForks of (he East London Water WorU Company,
Old Ford. Exgixeer, Thomas Wicksteed, Esq., M. Inst. C.E. With
two Engravings, Plates II. & III.

In (he year 1633, the East London Water Works Company made
very considerable alterations and additions to their works, by cutting
a canal for the purpose of bringing the water from a higher part of
the river Lea, near the Lea Bridge Mills, to their works at Old Ford,
and to guard against any deficiency of water for the working the mills
on the river Lea, and to satisfy the owners of the mills, the Company
agreed, in the Act of Parliament authorizing them to make the altera-
tions, to form a large compensating reservoir covering about 1*1 to 15
acres of land, with two entrances, one at the south-east corner of the
reservoir, near to Old Ford Lock, where there is erected a pair of
tide or flood-gates, for the admission of water only as the tide rises,
and another entrance at the eastern corner of the said reservoir upon
the banks of the river Lea, above the City Mill Point, consisting of
three openings with six balance gates, for the admission of water from
the river, and for discharging the water 'out of the reservoir into the
river for the use of the millers. As the tide flows up the river it fllls
the reservoir, and when the tide ebbs, if required by the millers, the
water is allowed to run out into the river, anil thus compensate them
for any quantity of water that might be abstracted from the upper
jiart of the river for the purposes of the company.

It is our present object to confine ourselves to the description of
the Balance Gates, which are well deserving of notice by the jirofes-
sion, and to point out where they difler from the Dutch system of
construction.

As the neap tides at the point of delivery rise only, on some occa-
sions, a few inches, and as consequently a very large quantity of water
might have to be delivered in a very short space of time, with so low
a head or pressure, a great width of outlet became requisite ; if the
ordinary sluice gates had been erected, the time required to open
them would have been above an hour anil a half, and consequently the
whole of the water might not have been returned into the river before
the preceding low water; whereas the balance gates, as we can bear
witness to, are easily opened or closed in ten minutes, against a pres-
sure of water.

The essential diflerence between the gates designed by Mr. Wick-
steed, and the old Dutch balance gates as described in Belidor's
Architecture Hydraulique, is this — the old gate is larger in area on
one side of the centre than the other, on the largest side a sluice gate
is introduced, which when opened reduces the area of the largest side,
so that it becomes less than the other, which was before tlie sluice
was opened, largest; by this arrangement when the sluice gate is shut
the pressure of the water iqion the largest area causes the gate to re-
main closed, but when the sluice is opened the greatest pressure is
upon the other side (or ha!/) of the gate, and causes it to open hut
not cunrplttely, and tackle must be made to open it wide. In Mr. Wick-
steed's gates the sides are of equal area, and they are made to open
at once by a toothed quadrant and pinion; two gates are also intro-
duced in eacli opening, and set at an angle which gives strength to
their construction and saves masonry. When the gates are closed, by
the application of a very ingenious contrivance, consisting of a verti-
cal iron shaft fixed in the hollow quoins, with three eccentrics or cams
upon it, they are made to close against each other, and against the
cills and recesses in the side walls, so that no leakage whatever takes
place.

These gates are, we believe, the only ones of the kind erected in
the kingdom, and when we were favoured with a view of them, they
had been in use for six years and in excellent working order, they had
not been repaired since they were first erected by Messrs. Hunter and
English, of Bow, whose reputation as millwrights is so well known,
that they needed not this accession to their fame.

The cost of the gates we could not ascertain, as tliey were done in
conjunction with other works by contract, but we can easily give credit
to Mr. Wicksteed's statement that the expence was not more, if so
mucli, as common sluice gates with their elevating machinery, founda-
tion, &c., when it is considered how many sluices there must have
been to insure the same width of opening.

These gates are different in construction, and are used for a different
purpose to those erected some years since at Lowestoff; w'ith the ex-
ception of these two instances, we are not aware of any other gates
erected upon the Dutch principle in England, but we think there are
many cases in engineering where their introduction might be advan-
tageous.

The following additional particulars we select from the contract
and specification of the work, which will together with the engravings
give an accurate view of their construction.

" They (the Balance Gates) ai-e different in coustruction to the common
flood-gates ; a description of one gate will answer for the whole : the gate is
made to work upon a vertical shaft as a centre, and is equal on each side
thereof. One gate, when closed, shuts against another gate on one side,
while the opposite sides close against a recess in the piers or side walls. It
mil appear evident, upon an inspection of the plans, that the gates being
equal on each side of the vertical shaft, which is the centre of motion, what-
ever pressure of water may he against them, that there is as great a tendency
to keep the gate closed as there is to open it, and that being, under any cir-
eninstances, eqcially balanced, a very slight exertion of power (suflicicut to
overcome the friction of the working parts) will either open or close them.
When the gates are closed, and it is desirable to retain the water in the
reservoh, to destroy the effect that any vibration might have upon them to
cause a leakage, a shaft is introduced upon which three eccentrics are cast,
which, when applied to tlie gates, pinches them against then- abutments, and
thus jirevents any leakage that might by possibility occur. When it is de-
sired to open the gates to discharge the water of the reservoir into the river,
the eccentric is first to be worked so as to take off its effect upon the gate,
and then the quadrant and pinion must be worked to open the gate, whieli,
as the pressure of water is equal iu its action iqion both sides of the centre,
will be a matter requiring hut a small exertion of power.

Description of the JJ'oi-k. — The framing of the balance gates is to be of
good EiigUsh oak timber; the planking to be the best Memel plank. All
the joints are to be made sound and good ; the mortices to be cut oat square
their whole depth, and the tenons to he made so that they shall fit equally
over even,- surface; the hutfing joints to be squared so as to tonch and bear
equally over the butting surface. Wherever the timbers are framed into the
iron-work, the iron-work shall be made true and good to receive it, so that
it shall bear equally on all the surfaces ; and wherever VM-ought iron straps
ai-e let info the timbers, they shall he fitted accurately; no packing will be
permitted, but the iron must fit fairly and strictly to the wood. AU keys
and bolts for straps, and cast iron work must be made to fit accurately, so
that the holts fill up the holes made for their reception, without shaking or
depending, upon the friction of the head and nut.

The timbers are to he rebated for the reception of the ends of the 2-iiich
fir planking, so that when tlie planking is introduced, the surfaces of the
planking and timbers shall be flush — the planks are to be 2 inches thick and
!) inches wide, to be laid diagonally, as described in the drawings ; at the two
ends, and wherever there is a cross or diagonal timber, the plank shall lie
fastened thereunto by means of 2 screw bolts at ereiy bearing, and wherever
iron intervenes between tlie planking and timber, it shall be drilled, and the

1840.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

43

bolt siiiiU fit accurately, iron to iron — the screw bolts ai'e to be 5-8tlis of an
inch diameter, and 5 inches long, with square heads, and a neat iron collar
under each head and nut, excepting where iron iuterveues, when the bolt
shall be as much longer as the thickness of the iron, so that every bolt shall
have a screw of 3 inches deep in the timber. The joints of the planking
shall be shot straight, fitted close, and caulked, so as to render every joint
perfectly water-tight.

The pivots on which the gates revolve are to be cast hard, and fitted accu-
rately to the hollow bearing in the vertical shaft.

The gates are to be made accurately at the meeting posts. At the sides
which abut against the piers and walls, and at the cills and wherever iron
intervenes, it shall be chipped and filed so as to fit flush with the timber, so
that no water shall escape at the joints— the pivot and step are to be so
made that the least possible leakage shall take place.

All the cast iron bearings are to be accurately turned, so as to work truly
and easily, and iu every case where iron works in iron, either the shaft or
bearing is to be east hard, as may be deemed advisable by the Company's
engineer — the upper bearings to liave set screws and keys for adjustment, as
described in the drawings. All the wheel work is to be fitted accurately,
and if required by the Company's engineer, the teeth are to be cliipped and
filed.

The same directions that are given hereinbefore for the joints in the
timber and connecting straps and bolts, are to be observed in the construc-
tion of the trussed foot-bridge, which is to be wholly of the best Memel fir.

Reference to Engravings. — Plate II.

Fig. 1. — Plan of the Balance Gates, Sills, Inverts, and Piers. In
"Invert No. 1," the sill pieces are shown, and the iron pivots upon
which the gates are to turn. In " Invert No. 2," the gates are sliown
at an horizontal section through the timbers and planking, and vertical
shaft; the eccentric shafts are also shown. In "Invert Xo. 3," the
top view of the gates is exhibited with the quadrant and pinion for
working the gates, and the wheel upon the top of the eccentric shaft.

Fig. 2 is an elevation of the work described in Fig. 1. The gates,
however, are shewn m jjwjectwn, or as they will appear wlien closed;
the trussed foot-bridge for tlie support of the upper bearings of the
shafts upon which tlie gates turn, is also shown in elevation and
section.

Fig. 3. — A transverse section through C D (Fig. 1) of the gate and
trussed foot-bridge, and an elevation of one of the piers and section
of the invert, sill, and apron.

Fig. 4. — Transverse section through A B (Fig. 1).

Fig. 5 is a plan of the trusseil foot-bridge, a portion of it planked
as it will appear when linishcd, and another portion as it will appear
before the planking is laid down, exhibiting the trussing and cast iron
frames for the support of the upper bearing of the vertical shafts.

Plate III — contains enlarged views of the gates described in
Plate II, which may be sulficiently understood by reference to the
drawings.

LONDON SHOPS.

[A very able and interesting article on "London Shops and Gin
Palaces," by Candidus, appeared in the December Number oi Frasi/'s
Magazine, from which we select the following extracts.]

We need not speak of the very superior mode in which shop-win-
dows are now fitted up, not merely as regards the large squares of
glass, and the more than atlas folio sheets of plate-glass, which have
of late become almost so common as to cease to excite astonishment,
but also in respect to the framework of the windows, the polished
brass-work which covers the w indow-sill. One contrivance, however,
which has been but very lately introduced, will, when it comes to be
more generally adopted, greatly enhance the appearance of the shops
after dark, — we mean that of throwing a very powerful light upon the
goods at the window, the first experiment of which was made, we
believe, on the east side of Temple Bar, viz. at the splendid new shop
opened in St. Paul's Churchyard by Hitchcock and Rogers ; which, in
point of extent, has scarcely a rival in any other part of the town. The
proprietors appear to have spared no cost to render their establish-
ment as attractive as possible even to the very labels or tickets at-
tached to the goods, which, instead of being merely written, are taste-
fully emblazoned on large card-boards, ia gold, azure, and other bril-
liant colours. Still, when we come to consider this, and some other
shop fronts of the same class, architecturally, we cannot help being
ott'ended at a defect which is here carried a t'outrance, to a much
greater degree than any where else. In fact, the whole of this un-
usually extensive shop front presents to the eye nsthing but glass set
in very slender upright brass styles, or bars, without any apparent

support whatever — without even jambs to the doors — so that the
house itself, over the shop, has the look of being miraculously sus-
pended in tlie air, after the fashion of Mahomet's cothn; and this not
particularly agreeable appearance is strikingly increased by its return-
ing on the west side, without any indication of pi'op or stay of any
kind beneath the superincumbent angle of the upper part of the struc-
ture, which is actually suspended over that corner. There is no doubt
that sufficient precaution has been taken to ensure security ; and so
far we are at liberty to admire the skill shewn by the biulder in achiev-
ing what is certainly a momitrpiece, if not a masterpiece, in construc-
tion. His task may have been exceedingly difficult; yet we are
tempteil to say, with Dr. Johnson, that we wish it had been impossible.
It will, perhaps, be argued, that what we hero behold is, after all, not
a whit more contrary to sound architectural taste than a geometrical
staircase, where the steps are attached to the wall only at one end.
The two cases, however, are not perfectly similar; because, in the
second instance, each step is no more than either a balcony or large
bracket inserted into the wall, whereas, in the other, the bressuraers
of the floor, above the shop, have to support all the upper part of the
front, while they themselves seem to rest upon nothing except the
slight frame in which the glass of the shop window is fixed. As far,
therefore, as the general aspect of such front is concerned, the etl'ect
is disagreeable; while, as regards the lower part, or shop itself, taken
distinct from the rest, it is exceedingly insipid and ))Oor — very little
better than what would be produced by the same space of unglazed
opening for the display cf goods; the chief dift'erence being, that
instead of Oeing exposed to injury, the articles so exhibited are pro-
tected by the glass.

No doubt, every tradesman is anxious to make as attractive a dis-
play as possible of the articles he deals in ; but it is, nevertheless, a
great error to suppose that this is best accomplished by making the
shop-window as large as the width of frontage will permit, and then
to put up at it as much as it will contain. In fact, this mode — the one
now almost invariably resorted to, and in many cases carried to an
extent cpiite preposterous — rather defeats the object aimed at, because
it utterly excludes all variety of design, or rather excludes design
itself — reducing tiie whole front of eacli shop to only so many feet
superficial of glass. Hence there is nothing to distinguish any one
shop from the rest — nothing to mark it out to the eye from any dis-
tance. If strikingness of character be at all an object worth attending
to, it might be far more easily and more satisfactorily accomplished
by adopting a contrary system to that now in vogue, dividing what is
now a single window into distinct compartments, the spaces between
w liich would afford room for decoration, together with ample scope
for invention. It is true that, as far as mere quantity goes, the ilisplay
would be less than at present ; but then the show of goods might fre-
quently be rendered more striking, and nught be every day made a
fresh one, by some of the articles being changed. The great deside-
ratum, it may be presumed, is to render the shop itself a conspicuous
object — one that cannot fail to arrest the attention of every one who
passes ; and this, we conceive, would, in most cases, be better accom-
plished by making it a catching architectural "frontispiece" — no
matter how much the space now allotted to a window might be trenched
upon for such purpose. * *

Even at present we have one or two things, which, although they
do not exactly exemplify the mode of design we could w ish to see
adopted, may be quoted as instances of very superior taste, and wdthal,
of more originality and study than are to be discovered in buildings of
far greater importance. Among these, we do not hesitate to say that
i\ie/aci/e princejjs for recherche eleganee of design, for j)urity of taste,
for happiness of invention, in the whole composition, together with
admirable beauty of finish, is a small shop front, or, rather, a small
fa9ade, in Tavistock Place. It is an exquisite architectural gem — at
least every professional man and real coimoisseur nuist at once recog-
nize it as such — although its beauties and merits are of that kind
which are not likely to ensure it particular attention from persons in
general ; because in such matters the million are apt to form their
estimate according either to size or to gaudy showiness. No man
who understands architecture can look at it without feeling that the
worthy George Maddox here worketl up his ideas cun amore, with the
relish of one enthusiastically devoted to his art for his art's sake. The
wdiole of this front — for we ought to observe that the design is not
confined to the lower part or shop alone — is in perfect keeping: we
do not find merely a very good bit in this place, a very nice piece of
ornament in another ; something happy there, and something not amiss
here, but the ensemble is complete ; the same taste pervades every
part : nothing can either be added or taken away without detriment
to the whole. What simplicity in the general character of this little
facade! yet so very far is it from partaking of any thing like poverty,
that it is particularly remarkable lor the unusual care bestowed upon

C2

44

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[February,

all its details. Iiuleetl, (here ai'e only one or two buildings in the
whole metropolis that can stand the test of comparison with it in that
respect. I'lxamine the capitals and entablature of the order that
forms the sliop front itself, and you must allow them to be no less
beautiful than novel, that is, supposing you are competent to appre-
ciate the origiualilv and tnste then' manifested. After all, it must be
allowed to have (jue unpardonable fault : how great soever may be its
merits in point of design, it wants magnitude — at least to give it suffi-
cient consequence and importance in the eve? of ordinary beholders.
Truly it does ; and so, also, does that beautiful little architectural gem
of antitpiity, the monument of Lysicrates, which, in regard to size, is
little better than a mere model, or toy. To be sure, the one example
is at London, the other at Athens; and that, it must be acknowledged,
does make a vast dilierenee in the o[iinion of the vulgar, both learned
and unlearned. Most certainly, there is no denying that Tavistock
Place is not Athens, any more than that Satfron Hill is not Mount Hy-
mettus.

The only thing that can fairly enter the lists with the facade we
have been sjieaking of, is the one No. 2-, Old FJond Street, which is
likewise singularly beaidiful, and treated throughout vvitli true artis-
tical feeling. It is the production of the Messrs. hnvood, or of one of
the Ijrothers, and it certaiu'y displays more invention and taste than
all their other designs put together, if we except the columns and
doors in the portico of St. Fancras Church ; the former of which, how-
ever, are merely copies from those of the triple temple on the Athe-
nian Acropolis. These tw'o are almost the only instances in whicli
the whole of such a front is consistently designed and ilecorated
throughout, so as to be altogether of a piece from bottom to top ; for
the shop and the house above it are, we may say, invariably treated
as distinct from each other, instead of being combined, as far as their
inevitable dilference of character will permit, into one uniform com-
))osition. This is more or less the case, even wdiere architectural em-
bellishment is liberally bestowed on the n])per part of the front, the
superstructure having so littie architectural connexion with the base-
ment on w liich it stands, that the etiect is cpute incongruous. (.)f this
we have notable proof in a shop in St. Paul's Churchyard, already
spoken of; since, so far from there being an apparent connexion be-
tween one part and another, we might fancy that the ujiper portion,
with its Corinthian pilasters, hail been taken olf from a rusticated
Ixisenient, and sus|ieuded upon the huge glass case beneath it, wdiich
it threatens to crush. A greater architectural antithesis than the one
thus produced can hardly be imagined, the whole of the lower portion
luesenting the very minimum of strength, an appearance of unusual
weakness and fragility, wliile the upper has a more than usual charac-
ter of solidity, owing, among other circumstances, to the breadth of
the piers between the windows ; that is, however, of solidity when it
is considered apart from its baseless position, because that exceedingly
lalse position gives it the appearance of being particularly insecure,
and in imminent peril of performing an aplomb.

Perha|)s, of tlie two inconsistencies, it is the lesser one where, as is
almost the general rule, architectural expression is confined to the
shop-front itself, all the rest being left quite unpretending and plain,
even to nakedness. It must be "admitted, that the other mclhod is
greatly preferable, as far as the general appearance of a street is con-
cerned, inasmuch as it conduces to its architectural dignitv ; yet, as
regards the iiouscs indivitlually, it is better that the shop-front itself
should be made exclusively the feature on which architectural design
is bestowed, unless, indeed, it can be consistently carried on upwards.

Although frequently no other ecoivimy tluin that of space seems to
be regarded, it cannot be alhrmed that much eitlier of invention or
taste is displayed in our Loudon shop-fronts, of which carpenters seem,
for tlie most ])art, to be the designers; yet here and there one may
meet with a clever bit, — gooil both in regard to ornament and compo-
sition. These, however, form merely the exceptions ; for the taste
usually displayed is most flimsy and frippery, and full of inconsistencies.
At the best, things of this kind can be little more than mere bits ; be-
cause, owing to their want of size, they can hardly produce any eH'ect
in a general view, or until approached and examined ; yet that is no
reason wherci'ore they should be undeserving of examination, and bits
of tawdry trumpery in lliemselves. On tlie contrary, if they do not
aiford much l.ititude for the <lisplay of design and invention in any
other respect— an opinion, however, to which we outselves are strongly
opposed — they most incontestably olVer ample scope for experiment-
alising in the way of columns and entablatures. Nevertheless, so far
from any advantage being taken of this, we scarcely ever find any
novelty wdiatever of decoration attempted in regard to such features,
which are no other than copies from Stuart's plates. However anti-
classical, gimcrack. Cockney, every other part of such design may be,
we behold Grecian Doric and Grecian Ionic copied with most super-
stitious exactness, and repeated «y(/«c ad naitisecnii. The Athenian

Doric of the Parthenon, and the Paestau example of the same order,
are most ridiculously minified, and applied when they are most offen-
sively out of place, putting us out of conceit both wdth them and with
what but for them wmild have been honest, unsophisticated. Cockney
carpenters' work. Away with the worse than schoolboy — the dull
schoolmaster vapouring, about the intrinsic beauty of form and pro-
portions belonging to the ancient orders, as if they possessed an inde-
feasible charm adhering to them under any circumstances. At that
rate, it would be excellent taste to convert the legs of a table into
four pigmy columns, Doric or Ionic ; or if the mere models of such
tilings possess in themselves a magic charm for the eye, neither could
they fail to please were they dragged in any where else for the nonce,
even should it be into a Gothic building. The truth is, no such kind
of beauty exists either in them cm' any thing else: a tine arm and hand
arc very beautiful in a fine woman, or, for the matter of that, even in
a plain one ; yet how they could be made to add to the beauty of a
horse, we certainly do not see. Of all the styles, the one least suit-
able for purposes which require it to abandon more or less of its ori-
ginal character, is the Grecian Doric, whose sternness and severity,
apart frcjm the imposing grandeur attending magnitude of dimensions,
are apt to degenerate into frigidity and hardness when the order is
exhibited upon a tiivial scale. Instead of attempting to counteract
this defect, which lU'edominatcs in most modern imitations of that
style, we increase it bv omitting all sculpture and other decoration, as
nut included in the idea of the architecture itself, although it is essen-
tially indispensable to its effect. i3y the chilling bareness thus occa-
sioned, a style naturally stern in itself becomes aggravated into dis-
agreeable harshness ; more jiarticularly when reduced to more than
ordinary insignificance of size ; for all dignity of expression is lost,
and in lieu of it we obtain poverty of style, with an affected heaviness
of form, — something nearly as grotcisque as a little Cupid proportioned
after the brawny form of the Farnese Hercules.

Yet such is the style upon which, at least, one-half of our modern
shop-fronts are modelled. As far as the columns alone go, they are
tolerably accurate, and intolerably dull fic-similes of the different ex-
amples measured by Stuart and others ; but there all resemblance ends.
The frieze — shoulil there happen to be any such mendjer in the en-
tablature— is as plain as the architrave ; nevertheless, such disregard
of authorities is a trivial fault, in comparison with the wholesale dis-
regard of the genius of the style itself. Vet so it is: over- exactness
as to certain particulars goes hand in hand with the most fantastical
licentiousness — if that can be called fantastical which manifests not
the slightest aim at fancy. It is, however, not so much the deviation
from precedent that we censure in such cases, as the awkward and
absurd adherence to it, or rather the affectation of adhering to what it
is impossible to follow consistently as a model. Even supposing that,
in regard to the architecture itself, the style could be sufficiently well
kept up, still it would very ill assort witJi the display which it is in-
teniied to accompany. Fancy goods and Faestan columns — plumes,
velvets, artificial flowers, and Doric pillars — do not harmonise well to-
gether, nor seem to be suitable company for each other. A striking
instance of such disparity between the richness of the stock it contains
ami the shop itself is Ihiliues's shawl warehouse, in Regent Street ;
where, notwithstanding the splendour of the coup d'(eil of its interior,
the exceedingly massive, not to say rude, Doric columns supporting
the ceiling look most uucouthly lumpish amidst all the costly finery
around them. Surely, a lighter style would have been far more in
character: or, if pillars of that bulk were irbsolutely required, they
might easily have been enriched. It is true, they might then have
lost all reseiublance to L)oric columns ; yet of what conseipience would
that have been, or rather it would have been so much the better, sup-
posing them to be ;ippropriate and pleasing in themselves — that is,
successful inventions; and if we dare not venture upon any experi-
ments in architectural design on such occasions, we are not likely ever
to make them, when the question is to erect a building ol magnitude,
where every thing is expected to be perfectly ntciindini artem, and
where, of course, nothing can be admitted that might possibly be
sneered at as a rash innovation — a startling new idea.

Perhaps it would be siuue step towards improvement, were such
style of design adopted for the decoration of shops as would in a cer-
tain degree accord with the stock itself and the particular business
carried on. Attenti<jn to congruity of this sort would, doubtless, have
suggested for the one just referred' to above, a style altogether different
from w hat we actually behold — something liglit, fanciful, luxuriant ;
and, if not professedly in the Oriental taste, that is, after an express
pattern of it, yet more or less approaching to it. Characteristic pe-
culiarity of this kind, however, would of necessity be chiefly limited
to those cases — at present exceedingly rare ones — where the interior of
the shop itself is fitted up, like some of the Parisian ones, with regard
to ert'ect as an architectural eiiumbk, so as to have more the air of an

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THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

45

apartment furnished with certain articles there displayed, than of a mere
wareho\ise where they are stowed away on sheh-es that entirely line the
walls. The same diversity could not very well be extended to the ex-
teriors, or shop-fronts themselves ; because that would be apt to occa-
sion a very disagreeable medley of all sorts of styles in our streets, and
give them a most motley appearance. To be convinced of this, we
need but look at Saunders and Woolley's shop-front in Regent Street.
Whatever may be thought of the particular taste of embellishment — ■
the so-called Louis Qiuitvrze — there displayed, it is svfficiently signi-
ficant ; and we have no doubt that, as a design upon paper, shewn
(|uite bv itself, without any accompaniment, it uiade a striking and al-
luring appearance ; yet, as actually beheld, it is as much of a blemish
as a beaulv, — no improvement to the street, except as affording a very
showv display of window and costly articles of upholstery; and de-
cidedly injurious to the facade where it has been introduced. The
style itself is, moreover, by far too exotic and anomalous to be at all
ada|ited for exterior architecture, even were an entire front to be
designed in it so as to form a consistent composition. The Gothic
style, however, that is, some varieties of it, might occasionlly be re-
sorted to both with propriety and effect ; although we are not aw'are
(if its having been hitherto applied to such purpose, except at Fairs's,
in Mortimer Street, an exceedingly small, at least very narrow, upright
strip of Elizabethan architecture, clever, and not a little picturesque.
That the pale bronze hue given to that pretty architectural facade is
attended with other advantage than that of rendering it more conspi-
cuous, is what we will not imdertake to decide : since greater variety,
and quite as much propriety in regard to colouring, niiglit have been
obtained, imitating the weather-stained tints of stone and brick, with,
])erhaps, some of the mere ornamental parts in imitation of bronze, or
other metal.

Our catalogue of shops, would be longer than Homer's catalogue of
ships ; and, we venture to say on our part, not very much more inter-
esting, were we to note all that aim at being remarkable as well as
fascinating. There is hardly a street of them at the west end of the
town, in which one or more will not be found affording evidence of a
desire to attract observation by something more than the show of goods
behind the glass; but we cannot say that many of the designers have
displayed much fancy or taste, or greatly taxed their invention for the
benefit of their employers. In almost all of them we ])erceive some
little, and but very little, aim at originality — a mere beginning towards
it — in scarcely one instance a complete developement of a novel idea ;
consequently, there invariably seems to be more pretension than actual
performance. Colnaghi and Puckle's new shop-front, in Cockspur
Street, presents some novelty of style and detail, and is remarkable
for the great projection of the cornice, whicli is brought forward as
much as the half-octagon bay in the upper part of the house. The
style itself partakes of both the Rinaissntice and the Elizabethan; and,
independently of the panels with which they are embellished, the ex-
treme piers assist the design very much, both by giving an air of sta-
bility to the tnsimble, and a suitable termination to it. Cowie's, in
Holies Street, is singular, chiefly on account of the window shewing
itself somewhat like a glass-case inserted in the front, and being dark
brown relieved with gilding; while the door, which is detached from
it, has enormous white consoles, enriched with gilt mouldings, though
all the rest are of very dark hues ; a contrast of colours more traii-
chatit and striking than tasteful. In the adjoining str"et, viz. Henrietta
• — Marshall and Stinton's makes a quiet sort of display with its four
three-quarter Ionic columns, between which are three arches, of which
the two forming the windows are each filled in with a single sheet of
]ilate glass ; which species of luxury is not rendered less singular by
the extreme plainness of the windows themselves. We should re-
commend some liberal decoration in the spaces between them and the
columns.

The new front of No. 76 in the Strand, now the " Foreign Marble
Warehouse," may be cited as almost the very reverse of the preced-
ing, being as studiously embellished as the other is studiedly kept
plain. W'hat little design there is in the shop itself, has neither much
novelty nor much taste ; it is the elevation above, and in a maimer
distinct from it, which presents a sample of an unusual mode of em-
bellishment, it being liberally, yet not too liberally, decorated with
medallions and figures in relief between the windows ; and but for the
disagreeable heaviness of the odd-looking cornices to the windows of
the first floor, would be an agreeable composition, though susceptible
of improvement in other respects besides the defect just pointed out.
Had the exterior of the adjoining house been added to the design, so
as to give greater width to the elevation, the effect would have been
increased in more than arithmetical progression.

ON THE SUPPLY OF WATER TO THE METROPOLIS.

Observations on the past and present supply of Water to the Metro-
polis. By Thomas Wickstekd, C'iril Engineer. Read before the
Society of Arts, J\Iay 24, 1835.

( Continued from page 12. J

During the next two centuries, namely, from a.d. 1000 to a.d. ISOO,
were established several water-works of minor importance, as follow:

To the Merchant Water-works belonged three engines lor raising
water; one a windmill in Toltenhain Court Road Fields; and two
overshot water-wheels, worked by the water of a common sewer in
St. Martin's and Hartshorn Lanes in the Strand ; there were three
mains of G and 7 inch bores to supply the respective neighbourhoods.

The Shadwell Water-works, erected about 1660, had first a horse-
wheel, and afterwards tw'O atmospheric engines, which supplied tlie
neighbourhood with Thames water through two mains of 0 or 7 inch
bores.

In 1691 these works, which had previously belonged to the family
of Thomas Neale, Esq., were vested in a company of proprietors, who
w ere incorporated by an act of Parliament 3rd and 4th of William and
Marv. Two engines, of Boulton and Watt's manufacture, were after-
wards erected ; Ihe first was one of the earliest engines made by them.
When the London Docks were made, the district was much reduced
in consequence, and the works were purchased by the Dock Company ;
and afterwards an act was obtained in ISOS by the East London Water-
works Company to enable them to (lurchase these works, which they
did. The works were in play for a short time afterwards, but were
eventually given up, the supply from the Company's new works being
superior.

The York Buildings Water-works, in Villiers Street, Strand, were
established in 1691. The Thames water was raised for the supply of
the neighbourhood, first by a horse-wheel ; afterwards previous to the
year 1710, they had one of Savery's engines; and a few years after-
wards one of Newcomen's. Mai'tland says in his work, published
17n6, that "the directors of this Company, by purchasing estates in
England and Scotland, erecting new water-works and other pernicious
projects, have almost ruined the company. However, their chargeable
engine for raising water by fire being laid aside, they continue to work
that of horses, which may in time restore the Company's affairs."
This was true for a time, as it appears that from 1789 to 1804 this
Company paid good dividends, but afterwards, in consequence of the
ruinous competition that arose at that time, and for some years subse-
quently, a new engine was erected of 70 horses power, iron pipes laid
down instead of woo<l, and no more dividends were paid, excepting
V. per share for two years, out of the capital ; and in 1818 the Com-
pany was ruined, the establishment broken up, and the district was
supplied by the New River.

In 177o Mr. Watt mentions an engine of Newcomen's at the York
Buildings, and Mr. Farcy calculated its power at about 26 horses,
working 7 hours per diem, and raising during that time about 356,000
gallons to a height of 1112 feet, or 3,137,000 barrels per annum. In
IS Ut the quantity raised at these works was only equal to 178,200
gallons per diem', or 1,541,100 barrels per annum. In ISIS, before the
breaking up of the establishment, the quantity raised was 762,588
gallons per diem, or 6,i;09,252 barrels per annum; which supplied
about 2636 tenants.

The Chelsea Water-n'orks were established in 1722 by an act of
Parliament, in the Sth of George I., for the better supplying the city
and liberties of Westminsier, and parts adjacent, with water.

The Thames water was raised from settling-ponds, in the first in-
stance, by a water-wheel, which was worked by the water collected
in large ponds as the tide rose, and kept in until the water in the
river lowered, when it was let out and worked the wheel : afterwards
two of Newcomen's engines were erected, and in 1782 one of Boulton
and Watt's engines, — one of the earliest erected in London.

The West Ham Water-works were set on foot in 1743, and a com-
pany was established by act of Parliament the 21st of George II., in
1747. The water was raised out of one of the branches of the River
Lee by a fire-engine of about 6 horses power ; these works were after-
wards purchased by the East London Water-works Company, at the
same time that they purchased the Shadwell works ; and the power
now used is a water-wheel of about 16 horses power.

Previous to the year 1756 there was a horse-machine for raising
Thames water through a 7-inch pipe in Southwark, called the Bank
End Water-works. A company was formed in 1758, under the name
of the Old Borough Water-vvorks Company, which, together with
the London Bridge works, supplied Southwark. A steam-engine was
erected afterwards ; and in 1823, upon the removal of the London

46

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[FEBRirARY,

Bridge wator-wlieels, the two works were consolidated, \inder the
ii;mie of the Southwiirk Water-works, and became the properly of
John Edwards, Esq.

Previous to 175(3 works were established at Rotherhithe, The
water was raised by a water-wheel, which was worked by tide water,
collected in the ditches and ponds in the neighbourhood, and kept in
until the falling uf tlie tide, when it was let out again into the river,
and in its course turned the water-wheel ; it supplied the neighbour-
hood plentifully through two li-inch mains.

Previous to the year 17lj7 works were established at Lee Bridge,
ujion the river Lee, worked by a water-wheel, for the supply of Hack-
ney and Clapton ; they were called the Hackney Water-works, and in
182it, after which period they became the property of the East London
Water-works Company, they raised about 6UU,UU0 barrels per annum
for the supply of about t5UU families.

In I7S5 the Lambeth Water-works were established by act of Par-
liament 25th of George IIL, to supply the district upon the south side
of the Thames, exclusive of the parishes of St. Georgg's and St. Sa-
^■iour's Southwark. The water was raised from the Thames near
Waterloo Bridge by steam-engines.

From the year 18UU to the present date, the following works have
been established :

In 1S05 tlie South London Water-works were established by act of
Parliament' 45th of George Hi., to supply the district on the south
side of the Thames not already supplied by the Lambeth and South-
wark Water-works. The works are at Vauxhall.

In ISOti the West Middlesex Water-works were established by act
of Parliament 40th of George III. The works are at Hammersmith,
and they supply Hammersmith, Kensington, Paddington, and Mary-
lebone.

In 1807 the East London Water-works were established by act of
Parliament 47th of George III. ; they have works at Old Ford, which
is iheir chief station for the supply of the eastern parts of the metro-
polis. They have purchased the Shadwell, West Ham, and Hackney
Water-works, and have works and machinery for raising water at
.Stratford and Lee Bi'idge. Objections having been made in 1828 to
the source from whence they raised their water, it being asserted that
as the tide affected the river Lee in that part, the water " partook of
the nature of Thames water," the Company, to remove all doubts,
obtained parliamentary powers in 1S20 to change the source of supply,
and, according to the powers granted, they have, at an expense of
nearly 8U,U0Ci/., constructed reservoirs and a canal for the purpose of
bringing water from a jiart of the river Lee which is far above the
influence of the tide ; so that now the water raised at Old Ford is Lee
IValcr only. I mention this more jiarticularly because it has been
erroneously asserted that Thames water is supplied by this Company.

In IblO the Grand Junction Water-works Company was esfablisheil
by act of Parliament the 51st of George III. This Company first sup-
])lied water from the Grand Junction Canal ; this supply was not only
limited, but was also objected to by some of the tenantry, who pre-
ferred Thames water : the works were accordingly rcnio\ed to the
banks of the Thames at Chelsea. This Company together with the
West Middlesex and Chelsea Water-works Companies supply the
western parts of the metropolis.

It appears lliat, in the Jinl instance, when it was necessary to bring
water from a distance, the Corpoi-ation were the chief promoters of
all schemes for better supplying London; and never more so, than
when they granted a lease of the London Bridge arches to Peter
M-aurice at a nondnal rent; but it is probable that this supply never
exceeded six millions of imperial barrels per annum — not 2 per cent,
of the present supply.

Afterwards Sir Hugh Myddleton executed the plan for bringing the
greatest supply to London ; he was, however, ruined, the undertaking
being too extensive for an individual.

And at last several wealthy men joineil together, and subscribed
money sufficient to execute large plans for eflieiently supplying every
portion of the metrojjolis, which is now most abundantly supplied w ith
good water at the rate of |ths of a farthing for an imperial barrel, or 3()
gallons, which is the amount received by the Water Companies for
every barrel they distribute, according to the parliamentary returns.
This abundant supply is continued through the night, to be used in
case of tires happening.

In some of the suburbs of London water is still supplied by carriers.
Where it is carried in buckets from wells, it is sold at the rate of brf.
per barrel, or 42 times as nuich ;is when supplied by machinery ; and
when it is carted from the river, at -Irf. per barrel, or 21 times more
than machinery. As it is more than probable that it could not be sold
at a cheaper rate in ancient times, the advantages obtained by the
introduction of machinery will appear very great.

hx uddition to the works before mentioned, there are the Kent and

the Hampstead Water-works. The Kent Water-works are situated
ujjon the River Ravensbourne at Deptford. The machinery consists
of a water-wlieel and two steam-engines. The water from this river
is supplied chiefly to Deptford, Greenwich, Woolwich and Rother-
hithe : these works are scarcely considered metropolitan.

The Hampstead Works are small ; they are the same that have
been mentioned before, and are the most ancient of any of the existing
works. In 1803 the New River Company supplied the tenantry.

Present SnpiAy of Water to the Metropolis.

According to the report of the Select Committee of the House of
Commons in 1834, the cjuantity of water raised by the eight metro-
politan water-works in the year 1833 was equal to 3.57,288,807 im-
perial barrels ; the number of houses supplied was 191,0G(J, and the
average daily supply was above 35 millions of gallons, or 183 gallons
per house upon the average.

Tlie following detailed accoimt is taken from the Parliamentary
Reports :

The New River Water-works supplied in 1833, 171,975,000 im-
perial barrels of water, 21 millions of which were raised by machinery
GO feet above the level of the New River Head, the remainder sup-
plied by the river, which is 84 feet above the level of the Thames, a
sufficient elevation to supply Jths of the New River district without
the aid of steam or other power. The number of houses supplied
was 70,145; the capital expended from the commencement of' the
works has been 1,11G,0G4/. ; the rental received from the houses sup-
plied with water amounted to 98,307/., and from lands and houses
GGOl/., or a total income of 104,909/.; the expenditure was G],1G3/.,
leaving 43,74G/. to be divided, or not quite 4 per cent, upon the
capital. These works supply the greatest number of houses.

The East London Water-works rank next to the New River Water-
works ; the quantity of water supplied by them in 1833 was equal to
56,715,890 imperial barrels, all raised by machinery, under an average
pressure of about 110 feet: the ninnber of houses supplied was
4G,42 1 ; the capital expended from the commencement of the works
has been 594,988/. ; the gross rental was 53,0G1/. ; 22,1GG/. was di-
vided, not 3? per cent, upon the capital.

The Lambeth Water-works supplied 17,997,903 imperial barrels in
1833, all raised by machinery ; the number of houses supplied was
1G,G82 ; the capital expended from the commencement of the works
has been l!52,553/. ; the gross rental was 11,808/. ; and 3,840/. was
divided, not 2i per cent, upon the capital.

The West MidiUesex Water-works supplied in 1833, 30,000,000
imperial barrels, all raised by machinery ; the number of houses sup-
plied was 1G,000 ; the capital expended from the connnencenient of
the works has been 404,2G3/. ; the gross rental was 45,500/.; their
shares are valued at GS/. 8s. dd., and 3/. per share was divided, less
than 4i per cent, upon the shares, but more than G per cent, upon the
capital expended.

The Chelsea Water-works supplied in 1833, 23,629,500 imperial
barrels, all raised by machinery ; the number of houses supplied was
13,892 ; the capital expended from the commencement of the works
has been 271,311/. ; the gross rental was 22,906/.; 4,800/. was di-
vided, or 1 j per cent, upon the capital.

The South London Water-works supplied about 12, 1G6,GGG imperial
barrels in 1833; the number of houses supplied was 12,016; the
capital expended from the commencement of the works lias been
245,306/. ; the average per share was about 245/., and they were last
sold at 85/. per share ; the gross rental was 8,839/.

The Grand Junction Water-works supplied 32,553,850 imperial
barrels in 1833 ; the number of houses supplied was 8,780 ; the capital
expended from the commencement of the works has been 331,174/.;
the gross rental was 26,154/. ; dividend rather more than 4 per cent.

The Southwark Water-works supplied 12,250,000 barrels in 1833;
the number of houses supplied was 7,100; the capital expended since
1823, when the Old Borough and London Bridge works were consoli-
dated, has been 25,000/. ; the works belong to private individuals,
who state that the Borough Wafer-works did not pay 1 per cent, and
the London Bridge never more than 3 per cent.

The whole capital expended since the establishment of these water-
works has been 3,171,559/.; and the amount of dividend upon this
capital in 1833 was between 3 and 4 i)Cr cent. All of these were for
many years without any dividend, and frequently much lower than
that before named, — seldom higher.

I think the foregoing statement will prove that tlie profits of the
public Water Companies have not generally been very exorbitant;
and that, whatever objections may be made in particular cases, great
credit is due to the enterprise of those who have, for a trifling gain,
risked their property for the public good.

I cannot proceed fwtUer without remarkingi that in the observations

1S40.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

47

I have made, and am about to make, I am not advocating any particu-
lai- interests, but merely expressing my individual opinion of a great
public good ; nor do I tliink the circumstance of my being at present
connected professionally with one of the largest of the Water-works
Companies should be any bar to the expression of an independent
opinion. In the following observations, I can only regret that others
more competent have not taken the task in hand, knowing, as I do, how
many there are connected with this Society infinitely better able, from
age and experience, to do justice to the subject.

That Great Britain stands pre-eminent amongst nations is not only
on account of the valuable minerals in which she abounds, and which
is accidental, but also on account of the industry and perseverance of
her subjects enabling them to overcome the greatest difficulties, and to
avail themselves to the fidlest extent of the resources Nature has
blessed the islands with.

The chief reason that there are larger and nobler establishments for
the public good is, that in England, instead of the Government exe-
cuting and controlling the large public works, enterprising individuals
join together, and, each s\ibscribing a portion of his property, execute
the largest and grandest works. The only inducement is the fair ex-
pectation tliat the money subscribed will yield an equitable return for
the risk incurred. This return is made by that portion of the com-
munity wdio derive advantages from the undertaking, — advantages
which could not be obtained excepting by joint subscription. If any
work is undertaken which, although benelicial to some portions of the
community, is not to others, that only which derives the benefit pays
for it ; whereas, if it w'ere undertaken by Government, in many in-
stances the whole would have to pay for the part enjoying the benefit,
or no works ujjon a similar plan to those which, until of late years,
were peculiar to Great Britain, would be undertaken, as the acquies-
cence of the majority must be obtained before a wise Government
would embark in any hirge undertaking.

This system, as every other, may be abused ; but I am speaking of
the system when it is jjroperly worked, not otherwise.

The case of Sir Hugh Myddleton is one showing directly the neces-
sity of many individuals joining together; the undertaking was too
large, and the risk too great for one man, to ensure a safe return ; he
therefore was ruined. If in the first instance others had joined with
him, a portion only of his fortune would have been lost. It is not to
be expected that Companies can be formed without a fair chance of a
return for the money risked: and as the benefit derived from great
public works cannot be obtained otherwise, the nation, while it is doing
right to guard against abuse, nuist, on the other hand, be cautious that,
by requiring too much, it does not render the article too costly, and
thus put a stop to the system. Every Company, as every individual,
expects and ought to be remunerated, otherwise there is an end to
companies.

There have been many abuses of the system, and a consequent sus-
picion of it ; individuals not unfrequently most honestly undertake to
expose these abuses, — it is a difficult task ; care must be taken that
in attempting to cure a limb the whole body is not, through ignorance,
destroyed.

In determining upon the supply of water to a large district, the chief
points to be attended to are, first, whether it is to be obtained at such
a cost that those who risk their money to obtain it can supply it at an
unobjectionable price, and at the same time be fairly remunerated ;
second, that the quality be good ; and third, that the quantity be
abimdant.

On the first I have to observe, that in London, with the exception
of the greatest portion of the New River supply, the water has to be
raised by the power of steam to dwelling-houses situated above the
source ; and by the same power it must be forced through pipes, so
that each inhabitant shall have a supply : to preserve and continue
this power is the greatest source of expenditure in water-works. If
water cannot be obtained in the neighbourhood at a sufficient elevation
to run into the houses of the inhabitants, recourse must be had to me-
chanical power, or the plan of carrying water front a distance by human
labour must be readopted. The power necessary is in proportion to
the quantity of water required and the height to which it has to be
raised. If the elevation is lOU feet, it will require double the power
that it would if it were only 50 feet ; if, therefore, the rivers near
London are discarded, and deep springs are resorted to, the height to
which the water vfill have to be raised will be at least lUU feet greater
than the height from the rivers, and the expense will be proportion-
ately increased, which must be met by increased payment for the
water. To raise the present supply of London 100 feet high, without
considering friction, a power equal to about 1480 horses will be re-
quired, working 12 hours per diem.

In addition to this, as the water supplied by the New River Com-
pany is now delivered by their river at 84 feet above the water of the

Thames, taking the average pressure at 60 feet, an additional power of
430 horses, working 12 Tiours per diem, would be required, or a total
increase of power equal to more than IDOO horses. To establish and
maintain this jiower would require an investment of capital eepial to
about 1,500,000/. The same reasoning will apply to filtering the whole
supply.

This fact must be borne in mind, that if more capital is laid out in
what is, often erroneously, termed impioiing the supply, higher rates
must be paid ; antl if those who pay for the water are not satisfied, and
are willing to pay higher rates, they can have a more costly article ;
and that if any alteration is made" in the general su;>ply of water,
which leads to increased expenditure, whether tliis is made by the
Companies already established, or by new Companies, the case is the
same, — higher rates must eretitually be paid, whatever is done in the
first instance ; and this appears to me a statement wliich no unpreju-
diced individual can gainsay; — I am speaking of the ^cj(errtZ supplv,
not of any particular cases.

And this brings me to the second point, namely, quality. From the
parliamentary inquiries lately made, it appears that owing to the im-
proved drainage in London consequent upon the abundant supply of
water which has of late years flowed into the sewers, the water of the
river Thames had in that portion in which the drainage took place
become inferior in qualitylo what it had been before. The strongest
evidence upon this subject was that of Dr. Bostock, a gentleman of
well known experience in the analysation of waters; he stated dis-
tinctly that the impurities of the water were mechanical, and might
be separated by filtration. It would also be well to notice what pro-
portion of the supply of London comes from this objectionable source :
about 65 per cent, of the whole supply is;(o/ Thames water; about 22
per cent, is either taken above Hammersmith Bridge, beyond the in-
fluence of the London drainage, or is filtered ; and as to the remaining
13 per cent., powers are, or are about to be obtained forthwith to
change the source of supply. In the latter case delay has been occa-
sioned by a belief, justly founded, that Parliament would have proposed
a plan for their supply ; and in fact, powers were refused the parties
until it was detern>iued whether this would be the case or not.

For drinking, spring water is the pleasantest ; and although it may
contain certain salts, which render it hard and unfit for domestic pur-
poses, it is not in the slightest degree injurious to health. Few would
prefer river water to drink, if they could obtain spring water, as the
very quality of softness which renders river water so valuable for
general purposes, is that which renders it flat and unpalatable, namely,
the absence of salts, which causes the water to be hard.

Thirdly, as to quantity ; that this is a point of very great importance
may easily be proved. In 1S33, 191,066 houses were supplied with
waier; the quantity of water raised was 35 millions of gallons daily. .
Supposing each house required 9 gallons per diem for drinking in the
simple form, or otherwise, this would amount to TiVth of the whole
quantity, or 5 per cent.; and the remaining iilths, or 95 per cent., is
required for washing, cleaning sewers, watering gardens, and running
down the channels in the public streets, and a portion for manufacturing
purposes, and for fires.

The Water Companies are bound to give an abundant supply in
case of fire ; and during the time that the cholera morbus raged, a
gratuitous supply was given, and the water was allowed to run out of
the mains down the streets, alleys, and courts whenever required; — in
the first instance insuring the lives and property of the public against
fire ; and in the second, preventing the sjiread of ilisease by rendering
the whole, but especially the thickly populated parts, of "the Metro-
polis healthy.

If, therefore, so small a quantity is required for drinking, and so
large a quantity for other purposes, it would be a very imperfect
scheme which sacrificed the latter for the former.

If a purer water can be obtained, and is required, either from deep
springs or by universal filtration, as this cannot be done excepting by
an enormous outlay of capital, and a proportionate increase of rates,
which is preferable, — that tlie whole 35 millions used for all purposes
should be filtered; or that for a short season every year, when the
rivers are discoloured, eacli inhabitant should have a portable filter,
which may be obtained for 2Us., and filter the twentieth part? That
the latter would be the cheapest to the consumer I am quite satisfied.
I am of course speaking now of that portion of the supply out of the
influence of the London tirainage, and which is only mechanically
affected in rainy seasons, at all other times being clear and free from
mechanical impurity. I say mechanical impurity, in contradistinction
to chemical impurity : the first may be got rid of by deposition or
filtration; the second cannot be got rid of but by changing the source.
The evidence, however, given before Parliament shows that none of
the water supplied to Loudon is so ckmicuUij impure, as to be in the
least degree injurious to health.

48

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[February,

TlKit all inquiries into alwiscs are good and desirable tlierc is no
denying, but it appears to nie that exaggerated statements liave been
made ol the abuses in Water Companies, and that it is not generally
borne in mind that if any increased outlay is necessary it may be
efVected at much less cost, eventually, to the tenantry, by those whose
works are established and whose experience is great, than by others;
and the fact that great works liave lately been executed by some Com-
panies, and that more ore about to be undertaken by others, without
increasing the rates, shows a disposition on the part of those engaged
in them to make the good of the public their first object. That some
are obliged to increase their rates, upon a greatly increased expendi-
ture, arises from the dilKculties being so great tliat the Company could
not be carried on without it, and unless other parties will undertake,
and be bound iinckr >iiij/:cttiit sicitriUea, (to be determined by Parlia-
ment,) to supply such districts at lower rates, an increase should not
be objected to.

I am fearful I have too long occu])ied the time of the Society in ob-
servations which, as they are those of an individual only, cannot be
of much importance ; but thanking them for their kind intention, I
will conclude by an explanitiun of the mode in which a town is sup-
plied with water according to the present system.

If any town be so fortunately situated tliat a supply of water may
be had from springs in the ntighbnurluiud, of good (pialily, abundant in
quantity, and at a sullicient elevation to overcome the friction created
by the passage of the water through the pipes, and to allow it to run
into the upper stories of the dwelling-houses, the arrangement for the
supply will be simple, and the annual expense beyond the interest of the
capital expended will be trifling. Jt is, however, but seldom that such
is the case.

In general the water has either to be raised from the rivers in the
iunnediate neighbourhood at a great and continual expense of power;
or, where lhei(> are no fresh-water rivers w ithin a pr.icticable distance,
from deep wells; in which case the necessary power will be doubled ;
or, lastly, should there be a river in the neighbcjiuhood, and it should
be desirable to avoid the continual expense of steam ])ower, it may be
effected by bringing a cut from such ))art of the river that the eleva-
tion obtained by going a considerable distance up the stream produces
a sutiicient head without the aid of machinery, as in the case of the
New River. The head is obtained thus: the natural fall of the river
from whence the water is taken is so much greater than is necessary
to produce the required velocity for the water through the canal, that
the difference in levels makes the required head.

If an ojipoi-tunity is alfbrded of adopting citlier the mode of bringing
it from a distance by means of a canal, or by jmmping from the river
by steam power, tlie choice will be determined by Uie result of the
estimate of the cost. The canal will cost more than the steam power
in the first instance ; and to determine which is the least expensive,
the interest of the capital expended added to the annual expense of
keeping the canal in repair must be compared with the interest of
capital expended for the steam power added to the annual amount for
repairs, and the cosf oj'futl and wear and tear of Hit steam pon'ti:

In small towns one line of pipes communicating with the source
passes tlirough the streets, and each inhabitant is supplied at the same
time. In larger towns, wliere the number of houses to be supplied is
great, and the distance that the water has to travel is also great, re-
course is had to the following contrivance : in the principal streets
mains are laid, which convey the water from tlie source ; and branch-
ing from these mains, other smaller-sized pipes are laid, called ser-
vices; at every point where the services branch from the mains a cock
is attached, by means of which the communication with the main is
either opened or shut off; from the services small lead pipes branch
to each dwelling-house, anil wlienever the conununication is opened
with the mains, which are always charged, the houses whose lead pipes
are joined on to the service receive a supply of water.

The necessity for such an arrangement will be made obvious by the
following statement :

When water is forced tln-ough pivies either by a natural or artificial
head, or by steam or other power, friction is created in proportion to
the velocity of the water and length of the line of pipes. As the dis-
tance increases, the power must either be increased or the velocity re-
duced ; the shorter the distance, the less the power required to over-
come the friction ; if, therefore, it is necessary to exert a great power
to force the water to the extremities of an extensive district, that they
may be properly supplied, it is very evident that the power which is
exerted near to the source, not being required to overcome so great an
amount of friction as at the extremities, must be applied to increase
the velocity of the water through the orifices near the source ; and if,
therefore, such an arrangement as the one herein before mentioned were
not adopted, the effect would be that those houses whicli were near
the source would have a superubiindantsupply," while those at a dis-

tance would have a very small s\ipply, if any; but, by means of the
system mentioned, when the inhabitiuits near the source havi' received
their supply the cocks on the services are shut down, and the water
in the mains passes on to supply the services at the extremities,
wduch will have a sufficient supply, because the water, not being used
before, must pass on to the extremities. That each may have an
niuaJ supply, those that are near the source have the communication
opened with the main for a sliorter time than those at a distance, in
]H'oportion to the velocity with which the water is delivered.

in addition to this, on every line of mains and services orifices of
about 2 inches diameter are made at certain distances, which are filled
up with what are termed "fire plugs," being nothing more than wooden
spigots made to fit the orifices; these are easily fitted and as easily
removed, and in case of a fire they are started, and a supply is given
directly. The strength of this supply is regulated by means of the
system before mentioned ; thus, by closing the service cocks in the
other parts of the district, the whole force of the water may be con-
centrated in that part where the fire has occurred.

WIRE FENCES.

1840.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

49

WIRE FENCES.

(From the Gardener's Magazine.)

At an ordinary meeting of the Horticultural Society of London, tlie follow-
ing letter to the secretary from Mr. W. B. Booth, was read, upon the mode
of constructing wire fences for training espalier fruit trees upon, and for other
purposes.

" CarcleWj January 29, 1839.
" S:r, I heg to hand you the following particulars respecting some wire
trellises lately erected here, which you may, probahly, not deem unworthy of
submitting to the notice of the Horticultural Society.

" The object for which they are intended is the training of espalier fruit
trees ; and it occurred to me, in the course of erecting some wire fencing to
divide a portion of the park, that a similar kind of erection might be advan-
tageously introduced into the kitchen-garden, which would answer the same
piu-pose as the expensive wooden or cast-iron trellises usually met with in
those places where the espalier mode of training is adopted. I accordingly
submitted the plan to Sir Cliarlcs Lemon, who has since had it carried into
execution to a considerable extent.

" Wire erections of the kind I am about to describe are not uncommon, I
believe, as fences, in some parts of the kingdom ; but in Cornwall it is only
within the last few years they have been introduced. Mr. Gilpin, in his ex-
cellent Hints on Landscape-Gardening, p. 217, has noticed the wire fence as
being best suited for those parts near to the house, or to the approach, but
he has not shown the manner in which it may be erected. The accompany-
ing sketches and details will, I trust, supply this deficiency, and enable any
one who may be desirous of erecting a wire fence or trellis to do so, with the
assistance of a mason and blacksmith, at a very moderate expense. The wire
used is known as No. 32. It is about a quarter of an inch in diameter, and is put
up in large coils. Each wire measures from 115 ft. to 120 ft. in lengtli. The
main upright posts fig. 153 a a are of iron, 1^ in. squax'e, and from 5^ ft. to
6 ft. high, with holes 6 or 7 inches apart for receiving the small screws and
nuts, to which the wires are attached in the way shown at fig. 152. At the
opposite end the wire is secured by being bent a little at the point, and having
a small wedge driven over it in each of the holes of the upright. Both tliese
main posts are i\ ft. above the level of the ground, and are fixed beneath the
surface in large rough blocks of stone d e, with iron wedges, which are more
convenient, and answer the purpose quite as well as if they were run in with
lead. The stay-bar is round, and 1^ in. in diameter. It varies in length ac-
cording to the inclination of the ground, but when the latter is nearly level
it is about 7 ft. long. The up|ier end is flattened, and beveled, so as to
square with the upright, to which it is fixed by means of a screw at,/". The
lower end is only a little bent, that it may fit into a somewhat smaller lilock
of stone e than the one at d. The connecting bar c is square or round, and
need not exceed an inch in either ease. It will also vary in length, accord-
ing to circiunstanees. On a nearly level surface it must be about 5 ft. long,
and have an eye at each end large enough for the end o€ the post and stay to
go through. In addition to this, there are uprights of one-inch flat bar by
half an inch in thickness fixed in stone, at 30 or 40 ft. apart, or even nearer
if necessary, for the purpose of stifl%ning the trellis.

" In the erection of this kind of trellis, it is requisite to have an instrument
for drawing the wires Uke the one represented at fig. 151 to the scale of an
inch to a foot, wliich may be made without much difficulty. The one 1 have
sketched was constructed by our own blacksmith, and is a very eflicient con-
trivance for the purpose. After the stones are bored and set in their places,
with the earth firmly rammed around them, the next thing to be done is to
fix the main post a, and wedge it tight. It ought to lean about an inch back
from the perpendicular, to allow for its giving a little when the whole strain
of the wires comes upon it, which will bring it upright. The connecting bar
c is then slipped down over it, wliile the lower end of the stay-bar b is put
through the other eye and into the stone e, and the upper end screwed to the
main post at/. The triangle from which the wires are to be stretched is then
complete. A similar triangle must be made at the opposite end, and against
the main post of which p the instrument above noticed is to be placed for the
pm-pose of drawing the wire. This is done with great facility by means of a
double piece of rope-yarn twisted several times round the end of each, and
hooked, as shown at h. The screw g is then worked until the wire enters its
proper hole in the post^, when it is bent and secured by a wedge, as already

stated. The nuts on the bolts fig. 152, at the end from which the wires were
drawn, are then screwed up a little, so as to make all tlie wires as tight as
possible. The cost of the whole averages from Is. (>d. to 2s. per yard.

" I have been thus minute with the details of the trellis and the mode of
erecting it, in order that those who approve of it may be al)le to have others
erected on the same plan, for either of the purposes to which it has been
successfully applied at Carelew.

" I am. Sir, your very obedient servant,

" Wm. B. Booth."

STEAM BOAT PROPELLERS.

Sip, — Whatever effect tlie experiments of Geo. Rennie, Esq., on
steam-boat propellers, may have on the public generally, allow me to
say, that I consider conclusions more erroneous were never before
formed from any experiments, and with your permission I will attempt
to prove, that the assertions relative to the superiority of the spear-
shaped paildles are utterly without foundation. And what are these
assertions, and what are we called on to believe? Why, that the
floats of a paddle-wheel, when made in the shape of a trapezium,
(with tlie acute ends down,) present double the resistance to the com-
mon rectangular floats with three times the width and equal area!
A most important discovery certainly ; and pray how is it that all our
writers and experimenters on practical hydraulics have neglected to
make known to us this peculiar but important property of the trape-
zium ? Is it not for this simpk' reason, and this only, that they never
could have discovered that such a property belonged to it? Indeed,
it is a most glaring inconsistency to imagine that a flat surface,
fashioned into a trapezium, can present double |the resistance to a
rectangular s\wface of equal area : we say that there is no authority
whatever for the assertion, and happily for us Mr. Rennie has placed
the proof within our reach.

We find, in the second table of experiments, (p. 25 of the Journal,)
that a paddle-wheel of 3 ft. 3 in. diameter, with rectangular floats
'••4x4 in., the total area of floats immersed being 22S-8 sq. in., pro-
pelled the boat at the rate of 2'S miles per hour, with -11-S revolutions
of the winch per minute. Also, that with trapezium-shaped floats,
^4x4 in. (the acute ends down,) and immersed area 1ij7 sq. in., with
a wheel 3 ft. lo| diameter, and 47'.5 revolutions per minute, the same
boat was propelled at the rate of 2-0 miles per hour.

In the first case, i. e. with rectangular floats, we shall find on calcu-
lation, that the centre of pressure, (assuming it in each case to be the
centre of the floats,) travels at tlie rate of 3s2'0 ft. per minute, or 4-35
miles per hour, and the velocity of the boat is stated to be 2-8 miles
per hour; the diflerence between these two quantities (4-35 — 2-y) =
1-5.5 miles per hour : this is the rate at wdiicli the floats, with an area
of 228'S sq. in. recede in the water, to obtain resistance sufficient to
propel the boat at the rate of 2-8 miles per hour.

In tlie other case, i. e. with trapezium-shaped floats, we sliall find,
in the same way, that the centre of pressure travels at the rate of
4(i(;%3 ft. per minute, or 5*3 miles per hour, and tlie velocity of the
boat being only 2-'J miles per hour, shows that the floats, having an
area of 1U7 sq. in., recede at the rate of 2'4 miles per hour, to produce
an equal resistance, (or nearly so) to the rectangular floats.

A writer in that excellent and useful publication, the Mechanic's
Magazine, states the propeller to be "an important modification of the
old paddle, being an ingenious application of a most simple and beau-
tiful principle in nature," and mentions also the observation of the
talented inventor, Mr. Rennie, " that nature never attains her ends but
by the best and most efficacious means," meaning, of course, that the
propeller in question is "the best and most etHcacious." As Mr.
Rennie seems to have followed nature so closely in his invention, it
seems passing strange that he should have overlooked another of her
principles, equally simple and important, viz. that of the resistance
opposed to the motion of a body through mater being as the square of the
rtlocity : had he tested the perfonuLuice of his floats by this simple
law, he would have seen at once on which side the efficiency rested.

With the rectangular floats, we have seen that the recession, or the
velocity of the floats through the water, is 1-55 miles per hour; the
square of this is 1-55 x 1'55 = 2 4025.

The recession of the trapezium-shaped floats is also shown to be
2-4 miles per hour, the square of which is 2*4 x2'4^ 5'7G.

The area of the immersed floats necessary to produce an equal
resistance in each case, is of course inversely as their velocity;
and taking the area of the rectangular floats moving through the water
at the rate of 1-55 miles per hour, at 229 sq. in., we find, by simple

50

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[February,

proporlion, tlip area of the sunn yorl nfjloat, necessary to produce an
equal resistance when moving llirougli tlie water at the rate of ■2'1
miles per hour, to be only OJ'T) sq. in. for rr'li ; 2'1()2.J ; ; 229 ; 95-5.
Hence we see plainly, that had the nclaiigulnr floats been of equal
area oiili/ with the trapezinni-shaped lluafs, and Iraixlkd at the aamt
rctocitii, tlie resistance would have lieen quite as great, if not greater;
for the area of the immersed trapezium floats is slated to be l(i7, and
the calculation shows that 9.5'o sq. in. would have been sulficient with
rectangular tloals.

But "we have no occasion to stop hero; Mr. Rennie has tried the
merits of the two kinds of floats on a larger scale, (viz. with the
"Pink " steamer,) and we shall be able to show, that instead of being
superior, the trapezium-shaped floats prove themselves to be infinitely
inferior to (he rectangular, as the experiments are made on a larger
and fairer scale.

Pursuing the same method of calculation, we find that in the wheel
with rectangular floats, the centre of pressure travelled at the rate of
7a4'S ft. per minute, or 8-5(3 miles per hour, whilst the boat only
travelled at the rate of 6-7 miles; then S-5(i — (>7 =: PSll, for the re-
cession of the rectangular floats with (iSirO sq. in. surface. The centre
of pressure of the trapezium-shaped floats travelled at the rate of 829
ft. per minute, or 9- 11 miles per hour, and the boat ti-Sl ; then 9-41 —
6'31 =3*07 for the recession of the trapezium floats per hour, having
a surface of ■f32-25 sq. in. The square of l'S(J = 3--J59t;, and the
square of 3'(l7=: 9-5219, then 9-5219 : 3-1590 : : G36 : 231 sq. in.
Here we again see, that had the rectangular floats had an area of only
231 sq. in., and trarel/ed at tlit. same nlotitij as tlie trapezium, the re-
sistance wovdd have been equal ! Whereas it appears by the experi-
ment, that the area of the immersed trapezium-floats, was 432 sq. in., or
(432 — 231 = ) 201 sq. in. greater than would have been necessary
with rectutiguhir floats.

Thus far, then, we think we have proved all that we attempted,
and now let us ask, what are the other advantages besides a reduced
area, which are said to be derived for tlie use of the trapezium-shaped
floats? A reduction of two-thirds in the width of the paddle-wdieels
and boxes. Having clearly shown that no advantage whatever is

gained as far as the area of the immersed floats is concerned, but rather
loss of power incurred ; what authority is there for asserting that
])lacing the floats endwise is advantageous ? On the contrary, iTo not
the experiments prove this modification to be as good ;is disadvan-
tageous? for we see that when the obtuse luigle was down, a surface
of only 103 sq. in. w as suflicient to propel the boat at the rate of 2-8
miles per hour, with only Hi- J turns of the winch, and a 3 ft. Gi in.
wheel ; but when the acute angle was down, the velocity was only
2-9 miles, with 47-5 turns of the wincli per minnte, and a 3 f(. lUi in.
wheel. In fact, there is just as much authority for stating, and I make
bold to say, that (he results would be found equally as favourable, were
the common rectangular floats also placed endwise, as the trapezium
floats are when in that position.

The disad\antages of the common paddle-wheel are universally
acknowledgetl, and it would therefore have been much fairer, had Mr.
Rennie compared the etfects of the trapezium floats with the cycloidal
or the vertically-acting paddle.

Above all, it may not perhaps be rude to ask, who are the compe-
tent judges and witnesses who are said to "have seen the experiments
repeated again and again and testeei them?" I think I may venture
to say that Professor Barlow was not one of them, though he is said to
approve of the ])lan t/ieoret/catli/.

In sending you my views on the subject, I trust I shall not be accused
of any motive unworthy of the subject, or of endeavouring to cast a
slur over the efforts of the talented inventor; but Mr. Rennie should
recollect, that assertions coming from so high a quarter, are much
more likely to mislead than when made by an obscure individual. If I
am wrong in my views and calculations, it will be easy to discover the
seat of error and thus elicit truth, and I shall then be the first to
acknowledge it ; but should this letter be the means of preventing
a needless expenditure of money, I trust that those interested will
consider that, instead of inflicting an injury, I have conferred on them
a benefit.

Yemsleij,

Jan. m, 1840.

I am, Sir,

Your obedient servant,
J. L.

TRAVERSING SCREW-JACK.

Fig.l

TRAVERSING SCREW-JACK.

FiGuuES I and 2 exhibit the screw modification. The screw-
jack a is bolted to the plank c ; at the other end of the plank is fixed
the rack g, in which the toe of (he strut/ advances as the screw Ij is
elevated ; the strut works in a joint in the follower k : the position of
the strut when (he screw is depressed is shown by the dotted lines.
The object of this strut is to relieve the screw of the violent cross
strain to which (lie apparatus is subject, when the engine or carriage
IS pulled over by the lever; which strain is entirely transferred to the
strut, and the screw has merely to carry (he load.

The operation of traversing the jack is as follows ; by hooking the

link i upon (he hook of the lever f, the toe of the lever being inserted
into a ratch of the rack A of the lower plank, when a man, bearing
down the end of (he lever, drags the apparatus and engine or carriage
towards him with great facilKy; the same lever is used to (urn the
screw, and to produce the traverse motion. By this apparatus an
engine of IG tons weight has been replaced upon the rails in five
minutes by the engineer and stoker alone ; thus those delays which
are the subject of so much annoyance and loss to railway proprietors
and the pulilic, need not happen in future ; the apparatus is exceed-
ingly jiortable and cheap, and no train ought to be allowed to go out
without its being sent along with it; it may be carried either upon
the lender, or upon some other f lace which may be selected for it.

EAST LONDON WATER WORKS

Top Vc€.H- of iia^j^.

Mo/'i^ont€il Seeiton thfot/^Ji Ga^e.

n

JBrfuJiff for sttpportin^ struxU^
PUtjn^ti' Bfoc/e for ^Kadrcuet

gt^.if^;^.<i<lt>^S^J:-.i^^

Plan of Bottom ofiificte.

T,lt.,ro»tit/ni. HarittrA Cr>ur<

^d

1840.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

51

APPARATUS FOR RAISING WATER.

Patented by M. De L'Osier.
accompanied by an engraving, plate ii.

Extract from Specification.

Figure 1, plate 2 is a vertical section of the apparatus, figure 2 is
a plan of figure 1. A is the tube leading from the steam boiler, B is
the stop cock to shut off the steam when not required. C the tube
which I call the vacuum tube. D and E tubes through which the air
flows. F the tube into which the steam passes in its escape to tlie
chimney or into the open air, it is also througli this tube that the air
passes ; a represents the openings for the steam in the pipe. F,
shewn in section at figure 3, two of these openings a e circular, paral-
lel and concentric ; the two others are plain, and their direction tends
to the common centre of the circles, generating from the two others.
The sectional form of the tubes may be varied to any form required.
The interior diameter of the tube D is equal to from 14 to 15 of that
of E, and the diameter of E of 15 to 18 of the tube F.

The size of the opening at a is about one-tenth of the size of tube
F, these proportions may be varied, but I have found them produce
good results in working with a jjressure of steam equal to five atmos-
plieres. The pressure may be increased or decreased by the regula-
tion of the opening a, XX are the cylinders containing the principal parts
used in the apparatus. K is a vacuum chamber, 1 1 pipes communi-
cating between the receiver K and the cylinder X X ; M the cock in
the pipe C, S T are gauges to ascertain the state of the rarefied air.

Having described the parts, I will now show tlie manner of putting
it into operation. Steam being generated at a pressure of five atmos-
pheres, the two cocks B and M being closed, on opening the cock B
the steam will flow through the opening a, its continued passage
through the tube F carries away the air in the cylinder X X, and pro-
duces a partial vacuum in K, the mercury of the gauge T will rise to
the height of 50 or 55 centimetres above the cup, then on opening
the cock M, the air in the pipe C will rush through the pipes D E
without materially altering the state of the partial vacuum in the cy-
linder X X, and of the chamber K with which it is in communication,
and the mercury in the gauge T instead of being depi'essed will rise
some centimetres higher, the state of the vacuum will be indicated
by the mercury at 3U centimetres above the cup. With this appa-
ratus you can maintain a constant partial vacuum or removing of air
in any recipient. I will now proceed to describe another modification
of the apparatus, there being two vacuum vessels used in place of one.

Figure 4 is a vertical section, and figure 5 a plan of the same. A
the tube leading to the steam boiler, B the cock to shut off the steam
when not required, C the pipe communicating with the apparatus
from which atmospheric air is to be withdrawn, D and E tubes through
wdiich the air flows, F tube into which the steam flows, and it is also
through this tube that the air from the tubes D and E flows with the
steam, a is the opening for tlie escape of the steam shown full size at
figure B, G tube into which the steam and the air come from the part
of the apparatus to be now described ; R R is a tube leadiug to the
vacuum chamber O, Q conical tube communicating with the chamber
O, through which the air passes into the tube G by the pipe R, H
is the escape pipe for the steam and air into the atmosphere, K and L
are the air vessels or receivers, 1 1 and Y are pipes connecting tlie re-
ceivers K and L to tlie cylinders X and P, S T and U are the gauges
indicating the different states of the rarefied air, X X and P are the
cylinders.

The operation of this apparatus is as follows: — The steam being
generated to a pressure of five atmospheres, and the three cocks B M
and N being closed, on opening B the steam will flow through the
orifice a, by the continued action of the steam through the tube the air
withdrawn from the cylinder X and the chamber K, and the mercury
will rise in the gauge to 50 or 55 degrees above the cup, and
there remain. On opening the cock M a constant withdrawing of air
will take place with considerable velocity, at the same time the state
of vacuum in K X will not be materially altered, and the mercury
in the guage T will be raised higher, the continued action of the steam
and air through the tube G rarefies the air in the receiver L, and in
the cylinder P, and the mercury in the gauge U rises to 40 centime-
tres above that of its cup, and is kept there on opening the cock N,
the air issuing from the chamber in connection with the tube R will
flow through the conical tube Q into the tube G, the state of the air in
the receiver L and the cylinder P is not at all changed, but the mer-
cury in the gauge S wiU rise 3U centimetres, fresh supplies of air can
be admitted as explained in the description of figures 1 and 2. A

third air vessel may be used in a similar manner to the second when
required, by admitting the atmospheric air through the pipes R R.

Figure 6 is a iilan of the apparatus suitable for raising water from
one level to another when worked by either of the apparatus shown in
figures 1 to 5. Figure 7 is an elevation of the same, these having
been previously described in the preceding drawings, I have not
thought it necessary to repeat the description. Figure S is a vertical
section of the exhausting or draining machine, from a line drawn froni
P to Q shown at figure "O. Figure 9 is a plan of the stage No. 1, as
shown at figure S, from a line drawn from N to O ; S S S are the re-
ceivers placed i.ne above the other at equal distances. T T T are
the ascending tubes terminating in the receiver S ; the lower part of
the tube T of the stage No. 1 is placed on the well or other source of
water Y Y, and the lower parts of the other tubes are placed in the ,
receivers S. The number of these stages may be increased or de-
creased according to the height that the water is required to be raised.
At the top of each of the ascending tubes T there is a valve Y ; Z is the
tube through wliich the air is withdrawn, the lower end of the tube is
open and plunged in the water of the well Y Y, it is connected with
the pneumatic apparatus by the tube K, and with the recipients S SS,
by the small tubes U U U ; X X X are the floats, and V V V are the air
valves. In the top of the upper receiver S is attached a bent dis-
charge tube W, closed by a valve W'; R is the reservoir for the water
wdien raised, M shows where a pipe may be fixed to conduct the water
to any place required.

To put this machine into operation, the cock E, figures 6 and 7 of
the apparatus, is to be opened, the air and steam flowing into the
atmosphere by the lubes F F, and the mercury of the gauge I will rise
to 50 or 55 centimetres above its cup. The cock L is then opened,
and the air contained in the interior of the exhausting machine will
flow through tlie tube K across the pneumatic apparatus v»ith great
speed, at least 200 centimetres per second, and will flow into the
atmosphere with the steam. The discharge of the air across the ap-
paratus does not in any way aftect the state of the vacuum, as may be
ascertained by the mercury in the gauge I always remaining at the
same height. The height of the mercury in the gauge M will always
indicate the state of the air contained in the exhausting machine when
it is about 31 or 32 centimetres ; the receiver S of the stage No. 1 is
full of water drawn from the well Y Y, the float X will then raise the
small valves V V, and close the orifice U for the discharge of the air
against which it will be held fast, the atmospheric air being admitted
through the small openings of the valves V, the valve Y closes, and
the pressure on the water in the receiver forces it up into the receiver
S of the stage No. 2. The same operation is performed in the stages
No. 2 and 3 as that described with regard to No. 1, it is not therefore
necessary to repeat the description. The air valves of the stages No.
1 and 3 are opened by their floats at the same time that they are closed
in the stage No. 2, they will then be restored to their original position.
The water when raised to the upper receiver at the stage No. 3, flows
through the tube W into the large reservoir R, and the valve W is
raised to allow it to pass freely, during this time the water again flows
into the receiver of the stage No. 1. Besides this tube W in the re-
ceiver S of the stage No. 3, there is another which is not shown in the
drawing, the object of it is to regulate the opening of the valve by
means of a screw, in order to regulate the flow of the water in such
manner that the float X shall press against the air escape pipe, at the
same time that the float of the stage No. 2 raises its air valves, and
the float of the stage No. 1 presses against the opening of the air
escape pipe. In order that the floats should properly perform the
functions thit are assigned to them, they must he so constructed that
the power which they require by the quantity of water displaced, will
be sufficient to raise its proper weight, and to overcome the resistance
which the pressure of the air exercises upon the air valves, and the
weights of these same valves, and also that when the receivers are
empty, their weight allowing for the part which is sustained by the
water in the tube in which they are placed, will be sufficient to over-
come the resistance of the pressure of the air, which keeps it pressed
against the opening of the air escape pipe. The air escape pipe Z Z
is placed in the water of the well Y Y, in order that if the water in
the receiver (S S S) slioidd flow into it through the tube U U, it may
fall down into the well. This machine may also be worked by using
any number of air vessels that may be required.

Artesian Well. — The boring instrument now at work for the Artesian
well in the abattoir at Grenelle has reached the depth of 508 metres, or 1,666J
feet. The earth brought up is still a greenish clay. It requires 4 horses and
12 men to keep the apparatus in action; and it is daily hoped to see water
bui-st up. The temperatui-e increases a degree ia warmth for every 30 yards
penetrated downwards.

H2

52

THE CIVIL ENCINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[FKBRtrARY,

REVIEWS.

Rf])ton's Landscape Gardeninr/ and Landscape Architecfiire, a New Edition.
By J. C. Loudon, F.L.S. Lomlon : Longman and Co., 1840.

'laijii/ ruiiiii

HUMPHRY REPTON.

IIiini))liiy Rcpton was born at Bury St. Edmond's, May 2d, 1 "r>2, of a
respectalde family, and w.as originally intended for trade. At an early |ieriod
lie was thrown into contact with the Hopes of Amsterdam, a circmnstance
which perhaps decided the natural bent of his mind, and confirmed tliat love
for the arts which forbade any other pm-suit. After a long contest against
his favourite studies, about 1 788 he decided upon adopting the profession of
a Landscape Gardener, a title which lie created and maintained against those
who decried its novelty. What was his success iii this career it is uuneces-
saiT for us to mention,'Englaud abounds with bis works, and he has left be-
hind him a name which will live when the tr.iccs of his labours have vanished.
His personal character powerfully influenced him in his artistical career, mild
and amiable in his disposition, the same feelings seemed to influence bis de-
signs. Cirandeur perhaps he rarely attained, but in producing scenes of culti-
vated and placid beauty, speaking at once of comfort and of wealth, he stood

without a rival. He seemed as it were the genius born for cultivating the
gentle slopes, aud verdant meads of the sea-girt island, ever inspired with that
love of the beautiful in nature, which marks the English character, fertile in
expedient, he waged perpetual battle against the rude and unpicturesque, and
powerfully contributed towards promoting that taste in landscape which has
rendered this country the model of surrounding nations.

Repton's works consist of an agglomeration of fragments dispersed over
one folio and three quarto volumes, now, however, collected by Mr. Loudon
into one volume octavo. The service which Mr. Loudon has rendered by
this task, cannot be too highly appreciated by the public, for he thus codified
(as Hentbam would have called it) the most valuable materials on the theory
and practice of the art. Tlu-onghout these works a continual flow of origin-
ality of thought and beauty of idea seems to run from the pencil and pen of
Mr. Repton, while the manner in which he exhibits its own personal interest
in the subject give such a tone of identity as to resemble rather the warm
breathing words of a professor than the cool notes of a closet WTiter. Repton
is always present before us, and yet, instead of charging him with egotism,
we receive him as a kindly guide and instructor. There are few portions of
Milton more interesting than that where alluding to his blindness, we are
personally introduced to an author whom we admire. Thus Repton alludes
to some of his grievances.

'* I cannot help mentioning, that, from the obstinacy and bad taste of the
Bristol mason who executed the design, I was mortified to find that Gotliic
entrance built of a dark blue stone, with dressiTigs of white Bath stone ; and
in another place, the intention of the design was totally destroyed, by paint-
ing all the wood-work of this cottage of a bright pea-green. Such, alas ! is
the mortifying diflference betwixt the design of the artist, and the execution
of the artificer."

" Such is tlie horror of seeing any building belonging to the offices, that,
in one instance, I was desired by the architect to plant a wood of trees on the
earth winch had been laid over the copjior roofs of the kitchen offices, and
which extended 300 feet in length from the house."

To show the judicious observations of Mr. Repton relative to the architec-
ture and alterations of old buildings, we select the following extracts from
different parts of the work before us, and through the liberality of Mr. Lou-
don, we are enabled to give a few of the valuable illustrations.

FIG. 2.-ASHT0N COURT.

S-^S.^^^G?'-"*^'"^

The old part built in the reign of Henry VI.

The new part added in the reign of George HI.

" The annexed engraving of Ashton Court, fig. 2, furnishes an example
of m.iking considerable additions to a very ancient mansion, without neglect-
ing the comforts of modern life, and without mutilating its original style and
character.

" This house was built about the reign of HcniT VL, and originally con-
sisted of many different courts, surrounded by buildings, of which three are
still remaining ; in all tliise the Gothic windows, battlements, and jirojecting
Ijuttresses, have been preserved; but the front towards the south, 150 feet
in length, was built by Inigo Jones, in a heavy (irecian style ; tliis front was
designed to form one side of a large quadrangle, l)ut, from the unsettled state
of public affairs, the other three sides were never added, and the present long
front was never intended to be seen from a distance : this building consists
of a very fine gallery, which has been shortened to make such rooms as mo-
dern habits require ; but it is now proposed to restore this gallery to its ori-

ginal character, and to add in the new part, a library, drawing-room, eating-
room, billiard-room, with bed-rooms, dressing-rooms, and a family apartment,
for which there is no provision in the old part of the mansion. It is also
proposed to take down all the ruinous offices, and rebuild them with the ap-
pearance of antiquity, and the conveniences of modern improveineiit.

" A general idea prevails, that, in most cases, it is better to rebuild than
repair a very old lionse ; aud the architect often finds less difficidty in making
an entire new plan, than in adapting judicious alterations : but if a single
fragment remains of the grandeur of former times, whether of a castle, an
abbey, or even a house, of the date of Queen Elizabeth, I cannot too strongly
enforce tlie propriety of preserving the original character of such antiquity,
lest every hereditary' mansion in the kingdom should dwindle into the insig-
nificance of a modern villa."

l-ff,ff 4

J K <Jiyf'hint, Unf^i^-f^a Caure

1840.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

53

FIG. 3.— WEST FRONT OF THE PAVILION.

Application of Indian Architecture.

" Having already shown the difficulty of adapting either the Grecian or
Gothic styles to the character of an English palace, this newly discovered
style of architecture seems to present a new expedient for the piu'pose, in the
forms made known to this country by the accurate designs of Mr. Thomas
Daniell, and other artists, which have opened new sources of grace and
beauty.

" To the materials of wood and stone we have lately added that of cast-
iron, unknown in former times, either in Grecian or Gothic architecture, and
wliich is pecuharly adapted to some light parts of the Indian style.

" In Grecian architecture, the artist is confined to five (or, rather, only to
three) different orders of columns, so restricted in their relative proportions,
that they are seldom used externally, with good effect, in modern houses, and
are generally found too bulky for internal use. Indian architecture presents
an endless variety of forms and proportions of pillars, from the ponderous
supports of the cavern, to the light, airy shafts which enrich their corridors,
or support their varandahs. This alone would justify the attempt to adapt
a style, untried, for the purpose to which other styles have been found inap-
plicable or inadequate.

" It is difficult for an artist at once to divest himself of forms he has long
studied : this will account for the confusion of Grecian and Gothic in the
works of John of Padua, Inigo Jones, and others, about the same date, which
occasioned that mixture of style, condemned in after-times for the reasons
already assigned. The same thing may he observed in the first introduction
of Gothic, mixed with the Saxon and Norman which preceded it : and the
same will, doubtless, happen in many instances, during the introductory ap-
plication of Indian architecture to English uses, while a false taste «ill both
admire and condemn, \vithout any true standard, the various forms of novelty.

" If I might humbly venture to suggest an opinion on the subject, I should
recommend the use only of such Indian fonns or proportions as bear the
least resemblance to those either of the Grecian or Gothic style, with which
they are liable to be compared. If the piUars resemble Grecian columns, or
if the apertures resemble Gothic arches, they will offend, by seeming to be
Incorrect specimens of well-known forms, and create a mixed style, as dis-
gusting to the classic observer as the mixture in Queen Elizabeth's Gothic.
But if, from the best models of Indian structures, such parts only be selected
as cannot be compared with any known style of English buildings, even those
whom novelty cannot delight, will have little cause to regret the introduction
of new beauties.

" On these grounds, therefore, I do not hesitate to answer the question,
concerning which I am commanded to deliver my opinion, that the Indian
character ha\-ing been already introduced (in part) by the large edifice at the
Pavilion, the house and every other building, should partake of the same
character, unmixed either with Grecian or Gothic ; and without strictly copy-
ing either the mosques, or the mausoleums, or the serais, or the hill-forts, or

the excavations of the east, the most varied and graceful forms should 1)
selected, with such combinations, or even occasional deviations and improve-
ment, as the general character and principles of construction will admit."

Concerning Cobham.

" Whether we consider its extent, its magnificence, or its comfort, there
are few places which can vie with Cobham, in Kent, the seat of the Earl of
Darnley; and none which I can mention, where so much has been done, both
to the house and grounds. Under my direction, for so long a series of years ;
yet, as the general principles in the improvements originated in the good
taste of its nol)le proprietor, they may be referred to, without incuiTJng the
imputation of vanity.

" It is now twenty-five years since I first visited Cobham, where a large and
splendid palace, of the date of Queen Elizabeth, formed the three sides of a
quadrangle, the fourth side being open to the west. The centre building had
been altered by Inigo Jones, who had added four pilastres without any atten-
tion to the original style, and without extending his improvements to the two
long sides of the quadrangle.

" The interior of tliis mansion, like that of most old houses, however

Fig. 4 — Entrance and north front of Cobliam Hall, Kent.

-^^^^

54

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[Frbruart,

adapted to the customs and manners of the times in which tlicy were l)uih,
was cold and comfortless, compared with modern houses. A large hall, an-
ciently used as the dining-rooin, occupied more than half tlie centre ; and
the rest helonged to the huttcry and offices, in the manner still preserved in
old colleges. The two wings contained rooms, inaccessible, hut liy ])assing
through one to the other; and the two opposite sides were so disjoined hy
the central hall, that each was entered hy a separate ])orch.

"The great hall at Cohham has been converted into a music-room, of fifty
feet by thirty-six, and thirty feet high ; and is one of the most splendid ajid
costly in the kingdom, T)ie rest of the ccjitral building forms the library,
or general hving room ; which, instead of looking into an entrance-court, as
formerly, now looks into a flower-garden, enriched with marljle statues and a
fninitain, forming an ai)propriate frame, or foregrouml, to the landscape of
the park. The entrance has been removed to the north front, under an arch-
way, or parte coc/iere, over which a walk from the level of the picture gallery
(wliich is up stairs) crosses the road, in the manner described by the annexed
sketch, tig. 1, representing the north front, as it has been restored to its
original character. In this view is also the bastion, by which the teiTaec-
walk terminates with a view into the park."

We cordially agree with Mr. Repton in the following observations " Con-
cemhiff improvements."

" I have frequently been asked, whether the improvement of the coimtrv,
in beauty, has not kept pace with the increase of its wealth ; and, perhaps,
have feared to deliver my opinion to some who have jmt the cpiestion. I
now may speak tlie truth, without fear of offending, since time has brought
about those changes which I long ago expected. The taste of the country
has bowed to the shrine which all worship ; and the riches of individuals
have changed the face of the country.

" There are too many wiio have no idea of improvement, except by in-
creasing the qnantity, the quality, or the value of an estate. The beauty of
its scenei7 seldom enters into their thought : and, Mli at will it cost .'"or.
What will it jield ? not. How will it look .' seems the general object of in-
quiry in all improvements. Formerly, I can recollect the art being compli-
mcnti'd as likely to extend it« influence, till all England would become one
landscape garden ; and it was then the pride of a conntry gentleman to show
the beauties of his place to the public, as at Audley End, Shardeloes, ami
many other celebrated parks, through which i)ublic roads were purposely
made to pass, and the views displayed by means of sunk fences. Now, on
the contrai-y, as soon as a purchase of land is made, the first thing is to seciu-e
and shut np the whole hy a lofty close pale, to cut dowm every tree that will
sell, and jdough every inch of land that will jiay for so doing. The annexed
two sketches, figures 5 and G, sen-e to show the effect of such improvc-

IHg. 5— View from a public road which passes tlirong-h a forest waste.

mcnt ; they both represent the same spot ; formerly, the venerable trees
m.arked the property of their ancient proprietor ; and the adjoining forest,
waste, or common, might, perhaps, produce nothing liut beauty; now the
trees are gone, the pale is set at the very verge of the statute width of road,
the conmiou is enclosed, and the proprietor boasts, not that it produces corn
im man, or gi-ass for cattle, but that it produces him rent : thus money su-
persedes every other consideration.

This eager pursuit of gain has, of late, extended from the new proprietor,
whose habits have been connected with trade, to the ancient hereditary gen-
tleman, wiio, condescending to become his own tenant, grazier, and butcher,
can have little occasion for the landscape gardener : he gives up beauty for
gain, and prospect for the produce of his acres. This is the only improve-
ment to which the thirst for riches aspires ; and, while 1 witness, too often,
the alienation of ancient family estates, Oom waste and extravagance, I fre-
quently see the same effect produced by cupidity and mistaken notions of

sordid improvement, rather than enjoyment of property, Jiut, to whatever \

cause it may be attributed, the change of property into new hamis, was never
before so frequent ; and it is a painful circumstance to the professional im-
prover, to see his favourite plans nipped in the bud, which he fondly hoped
would ripen to perfection, and extend their benefits to those friends by whom
he is consulted.

" In jiassing through a distant county, I had observed a part of the road
where the scenery was particularly interesting. It consisted of large spread-
ing trees, intermixed with thorns : on one side, a view info Lord * * « * 's
l)ark was admitted, by the jiale being sunk; and a ladder-stile, placed near an
aged beech, tempted me to explore its beauties. On the opposite side, a
bench, and an umbrageous |)art of an adjoining forest, invited me to pause,
and make a sketch of the spot. After a lapse of ten years, I was surjirised
to see the change which had been made. I no longer knew, or recollected.

Fig. 6-

-View after the forest waste had been enclosed, and the ground sub-
jected to agricultural improvement.

the same place, till an old lahourer explained, that, on the death of the late
loi-d, the estate had been sold to a very rich man, who had improved it ; for,
by cutting down the timber, and getting an act to enclose the common, he
had doubled all the rents. The old mossy ami ivy-covered pale was replaced
by a new and lofty close paling ; not to confine the deer, but to exclude man-
kind, and to protect a miserable narrow belt of firs and Lombardy poplars :
the bench was gone, the ladder-stile was changed to a caution against man-
traps and spring-gims, and a notice that the foot-path was stO])ped by order
of the commissioners. As I read the hoard, the old man said, — ' It is very
true, and I am forced to walk a mile further round, every night, after a hard
day's work.' This is the common consequence of all enclosures : and, we
may ask, to whom are they a benefit .'

" ' Adding to riches an increased store.
And making poorer those already poor.' "

Mr. Repton gives the following interesting testimony to his predecessor
Browni, whose example he prided himself in following.

" Mr. Brown's fame as an architect seems to have been eclipsed by his
celebrity as a landscape gardener, he being the only professor of one art,
while he had many jealous competitors in the other. But wiien I consider
the number of excellent works in architecture designed and executed by him,
it becomes an act of justice to his memory to record, that, if he was superior
to all in what related to his own peculiar profession, he was inferior to none
in wliat related to the comfort, convenience, taste, and propriety of design,
in the several m.insions and other buildings which he planned. Having
occasionally visited and admired many of them, I was induced to make some
inquiries concerning his works ns an architect, and, with the permission of
Mr. Holland, to whom, at his decease, he left his drawings, I insert, the fol-
lowing list : —

'• For the Earl of Coventry. Croome, house, oflices, lodges, church, &e.,
1751.

The same. S|)ring Hill, a new place.

Earl of Donegal. Fisherwick, house, oflices, and bridge.

Earl of Exeter. Burleigh, addition to the house, new offices, &c.

Ralph Allen, Esq., near Bath, additional building, 1765.

liOrd Viscount P.almcrslon. Broadland, considerable ailditions.

Lord Craven. Benham, a new house.

" Robert Drummond, Esq. Cadlauds, a new house, offices, farm build-
ings, &c.

Earl of Bute. Christ Church, a bathing-place.

Paul Methuen, Esq. Corshara, the picture gallery, &c.

Marquis of Staft'onl. Trentham Hall, considerable alterations.

Earl of Newbuiy. House, offices, &c., 1762.

Rowland Holt, Esq. Redgiave, large new house, 1765.

Lord Willoughby de Broke. Compton, a new chapel.

Marquis of Bute. Cardiff Castle, large additions.

Earl llarcomt. Nuneham, alterations and new offices.

Lord Clive. Clermont, a large new house.

Earl of Warwick, Warwick Castle, added to the entrance.

1840.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

55

Lord Cobliam. Stowe, several of the buildings ill the gardens.
Lord Clifford. Ugbrooke, a new house.

" To this list Mr. Holland added : ' I cannot be indifferent to the fame and
character of so gi'cat a genius, and am only afraid lest, in giving the annexed
account, I should not do him justice. No man that I ever met %rith under-
stood so well what was necessary for the haliitation of all ranks and degrees
of society ; no one disposed his offices so well, set his buildings on snch good
levels, designed such good rooms, or so well provided for the approach, for
the drainage, and for the comfort and conveniences of eveiy part of a place
he was concerned in. This he did without ever having had one single diffe-
rence or dispute with any of his employers, lie left them pleased, and they
remained so as long as he lived ; and when he died, his friend. Lord Coven-
try, for whom he had done so much, raised a monument at Croome to his
memoiy.'

" I will conclude this tribute to the memory of my predecessor, hy tran-
scribing the last stanza of his epitaph, written by Mr. Mason, and which
records, with more truth than most epitaphs, the private character of tliis
truly great man : —

" ' But know that more than genius slumbers here ;

Virtues were his which art's liest powers transcend :
Come, ye superior train, who these revere,

And weep tlie christian, husband, father, friend.' "

In these last words Repton has written at the same time liis own epitaph,
so admirably do they dcscrilie him as an artist and a man. At the head of
this article is a profile of him, with a diagram illustrative of his doctrine of
the theory of vision. He died as he had lived, quietly on the 2-lth of March,
1818, at Harestreet in Essex, his residence diuing latter years.

The following extract from his description tells in a few words the man
and his character.

" Twenty ycais have now passed away, and it is possible that life may be
extended twenty years longer, but, from my feelings, more proliable that it
will not reach as many weeks ; and, therefore, I may now, perliaps, be writ-
ing the last Fragment of my labours. 1 have Uved to see many of my plans
beautifully realized, but many more cruelly marred : sometimes by false
economy ; sometimes by iiijucUcious extravagance. I have also Uved to reach
that period when the improvement of houses and gardens is more delightful
to me than that of parks or forests, landscapes or distant prospects.

" I can now expect to produce little that is new ; I have, therefore, endea-
voured to collect and arrange the observations of my past life : this has
formed the amusement of the last two winters, betwi.xt intenals of spasm,
from a disease incurable, during which time I have called up (by my pencil)
the places and scenes of wliieh I was most proud, and marshalled them be-
fore me ; happy in many pleasing remembrances, which revive the sunshine
of my days, though sometimes clouded by the recollection of friends removed,
of scenes destroyed, and of promised happiness changed to sadness.

" The most valuable lesson now left me to communicate is this : I am con-
vinced that the delight I have always taken in landscapes and gardens, with-
out any reference to their quantity or appropriation, or without earing whether
they were forests or rosaiies, or whether they were palaces, villas, or cottages,
while I had leave to admire their beauties, and even to direct theii" improve-
ment, has been the chief source of that large portion of happiness wliich I
have enjoyed through life, and of that resignation to inevitable evils, with
which I now look forward to the end of my pams and laboiu's."

The few extracts and illustrations we have given, justify us in saying that
the mere collation and condensation of such a mass of materials as are con-
tained in the work before us, would be alone sufficient to confer honour on
Mr. Loudon, but liis merit is still farther enhanced by the admirable manner
n which the whole work has been illustrated and improved.

AN INSTRUMENT FOR ASCERTAINING THE AREA OF IRREGULAR

PLOTS.

The Committee on Science and the Arts constituted by the Franklin Insti-
tute of the State of Pennsylvania, for the promotion of the Mechanic Arts,
to whom was referred for examination an histrument for ascertaining the
area of irregular plots, invented by Thomas Wood, M.D., of Smithficld, Ohio,
Report :

That they have examined the instrument invented by Dr. Tliomas Wood,
and believe it to be novel and ingenious, and very simple in its constniction.
It consists of two plates of plain groimd glass with theii' inner surfaces fixed
in a frame, so as to be parallel to each other, and only so far distant as to
permit a piece of drawing paper to slide easily between them. They are of a
rectangular form, fastened on three sides in any manner which shall leave
the siurfaces parallel. The fourth side being open, the space within is partly
filled with pure quicksilver. By means of a slip of drawing paper, the outer
edge of the quicksilver is made straight and rectangular with the sides. Its
position is then marked. This may be done by noting on the paper used, its
distance from the outer and open edge of the glasses.

The plot of any irregular plot made from field notes or otherwise, is then
moved in till the quicksilver extends to that point of the plot vrbich is nearest

the outer and open edge. The outer edge being now parallel to the former
edge by the manner in which the paper containing the plot is cut, its distance
from its former edge is measured or mai'ked on the same paper, and the area
of the irregular field is thus found to be the difference of the areas of two
given rectangles.

The committee see no reason why such an instrument should not, when
constructed with proper care, give results as accurate as those ol}tained l)y
the common melliod of plotting, and dividing into right angled triangles by
the dividers and plane scale. Tlie area of the rectangle of any irregular plot,
when once completed, may thus l>e formed in five minutes, and all danger of
mistake from errors in the entries or in summing up the partial areas is com-
pletely obviated. — Franklin Journal.

DEPTH OF THE SEA.

Dr. Patterson read a paper at the American Philosophical Societt/, by Pro-
fessor Charles Bonnycastle, of the University of Virginia, containing Notes of
E.rperiments, made August 22d to 2olh, 1838, with the view of determining
the Depth of the Sea by the Echo.

The appar.itns, which is fully described in Mr. Bonnycastle's paper, con-
sisted, first, of a )ietard or chamber of cast iron, 2\ inches in diameter and
5J inches long, with suitable arrangements for firing gunpowder in it under
water; secondly, of a tin tube, 8 feet long and IJ inch in diameter, teruii-
mited at one end I)y a conical trumpet-mouth, of wliicli the diameter of the
base was 20 inches, and the height of the axis 10 inches; thirdly, of a very
sensible instrument for measuring small intervals of time, made by J. Mou-
tandon of \Yashington, and wiiich was capable of indicating the sixtieth pait
of a second. Besides these, an apparatus for hearing was roughly made on
board the vessel, in imitation of that used by CoUadon iu the Liike of Ge-
neva, and consisted of a stove-pipe, 4 j ijiches in diameter, closed at one end,
and capaljle of being jilunged four feet in the water. The sliip's bell was
also unhung, and an arrangement made for ringing it under water.

On the 22(1 of August, the brig left New York, and in the evening the ex-
periments were commenced. In these, Mr. Bonuycastle was assisted by the
commander and officers of the vessel, ami by Dr. Robert M. Patterson, who
had been invited to make one of the party.

In the first experiments, the beU was plunged about a fathom under water
and kept ringing, wliile the operation of the two hearing instruments was
tested at the distance of about a quarter of a mile. Both instrnments per-
formed less perfectly than was expected ; the noise of the waves greatly
interfering, in both, with the powers of hearing. In the trumpet-shaped
apparatus, the ringing of the metal, from the blow of the waves, was partly
guarded against liy a wooden casing ; but, as it was open at both ends, the
oscillation of the water in the tube was found to be a still greater incon-
venience, so that the sound of the bell was better heai'd with tlie cylindrical
tube. At the distance of a quarter of a mile this sound was a sharp tap,
about the loudness of that occasioned by striking the back of a penknife
again an iron wire : at the distance of a mile the sound was no longer audible.
In the second exjieriments, the mouth of the cone, in the trumpet appa-
ratus, was closed with a plate of thick tin, and both instruments were pro-
tected by a parcelling of old canvas and rope-yarn, at the pari; in contact with
the surface of tlie water. In these experiments the cone was placed at right
angle.<i to tlie stem, and the mouth directed toward the sound. The distances
w ere measured by the interval elapsed between the observed flash and report
of a pistol. At the distance of 1400 feet, the conical instrument was found
considerably superior to the cylindrical, and at greater distances the superiority
become so decided, that the latter was abandoned in all subsequent experi-
ments. At the distance of 5270 feet, the hell was heard with such distinct-
ness as left no doubt that it could have been heard half a mile further.

Tlie sounds are stated in the paper to have been less intense than those in
air, and seemed to be conveyed to less distances. The character of the souud
was also wholly changed, and, from other cxperimeuts, it appeared that the
blow of a watchmaker's hammer against a small bar of iron gave the same
sharp tick as a heavy blow against the large ship's bell. It is well known
that Franklin heard the sound of two stones struck together under water at
half a mile distauce ; yet two of the boat's crew, who plunged their heads
below the water, when at a somewhat less distance from the bell, were unable
to hear its sound.

On the 24th of August, the vessel having proceeded to the Gulf Stream,
experiments were made with the view for which the voyage was undertaken ;
that is, to ascertain whether an echo would be returned, through water, from
the bottom of the sea. Some difficulties were at first presented in exploding
the gun under water, but these were at length overcome. The hearing-tube
was ballasted so as to sink vertically in the water. The observers then went,
with this instniment, to a distance of about 150 yards from the vessel, and
the petai'd was lowered over the stem, about three fathoms under water, and
fired. The sound of the explosion, as heard by Mr. ro::nyeastIc, v, ,ns two
sharp distinct taps, at an interviil of about one-thii'd ox a second. Two
sounds, with the same interval were also clearly heard on board the brig ;
but the character of the sounds was different, and each was accompanied by
a sUglit shock. Supposing the second sound to be the echo of the first from
the bottom of the sea, the depth should have been about 160 fathoms.

To ascertain the real depth, the sounding was made by the ordkiai7 method,
but with a lead of 75 pounds weight, and bottom was distinctly felt at 550

53

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[February,

fiitliDiiis, or live furlongs. The second sonnet conld not, therefore, have been
the echo of the first ; anil this was proved, on the following day, by repeating
(he experiment in fonr fathoms water, when the double sound was heard as
before, and with the same interval.

The conclusion from these experiments is, either that an echo cannot be
heard from the bottom of the sea, or that some more effectual means of pro-
(hicing it mnst be eni])loyed.

Dr. Hare snggosted the expediency of employing the Galvanic fluid to fire
gunpowder Ijelow the surface of water, in experiments similar to those of
I'lofessor Boiinycastle. — Franklin Journal.

THE SAFETY L.\MP.

.\t a late meeting of the Geological and Polytechnic Society of the West
Riding of Yorkshire, ilr. Charles Morton ])laced on the table a variety of
safety lamps, and proceeded to make some observations and cxjieriments
upon them. He called to the recollection of the members the attendance of
Mr. Fletcher, of Bromsgrove, at one of the former meetings, when that gen-
tleman produced ami described a safety lamp constructed on an imjiroved
lirincijilc. Mr. Fletcher had since modified his lamp in accordance with the
suggestions thrown out at that meeting, and the lamp which Mr. Morton
exhibited had been sent to him by the inventor for trial in the coal mines.
T)ie novelty of the apparatus consists in a door or damper at the top, which
s held op by a string tied fast to the lower part of the lamp. If this stiing
be cut or burnt, the damper drops down and extinguishes the light, in the
same way as the shutting of the damper on the top of a furnace chimney
puts cot the fire beneath. When, therefore, the lamp is introduced into an
inllammablc atmosi)herc, the combustion of the fire-damp inside burns the
thread, and the damper dropping down destroys the flame. Mr. Morton
tliought the damper would give rise to so much trouble, that the coUiers
wdidd not use it. Tlie string is not very readily adjusted, and it passes so
near to the wick, that a slight inclination of the lamp, or waving of the
flame, liurns the string, and the falling of the damper leaves the collier in
darkness when he neither expects nor desires such a result ; and to get rid
of this annoyance he would prop up the damjjer, and effectually prevent its
falling, even when it was desirable that it shoidd do so, i. e. when it happened
to lie in a fiei-y part of the mine. In other respects, this lamp is much like
the one invented by Upton and Roberts. The air for feeding the flame
enters through the holes beneath, and is brought into immediate contact
^^ith tlie wick by means of a brass cup. The sides of the lamp are partly
glass and partly brass, fitted together so as to prevent the admission of air.
In Upton's lamp there is a wire gauze cylinder inside the glass, but in Mr.
Fletcher's there is none. By this omission the light jiroduced is much
stronger, but the safety is materially lessened ; for if the glass of Mr. F.'s
l.impwere accidentally broken, the naked flame would be exposed to the fire-
damp, and an explosion would ensue. Mr. Morton stated that he had sub-
mitted this new lamp to a variety of experiments, both in and out of the coal
mines, and he considered it deserving the attention of this society. He
tliought the inveiit'jon was still capable of considerable improvement, and
boped that Mr. Fletcher (though a gentleman entirely unconnected with
mining inirsuits,) would devote more of his time and talents to the perfection
of an ajiparatns, the ingenuity of which had already entitled liim to tlie
thanks of the public. Mr. Morton remarked that the necessity of attempting
to improve the safety lamp would become more generally manifest, if it were
universally known that Davy's lamp is no/ safe under certain circumstances.
When " the Davy" is introduced into an inflammable atmosphere, al rest, it
may be said to be safe ; but if the lamp lie in motion, or if a current of fire
daraj) be directed upon it, there is great danger of explosion. By means of a
gas jet on the lecture table, Mr. Morton caused the flame of "the Davy" to
pass from the inside (o the outside of the wire gauze cage; and he contended
that, under similar circumstances, an explosion must inevitably ensue in a
fiery coal mine ; and he had no doubt some of the dreadful catastrophes that
have occurred in the pits were occasioned in this manner. Mr. Morton said
that the over zealous admirers of Davy bad attributed a quality of infallible
safety to an instrument which its illustrious discoverer never ventured to
claim for it. On the contrary, this distinguished philosopher, in a treatise
wliieli be published more than twenty years ago on the subject of the safety
lamp, distinctly points out its nnsqfety \\lien introduced into an inflammalile
atmosiibcrc in rapid motion ; and he warns his readers against using " the
Davy " under such circumstances. Mr. Morton was of opinion that if the
notion which generally ju'cvails about the absolute and certain safety of " the
Davy " were dispelled, it would have a tendency to produce greater care
and caution among miners. Mr. Morton, in conclusion, directed attention
to an apparatus contrived by Mr. W. S. Ward, of Leeds, which lie thought
might be used for giving light to fiery mines, or in operations with the diving
bell. The a|iparatiis consists of a small gas-hohler, containing a compressed
mixture of coal gas and oxygen. To this is attached one of Ilemming's safety
tubes and a common jet, at the point of which is placed a ball of (juick lime.
The kindled flame of gas being directed upon the lime ball, a brilliant light
is produced, and as the light is covered with a glass jar, the flame is rendeied
safe by being completely insulated or cut off from the external atmosphere.—
Midland Counties Herald,

Wi.NDsoR Castle. — .\bout five or six weeks since a fissure was observed
in the wall at the north-western extremity of the North Terrace, close to the
Winchester Tower, the residence of Sir Jeffrey WyattviUc. The opening on
the northern side extended from the top of the wall to the surface of the
earth on the outer side, a distance of some 20 or 30 feet ; and on the western
side, from the tmTcts down to the archway entrance to the vaults bcneatli,
which extend under the whole length of the terrace. As soon as the fissure
was discovered, workmen were employed to fill up the interstices (or " point"
them) with mortar, in order to ascertain if the cracks would go on increasing.
M'ithin a very short period after this had been done, the opening not only
widened, but extended along the lower pathway, parallel with the Winchester
Tower, to a distance of 14 OJ 15 yards. The fissure now extends to a dis-
tance of upwards of 25 yards. Air. Whitman, the clerk of the works, upon
perceiving the dangerous state of the wall, lost no time in communicating
with Sir Jeffrey Wyattville, who was then in London, on the subject, by whom
the necessary instructions to proceed in such an emergency were inimediately
forwarded. Upon entering the vaults underneath the teiTace, two large
cracks were observable commencing from the bottom of the wall on the north
side, extending completely across the arch, and terminating at the commence-
ment of the outer wall of the Castle. These fissures were ordered to be
" pointed" in the same manner as those on the outer wall, and with the same
results ; for after a few days the openings were found to be considerably en-
larged. The first step determined upon was to ascertain how far from the
foundation of the wall the injury extended, and workmen are now employed
in digging a shaft within the arched vaults on the' northern side for this pur-
pose. As far as they have yet jiroceeded, so far extends the opening. It is
feared, unless some plan be devised before the breaking up of the frost, to
secure the immense mass of stonework which is now in so threatening and
dangerous a state, that not only will a large portion of the terrace fall down
the steep slope by which it is bounded on the north side, but that it will
can7 with it some thousands of tons of earth into the vale beneath, where is
situateil some stabling belonging to the canons of Windsor, and close to which
is the extensive brewery of Messrs. Reid and Co., late Mr. Ramsbottom's.
Some 12 months ago a deep trench or ditch was dug close to the New Ter-
race-wall, by order of the dean and canons of Winder, (to whom the slopes
and a large piece of land on this side belong), for the purpose of receiving
the water which runs off the terrace (after rains, &c.) through small gratings,
and which, previously to this being dug, ran down the slopes upon their land
below. The trench was intended to have turned the course of tliis water in
another direction; but, instead of doing so, it remained in the ditch, where
soaked into the earth, and thus, as it is generally supposed, sapped the very
foundation of the wall itself, and thence the dangerous state of this part of
the terrace, which was erected as long since as the reign of Charles II., who
extended it westward upwards of 100 yards. — Daily papers.

Adams's Vertebrated Carriage. — On Monday, 10th December last,
a vertebrated carriage, constructed according to the patent plan of Mr.
Adams, with bow-spring bearers and buffers, for the Birmingham and Glou-
cester liaihvay Company, left the station at Euston Square with one of the
trains for Birmingham. Much speculation had existed as to its action on the
rails, owing to the various peculiarities of its construction, and especially
from the circumstance that all four wheels were loose on the axles, in adcUtion
to the axles running as usual in the ordinary bearings. It has been hitherto
found that carriages with loose wheels are apt to run off the rails at slight
curves, but such proved not to be the case with the vertebrated carriage,
which adapted itself to all curves with the greatest facility. In fact, it seemed
almost impossible for the wheels to run off the rails, as the axles always dis-
posed themselves at right angles to the hue of traction, and the lateral yield-
ing of the springs prevented any friction against the flanges of the wheels.
Another objection which had been raised against the carriage, by persons
connected with railways, was, that though it might be drawn forwards in a
train, it conld not be propelled, as the joi*it would yield, and the wheels go
off the rails by an angular thrust. This opinion also proved fallacious, as the
carriage was found to go equally well either VTay. The facility of draught
was found far greater than that of carriages on the ordinary plan, though
much larger than common, consisting of four bodies instead of three. The
facility of its movement was strikingly illustrated at the Euston Station,
where two of the wheels got off the turn-table, and escaped from the rails.
The usual course in such cases is to raise a common carriage by means of
screw-jacks, but owing to the action of the joint, and the free movement of
the wheels, the vertebrated carriage was rolled upwards by the labourers with
little ajiparent difficulty, without resorting to mechanical aid. We under-
stand that it is intended to run the carriage between London and Birminghani,
previous to the opening of the Gloucester Railway, and judging from its satis-
factory performance in remedying various railway evils, there seems to be
little doubt that this plan of carriage will come into general use. We uinler-
staiid that another improvement by Mr. Adams will shortly be brought for-
ward, consisting of a more perfect lubrication of the axles by means of oil
instead of grease, and without the usual waste, so that a carriage will proba-
bly run a week with only once oiling. We apprehend that the saving of
friction on the wheels, owing to the free revolution independent of each
other, will materially increase their durability.— yjaiftfoy Times.

1840.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

57

COLLEGE FOR CIVIL ENGINEERS.

In the year 1838, our attention was aroused to a correspondence
which had crept into the Times and AthenEeum, attempting to lower
the character of the profession in this country, and to set up a foreign
standard. We rightly surmised that this was a coming event, which
cast its shadow before it, that it was the wish father to the thought,
which was to usher in some expedient to correct the assumed abuse,
and introduce the new doctrine. Accordingly we hastened to attack
the ncw-liurn hvdra, and on repeated occasions expressed our senti-
ments relative to their new school of error. Remarks upon this sub-
ject will be found in volume the first, page 3G9, and volume the
second, p;iges 13, S(i, l'2-l, 152, and 351. On account of this solici-
tude for tbe interests of the profession, we were assailed in a violent
manner by the advocates of the projected College ; what they gained
by the attack our readers know.* In the meanwhile, the plan has
been brought to light, a scheme of operations organised, and active
preparations made for carrying them into effect. While tlie inten-
tions of its managers were not publicly declared, and while they had
yet the opportunity of adopting a sane course, and according to the
wishes of the profession, we left them to carry on their designs in
peace. Now that the mask has been lifted — now that war has been
delared against the whole profession, and that an open attempt is
made to poison the public mind with error, we feel it our bounden
duty to call the serious attention of our readers to the mischievous
and fallacious objects, which it proposes to effect. In this investiga-
tion, we shall enquire, first, as to the mode of education required by
the profession; secondly, as to liow far this is supplied; next, as to
the merits of the proposed plan; fourthly, how it has hitherto suc-
ceeded, and what are its future prospects ; and lastly, how far it
might be rendered useful.

We have, on previous occasions, already defined engineering,!' as a
profession requiring two distinct faculties, the theoretical and
practical, the inventive and the constructive. This is a view sanc-
tioned by the highest authorities. The Report of the Institution
of Civil Engineers for 1837,11; describes the engineer as a mediator
between the philosopher and the working mechanic. In their Report
for 1838,^ they say, "The objects of the Civil Engineer are defined
by your charter, and the council considering that the success and
permanency of the Institution must depend, in a great measure, on
the care exercised in admission into this class, have repeatedly con-
sidered this subject with the view of presenting some definite rules
for the guidance of themselves and others. It has appeared that
they will be aided in this difficult task by adhering as much as possi-
ble to the two following conditions; either: — "

"He shall have been regularly educated as a civil engineer, accord-
ing to the usual routine of pupilage, and have had subsequent em-
ployment for at least five years in responsible situations as resident
or otherwise in some of the branches defined by the charter as con-
stituting the profession of a civil engineer ; or, he shall have prac-
tised on his own account in the profession of a civil engineer for five
years, and have acquired considerable eminence therein."

" It is thought that the first condition will include those who by regu-
lar education have done their utmost towards themselves for the
profession, and that their subsequent employment in responsible
situations will be a guarantee that they have availed themselves of
the opportunities which they may have enjoyed."

" In the earlier days of the science of the civil engineer, such a con-
dition would have been inapplicable ; then the force of native genins
sufficed to place the individual in that position of professional em-
inence which commenced with a Brindley and a Smeaton, and was in
our own time exemplified in a Rennie and a Telford. To such, of
whom there are many illustrious examples amongst us, the second
condition is strictly applicable."

The profession, particularly in its present infant state, is ever called
upon to provide for unexpected contingencies, to make new pre-
cedents, and supersede old processes. The last ten years has seen
a new and imjjortant branch created, and scarcely established, before
it found itself, by new improvements, obliged to abandon all its
former calculations, and follow new models. The profession, there-
fore, is well defined as of two classes, and as uniting two branches of
instruction. The accessory portion of instruction is one common to
most practical pursuits, and a part of higher education at the same time,
consisting as it does, of the mathematical and physical studies, it
needs no excathedral inculcation, but admits of being attained by

* Vol. ii. p. 124.
+ Vol.i. p. 369, and Vol. ii
{ See Journal, vol. i. p.
§ Vol. ii. p. 73.

. p. 124.
138.

private study by those engaged in the practical department. Like
literature, like the arts, it necessarily follows, that its greatest names
are not recruited from apprentices to the system, but from every class
of society, it admits the collegian and the mechanic ; every man, who
feels himself called upon by the divine voice to a destined pursuit.
Who have been our greatest engineers ? not students from a college,
or an apprenticeship, but the stone mason and the blacksmith, the
labourer and the millwright. Engineering is not like law, boimd up in
an endless mass of precedents, admitting few new cases, and fearful
of diverging from established rules, but it is ever new, ever changing,
ever supplanting the past, by anticipations of the futiu-e. It does
not, like medicine, require the study of a complicated and little
known machine, nor a special application of many difficult sciences
to its own objects, it does not require mere judgment to apply old
rules, but it perpetually encounters new cases, and applies new re-
medies. The records of its operations are hardly published when
thcv become useless and superannuated ; many branches are hardly
sufficiently advanced to have any literature at all ; consequently, for
those seeking practical instruction, the workshop and the field are the
only schools; the house cannot be judged by a brick, the sea cannot
be measured by a bowl of water, nor can the operations of the engi-
neer be taught on any other scale of truth than on that of the works
themselves. The lawyer and the surgeon find no college allsuflficient
for their instruction, they find not even the court house or the hospital
alone efficient, but under the care of the acting practitioner, they are
obliged to seek the basis of their education. It is remarkable indeed
that a departure should be attempted in this sound course, when other
professions are even carrying it to a greater extent; so distrustful
are the medical authorities of oral instruction, that they now require
at their examinations practical dissections and manipulations.
Engineers may be classified under the following heads : —

1. Civil Engineers— Roads and Railways.il

Canals.
Bridges.

2. Mining Engineers — Mines.5 Draining.

3. Marine Engineers** — Ship Building.

Harbours.
Docks.

Light-houses.
Dykes.

4. Military Engineers.

5. Practical Engineers — Land Engines.

Locomotive Engines.
Marine Engines.
Manufacturing Engines.

Subsidiary to these are Surveyors, Working Engineers, Locomotive
Engineers, and Steam Vessel Engineers. The instruction required
for these classes, we consider to be a practical acquaintance with the
details of the technical portions, to be acquired under the guidance
of practical men in actual operations, and a study of the accessory
sciences connected with their pursuits. Ample instruction in the
former department is to be obtained from the existing engineers;
and with regard to supplementa'y education, numerous institutions
exist, independently of the amount of knowledge communicated by
mechanic's institutions and other sources. The Institution of Civil
Engineers, and the Universities of London and Durham, and the
Military Colleges grant degrees, and classes are formed in London at
University and King's College, in those of Norwich, Chatham, Sand-
hurst, and Addiscombe, and Hanwell Collegiate School ; in the Pro-
vinces, in the Colleges of Durham and Bath, the Cornish Mining
School, the Scotch Naval and Military Academy, at Edinburgh, the
Royal Dublin Society's School, at Dublin, the Agricultural School, at
Templemoyle, King William College, Isle of Man, and Elizabeth
College, Guernsey. The elements of surveying are taught in many
of the schools for the middle classes.

We have now to consider the proposed plan of the College for
Civil Engineers, which assuming different principles, calculates upon
supplanting the existing modes of instruction. These are given
to the public in a pamphlet, the confusion and ridiculousness of which,
for the present, we pass by unquestioned and unremarked. _ This
prospectus boldly asserts, that with regard to the demand for efficient
practitioners in civil engineering, not one of our Universities or
public seminaries has kept pace with this want of the age, and
afforded a suitable education for the aspirants in that new profession;

the best answer to this is to be seen above. What they mean by

the following, they themselves can best explain. " They are, in a

II Ingenieurs des Pouts et Chausees, French.

II Ingenieurs des Mines, French.

*" Ingenieurs des Travaux Mari times, French. Water Staat, Dutih.

5S

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[FEBRrARY,

gri'Lit measure, responsible for the profits on our internal industry — on
till" average of wliicli (le|)enil agricultural returns, and also by re-
action, an increased demand for labour." The fundamental basis of
operations is that the whole instruction, both theoretical and prac-
tical, shall be given in I lie College. This, according to the account
of its managers, includes the structure of railways, roads, canals,
docks, locks, and harboins, improvement of rivers, clearing mines of
water, and their necessary ventilation; the whole structure of the
steam engine, land and water transport, architecture and general con-
struction, naval architecture, ndning, drainage, embanking, reservoirs,
light-houses, arsenals, surveying, levelling, ndneral boring, modelling,
casting and forging, turning and boring. And what is to feed this
multitude ? — two loaves and five small fishes — a few professors of
matliernatics, drawing and latin, an architect, and some acres of
ground at Hampstead 1!! Is there any one so insane as to attempt to
carry out such a scheme ? — is there any parent so wasteful of his
own monev, or regardless of the interests of his child as to entrust
him to such a school '. hi an arena, scarcely fit for a cricket match,
are we to see exemplified the wonders of British art ; here, by magic
processes, are to be reproduced (id iiijiinliim the Grand Trunk Canal,
the Eddystone Light-house, the Steam Engine, the Menai and Water-
loo Bridges, and IMrmiiigham Railway, with its vallied cuttings, its
Kilsby tunnels, and its hilly endjankmcnts. The Clifton Bridge would
spun the ground, the Camden Town Embankment, swallow up the
soi', and the cutting to Euston Square take in the vvliole estate.
"Fhilosophy in sport, made science in earnest." We are either to
believe these delusions, or wc nuist recognise the sad reality, children
mis-spending their fither's money and their own time on mimic rail-
wavs, and gutter canals ; expert in all the verbiage which a well dis-
ciplined memory can retain, and going out into the world the children
wbiidi fhev came into the college. If this be the ollspring of the
Polytechnic School, an Institution which has Honrished under some
(d' the noblest men in France, we believe that, with indignation, they
will disavow their bantling; if it be an imitation of Russia, it is an
inntation rather of the barbarism, than of the grandeur of that
nation; we know that no example in favor of it exists in any other
country. In the workshops, South Wales, Birmingham, (ilasguw and
Newcastle are to be united; the steam engine is to be wrought, by
boys, from the native ore into all its wonderful applications as a
motive power. What more they profess to teach we know not, w'e
know that all these things, even if practicaljle as toys, will fail to
make engineers such as England has and England wants. The ignorance
of the ])rojectors is only equalled by their absurdity ; the manner in
which the design is to be carried out, is expressed by a synopsis of
the courseof instruction extending over a peaiod of five years, in the first
two years of wdiich the pupils learn nothing of engineering, exceptsur-
veying and levelling, their jirincipal acquirement being caligraphy ;
in the second vear we find these branches are taught in conjunction
with mineral boring and draining, and the jirinciples of Civil and
Navaf architecture. No progress has yet been made in engineering
fjul never mind, we can wait. The third year advances to shaded and
coloured drawing, drainage, embanking, and conduct of running
water, and the construction of roads; leaving, consequently, the
wliole instruction for the last two years. In this course, we find that
the principal engineering works (i, e. treatises) of the English, French,
and Germans are to be read. What those French and (iennan works
are we should very ranch like to know ; — to the best of our know-
ledge very few works exist, except translations from the English.
Among the magna opera of the last year, we find such terms as " a
grand ilrawing, with plans, sections, and parts in detail;" "grand
project for internal transport by land or water, with estimates ;" "a
memoir on some important question of civil engineering." The pen-
nyworth of bread to these gallons of sack, is the examination and
explanation of public works on the works themselves. The "lucidus
ordo" of the synopsis must be evident to the most unsystematical ;
drawing and caligra]iliy interpolated between mechanics and hydro-
graphy ; architecture between hydrography and physics, and the
same impartial systen\ is carried throughout. As to the work-
man's class, for which twelve guineas a year is to be charged, the
paltriness and inadequacy of instruction given exempts it from notice.
The pu|)ils may be admitted into the high school at fourteen years,
and on going through the prescribed course of instruction, as any
youth of moderate abilities and suflicient memory is sure to do, is
turned out on reaching his eighteenth birth-day, a duly qualified suc-
cessor of Brindley, Smeaton, Rennie, Telford, "avid Watt.

This system, we may obsei-ve, is a clumsy imitation of the Poly-
tejchnic School, and other similar Institutions abroad, which are
adopted in tlie imperfect state of instruction, to supply the want of a
more practical coui'se. In the I'olytechnic or Gwerbe School, the stu-
dent finds those models which he can find with difficulty elsewhere, but

under the guidance of a Stephenson or a Maudsley, he learns in that
school, w hich is the model to all Europe. In our pages * will be foinid
an account of the state of engineering abroad. Wliat it is here all
Europe tells; we boast the names of .Middleton, Worcester, Hooke,
.Savery, Newcome, Brindley, Milne, Smeaton, Bell, Edwards, Ark-
wright, Uennie, Macadam, Bramah, Huddart, Trevithick, Telford,
Woolf, and Murdoch ; and among the engineers of the present day : —
Walker, Ste|dienson, the two Uennies, the two Brunels, Cubitt, I.ocke,
Maudsley, Tierney Clarke, &c., many of whom enjoy an European
reputation. Such are the fruits of a defective system ; what has
Europe to show against it? The same defective system prevails in
the tfnited States, where gigantic works of the engineers measure
the continent from one end to the other.

As to what must be the result of the proposed system, we fear w'e
can augur nothing very good, on one side they are deficient in strength,
ai.d on the other side they have to compete with powerful rivals.
The plan of the College itself, and its details, liave been rendered
ridiculous by fantastic absurdities; the very first page of their pro-
spectus is calculated to excite laughter; — a College for Civil Engi-
neers, plastered with the names of a set of Eton schoolmasters, as
honorary members ; unknown foreigners, as corresponding members;
the prospectus is dashed throughout with unmeaning italics; the dis-
tinguishing absurdities of the Hone and Black Dwarf School ; the
vice of those, who wanting strengtli of thought, make it up by variety
of type. One of the professorships is to be held by a clergyman of the
church of England, another is the cliaplain, and sectarianism is
openly proclaimed in a building devoted to the national pursuit of
science. Of what religion were the Marq\iis of Worcester and
Watt? "The College is based upon the principles of the established
Church." Church of England railways. Catholic steam engines, and
Presbyterian canals, whoever heard of such things? Could not the
moral and religious instruction of the students be provided for with-
out injuring the feelings of large masses of the population, by giving
a preference to a minority ? The food of the boarders will be of the
best description, and every care taken of their health ! — shades of
Brindley, Arkwright and Rennie, whoever heard of such superfluous
nonsense 1 " No pupil can be admitted without a certificate that he has
had the small pox, or has been vaccinated; and has no particular in-
firmity or contagious malady." " lie must be able to read .' and
write 1 fluently, and be master of the first four rules of arithmetic!!"
"Corporal punishment will not be permitted in the establishment I"
— " Suppose a gentleman designs one of his sons, at the age of five
years!!! to be a civil engineer."

As to the supporters of this College, we find many men of high
title, but we look in vain for the support of any of the great men,
who, by tlieir engineering works, have contributed to their country's
glory. Only three names are to be found qualified as engineers,
none of whom are suflicient to attract of themselves public support.
As to the professors, of whom, by the bye, there are none for engi-
neering, it is saying enough for them to mention, that many of the
names are resiiectable.

We now come to another question of the deepest interest to those
jiarents, who are so ill advised as to send their children to this
riekety College, that is, what is to become of the lads when they
have got their diplomas? Will they be employed by the present
engineers in jireference to their own pupils? — will they have greater
weight with the public, than men of acknowledged eminence ? — will
they be supported by the public like those who have received a
practical education under first-rate men? Our impression is, that
they will not, but that the lads will, after their five years of College
education, and an expenditure of several hundred pounds, be obliged
to pitch their diplomas into the Thames, and article themselves to
those who know sometliing of the profession. We earnestly call on
all wdio may be tempted by the luring proposals of destining children
from the cradle, and hatching engineers with more than an Eccaleo-
bion power, to ])ause and reflect on the waste of time and money
which they must incur from any failure of this kind, and to hesitate
before they become the victims of a few deluded theorists. So san-
guine are the projectors, that they talk of entrapping hundreds of
lads, and think nothing of a hundred engineers as the average pro-
duce of a year. This, according to our reckoning, would of itself
produce three thousand engineers, besides those educated in other
establishments ;!• and what is to become of the raw and ignorant

* Vol. i.p. 3G9.
I As to how they are to suppuri llic competition of the engineers
.".nd cxisliug colleges, its mai.agers may kn<iw lictter th;m we prelej.d to ilo.
They «dl be ahl tu solve wliedier Kverett, Wchsler, Wallace, and KImes
are eipial to De Moran, Silvester, L.arilner, ;inil (iraham, or to Hall, Mu^e-
Icy, Dauiell, Wheatstone, WiiUips, BracUey, Cooper, and Tennent,

1840.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

S9

youths ?— those best will be able to decide, who can^ coolly give
itteraiice to such preposterous delusions.

As to the manner in which they are supported by the profession, it
may perliaps be sufficient to refer to the men connected with it, but
we have farther public testimonials in the declarations of the Institu-
tion of Civil Engineers. The liberality of their opinions we have
already shown, so that anything emanating from them, carries with it
the whole vpeight of their character, and is free from the imputation
of interested motives. Their Report for 1S37,* while advocating
the necessity of supplementary instruction, states that nuich has at
times been said respecting the establishment of a School of Engi-
neers, and many comparisons have been drawn betwixt the advan-
tages possessed by this and other coimtries in this respect, but not
for an instant to enter on the great question of the nature of a com-
plete establishment under that name, it may with confidence be
asserted, that this histitution is in itself a School of Engineers-

school not in the sense of the term wli

knowledo-e is forced upon

the imwilling student, but one where the attentive student ])ossesses
remarkable opportunities of self-improvement by study and mutual
intercourse. In the speech of the President, on opening the Session
of lS39,t he calls upon the members to improve themselves, not by
collegiate instruction, but by mutual improvement; he says, "there
is now upon the table, a prospectus for tlie establishment, on a large
scale, of a College for Civil Engineers," leaving his hearers to form
their own opinions upon the merits of such proposition.

That there is room for the establishment of a school of engineering
on sound principles, it admits no question; but its sphere, although
extensive, is very dilferent from that contemplated by the present
plan. Its advocates jump at once to conclusions, inspired by (he
ardent hope of obtaining large premiums, they jumble everthing
together, and mix up the practicable with the impracticable. Ste-
phenson or Brmiel carry on no trade in jn-emiums of live hundred
guineas, it would make little diminution in their incomes, if they
had no pupils at all, but young men are sent to them because from
their emj)loyment in large works, they have great facilities in artbrd-
ing instruction, and ample means of employing them afterwards. If
the council of the College want to know what to do with their
establishment, we can tell them how it may be made useful to the
public, and profitable to themselves and their pupils. Let them re-
quire that every pupil in civil mining, marine or practical engineering
shall be articled to a practitioner, and let them like Universitj', King's,
and Durham Colleges, limit themselves to teaching the theoretical
branches. Form a special class for instructing steam vessel engi-
neers, and they may claim a government grant and a c'ass for locomo-
jive enpineers, and raihvay companies would probably contribute. Edu-
cate surveyors, and instruct them in the higher branches of geodesiacal
operations, not as planned by the College, merely the rudiments of iis-
tronomy, but its application in trigonometrical surveying. Give sup-
plementary education to mining engineers, and train up mineralogists
and assayists. Teach like King's College, the literature of manufac-
tures and machinery, but let the pu)uls study in the factory instead
of the toy-shop. Do the same for the manufacturing chemist,
London has establishments enough for his practice. Let the Univer-
sities or the Institution give the diploma, and limit the College to
teaching, and still will be done more than enough for a beginning,
and what will amjily pay for all expenses.

In concluding these remarks, we cannot too strongly repeat, that
parents should hesitate before they compromise the interests of their
children, by sending tliem to this establishment, anfl we call on its
managers to pause in their career, before they have yet excited the
open hostility of the profession, and to devote their energies to a
useful and rational purpose, before they arc crushed by a powerful
opposition. We have been influenced by no prejudice against the
College or its objects, but we feel that we have best done our duty
both to it and our readers, by unsparingly denouncing what we con-
sider an erroneous and ineBicient system of education, and a certain
delusion to those who have the misfortune to be its victims.

"'See vol.i.p. 138.
t See Vol. ii. p. 3.

Oxford Viiiversiti/. — Feu' persons are aware that 100,000/. was loft to the
University of O.xiord by Michael Anpjelo Taylor, to build a picture gallery
and lecture rooms connected with science anil arts. A dispute having arisen
between his relatives and the trustees respecting the will, the latter, rather
than risk a suit in Chancery, have agreed to take 7.5,000/., and have bcgiui
clearing the foundation fcr the buildmg. They have removed the old houses
at the corner of Beaumont-street, St. Giles's, nearly opposite St. John's col-
lege, which J5 the most central they could meet with.

GENERAL THEORY OF THE STEAM ENGINE.

By Aristides A. Mornay, lisii.

No. V.

On the Action of the Steam in (he Cylinder (continiKd.)

In our last numberwe demonstrated that the pressure exerted by the
steam against the piston may be assumed in practice as equal to its
full elastic force ; we intend in a future paper to enter into an investi-
gation of the elastic force of the steam at difierent instants during the
stroke of the piston, preparatory to which it will be necessary to in-
qviirc into the eHects of an arrangement, which exercises a material
inttucnce on the elastic force of the steam during a portion of the
stroke of the piston when it is adopted : we allude to the lead of the
slidt, which is considered indispensable in Locomotive Engines.

The lead is the advance given to the motion of the sliile, by which
it is caused to shut the eduction port, and open the steam port a little
before the commencement of the stroke, and to sliut the steam port
and open the eduction port a little before the end of the stroke.

In order to explain the reasons assigned for giving a leatl to the
slide in locomotive engines, we think we cannot do better than quote
the following from the description of Stephenson's Patent Locomotive
Engine, in Wcale's splendid edition of " Tredgold, on the Steam En-
gine," pages lot) ami 4.51 of the Appendix. " It is found necessary
to let the steam on to the opposite side of the piston before the end of
the stroke, in order to bring it up gradually to a stop, and diminish
the violent jerk that is caused by its motion being cliauged so very
rajjidly as five times in a second. The steam, let into the end of the
cylinder, before the piston arrives at it, acts as a sining cushion to
assist in changing its motion, and if it were not apjilieil, the piston
cotdd not be kept tight upon tlie piston rod. A little lead of the slide
is also necessary that the steam may be admitted through the port
into the cylinder, and be completely ready to begin the next stroke
when the piston is at the end of the cylinder; but so much is not ne-
cessary for this.

"The principal advantage gained by giving lead to the slide is in
beginning to get rid of the waste steam before the commencement of
the stroke; so that when the piston commences its stroke there is but
little waste steam before it to resist its progress, the steam beginning
to be let out of the cyliniler before it has driven the piston to the end
of the stroke. This is a very important point in a locomotive, as the
resistance or negative pressure of the waste steam upon the piston is
very considerable ; from the rapidity of the motion, which allows very
little time for it to escape, and from the use of the blast pipe, which
obstructs its passage. The area of the extremity of the blast pipe is
only five square inches, while that of the steam port is eight square
inches, requiring the velocity of the steam in the blast pipe to be con-
siderably greater than in thecylinder. The average negative pressure
of the waste steam throughout the stroke is G lbs. per square inch
when running at the usual rate of 25 to •2s miles an hour ; and at greater
velocities the negative presstire has been found to increase to double
that amount and even more."

From the first reason the evil it is intended to remedy by the lead of
the sliile appears to be, the tendency of the piston to become loose on
the piston rod, through tlie violent jerks caused by the motion of the
piston being changed .so very frequently as 5 times in a second. We
have to ascertain first, the immediate cause of the jerks, secondly, the
manner in which they occasion the piston to work loose, thirdly, their
force, and lastly, in what manner and to what extent this is diminished
by the lead of the slide.

In order to accotmt for the production of these shocks or jerks, we
will consider what passes in the cylinder of a locomotive engine, and
first on the supposition that the steam acts on the piston with its full
pressure to the very end of the stroke, and that it is then shut off and
immediately begins to press with its full force on the other side of the
piston.

On this head it is necessary to observe that, under tlie circumstances
here assumed, the steam could not, at the instant the piston commences
the stroke, press upon it with its full force (that is, with the same
force as in the middle of the stroke), on account of the necessity of
first filling the steam passage and waste space at the end of the cylin-
der. But, since the pressure of the steam remaining in these waste
spaces does not sensibly exceed that of the atmosphere, while the fresh
steam admitted into them has a very great excess of pressure, say 50
poimds on the square inch, the time required to fill them is certainly
very much less than that requited to fill one huntlredth part of the con-
tents of the cylinder, during which time the steam is pressing upon the
surface of the piston with a force increasing iVom the atmospheric

12

GO

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[February,

pressure to the maximum pressure attained during the stroke. With
respect (o tlie gradual opening of the port, tliat would not of itself
a(Tpct the ]iressure of the steam in the cylinder in any degree, since
the degree of opening is constantly proportional to the velocity of the
jiiston, liy which means the supjily of steam is always equal to the de-
niand. This is ccpially true while the steam-port is being closed in
the last half of the stroke. We may therefore be permitted to assume,
as above, that tlie steam presses on the piston with its full force during
the whole time tliat the steam-port is open.

We may also, for the sake of simplicity, assume the motion of the
crank to be strictly uniform; for the variations of power are so ex-
ceedingly slight in comparison witli the energy of the moving mass,
on account of the arrangement of the two cranks, that no sensible va-
riations in the velocity of the engine can possibly result therefrom.

I'nder these circumstances, when the piston has just arrived at the
middle of the back stroke, its motion may be regarded for an instant
as uniform, since it is changing from an accelerated to a retarded mc-
tion; the strain on the key «diich connects the piston to the piston-
rod is therefore equal to the effective pressure of the steam on the
piston 7>ii)iiis the friction of the latter against the surface of the cylin-
der. But as soon as the piston has passed tlie middle of its stroke, its
motion begins to be retarded, and since the retarding force lias to be
transmitted from the piston-rod to the piston through the medium of
the key which connects them, the latter has to bear the strain of this
force in addition to the pressure of the steam on the piston, which it
liadtobearin the middle of the stroke. This retarding force must
evidently increase from the middle to the end of the stroke with the
rate of retardation of the )iiston's motion. The strain at the end of
the stroke will therefore be equal to the effective pressure of the
steam on the surface of the piston, mimis its friction, plua the greatest
retarding force, since the retardation is then the most rapid. At the
commencement of the fore stroke, the pressure of the steam is equal
on both sides of the piston, and there is consequently no power to
move the piston but such a portion of the momentum of tlie engine as
is snfKcient to overcome the inertia and friction of the piston. The
former requires a force precisely equal to the retarding force at the
end of the stroke, so that the strain is suddenly diminished by the
cHective pressure of steam on the piston minus twice its friction; and
the remaining strain is gradually, though quickly, taken off by the
escape of the waste steam allowing tiie steam on the other side of the
piston to exert sutiicient force to accelerate its motion. From the
moment when this is the case all the pressure is borne bv the conical
end of the piston-rod, until it arrives at tlie corresponding" point of the
back stroke, from which the strain on the key increases gradually until
it attains its maximum at the end of the stroke, as we have already
explained.

In locomotive engines, wdiere the steam is used at very high pres-
sures and the pistons are light, the strain due to the retardation of the
motion of the piston is very inconsiderable in comparison with that
due to the pressure of the steam, as we shall presently prove, when
wc calculate the intensity of the retarding force; so that comparatively
very little increase of strain takes place during the last half of tlie
stroke, this increase being due to the retardation of the piston alone,
while the increase during the first half amounts, as we have already
mentioned, to the whole effective jiressure of the steam; for by the
time the piston has passed through the first half of the stroke, the
pressure of the waste steam must be reduced very nearly to that of the
atmosphere.

The shocks comjilained of appear therefore to be due, not to the
inertia of the piston requiring a considerable force to change its direc-
tion, but to the alternate action of the steam on the two sides of the
jiiston producing a strain on one side of the key which reaches its
maximum at some point of the back stroke, and is taken oft'cntirely
during tlieyorestr<ike.

The mode in which this intermittent strain on the key may cause it
t» work loose is evidently by the alternate compression and relaxation
of its'substance ; but the effect of this might be prevented by securing
the key with a screw in the same maimer as the key at the crank end
of the connecting rod.

We have said that the chief part of the strain on the key of the
piston is due to the pressure of the steam; this investigation would
however be inconi|)lete without a calculation of the strain due to the
inertia of the piston in consequence of the great variations in its velo-
city. This strain is evidently equal to the force wdiich would be re-
quired to produce a certain acceleration or retardation in the motion
of the piston, and an accelerating or retarding force is proportional to
the rate of acceleration or retardation which it produces.

Let V = the mean velocity of the piston in feet per minute, I = the
length of its stroke, !>= its velocity at any given instant, A = its dis-
tance from the end of the stroke, a =; the angle contained between

the crank and the direction of the stroke, and .r = the rate of retarda-
tion per minute, at the given instant.

Supposing, for the sake of simplicity, that the motion of the crank
is strictly uniform (which is very nearly true in reality), and that the
connecting rod is infinitely long in comparison with the crank, the cir-

ir V
cuinferential velocity of the crank pin will be — — ■' and we shall have

TT V

■sill, f,

whence we obtain by differentiation
a V ^= — r-

COS ad a.

The actual distance to be passed through by the crank pin before it
arrives at the dead centre is - o, which divided by its velocity--^
gives for the time required to travel that distance

'- ,rV'

whence

da= — — d I.

Substituting this expression in the value of d r, and dividing by d I,
we obtain

d V
dt'

t' V2 cos a TT^ V2 (;— 2 A).

2 1 IP

And since this quantity expresses the retardation of the piston per
minute, we have also

TT- V= (/— 2 A)
^ = 2F

The retardation per minute produced by the force of gravity is
about 1 15,884 feet, which if we call G, we shall have

a: _ IT- V (/— 2 A)

G~ 2317687^'

If then we call n> the weight of the piston, and W the pressure due to
the retardation x, we shall evidently have

W _ .r _ ttz V» (/— 2 A)

w ~ G " 23I7ti8 i-' '

or the strain on the key of the piston is equal to the weight of the

piston multiplied by the quantity — "i^^yj. . ,; •
As an example let V zi; 500, / = 1'5, and A :

1

48'

. Supposing the

driving wheels of the engine to be 5 feet in diameter, the speed under
these circumstances would be 2lV7r) miles per hour. The strain W on
the key of the piston is required, when the latter has arrived at a
quarter of an inch from the eiu) of the stroke, which is the lead usually
given to the slide in locomotives. By the preceding equation we
have

W

3-1415' X 500-' X

)

23I7G8 X l-5=

= 6-9 w.

On inspecting the general equation given above, it will be evident
that, all other circumstances remaining the same, the value of W varies
as the square of the velocitv of the piston, and that it increases as the
piston apjiroaches the end of the stroke, the strain at the very end
being equal to the weight of the piston multiplied by the quantity

„, , ^ . , ,. Under the circumstances assumed in the above example
2dl/bb t:-

we should therefore have at the end of the stroke

W = 7 w.

It likewise appears that, with various lengths of stroke but the same
velocity, the strain is inversely as the lengtli of the stroke, when the
piston is at proportionate distances from the end.

The same calculation applies, of course, as well to the first as to the
second half of the stroke of the piston, and is improperly omitted in
the cousideration of the unequal action of the steam on the crank and
the effect of fly-wheels ; but in these calculations it is not only the
weight of the piston, but that of all the alternatin^parts of the engine,
that must be taken into account. In the same manner the strain on

1840.J

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

61

the key which connects the piston-rod with the cross head is a mul-
tiple of the weight of the piston and piston-rod, and so on for the other
joints. It is, however, necessary to deduct first in each case the fric-
tion on the piston and other parts which may intervene between it and
the joint under consideration.

Since the strain calcuUited by the preceding method is due simply
to the inertia of the piston, it is clear that, in oriler to find the whole
strain, it will be necessary to increase the former by as much as the
pressure of the steam against the surface of the piston may exceed
that of the waste steam on the opposite side.

We have now to examine the maimer in which the force of the
shocks is diminished by the lead of the slide, and to what extent this
remedy is effectual.

We shall confine our reasoning on this subject to locomotive engines,
in which, as we have already observed, the strain brought upon the
key of the piston by destroying the momentum of the latter, is very
slight in comparison with that which results from the pressure of the
steam on the piston, and which the key must necessarily bear during
some portion of the stroke ; for, supposing the effective pressure of
the steam to be .50 pounds on each square inch of the piston, the area
of the latter being upwards of 113 square inches when its diameter is
one foot, the total pressure of the steam on its surface is more than
5G00 pounds, while the strain due to the inertia of the piston, being
under seven times its weight ; if we suppose this to be 70 pounds,
(which we believe to exceed the truth) is less than 490 pounds, or less
than one-tenth part of the strain due to the resistance of the load, de-
duction being made for the friction of the piston. The connecting
key of the piston must therefore unavoidably bear a strain of more
than 5000 pounds while the steam is acting with its full force, besides
that due to the inertia of the piston, which amounts, at one quarter of
an inch from the end of the stroke, to 69 seventieths of the maximum
strain due to that cause ; and, since this is less than one-eleventh of
the total strain at the end of the stroke, when no lead is given to the
slide, the greatest amount which can be saved by cutting otl'the steam
and admitting it on the opposite side of the piston at a quarter of an
inch from the end of the stroke, is no more than one-seventieth of the
strain due to the inertia of the piston, or less than one 700th part of
the total strain at the moment of cutting off the steam.

It is therefore evident that the sudden jerks experienced by the key
which connects the piston with the piston-rod, in consequence of the
rapid changes in the motion of the piston, in as far as they are due to
the inertia of the latter, do not afford a sufficient motive for giving a
lead to the slide ; and that this remedy is entirely ineffectual in
diminishing them, in as far as they are due to the alternate action of
the steam on the opposite sides of the piston, which is the immediate
cause of nearly the whole amoimt of the evil; so that, if the piston
could not be kept tight on the piston-rod without the lead, neither
could it be with a lead of a quarter of an inch, when the length of the
stroke is 18 inches.

Regarding the second reason, namely, that the steam may be ad-
mitted into the cylinder, and be completely ready to begin the next
stroke when the piston is at the end of the cylinder, we are of opinion
that nothing at all is gained in that respect by meiins of the lead, but
that, on the contrary, it is attended with a slight disadvantage. Near
the beginning of this paper we observed that, without any lead, a
loss of pressure during a very small portion of the stroke ensues
from the necessity of filling the waste space at the end of the cylinder
with steam at the beginning of the stroke; but this loss is of very
trifling amount. By a lead of one quarter of an inch this loss of pres-
sure is avoided, for this gives sufficient time for the waste space to be
filled with steam at full pressure by the commencement of the stroke ;
but by this means the resistance on the opposite side of the piston is
increased, during the last quarter of an inch of the stroke, by whatever
pressure the steam has acquired at every instant of that portion of the
stroke. The amount of resistance so produced is greater than the
loss of pressure at the beginning of the stroke resulting from the above-
mentioned cause when there is no lead. We do not, however, attach
any importance to this circumstance, as tlie whole amount of loss either
way is perfectly insignificant ; we only mention it to show that the
lead of the slide is not requisite, nor even advantageous, for the second
reason assigned by the author of the paper above quoted.

With respect to the third reason, we do not think that so ranch can
be gained as the author appears to suppose, yet, if there is any advan-
tage in the lead, it is probably in beginning to get rid of the waste
steam before the commencement of the stroke, so that, when the piston
commences its stroke, there is but little waste steam before it to resist
its progress, the steam beginning to be let out of the cylinder before
it has driven the piston to the end of the stroke. Now there is clearly
tliis advantage in beginning to let out the waste steam before the end
of the stroke, that, supposing the time occupied in getting rid of the

vvfhole of it to be the same as without any lead, the portion of the
stroke traversed by the piston during this time is less, because its
velocity is on an average less : besides which, the resistance of the
waste steam during the first portion of the time, namely, at the end of
the previous stroke is thereby avoided, though at the expense of a
part of the useful effect ot the steam in the latter part of the stroke :
indeed, by as much as the pressure of the waste steam at the beginning
of the stroke has been diminished by the eduction port having been
already some time open, by so much must its efiective pressure have
been reduced at the end of the previous stroke. We have also already
mentioned the resistance of the steam let on to the front of the piston
before the end of the stroke, which of itself nearly compensates the
saving of part of the resistance of the waste steam at the beginning.

The preceding reasoning is only intended to prove that there is
little or no reason, and certainly no necessity to give a lead to the
slide in locomotive engines ; for-other descriptions of engine it is need-
less to say any thing, as no one would ever think of giving a lead in
any but a locomotive engine. It might however be advantageous to
give a lead to the eduction only, as by that means the saving of re-
sistance at the beginning, would not be counteracted by the additional
resistance of the steam admitted into the cylinder before the end of
the stroke.

To return to the action of the steam in the cylinder. The whole
effect produced during an indefinitely short period of time is equal to
the pressure of the steam on the whole area of the piston multiplied
by the distance travelled by the piston during that time, the pressure
of the waste steam being considered as a part of the resistance, or
total effect. This is true, although at some moments the resistance
may apjiear less than the pressure of the steam, and at others infinitely
greater ; for the compensation is perfectly made by the momentum of
the moving parts, which serve as reservoirs of power, absorbing, as it
were, the excess at one time by receiving an increase of velocity, and
giving it out again at another time, when the pressure of the steam is
inferior to the resistance. But although the pressure of the waste
steam is strictly a part of the resistance, yet we shall, in the following
investigation, deduct its amount from the gross power of the steam,
and consider the balance as the gross power of the engine, which will
then be equal to the useful effect, ^/«s the friction and other resis-
tances ;;( the engine. In our next paper we shall commence this inves-
tigation with the low pressure condensing engine, for which the cal-
culation is the most simple, and then extend it to the other varieties
of engine.

ARCfflTECTURAL COMPETITION.

Sir, — The subject of Architectural Competition is one, which at
this moment, should be more than usually interesting to members of
the profession. I do not, therefore, hesitate to request your inser-
tion of the following correspondence, which I think, it will be con-
fessed, exposes as unsatisfactory a case as any of those recently so
nuich commented upon.

In the early part of this year, a committee formed for building a
new church at Cardiff, advertised for plans, offering premiums of 20/.
and 10/. for the first and second best designs. In conjunction with
my partner, Mr. Brandon, I submitted plans, with a specification and
estimate. On the 11th June, we received the following letter: —

Cardifl' Vicarage, 10th June, 1839.
Gentlemen, — The premium of 20/. offered for the Ijcbt plan and design for
a churcfi in this town, having been awarded to you, I have great pleasure in
forwarding you from the committee, an order for that amount on the Loudon
and \\estimnster Bank, of which I shall be obUged by your acknowledging
the receipt.

I am. Gentlemen, your very obedient Servant,

T. Stacev. Hon. Sec.

In the course of two or three weeks after the receipt of that letter,
we heard it rumoured that a Mr. Foster, of Bristol, was to be em-
'ployed as archttct to this church. Being at a loss to reconcile this
statement with the announcement that our's was "/fc best plan and
design," we wrote to say, that if their subscription fell short of the
contemplated amount, we should be happy to submit sketches for a
building on a reduced scale. On the 'JSth June, we received the fol-
lowing Tetter.

Cardiff, 24th June, 1839.

Gentlemen, — I fear I have been gudty of an omission in my last commu-
nication, that has occasioned yon some misconception relative to the pro-
ceedings of the committee for building the new church here. Had it

02

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[February,

occiirri'd to luc, tlie most obvious moile of putting you in possession of their
intentions, would liave been to scnil you a copy of the rcsohitions adopted
at the meeting at wliicli the tirst lU'emium was awarded you. And no better
mode occurs to mc now. 1 therefore beg to subjoin a cojiy of that resolu-
tion : —

" It was unanimously resolved, that the premitun for the best plan he ad-
judged to Messrs. Wyatt and Brandon, and that the plan and design of
Mr. roster, of Bristol', be adopted by the committee for those of the new
churcli," &c. i^c.

Whilst, therefore, the committee ailjndgcd your design to he the best
ncconthi;/ lo the ciiiverliscment, they thought it iireferahle to adopt one fm--
nished by a Mr. Foster, of Uristol. I feel now, that this should have
formed i>art of my last letter, but at the moment I wrote, it seemeil to me
/hat mil silence voiild haee been inlcr/treleil hij i/ou as iiuliealive of Ike reso-
latiom of the ifieetiwj.

I remain, Gentlemen, your very obedient Servant,

T. Stacey, Hon. Sec.

Why Mr. Stacey slioidd have imagined llial from " U» silaict," we
were to suppose the committee liail resolved \ipon this unusual
course, I am unable to guess. We, liowever, addressed him on tlie
2oth iis follows : —

Su', — We have to acknowledge the favor of your letter of the 2 1th inst.>
and to state the fact of our having misconceived the purport of your former
letter. Wien you announced that the committee bad adjudged us the
"Jirst premium for the best plan and desirjn," it never for a moment oc-
curred to us that the committee would take the unusual, and as we cannot
help feeling the mijust course of emjiloying another architect. Either our
design was the best, in accordance iri//t your instructions, or Mr. Foster's
was. If his accommodated 2000 persons, and was most apjilicnlile to your
olijects, we think you did him an injustice in calling our's the liest. If, on
the contrary, our's was really tlie Ijest, why not have done us the justice to
believe that we were capable of altering that design, or producing another
quite appUcalite to yoiu' wants ? We cannot but think the resolution of the
committee must have passed in forgetfulness of general custom and of the
injurious elfect it nnst have in ODnipetition generally. Surely, no architect
of respcctaliility would lie fouud to expend time and money in designs
w bore " the premium " was the only reward, and certainly not in a case
wlicre the amount of such premium is insuHicicnt to cover the actual outlay
ill preparing tbo^e designs. It is only the snperintendanee of a building,
which offers credit and remuneration to the architect jiroportionate to the
thought and the anxiety expended on a meritorious design. * * *
We beg to assure the committee, that these remarks are not written in a
spirit of dictation, for to their decision we must, of course, bow; but it is
not the less our duty to call ,'ittention to that which unexplained, implies
either injustice on their side, or a stain on our professional character, for
whilst it ap|iears to the public that we have submitted " the best plan and
design " you have received, they learn that our future services are declined,
and an architect employed, whose desiyn was neither the jirst or second best.
We trust, therefore, that the committee will at least alter the wording of
their resolution.

We have the honor to be. Sir,

Your obedient Servants,

Wyatt and Brandon.

The following letter acknowledges the receipt of our's of the 25th,
and affords tlic satisfactory information that Mr. Foster is selected for
the higliist pnmiam the committee coidd give, namely, their employ-
ment, because his " plan and design were not in accordance with the
terms of the advertisement." Tins, certainly, is a curious specimen
of justice, and will, no doubt, tend to impress upon the minds of
future competitors, the advantages of strictly adhering to the in-
structions issued by committees.

Cardiff, June 27th, 1839.
Cicntlemen, — I have had the honor to receive the favour of your letter of
the 2.'>th,.and will not fail to lay it before the committee at their next meet-
ing. But as it is not likely, from the progress of things, that I shall soon
have an oiiportunity of doing so, 1 beg to state at once, and from myself,
tliat the reason why Mr. Foster's plan and design were not awarded the first
premium was, that tliey were not in accordance with the terms of the ad-
vertisement, and therefore it was, that your's were assigned the premium.
I have the honor to be. Gentlemen,

Your very obedient SeiTant, •

T. Stacuy.

(.)ne or two other letters passed, in continuation of this subject ;
that from Mr. Stacey, assuring us that the committee had not the
least intention of "offering any mark of disrespect, or want of due
lonsideration to the design of Messrs. Wyatt and Brandon, the merit
of which they highly appreciate." On the 3uth July we addressed
Mr. ^jtacey■

Sir, — W'c have to acknowledge the receipt of yoiu- favor of the 29th inst.,
communicating the content!) of a resolution passed by the Cardiff Church

Gonnnittce. We regret the necessity of again troubling you upon this sub-
ject, but we must, for the last time, repeat our sense of the injustice done
us ; which, however unintentional on tlie part of the committee, is not the
less apparent. It is only on the understanding that all the designs sub-
mitted shall be tested by the terms and conditions inijiosed by the adver-
tisement, an<l that those designs which do not comply with such instructions
shall he rejected, that architects compete. Unless all the competitors start
from the same point, it is impossible that the race can be a fair one. Mr.
Foster's plans, it seems, were sufficiently informal to disentitle him to the
]ircmium of 20/., and yet these informalities are made to disajipear, and he
is awarded the frst premium, the snperintendanee of the hiiildinij. And the
only premium, which in this case, was wortliy struggling for. Surely this is
not fair play ! It was only on the faith, that the architect who received the
first premium, would he employed to carry into execution any work the com-
mittee might erect, that you received jilaiis at all. It is (miless specially
excepted, as in the case of the comjietition for the K<iyal Exchange now
going on,) the basis of all understanding between committees and com-
jietitors — once destroy this, and you put an end to competition. In the
case of the Koyal Exchange, the premiums ofl'ered arc 300/., 200/. and 100/.,
with tlus clause, "That if the architect who receives the first pieniinm
should not be entrusted ivitli the budding, be shall receive an addiliunal sum
of .500/. if his designs are carried into execution. The committee having
power to retain the drawings for which the prcnnum is awarded." Now
liere there is no understantUng, and the fact of their considering it necessary
to make these conditions, implies that without them architects should not
be inviteil to compete. Under the circmnstances of the case, we have no
desire to retain the premium thus awarded us, and are prepared to return it,
upon being informed to whouj it should be paid.

We have also to request you will give directions for our drawings being
returned; under any circumstances, they are not the ]iropcrty of the com-
mittee, and as they are goinij; to liuild on Mr. Foster's [ilan, our design can
be of no service to theni, unless for the jiurpose of adopting any arrange-
ment or featme of merit they m.ay be thought to possess ; a ]noceediug
which we are unable to suppose a committee of gentlemen would sanction.
We have the honor to be. Sir,

Your obedient Servants,

Wyatt and Brandon.

To this lette/, on the 28th November, we received the following
reply :—

Canlitf X'icarage, 27th November, 1839.

Gentlemen, — I beg to forward yon the following copy of a resolution of
the committee appointed for the erection of a new church at Cardilf, passed
on Monday the 2.5th instant.

The secretary having laid before the meeting a letter from Messrs. AAyatt
and Brandon, commenting again on the adjudication of the premium for
the best jilan, it was resolved : —

" That the secretary be directed to return Messrs. \\'yatt and Brandon
their plans as they desire, and to infonn them that the amount of the first
premium awarded them, which they decline to retain, may he. paid into the
London and Westminster Bank, to the credit of the treasurer of the Catditt'
New Church Budding Fund."

In pursuance of the foregoing resolutions, I forward your plans by this
days' mail, carriage paid. I desire you should understand tliat the com-
mittee meeting of the 25th, was the first that has been held since the
receipt of yom letter of the 30th July, otherwise it would have been replied
to earlier.

I have the honor to be, Gentlemen,

Your most obedient Senant,

T. Stacey, Hon. Sec.

Here closes the correspondence. We have received our designs,
and the premium has been returned. Mr. B. Ferry, to whom the
secotid iiremium was awarded, viewing the matter in the same light
that we did, remonstrated by letter, against this act of the committee,
and informs me, that the replies he received as to the grounds on
which Mr. Foster is employed, were "equally inisatisfactory" with
our own. It is always difficult in cases where one's own interests or
feelings are concerned, to take an impartial and correct view. And
possibly this case, which to any eye presents an incumistent, if not an
unjust appearance, may have occurred before, and may not be
thought to call for the remonstrances we deemed it right to make.
Its consideration, however, can do no harm to those who may here-
after engage in competitions, and if, by the course adopted we have
tended in however slight a degree to assert the indepentlence and
correct feeling of our profession, the end we had in view will be fully
realized.

I am, Sir,

Your obedient Servant,

Thomas Henry Wvatt.
7-5, Grcal Russell Street ,January 1840.

1840.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

63

REMARKS ON RAILWAYS,

WITH REFERENCE TO THE POWER, &C. TO BE EMPLOYED UPON THEM.

( Conlimted from page <j.)

Having in tlip last number of the journal disposed of railways
unfavourable to lucoiuotive engines, we will proceed to examine level
railways, with reference to the power to be emijloyed on them, as in
the former case. I will take an example lest it be said I make the
case suit the ]irinciple, instead of making the rule apply to the case.

Tlie Sheffield and Rotherham Railway has been completed about
eighteen months; it will elucidate my views as well as any other, and
because I am better accjuainted with it than those at a distance, I will
therefore take it as our example. As truth is what I wish to elicit
by these remarks, perhaps it will be the clearest way to say at the
commencement what I intend to prove ; by so doing your readers will
be enabled to judge how the arguments which I bring forward bear
on the case.

It is that in the example we have taken, and in any similar one, we
can have a cheaper, more efficient and belter railway by having endless
ropes, and stationary engines, than by locomotives.

To prove this, it will he necessary to go into calculations; but to
make them as short as possiljle, I will only give the results, reserving
to myself the opportunity of giving them at full length, should any of
your readers deny their correctness. First, as to " cost of the rail-
way." It is said the Sheffield and Rotherham Railway has cost
already £110,000, about £80,000 of which would go for constructing
the railway, vi/., embankments, excavations, cS-'C, and for permanent
rails. It will not, I think, be disputed that the embankments and
excavations on this comparatively level country have been made at a
cost of at least £33,00:.) more than they would have done had fixed
engines been the moving power; and as some of the engines upon
this railway weigh 16 tons, we may safely take oft' £7,000 from the
first cost of the rails and chairs, making, with the sum first mentioned,
£40,000 or the railway, would have cost £40,000 less than it has done
had fixed engines been the power contemplated. The interest of this
sum, at 5 per cent., is £2,000 per annum. So much for the cost of the
railway.

We will now go to the second part of our subject, viz., " more effi-
cient." An engine and tender will weigh about 20 tons; suppose we
call the engine oO horse power, we shall have, at 30 miles per hour, a
power of 121 X 50 = (525 lbs., which will take, on a level railway,
nearly 56 tons, 20 of which is taken up by the engine and tender,
leaving 3G only conveyed by an engine of 50 horse power at 30 miles
per hour.

To convey 3G tons by the stationary system, it will require a rope
3J inches circumference ; 2 miles of it would weigh about 4,000 lbs.
Messrs. Walker and Rastric take the friction of the rope to be ^^ part
of its weight; I see no reason to vary from their estimate; but as
Messrs. Robert Stephenson and Joseph Locke, whose bias would be
against stationary engines, take it as -Jj of the weight. I will, in
deference to the opinion of these latter gentlemen, take it to be -jV,
which is about half way between the one and the other ; Vj of 4,G00 lbs,
is 305 lbs. The friction of the train is 403 lbs., together 709 lbs. which
divided by 124, the power of a horse at 3o miles per hour r= 5G horse
power, or G horse power more than the locomotive. But the locomo-
tive would have to get its steam up before working, and there would
be fuel in the fire-box when it had arrived at the end of its journey;
I shall take it working 5 minutes before and 5 minutes after, which
will make, with the 15 minutes in performing the journey, 25 minutes,
or what is about the same thing, 83 horse power for 15 minutes.

Though the stationary system requires an engine 56 horse power,
yet, as tiie 72 trains per day, 36 tons at a time would only occupy, in
the two miles worked by each engine 24 minutes per hour, it would
only be needful to have them 3G horse power. The distance from
Sheffield to Rotherham, G miles, is divided into 6 stages, requiring
an engine at every other stage ; but as it would be more convenient to
have one at each end, it will require 4 engines. These 4 engines are
employed the whole of the 12 hours, without any intermission, in
pumping water out of one reservoir into another fixed 40 or 60 feet
above it; the water in the upper reservoir is allowed to I'un over a
water wheel as it is wanted to move the trains, which, as before
stated, is about 24 minutes in every GO, by which the 3G horse power
engine becomes increased to 90 horse power, or there will be as much
water pumped in the GO minutes by the 3G horse power engine as
would supply a water wheel of 90 horse power, if there vpere no
waste ; but the loss from this cause, and from friction, will be 33 per
cent., which will reduce the engine to GO horse power, or 4 more than
is required ; it appears, then, we only require engine power of 144

horses. It is hardly likely that 3 trips per hour each way, for 12
hours, would be made by fewer than 6 locomotive engines kept ready
all the time, which would be equal to 300 horse power than twice as
much as the stationary, and certainly more than four times the ex-
pense in fuel, and by using coke instead of coals, and being high pres-
sure instead of condensing engines.

We think the second part of our proposition " more official" — is
clearly made out. There remains now the third, viz., " a better rail-
way;" this will be more difficult to prove, it is such a comprehensive
term ; but we don't fear being able to do so.

If we can travel as fast, or faster, at a smaller expense, injure the
rails less, be less liable to accidents, either to the machinery or rails,
have no more stoppages from the machinery getting out of order, and
have such stoppages as do occur, shorter, and sooner remeilied. If
we can insure all these at about half the annual expense in repairs, are
we not justified in saying we could have a better railway, I will begin
with " speed;" in wet weather, on the Sheffield and Rotherham Rail-
way, it is the practice to put sand on the rails, where there happens
to be a slight inclination, to make the wheels bite, and so much are
the wdieels in the habit of slipping on all railways, that Mr. William
Vickers, a merchant in Sheffield, who has a good knowledge of me-
chanics, and is pretty well accjuainted with the working of railways,
has been induced to take out a patent for the plan of connecting all
the wheels together by means of a belt or strap. If they slip they
must lose speed, and injure the rails at the same time. With
regard to the speed of the stationary ))lan, it depends upon the speed
of the engine, and is only limited by the slrength of the materials of
which the rope, pulleys, engines>&c. are constructed ; and were there no
such thing as resistance of the atmosphere there would be hardly any
limit to it. Then comes the relative expense at which this can be
done. If we increase the speed of the locomotive, the engine and
tender will form a much larger proportion of its load than at present,
because it will require a greater quantity of fuel and water on account
of the increased power of the engine. The engine would have to be
made stronger and heavier to take the same load. The rails, chairs,
and every tiling connected with them would cost more in repairs, be-
cause of the increased speed and weight of the engine, and the engine
itself would be sooner worn out. While, on the stationary plan, the
only difference would be an increase in the power of the engines,
greater strength, of rope and pulleys, and an additional wear in the
two latter, the rails, chairs, &c. remaining the same.

I find I am getting unnecessarily into the minuliee of the subject. All
these things are imjiovtant, no doubt, but will, be wearisome to your
readers to go through. I will therefore confine myself to tlie compara-
tive safety and annual expense of the two systems. The greater the
weight in motion, the less it will be influenced or impeded by obstruc-
tions, and this will i-ender it more liable to get off the rails at the
curves, and make it more difficult to stop. It appears that locomotive
trains will always have 20 tons more weight, as already stated, than
the stationary system, the conclusion is obvious. The large wheels of
the locomotive engine would have a tendency to run oft" the rails, the
ropes of the stationary plan would tend to keep the carriages on. The
engine and train being independent of any other, would be in danger
of coming in contact with other trains, unless those trains were at a
considerable distance, and every collision without great care would
throw carriages in the train of one or both of them off the rails, and
occasion great delay to say the least of it. The stationary plan might
have a hundred trains, a hundred yards of each other, and they would
never approach nearer, this needs no conunent. In comparing the
annual expense of the two, it will not be necessary to ascertain the
expence of each, but only where they difter, to estimate the amount of
each. The locomotive engines cost about £1,300 each, and if Ihey
are fully worked will cost £300 per annum in repairs, or if half-
worked £150. (Let Demetrius and the Craftsmen deny this if they
can.) We will take them to be half-worked, there would then require
5 engines and one spare engine, making 6 engines in constant work,
so that the cost per annum vi'ould be 6X 150=:£900 for repairs.
The engines will last not more than nine or ten years. We will take
them at 13 per cent, on G engines, which will be £1,014; the fuel we
will estimate at U per ton per mile, including waste at each end, we
shall have to reckon 50 tons moved in this case and not 3G, but as the
coke and water is consuming, I have reckoned 50 tons, 72 times 6 miles
for 312 days, which amounts to 6,739,200 tons conveyed one mile,
U lb. per ton on this will be 3,760 tons of coke, which is I4s. per ton,
the amount of this will be per anmmi £2,G32. I shall take the engine-
men, firemen, &c., to be the same in both systems, therefore need not
take them into account ; the expence, then, of the locomotive system
from these three items will be £4,54 G yearly.

The stationary plan has 4 engines ot 36 horse power each, on the
same principle as those in Cornwall, viz., work with 50 lbs, steam, and

64

THE Cn^IL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[February,

cut oft' tlie stp«m at one-tiftli of the stroke, these engines consume
2ilbs. ]ier luiur foi' liorse-pouer ; 12 hours per day, 312 flays, it will
give per annum about GU2 tons at .)S. per ton, or i£150 Ms.

The ropes will not require renewing ofteuer than once in twelve
months because there are not jerks or stoppages at the stations, the
cost of this, after deducting the value of the old, will be £525. The
four engines, engine-houses, and machinery, would cost £'8,000, at
fij per cent, would be £520. The annual repairs to boilers, engines,
and machinery, taken as by Messrs. Walker and Rastric, including
hemp, oil, and tallow, at 14.s'. Sd. per horse power, will be £ loij ys.
The interest, wear and tear of pulleys would be ,£300, oil to ))ulleys,
and men to grease them, £144, all which sums amount to £1,745 ISs.

The whole yearly expense of the stationary system amounts to
£1,745 Is.v. The expence of the locomotive system, £4,540, making
a difterence in favour of the stationary of £2,S00 2s., which sum,
added to the £2,000 per annum saved in the first cost of the railway,
amounts to £1,800 2s. If the saving of £4,800 per annum does not
speak to the ])ockets of the shareholders, nothing I can say will do it.
If gentlemen of fortune wish to have railways, let them have locomo-
tive engines upon them by all means to show to their wives and
daughters, but if men of sense and men of business wisli to have their
shilling's worth for a shilling, let them search and see if these things
are so.

Diogenes.
Sheffield.

( To he concluded.)

ENCROACHMENTS AND RECESSIONS OF THE SEA.

It appears that the tendency of "/7/e sea to pnserre its paralltl," has
been pointed out in No. 27 of the Journal as the origin of the encroach-
ment and recession of the sea, and that the action of the influx of
water is increased in bays in proportion as the projecting point to the
westward is greater, while it is assumed that the filling up of bays
and cutting of headlands are equal. The meeting of the tides from
the Northern and Southern Channels to the eastward of Hastings,
renders a reference to the geological facts to the westward most ad-
visable.

The beds of sand, sandy rock, and clay, denominated the Wealden
formation, are supposed to dip from Hastings to Beachy Head, and to
disappear under the chalk at that point. Tlie outcrop of the highest
sand-rock bed is visible from thence to the Sea Houses, East Bourn,
but in the interior, the height of the beds above the sea level seems
in some proportion to their hardness. Pevensey Castle is placed
towards the end of one of these low ridges, so formed, and Pevensey
Level consists, judging from the drains, of the outcrop of the clay
beds, and not of the detritus of the chalk clitfs to the westward.
Romney Marsh is sometimes considered as a more modern deposit of
silt; its position, in some geological maps, is in front of that part of
the Hastings sand, dipping easterly from the anticlinal line near Has-
tings; it is said to have successive ranges of beach banks, of a form
nearly corresponding with the present coast line. If these opinions
are correct, it differs essentially in its formation from Pevensey levels,
where, 1 believe, a small extent only of beach, covered with grass,
exists at the eastern end. The accumulation of beach at Langney
point, perhaps amounting to 1000 acres, is at a lower level, and is
almost as bare of grass as the shore on which the sea now beats, while
its character is similar in all points to the mass of beach at Dunge-
ness.

It has been most distinctly proved, that an ancient raised beach
exists around the coast of Cornwall and Devon elevated in diflferent
sites from 5 to 30 feet or more, and covered with a Grauwacke de-
tritus termed alluvial by Dr. Buckland.

At Brighton there seems an equally distinct trace of an equivalent
raised beach covered by a diluvial chalk detritus, as due to a similar
cause in different sites. Perhaps the grass-covered beach banks of
Romney Marsh and Pevensey Level, are due to the same geological
epoch, and the accunuilations of beach at Langney point and Dungeness
belong to the present era.

Previous to the admission of any arguments derived from the beach
at Hastings Bridge, it must be proved to be a portion of the present
sea beach, as its site and height above the sea would suggest the idea
of its forming a part of a raised beach of a former geological period.

In reference to the question of equal cutting and filling, it has been
shown by geologists, that the waves are the cutting agents of the sea
in the destruction of clitts, and that the tides or currents sweep the
finer particles into deeper water, and leave the harder part on the
shore, which are rounded into beach ; the whole coast, wliether liigh

or low, is] fringed with a variable quantity of beach, which is driven
along the coast in proportion to the diagonal blow of the waves, and
consequently tlie mass is in motion eastward, as due to the mean
excess of the westerly over the easterly waves.

The effect of groins is easily seen ; the beach is collected on the
weather side, while the lee side becomes bare ; hence equal waves
have a greater cutting eft'ect on the softer materials of the exposed
shore or clill', and less on the side protected by the accumulation of
beach, and in their construction, the principle to be regarded is the
retardation of the exact quantity of beach requisite for the protection
of each spot, allowing its regular passage either way ; the groin
referred to at Hastings is probably either too large, or too high at the
outer end — the result is inevitable, the shore on each side will be
overprotectcd, or overbared, alternately, according to the direction of
the wind.

My object has been rather to question the data assumed than to
attempt to elucidate this subject by a reference to the numerous ele-
ments essential for that purpose, partly with a hope of inducing civil
engineers, to measure and recoril clearly the geological facts which
may happen to come under their notice in the course of their pro-
fessional labours.

ON THE COMPARATIVE POWER OF STEAM ENGINES.

Siu — Though I have read with great pleasure tlie communication of
Mr. Armstrong on the comparative effects of the Cornish and Lanca-
shire system of working steam engines, yet I must object to the ac-
curacy of the estimate of the gross horse power of the East London
Water-works engine, and I trust the following observations will induce
others to take into consideration the propriety of confining the terra
Duty to the distinct and definite meaning in which it has been
employed in a large mining district for a longer period, than the
existence of factory steam engines. His paper is entitled, "On
the Comparative Effects," the table is headed "Comparative Duty;"
the pounds raised one foot high per minute -^ 33,000 are termed
"Gross Horse Power," while this same quantity 194 is termed " Net
Effective Power," previous to the deduction oif one-third for the re-
sistances of the shafting ; yet each is actually derived from the same
elements, viz., the average steam pressure taken by the indicator in
the Lancashire engine, and the supposed gross load + an allowance
for " friction of the engine itself," in the Cornish engine X in each
case by the space in feet per minute for gross horse power. The
gross pressure of steam whether observed or calculated, is equally
capable of being referred to the variable time of the consumption of a
bushel of coal (114 pounds), but then such a word as Efficiency would
be useful in distinguishing it from Duty. See Phil. Trans., 1S27.

Duty as introduced by Watt, and retained iu Cornwall, is founded
on different elements, viz. the nett work performed clear of pitwork or
shafting resistances, X by the space of motion per bushel of coal, it
is always calculated, but if the water was measured or weighed, it
might be called active duty: the usual mode of obtaining the load in
the shaft is by squaring the pump diameter in inches, X by the lift in
fathoms, X by 2-0454 pounds, the weight of a cylinder of water one
fathom in length and one inch in diameter : the omission, however, of
the two last decimals, only attects the three last figures of the duty in
millions.

Duty and gross power are hence the extremes, while gross power
minus engine resistances, and duty plus pitwork or machinery resist-
ances become respectively nett power, =: engineer's horse power, and
gross work performed, and these on a statical view are equal to each
other — the word effect will be found a convenient term to distinguish
gross work done from duty, It has always been necessary to ascertain
whether the beam leverage is equal, if not so, due allowances must be
made for the differences ; it will be .dso convenient to use the word
pressure as equivalent to force, and force X space as power, while
gross and nett load become respectively effect and duty.

In the arrangement of the East London Water-works engine, a
weight of 29 tons is lifted at the outer end of the beam during the in-
door stroke, but not without some packing friction, as well as a column
of water on the lower valve of a diameter equal to that of the plunger
pole — together, these form the gross load on the in-door or acting
stroke. During the out-door stroke the weight returns and lifts the
water above the lower valve, overcomes friction, &c. &c. As friction
increases in bad pitwork, at least, as fast as the deficient water delivery —
while the reverse takes place in good, the calculated duty of pumping
engines probably ,bears a closer approximation to the whole work done,
or effect, than might be expected.

1S40]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

65

In all cases I am inclined to think the pitwork resistances exceed
the decrease due to deficient water delivery. There are no data for
duty calculation, except by valueless approximations. I shall how-
ever submit to public opinion the following estimate of the gross power
of this engine, in comparison with that derived from the " Average
Steam Pressure, taken by indicator," in the Lancashire factory engine.
I conceive the allowance of half a pound per circular inch for the
" friction of tlie engine itself," a quantity scarcely sullicient to over-
come tlie steam or vapour pressure due to the temperature of the
water in the condenser.

Weight in-doors 29 t(jn - - = 04,9(30 lbs

.Stulling box friction, say - - z= 501

412 i,„.i,es X 1 fathoms' X bv ■2-01.54 lbs = 3,439

Gross load in lbs.
Quarter of eft'ect load ;=
gross power

l-5th

= 68,900 load for eft'ect.

:= 17,224 engine's resistances.

=: 80,124 lbs.
Gross steam pressure on the shaft.
In a recent communication by Mr. Wicksteed, relative to the suc-
cess of the Harvey's and West's patent double beat valve, the pump
stroke is stated to be nine feet, and consequently 90 feet of motion at
10 strokes per minute. Taking the gross pressure in the shaft at
80,124 lbs. X 90 feet, = 7,751, IGO lbs. one foot high, we have
7,751,100

—rjr- =: 23.J gross horse pow er.

33,000 ^ ^

In consequence however of the prevalence of the method among
practical engineers of deducting the resistances due to vacuum, im-
])erfections from the observed average indicator pressure, and calling
the result average steam pressure (a quantity I should feel disposed
to term a worthless mean between gross and nett power of no practi-
cal value, and absokitely injurious in tending to mislead in estimates
of pounds of water used in the cylinder), it would not be fair to con-
trast that which is proposed to represent the gross povver of a good
Cornish engine, until it has been ascertained whether the observed or
calculated gross steam power in the Lancashire factory engine has
been given.

The error will be in its favour if an allowance is added of -^rj,
perhaps, for this practise, while the engine's resistance, ought perhaps
to be taken higher than one-fifth of the gross power to allow for the
greater friction of smaller cylinders working at a high power, if re-
quired ; it appears to me that the one-third allowance should be de-
ducted from the nett power thus obtained, for a duty estimate, giving
20 millions as a rough approximation.

34,754,432
One-twelfth .... — 2,890,202

One-fifth engine resistance
One-third shaft-work -

37,050,031
; 7,530,120

30, 120,508
: 10,040,109

Duty = 20,080,339

My object is to recommend tlie simple classification here used, sub-
ject to any corrections of engine or pitwork resistances, conceiving
if attention be called to this subject, it will soon lead to the adoption
of correct methods, which will facilitate the connection of theoretical
and practical views of steam engines.

I am, Sir,
Your obedient servant,

John S. Enys.
January, 1810.

Discovery of a Cnt'cru. — As the workmen were employed in blasting the
rocks near the foundation of one of the Clifton suspension bridge piers, a day
or two since, they discovered a small uj)cning. On i(s being examined, it was
found to lead to a small cavern extending tilty-scven feet below the surface
of the gro\md, nearly in a perpendicular direction. The exploration was
made by Dr. Fairbrothcr, with the assistance of one of the workmen.
There were several chambers at intervals, but the descent is diflicult, and
can only be made with the assistance of ropes. The air is tolerably pure, so
that the candle burnt freely during the whole of the tiinc (nearly two hours).
At the bottom, the air was found to be excessively hot, so that the perspira-
tion flowed freely. In other respects the cavity presented nothing remark-
able, beyond the ordinary appearance of fissures formed by the raising of
the strata of lime-stones by some extraordinary convulsions of nature.

THE CORNISH ENGINE,

AT TtiE E.\ST LONDON WATER WORKS.

As tlie above engine is likely to become an object of considerable
interest to engineers, we determined upon paying a visit to the Water
Works at Old Ford, for the purpose of obtaining correct information
as to her dimension and mode of working. (Jn our arrival ;it the
works, Mr. Wicksteed, the engineer to the Company, immediately
granted us permission to inspect the engine, and kindly ofiercd to
afford any infcn-matiun we might require, and for this jnirpose, accom-
panied us on our view, and readily answered every enquiry, explain-
ing at the same time, the general working of the engine. Before
])roceeding to the detaiLs, we must offer our congratulations to the
directors of the Company, on the successful performance of the
engine, and we feel happy to find that the very large pecuniary
saving in fuel annually, by the adoption of the CornisTi engine, will
amply repay them for the spirited manner in which they came for-
ward to support their engineer against the almost unanimous opinions
of the London engineers, who generally pronounced the boasted per-
formances of the eugines in Cornwall to be preposterous. Through
the kindness of Mr. Wicksteed, we are now enabled to lay before
our readers practical data of the economic working of the engine at
the East London Water, Works, which we believe, is the first and
only Cornish engine that has been yet erected in the metropolis.

The engine was originally intended for a Cornish mine, known by
the name of the "East Cornwall," it was designed by Mr. West, a
member of the Institution of Civil Engineers; it is upon the same
principle as the one designeil by the same gentleman, erected at the
Fowey Consols Mines, which has for several years past clone more
duty than any engine in or out of the county of Cornwall, and manu-
factured by Messrs. Harvey and Co. of Hayle ; it was purchased liy
the East London Water Works Company in 1837, and removed to
London and fixed in its present situation by Messrs. Harvey and
West, who have, by the superiority of the working of this engine,
and the faithful execution of their contract, given most unr|ualified
satisfaction both to the directors and to Mr. Wicksteed.

Dimensions of ilie Engine. — The diameter of the steam cylinder is
80i inches, and length of stroke, 10 feet 3 inches ; the steam is
generated in the boilers, under a pressure of 351b. on the square inch
above that of the atmosphere, antl cut oft" when the piston has per-
formed about one-third of its stroke, it then expands during the re-
maining two-thirds, and in the suceeeding stroke is condensed to
form a vacuum on tlie opposite of the piston, to wdiich it passes
through the equilibrium valve in the return stroke, the engine being
single acting.

By the use of the apparatus called a cataract, the engine can be
made to work from one (or less) to ten strokes per minute, as may be
required. According to the calculations of Mr. Armstrong in our
last Journal, the power of the engine is equivalent to 200l horses,
and by the statement of Mr. Enys in the present number, 235 gro^s
horse power. Mr. Wicksteed, however, informs us that the actual
weight lifted is 66,443 lbs. an average height of 9 feet each stroke,
which is equal to 18" 12 horses' power when the engine works one
stroke per minute, or 181*2 horses' power at 10 strokes per minute, a
velocity which Mr. Wicksteed deems the greatest this engine should
be worked at.

Dimensions of the Pump. — The diameter is 41 inches, length of
stroke 9 feet 4 inches, quantity of water lifted at every stroke S2*5
cubic feet, or about 14i imperial barrels, which is a week's average
supply for a house. The plunger-pole of the pump, is loaded
with about 29 tons over and above the other end of the beam, and
this is the weight the engine has actiwlly to lift at every stroke.

We were very much pleased with the quiet action of Messrs.
Harvey and We.st's patent valve, there we felt any perceptible vi-
bration, although we stood close to the pump ; we have given the
drawings and specification of the valve in another part of the Jour-
nal.

The steam is generated in four cylindrical boilers, 27 feet 8 inches
long and 0 feet 5 inches diameter, constructed on Mr. West's
Cornish plan ; the tops of the 4 boilers are covered over with fine
ashes, to prevent the loss of heat by radiation. The area of the
boilers exposed to the action of the flame and heated air, is very
great ; and the furnaces are constructed with a large surface of fire
grate, in jn'oportion to the coals consumed, for the purpose of adopt-
ing the principle of slow combustion, wdiich is here carried out to its
fullest extent, so much so, that when the furnace doors are opened, the
smoke at times comes out of the furnace doors into the stoke-hole.

We must also state that the steam cylinder is surrounded wdth a

K

66

Tilt; CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[February,

jacket, wliicli is filled with stoain from the boilers, and there is
another jacket, or casing of boards, the interval being filled in with
ashes, 17 to IS inches in thickness; all the steam-pipes are also well
cased with patent felt, or ashes in boxes.

The following particulars will show the working of the engine for
I'A weeks, dining «hich period it worked 2,'Jil3l hours, and made
1,U12,3J3 strokes, at the average rate of 5-77 per minute, it raising
i:),'.ls-2,'.142 barrels of water, (of 360 lbs. each barrel,) 112 feet 0
inches high, with the consumption of 301 Ions, la cwt., 1 qr.,
(^ S10,3-islbs.) of coal of inferior quality, being the refuse or screen-
ings of Newcastle coal, which has passed through a screen of |-inch
thick mesh. By adopting the method of slow combustion, they are
thus enabled to use the screenings, which costs only 17s. per ton de-
li\«red, whereas the superior coal required for rapid combustion,
would cost 23s. or more.

During the same period, a condensing engine of the ordinary con-
struction made by Boulton and Watt, with a cylinder 80 inches
diameter and stroke 8 feet, with a pump 27J inches diameter and
stroke 8 feet, worked 1,345^ hours made 1,152,424 strokes, raised
S,416,3S5 barrels of water, and consumed 275 tons, 17 cwt., 3 qrs.,
(= tj 17,988 lbs.) of coal as above.

The Cornish engine works constantly under the same pressure,
while the pressure in the Boulton and Watt engine is constantly vary-
ing, never exceeding the former, but on the average, less.

The Cornish engine worked night and day during the above
period, with occasional stoppages, while the ordinary engine worked
by day only; but the work of two other engines, on Boulton and
Watt's construction, which worked night anil day during the cor-
responding weeks of the previous year, was as follows : — They
worked for 2,9381 hours, and made 2,U08,43Ui strokes each; they
raised together 9,309,362 barrels of water, and consumed 568 tons,
1 cwt., (= 1,272,432 lbs.) of bent coal.

Before the Cornish engine was erected, the East London Water
Works Company had, in addition to the water-wheels at their Strat-
ford and Lea Bridge Stations, four steam engines, besides an extra
one, which worked during the summer months : — viz. two engines of
30-horses power each, which worked 24 hours ; and two of about 95
horses power, which worked, upon an average, 12 hours per dwm,
the extra one was of 70 horses power, and worked occasionally in
the sunnner. The consumption of coal amounted to 3,426 tons per
annum, which was about i,'3,700., while the present engines, viz. one
Cornish engine, working 24 hours per day, and averaging six strokes
per minute, and one large Boulton and Vatt engine, working 60 hours
per week, calculating from the IS weeks' consumotion for both engines,
the annual consunqjtion will be 1,941 tons, whicTi cost l7s. per ton, or
.t' 1,649. 17s., thus effecting a saving of i'2,050. per annum.

if 6(),4431bs. be taken as the actual weight lifted at each stroke,
(independent of friction and resistance of the engine,) and multiplied
by 9 feet, the average length of the stroke of the pumj), it will give
597,987 lbs. lifted one foot high at every stroke, if this quantity be
multiplied by the number of strokes, the engine performed during
the eighteen months, and divided by the consumption of the fuel

during that period, it will give : (i^i^^^-Mlr^^-?!) 747,054 ibs.,

8 lU,o48
us the useful tffecl, raised one foot high by 1 lb. of coal or 70,223,0761bs.,
by one Cornish bushel of 9 libs, of coal. It should be observed, that
the amount of coals herein given, includes the coals used to keep up
the steam whenever the engine stopped during the period men-
tioned.

In order to secure themselves against receiving inferior coal, the
Directors have entered into a very peculiar contract (which we would
recommend to the notice of other companies) with their coal merchant
to supply them with coal of the same quality throughout the year, he
guaranteeing that above 73 million poiuids of water shall be raised
one foot higli by the consumption of 94 lbs. of coal, which is equivalent
to about 24 lbs. [ler horse power per hour; or in case of the average
duty of the coals not amounting to so much, a proportionate reduction
is to be made in the amount to be paid to him.

We trust the foregoing statement will prove interesting to the
readers of our Journal. We should have been pleased if we could
have presented engravings of this engine to our readers, but we do
not so much regret the want of them at present, as we should if Mr.
Wicksteed had not informed us that he intends to present complete
drawings of the engine and boilers to the Institution of Civil Engineers,
with a report, as soon as he has obtained some f irther facts which he
deems of the utmost importance, namely, the actual quantity of water
evaporated by a given weight (jf coals, the (piantity of water passing
through the cylinder in the sliape of steam to produce the eii'ects stated,
and in addition also, the same facts as regards a Boulton and Watt

engine, that a fair comparison may be made between the two systems
of expansion and non-expansion, and also to prove liow much is due
to the superiority of tlie boilers (if any), and how much to the mode
of uxtng the steam when generated.

The system adopted in Cornwall of reporting to the public every
month the duty of the engines, has, we have little doubt, led, by
exciting emulation, to the perfecting of the expansion engine, and if
in other parts of England the same system were adopted, there is no
doubt the public would benefit, as well as those manufacturers whose
desire it is to make the best engine, and we therefore offer to those
interested in the subject to pul)lisli in our Journal the reports forwarded
to us. We have little doubt of having a monthly report of Iht Cornish
engine, and we should like to have reports of others to compare
with it.

MEMOIR OF DAVIJvS GILBERT, ESQ.
(From the West Britnn.)

Davii;s Gilbert, E.sij.. D.C.L., late President of the Royal Society, was
Hon. F.K.S.E., F.A.S., F.L.S., F.G.S., F.R.A.S., President of the Roj al Geo-
logical Society of Cornwall, Hon. Member of must of the iirovincial societies
in llie Kiomlom, and of many on the CVinlincnt; lie was also many years
Member of Parliament for Bodmin, our county to« n, and was truly known
as the Father of liiilish Science. He was the only son of the Rev. Eilwaril
Gidcly, of St. Erdi, the representative of the vesjicctutile family of (Jidily, of
Nanteavallan, by Catherine, only daughter and heiress of Henry Davies,
Esq.. of Tredrea, only survivor of the ancient house of Davies. throuKli
whom he was connected with the noble family of Sandys, and that of Noycl
of which the well-known Attorney-Genera! was a member.

^VIlen a child, his precocious t'llenis were the theme of the extensive circle
uilh which his tathcr, as chairman of Quarter Sessions, associated. His
preliminary education was conducted at home; and at a very early age he
cuntractccl an intimacy, which continued until death, with the Rev. Malachy
llitchcns, vicar of , St. Hilary, a gentleman of high and well-ileserve.l cele-
Ijrity as a niathcmalieian and aslroncjmer, and as editor of the "Nautical
Almanac." This adiuiiintance, without doubt, materially added in dcter-
minini; his mind to mathematical pursuits, in which he was afterwards so
greatly distinganshed. His aca^lemic education was received at Pemlirukc
College, 0.>;ford, to the funds of which he has been a liberal donor.

The introduction of Mr. Watt's celebrated improvement in the steam-en-
gine into the Cornish mines, and the disimtcs between that great mechanical
philnsopher and the late Mr. Jonathan Hornblowcr, of Penryn, as to the
economy and mode of applying the principle of working steam expansively,
and which has since been carried to greater extent, and with a more remark-
aide economy of fuel in this county than any where elst^ early attracted
Mr. Davies Gidcfy's attention ; and the various subjects embraced in its per-
fect development formed a noble field for the employment of his rare mathe-
matical attainments. The e.\pansive action was employed by Mr. Watt in a
single cylinder, but Mr. flornblower used two. It was, hoivever, far more
readily made out in theory than it was acknowledged in practice, that by
the use of one cylinder only the same mechanical advantage is obtained,
avoiding )he additional friction which a second cylinder would entail. The
])lan of Mr. Hornblowcr was, after a silence of several years, revived by Mr.
Woolf: but it seems by general consent and experience, and by universal
practice, to be now admitted that Mr. Watt's is the prel'eiable mode.

Mr. Davies Giddy was solicited by the county at large to take an active
part in the determination of the duty performed by Mr. Watt's engines — a
task for w hich his genius and inclination peculiarly fitted him ; and in con-
junction with the late Captain 'William Jenkin. of Treworgie, he made a sur-
vey of all the steam-engines then working in Cornwall.

An indifference to the labours of anthorship, provided the results of his
inquiries were available to the public without appearing in print, prevented
the investigations of these most important subjects from seeing the light in
an authentic form until lately ; the first iti them appears in the Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society in 1827— the second still more recently.

One ol the most laborious and practically useful works which has distin-
guished that rich storehouse of intellectual wealth, the Philosophical Trans-
actions of the Royal Society, is a paper by Mr. Gilbert, " On the Properties
of the Catenary Curve." This fine example of mathematical inquiry was
published whilst the celeLrated engineer Telford was preparing his materials
for the construction of that stupendous national work, the Menai bridge;
and it affords one of the finest tributes on record to the labours of the philo-

Ifi40.]

THE Cn^L ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

67

soplicr in his rloset, that after the appearance of Mr. Gilbert's memoir, the
engineer caused the suspension chains whicli had been prepared and coin-
plete.l to be again lalicn in lianj and lengthened by about thirty-six feet.
The manner in «hieh this magnificent structure has stood, proves that the
principles on which it was constructed are perfectly accurate, but that its
weight is insufficient to stand the storms to which it is exposed, without a
vibratory inotion, which is injurious to its stability.

One of the most remarkable incidents in Mr. Gilbert's life was his disco-
vering, patronising, and encouraging the early struggles of Davy (afterwards
Sir Humphry), whose introduction to public life, and to other friends, who
brought him, liis genius, and .abilily into notice, was due to his active and
unvarying fiiendahip. This is, however, matter of history, and most of our
readers are acijLiainted with it.

In 1S28 Mr. Gilbert was, by acclamation, calleil to that pre-eminently ho-
nourable station, Ihe chair of the Royal .Society, to which his profound
learning and sc-ientific researches, no less than his distinguished personal fit-
ness, recommended him Ijeyoud every other person as the proper successor of
Davy in the chair of Newton. This conspicuous place, at the head of British,
and we may say European, science. Mr. GilbiTt held, for about seven years,
witli the highest honour to himself, and tlie greatest utility to that learned
body. It is a case without par.allel, and one of which, as C'ornishmen, we
are justly proud, that we have furnished two succeeding Presidents of the
Roy.al .Society. During liis Presidency, Mr. Gilbert was a liberal donor to
the society's funds, and he extended a large and an enligliteucd patronage to
every object worthy of the illustrious body over which he presided. He re-
signed the chair in favour of his Royal Highness the Duke of Sussex, who is
now succeeded by the courteous and learned Marquis of Norlhampton.

In his native county, to which he has ever clung with most tenacious af-
fection, in 1814, Mr. Gilbert founded the Royal Geological Society of Corn-
wall, (with a single exception) the oldest provincial philosophical society in
Kngltind, and continued to preside o\er it until his decease ; conferring on it
an importance which it would not have otherwise attained, and extending its
utility where, without him, it would have been unknown. To the other phi-
losophical, literary, and charitable institutions of Cornwall, he was equally
a liberal and enlightened patron.

The last literary labour of Mr. Gilbert's long, honourable, and usefid life,
was editing the " Parochial History of Cornwall." originally commenced by
Mr. Hals, and continued by Mr. Tonkin. This w ork appeared but a year or
two since, with copious addenda by the editor, and geological notes by Dr.
Boase. It contains a vaist mass of curious and v.aluable antiquarian research,
and rich disquisitions on many suljjects of the highest local interest, its
effect has, however, been impaired by typographical inaccur.acies, which tlie
printer's carelessness has overlooked.

The rare talents, abilities, and application of Mr. Davies Gidily, at an early
period of his hie. recommended him to the .acquaint. nee of the leading scien-
tific men of the age, and the principal mluabit.ants of the county ; among
these was the late Lord De Dunstanville. a nobleman as much dislingui.shed
by his discrimination as by his barge and munificent liberality. Through his
lordship's instrumentalily, Mr. Giddy was returned to Parliament for the
borough of Bodmin, in 1807. after having sat as member for Helston ; and
the distinction thus conferred on huu through, wdiat hc may not improperly
term, extraneous means, was continued from an honourable appreciation of
his own ability and worth, until the passing of the Reform Bill, in 1832.
when h s advanced age and increasing infirmities rendered him desirous of
avoiding the turmoil of public life, and of retiring into the pe.ace and tran-
quillity of his domestic circle.

Whilst in Parliament, tliere were few members more regular and assiduous
in their attendance, than Mr. Gilbert ; he generally, though not uniformly,
supported the Conservative side of politics, but he seldom spoke, and was by
no means an active partisan. His great learning and habits of business, re-
commended him to all parlies ; and lie acted as chairman of a committee on
the financial system, in the critical and dilliiult period when Lord Castle-
reagh was the ministerial leader in the C mmons. The rectification of the
national standards of linear dimensions .and capacities, w hich w.as made a few
years since, was undertaken on his motion for an address to the Crown on
the subject. The bounty on the export of pilchards was long continued
through his active interposition ; and, indeed, every subject which in any
way afT'ected the interests of his native county, when it came before Parlia-
ment, ever found him at his post, an active, ready, and indefatigable advo-
cate of her interests.

^Ve have now seen him an illustrious philosopher, a learned historian, and
.an enlightened legislator; but the most distinguishing (.and if we may use
the language without charge of alieclation), the most endearing character
we have yet to mention, for it w ould be vain to attempt to describe it— his

conversation; it was not brilliant — it was something infinitely beyond and
better than mere display ; it was a continued stream of the most profound
learning and most exalted philosophy, adapted with exquisite taste to the
capacity of his auditory, and enlivened wilh anecdotes to which the most
listless could not but listen and learn. His in.anners were most unaffected,
child-like, gentle, and natural. As a friend, he was kind, considerate, for-
bearing, patient, and generous; and when the grave was closed over him,
not one man, woman or child, who was honoured with his acquaintance, but
will feel that he has a friend less in the world ; enemies, he cannot have left
a single one. A Cornishman he was in every good sense of the word ; the
mention of a Cornish custom, of a provincialism familiar in his youth, would
make tlu> aged m:in young again ; the scenes of his early years, tales of times
long gone, were piuired forth in debghtlul glowing language, the more
touching from its hearty, e.arnest, unatVeclerl, and simple elegance.

M'iihin a few years of 1810, Mr. Davies Giddy was married to Mary, only
child and heiress of — Gilbert, Esq., of Eastbourne, and took the n.ame of
Gilbert, instead of his patronymic of Giddy. This .alliance brought a con-
siderable accession of fortune to his ;ilrcady considerable paternal inheritance.
By this lady, who survives him, he has had several children, but four only
are now alive : — a son, John Davies Gilbert, Esq., a daughter, married to
J(din S. Enys, Esq., of Enys, in this county, and two other daughters yet
unmarried. Mr. Gilbert's age was, we believe, about seventy-four, and his
long, honourable, and himoured life, crowned with peace. riches, and distinc-
tion, w as in the bosom of his family.

" QHOT NOTOS, TOT HABUIT AMICOS."

WOODEN PAVEMENT.

Extract from Leltch Ritchie's " Glance at Russia in IBS.')."
The wooilen pavement is, I believe, pecidiar to Si. Petersburg, and merits
a description. It consists of small hexagons sawed from a piece of resinous
Wood, .and laid into a bed of ciushed stones .and sand. These are fastened
laterally into each other with wooden pegs ; and w hen the w hole bu'ms a
plane surface, the interstices are filled wiih fine sand, and then boiling pilch
is poured over all. This pitch, from the porous nature of tlie wood, is speed-
ily absorbed ; and on a quantity of sand being strewed above if, the operation
is complete, and a pavement constructed which is found to be extremely
dur.able, and which seems to me to sull'er much less injury from the frost
than the stone causeway. The honor of the invention is due to Mr. Gourief,
and I have no doubt he will ultimately see it adopted in most of the great
towns towards the north. It is the custom of the peasantry to cut down the
trees at some distance from the root, and thus a great deal of woml w ill be
turneil to a useful purpose, which would otherwise only encumber the ground.
Everv peasant, besides, by means of his axe alone, is able to constnfct sucli
a pavement ; and in Russia, hands are both plenty and cheap.

THE NEW ROYAL EXCHANGE.

In the Court of Common Council, on the 23rd ult., Mr. R. L. Jones brought
up the report of the Royal Exchange Committee, which w.as as follows: —
•'To Ihe Right Hon. the Lord Mayor, Aldermen, and Commons
of the city of London, in Common Council assembled.
" We whose names are hereunto subscribed of your committee in relation
to the Royal Exchange and Gresham trusts, to whom on the (ilh day of Au-
gust, 1831, il Wits referred to carry into execution the Act of Parliament for
improving the site of the Royal Exchange, in the city of London, .and the
avenues adjoining therein, anil to report our proceedings from time to time,
do certify that we immediately proceeded to carry the provisions of the said
act into execution, and directed several notices to be given to the several
parties inferestetl for the purchasing of their properly required lor the site of
the new E.vchange. and, having received the claims of the respecfiv.' parties,
we duly considered the same, and have great ple.asuie in being able to report
that the whole of such claims, with two exceptions only, have been adjusted ;
and, for the further Information of this Hon. Courl. we have caused a state-
ment to be hereunto annexed, setting forth the .sums claimed, and the amounts
paid or agreed to be paid, for the purchase of the several premises, including
the loss and damage incurred by removal, together with the manner in which
each claim was seitlcd ; all wdiich we submit to the judgment of this Hon.
Courl. D.ited this 23rd day of January, 1840.

" Richard L. Jones. Edward Hickson.

B..STiaimNG, Henry J. Elmes.

W. Richardson. Thomas Cornev. ^

K. OuuAHD. Thomas Burton.

J.iMES Frisby. William Croucher."

The follow ing is the slatinient alludeil to :

Buildings purchased for the new Royal E.Kchange and avenues. Estimate
l.W.OOO/., for whicli there were 51! claims.
42 cases claimed . 69,283 — .Settled by committee at . 38,852
8 ditto for freeholds 107.081 — Referred to surveyors,, and

settled at . . . 04.136
i cases claimed . 37.065— Settled by verdicts at . 12,284
2 ditto not settled . .0,508

£219,817

£115,272

K2

08

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[F

KBRUART,

UNION WORKHOUSES.

Sir — On my road from W'oolwicli to London, the other day, I was much
struck witli the CNtensivc a])]iearance of tlie loiig-talked-of new work-
Jioube for tliis union, which was to he t)ie ^' lari/i^st ami bfi^t housp^' under
tlie comniibsinn. I walkeil over the whole estabhslnuerit, and certainly it is
the largest antl best built house I have seen under the Poor Law Commission-
ers— the main building being iipwards of A'iO feet in length, by about 4.'i feet
in depth — in height three floors (witli basement under about half), ami the
ground floor well kept up, standing in an enclosed square acre (of lower
buildings ami work-sheds) about, .jOO feet x 400 feet, witli an old looking
buililiug in front (north), for board-room ami offices ; large range of buildings
at ));uk (south), for hospital, infirmary, fever wards, &c. ; and work-sheds,
wash-imusc, laundry, &e., at ends; U]>ou the whole, presenting rather an
imposing aiiitcarauce — also an imjiroved one — in comjtarison with the beg-
garly looking things erected by the Union generally. Mr. Browne, of (Ireeii-
wieli, is the architect, as in all the other houses (or some parties for him)
fretted away the interior of this otherwise noble establishment with a great
number of little, low, nari-ow rooms, called wards, which, were it not for a
gallery on each floor, running the whole length of the building (near 420
feet), would be exceedingly inconvenient and unhealthy too — uotwitlistand-
ing the great care that has been bestowed in the arrangement of the ventila-
fi(ui, the supply of water, and the drainage, to tlie whole establishment,
which jppears to me to have been very earefidly studied and well executed —
as well as the water-closets and other internal arrangements generally. Upon
the suggestion and under theablesviperintemlaneeof Mr. J.eakc, the Guardian
Clerk of the Works, unto whom — one of the Guardians of the Hoard informed
me — they were nnich indebted for his constant attention, great building tact
and skill, and the full exercise of his first-rate mechanical and constructive
capacities in their service : he is evidently a ntan very superiorly calculated
to conduct large masses of work, as well as their detailed arrangement, and
appears to be ipiife at home in this department of the business. The ground
is on an inclination, with gravel bottom and good water ; hut the site stands
awkwardly v\itb the road, seeing the hack of the f]'ont Ijuilding befoi'e you
see its front elevation, which might have been easily remedied, notwithstaml-
ing the depth of the ground ; however, considering the house is built for
about ll.'iO inmates, at an expense of less than a;'24,000. It reflects infinite
credit both on Mr. Urownevvho has had nnich ti'ouble and 0]}position to con-
tend with ; Wr. .fay of Lomlon \\'all, who has done himself credit in the exe-
cution; the Board of Guardians for fhcii' spirit in giving an impetus to the
large bouse yet to be built, and all parties concerned in the erection of those
truly National Establishments. I would have given you a detailed account
hut time presses on me, so beg the insertion of this brief notice.

M. N. 0.

PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES.

GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

Thf. first meeting of this society for the session was held on M'cdnesday
evening, the Gth Movcmbcr.

Rev. I'rofessor Buckland, D.D., President, in the chair.

The following conmiunications were read :

/t nottcp of Shovern nf Aalwn which fell on hoard the Ho.ihiiri/h, off the
Cape fie Verd ixlandx, in Fehvtianj last, hij the Rev. W. B. Clarke.

On Tuesday, Fchrnary 4th, the latitude of the ship at noon was 14 deg.
?i\ min. norfli, longitude 2.i deg. 10 min. west. The sky was overcast, and
the weather thick and insuflVrably ojipressive, though the thermometer was
only 72. At 3 ]i. ni. the wiml suddenly hdled into a calm, then rose from
he south-west, ,iceonii>anied by rain, and the air appeared to he filled with
dust, vvhieh affected the eyes of the passengers and crew. At noon, on the
."ith of February, the latitude of the Iloahim/h was 12 deg. .30 min. north,
longitude 2 1 deg. 1.'! min. west ; the thermometer stood at 72, and the baro-
nu'fcr at 30 — the height which it had maintained during the voyage from
England. The volcanic island of Fogo, one of the Cape do Verds, was about
forty-five miles distant. The weather was clear and fine, hut the sails were
found to be covered with an impalpable reddish-brown powder, which Mr.
Clarke states resembled maiiy of the varieties of ashes ejected from Vesuvius,
and evidently was not sand Idowu from the African deserts. The author also
mentions the following instances of similar ))henomcna, chiefly on the autho-
rity of the officers of the Ro.iharyh. In .lune, 1822, the sliip Kinyston, of
Bristol, bound to Jamaica, while passing near Fogo, had her sails covered
with a similar browiMsh jiowder, which, it is said, smelt strongly of sulphur.
In the latitude of the Canaries, and longituilc S,') deg. west, showers of ashes
h.ave been noticed two or three times. At liondiay, dust, on one occasion,
fell on the decks of the vessels to the depth of an inch, and it was supposed
to have been blown from Arabia. In January, 1838, dust was noticed by the
crew of a ship navigating the (;hina Sea, and' at a considerable distance from
the liashee islands, one of which had been previously seen in eruption. In
1S12 ashes fell on the deck of a jiacket bound to the Brazils, and when lOOO
miles from laud.

./ letter from Mr. Caldcloin/h, dated Santiago de Chili, Febriiari/ ISth,
1839, containing the ileclaration of the master and part of the crew of the
Chilian brig, Thilij, of the discovery during the evening of the 12th of Fe-
bruary, of three volcanic islands about thirty leagues to the east of Juan Fer-
nandez. The island which was first noticed, appeared, at the time of its dis-
covery, to he rising out of the sea. It afterwards divided into two pyramids,
which erundded away, but their base remained above the level of a violent
surge, and in the course of the same evening, the height of the islaml was,
for a time, again considerably increased. The other two volcanic islets bore
further southwards. During the night the crew of the Thili/ noticed, at in-
tervals, a light in the same direction.

A letter addressed to Mr. Lyell, by Mr. Buddie, of Newcastle, On Depren-
sioris produced on the Surface of the Ground hy the Ejccavaliom of Hedn of
Coal,

The effects described in this jiaper are stated to depend on the fiuir fol-
lowing conditions: —

1. The depth of the seam of coal below the surface.

2. The thickness of the seam.

3. The nature of the strata between the seam of coal and the surface.

4. Whether the jiiUars of coal are wholly or partially removed.

If the depth from the surface does not exceed thirty fathoms, and s.ind-
stone forms the greater part of the mass overlying the seam, the sulisidence
is nearly, if not cpiite, equal to the thickness of the coal removed ; hut if
" metal stone" or shale constitute the bulk of the beds, the hollow pmdneed
by the settUng of strata is less. This rule, depending on the nature of the
intervening mass, is said to be maintained at all depths. Of the proportional
effect i)rodnced on the surface, .Mr. Buddie Ims not been able to obtain any
accurate information — the amuunt depending on the four conditions enmne-
rafed above; hut the depth of the depression de])ends less on the thickness
of the seam than on its entire removal. In the Newcastle jiits, where large
l)illars of coal are left in the first instance, and when these are subsequently
removed, blocks or "stooks" of cousidera))le strength are suffered to remain,
for the purpose of protecting the colliers from the exfoliation of the roof, the
sinking of the superincundjeut mass is retanled, and several years sometimes
elapse before the excavation is completely closed, or the overlying strata are
finally settled down. In the Yorkshire system, by which all the coal, with
the exception of small temporary pillars, is removed in the first instance, the
roof being sujiijorted hy wooden i>resses and stone pillars, the overlying strata
sultside immediately after the coal is removed.

If is only where water occurs on the surface, or a railway traverses a coal-
field, that the amount of depression can be accurately ascertained. In one
instance, the removal of a bed of coal six feet thick, one-fourth having been left
in " stooks," the depth being 100 fathoms, and the overlying strata princi-
pally sandstone, a pond of water accumulated to the depth of rather more
than three feet, by the settling of the strata. In another instance, where a
railway crossed a district from beneath which three beds of coal had been
successively renmved, it had been found necessary to restore the level of the
railway three times. The aggregate thickness of the seams of coal was nearly
fifteen feet, and the dejith of the lowest 107 fathoms, of the highest seventy-
three, and the mass of the overlying strata consisted of shale. The extent of
each settlement w.is not measured, but the total was 5 feet 0 inches, and this
comparatively small amount Mr. Buddie explains hy the railway passing near
one end of the excavated tract. A still higher seam is now in progress of
being worked, and it affords an excellent opportunity for ascert.aiuing the
cftcets i)roduced by the pressure of the superincumbent mass. Innumerable
vertical cracks pass througli the seam, as well as the pavement and roof, or
the beds immediately above and below it, but they are perfectly cUise except
around the margin of the settlement. Along this line the seam is splintered,
the pavement and roof are fissured and bent down, and the cracks are fre-
quently open. Within the area of the settlement, the pavement, on the con-
trary, is as smooth as if it had not been disturbed, the cracks are close, and
the coal is not splintered, but rendered tougher, or, in the language of the
colliers, more " woody." This effect Mr. Buddie ascribes to the escape of
gas by the cracks, ami the same changes are sometimes produced by other
causes, when the coal is said to be winded.

KING'S COLLEGE, LONDON.

Bepartment of Civil Engineering and Science applied to the Arts and
Manufactures.

Regul.\tions in respect to Certific.vtks.

1. The certificates of the second and third years will be of two forms —
ordinary certificates, and certificates of honour.

2. No certificate, whether ordinary or of honour, will he granted, which,
among the signatures affixed to it. does not include those of the professors
of mathematics, mechanics, an<i chendstry.

3. A certificate of the second year will he necessary to obtaining one in
the third.

4. Any student to whom a certificate shall have been refused at the Mid-
summer cxanunation of any year, may apply for it at the examination of the
following Christmas.

1840.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

09

,5. Every student, desirous of obtaining a certiticate in science applied to
the arts and manufactures, will be requii'ed to present to the examiners the
detailed description of some process of manufacturing art, accompanied by
the drawings necessary to the explanation of it. This exercise is to bear a
certiticate of approval from the lecturer on manufacturing art and niachincr)- ;
and the subject of it is to be appointed by him at least three months before
the day of examination.

The certificate of honour will be granted only when this exercise shall have
been approved by the lecturer, as the exercise of a candidate for that cer-
tificate.

G. Every student applying for a certificate in civil engineering, whether of
the first or second years, will be required to present to the examiners finished
drawings of the plan, elevation, and section of a macbiue, made muler the
eve of the teacher of drawing, and bearing his certificate of approval.

For the certificate of the third year these drawings are to be accompanied
by others, showing tlie details of the machine, drav\n in isomctrieal projec-
tion, or in common i)ersi)ective.

For tlie certificate of honour in the third year, each candidate will be re-
quired to ju'oduce, in addition to the aljove, tlie geometrical constructions of
at least six )n-oblems in descriptive geometry.

1. On the intersections of surfaces.

2. On tangent jdanes.

3. On developable surfaces.

4. On projections of the circles of the sphere.

7. The diploma of associate in the department of civil engineering and
science applied to the arts and manufactures, will be granted to such students
only as shall have received the certificate of the third year.

8. Only such students as may have received certificates of honour in the
third year will be admitted candidates for the diploma of associate of the
first class.

9. The examination for the diploma of associate of the first class, w ill be
held at the Christmas which follows the examination of the thin! year.
Every candidate for the diploma of associate of the first class, will be required
to present to the examiners, in writing, on the day of examination, the origi-
nal project of some ]mblic work or mecbanical contrivance or process of
manufacturing art, accompanied by the calculations, drawings, and descrij)-
tions necessary to its actual execution, to bo specially approved by the lec-
turer on mechanical art and machinery as the exercise of a candidate for the
diploma of associate of the first class, and to bear his certificate to that effect.

ROYAL SOCIETY.

Dec. 12.— Major Sabine, V. P., in the Chair. G. L. Roupell, M. D., was
elected a fellow. The following papers were read ; —

1. " On the nerves of the Grai'id I'lerus," by R. Lee, M.D.

2. ** Observations made at the Cape of Good Hope, la the year 1838, with
Bradlei/'s Zenith Sector, for the verification of tlie Amplitude of the Abbe de
la C'aille's Arc of the Meridian." 15y T. Maclear, Esq., communicated by
Sir John Barrow, Bart.

The author gives an account of the precautions taken in putting together
the different parts of the zenith sector, which he received on the 9th of De-
cember, 1837, in erecting it in the central room of the Royal Observatory,
at the Cape of Good Hope, and in afterwards transferring it to the southern
station of La Caille, in Cape Town. He then proceeds to descril)e La Caille's
observatory, and the particular circumstances of its locality, with relation to
the object in view — namely, to determine the influence of Table Mountain
on the direction of the plumb line. He next relates his progress to Klyp
Fonteyn, where he arrived on the 28tli of March, 1838; and describes the
operations resorted to for erecting the sector at that place. He then enters
into the details of observations made at different stations, and especially with
comjiarative observations at the summit and foot of the mountain of Pequet
Berg. The instrument was, lastly, conveyed back to Cape Town, anil again
examined, and the observations made with it repeated. The reduction of the
labours occupies the remainder of the paper ; and, in conclusion, the author
remarks, that, although these labours have not altogether cleared up the
anomaly of La Caille's arc, yet they show that great credit is due to that dis-
tinguished astronomer, who, with imperfect means, and at the period in
which he lived, arrived at a result derived from sixteen stars, almost iden-
tical with that from 1139 observations on forty stars, made with a celebrated
and powerful instrument.

Dec. 19. — Major Sabixe, V.P., in the Chair.

Henry Dninimond, Esq., of Albany Park, Surrey, was elected a Fellow.

A paper was read, entitled " An Account of Experiments made irith the
view of ascertaining the possibility of obtaining a spark before the circuit of
the Voltaic Battery is completed." By J. P. Gassiot, Esq.

ROYAL INSTITUTION OF BRITISH ARCHITECTS.

At an ordinaiy General Meeting of the memliers, held on Monday De-
cember ICth, 1839, George Basevi, Jun. V. P., in the Chair, numerous
donations were announced as having been received since the last meeting.

Mr. Cottani delivered a discourse on the man\ifacture of bricks by ma-
chinery, illustrated by models, and drawings of the Marquis of Tweeddale's
machines for making of bricks and tiles.

January 6. — Thomas C'hawner, Fellow, in tlie Chair.

The following gentlemen were elected : as Fellow, James Penythorne,
,-Vrchitect, of 2, Queen Square, Westminster ; as Associate, James Bell, of
Wandsworth.

Mr. Donaldson read a paper on the life of Ammanate, Architect of
Florence.

January 20. — Edward Blore, V. P., in the Chair.

The following gentlemen were elected : as Fellow, John Crake, Archi-
tect, of Old Quebec Street; Associate, F. Ashtun, of No. 2, Pelbain
Crescent.

Several donations were announced as having been received, among which
was a donation of lO;., by Thomas Chawner, Esq., Fellow.

A highly interesting |iiipcr of deep research was read by Edward I'Auson,
Jun., oil the Temple of Vict(u-y, Apteros, at Athens, accoiiipanied by draw-
ings illustrative of its state of restoration in the Spring of 1836.

Mr. Donaldson read a iiajiiM- by llerr llallemann. Architect, from Hanover,
on the History of Grecian and Russian Ecclesiastical Arcbitccture, illus-
trated by examples, and an original design

MEETINGS OF SOCIETIES IN FEBRUARY.

Institution of Ci\il Engineers, 25, Great George Street, every Tuesday at 8.
Royal Institute of British Architects, 16, Grosvenor Street, Monday 3rd

and l'7tli, .it 8.

Architectural Society, Lincoln's Inn Fields, Tuesday the 25th, at 8.
Society of Arts, Adelphi, every Wednesday at half-past 7.
Roval Societv

Society of Antiquaries

-1^
s J

Somerset House, cverv Tuesdav at 8.

PROCEEDINGS IN PARLIAMENT.

IIOUSK Ob' COMMONS.

.TaniKiry 17. Petilinns fvr Bills presented. — Arbroath and Forfar Rail \i ay ;
Sheffield .'ind Ro In'ili.iin Railway Act Amendment; Lancaster and Preston
Railway Act Amcnrlment; Chester anil Birkenhead Railway; Tall Vale
Railway ; North Union Railway.

Jan. 20. — Ivlinburgb and (il:is;;ow Railway.

.Tan. 21. — (Jreat Level of the Uasli Inclosure.

Jnn. 22. Petitions n'/cm-d to thr Select Committee on Petitions for Private
Bills. — Arbroath and I'orfar Railway ; Slicffield and Roiberham Railway
Act Amendment, ri'lerred to Select Committee on Petitions for Private Bills ;
Lancaster and Preston Railway Act Amendment, petition ; Chester anil
Birkenhead Railway; TalV Vale Railway; North Union Railway; l'".din-
burgb ;iiid Glasgow Railway; (ilasgow. Paisley. Kilmarnock, and Ayr
Railway. Railway Conimvinication. — Select Committee a[ipoin1ed. " to in-
quire into the state of communication by railways, anti to report tlieii ob-
servations thereupon to the House :" Mr. Laboiicbere, Sir Robert Peel. Lord
Granville Somerset, Mr. Thorneley. Lord Sandoii, Mr. Loch, Mr. Fresbfield,
.-ir John (iue^t, Lord Stanlev, 'Mr. (ireeiie. Sir Harry Veiney, Mr. Henry
Baring. Sir James (irahiim, Lord Seymour, Mr. Easlborpe. Mr. Kmer.son
Teiinent, and Mr. Freiicli : — Power to send for persons, papers, and rec irds
five to be tlie quorum.

STEAM NAVIGATION.

Steam Navigation. — Vi'e are much gratified to perceive the improved condi-
tion of seamen generally, .and to bear congratulatory accounts on all sides
respecting this desirable event. The infusion of young blood of the right
quality, in the persons of upwards of twenty-four thousand apprentices,
within the last five years, has h id a marked ellect upon the mass ; lor some
thousands of these having com|ileted their apprenticeship, are now become
active able seamen. The iuiuiIkt of ap|irentices reared in steam-vessels —
(the General Steam Navigation alone maintain upwards of fitly, principilly
selected from the Naval .Schoo's at Greenwich) — will become a most valuable
class of men ; and we have heard that the highly respectable firm of Seward
and Co., so celebrated for their success in the manufacture and improvement
of steam-engines, have Imw ujiwards of three liundred youths indentured as
apprentices, with the view of their becoming eng neers and assistant en-
gineers in steam-vessels, and lully competent to repair any casualty in the
engines that is practicable at sea, without the necessity for returning to port
or laying up the vessel. — Naval and Military Gazette.

Improved Marine Enirines. — A fine new iron steam boat, the property o
Jjord F. Kgcrton. or in other words of the Bridgevvater Trust, was recently
launclied from the yard of Messrs. Page and Grantlnim. She was named the
Alice, after Loi'd F'rancis F.g, rton's eldest daughter, is about 170 tons burden,
old measurement, is neatly fitted up, and is a handsome lively looking boat

70

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[Fkbritart,

en dip \v:itcr. Willi tlio wlioli- of licr mtidiinery. fuel, ikic. on lin^iril, lipr
draft of water is only four feet six inches. Slie has two enp;ines of 30 horse
power each, nwule i/y >h'ssrs. IX-vonjiort anil Grinroil. of the Caledonian
I'ounihy in this to« n, Ojiun a novel anil iniindvc 1 e(jnslniulion. their |K'rii-
liarity consists in llie fixing' of the cvtinilers on :m an^Ii' of 'Ij dr^rees in the
form of a rectangle, with the hypothenuze at the hase, so that they act as a
j.tay and snpport to each other. No side lever.smr required or roiiiiter bnlanrps:
;inil the working parts Ijeing fewer than in ordinary engines, thev arc less
liable to derangement, and not so nnudi ex|)osed to wrar :;nd /ei:r. These en-
"ines are exceedingly compact, and have realized ; II that was contemplated
by tile ingenious maker.s— ample po.ier— ease in working, and great strengtii,
eondiined'^wilh unusual lightness. At twelve on Saturday night several gen-
tlemen \irnceeded in the vessel from tlie Clarence Dock on a short experi-
mental trip on the river. New engines are necessarily stilt, and it reipiires
M.nie time to ascertain their prop'er adjustment, M'ith all disadvantages,
iuiwever, the ///«r performed her work admirably, from the moment she
U'll the linik. A very short trip oidy w.is intenileil on the first occasion ;
but the speed of the vess(d was so Ealisfaetnry, and the gratification of all on
board conseiiiiently su great, thai she iirneeeded up the river a distance of 12
or 11 miles and back— accomplishing the trip "out and home" in about two
hoi.irs. Cn her way np she beat several very powerful steamers, and on
comin" down sneeessivelv headed two of tlie Runnora packets in gallant
style. 'The strokes of ihe'engine averaged thirty-two per minute, but when
at her ftdl power they will make thirty-five. — Liverpool Sta)i<l(ird, Dec. 21.

HALL'.S RKKFING PADDLES.

"Tut: inventor isMr. Hall, the ingenious deviser of the condenser which
goes by his name. By a contrivance of the tilmost sim[.lieity, all the fioat-
l.onrds'of boili p:iddle-H heels of a steam-boat, (jr either of them, can at any
lime, or in any »eaiber, be 'reefed' in a few minutes; or. in other words,
till' liiameter of the paddle-wheels be reduced from their extreme size to any
oilier di^iineler. The advantages which will follow this conlrivance arc well-
known to all per.'ions « bo have atiended personally to .steam navigation ; but
a few words on this point will perhaps not be unacceptable to those wlio may
not have had opportunities of studying the subject afloat under varied cir-
cumstances. ,-,,,.,,

lOverv one can nndcrstand that, when a stcam-vesselislo.ided with a lieavy
cargo, or has a full supply of coals on board, the |iadille-\\ heels will be sunk
til nn'inrnnvenient ilepth'in the water, and that, in order to enable them tu
v.iirk villi advantage, the float-boards require to be unscrewed and shifted
nearer to Ihe centre of the paddle-wheel — an operation of some trouble, and
oflen reipiiring much time. This adjusiment may, of course, be made at ihe
beginning of a voyage, aecmding tu the draught of water, but it may become
fiifiv as necessary to shilt Ihe paildle-bn.ards during the voyage, either larther
liiit'or farther in. If the vessel, for instance, by the expenditure of her coals,
beenmes li'diter, the (loat-boards should be rnoved out ; or, if a gale comes
on a-heaib^tbey have to be moved in; which oper.atinns. if they have to be
done in bad weather, are both tedious and ditiicult. .So that any invention
wliiili shall give the power of shifting the float-boaids easily and quietly,
must be of great practical utility, especially on long voyages.

" ft is well-known to those who have attended to the subject that no steam
vessel can be said to work to the full extent of her power unless her engines
make a given number of strokes in a given time— say in a minute ; the elas-
ticity of the steam being supposed to continue uniformly of a certain deter-
minate strength. Now occasions constantly arise when, in consequence of
the paddle-wheels being too deeply immersed, or that the sea is high, the
Hunt -lioards are made to impinge oii the surface atsuch an unfa vouraiile angle,
.and again on leaving it, that a considerable portion of the power is lost in
production of what is called back-water. The cimscouence is, that the p,ad-
dle-wheel is virtually so over-loaded, that Ihe steam though generated of the
proper degree of elasticity is not .adequate to turn them round Ihe given
number of limes. When 'this ha]i]iens, as the engine does not make the
nunil er of strokes per minute which it oughi to do when working at its
maxinium speed, one ot two things must happen, either steam must be
blown oil and power wasted, or the fire must be low ered in order that no
more steam may be generated than the engine, at its reiliiced number of
:j|rukes, can consume. In consequence of this state of things, it happens
nut unfrcqiiently that vessels whose paddles are too deeply immersed, ihoiigh
carrying a high nominal power, are obliged to work witlia power really
much inferior. — Vnileil Si-rvire Journal.

Thr (h-eal H'rxlrrn. — We are happy in being idde to .say that the examina-
tion of ibis noble vessel since her laying up shows thai liiere is neither spot
nor blemish in her, that she does not require caulking or coppering, beyond
a few sheets to rejil.ice those which hive been rubbed olV by the coal vess(ds.
or have licen removed for the purjiose of a thorough eNaminalion. All the
pails of Ihe engines which are not fixtures have been taken out and thoroiiglily
evamineil, imd are now in progress of replacement. Thr |)1 in of the dircclors
i.i to overhaul her coin|ilelely once a year; andweshould s;iy after 3').000
n.inlieal miles steiuning per annum, an almost indisi ens.-ible one, it confi-
dence is to be m.dnlained wilh the public. M'e understand that the poop
deck is to be Icnglheneil 1 (i feet ; and tliat Ihe whole of llieoflicers. engineers,
sinker.-;, and ser\;ints. wliose berths below were a great inconvenience and
annoyance to !lie hire cabin passengers, arc to be aecolnlnodal^d on deck ;
.also that the fares are to be all equal in the fore and ;dtcr accommodalion,
the fore slate rooms having been consider.ibly enlarged. Mie will sail on the
2Ulli of I'uhrwmy ■— Ilrislul Mirmr.

'J'he J'rrsidrul Siniui-.shiii.—Oa .Sund.iy the .'ih ult., Ihe Knyal William
steamer, on her pass.i^e bum Linidon to I'lymoulh, li'll in with, oil the
Start, Ihe magnificent steamer President, on her voyage frmn Linidon to
Liver|ionl,(lo lake inhcnnacliiiiery), in quite an unman.ige.ilile sl;ite, having
rollid away her foremast, maintopniast. ite. The Kiiy:il W'illi.am took her
in tow, ami brought her iulo the .Sound during Sunday night. On Tucsikiy
she was towed up to the dockyard by Her Majesty's ste.amev Carron, and the

same evening one of the directors of the British ;ind Amerienn Navigation
Company, for whose service she is built, arrived from London to suiierintend
her refitment. — Phjmoulh Journal.

The Armed Steamer, A'emesi.w — Tliere is now lying in the Half-tide Basin
of the Clarence Docks, (ireenock. a very be:uit!ful iron steamer, cnnslrueted
hy Mr. .lohn Laird, of North liirkenhead, bearing the above name. She is
fitted up wilh one engine of 121) horse power, and armed with two 32-pound
caiTunades, the one fore and the other aft. which move on Solid swivel car-
riages. Her draught of water is umier four feet. Her crew will consist of
40 men. She will, it is s:dd, clear out for lirazi', lr.it her ullimale destina-
tion is conjectured to be to the l'',;istern and Chinese seas. On Monday last she
made an excursion as far as tlic Floating Taght, for the pnrpn.se of trying
her machinery, which was found to work admirably. — EdinhurgU Oh.wn'er.

T.eitli llnrhmir and Dorks. — Messrs. Walker and Cubitt have given in their
reiiorl. and the Tre;isury have decided on adopting Mr. Walker's pkin.

PROGRESS OF RAILVTAVS.

Sheffield and Manehester Raiheai/. — Mr. Vignoles lins resigned his ofTiee as
engineer-in-ehief, and Mr. L- eke has been appointed to sueeecd him. The
directors, we understand, intend pushing forward wilh all possible vigour the
works between Cdossopand the Manchester terminus, so as to be able to open
in the first instance through that very populous and productive district. The
works at the summit tunnel are making very satisfactory progress. — llailwaij
Times.

Hull and Selhy Railwni/. — Vte understand that Mr. Walker, the companj's
chief engineer, lias been in Hull this week, and after examining the various
Works on the line, has reported very favourably as to the progress which is
being made in them ; the bridges over the rivers Ouse ;ind DL-rwent are in an
advanced state of forwardness, and will both be completed in a few weeks ;
nearly the whole of the line is liallasled, and several miles of the permanent
single way, on longitudinal bearers and cross sleepers, are already laid ; large
fiuantities of these are being conslanlly forwarded to the various portions of
the line. The depot- and other buildings at .Selhy are in a verv advanced
state ; this is also the case w ith those at the Hull terminus ; .and, although
the past seasint Ins been a most unfavourable one for all railw.ay works, it is
still hoped that ibis underiaking will ho ready to be opened fair the whole
length ah ut Midsummer next. With respect bi finances, we understand that
the whole of Ihe amount to be taken npuii loin has been obtained without
.advertising, and Ihe last call, notwithstamling the pressure upon the money
market, has been remarkably well paid. We may congratulate our townsmen
especially, and the inhabitants of the manufacturing districts of Yorkshire
and Lancashire generally, on the prospect of speedily being enabled, by
means of the Hull and Selhy Railway, (connected as it is with the Leeds and
Selby, the York and North Midlaml Counties, Manehester and Leeds, Man-
chester and Liverpool, Grand ,Iunction, and London and Birmingham Rail-
ways,) to travel by this cheap, safe, and expeditious mode to all tlie principal
towns in the kingdom. We are h;ippy to learn ihal the price of shares in the
Hull and Selby Railway is rapidly advancing in the market, and that before
the opening of the line, as above stated, tliey arc likely to be at par. — Eastern
Counties Herald.

Edinburgh and Glasgow Rnilwai/. — M'e are gl id to learn from a correspon-
dent who lately visited the Kdinburgh ,anii Gl.isgow Railway works, now in
progress, especially those through the Almond Valley, about eight miles from
Kdinburgh, under contract by Messrs. John Gibb and .Son. on wliiidi there is
one bridge of tiiirty-six arches, of fii"ty feet span each, besides numerous
smaller bridges, extensive earth-cutlings. S;e.. that these gentlemen contem-
plate employing on these works, early in the spring, a vast number of masons,
quarriers, earth-workers, and waggon-drivers. We have no doubt that this
will be good news to many, especially as trade in the manufacturing districts
is in such a depressed state. — Aberdeen Journal.

Dundee and Arbroath Rnilwai/.— This great public nndert;iking is nearly
completed, the embankment lias been formed up to the Gas Work, and in
the cour.se of two or three weeks the eml):nikments from the east and west
will have neiirly met. As an arrangement has now. we believe been made
with the Harbour Tiaistees, the public will soon have tlie full benefit of this
conveyance from Trades-lane to Arbroalh, ;ind the inconvenience and trouble
occasioned by the omnibuses will be avoided. It is said there will be a grand
opening on the completion of the line ; .and it is not indikely that Lord Pan-
mnrc. who has all along m:inifesled Ihe greatest interest in ihc work, will be
present. There are four vessels in a dangerous situation, as they will be
closed in unless they get launched at the next stream tide ; the parties will
have themselves to lilame if such an event takes place, the vessels being ah
ready fur lauiudiuig. — Dundee Courier.

Maryjmrt and Carlisle Uaiheay. — At a meeting of the directors of this rail-
way, held iiu Satuiday last, there was a repnri, iqain the stale of the works,
&c.'. 1-7 .lohn Blaekmiire. Ksij., lalely appointed engineer to the company. It
appears that about seven miles ot tiie radway will be re idy for the carriage
ot coal and lime .about the first week in April ne.\t. Arrangements were en-
tered into wilh parliesdesirons ol taking coals along the line lor sluiiment at
Maryport, from which it is evident iliat an income will at once be reidlzeil
suihcient to pay ten per cenf. U|niii the amount of capital tluit will then have
been eipended. and this withuiit taking into account any other source of
tralTic or the i;icre;ise of coal that will undoubtedly t;ike place. While upon
lliis subjecl we beg leave to warn those shareholders, \Mr( cularly the distant
ones, who have not the opportunity of gaining correct informaiion about the
proceedings of tlie company, ag.unst a practice that has lately become too
common of parties who ealumniale and depreciate the value of property of
the above description for the purpose of getting shares from the timid or

1840.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

needy at very recUneil iniccs. The engineer has commenceil (lie necessary
smvcys Tor scttini; out the work on (he remaining f.venty miles, from C'arhsle
to As|)alria, and i'ur enabUng the agreements to be made for the land rccjuircd.
— Carlisle Piitriat. January 11.

Grail. North of England Railwaij. — T«o first-class railway carriages have
just been iilaced on the line o'- the' Great North of England Railway, at ihe
Darlington Station. Tlie carriages, which are Irom the manufactory of Mr.
C. Burmip, of tliis (own. are of the most splendid description, and combine
every improvement that has hitlierto been introduced. The interior arrange-
ments are exceedingly comfortable, and the exterior decorations are beautt-
fully e.Necuted, each door panel bearing the united arms of Newcastle, Dur-
ham and York, supported by the Northern Kagle. The carriages have since
been inspected liy several of the directors and engineers, who all express their
entire salisfaclicin and admiration of their beauty and nseful construction.
It is expected that the portion of the line between Dirlington and York, will
be opened to the puidic in (he co'.irse of (he ensuing summer. — Newcastle
Journal.

Lomlon and llirminghnm Raihvni/. — ,Sa(urday evening a considerable sub-
sidence took place at the Blisworth embankment, half way betH een the stiitiim
anil (lie bridge over (he canal. Tlie earth having become thoroughly satu-
rated by the late rains, gave way at (he bottom, and (he surface in conse-
quence gradually sunk. a( one point several feet. Since then it has continued
to subside at (lie rate of about a foot an hour, and on one occasion between
two and six in the morning, when (lie men ceased to work, it sank eight feet.
A large force of men w ere'coilected (he moment the slip was discovered, and
employed day and night replacing (he siiil (hat had given way with ballast,
the trains in (he mean (ime passing slowly over the spot. The gaji isahvays
filled ui> by (he arrival of a train, and (he precanlions (aken are such as (o
do away with all idea of danger. The ballast is brought partly from Bug-
brook, "but chielly from Hillmurton, about 16 miles distant. — Northampton
Mfrcuri/. January 11,

Railwai) Speed. — Last week we referred to the facilities atfordetl by the
Great \Vestern Railway in the conveyance of newspiper expresses from i\Ion-
moiith. and noticed the great rate of speed at which the special trains on
these occasions had run. 'Vhe Dispatch (Sunday piper), in alluding to one of
its own expresses, stales (hat the .Enlns engine performed (he first ten miles
in seven minutes, and Ih i( if the engineer had not been compel ed to slacken
his speed in consequence of a (rain having started a short time jireviously,
(he whole distance of 31 miles could easily hue been accomplished in 25
minutes. This is at (he rale of 74: miles an hour ! — Railway Times. Jan. 18.

London and Soulh-Western Railway. — The whole of the rails being now laid
down between the temporary terminus at Northam and the terminus on (he
Marsh, the engine has several tunes been along the whole line. The bnildhig
on the Marsh is also completed, and rising, as it docs, higher than any of the
adjacent edifici'S, forms a very consiiicuous object, especially when viewed
from the water. Workmen are actively engaged on the yet unfinised part of
the line between Winchester and IJasiugstokc, and though the late unseason-
able weather has impeded their progress in a great degree, little doubt is en-
tertained of their completing it by the 1st of May. when the good folks of
Southamptoir will be enabled (o reach (he meirupolis in three hours. — South-
ampton paper.

Morecombe Bay. — By (he intended enclosure of Morecombe Cay and the
Duddon .Sands, ,52,000 acres of land will be reclaimed, which will form (wo
of the most beautiful valleys in the bike district of 83 square miles. The
sands, being composed almost entirely of calcareous ma(ter waslied from
the surrounding limestone, are capable of being formed into the most fertile
soil for agriculture. The land proposed to be reclaimed, will form an area
half the size of Rutlandshire, and, calculating one individual for two acres,
will accommodate a population of 26,000. being about half the number of
the present p'opulation of the counties of Huntingdon and Westmoreland,
and, 5,000 more than that of Rutland. It would be about eqiual in popula-
tion and extent to Lonsdale North, which is a peninsula lying between the
two bays of Morecombe and the Duddon, on which stand the ancien( ruins
of Furne.ss Abbey, and is also a rich agricultural and manufac(uring district,
abounding with slate, iron, and cop)ier mines. By the reclaimed land being
added (0 it, Lonsd.alc North would foiTn one of the most pleasant and com-
pact counties in the kingdom. — L-".rfst'^r Gnardian.

Maidenhead /?■ id-^e on the Great /'". •■7' en H-.'hray, — A corresjiondent informs
us that during the hurricane of Friuay , t^ie I'-nh ult., the timber centerings of
the bridge, which had been left standingjtaoer the arches for some lime past
as a precautionary ineasure, were completely carried away by the force of the
wind and the timbers scattered about the river in all directions. This event
will now decide whetlier the bridge will stand or no( without (he aid of (he
centres, it is very evident (hat the brickwork of the arches was not supported
by (he centres, as some have suppose!, tor if that had been the case, they
could not h^ve been so easily carried away.

NE'W CHURCHES, &c

Blacliheath. — A new church intended for (lie accommodation of about 1100
persons is in progress of eieciion at Lee, near Blackhea h. It is designed in
(he first pointed or early EnglkTi style, adopting as a model for the component
jiarts of the exterior, Ihe Lady Chapel of .Salisbury Cathedral. At the west
end placed centrally rises a bold ti Mcr, which is surmounted by an octagooal
belfry and spire, reaching to the licighi of 130 feet. The interior is divided
into a nave and aisles by tw o ranges of clustered pillars, from which spring
molded arches supporling the root, the latter is of a triplex form llie central
division rising from nearly the same level as the sides, so that there is no
clerestory. The ceiling is to be finished in a style posterior to that of the
building generally, it will consist of plane surfaces divided into principal

compartments by hammer beams or arched ribs, and these compartments
subdivided into panels by smaller ribs, having hoses at their inlersecdons.
A gallery is to be placed at the west end of (he churcli. occupying Icngdnvisc
its entire width, and one bay or intercolumniation in depth. The whole area
of the building has been excavated and a vau'ted crypt formed, which is lobe
divided into numerous compartments, (o be appropriated as family vaults.
The external dressings throughout, (ogeiher w ith the whole of the bellry and
.spire, as well as (he pillars and arches of (lie interior are executed in stone.

Wolverhampton. — The erection of the new church in Horsley Fields will be
commenced as soon as the necessary legal forms are completed. The build-
ing, as before s(a(eil, will be in the gothic style, and according to the <lesign
sent m by Mr. Harvey F.ginlon. of Worcester. Twenty-five plans were sent
in, but sever<al of them were unavoidably rejected on account o( (he cost of
Ihe proposed buildings exceeding the funds at the disposal of the commitlee.
The structure will be eighty feet long and fifty-six feet wide, and is to be
surmounted bv a tower eighty-four fee! high, in the style of the lime of
Henry VIL I't will contain sittings for L'^00 persons, one-third of which are
to befree. — Wolverhampton Chronicle.

Calcutta.— 'ibc Bishop of Calcutta has propo.sed building a cathedral church
at Calcutta, in the Gothic style of archiiccdne ; unencumbered with galleries;
with an ample chancel or choir; with north and south transepts or entrances;
and capable of seating about 800 or 1,000 persons, its dimensions being pro-
bably somewhere about 180 or 200 feet, by 55 or 60 ; and 50 or 60 feet in
height. In correspondence wi(h (his necessary magnitude of the body of the
edifice, it is designed that (he exterior of the building should bear some re-
lation in i(s architectural character to the interior; and that an appropriate
spire, somewhere about 200 feet in height from the ground, shoulil be adiled,
to give the whole a becoming and customary ecclesiastical aspect. It was,
indeed, (he unavoidable extent of a building winch eiaild at all meet the actual
wants of the case in a climate like Bengal that first suggested Ihe idea of
erecting it in an open and beau iful spot, and of such a style of architecture
as (o form a prominent object from every iioint of view on the esplanade,
wilhin Ihe fine panorama of Calcutta, and thus constitute (he grea(est orna-
meiil rif what has not been unfitly termed the City of Palaces. And it was
thought there are few who would not wi lingly make an tidditional eilbrt — if
we once deternvne to build a new and large church— to give it all the advan-
tages which the progress made of late years in sacred architecture can secure,
so'as to render it fitting to be (he first Protestant cathedral erected to the
honour of (iod in India.

Liverpool.— iht: first stone of a new churi h, to be called after St. Barnabas,
to be erected on a plot of land between Parliament-street and Greenland-
street, a few yards from the Queen"s Dock, was laid on Tuesday, December
17. St. Barnabas' church will be a handsome structure, in the early English
or Lancet style, and a decided ornament to that part of ihe town. The prin-
ciiml elevation will be towards Parliament-street, and from the centre there
will rise a beautiliil tower and spire to the height of 135 feet. The former
will be finished with a pierced battlement on four sides and shafts with pin-
nacles a( the angles. The whole will be faced with red stone in large courses.
The inlerior will correspond with (he gcner.il style. 1( will have a nave se-
parated from the aisles by moulded stone piers and arches, supporting a clear
story in which there will be windows of three lights. The ceiling is to be
ribbed and pannelled, and the ribs will be painted to resemble oak. It is in-
tended to furnish 1200 sittings ; on the ground lloor there w ill be 471 sidings
and 236 free sittings, in the gallery 346 sittings and 147 free, making 1200, ot
which 383 will be dedicated lo the use of (he poor for ever. The cost will be
upwariis of .£1800. The architects are Messrs. Arthur and George Williams,
of No. 2, Tarleton-street,and Mr. William Morrison, of Toxteth-park, is the
contractor. — Liverpool Standard.

The new ehnrch at Doughton, in (his county, which has been built upon aw et
loose soil, has been some time subsiding, but the late rains have so impaired
the foundation lliat the tower at the w'estern extremity first sunk, and then
fell to the ground, and (he other appears also lo be sinking very fast. Of
course the whole presents a very ruinous appearance. — Kent Herald.

GSOLOGY.

Geohgii in Devon.— \h: Buckland and Mr. Convbeare have both hastened
to visit the late landslip on the coast of Devon, which, we understand, oilers
some very curious pbenimiena to the geologist both inland and out at sea,
where, at a considerable di tance from the shore, a new solid ridge has been
thrown up by this convulsion of nature. — Naval and Military Gazette.

The Lagoons.— A Vienna correspondent of a Paris pa; er s(a(es (hat accounts
had been received from Venice of the di.sappearance of a little island of the
Lagoons in the waves of the Adriatic. 12 persons who were on it having been
buried in the waters when the iland was overnhelmed. fhe Archduke,
Viceroy of the kingdom of Venetian Lombardy, had gone from Venice to
Padua to inspect the ravages caused by (be la(e immdalions, and the clergy
of Milan and (.remona were exciting themselves to relieve the sufllerers.

Earthquake at San Salrador.—W'e have been favoured with (he following
extract of a letter from San Salvador, dated the 5(h of October, 1839 : — " On
(he 1st instant, at 2 a.m , we experienced a strong shock of an earthquake,
and at 3 a.m., an hour after, a concussion which has nearly destroyed the
(own. The shocks condnue, and yesterday we had 15 tolerably smart shocks^
Many people have left the place, and I'fancy the Goveinn.ent will leoiove
to Cojntopeque, as this town is not safe. The evil is under our feel ; for at,
places five or six miles o(f nothing lias occurred. The houses are nearly
unroofed, and the walls ; re so tottering that we all s!eep in the court-yard or
the great square, under hide coverings, which is pleasant enough in the rainy
season, and sit in the day time in the corridors ready for a start into the
yard, as it will not do to wait a moment when the shock comes,";

72

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[Fkbruary,

LIST OP NE^W PATENTS.

GRANTED IS BXGI.A.ND FUOM 1 ST TO 28tH JANIARY, 1810.

John Leo Nicolas, of (lie parish of Clifton, lUistol, {iciitlcinan, for
•' certain improvements in the met/ioil of comi ructiny riiitl jirdjiellini; ciirriaffen
on rnilvays or common ronilx, anil tliroiigh ficlih for ar/ricnltural jinrjjoscs."
— Scaled, Januarj I ; six montlis to s|iecif)'.

Samuki. Lawson, of Ijecds, and John Lawson, of llie same jilaee, En-
piiieers, and Co-]iartners, for " improremen/x in mnc/iinrri/ for .ipinninr/,
itiinlilini/, and tvis/ini/ fla.r, wool, silk, cotton, ami oilier Jiliroiis siihstances."
('(ininiiinicatcd Ijy a foreigner residing abroad. — January 2 ; six niontlis.

Chaiu.es (i'reenway, of Douglas, in the Isle of .Man, i;s(|., for "certain
improrements in reilucini/ friction in vheels of carriaijes, u-hicli improvements
arc also ajiplicable to bearinx/s and journals of machinery." — January 3 ; six
inoTilhs.

John Francois Victor Fabien, of King William Street, in the city of
London, Gentleman, for "improvements in pnmps." — January 7; six months.

Datid Low, of .Vdam's Court, Old Uroad Street, Merchant, for '•improve-
ments in machinery for crnsliiny, prepariny, and combiny far, hemp, phor-
mimn tetiax, and other flirovs substances." Communicated liy a foreigner
residing abroad. — January 7 ; six months.

Moses Poole, of Lincoln's Inn, Centleman, for "improvements in obtain-
iny poirer." Communicated hy a foreigner residing abroad. — January 7 ;
six months.

John Ridgwat, of Cauldon Place, Stafford, China Manufacturer, for
" an improvement ill tlie moulds used in the manvfacture of earthenware,
porcelain, and other similar substances, vliereby such moulds are rendered
more durable." — January 11; six months.

John RincwAT, of Cauldon Place, Stafford, China Manufacturer, and
Ceoroe Wall, the younger, of the same jdace. Gentleman, for " certain
improvements in the manufacture of china and eartheinvarc, ami in the appa-
ratus or machinery applicable thereto. — January 11 ; six months.

John Kidgway, of Cauldon Place, Stafford, Cliina Manufacturer, and
Ckorge M'all, the younger, of the same place. Gentleman, for " certain
improremcnts in the mode if prepariny bats of earthemcnre and porcelain
clays, andforminy or shnpiny them into articles of carthemrare and porce-
lain, and in the machinery or apparatus applicable thereto." — January 11 ;
SL\ months.

RoHERT Montgomery, of Johnstone, in the county of Renfrew, Gentle-
man, for "an improvement or improvements in spinniny machinery, ajiplicable
to mules, jennies, slubbers, and other similar mec/ianism." — January 1 1 ; six
months.

Christovher Edward Dampier, of Ware, .\ttorncy-at-law, for " an im-
jiroi'ed weiyhiny machine." — January 14 ; four months.'

Hezekiah JIarshall, of tlie city of Canterbury, Arcliitect, for " improve-
ments in window .wshes and frames, and in thefasteniny of window sashes." —
Jannai7 14 ; six months.

Arthur Eldred Malker, of Melton Street, Euston Square, Engineer,
for " imjirovements in enyrariny by machinery." — January 14 ; six months.

Charles Mheatstonk, of Conduit Street, Hanover Square, Esq., and
M'lLLiAM Fothergill Cooke, of Sussex Cottage, Slough, Esq., for "im-
provements in yiviny siynals and soundiny alarms at distant places, by means
of electric currents. — January 21 ; six months.

Samoel Drown, of Finsbnry Pavement, Civil Engineer, for " improvements
in makiny casks and ressel.i, of or from iron, and other inetak. — January 21 ;
six months.

Joseph Rock Cooper, of Birmingham, Gun Maker, for " improvements in
fire-arms, and in the balls to be vsed thcreii-ith. — January 21 ; six months.

William Stone, of Winsley, Gentleman, for " improvements in tlie manu-
facture o/')crac."— January 21 ; six months.

James Hall, of Glasgow, Upholsterer, for "improvements in beds, mat-
trasses, and apparatus applicable to bedsteads, conches, and chairs. — January
21 ; six months.

Arthur lIowB IIoldsworth, of Brookhill, Devon, Esquire, for " im-
provements in preserviny wood from decay."— January 21 ; six months.

M'illiam Coltman, of Leicester, Frame Smith, and Joseph Wale, of
tlie same place. Frame Smith, for " improvemnils in machinery employed in
makiny frame-ivork, knittiny, or stockiiiy fabrics." — January 21; six months.

Samuel Wilkes, of Darlston, Iron Founder, for " improvements in the
maunfnctnre of hinyes." — January 21 ; six months.

George Wilson, of Saint Martin's Court, Saint Martin's Lane, for " an
improved 2)aper-cut tiny machine." — January 21 ; six months.

Charles Rowley, of liinningham. Stamper and Piercer, and Benjamin
Wakefield, of Bordesley, Machinist, for " improved methods of cnttiny out,
stampiny, or forminy, and pierciny buttons, shells, and backs for buttons,
washers, or other articles, from metal plate, with improved machinery and
loots for those purposes. — January 21 ; six months.

Edward Halliley, of Leeds, Cloth Manufacturer, for " improvements in
machinery for raising pilt on woollen and other fabrics.— ld.miis.ry 21 ; six
months.

William Hunt, of the Portugal Hotel, Fleet Street, London, Manufac-
turing Chemist, for " improvements in the manufacture of potash and soda,
and their carbonates." — January 21 ; six months.

Miles Berry, of Chancery Lane, Patent .\gent, for "certain imjirove-
ments in the manufacture of priissiate of potash aiul prvssinte of soda.^*
Communicated hy a foreigner residing abroad. — January 21 ; six months.

Jules Alphonse Simon de Gournay, of Bread Street, London, Gentle-
man, for " iinprovements in the manufacture of horse-shoes." Communicated
I)y a foreigner residing abroad. — January 21 ; six months.

George Clarke, of Manchester, Manufacturer, for "certain improvements
in the construction of looms for weaviny." — January 21 ; six montlis.

Alexander Helt, of Gower Street, Bedford Sipiare, Surgeon, for " cer-
tain imjirovements in the arranyement and conslriiclian of fire-yrairs, or fire-
places, applicable to various purposes." — January 23 ; si\ months.

James Bingham, of Shertield, Manufacturer, and Joii.v Amory Boden,
of the same place. Manufacturer, for " certain improved compositions, which
are made to resemble ivory, bone, horn, mother-o^ -pearl, and other substances,
appli able to the manufacture of handles of knives, forks, and razors, piano-
forte keys, siiiiff-bo.rrs, and various other articles." — January 25 ; six months.

James Smith, Junior, and Francis Smith, of Sjiital AVorks, near Clics-
tertield. Lace Manufacturers, for " certain imjirovements in machinery for t/te
manufacture offiyured bobbin-net, or lace. — January 28 ; six months.

Tho.mas Aitkex, of Chadderton, Manufacturer, for " certain imjirove-
ments in the machinery or apparatus for draiviny cotton and other fibrous
substances." — January 28 ; six montlis.

William PoNTiFEX, of Shoe Lane, ill the city of London, Coppersmith,
for '* an inijiroveineiit in treatiny JIuids containiny colouriiiy matter to obtirin
the colouriny matter therefrom." — January 28 ; six months.

Henry Citrzon, of the borough of Ividderminster, Machinist, for "certain
imjirovements in stcam-enyines." — January 28 ; six months.

John WiiiTEHousE, of West Bromwich, in the county of Statford, Iron
Master, for " imjirovements in prepariny and rolliny iron, and other metals,
or metallic alloys, for the manufacture of certain articles of commerce." —
January 28 ; six months.

William Mottershaw Forman, of Sheeiishcad, in tlic county of Lei-
cester, Frame Sinitli, for " certain imjirovements in stockiny frames, and ma-
chinery used in frame-work knittiny," — January 28 ; sL\ months.

TO COKRESPONOEMTS.

Ju couscquntce of the great adrantagrs tii enrrfspnudeucc hy tliv universal
iutnidur/iau of tlie penny jiost throiighintt tlie United Kingdimi, ire hope flint our
readers will do us the favour to forward aeeouiits oj all new huiltliugs, public
works, new inventions and discoveries, rcjiorts of scientijic mtctings, nciv engines,
.tteaiu hoat~i, dorks, canals, harbours, ^e., if a tithe of our readers will only take
the trouble to forward a dozen lines monthly, it will be the means of a/fording
such a mass of information, that ronlil not fail to be most valuable to the profession.

We Ihauk our correspondent at Moulreat far his letter, we Ihinic that he ami his
professional brethren might obtain the Joiirmd in afar more direct manner, than
through the eirruiiinis and erjieusire ehuiinei of New York. iVe. advise him to
consult a respectable bookseller, or some agent who is iu constant corresjiondenee
with England. We shall be happy to reeeiee the information lie proposes.

If'e feel particularly obliged to our correspondent ^Ir.Vt' .\{.i-'}ibey of New Yorki
for his valuable eoiitributions, we hojie to have a continuation of them.

A corresjiomlent reijuests us to jmblish the description of the Epieycloiilal motion
fur a steam engine which we stated was not new. We will, ij we can find room,
do so ve.rt mouth, ro refer him to ivorks and places lehere it may be .fcen. The
last time we visited the Arsenal at Woolwich, we saw the motion ajijilieil to the
workiiiij of a jierjieiidieular saw for cutting timber.

K. W . T.\s' last letter we will answer next mouth. Ills former communication
was received, wr did not insert it as we were desirous of avoiding the insertion of
any further articles on railway curves,

l)iop;enes' apparatus for stopping carriages on railways will ajipear ne.it month,
will Dioyencs be .10 good as to inform us if it be the same apjiaratus as Thompson's
alluded to in his jiajier in last month's Journal.

T. /.'s drawing for a paddle leheel with reejing jxuldles, coustrneted by Boulton
and Watt, in 1815. will ajipear ne.vt month.

11. B.'s syphon for a high pressure steam gauge we will notice if we can sjnire
the room next month.

We have this month made an alteration in the Journal by the introduction of
engravings iustead of wood cuts ; this plan we shall occasionally adojit when the
subjects for illustration are of a luivnle character. At the end of the year, when
the numbers are bound up, the plates will be placed ojiposite to the lefterjiress
referring to them,

Comiiiunieotions are requested to be addressed to "TlieKditor of the Civil
Kngincer and Architect s Journal," No. ]\, Parliament Street, Westminster,
or to Mr. Clrooinbridge, Panyer Alley, Paternoster How ; if by post, to be di-
rected to the former j)laee ; if by parcel, to be directed to the nearest of the two
places where the coach arrives at in London, as we are freipiently put to the
exjienee of one or two shillings for the porterage only, of a very small parcel.

Hooks for review must be .tent early in the month, eominunieiitions on or before
the 20th ( if with wood-suts, earlier), and advertiseinruts on or before the 25th
instant.

The First Volume may be had, bound in ci.oth akd leiteked in cold>
PsicE 17s.

',* The Second Volume may also be had, Price 20s,

Tj'jnA.t<yi^^iM(a'»i^ (/^^fi-f u^^^ii<Hf ^>uu<^e.(^^.

1840.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

73

IMPROVEMENTS IN THE CONSTRUCTION OF MARINE
STEAM ENGINES.

WHICH ARE PARTICULARLY APPLICABLE TO STEAM ENGINES OF THE
LARGEST CLASS.

With two Engravings, Plates V and VL

Specification of a Patent granted 7th Maij, 1830, to Joseph Mauds-
ley and Joshua Field, of the firm of JMaudsky, Sons and Field,

Engineers of Lambeth.

These improvements in the construction of marine steam engines
are particularly applicable to those of the larger class, and are designed
principally for the purpose of producing and applying a greater
amount of steam power, than has heretofore been available within a
given space or area on shipboard. This is effected by different con-
structions, arrangements, and proportions, of the parts of low pressure
engines, allowing a more perfect application of the expansive force of
steam without increasing the weight of the whole machinery.

The first feature of these improvements consists in adapting two steam
cylinders to one engine, in such a way that the steam shall act simul-
taneously upon both pistons, in order that they may be made to rise
or fall together, the piston-rod of each being attached to one hori-
zontal cross-head, and thereby the combined action of both pistons
applied to one crank, of the paddle-shaft.

The second feature of these improvements applies more particularly
to engines for river navigation, and consists in the adaptation of a
piston with two rods, working in a steam cylinder of large area, both
piston-rods being connected to one cross-head above, which gives
motion to the crank below it, by a single connecting rod.

The third feature of these improvements consists of a method of ad-
justing the expansion valves of combined engines, by which the period
for shutting of!" the steam at any part of the stroke may be regulated
in both engines at once by a single movement, whilst the engines are
working.

The fourth feature of these improvements is the peculiar construction
of the main beams of the framing that carry the plummer blocks of
the main crank shaft, to which the paddle-wheels are attached.
These beams are formed as hollow trunks, by the combination of
wrought iron plates attached to bars of angle iron, in the same way as
ordinary boilers are made, and we are enabled by that means to con-
struct beams of the largest dimensions of unlimited strength and of
comparatively small weight.

These improvements will be more fully understood by reference to
the accompanying engravings and the following description thereof,
in which Fig. 1 is an elevation taken longitudinally, representing an
engine with two cylinders, constructed upon the plan described as the
first feature of the improvement. Fig. 2 is a vertical section of tlie
same, taken through the cylinders. Fig. 3 is a horizontal section of
a vessel, in which the situation of the engine shown at Fig. 1 is seen
as it wouUl appear when looking ujion it from above ; and Fig. 4 is
a conesponding engine placed at the other side of the vessel, but
represented in section cut liorizontally through the cylinders. Fig. 5
is a vertical section taken transversely through a steam vessel, show-
ing the positions of two engines, as in Figs. 3 and 4, the one engine
being in section, the other an external view seen upon a plane in
advance of tlie former. And Fig. 6 is a plan or horizontal view of a
portion of the steam-vessel, with the engines and their appendages,
and also the framing by which the crank -sliafts of the paddle-wheels
are supported, similar letters referring to the same parts of the ma-
chinery in all the preceding figures.

The two connected working cylinders are shewn at a a, their pistons
at b b, and the piston rods at c c, the upper ends of which rods are affixed
by keys to the cross-head d. Four vertical rods e e e e, afhxed at top
to the cross-head d, are connected at bottom to a slidery", which slider
is enabled to move up and down on the guide-ribs g g, formed on the
outer surfaces of the cylinders. To this slider / one end of a con-
necting rod /( is attached, the other end of that rod being attached to
the crank i of the propelling shaft.

From this arrangement it will be perceived that, by the simultaneous
ascent and descent of the two pistons b b in their working cylinder a a,
the rods c a will cause the cross-head d to move perpendicularly np
and down between its guide bars/ ;', and in so doing to raise and de-
press the slide/, with the connecting rod /;, which rod will, by that
means, be made to give rotary motion to the crank i, and thereby
cause the paddle-wheel shaft k to revolve. A rod /,"connected to the
slide /, will at the same time work the lever m, to which the rod of
the air-pump n is attached.

The mode of adapting the steam-valve of the combined cylinders
a a, is best seen in Figs. 3 and 4. The steam is admitted to, and with-
drawn from, these cylinders, by one slide valve common to both,

No.|30.— Vol. III.— March, 1S40.

through a pipe n, seen in Fig. 5. From this pipe n the steam pro-
ceeds, through a slide valve u of the ordinary construction, and through
the curved passages or tubes p p into both cylinders. There is also
a narrow passage of communication always open at q, by which the
steam is allowed to pass from one cylinder to the other for the pur-
pose of keeping the pressure equal at all times in both cylinders.

The expansion valve is on the steam-pipe n, at the entrance to the
slide valve. The slide is moved by an eccentric in the ordinary way;
and the expansion valve is regulated by the means described hereafter
under the third feature of the invention.

The advantages proposed by this arrangement are, simplicity of
construction, nH)re direct action on the crank, saving of space and
weight of material, offering every means of giving larger area of cy-
linder, whereby a given amount of steam can be used more expansively
than in former arrangements, and consequently yield more power and
economize fuel, with the further advantage at sea, that when the
engine is reduced in the number of its strokes by deep hnling with
coal, as at the commencement of a voyage, or by head winds, more
steam may then be given to the cylinders, and, under such circmn-
stances, more speed to the vessel, all the steam generated in the Ijuihu'
being usefully applied.

The second feature of this invention, viz. the improved construction
of steam engine having two piston rods working in one cylinder, is
represented in the accompanying engravings at Figs. 7, 8, and 9. Fig.
7 is an elevation of the engine. Fig. 8, a section of the same, taken
vertically through the cylinder, with the crank and shaft of the paddle-
wheels ; and Fig. ',) is a horizontal view, as seen from above, of the
two engines and their appendages, the same letters of reference point-
ing out similar parts of the machinery in all the three last mentioned
figures.

The cylinders of large area are shown at a a, and b are their pis-
tons; c e are two perpendicular rods inserted into each piston, and
working through stuffing boxes in the lid of the cylinder; d is a cross-
b.ead, to which the two piston-rods are keyed at top, and e e are the
guide-rods, fixed on cast iron supports, upon which rods the cross-head
d slides up and down. The connecting rod /is attached above to the
cross-head, and below to the crank g g on the paddle shaft. The
other parts of the engines will appear so obvious from inspecting the
drawings, as not to requiie any further description.

It will be perceived that by this arrangement of the parts of the
engine, motion is given to the crank-shaft below the cross-head, by a
single connecting rod.

The advantages resulting from this improvement are, that a paddle-
shaft, placed at a given height from the bottom of the vessel, will be
enabled to receive a longer stroke of the piston than by any other
arrangements now in use, a more compact and firm connection of the
cylinder with the crank-shaft bearings is effected, and a cylinder of
much greater diameter may be applied, by which the principle of
working steam expansively may be more fully carried out, and a more
direct action of the steam power on the crank obtained, with a less
weight of materials and a greater economy of space than has hereto-
fore been attained, by any of the arrangements of marine engines in
use.

The third feature of the invention, viz. the method of adjusting the
expansive valves of combined engines, regulates the flow of the steam
into both engines at once, by one simple movement of the spindle and
pinion, and without interrupting for a moment the working of the
engines, such a means of adjustment being highly important in bring-
ing into operation the full effect of steam applied upon the expansive
principle, in economizing fuel, and adapting the power of engines to
the varying circumstances at sea, between light and heavy lading, and
between strong head-wind and scudding before the gale.

Extensive Use of Slate. — Slates are now applied to purposes unthought
of till lately ; and when deposited in drains, ;is the bottoms of tiles, are found
as efficacious in keeping the land, as houses, dry. Compared to dressed free-
stone, or liat tile, they are at once lighter and less expensive ; ease in hand-
ling is a great advantage, and equally, or more so, the alleged property of
" lasting for ever." Mr. Laurie, Terregles-town, was foremost in trying the
experiment in DumCriesshire.and his expectations have been so fully reahzed
that his example will be very generally loUowed wherever drains remain to
be cut, and that is secuonally, at least almost everywhere. Of the article in
question he has imported from Bangor 200.000 bottoms or pieces, (^nd may
have occasion to commission further cargoes. The first imported measured
six inches by five : but as these were lovuid a kcnnan too small, the size has
been increased an inch each way — that is seven by six. The price put on
board is 7s. per thousanil, and, as wares every way so equable jack as beauti-
fully as herrings in a barred, we presume, although we do not know the fact,
tliat freightage from Wales will not greatly exceed Is. additional. — Glasgow
Courier.

74

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[MARon,

RAILWAY CURVES.

Ox reconsidering (his snlijocf, we tliink, as our correspondent R. W.
T. SMSfiTests, t,li;i( tlie cngini'er wlio has (o set out the line of a railway
upon the gronnd sliouM, in general, confine liinisell' (o the curves, and
in every respect to (he line laid down upon the plan, in whicli case no
such f|nestion as that proposed by " An Assistant Engineer," conlil
occur. But, since a devia(ion from the plan may in sonio instames
bo allowed, as "An Assistant Engineer's" question ])roves, we shall
endeavour to solve R. \V. T.'s dillicnlty; and (or (his we must first
consider what may have been the cause of (he failure. Now there
are two cases: cil/ier the curve has been commenced at a wrong point
of the tangent, or (lie operadon of setting it out has been iiraccurately
))erlormed. In tlic first case (he error can be rectitied by referring to
the plan and ascertaining the right point uf contact, and then setting
out (he curve afresh. This method would, no doubt, be exceedingly
troublesome, and it appears to be (he object of "An Assistant Engi-
neer" to dispense with tlie lalio\n' attending such a proceeding; the
quesdon tlien is, wliat is tlie best method of getting over the difficulty
without returning to the plan laid down, when a deviation from the
laKer is allowable. Now when two curves wore intended to meet and
form an .S, and the engineer employed to set tliem out has not suc-
ceeded in efi'ecting their pmction, there are two cases: ei/kr the two
curves intersect each other, or they do not. In tlie first of these cases,
it is (rue, (he two curves may be joined by a third, tangent to the two
loriner, and of less radius than (lie one which it touches on the con-
cave side, though, in onr opinion, it would be preferable to correct
the curve in accordance with (he plan. Now there are an infinity of
circular arcs which will satisfy the condition of being tangent to (he
two given curves, so that another cfmdition must be imposed before
the connecting curve can lie determined ; it may therefore be required,
either (hat (his curve shall touch the concave or the convex curve at a
given i)oint, or tliat its radius should be of a given length, which la(ter
is the O(pnili(ion ;issuined by " An AssistantEngineer." We shouhl
recommenil solving the problem on the plan, and not on the ground,
believing (he former mode (o be much more facile (han the latter ;
we shall (herefore adapt onr solution to (hat inetitod.

Fig. 1.

Let A n and C D, (fig. 1) be the two given curves fsay of 130 chains
radius), an<l let it be reipiired to unite them by a third curve of less
radius, tangent to A H on its concave, and to C D on its convex side.

1st case. Tlie required curve is to pass through the point G of the
curve A Li.

Erinn I', the centre of A B, and (hrough G, (he required point of
contact, draw the straight line F (t H, equal to the sum of the radii of
(he two given curves, or twice the railius I' G (both curves being sup-
]iosed to have the same radius); from H draw the straight line H <)
lo the ceuire of (he curve C D ; and from K, the miildle point of H O,
draw the perpenflicular K (j, intersecting the straight line 1' H at (he
point Q. (j will \h: the centre of the required curve, and its radius
\vill be equal to Q G. .Toin tj (), and the jHiint E, where Q O inter-
sects the curve C 1), will be its poiiil of con(act wi(li the required curve.

For, the right angled triangles H K Cj, tj K () being eepial, tj H =
Q i) ; and, if from these c-cpials we t;dve the eipials (j H and E O, the
remainders (,) G, tj E will also be equal; and, since they are situated
on normals to the given curves, the circular arc G E will be tangent to
both these curves.

2nd case. The required curve must pass through the point E in
the curve C D.

From the cenfre O, and (hrough (he given point of contact E, draw
the straight line () K (j ; and froiu (lie cende F draw P L parallel to

U (^ and equal to the smn of the radii of the given curves i from P as

a centre, and with a radius equal to P L, describe ;ui arc of u circle in
the direction in which the connecting curve G E is expected to meet
(he given curve A B, and from L draw the straight line L () H, inter-
seciing (hat arc at (he point II; join HP. The point Q, where
11 P intersects () Q, will be the centre of (he reqinnul curve, and the
)ioint G, where it intersects the curve A D, will lie (he point of con-
(ac( of (he required curve with A B.

For, since O Q is parallel to L P, the triangles O H (J, L H P are
similar; and consequently, L P being equal to P H, <) Q = (^ H; and,
if from these equals we take (he equals E O, (i H, the remainders
(j G, Q K w ill also be e(|ual. And an arc of a circle passing through
(he p()in(s G and E, and having Q for its centre, will be tangent (o the
two given curves, as we ]u-oved for the first case. Or after having
drawn O Q an<l L P, construct the isosceles triangle O L ]\I, of which
the side O M=M L; then from Pas a centre, and wi(h a radius =M L,
describe an arc of a circle, in(ersecting O Q at the point (j, which will
be the centre of the required curve, as before.

For, if (hrough (he point <.j wo. draw (he straight line P H ecpial to
P L, we shall ha\e, by reason of the similar triangles H Q O, H P L,
(^ H=Q O ; and, taking away the equals G H, E O, we have Q G =
Q E, as before.

3rd case. The required curve is to have a given radius (say 100 chains).

From (he point O as a centre, and wi(li a railius eipial to the sum of
(he radii of (he given curve C t) and of the required connecting curve,
describe an arc of a circle in the direction in which the centre of tlie
latter is expected to be found, and from the centre P, with a radius
etpial to the difl'erence between the radius of the curve A B and that
of the required curve, describe anotlicr arc, intersecting the former
Q. Q will be the centre of the required curve.

For, drawing the radius P G through the point Q, the part Q G is
equal to the radius of the connecting curve, since P t^ is the difference
between (hat radius and P G ; also Ij E is equal to the radius of the
required curve, because O Q is equal (o tha( radius, plus the radius
of the curve C D, which is equal to the part O E, (herefore the re-
maining part Q E is equal to the radius of the required curve. And
it mav bo proved, as in the former cases, that the arc G E, described
with that radius and with the centre Q, will be tangent to both tlje
given curves.

In the case when tlie two curves intended to liax e met do not inter-
sect each other, we should certainly recommend connecting them by a
tangent, if it should not be required to make thera meet, as in the plan.

Fipr. 2.

Let A B, C D (fig. 2) be the given curves, tlie former being tangent
to tlie straight Hue 1 A at the point A. To draw' a common tangent to
the two given curves.

Join (on the plan) their centres () and P by a straiglit line, and on
O P as ii diameter, descrHie th(( circumference O H P K; than from
t) and P as centres, and with radii I'qual to (he sum of (he radii of (he
(wo given curves, describe two arcs uf circles intersecting the curcnm-
ference O H P K in the poiuls M and K respeclively ; draw the radii
t) H and P K, and the ])oiuts L and M, where they intersect the given
curves, will be their points of contact with the tangent, that is (o say,
a s(raightliue L M, drawn through these points, will be tangent to both
the given curves.

F(U' O H and P K are parallel, and L H=P M ; therefore, joining
P H, L M :uid P H are equal and parallel ; but P H is perpendicular to
O H, therefore L M is perpendicular to the radius O L, and coiise-

1S40.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

75

'luently taiitjoiit to tlie arc C D. In the same manner it may be proved
'o be tangent to A B. Therefore L M is tlie common tangent required.

If, on the other hand, it be reqnired to move the curve A B along
the tangent I A, from which it springs, until it comes in contact with
the curve C D.

From the centre P draw P F paraUel to 1 A, wliich protkice in the
direction A G ; and from O as a centre, imd vvitli a radius equal to the
sum of the radii of the given curves, describe an arc of a circle inter-
secting P F and Q. Tlie point tj will be the centre of the curve which
will touch the curve C D and the straight line T G -/and, if we draw
O Q and Q G, the latter perpendicular to AG, the points E and G,
where these two lines cut the curve C D -and the straight Hue A G,
respectively, will be the points of contact, and tlie arc E G will be the
reqnired curve.

For {j G and Q E are each e((ual to the radius P A, and the former
is perpendicular to AG, and the latter to the tangent to the curve CD
at the point E. Therefore EG is the [losition of the requin:d curve.

We have thus far only considered the c;ise where the failure has re-
sulted from making one of the curves spring from the wrong point of
the tangent. In the other case, that is, when the operation of setting
out one or both of the curves has been inaccurately performed, there
is no remedy but to set it out again with more care.

CANDIDUS'S NOTE-BOOK.
FASCICULUS XIII.

" I must have liberly
Withal, as large a cliarter as the winds,
To l;lo\v on whom 1 please."

I. Let B. of Derby be whoever he may, his remarks on Competiti(in
Designs are very much to the purpose ; and he not only hits the right
nail on the head, but gives it a clincher, when lie hints very broadly
that the profession have to thank themselves for the abuses which
now prevail with respect to competition. If instead of merely shrug-
ging their shoulders with a most Turk-like resignation, they were to
apply them heartily to the wdieel, they might extricate theinselves
from a position they affect lo deplore. Surely if the Institute were to
set about doing so iu downright earnest, they might both de\ ise and
enforce a greatly better system of competition than the hollow, shuf-
fling, delusive one now practised. Undonlitedly there are many diffi-
culties to contend with, — first and foremost, their own apathy, indif-
ference and want of unanimity of purpose. Souie among them are
notoriously opposed to comiietition altogether, and perhaps that the
bungling and blundering now so rife in it, w ill sooner or later cause it
to be abandoned entirely. <!)thers seem to be afraid of making any
stir about what does not immediately concern them as individuals.
On that very account all the more imperative is it that the Institute
as a body ought to consult the interests of the profession generally.
And if competition be not a case wherein it ought to interfere with
all its authorit}', — be not more especially one which calls for hearty
co-operation, I should very much like to know where co-operation can
at any time be of positive service. Were the Institute a private Club,
it might be left to do as it pleased : liut it is — and it may be presumed,
■wishes to be considered in a very ditferent light, — to cut a figure iu
the eyes of the public.

il. Whetlier any one will agree with me or not, I incline to the
opinion that so far from being at all calculated to improve architectural
taste, such a work as Nash's Mansions is likely to flatter a very corrupt
one, and to create a prejudice in favour of a style that taken apart
from the associations and accidents, is characterii^ed by fantastic tlull-
iiess, by incoherent caprices, by expensive ugliness, and by a grotesque
combination of extravagant embellishment and offensive meanness.
What then, am I insensible to the charm which the mastery of tlie
artist's pencil has communicated to the series of architectural subjects
above-named ? Certainly not, because it is precisely on account of
the fascination with wdiicli he has invested them, that I hold them to
be dangerous, and apt to seduce, and mislead those who have not the
power of discriminating between the architectural deformity of many
of the scenes, and the pictorial attractiveness with which they are
represented. Undoubtedly many of them are highly picturesque in
themselves, and rendered still more so by the manner in wdiich they
are treated, and by the adventitious interest arising from costume and
figures. Still as architecture, they are for the most part naught, — >
absolutely frightful. Were equal witchery of effect put into it, not
the homeliest merely, but nearly the most insipid subject of the kind
might be rendered captivating, — an old barn, a village carpenter's
sliop) or the kitcUen of a cotuUiy iuuf The chief differenve would be

that in such case persons would not be similarly imposed upon, but
instead of attributing any beauty to the scene itself, or being at all
blinded to its \incouthness, would perceive that the pleasure it affords
arises entirely from the charms with which the pencil has arrayed it,

lil. I should very much like to know if, among the numerous
churches which have been erected of late years, there be a single one
whose interior possesses, or even approximates in any degree to so-
lemnity of character, wdiich (piality, it may be presumed, is perfectly
appropriate and becoming, or, in fact, to be considered indispensable,
to a place of worship. Among all the new churches I have seen, I
have certainly not beheld one possessing internally any thing liku
solemnity in its general effect ; on the contrary, ditl'or how much they
may as to all other circumstances, they agree as far as the absence of
that quality goes. Some are dismal and mean enough, others, if not
|)articularly tasteful, smart enough, just the very places for a fashion-
able congregation, wliom the architect generally takes care to arrange
so that they shall make as goodly a show as the audience of a theatre,
and be able to reconnoitre each other without obstruction. In fact,
there is, so far, very much more of the play-house than of the house
of prayer in such buildings — nothing calculated to inspire feelings of
reverence. Neither does it make much diflt^rence what style be em-
ployed, since the interiors of our modern Gothic churches have no
greater air of impressive solemnity than have those in any other stylo.
In only very few instances is there any attempt to keep up the mere
corporeal semblance of the style; all its spirit, all its attractions, are
gone. Richness seems to be quite out of the question, and soberness
almost equally so, for notwithstanding tlie excessive parsimoniousness
which betrays itself, there is also a good deal of vulgar jauntiness and
spruceness, bad enough in itself, and thus rendered doubly odious. In
some of these buildings a tawdry organ-case is the principal object,
all the rest consisting only of base, coldly glaring wdiite walls, pews
and galleries, the altar itself being hardly noticeable, except on ac-
count of the meanness it displays. In short, it is to be feared that our
new churches, taken generally, are not calculated to impress foreigners
w itii any high opinion — I do not say, of our taste, but of our religious
ardour, if the latter may be judged of from the externals of public
worship.

IV. The Reformers have completely discomfited the Conservatives,
if not in politics, most certainly in architecture. The poor Conserva-
tive Clubhouse now looks sulkier than ever, now that the rival edifice
proudly displays itself in its full majesty. I gladly hail the Reform
Clubhouse, as an auspicious omen of reform in architecture ; it being
likely to disgust with that vapid and poverty-stricken so called clas-
sical style, which at the best has given us little more than scraps and
bits of "Grecian architecture, and that chiefly as regards columns alone,
since any thing with a shelf on top of it will, we find, do for an en-
tablature. Gooil lack, my old friend Classicality, how strangely hast
thou been cockneyfied since thou took up thy abode among us! It
grieves one to think of it, and yet one cannot help laughing, either, at
the grotesque figure thou niakest in thy present costume, and what is
the worst part of the business is, thou hast been thus fantastically
tricked by those who all the while have professed the utmost respect
for thee.

V. I was pleasingly surprized the other day by the sight of a very
great rarity, naniely, an architectural volume both amply and beauti-
fully illustrated with engravings, though only a very few copies of the
work was printed for distribution among the author's friends. The
work appears lo ha\"e been got up without the least regard to ex-
pellee, and so far forms a most complete contrast to the bhmdering,
ostentatious, niggardness manifested in the " )n-ivately printed" yet
tolerably well known volume of Sir J. Soane's, containing a set of
coarse and almost caricature prints, intended to show different parts of
his own house. On such occasions there is no excuse wlKitever for
stinginess, or anything like it, because a man had better keep his
money in his pocket, than fling it away in purchasing for himself the
reputation of being an extravagant hanks and a miserly spendthrift.

But I have not mentioned tlie name of the liberal-spirited individual
who, iu the work first alluded to, has so worthily illustrated the interior
architecture of his paternal residence at Great Yarmouth— W. F.
Palmer, Esq., F.S.A. Such an example ought to be made known as
extensively as possible, for if there were a few more of the kind, it;
would not be amiss. If it be said it argues a mere mania, it is to be
hoped that a mania of this kind will prove quite as catching as that;
which induces peojile to fling themselves off the Monument, to the
extreme horror of those philanthropists who would read of their jump-
ing into the Thames quite unconcernedly. Yet it is rather to be ap-
prehended that architectural mania, amateur-mania, will never prove
infectious in this country. The truth is, John Bull is likely to stick
fast to his old inouymaniu, which, in plain English, is literally a
moiwij' mania,

L 2

76

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[March,

REEFING STEAM-BOAT PADDLES.

Fig. 1.

Fig

V.W, Pivot wheel. S, Sli:ilt.

Sir — Obseiviiig by sumc of tlie public jounr.ils that the rcpfing of
ste:iin-bont jjaddlos is buc-uiniiig a matter of interest, I take the liberty
of sending a rough copy of a sim]ile method executed by Messrs.
Boulton, Watt & Co. for a vessel on the Tyne in the year 1H15 (whose
drauglit was variable,) it was found to answer well.

The extreme diameter when the boards were out, was II ft.; by the
mode adopted, they could be drawn in 7i in., reducing the diameter
to U ft. 9 in., which was considered sullicient for a vessel of only 5 feet
immersion.

By the application of a lever, the whole of the boards were moved
at once, and fixed in the required position Ijy a screw pin ; this in-
volved going into the paddle-box to make the adjustment previous to
starting, but the operation is capable of being performed by a pinion
working into the internal circumference of the pivot wheel (shewn in
the small side figure), while the rpiantity of reefing may be carried to
all necessary extent by enlarging its diameter.

It was the fashion in those early days of steam navigation to fit the
wheels with shrouding, which, although not necessary to the scheme, I
have chosen to show it as executed at that period. Should you con-
sider this worthy of insertion, you will oblige. Sir,

Your constant reader,

London, 20lh January, lb40. T. Z.

PATENT IMPROVED BOILER OR APPARATUS FOR
GENERATING STEAM.

The first part of my invention consists of an apparatus (after de-
scribed) for causing water in the state of dew, or divided into very
minute drops or particles, to descend slowly through the interior of
the boiler or generator, upon the heated surface of which, so much of
it as is not converted into steam during its descent, ultimately falls ;
by which means a less quantity of heat is abstracted during any given
time from the heated surface, than if such surface were covered with
a continuous sheet or film of water, or witli a boily of water, as in the
common boiler. And by the means I adopt, I do not merely raise
steam, by wetting the heated surface, but the boiler or generator when
at work is filled by dew or water in a state of minute division, w'hich
in its descent, becomes partially converted into steam, by the heat of
the atmosphere or vapour within the boiler itself.

I find that a temperature of 50(1" or thereabouts, of Fahrenheit, in
the body or substance of the boiler or generator, is that best adapted
to the purpose of raising steam.

Another part of my invention consists of a self-acting apparatus,
(afterwards described) for regulating the supply of water to the gene-
rator or boiler, according to tlie condition of the heated surfaces, and
the consequent force of the steam wdthin the boiler, that is to say, that
if the boiler contains a greater body of steam, or of greater elastic
force, than is necessary for the wants of the engine or other purpose
to which it may be applied, then by the self-acting apparatus before
referred to, the stroke of the force or supply-pump is shortened, so
that when the steam is high in the boiler, the quantity of water in-
jected becomes proportionably less; by this means, if by any chance
in consequence of the boiler becoming heated to redness, or to any
other degree of heat which would be highly dangerous in other boilers,
or from any other cause, steam of a violently elastic force be produced,
its etfect is, through the medium of the above regulating apparatus,
to shorten, or totally shut otl", the supjily of water, until the surface
becoming cooler, or producing steam of less elastic force, the pump is
again allowed to act; such a case, however, can never happen, ex-
cepting after the engine has been standing still for some time, and
when, by neglect or design, the usual precautions and attention be-
stowed upon other boilers have not been observed, as the damper
regulator, which is somewhat similar in efit^ct to those in present use,
will always prevent the fire being in advance, or more powerful to
heat the surfaces, than the water to cool them.

In applying this invention, it will be generally found desirable to
keep that part of the surface of the boiler, ex])osed to the immediate
and corrosive action of the fire, covered with water, by wh.ieh means
it \\ ill be prevented from burning, and another part of my invention
consists in a self-acting apparatus adapted to attain this object. By
this apparatus (which is hereinafter described) the water is prevented
from accumulating in the boiler beyond the quantity found best in
practice, and which, in the boiler I generally use, is from three to six
inches in depth over the fire ; this apparatus, at the same time that it
prevents the water rising in the boiler beyond a certain limit, acts
upon the force-]nunp in a way which will bo presently described, so
as to reduce the quantity of water injected, if necessary.

In a]iiilying my invention, I employ n)eial flues, by which means the
fire is not only kept longer upon the surface, but the flues become
carriers or depositaries of heat, and by radiation iuqjart a certain por-
tion of the efl'ect of the fire upon them to the boiler, and thus econo-
mize fuel, besides adding to the strength of the boiler itself.

Another ])art of my invention consists in forming ridges in the in-
terior of the boiler, by which the descent of the water over the sur-
face is retarded, but which, although a great improvement to the
action of the boiler, is not absolutely essential to it.

The external figure or shape which I ha^e generally adopted as the
best in practice, will be seen by the accompanying figure; but any

1840.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

77

convenient form may be employed, and the tire may be either external
as shown in the figure, or internal according to the system usually
adopted in steam-vessels.

Figure 1 exhibits a cross section of the boiler, pump, and water-

Fig. 1. — Cross section.

^^-^

valve, with a representation of the water-regulating apparatus. A is
a boiler, made of cast iron or other metal, around which is cast the
spiral flue 13, and having its interior formed into ridges or corrugated,
which ridges increase in width as they approach the bottom of the
boiler. B is the tire-place, C the brickwork in which the boiler is
set, D the water-pipe, by which the water in the boiler flows oft' as
soon as it has risen to a level with the mouth of the pipe ; the water
then descends through the pipe e e, to the water-valve box /, and
would pass out into the cistern F if not kept back by the valve g ; the
valve g is loaded with weight /, and lever //, so that it resists the
pressure of the steam, in the same way as the safety-valve 10 ; but
when the water accumulates in the descending pipe e, so that there
shall be an altitude of water above the surface of the valve of from
four to six feet, the valve will be unable to sustain the additional
pressure of from two to three pounds per square inch upon its area,
and it will lift and let out the water, until the descending column
balances the weight of the valve ; the cock / is for the purpose of

blowing out any sediment which may have accumulated in the valve
box, this is done by depressing the rod g g, attached to the lever g',
which is fixed on the plug of the cock.

Another mode of self-regulation for marine or other engines, when
there would be an objection to the length of the pipe e, is as follows

Fig. 2. — Water-regulating Apparatus.

a pipe descends, and is connected with the suction-pipe of a pump,
which may be either a bucket or force-pump ; the exit valve or
clack, is loaded by a weight and lever, like a safety-valve, with the same
object as the water-valve already described, viz. that it may counteract
the pressure of the steam in the boiler. When the pump is full of
water, the action of the plunger will force out of the pump us much
water as it displaces in its descent, and draw into the pump from the
pipe a corresponding quantity of water, thus emptying the pipe,
and preventing the water rising above its proper level in the
boiler.

A glass tube is employed at t ', by which the state of the water may
always be observed, and the usual brass mounting is attached, for the
purpose of cleaning either the lying or vertical pipes ; C is the force
or supply-pump, the suction-pipe K' draws its supply from the cis-
tern F, so that the hot water escaping from the boiler is used over
again and no heat lost ; k is the injection pipe of the pump connected
with the nozzle m; at about one-third its length from the bottom, the
nozzle is perforated with a circle of small holes, drilled so as to dis-
charge the water in a direction slanting upwards, or in such a direction
that it may be reflected upwards from the sides of the boiler or gene-
rator, (any number of holes in any figure which experience may sug-
gest may be adopted), the best pUui I find is to make them about a
quarter of an incli apart, anil about the hundredth part of an inch in
diameter, and drilled in such way that they may be largest outside,
by which means they will be less likely to be clogged up ; the ends of
the nozzle are loose, the upper end screws into its place, and the
lower end is made a good joint and ground in, so that when the bolt
which passes through it, and the upper end is screwed with a nut and
spanner from the top, the nozzle becomes perfectly closed, and no
water can escape excepting through the small perforations in the
sides ; it is necessary to form the ends loose, or provide some
other adequate means to discharge the sediment, which may from time
to time collect in the nozzle ; tin's adjustment is easily made by merely
taking out the plunger s, and the perforated plate s', when a spanner
can be introduced into the boiler, and the nut or upper end unscrewed
as may be required ; sometimes the nozzle is formed in a circle with
jets like a gas burner, but the above described method I have fomid
to be the best.

The action of the injected water is clearly seen by the dotted and
prolonged descendieg lines, the water impinges violently against the
sides of the vessel, and is then thrown off at an equal angle in an op-
posite direction, after which it descends in a vertical shower as shown,
it is not necessary that this mode should be always observed, any mode
is good that minutely divides the water, and then allows it to descend
slowly upon the heated surfaces may be adopted to my invention ; but
it is essential that the water should be first discharged upwards, either
in an inclined direction or perpendicularly, or that it should be dis-

IfB

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[IMarch,

cliarj^i'd in siirli a direction that it may Iw reflected iipwurds, or slanting
upwards Irdiii llie sides nf tlie l)oiler.

Tlie |)luiiger of the pipe C is connected liy tlie link ii with the lever
o, this lever is worked hy the cam p, fixed on the shaft r, which shaft
is driven by any of the usual and suitable modes from the engine, or
any other ecpiivalent mmle of lifting the lever may be adopted; to the
end opposite to that on which the cam acts, is suspended the weight
(J, so that the cam lifts the ])lungc'r ami the weight gives the stroke,
producing a sudilen and violent rush of the water through the holes of
the noz/.le m which very materially alFects that minute division of the
water which is necessar)' to the jierfect action of the boiler, s is a
plunger or jiiston working through a stalling box, upon the top of the
boiler connected by the link /, with the lever », which lever works
upon the centre r, to the end next the chimney is attached the rod of
the damper dd, and to the other enil the weight c, and the rod «), thus
vvlie]] the sleam rises, it acts upon the phnigcr or pislmi s, this raises
the end of the lever )(, vipon which the weight r is suspended, and the
rod w attached, and depresses the other end to which the damper is
attached, thus damping the fire as in the usual way, the lever ii in the
act of rising by the increasing elasticity or volume of the steam lifts
the rod «', and likewise the end of the crank or lever .r, to which the
other end of the rod w is attached, this crank or lever is fixed upon
one end of the cross shaft y, and to the other end of tlie shaft, and at
right angles witli the crank .r is fixed another and shorter crank z,
thus when the crank x is raised vertically by the action of the steam
plunger s, it causes the shorter crank z to move horizontally forwards,
this horizontal movement is continued through the niedinm of the rod
or bar z' ,connected with the short crank z at one end, and the other
end with the wedge 2, thus pushing the wider part of the wedge under
the pump lever, and by this means sliortening the stroke or descent of
the ]uun)) plunger, this movement may be also efTected by a rack and
)iini(ni, or by a screw and |iijiion, or by other means.

I do not claim the plunger or piston as new, to regulate the damper,
an analogous contrivance, liaving alreaily been made ; that part of my
invention which I have before referred to as a self acting apparatus
for [ireventing an undue accumulation of water in the bottom of the
boiler, is as follows ; to the extreme end of the lever /(, of the water-
valve, is fixed a slight bar, wire, or chain, S; the other end of the
■wire or chain is connected to the .short horizontal crank 7, fixed upon
the short cross shaft 3; to the longer arm 5 of the horizontal crank, is
suspended the weight (i, which weight, when the wire or chain is
slackened, descends, and descending, produces motion in the shaft 3,
to which the crank is fixed, and also in the short crank 4, fixed n])on
the other end of the cross shaft 3; thus as the weight descends, the
crank 4, by means of the rod 4', connected with it, and the wedge 1,
draws the wedge 1 forward; by the wider part being thus drawn or
introduced under the lever o of the pumii, the stroke of the pump is
shortened, and the supply of water consequently diminished. 1 do not
confine myself to the particular modification of machinery here de-
scribed for ellecting this object, but any other adapted to the pur-
pose may be used; thus for instance, another mode of regulating
the action of the pump, is by forming the descending tube about S or
10 inches internal diameter, and placing therein a float, which shall
rise and fall willi tlie water in the tube in the same way as the float
in the 'ieed head of a conunon boiler regulates the damper, then a
wire p assing through a stufling box in the upper part of the pijie t,
and communicating with the crank 7, in the same way as the wire 8,
the same movement will take place in the wedge 1, as has been before
described ; in the case of a locomotive where the pump plunger is con-
nected with the cross head of the piston rod, anil works very fast ; the
method to be adopted to reduce the stroke of the pump, will be to
make the barrel of the pump moveable, then by means of a screw fixed
to the end, and causing the nut in which the screw works to be acted
uiion either by the steam plunger or the lever of the water valve, and
thus uuiking the barrel of the pump advance towards, or recede from
the i)lunger, the same regulating process will be easily a))plicable ; it
will be merely necessary that the suction and injection pil>e should
work in stuffing boxes, or by making them elastic to allow for the
variation; 9 is the pipe and cock for sup|)lying the water cistern with
water, V is the ball-cock which kee|)s the water to its level, lU is the
safety valve, 11 the steam l)ipe, 12 the steam casing in which the
;)lunger works, the lower part is covered with a plate perforated with
lolos, so thai the steam plunger may work more steadily, and not be
acted upon so suddenly by the steamj as the steam befm-e" acting upon
the plunger will jiass through the holes of the plate, and thus a certain
regularity of action w ill be preserved, which could not be ensured
without it.

A boiler upon this construction, but made in a very rude manner
lor the purpose of experiment, 2 ft. deep, 1 ft. over at the bottom,
wid 2 it, wide at the widest point, was at mtk I'w seme time drivijig

I

a G horse condensing engine at Messrs. Burton & Sons, engineers,
Bankside, but now of Holland Street, Blackfriars Road ; the ;irea ex-
posed to the fire was about 8 ft., and this drove the engine fully
loaded, the steam blowing olVduriiig the greater part of the time; it
had no tendency to get red hot, and uj)on several occasions, for the
mere purpose of the experiment, the engine was stopped, and the
boiler purposely made red hot, when the only result that followed was
a rapid generation of steam whilst the water was pumped into the
boiler; bv this a|)paratus the great desiileratum of a powerful, port-
able, and safe boiler is obtained, and I feel certain that in a properly
constructed vessel, a velocity of 2U miles per hour through the water
can be easily accomplished.

Stam/vrd Strut, W.J. CURTIS.

Blackfriars Road.

ON THE PRESSURE OF WATER AND THE STRENGTH

OF COFFER-DAMS.

By John Neville, C. E.

The following prepositions are intended to furnish rules for calcu-
lating the dimensions of coffer dams from having the depth of water,
and the specific gravity of the materials to be used in the dam given.
The construction of the coU'er dam is supposed to be that generally
adopted, namely, two or mm'e rows of piles having the spaces between
filled with clay, ox a mixture of clay and gravel, the whole united into
one mass by walings, bolts, &c. And it will be seen that the dimen-
sions found from the investigated formula do not diller materially from
those adoptetl with success by many celebrated engineers.

The pressure arising from mere depth of water is not the only force
to be prepared against in constructing a coU'er dam, as moving water
or an exposed situation nuist also be taken into consideration. These
latter I have not cakailated for in the following problems, as I consider
they are sufficiently provided for by the resistance of the piles pene-
trating the bottom, w hich assists tlie solidity of the dam ; and by the
auxiliary aid of stays and braces, and have determined the dimensions
of the dam itself as only sufficient to resist the pressure of an outside
depth of dead water.

Problem I.

To dttcrmine the amount of pressure against a coffer dam or obstruc-
tion, the diplh of wall r being given.

Put c for the depth of w ater in feet. The pressure on each point
of the dam is as the depth of that point from the surface of the water ;
the whole pressure for the depth c is therefore repieseuted by the area
of a right angled triangle having the base and perpendicular each equal

to c,

or by -^. The weigiit of a cubic foot of water may.be taken

for tlie pressure on each

atG241bs. ; hence we have G2iXo= — s~

^ 2

foot in length of the dam in lbs., which, multiplied by the length, will
give the whole pressure required.

Example 1. — What is the pressure on each foot in length of a cof-
fer-dam, the water inside lieing exhausted, and the depth of water
outside being equal to 15 feet?

TT 1- ,125c- 125x15x15 . ,, ,,

Here crrlo and —5-= =:110J2i lbs., the pressure re-

quired.

Exam})l(: 2. — What is the pressure against J coft'er dam whose girth
is tiO feet, the depth of water outside being 20 feet?

J25 V 20 X ^0
Here we have i-^:=25000lbs. for the pressure on each

foot in length, therefore 25,000 X GO^ 1,500,000 lbs. is the pressure re-
quired.

PROULliM 11.

To find th effective pressure against a coffer dam or lock gate; the

depth nf mater outside being ginn : a given depth of water being inside.

Put c for the outside depth of water, and d for that inside, we then

. 125c- I25i'^ 125 (€■—«;•-) i25y.{c-\-d)y.{c—d). ,,
get — :=:— . — 1- '=:: ^ — ^^— ^ lor the pres-

sure on each foot in length, when the inside and outside girths are equal;

putting therefore g for either girthj we get " •• -■■

fvr the piesiSMe required.

1840.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

79

Example 1. — Given the dejith of water on the outside of a dam
equal 20 feet, that inside equal 6 feet, and tile giitli GO feet, what is
tlie cirecti\'e pressure against the dam ?

We have c+(i:=2G, c — d-=.\i, and ^=G0 therefore

l-25x(e+^)X(c-i)Xg^l25x2Gxl4xGO^^^^^^^^^ 14x30

=45,500x30=T,3G5,00011)s. for tlie pfFective pressure.
When the inside and outsiiU' girths dilter, by putting g fur tlie out-

side girth, and ^' for that inside, we get in this case

125(c-g— i'g')

for the effective pressure.

Example 2. — Given the height of water on tlie sill to the upper
gates of a lock above, 10 feet and girth 21 feet; below 4 feet and
girth 25 feet — what is the effective pressure on the gates?

„, . , ]25fc=g— rf=g') 125(100x24—10x25)
The pressure is equal • ^ — -S~'z= i

=rl25(100x24— 8x25)= 125x1000= 125,0001bs. the pressure re-
quired.

Example 3. — Find the effective pressure against a coffer dam, the
exterior depth and girth respectively being 2/ and 120 feet ; and the
interior depth 5 feet, and girth 100 feet.

„ , ,, , , 125(27x27x120—5x5x100)
Here by the formula; ^ =

' 2

125(729x00— 25x50)=:125x424,90=5,311,250 lbs. the pressure re-
quired.

Problem III.

To Jind the centre of pressure in a given depth of water : or iliat point
where the force of the whole pressure is equal to the sum of the forces
arising from the pressures at different depths from the surface.

The whole pressure (problem 1) is represented by a right angled
triangle having its base and perpendicular each equal to the depth of
water, and as the pressure at each point along tlie depth is propor-
tional to the depth of sucli jioint from the surface, or which is the
same thing to a line parallel to the base at that point meeting the
hypothenuse ; the centre of pressure is evidently on the same liori-
zontal line with the centre of gravity of the triangle. But the latter
is at one third of the perpendicular from the base, uierefore the centre
of pressure is at one-third of the depth of water from the bottom,
or ic.

Examples. The centre of pressure in 15 feet of water is 5 feet
above the bottom : in IS feet of water at 6 feet above the bottom : and
in 30 feet of water at 10 feet above the bottom.

Problem IV.

To find the centre of pressure mhen given depths of water are inside and
outside a coffer-dam.

By putting as before c for the depth outside, and dior that inside,
we find the outside pressure acting at the distance ^c from the bottom

125c-
equal — — — (problems 1 and 3), and the inside pressure acting at the

u

d 125(/^.

distance 5 equal -^ — The centre of pressure is now therefore in
tj 2

the fulcrum of a lever, whose length is — ^— i which lever is acted on

i— - — '■ — — — the distance

125c' 125^^

at its ends by the two pressures -=- and — —. To find this point

125c^ , 125d
we have —^ + — ^

c—d . . 125<;'
3 • ■ 2

3(c■■^-<^■

of the fulcrum from a point corresponding to ^c, tlierefore =— .

o, . I ,0- - — o, o I J..-. — — o. .. I ...,• The distance of the point
3(o-fa-) 3(c=+rt-) 3(c +rf') "^

required from the bottom of the water frsm which w'e deduce tlie fol-
lowing rule : —

Divide the sum of the cubes of the inside and outside depths by
three times the sum of their squares, the quotient will be the distance of
the centre of pressure from the bottom of the mater.

£»»)»?/?,— Take i=^2Q and d~V) we then have

0000

: 6 feet for the distance of the centre

20'-f iO' _ S000+1000_
3(20^+10')" 3x500 ~1500'
of pressure from the bottom.

Prodlem V.

To find the centre of pressure in a depth of water lying between the
depths c and d below the surface.

Let c be the greater depth, and put .r for the distance of the centre
of pressure in the depth c — rf, from the centre of pressure in the depth
c ; we then have from the properties of the lever

.rX

V25(c'—d^)_2(c-

-d) I25d'
— X— r-,

from which equation by an easy reduction we find,
2d-

■2d-

there-

fore —

3 3(c+f/)

of the depth c, and — +

3(c+d)
is the distance of the point required from the bottom
2d'

3{c+d)

its distance from the surface of the

water.

Example 1. — In 15 feet depth of water what is the distance of the
centre of pressure of the lowest 5 feet from the bottom ?

Here

:5 and

2d-

2x10-

3(c+rf) 3X( 15+10)"

200 8 , , ,

z-—--^- leet, therefore

-=5 — -=- feet the distance required.
00

3 3(c+rf)

Example 2. — Two stays support a coffer-dam at depths of 20 and
10 feet below the surface of (he water, and it being found necessary to
place another between these, at what distance shall we place it from
the lower stay, so that it may afford the greatest assistance possible ?

It is easy to see that the third stay must be applied opposite the
centre of pressure. To find this point we have c:=20 and rf=;10,

e ^ 2d- _20 2xlCr- _20_200_20
therefore g a^c+f/) - 3 3(20+10) ~ 3 90 ~ 3 '

40 44 ^
=:-„-=.- feet, the distance required.

20

■ 9"

60—20
9

A proper knowledge of the position of the centre of pressure will
enable us to place our stays with advantage and economy, particularl)'
in those cases where a coffer-dam is surrounded with water. If the
top and bottom of such a coffer-dam (fig. 1) are Ijept from approaching

Fig. 1.

each other, the next best point to secure is evidently at the centre of
pressure of the whole depth of water, or using the same notation as
before at ^c from the bottom. If more stays are necessary, the most

7c 5 c
important points to be secured are those at the distance — and —-

from the bottom, or in other words at the points corresponding to the
centres of pressure in the lower and upper portions of the depth

c , 2c

Problem VI.

To find the dimensions of a coffer-dam fig. 2 suflScient to resist the
pressure of a given depth of water when the section is rectangular.

80

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[March,

Fig. 2.

Put s for tlie mean weight in lbs. of a cubic foot of the materials in
the (lam, h for its height, in feet, d for its width in feet, and c for the
deptli of high water in feet. We then have b d s equal the weight of
one foot in lenght. It is evident that the dam fails only when the
force of the water is able to turn it round the point D, and as the

d
weight hds acts at the distance - from D in the figure its force is pro-
perly represented by bds X - =; — — . The pressure of the water

125c- c

is equal — — - (problem 1,) which acting at the distance ^above D
2 o

125c" c 125c'

(problem 3) has its force represented by -— — X-^: . Therefore

2 3 6

in case of equilibrium we have =: — — from which equation we

find d-

125c^
367

and d:

V125c'
36i"

From this proposition it is clear

tliat when h^c, tlie width d of the dam is proportional to the depth of the
teutcr, and that the power of water to overturn a clam is as the cube of its
depth. The value of s will depend on the nature of the puddle used
in the dam, and the proportion it bears to the quantity of timber and
iron in the width d. In the examples to this and the following jiro-
blems, « is supposed to be equal to 90 lbs., which in most cases may not
be far from the true value, except in those cases where the water
penetrates under the dam when it must be reduced to about one-third,
or to 3U lbs. nearly. ,

F,g. 3.

Example 1.— Find the width of a cofier-dam sufficient to resist the
pressure of 17 feet of water on the outside, the height of the dam
being 19 feet.

Here we have

d=^ /l^- K /i!5M.^ -^ /lilil^=V116-4=10-8feet.
-V 3 6s~'V 3X 19X90"" -V 5130

/125
-— r=ll-Gfeet. Ifwe suppose from

want of proper precaution the water to penetrate under the dam, s is

s s

reduced to about - for the height c, say -, we then get

« d 125c'
(J — c) rfs-fc«?X-X-= — r^ for the equation of equilibrium from

which we find d-X (3 m6s+3cs
125hc'

3 ncs) := 12 5 c'h and
When ;!=3 as would be nearly the case

d- /__J^^nc^___
A/ 3n6s-|-3cs — 3!(cs'

V125c'
■Xr36— 2 1' ^-^ "^'"^ ^^^^ numbers in example 1,

we get by this formulae

d=. /Zi1!HI!L:= . /^^=^296-7=17-2 feet,shewing
/y 90 X (57— 34) ■V 2070 ^ ^

under these circumstances a necessary increase of nearly six feet in
width.

Example 2. — What width of dam is sufficient to resist the pressure
of 17 feet depth of water, the dam to rise 4 feet above the surface,
when the bottom is porous gravel communicating with the water.

In this case we have

d— /__^^^___ / 125X17' _ /G14125_

'V 90(3 6—2 cf 'V 90 X (1^3— 34) '\/ 90 X 29~"

V

614125_
2610 "

:V235-3=15-3 feet.

Problem VII.

To find the strength of a coffer-dam (fig. 3) sufficient to resist the
pressure of a given depth of water so that by the intervention of stays,
&c. the coffer-dam could only fail by the failure of the point D.

Put k for the distance E D, rf for the distance E F, and by using the
same notation as before for the other dimensions, we get by the pro-

perties of the lever bds')(.(--\-l{)z
brium, and by reduction d'--\-2 kd-

12 5c^ c
- Xq for the equation of equili-

125c'

36s

from which we find

V123c'
368 ^
Example 1. — Find the width d when fc=18, c=17, and 6=21 feet,

, /l25e' , / 125X17' „

'"'■^ y-Sb^ +''-'= V 3^X21X90 +^S'-18=

V 614125

-g^J7^+32-4— 18=1/649— 18=25-5— 18=7-5 feet=rf. These

were nearly the dimensions of tlie coffer-dam for building the river
wall at the New Houses of Parliament (see Journal, vol. 1, page 31).
But this coffer-dam was still held more firmly on its base by the re-
sistance to the piles penetrating the silth and clay substratum requiring
a considerable force to overcome it, over and above that which was
already sufficiently resisted by the upper portion of the coffer-dam.

When d is given we find from the equation d--\-2d/c^-^. — ,

i =

125e^
Gbsd

d
"2*

Example 2. — At what distance from the imier sheet pilcing of a
cofier-dam 10 feet wide shall we place the brace pileing D, so that
when properly braced the dam shall resist the pressure of 30 feet depth
of water outside. The dam rising 4 feet above the surface.

„ , 125X30'i 10 3375000 ^ ,^ _ ^ ,o . r .

Here A= = 5=18'4-5=13'4 feet

ex 34X90X10 2 1B360

the distance required. Ifsi=30as would be nearly the case if the

1840. J

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

81

bottom was porous, k should be increased to about 3X1S-4 — 5 =
55.2 — 5=.'iO feet. This shows the importance of securing the bed of
the dam from water b)' dredging, or otherwise clearing away all porous
materials.

Problem VIII.

To find the strength of a dam (form fig. 4) sufficient to resist the
pressure of a given depth of water.

Fig. 4.

By using the same notation as before, putting/ for EK, and k for

d, k 125r" c

DE, we get »hdy,{--\-k)-\-skf'X.-=——- X- for the equation of

2t Z id o

equilibrium from which s 6 (l--\-2 s bdk-\-s/k- ■■

12 5e^

This equation

, , „ , 125c3 k-'f . ,2hd, 125c3 bd"^ „
gives us cZ-+2fZA=-:rT -• and k"-\ -^k=-x — -, j- . From

these we find a=v}^+^''~{K~k (1), and
36s 0

i^^^^JlljJ'l^J'J:.. (2). From these values for d and *
3»/ f f- b
we can fiud one when the other is given.

Example \. — Having given *=4 feet, /= 10 feet, i = 21 feet, and
c=n feet, to find the value oi di

/125c3 {i—f)k^ 7014125 Vt'Q ,

Bj^equatio,, (i) ,=V^ +L_Z_ _,=^__+___4 =

V 108-3+8-4 - 4 = V 1 IIJ'^ - 4 = 10-S - 4 = G-S, or 7 feet nearly, the

value required.

Example 2.— Suppose *=10 feet, f~\7 feet, i=33 feet, and c=30

feet, what is the width {d) equal to?

„ , T25X3U' ItiXlU ,,^ , 1250U , IGOO ,
Here d=./ ■ -L ^r 10=V- — -l - 1(J =

3X33X90

33

33

33

V

141U0
33

-10=v/427-3-10=20-7-10=10'7 feet, the width re-

quired.

Example 3.— To find tlie value of k wheud=6 feet, the otlier
dimensions remaining the same as in Example 1.

Frpm equation (2) *=V!!!f!_i^+^_*-i=
38/ / +/•-' /

V

614125 756 , 15876 126

jyy--^=V227-5-75-6+158-8-12-G =

2700 10
V310-7— 12-6 =17'6— 12-6 =5 feet, the value sought.

Example 4. — To find the value of k when (^=10 feet, the other
dimensions remaining the same as in Example 2.

Here t=:/\/ ^^^^^O' 33X10^ 33nU'^ 33xlO_^
3X90X17 17 ^ 172 17 "^

V

12500—3300 . 108900 330

==V&4 1-2+37 G-8— 19-4 =

17 ' 289 17

V918— 19-4 =i3Q-3— 194 *10-9 feet, the value sought.

Probiem IX.

To find the strength of a coffer-dam fig. 5, sufficient to resist the
pressure of a given depth of water.

Fig. 5.

Here, by putting i-' for F E, and/' for K F, we have

(I' + <^ ) X sk'f + I X s.i6 =i^' X g.

for the equation of equilibrium by disregarding the vertical pressure
of the water above K G, and thence s&'^/' + 28 dk'f -\-d-sb —

; from this equation we get

3

b 36s 6

125 c' d- b
and /i" + 2^*" = -^ — -:; — -77-; these equations give

A/ 386 6 ■'' 6^ 6

„„ I 1, /l25c' bd' . ,, J

(!)•

(■2).

Example 1. — When k' is equal 4 feet, what is the value of d, tiie
other dimensions being the same as those in example 1, problem 8.

From equation (1) rf= ^ / X^.Y^^V _ fXU) 10^x1
V 3x90x21 21 ^ 21^

C4 _ /g 14, 125 IGO 1600 _ 40

t "y 5G70 ■ 21 "^ Hr 21

lOxj
21

= y/ 108-3 — 7-G + 3-G — 1-9 — v'i04-3 - 1-9

= 10-2 — 1-9 = 8-3 feet.

Example 2. — Using the same dimensions as in example 2, problem
8, what is the value of d ?

d = / 125x30' _ 10^ X 17 10- X 17'
a/ 3x33x'JO 33 "*" 33-

10x17
33

V

1-2,500 — 1700 28,900
+

• 5-2 =

33 ' 1080

V327-3 + 2G-5 — 5-2 — V353^ — 5-2 = 18-9 — 5-2 = 13-7 feet.
Example 3. — Using the same dimensions as those in example 3,
problem 8, what is the value of i?

From equation (2) h :=

V125:
3xi

Xl7'

90x10

21x6'
ItT

+ 6'

= t/ 227-5 — 75-6 + 86 — 6 = ^ 187-9 — 6 = 13-7 — 6 = 7-7 feet.
Example 4. — Using the same dimensions as those for example 4,
problem 8, what is the value of k' ?

,^ /I25x30^_10;;x^3
V 3XWX17 --^[7—^

*' =

M

82

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[March,

=v^

•2,500 — 3300

17

+ 100

/9200

+ 100 — 10

= V511-2 + 100 — 10 = 25-3 — 10 = 15-3 fee(.

If we t;ike into consideration the weight of the water above K G,
the vahics found for rf and X- in the examples are too high; but the
gravity of tlic materials in the dam being to the gravity of the water

28

as 8 to G2i, if we substitute /' + c — / x — , or /' + c — / ' x §

(nearly), for/' in the general equations (1) and (2), we will find cor-
rect values for d and /. Thus in examples 1 and 3,/' = 10-]- 17 — lo

X S = Vi =""1 '" examples 2 and 4, /' =: 17 + 30 — 17 x § =:y ;
using these values ofy we would find in

Example 1. — d= 7-4 feet ;
Example 2. — d= 11-2 feet ;
Example 3.—*= 5-9 feet;
Example 4. — i= 11-4 feet ;

all of which are intermediate between the former values and those
found in the examples of problem 8. It appears therefore in these
examples that fig. 4 is to be prefered to fig. 5. If we wish to have
equal strength in these two forms, we get by equating the general
equations in problems S and 9, s bd" + 2 s bdi -\- a /c''/=^ ^ 1^''/'+
2 s di'f + d''8b, and thence 2 A rf * + F/:= *'-/' + 2 di'f, which
equation will furnish the value of any of the quantities when the others

are given. By substituting/'

2c-2/' _ 2c+/'

for/', we take

into consideration the weight of v^ater over K G ; in assisting the
stability of the dam Fig. 5, this substitution gives us Gbdi -\- 3 Wf
^■2c li"' -\-4cd h' + (It' + 2 ri ''')/', for a general equation of equal
strength in both forms.

The subject we have now been considering, is closely connected
with the consideration of the comparative strength of buttresses and
contreforts to retaining walls. If we put n for the weight of a cubic
foot of earthwork or filling, and s for that of masonry, and substitute

/'X

c—fy.1

for/' in the equation 2 6rf/t + *'/=; 2 rfA'/' + /t'2/',

we get 2 hdsk + k'-fs = {k'-^ + 2 dk') X »g + (s »)/' ^^^ ^ ^^^^^^1

equation of equal stability between buttress and aontrefort, by which
we may with ease determine any of the dimensions by having the
others given, as none of the quantities rise higher than the second

power. The quantity — ^ is the height of a prism of masonry

equal in weight to a prism of clay whose height is c — /. This prism
acts with the clay or filling in moving out the wall, and also, from its
weight on the cnntrefort, gives the latter greater stability. This
double action often seiiarates the contrefort from the main wall when
both are not well bonded into each other.

Having pointed out the method of taking the weight over K G,
Fig. 5 into account, where considered necessary, we will neglect it in
the examples to the following problem, though the formulae are general

2c+/'
by substituting — —— for/'.
o

Problem X.

To find the dimensions of a coffer-dam. Fig. G, sufficient to resist
the pressure of a given depth of water.

By observing the same notation as in the former problems, we get
from the principles of the lever,

*/A-' + (k + d + '^) +shdx (A + |) + sfkxl " -^^ ^'3
for the equation of equilibrium, and by reduction we find 2 k k'/'-{-

IOC «3

2 k'f d + k'-f -\-2kdb + bd'--]-fk-:= i^ = m c' by putting

125
in = -5—. From this equation we find

,. , 2k'f' + '2.kh me—'xkvf—yf'—k-'f
a- -Y ^ Ad „_ ;

Fit,', (i.

A B = rf
B H = A
CE = c

IH=/'
H D^*
FE = *'

KE=/.

/t2 J_ 2&rf-t-2/^'/' _ m e — 2/ d V — /' V — bd-
f " /

and X-2 -f (2 (i + 2 /^) k' =

ne — 2bdk—fk-—bd-
f

From these equations we find, by quadratics, the following general
values for d, k and k'.

d ^ fme-%k k'f^'W^flc ^ ^f + ^fcV:_ k'f + k b ^^^^

j,^ /liK^2df'k'~f'k"—bd- bd+yy^ M-fA-/'^,,
V / "^ —7—1 "~7=~(^*-

^,__ /mc' — 2 bdk —fie — bd-

/'

+ rf+7l= — 3. — k

(3).

When f^=f', as is generally the case in practice, we get by a
simple reduction.

'=\/'^^

■fy-ik+k'^) , *'/+

+

Jl^=

k'f+kb

(4).

/mc^ — (2 rfA -^ A-a)/— bd - ba + k'f]
V ft +6

bd + k'f

k'--

■{b—f)XSdZ±^dk)

■d — k

(5).

(6).

from which equations, by having any two of the widths a, k, and k'
given, the other may be found.

Example 1. — Required the width of the main dam in Fig. 6, the
depth of the water to be resisted being 30 feet, and the other dimen-
sions as follows, viz./=/' — 17 feet ; A = 7 feet ; *' =r 10 feet ; and
6 = 33 feet.

By equation (4) we have

^=a/"

X SO'— 17X 17=

33

I 10 X 17 -f 10 X 33"]
33 I

10 X

17 -^ 7 X 33 _ /12,500 — 4913 4oT|° 401 ^

~33 ~ '\/ 33 33' 33

t/229-9 + 147-6 = 12-2 = V377-5 — 12-2 = 19-4 -- 12-2 = 7-2 ft.
which nearly corresponds with the width of the principal dam in the
coffer-dam iissd by Telford^ for bHilding St. Katherine's docks, the

1840.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECrS JOURNAL.

S3

other dimensions being taken from the transverse section given
Journal, page 433, Vol. II

in the

Evample 2. — Other dimensions remaining the same as in the last
Lample, what is the value of * when d and k' are each equal to 7 ft.

exam

From equation (5)

/.■

= V-

12,500— 17x (2X 17x 7 + 7=) — 33x7^ 7x33 + 7x171^

17

7x33h 7x 17
17

V-

.12500-2499-1617 350

17
350

V'493-2 + 424-3 — 20-G = V/ 917

17 17 17 ~

■ 20-G = 30-3 — -20-6 = 9-7 feet.

E.i-ample 3. — Other dimensions remaining the same as those in ex-
ample 1, what is the value of i' when d= 7 feet and *= 9 feet ?

From equation (6) we have k' =: V
IG

12500 •

16 X (7= + 126)

— 9 = V-

12,500 — 2800

17

V-

,9700

17

17

■16= v/ 570-6— 16

23-9 - 16 = 7-9 feet.

When/=/' and also i=i', we find from equation (4) by a few easy
reductions

d—^'

m c3 (6-y)AV (/ + 6) X /'

(')•

6 6 6

also from the general equation of equilibrium, 2A^/+ 2k/d + h\f

+ -2kdb + bd'- x/i-2 = OTC^ = 4A=/+ 2h/d + 2hdb + bd^, from

bd-

, and by quadratics,

, . , , bd + db mc
which /i- + — k =

2/

4/

'-^Tf + 47 —

(i f)d
4/

(8).

Example 4. — Required the width of the main dam in fig. 6, the
depth of water being 30 feet, and the other dimensions as follows, viz.
t'=*=8 feet,/=/'= 15 feet, and 6 = 34 feet.

,12,500 , (34
From equation (7) a ■=z v „ +

15)11= (34 + 15) 8

34

34

1'2,500 23,104

392
34

= V367-7 + 20—1 1-5 = V387-7

— 11-5= 19-7 — 11-5 = 8-2 feet, the width required.

Example 5. — What is the value of i=i' when the depth of water
is 27 feet/= 15 feet, 6 = 30 feet, and i=6 feet?

From equation (8) A =: V-
9

M X 27' 30 — 15 X 6> 45 x '

,91,125
= ^-600" ^ 4

60 60

4-5 = V 15 1-9 + 2-2— 4-5 :

60
VIsFl

— 4-5 = 12-4 — 45 = 7-9.

Example 6. — What width shall vpe adopt for the main dam, the
depth of the water being IS feet, when /{•= i'= 5 feet,/=/'= 12 feet,
and 6 = 21 feet?

d=^--

r= 18^ (21— 12)X5> (21 + 12) x 5

21

21

21

,2700

2JJ25
iTl

165
IT

= Vl28-6 + 4-6 — 7-9 = V 133-2— 7-9

= 3-6 feet, the width required. If s = 80Itjs., we would find d =
4-3 feet ; and if s was still farther reduced to GO His., d would require
to be increased to 6-1 feet.

It appears that the value of s in the foregoing formulae greatly
operates on the result in finding the width of the cofier-dam under its
different forms. Unless where otherwise mentioned it has been taken
at 90 lbs. in the examples given, but this value may be much reduced
if water presses under the dam, and the reduction will be in proportion
to the quantity of the, bottgin surface pressed upon, or exposed to the

action of the water. As the construction of some forms of coffer-dams
are more liable to admit water underneath than others, s may proba-
bly in such cases have to be reduced so low as 60 lbs.

The dimensions in the last example are nearly those of the coffer-
dam used by Simple for constructing the piers of Essex Bridge, in
Dublin, in 1753, the depth of water varying from 13 to 2l) feet along
the line of the coffer-dam. This coffer-dam deserves particular atten-
tion as being probably the first constructed in the kingdom, at that
time, for such a depth of water ; and from the difficulties the engineer
had to encounter in the execution of the work, and overcoming one of
the prejudices of the time then supported by the authority of a
Labylye.

Figs. 7 and 8 show a plan and section of the coffer-dam taken fiom
Semplt's Treatise of Building in Wakr, which the author acknow-
ledges to have taken from Belidor'i Hydraulic Architecture. The

Fig. 7.

Tig. 8.

piles are about 6 inches square, placed at 4 feet apart along the line of
the dam, and sheeted along the inside with, apparently, inch boarding.
B high-water mark, A low-water mark, D bed of river, C C occasional
braces, f, g, and e, auxiliary braces, and P pudling. The width be-
tween the sheeting from out to out is 15 feet, and the main dam is 5
feet wide. This construction is however far inferior to that of con-
tinuous sheet piling as adopted at St. Katherine's Docks, and at the
New Houses of Parliament ; as the resistance, offered by the depth of
bed penetrated by the pileing, is trifling in the former plan compared
with that in the latter, but on the other hand the quantity of timber
employed is less in the former.

It may be necessary in conclusion, to remark that the depth of water
ought to be taken from the surface to the bottom of the exposed coffer-
dam, inside ; for though that depth may not be on the outside, yet the
water generally forces its way down so far ; or if not, forces the bed
with nearly an equivalent pressure against the coffer-dam.

Ancient Greek Mwuiseript.— An important discovery has been made by M.
Didron, during his recent archaeological tour in Greece and Turkey, of a
Greek manuscript, about 900 years old, containing a complete code of reli-
gious monumental paintings. This document, found at Mount Athos, gives
lull instru tions concerning all the subjects and persons that ought to be
painted in chnrclies, with the age, costume, and attributes that each fi.gure
ought to have. A copy of this manuscript is making at Mount Athos \villi
the greatest care. Another mrinuscript, containing a similar code on religious
architecture, is believed by M. Didron to c.-dst at Adrianople, and he has
some hopes of obtaining it. — French paper.

M 2

84

THE CIVIL EN(JINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[March,

LONDON AND WESTMINSTER BANK.

WITH AN ENGRAVING, PLATE \1II.

'CiiK !ircoinp;inving Piigraving originally appeared in tlio AHnn, from
nliicli alsowu are enabletl to give the following description of tile
building.

Tliis new liKJlding for the city estahlisliment of tin' London and
Wi-stininstrr Bulk, which was completed in the latter part of 183s,
under the joint professional superintendence of Mr. (J. U. Cockerell
and Mr. Williani Tile, architects, is situated iuLothhury, immediately
opposite to Ihe Himk of England. The whole structure- occupies a
site of nearly eighty feet in frontage, and ninety in <lepth. The en-
trance front possesses, not only from its extent, hut from its architec-
tural treatment, a bold and imposing character. It displays, indeed,
no ciilmnir.u- decorations, no hundredth edition of an apjuuvcd portico;
but its comjiosition has the much greater merit of strict appropriate-
ness, simplicitv in general forms; such simplicity, w'c mean, as con-
duces to unity", together with a jjerfect expression of purpose ; an air
of solidity and strength, and a judicious erpudity of decoration. The
facade consists of one general plane or face, broke only by an advancing
pier at each end. It lias seven apertures in the length, and three tiers
(d'lliem in the height; the two lower tiers, comprehending the open-
ings on the ground and one-pair lloors, are included in one architectural
slliry, or order, if such it may he called; the upper tier, which con-
sists of the windows of the tvvo-pair floor, being contained in an attic
story. The whole of the front is of Portland stone, w ith the exception
of the plinth, which is from the Bramley-fall quarries. To describe
the front rather more in detail, we may state that the substructure is a
stylotjate, or continuous pedestal, resting upon a deep rock-faced
plinth. From this stylobate rise broad pilasters, or rusticated jiiers,
in courses (if alternate widths; the whole including, as we have said,
two tiers (d' openings, and snrmountcil by a regular entablature, the
cornice of which is enriched with luodillions. Of the seven compart-
ments into wliich the front is divided, the central one is somewhat
wider than the rest, and displays, on the ground floor, a handsome en-
trance doorway of large proportions, and deeply recessed, approached
nv several steps externally, and having the flight continued within.
The remaining intervals aflbid six large windows, each being so wide
as to admit oi subdivision by two niullious and a transuni of cast iron,
of elegant design and novel structure ; the isolated niullion partaking
of the character of an antique candelabrum at the base, and tinishing
with a scroll or console at the top : very wide and lofty Venetian win-
dows are thus obtained, without allecting the real or the apparent
solidity of the fabric, and the great and important problem (as applied
to the City of London), namely, to obtain the largest possible admis-
sion of light, with the smalles't obstruction of solids or piers, is most
etlcctually, and, at the same time, architecturally attained. These
windows are fuinished with Bunnett and Corpe's iron shutters. The
•windows abuve, upon the one-pair story, are narrower than the former,
and conse(|uciitly leave, on each side between the rusticated piers, in-
tervals available for decoration: these are sculptured alternately with
cadueei, the invariable commercial symbol, and with the bundle of
slicks, expressive of the tvs iinitafortiin; so appropriate to the union,
or joint-stock association, of this establishment. In consequence of
the advance of the two end jucrs in the princip;d order before-men-
tioned, there is gained in front of the attic story, whic h is not similarly
broken, sullicicnt s])ace for the display of two statues of seated female
figures, emblematical of the commercial interests of London and West-
minster, and having shields charged respectively with the arms of
those cities; a mode of applying statuary to tlie purjioses of external
decoration, enlivening and appropriate to the general structure, and
etrective as regards the proper development of the subjects themselves.
These figures are designed (and one of them— that of London — we
understand to have been modelled) by Mr. Cockerell, and executed by
Mr. Nicholl.

But it is time that we pass to the notice of the interior. The en-
trance vestibule or avenue has, on each side, a line of four plain Doric
columns, with appropriate entablature and decorative mouldings. Its
ellcct is, however, unavoidably impaired by the interference of two
pairs of screen doors, tliough these are panelled and surrounded with
plate glass, to obviate the objection as tar as possible. Krcun this
anqde vestibule, access is gained on the right to tlie country bank, the
jnincipal staircase, and some olficial apartments ; and, directly in front,
to the ])riucipal, or town bank. The latter apartment is not only by
far the most considerable in the buililiiig, but is unequalled in import-
ance by anything of the kind in London, except iu the case of some
otlices of the Bank of England, and in altitude it exceeds even them.
Its general form is a square of about 37 feet, whose height is that of
the entire building — namely, 63 feet G — and is extended by latera

additions, east and west, to a portion of this height. These additions
or aisles are divided from the centre, on each side, by an arcade of
three arclics, springing from Doric columns of the same size and order
with those of the vestibule, with cornices. The columns themselves,
in common with all the other features of the design, display a sober
and subdued stvie of decoration or enrichment, being fluteil only at the
upper and lower extremities, and elevated upon plain flat plinths. The
surrounding walls are channelled in rustic courses to the height of this
order. The aisles or extensions are sufficiently lofty, by tlie arches
raised upon the columns, to allow of the introduction of a gallery on
each side, tinished in front by a balustrade. Above this, the arches of
the arcades run across over the aisles, and are intersected by a con-
trary vaulting, producing a system of groins as ceilings to the galleries;
they are also advanced over the main body of the buililiiig, and treated
as a series of half groins, so as to afllird support to an upper |iri>jectiug
gallery, which passes quite round the principal s<piare. The verge uf
this upper gallery is guarded by a simple, but handsome barrier, coii-
sisting of a double horizontal rail, sustained at intervals by ornaments
of scroll foliage. Over this gallery the lines of the cubical form below
are continued through, and gathered up, by means of pendentives, into
a domed tigure, exhibiting nearly that portion of a hemisphere cut oli'
by planes raised upon the sides of a square inscribed within its cir-
cumference. The top of tills dome is pierced by a large circular
oiiening for a skylight, the margin of which is covere<l, and addition-
ally ornamented with mouldings and lions' masks. Light is also ob-
tained by trijde windows, occupying the flat semicircular spaces left
by the pendentives of the dome, on the three sides which are exposed
to the view of a person entering, in the manner of the imperial Roman
baths : these windows are filled with glass in geometrical compart-
ments, alternately ground and ])olished. Smaller semicircular windows
are introduced likewise in the three arches on the north side, which
form a continuation to those of the lateral arcades, so that a very sulli-
cient light has been contrived thronghout this vast apartment, sur-
rounded as it is with lofty and close buildings on all sides. .Such is a
general description of this apartment, the composition of which dis-
plays considerable novelty of adaptation, magnitude of proportions,
and felicity of eft'ect. The general forms arc very happily divcrsilicd,
and the decorative details distributed with equality; except, indeed,
that the eye would have welcomed the application of some enrichment
to the large expanse of the dome, which is left entirely plain. The
fittings up are in a style of appropriate completeness; comprising
handsomely finished and extensive ranges of counters; a massive cen-
tral stove, of consistent design, being a bee-hive, round which the arms
of London and Westminster, and the guardian of British commerce, as
well as of govermeiit — the lion — are ranged with taste and propriety ;
an hydraulic apparatus, by which plate chests and cash boxes may be
lowered into the basement story for security, or brought up with great
facility, and other minor appurtenances.

RAMBLES BY PHILOMUSJEUS.— No. V.

THE BRITISH MUSEUM.

Aftkr this establishment lias been partially closed for months, its
directors have felt themselves compelled to show the public that at
least they have not run away with the collections. They still keep the
long gallery closed, and have thrown open two new galleries, in which
a few unnamed articles are placed in undescribalile confusion. Wo
have seen representations id' the plunder oi" a wreck by a crowd of
savages, one with a pair of breeches in his arms, another with a coat
matted round Ills waist, running from one package to another, ran-
sacking their contents, and then throwing them about in confusion^ and
such is the state of the Museum. Egyptian coffins in one place,
Etruscan tombs in another, all in most admirable disorder, the passages
choked up, the rooms encumbered, and packages covered with the
dust of months, accusing the ineHiciency of the officers of the establish-
ment. Nothing, perhaps, more nearly resembles the Spectator's de-
scription of a monkey in an Egyptian temple, ranging about not
knowing what to do, and then establishing himself in a corner. That
this insliliitiiin has tlie active services of many men of the highest
ability we fully recognize ; we do not complain that there are not
enough men of talent, we only call for the ein])loyincnt of more rou-
tine-working men. We are sure there are numbers of young men,
sufficiently qualified, who, for a small remuneration, and many indeed
for none at all, who would, under the superintendence of the officers,
be competent to ;\ssist in the classification, without requiring a per«
manent employment in the establishment. We know that tiiere is a
great want of room, that the architegtural department is sadly cramped.

^

M

1840.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

85

but we are convincetl, noUvithstancling, tliat there is ;\ want of energy
on tlie part of the ofTicers, which throws the business into arrear, anil
paralyses the wliole operations.

Tlio Long Gallery has now been closed nearly a year, and the pub-
lic thus shut out from the Portrait Gallery, the geological and niine-
r.ilogical collections. At the same time we know that Dr. Mantell's
collection of nearl}' thirty thousand specimens has been purchased,
and ought long since to have been arranged. The Etruscan collection
has remained in its present stale during the whole of the last year,
and thus has it been rendered totally useless. The Egyptian collection
is, on the lowest estimaleT two years in arrear, and the Vase Room
good for nothing. As to the mammalia, their condition has been a
subject of ridicule many years, and every month, by increasing the
collection, renders the absurdity but more manifest. The managers
of this department certainly deserve the highest praise for their com-
pressive power, in which, doubtless, they have hardly yet met with
a rival. An old bachelor's travelling portmanteau is nothing to it;
cats crouching under lions, deer striding over wolves, the cases, cram-
med even into the crevices with stuffed animals, show a crowd of im-
prisoned and confused creaturesj which even the ark of Noah could
not equal.

With regard to what has been done, it has been little indeed. The
arrangement of the ^Egina marbles has been completed, the Fhidian
and Phigalian Saloons have been painted of a red granite colour,
which, it is to be wislied, may be continued throughout the whole
house. The collection of lish, saurians, and batrachians, has been ex-
tended, and the insects and corallines removed. At Paris, a much
greater number of entomological specimens is exhibited to the public,
and so far is the respect even for vulgar curiosity carried, that tlie
whole of the papilionaceous tribes are shown, forming a sight of natu-
ral beauty which is well calculated to strike the spectator with emo-
tion. It is a national disgrace, that, ruling over one hundred and forty
millions in India, we have no good collection of oriental objects, the
illustration of our own antiquities is equally defective, and nrany de-
partments flourishing in coimtries of less resources, are here totally
neglected.

As to the catalogues of public collections in this country, with the
exception of a portion of that of the British Museum relating to
natural history, they are miserably defective, and inferior to what is
done abroad. The catalogue of the National Gallery is a gross im-
position, charging one shilling for a book which contains about one
jiennyvvorth of print and paper, and scarcely one farthing's worth of
information. The catalogue of the Louvre, although necessarily
restricted, gives much more detail, the name of the painter, of his
master, the period at which he lived, the school to which he belonged,
and a description of the subject. That of the National Gallery gives
tlie name of the painter, ancl the date of his birth, and only the name
of the picture, giving such references to the people as to a story in
Tasso, and limiting the descriptive matter to a history of the picture,
which, as many of the works are spurious or contemptible, is of no
value. The catalogue of the antiipulies in the Britisli Museum is of
no use, eilher to the artist or the public, giving the name of the st;due,
and barely that! No — a Mithraic sidijectl Who knows what that
means, or who can tell where to find out. The catalogue of the Paris
Museum of Antiquities, under the same circumstances, gives a page or
two of small type to an account of the Mithraic rites. That catalogue
gives, in every case, the name of the subject, extent of iruitilalions or
restorations, history, stone of which made, height and breadth, and a
fnl! antiquarian and artistical account, with reference to the authorities
of any peculiarity to be observed in the statue. To such an extent is
this carried, that the catalogue is a complete encyclopedia of Greek
and Roman costume, having the author's name attached to it, and in-
valuable to the student.

THE PUBLIC WALKS OF LONDON.

Much is said about the public gardens and walks of Paris, nothing is
said of those of London, except by foreigners whom they never fail to
strike with admiration. The Tuileries, the Champs Elysces, the
Luxemburg, the Jardin des Plantes, and the Quais have great and in-
contestable merits, they possess features which we cannot rival, but
those of London again are unexcelled in their own department. Each
style is suited to its respective nation, perhaps it is a consequence of
their several characters, perhaps a cause. We see at once the French-
man in the classic statues, in the ordonnanced foliage, the imprisoned
orange trees, and the straight walks. The Englishman seems to im-
press his own character in the grassy slopes, luxuriant timber, anti
placid waters of the scenes in which he epitomizes his beloved isle.
The Frenchman knows no paradise without artifice, the Englishman
none without nature, the American hates even the sight of a tree.
That of which we have to complain is neither the graiKie,ur nor extent

of our public walks, but their unequal distribution. The parks were
truly named the lungs of the metropolis, they are so, to the over-
worked mechanic they are receivers from which he obtains fresh
breath to carry on his life-shortening labours. Yet as in the human
being if we had an unequal distribution of the respiratory organs, we
should find an atrophy of the body, so in the immense metropolis an
insufficient provision of these necessaries of life causes an immense
loss of human existence. The southern portions of the metropolis
between Greenwich and Kew are miserably unprovided, but it is
among the impoverished population of the east that the want is felt in
all its severity. So great indeed is the difference between the average
value of life in the east and the west of the metropolis, that whereas
in the latter it is 2-1 per cent., in the former it is 3-2, and in White-
chapel it is so low that one female in twenty- four dies in a year, an
awful mortality, scarcely perhaps equalled by Portugal or any other
misgoverned country.

The walks of London may be divided into two classes, public and
corporate, antl the former again into special promenades and into
thoroughfares and micellaneo\is sites used for this purpose.

Among the special promenades are to be reckoned .St. James's Park,
collection of curious birds, military monuments and music ; Green
Park ; Hyde Park, military exercises and Kensington Gardens, mili-
tary nuisic; Regent's Park ; Greenwich Park ; Kew Gardens; Draper's
Gardens, Throgmorton-street ; Artillery Ground, City Road, military
nuisic ; "Tower Hill, recently planted ; Lambeth Walk ; Cheyne Walk,
&c.

Among the other ]daces used for walks are the old commons and
greens as Islington and Kennington; Chelsea Hospital ; the Cemeteries
at Kensall Green, Highgate and Norwood ; the Docks, &-.

We have not a line of tjuais as at Paris, and we should be sorry in-
deed if we had, but we have points on the river allurding unrivalled
views : — the Dock Wharfs, Tower W liar I, Custom-house YVIiarf, Tem-
ple Gardens, Waterloo Bridge, the Adclphi Terrace, Huugerford
Stairs, Millbank, Cheyne Walk, the Bishop's Walk tLambcthj, and the
Terrace of Greenwich Palace.

Coming to the second class walks belonging to and used by coui-
inunities, we have the unrivalled squares, the gardens of Lincoln's Inn,
Gray's Inn, the Temple, Charterhouse, i&c.

These many establishments place London almost without a rival in
the provision for this departiiient of public health, and in the beauty
of many of the establishments and their accessaries, as well as in the
splendour of the views which they afford, — unique prospects of one
of the largest cities and ports in the world.

GOVERNMENT MEASURES FOR STEAM VESSELS.

It was with regret that we learned that on the first day of the
session the government gave notice of their intention to bring in a bill
for carrying out the recommendations of the Steam Vessel Inquiry
Commission. This report has now lieen long published, and so far
from attracting the support of those w ho have examined it, it has ex-
cited cither open hostility or silent contempt. We had occasion on
its appearance to call the attention of our readers to its provisions, we
jiointed oid the meanness and paltriness of the means by which it was
attempted to be supported, and the injurious results which must in-
fallibly ensue from the enactment of its provisions. A case of grosser
jobbery, or more iniquitous misrepresentation than is presented by the
report was never hardly brought before the public. Had indeed the
necessity of inquiry been so great as to require investigation only to
ascertain the extent of injury, a case would at once exist for the ap-
pointment of a commission, but when no such necessity existed, when
no evils prominently called for redress, it was but a gross mockery of
public credulity, and an arbitrary exercise of delegated power to in-
vest men of whatever standing with authority, which they received as
it were with permission to direct for their own personal advantage.
What was it but calling on the commissioners to make out a case not
only to justify their present employment, but to give them occupation
for the future, to do as they have done in this case, to use every
artifice of an accuser to overwhelm the object of pursuit? Has
even common respect been paid to the judgment of the public, com-
mon justice been shown to the victims of this perseculion ? facts of
trivial insignificance have been overrated and overstated, a judicial
investigation has resorted to absurdities to bolster up a false c.uise,
popular prejudices have been appealed to, insufficient and untried
examples have been enforced as of authority and example, in fine the
dignity of the government and the people has been outraged, the pros-
perity of the country threatened, and the vested interests of property
attacked. And for what purposes but the grossest.' To furnish new

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THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[March,

places at the expense (if the best interests of the country, to subject
the genius of its inventors and llie cliaracters of its manufacturers to
an inspection more servile than degrades even a Frendi police; to
stifle ingenuity, to give a monopoly to ignorance and indolence, to
crip|>le the energies of the nation, and in striking at one branch, to
prepare a chain for all.

We have on previous occasions exposed the misrepresentations and
fallacies of this report with an unsparing hand, and therefore refrain
from enforcing on our readers arguments, of the truth of which they
are well persuaded. We may observe that admitting all the state-
ments of the commissioners to their fullest extent, they are but argu-
ing from the abuse against the use, they are seeking to upset the great
jirinciples of English administrations, and to foist in foreign degrada-
tions; they are endeavouring to substitute for the grand principle of
jirotecting the mass against the errors of a few, that of sacrificing the
whole body to correct trifling abuses, a system whicli while it is being
abandoned abroad, is endeavoured for the first time to be introduced
here. Founding their claims upon untried or inefficient precedents,
they call for powers greater than even these examples authorize, and
make up by boldness of demand for the weakness of their cause. They
rely upon the examples of the United States and of France, they dare
to bring forward that of Belgium, they conceal that other circumstances
prevail in the States, that the lavi's of France are inefficient and unob-
served, and that Belgium has no vessels for which to legislate.

This measure ought not to be, cannot be, carried ; its results are too
evidently mischievous to allow us to believe that the parties affected
can be so deaf to their own welfare as to allow it to be carried into
cflect witliout resistance. We call upon them, therefore, to unite, to
meet together and concert measures for the defeat of a project so
odious and so ruinous ; it is only by union that this can be eti'ected ;
it is thus the aggressions of government have been successfully resisted
by the railways and other interests. We earnestly advise, therefore,
that immediate steps should be taken for calling a meeting of the
boat-builders, engine-makers, and steam-boat captains, and of all those
who have property embarked in this large and increasing branch of
the sliipping interests.

THE STATUE OF HUSKISSON.
By John Gibson, R. A.

[We are indebted for this able paper to the kindness of our eminent
and talented correspondent at Rome, whose love of art is only equalled
by bis knowledge of it. — Editor.]

We have much pleasure in announcing that Mr. Gibson is engaged
in executing anotlier statue of Huskisson, which, we understand,
is to be placed in the Custom-house, at Liverpool. This statue differs
in some respects from the former one executed some time ago, in as
much as that, the attitude is difterent, and we think that it is more
dignified, and seems to breathe the true Attic spirit of a great orator,
both statues however partake of the character of the Demosthenes of
the Vatican, and the Aristides* of Naples. The latter was so famous
that Demosthenes accused his rival Eschincs of imitating if, or an
antique statue that resembled the Aristides, by folding his arm in his
pallium when he addressed the public from the rostrum.

As the former statue of Huskisson was sacrificed from the fact of its
having been placed in a temple of too small dimensiuns, we therefore
shall offer a few observations, lest the one we now are about to describe
should share the same fate. The first statue was com])Osed in such a
manner as to allow of its being seen in any point of view, and it ne-
cessarily followed, that the temple should have; been of that magnitude,
to have enabled a spectator to have encompassed with his eye the
entire figure on walking at a sufficient distance aruiuul if, whereas it
was found necessary to ])lace it with its back to the wall. Thus it is
that the skill of the sculptor displayed in the com|)osition has been
miserably defeated by the ignorance of the architect; in consequence
of which the statue can only be seen in one point of view, and that, the
most unfavourable, remaining enshrined in stone, hid from vulgar eyes,
like the oracle of Delphi. The height of the statue should have given
the architect the scale of jiroportions for his tem|)le. Arrian's de-
scription of the Pontus Eurinus, says that thestatues anil images placed
in a sacred edifice should always be in proportion to if, as being a part
of it. "Quod enim ad membra sacrarum Ecdium etiam status earum
atque imagines pertineant, docet nos Arrianus in ipso statim invitio
peripli ponti Euxini." The proportions of temples with regard to
the statues which were to be placed in them was strictly observed by

* From some very recent discoveries wc believe that this statue called
Aristides, is Kschiues himself,

the ancients. The Emperor Adrian objects to the statues of Mercury
and Fhilesius in the temple of Trapesuntia, as being less than the
just proportions which the temple required. " Ibi enim Adrianum
Imper: certiorem facit Mercurii ac Philesii statuas in Trapesuntiorum
templo minores esse, quam pro ipsius templi ratis debeant." Bad
artists place small statues upon large pedestals, thus showing their own
ignorance. Vitruvius says* all the parts of a sacred edifice must agree
in each single part with the general height of the whole.

Trusting this second statue will not share the same fate, we will
now proceed to describe it. The statue, like the first one, is colossal,
Huskisson is represented standing in an easy and dignified attitude,
the right leg a little advanced, his arras are naked, and the left one is
raised towards his face, whilst the right arm hangs by his side, and in
the hand he holds a scroll. The breast is naked, while the drapery
falls within a short distance of his feet, and is brought over the left
shoulder. The attitude is becoming the senatorial dignity of a great
statesman, and is at once quiet and impressive ; from the stern and
meditative air it might be almost imagined that he was about to sum-
mon up to his bidding all the resources of his gigantic mind, and that
he had grown a colossus in power, — that Demosthenic eloquence was
about to burst from his lips. The head which we believe is a faithful
portrait, has all the artistical attributes which are indicative of genius,
approaching to the beau ideal of a philosopher, the expression of the
face is severe, and the features are vigorously pronounced, the cold
marble is made to breathe with a soul, nay almost with human intelli-
gence. The nude is true to nature, yet all traces of mechanical art
and vulgar impurities have been effaced by the magic touches of a
chisel directed by the master hand of another Phidias, it has made the
marble start into immortal life. The entire figure would seem to have
been cast in that mould in which the Greeks were wont to form their
heroes and their gods. The drapery is consonant with the subject,
masterlike in style, easy and flowing, it is in fact the Greek pallium,
consequently classic, and hence suitable to assist at the apotheosis of
a great statesman. Huskisson like another Aristides,-!- has now had a
statue laised to his memory for having caused by bis eloquence the
embellishment of that city which gave him political fame during life,
and immortality after death. He is fortunate too in having for his
artist a fellow-citizen so distinguished. In the drapery of Gibson's
figure we find that it is disposed with judgment, while the skill shown
in the arrangement of the folds gives a rich effect, and the harmony of
the lines serve to preserve a proper balance of light and shade. We
-also remark that the angular creases, and the spirited touches of the
details contribute to the grand ett'ect of the whole. To arrange ilrapery
is one of the most difficult branches of the art, sculpture cannot as in a
painting, imitate the nature of the stuff, and give the various shades
of colour which have their origin from the reflection of light and
shade.

Quatremere de Quincy observes, " that ancient clothing is emjiloyed
by art, not as ancient but as natural, not because it was adopted by the
Greeks and Romans, but because no other can be employed in imita-
tion; and further not even so much because it is accordant with the
metaphorical style, as because the modern costume is anti-imitative.
This being the case, the interest of every nation requires that in con-
fiding to the sculptor the task of perpetuating its exploits, and its
great men, it should watch over the taste and the style of imitation in
works, which while they inspire respect for the images so enshrined,
may bear favourable testimony to future ages of the period at which
they were upraised."

No reasoning can be stronger than this, and we think the observa-
tions of the above cited learned author irrefutable, but we will repeat
that the modern style of dress is wholly inconsistent, and quite un-
worthy of the dignity of sculpture, and we shall find that whenever it
has been attempted, whatsoever might have been the style of dress
of the period, classic taste has been outraged and every jjrinciple
violated which is the characteristic of beauty in art. The object of
sculpture is not to give an individual portrait dressed up in the whim-
sical or the ephemeral fashion of a day, but to perpetuate the memory
of persons by investing the lasting marble with the attributes of that
classic style of art, which has been handed down to us by those whose
works yet stand omni]iotent, and have outlived the wreck of time.
Scul|itural portraiture in fine was considered by the Greeks and Ro-
mans as a convention, at once allegorical and imaginary, sometimes it
represented the metamorphosis of the gods, or the apotheoses of
princes, warriors, orators, poets, and philosophers. The statues of

* Vitnivius, lib. 3, cap. 3.

f ^^'hen Smyrna was ilcstroyed by an earthquake, Aristides wrote a letter
so pathetic to M. Aurelius that he ordered the city tolje immediately rebuilt,
fur i\hich intercession a statue was in consequence raised to the orator.

1S40.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

87

Alexander, Adrian and Antinous are naked, and wore made ideal gods,
they like the statue of Pompey, seem to have a mystic life, there is a
very language in those cold, stem, and colourless stones, which breathes
an air of truth and creates on our minds more interest than their names
in tlie pages of history. The statue of Napoleon,* by Canova, is
naked, and is an apotheosis; it is confessedly, grand, imperial, and
collossal ; it has immortalized the hero, as well as the artist, and when
we consider that Canova and Gibson were the first to set so good an
example to their country, we must say that their statues will ever
stand pre-eminent over the barbarous objects which disfigure some of
our public monuments.

We would ask is there a person capable of reflecting who has paced
the vast sculpture gallery at Versailles, and not smiled at the absurd
dresses of some of tlie marble effigies ; in days gone by they were ad-
mired, and the persons they represented were doubtless, much venerated,
but alas ! how changed, they now excite our contempt, and we feel in-
clined to laugh outright at their antiquated costumes. The time will
come, and it is not far distant, when the vagaries of our sculptors will
share the same fate, and become also objects of ridicule. It is an
opinion held by some artists that all monuments should have the figures
executed in the style of dress of the period in which they were erected,
but we feel sorry to observe that it is only interested and inferior
artists who advocate this opinion, and it is because they find that to
model drapery and the naked proportions is excessively difficult, and
often beyond their capacity, they are therefore contented to please the
ignorant multitude, who for the most part, like the cobbler could only
criticise the sole of the shoe in the picture of Apelles, for which reason
persist in perpetuating the fame of our generals and admirals in all
the glorious absurdity of modem tailory — epaulets and cocked hats,
boots and spurs. Of what possible consequence can it be to us that
antiquarians should discover in after times that pig-tails were com-
monly worn in the reign of George the Third ? and moreover, that it
was a most singular custom with their ancestors to represent great
warriors in a mutilated state, having only one arm, and sometimes
wooden legs. This they would conjecture was done to bring to the
recollection of the public that they had lost their limbs in the service
of their country. Lest the time may arrive when even the name of a
Nelson should be blotted out of the page of history, we would recom-
mend that his amputated arm be placed by his side, to convince future
ages that he was once a perfect being, and furthermore to satisfy the
public who ever crave after monstrosities,!" the arms and legs of his
brave comrades might be piled up in a group as monumental trophies
of their valour ! Non eadera miraniur ! !

Felagrio.

RoTne, January 18, 1840.

Side View.

DIOGENES'S SELF-ACTING GROUND-ROPE APPARATUS,

FOR TAKING UP THE ROPE.

Front View.

* This fine statue of Napoleon is in the possession of his Grace the Duke of
Wellington, at Apsley-house.— Ed.

t We liavri ilogmrilical proofs tliat the French have outyeneralleil us in
sculptural atrocities, for in the triumphal arcli of Napoleon at Marseilles,
there are poodle-Jogs, and a whole legion of amputated urms and legs.^

REFERENCE TO THE LETTERS.

Claws or holder for the rope.

Bar for forcmg open the claws, in order to liberate the rope, or pre-
vious to taking hold of it.

Lower part of claw s, which works against the bar B.

Small wheel (ixcd upon fore axle of carriage to elevate the fork.

Lever over which the wheel D passes, and forces it down.

Fork fixed on the same axle as the lever just mentioned ; but by being
on the opposite side, it is raised as the lever is depressed; it is
pulled down again by a spring It is to raise the rope to the level
of the claws ; were the claws fixed lower, they would catch against
the pullies. It should be observed that the fork is not raised until
the claws have passed it. The rope is liberated hy a similar bar,
only the fork for lifting up the rope is omitted.

THE EPICYCLOIDAL STEAM ENGINE.

[We have given this communication at the request of some of our
readers, although it is not new, as we stated in our notice to corres-
pondents. The motion will be found described in the second volume
of Gregory's Mechanics, and the author there states that it was intro-
duced in an engine erected at Bermondsey. It may be seen as we
before stated at the Saw Mills in the Arsenal at Woolwich.] — Ed.

Sir — I am happy to communicate my improvement Jon'^the steam
engine.

In all engines now employed the motion of the piston rod is com-
municated by a connecting rod to the crank. This rod, by the nature
of the motion always works obliquely. The obliquity of action is
certainly objectionable, as it evidently occasions a loss of power.

88

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[March,

Accordingly, the connecting roil is always made as long as may be,
within limits fixed by other circumstances, for thereby the oliliquity of
its action is diminished. A method of communicating the motion of
the j)iston to the crank, without loss of power by such a cause, has
therefore been a (hsidiiatnin.

The fundamental princiiile of my contrivance is, that the epicycloid
generated by any point of the circumference of a circle rolling on the
interior of tlie circumference of another circle of twice its diameter,
is a straight line, tlie same point always describing the same straight
line. Tluis, the circle A B F, fig. 1, rolling on the circle AC A', in
the above-mentioned circumstances, any point, A in it, moves up and
down A A', a diameter of the larger circle, It is easily inferred too,
that the centre E, of the inner circle describes a circle EG, of equal
radius concentric with the larger circle ; so tliat, were E and F con-
nected, the connection E F would move round F, in the manner of a
crank.

Now, let A A' and A F, fig. 2, be tlie primitive diameters of two
teethed wheels, in which the teeth of the larger one on the interior of
the circumference, and those of the smaller on its exterior, so that they
may run into each other. Let G be the extremity of a shaft concen-
tric with the wheel A A', and carrying a crank GE, of which the pin
at E is also concentric with the smidler wheel A F. Then, when G
revolves, it carries the wheel A F with it, which runs on the crank |)in,
its teeth at the same time taking into those of the wheel A A', and
the point A of the wheel A F describing the path A A'. Reversing
the mode of action, suppose the large wheel to be fixed ; then if the
piston rod of a steam cylinder of which the stroke is eciual to A A', be
jointed to a pin standing on the primitive circumference of A F at A,
for example, the machine, with a fly on the shaft G, will work, so as
that this shaft will have a continous rotatory motion.

In this method there is neither connecting rod nor parallel motion.
The ))iston rod is connected immediately with the pin on the wheel
A F, and is led up and down rectiliueally by the very nature of the mo-
tions.

Now, the fact that no special parallel motion is recpured, proves
that none of the power is wastefully exerted. To be more minute,
however, suppose the crank in the position F E', fig. 2, A' A" will be
the ])iston rod, jointed at A" to the wheel. Producing F E to B, this
will be the touching point of the two circles. Draw A" B, A"E', and
drop the perpendicular E'C upon A" B. Then A" E' B must he con-
sidered as a crooked lever of the second kind, in which B is the ful-
crum, and E' and A" respectively, the points of application of the
resistance and power. Now, in the triangles F E' A'', A" E' B, the
angle E' F A"+E' A" F (or 2 E' A" F, 5. 1. Euclid) =2 right angles—
F E' A"; and E' A" B + E' B A" (or 2 E' A" B, 5.1. Euclid)=2 right
angles— A" E' B (32. 1. Euclid). And taking the half sum of these
ccpiations, we have E A F+E A B =2 right angles— (F E' A"-|- A" E" B)
= 1 right angle, that is. A" B is perpendicular to A' A'', and therefore,
A" B is the leverage of the power acing in the line A' A''. C B is
also the leverage of the resistance acting in the line E' C ; and it is
easily seen that A B=2 C B ; so that, as this demonstration applies in
every position of the crank, putting the angle A" F B' = Z, and FB =
1, we conclude, in general, that,

1. The leverage of the power =sin. Z ;

sin. Z

2. resistance = — — \

3. The line of action on the crank is always parallel to the piston
lod. Now, as could easily be proved, by this mode of action, namely,
the parallelism of the impulse on the crank, the whole power of the
piston is communicated to the main shaft ; and thus is my object
proved to be attained.

Besides the advantage already stated, this engine possesses two
Others, simplicity of construction, anJ smaliness of bv>lki It differs

from the common ones in this also, tliat with the same sweep of crank,
it has twiiu> the length of stroke; and accordingly, as we see from the
above two fixed conclusions, the leverage of the power is twice that
of the resistance.

I am, Sir, your obliged servant,

Daniel Clark.
Glasgnw, Dec. 19, 1S39.

HOOPER'S POST OFFICE LETTER WEIGHTS.

The accompanying engraving represents one of Hooper's peculiar
letter balances, the merits of which are its simplicity and accuracy ; a
grain in ert'ect would turn the balance either way. Although numerous
devices have been inlreduced for this purpose, none that we have
seen surpass this in utility, in which it is as much before its compe-
titors, as it was in priority of introiluction,

TilK FITZWILLIAM MU.SF,UAf.

TiiF. FitzwiUiam Syndicate have reported to the Simatc :

" That Mr. Easevi has corliliea to the Vicc-Clianci'Uov that Mr. Baker has
cxcculeil works in tlie IjiiililiuH of the FitzwiUiam Museum to the value of
£34,00(J or thereabouts ; and Mr. Basevi has tliereuiuin retommended that a
sum of £5.000 be now paid to Mr. liaker on ncciiuiit of tlie saul works in ail-
dilion to the sum of £25,500 already paid to liim on that account.

" Tliat although the above-mentioned sum of £5,000 exceeds the instalment
which Mr. Baker is at present entitled to demand according to the terms of
the contract; the .Syndics, under the cireumsttuires stated in 'Mr. Basevi 's
certificate and letter, bcL' leave to recommend to tlie .Senate that the Siiid
sum be paid to Mr. Baker, provided Ibat be is willing to agree .'hat the
balance to he retained by the Vice-t'hancellor until six months alter Mr.
Basevi shall have duly certified the entire cimipletiun of the works, shall ae-
coiding to the terms" of the enntiaet, bu not less than 10 per cent, upon the
w hole amount of the contract ; and that Mr. Baker's sureties are willing to
agree thiit the payment of the sum of £5,000, as above proposed, shall not
atlect or imiiair their present liability under the contract."

The .Syndics further recommend ;

" That Mr. Basevi be authorized to order the execution at a cost not ex-
ceeding £1,000, of certain works at the FitzwiUiam Museum not included in
Mr. Baker's contract ; it being advisable that such works should be completed
previously to making any further contracts for the linishing of the building.
R. T.VTHAM, I'icc-Clmncellor.

\V. French. O- Peacock.

G. AirosLuc. J. H.vvii.ANn. ^

J. Graham. H. PHii.Port."

At the Congregation this day, a Grace will be oftcred to the Senate to
confirm the above Report.

■ Mr. Basevi's certificatg and Utter will be laid on the Registrar's table,—
CmnbrUlge Advertiser,

1«40.]

THE Cn^L ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

89

EXPLANATION OF SOME TECHNICAL TERMS USED IN
STEAM ENGINE CALCULATIONS,

WITH REMARKS ON THE CORNISH QUESTION.

Sir — The full and satisfactory account you liave given in your
February number, of the new engine at the East London Water-works,
must not only be highly interesting to those of your readers who are
attached to pursuits connected with the steam-engine, but also to
those who value truth for its own sake, inasmucli as it will very soon
settle the long-disputed Cornish question, besides being of the greatest
practical importance to the proprietor of mines and other targe works
in all parts of the kingdom.

It now appears that in my comparison of the Cornish and Lancashire
systems in your number for January, I had, as indeed I wished to do,
rather over than under-rated the power of the engine above referred
to, and when I have all the data for going into the commercial part of
the question — the comparative expense — I am afraid it will be found
that the advantage of the Cornish system has been somewhat more
largely overrated by others, especially with reference to the propriety
of adopting that system in cotton factories. At any rate, when the
proper corrections are made in my table of comparative duty, from
the statement you have furnished, I think no one will be found to con-
tend thjit/our, five, and even six times more work (as has been often
asserted) is performed by the steam-engines in Cornwall than in the
north of England for the same quantity of fuel of like quality. Indeed,
the excessive degree of perfection hitherto claimed for the Cornish
engine is much to be regretted, even if true, as it carries a certain
degree of aVjsurdity on the face of it, that has not a little indisposed
engineers on both sides of the question to a fair and dispassionate
inquiry. With a view to expedite the settlement of the most im-
portant parts of the question, and prevent that divergence from the
main point at issue which is liable to occur with tlie best-intentioned
disp\itants, I have made the following attempt to define certain tech-
nical terms which prevail in this district, and it will be of use, per-
haps, to some engineers both in and o\it of Cornwall. I am also
induced to submit these definitions to the approval of your readers,
because I observe, in Mr. Enys' remarks in your last number, a few
slight misconceptions of my meaning, which, together with perhaps
a want of strict accuracy of application in some of the expressions
used by me, have led that gentleman to underrate the comparative
duty of the Lancashire engine ; there are also errors in his statement
that go to the disparagement of the Cornish system, which I am sure
must be quite obvious to that gentleman, as well as the rest of your
readers, on the slightest reconsideration of the subject — I more par-
ticularly allude to the concluding portion of Mr. Enys' communication.
No guess work allowances are at all requisite either for "vacuum
imperfections" or engine friction and resistance in my estimate of the
Lancashire engine, as the load on the piston of 10 His. per circular
inch was not the calculated, but the obserred, steam pressure taken by
the indicator, as I distinctly stated, and it of course includes the fric-
tion of the engine, shafting, &c. The average steam pressure acting
on the piston of the pumping-engine, was, on the other hand, not ob-
served, but calculated to be 10-l)5 lbs. per circular inch, which would
be the difference of pressure between one side of the piston and the
other, due to the given load on the other end of the beam, including
of course a small allowance for the friction of tlie engine itself, as was
required to render it equivalent to the indicator pressure ; but no
allowance was required in this case, any more than in the othf r, fur
"vacuum imperfections." I purposely chose this method of avoiding
the risk of making erroneous deductions from what I think is properly
termed the "gross horse power," so that a more just comparison of
the two systems might be obtained. Possibly some allowance may be
required for pit-work friction, but as Mr. Enys seems to think that
nearly equivalent to deficient water delivery, the omission cannot
make much difference.

From the corrected data now given by Mr. Wicksteed, it appears
that the load in the shaft, 66,443 Bs. must be reduced for the leverage
of the beam in the proportion of 10 ft. 3 in. to i1 ft., or to r)8,39S tbs.
and this sum, jilus an allowance for friction, is the gross load in the
cylinder, instead of 68,160 His., which I had before assumed from the
data then furnished to nie. The jiroper substitutions corresponding
to this correction being made in my tatile of " Comparative Duty,"
it will be seen that the latter will be materially altered in favour of
the Lancashire system.

For the purpose already stated, and also in order that a clear under-
standing of the meaning intended to be conveyed in future, when com-
paring the power or economy of steam engines, it seems necessary
that some teclmical terms commonly used by engineers and others
should be strictly defined. The following are dehnitions of such as

are used in reference to the power of the factory or cotton mill engine ;
and I trust that some of our Cornish friends will favo\u- us with a simi-
lar elucidation of the equivalent terms that obtain in Cornwall, such
as " duty, efficiency, &c."

The "nominal power" is what an engine is called by its maker,
and Mr. Watt's standard, it is w'ell known, was that due to an eli'ective
pressure of steam in the cylinder of 6 His. per circular inch, and a
speed of "220 ft. a minute for each horse power. The " gnms power"
is the total power exerted by the steam in the cylinder, including that
required to work the engine itself, or to overcome what are called the
friction ami resistances of the engine, and is ecjuivalent to the whole
force of the steam acting on the piston against a vacuum more or less
perfect; or, in other wiu'ds, it is the force resulting from the average
difference of pressure between one side of the piston and the other ;
this average is that obtained by the indicator, and it is in general
sufficiently correct for all practical purposes. The indicator pressure,
it will be observed requires no correction or allowance for what are
called vacuum imperfections, such allow'ance only being rei|uired
when, for want of iuilicalur experiinents, the steam pressure in the
cylinder can only be estimated from that in the boiler. The "cffe-clive
power" is the total power exerted l)y the engine, or delivered at the
crank shaft, after overcoming its own friction. This friction, of course,
not only incluiles the friction, properly so called, of the piston, pump
buckets, stulfing boxes, &:c., as well as all the bearing parts of the
engine, but it also includes the resistances due to the water lifted by
the engine pumps, and is a quantity that varies in dill'ercnt engines
according to the dilVerent degrees of excellence in their workmanshij),
situation, and other circumstances. In general it is found to be equal
to from one to two pounds per circular inch on the area of the piston
in the best mo<lern engines, but in a much less ratio in large engines
than small ones. When an engine can be unconnected with the sliaft-
ing, its own friction can be readily ascertained by the indicator; this,
however, would only be what M. Pambour properly calls the "unloaded
friction," fur, of course, the friction of nearly all the bearing parts of
the engine uuist increase with the load in some ratio corresponding to
the goodness of workmanship. This loaded friction is variously esti-
mated by different engineers, at from one fifth to three tenths of thi^_
gross load ; and Tredgold estimates it at about -23^^ of tlu^ whole of
the force of the steam in the boiler, or with the resistance to the steam
in the passages, tlie loss of power by cooling, &c., included, he calls it
•368 of that force (see Tredgohl, new edition, page i;)6). Although
the unloaded fricti»ii of t\\e engine, when the speed of the latter
admits of being easily regulated, is capable of correct ascertainment,
as I have already stated, yet it is rarely so obtained in factory engines
separately from the friction of the shafting; but when so obtained and
deducted' from the gross power, the result gives a certain amount
larger than the real effective power, by so much as the loaded exceeds
the unloadetl friction of the engine. This result has been proposed
to Ijc termed the "effective indicated power."

The "net effective pontr," or available power of an engine, is usually
understood to be the power delivered at the machine pulleys, or that
which is eifective or available in turning the machinery, exclusive of
that required to turn the shafting, the straps, and the loose pulleys-
The friction of the shafting, when ascertained by the indicator, (the
machine straps being thrown on the loose pulleys) is of course the un-
loaded friction, and as in the case of the unloadeil engine friction
when deducted from the effective power, leaves a result for net
effective power somewhat greater than the truth; this result, however,
has been proposed to be denominated the "net effective indicated
power." This last is what is meant when the number of hoises
power required to turn any given portion of uiachinery is said to be
ascertained by the indicator. It is ahvavs understooil to include so
much of the friction of the engine and shafting as is due to the in-
creased load, ami is comraonlv, and I think properly, termed the
" indicated horse power of the metchinery:' It is also sometimes called
" available " power, but evidently without due consideration, that term
being only strictly applicable wli'eu used to signify the net effective
power, and which may be ascertained in many cases independent ol
indicator experiments.

Should it meet with your approbation, I shall be glad to furnish you
with practical illustrations of the above remai>ksby indicatcn-, diagrams,
and calculations taken from engines now at work in this county, pre-
vious to going farther into the consideration of the question of thR
economy of the Cornish system.

I am. Sir,
Manchester, Your obedient servant,

Fti. nth, 1840 R. Armstrong.

N

90

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[March,

STEAM APPARATUS.

Sir — Having had my attention drawni to tlie notice of my lining madiine
in your Journal of this month, page 28, and conceiving that your editorial
remarks is calculated to \rithdraw attention from it, I beg to trouble you
with the following CNiilanatiou : —

The application of steam heat to the purposes of drying is very common,
as every one knows; but, in aU cases that I am acquainted with, its direct
application is fn the air in which the goods intended to be dried are exposed
— that is, they arc hung up in a heated air. Ventilation is essentially neces-
sary in everv' operation of drying; but the ventilation which carries otT the
moisture evaporated from the wet goods, carries off also, a portion of the
heated air before it is saturated with moisture. There is, therefore, a waste
of caloric, or heat, in all systems of diyiug with wliich I am acquainted. My
object has been to avoid this — to prevent any particle of caloric generated
from escaping without performing its duty. The mode adopted in this ma-
chine, is not to heat the air, but to bang the drying goods close to the pipes
wliicb generate the heat, and in such a manner as shall form an entire sheet,
clositiff in and coverim/ the pipes. In this case it is evident that no heat can
escape vithont paasinff tJtronffh the wet (jnodft, for the heat is on one side only
of tlie drying material, which on the other side is a current of air which
carries off the moisture as fast as it is expelled. It is by this economy of
lieat that we ai'e enabled to dry 150 sheets in an liour in the small machine
at Abingdon.

The principle may perhaps be better understood by any one acquainted
with the common mode of (Irving woollen clothes in stoves. It is well
known that the usual length of a piece of cloth is about 40 yards, and that
the rack on which it is hung in a stove is doubled in two parallel lines 6 or 7
inches apart, to avoid an extreme length of building. The cloth when hung
is stretched on this rack, so forming a double line with an interval of 6 or 7
iuches ; into this interval or between the doulde rack, pipes are introduced,
the top of the interval being closed by a piece of board connecting the double
rack.

It is thus clear that the heat generated from the pipes can escape only by
passing through the cloth. So effectual is tliis mode found in the extensive
manufactories of Messrs. Wilkins and Co., near Bath, that a cloth which used
to be fom hours in dr)'ing, is now dried in three quarters of an hour, wliile
the fuel is diminished two parts out of three. It follows also, of course, that
from the rapidity of the changes, one-fourth of the space formerly required
is now sufficient.

As applied to the dicing of wool the same advantage is discernable. In
this case the i)ipes are laid under a perforated floor, and the wool so disposed
that the ascending heat may pass through it. By this means two rooms are
found to dry more than was formerly done in six.

I am. Sir, your obedient servant,

James Wapshare.

1, Great Bedford Street, Bath.
January 29, 1840.

A PARISH CHURCH BURIED IN THE SAND FOR 700 YEARS.
LATELY DISCOVERED.

(From the Churchman.)

Of the many objects to which the attention of your readers is drawn, in
the various departments of your paper, there is not one which can exceed in
interest the following account of the church of Perranzabuloe, or St. Peran,
in the hundred of Pydar, in the county of Cornwall. For more than seven
Inuulrcd years it had been imbedded in the sand, from which it was rescued,
in tlie year IS.I.'i.by the persevering exertions of a private gentleman, Wil-
liam Mitchell, Esq., of Comprcgny near Truro ; and there are many conside-
rations which remlera description of the church, in the state in which it was
found, very o))portuue and seasonable at this moment ; for its jiresent state
affords presumptive and internal evidence of the fallacy of some of those pre-
tensions in wliieli the nicmliers of the Uoniisb comnamion indulge, as to the
antiquity of tlie cliiireli, and the pomp and splendour of tlieir services. It
wouhl be no ilidiciiU matter to prove, by authentic documents, tliat the first
three centuries furnish not the slightest authority for those pompous cere-
monies, and those pneiilc observances which were introduced, and wliich
still continue to outrage the simplicity of the primitive worship. With
respect to this particular church, the sand has been accumulating for many
hundred years, but when completely removed, the church was found in the

most perfect state; and it is a very singular circumstance, that the interior
contained none of the modern innovations and accompaniments of a Romish
place of worship, from wliich the evidence is clear and indisputable, that it
must have been built at a period anterior to the introduction of the numerous
corruptions, lic, of the Papistical communion, and gives sanction to the well
authenticated fact, that, in the first three or four centuries, not one of those
l)uerilitles and observances, borrowed either from Pagan idolatries or the
Jewish ritual, were known ; for the truth is, what we see in Romish places
of worship, is nothing but a transfer of what we read from the synagogues of
the Jews, or the temples of the Pagans ; and which outvie in particular, in
splendour and magnificence, the sacerdotal vestments with which those were
apparelled who ofBciated either in the one or the other. The whole of their
service is an appeal more to the external sense, than an address to the under-
standing and the affections. There was no rood left for the hanging of the
host, nor the vain display of fabricated relics, no latticed confessional, no
sacring bell (a bcU rung before and at the elevation of the host,) no daubed
and decorated images of the Virgin Marj' or of Saints, nothing which indi-
cates the unscriptural adoration of the water, or the no less unscriptiual
masses for the dead. The most dUigent search was made for beads and
rosaries — pyxes and Agni Dei — censers and crucifixes. Strange that this
ancient church, in which it will be borne in mind, everything was found as
perfect as at the time in which it was first imbeddeil, should so belie the
constant appeal to antiquity — to the faith of their forefatliers — to the old
religion, as it is falsely termed, as if that were religion which has not a par-
ticle of the simplicity and purity of the primitive church, to sanctify and
identify it as a branch from the true apostolical tree! At the eastern end,
in a plain, unornamental chancel, stands a very neat but simple stone altar,
and in the nave of the church are stone seats, of the like simple construction,
attached to the western, northern, and southern walls. With such humble
accommodations were our fathers, who worshipped God, in simplicity and
truth, content !

From the amiable and intelligent historian of the past and present con-
dition of Perranzabuloe — the Rev. C. T. Collins Trelawny, a descendant, on
the maternal side, of the good Bishop Trelawny — a name of which he may
well be proud — one of the seven of the glorious company who preferred the
gloom of a prison before submission to the mandates of an arbitrary papistical
tyrant, — I have had an interesting letter, in which, in answer to my inquiry
as to the present state of the parish cluuch, he informs me that it is not in a
condition to admit of its being used for any purpose whatsoever, as it is
already again entombed in the sand ! It was with extreme regret that I
received tliis communication ; for so much bad my interest been excited by
iMr. Trelawny's narrative, which is beautiful and will well repay many a
perusal, that I was on the point of fulfilling arrangements I had made for a
sunnner visit to the venerated spot ; but I hope that the same enterprising
spirit l)y which it was five years since resuscitated as it were, and recalled
into being, will be again interposed to rescue it from its present entombment,
and be a temple yet appropriated to the serricc of the living God ! 1 know not
the locaUties ; but who in such a w isb does not join .' and where is the man
whose piety would nut grow warm as he worshipped within the hallowed pile
of Perranzabuloe, as much as it would within the mouldering ruins of loua ? It
may not, perhaps, be unimportant and uninteresting to add, that the tutelar
Saint of Cornwall was Peranus, or St. Perrau, after whom the imbedded
church was named, and that the memory of this saint is still cherished with
fond veneration by the people of Cornwall. His anmual commemoration is
celebrated on the '5th of March. Christianity was first preached in Cornwall
by Corantinus, by whom the whole of the population was rescued from
Pagan idolatry, and converted to the Christian faith, at the end of the third,
and at the commencement of the fourth century.

J.\MES RCDGE, D.D.

Ilau-kchurch Rectory, ISth Dec. 1839.

ARCHITECTURE AT HOME AND ABROAD.

[M'e select tlie following remarks on arcliitecture from an interesting paper
which appeared in the last Foreign Quarterly Kevieii'.']

Owing to the great impulse wliich has been given to building, since the
peace, we have now, throughout the country, a show of very respectable bits
of architecture — things of rather ambiguous or negative merit ; — Gothic made
neat, Grecian made homely, Italian softened down to insipidity. In art our
ambition is of a staid, modest, and reasonable kinil. Among all our recent
works we have few of monumental character, that is, such as testify honour-
ably to the power and taste of the age in which they were produced : scarcely
any thing that is really imposing in point of scale, and not less imposing and
dignified in style. Our classical school is mechanically correct, frigid, an
mannered : we must not look to it for genialty of conception, masterly origi-
nality, or happiness of invention. What beauties it gives us ai-e almost alto-
gether borrowed ;— transcripts of good originals as regards individual features,
which are, however, seldom more than merely put together, instead of being
so combined as to produce an ensemble with one and the same spirit pervad-

1840.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

91

ing every pai-t, a kindred feeling dift'using itself throughout. Omng to an
unfortunate Uttleness and feebleness of manner, buildings large in themselves
do not make an impression at all proportionate to their size, but are reduced
to the minimum of elfect. For grandeur and majesty of aspect Buckingham
Palace will hardly bear comparison with that lately erected at Brunswick ;
and which though by no means unexceptionable, proves Ottmer to be as
superior to Nash, as Brunswick is inferior to Great Britain. What the former
looks like, or rather does not look like, we all know too well ; but the other
has a princely au' that bespeaks the residence of a sovereign.

Contrasts of this kind are Ukely to pass for invidious, more es{)ecially when
they happen to be unfavourable to ourselves ; yet the best way of preventing
such is by taking a salutary lesson from them for the futiu'C, and endeavour-
ing to be first where we now stand almost last. If, however, only to show
that we wish to be impartial, and do not blindly defer to the authority of
names and reputations, we shall here bestow some notice on the Konigsban,
or new palace at Jlunidi, numerous plans and other engravings of which may
be seen in the Bauzeitung for 1837. We need scarcely disavow any prejudice
agaiiKt Klenze, for we have been charged with being much too favourably
disposed towards hira our comments, therefore stand a chance of being re-
ceived as free from bias either way.

The principal, or indeed, only facade, namely, that forming the north side
of the Max-Josephs-Platz, extends in a perfectly unbroken line for the length
of 406 feet (English). It is G5 feet high, except in the centre, where the
height is increased to 95 by the addition of another order, for the extent of
eleven windows, or somewhat more than half the length of the front : there
being twenty-one windows or apertures in each of the other stories. So far
there are the elements of grandeur — length, continuity, loftiness ; and when
we add to these, massiveness, both with regard to the relative proportion of
solid and void, and that arising from the character of the style employedi
namely, the older Florentine, it wiU be taken for granted that it is not at all
deficient in greatness of character and the qualities allied to it. Nevertheless
we are dissatislied, less for what it is than for what it is not. Scarcely any
pretension whatever is made to originality ; the whole is too dii'ect and close
an imitation of the Palazzo Pitti; the character also is palpably borrowed and
assumed, with this additional drawback of being altogether exotic, and not
at all in unison with any tiling else. As a monument, the oiiginal is a highly
interesting and impressive work of architecture ; as a study, most valuable ;
as a model, most unfit, — that is, for a palace in the nineteenth century. Re-
com-se might have been had to the same style, but it ought we conceive, to
have been differently treated, — in many respects considerably modified ; and
required a livelier and more captivating expression imparted to it. Instead
of this, the physiognomy given to the edifice is by far too repulsive and stern:
simplicity has been carried to severity, uniformity pushed to monotony, and
to the exchision of play or contrast of any kind. Moreover, its close general
resemblance to the Palazzo Pitti is apt to provoke a disadvantageous com-
parison, because after all it falls considerably short of that edifice in its mass ;
at the same time that it is deficient in the powerfid contrast produced in the
other by the greater solidity there of the lower pait. We do not approve of
architectural duplicates, more especially wlien an opportunity offers for a
masterly and original production. Such opportunities are far too precious to
be neghgently thrown away, and ought to be turned to account by creating
somctliiDg that shall carry art onward, and, if possible, give it a new and
invigorating impulse.

These objections are no way diminished when we discover that instead of
the facade preparing us for the interior, it is quite in opposition to it ; the
decorations tliroughout the latter, both architectural and pictorial, being
scrupulously, not to say affectedly, Grecian, both in style and character. By
Wiegmann, Klenze has been reproached with inconsistency for having in the
Glyptotheca employed vaulted ceiUngs and other forms of Roman architectiu-e
witliin a building externally professing to be piu-ely Grecian : — this, we must
say, savoiurs rather of hypercriticism. But in the case before us there is a
positive clashing of opposites, because though the apartments are in every
other respect perfectly Greek in style and taste, their circidar-headed windows
contradict it, and disagreeably remind the spectator of the still more decided
difference between the taste of the exterior and that of the interior. Tliis,
however, is a trivial blemish compared with one vei-y serious and pervading
efect ; namely, that of the plan altogether, which so far from presenting any
kind of beauty, any originality, contrivance, variety, contrast, or play, is ex-

ceedingly commonplace and monotonous, and is inconvenient withal as can
well be imagined. It is divided on each floor into two enfilades of rooms, ail
rectangidar, either square or oblong, without any intermediate communication,
except one part where there is a narrow passage for domestics. As far as
arrangement goes, not the shghtest attempt has been made at effect. Not
only are the principal rooms nearly of the same form, but nearly all of the
same size, and so cUsposed as to occasion inconvenience, and exclude effect
also. This will hardly be disputed when we say that the centre of the enfi-
lade in the front of the building divides into a series of small rooms, having
only a single window each ; and being appropriated as the king's and queen's
bed-rooms, dressing-rooms, &c., entirely cut off all communication between
those on either side of them. Thus, so far from any climax being produced,
all sort of focus and centralization is destroyed, and the parts are disunited
and scattered. In fact the whole of this floor can be considered as consisting
only of private apartments, notwithstanding that both on the king's and
queen's side there is a throne-room preceded by two or three ante-chambers.
With the exception of the rooms at either extremity of the front, all the
others must be inaccessible to those whose immediate personal attendance on
then- majesties does not give thera the privilege of passing and repassing as
there may be occasion of doing.

We will not be quite sure that fresco-painting, when employed to the ex-
tent which it is throughout Munich palace, is altogether the very best mode
of decoration, or calculated to give the greatest importance to the architec-
ture. For particular rooms and in certain situations, it may be suitable
enough ; but it is hardly so for sitting rooms, where paintings upon such a
scale are apt to become too obstrusive, and by their subjects forming too
harsh a contrast — sometimes perhaps almost a ludicrous antithesis — to the
famiUar details of social life : the opposition becomes that of poetry to prose.
A mere picture does not force itself so conspicuously upon the attention ; it
may be gazed at or not, studied or overlooked ; but paintings which consti-
tute, so to say, the local scenery of the whole space, put forth a too du-ect
claim to notice ; and though they may be interesting to the casual visitor,
cease to make so much impression after constant famiharity. A great deal
may certainly be said on both sides ; we shall therefore only observe that as
decorations for the walls of sitting rooms, sulijects in fresco ought, w'e con-
ceive, to be employed with some reserve, and not suffered to occupy too great
a space of surface. In tliis opinion we are borue out by one who must be
admitted a competent authority on the subject, and who has not scrupled to
question the propriety of some of the most noted works of the kind. " The
fai--famed Loggie of the Vatican," says Hessemer, " which ever since they
first existed, have been extolled as the greatest models of decoration, are in
fact not decoration at all, but a series of paintings covering the surface of
both walls and ceihngs. As a whole they possess no architectural character ;
and if the separate pictures, allegories, &c., have very little intimate connec-
tion with each other, they have, as such, still less with their situation and
with the building itself. As ottering an instance of the greatest contradiction
between locality and decoration, may be mentioned the works of Giulio Ro-
mano in the Palazzo del TV at Mantua, with regard to the pictorial but non-
decorative merits of which I forbear to make any fm-ther comments."

After our animadversions upon the Konigsbau we can hardly be charged
with being indiscriminate partisans of the " Bavarian Ictinus ;" nor is it with-
out concern we are compelled to admit that the talents of Klenze have not
always been in proportion to the opportunity aii'orded, or in correspondence
with the generous ardour of his royal patron. For the faults we have pointed
out we are not indebted to his opponent Wiegmann : since he bestows no
notice on any of Klenze's buildings, except merely en jjassanf, with brief and
general censure, and without entering at all into particular criticism. So far
his pamphlet has disappointed us, for though the title makes no specific pro-
mise, we did expect that, whether for eulogy or the reverse it w'oidd fm'uish
— if not a biography, yet something hke an account of the architect's profes-
sional career. Instead of this, the writer confines himself almost entirely to
the consideration of Klenze's principles and theory, as illustrated in his col-
lection of designs for chmclies, entitled " Christiche Bauart." Of that pro-
duction we cannot trust ourselves to speak, not having the volume by us to
refer to, nor now recollecting more of it — after a single inspection — than that
we considered the designs of rather mediocre quahty, and betraying a want
of study. The specimens there given of Greek architecture as applied to that
class of buildings appeared to us by no means happy models, nor calculated

N 2

92

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND AllCHlTECT'S JOURNAL.

[March,

to iiiilnicl, as they might liave done, hail the motives of each sulyect heen
cxjilaiiicii. As little are wc able to say whether the severity of Wiegmaun's
rcinarks, — his fastiiliousness aiul caiiliousiicss arc juslilieil by anything he
himself has done, or by greater snceess attending his own princiijlcs ; to con-
fess the truth, it is not very clear to us what the latter really are, or what at
times he means to say. AVe may however venture to assert that several of
his remarks come home to others besides Klenze, and who, equally bigottcd
in favour of Creek architecture, are still more cold and pedantic in their ap-
plication of it ; formal copyists, who do not even attempt more (hau a mere
rcilection of (he anti(pic, and that only in particular features; and while cer-
tain forms arc scrupulously imitated, fulcUty as to the genius and real spirit
of the style affected is usually lost, — perhaps held matter of no account. The
consequence is that the things so produccil arc more of less failures — neither
anticpie nor modern — not a skilful adaptation of both, but a harsh aiul dis-
agreeable conflict of ojjposing elements and contradictory ideas. Little does
it avail for an architect to eiLhibit the most perfect Grecian portico or colon-
nade, if lie at the same time lets us see that he has trusted to that alone ; —
that so far from being a necessary portion of his structiu-e, it is a mere ad-
junct which, (hough certainly not so intended, chiefly forces us to feel its
own vast superiority over all the rest ; and the ditiiculty, if not impossibility,
of making that which ought to be principle harmonize with, or even seem
worthy of, what is engrafted upon it. Almost invariably do architects forget
that by such adoptions they tacitly bind themselves to raise every other par*
in the same spirit, and to display such powers as shall excuse their ajipro-
priating the merit of others to themselves, by making it truly part and parcel
of their ow n work.

Unless this last can be efl'ected with ability, the antique forms will seldom
be more than something hung aoout a modern building, — extraneous parts ; —
not a consistent dress in which the whole is attired, but mere trimmings and
appendages ; iutcnilcd to jiass for arehitectmal style, but oflcner making it
all the more manifest, bow deficient the building itself is in character, and
destitute of all that conduces to style. Nay, if, on the one hand, columns and
other Greek decorations display the great superiority uf classical taste, on the
other, they lose much of their original value and charm, by being associated
with what but ill accords with them. Many a modern soi-disaut Greek
building reminds us of Cicero's witty question to Lentulus : " Who has tied
you to that great sword ?" — for with us the question might frequently be :
MMio has tied that plain and insignificant building to that classical portico ? —
It also generally happens that such feature is itself impoverished, iu order
that the contrast betnesu it and the rest may not be too riiliciUously glar-
ing.

Diainctrically opposed to KleiEC, who considers Grecian or Greco-Roman
architecture — for he docs not reject the Roman arch — to be the only style
.•ulaptcd for iniiNcrsal aiqilieatiou, AViegmanu contends that the ailhereuec, or
the altcmpt to adhere, to pure Greek forms iu our present and totally dif-
ferent system of construction, is no better than pedantic afl'ectation ; and
that they ought no longer to be retained by us as models. He further asserts
that there can be no such thing as a permanent and unchangeable style in
architecture, and that the endeavour to revive at the present day any by-gone
blyle whatever is an absurdity, aud very much like trying to force a stream
to flow back to its source. According to him, only that which is perfect
matter of indili'erence in itself, and has nothing to do with style, can be in-
discriminately adopted as suitable to all limes and all occasions. In this
there is a certain degree of truth, but somewhat of perverscness also ; for a
style based upon (ircek architecture must upon the whole be allow e<l to run
more in unison with modern taste generally, and prove more capable of ap-
plication to every diversity of purpose, than any other wc arc acquainted with.
At all events Wiegmann himself has not even attc nipled to point out how we
arc to extricate ourselves from the perplexities of his doctrine. He is not one
of those who would discard Grecian in order to make way for Gothic, because
lie rejects the (Uic just as much as the other. Neither do we exactly know-
how far he really objects to the Greek style, or under what linutalions he
cinisiders its adoiitioii allowable or even beneficial. That he admits the latter
to be possililc, is, however, apparent from the commendations he bestows
upon Sehinkel, observing :

" He is an inspired venerator of Grecian art ; but instead of adhering to its
''.xtcrnals alone,— to what was more or less conventional in it, and arose out
^i the c.rcuwstances of the timss in which it noiuishcd— he has actually

penetrated into its very sjiirit, and iu more than one of his works has shown
that the rationality and beauty arising out of construction, — which stamps
the works of the Greeks as superior to all others, may be made to ilisplay
themselves even at the present day ; and that notwithstanding the great dif-
ference between them aud the structures of antiquity in regard to many par-
ticulars of design, such works partake infinitely more of the same spirit than
do the ill understood and lifeless imitations of which Klenze has furnished us
so many," viz. in his Cbristbche liaukunst.

How the above passage can be very well reconciled with the apparently
uiKpialified rejection of Greek architecture even as a type for us moderns, is a
point we must leave to Heir Wiegmann himself to explain. In admitting
that it is possible to catch the true spirit and genius of Grecian architecture,
and to infuse them into buildings adapted to widely different purposes from
those of antiquity, he admits that all we ourselves contend for; and in fact,
so far advocates the very coiu'se we ourselves wotdd uphold ; — since few can
be more strongly ojiposed than ourselves to that cold, fonnal, lifeless imita-
tion of Greek models, which amounts to nothing more than the most servile
and tasteless species of copying, — slavishly correct as to certain particulars,
but egregioiisly ineoirect — absolutely lieenlious, in all that regarils taste and
feeling. We ccrtauily should have been far better satisfied had Wiegniana
explained himself so fully as to remove all apparent contiailietions, and to
leave no room whatever for doubt ; still more, had he confined himself more
strictly to architecture, instead of entering into vague metaphysical inqmries
w ith regard to the nature and power of art generally, while he is so brief and
obscure in regard to many points connected with the former, and which it is
highly desirable that either he or some one else should render perfectly clear.
What he chiefly proves is, not that Grecian architecture is altogether inappli-
cable at the present day — such doctrine being wholly at variance with the
very high commendation bestowed upon Sehinkel for the happiness with
which he has in many instances made use of it ; — but that the designs in the
Christhehe Baukunst are nearly all more or less defective, notwithstanding
that they were put put forth as models for the instruction of others, nor was
their author at all fettered in his ideas by any of those circnmstanees which
generally interfere in the case of actual buildings. After all, therefore, the
more important question is left poised in equilibrium, as much being conceded
on one hand as is denied on the other. Very little notice, again, is bestowed
on the buildings actually erected by Klcnzc, notwithstanding that many of
them— not only the I'uiacotbeca and Neue Residenz, Init Prince MaximiUan's
i'alace, Kriegsmiuisteriimi, Post Office, &c., are almost enturely iu the Italiaa
and particularly iu the Florentine style ; yet whether the Munich arcliiteet's
practice is on that account to be considered much move sound than liis theory,
we are not ex|iUeitly told, but left to guess it as well as we can. Now this
inilistinctness and indecision are to us liighly chsagreeable ; If Wiegmann
thought he could even demolish Kleuze altogether and give the death-blow to
bis theory in recommendation of Greek architecture, he should have showa
himself more in earnest ; and instead of saying a ven* great deal that amounts
to nothing, should have stuck to the main point, and there battered away.
If he wishes to have it understood that Klenze is little better than a charlatan
iu art, he should have put — or tried to put the fact beyond doubt, — should
have left us no middle comse, but have cither compelled us to adopt, or called
upon us to refute his arguments.

Wc are, indeed, favoured with opinions as to one or two of the structures
erected by Klenze at Munich ; yet mere opinions are very ihtfereut from aigu-
ment and criticism : they may be correct or erroneous, just or unjust, but, if
received at all, must betaken entirely upon trust, at least by those who have
either not the means, or else not the ability, judging for themselves. Thus,
Wiegmann dispatches the Kiinigsbau very summarily, caUing it a " verball-
hornten Pallast Pitti;" and again, condemns the Glyptotheca as an unhappy
combination of a pure Greek temple with a prison-like mass of building. If
it is the absence of windows that constitutes the prison-like character coiU/.
plained of, the same conqiarison may be extended not only to the temples,
but almost all the other public ecUliees of the ancients, that are remaining .
while if some other circumstance produces this eft'eet, it might not have been
amiss to explain it to us. Is Wiegmann of opinion that the wings of the
fai;adc are too low for the portico ? — that, instead of rising above the rest,
the portico would have appeared more of a piete with it, if merely stuck ou
to the building, and made to jut out fi'om it, the whole front being kept of
the same height throughout,^ U«' docs he think that some windows boll*

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THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

93

within the portico and on each side of it would have iniinoved the wliole, —
have mitigated tlie too temjile-like character of the one, and tlie too prison-
like aspect of the other ? This is what lie does not care to inform us ; neither
docs he afford the least clue as to what he considers a more harmonious
combination, hy referring to something else as an example of it. Tlie most
therefore, that we can say in his excuse is, tliat he is kept in countenance h
a great many others who seem to think that the mere expression of praise or
blame is sutBcient for architectural criticism.

This last remark applies far more strongly than we could wish to the AU-
gemeine Bauzeitung, where of the various IniikUngs that have been repre-
sented and described, scarcely one has had any comments made upon it. Yet
this suppression of criticism can hardly have been occasioned by overstrained
delicacy, because several would have afforded opportunity for descanting
upon the merits of theii' design. Among these arc the liuclihiindler Borse at
Leipsic, erected by Geutebriich, the architect of t'lie Augustcum, 1834-6 ; and
Dr. Iliirtel's house in the same city, by Waldeiuar Ilcrrmaun of Dresden.
Both are in a rich Italian style ; and of the two the latter has somewhat the
superiority as to extent of facade, its front being 112 feet (English), in lengthy
while that of the other is 108. Besides which it has very much the air of a
public building, as there is only a principal floor with an open Corinthian
loggia of five intercolninns, above the ground-floor or basement, while the
loggia itself is decorated with compartments in fresco. As far as style and
beauty of external architecture go, there is scarcely a private mansion in all
London that can compete with it, certainly not one of recent date ; for even
Sutherland House is but a very plain and frigi<l piece of design in compari-
son ; and both Norfolk House in St. James's Square, and Ikickingham House ,
Pall Mall, are absolutely homely. To say the truth, it may fairly^challcnge
almost any one of our Clubliouses, — at least of those already erected, — for
we must not as yet include the Reform Club, whose facade promises to eclipse
all its neighbours. M'e call attention to this example all the more, because
we have nothing similar at home : on the contrary, so far from any stimulus
having been given of late years to architectural display in the town residences
of our nobility and persons of fortune, it w ould rather seem that the trumpery
show and flaring tawdriness of the Terraces in the Regent's I'avk, and other
barrack-like ranges of buildings of that class, have brought the system into
disrepute ; and it certainly must be acknowledged that the plain and perfectly
unassuming brick fronts of houses far more costly and spacious than those
just alluded to, have a far more aristocratic look than the others, whose
grandeur is nothing more than overgrown littleness, and meanness tricked
out in the coarsest finery : truly they may be described as the very Brumma-
gem of arcliitecture.

PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES.

ROYAL SOCIETY.

Dec. 19. — Major Sabine, R.A. V.l\, in the chair-.

A paper was read, entitled,

" An Account of Experiments made vith the view of asccrlainivij the Pos-
sibility of obtainini/ a Spar/i before the Circuit of the Voltaic Battenj is Com-
plefed,"'hy J. P. Gassiot, Esq.

The author of this paper adverts to the fact, of a spark invariably appear,
ing when the circuit of the voltaic battery is completed ; an eli'cct which Dr
Faraday has shown can be easily produced, even with a single series, lie
then refers to the experiments of Jfr. Children, Sir llumiiliry Davy, and Prof.
Daiiiell, recorded iu the Pliilosophical Transactions ; in which experiments,
when more powerful and extended series were used, the spark was obtained
before contact took place. In order to ascertain, not only the fact of a spark
being obtained, but also the distance through which it may be passed, the
author had an instrument prepared, which he denominates a Micrometer
Electrometer, and by which an appreciable space of one five-thousandth of an
inch could be measured with great accuracy. He dcscrilics this instrument ;
and relates several experiments which he made vitli a view to test the cor-
rectness of its action. He first prepared 160, and then 3'20 series of the con-
stant battery, in half-pint porcelain cells, excited with solutions of sulphate
of copper and muriate of soda ; but although the effects, after the contact
had been completed, were exceedingly brilliant, not the sUghtest spark could
be obtained. He was equally unsuccessful with a water battery of 150 .«cries,
each series being placed in a quart glass vessel : and also with a water battery
belonging to Prof. Daniell, consisting of 1,020 series; but when a Leydcn

tattery of nine jars >vas intrgiluKetl into the circuit of the latter, sparks passsU

to the extent, in one instance, of six five-thousandths of an inch. The author
mentions his having been present at the experiment of Prof. Daniell, on the
16th of February, 183'J, when that gentleman had 70 scries of his large con-
stant battery in action ; and having been witness of the powerful eli'ects ob-
tained by tills apparatus, he was induced to prepare 100 scries of precisely
the same dimensions, anil similarly placed: but although this powerful appa-
ratus was used under e\ery advantage, and the other cft'ects produced were
iu every respect in accordance with the extent of the elements employed,
still no spark could be obtained, until the circuit was completed ; citeii n single
fold of a silk handkerchief, or a piece of dry tissue paper, was sufficient to
insulate the power of a battery, which, after the circuit had been once com-
pleted, fused titanium, and heated 16 feet 4 inches of No. 20 platinum wire.
The author then describes a series of experiments made with induced cur-
rents. 1,220 iron wires, each insulated by resin, were bent into the form of
a horse-shoe. A primary wire of 115 feet, and a secondary of 2,268 feet,
were wound round the iron wires. With this arrangeiueut he obtained a
direct spark (through the secondary current), sufficient to pierce paper, to
charge a Leydcn jar, &c. Several forms of apparatus employed by the author
are next described, and also a series of 10,000 of Jacubone's piles. With
this arrangement he charged a ijcyden battery to a considerable degree of in-
tensity, and obtained direct sparks of three-fiftieths of an inch in length. He
ultimately succeeded in obtaining chemical decompositions of a solution of
iodine and potassium : the iodine appearing at the end composed of the black
oxide of manganese.

Jan. 9. — J. M'. Lubbock, Esq., V.P. and Treasurer, in the chair.

A paper was read, entitled,

" On the Const met ion and Use of Single Jchromatic Eye-Pieces, and their
Superiority to the Double Eye-Piece of Huyyhens." By the Kev. J. B. Reade,
M.A.

The author obsen-es, that experience has shown it to be impracticable to
make a telescope even approach to aehroiuatism by employing the same
oliject-glass witli an astronomical, as with a tcrrcstial eye-piece ; for if the
focus of the blue rays from the object-glass be tlu-own forwards, as it must
be, in order to make it impinge upon the focus of the blue rays upon the
terrestrial eye-glass, then there will be produced a great orer-correction for
the astronomical e>e-glass, and tiice versa. Hence it ajipcars that the appli-
cation of lluygheuian cyc-picces to refracting telescopes are incom]iatible
with the conditions of achromatism throughout the entire range of niagni-
fyiug power : and that, in reflecting telescopes, they arc incompclcut to cor-
rect dispersion, because tlncy arc not iu themselves achromatic. These de-
fects the author iirojioscs wholly to obviate by sulistitutiiig, for the lluyghe-
uian eye-]iicces, single achromatic lenses of corresponding magnifying jiowcr,
consisting of the well-known combination of the crown, and its correcting
flint lens, having their adjacent surfaces cemented together ; thus avoiding
internal reflections, and enabling them to act as a single lens. The achro-
matic eye-])ieces which he uses were made by Messrs. TuUy &. Ross, and are ,
of the description usually termed single cemented triples.

" Meteorological Observations made between October, 1837, and .Ijirit,
1839, at Alten in Finmnrken. By Mr. S. H. Thomas, Chief Mining Agent
at the Alten Copper Works ; presented by J. K. Crowe, Esq., H. B M. Consul
at Finmaiken ; coniinnuieated by Major E, Sabine, R. A. V. P. This memoir
consists of tables of daily observations on the barometer and thermometer,
taken at 9 a.m., 2 p.m., and 9 r.M., with remarks on the state of the weather
at Kaafjord, in lat. 69' 58' 3" N., and long. 23° 43' 10" E. of Paris.

J. \\'hatmau, Juu„ Esq., was elected a Fellow.

ROYAL INSTITUTE OF BRITISH ARCHITECTS.

Jan. 20. — Edward Bloue, V.P., in the Chair.

A paper was read,

" On tlie History of Cra'co-Uussian Ecclesiastical Architecture." By Ilerr
Hallmann, architect, from Hanover.

Before examining the existing Russian chmches, the author thought it
necessary to take a hasty glance at the origin and history of Christianity in
Russia, or what amounts to the same thing, at the histoty of those churches.
One of the first Christians in Russia was the Princess Olga, who caused her-
self to be baptized at Constantinople iu the year 964 ; but the era of Chris-
tianity in Russia did not eommcuce before the reign of Vladimir the Great.
The fi'rst church which he caused to be built was that of Cherson, and, a year
afterwards, be ordered the construction of the Cbiu-ch of St. Basil, which
was, as well as the other, of wood. He sent an embassy into Italy, Arabia,
and to Constantinople, to exanime the various rcUgions, for the M'cstcrn and
Eastern cluirches were already separated from each other ; ami rriuce Vladi-
mir, embracing the Greek religion, ordered the baptism of the wliole of bis
people, and was the first to coniniencc destroying the ancient idols. Vladimir
built the church of the tithe at Kief; and it is said that, at tlie time of his
death, there were already 500 cluu-chcs at Kief. Prince Yaroslaf turned his
attention still more than Vladimir to the construction of religious edifices ;
he founded the churches of St. Sopliia, at Kief, and another, of the same
name, at Novogorod : — they exist, iu part, to this day. He also erected the
convents of St. George and St. Irene. In 1075 was liuUt the celebrated con-
vent of f etchersky, i)t Kief, since wliich time the Pu«iau nietroiiglitaus re-

94

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[March,

maiiicil subordinate to the metropolitans of Constantinople. C'liristianity
made rai)id progress ; there remained an uninterrupted communieation be-
tween Constantinople and Kief, and various marriages between the two reign-
ing houses of the two countries were celebrated. About the year 1121, a
great tire destroyed COO churches and monasteries. In the civil war under
Yisaslaf, Kief was taken; it was set on fire: and finally, nearly at tlie same
time that Constantinople was taken by the Venetians, the city of Kief was
ravaged and destroyed a second time, never again to realize its former splen-
dour. Moscow is first mentioned in the year 1154, and at that time it was
hut a miserable village. Daniel of Moscow added to it greatly; and, in the
year 1304, under John Danielowitsh, the city was chosen capital of the em-
pire, where, on the 4th of August, 1326, was laid the first stone of the church
of the A55um])tion of the Virgin, in the Krimlin. Under Dimitri Donskoi,
the palace of the Krimlin, until then of wood, was erected in stone ; and
miller the reign of Basil the Blind (1425-1402), the church of Russia ceased
to be dej)endant on that of Constantinojile, after the taking of that city by
Mahomet II. In the year 1487, a palace, known by the name of the Granite
I'alace in the Krimlin, was built, and in 1499 the Belvedere I'alace. Ivan IV.
did much for the arts (1534-1584). lie likewise renewed the laws for exactly
imitating the ancient painting in new churches, whence the reason why all
the paintings are so much alike that it is imjiossible to judge of the epoch,
but they may be regarded as a sure type of the earliest Christianity. About
the year 1600 the Tzar Boris caused the erection of the magnificent elock-
tower, Ivan VaUki, at the Krimlin ; and at this period Moscow reckoned
400 cluirchcs, of which 35 were at the KrimUn alone. From the time of
I'eter the Great, and particularly at Petersburg, a change of style took place,
and the tj-pe of the ancient church was replaced by the absurdities of the
rococo.

After this general view of the progress of Christian art in Russia, the au-
thor turned to the consideration of the Russian church itself, and for this
purpose he chose for liis examination the cathedral church of the Assumption
of the Virgin, at Moscow, as holding the middle rank amongst the existing
churches, both as to form and time of eonstnietion. (1326.) The plan of the
church forms an oblong square divided, and the vaults of which are supported
by six equal columns in the interior. Upon a first glance, the form of the
Greek cross is not noticed, but it is indicated by the arrangement of the
cupolas. The more ancient churches often form an exact square preaeded
by a porch, but here the porch is united with the interior of the church, and
the arches of the cupolas are placed as if the church still retained the primi-
tive form. The six columns divide the church into four jiarts from east to
west, and three from north to south. On the eastern side are seen three
apsides, only divided by the width of a pillar. The middle apsis is bigger
than the side ones; this arrangement is found in nearly all the Greek chiu*ches,
and these apsides indicate the situation of three altars, which are met with
cveryvN'here except in small chapels. The altars are not visible to the public ;
they are covered or concealed by the iconostasis, an arrangement peculiar to
the Greek church. This iconostasis (or image-bearer) is merely a kind of
colossal skreen, occujiying the whole width of the church, thus dividing it
into two different parts. The iconostasis has three doors, a priueiiial one in
the middle, and two smaller ones on each side. Behind the lateral doors
there is a more particular distribution, which is, that on each side stands a
second little iconostasis, occupying only the width of the little apsis, but the
arrangement of which, with tlu'ee doors and an altar behiml, is analogous to
the great one. This is what is met with in the ancient churehcs ; in the
more modern, an alteration has been made, so that at the farther end of the
edifice are seen, upon the same line, three different distinct iconostasis. Be-
tween the princii>al door and the lateral ones, there is, in front of the iconos-
tasis, on each side, a place for the choristers. Aliove and before the iconos-
tasis always rises the i)rincipal cupola, and in the cathedral churches, at the
foot of the ajjsis, opi)Osite the iconostasis which sujtpcjrt tlie cupola, are seen
on the left a baldachin for the emperor, and, on the right, another for the
metropolitan. As to the situation of the cupolas, there is generally one
principal cupola in the midst of four smaller ones which surround it, and the
small ones are nearly always at the four angles of the (ireek cross. In every
church, the iconostasis is the principal part, which ought to be a represen-
tation of the celestial empire ; it is eomjiosed of four or five different tiers,
four of which are indispensable. Each tier is composed of an unequal num-
ber of jiictures of saints, painted on tablets or long scjuare siu'faccs, the place
of whicli is rigorously fixed. On the first tier arc the three doors; the mid-
dle <loor (in two foldings) ought to be ornamented with the Annmieiation of
the Virgin— tlie Virgin on one of the foldings, and the Angel on the other —
accompanied with the heads or emblems of the four evangelists ; on the right
of the door is the effigy of Christ, on the left that of the Madonna ; on the
right, after that of Christ, is placed the picture of the saint or of the festival
of the eliurch : then come the little doors ah'cady mentioned, but they ought
only to 1)0 single doors ; above the little doors is placed, on the left, the
Greek cross, on the right the cross of Moses, symbols of the New and the
Old Testament. Such arc the indisjiensable arrangements of the first tier.
The ground of the whole iconostasis is gilt. On the second tier, in tlie mid-
dle, is Christ on a throne ; and on the right is St. John the Baptist ; on the
left the Madonna (without the child) : after that appear, on each side, two
archangels and six apostles. On the third tier, in the middle, is seated the
Madonna, holding the infant Jesus on her knees ; on each side of her are
seen the eSigies of the prophets. On the fourth tier is placed God the Father,
on a throne, with the iufant Jesus ; oa each side the pictures of the patriarchs

of the church. Sometimes there is a fifth tier, upon which are seen repre-
sentations of the history or of the passion of the Saviour. The other parts
of the church are ornamented with paintings on a gold ground. The forms
of the exterior are very siin])le ; with respect to the upper part of the edifices
the adoption is nearly general of the oriental manner of the eleventh ami
twelfth centuries — namely, the entire rejection of the horizontal line of a
cornice, as the crowning of the building for the substitution of arched, or
pointedly arched forms — determining the extrados of the vaults. This cy-
lindrical covering is well known in the east, and is even to be seen in Italy
at tlie present day, in the environs of Naples. These extrados are painted in
all colours. The Russian churches derive a peculiar aspect from the cupolas
which rise above the roof. On beginning to build churches in the eleventh
century, the prevalent manner in the east was natiu'ally imitated — that is to
say, such cupolas were not employed as are seen, for example, at St. Sophia
at Constantinople, or at Venice, but such as are to be met with in the churches
of those times in Greece. The form of the cupolas themselves, which are
generally placed on an octagonal drum, are extremely various, some having
the form of a half globe, others of a flat onion, a bud, or a long pear, &c.

Mr. llallmann next drew a parallel between the Russian, the original
Greek, and the western churches w liich bear traces of Greek influenee. The
first Christian temples under Constantine in the east, and even at Rome, were
eircidar or octagonal, and were surmounted by a single dome : afterwards the
same disposition we find in the interior of the chm-ehes, with few variations,
but the exterior assumes the square form, as in the church of Sergius and
Bacchus, and St. Sophia at Constantinople. This latter church already
evinces in the interior the form of a Greek cross, and may be regarded as the
basis of the Russian churches. At the end of the seventh century began the
difterence of dogmas between the iconoclasts and iconolaters, which ended in
the rupture between the churches of the east and the west. From this time,
probably, may be dated the custom of not allowing carved images or statues
in Greek churches, except statues of angels ; wherefore we see vieUo.i upon
bronze doors of Greek origin, even in Italy, as at Monte St. Angelo, at Canopa
in Apidia, and at Amalfi, &c. Another diflferenee, proliably one of the conse-
quences of the schism, was the establishing, at each side of the grand altar,
a secondary one ; not, as in Roman CathoUc churches, at the ends of the
transept, or in side chapels, but at the extremity of the church, in the same
direction as the grand altar. Their place is always indicated by a niche or
apsis. In the Russian churches wiiicli commenced in the same century, it has
been shown that this disposition became typical, and that it is quite con-
formable to the division and subdivision of the iconostasis. This disposition
is to be met with in nearly all the churches of the eleventh, twelfth, and
thirteenth centuries, at Bari, Trani, Malfetta, Otraiito, &c., where the Greek
worship then prevailed. This situation of the altars is seen even where the
churches are Roman Catholic, as at Palermo, in the chapel at Martorana and
Monreal, and even at Amalfi and Ravello. Considering that this disposition
is found in churches of an earlier date, as St. Parenze in Istria, at St. Fosca,
&c., and that perhaps even the form of the ancient basilicas might have given
rise to this disjiosition ; it may he very possible that the Greeks preserved
this form as an ancient custom of the Church, and that it v\as the Roman
Cathohcs rather who departed from it. This observation is corroborated, if
we observe that the ancient writers tell us that there was, on the left of the
altar, a place for the deacons of the church, afterwards called the sacristy,
and, on the right, an altar for the consecration of the bread and wine for the
communion. In Roman Catholic churches, we always see a sacristy at the
side of the church, but, in the Greek Church, the priests always robed them-
selves behind the iconostasis ; and, up to the present day, there is an altai' at
the side of the present one for the preparation of wine and bread. Another
very remarkable difterence in the Russian churches is the not having separate
places for the women, and there is not a single remnant of a tribune or gyne-
ceum — a circumstance the more astonishing as this disposition is met with
not only in the East, but also in nearly all the churches on the coasts of the
Adriatic Sea, at Bari, cic. The author concluiUng by passing in review the
modern churches erected after Peter the Great, especially at Petersburgh, and
by exhibiting and explaining an original design for a Gra^co-Russian church
exquisitely drawn, and embelhshed with all the attractions of that gorgeous
coloiuring, which is so pccidiar a feature in those eiUfices.

REMAllICS ON ARABESQUE DECORATIONS, AND PARTICULARLY
TlIOSi; OF THE VATICAN.

Jli:ad nl the hisliliile of ISritish Architeets, Fdi. 3, 1840,

By A. PoYNTER, Esq., one of the Secretaries of the Institute.

It is an observation which has been very frequently repeated and very
variously expressed, that the proper use to be made of the study of the an-
cients in their works of art, is not to copy, but to endeavour to think like
them. Among the principles which guided them, none is more important, or
has exercised a greater inllui'nce in bringing ancient art to perfection, than
that whicli has been so well condensed into one line by Pope, that

" True Art, is Nature to advantage dressed ;"
and if Hc wish to rival the ancients in the productions of wliat is at once ex-

1840.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

95

cellent and original, we imist like them seek for original types in the works
of nature.

That such a course of study would be analogous to the practice by which
the ancients themselves attained so high a reach of perfection, we have suffi-
cient proof. Nothing in art can be imagined more conventional than the
orders of architecture, and yet Vilruvius endeavours to derive them all from
simple principles. Vitruvius sufficiently indicates it to have been a received
principle that the m6st conventional forms — and a more conventional form
than the Corinthian capital it would be difl!ic\ilt to point out, were supposed
to have been originally suggested by the forms and accidents of nature.

To follow up the subject of these remarks, would open a boundless field of
inquiry. I offer them in the present instance merely as prefatory to a few
observations on the arabesque style of decoration, illustrated by a short re-
view of the arabesques in the Loggia of the Vatican, of which the engravings
are liefore you. I propose to inquire how far the artists who designed and
c-\eeuted these arabesques have been indebted to the antique, and how far
they have modiiied the hints derived from that source, so as to adopt their
compositions to the purposes they are destined to fulfil.

In speaking of these sorts of compositions as arabestiues, I of course adopt
the term as it is commonly understood, and need not explain that we disre-
gard both the etymology and the meaning of the term in applying it to the
paintings and stuccoes of antiquity, which represent not only foliage and
fruits, but also beasts of every species, and imaginary creatures combined and
interlaced together. These decorations have also acquired the name of gro-
tesque, from the grottoes or underground buildings in which they have been
found — a term we have perverted still more from the sense in which the
Italians invented it.

It is remarkable, that the only mention Vitruvius makes of this style of
decoration is in^reprobation of it — but he describes it so accurately, that the
passage is worth repeating, if for no other reason. After pointing out and
classifying what he considers legitimate objects for painting walls, such as
architectural compositions, landscapes, gardens and sea pieces — the figures
of the gods, and subjects drawn from mythology, and the poems of Homer.
He proceeds thus, " I know not by what caprice it is, that the rules of the
ancients — (observe, that Vitruvius looks up to the ancients in his day, that
is to say, to the Greeks) — who took truth for the model of their paintings,
are no longer followed. Nothing is now painted upon walls but monsters,
instead of true and natural objects. Instead of columns we have slender
reeds, which support a complication of flimsy stems and leaves twisted into
volutes. Temples are supported on candelabra, whence rises, as from a root,
fobagc on which figures are seated. In another place we have demi-figiires
issuing from flowers, some with human faces, others with the heads of beasts,
all things which are not, never have been, nor ever can be. For my own
part, I hold that painting is to be esteemed only so far as it represents the
truth. It is not sufficient that objects be well painted — it is also necessary
that the design be consonant to reason and in no respect ofl'ensive to good
sense." Pliny also laments that in his time, gaudy colouring and quaint
forms w^ere held in greater estimation than the real beauties of art. But w ith
all deference be it spoken, there is another side to the question, which these
great authorities seem to have overlooked. Conventional decorations of this
kind were within the reach of thousands to whom paintings in the higher
branches of art were inaccessible, and a more general diffusion of taste must
have been at once the cause and eff'ect of their universal adoption— how uni-
versal, the remains of Pompeii reveal to us. If we examine the ancient ara-
besques independently of these prejudices, we shall find endless beauty, variety
and originality ; graceful details combined in consistent and ingenious mo-
tives and analogies, and great skill and freedom in the mode of execution.
We shall also find reason to doubt whether the introduction of the ar.ibesque
style really had the effect of discouraging painting of a higher class, since
even at Pompeii, poetical compositions of great merit are frequently combined
with the lighter ground work of the general decoration.

However fanciful and capricious the arabesque style may at first sight ap-
pear to be, there can be no doubt that it may be treated according to the
general fi.xed principles of art, and that the artist will be more or less suc-
cessful as he keeps these principles in view. A due balance of the composi-
tion is essential, so that the heavier parts may sustain the lighter thiough
every gradation, and there must be such a disposition as not to cover too
much or too little of the ground. Unity of design is to be studied in a con-
nexion of the parts with each other, and in the harmony of the details and
accessories, which ought as much as possible to tend so some general aim.
It woidd lead us much too far to enter upon the subject of colour — but it may
just be observed, that in the ancient decorative painting, the balance of colour
is strictly attended to. Their walls usually exhibit a gradation of dark pian-
nels in the lower part— a breadth of .the most brilliant colours in the middle

and principal division, and a light ground thinly spread with decoration in
the upper part and in the ceiling— an arrangement dictated by the natural
effects of light and shade, and reflection. As lightness and grace are the pe-
culiar attributes of arabesque, the foliage which forms its most fertile resource
should never be overloaded; its details and modes of ramification ought to
be drawn from nature. The poems of Schiller and other Gennan authors
have lately been published with a profusion of arabesque decoration in the
margin, which are well worthy of attention, both for the ingenuity with
which they are rendered illustrative of the text, and for the accuracy, the
botanical accuracy, with which some of the foliage and flowers are represented,
and which form one of the greatest charms of these clever and original com-
positions.

Although the paintings in the Loggia of Vatican pass under the name of
Raflaelle, it is not pretended that they are the work of his hand, nor were his
designs. He was indeed the originator and director of the whole, and tlie
character and influence of his taste is visibly stamped on every part. But
his coadjutors in the work were artists whose names are inferior to none in
the Roman school but his own, such as Guolano Romanino, Perino del Vaga,
Benvenuto Tisi, and others, who were occupied not only in the execution but
the invention of the details. Francesco Penni, and Andrea da Salerno are
particularly noticed as being employed for the figures. Giovanni da Udino
for the fruits and flowers, and Polidoro Caravaggio for the releivos. It may
be worth digressing to mention, that M. Quatremcre de Quincy is of opinion
that the sculptures of the Parthenon were produced by similar means, Phidias
there peiforming exactly the same part as Raffaelle in the Vatican — and it
IS indisputable that the combination of unity of design, with variety of detail
which characterizes gothic architecture, could have been produced only by
the same system, and by employing the minds as well as the hands, of those
Ijy whom the decorations were executed. When we see perfection attained
in three distinct styles of art, in three distinct ages, by means precisely simi-
lar, it is not too much to assume that these means are probably the right
ones.

The Loggi ofa Raffaelle. as you will see by the large section w hich forms one
of the permanent ornaments of this room, is an arcade in thirteen compart-
ments. The arches are open, or at least were so originally, toward the court
of which the Loggia forms one side. The opposite side, that namely which
is represented in the drawing before you, is a wall pierced with windows, one
in each arch, giving light to the suite of rooms which contain the great
frescoes of the prince of painters. The ceiling of each compartment forms a
square cove, on the sides of which are the pannels containing the series of
scriptural paintings, the engravings from which are known as Rartaelle's
bible. These are his own designs, and some are known to have been touched
with his own hand. Both the lateral and cross arches are supported by
pilasters about 16 (feet high, panelled, and decorated with coloured arabes-
ques on a white ground. It is to these pilasters the present remarks will be
confined. Each pilaster on the w all side is flanked by a half pilaster, in w hich
the arabesque is carried through on a smaller .scale of composition.

The description of these pilasters will be taken in the order in which Vol-
pato has engraved them, that is to say, beginning on the side next the wall.
I. Notwithstanding the great variety in the composition and details of these
works, we shall find a general unity of design pervading throughout, with
the exception of the last five of the series, which will be particularly noticed
in their turn. Whatever form the composition may take, it is rendered sub-
servient to the introduction of four medallions, or tablets relieved from the
back ground in stucco, of contrasted shapes — one like an antique shield — the
next circular — the third rectangular — and the fourth spindle-shaped. These
medallions occupy the upper part of the pilaster to the extent of about one-
third of the w hole panel, whde the lower part, to the height of the dado, or
somewhat higher, is generally filled in such a manner as to afford a weight
nf colour, sufficient to support itself by the side of that member of the archi-
tecture, and the marbles introduced into its panels, following in this respect
the practice of the ancients. These medallions might appear to violate the
due balance of the arabesques if they were identified with them— but the com-
position is rescued from that fault, by the separate character given to the
decoration of the medalhons, and by their being detached, and hung as it
were, independently upon the back ground. In the general arrangement of
the whole, these medallions perform a most important part, connecting the
pilasters with the panelled stuccoes adjoining, by their relief, and by means
of an accordant style of decoration and a similarity in the subjects repre-
sented upon them, neither of which could have been well embodied in the
arabesque itself.

It must be admitted that these compositions considered separately are
somewhat unequal, and the examples to be first passed in review are by no
means the best, but instruction may be derived from a consideration of their

m

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[March,

ilulV-cts. Tlie lUislei's of natural fruit anil loliagc wliicli siinouml the wimloMs
are conlimieil t!irmif,'linut the series of arches, ami are nrL'-itly varieil in de-
tail. Ilimi(;li [H-ecisoly similar in oompiisition. 'I'liero is nothing conventional
in these festoons— the clusters are simply connected toKether by a sirinf;. and
are composed of the most familiar ohjeds rendered with perfect truth. The
melon, the orange, the ehesnut, the tomata, the olive, grapes of dill'erent
kinds, pomegranates, gourds of every description, pine and cypress cones are
those which most frequently recur, with their foliage and blossoms. Tlie
artist has not even disdained the cahhage. cucumber, and the onion. This ex-
ainplc may leach us that objects for decoration may be sought throughout the
whole r.inge of nature's works with hopes of success.

Unity is again lost sight of in the design No. 18. but the different objects
wliich compose it, are harmonized upon a totally different principle from any
which have been hilherto examined, aud the eOi-ct is rather clupendant upon
colour than on form. The panels contrast brilliantly with the white back
ground, and are relieved and rescued from heaviness by the sharp dark lines
which surround them ; this is quite antique.

Having now completed the review of tliis series of arabesques, it is not my
hilention to detain you by any lengthened observations upon them, such as
occurred, having been expressed on the immediate occasicms on which they
arose. In the resources which the decorative artist can call to his aid, the
moderns have greatly the advantage over the ancients, since we possess their
materials and our own also. For as long as ancient authors arc read, and
ancient art appreciated, so long will allusions to the manners, customs, poetry
and religion of antiquity be familiar to us. and the symbols to wliich they
gave rise be universally understood ; indeed numberless allusions of this kind
are constantly before us, and are so familiar, that we forget to inquire their
origin. In personification, and the embodying of .abstract ideas, the field is
as open to us as to them, and we see to what advantage it may be turned by
the examples we luive just |iassed in review, and if we add to all these objects,
those derived from the useful arts and sciences which miy be turned to ac-
count in the hands of the skilful decorator, bis resources may be consi.Iereil
boundless. For as we have seen in these examples, it is not the familiar
aspect of any object which should banish its representalion from works of
fancy. Every thing ilepends upon its proper application. The ancients made
the best use of whatever they considered most appropriate, and we must en-
de.ivour to do the same. Thus on the pedestal of the c(}lumn in the Place
Vendome, which is a professed imitation of that of Trajan, modern arms and
habiliments occupy the place of those of the Roman period, sculptured on the
original. Whether this translation be as well executed as it might be, is not
now the question— I merely notice it as being right in principle. One fertile
source we have totally unknown to the ancients, from which materials may
be drawn for decoration. Carrying w ith them the invaluable quality of being
in all cases significant as well as oni>amental— 1 mean the science of heraldry
— I cannot help Ihmking that the Greeks who used so much diversity of
colour in their architecture, would have availed themselves liberally of the
tints of heraldry in their decorations had they been accustomed with it. From
the personal allusions it conveys it might be made a much more important
feature than it even now is in the decoration of private as well as public
buildings, and we have only to study tlie works of the middle ages for invalu-
able hints for the work in which it may be applied. The mere display of
shields of arms is but one. We shall find heraldry intimately woven into the
ornaments of our gofhic buildings, and he who can read its language may
often understand an allusion in what may appear at first sight a mere de-
coration. Thus one of the mouldings of the loinl) of Uumfrey Duke of Glo-
eester, at St. Alb.ans, is filled with an ornament, which on examination
resolves itself into a cup containing flowers, a device assumed by that prince,
says a M.S. in the College of Arms, as a mark of his love for learning.
Heraldry has not been neglected in moilern Italian art. and 1 remember in
particular a very well imagined .arabesque in the Towu-liall at Folisno. The
ceiling is covered with foliage, spreading from the centre.

In the pilaster No. 3, many of the details are in the true spirit of the anti-
que— Ihc single figures are less so. An ancient painter would not have
placed them on a scrap of earth. In the Pompeian decorations, the detached
figin-es — 1 do not speak of such as are inclosed in frames — but the ih'lacherl
figures, partake of the artificbal character of the style to which they are
■adapted, and if they are not represented as floating in the air, they stand upon
a bracket, or a mere line, or on any thing l)Ut the natural ground.

My olijection to some of the terminal figures is, that tliey are improb.able.
lm]irobabli' I mean upon certain postulates, which it is necessary to assume
before we can reason upon these imaginary compositions at all. The mytho-
logy of the ancients has peopled the elements with lieings cimipi^unded of the
human and brute creation j their intelligence being indicated by the first,
and their fitness for the region they are supposed to inhabit by the second.

There is nothing in ancient art in wbicli greater taste or judgemeiu is dis-
played than in some of these combinations. The animal functions appear in
nowise compromised by the mere interchange of corporal members, between
different species. Such combinations therefore, as long as they involve no
glaring disproportions, present nothing repugnant to the mind, and we art>
so f.amiliarized to them, that we pronounce upon the success of the repre-
sentation of a triton, a satyr, or a centaur, with as little hesitation as we
might upon that of any of the animals of which they a\e compoumled. We
are equally ready, or perhaps owing to a stronger association of ideas, more
re.ady to admit of aerial beings, supporting themselves on wings, floating in
the ether, or alighting upon a flower without bending the stalk; tlujugh
these are, in fact, less prnljable than those born of the ocean or the earlh.
Tietween animal and vegetable life there is also a sufficient analogy to attach
some probability, or at least to afford an apology, for the graceful combina-
tiuns between these two kingdoms of nature, invented by the ancients, and
adopted to a very great extent in the compositions before us ; but, when we
come to combine animal life with unorganized matter, the probabi:ity ceases,
and ff. as in the case before us, the unorganizeil portion is something artifi-
cial, and totally out of proportion, besides the combination becomes intoler-
able. Thus we acquiesce in the met.amorphoses of Ovid or the Arabi.an
Nights, as long as certain analogies are observed- but the transformation of
the ships of Kneas into sea nymphs, is a violation of probability to Hhich
nothing can reconcile us.

No conventional form lias been more abused than the terminus ; intelli-
gence and immobility arc the attributes which the ancients intended it to
eniljody, but their apposite creation is totally different from anomalous com-
p isition like this into which it has been tortured.

In No. 5 we arrive at a superior composition, for it must lie repealed j we
are examining the decoration of a single member of an extensive wlmle, and
that, however beautiful each may be, unity is a beauty in addition. No ob-
ject in decoration has been so extensively used as the scroll. The ancients do
not appear to have been alhicted w ilh an unhappy craving for novelties, nor
to have been haunted with the apprehension that beautiful forms of com-
position would become less beautiful by repetition. When the most appro-
priate forms ni architecture and decoration were once ascertained, they
were continually repeateil, but marked with a fresh character, and stamped
with originality by those refined and delicate touches which wers all-
sufficient when they were properly appreciated. In the same manner willi
regard to the ever-recurring form of the scroll, as long as the foliage and
ramifications of nature are unexhausted, so long will it be capable of assum-
ing an original character in the hands of the skilful artist. A striking illus-
tration of this position ni.ay lie drawn from the ar.alicsques in the p.alace of
Capsasola, where the pilaster of the Loggia are decorated with scrolls, all
similar in composition, but each formed of a different species of natural foliage
without the intermixture of any thing conventional except the regularity of
the convolutions.

For the magnificent scroll before us we are indebted to the antique; it is
an imitation of the well known frieze of the Villa Medici, but the artist has
made it his own by tlie skill with which he has adapted it to his purpose,
both in proportion and colour. Nothing can be more happy than the manner
in which the upper part grows from the original design. I would jiartieularly
call your attention to the .animals — the squirrels, the mice, the lizards, the
snake, the grasshopper, aud the snail, dispersed about the branches, so well
calculated to fill the spaces they occupy, and at tli,e same time producing a
variety which woidd have been wanting, had the fotage only been extended
with that object. To the scroll in the half pilaster it is to be objecteil that
it is a repetition in small, of that in the principal compartment — but if ex-
amined separatelv, it will be found lull of instruction from the union it dis-
plays of natural objects with conventional forms. The spiral line of the
anti()ue scroll is evidently drawn from the natural course of climbing plants,
— it is conventional in its openness and regularity. The involucra of plants
furnish the hint for the base from which the antique scroll is made to spring
and the sp.atbes of the liliaceous tribe fur the sheaths, of a conventional re-
petition of which, the ancient sculptured scrolls principally consist. Thus
far for the general elements of the antique scroll, which the artist has impli-
citly followed in the example before us ; but he has enriched his composition
without disturbing its unity, by making every sheath proiluce a different
branch, drawn immediately from nature. The birds present an equal variety,
and ;u'e occupied according to their natural habits, in feeding on the berries
and buds, or on the variety of insects which are also introiluceil. The ara-
besques in the side panels arc to be particularly noticed in this example.
A Motion, however slight, is always to l)e desired, and here we see a very
graceful ono in the two winged boys who dip into a vase-like fountain. The
winged bear which occupies the medallion may be noticed as a violation of

1840.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

97

Iirobability. A being tci cleave the air shoiikl not be seleeteil from tbe most
heavy and a\vk» avd of animals ; it is undoubtedly intended for a jeu ti'vspril'
and is quite in the spirit of the antique. The ancient frescoes are full of such
whimsical combinations, but always as in the present instance, occupying a
subordinate place.

No. 7, is one of the most remarkab'e of the series. In this the artist has
ventured, and with the most perfect success, to discard every thing conven-
tional, and to represent a natural tree, balancing its irregularities of rami-
ficalu>n and foliage by the numerous birds which occupy the branches, when
they may be suppo.scd to have been collected l>y the call of the Iiird -catcher,
who is concealed in the underwood with his bird-call in his mouth. One
bird, fettered by a limed twig, is about to fall into his liuids. It is impossible
to admire too much the skill with which this simple motion is w'orkeil out.

It may be observed in reference to Nos. 4 and U. that folds of drapery are
too broad and heavy to be successful in arabesque — its efl'ect is seldom pleas-
ing. I must also protest against the birds which crown this composition.
Nature has provided a variety wdiich makes it quite unnecessary to seek
novelty by combining the neck of one species and the tail of another with
imaginary wings. The first impression is, that these birds are meant for
swans ; the second, and abiding one, that the artist did not know how to
draw a swan ; he has not mended them by dressing them in trowsers.

In No. 15. the artist has chosen the apparently incongruous subject of fish
to comljine with his foliage. In a painting by Hogarth, we see in the fash-
ionable furniture of one of his scenes, a composition of foliage inhabited by
fish instead of birds, although this absurdity be intended as a caricature of the
talk of the day, it is no great exaggeration of the fact. In this design, the
foliage and the fish are brought together without the slightest violation of
probability ; the fish have been hung to the branches — the variety of their
forms and cohuu's produces an admirable efiect, and above all, they are per-
fect in the condition, more especially indispensable in objects not intrinsically
graceful or pleasing, of being represented with the most absolute truth to
nature.

INSTITUTION OF CIVIL ENGINEERS.

SESSION 1840. ANNUAL REPORT.

TuF. Council of the Institution of Ciril Engineers, on resigning the trust
confided to them by the last annual general meeting, solicit the attention of
this meeting, and of all those who are interested in the welfare of the Insti-
tution, to the following report on the proceedings and on the state and pros-
pects of the Institution at the close of this the twenty-first year of its exis-
tence. At the last annual general meeting, the council of the preceding year
had the gratification of congratulating the Institution on its then assembling
in its new premises under circumstances which furnished so advantageous a
contrast with the condition of earlier years, and such convincing evidence of
the steady progress and success which had attended the labours of the Coun-
cil and the co-operation of the general body. And though the year which is
now closing upon you may not have been marked by events of so striking
a character as the preceding one, the council nevertheless experience the
highest degree of satisfaction in reviewing the proceedings of the session of
the year so auspiciously commenced. Aware of the more extensive duties
and increased responsibility entailed upon them, the council have cndeavotired
so to direct the alTairs of the Institution as to kcej) pace with its growing
importance ; and they can with confidence assert, that the jiroceediugs of the
last session have not been inferior in interest or importance to those of any
preceding session ; whilst the attendance at the meetings, and the anxiety
which is evinced by strangers to become acquainted with the proceedings
and objects of the Institution, show the estimation in which it is held both
at home and abroad, and fully warrant the most sanguine anticipations of its
future and continually increasing success.

The attention of the last annual meetiug was directed to the expediency of
some alteration in the existing laws, particularly with reference to the elec-
tion of otficers and the number of the council. It was suggested that the
annual election of the council should be conducted in a somewhat different
manner from that hitherto pursued ; that a greater number than that consti-
tuting the council should be nominated, and that, consequently, eacli person
at the annual general meeting, instead of, according to the then existing
practice, erasing one name and substituting another, should erase as
many names as the number on the balloting list exceeded the constituted
number of the Council. It was also suggested, that it would be for the ad-
vantage of the Institution that the council shoidd be increased by the addition
of two members : that as some members of the council are frequently pre-
vented by professional engagements from regular attendance, the council
should be enlarged to as great an extent as might be consistent with the tnie
interests of the Institution. These and some other suggestions for the better
regulation and stability of the Institution, were subsequently submitted to a
general meeting of the members, and now constitute part of the bye-laws of
the Institution.

The practice of other societies in publishing' their transactions in parts,
containing such communications as were ready at frequent and short intervals,
was briefly touched upon in the last report, and was discussed in considerable
detail at the last annual meeting. Such is the nature of some communica-
tions, that delay in their publication may be considered not only as a positive
injustice to the author, but as detrimental to the cause of practical science,
and the best interests of the Institution ; and if the publication of such papers
be delayed until a whole volume is ready, authors will inevitably avail them-
selves of other channels for bringing their labours before the world. Add to
which, when a wdiole volume containing many valuable plates is to be pub-
lished, the sources of delay are numerous, and such as cannot be avoided.
The council conceive that the experience of the past year has fully borne out
the precetUng views, and shown the great importance and value of prompt
publication. Early in the session the Institution received a most valuable
communication from your member, Mr. Parkes. It was considered desirable
that the publication of this comnumication, forming, as it did, a continuation
of his researches already published in the second volume of the transactions,
should not be delayed. No other coiunumications being then ready for pub-
lication, the council resolved to publish it at once as the first part of the
third volume. This has now been for some time in the hands of the public,
and the number of copies which have been disposed of shows the gre,at de-
sire e^^nced to obtain these jiapers as soon as published. The council have
also had still further proof of the importance of this plan. The Institution
received, during the last session, several communications well suited for pub-
lication in the Transactions, and among them, the continuation and con-
clusion of that already mentioned by Mr. Parkes. Preparations were made
for the iiumediate iniblication of these papers in a second part ; ditficulties
and delays wdiich could not have been foreseen or prevented, occurred in the
publication of some of them, and thus the second part contains but two
instead of the nine commimications originally destined for it. The greater
portion of the remaining seven papers are already printed and the plates en-
graved, so that the third part will be in the hands of the Institution in a very
short time. There are several other valuable communications in the posses-
sion of the Institution now in the course of preparation for pubhcation, and
which will appear as soon as circumstances will permit.

The minutes of proceedings have been printed at such short intervals
during the session, as the abstracts of papers aud minutes of conversation
would furnish suflicient materials. The council conceive that great advan-
tages may, and indeed have, resulted from a publication of this nature. An
authentic account of the communications is thus immediately furnished, at-
tention is continually kept alive to the subjects which are brought before the
Institution, and the statements there recorded have elicited very valuable
cotumunications, which otherwise would probably never have been brought
forth. No one can turn over the minutes of the last session without remark-
ing the number and the diversity of the facts and opinions there recorded,
very many of which were elicited by the statements contained in some written
communication, or casually advanced in the course of discussion.

The council cannot omit this opportunity of insisting on the impoi-tance
of these discussions in promoting the objects which the Instituion has in
view. The recording and subsequent publication of these discussions are
features jjeculiar to this Institution, and from wdiich the greatest benefits
have resulted and may he expected, so long as the communication of know-
ledge is solely and steadily kept in view. It would be easy to select many
instances during the last and preceding sessions, of some of the most valuable
communications to the Institution owing their origin entirely to this source.
The first communication from Mr. Parkes arose entirely out of the conver-
sations which took place on the superior evaporation of the Cornish boilers
being referred to as one cause of the great amount of the duty done by the
Cornish engines. The communication by Mr. Williams on peat and resin
fuel owes its origin to his being accidentally present at the discussion on the
uses of turf in the manufacture of iron ; whilst that by Mr. Apsley Pellatt,
on the relative heating jiowers of coke and coal in melting glass, arose en-
tirely from the discussion of the facts stated by Mr. Parkes respecting the
superior evaporation jji-oduced by the coke from a given quantity of coal than
by the coal itself. And lastly, the extremely interesting and highly valuable
discussions at the commenceiuent of last session on the uses and applications
of turf; and on the extraordinary coincidence between the results obtained
bv Mr. Lowe, Mr. Parkes, Mr. Apsley Pellatt, and Marcus Btdl, of Phila-
delphia, experimenting as they did with totally different riews, and under
totally different circumstances, must he fresh in the recollection of all
present.

But, besides the positive advantages which have thus resulted, and may be
expected, from a steadv adherence to these practices so pecnhar to this In-
stitution, there are others of the greatest value to those engaged in practical
science. By this freedom of discussion statements and opinions are can-
vassed, and corrected or confirmed, as soon as promulgated, the labours of
authors and claims of individuals are made known and secured as matter of
history— and attention is continually kept alive to the state and progress of
knowledge in those departments of science which it is the especial object of
this Institution to promote. The council trust, therefore, that those indivi-
duals who have stored up knondedge and facts for many years past, and de-
voted themselves to some particular branch of science, will consider how
much they have in their power to contribute, and how great is the assistance
which the'v can render to the labourers in other branches, and, above all, to
those who' are ambitious of following in their steps, by freely communicating,

08

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[March,

either ornlly or in writing, tlie knowledge which they have collected; so that
the records of tlic lii!,tiliiliiin may be unjiaraUuled for tlie extent and correct,
ncss of the information whicli tliey contain.

The conncil have cndeavonred from time to time to direct attcjition to
snlijccts on whicli it was conceived comrannieations were needed or desiralilc,
hy proposing snclisnlijects as objects for the preminms, placed at the dis|>osal
of the council by the nnniificence of tlie late president. The commiinications
.sent in compliance with this invitation have not been nnmcrons. Two, liow-
ever, — one by your associate Mr. Jones, on the AVestminster Sewage, and the
other hy Mr. Hood, on M'amiing and Ventilating, — seemed to call for some
r.ppcial mark of distinction.

The comiiiiinicalion liy Mr. Jones is of the most elahorate and costly descrip-
lion. (See ,/onrnn/, vol. 2, p. .31 1). The council conceived tliat, in awarding
to Mr. Jones a Telford medal in silver .and 'Jll guineas for this laborious com-
munication, they were bestowing a suitable mark of approb.ition on the author
of a record which is nearly unjiaralleled, and must be of great value as a
source of information in all future works of this nature, when other, and par-
ti'-nlarly foreign, cities carry into efl'ecl a system of drainage, in which they
are at present so delieient.

The conncil cannot pass from this subject without expressing the obliga-
tions which the Institution is under to the cliairman and the commissioners
nf the sewers of the Westminster district. On its being intimated to them
that tlie council wished some account and record of the work over which
they preside, permission was immediately given for any person desirous of
preparing such account to have free access to all the documents in their pos-
session relating to this subject, and to make such extracts or copies there-
from as could in any way contribute towards this object.

The communication by Mr. llnod contains a detailed account of the prin-
riples on which the salubrity of the atmosphere in crowded rooms depends,
and the various methods which have been adopted for warming ami ventila-
tion. {See Journal, \ol. 2, \). -iCiO). The importance of ventilation, and the
success which has attended the adoption of mechanical means in the manu-
facturing districts, are subjects worthy the attention of all who study the
lieallh of those who, from choice or necessity, arc exposed to the generally
iinwholesoine atmosphere of crowded apartmenls. This subject is of the
highest imjiortance to tin; manufacturing poor of this country, who are com-
pelled to work in crowded rooms at high temperatures. The council are
aware that much has been done towards this object in some of the large cot-
ton works of tireat I3ritain, and they hope ere long to obtain some detailed
account of the means hy which this has been accomplished, and the results
which have ensued.

The conncil have also awarded a Telford medal in silver to your associate,
Charles Wye Williams, for his communication on tlie Properties, Uses, and
Manufacture of Turf Coke and Peat Uesin Fuel j and to Mr. Edward Woods,
for his communication on Locomotive Engines.

The various applications of peat as a fuel had been repeatedly the subject
of discussion at the meetings of the Institution, and this communication may
(as has been already noticed) be attributed to the discussions then going on.
{See Journal, vol. 2, p. Hi).

The communication by Mr. Edward Woods, published in the second volnine of
the Transactions, willahvaysbearaprominent place among the records of practi-
cal science, as one of the earliest and most accurate details on the actual working
of locomotive engines. Tlic first communication was received early in the
session of lrt?,S. (See Journal, Vol. 1 , (i. l.'')9.) The author was tliouglit capa-
ble of adding so much to his already valuable communication, tliat the coun-
cil referred it back to him for this jinrpose, and it was not received in the
form in which it appears in your Transactions till after the premiums for that
session were avvanled. lint Ibis communication (notwithstanding the interval
since it was laid before the meeting) will prob.ibly be fresh in the recollection
of most lU'escnt, from its giving an accurate account of the jirogrcss of the
locomotive engines on the Ijiverpnol anil Manchester Railway from the open-
ing of that important work. The experience of engineers had at that time
furnished them with but little knowledge as to what were the most essential
requisites in railway engines, and the advance of knowledge, as slnnvii by the
history of the locomotive engine on this railway, is a most interesting and in-
Etructive lesson to every one who would study the progress of practical science
and improvement, (ircat alterations were found necessary in the strength of the
jiarts, in the weight of the engines, in the road, and the number of wheels.
The first engines were grailually ailapted to the necessities of the ease, and
the arrangements then resorteil to as necessary expedients have now been
adopted into the regular and uniform jnacticc. Ilesides the extreme interest
of that which may be termed the history of these improvements, the eomiiiu-
nieation is replete with theoretical principles as to the working of locomo-
tives, and the advantages ami disadvantages incident to peculiar practical
adaptations. It would exceed the limits of this rcjiort to ilo more on the
present occasion than brieHy to state that this paper contains extended re-
marks on the relative advantages of four or six wheels, of inside or outside
framings, of crank axles or outside crank pins, of coupled or uncoiiided en-
gines. The council would point out this paper to the junior memlicrs of the
profession, as an example of how great a service may l)e rendered hy simply
recording what passes under their daily observation and experience.

The council have also adjudged a Telford medal in bronze and books to the
value of three guineas to Mr. It. W. Mylne, for his communication on the
Well sunk at the reservoir of the New River Company at the Hainpstead-road,
{see Journal, yol, '2, p. 311); to Lieutenant Pollock, for his drawings and

description of the Coffer Dam iit M'estminster Bridge, (see Journal, vol. 2, p.
.111); and to Mr. Redman, for his drawhigs and account of How Uridge.

Among the other communications of the session, the council cannot, on the
]nesent occasion, omit to notice those of your inenibcr, Mr. Parkes. His
communication on tlie E\'aporation of M'ater from Stc;im Hollers, (see Jour-
nal, vol. 1, p. 1 70), for which a Telford medal in silver was awarded during the
ineceding session, and the interesting discussions to which it gave rise, are
too well known rcipiire further comment. But gi'cat as were the benelits
conferred on practical science by the facts there recorded, they have been
much surpassed by the subsequent labours of this author. In continuation
of his subject, you received early in the session the first part of a communi-
cation on Steam Boilers, (see Journal, vol. 2, p. 22.')) ; and at the close of the
session, the second |iart, treating of .Steam Engines. Before Mr. Parkes was
induced to turn his attention to the preparation of these conimunieations, no
attempt had been made to bring together, in one connected view, the various
facts which had been ascertained. The economy of the Cornish system was
indisputable ; but to what it was to lie referred was involved in some ob-
scurity. It was reserved for this communication to call attention to certain
quantities and relations which exerted a peculiar intlncnce over the results ;
and which, lieiiig rightly ascertained, were at once indicative or exponential
of the character of the boiler. If it be found that, in one class of boiler, the
same quantity of coal is burnt eight times as rapidly as in another class — that
the quantity consumed on each square foot of one grate is twenty-seven times
that on the grate of another — that the quantity of water evaporated bears
some definite relation to the quantity of heated surface — and that there is
twelve times more evaporated hy each foot of heated surface in one class of
boiler than in another — and finally, that the quantity of water evaporated by
a given weight of fuel is in one class double the quantity evaporated in
another, — we have arrived at some definite relations whereby to compare
boilers of dift'erent kinds with each other. To these definite quantities and
relations, the author, with apparent propriety, assigns the term ■' exponents ;"
and these being compared together for different boilers, their respective merits
as evaporative vessels are readily perceived. Mr. Parkes has also called the
attention of engineers to the effect of the element time, that is, the period of
the detention of the heat about the boiler. The importance of attending to
this cannot be too strongly insisted on ; as it would appear from these state-
ments, that boilers being compared with each other, in respect of their eva-
porative economy, are nearly inversely as the rate of combustion. Attention
is also called to the fact, that there are actions tending to the destruction of
the boiler entirely independent of the tenqieraturc of the fire, and which may
be designated hy the term " intensity of calorific action." Of their nature wc
know nothing, but the durability of different boilers, under different systems
of practice, affords some means of comparing the intensity of these actions.

Mr. Parkes having, in the first part of the subject, thus pointed out the
distinctive features of the ditferent classes of boilers as evaporative vessels,
proceeds, in his subsequent and concluding communication, to consider the
distribution and practical apjilication of the steam in different classes of
steam engines. And for this jmrpose, he is led to consider the best practical
measure of the dynamic efficiency of steam — the methods employed to deter-
mine the power of engines — the measures of effect — the expenditure of
power — the in'oportion of boilers to engines- — the standanl measure of duty —
the constituent heat of steam — the locomotive engine — the blast and resist-
ance occasioned by it — the momentum of the engine and train, as exhibiting
the whole mechanical etfort exerted by the steam — the relative expenditure
of power for a given efi'ect by fixed and locomotive non-coudensiiig engines.
This hare enumeration of the principal matters in the second communication
will give some, though a very inadequate, idea of the magnitude of the task
undei'taken by Mr. Parkes, for the communication is accompanied by elaho-
rate and extensive tables, exhibiting the results of th« facts which he has
collected and used in the course of his inquiiy, and it may confidently be as-
serted that a more laborious task has rarely been undertaken or accomplished
by any one individual than the series of communications thus brought before
the Institution.

It will be one of the earliest duties of the succeeding council to consider
in what manner the sense of the great benefits conferred on this department
of jiractical science can most a|ipi"0)n'iately be testified.

The council also received, at the close of last session, from your member,
Mr. Leslie, a most valuable communication on the Docks and Harbour of
Dundee. This is one of the records on which the Institution sets the highest
value, being the detaileil account of an executed work of great extent. It is
not, in its present form, well adapted for being laid before the meetings; hut
on its publication, which will take jdace very shortly, the Institution will
have an 0|)portuiiity of judging of the high value which it possesses.

In acknowledging, with gratitude, the numerous and valuable iirescnts
made to the Institution during the past year, the council would call the at-
tention of the members generally to the want still existing in the library of
works of reference on general scientific subjects not immediately connected
with engineering, and express a hope that such wants may be sup|)lied by
that liberality to which the Institution is .already so deeply indebted. The
collection of models also requires many additions to render it as complete as
the council could wish, and it is only by the wants of the Institution being
const.antly borne in mind by all who arc i nterestcd in the subject, that such
a collection can be formed as shall be worthy of the Society.

Several societies have made an exchange of Transactions with the Institu-
tion, and from the Royal Society of Edinburgh, the Philosophical Society of

1840.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

99

Manchester, the Royal Irish Society, and the Royal Astronomical Society,
sets of Transactions, "as complete as could he made np, liave hceii received
The Master-flencral of the Ordnance, tlie Lord-Lientcnant of Ireland, and
Colonel Colhy, continue their liberal presents of the English and Irisli Sur-
veys; and Captain Beaufort ami the Secretary of the Admiralty have con-
tinued the present of the series of Admiralty Cliarts. The Institution is also
iudchlcd to Mv. Vignolles for the Busts of Locke and Ur. llutton; to Mr.
I'ichl, V.P., for a Bust of the late Henry ilaudslay; and to Mr. Rivers, for
tliat of Dr. Karaday.

The council would wish to take especi.al notice of the large collection of
works of the late eminent philosophei-. Dr. Yonng, now deposited in your
lihrary. For this great acquisition, the Institution is indebted to the kind-
ness and lilierality of his brother, Mr. Robert Yo\uig, who conceiving most
justly that every thing connected with so great a benefactor to practical
science must be highly valued by this Institution, has made it the depository
of these books from the library of his distinguished I'clative. The council, in
tluis jmblicly recording their sense of the kindjicss and liberality of Mr.
Ivobcrt "loung, would earnestly press upon others the importance of following
so noble an example, and of presenting such works as are at their disposal,
and of which the hl)rary of the Institution is particularly in need.

It is announced thro\igli the mediunr of the last Annual Report, that the
monument of Telford was nearly finished, and that a site had been selected
in Westminster Abbey. The council have now the satisfaction of amiouncing
that the monument is fixed in the place destined for it, and they are confident
that all who enjoyed the accpiaintance, or knew the merits, of the late dis-
tinguished president of this Institution, will rejoice that the memory of one
so eminent and so highly deserviug has met with so proper and just a tribute
of respect; whilst all, no less than those liy whose liberality the monument
was erected, will feci that he has a name which will endure so long as there
exists a record of tlie triumphs of tlic British engineer.

It would be vain to expect that an annual meeting should ever recur with-
out the council having to lament the removal liy death of some who, by their
actpiiremcnts, or by their associations of friendship, were endeared to the In-
stitution. On the present occasion the council have to lament the death of
\o»r members, Mr. David Logan ami .\lr. Henry Ilabbciley Price, and of
your hoi\orary member, Mr. Davies Gilbert. The records of the Institution
contain several eommmiications from Mr. Logan, particularly one on the new
Graving Dock at Dmidee, and Mr. H. II. Price was, when in tow n, a constant
attendant at the meetings, and look a lively interest in the proceedings and
success of the Institution. Mr. Davies Gilliert was, by his writings and his
influence, a great benefactor of practical science, and the Transactions of the
Royal Society, over which he presided for three years, contain several papers
of great value to the practical engineer. lie took great interest in the in-
troduction of Mr. Watt's improvements in the steam engine into the Cornish
mines, and in the controversy betwixt Mr. Watt and Mr. Jonathan Horn-
blower respecting working steam expansively, the former employing one cy-
linder only, the latter two cylinders, in the manner afterwards revived by
Woolf ; the theoretical elKciency of the two methods Ijcing identical, hut
simplicity and mechanical advantage being greatly in favour of the former, as
its present universal adoption testifies. Mr. Davies Gilbert introduced into
jiraetical mechanics the term " efficiency" as the product of the applied force
ami of tlie space through which it acted in contradistinction of the term
" duty," as indicative of a similar function of the work performed. His at-
tention was also directed to tire theory of suspension bridges, when the plan
for making such communication across the Menai was submitted to the com-
missioners appointed by paiUament. It appeared to him that tlie proposed
depth of curvature of the catenai-y was not sntlicient, and his well-known
theoretical investigation of this subject was undertaken with the view of as-
certaining this fact ; and in consequence of these investigations, the interval
between the points of support of the chains and the roadway was increased
to the height which appeared to him requisite for works of this natm-e. The
labours of this distinguished individual for the |H-omotion of science were un-
remitting. He was the founder of several societies; he was the discoverer
and early patron of the talents of Davy ; and wliile in parliament he laboured
most assiduously in the advancement of all the public works. Regret for
such a man, exerting the power of bis mind so advantageously and through
so many years, must tlvvays he strong and sincere ; but having attained the
ordinary limit of human life, he sunk into the grave amidst the resjiect and
esteem of all who knew him, and has left behind him a name which will ever
bear a prominent place amidst the names of those whose lives and talents
liave beeu devoted to great aud noble purposes.

GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

On the relative Jyes of the Tertiary and Posl-Tertiary Deposits of tits
Basin of the Clyde, by James Smith, Esq., of Jordan Hill.

Ill former communieatious Mr. Smith showed that deposits in the basin of
the Clyde had been elevated above the level of the sea during very recent
geological epochs, aud that some of these beds contain tcstacea wliieh indi«
cate the prevalence, during the period of their accumulation, of a colder
climate in Scotland than exists at present. In this paper he confines his re-
marks to subsequent observations, which afford most satisfactory evidence

that these eouiparatively mailera deposits are divisaWe iutg two distinct

formations, dift'ering in their fauna, and separated by a wide interval of time.
In the older of these formations Mr. Smith has found from 10 to 15 per cent,
of extinct or unknown species of tcstacea ; but in the newer only such shells
as inhabit the British seas. He accordingly places the former among the
newest pliocene or pleistocene deposits of Mr. Lyell, and the latter among
the post-tertiary series. Both of these accumulations, be, nevertheless, con-
siders to be older than the human period. In the lowest part of the pleisto-
cene formation of the basin of the Clyde, Mr. Smith places the unstratified
mass of clay and boulders, locally called " till," and in tlie upper, which rests
upon it, the beds of sand, gravel, and cliiy, containing marine shells, a portion
of which arc extinct or unknown. He is of oiiiiiion that some of the similar
accumulations in the basins of the Forth and the Tay, will probably prove to
lie of the same age, as well as the elevated terraces of Glenroy, recently shown
by Mr. Darwin to be of marine origin. He is also convinced that a very
great jiroportion to the superficial beds of sand, gravel, and clay will be as-
certained to be tertiary, although the absence of organic remains must rentier
it difficult to obtain, on all occasions, satisfactory evidence. During the post-
tertiary epoch, or while the beds containing only existing tcstacea were accu-
mulated, changes of level in the liasin of the Clyde must have taken ]ilaec
to the amount of forty feet; but during the human period no change appears
to have occurred.

The paper concludes with a list of the fossil shells obtained by Mr. Smith,
and not found living in the British seas, or of doubtful existence in them.
The mindicr of the species is twenty-four — six of which occur in the crag of
England, three in the most recent tcrtiar-y strata of Sweden, and seven in a
living state in the North seas.

On the noxious Gases emitted from the Chalk and ovcrlyinrj Strata in sink'
inij U'ells near London, by Dr. Mitchell.

The most abundant deleterious gas in the chalk is the carbonic acid, and
it is said to occur in greater quantities in the lower than the upper division
of the formation. The dislrilmtion of it, however, in that portion of the
series is very unequal, it having been found to issue in eonsiderahlc volumca
from one stratum, while from those immediately above aud beneath none was
emitted. Sulphuretted hydrogen and carburctted hydrogen gases sometimea
occm- where the chalk is covered with sand, and London clay, as well as in
other situations. In making the Thames Tunnel they have been both occa-
sionally given out, and some inconvenience has been experienced by the
workmen, but in no instance have the ctfects been fatal. In the districts
where sulphuretted hydrogen gas occurs the discharge increases considerably
after long-continued rain, the water forcing it out from the cavities in which
it had accumulated. The paper contained several cases of well-diggers hav-
ing been sullbcated from not using proper precantions.

The tables of the Meeting-room and the Library were covered with dona-
tions of specimens and books.

Wednesday, November 20.

Four communications were read.

An extract from a letter addressed to Dr. Andrew Smith by Mr. A. G.
Bain, dated Graham Tomi, Cape of Good Hope, Feb. 2\sf, 1839, announcing
the discovery of the skull and piths of the horns of an ox in an alluvial de-
posit on the banks of the Jlodder, one of the tributaries of the Orange River,
and forty feet below the surface of tiic ground. The piths measured, in the
direction of their cunatnre, and including the breadth of tlic os frontis,
eleven feet seven inches, but it is calculated tliat about five inches had been
broken oft' each point. Their cu'cumference at the root was eighteen inches,
and tlie orbits are described as situated immediately under the base of the.
born. Other portions of the head, and five molar' teeth, were found at the
same time.

On tlie Oriyin of the Vegetation of our Coal-Fields and Wealdeyis, by J. T.
Barber Beaumont, Esq.

The author of the communication is of opinion, that the jilants discovered
in the coal measures were not drifted into large estuaries and there sunk, but
that they grew where they are found, and that the districts now forming our
coal-fields were originally islands. The principal objections advanced in the
paper, against the theory of the transportation of the plants by great rivers,
are, that such bodies of water would have requii-ed for then- existence exten-
sive continents, of which there .-ue no traces ; that, as the coal strata near
Newcastle are 380 yards in thickness, the depth of the estuary must, in that
case, have exceeded six times the mean depth of the German t)cean ; that the
formation surrounding the coal-fields are of marine origin, aud bear' no traces
of having been dry land at the same time the coal aud its associated strata
were accumulated ; and that the freshness of the plants is opposed to the
view of their having been drifted from a distance, and sunk in a deep estuary
— a process which must have been accompanied by a certain extent of decay
in the plants. Mr. Beaumont then briefly proposes the following, as a pre-
ferable theory to account for the production of the coal-fields : — He supposes
that they were originally swampy islands, on which plants flourished, and in
part decayed ; that the islands, during the settling of the earth's crust, were
submerged, and covered with drifted clay, sand, and shells, whicli buried the
plants; that these accumulations gradually raised the surface of sunken
islands till it again became dry land, and adapted for the growth of another
series of plants ; and that these processes were repeated as efteu as there are
alternations of coal and strata of earthy sediment.

0 2

100

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[M.

On llii: Fossil Fishes iif the Yorkshire and Lancashire Coal-Fiehls. by Mr-
AV. C. 'Williamson.

AVithiu the last four years tlio coal measures of tliese countries Ijave as-
Miiued a zoological inii>orlance. wliicli previously they were not sup|ioseil to
])Ossess. In Lancasliiru ictliyolites have been lately found to jicrvadc the
whole of the series from the Anhvick limestone to the uiillstone grit, and in
Yorkshire they liave also been obtained in great abundance. On comparing
the specimens procured at Middleton colliery, near Leeds, with the fossil
fishes of Lancasliire, the author detected the following as common to both
coal-fields, viz. ; — Viplothia f/ihhosus, Ctenoptyehits pectinatits, Mfijalicfhys,
lUbberlii, Gi/rardiilhiis fornwsiis : also, remains of api)arentl)' species of
Holoptycliub and Platysomus ; but he has obtained some ictliyolites in the
Yorkshire field which he has not seen in the Lancashire, and he is of npini(m
that tlie latter deposits are characterised by the greater prevalence of lepidoid
fishes, and the former by sauroid. These remains, excejit in the case of the
Ardwiek limestone, always occur in highly bitundnous shale, anil they are
most abundant where it is finely grained, and in general where jilants are
least numerous. This distinction in the relative abundance of ictliyolites and
vegetables, Mr. AVilliainson conceives may throw some additional liglit upon
the circumstances under which the coal formations were aeeumidated. The
tislies are found chiefly in the roof of the coal, rarely in the seam itself, and
not often in its floor. .Mr. Williamson, in conclusion, makes some remarks
on the manner in which ictliyolites are associated with the otlier fossils of
the coal measures. .\.t Burdiehouse they occur in the midst of freshwater
shells and Cypris ; at Coalbrook Dale with marine testacea ; in the lov\ er coal
measure of Lancashire, not far from the beds containing Gonialites IJsteri,
and Pecten popiiraceiis ; higher in the same field, and in Yorkshire, they are
associated with freshwater shells ; at Middleton with Lingula; ; and at the top
of the series in Lancasliire and Derbyshire with Mytili and Melaniic.

-'/ paper on the Geoloffi/ around the Shores of Waterford Iluren, by T.
Austin, Esq.

As the object of this communication is to describe topogra])hically the
structure of the shores of Waterford Haven, its details do not admit of
abridgment. The formation composing the district are mountain limestone,
a conglomerate, clay-slate, and trap, the limestone and conglomerate consti-
tuting the greater portion of the east side of the Haven, and the conglom-
erate the opposite.

REVIE'tVS.

On Steam- Boilers and Stiam-E7ighits. By Josiah Parkes. Trans-
actions of the Institution of Civil Engineers, vol 3. London : J.
Weale. 1840.

PART II. . — ON STEAM-ENGINES, PRINCIPALLY WITH REFEREKCE TO
THEIR CONSUMPTION OF STEAM AND FUEL.

In our Number for July last vpe noticed the part of tliis investiga-
tion, which treated of the cjualities of steam-boilers, and of the influ-
ence exercised over evaporation by their proportions and practical
nianagemenf. Of that part we considered the only value to consist in
the/acts therein recorded.

In the introduction to this part the autlior makes the following very
sensible observation :

" The generation and application of steam are distinct jiroblems;
they rerpiire to be separately treated, and their results to be separately
stated. It is the economy of steam whicli constitutes the dynamic
perfection of an engine ; it is the ecunomy of heat in supplying
steam to an engine ; which constitutes the evaporative Derfection of
a boiler ; and it is only by distinguishing the effects of e cli, that the
valui- of any change of |u-actice, in cither department, can be correctly
ascertained."

Now, although there may be few, if any practical e ineers, who
would be disposed to doubt the truth of this remark, yet we are per-
suaded that it is not in general duly appreciated, or at least, that very
little attention is paid to it by them.

The author has divided this part into two ])ortions : in the first,
which occupies about one-fourth of the whole, he has mvestigated the
atmospheric, the stationary non-condensing, or the high-pressure,
the low-pressure condensing, and the Cornish high-pressure expan-
sive pumping etigines. The facts established on these four varieties
are collected and exhibited in a comprehensive table, (table i>.) The
last three-fourths of the work are dedicated solely to the locomotive
engine, the chief part tending to prove the inaccuracy of all the esti-
mations which have hitherto been made of the several resistances
which have to be overcome by that variety of engine. Tlie author
has, liowever, also developed ■.I'ncw Ihury «/ Ik hcomotirc (iigim, the
fallacy of which will be at once evident to the scientific reader; but
its plausibility might induce the practical man (who has not the
means of detecting theoretical errors,) to put implicit faith in its cor-

rectness. For his sake, therefore, we shall feel it necessary to take
more notice of this new theory than we sliould otherwise have done.

The two sections in which the author treats of the methods e m-
plot/id til diltrniine Ihe j-vKer of ingints, and »/ the mdinnren of ijf'tcl,
present nothing worthy of notice ; but in the next section, which
treats nf l/ie expendtlnre ti/pon'er, we have to ])oint out an error, which
we thought to be already so thoroughly eradicated, that it could
never more find its way into any work having the slightest ])retensions
to science. This section coniniences thus:

" Tile ponderable element of steam is water: its consnnijjtion by an
engine is appreciable ; and it is now assumed, almost universally, that
the sum of its imponderable element, heat, is a constant quantity, in
steann of all specific gravities. The elastic force of steam is also ge-
nerally assumed to be proportional to its density ; thus, ei)ual amounts
of heat and water are expended in the generation of equal power, at
wdiatever pressure steam be used by an engine."

We adtnit the first assumption, that the quantity of heat contained
in a given weight of steam is a constant quantity, whatever may be
its density ; but it is not a fact, as Mr. Parkes assests, that the elastic
force of steam is also generally assumed to be proportional to its den-
sity : indeed a comparison of the numbers given in the table, (page
122,) which he himself took from M. de Pamhour's Ki/r T lieu nj of tlie
SUetm Engine, would have convinced him at once that that assertion
was not well founded. For we there find the volume of steam formed
from a volume of water equal to unify is equal to 2427, when gene-
rated under a pressure of lUlbs. on the square inch ; and G"?, when
generated under a pressure of 4(Jlb. We ought, therefore, to have ,
since these volume are inversely proportional to the density of the
steatn,

10 : 40 : : G77 : 2427,

which would give, by making the product of the means equal to that
of the extremes,

24270 = 27080,
which is absurd. The conclusion drawn from this law is therefore
also false ; wherefore equal amounts of heat and water are not ex-
pended in the generation of equal power, when the steam is used
at different pressures.

In tliis same section, (page f),"!,) the author tells us that

" By knowing the evaporation from the boilers, and consequeutly,
the weight of water as steam which passes through an engine, we
grasp the principal fact of practical consequence to the engineer ; a

fact which is free from all uncertainty in its nature ;

and the weight of water, which has passed from the boiler in that
state, and produced a given effect, appeals conclusively to the under-
standing as indicative, in a comparison of engines, of their respective
economy in the expenditure of power."

This does not seem very consistent with what he says on the sub-
ject in the first section, (page .■J2,) where, speaking of this method
of determining the power of engines, he observes, that " as its
value deiiends on a perfect accordance between the results of experi-
mental and practical seience — an accordance yet unascertained, — and
since many precautions are requisite to secure true results from this
test, it has been seldom resorted to by practical tnen."

The discordance between these two cjuotations is most remarkable,
and the ivaragraph which follows the latter leaves no room to doubt
that the basis of the method there alluded to is the identical fact
which he says is/ree/roni all uncertainty in its natnn, Ike.

In the table already alluded to, (table G,) will be found many results
computed from the data furuisheil by experiment, which, if correct,
will be of great jjractical utility to the engineer. Among these may
be mentioned the weight of water as steam equivalent to the produc-
tion of a horse power in each engine, and also, the duty effected by
one pound of steam. " These sums, (cohnnns U and IG,") the author
observes denote the positive and relative efficiency of sleam in the
different " engines ;" and here we recognize the pen of Mr. Parkes in
the signification he gives to the word relative, it being liere used to
express the inverse of positive. Thus the relatirc efficiency of the
steam decreases in ]irecisely the same ratio as its yjos//;r£ efficiency
increases, which we finddillicult to comprehend with our ])reconceived
notions of the meaning of the word relatin. We should have thought,
for instaifce, that ii' lUe jjostli re eflicieucy of the steam in a given
engine were equal to a, and in a second engine to b, its relative effi-
ciency in the first in comparison with the second would be -, and

that if, the positive efficiency b, remaining the same, that if the
engine were increased from a to 2 a, its relative efficiency would also,

be increased from - to
b

, or in the same ratio as its 2}osilive effici-

ency, The true nlative efficiency both of the steam and of the fuel is

1840.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

101

however, given in columns 21 and 22, under the head Comparative
fcoiiomical results.

The next section, which treats of t/ie proportion nf boilers to engines,
in our opinion serves ratlier to confuse and perplex tlie reader, and
to deprive him of confidence intlie numbers set down in the table, than
to render him any assistance in drawing practical conclusions from
them. We had intended to make a few observations on particular
parts of this section; but having vainly endeavoured to follow the
intricate reasoning of the second phragraph, and finding nothing of
any importance in the rest, we shall merely direct attention to column
20, which will appear on the slightest examination to throw no light
whatever on the economical qualities of either boilers or engines.

In tlie observations on the exptrinitnts and t/uir results, which follow
this section, there is nothing worthy of notice before the Gist page,
from which we quote the following paragraph, in order to shew how
necessary it is to sift with the utmost care all the results tabulated in
this work.

" It is necessar}', also, to guard against conclusions which might be de-
duced, from a comparison of the effects of the Cornish engines in the table,
with the pressures on the piston and degrees of expansion, set down in
columns 5 and C. The pressures given were not ascertained by any instru-
ment, (excepting at Huel Towan,) and must he considered only as estimations,
not as facts. The pressure upon the piston during the interval which occurs
between the first admission of steam into the cylinder, and the instant of
shutting it off, may be very variable ; that it was so, in several engines to
which Mr. llenwood applied the indicator, is evident from the diagrams he
has given, annexed to his paper. (Trans. Inst. C. E. Vol. II.) At the lluel
Towan engine, when the steam in the boilers was at a pressure of t/'l lbs.
above the atmosphere, it varied from 12-3 lbs. to 7-3 lbs. per square inch on
the piston, during its admission into the cylinder ; which latter was its elastic
force, at the instant of closing the steam-valve. 1 adduce tliese facts, with
the view of showing the impossibihty of determining the precise amount of
prssme on the piston, from the degree oi irire-rlrmr'mg the steam ; and as a
caution against expectations of deducing any valid theory of the action of
the steam, in these Cornish engines, from the particulars of pressure and ex-
pansion, contained in the table, which are only approximations to the truth."

Mr. Parkes does not seem to have compared the numbers contained
columns (> and 14, otherwise he never could have considered the
above caution necessary ; for the anomalies which would be found to
result from the adoption of the numbers there set down are so striking
that it would soon be discovered that either the pressure of steam on
the piston, or the consumption of water as steam is incorrectly given;
and it would certainly not occur to any one to deduce any theory of
the action of the steam from such conflicting data. A superficial exa-
mination of experiments 7 and 9 will give an idea of the confidence
whicli can be placed in the numbers contained in the table.

The diameters of the cylinders of these two engines are equal, but
the latter has four inches greater length of stroke ; the steam is also
admitted into the cylinder of the latter during one-fourth of the
stroke, while in the former it is cut oft" at one-fifth; but, since the
latter only makes 4*29 strokes per minute, while the former makes
5"35, the volume of steam consumed in an hour should have been
about equal in the two experiments. Now the ]n'essure of the steam
before the expansion is given as 7-3 lbs. per sqirare inch in the former
case, and 27 lbs. in the hitter case, above the atmosphere, and the
volume of steam generated from a given volume of water under these
two pressures is respectively proportioned to the numbers 1 173 and
Go3 ; the consumption of water as steam must therefore be nearly
inversely as these two numbers, and taking the consumption per hour
in the former experiment at 2ir)G-21 lbs., as in tlie table, the consump-
tion in the latter experiment ought to be about 3s73-2r> lbs., whereas
it is given in the table as only 972"G2, or very little more than one-
fourth part of what it ought to be. We conclude from this that the
numbers set down in column G are of no value whatever, as they do
not appear to represent the true pressure on the pistons : nor indeed
is it probable that the steam should lose so much as 42 lbs. of its
pressure in passing from the boiler to the cylinder, as in the case of
the Huel Towan engine, experiment 7. (See columns G and 7.) If
wire-drawing is really carried to such an extent in the Cornish en-
gines, it is a proof of sad mismanagement ; for, if it is necessary to
throttle the steam to such a degree, in order to reduce it to the desired
pressure in the cylinder, it is very evident that the load on the safety-
valve might be diminished, and the steam thus generated at a lower
temperature, the advantages of which are too obvious to need point-
ing out here.

Jlr. Parkes does not seem very confident of the advantage of the
Cornish (expansive) system of using steam in manufacturing engines
requiring uniformity of motion, and seems to approve of the method
recommended by Mr. Wicksteed in such cases, — (see the Journal for
January,) namely to employ a Coraish engine to raise water up on a

wheel, and thus transfer its power to machinery. Now, although the
momentum of such machinery is but trifling, an equivalent is easily
found in a fly-wheel, and the want of uniformitv in the action of the
steam is probably not so great as may be supposed.

We agree with the author that the pound of water as steam con-
sumed by an engine is the most convenient and correct standard of
duty which can be adopted, provided we know the true quantity of
water which passes through the engine in the form of steam.

The first division of this work is concluded with a chapter on the
Constituent Heat of Steam, \n which the author describes a series of
experiments made by himself, the results of which confirm the already
generally admitted law, that eqiud weights of water absorb equal
quantities of heat in passing from the liquid to the elastic form, under
all pressures.

The remaining portion of this work, which treats of the Locomotive
Engine, being very long and perplexing, we have not sufficient leisure
to enter into a detailed examination of all the difficulties and doubts,
opinions and arguments contained in it ; we must, therefore, content
ourselves with a few general remarks.

The greater part is occupied by an examination of the experiments
of M. de Pambour, Mr. Robert Stephenson, Mr. Nicholas Wood, and
Dr. Lardner; the object of this examinution being apparently to con-
vince the reader of the inaccuracy of some of the results of experi-
ment, and of alt the deductions hitherto drawn from them, and to pre-
pare him for the reception of a we/y //if ori/ of his own, which he lays
down in a separate section near the end of the work.

It is very certain that the experiments hitherto made on locomotives
are too few in number, and too imperfect in their nature to allow of
any certain theory of their action being as yet deduced from them ;
but on the other hand we have no doubt that a careful investigation
of Mr. Parkes' objections would bring many fallacies to light, which
might otherwise have the eft'ect of unjustly shaking our confidence in
the results previously obtained and published by other authors. As
an instance we shall merely cite the comparison he has instituted be-
tween two of M. de Pambour's experiments, (pages 9a and follow-
ing,) wliich were made with the same engine (AtlasJ at two different
speeds, and with corresponding loads. Mr. Parkes, in his detailed
calculation of the ettects produced in these two cases, omits, without
assigning any reason for so doing, to include the pressure on the
back of the piston, which is undoubtedly a part of the resistance, and
therefore the power expended in moving this resistance at the ve-
locity of the piston, is a part of the gross power of the engine, or of
the total effect of the steam. With this omission Mr. Parkes finds the
absolute (or gross) power of the steam equal to G7'1I horse power in
the first case, where the velocity was 20-34 miles an hour, and 59' 50
in the second, where the velocity was 27-09, (See page 9.5.)

In these two experiments M. de Pambour gives the same effective
evaporation, namely, -77 of a cubic foot of water per minute ; and it
is to prove the impossibility of this fact that Mr. Parkes made the
above comparison; for he observes (page 99) ; "To be consistent,
however, with his own (M. de Pambour's) rule above quoted, viz.
that ' the weights of water consumed as steam are to each other as
the resistances against the piston,' it is obvious that if, in the first
case, 302(i lbs. of steam passed through the cylinders in an hour,
2 IGG lb. only would have been expended in the second case." Now
this assertion is not even justified by his own calculations, for M. de
Pambour evidently did not, nor could he mean to say that the weight
uf steam which passes through the cylinder in a given time is propor-
tional to the resistance, whatever may be the speed of the engine, which
would obviously be absurd, but that the density of the steam, and tliere-
fore the weight which passes through the cylinder in a given number
of strokes, or which is the same thing, in travelling over a given
distance, is proportional to the resistance. The consumption of water
in a given time would thus be directly as the product of the resistance
by the velocity, or the gross power of the engine ; so that, if this
power is equal in the two cases, so ought also the evaporation per-
minute.

The effect of the steam in overcoming the resistance of the atmos-
phere on the opposite side of the piston is equal to 25"25 horse
power in the first case, and to 3G-77 in the second, wliich, added to
G7-11 and 59-5U, found by Mr. Parkes, respectively give 92-3 J and9G-27
horse power as the gross etti?ct of the steam in the two cases. The
near coincidence of these two numbers shews that in this case at least
there is no validity in Mr. Parkes' objections. We should therefore
recommend a most diligent and patient examination of this section,
before the adoption of any opinion therein expressed, or the rejection
of any others previously entertained.

We have already alluded to a }iew tlieonj of the locomotive engine
proposed by the author of this work : the section in which he ex-"
plains this theory commences (page 124) thus :

102

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[March,

" Ol' MOMENTUM AS A MEASURE OF THE KFKKCT OK LOCOMOTIVE
ENGINES.

" Tlie cfl'ectivc power of a locoiuotivc engine — l)y which is meant (lie ex-
cess of power after overcoming its proper friction, and llie resistance from
Jlie lilast — is solely expended in the generation of nnnncntnm. The momen-
tum communicated to tlie cidire mass set in nnUimi represents the nsefnl
mechanical effort exerted liy the steam; this clfect of tlie engine is, there-
fore, at all limes delerndnahle ; for, licing the simple prodnct of the mass
moved, nudliplied into its velocity, it is the prodnct of two ipianlities easily
ascestained nnder all the practical drcnmslances of railway trattic. The con-
sumption of jjower, as water in the shape of steam, is a third (juantity also
readily apiireciahle.

" Were it pussihlc to work a locomotive engine and its train ik vacuo, on a
truly lc\cl plane, the momentum generated hy au cfpial exjienditure of power
woidil ho a constant (|nantity at all velocities; for, the resistance hcing in-
\arialilc, ecpial momenta would he produced liyan ennal expenditure of i)owcr
with all loads, as the velocity attained would he in the inverse ratio of the
loads, ami vice versa. This hypothetical case sii]iposes friction and resist-
ance of all kinds to he constant."

Tills is not only a new l/ituri/ of the locomotive eiigini', but one
vvliich involves a new dejinition of the word momtntam ; tor, according
to the |ircsent acceptation of the term, nionicntmn can only be gtiie-
)•((/£(/ during an acceleration of (he moving mass, which accelleration
is not, and ouglit not to be considered in locomotives, nnless the time,
in vvliich a given accession of velocity is also taken into account at
the same time, which is evidently not contemplated by Mr Parkes.
What is here understood by the mominliim gtinraled in one second, is
nothing but the absoliilt momentum referred to the second, as the unity
of time, which is deduced from the uniform velucitij of the engine,
williout reference to the time in which it acquired that velocity.

Since the resistance does not enter into this expression of the power-
of the engine, it would follow tliat the same engine would draw the same
train at the same velocity, whatever the nature of the road may be ;
since the evaporation being the same, the ])owcr expended must be
the same ; and since tlie mass moved is the same, so must also its
velocity, to make its momentum ecjual. The absurdity of this doc-
trine is obvious.

Tlie next section contains some good observations on Ihe blast, as
well as some experiments made by tlie author on the resintance jiro-
cliiced hy it; but no reliance can be placed in the results tiiere re-
corded, some of them being evidently impossible. At page 147 we
read the following:

" The immediate cause of my entering on these experiments is worth men-
tioning. I one day oliscrved tlic mechanic in care of the machine, wliilst
pre|iaring for work, opening and shutting the grease cocks of a cylinder, and
giving oil to a jiiston. The engines were then working without load, and it
was evident that a small vacuum existed after the blast, or the oil would have
been blown hack instead of entering the cylinder. This fact, the possibiUty
of which had not before struck me, induced me forthwith to order another
gauge from Mr, Adie, which v^as fixed on one of the blast-pipes, in a con-
venient place for constant observation, about 2 J feet from its junction with
the cylinder, the bnlh being exposed to the full current of the escaping steam.
This instrument detected the fact of a vacuum by marking, usually, a teni-
pcralnre of from 208" to 210", or al)out 1 lb. per square inch below the at-
mospheric pressure, the active steam on the piston being 1 J lb. above it.
When the engine was driven at double velocity, or at 120 revolutions per
minute, at which speed it reipiired about Z\ lbs. of steam, the thermometer
rose to 211°, and when locomotion was given to the machine at the usual
velocity of 00 revolutions of the crank shaft, and rcijuiring 4 llis. in the
lidilcr, the blast thermometer stood at 212 , exhibiting a pressure equal to
the atmosphere only. At 8 lbs. on the piston, a couider pressure of about
2 Ills, was cxhibitecl, at 15 lbs., about 4 lbs., and at 20 lbs. the blast thermo-
meter indicated G lbs., bejond which point I was unable to load the engines."

In his observations on M. de Pambour's experiments (page 87), Mr.
Parkos justly remarked that a racuum on t)ie opposite side of the
piston was an impossible result, and this remark evidently holds
good for his own experiments as well as liis deduction from those of
M. de Pambour.

In conclusion, we would again caution our readers against adopting
the conclusions arrived at by liy Mr. Parkes without first submitting
the whole of his work to the strictest scrutiny. There is some, and
there may be much good in it ; but, having detected errors of
importance in some parts, we cannot depend on the correctness of
that which we liave not had time to inquire into.

N'ery great merit is however due to Mr. Parkes for the indefati-
gable zeal he has exhibited in the compilation of data, and in the
comparison of results therefrom deduced, which must have cost him
much time and labour, with the praiseworthy object of advancing our
yet imperfect knowledge of the eft'ects ancl comparative economy of
steam engines.

The Uoval Lodges in Windsor Gre.vt Park, from Drau-iiiijH by
II. 15. ZiEGLER, executed hy L. Hague, /« lllhoyropliy, liy e.rjjrcsi- command,
for Her Gracious Majesty Queen Victoria. Folio. Ackermann.

Ifhy "express command" we arc to understand more than a mere per-
mission, all we can say is that we caiiuot possibly conipUnient " Her Gracious
Majesty" upon her taste, for while considered as drawings, the plates are far
from rivalling preceding specimens of Uthography, ,as architectural subjects
they arc very much mure unsatisfactory. Indeed it seems to have been taken
for granted that the less that was said about these buildings the better, there
being no description or information of any sort attached to the jilates ; there-
fore, not happening to be acquainted with their history, wc are unable to say
who was the perpetrator of these Cockney whims and monstrosities — taste-
less jumbles of cottage, castle, and what not, without a single redeeming
merit of any kmd, dow aright paltriness, and utter want of feeling for any one
of the styles thus attempted, being their chief characteristics.

Scarcely can we bring ourselves to believe that Sir Jelfry M'yatville was
concerned in the erection of this architectural tnunpcry ; and if not, he would
do well to clear himself from a suspicion which is very likely to attach itself
to him, as the Royal architect at Windsor. Let the designs have been by
whomever they may, they ought never to have been executed ; and it fills us
with concern to behold — emanating from what ought lobe the fountain head
of taste, such specimens of it as would he excusable only in some suburban
tea-garden. But for their feebleness they might pass for arrant caricatures.

Arboretum et Fruticelnm Britannicum ; or, the Trees and Shrubs o/
England. By J. C. Loudon, F.L. and H.S., &c. London: Long-
man and Co., 1S39, 8 vols. Svo.

The name of Mr. Loudon suggests the idea of a work of great ex-
tent, of great labour and research, but that now before us surpasses
any of his previous triumphs. It bears less the impress of an indivi-
dual production than of a national work, a character sustained by the
number and value of its contributors, and by the eagerness with winch
all ranks devoted themselves to the promotion of a task so noble. The
man of science hastened to contribute from his stores of knowledge,
the grandee and the gentleman threw open their rich collections, or
volunteered at their own expence to obtain illustrations for the work.
From the duke downwards every jiatron and amateur of horticultural
science seems to liave considered co-operation in the work a lUily and
a iileasure. This detracts not from the value of Mr. Loudon's labours,
it enhances them, and is a high proof of the estimation in which they
are held.

This work, as it professes, gives a pictorial and botanical delineation,
and scientific and popular description of the native and foreign, hardy
and half-hardy trees and shrubs of England, with their propagation,
culture and management, and their a))plication in landscape gardening.
To Ihe landscape artist trees have the same importance as details of
style have to the architect, and every artist and amateur is, cinise-
quently under an obligation to possess himself of this cncyclopjrdia of
the art. The letler-))rcss in the old times nnglit legitimately have
been spun out to twenty volumes; the engravings our fathers could
never have compassed, they are two thousand five hundretl in number,
and are executed from drawings by the Sowcrbys, and other botanists
of distinction. Wc have only one fault to lind w ith the work, and
that is, that wc see it disfigured with a barbarous Latin name.

To give extracts from these volumes would be indeed to realize
the old Greek aiiophthegm of showing a brick for a house, so that we
must content ourselves with expressing our feeling of the value of Mr.
Loudon's labours, and with recommending this admirable work to all
who wish to follow with success an art so graml, as that of landscape
gardening.

Elementary Principles of Carpentry, illustrated by 50 engravings and
several mod-cuts. By Tho.mas TuEDGOLn. Third edition, with an
Appendix, by PiiTEU Bahlow, F.H.S. London : John Wcale, ISIO.

Tins is a new and improved edition of Tredgold's work, and Jlr.
Bariow bases his chief claim for its value as much on the proper re-
tention of the original matter, as on the excellent additions which he
has appended to it. These accessions are so important as to make
the new edition desirable even to those who possess the work in its
original form. Among many excellent specimens of Foreign and

EnglisU rooling «ow introtluced ftom tlie liigUest sywees, inay be pat"

1S40.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

103

ticulaily mentioned the information given relative to that admirable
work King's College Chapel, drawn by Mackenzie, and St. Dunstan's
Church, Fleet-street, by Shaw. The drawings of the iron roofs exe-
cuted by the Butterley Iron Works Company are no less interesting,
as well as those of several new buildings in London. We do not, how-
ever, so much admire the roof of the Exchange at Genoa, it strikes us
as sliowing more ingenuity than science. We shall probably notice
this work more at large next month.

^n Eisny on the Formation of Harbours of Refuge and the Improve-
ment of the Navigation of Rivers, by the adoption uf Moored Floa'ing
Constructions as Breakwaters. By John White, Architect, London.

Air. White has long been an advocate for the application of floating
breakwaters, and we think that he appeals successfully to his readers,
considering that their own experience on any common river must have
convinced thera of the efficacy of such a mode of protection. With
the appUcation of Mitchell's Mooring Screw and the new Wire Cable,
we see no difliculty in carrying out Mr. White's plans both efficiently
and successfully.

We feel indeljted to the author for the tribute he has paid to our
exertions and those of our correspondents, in promoting such an im-
portant branch of engineering as harbour construction, but no feeling
arising from this tribute, influences us in the expression of our senti-
ments of the high value of this work.

THK, RIVER BOURN, OR INTERMITTING SPRING OF THE
NORTH DOWNS.

TiiF. bursting or breaking oiit of the Bourn wafer about two months since
Gxcitod some attention at tlie time, on account of tlic interval elapsed since
its last eruption in the early part of 1837, being shorter than usual, but now
CFel). IG,) that the waters have continued to flow with increased volume, and
having Hooded the v.alley throufjh which it passes, together with the lower
part of Croydon, railed the Old Town, and the turnpike road, it hns become
a serious inconvenience. This intermitting sprini^ is situated in the great
ch.alk range which stretches in an east and west direction through the south-
east of FiOgland, called the North Downs, in distinction from the parallel
chalk range near Lewes and Brighton, called the South Downs. A traveller
faking the high road from London through Croydon to East Grinsted and
Lewes, «i)uld pass along the valley through which the Bourn water runs. A
little to the south of Croydon, the chalk rises from beneath the London and
plastic clay formations (its dip being northwards), and with comparatively
slight undulations.it attains the height of 800 feet above high water level,
within a distance of eight miles to the south of Croydon, the summit being
Ct)7 feet aljovc that town.

The first appear.ince of the Bourn water is in a flat part of the above valley,
just below Birch wood house, and is situated between the ILilf Moon Inn at
Catterham Bottom, and the Inner entrance to Marden Park, where it bubbles
thrnugh the surf,ace of the ground in an almost infinile number of jets, some
of tliem are extremely small, .and none more than a quarter of an inch diame-
ter ; .about twenty yards from the highest of these jets their number Is siifli-
cient to form a riviilet, and in 100 yards a very considerable stream, and
w here it reaches Catterham Bottom, about three quarters of a mile, it may
be called a river ; the height of the first outburst is 3.50 feet above high
water, from thence it flows nortliMard to Croydon, where it is 133 feet abiive
the same level, therefore its descent from the source to Croydon, is 217 feet
in a distance of six miles, or an average of 36 feet per mile, conse((uently its
current is very rapid. Its present eruption has been much greater than any
that can be remembered by the oldest inhabitants of the district. The writer
witnes.sed that in 1837, it was confined to the channel which frum time iin-
niemorial was prepared for it, and which at Riddlesdow n (about halfway
between its source and Croydon,) is about G feet Made and 5 feet deep, com-
monly called the dry river, from its being free frum water so long ; in the
present instance the water has exceeded these limits, and covered the whole
of the valley in many places three and four feet deep, and where it crosses
.Smifhern bottom, it has stopped the works of the Brighton railway, that
being tlie point where a deviation of the present Godstone road is to be made,
and a bridge erected to carry the railway over the deviated road ; the mate-
rials for the bridge are all upon the ground, and the embankment, \\hich is
to reach to the bridge, is brought nearly as far as it can with propriety be-
fore its erection, consequently, these works are stopped till the Bourn ceases
to flow.

The cause of this curious phenomenon is, no doubt, the same as describ d
in philosophical works under the head of intermitting or reciprocating
springs, from which it appears that the water which falls upon the surface
of the ground, percolates through the various strata, until it is stopped by
one which is impen'ious, or it falls into cavities where it is collected as in a
reservoir ; this continues until the waters have accumulated to the filling of
the reservoir, when it finds an outlet in the form of a syphon, consequently,
it will continue to llow till the reservoir is empty. It would therefore appear
that the short interval since the last eruption of the flourn, has been occa-
sioned by the almost unprecedented quantity of rain wliich has continued lo
fall for many months past,

Connected with this subject, there is a mine about three miles to the sont'j
of the source of the Rourn, in which water beg.an to collect last autumn, an"
the miners were driven thereby from several of their headings in ,Septembe''
last, and it appears that such circumstance always precedes the bursliug of
the Bourne, and the workmen confidently predict that event.

The works in the Merstham tunnel on the Brighton r,ailway. which is being
made through the same chalk range, and scarcely four niiles west of the
Bourn, have been much retanled, and now nearly suspended, by the quantify
of water which has come in upon them; what few men are able to reach
their works, are at the present time fl lated upon rafts from the shafts to the
top headings, which alone they are able to drive ; previous to this outburst,
the tunnel was perfectly dry, and it may therel'ore be attributed to the same
cause as the Bourn water itself.

PROGRESS OF RAILWAYS.

Greenu'ich RnUwntj. — Thursday morning. 30th January, at half-past ten
o'clock, a serious accident, and one that might have been attended with the
most fatal results, occurred on the Greenwich Railway. Two fireenw ich trains
were coming up to tuwn. — the first being the ordinary passenger train, the
second one engaged to bring up a dctcachment of the Royal Artillery to the
Tower. A Croydon train was coming at the same time Irom London, but be-
fore it coulil turn off to take the line that branches off to Croyilon, it came
into collision with the Greenwich passenger train, ,and the train with the
artillerymen coming up almost immediately, the three trains got jammed to-
gether. The Greenwich train was thrown off the line, and several of the
passengers injured, but none fatally. Major Boyce, of the Artillery, was
severely cut about the bead and face, as was a gentleman belonging to the
Admiralty. — Morning Post.

Great Western Railway. — It is understood a single line of rails on the Great
Western Railway from Reading to Twy ford will he opened as soon as possible,
so that the traffic by single trains should commence at a very early period.
To accomplish this end, the works are proceeding day and night whenever
the weather pennits, but the rain has been a frequent impediment to the
workmen. — U'iltshire Tnctepemtenf.

Mancliesler ami Leeds Railwaij. — The Directors have just made their monthly
inspection of the works, which are progressing most rapidly. Some idea of
the exertions used to push forward the undertaking, maybe formed from the
fact that Mr. John Stephenson, the contractor for the great lunnel, w hich is
far advanced towards completion, has now in full operation, on that contract
alone, 1.253 men. .54 horses, and 14 steam-engines ; and that the daily con-
sumption of bricks is from ,51,000 to GO. 000. — RnHwni/ Times.

Progress of the North Miillanil Rnilioa;/. — A considerable portion of this rail-
w.ay is so far completed as to allow of the permanent way being laid ; this is
done on the greater part of the fine. The most forward district is that situated
between Derby and Rarnsley. One line of rails is now nearly all laid for the
whole distance, Hdiieh is about 50 miles: great exertions having been made
to accomplish this, as it is expected the directors will pass along the line wilb
a locomotive engine, between the towns of Derby and Barnsley, very shortly
— probably next week. In the neighbourhood of Belper, Clay Cross, Staveley,
Sec, the works are proceeding night and day. in order to have a road througli
the large excavations in those districts. The first ckass stations are nearly
all contracted for, and several of them are in a forward state. The I'ickington
one is nearly reaily for the roof ; the Chesterfield and Southwingfield stations
are also far advanced ; the Leeds and Shelfield stations have been set out
during the week. The latter one is contracted for by Mr. Crawsbaw, and
will be situated near the entrance of the .Sheffield and Rothcrham Railway.
It will he a Large and convenient station ; the cost is estimated at about 8000/.
—Stieffield Iris.

South Western Railway. — A completely new town is in the course of formation
between the old corporation of^ Kingston-upon-Thamcs (Surrey) and the
South Western Railway, and already nearly two hundretl beautifid houses,
snug and aristocratic villas are finished, or in the course of finishing. From
an inspection of the plans, and a view of what has been done, great taste and
judgment appear to Ije exhibited ; and the railway Company, from the ad-
vantages of its site over that of the old Kingston station, have been induced
to remove it to the entrance to the new town, « here a very commodious
structure h.as been erected for the accommodation of the public. It is a sin-
gular fact, and one which must mainly contribute to the ebgihllity of New
Kingston, that the first-lloor windows of the houses command .i view scarcely
to be equalled in England, comprising no less than five Koyal Parks— tliose
of Hampton, Bushy, Richmond, Windsor, and Claremont, besides the gardens
of Kew and the river Tluames ; and yet this spot, by railroad conveyance is
only twenty minutes ride. — Observer.

STEAM NAVIGATION.

Launeh of an Iron War Steamer. — On Thursday, February filli, was launched
from Messrs. Ditchburn and Mare's Iniilding yard, Blackwall, the Proserpine,
wrought iron ste.am vessel of 470 tons. She has four sliding keels, nine
water-tight bulkheads, two of which arc longitudinal running the entire
length of the engine room— is armed with four long guns (Ui non-recoil car-
riages, and will not exceed four feet draught of water when fully equipt for
sea. The engines are tw o 4.5 horse, having the wheels to disconnect on a
new and improved method to facilitate sailing, by Messrs. Maudsley, Son and
Field. This vessel is constructed for sailing as well as steaming. It is a fact
worthy of record, and ought to be generally known, that Messrs. Ditchburn
<and Mare were the first who arrived , it the hitherto deemed unatt.ainalile re-
sult of giving highly superior sailing oualities to iron sea-going vessels ot
shallow ilraught of water. Their application and improvement of sliding

104

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[March,

/.T<7AliaveI>c('ii niost succossful. Ilit'ir sinijilicily is such that a boy cati nianagf
tlicni. Kvery [n-rsuii conversant with tlie iiistory of naval afcliitpctnre is
aware that Captain Shanks. R.N. was the in;;enious inventor, and that he
received Iiis first idea of thcin from the Indian navif^alin^ his raft, imt n!-
lliougli Captain Shanks. aidc<l hy the f,'overnment of his day, maile several
attempts to estaljlish tlieir use in timber-hiiilt ves.scls failed, ehielly in conse-
(|nence (if the f^real diliicidly in making the well and aperltire lliroiiKh the
keel, through which the sliding keel works, permanently waler-liuhl : tliis
in an iron ves.sel can he most perfectly accomplished. Tliey are of the highest
utility in the jirevention of lee-way, counteracting rolling motion, and tlie
vessel can he steered by them w ithout the help of the rudder !

Testhi/: llic xtrvnglJi nf Iron Urmts. — On Monday, February 21th as they
were lifting from the wharf a 2.') horse boiler of an iron boat, Ijuilt by Ditch-
hurn and ]\fare. the crane wliicli was of cast-iron broke. «hen tlie boiler and
crane fell a di-stance of 8 feet into the bottom of the vessel, little or no damage
was done, and fortunately no one was hurt. This vessel is named the Ln\
and lias the reefing wheels after Mr. Hall's patent, we believe this to be the
first aiiplication of them — we wish them every success.

The Orjce// iron steamer, plying between London and Ipswich, made during
the late gales several passages from London to lps» icli in seven hours, in-
cluding the calling off Gravescnd, at Harwich, and other stoppages, a dis-
tance of 112 miles,

Tlir Sons of the Thames, of whicli vessel we made mention in onr January
Journal, came from Gravcsend Pier to Black«all in one hour and five minutes,
a distance of 20 miles.

LIST OF MEIV PATENTS.

GRANTED IN EXGLAND FROM 30tH JANUARY, TO 26th FEBRUARY, 1840.

Mo.«iES Poole, of Lincoln's Inn, Gentleman, for "improvements hi pumps
for raising andforciny water and other fluids." Communicated by a foreigner
residing abroad. — Sealed January 30 ; six months for enrolment.

M'lLi.iAM Brochedon, of Quccu's Square, Middlesex, Esq., for " improve-
ments in tlie means of retaining fluids in bottles, decanters, and other vessels."
January 31 ; six months.

Philipi'e Marie Moindron, of Bedford Place, Russell Square, Merchant,
for " improrements in the construction of furnaces and in loiters." Commu-
nicated by a foreigner residing abroad. — January 31 ; six mouths.

William Cubitt, of Gray's lun Road, liuilder, for " an improvement or
improvements in roofing." — January 31 ; six months.

Crofton William Mo.vt, of Thistle Grove, Brompton, Esquire, for "o
new and improved method of applying steam-power to carriages on ordinary
roads." — Februaiy 5 ; six months.

WiLKiNso.N Steele and P.^trick Sanderson Steele, Manufacturing
Ironmongers, of George Street, Edinburgh, for " improvements in kitchen
ranges for culinary purposes and apparatus for raising the temperature of
water for baths and other iises." — February 5 ; six months.

William Isaac Cookson, of Newcastle-upon-Tyne, Esquire, for " cer-
tain improved processes or operation.^ for obtaining copper and other metals
from metallic ores." — Februarys 5; six months.

Thomas Mverscough, of Little Bolton, and William Sykes, of Man-
chester, Machine Maker, for " certain improvements in the construction of
looms for weaving or producing a new or improved manufacture of fabrics,
and also in the arrangement of machinery to produce other descriptions of
woven goods or fabrics." — Kchruaiy 5 ; six months.

Samuel Carson, of Caroline Street, Colesliill, Eaton Square, Gentleman,
for " improvements in apparatus for withdrawing air or vapours." — February
5 ; six months.

Joseph Nekdham Tayler, of Plymouth, Captain in the Royal Navy, for
" improvements in steam-boats and vessels making applicable the power of the
steam-engine to netv and useful purposes of navigation." — February 8 ; six
months.

John M'ertheimer, of West Street, Finsbury Circus, Printer, for " cer-
tain improvements in preserving animal and vegetable substances and liquids."
Commuuieatcd by a foreigner residing abroad. — February 8 ; six months.

Robert Heart, of Godniancliester, Miller, for " improvements in appara-
tus for filtering fluids." — February 8 ; six months.

Amand Deflangue, of Lisle, in the Kingdom of France, but now resid-
ing in Leicester Square, Gentleman, for " improvements in looms for weaving."
Communicated by a foreigner residing abroad. — February H ; six months.

Edmund Kudge, Jun., of Tewkesbury, Tanner, for " a new method or
methods of obtaining power for locomotive and other purposes, and of apply-
ing tlie same." — February 8 ; six mouths.

James Hancock, of Gloucester Place, Walworth, for " a method of form-
^^y a fabric or fabrics applicable to various xises by combining caoutchouc, or
certain compounds thereof, with wood, whalebone, or other fibrous materials,
vegetable or animal, manufactured or prepared for that purpose, or with me-
tallic stibstances manufactured or prepared." — February 8; six months.

George Eugene Magnus, of Manchester, Merchant, for " certain im-
provements in manufacturing, polishing, and finishing slate, and in the appli-
cation of the same to domestic and other useful purposes." — February 8 ; six
months.

Robert Willis, of the University of Cambridge, Clerk, Tonksonian Pro-
fessor, for " improvements in apparatus for weighing." — Febraarv 8 ; six
months.

l)Avin Nai'ier, of York Road, Lambeth, Engineer, for " improvements in
the manufacture of projectiles." — February 12 ; six months.

Antoine Blanc, of Paris, Merchant, and Theophile Gervais Bazille,
of Rouen, Merchant, now residing at Sablonieres Hotel, Leicester Square, for
" certain improvemerits in the manufacturing or producing soda, and other
articles obtained by or from the decomposition of commoji salt or chloride of
sodium." — February 12 : six months.

Thomas Robinson Williams, of Cheapside, Gentleman, for "certain
improvements in the manufacture of woollen and other fabric or fabrics of
which wool or fur form a principal component part, ami in the machinery
employed for effecting that object." — February 11 ; six months.

Joseph Clarke, of Boston, Printer, for " improvements in piano-fortes."
— February 14 ; six months.

Gerard Ralston, of Tokcnhouse Yard, Merchant, for " improvements in
rolling puddle balls or other masses ejf ii'on." Communicated by a foreigner
residing abroad. — Fehniary 22 ; six months.

Richard Cuerton, Jun., of Percy Street, Middlesex, Brass Founder, for
" improiwments in the manufacture of cornices, mouldings, and windoiv sashes."
Communicated by a foreigner residing abroad.— February 22 ; six months.

Thomas Kerr, of Forecrofts Uuuse, in the county of Berwick, Esquire,
for " a new and improved mortar or cement for 'building, also for mouldings,
castings, statuary, tiles, pottery, imitation of soft and hard rocks, and other
useful purposes, and which mortar or cement is applicable as a manure for
promoting vegetation and destroying noxious insects." — February 22 ; six
months.

William Cook, of King Street, Regent Street, Coach Maker, for " im-
provements in carriages." — February 22 ; six months.

John Hanson, of Huddersfield, Engineer, for " certain improvements in
meters for measuring volumes of gas, water, and other fluids tvhen passed
through them, and in the construction of cocks or valves applicable to such
purposes." — Februaiy 22 ; six months.

William Winsor, of Rathbone Place, Middlesex, Artists' Colourman, for
" a certain method or certain methods of preserving and using colours." —
February 22 ; six months.

Job Cutler, of Lady Poole Lane, Sparkbrook, Birmingham, Gentleman,
and Thomas Gregory Hancock, of Highgate, in the same Borough, Me-
chanist, for " an improved method of cutting corks and constructing the necks
of bottles." — February 22 ; six months.

William Brindley, of Nortliwood Street, Birmingham, for " improve-
ments in apparatus employed in pressing cotton, ivool, and goods of various
descriptions." — February 25 ; six months.

Thomas Huckvale, of Over Norton, Oxford, Farmer, for " improvements
in ploug/is." — February 25 ; six months.

Thomas Farmer, of Gunnersbury House, near Acton, Middlesex, Esquire,
for " improvements in treating pyrites to obtain sulphur, sulphurous acid and
other products." — February 25 ; six months.

John Wilson, of Liverpool, Lecturer on Chemistry, for " an improvement
or improvements in the process or processes of manufacturing the carbonate
of soda." — February 25 ; six montlis.

RicH.\RD KiNGDON, of Gothlc llouse, Stockwell, Surrey, Surgeon, for
•' certain improvements in apparatus for the support of the human body, and
the correction of curvatures and other distortions of the spine of the human
body." — February 25 ; six months.

Thomas Milnek, of Liverpool, Safety Box Manufacturer, for " certain
improvements in boxes, safes, or other depositories for the protection of
papers or other materials from fire." — February 2G ; six months.

William Morrett Williams, of Bedford Place, Commercial Road,
Middlesex, late of the Royal Military College, and Professor of Mathematics,
for " an improved lock atid key." — February 27 ; six months.

TO CORRESPONDENTS.

Jn our last Number welinserted a draivinir and description nf the Traversing
Screw Jaeh. but we omitted to state that it formed part o/Mr. Cvktis's patent
inventions.

Wf shall be happy to receive from Mr. Armstrong, our vnluuhle contributor, the
proffered iUustrntions alluded to at the conchision of his communication in the pre-
sent mon/h^s Journal.

Mr. TlioroJd's new frame for Steam Eneine, we were compelled to postpone, to-
gether with several other eommnnicatious for want of ,^paee, W( will endeavour to
meet the wishes of our numerous contributors ne.rt month.

Communications are requested to he addressed to "The Kdilor of the Civil
Knginecr and Architect's .lournal," No. \\, Parliament Street, Westminster,
or to Mr. Groombridge, Panyer .4Ucy, Paternoster Bow ; if hy post, to be di-
rected to the former place ; if by parcel, to be directed to the nearest of the two
places where the eoaeh arrives at in London, as we are frequently put to the
e.vpeuce of one or two shillings for the porterage only, of a very small parcel.

lioohs for review must he sent early in the month, communications on or before
the 2iith (if tvith wood-cuts, earlier), and advertisements on or before the Z5th
instant.

The First Volume may re had, bound in cloth and lettered in gold.
Price Us.

'," The Second Volume may also be had, Frici 20s.

IS40.1

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL

105

MONUMENT TO CHATTERTON.

Admiration of Chatterton, and compassion for his untimely fate have
too often evaporated in mere declamation, and it wanted the spirit of
a few individuals, and the talent of a disinterested artist to give the
poet that tribute, to which every one acknowledged his title " Tlie
wonderful boy who died in his pride," the bard who gave Bristol that
title in the literary world, which has since been maintained by Southey,
had a right to expect from his fellow citizens a memorial which they
had money to pay for and native talent to execute — The Bristolians
have shown good feeling in preserving in the museum of the In-
stitute the Eve at the Fountain, and they would have shown still more,
had they employed the pencil of Lawrence or the chisel of Baily upon
a subject so worthy of their talents, as the commemoration of a fel-
low townsman.

To enter into a biography of Chatterton would be misplaced here,
while the leading incidents need but to be alluded to to recall the re-
membrance of his life, his childhood,* his relationship to Redcliffe

*' Tliumas Chatterton born 1758, died 1770.

his education in the neighbouring charity school, and his years of
fretful toil as an attorney's clerk, are circumstances of local interest
connected with the present m )nument No site could be better chosen
than one near the place of hii birth and of his literarv education, no garb
could be more dignified than that which recalled the difficult position from
which he had to emerge to distinction. It was within the walls of St.
Mary's that he breathed the inspiration of his song it was there that
he planned the tale of fiction which struck the literary world with won-
der, it was there that he placed the stage on which the imaginarv
Rowley was to herald the fame of Chatterton. The discovery of the
fiction is not to be regretted, it is only painful as it led to the self des-
truction of one so promising and so talented, and the loss of a life which
beamed with hope of better works. His fellow citizens have been
loud in sounding his fame, but half their duty was undone while they
left the tenant of the workhouse ground in Shoe Lane, without a
stone to tell his name.

The people of Bristol have at last been alive to the c'aims upon
them, but it is owing neither to their public spirit nor their trenerositv
that tlie memorial is worthy of its subject. The paltry sum of one
hundred pounds is what this rich city awards to cominemorate its
own glory, and that of its favorite son, and it is fortunate that the per-
formance was not as mean as its reward. The monument, of Bath stone, is
a Gothic cross, 31 feet high, bearing the statue of Chatterton, attired in
the garb of the charity school in which he was brought up. The plan is
pentagonal throughout, and harmonises with the rich architect{ire of
the majestic church. The niches and tablet recesses are formed by al-
ternate parallel surfaces with the face and side of the buttresses, as
under : —

Plan of compartment in the middle stage of the Monument.
Scale J an inch to a foot.

The upper stage which is not shown minutely in our engraving is
composed vf five angular shafts detached from the central pier whic
supports the statue ; the light and shade are therefore much more
varied.

Plan of compaitment in the upper stage of the Monumeat.
Scale i an inch to a foot.

There are five inscriptions on the tablets in the lower stagrs, and
the open book and the scroll in the hands of the statue are also in-
scribed, the two latter in Old English character. The work is well
executed, the carvings in particular, which are designed after some of
the fine models in Bristol Cathedral.

The monument was sure to excite interest from its locality, and this
interest has been maintained by the skill with which the work is made
to harmonize with the noble back-ground formed by the North Porch
of the church, ricli in all the luxuriant ornament of the fourteenth cen-
tury. It is to Mr. S. C.Fripp, jun. an Architect of Bristol, that the public
are indebted for this admirable work, and he has shown both judgment
and true genius in preserving that harmony of tone, which was diteated
by a due regard to the proper treatment of the subject. Had Mr.
Fripp done otherwise he would have stepped beyond his proper sphere,
and failed in |n'oducing a work which does him so much honor. He
has by this monument added fiesh interest to a time honored site,
given his native city a new ornament, and a noble bard his long neg-
lected tribute.

ine

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[April,

ON DAGEXHAM BREACH.

.1 brief account of the stopping nf Dagenham Breach on the Thames
digested from Captain Perrv's Narrative, published at London in
1721.

Emgineering has only within the last fifty or sixty years been con-
sidered a liberal profession in Great Britain. Formerly from its
limited extent, and the want of education and science on the part of
its ])rofessors, it was looked upon as a subordinate although an useful
occupation. Although the profession has so greatly extended itself
\vithin that limited pe iod as now to be recognized as a scientific avo-
lation, we must not on that account suppose, that formerly there were
not men engaged in its arduous works, who by their originality and
boldness may be considered as worthy of memory. The work of
which we are to subjoin a brief account was (like some others at the
same period ) conducted by a man of real genius and industry — one who
although obliged by the slight encouragement given to his profession,
to execute by personal contract the works which he designed, yet can-
not be regarded as a mere pecuniary adventurer. Of his history all
the information I have been able to gain has been gleaned from his
writings, from wdiich it would seem, and it is worthy of remark that
liis own country afforded such small scope for his genius, that he was
obliged at one time to seek a livelihood under the Czar of Muscovy.

With regard to the work by which he so much distinguished him-
self, it was one of those unpretending yet costly works, the call for
which, had it not been irresistible would have probably been disre-
garded, but it was a work that could admit of no delay, as every lost
opportunity added to the difficulty of its completion. And it is to this
cause we must attribute the laying out of such a large sum of public
money in times so deficient of the spirit of enterprise.

Breaches in the Thames seem to have been of frequent occurrence
in the earliest periods of which we have accurate accounts. So far
back as the time of the Romans, the Thames afforded employment for
the ingenious. The earliest work of which we have any information,
w as the drainage of .Southwark and its neighbourhood ; this was a sort
of work w ith which the Romans were well acquainted. Sir William
Dugdale in his voluminous history of Embanking and Draining (fob,
Loudon 1772, p. 81, 2d edit.) mentions that " howbeit these banks
being not made strong enough to withstand those tempestuous storms
and violent tides which happened in September 1()21, Cornelius Ver-
muden, gentleman, (an expert man in the art of banking and draining)
being treated withal by the commissioners of sewers appointed for the
view and repair of the breaches then made, undertook the work and
perfected it ; but such being the perverseness of those as were owners
of the lands assessed by the commissioners to pay their proportions
thereof — upon comp'aint therefore made to the said commissioners, he
the said Cornelius in recompence of his charges had parcel of the said
lauds assigned unto him, which assignation was by the king's letters
patent confirmed to him the said Cornelius and his heiis."

I can find no account of the extent of this breach or the manner in
which it was stopped. Although from the handsome remuneraticjn
witli whicb the services of this eminent fen engineer were rewarded,
we umst suppose his task to have been a formidable one.

The breach with which Captain Ferry was connected, was occa-
sioned by the blowing up of a small sluice or trunk, that had been made
for carrying away the drainage water of the low grounds adjoining the
banks of the river. The ditch which communicated with this sluice
was at first not above H or l(j feet broad, so that had the accident met
with the attention it deserved, all the trouble and expence consequent
on sto])ping the breach would have been saved. Instead however of
)jrompt measures being taken, the damaged sluice was in the first in-
stance neglected, and it was not until the tidal water had greatly en-
larged the gap that attempts were made to stop the breach ; but by
this lime tlie water had scoured away the clay bottom, and began to
act upon what oiu' author calls " Mouilogg," and the gravel and sand
beds which lie out a little way below the surfice of the ground.
Moorlogg is described as a vein of juatted brusliwood, with nuts and
pieces of rotten wood interspersed. In these soft strata the scour
proceeded with great ra])idily, and baffled all attempts which were
made to check its progress during a period of no less than 14 years.
In that time the tiny ditch had ramified above a mile and a half into
the land, and its main branch had attained a breadth of about 4:10 or
50U feet, and a depth of from 2u to 30 or 40 feet. By a computation
made at the time, no less than about 120 acres of marsh laud had been
carried into the Thames by this tidal river. The ground thus exca-
vated anil carried into the river w.is comjiosed nf clayey ground moor-
logg, about a foot or IG inches of blue clay, and at llie bottom gravel
and sand.

Aor was the loss of s.unl by any means tlie most serious consequence

coimected with this inroad of the tide ; a more important although
perhaps less apparent evil was the injurious effects produced bv so
large a quantity of matter lodging both in the higher and lower reaches
of the Thames.

The landowners were neither idle nor illiberal in their efforts to
check the incursion. The method they adopted was contracting the
channel to some extent by means of pile-work advanced from both
sides, and when the stream was confined within a moderate channel
they sunk old vessels and large boxes ; these were backe<l on both
sides by " maands," or baskets filled with chalk, and bags filleil with
earth and gravel. All this was done during neap tides, that they
might be able to make good the dam before the springs. Engaged in
these operations were those in the vicinity, and all who had a direct
interest in their success, and many lost their lives by the violence of
the current which swept them away, and carried them into the Thames.
In spite however of all their activity and perseverance, the tide
always succeeded in boring through below the obstructions which had
been put in its way. With such violence did it act that on one occa-
sion when they had sunk the " Linn " man-of-war and two other ves-
sels, the first ebb of the tide swept them so completely away that there
was not a fragment to be seen, and as Captain Perry asserts, " three
days after there was upwards of 50 foot depth at /our water where she
was sunk." This depth, however, seems very extraordinary, and is
surely overstated. He mentions another case which certainly gives
a good idea of the force of the current (pp. 17, 18). "Another gen-
tleman concerned (since my late stopping the breach) speaking of
what had passed with tliem in their attempts, merrily told me that at
one of those times when they had made a shut (or attempted to do
it) bv the sinking among other things, a large chest or machine up-
wards of SO feet long, tlie next day afterwards the violence of the
back water setting out of the levels upon the tide of ebb, worked so
strong underneath the bottom of this machine that she bolted up at
once above water, and discharging as she rose most part of the chalk
and stones with which she had been sunk, drove directly with the
current out of the mouth of the breach, whereat a gentleman standing
bv, who was a considerable landowner, and had been at great expense
in the work, being much surprised, ran along upon the wall (or bank)
on the side of the breach, and with great earnestness called out, stop
him, stop him, oh stop him ! this machine driving directly down the
river, and sometimes sticking against the bottom and sometimes re-
bounding above the water again, when it came down in view of the
shi s atGravesend, they were alarmed at the unusuahiess of the sight,
as it emerged out of the water sometimes with and sometimes athwart
the tide, and as they ride pretty numerous there at that time, they
were forced to sheer, some one way and some another to avoid re-
ceiving anv mischief from it It drove from thence as far as the buoy
off the Nore, and there run agrouid upon a shoa'."

At a later period they succeeded in keeping in their places some
vessels which had been sunk by driving piles on each side, but although
a large quantity of chalk in bags and baskets had been sunk all round
them, the tide still rose and fell within. So much were the public in-
terested in the operations that a power was given to impress all chalk
vessels that passed on the river, so that sometimes 10 or 15 freights
a-day were delivered at the breach, which was actually reported to
have in some measure retarded the London buildings. An extraordi-
nary tide happening soon after, put a stop at once to the embargo on
chalk, and to the works at Dagenham, by removing the whole struc-
ture which had been erected at such cost and labour.

Here all exertions on the part of the landowners naturally enough
ended, and they would no doubt have made up their minds to abandon
to the waters their unfortunate property, the value of which was not
adequate to warrant a farther expenditure, had not the desti.ictive
effects of the silt lodging in the Thames arrested the attention of the
House of Commons, which passed a bill in April 1714, for effectually
stopping the breach at public expense, and this they farther extended
to removing the silt which had been deposited in the river, and mak-
ing good the adjoini' g banks. Captain Perry offered to execute the
works for £24,000, and a Mr. Boswell for £10,500, which being the
lowest offer was accepted.

Mr. Boswell was first to make piers and then sink G ponts or chests
60 feet in length, 30 feet broad, and made salient at each end like the
starlings of a bridge. These were to be placed in the bottom 12 feet
apart, and the spaces were to be made up with piles and other timber
work.

In the chests were to be sluices whicli when shut down were wholly
to exclude the water. But the gap was no sooner contracted by the
piers than the current scooped out the soft bottom which was the
cause of (he miscarriage of all the former plans. Thus was Mr. Bos-
well's first plan completely set aside. He had then recourse to one
ennrniouj box, but whenever he attempted to contract the water-way.

1S40.1

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

107

us certtiinly did the bottom wear and assume an irregular deep rutted
surface, so that after all these schemes he was constrained to return to
the old system of staunching the current by the sinking of ships, ponts,
and bags of chalk. The only new feature which he introduced into
the plan was the fixture of enormous hair bags filled with chalk (some
()fthem3Ufeet in length) to the vessels bottom, which bags it was
expected would have adapted themselves to the form of the bottom,
and thus preserved a closer connection than had been effected before.
He accordinglv carried out his scheme, having sunk two vessels and
the large pontoon which he had previously made, and he also sur-
rounded the whole fabric with enormous quantities of chalk. In ad-
dition to this he had placed in the banks a little below the breach, two
sluices which were intended to have relieved the pressure, but which
according to Captain Perry could not from their construction and level
have been of anv service. The very first tide after the vessels had
been sunk, operated with such energy on the bottom, that the whole
fabric was totally destroyed by the second day after. The vessels
laden with chalk and rubbish were thrown up, and the enormous pon-
toon gave the finishing blow by starting up and tearing to' pieces the
pile work and planking.

Here ended Mr. Boswell's services, and the trustees appointed by
the bill having nominated a committee, inspected the ground and drew
up a report dated November 7, 1715. The following soundings taken
by the committee and given in their report are as follows : " on the
\vestside 20 feet below the works to the south, 40 feet deep. On the
south side 20 feet from the stern of the Abindon (one of the ships sunk
in the said breach, 30 feet. On the same side, 15 feet from the stem
of the Recovery, (another ship) 18 feet. Ten feet south from the
piles on the east side of the breach IS feet. Between the ships and
the piles on the west side 29 feet. Betwixt the works to the north-
ward near the piles on east side 24 feet. At the end of piles on east
side 19 feet. Fifty feet north from said piles 31 feet. Fifty feet
farther north 5>l feet. Twenty-five feet north of the piles on the west
side 26 feet. Fifteen feet north from piles in west side 14 feet. Close
to said piles on west side 20 feet. Coming about the piles to the
southward we find these depths following, viz., 29, 24 and 18 feet."

What sort of settlement was made with Mr. Boswell does not ap-
pear from the narrative, but new offers were obtained. Captain Perry
gave in an account of his scheme, which was this. To have a sluice
made in the embankment with a trench connected with the backwaters.
To drive a row oi dovetailed piles across the gap, leaving their heads
not more than IS inches or 2 feet above low-water mark ; so that in
driving these piles little or no difficulty would be experienced from
the current. Forty feet from the row of piles on either side a sort of
low coffer-dam 18 or 20 feet broad, to be formed of piles and boarding,
and to be filled with chalk to prevent the toe of the embankment from
spreading. On the outside of these coffer-dams a wall of chalk to be
made as a farther security. The dam itself to be composed entirely
of earth, and in the course of the erection care to be taken always to
shut the sluice when the backwater falls to the level of the top of the
work. In this way there will at no time be a higher face for the
water to flow over.

This was evidently a judiciously contrived scheme, and shows that
the projector of it had a just conception of the nature of the difficul-
ties he was to contend with, which were a soft, unstable bottom and
a powerful current of water. He was well aware that a dam of the
thickness he contemplated would easily sustain the pressure of back-
water, although from its being composed of soft materials, he could
not expect it to withstand the action of water rushing over it. Ex-
perience had proved that such materials as chalk could not from the
large interstices necessarily existing between the pieces, form anv-
thing like a water-tight dam, and if they had, the softness of the bot-
tom was enough to render such a plan impracticable. The first grand
points were to secure the treacherous bottom, and make a heavy and
water-tight dam. These difficulties were well provided for by the
use of dove-tailed piles and a clayey soil. The second point was to
prevent the ebb and flood tides from rushing over the top of the dam
when it was in progi'ess ; this difficulty was removed by keeping the
backwater constantly on a level with the top of the work.

After much communing and trouble on both sides, a contract was
entered into with Captain Perry, who was to perform the works for
i:25,000, he being bound to advance £5000, and to expend that sum
on the works, after which he was to be supplied by the trustees. If
the work were unsuccessful, the £5UU0 was of course lost to Captain
Ferry, or, rather, to the friends who had advanced it. Should, on the
other hand, the work be successful, but be rendered very costly from
any unforeseen accident, he was to be recommended to the conside-
ration of Parliament.

After all this had been settled, Captain P. seems to have been much
annoyed by Mr. Boswell and a host of mathemalicians, who declared

his plan impracticable. He, however, came through their hands, ac-
cording to bis own account, non sine gloria, as well as tlirough the
ordeal of sundry examinations and meetings.

No time was lost in commencing the work ; but the sluice, from
the softness of the ground, was not carried to its contemplated depth,
which incurred the necessity of another being made. From some
cause or other matters seem to have been mismanaged, for it was not
until the spring of 1717 that the second sluice was completed, and the
breach was not stopped till June. For this tardiness he pleads seve-
ral excuses, but he does not succeed in satisfying the reader as to his
promptness. The time for completing the dam had now nearly ap-
proached, and his friends who had advanced the money, became im-
patient, and so importuned him to push on tlie work, that he allows
he was persuaded to admit stuff of an inferior binding quality in the
formation of the dam. A great deal of bad earth was also put in
without his knowledge, when the men were working at night, and liis
assistants, five in number, seemed rather to conspire against him than
to back him in any of his difficulties, so that what between grumbling
friends, rebellious assistants, and an impatient public, he was con-
strained to collect together all the force he could muster in the neigh-
bouring country, in spite of the high wages of 3Gs. per week. These
labourers, assisted by men from the royal yards of Woolwich and
Deptford, soon made a satisfactory difference in the appearance of
the work, but a most unsatisfactory difference in its quality. Hitherto
each tide's work had been made in offsets or scarcements, about 7 feet
broad and 3 feet high, these supported by piles and planking on the
side, and protected by reeds on the top, had been able to resist the
action of the tide when it came in. One of the assistants, however,
proposed during the neaps to set all hands to work and make a narrow
wall of earth, unprotected by reeds or planking, and build it so rapidly
as to get it above the level of the springs before they should come on,
and thus at once to exclude the tide from the marsh. Captain Perry
unfortunately gave in to this proposal, trusting to the tide's being of
its ordinary height. There happened, however, an extraordinary tide,
occasioned by a storm at N.W., which tide rose about 6 inches higher
than the top of the little wall, and pouring over it, soon washed it
down, and the water thus widening its inlet, rushed over in such
volumes, that in the course of two hours the dovetailed piles were
laid bare.

When Captain P. observed the tide rising with unprecedented ra-
pidity (which it did), he heightened the little wall with piles and
boarding set on edge on the top, but the water insinuating itself be-
tween the boards and the earth, led to the calamity we have men-
tioned, and which the Captain says was due merely to the fortuitous
occurrence of an extraordinary tide. Men were employed in digging
down the earth, and otherwise easing the passage of the water over
the dam, as well at the first inbreak as at subsequent tides, by which
means the violence of the current was speedily checked.

This accident, as might have been supposed, caused many reports
about the general insufficiency of the work, and the erroneous prin-
ciples on which it had been carried on. This did not, however, deter
Captain P. from proceeding with the repair during the winter months,
and in raising the dam this second time, he was a great deal more
scrupulous about the quality of earth used in its formation, and in the
end of June, 1718, " the tide was again turned out of the levels in the
time of neap as before, only that the work, after the tides were turned,
was now continued to be raised by set-offs with piles and boards, and
well covered over at the top, so that though a thin body of water did
several times pass over into the levels, it was easily let off by the
sluices. The trustees now visited the work, and expressed them-
selves satisfied with the manner in which this part of the work had
been accomplished. After their visit he dammed up the two canals
communicating witli the sluices, and any subsidence of the dam he at
once made up with new stuff The work being now in an apparently
safe condition, the Captain left for Dover, where he was to report on
the Harbour, and on his return he was seized with ague, and when he
was recovering, but was still confined, on the morning of the 30th of
September, 1718, a message was sent to him conveying the mortifying
intelligence tliat the tide had again demolished the work. In spite of
his ague he at once visited the spot, and found the sluice dams stand-
ing and the sluices shut, and, in short, nothing done towards easing
the passage of the waters. He immediately summoned as many hands
to his assistance as the neighbouring country could, on such short
notice, produce; but the water had made such havoc, that in six tides
about a hundred feet of the dovetail piles, &c., were torn up and
carried away, and in one place there was about 20 feet greater depth
than there was before the work was begun.

How this accident occurred was for some time a mystery, but it sub-
sequently came out that the watchman had, instead of attending at his
post, been reviving his frozen carcase at a neighbouring beer shop.

lOS

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[April,

By thia time the Captain's funds had been greatly reduced, and he
applied to tlie trustees for a remittance, which they, however refused
and he was reduced to the necessity of canvassine; his friends for fur-
ther sums which was after some difficulty suppliecl. This was in Feb-
ruary, and it was not till the winter had expired that the gap was
squared and tilled up and the tides were expelled for the third time
on the Isth of June. He continued also to increase the height of the
dam till it was two feet above the level of a high tide that occurred in
November, occasioned by the conjoined effects of a great storm and
the moon's being in perigee.

It appears from his statements that the works had left him in a sadly
crippled state as far as regarded his purse, and he concludes by urging
the trustees at least to make up his deficiency that he might be enabled
to steer clear of his creditors. He says "If I may — now the work is
completed and so many years (5) spent therein, be but freed from the
debts and engagements into which it has plunged me, and set at liberty
to offer myself upon some other work, whereby I may be of use to my
country and have an opportunity of getting my bread; I shall cheer-
fully submit to whatsoever shall be thought fit as to any consideration
or reward to myself." He further volunteers his services for the im-
provement of the ports of Dublin and Dover, reports on both of which
he subjoins to his narrative. I cannot, from the want of access to
proper data (occasioned by a casual visit to the country), take any
step towards ascertaining in what way the petition of our author was
received by the Trustees and the house of parliament, as such informa-
tion is not contained in his own narrative, that he was in some way
freed from actual imprisonment and allowed to go at large in the prac-
tice of his profession, seems evident from the book which he subse-
quently published. In the Bibliotheca Britannica there is mentioned
in the short catalogue of his labours as an author •' Proposals for the
draining the Fens in Lincolnshire. 1727 fol. His death is said in the
same book to have taken place in 1733.

I shall now conclude by explaining my reasons for thus having brought
a condensed view of this half forgotten work before the public through
the medium of these widely circulated pages. Many who might have
taken an interest in the work have no opportunity of reading Perry's
own narrative from its unfrequent occurrence ; and from the somewhat
incoherent and cloudy stile in which it is written, the reader is fre-
quently a little puzzled to know exactly what the author would be at.
Even the description of his scheme (simple though it was) is not by
most readers to be apprehended by a single perusal. These reasons
and the wish to make the name of the successful projector of so formid-
able a work, better known to the profession must excuse me for occu-
pying so much valuable room.

* »

STEAM VESSEL INQUIRY AND INQUISITION.

The labours of the Commissioners have at last brought to light the pro-
mised Shiloh, in the shape of such a bill, as was never before seen, anil we sin-
cerely hope will never be seen again. The abstract which we have perused is such
as was to have been expected from its concoctors, and the sources from which
they derived their ideas of legislation ; the bill seems to be a cross breed be-
tween a French police ordonnance, and an excise or custom-bouse act of par-
liament. Such inspectors and such surveyors, and such modes of ac ion ^
were never before contemplated in this country, at variance with the recog-
nized laws of all sound economy, they are obviously at variance with the
national character, and the interests of the empire. It is by unshackled in-
dustry and by that alone that this mighty empire his been created, and that
't is to be maintained, and it is on the prosperity of steam navigation m par-
ticular that our strength depends, and the means of profiling by our re-
sources. What therefore can exceed the insanity wh'cli proposes to place
inventors and manufacturers under a yoke, which in every other country has
fet'ered the progress of science, and retarded the adv>anccment of the nation P
What are we to expect when we see spies under the name of surveyors intro-
duced not only into the workshops, but into the study, not to be contented
by tampering with the machinery, but who must meddle with the Aery de-
si,5n itself. Men who are to constitute a new middle class between the manu-
facturer and the shipowner, who are to tell one what he is to muke, and the
other what he is to buy, who are to be censors of the noblest eftbrls of in-
vention, and judges of last resort in cases where the most learned dis-
agree. Do we believe that the plague intro luced among marine engineers
will fester among them alone without extending (o every other class of en-
gineers? We neither believe it, nor can others. Itis what is done in France
and what will be done here ; the police will not stop till they regulate the
working of the engine in the factory, as well as the progress of the steam

boat on the water, and the locomotive on the rail. To denounce this to
Englishmen is unnecessary, to nime it is to point out its train of informers
and penalties, and to insure its instant condemnation.

The motives which inspire this bill, can have no origin in common sense,
ihey can proceed only from some hateful inspiration, and what that is it
would be difficult to point out. The least excusable would be to enable a
government, always in arrear of private enterprise, to pillage in other estab-
lishments f r the mamtenance of the new factory at Woolwich. We cannot
believe that they would hesitate to do so, when they are regardless in every
other point.

We felt it our duty to oppose this measure from its first suggestion, we
have followed it with uncompromising hostility throughout its threaten-
ing progress, and we were not inclined to relax w hen we saw it assume a
shape so formidable. Having issued a circular to the manufacturers, meetings
have been held at which men, the first in talent, enterprise and wealth in the
country have come forward to prove by their own conduct the justice of the
course which we had pursued in their defence, and we trust that such an
opposition is organized as will at least paralyze the operations of this
obnoxious bill, if it do not destroy it in its birth.

We have on former occasions shown that the evidence on which the report
was founded was most trumpery and insufficient, and we trust that our readers
are convinced, that the only effective operation of the proposed measure would
be to injure the best interests of the country. Commissioners of course are
to be appointed, but where men competent for the duty are to be found, none
but the concoctors of the bill can devine, for no practical man can. Qualified
surveyors are still less to be expected, and raw theorists or ignorant empirics
seem to be the classes from which these inquisitorial functionaries are to be
supplied. To them are to be confided the most extraordinary powers, not
only the mere privileges of meddling, but judicial authority over their victims.
Even district surveyors are to have all the extra legal powers of a parliamentary
committee, to call for papers and for documents, and to examine persons on
oath, to prosecute for penalties, and to receive half those penalties for their
own share. This is the plan to which all principles of justice, of truth, and
of experience are to be sacrificed, and by which the talents and intellects of
our ablest men are to be subjected, and manufacturers, some of w bom have
not less than a hundred thousand pounds invested in their business, are to
be hampered and destroyed.

SURVEYING POLES.

Sir, — Allow me through the medium of your interesting Journal, to
suggest to practical Surveyors a very useful, although seemingly triyial
addition to the ordinary Surveying Poles, as a substitute for the piece
of paper commonly used to render the pole distinguishable from a
long distance when driving a line over land.

Front view.

Side view.

B ick view.

n

^Dl

1^'

It consists of a disc of tin about six inches in diameter, which fi>r
convenience in carrying may be joined across tlie middle as shown in
the accompanying sketch; its ojien position being secured by a little
bar A to be turned into the latch B. An iron ring or socket C is
screwed on the top of the pole and receives the disc in a slit while
the screw D secures it. It is almost needless to remark that the disc
should be painted white on both sides.

Yours obediently,

1 1, Craven-street. Charing Cross,
March I'J, 1840.'

G. P. DEMPSEY,

1S40.J

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

109

OF THE OBLIQUE OR SKEWED ARCH.

While the system of communication from one part of tliR country
to anotliPr continued to be transmitted througli tlie medium of turupilce
roads alone, the instances were few and far between in wliicli tl'.e
erection of an uhlicjiie nr skt wed arch became necessary. Indeed, \ui-
less in very confined and precipitous situations, we do not recollect a
single case, where a structure of this kind has been resorted to for the
purpose of carrying a road over a river or slreauilet; nor was it re-
quisite that it should, for in laying down the original jilan of a road,
the surveyor would generally possess the power of directing it, so as
to intersect a river at right angles to its banks, and thus the necessity
of carrying a bridge obliquely across the stream would be altogether
avoided.

On the introduction of canals however, the circumstances were very
materially altered, for it seldom happened that the direction of a road
already constructed, was permitted to be changed for the purpose of
acroiuiuodating it to the line of a projected canal, so as to traverse it
jierpendicularly ; and in many cases it would be found inconvenient if
not totally impracticable, to guide the canal across a road at right angles
to its diri'ction ; hence tlie necessity of having recourse to the skLipcd
arch, and accordingly, on the various canals that inteisect the country,
erections of this sort are very numerous, and the methods by which
some of tliem have been constructed are exceedingly ingenious.

But it is in tlie construction of railroads that the skewed arch meets
with its Tuost important application, for in almost everv instance where
one line is intersected by another, the intersection takes place with a
lesser or greater degree of obliquity, and several viaducts of consider-
able length are wholly supported by a connected range of oblique
arcuation. This being the case, it is an object of the greatest im-
portance that the correct principles of construction should be rightiv
understood, and it is for the purpose of establishing thosi? principles
and rendering their application easy, that the ]u'esent investigation lias
been instituted.

There are few architectural subjects that have excited a higher de-
gree of interest than the present, and there is none that has given rise
to a greater number of curious, abstruse and elegant theories, or been
the cause of more violent and protracted controversies. One party
contending that the just principle of construction, is to place the seve-
ral courses of which the arch is composed in a direction parallel to the
abutments, the direction of the coursing joints being regulated by the
nature of the curve on which the arch is built. A second party main-
tains, that the several courses should be placed perpendicular to the
face of the arch as far as the obliquity on both sides of it, and that the
middle portion which stands upon the square, should have the courses
laid parallel to the imposts or abutments. A third class of disputants
insists upon laying the several courses perpendicular to the face of the
arch throughout its whole extent, and trending them to the abutments
in an angle dependent on the given obliquity; while a fourth class
proposes to direct the courses in such a manner as to traverse the arch
spirally like the threads of screw.

The subject itself is worthy of a mechanical investigation, and since
we have been induced to direct our ittention to it, we shall endeavour
to the utmost of our power to set the question at rest, and point out
the true principles of construction upon which depends the maximum
of stability and strength.

In taking a minute and comprehensive view of the subject to which
our present enquiries are directed, it will be proper for the sake of
system, to consider the various theories above specified in the same
order as we have described them. This in the first place will lead us
to the contemplation of that variety where the courses are laid in a
direction parallel to the imposts, and in which, (supposing the arch to
be a semicircle,) the planes of the coursing joints on being produced
to intersect the plan or base of the arch, are everywhere constrained
to terminate in the axis or straight line, which passing through the
centre of the semicircle divides the plan into two equal and similar
portions.

The princi|)le upon which the mechanical delineation of this parti-
cular form is founded, is exceedingly curious and interesting, referring
as it does to the developement of the several parts of a right angled
triangular pyramid upon a plane surface. This circumstance intro-
duces a species of calculation that is not generally understood by prac-
tical architects, since it claims as its basis the doctrine of Spherical
Trigonometry, a subject to which the attention of practical men is very
seldom directed, although its applications are both numerous and im-
portant, and its principles remarkable for their elegance and simplicity.
The objects of calculation are, the angles at the vertex of the pyramid
comprehended between its edges, and the angles which measure the
mutual inclinations of its bounding planes. Now, in order to assimilate

the necessary operations to the determination of the levels or moulds
by which the several voussoirs or arch stones are framed, we have
only to consider the nature of the figure arising from the nmtual inter-
sections of the planes to which the moulds are severally applied.

(f the i'ace or elevation of the arch, and the planes of the coursing
joints or beds of the several voussoirs, be produced to intersect each
other in the plan or base on which the arch is raised, they will, in con-
nexion with the said plan, manifestly constitute a series of triangular
jjyramids having their vertices in the centre of the semicircle, and if
the face of the arch be perpendicular to the plan, the pyramids will
be all right angled ; that is, two of the boiniding planes in each, namely,
the face and plan of the arch will intersect one another in an angle of
ninety degrees.

Let the planes of the beds or
coursing joints be produced ex-
ternally, and conceive a circular
arc to be described in each of
the bounding planes, and having
the vertex of the pvramid ;is a
centre ; then, the figures thus
constituted will respectively re-
semble that which is exhibited
in the margin, and upon the de-
velopeauMit of wddch the con-
struction of the arch depends.

A, part of the arch. P, part
of the plan. B, part of bed pro-
longed.

If the middle plane or plan
s C D be supposed to be fixed,
w hile the extreme planes ;• C s
and D C I are elevated about the

lines C s, C D, till the points )• and >, as also the radii C )• and C /
coincide, the nature of the figure thus formed will become manifest,
and th(< expansions of its several parts \ipon a plane surface, may
be etlected in the fcjUowing manner.

With the chord of GO de- -r

grees taken from a scale of
any convenient magnitude at
pleasure, and about C as a
centre, describe the circular
arc rsD/, upon which and
from the same scale of chords,
set off ;• s and s L), respectively
equal to the measures of the
angles at the vertices of the
perpendicular planes cC s and
sCD.

Driiw the radii C ;■, C s and
C D, and in the radius C r
take any point a at pleasure,
and erect the perpendicular
a A meeting the radius Cs in the point A. At the point A deter-
ndned in this manner, erect the perpendicular A D meeting the radius
CD in the point D. From A, and on the radius Cs set oft' A/ equal
to A a and draw Dy. Upon CD as a diameter, describe the semi-
circular C H D, in which lay oft' the chord C^ equal to C a, and D g
equal to Dy' and draw the radius Cl.

The above operation developes the triangular pyramid as far as it
relates to the construction of the arch in question ; D C I being the
bevel of the bed or coursing joint, and Ay D the bevel between the
coursing joint and face of the arch. But in order to exhibit the com-
plete developement of the figure, it is necessary to determine the angle
which measures the inclination of the planes s C D and DC/; that is,
the angle contained between the plan of the arch and the bed of the
voussoirs for any particular course. From A or any other point wdiat-
ever in the radius C s, let fall the perpendicular A b, carrying it for-
ward to meet C / in d; then is A 6 the base, and bd the hypothenuse
of a right angled plane triangle, between which the required angle lies.
At the point A in the straight line d A, erect tfie perpendicular A c,
and make be equal to hd; then is A 6 c the angle sought, which hav-
ing been found, the developement of the pyramid is complete.

The nature and principles of the above construction will be readily
perceived by reversing the process; that is, by recomposing the figure
from its constituent planes and the angles which measure their in-
clinations: and for this purpose, let the two extreme planes rCs and
D C / be turned about the radii C s and C D, while the ndddle plane
s C D remains fixed ; and at the same, let the triangular planes A/D

Q

110

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[April,

and Ah c he respectively turned about tlie lines A D and A 6. Then
it is manifest, that \\hn\ the points r and I are made to coincide, the
radii C c and C t coincide also, and form one of the edges of the; trian-
gular pyramid, as may be seen by elevating the corres|)onding planes
in the preceding diagram ; and Ijy this means the figare is rccomposed
in so far as respects its constituent planes. Another step of the com-
position is eliected by bringing into coincidence the straight lines A a,
A/,nndV/,'Dg; and when Ac falls upon irf the structure is com-
jdete, both as respects the bounding planes and the angles which mea-
sure their inclinations.

It now remains to calculate the several parts of the pyramid, on the
supposition tliat the angles at the vertices of the planes j-t^sand sC D
are given; and in order to this,

Let c ^ rCs, the angle at the vertex of the plane iCs, which cor-
responds with a portion of the face of the arch,
6 =:s C D, the angle at the vertex of the plane s C D, which
corresponds with a portion of the plan or base, and is per-
pendicular to r C s,
« =^ D C /, the angle at the vertex of the plane DC/, which is
a portion of the bed or coursing joint, and subtends the in-
clination of the planes rCs and s C D,
B = A / D, tlie angle that measures the inclination of the
planes r C is and DC/,
and C = A 6 c, the angle that measures the inclination of the planes

DC/ and 8 CD.
This notation being agreed on, let C A be made the radius ; then by

the definitions of trigonometry, A a and C a are respi'ctively the sine
and cosine of the angle A Co, while A D is the tangent of the angle
A C D. But by the construction. A/ is equal to A a, and conseijuently
A/is equal to the sine of the angle >Cs; therefore, by the |)rin-
ciples of plane trigonometry, we have

A/ : AD : : rad. : tan. Ay D ; that is, sin. e : tan. 6 : : rad. :
tan. B r= tan b, cosec c.

Here we have determined the angle of inclination between the
planes rCs and DC/, and a similar process will discover the angle
A 6 c, or the inclination between the planes 8 C D ami D C /. Thus,
since C A is radius, A 6 is the sine of the angle s C D to that radius,
and by construction, Ac is equal to the tangent of the angle A Co, for
Ac is equal to A/i, and Ah is evidently the tangent of the angle A Ca
to radius C A ; therefore, by plane trigonometry, we get
A6 : Ac : : rad. ; tan. A 6c; that is, sin. 6 1 tan. c : : rad. ; tan.
C = tan. e, cosec. 6.

M'e have next to determine the angle hCd in the plane DC/, and
fortius purpose it is only necessary to recollect, that Cg' is equal to
the cosine of A C a, and C D equal to the secant of A C D ; hence we
have

CD

; rad. : COS. D C g ; that is, sec. 6

cos. c

rad.

COS.

a ^= COS. 6, COS. c.

And exactly in the same manner, if any other two of the ))arts be
given the rest may be found, and the several results when calculated
and reduced to their simplest form, are respectively as exhibited in
the following table :

Table offormulcefor calculating the several parti of a right angled triangular pyramid standing on a spherical base.

Values qfffie angle a, at the vertex
of the hypotheiuisal plane B VC.

sin. a = sin. b cosec. B.
sin. a = sin. c cosec. C.
tan. o = tan. b sec. C.
tan. o = tan. c sec. B.
cos. a = cos. b cos. c.
COS. o = cot. B cot. C.

Values of the angle B, mbtended by
the base or plane A V C.

sin. B — sin. b cosec. a.
sia. B = sec. c cos. C.
tan. B = sec. a cot. C.
tan. B = tan. b cosec. c.
cos. B = cot. a tan. c,
COS. B = cos. b sin. C.

Values of the angle c, at the vertex
of the perpendicular plane A V B.

1

sin.

e=sin.

a sin. C.

2

sni.

c=tan

b cot. B.

3

tan.

c = tan

a COS. B.

4

tan.

c = sni.

b tan. C.

5

COS.

c = cos.

0 sec. b.

G

cos.

c = cos.

C cosec. B

Values of the angle C, subtended
by the perpendicular plane AV B.

sin. C = sin. c cosec. a.
sin. C = sec. b cos. B.
tan, C = sec. a cot. B.
tan. C = tan. c cosec. b.
cos. C = cot. 0 tan. b.
cos. C = cos. c sin. B.

Values of the angle i, at the vertex
of the plane or base A V C.

sin. i — sin. a sin. B.
sin. i = tan. c cot. C.
tan. i = tan. a cos. C.
tau. i = sin. c tan. B.
COS. i = cos. a sec. c.
COS. 4 = cos. B cosec. C.

The above fable contains the simplest forms of the equations neces-
sary for resolving the dilVercnt cases and varieties of right angled
spherical triangles, as they depenil upon the triangular pyramiil
VBAC. It is designed to preclude the necessity of either learning
by rote or investigating the various rules and proportions connected
W'ith this branch of the subject; for by simply referring to that com-
partment of the table which cimtains the values of the quantity sought,
an expression will be found denoting the precise operation to be per-
formed for the value of the required term. Thus lor exanqile. Suj)-
pose that in the right angled spherical triangle B AC, the base AC^=
h, and the perpendicular U A ^ c are given, and it is required to find;

1. The hypothennse BC' = o.

2. The angle AB C = B contained between the hypothenuse B C
and perpendicular B A, or that which is subtended by the base A C.

To find the hypothennse BC := u, refer to that compartment of the
table that contains the values of the hypothennse, ami select that ex-

pression which exhibits a combination of the given quantities 6 and c
This is readilv perceived to be No. 5, the only case in which the two
given terms form au equation with the one required ; hence we get
COS. a ;= COS. 6 cos. c.

And the numerical operation denoted by this expression, may, w hen
converted into words, be read in the following manner : —

Multiply the natural cosine of tlie given base, by the natural cosine of
the gmu jJirjiindicular, and the product mill give the natural cosine of
the hypolhtu tine.

The multiplication of trigonometrical quantities is however a very
laborious process, miless the contracted method of decimal multiplica-
tion is resorted to; and since very few of our practical mechanics have
taken the trouble to familiarize themselves with the application of
that method, the necessity of employing it may be entirely superseded
by the use of logarithms. The rule will then be as follows: —

1840.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

Ill

Add togelhtr the logarithmic cosines of the given parts, and the sum
wilt be the logarithmic cosine 0/ the part required.

Note. — The reader is supposed to liuve a previous knowledge of
the trigonometrical definitions, logarithmic tables, and algebraic nota-
tion.

The general application of the table may be described in words at
length in the following manner : —

Add logct/ier the logarithms of the two given quantities according to
their names in the equation, and the sum milt gice the logarithm of the
required quantitij according to its 7tame in the particular combination
employed, observing always to abate 10 in the index of the resulting
logarithm.

Again, to find the angle A B C ^ B, contained between the hypo-
thenuse and perpendicular, we have only to refer to that compartment
of the table containing the values of B, and to select the combination
which involves the given quantities; in this case it is No. -1, from
which we have

tan. B =^ tan. b cosec c ;
an equation which is readily reduced by the general rule given above.

In reference to the arrangement of the table, it may be remarked
that it forms a right angled triangle, the same as the figure under con-
sideration, and the squares or compartments containing the values of
the several parts, are placed in the same positions with respect to each
other as the parts are whose values they contain. Thus, in the figure
BAG, the hypothenuse a occurs between the angles B and C; so in
the table, the square containing the values of tlie hypothenuse, is
placed in a diagonal direction between the squares containing the
values of the angles B and C.

In the figure the perpendicular c occurs between the angle B and
the right angle at A ; so in the table, the square containing the values
of the perpendicular, occurs between the square containing the values
of B, and the blank square for the right ang'e where no vakie enters

Finally, in the figure, the base b falls between the angle C and the
right angle at A : so in the table, the square containing the values of
the base, is placed between the blank square for the right angle and
the square containing the values of the angle C ; an arrangement
which is beautifully adapted for the purpose of a speeily reference.

The two equations that we have selected from the table, are those
which apply to the determination of the bevels for the several voussoirs
throughout the whole extent of the arch. The first determines the
form of the beds, or the angle contained between the joints in the face
of the arch, and the corresponding joints along thesotlit; and the
second determines the angles contained between the face of the arch
and the beds of the several courses. The application of which we
now proceed to illustrate by means of an example.

Suppose a semicircular arch of 30 feet span, and consisting of .34
courses from impost to impost, to be built upon an obliquity of 68 de-
grees with the abutments, what are the several bevels required for the
construction of the arch stones or voussoirs in eacli of the courses ?

Since the arch is a semicircle of 30 feet span and consisting of
34 courses, that is, 17 courses between the crown of the arch and each
of the imposts; it follows, that each voussoir occupies 5^ 17' 3b" -i-4 of
the circumference, having a soffit or intradosof 2-795 feet very nearly ;
consequently, the successive portions of the circumference, estimated
from the impost to each of the beds or coursing joints as far as the
crown or middle of the keystone, are respectively as in the following
tablet.

Courses.

0

/

/'

Courses.

0

/

"

1st

5

17

38if

0th

47

38

49/,

2nd

10

35

l?if

lOth

52

56

28tV

3rd

15

52

sitv ;

nth

58

14

7rr

4th

21

10

35 ^

12 th

63

31

«4f

5tU

26

28

14 ^

13th

68

49

2HI

6th

31

45

b2rr

Hth

74

7

3ff

7th

37

3

31^

15th

70

24

42f,

8th

42

21

lOi?

lOth

84

42

21tV

The 17th course, or course at the crown of the arch, corresponding
an angle of 90 degrees as it ought tu do, when the keystone is in

two parts, as we have assumed it to be in the present instance, for the
express purpose of showing the influence of the obliquity upon the
bevels in that course. From these angles therefore, witli the constant
obliquity of OS degrees, we derive the following construction for the
case in question.

Let A E B in the subjoined
drawing, represent the eleva-
tion of the given semicircular
arch, of which C is the centre,
and A B the span or diameter.
At the centre C, make the an-
gle A C D equal to 08 degrees
the given obliquity, so that C D
shall coincide with the axis of
the arch, and point out the di-
rection of the abutments to
which it is parallel. From the
beginning of the arch at A, set
oft' successively the values of
several arcs in the tables cor-
responding to the respective
number of courses estimated
from the impost at A to the
crown of the arch at E, and from
thtnce in a retrograde order to
the other impost at B.

Upon A C the radius of the
arch describe the semicircle
A a 6 c C, intersecting the radii
C 4, C S and C 12 respectively in the points a, b and c, and at A erect
the perpendicular AD meeting C D the axis of the arch in D.

About A as a centre, with the distances A a, A 6 and A c, describe
the arcs af, b e and e d, meeting the radius A C in the points/, e and d
respectively, and draw the straight lines D/, D e and Drf: then are
the angles A/ D, Ac D and ArfDor their supplements, the angles
contained between the face of the arch and the planes of the coursing
joints at the 4th, Sth and 12th courses, or at the corresponding divisions
on the opposite side of the arch. These are the angles corresponding
to the letter B in the figure of the table of formula, and if they are
respectively taken in the compasses and applied to a scale of chords,
they will be found to indicates I"' 41' 40", 74"^ 46' 2o" and 70° 0' 59".

Upon the straight line C D as a diameter describe the semicircle
C ghiD, in which lay oil" the distances C i,Ch and C g respectively
equal to C a, C b and C c ; then will the angles DCk,DCl and D C in,
or their supplements, be the bevels of the beds or coursing joints at the
4th, Sth and 12th divisions, or at the corresponding divisions on the
opposite side of the arch ; the bevels in the two cases being constantly
the supplements of each other.

The angles just determined from the last step of the construction,
are those which are measured by the arc a in the tabular figure, and if
they are severally taken in the compasses and applied to a scale of
chords, they will be found to indicate 69= 33' 17", 73° 55' 12 " and
80° 23' 16" respectively, for the bevels in the beds or coursing joints
corresponding to the 4th, Sth and 12tli divisions of the arcb.

The values of B, or the bevels between the face of the arch and the
planes of the coursing joints at the specified divisions of the arcb, are
also determined from the 4th formula in that compartment of the
table containing the values of B. Thus we have tan. B = tan. b cosec
c, and taking the parts of the circumference at the respective divisions,
we get as follows :

4th division 21 10 35 ^ - - . log. cosec. 0-442204

Value of 6 == 68 0 0 constant obliquity log. tan. 0-393590

Value of B= 81 41 40

log. tan. 0-835794

Sth division 42 2110-1-? - - - log. cosec. 0-171538
Value of 6 = 08 0 0 constant obliquity log. tan. 0.393590

Value of B = 74 46 25

log. tan. 0.565128

12th division 63 31 45 -J, - - - log. cosec. 0-048098
Value of 6 = OS 0 0 constant obliquity log. tan. 0-393590

Value of B = 70 0 59 - - - - log. tan. 0-441688
For the values of a, or the bevels in the planes of the beds or course

Q2

112

TIIK ClVir. KNf.'INKIOK AND AKnilTI'X'rS JOUKNAL.

[A PR 1 1.,

iiig juint-i, (he formula is cos. a — cos. b cos. c ; ;imiI (lie <i|ieriition is
as follows: —

■Jth division 21 lU 35 ^V

Constant obliquity lis 0 O

Va

iif a :

m -Si Vi

42 21 lU

Stli division

Constant obliijuity (38 0 U

Value of a =^ 73 55 42

12tli division 63 31 45

Constant obliquity (JS 0 0

log. cos. '.)-9t;'.)G37
log. cos. 'J*573575

log. COS. 9-543212

log. COS. <)-868(551
log. COS. 9-573575

log. COS. 9.44222(i

log. COS. 9-G4908O
log. COS. 9*573575

Value of a = SO 23 J U - - - log. cos. 9-222055

We liave limited the preceding construction and calculation to three

courses only; (his we have done for the purpose of saving room luid

)ircven(iug confusion in (he figure; bu( from what has been effected,

_ (he reader will readily trace the method of procedure in any other

case.

PROPOSED EMPLOYMENT OF VIBRATING CYLINDERS
FOR THE LARGEST CLASS OF MARINE ENGINES.

The compact form of (lie vibrating cylinder engine, its light weight,
and (he small seclion of the vessel which it occupies, together with
the advantage of having the strain from the thrust or pull of (he pis(on
endiely within i(s own framing, and no( pardally transferred to (he
kelsons of the vessel, as is the case in the beam engine; seem (o
point it out as jieculiarly applicable to steam navigiition, and espe-
cially (o (hose gigantic ellbrls which are now making to extend our
iulercourse with distant countries, where the advantage of having
large ))ower in small space cannot be too highly appreciated, as the
various efforts of the most celebrated makers to effect (hat object suf-
ficiently testify.

Various reasons however have been assigned why this form of en-
gine should not succeed on a large scale, and these 1 shall endeavour
to notice and refute.

1st. The great weight of the valve casing and slide on one side has
been objected to as destroying the equilibrium of the cylinder, and
wearing the cylinder and stuffing box unequally.

"2d. The diflicuUy of casting the cylinder and hollow gudgeons
sound, and the impossibility of repairing them in case of a failure.

:jd. The disadvantage of passing the steam through the gudgeons at
all, owing to the heat occasioning an unnecessary friction.

4th. The loss of power in communicating a vibrating motion to such
a large body as the cylinder. And lastly, the difficulty of jiacking.

Now if the above named objections can be got over, which 1 think
there will be littU; difficulty in doing, we shall then have an engine free
from all the disadvantages of increased friction and short connecting
rods ; more compact in its form, and less exposed above the water
fine than any yet before the public, and consequentiy more eligible for
the purpose of commerce or war.

To get rid then of the first objection, I propose to dispense with tlie
slide altogether, and to substitute in its place four double -beat valves
as used in the Cornish engines; one toji and bottom of the cylinder on
either side, two being steam and two exhaustion valves.

I conceive there are many advantages to be derived from this form
and arrangement of the valves. Thus, the steam valves would also
serve as expansion valves, as being independent of the others there
Would tie no dillicnlty in shutting them at any point of the u|) or down
stroke of (he pis(on, affording us (he op])ortunity of so adjusting them,
as to avail ourselves to any desired extent of the principle of expan-
sion. The exhaustion valves would have the same ficility of adjust-
ment, so that we should be enabled to open and shut the passage to
the condenser at the point which would ensure the most effective work-
ing of the engine; such valves also afford great facility of repair;
with the additional advantage of one man being able to handhUjotli
engines, although the cylinders were ten feet diameter, as such valves
being almost balanced, lift or open, with the slightest exertion.

"2(1. I would cast the gudgeons on a separate circular frame, just
large enough to encircle the cylinder and to which the cylinder should
be securely bolted by a strong projecting flange; this would occuiiy a
very lillle additional breaddi, and' would entirely g(-t over that dilii-
cully.

:jr(l. 1 do not know that passing the ste.im through the gudgeons is
a serious evil, but at all events it can be very easily obviai'ed.

Let the joint and stufl" box be placed on the end of the gudgeon as

usual, so as to be concentric and firnify secured, and let a flat pipe b^
carried up till sufficiently clear of the pluininer-block cover, and then
bent over and secured to the body of the cyliiuler, when it can be easily
connected with either set of valves; by this arrangement the steam
does not pass through the gudgeons at all.

4tli. This I have often heard urged as an insuperable obstacle to the
successful a|)plication of (his form of engine, but when we consider
that the working beams, crossheads, ice, in almost eveiy case exceed
the weight of the cyliiuler — further that the beams, crossheads, &c.,
must in all cases move through twice the space, and in many cases
through three times the space of the vibrating cylinder for the same
length of stroke, it will then appear plainly that this objection has no
foundation, the loss of power from the saiiu? cause being evidently less
than in a common engine.

The last objection, vh., the dilliculty of packing, seems scarcely
worth notice, as it has been perfectly overcome in numerous boats now
running.

The stuliiug box ought to be considerably deeper than in conmion
engines, and the piston rod somewhat stronger.

The air pump, feed and bilge pumps can be easily worked from the
intermediate shaft, as frequently done. But I should greatly prefer
having a separate steam cylinder to work all those jiumps, working in
connection with and at pleasure, detachable from the main cylinders,
this would get rid of the crank or eccentric on the intermediate shaft,
which is to a certain degree objectionatMe. It might be so arranged
as to be quite out of the reach of shot, and would not occupy any
additional space on the floor of the vessel beyond that occupied by
the engine framing; the fotlowing striking advantages wou'd accrue
from this arrangement ; we should be enabled to keep up the steam
and preserve s \ acuum for any length of time, so as to start at a mo-
ment's notice ; and secondly, whatl consider of far greater imjiortancc,
the turn of a cock, or opening of a valve might convert the air pump
into an immense bilge pump, with an available power to work it, and
suflicient to keep tlie vessel clear under almost any circumstances.
The additional security to the shipowners, and safety to the jiasseugers,
which this would ensure in case of the vessel taking ground, or in
other circumstances when it might be inconvenient or impossible to
work the engines, cannot be too highly estimated ; and Ihave no doubt
there are many naval men who at one time or other would gladly
have availed themselves of such a power. But if this arrangement
be considered too decided an innovation, they can be worked in the
usual manner.

In conclusion, I see no difficuKy in the manufacture, nor any reason
to adprehend a failure ; and as such an engine would occupy not more
than half the space of a coinmon beam engine, would weigh very con-
siderably less, and would, as bel'oie mentioned, be free from all the
disadvantages of increased fricfion or short connecting rods, with the
advantage of being less exposed above the water line ; and lastly,
could be made for quite as little, if not less expense ; it is well worthy
of (he a((eii(ion of (he heads of our naval es(ablishment, and of steam
boat proprieiors in general, and if (here be any thing against it which
I have overlooked, perhajs some of your numerous correspondents
could point out where the fault lies.

A. S.
Pimlico, Muic/i 17, 1840.

TABLE OF ARCHITECTS WHO HAVE DIED IN THE
ISTH AND 19th centuries.
By W. H. Leeds.
Lmpeufect as the following Table is, in Itnai labor might be its motto,
since the drawing it up lias cost far more pains and research than it
ought to have done, or would have done, had not archi(ec(ural biogra-
jdiy been notoriously slighted. Relative to Italian architects and
a few others of jireceding periods, information may be met with in
general biograjihical works, because the materials for such articles
are abundantly supplied by Vasari, Baldinucci, and other writers of
that class ; but, with here and there an exception, such biography
becomes nun-e and more meagre, precisely when it might be expected
to be more copious and satisfactory, namely, as we approach our owu
times. Not having the original work by Militia to refer to, I do
not precisely know which are the " Additional Lives," inserted by
his English translator, but it certainly does not say much for either
the diligence or judgment shown by her, when w'C find such names
ao (hose of Langhans, An(oine, and Ledoux omitted, while such a
person as ,loel Johnson, is deemed worthy of notice. The ap-
pendix to (^ualrenure de Quincy's "Vies des Architectes," gives
a few notices of architects who lived in the two last centuries,
yet in only one or two instances is there a date ,of any kind, which
is certainly a more original than laudable mode of treating biogra-
phy and history. Even Nagler's work, which professes to give

1ft40.]

THK CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

113

notices of both livinc; iind dece;ised artists of every class, and wliicb,
wlien completed, will contain several tliousand articles, makes no
mention of Ginseppe Marvuglia, the architect of the beautiful Ora-
torio deU'Olivella, at Palermo, Cgiven in Zanth and Hittortf's Ar-
chil. Mod. de la Sicilc), nor have 1 been able to discover elsewhere
any fnrther mention of him, consequently, have no clue to even an ap-
proximating date for the time of his death. Though his journey was
professedly an architectural one, Woods does not even mention the
building at all ; and inileed, as far as recent Italian arcliitecture is con-
cerned, the art might be supposed to be now altogether extinct in that
country, judging from the dogged silence of all our later travellers and
tourists in regard to it, for though some of them bore ns with common
Guide-book remarks on Palladio, scarcely one of them appears to have
been aware of the existence of a Marvuglia, a Calderari, or a Cagnola,
or of such living nobodies as Buonsignore, fiianchi, Canonica, Cauina,
and — not to go through the whole alphabet, numerous others, wliose

names ought now to be tolerably familiar to us here at home — at least
to those engaged in architectural studies, and caring to be an, courant
ditjoitr in the history of the art. What is still more extraordinary is,
that where buildings are noticed, or even fully described as in Fiirs-
ter's Bauzeitung, there is frccpiently not either date or architect's
name to assist the future historian.

As far as it goes, the present table aflbrJs a chronological synopsis
that nvay be useful for reference, and for occasionally refreshing the
memory. A similar one of buildings erected within the same period,
might be drawn up as an accompaniment to, or skeleton of, architec-
tural liistory during the last and present century ; but it would be
greatly more extensive, and in fact, there ought to be a separate table
of the kind for each country. In the meanwhile, I am content to offer
this specimen, and should any correspondent be able to suggest any
additions, or tix any dates here left in uncertainty, I should feel obliged
by his dohig so.

CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF ARCHITECTS WHO DIED IN THE 18th AND 19th CENTURIES.

Wmerk the precise date of an arcliitect's death could not In; ascertained, it is indicated by ad. (about). An asterish * is prefixed to the names of those
who have distinguished themselves, not as architects, Ijut as writers on architecture, &c. The names of places in Italics denote that the architect was
chiefly eiuployed there.

DIKD.

NAME.

BORN.

WORKS.

1702

Bruce, Sir W.

[ Hopetown House, &c., Scotland.

1708

JIansard, .1. Ilardouin,

1747

1714

Fontana, Carlo,

Palazzo di llonte Citorio, Palazzi Griniani, Bolognetti, &c., Rome.

Schliiter, Andreas

1662

1 Sculpt, and .Vrchit. The Dom, iScc, BerUn. PoUdam, Ht. Petersbi

ryh.

Cayart, Louis

French Church, &c., Berhu.

1723

Wren, Sir Chr.

Eosandcr, Job. Fried., Baron von
Goethe,

1632

St. Paul's ; parts of Greenwicli Hospital, Ac. <SiC.
Monbijou, La Favorite, Charlotteuburg, &c.

1724

Fischer von Erlach, Baron,

1650

Many churches and palaces, Vienna.

1725

Churriguer.i, Josef,

Celebrated as being the Borromini of Spain.

1726

jVrdemans, Theod.

1664

Jranjiie:, Madrid.

1727

Sir J. Vanhrugh,

1666

Blenlieim, Castle Howard, parts of Greenwich Hosiiital, ixc.

1728

Desgodets, Ant.

1653

" Anti(p of Rome."

1734

Caniphell, Colin,

Wanstcad House, Mercworth. " Vitruvius Britamucus."

1735

Cotte, Robert de.

1657

Chateau d'Eau, Hotel Toulouse, Facade of St. Roche, Paris.

1736

Juvara, Fihppo,

1685

San Ildefonso, &c. Lisbon.

Ilawksnioor, Nich.

1C6G

St. Mary ^^'ooh^oth's, St. George's, Bloomsbiur.

Clarke, Dr. Geo.

1660

Library Christ Church, O.xford.

1737

Galilei, Alex.

1691

Corsini Chapel, &c. Rome.

1739

GalU da Bihicna, Fran.

1659

Theatre, Verona ; Ditto, Vienna. " Architettma Maestra dell'Arti."

1740

Grahl, Joh. Fried.

1703

Several churches, mansions, &;c., BerUu.

Gabrielli, Gabriel,

1671

Vienna, Eichsladt, &c.

Fischer von Erlach, Baron,

1680

Viemia.

1742

Gabriel, Jacques,
James, John,

1667

Bordeaux, Rennes, Paris.
St. George's, Hanover Square.

1745

Bodt, Johann. de

1670

Dresden.

1746

Leoni, Giacomo,

, ,

Lyme Hall.

1747

Forster, —

St. Petersburg, Cron.stadt, Tzarkoeselo. Edit. " Palladio."

1748

Kent, W.

1685

Holkham, Horse Guards, &c. Edit. " Inigo Jones' Designs."

Gcrlach, Phil.

1679

Buildings at Berlin and Potzdam.

1751

Salvi, Xicolo,

1699

Fountain of Trevi, Rome.

1752

Dintzenhofcr, K. I.

1690

Viemia; several public buildings at Prague.

1753

Earl of Burlington,

Chiswick House; Asscuddy Rooms, York, &c.

Baron von Knohelsdurtf,

1697

Opera House Berlin. Potsdam, Cltarloltenburrj.

1754

Gibhs, James,
Wood, John,

1683

St. Martin's ; Radclirte Library, Oxford, &c.
Cu-cus, Crescent, &c., Bath.

BortVand, Germ, de.

1673

Paris, Nancy, LunemUe. " Principes d'Architectnre."

1756

Villauueva, Diego,

Madrid. " Cartas Criticas," 1766.

1758

Ripley, Thomas,

Houghton Hall, Admu-alty.

1759

Bonavia, Santiago,

Jranjiie:, Madrid.

Kleiner, Salomon,

1703

Designs and Engravings.

1760

earlier, Fran.

.Monasteiy de las Salesas, Madrid.

1762

Labelye, Charles,

, ,

M'estminster Bridge.

«A.

Alfleri, Count Benedetto,

, .

Opera House, and Teatro Cariguano, Turin, &c.

1764

Sacchetti, Giambattista,

Royal Palace, Madrid.

Mureua, Carlo,

1713

Home, Sic.

Burroughs, Sir James,

Senate House, Cambridge.

1766

Servandoni, Niccola,
Ware, Isaac,

1695

Fafade of St. Sulpice, Paris.
Footscray, &c. Edited " Palladio."

Teodoli, Marq. Giacomo,

1677

Teatro Argentina, Sec, Rome.

1767

Rubio, Felipe,

Custom House, Valencia, &c.

1768

Couvillier, Fran.
Dance, George,

1698

Fafade St. Cajetan's, <.S:c., Munich.
Mansion House.

1771

♦Woods, Robert,

1716

" Ruins of PalmjTa."

ZoccoU, Carlo,

1718

Cathedral, &c. Calvi ; Cuiignano, Portici, &c.

Ill

THK Cn JL ENG[NEi:il AND AlUHITICCT'S JOURNAL.

[Al'KlL,

DIED.

NAME.

BORN.

A\'ORK.S.

K.iknriiiov, .\lcx.

.Vcademy of Arts, St. Petersburg, ice.

1772

\'aiiviteUi, Luigi,

Ponipei, Count Alessandro,

••

Palace at C'aseria, &e.

Several palazzi at Verona ; villa at Illasi.

\'7i

Blonde!, Jac(|. Fran.

1705

Met:, Strasbonrij, Cambiay. " Clours d'.\rcliit." 9 vols.

1771

Prcti, I'lanc. Maria,
fialli (la Bibii'iia, Anton.

1701

S. Liberale, &e., Castel Franco. " Elemeiiti deU'Arebitettura."
Theatre at Bologna, &c.

1776

ISoumann, Joli.

1706

Prince Heni7's Palace, Catholic Church, &c., Berlin.

I'usi, Paolo,

1708

Pahizzi Sergardi, and Bianchi, Sienna.

1777

Contanl d'lvry,

liegan the Madelaine, Paris.

1778

I'iranesi, Giamb.

1721

The comijlete collection of his Arch. Designs and Engravings, 15 vols, folio.

1779

Jliazzi, Giov.

1099

S. Giandjattista, Bassauo, \e.

1780

Soufflot. Jacr|. Germain,

1714

Pantheon at Paris.

Fnga, Fcrdina?ido,

1699

Palazzo Corsiui, &e., Riuiie, Naples, &c.

1781

Sinionclti, M. .'Viij?.
SriiiNKKr., Karl Frederick,

The Museo Pio-CIementino in the Vatican.

1782

Gabriel, J. A.
Jlar(|nct, J,

1710

Eeole Militaire.and Gardemeublcs, Paris.
Jraiijupz, Madrid.

1783

lirown, Lancelot,

1710

Landscape Card, and Architect. Clareniont, &c. &c.

1781

IJieteriebs, Fried. Wilbelm,

1702

Orangery, Potsdam ; buildings at Berlin.

*Esse.\, James,

1723

Several Essays relative to Gothic Architecture.

1785

Rodriguez, Ventura,

1717

The most celebrated of all modern Sjianish architects : designed or e.xeeuted an
number of works.

immense

Peyre, M. Jos.

1730

One of the regenerators of French architecture. Odeon, Paris, &c.

17H6

Fernandez, .Miguel

Church and Convent de Montesa, Valencia.

1788

.Stuart, James,

1713

" .Vntiquitics of ,\thens." Chaiiel, Greenwich Hosiiilal.

Su- liobcrt Taylor,

1714

Parts of Bank of England.

aO.

Gontard, Carl von,

1738

tk'vt'nu Potadam, 8ic.

1789

Starov,

The Tauridan Palace, Church of the Alex. Newsky Convent, St. I'etersburph, &c.

Paine, James,

1716

Mansion House, Doneasier; Wardour Castle; M'orksop; Designs pul»lished.

Temanza, Tommaso,

1705

JIaddaleua, Venice. "Lives of the Venetian Architects." 2 vols. 4to. 1777.

1790

Krubsaeius, Fred. Aug.

1718

Dresden.

a/K

Knobel, Joli. Fried.

1724

H'ar.wnr, Grodno, &c.

ab.

Boumann, Job. I'Yied.

1737

Royal Library, Berlin ; Theatre, Schwedt, &.c.

1792

Adam, Rob.

1728

Register Oliice, ivc, Edinburgh : Adclphi ; Designs published.

Gilabert, Ant.

1716

i 'atencia.

*Ponz, Antonio,

1725

His " Viage de Espaha," 18 vols., abounds with materials for history of Spanish architecture.

*Moreno, Josef,

1748

" Viage a Constautiuopla," &e.

1793

Sabatini, Franc.

1722

Madrid, Aranjuez, tkc.

1794

Ronealli, Count,
Jean lia<lol2)lie,

1729

Custom-house, &c., Barcelona.

Pcrronef,

1708

Bridges at Neuilly, Mantes, Orleans, &c.

Rodriguez, B. B.,

1736

Madrid, &c.

Garcia, Josef,

1760

Valencia, &e.

1796

Sir V{. Cliambers,

1725

Somerset House; Buildings in Kew Gardens, &c. " Treatiic on Civil Architecture.

»

1797

Duran, Ramon,

1760

Madrid, Salainanca, tS:e. •

1798

De Wailly, Charles,

■ 1729

Odeon at Paris ; Saloon in I'.ilazzo Serra, Genoa, &c.

Gonsalez, Man. Regucra,

1731

Numerous buildings at Ovietlo.

ab.

Cerati, Domenico,

New Ilosiiital, Speeola, anil several Palazzi at Padua.

*Milizia, Francisco,

1725

" Arcliit. Civile." " Vite degli Architetti, Hic."

1799

Bazhenov, \'assil Ivanovitch,

1737

Mikhaelovsky Palace, &c., St. Petersbmgh, Cronstadt, &c.

Jardin, Nich. Hen.

1720

Copefihat/en.

Ilarsdorf,

1735

Copenhagen.

*\Veinlig

Dresden.

Conture, Guill.

17.32

La Madeleine, Paris, 1777-93.

1800

Sanchez, Franc.

1737

Madrid, Minorca, &e.

Erdmannsdortl', Baron Fr. \Vilh.

1736

Villa ami Gardens, Worlitz, &c.

Tomas, Domingo de.

Granada. Finished the Facade of the Cathedral, Cadiz, &c.

Louis

••

Theatre at Bordeaux, &c.

NINETEENTH CENTURY.

1801

Antoiue, Jacques Denis,

1733

The Mint, Paris ; ditto at Bern, &c.

Sanz, Augustin,

1724

Santa Cruz, &c., Zaraijoza.

1802

Gontard, Carl,

1738

Berlin, Potsdam, &c.

Ivanov, Alexeiviteh,

1760

St. Pctershnrrj.

1803

Volkhov, Phedor Ivanovitch,

Tauridan Palace, &c., St. Petersburgh.

Leroi, Day.

1736

" Monumens de la Grece."

1801

Calderari, Ottoiie,
Delagardette, C. M.

1730

Several Palazzi, &:c., at Vicenza. Designs published.
" Itnines de Picstum." " Nouveau Vignole," &c.

Revett, Meholas,

1722

" .\utiquities of Athens," with Stuart.

1805

Arnal, Juan Pedro,

1735

Madrid.

1806

Ledoux, Claude Nicholas,
I'oUak, Leo))oldo,

1736

Barriercs at Paris, Ilolel Thelusson, &c.
Milan, Trieste, &c.

Holland, Henry,

1746

Carlton House, Old Drury Lane Theatre, &e.

Renard,

1748

Paris.

1807

Maugin, Charles,

1721

Paris, tlvc.

Carr, John,

1721

Harcwood House, Yorkshire; Mausoleum at W'entworth, &c.

Detournclle, Athanasius,

1766

" Gramls Prix d'Archit." " Projets d'Archit."

1808

Bonomi, Joscpli,

1739

Roseiieath ; alterations at Keddicstone, &c.

1839.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER ANDARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

115

DIED.

NAME.

1808

Piermarini, Giuseppe,

*Gilly, David,

Legrand, Jacq. Giiill.

Lauglians, C. G.

1809

Lecliner, Joli. 13apt.

Gebhard, J. Aug.

I8I0

Fischer, R. F. H,

ab.

Dubut, L. A.

Chalgrin, J. F. T.

1811

Genz, Heinrich,

Villaiuieva, Juan de.

Jlylne, Rob.

1813

Brogiiiart,

Wyatt, Jas.

Tliouiond, Thns.

Gerstenljerg, J. Lor. Jul.

*Houel, Jean,

1814

Voronilihin And, Nik.

1816

llardmutli, Joseph,

Bianzani, Luige,

1817

Zanoja, Ginseppe,

Quareuglii, Cav. Giacomo,

Vici, Andrea,

1818

Dufoiuny, Leon, al.

Gondouin, Jacques,

Selva, Antonio,-

1819

Catel, Ludwig,

1820

Fischer, Karl,

*CIerissea\i, Chas. Louis,

1821

Rennie, John,

1822

Damesme, Louis Em. Aime,

Giesel, J. Aug.

1823

Porden, W.

Rodriguez, M. Mart.

*Genelli, Hans Christ,

1824

Dounat, Jacques,

Ihirtout,

Khumel,

*Tappe, Wilh.

1825

Perez, Silvestre,

Dance, George,

1826

Gandon, Jas.

M'eiiLljrenuer, Fred.

*Friderici, Dan. Gottlob,

*Mazois, Fran.

1827

Engel, Franz.

1829

♦Ceau-Bernuidez, J. Aug,

1831

*Hope, Thos.

*MelIiug, N.

1832

*Pugin, Augustus,

Marq. de Guerchv,

Gay, J. J.

1833

Cagnola, Luigi,

Labarre,

Thurmer, Jas.

Heigelin, Dr. K. M.

1834

*Cicognara, Count,

Telford, Thomas,

1835

Durand, J. Nic. Louis,

Nash, John,

Goodwin, F.

Dufour, Alex.

183C

Heger, Franz.

*Stieglitz, Dr. Chr. Ludwig,

ab

Alavoine, —

1837

Soane, Sir John,

*Hirt, Aloysius,

*Quaglio, Domiuico,

,1838

Percier, Clias.

1839

*Landriani, Paulo,

OhlmuUer, Daniel-Jos.

Valadier.

Wilkins, W.

1840

WyattviUe, Sir Jeffrey,

1745
1743
1733
17.'>8
1735
1745

1739

1739
1734

1740
1759

1 735
1760
1752
1 750

174 1
1743
1760
1737

1782
1721
1701
1757
1751

1746

1745
1751

1767
1741

1760
1767

1776
1749
1770
1765
1769

1775
1760

1789

1767
1755

1760

1780
1760
1792
1756

1753
1759

1787

1757
1791

1766

\\-ORKS.

Teatro della Scala Milan, &c.

Several works on Building and Architecture.

Theatre Feydean, Paris. Many architectural works, &c.

Brandenburg Gate, &c., Berlin.

Munich.

TIresden, &c.

Siu/t(/art, Hohenheim, Scfianibaiiseii, &.C. ^

" Architecture Civile."

St. Philippe du Rcule, Arch L'Etoile, &.C., Paris.

Mint, BerUn, &c.

Teatro del Principe, Museum, Obscrvatoiy, &c., Madrid.

Blackfriars' Bridge, Inverary Castle, &:c.

Lycce Bourbon, Bourse, &c., Paris.

Pantheon, FonthiU, Ashridge, &c. &c.

Great Theatre, and Exchange, St. Petershurgh.

" Voyage Pittoresque en Sicile," 4 vols, folio, &c.

The Kazan Cathedral, St. Petershurgh.

Lichtenstein Palace, Vienna, &c. &c.

Palazzi Fadigati and Cuti, Casal Maggiore : Church, Comasaggio; Villa Ala Ponzoni , Bor-
golicto, <Ivc.

Porta Nuova, Milan, Sec.

S/. Petersburg, Tzarskoeselo,

Naples.

Botanic School, Palermo, &c.

Ecole de Medeciue, Paris.

Teatro della Fenice, Venice.

Welpersehe Badehaus ; Orangery, Pankow ; Decorations, Palace at Weimar. Several Archi-
tectural publications.

Theatre, &c., Munich.

" Antiquites de Nismes," &c. &c.

M'aterloo Bridge, &c.

Theatre Olympique, &c., Paris.

Dresden.

Stables at Pavilion, Brighton ; Eaton Hall, Cheshire.

Madrid, Malaga, Salamanca.

Several puljlications on Arcliiteeture and Antiquities.

Place Peyron, Toulouse; Allais Cathedral, &c.

Restorations at Fontainblcau.

Cathedral at Gran, Hungary.

Writings on Architecture.

Madrid, Seuille, S. Sebnslian, &c.

Newgate, St. Luke's Hospital.

C\istom House, Exchange, Four Courts, &c., Dublin.

Theatre, &c., Carlsruhe.

Several publications, &c., on Architecture.

" Pompeii." " Palais de Scaurus," &c.

Vienna.

" Descripcion .\rtistica de la Catedral de Sevilla;" " Noticia de los Arquitectos de Espana," &c.

" Household Fuiiiiture ; " " Costume of the Ancients ; " " History of Architecture."

" Vovage Pittoresque de Constantinople," &c.

" Specimens of Goth. Arcliit." " Examples of Goth. Arch."

Tlieatre de Vaudeville, &c., Paris.

Museum, &c., Lyons.

Arco della Pace, &c. Milan, fflc.

Finished the Bourse, Paris.

Dresden.

Prof, of Arch. Tubingen. " Lehrbuch der Hoheren Baukunst," &c.

" Fabbriche di Venezia." " Storia della Scultura," Sec.

" Architecture," Brewster's Encyclopipdia.

" Leijons d'Architectm'e," &c. ; " Parallele."

Buckingham Palace ; Pavilion, Brighton, &c.

Town Hall, Manchester.

Restorations, &c., at Versailles.

Darmstadt.

" Hist, of Architectm-e," &c.

July Column, Paris.

Bank of England, Board of Trade, &c.

" Baukvmst der Alten," &c.

Distinguished Architectural Draft.snian and Painter. Restored Schloss Hohenschwangen.

Arch, of the Tuileries. Restorations, &c., at Louvre and Tuillcries. Chapelle Expiatoire.
" Recueil de Decorations," &c.

Sccne-])ainter and Architect. " Treatise on Theatres."

Gothic Church, St. Maria Hilf, Munich.

Downing College, Cambridge ; London University ; National Gallery, &e.
Additions at Windsor Castle.

I AlbertoUi, Giocondo,

I 1742 I Still living in 1837. Villa Meizi, Bellagio ; M/an, &e.

no

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[April,

SKEW ARCHES.

Sir, — I am surprised that among the many correspondents who ad-
dress yi)U, there are so few of them either theoretical or practical, who
touch iipoi) tlie siil)ject of slvew arches, a subject wliich ))re5en(s so
wide a field of observation and reniarlc.

Among the very few works which we possess on this point, Afr.
Buck's seems t(i hold tliehitjhest place, although even in it there seems,
to me several things which would be the better for alteration or
amenilment. Altliough he is ])articular in giving the mathematical
formula fur calculating the necessary angles and lines, yet lie assumes
some things, as granted, which lie at the very foundation of his prin-
ciples; for example, he observes tliat the lines of the courses of (he
intrados should be made perpendicular to a line drawn between the
extremities of the developement of the face of the arch, without ever
giving any reason for it, or making any remark on the subject, farther
than that it sbould be so. Now it strikes me that a considerable alter-
ation maybe made in this for the better. LetAHCDEFCin the
f.gnre aiuiexed) be the developement of a semicircular arch, then

there is a curve A G H, such that a tangent drawn from any point in
this curve is perpendicular to the face of the arch at the said point,
as, the tangent G K, drawn from the point G is perpendicular to the
developement of the face of the arch B, G C, at the said point G. Now
if the courses were drawn similarly to this as shown in that part of
the figure A, B, C, F, then the arch (according to Mr. Buck, in the be-
ginning of liis seventh chapter) would be perfectly secure. Unfor-
tunately however, the difhculty of execution would be so great, if it is
not an impossibility, that this could never be applied vigorously to
practice, and the only way left is to make the best practicable ap-
proximation to tills curve. There are two methods, either of which
appear to me to be better than tliat of Mr. Buck's, although the first
has a considerable drawback, because the beauty of the arch is very
much destroyed on account of the unequal divisions of the courses.
The first method is after having drawn a line as F C perpendicular to
the face of the arch at the centre, to divide the segments F E, and
C D into an equal convenient number of parts, and to draw the courses
as shown by dotted lines from the one face to tlie other through the
respective points 1, 1 — 2, 2 — 3, 3, &c. This, although a little more
expensive than tlie common method, appears to me more desiraljle on
account of the additional strength which it possesses. I may mention
that I was shown a model built upon this principle, which when sub-
jected to a pressure on the crown, forced the abutments asunder ex-
actly in the line of the face of the arch, thus giving the best proof of
the correctness of the princi|)le. The second method which I would
recommend is simply instead of drawing the line of the intradosal
courses perpendicular to the straight line A E, to draw it nearly
averaging the curve A G H, tlie tangent of the angle which such a

cot e
line would form with the abutments approximates to —x—. e being

the angle of the acute corner of the abutments. The advantages to
be derived from this are, first that this angle being less than that com-
monly employed, there will be less tendency to slip, and secondly, that
being more nearly perpendicular to the face of tlie arch, there is con-
sequently more stability.

1 am astonished at the serious errors into which Mr. Buck lias fallen
in his last chapter, which is devoted to farthtr iuKsstii^atiom, but
which had better have been omitted altogether. In attempting to
determine at what attitude above the level of the axis of the cylinder
the thrust of the arch will be perpendicular to the bed of the voussoir,
be gives a formula which produces the strange result that the smaller
the archstoiie, the lower will be the said attitude, that is to say, the

more secure will be the arch, and also that it will be able to be built
at a more acufe angle. Another still more strange phenomenon, the
result of this formula, is that the greater the skew of the bridge the
less of the arch will have to be supi)orted by iron dowels and bolts ;
thus an arch built at an angle of 25" will require no assistance from
dowels, an arch built at an angle of S.^'J will require to he secured bv
dowels to a height of 25" above the springing, and lastly, an arch cif
90" or square to the abutments, will have to be secured to a height of
40° above the springing. The w hole of these errors arise from having

given the expression

. ^ , r cot 9. cos T
instead of ,

cosec. e. cos T

, (nearly at the bottom of page 37),

-f- cosine (6 -|- ip) where ip is such an angle

that its tangent is =:

cot e. sin T.

This must be evident to any one

who considers that the courses alter their angle with regard to the
face of the arch, which Mr. Buck has not taken into consideration.

As it may be of some use to settle this |irobleiu, I would submit the
following solution, observing that the letters and charaters refer to the
same as in Mr. Buck's treatise.

1st. Ill finding a term for C O, I would reject the thickness of the

cylinder, and consider the jioint C) as that to which the tangents of the

small curves which show in the face of the arch, tend ; this i« more

correct because the joints of the voussoirs being segments of curves,

there can be no point on the face of the arch at wHiich a ball would

roll down the bed into a line exactly jiarallel to the face; this may be

considered too minute for observation, but besides being more correct

it will simplify the cjuestion much.

cot' 6
Then upon this ground C O = — ^— , and taking Mr. Buck's own

cot' 6 -\- V. sin T

fieures at the bottom of iiage 37. I E K =
° V. cos T. cosec 9

2d. In finding the tangent of the internal angle, Mr. Buck states
correctly " that the tangent of the angle, which the tangent of the in-
tradosal spiral makes with the horizon diminishes as cos. t," but he
has omitted to mention that the angle 9, which the course makes with
the face at the springing, increases as a certain function of sin. t be-
coming (9 -j- <p), where (p is such an angle that it has for a tangent

— '—'- '— ; this then would make tlie tangent of the internal angle

cot 9. cos T

at the point sought -= ^^ . ^,

^ " i IT. COS (9 -\-<p)

external and internal angles, we have

then equating these values if tlie

cot 9. cos T

cot' 9

-]- f. sin T.

g IT. cos (9 -(- (p) V, cos T. cosec 9
but rejecting f in the second side of the eq\iation, because by hypo-
thesis' it is unitv, and multiplying both sides by \ ir, cos. t, cosec 9,

cot 9. cos" T ., a 1 1

we have — : -rr-, = cot- 9 -\- it -k. sin t.

sin 9. cos (9 + (p)

After this the solution must be completed by a series of approxima-
tions luitil a true value of t can be found. If the thickness of the
archstones is wished to be considered, then by making the second side
p -\- e

of this last equation cot- 9.
quired result, thus.

-J- i TT. sin T. it will give the i e-

T when C O

cot- 9 , ^. ,^ <""'' ®

, r, or T when C U = -t — •

V +e.

When 9 is 60 then 40 56 - - - 40
45 - 42 46 - - - 40
30 - 50 10 - - - 43
The numbers in the last column are only approximations, but it may
be taken that in all arches of a moderite skew, the point r is about 40°
;ibove the level of llie axis of the cylinder.

I have merely thrown out these observations for the purpose of
direcling attention to this particular kind of arch, which is now come
into such common use, and about which we have so little information,
and that little of a very loose kind with regard to the theory of the
arch, but I think that Mr. Buck is entitled to the thanks of the pro-
fession for the clearness and accuracy with which he has explained
anil illustrated the greater portion of the subject practically considered.
I remain. Sir, vour's respectfully,

B. H. B.

Edinburgli, March, 1840,

1840.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

117

AMERICAN STEAM BOATS.

The following comparison of the power of the engines employed in
tlic steaiii bonis navigating the river? of North America and those
running here on the Thames may not be nninteresting to many of our
readers, particnlarly tliose who are engaged in steam navigation.

We have taken as the basis of om- calculations the following parti-
culars of the " Rochester," a steam boat plying on the river Hudson,
between New York and Albany, which have been furnished by Mr.
David Stevenson in his " Sketch of the Civil Engineering of North
America."

The Rochester is 209 feet 10 inches in length, and 24 feet beam, the
depth of her hold is 8 feet 6 inches, and she draws, with an average
number of passengers, 4 feet of water. The diameter of the paddle
wheels is 24 feet, and the length of the floats, which are 24 in mnnber
on each wheel, is 10 feet, and their dip, under the above circumstance,
2 feet 6 inches. The vessel is propelled by one engine, liaving a
cylinder 43 inches in diameter, with a 10 feet stroke. The steam,
which is generated under a high pressure, is cut oft" at half stroke,
and condensed.

Under ordinary circumstances the engine is worked by steam of
from 25 to 30 lbs. pressure, and in this case the piston makes about 25
double strokes per min\ite ; but when the Rochester is pitched against
another \'essel, and at her full speed, the steam is often carried as
high as 45 lbs. on the square inch in the boiler, and the piston then
makes 27 double strokes, or in other words, moves through a space of
540 feet per minute, or 6' 13 miles an hour. In this case the circum-
ference of the paddle wheels moves at the rate of 23-13 miles an hour.

It was under these circumstances that Mr. Stevenson made a passage
in this vessel, during which he informs us she attained a speed of llJ-55
miles an hour, her piston then making 27 double strokes per minute,
and the tide being just on the turn; by which we judge the pressure
of the steam in the boiler to have been 45 lbs. on the square inch. Mr.
Stevenson remarks that " at that time the vessel could not be far from
having attained the maximum speed at which her engines are capable
of propeUing her through the water." What the precise signification
of this observation may be we do not exactly comprehend : the only
way in which we can account for it is either that hard firing was carried
nearly to the greatest extent possible in the furnaces, or that 45 lbs.
on the square inch was not far from the highest pressure which the
boiler was capable of sustaining without damage.

Allowing that at this great speed the steam is wire-drawn to such a
degree as to lose 4-7 1 lbs. of its pressure (which is a much greater loss
than is probably experienced in reality), we will assume tlie initial
pressvu'e of the steam in the cylinder to have been (including the pres-
sure of the atmosphere) 55 lbs. on the square inch. The relative
volume of steam of this pressure is 507'3, and as it is cut oft' at half
stroke, its mean pressure through the stroke, reckoning the waste space
at the end of the cylinder at ^ of the contents of the cylinder, was
40*47 lbs. From this must be deducted the pressure in the conilenser,
which Mr. Stevenson estimates at 5 lbs. per square inch. This leaves
a mean eftective pressure of 41'47 lbs. per square inch, which multi-
plied by the area of the piston, which is 1452-2 square inches, gives
00222"731bs. for the total effective pressure on the surface of the pis-
ton, and nudtiplying this by its velocity 540, and dividing by 33000,
we find the gross power to be 985-463 horse ])ower. If we considered
the pressure in the condenser as a ]5art of the load of the engine,
which would be the fairest way to sliow the comparative merits of
diflerent engines, since it is a defect when the pressure in the con-
denser is considerable, we should find the gross power of the Roches-
ter's engines to be 1 104-3 horse power.

Supposing the above data to be correct, the quantity of water boiled
oft" to supply the engine must have been 5-9041 cubic feet per minute,
or 354-2413 cubic feet per hour.

Considering the Rochester's midship section as a rectangle, its area
cannot exceed 90 square feet, and the power employed in propelling
her at any given speed must bear some proportion to that area, de-
pending on the form of her body. The power is also admitted to vary
as the cube of the velocity; therefore the total power employed in
propelling a certain vessel at a given speed may be represented by
the expression

KAV,
in which K is a coefficient depending on-the form of the vessel, A the
area of her immersed midship section, and V her velocity.

The Gravesend steam boat " Ruby," belonging to the Diamond
Company, is 155 feet in length, and her beam 19 feet. Her draught
of water with 300 passengers on board was 4 feet 4 inclies forward,
and 4 feet 8 inches aft, mean 4 feet 0 inches, and the area of her mid-
ship section immersed 65-6 square feet. The diameter of her paddle

wheels is 17 feet 2 inches, the number of floats on each wheel 11'
their length 9 feet, depth 18 inches, and their dip under the above
circumstances '20 inches.

The vessel is propelled by a pair of engines of 50 horso power each.
The diameter of the cylinders is 40 inches, the length of stroke 3 I'ect
0 inches, pressure of steam in the boilers 3i lbs. above the atrnospliere,
vacuum in the condensers 28i inches, number of revolutions per minute
3I5, and speed of the vessel 13-5 miles per hour.

The area of the two pistons taken together is 2513-28 square inches,
and the effective pressure of the steam on each square uich of the
pistons is 3-5 + 13-852 lbs. = 17-352 lbs. which multiplied by the area
of the pistons gives the total eft'ective pressure = 43010-43 lbs., and
multiplying this by the velocity of the pistons, which is -220-5 loot,
and dividing by 33000, we find the gross power = 291-4 horse power.
Or, considering the pressure in the condenser as a part of the load, as
we did for the Rochester, the pressure on each square inch of the
pistons being 3-5 -(- 14-71 = 18-21 lbs., we should find the gross
power = 305-81 horse power. Of this gross power, wdiich we will
call P, a certain portion is employed in overcoming the friction of the
engine and the resistance of the steam in the condenser, owing to the
vacuum not being perfect ; and we may assume this portion, in engines
of the same construction and working on the same system, to bear a
constant proporti(m to the gross power P. The remainder, which is
employed solely in propelling the vessel, may therefore be represented
by the expression k P, in which k is a constant coefficient.

We have shown above that this quantity may also be represented by
K' A' V'-',
K' being the coefficient of resistance of the Ruby, A' her immersed
midship section, and V her velocity. We must therefore have
kP = K' A' V'.

If P' be the gross power required to propel a vessel of the same
form as the Ruby, but whose midship section innnersed is equal to
that of the Rochester, or A, at the velocity V, which is that of the
Rochester, we shall have

„ AV^
kP' = kP-

P' = P

A^"

AV'.
A'V'3

Substituting the values of all the known quantities, we obtain

90X10-55^ „,, ,,
P' = 305-81 .TT-r-<7T;rrr — 824-54,

05-0X13-5'

which is less than three quarters of the gross power of the Rochester's
engine.

The eft"ective power of the Ruby's engines, that is, the power ap-
plied to the paddle wheels, calculated from the resistance to the floats
by Mr. Mornay's method given in Tredgold's Treatise on the steam
engine, page 132 of the Appendix, but with double the coefficient,
(Mr. Mornay having found since the publication of the above mention-
ed work, that the resistance to a body moving through a fluid should
be double what the generally received theory makes it), is found lo
be equal to 2(i7-80 horse power ; but if we calculate their etfectivc
power by M. de Pambour's rule, which is to deduct i'rom the eft"ective
pressure on the piston first 1 lb. per square inch for the friction with-
out load, and then one-eighth of the remainder for the friction due to
the load, we find only 240-285. The two methods would, however,
give precisely the same result if the pressure in the boiler were 5-38
lbs. above the atmosphere ; but it is probable there are some inaccu-
racies in the data of both calculations, and the discrepancy is not very
great, the ratio of the two numbers obtained being very nearly 9 : 10.
However, to give the Americans the advantage of every doubt, we
will assume the pressure in the boilers to have been 5 lbs. on the square,
inch. (It would be unreasonable to allow more). In this case the
gross power would be 331 horse power, and the disponible power by
M. de Pambour's method, 202-3)5 horse power. The ratio of the
latter to the gross power 331, or k, is thus equal to -79249.

The gross power being assumed to be 331, instead of 305-81 horse
power, makes P', the gross power required to propel the larger vessel
of the same form as the Ruby at the rate of 16-55 miles an hour 892-46
horse power, which multiplied by k, gives 707-27 for the disponible
power required to be applied to tlie paddle wheels.

The amount of jjower absorbed by friction and other losses in the
engines is thus, on the principle of the Ruby's engines 185-19 h. p.,
on that of the Rochester's 397-03 h. p.

So that the London engineers are not only capable of constructing
engines which would propel vessels at the rate of 16-55 miles an hour
(which has only been claimed for the Americans in one solitary in-

US

THE CIVIL ENGINKI<:R Ai\D ARCIIITIXTS JOURNAL.

[April,

stance), but ihoy can obtain that result with less than nine-elevenths
of the j)o\vcr employed by their transatlantic brethren.

It is however to be observed that the qvianlitv of water boiled oil',
and consequently the expenditure of fuel would be greater in the Eni;-
lish engines of ^'92'11) horse power in the American engines of 111) I-:},
owing to the steam in the latter being expanded in the lylinder; but
it is evident that, by adopting the principle of expansion' in the Eng-
lish engines, the saving of fuel would be in proportion to the saving
of steam, and nught be carried even much farther than in the engine
of the Rochester.

ABSORBENT ARTESIAN WELLS.
By Hyde Clarke, Esq., C.E., F.L.S.

"The plan of artesian wells for the supply of water, we have mainly
derived from our neighbours the I<>ench, and it is one which has been
frequently canvassed in your Journal. I have now to call the attention
of your readers to another application of boring, which in the present
advanced state of geological knowledge and mechanical science may
pel haps be productive of some advantage here. It is that of absorbent
artesian wells, or cesspools, a system successful on a small scale, but
which I am not aware has been carried to the same extent as in
France.

The following account of absorbent artesian wells at Paris is princi-
pally derived from the report hereafter referred to made to the Pre-
fect of Police by M. Parent Duchatelet, the well known writer on
hygienic police. The reasoning will apply equally to London, as the
London basin is much the same as that of Paris, with the omission of
the tertiary building stones.

The ci ty of Paris, for the purpose of suppressing the Laystall at Munt-
faucon, has within the last few years established a new one in the
forest of Bandy. Altliough, this latter in 1833, received only a quarter of
the soil daily supplied by the city, it occasioned, even at that period,
great inconvenience both with regard to conveyance and dessiccation,
on account of the existence of a stratum of water, the height of which,
varying according to the season, often reached the level of its basin. A
part of the fluid in excess might, it is true, have been turned into the
little brooks, »hich spring up at a short distance, but as these brooks
all run into larger streams ami cross several villages and jnavate pro-
perties, and indeed the town of St. Denis, would have caused just
conqjlainl on the pari of a manufacturing population of ten or twelve
lliousand souls, for w hich the water is required to be extremely pure.

It was in order to surmount these <lifficulties that the contractors for
the Bondy Laystall, stimulated by examples to which we shall here-
after have occasion to refer, thought of turning into the earth, at a
considerable depth, the superfluities of their reservoirs. ]\I. Mulot, G.E.,
was in consequence charged with the boring of an artesian well, in-
tended, not for the purpose of bringing water to the surface of the
earth, but to absorb that which should be sent down its shaft. This
attempt was Clowned with conq^lete success; the boring having been
carried to a total depth of 243 feet 7 inches, (7Ini7l) showed two
absorbing strata, one from 133 feet .5 inches to U>5 feet 4 inches in a
mixture of chalk and silex, and the other from 211 feet 11 inches to
243 feet, in argillaceous sand, and green and grey sanils containing
lignites and pulverised shells. By the first, GO or 7') cubic yards were
absorbed in four and twenty hours, and by the second 140 cubic yards
in the same time.

The Prefect of Police, alarmed at the consequences which might
arise, allecting the salubrity of the waters under the surface, from such
a large mass of dirty fluids being mixed with them, ordered the pro-
cess to be suspended until a committee of the Board of Health had
examined into its o|)eration.

In the Paris basin are several distinct strata of water, separated
from each other by impermeable layers of dillereut kinds. The first,
that is to say the most superficial of these strata, is not to be found
under the city of Paris; it is only met with on the tops of the hills
and |)lateaux which surround it on all sides ; it is retained by a thick
bank oi clay which is found above the masses worked as plaster quarries.
For this reason, on these plateaux, bOO feet above the level of the
Seine, the wells are often only two or three yards deep. This stratum
is evidently formed by the filtration of rain, and by the condensation of
vapour on the surface of the soil of the plateaux.

The second stratum, which probably depends on the same causes,
but which extending under Paris and throughout the valley of the
.Seine near it, collects its waters from a much larger surface of country,
and flows across sands which are between the plastic clav, and the
building chalk {calcaiix u ktlir, wanting in the London "basin;, it

supplies all the vrells in Paris, to the number of twenty-live or thirty

thousand.

The strata of water below the two first can only be reached by bor-
ing: their nnmber and the depth at which they are to be found vary to
a great degree; sometimes they are entirely wanting, they do not
always ascend, and if they reach' the surface "through the well, their
overflow is not the same in places nearly contiguous. It is very im-
])ortant to be observed that these strata are so much the more abundant,
as they are found at a greater depth, and that they have a rapid current,
which gives them the character of subterranean rivers.

Numerous facts on the contraiy prove evidently that the two first
strata have no current, and are completely stagnant. The first, that
which is above Paris, is very scanty, and there is a risk of infecting it
by sending into it a large quantity of dirty water. To be convinced
of this, it is enough to observe that the waters which came from the
side of Mount Valerien are excellent, and those from JVlontmartre are
not drinkable on account of the number of cowhouses and dung-pits
which lose there all their liipiid portions. The second stratum, that
which supplies the wells of Paris, was formerly of good ([ualily, anil
was used for drinking by the inhabitants of the houses, and neighbour-
ing villages. It has only been since the increase of cessjiools, and
especially since the introduction of privies into houses, that is to say
from the time of Francis the First, that the water has begun to deteri-
orate, and that the Sieine water has been obliged to be used for drink.
It must not, however, be thought that the influence of dirty and infect-
ing waters extends bevond a very narrow boundary. Thus it has been
found that around the great lavstalls which were formed by the city
of Paris near the barriers of Montreuil and Fourneaux, the well-water
was never affected beyond a radius of 150 or 200 yards. The village
of La Chapelle near Paris, not being able on account of its situation
on depressed ground, to get rid of its dirty water, was obliged in order
to dis])ersc it to dig immense cesspools which swallow u\> all that is
thrown into them. Besides a population of four thousand souls, the
village of La Chapelle contains an enormous quantity of horses, cows,
pigs, &c., and yet the wells near the cesspools have never been in-
fected beyond two hundred yards from them. A still more decisive
fact than the |)receding is all'urded by the history of the laystall of
Montfaucon. Towards the close of the last century, before the conduit
was made which discharges into the Seine, tlie surplus of the basins,
one of the contractors for this laystall tliought of digging in the lowest
jiart a series of wells of large iliameter, of which the bottom touched
the stratum 3up])lying the neighbouring wells. He succeeded by this
means in getting rid of the troublesome water, and the wells around
were infecled, but not beyond a radius of 200 yards. A very long period
is required to enable the gradual removal of water, by means of the
alimentary stratum, to cleanse an infected w ell, of its bad qualities. A
manufacturer in the Faubourgh .St. Marceau wishing to get rid of the
hot water of his steam engine at small expense, thought of sending it
into a difl'erent well from that which fed his boiler. For some months
this produced no inconvenience ; but gradually the water in the neigh-
bouring wells got warmed, and at last to such a degree that it could
not be used for many purposes. The warm water was obliged to bo
sent in another direction; bat it took ei^hlun monllis to bring the wells to
their primitive temjierature. We must add however, with regard to
the gradual renewal of the water in the wells of Paris on account of
the ever increasing consumption necessary for industrial purposes, that
the suppression of the cess])Ools which the police no longer allow in
the houses, and especially the establishment of moveable water closets,
or at least with staunch walls, will prove so many causes which will
jirobably in a few years carry oil the bad qualities of the well water.

As to the lower strata, their abundance, and the rapidity of the cur-
rents which prevail in them, prevent us from assimilating them to
wells, or from regarding the tleperdition of dirty water, even in any
very great cjuautity, as exercising a pernicious influence. In 1789,
the architect Viel being employed by the Hospital Board to free
Bict tre from the rain and household water, as well as from the urine
and fecal matters produced by a population of more than four thousand
souls, he thought of directing the flow towards some old quarries deep
enough to reach the stratum supplying the neighbouring w-ells. But
wishing to have a permanent infiltration, he sought the second stratum
by means of a wcU 1.5 yards deep from the bottom of the quarry, this
well is ten yards broad at top, and ends in a bore of large (limensions,
thus forming a cistern with which the several galleries of the quarry
comnumicate. It was in the month of November, 17'.I0, that all the
water of Bicitre was introduced into tliis cesspool, and from that day
it has always run olf easily. It is true that the wells situated on
the right bank of the small river Bicvre, 150 or 20(1 yards from this
cesspool, have been infected ; but that arises from a circumstance
purely local, rain water after storms, accumulating in the galleries,
whieli commmiicate with the cesspool, and exercising an eiwrmous

1840.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

119

pressure, cause the inliltrations to rise to the first stratum. For
the purpose of remedying tliis serious inconvenience, the Hospital
Board ordered a new absorbing well to be bored in a better position,
which, since the year 1S35, has absorbed 100 cubic yards of liquid, in
twenty -four hours. Besides, the infection produced by the other did not
extend to a great distance, for all the wells on the left bank of tlie Bievre,
and the well of Bicetre itself, wdiich is used for drinking by the popu-
lation of the establishment, liave never censed to supply good water.

Notwithstanding the remarkable success attained at Bicetre ever
since 1789, a considerable time elapsed before the boring of artesian
wells was employed elsewhere for the dispersion of water, which have
no drainage on the surface. - A few years ago an artesian well having
been bored on the Post Horse .Scpiare, at St. Denis, it was found that
the waters, deprived of easy drainage, caused during frosts great im-
pediment to traffic from the ice produced. This jnconv{;nience had
almost caused the plan for a new spring on the Place of Guelders to be
abandoned, when M. Mulot engaged with the corporation to disperse inlu
the inlerior of the earth, ivhiii wanted, t/ie waters brought to the surface
after Ihij had been used for such purpous as were nquind. The new-
well was carried to the depth of 70 yards, and in the interior were
arranged three concentric tubes like tliose of a telescope, with this
difference that instea<l of there being any friction, they were separated
from each other by a space four inches broad. The water snpi)lied by
the deepest stratum is lironght to the svu'face through the inferior of
the smallest tube ; the water of a stratum Go yards deep is collected
in Ihe same way through the space between the smallest and the
middling jiipe ; and the third tube, enclosing all the others, collects
and disperses into tlie third (non-ascending) stratum the excess of
water supplied by the two others.

A manufacturer of potatoe starch at Villetaneuse, a small village
three miles from St. Denis, by means of an absorbing well, gets rid of
the infected water, which had caused such serious complaints as
would, very probably, have obliged him to have closed his establish-
ment. The bore was carried to a depth of 70 yards, and during the
winter of 1S32 and 18'33, the well carried off' 80 or 90 cubic yards of
liquid per day. After it had been in operation for five months, the
borer carrying a scooji, with a valve at the end, was sent down, but, to
the great surprise of the manufacturer and engineer, only brought up
sand and wliitish water. This fact, which shows so strikingly the
rapidity of the lower currents, is enough completely to remove any
fear which might be entertained of tlie inconvenience of dispersing
among these currents such a quantity of infected water.

Relying upon the previous examples the Board of Health recom-
mended the administration to leave the contractors of the Bondy lays-
tall at perfect liberty, and accordingly every twenty-four hours a
liundred cubic yards of liquid, charged with a considerable quantity
of solid matter are dispersed into the absorbing wells.

An absorbing well constructed by M. Mulot for the city of Paris in 1835
at the Barriere de Combat, and also described in JSIagasin Pittorsque
carries oft' a hundred cubic yards per hour. The contract price was
£3.315 (8,-100 fracns.)

M. Arago attributes the invention of absorbing wells, as well as of
the ascending ones to the French. Rene, the famous King of Sicily
and Count of Provence, had a number of cesspools dug near Marseilles,
in the Plain of Paluns, a large marshy basin, \yhich it seems impossible
to drain by superficial canals. These holes throw and continue to
throw into the permeable strata, lying at a certain depth, the waters
which would render the country unproductive. It is said tliat the
water absorbed by the cesspools of Paluns, after a subterranean course
form the gushing springs of the Port of Mien, near Cassis. This is
the most ancient example of the kind. These cesspools are called in
Provensal, embugs.

The most important results are naturally expected from works of
this nature, which it is anticipated will place new resources within the
reach of the engineer. They will afford the means of draining marshes,
which otherwise could only be cleared by difficult or expensive pro-
cesses. The application to sewage is too evident to need inculcation,
they will enable us to relieve many small streams, which receive the
sewage of large and dense populations, and in every way they give to
the engineer abundant promise of being able to contribute in various
ways to the improvement of the public health. The extension of the
system at Paris is proceeding rapidly, and it is to be hoped that it
will be equally introduced in this metropolis, which lies in a similar
geological position. The marshy districts of Hackney, Lambeth and
Woolwich might be relieved, and instead of Mr. Martin's expensive
plan for the improvement ol' the sewage, the Thames might be much
more easily relieved by the filth being turned into absorbent wells. It
may be believed that the dirty water becomes disinfected much more
certainly, and so returned much sooner into circulation, by being dis-
persed in the under currents, than in the superficial waters".

CANDIDUS'S NOTE-BOOK.

FASCICULUS xrv.

" I must have liberty
Witlial. as largo a charter as the wincis,
Tu blo\v on whom I please."

L It is said that Albert — or as some pretend he- ought to be styled,
' His Majesty ! ' has a great ileal of taste for all the fine arts ; — and so,
indeed, had George tlie Fourth, the misfortune was that it was — in
architecture, at least, iutolerably bad, as Buckingham Palace most;
plainly testifies. But let us hope better things of Albert, — that he
will merit the epithet of Kuustlubcnd, und that he will exercise his
influence in behalf of that art which most requires it, — to wit, archi-
tecture. I trust he will have taste and to spare — for there will be
many about him not overstocked with it; yet how people instantly
discovered that he has such abundance of it, before he has done any
thing to show it, is rather puzzling; except that they have taken it
for granted, upon the principle that

" All solrlieis valour, all di\'ines have grace,
And maids of lionour beauty — by their place."

and of course a Prince Consort must be a phoenix of taste and accom-"
plishinents,-^a second admirable Crichton.

It will be well should his architectural taste induce him to keep his
eye upon the new stables at Windsor, and to hint^in whatever quar-
ter it may be necessary, that they ought to be something less disgrace-
ful in design than the Mews behind Buckingham Palace. To say the
truth, royalty appears to have been hitherto singularly unlucky in its
choice of architects, in this country; which is all the more provoking
because it is not Royalty but John Bull who has had to pay for the
blunders and execrable designs of such persons as John Nash and Co.

II. HovVever great architects may be in their own estimation, it
would seem that they are little better than mere cyphers in that of the
world, — such perfect nonentities that their names are of no importance.
I lately met with a very florid description of tlie Prince of Orange's
Palace at Brussels, according to which that building is one of extra-
ordinary splendour and taste, yet who the architect was is not men-
tioned. Neither is such omission by any means uncommon ; on the
contrary, it seems to be selon les regies, and the giving an architect's
name to be the exception to the rule. Dr. Granville for instance, not
only speaks of the palace of the New University at Ghent, " which for
chaste design combined with a rich and imposing style, yields the
palm to few modern buildings, and is superior to any erected for the
same purpose," but actually gives an elevation of its octastyle Corin-
thian jjortico ; and yet does not consider it worth while to inform us
who was the architect. Hundreds of other instances of the kind might
be produced, even from works professedly on the subject of architec-
ture. It may therefore be presumed that, unlike those of any other,
the members of this profession are distinguished by a strange excess
of modesty ; — or if not, they must be grievously disappointed at find-
ing that nobsidy cares to know even of their existence.

Hi. Architectural descriptions — or what profess to be such, are
sometimes exceeding funny. In those accompanying Pugin's Views
of Paris, and done by a French teacher named Ventouillac, vre read of
the front of a building being " adorned by tvio perpendicular ranges of
columns," in addition to which curious information, we are assured
that it resembles " Palladio's celebrated portico of the cathedral of
Vicenza," the Basilica or Palazzo della Ragione of that city being
blunderingly converted into a church. Poor Pugin was grievously an-
noyed at those and other instances of stupidity, — and no wonder ; but
the publisher was well satisfied that the work was done cheap, and
nothing extra charged for such drolleries. It is not always, however,
that they manage matters much better elsewhere, for turning over an
Italian journal to-day, I met with some account of a book entitled
"Quadro Storico dell' Architettura, dal Marchese Malespina di Sanna-
zaro," where it is stated that St. Peter's was begun by Michael Angelo,
and completed by his pupils and successors, among whom the principal
one was Bramante!:— What a truly ingenious and delightful way of
writing — or rather mystifying history! I know nothing to be compared
to it except the following wicked bit of quiz -. " Hannah More.the daughter
the late of Sir Thomas More, who was beheaded in Utopia, was the
author of Little's Amatory or Inflaniatory Poems, to the infinite scandal
of her worthy brotlier the present Sir Thomas, well-known in the reli-
gious world by his work entitled Practical Piety, and by another entitled
"Cffilebs in search of a Saint in petticoats," — or this other, "The
Lousiad of Caraoens was written by Pindar the celebrated Greek poet,
who lived in the reign of George III."
IV. There is a Finnish proverb which says, " Charming girls, lovely

B2

121)

THE CIVIL ENCJINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[April,

maidens !— where then do all the cross ngly wives come from .'"—and
which is not wholly inapplicable to architecture, since it is no less un-
accoinitable where' all the ugly, tasteless, paltry buildings and designs
we behold, come from, when we read of the host of talent there has
been and continues to be in the profession; — of the taste of such a man
as James Wvatt, of the classical genius of Sir , of the ima-
gination of John Nash ;— or of the transcendent charms of any of those
orthodox styles, which in our extreme allectiou for them we not only
adopt, but cenerally take care to make our own by the patriotic pro-
cess of CocKnevizing them into the bargain.

V. It is odd 'that though there are Doctors of Music, there should
be no Doctors of Architecture. Perhaps it is because architecture is
supposed to be in so sound and liealthy a state as to require no doc-
toring. And yet, neither Mr. Joseph "Gwilt, nor Mr. Welby Pugin
seems to be of such opinion : on the contrary, both of them are for ad-
miuislering to it pretty strong cathartics. Surely tliey are entitleil to
tidd A.D., (/. t'. not Anno Domini, but Architectura: Doctor) to their
names. There is also a certain scapegrace Candidus, who some will
say, might be similarly distingnished, yet others may think he has far
Uiore of the Surgeon "than the Doctor in his com|)ositicni. — After all,
perhaps it will be said that if Architecture has no Doctors, it has a
tolerable number of Quacks.

VI. Vorherr, a living tiermau architect, has a singular crotchet in
regard to what he nanu^s Soniienbau, which is that all sitting and sleep-
ing rooms should invariably be made to face due South, having only
staircases, passages, store-rooms and such places behind them. The
reasons he adduces for it are satisfactory enough, and the chief objec-
tion to his scheme is that it is utterly impracticable, at least in towns :
for supposing all the streets were matle to run from East to West, and
to be of such width that the shadow from the houses on the South side
would never fall upon the opposite ones, it would be only these latter
that would have tlieir fronts, or at least their dwelling rooms facing
the street, for the rest would have such rooms looking towards the
garden or courts behind them — that is behind, as regards the street.
This liowever I myself should consider no objection — rather a recom-
jnendation, because I could never understand wdiat pleasure there is
in standing at a window to stare or be stared at by your opposite
neighbour. Indeed I should say that those houses would have the ad-
vantage whose sitting rooms were turned from the street, because they
would not be exposed to the noise from carriages, &c. But then,
unless the backs of those houses were made to correspond witli the
fronts of the opposite ones, the streets themselves would make a very
strange appearance, presenting a row of fronts on one side, and irre-
gular exteriors on the other. Besides which, much greater extent of
frontage towards the street would be required for each house, as the
houses nuist be long and shallow, in plan, instead of being as at pre-
sent, narrow and deep. Tliere is yet another difficulty standing in the
way of such scheme, wdiich is that were all the streets of a town nrade
tu run from East to West, there must be lines of communication be-
twecu them from North to South, which according to such plan would
be entirely between dead walls — that is, the ends of the houses in the
streets, and the walls enclosing the gardens and courts, or whatever
the intermediate space might be between the parallel rows of houses.
I may therefore venture to say that Soniieiibaa will, notwithstanding
all its advantages, never come into fashion in London, even if it should
anywhere else.

THE PATENT CONCRETE.

Sir — I have read an article in your Journal for the mouth of January
last, describing the works in progress in her Majesty's Dock-yard at
Woolwich, wherein it is said that the " }^nlciU C'uncrcte of Mr. Ranger
was/iJiiiid insiijllcieiit to keep down Ihe Land Springs."

Although the assertion may be correct as far as relates to the work
in (piestion, viz., the dock wdnch was constructed of that material, at
Woolwich; yet, as such an assertion appears to question the ellicieucy
of the patent concrete, I beg to state to you my decided o|uniou that
the failure arose from a deliciency in quantity, and not from any defect
in quality ; from an improper manner of applying it — in fact, from a
misdirected ec'onomy — the excavation being only lined as it were with
concrete to form the bottom and the altars, instead of ttie earth being
taken out of such dimensions as to admit of the concrete forndng a
soliil spandril luider the altars, (the back line of whicli should be per-
pendicular from the o\itside edge of the dock coping), and of having
at least 7 feet in depth under the bottom of the dock. This will be
better understood by the following figures.

These are not given as correct sections of the dock in question, but
as diagrams sufficiently accurate to illustrate the accompanying obser-
vations.

Fig. 1.

'$■

Fig. 2.

Figure 1 is a section ol the dock as executed, wdiere a a, &c. repre-
sent the altars, and b b the coping, the concrete at the bottom of the
dock being about 2 feet G inches in thickness. By this figure it will
be seen that unless the ground under the altars is of a very firm kind,
such as good gravel, the weight of the concrete in the altars (being of
equal specific gravity with I'ortland stone,) must cause a settlement,
as they are in effect all overhanging, anil the wdiole of the work, sup-
posing each side to settle, (which nray well be expected in sucli soil
as that of Woolwich Dock-yard), would open somewhat similar to a
book ; and it is quite plain that any settlement of the altars would
have an injurious effect upon the bottom, unless it was made of a depth
much more considerable than it was in the present case, where the
thickness was not more than one-third wdiat it ought to have been.

Figure 2 shows the dock as I conceive it should have been con-
structed. Here it will be seen that the mass of concrete is about three
times the sectional area of that in fig. 1, and I feel convinced that if
this section had been adopted, no failure could possibly liave taken
place.

It may be here remarked, that in the construction of docks built of
stone, the backing necessarily must form such a spandril as I have
mentioned, and this is generally composed of bricks and cement; and
why this solidity of form shoidd have been departed from in the sec-
tion of the dock in question, appears to be altogether inexplicable —
and the more so when it is considered that Woolwich Yard is perhaps
one of the very worst places in which so rash a step could have been
hazarded.

With respect to land s|)rings — I apprehend they may be expected
generally to be troublesome in the progress of works in a Dock-yard,
where the local pressure from high-water in tidal rivers, or from the
sea, is calculated to increase the difiiculty, so much so that the greatest
ingenuity will sometimes be required to beat the enemy, even though
granite and brickwork in cement be used.

I have lately seen a paper describing the method of treating springs
as pursued by Mr. Ranger, at Chatham, where I find that gentleman
ingeniously collected them by means of cast-iron chambers into pipes,
and conveyed them into an adjacent culvert, by which they find their
way into the Weir of the Dock-yard engine.

I have been led into these observations from an ajjprehension that
the unqualified assertion, "the patent concrete was found insufficient
to keep down the land springs," might be so conclusive to many per-
sons who are not acquainted with its excellent qualities, as to prevent
further impiiry upon the subject, and carry a conviction of its unfitness
as a building material; wdiile, on the other hand, I think that an ex-
amination of the subject will prove its peculiar applicability to the
purposes of dock building, or any other massive work where the
locality affords good gravel and lime.

At a future period I may return to this subject, and show the great
economy of this material, as compared with granite and brickwork in
cenmnt; and I think it will not be ditficult to show that two docks may
be built of concrete, for one of granite and brickwork, and each of
them equal in usefulness and stability, wdiich must be considereil a
matter of no small moment in dock-yard economy at this period, when
it appears so diflicult to obtain from the rigid hands of our legislators,
any adequate amount to be expended in those most important places.
I am, Sir, your obedient servant,

B. T.

Dubihi, nth March, 1840.

1840.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

121

TOPHAM'S PATENT SLIDE-VALVE COCKS.

Fig.l.

Fib- ■^■

DESCRIPTION.

The outer case, in wliicli tlie slide-valve is enclosed
and worked, consists uf a box, a a, with socket outlets,
ti I), cast in one, and a cap, c c, secnreil to tlie box by
means of four wrouglit-iron bolts, tlie position shown
at dcldd, in figures 1, 2,3, and A. Fig. 1 represents
a vertical section of one form of the patent cocks, and
fig. il is a plan of it with the cap oW; ef is the slide
with a rack cast upon the back of it;yy is a cast-iron
spindle, with a screw cast upon it : g g l^ the stuffing-
box; h li is the gland. 'I'liis cock is intended onlj' for
what are termed siiiglt-i.>.ceA cocks.

Fig. 3 is a vertical section of another form of the
patent cocks, and tig. 4 is a plan of it with the cap oti';
I i is the slide witli the double face, and with lugs,
kk, cast upon it, to receive a female brass screw-nut,
/ /, antl a w ronght-iron square-threaded screw spindle,
m m, as in the common double-faced screw cocks.

Observations. — In the screw cocks commonly used, the box is cast
in two pieces, and the outlets are generally made with flanges, to
which a socket and spigot piece with corresponding flanges are bolted.
It is a well known fact that cast iron is not so liable to corrode as
wrought iron, and therefore that dispensing with numerous bolts and
three lead joints, will not only render the casing more durable, but
enable it to be made at less cost. The side joints in the box or casing
sometimes yield unequally ; this prevents the slide shutting close to
the face, thereby allowing the cock to "let by :" this is prevented by
dispensing with the joint. Some cocks of the smaller sizes have here-
tofore been cast with spigot and socket instead of flange outlets ; in
the patent cocks, sockets are cast on both ends of all sizes; although
it might originally have been supposed that by removing the cock, ami
leaving the flange, spigot and socket attached to the main or service,
a new cock might have been introduced without breaking the main or
service ; in practice, when a new cock has to be introduced, the main
or service is broken, and the junction formed by a double socket : it is
therefore evident that the separate spigot and socket castings with
flange joints are imnecessary. In the single-faced cock, the reason for
introducing a cast iron screw and rack instead of a wi'ought iron screw,
is that cast iron is less liable to corrosion than wrought iron, and there-
fore more durable.

The advantages of the patent cock are its simplicity and greater
durability, (owing to there being fewer joints,) and cheapness. The
facings of the cocks hereinbefore described are iron ; if, from the na-
ture of the water, cast iron is liable to corrode rapidly, the socket or
sockets for single or double-faced cocks are made to screw in, and can
therefore be faced with brass. The water supplied by the Water
Works Companies in London, is of such a quality that corrosion of cast
iron is very slow, and the extra exjiense of brass faces, or gun-metal
screws, would be greater, when the interest of the money expended is
taken into account, than the renewal of the cocks when rendered use-
less by corrosion.

Mr. Wicksteed, the engineer, has introduced these patent cocks into
the services of the East London Water Works, and in a certificate
dated Nov. 23, 1S3S, he states, that

"The chief difiereiice between your patent cocks .iiul those commonly
used, consists in the body of the cock being cast in one, and the outlets in
cocks of all sizes being cast on the body, instead of li.aviiig flange, spigot and
socket pipes attached thereto. By this means you undoubtedly not only dis-
pense with the greatest portion of the lead-joints and screw bolts ordinarily
required, and in consequence reduce the cost also, but the slide will be less
Mable to get out of its true working position, which it is apt to do from un-
equal yielding of the side-joints ; and thus the necessity and expense of re-
l)airs, which have been rendered hitherto necessary, will I)e dispensed with.
Although the application of the cast iron worm and rack may not be new, it
is certainly not in general use : and, in single-faced cocks, may be used to
great advantage. It will, in my opinion, Ije more diualile, and is more sim-
ple, and less expensive, than the wrouyht iron screw spindle and brass screw
nut.

" My experience inclines me to consider the use of brass facing in cocks,
where Thames or River Lee water is used, unnecessary, as I know several
cast iron sluice gates, with iron facings, that have been worked, and exposed
to the action of these waters, for a period of nearly thirty years, that are now
in as good a state as possible ; the faces are not at all corroded, and the gates
are water-tight. I therefore consider the use of brass, in such instances, as
unnecessary and expensive. Nevertheless, should the water contain salts
that wouhl aftect cast iron so as to injure the faces, the mode you propose in
your specification, for facing with brass, appears to me well calculated for the
purpose, without affecting the principle of dispensing with the side and other
joints and bolts."

Mr. Wicksteed has furnished Mr. Topham with another testimonial
of recent date, March lb, wherein he states, that

" After having used your patent cocks constantly for two years, I feel en-
abled to speak as liighly of them as I did in my letter to you dated Nov. 23,
1838, and would stJ'ongly recommend their general adoption,"

122

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[April,

AMERICA.

INTERN'AI. IMPROVEMENTS AND PBOSPECTS OF THE PROFESSION.

[Tlie following article lias liccn forwardcJ to us by our highly valued cor
respondent at New York, it was written for the Anieriean Railroad Journal,
and is well deserving the perusal of the Engineers and Gfivei-nm^nt of this
country, many of the remarks are ecjually as applicable to the latter as they
are to the American Government.]

The attempt to form an Institution of Civil Engineers, has, we arc sorry
to say, failed. W'c are not, however, without hopes that another effort, more
successful, will soon be made. We have beard a variety of opinions on this
important project, and, earnestly as we desire its success, we must admit
that there are difficulties in the way, which it is much easier to ])oint out
than to overcome. In the first place, it seems impossible to fix on any place
where the leading members of the profession could meet even once a year,
far less evei-y week, as in London. The public works of the United States
are scattered over such an immense extent of country, that there is probably
no point where even half a dozen engineers, in charge of as many works,
could meet even monthly. If we are right in this view, it is evident that the
plan which succeeds so well in England, or rather in London, is not adapted
without modification to this country. Then, again, the distinction between
Members and Associates woidd lead to endless contention, though all will
admit that some such division is both necessary and i)roper; but where to
draw the line is the grand question. They who have held the rod, have
carried the compass and level, liave surveyed hundreds of miles for railroads
and canals, and superintended the constniction of not a few", are not pleased
with the idea of being ranked with those who, having failed as la«7ers,
doctors, store-keepers, or otliee-bunters, "turn their attention," as the phrase
is, to civil engineering, and who, in only too many instances, have at once
received appointments to which they should have looked after five or six
years ai-duons scmce in the field in the various grades of the profession.
More than one of our readers could, without much difficulty, point out men
in the situation of Residents, or even higher, wlio would he puzzled, if directed
to take the goniometer into their own bands, and run out a curve of a given
railius, to join two tangents given in position, while the same feat constitutes
one of the veiT easiest duties of tlieir assistants— the unpresuming title of
those who do almost everything. There is a veiy large class of assistants in
the United States who, from want of education, or subsequent .wersion to
study, or both, are unable to reach the highest stations of the profession, to
which their long experience and ])ractical skill fully entitle them. It is only
when acting under men who combine liberal and scientific attainments with
the proper experience, that this large class of eminently useful engineers can
ever attain their deserts, and it does appear reasonable to suppose, that they
woidd derive great advantages from a well-constituted institution, where
their industry, skill, and perseverance would be honouraldy registered by
those who are alone capable of appreciating them. On the other hand,
young men of superior talent or acquirements, have only to offer original
communications to the Institution to be immediately known, and to be at
once installed into the very position to which they are by their merits en-
titled, being neither ruined by injudicious flattery nor chilled by neglect.
How dift'erent are the means by which a young engineer now seeks to rise in
his profession, on the Government works, in which are inchided nearly all
the works of this country. His political creed, and the number of votes he
and his friends can command, would far outweigh tlie professional claims of
a rival who might unite in himself the genius of all the engineers of tlie age ;
and this is the grand obstacle to the advancement of the profession in the
United States.

We will briefly allude to the manner in which many works are " got Tip,"
more especially in the Western States. A "celebrated engineer" is eni|)loyed
to survey a railroad from 100 to .500 miles long ; he makes a " higldy fa-
vorable report" to the Legislature, on the strength of which they "authorise
a loan," and " locate the line," though it is known to every well-informed
man in the State, that the work cannot be put into operation for less than
three or four times the original estimate, and when it is capable of demon-
stration, that the country cannot possibly furnish business enough to keep
the work in repair and pay interest on the loans, far less pay anything
towards diminishing the debt, until the population has increased at least ten
fold — say in from .50 to 100 years. Now it is obvious, that sneli men as
Walker, Brunei, Stephenson, and a host of others in England, and we are
proud to say, not a few in this country, whom we do not feel ourselves at
liberty to name, are found utterly impracticable in such cases, and tliey arc
consequently avoided with as much care by the projectors of works to be
built on the credit of the government, as they arc zealously souglit for by
those who project works to be executed by the cxiicnditurc of their own
actual capital. The evil of emploving men incomjietent from want of edu-
cation, practice and character eventually recoils on the State ; hence the fi-
nancial difficulties of all the States who have largely embarked in the con-
stniction of public works.

The Stale of New York furnishes some very instructive examples. By
dint of much management a law was passed some years since, that, if a cer-
tain canal could be made for a million of dollars, it should be forthwith un-
dertaken by flic State. An engineer was immediately employed to survey
the route, and he reported, that the work could be constructed for nine hun-
dred and ninety odd thousand dollars, though this was only at the rate of

one half tlio actual cost of a similar canal, presenting fewer engineering diffi-
culties, wliicli had just been completed. The insufficiency of the estimate
must have been as well known then as now, still, the law had ]>assed, and
the engineer had reported " favorably," so the mUlion was spent, and a mil-
lion an<l a half more was then required to complete the canal in the cheapest
manner. Three years after handing in an estimate for the enlargement of
the Erie canal, the following reasons arc given for requiring 100 per cent,
additional. " A uniform plan " was not "adopted in the estimates," " and
not much reflection had probably been bestowed on the particular manner in
which the work should be done." It is also very properly observed, that
frost is a very destructive agent in Northern climates, that a large canal re-
quires stronger banks tlian a small one, and that work done in the winter
costs more than in summer — all which would have readily suggested itself to
individuals about spending their omi money, even had it escaped the pene-
tration of their engineers for two or three years.

Again, the Croton Water-works, nominally city works, though such no
further than that the cily pays for thcui, wdl contribute their mite towards
developing the wonderful facility with which govermnent engineers adapt
professional opinions to the wishes of government commissioners. We must
premise that the water commissioners bad, till last year, delayed fixing on
the iilan for crossing the Harlem river, the most difficult anrl important work
on tlie whole line. The plan then brouglit forwanl was opposi-d by certain
proprietors of lands on the river, and the legislature decidcil unanimously
against the commissioners, though the party to whom they owed tiieir ex-
istence had a large majority in one branch — a case nearly imiiaralleled in
New York legislation. The use of iron pipes for crossing, by means of an
inverted syphon, the commissioners' plan, was unnecessary, with the high
bridge prescribed by the Legislature, but, as the former are as averse to being
interfered with as they are prone to interfere with others, Ibey have an-
nounced their intention of comjilying with the law no further tlian absolutely
necessary, that is, they will keep the aqueduct 12 ft. below grade and use
the ])ipes. We quote their own words :

" The bill as revised, * * * is in substance as follows : — the aque-
duct to he constructed over the Harlem river, with arches and piers, the
arches in the channel of said river to be at least 80 feet s|>an, and not less
than 100 feet from high water mark to the under side of the arches at the
crown.

" The original design of a high bridge, as designated in our report of .Ian-
uary, 1838, required arches of 112 feet in the clear above high water mark,
which is 12 feet more than that required by the Act of May, 18.19. A bridge,
therefore, of 100 feet height of arches above tide, will have to be passed by
iron pipes or syphons, to accommodate the ascent and descent of the 12 feet
from grade. This bridge will he more economical in its construction, and
not subject to so many contingencies, from its less elevation, as the plan
originally proposed. The parapets will only be 114 feet in height, wiiicii is
17 feet lower than the (ilan of 1838 j and as the arches are thus reduced in
height, stone of a diminished tliickness may be used. It is jiroposed to carry
the water over the river, at the commencement of supply, by two three-feet
pil)cs, adopting the work, however, to carry two pipes of foui feet diameter,
when the city shall recpiire it. The same arrangement for pipe vhambers,
find vmsfe cocks, vill be rerpiired in this structure, as was required for the
syphon bridge formerly proposed.

The engineer echoes, " In relation to the bridge, the law prescribes that
the arches in the channel sliall be 100 feet at the under side of the crown,
above common high water mark of the river, and not less than 80 feet span,
conforming in these resjiccts, we are at liberty to make the plans in aU others,
without restriction from the law.

The arches of the briilge originally designed to maintain the grade of the
aqueduct, were elevated 112 feet above the high water mark of the river,
which is 12 feet higher than the Act rei/uires. It is obvious, therefore, that
100 feet will not be sidficicnt to maintain an aqueduct of masonry, but will
reijuire iron pipes as conduits for the water. This I do not consider an ob-
jection, as 1 am fully satisfied iron pipes will make the most suitable conduit
for the water on such a bridge, and therefore have had a plan jirepared, with
a \iew to comply with the law, and avail of the economy and greater per-
manence from a less elevated structure. The less height required for the
arclics, ami by adopting iron pipes for the conduit, the top of the parapets
will bo 111 feet above high water mark, which is 17 feet lower than the
original jilan. The superstructure being lighter than necessary for an aque-
duct of masonry, a diminished thickness of arch stone may with equal safety
be adopted."

We should be pleased to know what diminution in the depth of the arch-
stones this change of plan would justify, as well as the saving in cost, which
latter, we strongly siisjiect, it would be dillicnlt to express in the constitu-
tional currency of the United States, without an extension of decimals several
places to the right of " mills."

The following extracts, though trifling in themselves, go far to show the
estimation in which the profession is held by government commissioners.

" Notwithstanding the oversight of the inspectors and engineers, the work
will, in a few cases, be carelessly performed ; and it is only by the correcting
influence of these repeated tours of iMspcclion, made by the commissioners
and principal engineers, that we can be certain the work is performed in a
manner which will ensure its stabihty and imperviousncss."
If the citizens of New York haye no better guarantee than this, that the

1840.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

123

work lias l)een faithfully siiijcriutended, that 4th of July on which the Cro-
toii water will lie " regaling the taste and sight of our citizens," will he si-
multaneous with the millennium,

At p. 255, April number 183'J, Railroad Jonrnal, will he found the follow-
ing cool assertion :

" The locks on the Chenango canal, which are 111 in nundier, are (with
the exception of five stone locks) all of them comjiosite. They were built
under the direction of Mr. Bouck, one of the present canal commissioners,
and their average cost was 3,808-50 dollars each."

We shall next he informed that tlie piers of the Potomac aqueduct have
been successfully carried up under the direction of Mr. Forsyth, and that the
Thames Tunnel has at length been completed under the superinteudence of
his prototype Lord Melbourne.

We refer to these circmustances only as elTects of the policy of allov^ng
the government to enter into the jnirsuits of individuals, and not with the
design of insinuating that the mortifying re])orts of many government engi-
neers are the cause of the present state of the profession, but simply to show
that they are the legitimate conscciuences of the pernicious interference of
the State Governments with that in whicli they have no more right to en-
gage, than they have to establish theatres or hotels and then forbid any citi-
zen from competing with them, on the miserable plea, that all the peo))le of
the State are interested in their tavern-keeping monopoly, that it hears
eipially on all, and is, to use the logic of governments, //lerefore just. The
pecuniary difficulties in which most of the States who have engaged in rail-
road and canal speculations find themselves involved, will necessarily break
down the entile system of State works, and their complete abandonment will,
more than every thing else, conduce to the welfare, honour, and usefulness
of the profession.

The success which has attended the expensive and well eonstrueted rail-
roads about Boston, is the most encouraging fact we have to record, and it is
worthy of remark, that the stocks of those roads were tlie only stocks not
affected by the bursting of the biennial bubble grandiloquently called the
*' late crisis." The Eastern railroad has been ojicned to Salem, and the num-
lier of passengers is ah'eady twice that estimated before the opening of the
road, and on which the )iroject was haseil. The Western railroad has been
opened as far as Springfield. The Old Colony railroad is going on ra[iidly ;
the Norwich and Worcester is to be opened about new year's day, and tlie
Ilonsatonic railroad some time this month. In this State, the Utica and
Syracuse railroad has been opened, and the Syracuse and Auburn railroad
put into full operation. In Pennsylvania, the Reading raih'oad has just been
completed, and in Maryland, we believe the Baltimore and Susqnehannah
railroad has been opened to the imblie. Two of the above roads have re-
ceived aid from the State of Massacliusetts, but they have all been managed,
and, w'ith these comjiaratively (rifiing exceptions, have been paid for, by
individuals. Jl'c do not knotr of n single State irork having been completed^
or in. port opened, during the year 1839.

In New England they have retained too much of the sturdy independence
and common sense of their forefatlicrs. to tolerate the meddling of the go-
vernment in the afl'airs of individuals, and we seek in vain for a canal, a rail-
way, a machine shop, a lumber or coal yard, owned h\ a iS'ew England State.
Jt has been found impossible to persuade them that they are not as capable
as their Transatlantic brethren of managing their own affairs, and the conse-
quence is, that they have the best managed, best constructed, most costly
and most successful, railways of any State in the Union. An attempt has
been made to regulate the sale of spirits, and has proved about as successful
as a previous effort to interfere with another article in the " grocery line " —
y'dcjit " tea."'

Some little has been done on the State works of New York, by means of
the unexpended balances of former api>ropriations for the enlargement of the
Eric canal, and the construction of the Genessee valley and Black River canals.
There is no little curiosity to know how the first is to be disposed of — not only
both parties, but every sane resident of the State, who feels an interest in
her honour and welfare, being heartily ashamed of his credulity hi believing
it either practicable with the means of the State, or useful even if practicalile.
The money already thrown away on this unrivalled specimen of legislative
folly, will do something towards ojiening the eyes of the citizens of this
State, and a year or two hence we fully expect to find the enlargement as
unpleasant a reminiscence in New York as the suspension is in a neighbouring
State.

The lateral canals of the State of New York cannot with propnety he
passed by, being " par excellence " government works in then- conception,
management, and income. As the official report on the Genessee valley
canal has been published, we will examine the proceedings of the Commis-
sioners with regard to that work, and our readers, by tm-ning over their files,
will be enabled to judge of the accuracy of our deductions. The original
estimate of the canal was a httle less than two miUions, but the present esti-
mate is thus stated in the report alluded to.

"The cost of the canal (excluding 314,520-43 dollars for the Dansville
branch,) is estimated by the Canal Commissioners in their recent report,
(Assembly Document of 1839, No. SCO,) at 4,585,1102-36 dollars.

" The canal board ai-e not possessed of all the facts necessary to enable
them to estimate with suftieient certainty the future revenues of the canal.
They fully appreciate its value to the interesting section of the State whose
resources will be developed by its completion. In respect, however, to the
tolls to be tlerived from it iu the present state of the navigation of the Alle-

ghany river, the board would observe, that in the year 1835, P. C. Mills,
Esq., the engineer who surveyed the route, submitted an estimate to the
Canal Comniissioners of its probable revenues, (.Vssem. Doc. of 1835, No. 204,
jiage 42,) in which he computed the tolls, independent of its probable con-
tributions to the Erie canal, at 39,129-60 dollars. Of this amount, 13,207
was estimated for the tolls on the finer qualities of lumber and other jn-oduets
of the forest, which, it was siqiposed, would seek the New York market in
preference to that on the Ohio and Alleghany rivers. A majority of the
Canal Commissioners, (including the late acting Commissioner on that canal,)
in the report above referred to, have expresseil their belief that the amount
of 39,129-CO dollars, is " greater than will be reahzed for at least the first
few years after the canal is completed."

Now let us translate this into plain unofficial English, sueh as is used in
the every day transactions of common men, not devoid of eoramon sense.
It is proposed to construct a work at the expence of the State, the cost of
which is estimated at two millions of dollars, and its gross income at less
than 39,000, one third of it to be derived from lumber, which, it is well
known, will soon be exhausted. The canal is to be 106 miles long, and wc
know from experience that 39,000 dollars will not meet the ordinary annual
expenses, repairs .and renewals. We will, however, suppose this sum sutfi-
cient for those purposes, then the people of this State are saddled with a
" gentleman pensioner," who cannot exist on less than 100,000 dollars per
aiinnni. On comparing this, however, with the Chenango canal, it was dis-
covered that the annual deficits of the latter exceeded those of the former by
20,000 dollars, and as the march of the Commissioners was " still onward,"
they at once decided on such an addition to the estimate as should place the
Genessee valley canal as far " ahead " of the Chenango, as the latter was in
advance of the other " auxiliary " canals. They determined accordingly
on spending five millions on Ibis work, which will entail on the State a per-
manent animal tax of 250,000 dollars at least.

Now, does any man, out of office, beUeve that the people of the State of
New York would have authorised an expenditure of fise millions of dollars
on a canal which its friends and projectors assert will not yield more than
39,000 dollars gross revenue, merely for the privilege of ha\ing their money
sipiaudered l)y a set of Canal Commissioners ? Before seriously entertaining
such a iirojeet, far less recommending it, they ought to have been able clearly
to establish the probability of an immediate Income equal to

Dollars.
.\nnnal cost of repairs, renewals and expenses . . 50,000

Interest on five millions of dollars . . . 250,000

Towards paving off the debt, at least . . . 100,000

Making the total miniinuni income, 400,000

or ten times the estimated income, the latter being in fact, too iiisigiiiHeaut
in amount to have any material bearing in discussing the value of an under-
taking which is to cost five millions.

Suppose that the State of New York, after expending one miUion on the
Chenango canal, had refused to submit to any further imposition, that canal
woidd lie unfinished, its revenue nothing, in place of 20,000 dollars on an
expenditure of two and a half millions, practically speaking, nothing; the
State would have saved one and a half million, and would only have incurred
a permanent annual tax of 50,000 dollars instead of 120,000 dollars, which
the people of this State are now paying for the glory of owning the Che-
nango canal. We give an extract from an article which appeared in the
Courier and Enquirer of 7tli May last, in which the writer undertakes to
jirovc that lateral canals generally will be nearly useless in themselves, and
of little value to the main canal. Whatever may be thought of his reasons,
it is only too true that his conclusions are fully borne out by the actual ex-
perience of this State.

" I have never seen any attempt to explain the causes which render the
lateral canals unable to pay expenses, though it appears to me to be by no
means difficult. The jiolicy which led to the construction of these lateral or
auxiliary canals, has no analogy with that which influenced and guided tlie
projectors of the Erie and Champlain canals. The immediate object of the
former, was to open to the husbandman the extensive and fertile region of
western New York ; that of the latter, to bring within reach of the city the
forests of the North. Both have fully succeeded— not because there are no
other such routes " in the world," but — because they were projected in such
a manner as to open the greatest possible extent of country, and without
reference to mere local interests. M'ith the lateral canals the case is widely
different, for it is evident, that the main canal will eonimand the business of
the country through which it passes, for a certain distance on each side, this
in an agricultural country, will vary from 25 to 40 miles according to cir-
cumstances ; but, whatever distance be allowed, it is clear, that the portion
of the lateral canal contained within these limits, will only receive the con-
tributions of those dnectly on its banks. If the lateral canals be from 80 to
100 miles apart, it will be found, by a few- simple calculations of distances,
that a vei-y small portion of the country between the lateral canals, and
within 40 miles of the main canal, will derive any advantage from the lateral
canals. Hence the insignificant revenue of the Seneca, Crooked Lake, Che-
mung, and Chenango canals. The two first are in the country directly tribu-
tary to the Erie canal, one half of the Chenango canal is hable to the same
objection, and the other half and the Chemung canal would suft'er from the
New York and Erie railroad, had they more than a nominal revenue. The

Blacii Kiver canal proper lies mthia the influence of the Erie canal, and its

J 24

THE CIVIL ENGINEEIl AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[April,

extension to tliu Lake or tlie St. Lawrence will only fnniisli a slower, more
expensive, and more troublesome comnumication between its termini, tlian
llic present excellent one by Lake Ontario ami the Oswego canal. Lastly,
llie Genessee Valley canal, with the Erie canal on the north, and the Erie
railroad on the sonth, bids fair to be second only to the enlargement in dis-
posing of the snrplns revenue, or rather to the vast .annual deliciencies, which
nothing short of an entire change of policy can possibly .avert. If the Black
Uiver aTid (ienessee Valley canals, estimated at ten millions, be immediately
abaniloned, the State will lose about 500,000 dollars, which mav be con-
sidered an anticipation of the payment of one ye.-ir's deficiencies of these
canals when completed, by the immediate forfeiture of wliich, the St.ate will
save a like expenditure per annum in perpetuity, besides the immediate dis-
bursement of a sum nearly cfpial to the entire cost of the Erie and Champlain
canals."

The estimates for these canals have since been reduced, and their probable
deficiencies are estimated by Mr. Paige (Sen. Doc. 1839, No. 101, p. 7,) at
•1,50,000 dollars, .ind if the sum now sjicnt on these works docs not exceed
two millions, their immediate abandonment will save the St.ite 350,000 dol-
lars per auimm — a sum more than sutliciciit to support the government. V.'e
sliall have occasion again to refer to tlie above report, which contains the
most sensible view of the public works owned by this state, which has fallen
under our observation : and it derives great value from the circumstance that
the writer is justly considered one of the ablest men of the party to which
we are indebted for the lateral canals and the enlargement, and would natu-
rally be disposed to treat them in the most favorable manner.

It is assumed by Mr. Verplanck and the committee of 1838, that the reve-
nue of the Erie canal will justify an expenditure of 40 millions, and repay
the principal in 30 years ; while, on the other hand, ^Ir. Paige, from official
documents, undertakes to prove tliat the revenue will only pay the interest
on 15 millions, with even' prospect of a permanent debt to that amount.
Tliis great discrepancy arises from the fact that >Ir. V. adopted the views of
the committee of '38, who state in their report,

" It will be perceived that the very foimdation upon wliieh the financial
calculations of the committee are based, is the estimate of the Canal Com-
missioners submitted to the Legislature, in which they state that the Erie
canal, within a fevf years after its enlargement, will produce an annual reve-
nue of 3,000,000 dollars. The importance of verifying the accuracy of this
estimate will be evident, as any material error would lead to the most in-
jm-ious consequences."

Mr. Paige, on the other hand, instead of adopting the couclusious of the
Commissioners, takes the data ou which they either did or ought to have
established their income of three millions, and demonstrates that there is
no probability of the revenue of the Erie canal reaching this sum till the
year 188C, without making any deduction for the partial or total repeal of its
monopoly of caiTV'ing freight, on which exclusive privilege it was shown in a
former number that its cn/ire surplus revenue depends. The Governor in his
late message, as well as the committees of '38 and '30, have placed implicit
confidence in the estimated income of three millions, as reported by the
Commissioners, while Mr. Paige goes to work as if he neither knew nor cared
about any previous calculations on that subject. We have no means of as-
certaining why he who knew the merits of the Commissioners so nuich better
than the other gentlemen, should not have yielded the same credence to
their statements ; but, be this as it may, he has shown clearly that the esti-
mate of three millions gross income from the Erie canal, is utterly unworthy
of belief. We must, however, correct one error in this excellent report. It
is said, (p. 8,) " The Commissioners cannot be regardcil as estimating that
the tolls would amount to 3,000,000 dollars in 181(3 or 1819, but at a period
much more remote." This nnliapjiy .ittcmpt at exculpation had been antici-
pated by the report of the late Comptroller, which apjicared more than three
mouths before the report of Mr. Paige. This officer vritcs and italicizes the
remark, (No. 4, Ass. Doc. p. 23,) " .1 fnr j/cars after the ooiupletion of the
fulari/ement may carry us to 1850." Tlie door of escape for the Commis-
sioners is therefore closeil, and we are at liberty to choose, as we please, —
Mr. Paige's estimate of three millions revenue in 188(1, or the Commissioners'
estimate of three millions revenue "a few years" before 1850.

After proving the inability of the State to complete the enlargement, and
the consequent impropriety of any further expenditures, that same senator,
the best lawyer in that body, advocates the enlargement, merely reducing
the size from 7 by 70 to 6 by fiO, a distinction without a diftcrencc — for iin
cxpenditm'e which is wrong in prmciplc, cannot be jiistitied by a diminution
of its amount by four millions, or IGj per cent, the luccise iimount leading
to a long debate. The same course was also taken liy another gentleman,
who is well known for the manly stand he has taken against lateral, or, as
he very properly designates them, " pauper canals," and thus we find two of
the most able members of the Senate advocating a work which they know
the State can never complete and can ne\er require. .\s already remarked
of the engineers, it is their misfortune rather than their fault, and the iiievi-
Lible result of the departure of the government from the high duties of gene-
ral legislation, and its illegal embarkation in the pursuits of individuals, for
these same gentlemen, if mciuhers of a board of Directors who were ex-
jiending their own money, would he eminent for sagacity, ])rudenec, and
candour.

The Governor in his first message admits the evil, but docs not, in our
opinion, go to the root of it, though, as it was necessarily written before en-
tering on ofScc, he could scarcely at that time have supposed it possible tliat

he was approving of a system of works based on official data, which it is now
only too clear, were never entitled to his confidence. He very truly observes,

•' AVith the extension of our internal improvements there h.as been an im-
mense and unlookcd for enlargement of the financial operations and the
official power and patronage of the Canal Commissioners and the Canal
Hoard. These operations are conducted, and this power and patronage exer-
cised and dispensed, with few of those requirements as to accoimtabililv and
)niblicity enforced with scrnpnlous cai-e in every other dejiartment of the
government. So inconsistent and unequal are the best etibrts to maintain
simplicity, uniformity and accountabihty throughout the various departments,
that a greatly mysterious and undefined power has tlius grown up unobserved,
while the public attention has exhausted itself in naiTowiy waiching the
action of more unimportant functionaiies. It is a proposition wortliy of
consideration, whether greater economy and efficiency in the management of
our present jmblic works would not be secured, a wiser direction given to
efl^orts for internal iiii]irovenient throughout the State, and a more equal lUtfu-
sion of its advantages be effected by constituting a board of internal improve-
ments, to consist of one member from each senate district."

This plan may be attended with some advantages for a short period, but
the very nature of the tenure renders it impossible for the State to conuuand
the services of .agents with the character, capacity, and acquirements of those
employed by individuals and companies, as is only too ap]iaient in (his State,
from the manner in which the enlargement of the Erie canal, and the con-
struction of the Genessee Valley and Black River canals have been " got up."

We will briefly allude to some of the Western States. In Micliigan, a
private company commenced the only important work which can, for many
years, be projected in that peninsula — the Detroit and St. Joseph's railroad.
The company, however, could not proceed with sufficient rapidity, so the
State " assumed the mantle " of Engineer and Forwarder Cieneral, and com-
menced the construction of a "Northern Railroad," a " Southern Railroad,"
one on each side of the company's road, now the " Central Railroad," and
rendered the system complete by introducing the " Chnton canal " between
the northern and central lines of railway. These four works average veiy
nearly 200 miles each, the sum appropriated or rather the loan authorized
for these 800 miles was five millions of dollars, or 0,250 dollars per mile,
about one fourth of the sum required to put them into operation, yet the
State has actually entered ou the construction of all these works. The re-
sult is, that the State, after expending all she has been able to borrow, has
only to miles of the Central (formerly company's) road in operation, her
credit is gone for many years, her farmers must be directly taxed to pay the
interest on money expended on works which will never be completed, and
the only work really required is indefinitely postponed. As in the State of
New York, the works projected by the government of Michigan were never
thought of by private companies, and it would be as difficult to raise by jiri-
rnte sulisci-iptions to the stock, 5 per cent, on the probable cost of the " Nor-
thern railway," of the " Southern railway," or of the " Chnton canal," as it
would be to induce individuals in the State of New York to contribute, as a
permanent investment from their own means, 2 per cent, towards aicUng the
government in the construction of the Genessee \'alley and Black River
canals, or in the enlargement of the Erie canal — that is, impossible.

The State of Illinois received from Congress a valualile grant of land to
aid in the construction of the Illinois canal, a truly national work, uniting
the Mississippi with the Atlantic liy the St. LawTcnce and Hudson rivers.
This donation would have enabled the State to complete the canal, and the
nett revenue might have been expended in aiding private enterprise without
the possibility of any tax being necessary, even if all the works which they
aided should be as uniirodnctive as the "lateral canals " of New York. j\'uw
they have commenced a " system " of railroads, the aggregate length of
which is above 1200 miles ! besides other works. It is unnecessary to state
the consequences which have followed, any further than to allude to the sale
of the State stocks in New Y'ork at 50 per cent, and to the special session of
the Legislature which has been called to devise " ways and means " to enable
that State to meet its immediate obligations. There is much anxiety to
know the course likely to be pursued by the governments of Pennsylvania,
Ilhnois and ilichigan, and last, though not least, the city of New York. The
Croton water-works arc exactly as far from completion as when ground was
first broken, for the work which, with any quantity of money would require
more time than all the rest, lias just been commenced ! Had the Commis-
sioners invested the insignificant sum of 2 or 300,000 dollars from their oini
capital, this would never have occurred, and had this nuderlakiug been left
to a company, who should have been bound to expend 20 ]icr cent, on the
cost of the work from their own means, the citizens of New York would be
siqiphcd with " pure " water many years sooner, and at one tliird of the cost
which now ap])ears inevitable.

In some States the grand argument will be, that if they can only complete
the works commenced, a revenue is immerUately certain, which will render
taxation to jiay the interest unnecessary. That the completion of these pro-
jects will make the fortunes of many individuals, is well known, but, for the
permanent interests of the State, the only plan is, to sell out tit once w itli
the present comparatively trifling loss. It is impossible to pay too much at-
terdion to the fact, that the greater part of the works projected by the go-
vernments of the diflcrcnt States, arc not such as will ever be of any essential
benefit, and when we add to this, that they are constructed at twice the cost
of similar works in the hands of companies, are generally much inferior in
execution, and always managed and repaired in the most inefficient manner

1840.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

125

— we shall be at no loss to account for tlie present condition of Slate works
in general. The dctieieneies of this year in Pennsylvania alone, are estiniateil
at 11 millions of dollars, and except the Erie canal, there is not a govern-
ment work in the Union which has paiil the ordinary expenses, inclnding of
course, interest on cost. If the Erie canal lie placeil on the footing of the
canals of Pennsylvania, that is if its exclusive right to carry all the freight to
and from western New Voik, the western States ami Upper Canada he abo-
lished, the gross income of the canals of Xew York will bear a less propoition
to the exiienditnres, than does the revenue of the public works of Pennsyl-
vania to the annual outlays on the internal imiirovements of that common-
wealth. Nntwithstaniling their financial embarrassments, wc are happy to
say, that mi other State in the Union has resorted to this mode of giving a
" delusivi' |irosi>erity " to their public works, and there is some reason to
believe that the long reign of " exclusite privileges " in this State is about to
close. My making innnediate arrangements for retiring from the construc-
tion of canals, the State of .\ew York may yet escape with trilling loss, and
with this object in view, the people would readily submit to the present mo-
impoly of freight from the north and west for a few years longer. This ap-
[lears to us the most judicions course to be pursued in order to avoid a jier-
manent debt, and it certainly offers an honourable retreat from a position in
which it is daily becoming more dirticult to maintain ourselves.

The great efforts which have been niaile by the inhabitants on (be line of
the New York and Erie railroad, under the most discouraging circmnstances,
to aiil in the constrnetion of that undertaking, show that private enterpri/.e
is not yet extinguished in this State, and we have to record the astonishing
and gratifying circumstance, that — notwithstanding the different State go-
vernments have made every exertion to absorb all the spare capital of this
country and of Europe for their own Utopian schemes, the year 18S9 has
seen more works eompleled by cumjianie.t than by .'■f/afes. Private energy
and entcr])rise have succeeded wliere the power of government has been
unequal to the task, ami while the star of " free trade " floats triumphantly
on the banners of the Bay State, and indeed thronghont New England, we
will not despair of seenig, in the Empire State, railways as judiciously pro-
jected, as well constructed, as profitable to the proprietors, and as useful to
the public, as those of .Massachusetts, when they shall he left equally free to
the people of the former as thev alwavs have been to those of the latter
State.

CN TRELLl.S BRIDGES.

(n',//i an Engraving, Plah: VIII. j

We ;irp princi|)iilly iiulebtcil fur this paper to n communication of
Mr. Moncure Robinson in the Rcrue Gent rait di I' ..-Irchiteclare.

Mr. Itliiel Town of Xew Haven, an architect at Xew York invented
a bridge of a pecnliar construction wliicli lias nnicli tlie appearance of
a bridge invented liere by the Kite Mr. Smart. The principle is one
wliidi has been adopted by Seppiiigs in naval arcliiteclnre Tlie
advantages attributed^ to it are tliat bridges willi openings of con-
siderable spaa may be erected with small pieces of wood. These
bridges are bnilt on piers far apart and formed of a truss, if it may
be so termed, of continuous trellis work, m.ide of planks, double or
treble, 10 or 12 inches wide, and 3 to 3i inches thick, placed parallel
to each other at an angle of about 45o to the horizon, crossing nearly
at right angles, and alternating from right to left. The angle at which
the trellises cross is not strictly a right angle, for the interstices form a
kind of lozenge, which if three feet long would be about 2 feet 0 inches
broail, which are about the general ilimensions. At the crossings the
planks are secured with pins. The bolloin of tlie trellis work is
strengthened on eacli side by string pieces running from one end of
the bridge to the other, and made also of small pieces of timber 12
inches by 3, in lengths from 35 to 10 feet. The siring pieces on each
side of the trellis work are double, so tliat each trellis is secured by
four pieces of timber, six inches thick on each side of the trellis. The
joints being equally distributed throughout the length of the siring piece.
At the top of the trellis is a similar string piece running in the same
manner the whole length. On the lower strings are placed the trans-
verse beams which carry the timbers of the Hoor. The njiiier string
piece in the bridges wliicli were first constructed carried tlie roof,

The trellis work is secured at the crossings bv pins of sound oak,
an inch and a quarter thick, carefully turned on a mandrel. These
pins lit neatly into holes previously liored. They are f.irther secured
by a weilgelike pin driven into their centres on each side. This latter
precaution is however only adopted on the more expensive bridges.
These pins are two in number at the crossings, and four at the string
pieces, they are the only means of securing the timbers to eacli
other, as they are too thin to admit of framing. The only iron work
in the whole bridge amounts to no more than a few nails and pins used
in some of the joints.

Such was Mr. Town's original plan, and we shall now proceed to
describe the improvements which have been subsequently introduced.
It is evident that on this system the timbers of the floor may be laid

either on the upper or lower part of the trellis work. By laying them
on the lower part, tlie sides and roof may be more readily completed,
but the other plan, which has been preferred for railways in the United
■ States, admits of the carpentry being strengthened by horizontal and
vertical braces, and gives additional securitv to the bridge. The
ordinary wooden bridgi's, called in America Burr's bridges, after a
carpenter of that name who imiu'oved them, are so elastic that the
trains can only pass over them very slowly, while on good trellis bridges,
particularly those made by Mr. Robinson, locomotives can run at full
speed, a great advantage with regard lo railways.

The height of the trellis depends on the strength required in the
bridge, and necessarily increases with the opening or span. For ex-
tensive works where 2lio feet span is required, the trellis is made 17
or IS feet higli. Mr. Town recommends that in most cases the height
of the trellis should be a tenth or twelfth of the span. When the
flooring rests on the string piece the height of the carriages will not
admit of (he trellis being less than 13 or 14 feet. Some, of these
bridges have been built of 220 feet span.

Throughout the timbering the two lines which present the greatest
resistance are directed, one, following a horizontal right line lead by
the lower extremity of the timbering; the other, following a curved
ari'h, which rests by its two extremities on this riglit line. The trellis
bridge has great strength at its base on account of the siring piece
formed of four pieces secured two and two; but it is not so strong
along the upper curve described by the iileal line of the greatest
thrust. The more the trellis is raised, the more tlie upper string
piece, wdiicli strenglliens the timbering, dilTers from this ideal line,
it has therefore lieeii observed that trellis briilges of l.xige span are
apt to settle; and once bent, they lose mueli of their strength. Mr.
Town jiroposed several ways of reiuedyiiig this inconvenience. To
increase the resistance of the trellis, it may be doubled on each side of
(he bridge; (his .\lr. Town has tried, separ.iting the pieces of which
it is composed, so tll.it (he horizontal diagonal of the lozenge between
four adjacent trusses should be four feet six inches, iustearl of three
feet, 'i'liis increases the cost of (he wood of each side of the bridge
.'iO per cent., but on two-way bridges Mr. Town gets rid of the trellis
work which he used to place between the two-ways, the quantity of
wood remains (he same. The string piece may be slreulhened by
re]ieating it at the crossing immediately above the pieces of the trellis.
In the bridge at Richmond these two methods of strengthening the
timbering have both been used. By laying the flooring on the (op of
the timbering, and by having open bridges, as previously observed, a
means of ]n-eveu(ing the settlement is obtained, by interior braces.
Besides the weight of the roofing is got rid of, whicli is of little good
for railways, where it would be more likely to catch fire from sparks.
This danger is partiiailarly to be feared in America, where wood is
burned by the locomotives, and so more dangerous sparks are produced
than from coke.

Trellis bridges are of the greatest use in the United States, because
being formed of thin planking, they can be built in a short time. Thus,
for instance, the viaduct by which (he Philadelphia and Norristown
Railway is carried over the Wissahiccon, Ts feet above tlie bed of tlie
stream, and -183 feet long in three spans, was built in (5S days. For
the same reason the wood required for the trellis work, being easily
conveved, costs less, in many cases, than that required by any other
kind of wooden bridge. On (he Pottsville and .Siinbiiry Railway, in
Pennsylvania, the wood for small truss bridges, for crossing roads is
12 dollars per lOUU feet super and inch thick, which is equivalent to
two loads of timber in England. That for trellis work costs only S-4
dollars.

These bridges are formed of pieces all exactly on (he same model
and of (he simplest form, so (hat all the trusses for' (he trellis work may
be easily cut with exactness by ordinary nieidianical means, and the
holes Ijureil for receiving (he |)ins. The beams not being a( all arched,
but flat, it follows tli.it the jiiers are not subject ed to the later. il thrust,
to which they are exposed in other bridges; and they only require a
thickness necessary (o resist the vertical pressure represen(ed by the
weight of the bridge.

Trellis briilges are very much increasing in use in the United States ;
a dozen yi'ars ago, one of 2200 feet length in ten spans was built over
the Susquehannah, at Clarke's Ferry, near Duncan's Island, just above
Harrisburg, (he capKal of Pennsylv.tnia. One of 1530 long was built
over (he Hudson, at Troy, in the State of Xew Yiu'k, for (be railway
from Troy to Ballston Spa. The cliief spans are 180 feet. It is divided
into two' ways, eacli 1.") feet wide, anil separated by an additional
(rellis. It is made with the flooring at the bottom, and double trellises
at eaidi side. In 1S35, others of gre.it span existed at Xeubury Port,
Northampton and Springfield, all in MassachusseUs, at Tusc.iloosa in
Alabama, at Providence, &c., and since then many more have been
built.

126

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[April

The price of (lie'fiiiilwr for tlie Troy Bridge, iiii'liuling every thing
but pninling, is lS-25 ilolUirs per foot. The |)iiMs ;ire of fine bhie
limestone. The flooring is 30 feet above low water. The Tuscaloosa
briilgi' is fonr spans of 220ft. each over the black Warrior River. Tiie
lieight of the trellis is Kift. anil it cost (MUU/. It was opened in De-
cember 1^3-1; ami has stood well ag;iinst the trallic wbieli has passed
o\n, particularly large herds of cattle. Anotiier bridge of the same
conslrncticn of large span is at Nashua, in New llampsliire, thrown
over I lie Merriuack, The bridge across the great Conestogo to I'arry
the iMnladelphia aiid C'ulumbia railway, as it formerly stood was 1-U2
feet long, and in nine s]ians of 1 JO feet. Its breadlli was 22 feet, and
the flooring rested oii the string piece. Tliis bridge was nuich too
weak, Ihe trains could run but slowly on if, and the trusses were only 2
inches thick, so that it has recently been obliged to be rebuilt.

Mr. Kobinson prefers trellis bridges, and the many railways he has
constructed to those of any other construction, and has introduced con-
siderable improvements into them. That atKichiiiond is the most re-
markalile which he has built, and is distinguished as a first rate piece
of carpentry, even in America where this mode of construction is car-
ried to such jierfecfion. This bridge stands without the town of Rich-
mond,on the railway from that town to I'etersbiirgh, forming part of the
grand line from nortli to south thrmigb New York, I'liiladi-ipbia, Bal-
timore, Washington, Fredricksburgh, Richmond, I'etersburgh, Raleigh,
and Charleston.

Bridge oveh the James River at Richmo.nd in Virginia,

United States.

This bridge was commenced in December 1S3G, and finished 5th
September 1838, it was built by Mr. Sandford, nnder the directions of
Mr. Robinson the engineer. It was erected a little below the magni-
ficent cataract of the James River at Richmond, where the rive*- is
very broad, but not very deep (lowing over the bare rock which forms
an excellent foundation for the piers. The banks on each side of the
river are very steep, which rendered it necessary to erect the bridge
at a great height above the water.

The bridge is 2,841 feet long between the abutments, and contains
10 openings, wdiich vary in their sjians, one span is 130 feet, four 140
feet, four laO feet, and ten 153 feet s])an from centre to centre of pier.
The superstructure is entirely of timber, erected on the top of piers
built of solid granite, rough scabbled on the face, and with rustic
grooves at the joints; these piers are only 7 feet tj inches thick by 21
feet long, on a level with the low water-mark, they batter all
round to the top, which is 4 feet thick by IS feet long on the plan;
the height is 10 feet above low water-mark, and to the top of the rails
is 20 feet more, making a total height of GO feet.

Plate VII, fig. 1, is an elevation of the centre arches drawn to a very
small scale.

Fig. 2 is an enlarged vievr of different parts of the elevation, showing
the details of construction.

Fig. .3 is a transverse section of the carpentry.

Fig. 4 is a horizontal )ilan of the carpentry, one part exhibits the
rails and floor, another part the joists, girders and wind braces.

Fig. .1 is a hurizontil plan of the lower girders ami wind braces, to-
gether with one of the almtinenfs, and also the top of one of the piers.

The carpentry of the superstructure consists of a continuous double
trellis work, lait. bin. high on each side, and running from one end of
the bridge to the other, with a triple string at the fo|) and bottom, and
another above the lower girders, each consists of two 3iii. planks
12 inches deep. The trellis work is formed of 3in. planks 1 1 iiichi's
wide crossing each other and pinned together witli two |iins at each
crossing, and with 4 pins at to]) and bottom to the stringjiieces. The
whole tliickness of the trellis work including the string jiieces is 2ft.
Oin. and the width between, nnder tlie roadway, is 12ft. r>in making a
total width of 17ft. bin. from outside to outside of the trellis work.

(^n the lower string jiieces are placed transverse girders (tie beams")
)«, )fl, 14 by 10 inches, and 17ft. (iiu. long and IGft. ajiart from centre
to centre; on the top of the trellis work are placrMl similar girders
g, g, 22ft. (iiii. long; the extremities of which are notched or caulked
down to the top of the trellis work ; upon the girders the joists are
laid longitudinally, upon which is the flooring of planks inclined
from the centre to the sides, the wdiole breadth of the top of the bridge
is 23ft, 4 in.

U|)on the to)) of the floor are placed tlie rails, r, r, for two lines, they
are of timber, 5 inclies sijuare, capped with an iron bar 2 indies wide
by i inch thick, and for the the security of the trains, each rail is pro-
vided with a guard rail of a similar scantling, the guardrail at the
bottinn is in close contact with the rail, but at the top there is a spacp
formed for the wheel, the width between the rails is ti feet.

Between the upper and lower girders are fixed horizontal diagonal
wind braces, 1 1 whicli arc morticed into tlieni, tlieve are also vertical

diagonal braces, between the top and bottom girders, which render the
whoh' of the bridge very stiff.

On the top of each ))ier are two capping stones 12 inches thick and
Tl feet long by 3 feet (i inches wide, which project over the ])ier G
inches, on these stones are templates of timber to carry the trellis
\vork.

The whole quantity of iron introduced in the bridge is less than a
ton weiirht.

The following table of scantlings will explain together with the
references and the drawings, the general construction of the bridge.

SCANT-

DESCRICTION.

QCANTITV.

LINO IN
INCHES

l!il)lianrl for liaml lailiago'o'

5,800 feet rmi

2x8

Cap ditto, 0 0

5,800 ditto

5x5

Posts ditto, «• se

720 pieces 5 feet long, 5x5

and 5x8 mean

5xCi

Braces ditto, /' /'

1,440 <litto 8 feet G In. fong

2 < 5

liiiard rails, p v

5,800 feet run

5x 8

Ditto, v' o'

5,800 ditto

5x10

Bearings rails, r r

5,800 ditto

3x5

Ditto, »•' /•'

5,800 ditto

5x5

FlooriiiB; planks, t I, t' I' t'

67,200 feet super.

2x12

Flooring joists, h u

2,!)00 feet run

4x12

Ditto, h' «'

5,800 ditto

4x101

Ditto, h h

5,800 ditto

5x11}

Ditto, h' h'

5,800 ditto

5x9

Ditto, y x'

5,500 ditto, in piecJi 7 feet 7

inches long

7x7

Top girders, (/ ;/

3f>0 pieces 221 feet long

10 X 14

Top lirares, 1 1

720 ditto 15 ditto

5x6

Clinids or string pieces, c, c',

c"; //, (/', (/" ; c, e', e"

2,850 ditto 36 ditto

3x 12

Lattices, a a, a' a' ; b b, h' b'

5,700 ditto 21 J ditto

3x 11

Vertical fnaces,;;;)

360 ditto laj ditto

6x(i

Bottom girders, ni m

180 ditto 17J ditto

10 X 14

Bottom f)races, /* n

300 ditto 20 ditto

5x8

.Sniipurttimlicrs(f em plates);,-

80 ditto 20 ditto

18 X 18

I'icics to nail on weather-

boarding, s' s'

5,800 feet run

3x6

Weatlier-boavding, «s

95,000 feet super.

|xl2

PRACTICAL ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE METHOD OF INDI-
CATING THE POWER EXERTED BY STEAM-ENGINES
IN FACTORIES.

Sir, — In pursuance of this subject, perhaps I cannot do belter than
give detailed examples of cases in actual practice, as more likely to
be of interest to practical men. With this view I have recently been
furnished by a friend* with the amiexed diagrams (Figs. 1 and 2),

Fig. 1.

11.0 12 8 12 C 12.'; 12 3 12 0 ll-fi 10 8 97 75
Avcra^;i' 1 1 28 lbs. per circular inc-h.

' A correspondent of your Journal, Mr. Da\id \V. Boivman, a young
engineer of great promise, now on his way to South America.

1840.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

127

Fist. 2.

4 9 4 5 4 2 4-0 3 8 3 6 34
Average 3 08 lbs. ]}ei: circular inch.

3i 2 8

tngi-ther with an abridged extract from a report of an liulic.itor ex-
periment made by him on one of Bonitun and Watt'.s old 10 horse
engines, now working in a cotton factory in Afancliester', and also
including some remarks thereon vTllich seem pertinent to the subject
of iriy last letter.

i'his engine has a cylinder 31i inches diameter, 7 feet siroke, and
a speed of 260 feet a iidnute. The diagrams were taken by Atac-
naught's Indicator, the scale of which is ^ of an inch to each pound
per square inch of pressure, or, which is the same thing, -^78.54 of a
]ioniKl per circular inch, the latter is the scale used, as it greatly
abridges the calculation. Fig. 1 was taken when tlie whole of tile
machinery was at work in the usual way, and being uieasiired, it gives
an average for the gro.ss pressure of 11"_'S It)s. per circular inch.
Fig. 2 was taken when the whole of the machinery was thrown ofT, the
load of the engine then consisting only of the friction of the shafts,
gearing, and straps running on the loose pulleys, together with the
power required to work the engine itself. This figure, being mea-
sured, gives an average pressure of 3-98 Itjs. per circular inch, for the
friction of the engine, shafting, &c., which, deducted from the gross
pressure, leaves 7-3 His. per circular inch for the net effective jjressure.

The velocity of the piston, 260, drawn into the area of the cylinder,
3l-.=>-, (=00-2'25 circular inches,) =257,985, and this number, divided
by 33,0U0, gives 7-S horse power, for each ]iound pressure per circular
inch. This, again, multiplied by the nett effective pressure as above
found (7-3 fts.J gives nearly 57 for the "nett effective indicated horse
power" then exerted by the engine.

Tlie following remarks are extracted from Mr. B.'s report: — "The
power consumed by the shafting unloaded seems enormous, but as
there is an immense cpiantity of it, and a number of the steps, I am
told, are not in very good order, and tlie straps, too, being probablv
very tight, I am inclined to think that the result given by the imlicator
diagram is not far from the truth. This result, which is usually called
acailabk power, means all the power that is exerted by the engine,
exclusive of what is absorbed by the engine, shafts and straps; but it
would be a mistake, however, to suppose that all this available power
is delivered (so to speak) at the machine pulleys, for as the work is
put on, the friction is increased through all the ramifications of the
shafting, and the amount of this increase, which we have no means (jf
ascertaining, must be deducted from wliat is called the available
power, if we wisli to know the amount of power consumed by tlie
inachimry alone. It is a good practice, however, to debit the ma-
chinery, not only with the power consumed by itself, but also with the
])ower required to overcome the increase of friction along the shaft-
ing, and this I have done, calling them together available power. It
is not a good term, and another wants substituting in its jjlace. It is
manifest, therefore, that a great quantity of shafting shonid be avoided,
both on account of the power lost in turning the shafting itself, but
also on account of the increased increase of friction when loatled,"

The following is a list of the machiucry, as furnished by the mana-
ger of the works : — ■

4 Pair of Nhiles, 648 spindles each.
1 Pair ditto 1080 ditto
8 Thjostles 180 ditto

164 CaUco Looms, 120 picks a minute.
60 Double Carding Engines, 50 inches cacb.
3 Drawing Frames, 14 rollers each.
6 Dyer's Frames.
1 Willow and Lap Machine.
Winding and M'aqnng.

1 Mechanics Shop with Lathes and Grindstone.
63 Tape Looms, 25 pieces each,

1 1 Braiding Machines,

2 Tape Callenders.

1 Winding .Machine.

2 Latlies and Grindstone.

Besides the above, there is a 9 inch pump 28 feet deep, which is includcil
ill the engine and .shafting friction.

The remarks of Mr. Bowman bear evidence to the necessity of a
nicer distinction in the technical terms used re3|)ectiiig the power of
steam engines than has generally been admitted bv engineers, and
nhich necessity it was ])artly the object of my last letter to point out.
The above list of machinery will also, I hope, be useful to mechanical
engineers or others, who take an interest in the statistics of the steam
engine. But I must observe that this engine must by no means be
taken as an average specimen of the factory engines in Manchester;
for as regards ecomuny of steam, and consequently economy of fuel, it
is considerably below that average, hidced, I believe a worse case
will not be easily found in any regular factory in Lancashire; and this
is, in fact, one reason why I have selected it," for the serious conside-
ration of those advocates of the expansive system who are continually-
boasting that the engines in Cornwall are doing five or six hundred
per cent, more work for the same quantity of fuel than is done in any
other part of the kingdom ;* and also in order that there shall be no
longer any mistake in this matter. Let any Cornish or other engineer
point out clearly, how, even so little as 50 per cent, more work is to be
done by the steam that the above engine uses, or a saving of one third
of the fuel, and I kuuw the owner of the engine will be very much
obliged to him. 1 can firiii many factory owners that would be very
glad to save even 10 per cent, in fuel at the ]n-esent time, in addition,
of course, to the orilinary interest of money for the capital required to
be expended in adopting the improvement.

In the town of Manchester, owing to the difficulty of getting a suHi-
cieucy of cold water, the steam-engines are generally doing a much
less duty th in iu the cottou-factory district surrounding if, where it is
not unconiinon to find tliem using about 6 pounds per horse per liour
on the effective, or 9 lbs. on the nett effective indicated power. The
diagram Fig. 3, wliich was sometime ago given me by my friend Mr.

Fitr. 3.

3 cA

3

* In a Cornish newspaper now before me (called " Lean's Ivigine Reporter
and Advertiser,") lor Novouiler, 1839, is inserted an extract from the Athe-
n.Tenm, in which it is slated " that/cc times as much work lias been done by
a Cornish steam-engine as hy an crcellent l^nulton and Watt's engine on Ihe
common system ; or thai Ihe same amount of work is done willi one fifth
part of the expense (if fuel ! A statement almost incredible, yet perfectly
true." It is, indeed, '• alni'ist incredible " to me, that the respected authors
of the Monthly lleports shgulJ allow such assertions to pass withuitt note or
comment.

S 2

l-js

Tin-; en IL KNC.TXEr.R and AUCHriECTS .JOIUNAL.

[April,

William lilsworlli, of I'leslui), was tiiUon liy liim liom m\ ciigiuo be-
longing lo Messrs. Ilonoiksi's, Milli'r ami C'o. uf llial, town, working
with aliciiit thai rate of consuiniition. Tliis pngino is perliaps a lair
av(MMg(^ of (lio bosi rnginos in Lancashire, or such a one as niighl with
propriety be eom))arcil to the average of those in Cornwall, whose
duty is reported, in any (|nestion relating to the advantage and eco-
nomy of the expansive system. I do not know the particular dimen-
sions of this engine, but Mr. 10 informeil me that it was then working
at an I'ft'eetive indicated power of above 15U horses, which was
about double its nominal power, as, indeed, appears evident from '.m
inspection of the figure, which is measured by Macnaught's scale of
-~; of an ineli for each fb. pressure per sr^uare inch, the vacuum ave-
raging 1 1-99, and the steam U-80, making a total gross pressure of
nearly 111 lbs. jier square inch. The temperature of the i:old con-
densing water was 7b', and that of the hot well was 1 1,"3 ', at ihe time
of the experiment.

I am, Sir, your obedient servant,

R. AnMSTKOiNti.

Maiickskr, lil/i Marc/i, 1840.

IMPROVEMENTS IN BIRiMINGHAM,

With .\.v E.ngravinu Plate ix.

CFrom a Correspondent.)

Among many improvements which have lately taken place with
reference to the public buildings of the town of Birniingham, are its
magniticcntRoniati temple as a town hall, the grammer school, a splen-
did building in the Gothic style, the new churclies, ca])acions market
hall, railway stations, and several banking houses, all possessing ar-
chitectural endiellishments of no mean character, to these we may add
Warwick jiouse, the Ilrajjcry and Furnishing establishmeni of Mr. W.
Holliday, pist on the eve of completion, U-iim the designs of Mr. \V.
Tliomas,/\rchite( t. Thisbuihlirgfrom its ceutralsituatioiiinNcw-strect
its height, its extent of frontage, beauty of design and richness of de-
tail may be justly <'iititlcd one of the omamenis of th.il improving
town.

The annexed view is a perspective representation of the front as seen
from the opjiosite side of the street. The design is in a style more
than usually hixnriant, and the building occupies a fruntage of 54l't
(jiii. in width ami .■'■"It in height; the whole pile covering an area of
.'<, 777ft. By reference to Ihe engraving it wiil be seen that llic shop
front is divided into three compartments, bv rusticated and einpan-
nelled ellongated Doric pedestals or pilasters of stone supporting
cou|)led lions on each, the si/e of life; tliey carry the enricheil entab-
lature of the shop fnmt, the part over the lions breaks forward and
is likewise in stone with enriched modillions. The saslies are of
massive brass, gla/.^d with plate glass, the s<piares are in one
lieighl in single ])lates, the dimensions of wliich in the centre division
are 1 1ft. 2in. by lift. 'Jin. and to the side division lift. -Jin. The uji-
per part of the building above Hie sliop front is also divided into three
divisions consisting 6f a centre and two wings, :it the angles of the
latter are aiit;r or tinted pilasters, and in the centre division are two
three quarter llulcd columns of the composite order, the lieight of two
stories, (the example from the baths of Diocletian at Rome,) sup-
porting an enriidied entablature. Above is a very richly decorated
attic with enrii'hed panelled pilasters semi circular headed windovis,
ornamented with carved masks, and shells, the whole surniounled
by an open scroll |)ara|)et over Ihe wings, and carved panels in relief,
representing foliated (irillins, masks, ami foliage in the centre, with
pedestals and acroteria. The interior of the building is tilted up with
ii corresponding degree of richness. It is 10 J feet in depth and di-
vided into three sho])s, the centre is the principal department, titted
up in a splendid manner. It is divided into compartments by marbled
Corinthian columns and pilasters supporting enriched entablature and
ceiling, at the extreme end there are similar columns and pilasters
witbacentie plate of looking glass, 10ft. lin. high by 3ft. (.in. To
the left is the furnishing dejurtment and to the right is the French
de|)artiuent, connected withwliieh is a cloak room furnished with a
looking glass, Sft. by (d't. and a painted glass window Oft. ."Jin. by Sft.
representing Traile, ('(.mmcree, &c. The fixtures are of riga oak.
The back jjartof the binldingis lighted bylantherns, glazed with plate,
glass, the bisemiMil isoccupieil uiUi war '('ouscs, and in the n|iper jiart
of the building are the dwellings for llf proprietor and tlic numerous
establishment.

THE PATENT WATER ELEVATOR.

Sii; — 1 had a few ilays since an opportunity of examining a model of
Hall's Patent Water Eli'vator, which appears calculated to overcome any
dillicully in raising water to any recpiired height at a very trifling cost ;
with the prin<-iple (d' it you are no doubt well acquainted, and 1 should
not have troubled you iviththis letter but for a remark which a friend
made on my naming the machine to biin, he inmiediately recollected
having seen some years since at Windsor Castle (as far as his mi'inory
serves liim) what was then called "the Rope Pnmp," the only dilfer-
ence being that atWindsor a rope was used inste.id of a strap, from this
it will ap|)ear that Mr. Hall is not entitled to any credit as an inventor,
but merely for bringing before the public that w liich was probably only
known to few individuals — In such a case is Mr. Hall's patent good ?
( h can any one use the rope without infringing on his patent '.

I am, Mr. Editor,

Your faithful Friend,

An Ourhnal Subscriber.
Leeds, March, 18, 1840.

:^*,^ We are decidedly of opinion that the use of the rope would
not be an infringement of the |iafent. We are not very favorable to
either the belt or the rope, as an economical mode of raising water.
Editor.

DR. LARDNER'S LECTURES ON RAILWAYS.

Sir — No doubt many of your readers have heard of the Lectures
lately delivered at Liverpool and Manchester, by Dr. Lardner, "on the
resistance to railway trains, the eflects of gradients, and the general
economy of steam jiower," — he might have added a detailed statement
of the proibiind ignorance of engineers on these []oints. Among other
subjects he ii Iroduced lliat of coniial wheels, and endeavoured to show
that all engineers had fallen into an egregious error in supposing that
the cone was of any service in enabling a carriage to move in a curve-
linear direction, he said "ne^er was there a more consuimnate me-
chanical bbuider, the cone couUl do literary nothing; for they had left
out of view Ihe fact that the parallelism of the axles was preserved,
and until they cease to Le parallel the cone could do nothing. If a
model carriage were constructed, with the wheels on one side small
and on the other large, and the axles parallel, that carriage w'ould not
make so great a mechanical bhmder as the engineers had done, iS:c."

Now, with all due deference, I must beg to dissent from the Doctor
in his practical deductions; and [shall endeavour to show that the
cone is practically the instrument by which carriages traverse curves.
We know that if two wheels of unequal diameters be placed upon an
axle and maile to revolve, that the whole will describe a circle having
for its centre lli.it point where two lines drawn through the extremities
of the diameters of the two wheels intersect thus.

r is the centre round uhich the pair of wheels n and // would revolve;
and if there be another pair of wheels having the same relative pro-
portions and their axle pointing to the same centre, and suppose these
two pair of wheels to be connected by means of a carriage body, wliicli
would only slightly interfere with the conveyance of the axle, it is
evident that the tendency of the wheels to move in the curve would
exercise a force to preserve the comlition necessaiyto do so; now my
own inq)ressi<'us have aUvavs been that the tangential motion of the
carriage would at first bring the outer wheel upon a diameter so much
greater than the inner one, that its greater progression would exert a
force sullii'ient to cause a deviation from parallelism in the axle which
would suit the curve, the outer wheel will notslip unless tjie resistance
to the axle assuming a convergence suitable to the curve, be about a i
of Ihe insistent weight, which calling the weight of the carriage .") tons
would be -"^'"—Tii ,11). on each journal lu- wheel. The curves used on

¥

t^

18-R).]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

120

iipcted to tlie body of the caniage by means of springs, and kept in their
places by guide plates, so that it is only necessary for the tondoncc to move
in a curve to exert a force sufficient to alter the position of each journal,
■^'^y-i^:^-^ of an inch, in oriler to pass round a curve a mile radius
solely by the influence of the cone, a quantity so small that the Doctor
will find great difficulty in |)ersuading practical men that it is " impoi-
stblt" such a deviation can take place, more especially as we see a
force equal to TOUlbs e,ndeavou.iiug to produce it.

In'^uiker.

VERTICAL WATER-WHEEL.

Fig. 1. — Elevation.

The accompanying engravings represent a vertical water-wheel,
upon the principle of Barker's mill, which I erected at the iron-
works of the United Mexican Mining Association at Durango, in
Mexico, in 1832, for the purpose of driving a circular saw ; it was
desirable to produce a rapid movement witliout the intervention of
gearing, and this not being possible by means of the breast wheel,
which was, besides, fully loaded with the blast machinery, it occurred

to me to avail myself of Barker's mill ; I first formed a rough working
model, upon the usual construction, but found the action of it so very
feeble, that I surrounded the arms with boards, in order that the
flowing water might impinge against them; this arrangement quad-
rupled the velocity of (he machine : I then added the upper part,
which was a still further improvement. The height of fall was about
S feet, the bore of the pipe about 12 inches, the length of the legs
about 30 inches from the centre, tlie size of the orifices about 0x2=:
12 square inches, the velocity 4U revolutions a minute ; by the period
it was completed and set to work, the works were suspended, so that
nothing further was done with it; I had an ulterior object in view in
constructing this machine, viz. to devise some simple and efficient
means of working the "tahonas," or grinding mills used in the reducf-
tion of the silver ore in the mining districts; this wheel would have
been in these cases invaluable, as it was formed entirely of timber,
excepting the step or shaft, and tlie few bolts and hoops with which
the tube and legs were bound together; it would never have got out
of order, and could not have been broken by any, but a wilhd accident ;
any country carpenter could make it. and keep it going, and it required
noheavy or large timber in its construction, for it can be supported
as well by a wall, as the timber framing shown in the drawing.

Figure 1 is an elevation, the wheel and water-course shown in sec-
tion. Fig. 2, a plan of the upper wfieel, and Fig. 3, a plan partly
shown in section of the legs and tube.

The same letters refer to each figure, so far as the parts are shown
in each. A is the vertical pipe, mounted on the box B, forming the
legs, the water issues from each extremity, and im}iinges with great
force against the fixed floats ;(, ii, &c., of the fixed tub c, and ulti-
mately escapes through the holes o cut in the bottom of the tub.
Upon the upper end of the pipe a cross frame is fixed, which carries
the horizontal or upper wheel, which has furnished all round its in-

Fig. 2.— Plan of Upper 'Wheel.

Fig. 3.— Plan partly shoHn in section.

terior circumference vertical float-boards )•, and horizontal floats n,
which form cells, the water escaping into the tube through radiating
openings left in the bottom as shown, thus advantage is taken of the
momentum of the water rushing into the wheel. E is the vertical
shaft, upon which the crown wheel G is hung, working the pinion L,
which conveys the motion of the wheel, through the medium of its
shaft, to the mill ; J is the water and water channel, I the sUdce, K
the pinion to lift the sluice, H the framing by which the wdieel is
supported ; the movement of the wheel is in the direction of the
arrows shown in Fig. 2, and the reverse of those shown in Fig. 3.

15, Stamford Stmt.

W. J. CURTIS.

130

TFIE CIVIL lilNGINl^ER AND ARCHITECTS JOUUN \L.

[April ,

COxMPETITION DESIGNS.

Sir — Olisciviiig ill your Journal of this uioHtli, a communication from Air.
Wvatt, which contains a corrcsponilcncc hctwecn Messrs. Wyalt ami llrandon
niid tlie Coiujiiittcc fur liuildinj; the proposcil NowClmrcli at t'anlilT, wljcrcin
my name is frefjuently introitucctl, I fcjl called upon in justice In ni)' ttwn
jirofessioiial character, to otter the folU)wiiig explanation, hy which I think
.Messrs. W. and IS. will lie induced to view the circimibtaucc in a ditlercnt
liglit to tlial in which tliey now regaril it.

Tlie tirst fact wliich 1 siudl allude to, in order to remove any imi)ression
tliat may exist, as to my plan having Ijcen selected from personal preference,
is, that I was an entire stranger to every one of the committee until after
tlie adoption of my ilesign had heen determined on. Upon my cntparing
(which 1 did at my first interview), how it was tliat the premiuLu had h;en
awarded to another, when my plan was considereil tlic hcst, ( was informcil
that tiic coMitnittee, an\iuns to do all in tlieir jtower to insni'e justice to tiic
several parties who had intrusted them with their designs, liad submitteil the
several plans to two genllemen in London, cmiuenl iu.thcir profession, and
that they liad slrongiy riconuuended tlie adoption of my design, hut con-
sidered i was not entitled to the premium, through not having, as /Ari/
//ini'g/i/, acted in strict compliance with that ]i(M'tion .of the advertisement
which directed that the principal front should face Uutc-street : and they
coniluded that this could not have been my intention, because the altar
would not in that ease have been at the east end of the church.

Ill this respect however my intentions were misunderstood, in conseipience
of my East lilcvalion having been described " frincijial Front," instead of
Front facing Hiite-street, and in thus deviating from the usual custom of
placing the Altar at the ICast-cnd, I i-onsith^red I Iiad sutHcient precedent in
the many t'huiches reeciitly erected in which the Altar is not so placed.

Had this explanation taken place before the jiremiums had heen awarded,
Messrs. W. and I!, would have been spared the uii|ileasaut correspondence
they have had with the Committee on the subjix't, as 1 shoiikl in that case
have received tlie premium, as well as the ajipointment of .\rchitect to the
Church.

Your insertion of this in your next Journal will oblige, Sir,
Your oliedient Servant,

Thomas Foster.

4, Park-street, Ilrislol, Feb. 17, IS 10.

*j* This communication ought to have appeared in the last month's
Journal, but it was accidentally omitted. — Eunoxi.

REVIEWS.

On the Vse of the fiiijiroiml Pujiier Muc/ic in Furni/ure, in the Interior
Decoration of Jliiililini/s, ami in li'orku oji.lrt. ify Charles Frederick liicle-
field.

This is not, as our readers might think, an exclusive catalogue of Mr.
Hielericld's wc^l known productions, but a large work containing engravings
of .above IJttO approved ornaments used by architects, so as not only to be
available for its special purjiose, but useful to all members of the jirofession.
As a work of reference or ornament this possesses the advantage that any
design the architect may select, can be obtained at the shortest notice, while
of these given in other works it generally hajipens that they cannot be ob-
tained except at great cost for making models, Ac. The architect can from
these engravings select and combine a great variety of valuable speci-mens in
every class of ornament.

I'rcfixcd to the engravings is a history of the uiamifacture, to which we
shall have occasion to refer in our next number.

Geometrical Propositions Demomtrnfcrl, or a Supplement to Euclid, being
a Keij to tlie £j;ercines appended to Euclid's Elements. By W. D. C'oolkY)
A H. London : WhittaKcr and Co., .'\ve Maria I.anc, 18-10.

The present is scarcely a supplement to the able edition of Eiiehd by Mr.
Coolcy, but a distinct work, intended to impress on the public the true value
of geometry — its excellence as a metiioil of reasoning and training the mind.
The author well observes, that merely to read Euclid is not to become a ma-
thematician, nor to attain all the advantages to be derived fr(nu geometrical
studies, that we must not stop short, but <'arry out the nn thods of reasoning
of which examples arc atl'ordedto us by that \aliiable work.

Vnide to Ornamental Drawing and JJesif/n. Ijy J. Page. London
Bcrgcr, 1810, Parts 1 and 2.

This work is one of the best and cheapest whidi has been written on the
subject, and from the jicu and pencil of a practical man, who lias had the
advantage of being able to sec his instrmtions carried into effect under his
own inspection, as Director of the Class of Ornauicntal Drawing, in the
School of Design, at Saville House. If it were any recommendation to the
work it might be mentioned that the illustratious procccU from the gra^cr as
well a; from tlie pcucU of Mr, Page.

T/ie Yearliooi oj" facts in Science and Art. Ily the Editor of the Areant

of Science. London: Tilt, IH 10.

We are too large contributors from our own columns to this valuable re-
cord of the progress of science to view its improvement and success with any
other feeling than that of congratulation. We sincerely recommend this
work to our readers as one of the best condensations of valuable facts iu
science and art.

ClaoertoH Inn.

This is an engraving of a building, built by Ccorge Vivian, Esq. on hi*
property near Bath. It is in theltaUan Villa style, and though not quite pure
is a most interesting editice. The outline is worked siitbciently without be-
ing frrttered up, and has a most picturesque cft'ect in harmony with the sur-
rounding scenery. It is a good study.

Specimens nf H'oinl Enyravini/s. by Tho.m.\s Gii.ks.
Pleasing examples of this interesting art, an 1 creditable to the talents of
the engraver.

LITE U AIIY INTELI,Ri EN C E.

A leiv pubheation by Schinkel, entitled Werke der llaukhunst, is about to
appear in parts, at intervals of four months from each other, and will be more
clabor.ately executed than his Rntwurfc, as some of the plates will be printed
in colours. Among the siibjci-ts promised are the designs for king Otho's pa-
lace, on the Acropidis at .Athens, which though not adopted, — the buihiing
now erecting being from one by Gartnor, of Munieh, may be expected to
prove of no ordinary interest, some p.irts of the interior having been spoken
of as exceedingly striking, both for their originality and for their extraordinary
richness, in regard to gilding and coloiuiag. This subject will be illustrated
by twelve plates, some of which will probably contain two or three drawings.
Another subject mentioned in the prospectus is ]irince Albert of Prussia's
palace, or villa of Cauicnz in Silesia. Tiic size of the plates will be 2ti inches
by 1,'). Another licrman work aiinuiiiifcd for puhlicatiou is Ehrenburgh's
Ban Lexicon, or Dictionary of .Vrchiteelural terms, &e., of which we shall
be able to speak moie at length in a short time.

SIR JEFFKY WYATVILLE, R.A.

Thk subjoined memoir we have derived from Fisher's National Portrait
(lallcry, the Ijitcrary World, Art Tniou, Athena;iim, &e.

Sill Jei-fry Wy.^tvillk, Knight of the Saxou Ernestine Order, U.A.,
F.K.S., and F.S.A., was the son of Josejib Wyatt, an architect, resident at
Biirton-upon Trent, iu the couuty of Stafford, where be was born on the 3rd
of August, 1700. His father was considered clever, but indolent, and, there-
fore, atlbrded but a poor example for a boy of enthusiastic and enterprising
spirit, such as young Jctfry soon proved himself to jiossess. He received
the common rudiments of education at the free-school of his native jdaee ;
and his early passion was for the sea. During this time, he was once " rig-
ged out " for a voyage with Admiial KcmpcnfckU, on board the Umjal
Georije, but was fortunately prevented from joining that noble shiji, which
was afterwards lost at Spithcad. Home, however, became not only irksome,
but painful, to him, from the im]novidence of his father; and, in 17S3, he
made a third and siiccesful attempt to fly from both, ami seek his fortune in
the metropolis ; but could not obtain any engagement in the naval service,
as the .\mcriean war had then ceased.

Upon young Jeffry's arrival in Loudon, he found a friend and protector in
Samuel Wyatt. his father's brother, then an architect and biulder of re]iute ;
with whom JeflVy continued more than seven years, and thus acquired con-
siderable knowledge of the ordinary ofhce business, and of practical coii-
stnictioii. Mr. S. Wyatt was extensively emjiloyed, both in London and at
the seats of many noblemen and gcntlenicn in the country, namely, at Eaton
Hall, Tatton Hall, the Trinity House, London, I've., all of which were exi?-
eiited from his designs ; and, consequently, afforded his nephew o]>portiiiii-
tics of witnessing all the processes of designing, estimating, and executing,
buildings of various kinds. In the hope of aripiiring further inofcssional
knowledge, and parfieidarly with a view of cultivating that essential requisite
in art, taste, young Wyatt sought these advantages in the ollices of another
uiiclc, Mr. James Wyatt, who had attained a higher station on the ladder of
fame tli.an his brother. He had passed some ye.ars of architectural study in
Italy, and, while yet a minor, he ilesigued and built " the Pantheon," in
Oxford-street, and was introduced to the appointment of Siineyor-Cencral
of his i\Iajesty's works, his first labours being various alter.ations and addi-
tions at Windsor Castle, at the suggestion of King (ieorge III. In the olhcc
of ,Mr. James Wyatt, his nephew served a second term of apprenticeship;
and, besides improvement in jirartice, thus obtained numerous iutrodiictioiis
to influential jicrsons, among whom was the Prince of Wales, who honoiiied
liim with personal notice up to I7'.)9. In this year, Mr. Jetl'ry Wyatt joined
in business an eminent builder, who hail extensive government .ind other
contracts. In this prolitable concern he continued till 182! : when, after an
absence of twenty-five years from lloyal i;dcrcourse, he unexpectedly received
from King George IV. instrnetions respecting designs for the restoration of
Windsor Castle.

The union of the tradesman with the architccf was deemed, by the Boyal
.Vcademicians, a sufficient bar to the .ailvaiiccment of .Mr. Jell'iy Wyatt to bo

one of their societ)- ; aucl lie was allowed to coiitiuue as a camlidate for

18-10]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

131

twenty years, before he was admitted a member. During this jieiioil, he
made many designs for public and private buildings, wlucli were erected in
diftcrent parts of the tdngdoni, some of which manifested architectural talents
of a high oriler. He was, at length, elected an associate, and speedily after-
wards, one of the Koyal Academicians. Among various designs whieh he
liad exhibiled at that nursery of tlic arts, was one called " I'riam's Palace,"
which attracted much admiration during the exhibition. This, and his other
architectural drawings, and executed buildiugs, are ample evidences of his
love of, atul devotion to, bis profession.

One of the tirst acts of the new Parliament, after the accession of George
IV.. was the projection of great alteraliuriS and improvements. in the niagnili-
cent castle-palaee at Windsor. For this purpose, it was agreed that the three
attached architects to the linard of Works, Messrs. Soaiie, Nasli, and .Srairke,
with Mr. Jeffry Wyatt, should be direited to make jdans, drawings, and esti-
mates. The sum of .-f300,00(l harl been voted by Parliament towards the
expenses of these improvements, and a commission of eight noblemen ami
gentlemen, mend)ers of the adiuinisiration and of the opposition, were ap-
pointed to arlvise as to the works and expenditure of the money. Among
these " Commissioners " were the Earl of i\.berdecii. President of the Society
of Antiquaries, and Sir Charles Long, (subacrpiently l*ord Farnborough,) a
distinguished Fellow of that cidightencd institution : both men qf relincd
taste in tlie higher dei)artmcnts of art. In May, 1821, the respective archi-
tects above named (with the exception of Mr. Soane,) submitted their draw-
ings to the t'ommissioners, when the designs of Mr. Jctfry Wyatt were ap-
proved of, atid accepted. The Commissioners next visited Windsor; the
plan of operations was settled, and, on the 12th of .\ngust, 1821, the birth-
day of George IV., the first stone was laid by the King, it being part of tlie
foundation of the new g.iteway on the southern side of the Great Quadrangle,
and tlieiicefortli named George the Foiu-th's Gateway. On this occasion, the
arelutect received the royal autborily for changing his name to Wyattville;
not merely as a personal compliment, but for the jmrpose of distinguishing
and separating the Wyatt of that reign from bis' nncle, Mr. James Wyatt,
whose share in the architectural works at Windsor, during the reign of
George III., has already been mentioned. Furthermore, George W. sug-
gested and conferred the additional armorial quartering to the architect's
family anus, of a view of George the Fourth's Gateway, with the word ll'ind-
s(i'i\ as a motto.

^\'ithout the aid of plans and \iews of the buildings, it is impossible to
■ convey to the reader any clear idea of Windsor Castle at flie time that Mr.
Wyatville commenced his improvements, in 1824, and at tlie period of their
recent comiilction. It may be sufficient to mention, that the alterations and
additions made in the Castle buildings, from tlic commencement of the Tudor
dynasty (o the year 1821, were riot only iubarmonious with the castellate<l
cliaracter of the older works, but were generally tasteless in design, and shght
and bad in execution. Hence the whole of the latter class were taken down,
when the whole of the main timbers were found to be decayed. New floors
and ceilings, witli new partition walls, were necessary ; and to improve the
exterior etl'ect of the elevations, each wall was raised several feet, and
finisbeil with bold endiattled parapets. The angular and intermediate towers
were also augmented in height, and each crowned with a machicolatcd sum-
mit. The chinmcy-obafts were formed into stone clusters, and made to as-
sume the shapes of turrets. Aiound the south and east sides of the interior
of the great quadrangle, was erected a sjiacions corridor, 550 feet in length,
connected with and forming grand and convenient uj)])roaches to the chief
suites of apartments which lielong to those jiarts of the Castle.

The works proceeded with such rapiiiity, (the architect devoting the wliole
of his time to the vast undertaking,) that, on the 'Jth of December, 1828, the
King's i)rivate ap.irtments were comiileted, anrl his .Majesty removed from
his rural retreat, a superbly embcUislied eott.age in the Great Park, and for-
mally took |iossession of the Ca>tle. The next public act of the King was to
coiil'ur the lionoiu' of knigbthoofl on his architect, who, also, was permitted
to take up Ids residence in a eommaniUug tower, in the middle ward, at the
west eml of the north terrace.

The progress of the repairs was rather expedited than stayed by the King
having taken up his residence at the Castle. The decayed and dangerous
st.atc of the buihhug had, however, occasioned an cx]ieiiditure much beyond
the original estimates ; iiuleed, at Midsummer, ISI'tl, the cost appeared to
have been nearly doubled.

Application was, accordingly, maile to Parliament for further advances ;
when, opposition being raised in the House of Commons, a committee was
appointed to investigate the Castle works, and the probable amount of money
requisite for their completion. Tbe committee, at length, ordered works to
be undertaken to the estimated amount of .-CHSiryii. to be advanced at the
rate of .t;50,000 per annum. This grant was made exclusively fcr the archi-
tect's department, independent of the upholsterer, decnr.itor, and other aiti-
sans. Since that time, much has been done. Tbe Eli/.abcthan CJallery has
been finished, aud fitted up as a library, the Waterloo Gallery has been com-
pleted, and adorned with portraits, by Lawrence, of the principal monarchs,
statesmen, and generals of Furojic ; the old principal staircase has been re-
moved, so as to present an uuiMterriqited vie\v from the northern terrace,
lliiiiiitili the stiperb pile by means of opposite entrances, to the unrivalled
l.ou'j; Walk on the south ; a noble staircase having been elsewhere construct-
ed, in which is placed a colossal statue of George IV., nine feet, six inches
higb, by Chantrey. Lodges have also been erected at the junction of tbe
Long Walk with the Home Park ; ami several of the old state apartments,

at tlie north-west part of the upjier coiui;, have been enlarged and substan-
tially repaired. .Vt the north-west angle of this court. Sir Jeffry had designed
a splendid chapel. Tbe heightening of the Keep, or Round Tower, by some
feet, is also an improvement which adds pre-eminently to the dignity of the
magnificent pile.

It has been well observed, " so completely has Sir Jeffry made the Castle
his own, that nobody else can distinguish between what belongs to himself
and bis predecessors." The style of the building is old, while the material
is new ; and the hai-mony of parts is so complete as to form a whole of al-
most inexpressible massiveness and grandeur.

Von liaumer, on his visit in 1S33, found Windsor far exceeding his expec-
tations, and nialdng a greater impression on him than all the other castles be
had ever seen, put together. " This is high praise," says the Literary \Vorld,
" from a native of Germany, where feudalism has left so many stately monu-
ments of its tVowning glory.

Hitherto, there has been published no fitting record of this grand national
repair of the proudest structure that England possesses. King George IV.,
with the iulentiou of consummating the truly regal labour, and, in strict
princely state, coiumanded Sir Jeffry Wyatville to puljlish an account of his
great work; the missive, in the handwriting of the sovereign, is in the pos-
session of Sir Jcffry's executors, as is also a conlirmation of the command,
from Queen Victoria. Sir Jctfry had made much progress in his task; he
having expended X3000 upon drawings.* In the Pictnrescpie Animal, the
author relates, that George IV. promised to send a coiiy of Sir Jeffry's work
to every sovereign in Europe; but, with the exception of this patronage. Sir
Jeffry, it is heUcvcd, although working at the Royal command, did not expect
assistance of any kind. On one occasion, when suriirise was expressed at
such a condition. Sir Jcffiy replied, in the spirit and pride of art ; " The task
is mine; I am prejiaring my own monument."

Notwitliotandiiig that Wmdsor Castle is the chef d'muvre of Sir Jeffry
Wyatville, and, for ages to come, will stand as the best record of his skilful
taste, he had wholly huilt, or improved, many other edifices in different parts
of the kingdom. He has left some of bis works in thirty-five, out of the forty,
English counties, and four, out of tbe twelve, Welsh. From a list of .above
100 of these buildings, the following, with the names of their owners, are
appended to tbe memoir already quoted: —

Badmiiit(ui House, Gloucestershire, Duke of Beaufort. — Drawing-room and
library.

Woburn Abbey, Bedfordshire, Duke of Bedford. — Temple of the Graces.

.\t Endsleigh, Devonshire, Duke of Bedford. — A spacious and commodious
seat, in the cottage style.

Cliatsworth House, Derbyshire, Duke of Devonshire. Some magnificent
new buildings, also alterations and restorations of the old mansion, in the
Italian style. These have just been completed.

Longlcat House, Wiltshire, Marquis of Bath. — New conservatory, stables,
offices, staircase, and alterations of the hall, &c.

Asliridge, Hertfordshire, Earl of Bridgewater.^The completion of the
house, begun by James Wyatt, R..\. ; the liridgewatcr column in the park,
and lodges.

Bretbey, Derbyshire, Earl of Chesterfield. — Parts of tlie house.

Gopsall, Statfordshii'e, Earl Howe. — A new lodge, &c.

Belton House, Lincolnshire, Earl Brownlow. — New grecn-liouse, and alte-
rations to the mansion.

Wollaton Hall, Nottingbamsbire, the Lord Middletou. — Alterations to the
interior, and new lodges to that fine Italian house.

Sidney College, Cambridge. — New gate-hou^c, and fronts to the whole
college.

Besides the above, which are generally called show places, Sir Jeffry has
designed and executed tlie following Hejc houses :

Lillcshall, Shropshire, Earl Gower.

fiolden Grove, Caermartbenshire, Eaid of Cawdor. ,

Nonsuch Park, Surrey, Samuel Farmer, Esq.

Dinton, Wiltshire, William Wiudham, Esq.

Denford, Berkshire, M'ilbam llallett, Esq.

Stubton, Lincolusbire, Sur Robert Heron, Bart.

llilbielil Lodge, Herefordshire, The Honourable G. Villiers.

Trebursye, Cornwall, The Honourable ^\ iUi;nu Elliot.

Banner Cross, Yorkshire, General Murray.

Wimborn, Dorsetshire, William Castlenuin, Esq.

Claverton, Somersetshire, John \ ivian, Esq.

Hastings, Sussex, Compt de Vaiides, &c. &c.

By the introduction of Queen Adelaide, Sir Jefl'ry designed a castle for Al-
tenstein, for her brother tbe reigning Duke of Saxe Meiningeu ; as also a jia-
lace, with extcuaive stables, and a riding house for Meiningen ; for which
works tbe Dul^e prcsenterl hiiu the grand cross of the Saxon Ernestine order,
as a mark of his approbation. In the summer of last year he designed the
stables at Windsor Ca>tlc. This ilesinii, though of almost quaker like plain-
ness, evinces the same strong faculty for arrangement under dilticult circuin-
stanees, which characterized all his former woiks. As late as November last,
he designeil lodges fortlii; Sheffield and Derby entrances toChatsworth : the
latter of which is full of boldness audpriginaUfy, and as vigorous as any design
he ever produced, although his last work, except an Alcove for the gardens,
which is as jilayful as the work of a young hand.

•\th.

Mr. \\'ea.]e has received instructions to publish this splendid work forth-

133

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[April,

Sir Jtft'i y Wyatville «us jiroud of tlie Koyal pationage which lie enjoyed ;
and the Sovereign was alike jiroiul i>f his favorite architect. As a conipliuient.
a portrait of him was jiainfeil hy Sii' Tlionias Lawrence, hy conunand of
George IV., and was )ilaceilin llie royal collection at Windsor Oastlc. It is con-
sidered to he, altogcthei', an impressive likeiu'ss : there is extraordinary (jnick-
ncss in Ihc eye, and the forehead is lofty, bnt wants breadth, such as irnlicales
superior intellect. We believe Sir Jctlry to have been in no degree indebted
for his success to sycophancy ; for, although " of the conrt " he was not over
courteous in manner. His roughness, however, enabled luni to eoncpier the
capi ice of his royal patron. It is related in the .llUcnwiim, that "when
the Kings iiriv.ate apartments were inidcr consideration, his Majesty was
naturally somewhat more i)eremptory than usual, especially as to their relative
propoi'tions, and it is well known that he did not like large rotims. AVyatt's
head, however, was full of a jialace ; and when the king suggested what he
considered a proj)er size for his dressing room, M'yatt jjrotested that such a
cupboard was better suited to a country curate than to his Majesty. The
latter, however, was peremptory ou the subject, and cnt short all remonstrance
with — " It shall be so." The works went on — the suite of apartments was
finished and furnished, when, in the exultation of the moment, his Majesty
good-humouredly reminded the architect of their former dift'erence, and tri-
umiibantly referred to the admirable adaptation of this particular chamber.
' I am glad your Majesty approves of it,' said the architect, ' for it is exactly
twice the size your Majesty directed."

He languished for the last five years, under a disease of the chest, which
has visited him with voilent attacks from time to time; and frequently en-
dangered his life. Still Ids mind never gave way, or was weakened by illness.
He possessed the same good sense, industi'v, and indefatigalile order in his
art during his last illness, as at any former ptriod of his career — which was
marked by sim|)lieity ami integrity, as was his death by perfect cheerfulness
and resignation. His last days were a dignified lesson to the old, as his well
spent life had been a model of usefulness to the young. He died on the
18th of FehruaiT, in his 74th year.

The remains of Sir JcflW Wyatville were interred in St. George's Chapel,
Windsor, on the 2.5th ult. ; the body having arrived at the Winchester or Wy-
atville Tower, on the preceding evening. The Uev. Dr, Goodall, Provost of
Eton, an old and valued frieiul of the ileceased, reail the burial service ; and
tlie cotlin was deposited in a vault in the east aisle of the Chapel, just be-
hind the altar ; winch Sir Jetfry had prejiared some years since, for the re-
ceptiou of tlje remains of his daughter, who, it is stated, died in consequence
of a cold, taken during lier attendance at the ceremony of laying the founda-
tion stone of theBrunswick Tower. Among the mourners was Sir Francis
Chantrey, the sculptor. And thus, within the shallow of the stately pile
which his genius had restored from crumbling decay, sleeps the architect
himself; thus exemplifying the adage : " Art is long, and life is hut short."

NOTES OF THE MONTH.

The Oxford Sociely fur the Study of Gothic Architecture is making pro-
gress, its library is increasing, and the pajiers read at its meetings have been
valuable and interesting. It is to the clergy that we nmst look for the pre-
servation of old edifices, and for the observance of good taste in the erection
of new ones.

Mr. Cockerell has been selected to erect the new Institute at Oxford,
founded hy the late Michael Angelo Taylor.

The second of this month is the day on which the tenders are to be sent in
for construction of the Nelson Memorial. The shaft is to he solid, of granite
from the West of England, and the e.ipital of bronze.

.Messrs. (Jrissell and I'eto have comnienced operations for raising the snper-
stiuctnre of the New Houses of Pai'liameut.

The Royal Exchange affair is still in statu (pio, except that as far as report
goes Mr. Cockerell and Mr. Tite are engaged in making fresh plans. We
doubt nnich whether they will lie able to i)roduce a better design than that
of Mr. Donaldson, which we had another opportunity of viewing, when it was
exhibited at the Royal Institute of liritisb Architects. If, as Mr. Smith re-
jiorleil, at maximuju jirices it only exceeded the sum allolted by A'yOOO, it
ought to be adopted. .\s to the |ialtn objection that there were no chimneys,
any man with brains in his head might have seen that they eould have been
introduced in any ])art of the walls which surround the room, tlie thickness
of which was ample for flues, but the system of warming public olHces by
hot water or steam is so general that it eould hardly be tliought necessary to
provide fire-plaecs. Then again as to the statement that many walls had
false bearings, even if such had been the case, this might easil'i have been
remedied without in any w.ay interfering with the external design, which is
the grand feature to lie considered. As to the last objection, that tliere were
not suflicient sho))S, it is too contemptible to require notice.

Another competition exhibition takes place this month, that on the 8th for
laying out tlie grounds of the Royal Botanic Society. We hear that man)
designs of merit are in preparation, and we sincerely trust that the Council
will allow a public day for the profession to witness an exhibition, which we
believe has never before taken place in the metropolis.

On the first (anomalous day !) the Soaue Museum opens to the public !
"When will this Museum and Library of Architecture he made what it ought
to he ?

The Inatitute of Architects of Ireland has received the Royal patronage, and

we sincerely trust that the institution will be worthy of a capital possessing
so many fine buildings.

A new shop in (he style of the Revival is now attracting attention in Re-
gent-street, being the first in this fashionable style.

Some Eliznbethan pumps a little above the common run have been erected
in llol))orn and its vicinity.

The wood pavement in the Strand is on I'arkin's plan.

Iron statues are in great vogue at Paris as accessories for architectural pur-
poses.

The embankment of the Thames is at last likely to be taken \\\i bv govern-
\eiiimeut and city authorities.

We feel great jileasure in announcing that a want severely felt hy artists,
that of a gallery of easts is at last to be remedied, not by government, but by
private enterprise. A similar jdaii was stopped last _\Tar in expectation of the
government doing something, but it was so absurd that it was fortunate it was
abandoned, being neither more nor less than to interfere witli private enter-
prise, by manufacturiug all kinds of casts. A worthy companion to the steam
boat |iliin ! Mr. Braham, with great public spirit, has ojiened the Model
Ciallcry at the Colosseum as a place for study at the trilling subscription of
one guinea per aninim. It is well lighted, and contains above a hundred
works, incluiling the Tragic Muse (12 feet high), Apollo, Towuley Venus,
head of .\chillcs, Moses of Michael Angelo, &c.

There is an intention on the part of government to make a grant to the
Schools of l.lesign. This would he a boon to the manufacturing interests and
the fiue arts generally.

A statue to Napier, the inventor of logarithms is in agitation at Edinburgh.

.\t the Institute of Civil Engineers .Mr. Xasmyth exhibited his pneumatic
mirror, which is a plate of glass 3 feet in diameter, on a concave disc of iron
hermetically sealed. On exhausting the air the plate collapses, and on its
being forced iii the plate rises so as jirodnee any form of speculum. Mr.
Nasmyth suggests its apjilication to astromunical purposes for large reflecting
telescopes, or it may be used as a burning glass.

.Mr. Wbishaw the engineer kindly exhibited to us a valuable chronometer
which he has used in preparing for his elabor.ite work on Railway Statistics,
for ascertaining the velocities of railway trains. It is ?< inches in diameter,
and consequently of a circumference of naar 9i inches, which is a scale of
one minute decimally divided into hundredths, so as to enable nice calcula-
tions to be made with aeeiiraey.

In the valuable pajier of Mr. Leeds in onr |iresent number, we took the ,
trouble to note down the length of life of 1-12 architects enumerated, and
found one-third between O.'i and 7.5, of which 27 between 70 and 74, and 22
between 75 and 8U. A pretty good juoof of the longevity of this class of
jirofessional men.

We have not had the opportunity of mentioning before the completion of
the lighthouse on the sands at Fleetwood on Wyre. This is constructed by
Mr. Mitchell with his jiatent mooring screws, on a similar jirineiple to that
oil the Ma)>lin sands described in the Journal. It is of an hexagonal form,
six mooring screws supporting the base with one in the centre thus,

0 0
0 0 0

o 0
These carry converging posts on which the platform is erected, which carries
the lighthouse, so that it is open below to the action of the sea. This work,
in an incomplete state, stood oir. the late severe gales, and does great ereilit
to its constructor, and to the spirit of Sir Hesketh Fleetwood.

A BILINGUAL .STONE.

A bilingual inscription, containing Latin, Umbrian, or Etruscan words
sculplureil on both sides of aTibnrtine stone, w.is found some months ago
near the anrient ruins called Mausideo. At (irsi it was believed to be apo-
crapbal : but on being broiif;lit to Rome and examined, all doubts with regard
to its ;iutlieiiti(il V were renmved. From the Latin uturls/'ra/er e/ci minimns,
whifb occur in the beginning, it was hoped that sumelhing of interest might
be decbiceil. The rest of the inscription can cmly give room fur conjecture,
the letters running from lelt to right, as is evident I'rom the expressions,
/.oraiv'/ c/.v/«/«(7. \\liieli in tlicinselves contribute in no way t i elucidate the
obscurity (jf the Epigraob, and it is well known lli.i the naiional paliography
Hhelber L nibn.in or Ktrusean slniuld r\\n from right to left. This stone
was in all probability a iorm\n:i\ Cipiiiiis. referring to the period when tlie
Unmans made lltriisia'a snbjee cd province, as yet, however, the true and pre-
cise signification is ob.sciirei first on aecimnt of its liilinguous form, and also
for the uncenainty of the letter X : which is known to be a T in Umbrian or
Etruscan. Another ambigiiily arises from ii«t knowing the true pronuncia-
tion ol K .'ind IXI. This however must be left to the consideration of the
learned, anil for whose better judgmem »i subjoin the folloHiiig ropy of the
epigiaph.

The best preserved side. The most defaced.

DRVTKL F. FRAIEU .'.".'.'.'.V.' KlVlClVi V

ElV.S NISIS. URVTI. F

M IN IM VS. LfXA VI f RATKR. EIVS

KT. 8TAV1T ..MINI M VS. LOCAVIT. K.

F,X. EICNFXL XI -.VX ATVIT QVI.

IICNI. ICFIvNlXV ....KKNFXI.XOVXI. I.

FOXVFii-^KCix.SIS. X ■ . . . NIXV. LOKFN. KG

DVXIKNCIS. XIKNOS.

1840.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

|:}'5

PROCSEDINQS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES.

INSTITUTION OF CIVIL ENGINEERS.

SESSION, 1840.

Jan.

14. Joshua Field, V.P., in the Chair.

" Observations on the efficiency or gross power of Steam exerted on the
piston in relation to the reported diiti/ of Steam Engines in Cornwall, at dif-
ferent periods. By John Scott Enys, .\ssoc. Inst. C. E.

The ailvantages wliicli may result from the union of scientific and practical
knowledge in the appUcation of steam power, particularly with reference to
the limits of gross power, are great, as likely to clieck the extravagant no-
tions entertained by some with respect to the farther increase of duty, and
to remove the disbelief of others with respect to the amount of duty actually
performed.

The hmit of duty for atmospheric steam may be readily arrived at, as was
done by Mr. Davies Gilbert in 1827, by estimating the weight of water which
would rise 34 feet into a vacuum formed by the condensation of steam of at-
mosi)heric strength ; whence it appears, that a higher duty than 30 millions
cannot be obtained by atmospheric steam, 14 cubic feet of water being eva-
porated by a bushel of coal. Tredgold, in the first edition of his Treatise on
the Steam Engine, published in 1827, adopted the simpler method of multi-
plying the volume of steam of atmospheric strength by the pressure, for the
measure of the efficiency. This principle may be extended to measure the
efficiency of steam at liigher pressures, as the author has shown in the first
annual report of t)ic Cornwall Polytechnic Society ; and an extended table to
ten atmospheres is appended to this commuuication.

The author then proceeds to show, that the Cornish engines are worked
under conditions such that a large proportion of the expansive action of the
steam is available on the piston, and calls attention to two necessary correc-
tions— 1st, for the deficiency of water in higli steam cut oft' at ntth of the
stroke ; and 2d, for the increase of temperature of the steam during expan-
sion in the cylinder, as derived from the steam jacket. The experiments of
Mr. Wicksteed, confirmatory as they are of the very extended experiments
made by Woolf at Wheal Alford, show the importance of this latter correc-
tion. Some error has also arisen from the use of the boiler pressure. The
exact determination of the pressure in the cylinder is difficult, and the oidy
recorded eiperiments are those by Mr. Henwood with the common indicator,
and (luljlished in the second volume of the Transactions of the Institution.
The indicator is liable to show a pressure higher than that actually exerted
during the expansion, Init it may be relied on for comparative results ; and
very accurate experiments made at the Consols by a mercury gauge, the en-
gine being stopped at dift'erents parts of the stroke, are said to confirm the
reliance which may he placed on the indicator.

The quantity of water evaporated was very imperfectly recorded ; it was
stated by Watt as from 8 to 12 cubic feet per bushel, and at present may be
stated at about 14 cubic feet, but is sometimes, with good coal and careful
stoking, much higher.

The author briefly alludes to the progress of improvement in Cornwall ;
the introduction by Woolf of high steam ; the substitution of the plunger
pole for the bucket pump, and the application, so recently made by Mr.
James Sims, to stamping or crank engines of the arrangements which had
been a long time so advantageously in use in pimiping engines.

The communication is accompanied by a table, exhibiting the weight of
water per cubic foot ; the pressure ; the volume and the efficiency of steam
from one to ten atmospheres, adapted and corrected from those of Clement
and Desormes. It is also accompanied by a method of representing several
particulars connected with the load and engine ; by which the relation of
these with respect to each other in the same engine, and the ditl'erent condi-
tions of other engines, may be at once exhibited to the eye. It may also
prove a convenient method of recording facts and calculations in connexion
with the Indicator Diagrams.

" Analysis of a piece of the iron heel post converted by the action of Sea
Water into a substance resembling Plumbago." By David Mushet, A.
Inst. C. E.

A piece of the iron heel post of a vessel called the John Bull had been
presented last Session by Mr. Borthwick, as a cmious specimen of the eft'ect
of salt water in converting iron into a substance resembling plumbago. This
substance was of a dark brown colour, and easily cut by a knife, and Mr.
Mushet undertook to analyse it ; and the result of this analysis, and the me-
thods pursued, aie the subject of this communication. This substance, which
it may be convenient to call marine plumbago, on being exposed to a red
heat in a crucible, lost about 20 per cent, in weight, and on being exposed to
a wliite heat for four hours lost about 60 per cent., and came out a light mass
of very brilliant carburet. This shining carburet was then used as a carljou-
aceons substance for the reduction of an oxyde of iron, but was less efficacious
than the same quantity of the charcoal of wood. From these and other ex-
periments, Mr. Mushet considers 100 parts of the so-called marine plumbago
to be composed near as follows :—

Carbonic acid and moisture . 20
Protoxyde of iron . . . 35'7
Silt, or earthy matter . . 7'2
Cwbon . ' . . . . 41-1

Also, he considers 100 parts of the common black lead (o consist as follows :
Carbonic acid and water . 12-5
Iron ..... ll'j
Earthy matter . . .4-5
Carbon 71 '3

" A theoretical calculation of the Fuel saved by working Steam expansively."
By J. W. Lubbock, Hon. M.'inst. C. E. &c. &c.

.\n equation may be readily formed for the action till the steam is cut oft";
and the steam being then supposed to dilate into a certain volume, tlie varia-
tion in this volume gives rise to the quantity of action, whence anotlicr equa-
tion may be obtained, and the maximum of the quantity of action produced
by cutting oft' the steam determined. The quantity of action thus produced
is then compared with that produced in any case without cutting oft' the
steam. Now the quantity of heat or fuel expended is proportional to the
steam generated in each of the preceding cases, and a proportion, expressing
the ratio of the fuel saved to the fuel expended, may be obtained.

" On the Expansion of Arches." By CJeobge Ren'xie, F.R.S.

The expansion of solids, which has excited the attention of mathematicians
since the investigation of La Hire, in 1688, on a rod of iron, is of particular
importance in the construction of bridges, the security of which may be
eft'ected by the dilatation and contraction consequent on changes of tcmjiera-
tm'e. Periodical motions, referable only to changes of temperature, were ol)-
served by Vicat in a stone bridge built over the DordoRne at Souillac, and
have frequently been noticed in structures of all kinds. The diiferent expan-
sibility of stone and iron has been considered an objection to the use of cast
iron pUlars in connexion with stone to support the fronts of buildings ; but
the experiments of Mr. Adie of Edinburgh led him to the conclusion, that no
danger is to be apprehended from a change of temperature aft'ecting cast iron
and sandstone in any great degree, as their expansion, so far as regards build-
ings, may be considered the same.

Arguments from this source were employed agaiust the arches of South-
wark Bridge, and the experiments set forth in this communication were
undertaken with a view of ascertaining the eft'ect of temperature on these
arches.

Three sets of experiments were made: the first in Jan. 1818, when the
main ribs and diagonal braces rested on their centres, and before any of the
spandrils and road plates had been put upon them ; the second, in the A\igust
and September of tlie same year. The rise was measm-ed by tlie insertion of
small wedges to about ;^th of an inch. The third set of experiments was
made on the eastern arch. Three thermometers were employed — one hang-
ing in the open air, another having the bulb immersed 1 A inch in the iron,
and the third hanging amongst the ribs ; these were observed at dift'crent
hoiu-s of the day, and the rcsidts recorded. The rise of the arch was ob-
served by a fine piece of feathered edged brass, nicely tixed to the rib, which
by the rise and fall of tlie arch traversed upon a scale graduated to ^Vr*!' of
an inch. The tables contain experiments on nine days, with the teuipcra-
tm'cs and rise at every hour of the day. The results, that is, the maximum
temperatures and rise, and rise for 1' Fahr. are exhibited in the following
fable.

No. of

Variation in

Rise in

Rise for

Experiment.

Temperature.

Arch.

r F.

I.

IS""

2 5
BO

A

II.

10°

so

■STS

HI.

7-5

¥i

*

IV.

11°

8TT

*

V,

6°

1 :)
80

sV

VL

4-5

*§

A

VII.

3°

^

Tk

VIII.

8°

^

IX.

7'5

W

^

The mean rise is ^th of an inch for 1° Fahr.

Mr. Rennie then proceeds to calculate the theoretical rise from the ex-
pansion of iron, according to Lavoisier, in an arch of the dimensions of South-
wark Bridge, for 50' increase of temperature.

The eff'ects of changes of temperature were also observed in the stone
bridge over the Thames at Staines. After the arches had attained their full
settlement, openings were observed in the joints of the parapets immediately
over the springing of the arches, and a distortion or sinking of the upper
curve of the parapets. A wedge was inserted into some of these openings,
and the lowest point of its descent in the month of January marked. The
same wedges were carefully inserted every week until May, when they would
no longer enter, and the joints became firmly closed. At this period, how-
ever, the joints immediately over the crowns of the arches, which hail during
the winter been quite close, were now open. From these facts it followed,
as a necessary consequence, that in winter the arch contr,icting descended
and the spandiil joints opened, and in summer the arch expanding rose and

I'M

THE CIVIL i-N(jinI'I:k \m) aiu'ihtkc is journal.

[A PR II

closed llicsc juiiits, .iml oiicricd those at the erowns. Thus the joints (if the
parapets, which were inaile of shiglc slabs of granite for tlic whole heislit,
Ijecame good indicators of the changes of tenipeniture. li had also heen oh-
served, in tin: Waterloo and other bridges, that joints made good in the
winter witli Itonian cement were found erushed in summer.

Viththe view of obtaining some data for ealcuhition, .\Ir. Rcnnie jirocured
saniples of granites sandstone, and slate, and plaeijig thoni in a properly con-
strnrtcd oven, ascertained the rates of tlicir expansion, which are given in
the paper.

A series of cxjierimcnls was made at the rc(piest of the late Mr. Kcnnie by
Mr. S. Walker, of Uolhcrham, on the variations iji tlie length of 231 .?. feet of
the frieze, bolted together and laid on a firm platform. The (euj]ifriiturc of
the atmosphere and of the plales and tlie length were noteil at live o'clock in
the morning and at three o'clock in the afternoon, and in some of llie ex-
periments at se\cu o'clock in the evening. The details of these cxiicriaicnis
are given in tlic jiaper.

The paper is accomjiauied by calculations for the rise of an arch and the
opening at the sjiandrils for an increased tcnii)crature, and also by tables of
the cxpansibihly of different kinds of stones and irons given by Distigny.

" S/jcriJicnIioii. mill IJ'urkiny Drnmnys nf the MhUUexhurough-OH-Tees Oas
Works." By PuTKR IIendkuson, Assoc. Inst. C. £.

in this communication, the author details the several works, erections, and
fittings of tlie (ias Works at Middlesborongh-ou-Tecs, and the mode in which
they are to be executed aud coni]ilcted.

•' On a Hioi/e »/' IJnireUing Timber, or of t-ombinmii il and olUer ma/eriuLs
for geiieral jmrpoxes." IJy M. J. Buunei., M. Inst. C. E.

The author proposes to unite timber by means of iron dowels and asphaltc.
Mastic had been used in the Tunnel works for the purpose of tilting small
plates of cast iron to the poling boards. These, thongli eonslanlty immersed
in water and nmd, and snhjeet to severe hammering, bad .stood perfictly well.
Asiihaltc is now used in preference to mastic, as it sets immediately. The
author conceives that stone maybe united by a simitar kind of dowelling ;
anil that wood ni.ay be iiiter)iosed between stone and iron, so as to be used
to advantage with the stone blocks, for the chairs of railways. Also, that
this method may be used with great advantage in sliip-buihling, in mast-
making, ami wherever any species of doweUing is refiuired.
Feb. 21. The President in the Chair.

" On Steam Ungincs, principally with reference to ilietr coiinuuijitinn uf
Steam and Fuel.' IJy Josiah Parkks, M. Inst. ( . E.

The above is the second and concluding comniunication on this sniyect ; in
the former, the generation of steam more particuliirly was considered; in the
present, its aiiplicalioii when generated. These are distinct qneslions, as it
is the economy of steam which constitutes the dynamic perfection of a steam
engine, whereas it is the economy of heat in supplying tlmt steam which con-
stitutes the jicrfcction of the boiler as an evaporati\c vessel. These economic
properties are totally inde|)endent of each other; they may co-exist in a
inaxinimn degree, or in very diflerent degrees, aud the degree of perfection
which any particular class of engines, or which the particular engines of any
class possess, is known from the weight of fuel Liirnt, of water evaporated,
and the mechanical etlcet realized. As long as engines were constructed with
but few varieties, or identical in their forms, the |)crformance of one was a
sulficieiit indication of the performance of all ; but new forms of engines and
new modes of practice being now introduced, a comiiarison of the iierfonn-
ance on the several systems is a matter of deep iiraetieal ami scicntilic in-
terest. Mitli the view of effecting this object, the author has collected all
the authentic facts within bis reach, aud reduced llicni to common standards
of comparison.

The elleetivc power of steam engines may be aseerlained cither from (he
resistance overcome, or from the load upon the jiLston i>y means of the indi-
cator ; the former method being ajiplicable to ]iumiiing, the latter to rotative
engines. Cut the eU'eelive power of the steam in lunuping engines, as thus
ascertained, is far below the real eiteetive power of the steam, ami no exai;t
comparison can be made by these means between the clFeetive i«i\ver of the
steam in the two classes of engines. The useful clVect is not synonymous
>vitli a true measure of eU'ective jiower, since tlic duty is the true useful eU'eet
in a Cornish engine. The indicator when applied to liiu Cornish engines en-
ables us to ascertain the absolnle but not the efi'ectivc power, so as to com-
pare it with (hat of the rolative engine, since the friction of the engine and
the load cannot be scpar;itely determined. The absolule power of the steam
may also be ascertained from the relative knowledge of the clastic force of
steam corresponding with the r.atio which the volumes of water bear to each
other. This theoretical estimate rcipiircs however several corrections ; among
■which (he steam condensed by contact with colder surfaces, the steam con-
sumed in filling useless' places, and that lost by priming, must he jiarticularly
noted.

The relative performance of pumping engines is well expressed by the term
"duty," that is, the iinmbcr of llis. raised one ftnit by a given quantity of
fuel ; and of rotative engiues by the term "horse iniwcr," that is, the num-
ber of Ills, raised one foot in a minute, divided by .''o,0U0 lbs. the standard
measure of a horse. The perforniauce of the rotative engine may also be
estimated by duly, and of pnmiiing engines by horse power. The results of
these computations for several engines are tabulated in this communication.

The sum of the latent and seusible heat beiug coustaut for tsteam of all

elasticities, the expcniliture of both power anil heal is truly ineaMired by the
weight of water consumed as steam ; this measure is free from all uncertainty,
and independent of all (bi'ory ; the weight of w.ater as steam cipiivalent to
the production of a bor.-c power in each engine, .•iiid the duty effected by one
poiiml of steam, will denote the positive and relative eniciency of the steam
and the heat. These indices of etficieney being referred to some standard,
wc learn, from the preceding data, the precise value of each engine in its use
of steam and fuel ; of its boiling aiiimratus, as a generator of steam ; of the
com)),irative efficiency of the steam and coal, or economy of jiower and fuel.
The results which may thus be obtained are also exhibited in tables, accom-
jianying the eommuuieatiou.

Tlie jiower resulting from the expenditure of ei|iial weights of water, as
ste.on, being known, the boiler may be connected with the engiues, and the
rcl.itivc extent of heating surface employed to fnruisb their power shown. It
will thus appear that equal measures of surface arc (piitc inadequate to supply
cijiial power, with equal economy, to dificrcut classes of engines. These re-
sults arc tabulated in great detail, and it ajijicars tli.at the Cornish engineers
now eiiqiloy nearly eight times as much boiler surface for equal nominal
power as (hat given by M att's practice. Hut taking into account (be fuel
burnt per horse power ]ier hour in the two cases — the Cornish engine con-
suniing 'ij llis. jier horse power per hour, and Watt's engine H.l — the true
relation of the Imilers is as 19 to I. Many other relations of a similar strik-
ing character may be deduced from these tables.

The detailed results of the experiments by Smeaton in 1772, on his im-
pioveil Newcomen engine at Long Ueiiton — li_\ Watt, in 1 7H(), on hisiolalive
condensing engine, at the Albion Mills, arc recorded in these (ables; and it
appears that the economy of the latter as regards steam and fuel was double
(bat of the former, and ajiproached very nearly to jierfeetion in the use of
power obtainable on that principle. The next great advance in the economy
of fuel and |)ow ei is (hat made by the Cornish engineers, whose performanrcs,
both with puinping ami rotative expansive engines, far exceed any attained
with the common uncxjiansive condensing engine. The superiority of (woof
these engines in ly.'io, doing a duty of HO millions, exceeds the engines of
Watt and Neweomeu by 21 aud 5 times in economy of power, and by 3^ and
7 times in economy of fuel.

The obtaining a standard measure of duty is of great inipor(aiiee ; ahe.apcd
measure, as a bushel of coals, is highly ohjcetionahle, as the weight of such
measure will vary from 84 to 112 lbs. In the Cornish re|)orts the bushel is
fixed at '.M lbs. weight, as the standard of eoni])aiison, hut some iiortiou of a
ton or one lb. would be a better slaiKhird. (It her condmstililes, how^ever, as
coke, peat, &c., may be used partially, or to (he exclusion of coal, and under
these eircnmstances some other stamlard of coiii)>arisoii is necessary, and wilh
this view (he author suggests a pound of water in the form of steam as tlie
best standard of duty. The work done by a given quantity of water .as steam
is a sure index of the quality of the steam engine ; it is a measure unctieeted
by Miri.able eaJoririe agents, .and so long as engines continue (o be worked by
steam, so long will the performance of different engines be aeeurately ganged
by their respective expenditure of water as steam. The acenracy of this mea-
sure depends on the physical fact of the eonstaney of the latent and sensible
heat in steam of all tcmperatm'es. The author has recordeil twenly-eiglit
experiments made on twenty-eight ditferent ilays, on vaporization from the
boiling point to 60 lbs. pressure above the atmosphere, which ]n'eseiit a re-
markable connrmation of tlie above law, and show (hat (he relative clheieney
of steam in engines is due to the manner of using it, and not 1(^ any change
in its chemical constitution at different pressures. The manner of eondiieting
these exi>eriiiiciits, and the precautions taken to ensure accurate results, are
detailed with great minuteness.

The .author next proceeds to tre.at of the Locomotive Engine, and to dis-
cuss, compare and taluilatc the facts relating to this engine in the same man-
ner as he has done those of the stationary class. The qualities of the boiler
of the locomotive as an evaporative vessel had been discussed in the first
coniniunic'ition. The locomotive dift'ers from the fixed non-condensing en-
gine only ill the use of the blast, and the same method of measuring the eficets
of the sAeam are applicable to both, l-^xiierimenters on the locomotive have
generally attempted to determine the amount of resistauce oiqiosed to its
progress in preference to ascertaining the power expended in overcoming the
resistance. The exact solution of either of these questions would furnish all
that is wanted ; but the ascertaining the total resistance by an aiiah sis of its
several constituents is attended with great difficulties, as the forces to which
they are to be referred are so exceedingly iiumerous and variable, (hat the
assigning the exact value to each at any one velocity has hitherto eluded the
talents of those who have pursued this method. M. de Pambour was the first
analyst whose labours will require attention. The tesnits given by this author
iu his practical treatise on Locomotive Engines on Railways were compared
by Mr. Parkes with the results which he bad obtained when experimenting
on an engine of precisely a similar character, and discrepancies presented
themselves which appeared totally irreconcilable. These and other circum-
stances led the author to consider, whether the resistance to traction would
proiierly be deduced from the laws of gravitation, or whether any certain re-
sults would be derived as to the amount of resistance on a level from obser-
vations on engines and trains moving down inclined planes. The great object
seemed to be to discover some criterion of the mechanical effect produced by
a locomotive at all velocities, which would apply as practically and as dis-
tinctly to a locomotive as duty to a pumping engine, or horse power to a
rotatory engine. If this were possible, it seems of far less importance to

ia39.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

135

ilistingiiisli the piecise value of cacli particular unit of resistance, than to de-
teriuine the relative sura of resistance and the relative expendititrc of power
at all velocities and under all circumstances. Now the term duty may be ap-
jdied in tlie strictest sense of the term to the work done by a locomotive
engine ; for whether the engine drag a load whose resistance is 8 Ihs. per
ton, or whether a weight of 8 lbs. for each ton of matter moved descending
over a pidley and attached to the load, be considered as the moving force,
the result is the same. If, then, the tractive force, or resistance per ton of
matter in motion, which is the real load on the engine, be ascertained, the
whole effect is found by multiplying tliis sum by the space jiassed over in
feet ; and the consumption of water as steam and of eo!;o being known, we
have all tlio elements requisite for determining the duty [lerfiirmed Iiy the
steam or coke. The ju-cssure against the pistons may he decbiced from the
sum of tlie resistances first calculated on the assumed resistance overcome .it
the velocity of the engine in each experiment ; and the pressure on the pis-
tons may also be deduced from tlic ratio of the volumes of the steam and
water consumed. The results which may be olitained on these principles are
tabulated, for the experiments of M. de Panibour, Robert Stephenson, and
Dr. Lariluer. In .mother table the author has recorded the reduction of
each of these exiieriments to terms of horses' power, and has exhibited under
that denomination the absolute power resulting from the steam used — that
reipiired to overcome the assigned resistance — their differences — and the
power whicli balances the gross and useful duty. The construction of these
most elaliorate tables is described in great detail, and the consetpiences which
follow from tlie tests thus obtained are fully stated, and the author comes to
the conclusion, th.at results inconsistent with the capabilities of tlie locomo-
tive are perceptible in almost every one of the expei'iments. A condensing
engine ]daced on wheels, with water of condensation transported for its sup-
ply, and m.ide to drag a train along a railway, woul.l require the same ex-
penditure of water as steam, to produce a given effect, as if fixed ; a non-con-
densing engine also is one and the same machine, whether fixed or locomotive,
excepting that the latter must consume more power than the former, to do
etpial work, at like pressures, by the amount of the additional resistance aris-
ing from the contraction of its eduction pipes, in order to produce a fierce
blast of steam through the chimney. Troni these and other causes the fixed
non-condensing engine must be the more economical of the two ; hut if the
results derived from M. de Pamlionr's data be correct, we must acknowledge
the fixed non-condensing engine, with its simple atmospheric resistance, to lie
fjir inferior in economy of steam to the locomotive, with its ]dus .atmospheric
resistance. The experiments by Dr. Lardner were made for the purpose of
determining the resistance opposed to progressive motion on railways. They
cojisisted in dismissing trains at various speeds from the summit of inclined
planes, and in observing their velocity when it became uniform, the resistance
at such velocity lieing equal to the accelerating force of gravity down the in-
clined plane. The results of these .are tabid.ited in tlie same manner as the
preceding, and the most singular discrepancies present themselves. For in-
stance, it would appear that in one particular case a duty of double the amount
of that effected by the condensing engine was performed by an equal expen-
diture of jiower; that compared with a fixed non-condensing engine at equal
pressure, the locomotive, tliongh labouring against the heavy counter-pressure
of the blast from which the other is free, is assumed to have jierformed equal
work with less than one-half the cxjicnditure of power. That if the resistance
assigned by Dr. Lardner as opposed to the progressive motion of the train be
correct, tlic efticiency of the steam in the locomotive is more than double
that obtained by the best condensing engines; more than treble that derived
from stationary non-condensing engines, and c(pial to the performance of a
Cornish expansive engine, doing a ,^iO million duty with a bushel of coals.
\\"Mi such results before us, the resistances assigned as opposed to and over-
come by the locomotive at different velocities, must lie reganled as utterly
iMconsistcnt with reality, and as resting on no solid foundation.

The preceding results show also that errors have crept in by the adoption
of the theoretical method of reducing undnlatoi'y surfaces to a level. M. de
I'anibonr extends the length of the road as a compensation for the acilivities
or for the help afforded by the hank engines, and Dr. Lardner diminishes the
time of the trip to that which he assumes would be occupied in ]ierformingit
on a dead level. If the jirinciples on which these corrections for the acclivi-
ties and declivities are made be correct, other facts than we are at present
acquainted with must be taken into account before it can he demonstrated
that a given power will convey a given load at some certain increased velocity
along a level compared with the actual velocity along any given undulating
line. The resistances w^iich enter into the comjiosition of the sum of the
forces are ever varying to such an extent, tliat it may be doubted whetlicr the
theoretical level be not a pure fiction with reference to the jiractical results
of the experiment.

The cficctive jiower of a locomotive engine, or the excess of po\rer after
overcoming its proper friction and tlie resistance from the blast, is solely ex-
pended in the generation of momentum. This which is the product of the
mass and the velocity represents the useful jnecbanical effort exerted by the
steam, and may always be ascertained under all the practical circumstances
of railway traffic. Tlie consumiition of power as ^v.atcr, in the shape of steam,
is a third quantity which may also be readily ascertained. The application
which may be made of the ,ibove data is comprehended in the following pro-
positions. First, that equal momenta would result at all velocities from an
equal amount of jiower expended in equal times by tlie same engine, if the
forces opposed to progressive inolion and to the effective use of steam in the

engines were uniform at all velocities. Secondly, the difference between the
momenta generated bv a unit of power in a given time at various velocities,
measures the difference in the sum of the resistances opposed to the power at
those velocities. Having ascertained the gross weight of an engine tender
and train— their mean velocity— and the expenditure of water as steam dur-
ing the trip, simple computations will inform ns of

1. The mechanical effect realized by a given power at all velocities.

2. The totiil increase or decrease of resistance at all velocities.

3. The ratios which the increase or decrease of resistance at difterent velo-
cities bear to the ratios of those velocities.

Two other results also follow from the above, and which may he terined
tlrc commercial results, viz. the amount of gross and useful tractive etVect
realized bv an e(|ual expenditure of power at all velocities. The difference
between these is a useless quantity in a practical sense, being the costly waste
of power incident to the locomotive functions of the engine and tender over
and above the waste arising from the iinaseertained and ineffective portion of
the whole power required for the blast. The reductions and computations
necessary for the exhibition and development of these views are contained ill
two tables. Tliev relate to forty-nine experimeuts, being those already re-
f.'ned to. and those by Mr. \. Wood, on the Great Western, and T^ondon and
Birmingham liailvvay, and sonic others. One of these tables contains the
velocity of the engines, the con,suniption of water as steam, the loads, the
absolute momenta per second ; the momenta generated by equal power in
equal times, viz. hv 1 lb. of water as steam per second ; the weights of the
gross and useful loads moved by equal powers, viz. by one cubic foot ofw.ater
as steam, at the velocity of each experiment, with various other elements.
The other table contains a summary of the ratios of the velocities and of
their s((uarcs, brougbt into juxta-position with the r.atios of the power ex-
pended to produce equal momenta, equal gross and equal useful effects, by the
comparison of pairs of experiments on the engines given in the preceding
table. Tliis t.-ihle also shows the influence of velocity in the expenditure of
power to jiroduce equal mechanical and equal commercial effects ; and the
amount of loss attributable to the increase of resistance at the higher veloci-
ties. The author discusses in great detail the various circumstances of these
experiments, and flic inferences and practical conclusions which may be de-
duced therefrom : and comes to the conclusion, that the determinatioit of the
performance of locomotive engines by the methods here set forth is .as prac-
ticalile, exact, and demonstrative of their relative powers and dynamic ex-
celleuee, as the determination of duty done bv pumping engines.

The intensitv of the pressm-e on the opposite side of the piston arising
from the blast' has been but imperfectly stated. By some the discharge of
the steam has hccu likened to a jet, and considered continuous. But an at-
tentive observer can appreciate by his ear that an interval exists between the
alternate discharges of steam from the two cylinders. That these juts are
]ieriodic and uot continuous, is also distinctly evidenced by the audible pulsa-
tions in the chimney, even .at the very highest velocities of an engine, and
their duration may be measured at lower speeds. Upon this intermittent
action of the blast "de|iend, in a great measure, the resultant pressure against
the jiiston, and the production of a sufiicient current of air through the fire,
both which eft'ects would he malerially changed in intensity liy the substitu-
tion of a continuous for a periodic current. The precise duration of the jet
or of the time of the steam cvticuiiting the cylinder, can only be determined
by dii-crl and careful experiments ; hut its period may be ascertained within
definite limits; for since a single discharge is completed within the time oc-
cupied by the piston in accomplishing a luilf stroke, and the pauses between
two successive discharges .are distinctly perceptible, a single blast cannot oc-
ciqiy the fourth p.art of the time of the revolution of the crank shaft, .and very
lu-obably does not exceed the eighth part, or the period of aqu.arter stroke of
the piston, ruder no circumstances, then, can f lie pressure from the blast
oppose the jiiston much longer than during one fourth of the stroke. With
an active pressure, then, of ;iO lbs. ]ier square inch, the mean resistaiicc from
the lilast would not be greater than 7^ lbs., and with a iircssure of 15 lbs.
not grci.te- than ;i:f lbs. per square inch, against the pistons. The author
then proceeds to cite several observations and experiments nia.le by himself,
which arc confirmatory of the preceding argument respecting the lilast, and
he was led couclusivelv to the fact, that one fifth of the power of the engine
experimented upon, at" working pressures of 20 lbs. and !."> lbs., was .absorbed
in blowing the fire ; and that the escape of the steam from the cylinder was
four times swifter than the motion of the piston.

The author lastly treats of the expenditure of power for a given effect by
fixed and locomotive non-condensing engines. But few experiments on the
expendifiire of steam for a given cfiect by non-condensing tt.atimiary engines
have been made. The lel.ative consumption of fixed condensing and noii-
condensing engines has been treated of by the late Mr. Charles Sylvester, of
Derby, whose knowledge and accurate theoretical an,alysis of the subject are
showii by the close accordance of his conclusions with the facts established
on two engines of these classes at certain working pressures. His conclusion
that the relative economy of these engines will be as the quantities of steam
consumed, or .as 1 to 1-7'J, at those pressures, is accurately confimed by the
results here recorded. Mr. Sylvester .ilso showed, that by increasing the
pressure upon the same nou-eondensing, and by eiil,argi|!ig the area of the
condensing engine's cylinder and .air pump, so as to mainfliin the steam in it
at a uniform iiressure'iier square inch for all loads, the economy of the former
would gradually approach and fimdly eqn.al that of the latter. The results
obtained in the preceding part of the paper, furnish nnincrous comparisons

T 2

136

THE CIVIL ENGINEF.R AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[Aprii.,

Ijetween tlie locoiiiolivc aiul fixei] non-condensing engines, and the consump-
tion of tlie latter lias been used, together with the condensing engine, as the
test of the acenrary of the data of resistance assigned to the former by the
various analysis. The accurate determination of the expenditure of steam by
the same locomotive engine, in which the values of the friction and of the
blast pressure were ascertained, admits of the consumption of water as steam
for given effects being determined, and thus narrows the grounds of doubt,
and establishes in(U'e correct data for ascertaining the real resistance opposed
to progressive motion on railways. Tlie ajiplication of these principles, as
borne out by the experiments of the author, and their particular bearing on
the experiments which have been the subject of the previous ample and de-
tailed discussion, form the conclusion of Mr. Parkes series of eonimunica-
tions on steaiu boilers and steam engines.

ROYAL INSTITUTE OF BRITISH ARCHITECTS.
.•ird Feb. 1840, W. R. Hamilton, Esq., Hon. Fellow in the Chair.

J. H. Good, jun., was elected an Associate.

A paper was read by Ambrose Poynter, Esq., Hon. Sec. entitled, " tome
remarks on arnhesijue decornfioii^, particulnrly those of the Vatican^ Au
abstract of this |iaper appeared in the last months' Journal.

It is requisite that we should notice an error which occnned in the report
of Mr. Poynter's jiaper on arabesque ornaments, in oiu' last number. Some
extracts had been selected from it, which owing to the unavoidable absence
of the Editor, were inserted without tlie necessary connexion being supplied,
and were, moreover, unfortunately misjilaccd in jninting. We think this ex-
planation due to Mr. Poynter — we hope that we shall be able, at some future
opportunity, to print this very interesting paper in full, illustrated by en-
granngs.

17tli Feb., John Shaw, Esq., Fellow in the Chair.

Mr. C. H. Smith read a paper " on the properties of rririoim stones used
for l/nit/linr/.

At a Special General Meeting, 21st Feb., 11. E. Kendall, Fellow in the
Chair.

It was Resolved — That the President Earl De Grey be respectfully re-
quested to present to her Majesty the following address on the part of the
Institute.

ADDHESS.

The President, Vice Presidents and Members of the Institute of British
Architects, dee))ly impressed with the honour conferred upon them by your
Majesty's most gracious patronage, beg leave humbly to oft'er their sincere
congratulations on the occasion of your Majesty's auspicious marriage.

That every blessing of this life may attend your Majesty and your illus-
trious f^onsort throughout a long and prosperous reign is the earnest prayer
of your Majesty's most loyal and dutiful subjects.

2d March 1840, H. E. Kendall Fellow in the chair. The following gen-
tlemen were elected Fellows : — Charles Parish, George Alexander, and David
Urandon from the class of .Associates ; — Associate, Evan Christian.

T. L. Donaldson, Esq. Fellow, read a paper " oti tlie recent discoveries made
at the Porta Mayijiore, Home," conmiunicated by Signer Canina, Hon. and
Cor. Member.

Mr. C. 11. Smith read the conclusion of his paper "on the properties of
stone used for the purposes of building.

Monday, March 16, George Moore, Fellow, in the Chair.

The following gentlemen were elected : as Fellow, Edwanl J'Ausou, jun. ;
as Associates, William Hinton Campbell, of Bath, and George Pownall.

Anthony Salvin, Fellow, presented ten guineas for the purchase of books.

T. 1,. Donaldson, Esq., read a paper on a system of framing for floors and
roofs of large s|ian, and applicable to bridges, whetlier of timber or iron, com-
municated by Heir Laves, architect of Hanover, Hon. and Cor. Member.

Question respecting the origin of the vertical line in architecture, and the
return to the horizontal Hue in Italian liuildings. By Sir Gardner Wilkinson,
Hon. Fellow.

In offering the following observations to the consideration of the Institute,
it is not my object to suggest, but to elicit an opinion upon the subject;
feeling as 1 do that it would be jiresumption for me to do more than state
the facts which have led to my remarks, when I bad an opportunity of sub-
mitting it to those who are so ca|iable of giving it a satisfactory exjilanation.

It is universally admitted that the principal features which distingiush
Greek from what may be called Church Architecture, are the horizontal line
in the former, and the vertical in the latter ; and some have supposed that to
church architecture is to be ascribed the origin of the vertical line. That it
is common to buildings of the Saracens, the Lombards, the Saxons, and the
Normans, as well as to those of the ])ointcd style, is sufficiently obvious :
thus far our experience tells us we have traced it, but beyond this, conjecture
has not attributed to it an existence, nor has its origin been ascribed to any
more remote source.

In the oldest Saracenic Mosques, erected about the middle of the 7th cen-
tury, the style of architecture is evidently borrowed from Roman buildings.
Their arches are simply imitative of the Roman style; the windows though

small have a round arched head; tlie corridors are formed of avenues of single
slender columns supporting round arches, and the type of the Roman original
is readily traced; as in the earliest churches of Europe, which also present
the round arch of the Roman style. But in both these we find the lines
already vertical ; and that this might be expected from what we see in the
moiuuncnts of ancient Rome, is the point to which I wish jiaiticularly to ad-
vert.

Those buildings erected by the Romans in imitation of the Greek, as temples,
and some other monuments of a borrowed style, present the horizontal line
of that architecture to which they really belonged, and of which they were
copies; and since we find this to be the case in all countries of modern
Europe where Greek architecture is imitated (even though it is notorious that
the vertical line is the prevailing feature of our taste) we cannot he surprised
that the same should have been done li\ the architects of Rome. But when-
ever the Romans attempted any thing of their own, in which they thought a
deviation from Greek models was allowable, we no longer perceive the hori-
zontal, but the vertical line predominating ; and to such an extent, that even
a Greek entablature is sacrificed to this their favourite sentiment, being broken
up into detached parts and comjielled to project and recede, in order to allow
the vertical line to pass continuously through it to the summit of the build-
ing.

In an arch of triumph, a Roman composition, though the mouldings and
many other details are borrowed from the Greek, the vertical line commeuces
with the pedestal of the columns appended to its side, and extending upwards
with the cohunn, breaks through the entablature, which it obliges to come
forward to earn- out and mark its direction, requires a projection of the attic
to correspond with the capital above the cornice, and terminates in a statue ;
thus continuing it uninterruptedly from the base of the sunuuit of the build-
ing. This is not confined to an arch of triumph ; the same occurs in other
monuments ; a remarkable instance of which may be cited in the remains of
the Forum Palladium, or Forum of Nero, (according to the Chevalier Bunsen),
where the whole entablature is made to advance from the face of the wall to
the distance of several feet, and is crowned by a similar iirojection of the
attic, in order to correspond with the vertical line of the column which sup-
ports it ; and the same taste for breaking up the horizontal line of Greek
entablatures may be seen in numerous Roman buildings, the neplus ultra of
which occurs in the monstrosities of Petra.

Thus then we find the vertical line did not originate with the architecture
of Christian Europe; it occurs in the mommients of ancient Rome; and this
interesting question naturally suggests itself, — whence did it proceed, was it
of Italian origin ? — In the Rome of a Christian era the same occurs through-
out its churches; which is the more remarkable, as those churches are not of
what has been termed Gothic, but of Greco-Roman or of Cinque-cento style ;
and in these the vertical line extends from the lowest to the highest part.
Even domes and cupolas are not exempt from its intrusion; it commences
with the basement of the column, and extending ujiwards through the pro-
jecting entablature and the attic, it continues in bands over the whole convex
surface of the dome, requires a corresponding pilaster or half column in the
lantern, and exhausts itself only in the extremity of the cross, or whatever
point terminates the building: a good example of which may be seen in the
cupola of St. Peter's, whose facade, a memento of Bernini, not only unites
the most glaring defects in taste, hut affords an illustration of the worst ap-'
plication of the vertical line. After viewing these monuments, and observing
the feeling which pervades them, eveiT one must be surjirised at the sight of
the s])lendid palazzi of Rome, and other cities of Italy. In these we no longer
perceive the vertical, but the horizontal line predominating, which is carried
out with wonderful effect, both in the rich and splendid cornices that crown
the building, and in the string courses beneath the windows. In these no
broken entahlature injures the barmouy of the straight line, no sinecure
columns are suspended at the side of the walls to do nothing but spoil the
effect of the whole mass, and we perceive that their architects did not put
together a number of details to form a whole, but conceived the whole, and
made the details accessory to the general effect. So evident indeed is this,
that the details are sometimes bad, and still the whole is excellent ; as in
many jiictiires of the great masters, where the composition and execution of
the painting are of far greater importance, aud far more striking to an artist
than the imperfection of an accessory' ! like the sandal in the picture of
Apelles.

Whence came it that Italy adojited this horizontal style, in which she has
given such magnificent ami graceful monuments ' They are her own ; and
no Greek models were the origin of these noble conceptions. This is another
interesting question ; and it is w ith a view to obtain some explanation res-
pecting the origin of tlie vertical sli/le in ancient Rome, and the return to the
horizontal style in the palaces of modern Italy, that I have offered the fore-
going remarks to the Society ; fully jiersuaded that many here present have
been struck with the same curious facts, and are enabled to offer au explana-
tion of them, which ray inexperience on such a subject forbids me to suggest.

SELECT COMMlTTEl'i ON RAILAVAYS.

[second report to the house of commons. I

The select committee appointed to inquire into the state of communication

by railw,iy.s, and who were empoivcred to report llicir observations, together

with the minutes of evidence taken before them from time to time, to the

House ; have further considered the matters to them refeiTed, and have to

1840.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

137

report, llmt lliev have taken into tlieir consideration the following clause
which has heen referred to them by the House : —

"Ami he it enacted, that no bridge or tunnel, or approaches to the same,
for carrying a turnpike-road over or under any part of a railway or canal,
shall be made or constructed of less width between the fences, walls, or para-
pets thereof than 21 feet: nor shall any bridge or tunnel, or approaches to
the s.ame. for carrying any other public carriage-rond over or under any part
of a railway or canal be made or constructed of less width between the fences,
walls, or parapets thereof than 16 feet ; nor in any case less than so much
greater width, not exceeding 30 feet, as may be the average width of the
turnpike or other public carriage-road for 100 yards on each side of that
part of the railway or canal where any bridge or tunnel is inlende.l to Ije
made or constructed." . , , „ . , .

Your Committee have upon this subject examined Mr. Palk, the legal ad-
viser of the Chairman of Committees iri the House of Lords, and it appears
from his evidence, tliat about the end of tlie year 18,S6, complaints were made
to the Chairman of the Committees, and he introduced clauses into all sub-
sequent railway bills, containing the provisions here anne.ved. and which
vour Committee will now proceed to compare with the clause referred for
iheir consideration.

The rule which since that period has, with few exceptions, been adopted by
the Chairman of Commitiees in the House ol Lords, provides that the width
of turnpike roads passing under bridges or tunnels should be 2.5 feet, and
the width of highways passing under bridges or tunnels should be 15 feet.

The clause referred to your Committee for their consideration provides,
that no bridge or tunnel for cariying a turnpike-road under any part of a
railroad or canal shall be constructed of less Hidth than 21 feet, and no
bridge or tunnel for carrying any puljlie carriage-road under any part of a
railway or canal, .shall be constructed of less width than IG feet.

It w ill be perceived, therefore, that as regards a turnpike-road, the clause
referred to your Committee requires a less width by four feet than has been
required by the rule adopted m the House of Lords, while, as regards a
highway or public carriage-road, an additional width of one foot is required
more than has been deemed necessary by the regulations of the House of
Lords. These regulations further provide, that the height of a bridge or
tunnel passing under a railway should Ije 16 feet. This appears to your
Committee to be also an important regulation. It will be found in the evi-
dence aiuiexed to the second report of the Committee on Railways in the
last session, that it has been especially provided that the bridges or tunnels
for carrying turnpike-roads under the Brighton Railway shall he IS feet in
height, and it is stated that this height was insisted upon for the conveni-
ence of the farmers anil hop growers in that district. Tlie rule of the House
of Ijords also requires that the width of a turnpike-road upon a bridge pass-
ing over a railway must be 2.5 feet, and the width ot a public carriage-way
15 feet, with a parapet-wall in e.ach case four feet high. A reference to llie
analytical table in the appen lix to the second report of the Railw ay Com-
mittee of last session, wilt show that these regulations luave been introduced
into all the Railway Acts since the year 18.36.

Your Committee would now recommend to the House that in all original
Railway Acts, and in all Railway Acts authorizing new works in the present
session of Parliament, the rule of the House of Lords should be adopted as
to works to be carried into execution under the provisions of those Acts re-
spectively, with this addition, that in every bridge or tunnel tlie arches
should spring from abutijients of not less height than 10 feet. Your Com-
mittee would also recommend that in all Railway Acts authorizing further
works, passed in any future session of Parliament, the rule shall be as fol-
lows, with respect to works to he carried into execution under the provision
of those Acts respectively :

Whenever a turnpike-road passes under a railway, the width of the bridge
or tunnel shall in no case be less than 30 feet, and there shall be on eacli side
footways of 2i feet in width. Whenever a public carriage-road passes under
a railway, the width of the bridge or tunnel shall he not less than 20 feet,
and there shall be on each side tootways of 18 inches wide; the height of
the bridge or tunnel shall in no case be less than 16 feet, and the arches shall
spring from abutments of not less than 10 feet in height.

•Similar provisions might also, with advantage, be made applicable to all
canal bills which shall in future be introduced into Parliament.

Statistics op Gas. — For lighting Loudon and its suburbs with gas, there
are 18 public gas works ; 12 public gas work companies ; 2,800,000/. capital
employeil in works, pipes, tanks, gas-holders, apparatus; -150,000/. yearly
revenue derived; 180,000 tons of coal used in the year for making gas;
1,460,000,000 cubic feet of gas made in the year; 134,300 private burners
supplied to about 400,000 consumers ; 30,400 public or street consumers. —
About 2650 of these are in the city of London. — 380 lamplighters employed ;
17G gas-holders, several of them double ones, capable of storing 5,500,000
cuoic feet ; 890 tons of coals used in the retorts on the shortest day, in 24
hours; 7,120,000 cubic feet of gas used in the longest night, say 24th De-
cember; about 2500 persons are employed in the metropolis alone in this
branch of manufacture ; between 1822 and 1827 the quantity nearly doubled
itself, and that in five years ; between 1827 and 1837 it doubled itself again.

Portsmouth Flo.\tixg BRiDGE.-;-This bridge, which will shortly be
opened, is seventy feet in length, and sixty in breadth, and is capable of hold-
ing on each side, besides passengers, two rows of carriages seventy feet long ;
she is impelled by two engines of twenty-horse power each, the cylinders
being eighteen inches in diameter, and the length of the stroke three feet.
The average rate of the engines will be about thirty strokes per minute, and
the average speed about 350 feet per minute ; so that she will perform the
passage (2200 feet) in about seven minutes. She only draws, with all her
machineiy on board, two feet and nine inches, and fifty tons additional weight
will only sink her four inchei.

STEAM NAVIGATION.

The Kemesis iron steam ship, 165 feet long, 29 feet beam. 660 tons, built by
John Laird, of the Birkenhead Iron M'orks, Livcrpoid, with engines of 120
horse power, made bj George Korresler and Cn. Liverpocd. On her passage
from Liverpool for Odessa, she struck on a sunken rock when going 9 knots
per hour the damage she sustained w.as trifling, requiring only about 2i ewt.
of new iron, and 12 men about 6 days to repair it; not a rivet was started —
the injury w.is confined to the part actually lihiged or cut ; the repairs might
have been cumpleteil in three days at Liverpool, where every cnnvenience
could have been had. [t is stated by s<inie parties, well acquainted with the
circumstances, that hail the vessel heen timber built, she would not have
been got off at all ; but all agree tliat had she got oil' the repairs would have
been both tedious and very expensive. The leak caused by the lilow was so
trifling that the Nemesh might have steamed for months w itliout being obliged
to dock. Ibe accident occurred about the lOth ult.. she steamed .300 miles
afterwards, w.as discharged, docked, repaired, reloaded and ready for sea
again by the 26th ult., with all her stores and coals on board.

PROGRESS OF RAIL-WAVS.

CROYDON RAILWAY.

Mr. Cubtlt's Report to tlte Directors on the Cost of constructing the
Railioay.

[M'e have given this report in full, as it contains a great deal of valuable
information to the profession.]

Gentlemen, Loinlon, March 9, 1840.

'■The object of this report is to set forth the cost of constructing the Croy-
don Railway.

" In performing this duty it will be necessary to refer back to a period
previous to the general meeting in August last, at which time the affairs of
the Company were undergoing an examination by a committee of proprietors,
by whom I was lalled upon, to aid and assist them in their labours.

'' As much dissatisfaction at tliat time existed with regard to the great
cost of the works, and the little information which existed on the subject, it
occurred to me that nuthiug could lend to satisfy the minds of the proprie-
tary so much as a clear statement of ihe cost of all the various parts of the
work, and in a short report of the Committee of the 7tb of August, I stated
the way and manner, and the uiunber of heads in wdiich [ recommended tlie
accounts to be called fir, and which were as f jilow : —

I. Acts of Parliament, including all legal and professioiml charges of all
kinds incurred in soliciting and passing the various bills ; the whole
drawn out in a detailed form.

II. Land, buildings, and compensations of all kinds for the line of rail-
way, and stations, together with all legal charges attending the same,
and the expenses of all kinds attendant lai obtaining possession of the
land, &c., in detail.

HI. Karthwork, bridges, fencing, draining, and forming the line of railway,
as per contracts and otherwise, and also all extras upon contracts, set-
ting forth in a clear and detailed form the whole cost of formation, bridg-
ing, fencing, draining. &ic.. up to the line of ballasting.

IV. Ballasting, sleepering. .and laying the permanent way complete, in-
cluding all turn-plates, sidings, and expenses of all kinds attending the
trackways of the line.

V. Water apparatus, including engines, pumps, standards, pipes, and erec-
tions of all kinds relative to supplying the locomotive engines with
water.

VI. .Stations, showing the amount of contracts, and an account in detail
of all extras thereon.

VII. Engine and carriage hou.ses, workshops, implements, machinery and
apparatus of every kind, for repairing and maintaining the locomotive
engines, (<tc.

VIII. Wharfs, railway cranes, and works connected with the GrandSurrey
Canal Junction.

IX. Sundries of various kinds not reducible to the above heads.

X. Engineering and supervisal of all kinds.

••Such were the accounts which I recommended the Committee to obtain,
and which statement was remitted to the engineer as instructions to furnish
to me. in detail, the accounts as therein specified.

•'This requisition, which involved much labour and of necessity would
occupy a great length of time, was most readily and cheerfully responded to
by Mr. Gibhs, who not only ciuseil the whole of the engineering accounts and
expenditure to be arranged in detail under their respective heads, from HI
to IX. inclusive, but induced Messrs. Grissel and Peto, the contractors for
the stations and buildings, to do the same with all tlieir work, and who, much
to their credit and at a very heavy expense, furnished in detail a minute
account of all the work executed by them for the Company.-

" To the heads. Nus 1, II. and X , I have not received any returns, but as
they form no portion of the construction of the railway, and the first two
not' being in the engineer's department, and the last relating to private and
personal accounts of the Company, may be considered as sufficient reasons
for not being included in this inquiry,

" As it will be difficult, if not impossible, in a report of tlii ; kind, (which
is intended to afi'ord as much general information as possible in the shortest
compass, and in a way to be understood by the general body of the proprie-
tors) to enter very minutely into the accounts, 1 shall therefore suljmit to
the board a general abstract or statement of the whole work, under the sepa-
rate heads contained in my instructions, dividing each head into the princi-

UH

THE CIVIL ENfilNEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[Aprii,,

pal itrms of costs (if uliicli it i^; composed, and refer for fiirihor psirliciilirs
to tlic books themselves, premising tli;it every entry in tlie buck, or stnte-
iiiiiii f\iniislied to me. is ic-tVncd to original ilny-boMk, jomnal. or ledger, in
wliieh tbe :icco\mt.« have been entered and kept ; and 1 have the assm'inee
(if the iiiirtieb by whom the aeeoiints have l)cen analyzed, that onl of the
whole ainonnl there are not 500/. for "boh vovieliers a'e not producible, and
which, in so lirfje an amount, of which I bad heard it surmi.sed that no rc;;u-
lar accoimts had been kept, I think it very unsatisfactory.

" Of course, it is not in my province to t;o through and compare every
entry in a voUuninoiis and mixed set of accounts ; a relnrn has been made
to me, as nearly as possible in tlic spirit and letter of my instructions, and
that nol in the form of a mere abstract but in great detail, anil with every
I ntry referred to the book from w bich it was extracted ; which books, also,
as l»efore observed, were sent to me for inspection, and are now in my pos-
session ; and if it would be any salisfaclion to the lioard or tbe proprietary,
1 shall have no objection to attcml the general meeting tbete\M'h, and to
adord any information and e.\()}anatiun in my [)ower on ilie subject ; but the
following abstract of tbe accounts will show in what way the capital of the
Company lias been disposed of, as far as works, buildings, and machinery,
are concerned.

" .Such is Ibe statem.ent of cost which I have been enabled to make out and
.submit to the meeting, and which 1 have no reason to think is otherwise
llian correct, deiiending of course on the correctness of the data from wdiieh
it was formed, but which 1 have no caio^e to doubt ; tbe b<tt)ks, liowever, are
Ijcfcu'e ibe meeting, and will be found, I Ihliik, tti l.'car both external and
internal evidence of being original documents, with entries made at tbe
tinu" ; and in my judgment not the less (vabnlile in this cise for not being
the most perfeci system of bookkeejiing that could be devised.

' As regards tbe correctness of the charges and the amount of works done

ovei and above the contracts, there is no means of provin

Hcaft No. fjl. of instructions — Format,
1st — Eurtfiworl.

Forest Hill ....

New Cross Hill

Sydenham ....

Croydon .....

Total of Earthwork
iiul^Fendiig, Braining, nnil prepuring
for Bdllasl, Jj-r.
Forming tbe way
Fencing, soiling slopes, 8ic.
Fencing and planting
•Surface draining

fiates

Slips and extra slopes . .

Total forming Slips, 8*c.
'Ard — Briffgrs antl Culverts.
Viaduct at Corbet's Lane
Ronndary Walls at ditto
Timber V'i.nduct
Black Ditch Bridge .
Surrey Canal Hridge
Cold Blow Farm ditto
Footbridge, Kive Bell Lane
New Cross Bridge
Finches' Bridge

Deptford Common Hridge. No. 1
Ditto ditto No. 2

Calgate's Bridge
Owen's Bridge
Colson's Bridge
Sydeidiam Tiridge
Anerley Bri<lge
.lolly Sailor Bridge .
Croydon Common Bridge, No. 1,
Ditto ditto No. 2.

Cross Road Bridge .

Total of Bridges .
Ilh— Culverts.

Deptford Ccmimon Culvert
Ditto ilitto

Forest Wood ditto .
At New Cro.is ....
,, Sydenhatn ....
,, .Solhurst ....

Total of Culverts .
5flt — Jirtdinhig atirt Bouuilorij il'itlts.
Turner's and Slerry's
At Sydenham Bridge
.Sydenham Station Walks
.lolly S.-iilor ditto
Darlnioulh Anns ditto
Sundry Walls ....

Total ol Uelaining .and Boundary
Walls ....

6th — Diversion of Uoiids, Jjr. I'j-c.
At Cross Koads Bridge
Brockley Road
Dartmouth Anns ditto .
New Cross ....

ion of Line.

£ ... d.

20.703 13 9

30.131 2 4

11,718 2 3

4.527 .O 9

73,080 4 1

426 0 4

4,649 11 6

6.763 3 7

2,817 19 6

486 9 2

11.138 11 11

26.281 15 0

9,374 13 8

559 fi 3

2,505 15 0

5,062 6 10

7.361 11 1

618 12 2

4.06 14 6

.3.161 7 0

2.603 9 5

628 8 6

1,102 3 0

1.3.'-,3 12 10

1,032 12 11

873 18 8

2.981 7 6

1,761 13 6

2.612 5 1

1,069 3 10

1,136 0 11

1,394 2 0

47,649 4 8

451 5 4

412 9 3

129 0 9

1,418 18 11

1,786 19 1

115 17 9

4,315 1 1

666 1 8

3.451 7 3

374 0 7

611 12 3

1,513 14 8

141 0 2

6,757 16 7

448 11 7

15 15 ti

.543 1 0

533 3 U

It in every m-

TABLEOF COSTS.

Viaduct Road

Sydenham Bridge

Jolly Sailor . . " .

Penge and Anerley Roads

Approaches to Nos. 1 S; 2 Bridgf

Surrey Canal Hridge Road

Sundry other Roads

Total making and altering Roads,
Sec. &c

Total of construction toForma-

stance. esneei illy in day-work and s-indhes. which form a lar;,'e amount. An
approximate check might certainly be obtained as to the success of cuttings
in llattcning .slopes, and getting out slips in the large coniracls. by going
into a remeasurement of those portions of tbe work, but this would involve
a consider.ible expense, and it i'i doiilitbil wbelher the result would jii.stify
the expense to be incurred : still I am ready to go into it if the Board think
it proper to do .so. In conneciion with this part of tbe subject, it is due to
the engineer lo state, that 1 have been furnished with the cross sections and
dimen.-ions of all the extra cuttings fn.m winch the accounts w.re deduced ;
and in conclusion. ! may be again allowed to observe, that on the part of
Mr. fiibbs, your pnncipil engineer, and Mr. Dean, the .assistant engineer,
there has been no lack of infornialion. and that my acknuwledginents are
due to those gentlemen for the promptitude and rea<hness with which my
iiupiiries have at all times been met.

■'On the whole, then, after a careful and kiborious investigation of tbe
subject. I b ive no hesit ition now m recording as my deliberate opinion, that
wliieb I bal the hoiiuur to express verlially to a meeting of this Comp.any
some time bclbre the railway was open to ffie iiulilic, and whilst the conduct
of the Board at that time and the state of the exjieniiiture were under tlie
investigalion of a Committee, viz. — that as far as the works are concerned
(cxcepling any errors of adineasiiremeiit). there is value received, although
probably at a high price, on account ol circumstances in materials and labour
lor tbe money ; and that the railway is well and durably laid; and that
whatever want of judgment there may have existed in making out the origi-
nal estimates, and lack of knowledge as to the extent lo which the works
would ultimately be carried, (here has. in my opinion, been no want of
honesty eillier in tlie management or the executive, as regards the execution
of the works.

1 have the honour to be, Ike,

" W. CuiillT."

£ .•,.

d.

73 4

9

33 19

0

101 3

0

350 0

0

B 770 13

4

13 16

9

1,936 15

0

4820 3

10

tion level.

162.904 6 3

Head No. I J', of Instnirtions. riz— Ballasting. Drain-
ing, Tiinhcring. and lai/ing Permanent JVay.
1st — Ballasting the Line, exclusive of

London Bridge Station . . 17.373 15 0
2nd— Drainage of Perinanent Way 2,788 1 10

ird — Timbering the Line.

,Sleepers, timber, and preparing d

Carriage of timber

Kyanizing ditto

Laying sleepers

Tarring ditto

Felt for rails

Total of timbering Ibe line
4/// — Rails and Laying .
Rails, screws, and bolls
Labour and laying rails
Carriage, and removal by hand
of ditto . . , .

Tiirnplates . . . .

Total of laying rails

20,161 16 10

24.890
1,943
4.793
5.113

8 10

9 2
3 8
8 2

2'23 17 II
6H3 5 10

37,627 13 7

24.785 10
908 17

1.847 19
2.151 1

29,753

10
8 U

87,542 19 4
■ Siipphfnig

923 10 1
3,190 2 11
1,5,55 2 2

Head No. l'. of Inxiruelions.— ll'ali
Apfiartitus.
At London Bridge Station
New C'ross ditto
Croydon ditto ....

Total of water apparatus . 5.068 15 2

Head No. VI. of Instrnelions — Cost of Stations.
At Liinilon Bridge
New Cross
Dartmouth Arms
Sydenham ....
Penge and Anerley
The Jolly Sailor
Croydon ....

Total of Stations . . . 78.736 0 6

Head No. VU. of Inslrnelioii.', included in No. I'l.

Ile<id No. J'IfL of Instructions — Jl'harfs at Surrey

Canal Junction, and Croydon.

\sl— Surrey Canal IV harf and Incline 5,022 5 10

2nd — Croydon Wharfs,

Wharf waUs '. . . . 2,750 17 5

■f.

37

968
86

I. d.
0 10
4 0
3 0

3.842

5 3

40,.^01 5

8

21,919 18

5

1,.344 10

8

1.34 3

4

454 2

4

2.366 0

4

12.215 19

9

Crane

Warehouses

Stables

Total of Wharfs

8,864 11 1

Head No. IX. of Instructions — Sundries of various

kinds, including Locomotiee Engines, Carriages,

IVaggutis, Consolidation of Way, S^c.Sic
\st — Houses and Cottages.

Police Cottages .

S^vitch Box at Junction

Ditto ditto at New Cross .

Cottage at Brockley

Ditto ditto Selhiirst

Storehouse, C'oldblow

2nd — Lighting.

Light House at Junction
Ej-penses for Lighting Road.

New c'ross station

Croydon Station

Jjondon ditto

Kngiiie lamps, &c.

Light House at Junction

Ditto

3r(/ — Consolidation of IVay

'ith — I.ofomotire Engines, Carriages,

and ll'aggnus ....
5/// — Miseellauta and Sundries of alt

and various kinds

Total

" From the annexed statement arises tbe follow-
ing general .-ibslract. under the ditferent heads of
my instructions, viz. —
Construction ainl Ibrmalion of the

line of railway to the line of

ballasting ....

Ballasting and laying the permanent

way

Buildings and ninchinery for sup-

jitying water lo engines
.Stations, workshops. &c.
Wliarfs at Surrey Canal and Croy-
don

.Sundriesof various kinds, including

locomotive engines, coaches and

waggons, consolidation of way,

eke

691 19
38 7
33 8

199 12
12 0
64 16

10
7
0
3
6
0

1,040 4

2

369 10

5

374 10
232 6

3(t2 1

223 8

89 4

349 18

0
0
1
4

7
7

1,940 19 0
11,146 18 10

28,086 3

6

18,054 17

5

60,269 2

11

£403,985 15

3

£

«/.

162.904 6

3

87,542 19

4

5,688 15
78.736 0

2
6

8,864 11 1

60,269 2 11

Total cost of i-onstruclion and .set-

ing to work .... £403,985 15 3

Exclusive of laoil, parliamentary and law ex-
penses, and engineering.

18-lO.J

THE CIVTL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

13»

MANCHKSTER AND BIRMINGHAM RAILWAY REPORT.

Mr. Buck's Report In ttie Bowd of Diric/ms, ( Marth 3, 18'IO.j

Fti'irfcld Strret Coittracl. — This conlract is finished, witli ihp t-xcrpfion df
the bi-iilge over Fairficlil-slreot. 'Vlw ironwork of iliis hriil^^c iy now in course
of erection. Half of I lie ni.iiii rihs are fixed, and 1 ex[)eet Ihat in .seven weeks
from lliis (late, all the roadway plate.s will be fi.Ned. and Ihe bridge reaJy to
receive the ballasting. In my report of la-t September. I stated that tlie
founder had undertaken to have Ihe ironwork erected by the end of Decem-
ber la.st : however, he his Ijeen un ible to work up tii his calculatior.s in tli-s
resjiect, by reason of the extraordinary wetness of the wcaiher, which pre-
vented the workmen from continuously jiroceeding with tlie fitting of the
eastings ; an operation w Inch. ( from the nature of tlie « ork.) w as necessarily
peiformrd in the open air. I)Ut it is saiisfactory to state, that although
some additional time h-i.s consequently been requisite for this portion (»f the
work, the opening of the line to .Stockport will not he rctardeil thereby.

CAaneen/ ia"e eonrtnr/ is finished, and the contractor for laying the per-
manent way is now balkisling the arches.

/{i/i/e Road Conlnict.— The brick arche.s are all turned and ballasted, in
ri'adiness for the permanent way. About one-third of the parajiet remains
to he built. The ironwork for the cast iron arch over the Myde Road, is now
in progress of erection ; all the main ribs, and a p(U-lioii of the span drills are
fi.ved. 1 r.xpect that the roadway plates will he ready for the ballasting in
four weeks from this time.

Hrnlon Norr/s Contract. — The excavation is very nearly finished : about
8,000 yards only remain to be moved, in addition to th.it which has been re-
served for ballasting Ihe permanent way ; and tliis will go out as wanted for
the purpose. An opening remains in the embankment at the crossing of the
.Sloekporl Ro d and its diversion, where two temporary bridges have been
erected during the con.struction of tlie permanent one. The masonry for the
latter is at the lieight for Ihe reception of the iron arch, which is ready, and
will lequiie about eight weeks (or fiNirg. 'I'his is the only bridge iindrr the
line which is not built. Ulthe bridges over the excavation, there aie five of
various sizes in different stales of forwardness, three being nearly finished.
These will all be easily completed during the time of fixing the ironwork of
the Stockport Road bridge. Of the permanent way. .5.100 yards of single
road have been, and 13,400 yards remiin to be laid. Here more was calcu-
lated upon, but the contrad'or has leer, unable to procure s'eepers so rapidly
as he expected ; however, in corseipience of rei-ent ariangemen Is which la-
has made in reference to a more expeditious delivery.! have every confi-
dence in his completing the whole williin the period of his contract.

Sturkport 1'iadiwt Contract. — The north abutment .and seven arches are
(ini.shed ; three other arches are in dill'erent slates of forwardness, and the
centre is fixing for the elevenlh. The pier on the right in,irL;in of the river
Mersey is erected to the height of the impost, which is partly set ; the pre-
ceding ten arches comprehend all that portion of the work on the north or
Lancashire side of the river. The foundation of the river |iier on the left
margin is just commenced. Five other piers on the south or Cheshire side
are in progress, one being nearly finished, and the others in |iroporliunate
states of advance. The foundalions of the three next in succession are exca-
vated, and the south abutment is partially erected. I have great satisfaction
in stating Ihat all the foundations are upon rock.

Castle Street Contract rxiends from the south ahulment of the Stockport
Vi.aduct lo the Mecca Brook, a distance of two miles six chains. The con-
traclor has just commenced operations.

The designs are prepared for that portion of the line extending fr m the
enil of the last mentioned contract to AJderley, a distance of seven miles
sevi'ii chains.

1 have every confidence that my former statement will be realised, and
111 It Ihe line from Fairfield-street to .Stockport may be opened in the minilh
of May next.

MMand Comities Railway. — This line of railway will be opened from Not-
tingham and Derby to Leicester, in ,\Iay next, and throughout to Rugby in
Juni-. in lime to receive the traffic when the whole line oi' the North Midland is
opcueil. This important ivilway is one of ihe few in Knglaml that will be
made with the original suliscribed Cijiilal. It will be in hill operation without
the creation of either half or quarter .siiires : and noln ithsiamliiig Ihe presm.re
ill the money-market, so great iuis been the confidence in this undeitakuig,
that the directors have already been enabled to borrow nearly Ihe whole sum
authorised to be taken on loan by their Act. The cost of the line, including
everything, will only be about 22,.)0(l/. per mile. — Railwai/ Times. — This rail-
way will untim.ately become one id' the most important lines in the kingdom,
particularly if an act should be obtained for the Nottingham, Lincoln and
Hull railway, which is sure to be carried into execution sooner or later.

Gloucester and Binningliam Railway. — This company appear to be using
their utmost exertions to hasten operations along that portion of the line
promised, in their Ijite report, to be (»pened in tlie spring. On Monday last
the directors and engineers inspected the works at the Cheltenham station,
with the state and condition of which they expressed themselves much pleased ;
and, proceeding on the railroad to Tewkesbury, examined in like manner the
different works in that neighbourhood. The return from Tewkesbury was
accomplished in sixteen minutes ; we believe the distance has been gone over
before in thirteen. The engines to be employed on this line, if that now at
work is to be taken as " a sample for all the rest."' jiiomise to equal, if not
excel, those of any of the other railroads in the kingdom. — Cheltenham Look-
er-on.

mune of llermi«s, ni'ar Bapaume. which we .are inclined to receive w ith some
hesitation, till we meet wiih a confirm ition of the statement. It is therein
said, that during the late heavy rains a great lanil-slip took place close lo
Hermies. into which some of the young men of the place had the li.irciihood
to descend, by means of Ladders tied together. What was their surprise, to
finil theniscLes. at a depth of thirty metres, in the niidsl of handsome streets,
bordered on boUi sides Ijy cells and chambers, which h.ad evidently been once
inhabited ! The strees are of w idth sufficient to admit of a carriage p.as.sing ;
and ihc chanibers, of various sizes, are also of various degrees of cunirort an. I
elegance. Some are flagg.'d ; ami their number is said to amount to between
twelve and fiflevn hundred. Among the objects by which the iwplorers were
more particularly struck, was an old stone tower, with a winding staircase.
This they .ascended, and, having beaten through th» vaulted roof, discovered
that It opened imo the belfry of the church of licimies.

Arrhitertnre. — The Rev. John Parker, MA. lately de'ivored a course of Lec-
tures on Cotbic Architecture before the members of the .Shropshiieand North
Wales Natural History and Antiipiarian Society. The lectures were princi-
pally directed lo an explanation of ihc scientific conbtriu-tion of gothic vault-
ing, with a ilissertation on Ihe suiiniorily of the upright or pointe.l gothic
arch over the c rcular arch of ihe Anglo-Nurnian .and other schools of archi-
tecture. The pre-eminence of the gothic vault in the conveyance of sound,
and of the upright or pointed arch in the great particulars of lightness tind
strength, were clearly .shown and most happily de cribed.— Sections of ribbed
work from gothic vaulting in Valle Crucis Abbey, the Castle of Beaum.ari.s,
Tintern Aljbey. the Old Chapel of Si. Stephen (the late House of Commons),'
Shiffnal Church, Ihe Priory of Kennilworth, the White Abbey (in this county),
.St. David's Cathedral, Lidificki Cathedral, and titoneleigli Abbey, were pro-
duced, with a molel in wirework that pourtrayed the several forms in which
the ribbed work of golliie vaulting could be made a ailable by thi^ arlist ;
while the superioriiy and beauty of the pointed arch were illustrated by
drawings ni.ide by Mr. Parker on visits to Kilpec Church, near llercford, and
to the ruins of Valle Crucis Abbey, aided by the more simple hut efleetivc
application of seienlifie acquirement to Ihit praelical illustration which the
conr-e ot lectures require 1 t.i be made during the progress of its delivery.
— Salopian Journal, Feb. 5, 1810.

BIISCEIiIiANBA.

j1 buried Village. — M'e find, in the Progres du Pas de Calais, the following

account of the accidental discovery of a subterraneous village ia the com-

I.IST OF BJSAV FATJE5NTS.

GRANTKU IN ENGIAND FR0»4 'iDxH KKBRIIARV, TO 28tH, MaBCH I840.

James Beaumont Neii.son, of Glasgow, flentleman, for " oer/ain ini-
provcd methods of coating iron under various circumstances ^ to prevent o.tiila-
lion or corrosion, and for other purposes."— ;Sealed Kehruary 21) ; six mouths
lor enrolment.

Rowland Macdmnalo Stei'henson, of f'pper Thames .Street, Civil En-
gineer, for " an iinproi'cd metliod or melhod.s of adjn.itinc/, .stiif/iiii/, ami
workini/ t/ieatrical sivneri/ and apparatus." — February 20 ; six moutlis.

Richard Edwakos, of [''airfield Pl.ace, Bow, Dealer in Emery Cloth, for
" iaijjroucmeu/s in preparint/ and cumbininy of malerials used in lii/hliuy or
kindliny Jires." — February 20 : six months.

John Svlvkster, of Croat Russell Street, Engineer, for " in:proremenlii
in the con.flrnclion of doors and frames for closiny the openings of fire
2)ltt-es, ash pits, flues, chimtieys, and certain retorts." — March 3 ; six months.

JosErii Shore, of liurminghaiu, Merchant, for " improvements in pre-
serving and covering certain metalu anil allogs of metals." — March 3 ; six
months.

James IIorne, of Cla|iliam Common, Esquire, for " improvements in the
stnffing-tioxes of lift pumps." — March 3 ; six months.

Joseph Clisii.d Daniei.i., of Limpley Stoke, Bradford, in the county of
Wilts, for "an improved method of preparing slioot or weft to be used in
weaving voollen cloth and clollus made of wool and other materials." —
March 3 ; sfx months.

Jonx Rangei.ev, of Caiuherwell, Gentleman, for "improvements in the
construction of railways, and in Ihe means of applying power to propell-
ing carriages and machinery." — March 3 ; six mouths,

William Craig, of Glasgow, Engineer, and William Douglas Shari-,
of Stanley, Perthshire, Engineer, for "certain improvements in machinery
for preparing, spinning, ami doubling cotton, flax, wool, and other fibrous
substances." — March 3 ; six months.

Joseph Newton, of High Bridge Mill, York, Manufacturer of Fancy
Cloths, and George Collier, of the same place, Meclmnic, for " an im-
provement in looms, for the weaving of figured or twilled fabrics." — Marcli
4 ; six months.

Joseph Bower, of lluuslct, York, Soda Ash Manufacturer, for " certain
improvement in ftie manufacture of carbonate of soda." — March -1 ; sl\
months.

Charles Alexander Pellerin, of Leicester Square, Gentleman, for
•* improveynents in wind and stringed musical instruments." Communicated
by a foreigner residing abroad. — March 4 ; six mouths.

Charles Kober, of Leadenhall Street, Cloth M.amifacturer, for " im-
provements in fixing colour in cloth." — March 7 ; six months.

Caroline Julia Sophu Cox, of .\ddisou Road, Keusington, Spinster,
for " a7i improved mode of fastening and unitiiig the edges of tlie divided
parts of shoes, boots, bandages, packages, and oilier articles of dress or
utility." — Marcli 7 ; two months.

Joseph Atkinson, of Roundhill, York, Farmer, for " improvements in
thrashing and winnoiving-machine." — March 7 ; six months.
,^Robert Molvneux, of Southampton Row, Chronometer Maker, for " an
improvmrnt er m^rovemeni^ in fAr»«e»(€;en","i— ■March 7 ; six aeutlis.

140

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[April,

William Matlby, Junior, of Mile End, Cliemiat, and Richard Ci'er-
TON. Junior, of Percy Street, Brass Founder, for " im/iroremmls in extract-
ing tin/l cijitrentratimj the culonr, ftinninij, and other matter contained in
rei/etn/i/e anil iinimal xnbslnnces." — Marcli 7 ; six months.

Ltkk IIf.hkiit, of Birniingliam, Civil Engineer, for " iniproremenlH in the
innntifaclnre of cofered spades and sliorels, soui/liimj and (/raftinij tools,
iind oilier imjilements of n like nature." — March 7 ; six montlis.

IIavward Tyi.kr, of Milton Street, t'ri))|)lcgale. Engineer, for "certain
inifirorentents in macliinery or apparatus for impregnating liijuids wilti gas,
includinq t/otflrs for retaining, keeping, and preserring lifjuids so impreg-
nated, also in ttte manner of filing ami closing sucli hottks." — March 7 ;
si\ mouths.

Jamks Knowles, of Little Bolton, T,ancashire, Coal Merchant, for "an
improved arrangement of apparatus for regulating ttie supply of water to
steam boilers." — March 10; four months.

Geor<;k (iwYNNK, of Portland Terrace, Regent's Hark, Gentleman, for "iin-
procentenls in ttie manufacture of candles, and in operating upon oils and
fats." — March 1 0 ; six months.

William Korrkstkr, of Barrhead, Renfrew, Manager, for " certain im-
prurements in sizing, starching, dressing, and otlterwise preparing warps for
wearing fattrics, and on Itie machinery and apparatus thereicith connected."
— March 11; six months.

Thomas I'ekl, of Bread Street, Cheapside, Gentleman, for "certain im-
provements in steam engines." Communicated by a foreigner residing abroad.
— March 11; six mouths.

Richard Smith and Richard Hacking, of Bury, Lancaster, Machine
Makers, for " certain improvements in machinery and apparatus for drawing,
slnbbing, rotting, and spinning cotton, wool,Jln.r, silk, and ottter fibrous sub-
stances."— March 13; six months.

Etien'ne Rohert Gaubert, of Paris, Professor of Mathematics, for " cer-
tain improvements in machinery or apparatus .for distributing types or
other typogrnphirnl ctiaracters into proper receptac.es, and placing the
same in order .for setting up after being used in printing." — March 13 ;
six mouths.

James IIadden Young, of Lille, in the kingdom of France, and Adrian
Delcombk, of Lille aforesaid, for "an improved mode of setting vp types."
— March 13 ; six months.

Robert Varicas, of Burton Crescent, Surgeon, for "improvements in
rendering fabrics and leather waterproof." — March 16; six mouths.

William Crofts, of Radford, Nottingham, Machine Maker, for " im-
provements in mac/iinery for the purpose of making figured or ornamented
liobbin net or twist lace, and oilier ornamental fabrics, looped or woven." —
March 16 ; six months.

Jran Francois Victor Fabien, of King William Street, London, for
" improvements in rotary engines to be worked by steam or other fluids." —
March 16; six months.

Thomas Craddock, of Broadheath, Radnor, Farmer, for " a certain im-
provement or improvements in steam engines and steam boilers." — March 16;
six months.

Richard Smith and Richard Hacking, of Bury, Lancaster, Machine
Makers, for *' certain i>njirovenients in machinery .for spinning cotton and
otiier fibrous substances." — March 16; six months.

IsHAM Baggs, of Cheltenham, Gentleman for " improvements in engrav-
ing, which improvements are applicable to lithography." — Marcli 17; sLx
months.

Moses Poole, of Lincoln's Inn, Gentleman, for " improvements in pro-
ducing and jirejmring leys for soap making, and in the manufacture of
soap." Communicated by a foreigner residing abroad. — March 17; six
months.

Samuel Seaward, of the Canal Iron works, Poplai-, Engineer, for " cer-
tain improvements in the construction of steam engines and in the appli-
cation of steam engines to propelling ships and other vessels." — March 1 7 ;
SLX months.

Sib William Burnett, Knight, of Somerset House, for " improvements
in preserving animal, woollen, and other fibrous substances from decay." —
March 19 ; six months.

John Jackson, of Manchester, Nail and Holt Manufacturer for " cer-
tain improvements in the manufacture of nails, nuts, bolts, and rivets." —
March 19 ; six months.

Thomas Sterling, of Limehousc, Patentee of the " raiiid filteret " for
"improvements in the manufacture of fuel." — March 20 ; six months.

Francis William Gerisii, of East Road, City Road, Patent Hinge
Maker, for "improvements in locks and keys and other fastenings for doors,
drawinys, and other such purposes." — March 20 ; six montlis.

Charles Keene, of Sussex Place, Regent's Park, Gentleman, f(n' " im-
provements in producing surfaces on leather and fabrics. Communicated
by a foreigner residing abroad. — March 23 ; six montlis.

William Newton, of Chancery Lane, Civil Engineer, for " certain im-
provements in titc strengthening and preserring of ligneous and textile
substances. Communicated by a foreigner residing abroad.- -March 23 ; six
months.

Samuel Hill, of Sloane Street, Chelsea, Gentleman, for " improvenienls
in the making of bread and biscuits." — March 2.') ; six months.

Elhanan Bicknell, of Newington Butts, Smrey, Merchant, for " im-
provemmU in separating the solid from the liquid parts of tallow, and

ether fatty matters." Communicated by a foreigner residing abroad. —
March 25 ; six months.

William Palmer, of Sutton Street, Clerkenwell, for "improvements in
the manufacture of candles, and in apparatus for applying light." — March
25 ; six months.

Henry Smith, of Birniingliam, Lamp Manufacturer, for " improvements
in gas burners, and in lamps." — March 25 ; six months.

George Richards Elkington and Henry Elkington, of Birmingham,
for " improvements in coaling, covering, or plating certain metals." — March
25 ; six months.

Joseph Crosfield, of Warrington, Soap Maker, for " certain improve-
ments in the manufacture of plate glass." — March 25 ; six months.

Samuel Knight, of Woodhouse Mills, Lancaster, Bleacher, for " eer/am
improvements in machinery or apparatus .for boiliny, hleeching, or scouring,
.for the purpose o.f preparing and assisting the process of bleeching and
dyeing cotton and linen, and other fabrics and fibrous subsfattces." — March
25 ; six months.

James Hay, of Belton, Haddington, Scotland, Captain in the Royal Na\T,
for " an improved plough, which he entitles the Belton plough." — ^larch
25 ; six months.

Henry Philip RouauETTE, of Norfolk Street, Stiaud, Merchant, for "a
new pigment." Communicated by a foreigner residing abroad. — March 25 ;
four months.

James Sabberton, of Great Pultney Street, Golden Square, Tailor, for
" a fastening to attach straps to the bottoms of trousers." — March 26 ;
two months.

.Vlicxander Southwood Stocker, of Birmingham, Manufacturer, for
" certain improvements in manufacturing tubing or tubes, which are appli-
cable to gas and other purposes." — March 27; six months.

Richard Prosser, of Clierry Street, Birmingham, Civil Engineer, for
" certain improvements in machinery or apparatus .for manufacturing pipes."
— March 27 ; six months.

lIisNRV Kirk, of Upper Norton Street, Portland Place, IMerchant, for
" improvements in the application of a substance or composition as a .sub-
stitute .for ice for skating and .sliding purposes, part of which iutprove-
ments may also be emjdoyed in the manufacture of ornamental slabs and
mouldings." — March 28 ; six months.

John Bethell, of St. John's Hill, Wandsworth, Gentleman, for " im-
provenieuts in treating and preparing certain oils and fatty matters." —
March 28 ; six months.

ERRATUM.

Ill Mr. Leeds Chronological Tnblo of Architects, page 113 of the present
number, the works of the second architect arc omitted, it should stand thus.
1708, Mansard, Jules Haidouin, 1G47,— «w7«. Palace of Versailles ; Dome of
the Invalides, Paris ; SiC.

TO CORRESPONDENTS.

Mr. Spencer's communication is unavoidably postponed uulil ne.vt month.

P. P. E 's scheme for propelling canal boats we are fearful is impracticable,
however, we will rcmnsidrr it before the ne.vt number appears.

X. y. Z. Glasgow. We shall feel much pleasure to record in the Journal, the
main/ impruveiucnts that arc going on in Glasgow, if our lorrespondent will take
the irouhle to see some of the architects of the North and collect infortnalion for us,
we shall be obliged.

Mr. Tliorold's design for a. frame of a .■iteam engine possesses eonsideiabh merit
for its eompaetncss, as there is no novelty in the construction of the machinery, we
cannot offtird space .fur the design at this busy .■ivusun of the year.

R. \y. T. and P! B.'s noiiuiuiiirotinns on railway curves must stand over for the
present, as tee have already devoted sii miieli space to that subject.

Design of Iluddersjield College by J. P. Pritchet, architect, will appear in an
earlif number.

''i ■' ;('(. shall he glad to receive his proffered communication, we cannot hi or

front him too often.

11. 's design'has appeared in another publication.

liepnrt on the plans for preventing areidcnts on board of steam vessels, and Dr.
(Viarles Sehafhaeutel's report on Playfair's boiler leill be noticed ne.rt month.

To our correspondent at New York ivc return many thanks for his exertions on
our tiehalf.

Jl'e are happy to find by the numerous letters we have received that our advo-
eoeyin ttie cause of .Steam Navigation meets with the approbation of our subscribers.

ire reeommend'a eorrespondcnt, his signuture we Jorget, to read the Fable of
tlir Miller.

A
of lh(
his dull." We feel ourselves independent oj all parties.

The Cinipie VoxMireplii to our correspondent Iv on the recessions and encroach-
ments of the sea will appear next month, together ivith a communication from
NOTA, on the sami'. subject. • i r. ,

Cnmmunieittions are requested to he addressed to •' Ihe Kdilor ot the Livil
Kiigmcev and Architect's J. mrnal," No. U, Parliament Street. Westminster.

lioaks for review must be sent early in the nwnth, eommunieoliom nn or before
Ihe 2(lth' (if with woad-euts, earlier), and advertisements on or before the 2Jth
instant.

Till-, First Volume may of. itad, hound in cloth and luttered in gold.
Price 17s. _ „.

*»* The Skcond Volume mat also bk had, Fkice 20j.

jinier.

\ Jl'e are obliged for his letter, tee have long been aware of the sinister working
Ihe individual^alluded to— he is ion enntrmptible for our notice, ••every dag has

1840.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

14/

THE REFORM CLUB-HOUSE, PALL MALL.

CHARLES BARRY, R.A., ARCHITECT.

What Ciinbe said about club-houses? Their friends are silenced by
llieir success, and their enemies cannot contend against them. Hercules
might have given up his club, but the aristocracy are determined not
to follow his example. Their merits and demerits are beyond our
control, — one only fact we have to deal with, and that is their rapid
increase. The palaces have disappeared or have been eclipsed, and
the south of Fall Mall is covered with an almost uninterrupted line of
temples in honour of the social principle. If the grandeur of our
commercial edifices strikes the foreigner with wonder, or if he considers
our parks and squares as worthy rivals of his alleys of orange trees, how
can he fail to pass without notice these personifications of national
characteristics. The foreigner may justly marvel to see the palace
eclipsed before the shrine of Mammon, but he must be still more asto-
nished to see the hospital front of St. James's shrinking back from the
grandeur of its unroyal neighbours. The principle of association is the
foundation of civilization, and the English race are influenced by it
more than any other. We are Napoleon's nation of shopkeepers,
mechanics and stock-jobbers to the fullest extent, who take out our
amusements in shares, and raise a joint fund to provide domestic com-
fort. Pall Mall is the true House of Commons of the nation— here
every political principle is represented, and every shade of society has
its point of reunion. In this street of pal.ices, unique in Europe, one
of the most striking is the subject of our present notice.

For the view of this building we are indebted to the Literary World,
of whose embellishments it may be considered a very fair specimen, —
one certainly greatly superior to any thing to be met with in similar
publications. With regard to the structure itself, we shall not now
attempt to enter into any architectural description of it, reserving such
notice till we have the opportunity of rendering it complete ; and shall
therefore at present only observe that the Reform Clubhouse is the
most perfect and imposing specimen of Italian architecture in the me-
tropolis,— reserving, however, to ourselves, our admiration for the

No. .'32.— Vol. III.- May, 1810.

Garden-facade of the Travellers, as the most elegant and piquant exam-
ple of that style, upon a lesser scale. In this new work of Mr. Barry's
we perceive extreme simplicity and unity of design combined with a
very unusual degree of richness, — an astylar (columnless,) with more
of architectural expression than is generally produced by a displav of
columns forming a principal order The breadth of the piers or spaces
between the windows contributes not a little to that repose which is so
essential to simplicity, and hardly less so to stateliness. The string
courses are particularly beautiful parts in the design, while the
cornicione gives an extraordinary air of majesty and grandeur to the
whole.

It is the largest and most commodious of any of the club-houses in
the metropolis : the length of the front is ISO feet, exclusive of the
entrance between the Travellers' Club-house and the main building,
which is fifteen; making, in all, a frontage of 135 feet. The depth of
the main building is 104 ft. ti in.; the height of the cornice from tlie
pavement, is about sixty-eight feet.

The roof is covered with Italian tiles, manufactured expressly for
this building, by Messrs. Rutledge and Keene, of the Belvedere road.
The whole of the building is faced with Portland stone, it is a verj' fine
specimen of masonry, and does credit to the contractors, Messrs.
Grisell and Peto. We must not omit to mention the scientific manner
in which the building was erected; a scaffolding of considerable
strength was constructed of timber, and on the top was laid a railway,
upon which was worked a traversing crane that could be moved along
the building either longitudinally or Iransversely: by this means the
stones were raised from the ground and placed on the wall with very little
labour to the mason, who only had to adjust the bed and lay the
stone. Weperceive that Messrs. Grisell and Peto are about to adoj)t
the same plan for the new Houses of Parliament, by which mean*
they will save very considerably in the price of labour.

U

143

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[May,

BRODERIP'S TROUGH OR TRUNK ENGINE.

Fig. 1. — Pec I ion.

TTig. 2.— Section f Casing and Centre^

^n

!n consequence of the late discussion at the meeting of the Great
Western Steam Ship Company at Bristol, relative to the intended
introduction of "Humphrys' Patent Trunk Steam Engine," for the new
iron steam ship now building at Bristol. We felt desirous of obtaining
a drawing and some particulars relative to it : upon making enquiries
among our scisnlitic friends, we were much surprised to find that a
similar engine had been patented by another party nearly seven years
antecedent to the patent of Mr. Humphrys ; and was invented by the
late Mr. Charles Broderip of Spring Gardens, a gentleman who was

well known to the scientific world as a clever engineer and scientific
man. Upwards of eighteen years ago he equipped a steam vessel
called the "Tartar," with which he made a voyage into the Bay of
Biscay and back, and by this spirited proceeding was the first person
to demonstrate the practicability of sending steam vessels across that
tempestuous bav, which, till then, had never been attempted.

He afterwards invented the application of a casing or trunk attached
to the piston, by the use of which, he was enabled to connect the piston
rod with the crank direct, as shewn in the accompanying drawing; he,
however, died shortly afterwards, and his executor Col. D'Arcy took
out letters patent for the invention, dated Nov. •29th, 1828, and a sketch
and description of it appeared in a scientific work called the " Journal
of Arts" shortly afterwards.

Some years afterwards, viz., on the 28th March, 1835, Mr. Francis
Humphrys again patented, identically the same arrangement of the
steam engine, and subsequently proceeded to make a pair of engines on
this principle, that were fitted to a steam vessel called the "Dartford"
which ran for a short time, but which it is stated, have since failed in
the cylinders by the angular friction of the pistons. We shall now
proceed to give a description of the engine as specified by both parties,
and then leave it to our readers to judge how far Mr. Humphrys is en-
titled to his patent, or can be considered as the original inventor, for
if there be any merit in the invention, it is only right that the saddle
should be placed on the right horse.

The following description we extract from the specification of the
patent granted to Col. D'Arcy: — The specification describes other
improvements besides the one inquestion; oneofthem was {ora.sliding
stuffing box, " the piston rod connected at one end to the piston, and at
the other end to the crank of the engine without the intervention of
any cross head, side rods, guide frame or parallel motion to keep the
piston in a perpendicular position whilst it is ascending and descending
in the cylinder, the improved method of connecting the piston of any
cylinder used in a steam engine to its rod is by means of any convenient
joint, or by a ball and socket which will allow the piston rod to oscillate
or yield to the motion of its crank without altering the vertical or
horizontal position of the piston, whilst acting either in a cylinder
placed vertically or horizontally as circumstances may require ; and by
the introduction of the sliding stufling box, I am enabled to apply the
oscillating piston." The specification then proceeds to describe this
invention by a reference to the drawings accompanying the specification.
A A the cylinder, B B the piston, C C the centre of the joint of piston
into which the joint of the piston rod D D is fitted and united ; DD
shows the rod forming its greatest angle by the motion of the crank G;
E E the sliding stuffing box working in grooves, rabefs or dovetails,
made perfectly air and steam tight, and placed securely on the top of
the cylinder cover F F. Instead of the sliding stuffing box, the
patentee in some cases substitutes " the trough or socktt K K" (showed
in the annexed engravings) "firmly connected to the piston, and which
trough or socket must be made hollow and of sufficient capacity to
allow the piston rod DD to oscillate freely in its width, thickness,
and area, so that in its transverse, through the fixed stuffing box E E,
and by the gland H, the trough or socket K K may be rendered as
securely air and steam tight in its connection with the cylinder A A,
as if it was a cylindrical piston rod."

We shall now give some extracts from the specification of the
patent granted to Mr. Francis Humphrys : we did r-ot consider it
necessary to give a drawing, as it is so identically like the above.

The letters in italics within parenthesis, we have introduced, they
refer to the above engraving; the other letters are as they appear in
Mr. Humphry's specification. " A Ais the cyUnder, B B the working
piston, C (G) the crank, D D {K K) a steam tight casing or trunk of a
rectangular form rounded at each end, which is permanently attached
to th^ piston in such a manner that the axis of the one shall correspond
exactly with the axis of the other, and which casing works up and
down with the piston, K'E.{F F) is the lid or cover of the cylinder A A,
G G {E E) the stuffing box which is made to fit the outside of the easing
or trunk D D (A' K) instead of as usual fitting the piston rod." In the
concluding part of the specification, Mr. Humphrys states " that what I
claim as my invention is the addition, to the pistons of steam engines,
of a steam tight casing or trunk permanently affixed thereto, and
working up and down therewith, and the employment of a connecting
rod passing from the working piston to the crank through such steam
tight casing or trunk, both in the same manner herein belore specified ;
by means of which contrivance, the reciprocating motion of the pistons
is resolved into a rotary motion without the intervention of the beams,
cross heads and other auxiliary appendages in common use."

iS40.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

143

MEDIEVAL ARCHITECTURE IN FRANCE.— No. 1.

Whatever may be the opinions of individuals wilh regard to the
merits of the Gothic style, it has so strong a hold on our sympathies,
und so many advocates and supporters, that it can neither be neglected
in a professional point of view, nor be decried as unimportant. As a
branch of instruction its study is imperative, nor is it less so as coming
within the domain of the antiquarian and the artist. Linking us, as this
style does, in a common bond with surromiding nations, abounding in
monuments not merely of local but of universal interest, its history
in other countries affords not only pleasure, but becomes of value as
tending to illustrate its progress here. To no other country does this
apply more strongly than to France, where the architectural associa-
tions, like the political relations of the country for many centuries
were interwoven with our own, springing from the same parent stock,
and from time to time forming alliances wliicli tended to keep up the
mutual connection. At the same time the later and closer connection
of France with the lower empire both in the east and the west has
given rise to modifications which either never existed here, or of
which the vestiges have become extinct, as in the case of the Roman-
esque and Byzantine Gothic, of which monuments are to be found
there replete with the highest interest. It is for these reasons there-
fore that as we know that it would be acceptable to our readers we
are induced to profit by the present opportunities afforded by French
periodicals and other authorities of presenting a short account of the
French Medieval styles in a familiar form.

In our second volume, page 193, will be found a valuable paper by
Mr. Foynter, on the comparative chronology of English and French
medieval architecture, founded on the investigations of M. Comon, of
the Antiquarian Society of Caen.

COMPARATIVE CHRONOLOGY OF FREMCH AND ENGLISH MEDIEVAL
ARCHITECTURE.

950,

1000 ^Romanesque.

Norman .
Early English .
Decorated English

Perpendicular .

Secondary or Gotliique
Ravonuant.

Tertiary or Gothique
Flamboyant.

fllOO ^Transition.

11150 J

J 1200 I Primordial Gothic.

1 1250 { , . ,

n3oo|^'"=p<"-"''-

1 1350 i2d epoch.

fHOOjJ

J 1450 > 1st epoch.

1 15001 oj 1

li5ao[2'iep°*-

Taking this as our basis, the first style to which our attention is
directed is the Romanesque, a style of which we have no example in
this country.

THE ROMANESQUE STYLE.

Applying the term of Romanesque style to those monuments imitated
more directly from Roman architecture, we find a variety of speci-
mens erected between the fifth and twelfth centuries bearing all the
impress of their origin, and throwing much light on the history of the
art. It was only about the fifth century after several invasions of the
barbarous hordes, that sufficient tranquillity was restored in France to
allow of the erection of new edifices, and of the repair of the old ones.
The conversion of the Franks under Clovis to Christianity, created a
necessity for buildings suitable to the new form of worship, to which
the Roman temples were ill adapted. Instead of narrow sanctuaries
secured by thick walls, the ceremonies of Christianity required large
covered buildings, in which the congregation csuld participate in the
services. It seems that under these circumstances the architects of
that period sought for the type of their designs in the ancient syna-
gogues of the Jews, and the civil basilicas of the Greeks and Romans.
To the former they were naturally led by tradition and association,
while in the latter they found a conveniency of disposition suitable to
the extended wants of large communities. Thus were the caves in
which the early Christian sought refuge, supplanted by the new edi-
fices which from being built at Constantinople and Rome, served as
models to other Christian countries. Hiding from persecution it was
only in caves and in the hollows of rocks that the first votaries could
worship in peace, and yet even in these places of banishment they had
already introduced greater pretension in the disposition. At Mont-
majour, near Aries, one grotto church is laid out with two parallel
naves, while in that fine specimen of a primitive temple at Sutrium,
in Etruria, the space formed in the rock is divided into a vestibule, a
nave divided by pillars so as to form side aisles, and a sanctuary.
With greater liberty of worship more display was aimed at, and rude

attempts were made to rival the labours of the past. In these essays
it was natural that the relics of Roman art should be referred to as
models, and plundered for materials, although as they could neither
appropriate Roman genius nor transfer Roman skill, they necessarily
fell behind their masters in success. Who can mistake the source,
whence the annexed entablature and capital is derived, and many as
strong can be adduced. Thus also the details of the onler in the porch

Fig. 1.

of the Cathedral at Avignon, the Franks employed not only bricks
similar in form to those of the Romans, but used those which they ob-
tained from the destruction of other edifices.

The ground plan of the Romanesque edifices is evidently referable
to the sources already alluded to, and we have in Fortunatus, a poet
of the sixth century, and Gregory of Tours descriptions of several
churches which serve to confirm this to the utmost extent. Such
were the primitive basilicas erected in Paris, Tours, Clermont and
other cities of Gaul. We find that they were spacious, of an oblong
form, divided into several naves by rovNs of columns of marble, doubt-
less obtained from the pagan spoils, and arranged parallelly to the
lateral walls. At the hemicycle in the end, used as a sanctuary, was
placed the altar, in the position called in Vitruvius the tribune, which
in Christian edifices was always single, or at one end only, while in
those of an earlier period, as in the basilica of the Foro Trajano at
Rome, a tribune was occasionally placed at each end. Of the early
specimens of the Christian basilica, if we may so terra it, one of the
best preserved, is that of the Cathedral of Parenzo in Istria, built in
the sixth century. Frequently however these buildings were of a cir-
cular form, many of which are to be found in Italy, w hile in France
there is St. Germain I'Auxerrois, called St. Germain the Round :
several were consecrated by Constantine, both in the east and the west.
Occasionalljf the circular form was combined with square naves, of the
kind before described, something in the style of the church of the Holy
Sepulchre. The church built by Perpetuus over the tomb of St. Mar-
tin, near Tours, was a fine example of this last combination, and the
accompanying engraving shows a restoration of the ground plan, from
the description of tTregory, of Tours.

U 2

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The mode of construction was based on that of the Romans, the
buildings being made either of Roman brick or as before observed of
bricks of a similar form made at that time. The architects also fre-
quently made use of brick and stone in conjunction, a favourite system
with the Romans. This is the case with the Baptistry of Poitiers,
and the church of the Basse ffiuvre, at Beauvais. Although at first
formed very simply, these buildings soon began to be richly decorated
with gilt mosaics, splendid marbles, and luxuriant carvings. Stephen
of Toumay describes the basilica of St. Genevieve at Paris, built by
Clevis, and destroyed by the Normans, as being covered with mosaics
both inside and out; and Fortunatus, calls the basilica of St. Germain
des Pres, built by Childebert, the gilt house of Germain, being de-
corated with gilt mosaics, and with a bright metal roof.

Fig. 3.

The church of St. John at Poitiers, represented above, is considered
as belonging to the sixth or seventh century, and was originally a
baptistry, as is proved by the discovery of a great octagon basin in the
centre, and used for baptism by immersion. This building has under-
gone many changes, but the genuine portion is sufficiently distinct to
be easily recognized. A pediment of ancient proportions surmounts
the fafade, and mouldings of simple profile frame it in, and these cor-
responding to the pitch of the roof, are accompanied by incrustations
of a semicircular shape. Large stones, cut in intaglio, and ornamented
with rosettes, decorate the tympanum. The horizontal entablature
wliich supports the pediment is complete, consisting of an architrave,
frieze and cornice, which last is enriched with modillions. Below the
entablature is a band or zone, formed of large stones and bricks placed
alternately, in the midst is an arch composed of several concentric
circles, projecting over each other; and in the centre of this arch is a
Greek cross resting on an architrave, supported by short pilasters with
capitals in the ancient style. Two triangles in stone, similar to those
in the tympanum, are on the right and lelt of the arch. Between the
pilasters and below their bases are two windows now circular, but
which were formerly in the shape of arcades, lighting the interior. A
string course divides the lower part of the front into two equal divisions,
through which no door was made, as it was opposite to the entrance.

The buildings of the south of France belonging to this period wear
more of the ancient physiognomy than those elsewhere, a circumstance
to be attributed to the neighbourhood of the noble Roman ruins, many
of which still exist. The Cathedral of Our Lady of Gifts, at Avignon,
has a porch the date of which is not well known, but which may be
referred to the eleventh century, from the introduction of the door of
the church at the bottom, and from the situation of the steeple, which
surmounts it. This porch carries a pediment, of which the pitch is still

Fig. 4.— Portal of the lllh cenlury, of Our Lady ol Gifts, the Cathedral
of Avignon.

conformable to ancient tradition; the mouldings of the side cornice*
have disappeared ; in the middle is a circular opening called by the
Christian authors an oculits or eye. The pediment is supported by an
entablature of bad proportions, but ornamented with details servilely
imitated froin Roman architecture. The entablature rests on two
Corinthian columns, attached to the angles of the porch, shown in our
first engraving, and so exactly imitating the Roman monuments in the
country, as to lead at first view to the belief that they are of pagan
origin. In fact the arcade like entry shows a great resemblance to
those of the triumphal arches of Orange and St. Remy. The basement
of the steeple is decorated with a row of columns quite in the Roman
style.

Fig. .5.— Church of St. Tri)phime, at Aries.

In the beginning of the twelfth century was erected the beautifu
church of St. Trophiraus, at Aries, represented above, and which seems
a point of union between the Roman style and that of the middle ages
proper. According to Gregory of Tours, this church, which in tiie
sixth century was consecrated to St. Stephen, was only named after St.
Trophimus in 1152, when the relics of the first bishop of Aries were
placed in it. In the fifth century, this cathedral had been enriched
with marbles from the theatre of Aries, which Saint Hilary had used
for the decoration of Christian places of worship. It is surmounted
by a pediment very slightly inclined, and the mouldings with which it

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1-1.=

is enriched, like most of the others in different parts of the porch, are
still in tlie Roman style. Several details recall the traditions of the
past, but already the representation of singular figures, capitals and
bases, decorated with lions and chimeras, showed that the imagination
of Christian artists was wandering from the rules laid down by the
Greeks. Sacred history, related in sculpture, begins to cover all the
zones of the facade, and images banished from the inside of the church
take their stand without. In the midst of the tympanum formed by the
springing of the arches, is God the Father surrounded by emblems of
the Evangelists, above on the lintel are represented the Apostles, on
the right of the Almighty the elect, and on the left the damned. Be-
tween the columns of marble which decorate the anterior parts of the
door, are carved saints and bishops, a resurrection and other religious
subjects. It may be observed that the arch already begins to assume
something of the pointed shape, which it was afterwards to retain so
long. The cloister of tlie church of St. Trophimus is one of the finest
known; the arcades of its porticoes are supported, by light columns
surmounted with capitals of good style, and all the jutting columns
which form the principal divisions of the galleries are decorated with
statues of life-size, and with numerous has reliefs, producing an ad-
mirable effect. Though the galleries of the cloister are of the same
period as the portal, the other two are of thp fifteenth century.

At Vaison, at the foot of Mount Ventoux, at Cavaillon, at Pontoise,
!it St. Paul-trois-Chateaux, and in many other tovros of the south of
France, are to be seen churches or chapels, in which it is easy to per-
ceive that in the middle ages was formed a school of architecture, for a
long time imbued with the ancient principles. If we add that in the
royal church of St. Denis, founded in the fifth century by Saint Gene-
vieve, and at Montmartre, where was a chapel dedicated to St. Denis
are to be found marble capitals, decorated with the cross and other
Christian emblems, and yet executed in the form and with the charac-
ter of Roman capitals, it may be believed with good reason that the
primitive churches of the Gauls showed like those of Italy, a filiation
with Roman art, and that the tradition of classic forms was only lost
after a certain number of generations, and through the influence of
Byzantine, art imported from the east. At the same time we are able
to trace the germs of the subsequent styles, for in Anvergne, Baron
Taylor* found in a church of the Romanesque era, the arch decorated
with the chevron moulding.

HARBOURS OF REFUGE.

Practical Observations on Harbours of Refuge, and on the effect of
Back Waters or Sluices, as applied in the Scouring of Harbours.

By H. Barrett.

" Give harbour room, and public ways extend,
Let temples worthy of our God ascend,
Bid the broad arch the dangerous flood restrain.
The Mole projected break the roaring main.
Back to its bound the subject sea command,
And roll obedient rivers through the land."

C'herboubg.

The subject of our harbours having for some time attracted much
attention, and the recent appointment of Commissioners to investigate
and report npon the state of the harbours on the south-east coast,
having given rise to some discussion as to the proper principles which
should govern the construction of harbours generally, I am induced to
offer the following remarks as the result of my own experience and
observation on this subject, continued through many years and in
various parts of the world.

In 1826, and again in 1827, 1 was examined before a committee of
the House of Commons on the subject of the then proposed harbour of
refuge at Lowestoft, the connexion of the sea with Lake Lothing, and
the improvement of the natural river navigation from thence to Nor-
wich, for vessels drawing 12 feet water, so as to make that city a port
via Lowestoft, and avoid the necessity of transhipment at the port
into river lighters, as at Yarmouth, through which means Norwich has
been for centuries supplied with coals and other sea-borne mer-
chandize.

The following are extracts from the evidence given before the
Committee on the occasion I have referred to, viz.

From the evidence of the Engineer.

" My proposition is to carry 12 feet at low water into the Lake, and
I have no doubt on the outside it will scour deeper.

• Journal, vol. 2, p. 194. a-

Q. You will always have 12 feet into the Lake ?
A. Yes.

Q. What will the depths be at high water?

A. 20 feet. A vessel of 16 feet could enter during two thirds of
the tide, ;. e. at two thirds ebb.

Mr. Telford.

Q. Can you form an opinion as to the distance it will be from the
shore where the bar will form ?

jl. There will be no bar — no deposit — next to none.

Q. Will the water from Lake Lothing take it away?

Jl. Yes ; but I say there will be no bar, by this operation of tli"
water, none at all.

Mr. Barrett.

Q. Do you think the sand carried out of the harbour would be
lodged on the flat and form a bar?

A. Yes, and that it would lodge beyond the reach of the scouring
water of the Lake.

Q. Then you think that an accumulation would take place ?

.^. I am decidedly of an opinion that an accumulation would occur,
in the shape of a bar across the Harbour, and that at low tides even
small vessels could not enter in consequence of the accumulation."

On my second examination before the Committee of the House of
Commons, which was in 1827, the following questions and answers
occurred, viz.

" Q. You have a clear opinion that a bar will be formed ?

./I. That is my opinion, and that the sluicing power will increase
the evil.

Q. You have adopted a new hypothesis on the subject of a bar?

A. I have, and differ with all the engineers as to the cause of bars.

[See published evidence on the Norwich and Lowestoft Navigation,
in sessions 1826 and 1827.]

The Act of Parliament having been obtained in 1827, the works of
the Harbour were proceeded with, and in 1831 the Lake was connected
with the sea ; the sluices were then applied in order to scour out the
newly excavated passage ; but the immediate effect after a very few
sluicings, was the formation of a bar opposite to the newly made en-
trance, the result being just as I had, in my evidence before the com-
mittees, stated it would be; and instead of 12 feet at low tide,
and 20 feet at high tide at the entrance, according to the engineers'
previous opinion as shown in their evidence, the result was that it
became nearly dry at low tide, so that no vessels could enter. Sucli
was the injurious consequence of the sluicing water.

In 183-2, after the effects of the sluicing had been developed, a re-
monstrance was addressed by letter to the directors of the Harbour,
by pilots and others residing at Lowestoft, in which they said,

" Deeply sensible of the advantages, national as well as local, at-
tainable by the construction of an efficient harbour, at Lowestoft, we
cannot but view the present with a feeling of regret, its entrance en-
cumbered with a shoal or bar. We understand that the Commissioners
for the Public Works are willing to lend .£.50,000 on mortgage, and
we strongly recommend the appointment of an experienced nautical
engineer."

From the fatal error in the use of the sluicing waters, added to the
mistaken mode of construction adopted, the whole undertaking be-
came a failure, and the entire property, with piers, wharfs, buildings,
engines, &c., have been recently submitted to puljlic auction bj' the
loan commissioners as mortgagees for £.50,000 advanced by them ;
but the Harbour and all the property which had cost about £140,000,
would not fetch £15,000, and were consequently bought in.

As far back as the year 1823, I published a pamphlet admonishing
the public that it was impossible to construct a harbour of refuge on
the site and by the method then proposed, and afterwards adopted ;
the result of this undertaking has fully verified my predictions, which,
indeed, were founded on infallible data. Some time prior to that,
period, and before I developed my opinions on the certain effects of
egrtss or sluicing waters, I had visited and observed upon various
harbours in different parts of Europe, viz. St. Petersburgh, Nerve,
Revel, Dantzick, Konnigsberg, Copenhagen, Elsineur, Norway, Ham-
burg, Tonningen, Amsterdam, Rotterdam, Ostend, Brest, Bayonne,
Cadiz, Gibraltar, Malta, and on the coast of Africa ; also many ports
in England, Ireland, and Scotland, Shetland Islands, and the Orkneys.

In none of those places did I find any exception to the thesis which
I have adopted relative to the injurious effects of egress, sluicing, or
scouring waters, and I venture boldly to assert that in no part of the
globe is there any exception, viz.

" That wherever the mater passes from the interior into the ocean ivitlt
sufficient velocity to carry matter in suspension, and to cause a confict-

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ing action imlh the traters of the ua, there a shoal or bar is inrariaUij
formed, and that the greater the velocity of the igries water, the larger
mil be the accumulation of shoal or bar. (See Fig. 1.)

Fig. 1.— Plan of Dublin Buy and Kingstown llarLour.

My second proposition is tliat, "wherever there is an absence of egress
or sluicing waters, or where the water passes into the ocean so as not to
convey matter in siispciision, and not to cause a confiding action with
the waters of the ocean, there is no bar or shoal, or exterior accumulation ;
and this proposition also applies equally to a natural harbour (see
Fig. 2.) as it does to one of artificial construction. (See Fig. 3.J

Fig. 3.— Plan of Portrush Harbour, arlificially formed.

In various parts of the world, harbours at the entrance of rivers
have been entirely, blocked up and lost, by the operation of sluicing
waters, and whether naturally, or artificially applied, the effects are
similar. I may instance the following places, viz.

Wisbeach, Yarmouth (its north entrance), Winchelsea, Roniney,
Lowestoft, before referred to, Alexandria, the mouth of the Po, and of
the Nile, and many others which might be enumerated.

The learned aiid great geologist, Baron Cuvier, states that " all
attempts to improve the entrance to harbours by scouring waters have
ever proved abortive, and brought science into contempt."

The futility of such attempts the examples here quoted demon-
strate.

Labelye, who wrote in 1747, said, "/ advise all persons to be on
their guard in attempts to construct locks or sluices on coasts, for besides
the erpence, they would be in danger of losing their harbours.

Fig. 2.— Plan of Anlglass Harbour nalura'ly forincil.

*a 'S

— <^-

'^

Among the places I have visited, there are many that exemplify
this proposition, the harbours being free from bars, and some of them
sufficiently capacious to contain the whole British navy.

I will now refer to the evidence taken before a Committee of the
House of Commons in 1S3G, on Dover Harbour, and on the means
suggested by the Engineer for improving that harbour, who, in liis
evidence, says, " we are putting clown pipes ; and that is to carry
away the sluicing water, and render it more available by increasing
its force. The object has been that which every engineer who has
been consulted is desirous to obtain, and it appears to me that the
remedy, although an expensive one, cannot fail to be complete."

Mr. Cubitt, (in answer to a question by the committee), said,

"Suppose that these works do not do so much as it is expected, for
successful they must be to a great degree — "

The attempted improvement has turned out a failure. I will next
give a short extract from the evidence of nautical and practical men,
who were examined by the same Committee, and the result has
shown that their opinions were better founded.

Mr. Hammond, a pilot, speaking of the plans, stated the alteration
which had been made had not been effeclual.

" Q. State your opinion to the Committee on the works now going
on.

A. The bar will be more prejudicial and dangerous than it was
before. If cleared one tide, it will be filled up the next.

Capt. Boxer, R.N., gave similar evidence, and said, " the works
will be a complete failure.

The Honourable Captain (now Rear Admiral,) Elliot, gave similar
evidence, and said, " I consider, if the whole of the present plan was
completed, the Harbour, as far as regards a Refuge Harbour, would
be just as imperfect as it is at this moment." *

After reading the above evidence, it must be clear to every candid
and reasoning mind, that whatever the right plan may be for the con-
struction and improvement of harbours, that plan has not yet been hit
upon by those engineers who have hitherto employed their talents in
this department, and as the greatest national interests are involved in
the question, and the safety and protection of our great maritime com-
merce, as, indeed, of our naval force itself, must mainly depend on tlie
efficiency of Harbours, in which ready refuge may be found in time of
need, no object can ])0ssess a higher claim upon public attention than
Harbours of Refuge ; on almost every part of our coasts the loss of
property and of human lives have become a reflection on our national
character. It is a lamentab'e truth, that while so many schemes of
improvement or benevolence are daily attracting the patronage of the
people of this kingdom, yet both the enterprize and the humanity of
the same people nave lain comparatively dormant on this subject,
which more than any other aliecfs our character and our interests as
a great mftritime nation.

In this branch of practical knowledge we are, it is to be regretted,
much behind our continental neighbours, and prejudiciously shall we
find it so in the event of a war with them.

In the session of 1839 I presented a petition to the House of Com-
mons, praying to be heard by a committee on the subject of bars, and
on the mode of constructing Harbours, free of bar or shoal at the en-
trance, and I was prepared to prove that the want of practical and
nautical engineers was the principal cause of failure of the attempts

• See the [ublifhed evidence on Dover Harbour. Sjcssion, lt3(i.

1840.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

147

to construct eligible Harbours, or of improving the existing Harbours,
and further experience has strengthened this opinion.

The petition was merely laid on the table, and my earnest desire
to engage the attention of Parharaent and of the public to a subject so
deeply important, was on that occasion disappointed.

I am, however, not discouraged in my hope of ultimate success in
the promulgation of ray opinions, in which I have now the gratification
to find myself countenanced by scientific, practical, and nautical men;
snd I shall continue to use myzealous exertions in pressing upon the
public attention the necessity of full discussion to ascertain, and when
ascertained to adopt and pursue, what may prove to be the correct
principle of constructing and maintaining Harbours of Refuge, with
regard to which I repeat my firm conviction of the great error, which
cannot be too generally exposed, of the application of sluicing waters
/or the purpose of improving the entrance to Harbours, at best but a
temporary expedient, and which has never proved ai permanent remedy.

To the investigation of this subject I would especially, and most
earnestly, invite those eminent and humane individuals who are be-
stowino- their wealth, and influence in promoting charities, for the re-
lief of the widow and orphans of shipwrecked mariners, and remind
them of the old adage, "that prevention is better than cure ; " that it
is better to sare the lives of sailors, than to stand by and see them
perish, and then provide fur their families who may be left destitute,
and that Harbours of Refuge would be the means of preventing many
of those calamities, no one can entertain a doubt; and that such Har-
bours can be successfully constructed in various places on our coast,
where they are so much required, I will venture with confidence to
alfirm. (See Fig. 4.)

Fig. 4.— Plan for a Ilarljour of Refuge.

ii\XW//

A Committee ol the House of Commons was appointed in the ses-
sion of 1836, for inquiring into the causes of shipwrecks, and they
reported,

"That three millions of property, and one thousand human lives, are
annually lost by shipwrecks on our coasts; and that the want of efficient
Harbours of Refuge was one of the principal causes of these calami-
ties.

The Committee of the General Ship Owners' Society, in their
report, May, 1S37, referring to the above report, stated that there is
no Harbour of Refuge (that can be so called) from the Firth of Forth
to the Thames,* and that the numerous casualties, unfortunately occur-
ring in the navigation of the seas surrounding the British coast, natu-
rally awaken the feelings of humanity ; and that the loss of property
from the River Tyne (only), amounted annually to £151,222, and of
human lives in the same time, 170.

In 1836 there were 110 vessels stranded and wrecked on the Lowe-
stoft and Yarmouth coast, and 197 vessels lost anchors and cables,
many others sustained much damage. These losses (alone) may be
estimated at £120,000, all of which falls on the ship owner or under-
writer ; but the incidental expences of a voyage. Harbour dues, &c.,
together with the ship-owners' profits, are paid by the consumers of
ths cargoes in the shape of freight.

The above sum would be sutiicient to construct an eligible Harbour
of Refuge on that coast ; and the £:? ,000,000 annually lost by ship-
wreck, is adequate to construct Harbours on various parts of the coast,
where they are so much required.

* Nor is there fio u the Thames to the Isle of Wight.

Under the impression, therefore, that Harbours of Refuge can be
constructed, and ought to be constructed, I would invite the active
assistance of all who can lend a hand in so good a work, for the attain-
ment of which, I shall continue to devote my best exertions, myself an
old sailor, I would, on behalf of sailors and their dependents, and for
their safety, invite in so sacred a cause, the co-operation of the bene-
volent, the patriot, and the Christian.

H. Barrett.

London, 8th April, 1840.

TABLE OF ARCHITECTS.

[k NOTE TO THE EDITOR.]

Sir — I am quite horrified at finding that you have made me commit
homicide — I might say infanticide, sending Schinkel out of the world,
as soon as he had come into it. I don't say your printer's devil, but
your devil of a printer, has diabolically and with malice prepense
omitted the word " fcora" attached to the name, consequently it now
appears that I fancy Schinkel died in the year 1781, whereas he is not
only alive and well, but doing well as may be seen by your " Literary
Intelligence" at page 130; and I hope he will not appear in any
obituary or necrology for many years to come — not until 1881, at which
time he will be only one year older than Clerisseau was at the time of
his death ; the latter architect having attained a degree of longevity far
exceeding that of any other whose name occurs in the table.

In a paragraph of page 132, some computations are made from the
table relative to length of life among architects, but it is not stated how
many lived to upwards of 80. Among the latter was Gondouin, who,
though he did not attain to a very remarkable longevity, is remarkable
for having ventured to commit matrimony with a girl of seventeen,
at the venerable age of seventy-seven!

I have not yet done, for I must protest against the appearance of a
gentleman called Jean Radolphe, whom I never invited to mytaft/e, and
who must therefore be turned out as an intruder. Perhaps he maybe
an acquaintance of your diabolical ; and that worthy may be able to give
some account of him. The first Jean appears, in fact, to be a mere
nobody, — and so also does Gerstenburgh of whom it should have been
recorded that he was professor of Civil Architecture at Jeva, and author
of several publications, but principally on surveying", and, therefore, has
but little right to make his appearance among the company he does.

And now feel relieved : you may, therefore, present my hearty, if
not good wishes to your dial, and believe me, &c.

^ W.H.L.

P.S. — I have just seen by a foreign journal that AlbertoUi, whose
name stands at the end ot the table died last November, in his 9Sth year,
consequently may be quoted as an instance of longevity. I also now
perceive that Jean Radolphe, should have been attached to the name of
Perronet, in the next line.

Sir — Among the Architects of the 18th century, a list of eleven was
given in your last number ; the Signor AlbertoUi was mentioned, the
author not being sure whether he still existed. I received, a few weeks
since, a letter dated 27th January last from his nephew and son-in-law
the Signor Ferdinando AlbertoUi, professor of architectural ornament in
the academy of Breva, and honorary and corresponding member of the
Royal Institute of British Architects. In this letter is the following
paragraph ; — "To our great grief we lost, on the 15th November last,
our venerable parent at the age of 97 years, three months and 21 days,
from a cold in the chest. His best work is the Villa Melzi on the lake
of Como, and he was the author of several publications on ornament.
Our academy are now raising a subscription in order to erect a
handsome monument to his memory."

I regret that the author of the list, to which I allude, did not givetlie
authorities, upon which it is founded; an indispensable accoinpainiment,
to any document upon which reliance is to be placed, and a loss to
those who wish to study the matter beyond the bare enumeration of
names.

I am. Sir, very faithfully yours,

jipril, 1840. Thos. L. Donaldson.

SiR_In your number of April, you have favoured your readers with
a list of the Architects who have died in the 18th and 19th centuries,
in which you have omitted the name of Charles Beadey, who died
January 6th, 1829. He was a pupil of Sir Robert Taylor, and conse-
quently the fellow student of Nash, Craig, Pilkiiigton, Byfield, and
Cockerill (the last of whom, as well as Craig and Byfield, are likewise
omitted). Mr. Charles Beazley was the aichitect of the Goldsmiths'
company, and a district surveyor nearly 50 years ago. He built a great
number of gentlemen's seats, besides many buildings in London and its
vicii.ity, and was likewise the architect of Faversham Church in Kent,
which has been so generally admired.

14^

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[May.

Feeling that it is perhaps impossible for your collector to know the
names of u'l the deceased architects, I trust that you will attribute this
letter to the sole motive by which it is dictated, namely, to add such
information as may enable vou to correct vour list should vou repub
lish it.

I remain, Your most obedient Servant,

29, Soho Square, April 3, 1^ 10. Samuel Bkazley.

We have received another communication from Mr. Webb, for which
we are obliged, containing the names of some architects, which were
omitted in the table; we shall, at some future opportunity, avail our-
selves of this communication, together with others, and publish an
additional table. Editor C. E. and A. Journal.

TEACHERS OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, ARCHITECTURE, &c::
Sir — As your highly useful journal is devoted to the advancement
of the professions you advocate, allow uie to draw your attention to
what I consider to be an evil of the greatest magnitude, and one which
has done more to lower the profession, and to bring it into disrepute,
than anything else that I am acquainted with. I allude to the pro-
ceedings of a certain class of persons, styling themselves "Architects
and Surveyors," or " Civil Engineers," who disgrace the profession
they claim by pretending to teach it in a fern lesso7is. Such men
should be held up to universal scorn and contempt, for they have ruined
the profession while filling their own pockets, by a process little better
than swindling. I will explain the manner in which they go to work.
They first put a specious advertisement in the newspaper, headed
"Offices for Surveying, Architecture, and Civil Engineering," and go
on to state that a few /fSsoHS are all that is required to enable a person
to practise on his own account! I Some deluded individual is sure to
be allured by this specious advertisement, for unfortunately, wherever
there are dnpes, there are sure to be knaves to take advantage of them.
Such persons, (the dupes,) find to their cost, that the business of an
Architect, or Surveyor, or Civil Engineer, is not quite so easily acquired
as they were at first induced to imagine by their disinterested instructor :
instead of a/en lessons, therefore, occupying a few weeks only, they
are persuaded to go on with the farce for a few months, or until the
master-hand thinks they will bear plucking no longer. He then lets
them go, assuring them that they are quile competent to undertake any
survey whaterer, whether for canal, railway, or turnpike-road, and, if
asked, furnishes them with testimonials to that eftect, The newl-y
fledged surveyor, or whatever he may choose to call himself, delighted
with his newly and so easily acquired profession, hastens to put his
skill to the test, and for this purpose, perhaps, takes an extensive
parish to survey at a low rate, one, perhaps, that has to obtain the
commissioners' seal, and for which he will therefore not be paid until
it is completed to their satisfaction, and to that of Capt. Dawson, no
easy person to please. He commences his work with confidence, but,
after a short time becomes involved in a labrynth of perplexity and
error, from which he cannot extricate himself; he, therefore, hastens
back to his mentor to relate his misfortunes, and is persuaded by the
latter to take -a few more lessons, or perhaps is induced to employ him
to survey the parish, for which he takes care to charge the " honorary"
surveyor, about five times as much as he is himself to receive for the
parish when completed. If endowed with a sufficient stock of gulli-
bility and cash, the latter accedes, and after expending perhaps a much
larger sum than he would have done, if he had placed himself with a
respectable surveyor in a regular manner, he at length acquires a suf-
ficient knowledge of the business to enable him to get on by liimself
without making many more blunders. In many cases, however, the
aspirant is disheartened with his first failure, and declines the honour
of being further taken in by his preceptor.

This is the way, Sir, in which the pockets of the unwary are picked,
and the profession of the surveyor brought into disrepute ; and the
same remarks apply also to that of architecture, which our ^ro/essor
professes also to teach in a few lessons!!

Really, the barefaced impudence of some men exceeds all bounds,
and yet we see the advertisements of these highly respectable members
of the profession almost daily in the newspapers, a sure sign that they
find it to answer their purpose, which is to fill their pockets at the
expense of others.

I think, that you would be really conferring a benefit upon the
profession generally, and on the rising generation in particular, by
drawing attention to the tricks of these advertising quacks, who are in
general, persons of no kind of reputation or ability, and who are there-
fore quite unqualified to give instructions in the business they profess.
By pointing out also the fallacy and utter absurdity of a person
endeavouring to acquire in a few lissons, a profession in which a man's
n>holeli/e\s barely sufficient to enable him to acquire all the uiinutiiE of his

art, and in which there is ahiMys something nem to be learnt, you may be
the means of preventing the inexperienced from falling into such an
error, and into the clutches of our advertising professors. The pro-
fession is already overstocked with persons regularly educated, and
perfectly competent to practise it, but it is too bad that they should be
continually brought into collision with, and made to sutler for the igno-
rance and blunders of others calling themselves "Architects and
Surveyors," or "Civil Engineers," on the strength of a few lessons
received from parties nearly as ignorant as themselves, and who are no
more qualified to practice the professions they pretend to teach, than
I am qualified to fulfil the duties of Lord High Chancellor.
I have the honor to be. Sir,

London, ^pril 17, 1840. One who has Suffeki-.d.

[We do not wonder that parties can be induced to think that civil
engineering can be taught in a college, when there are those who
believe that it can be required in a few lessons. What is to become
of the hundreds of accomplished professors who are to be manufactured
wholesale at the Gordon College i

MR. MOORE'S PATENT ROTARY ENGINE.
Fiji. 1.

BOn.i

The following is a brief outline of this invention, taken from tli
specification.

A 5, A (j is a hollow ring, or cylinder, with two pair of folding
doors, D 3 and F, which open in the direction D, D 2, and F, F 1, and
fall back into boxes to receive them. The doors of each pair open
together by means of tooth wheels, and are closed again by coiled
springs behind them, and afterwards pressed closely together by the
elastic force of the steam, when the piston C has passed them. A,
A 1 is a hollow axle, through one arm of which, at A, the steam
enters, and passing through the tube A 4, just behind the piston, fills
the space left between the piston C, and the folding doors F, next
behind it. By its pressure on C, and confinement against the said
folding doors, the piston (which is firmly connected with all the in-
terior part A, A 2, &c.) and the said interior part revolve together in
the fixed ring cylinder, A 5, A 5, in the direction C C. As the pis-
ton C approaches the doors D 3, the beveled part B 2, acting on the
ketch D 5, gradually opens the folding doors, which, after the piston
has passed, close again by means of the coiled springs, and are kept
tight by the steam issuing through A 4. Through A 7, A 1, all the
steam or air in advance of the piston passes ott; and leaves the front
side of the piston with no more than the common pressure of the at-
mosphere, as in all other engines, to oppose the piston.

This is the principle of the machine, and of its action, but a variety
of contriva'ices are introduced — shown by other diagrams we have not
thought it needful to insert — for the purpose of meeting and over-
coming any difficulties in the way, and of rendering the machine more
perfect. — Railway JVIagazine.

Elcctro-Galmvism. — At a leclure del vercd at the Biiston Meihanics" Insti-
tute, on Friday tlie ISdi ull., by Mr. H. R. tiilsun, the curator, he exhibited
a most ingenious and important aiiplicatiun of electro-magnetism to practical
purposes, by which he is enabled to take the casts reijuisiie for sterutypingin
cO|>per. Thi'y are at present made in plaster ol Paris, and arc seldom aiiso-
liili'ly perfect ; but by this novel application ol science to the arts, sten'otype
p'ales may be produced as perfect and sliarp as the type trom wliicli Ibev
arc taken.

1S30.]

THE CIVIL r.iNraNEER AND AlU'HlTiXT.S JOURNAL.

140

GENERAL THEORY OF THE STEAM ENGINE.

By Akistides A. Mou^•AY, Esq.

No. Vi.

On the Action of the Steam in the Cylinder of a Stcnn Engine,

(Continued. )

We sliiiU first consider the most simple ciise, namely, that of a low
pressure condensing engine without expansion, and with the ordinary
slide valve, as the action of this valve is more simple than any other
for calculation.

On the subject of the slides we have to observe, that, although their
motion is gradual and as slow as it can he, yet there is no loss of eflfect
arising from this circumstance. We should not have thought it ne-
cessary to mention this fact here, as \ve stated it cursorily in our last
paper, but we have since seen a paragraph in Tredgold's Treatise on
the .Steam Engine, where he asserts the contrary. This paragraph is
at page 201, and runs thus:

" When valves, cocks, or sliders are to be moved to admit steam to
a steam-engine, the motion should be as quick as circumstances will
permit, so that the passages may be wdiolly opened or wholly closed
at the proper time with the least delay : for it may be easily shown
that a considerable loss of effect arises from valves opening or shutting
witli a slow motion."

Now the slide, when it has no travel, takes one half of tlie duration
of the stroke to open, and the other half to shut the ports ; and, as the
eccentric is placed a quarter of a revolution in advance of the crank,
the ports are full open when the piston is at the middle of the stroke,
and comjiletely closed at each end. If, however, we can show that
the aperture of the steam port is always proportional to the velocity
of the piston, it will be proved that the steam will follow the piston
with the same pressure from the beginning to the end of the stroke.
This will, howev(T, only apply to the steam port as regards the disad-
vantage of the slow motion of the slide ; for the more rapidly the
waste steam can be made to pass into the condenser, the greater effect
will obviously be obtained from the steam.* At the beginning of the
stroke of the piston, then, the slide is in the middle of its stroke ; the
piston has no velocity, and the steam-port is completely sluit, but just
readv to open, and its aperture increases in the ratio of the distance
travelled by the slide from its present position in the middle of its
stroke. Now that distance is equal to e sin a, when the shaft has de-
scribed the angle a, e being the eccentricity or distance of the centre
of the eccentric from that of the shaft. In the same time the piston
will have acquired tlie velocity r sin a, if v is its velocity in tlie middle
of the stroke. These two cjuantities evidently increase always in the
same ratio, therefore the orilice of the steam-port is always sufficiently
large to admit steam of the same elasticity as at the middle of the
stroke of the piston, supposing no w'aste space to require tilling with
steam at the beginning of c.ch stroke, and this is elfected before the
piston has described a sensible portion of its stroke, the steam having
a much greater tendency to How into nearly a vacuum than into steam
of very little less than its own pressure.

In order to allow for the filling of the waste space with steam, we
will suppose the slide, instead of having no lead, to have just so much
as will allow that space to be filled with steam of the same elasticity
as that in the steam-pipe, by the time the steam has arrived at the
end of the cylinder, and is ready to begin its stroke, the aperture of
the port being at the same time enlarged so much, that in the middle
of the stroke of the |iiston it should be suflicient to allow the steam to
follow the piston with the required elasticity. 13ut, since this neces-
sary lead of the slide and enlargement of the port are, as will be here-
after proved, excessively small, we shall omit to take them into con-
sideration, merely assuming the effect for the sake of which these
alterations were supposed, namely, that the waste space is already
filled with steam of the same elastic force as that in the steam-pipe
at the moment the piston commences its stroke.

Suppose now the piston in the middle of the stroke, in which case
the steam port will be full o|ien, and let the elastic force of the steam
in the steam passages = P, that of the steam in the cylinder = ;;, the
ratio of the area of the piston to that of the steam port = in, and V=:
the mean velocity of the piston in feet per minute. Let it be required
to determine// when all the other quantities are known.

In order to solve this problem, we have to fiiiil, Jirst, the velocity of

•'■ In condensing engines, working with low pressm-e steam, the resi tanec
of the wa^to steam is iisnally considered as equal to tlie prcssMrc in tlip con-
denser; we shall show in a future paper that where tl'-O slide valve is used
with no lead, the pressure of the waste stciim on the piston is much greater
tlian ia the condeusti during d, cousiderahle portigu gf the stroke.

the steam through the port necessary to enable it, when expanded to
the elastic force p, wliich it assumes in the cylinder, to follow the

piston with the velocity— — which the piston has attained in the

middle of the stroke ; secondlij, the height of a column of steam of the
elasticity P, which would give it that velocity, and lMtli/,the pressure
of that column, which will be equal to the loss of pressure wdiieh the
steam suffers in entering the cylinder.

In the first place, the velocity of the steam through the port, if it

retained its density, would be --- — ; but, since we suppose a loss of

pressure, we must also assume a diminution of density ; and, if we call

ii' anil r, the relative volume of the steam in the steam passages and

in the cylinder respectively, the velocity through the port will be

f' nt IT V

— ;r . The height due to this velocity is,

h =

1)'^ m- T- V-
28,800 g I'- '

and this is the height of the column of which the pressure is to be
determined. This would evidently be knoviai if we knew the height
of the colunm whose weight is equivalent to the total elastic force P,
which we shall therefore now endeavour to ascertain.

Letjj and v be the elastic force and relative volume of steam at the
temperatiu'e /, and ]/ and o' those of steam at the temperature t' ;
also let H be the height of a column of the former, whose weight is
equivalent to its pressure ]>, and IF the height of a column of the lat-
ter whose weight is equivalent to its pressure y. It is evident that
wc must have

»_ P^
H~ Pv'

But we have also

w

V (f + 4-1&)

Vt'

!)' (t -f 448) ■

which value being substituted in the preceding equation, it becomes

H'_T'

H "" T'

When t = 210, H is the height of the column of atmospherie steairt
equivalent to its clastic force, and H' that of the column of steam at
any other temperature /' equivalent to its clastic force y. Assuming
the density of water to be 1700 times that of atmosidieric steam, and
the pressure of the atmosphere to be equal to the weight of a cohinin
of water 34 feet high, the value of H will be 5rbU0 feel, and we shall
have

H' = ^'fiT',
liGO '

or, reducing the eoellicient and dropping the accents, '

H = S7'.37570 T.,

Since the value of P is supposed to be known, we can find that of T
by referring to a table, so that we may consider H as already deter-
mined, and therefore make use of it in the determination of the loss of
pressure P — p, wdiich the steam surtijis in entering the cylinder.

As the two colunnis H and h have the same density, their pressures
are evidently proportional to their altitudes, therefore

P—p _ h
P ~ H'

whence

P-i^ = -

V^P

2SS0O g !i2 H'

or, substituting for the constants 7r' and g their \aiucs, and for II it's
value S7:J757(J T, as found above,

-1>-

•U00000121aG

t'T

.^P.

(a)

We may be allowed to presume that the difference between v' and
V in all cases which occur in practice is so trifling that the ratio —

n (,2

may, without any sensiMi' error, be reganled as equal to unity, whicif
will reduce the preceding equation to the following simpler one,

m' V-
P — ^; ^ -00000012150 -^- P. (6.)

X

1.50

THE CIVIL ENCINKKK AM) \ K( 1 1 11 ICC r S .lOLKX AL

[M.'

A V

To show nimieiically liy !io\v iinic.li (lie pressuio p of tlie sleam in
the cvlinder may iail sliuVt of P, whiili is its pressure in the ste.iin
iLissnees, we shall apjilv these forinn'a- to one or two examples, when
we shall also show thai the error introdnccil by neglecting the (lilferencc
hetween r' aiid r iloes not ;xinount to so much as one Inmilreclth part
i)f a pound, whether the steam be used at a high or low pressure, pro-
\ ided the area of the steam passages be not excessively small, nor the
velocity of the piston verv great.

As a first exam]i!e let P = H-71, >ii — ia, and V = 210. The
temperature of the steam in the passages is in this case 212 degrees,
which gives T = (JilU, and r' — 1700.

Having substituted lliese values, we find

V—lj = -OOliya P = •0'J751I).,
whence

;; = •99337 P = H-l>125 lbs.

The relative vuluinc of steam of this elastic force i> 1711, which

makes

= •yb7"J, and if we imillijily the abu\e value of P — /"by

this fraction, we shall obtain

P— y/= •(>9i3lb.,
w hicli gives

J, = n-:il37lbs.,

which (liU'crs from tin' former value by no more than ■iiiil:7 lh>., uhich
is a negligeable (|iraiitity.

As an exani|ile of exces.rively high jiressure steam, let P - 130'93,
and III and V the same as in the lormcr example. In tliis case we
have T = 7;N and r' = 230-9.
From formula (/i) we obtain

V—p = -005484 P = -7 isi lb.
whence

;;= 130-2 12 lbs.

Tlie relative volume of steam of this elastic force is 2321, so that

(' -
r

-C897, and, multiplying liy this fraction the value of — y just

obtained, the latter becomes

P — 7; = -711 lbs.,
wlieice

;; = 130-2 19 lbs.

V '

The error introduced by neglecting the fraction , is therefore also

ill this case too small to be worth taking account of, so that we may
alwavs content ourselves witli formula (6), when we wish to ascertain
llie loss of ))rcssure which the steam sutli-rs in passing through the
steam port into the cylin<ler of a steam engine.

( )n referring to ecpiation (6), it will be seen that the loss of pressure
which the steam suiters in passing through the port into the cyliniler
Varies dirictly as the square of the velocity of the piston, and as the
s(|uare of the ratio of the area of the piston to that of the steam port,
and /;H-(;sf /y as the number of degrees by which the temperature of
the steam in the steam jia'^s ages exceeds — US degrees Kalir., which
shows that, the higher the pressure of the steam used, the less is the
comparative loss in passing through the port, and, the greater the
\elocitv of the ])iston, (he larger the steam port must be in the same
proportion, that llie loss of pressure may be the same.

Wc assumed a rather considerable value for V in the alxive calcula-
tions, in order to show more satisfactorily how trilling is the error
which can be committed in deducing the elastic tone of the steam in
the cylinder from that in the steam jiassages. By making V ^^ 210
Icct per minute, which is t!ie spt ed usually given to the pi>lon of an
engine, instead of 2 10, which we assumed above, the value of P — ji
will be reduced in the ntio of 210- to -240', or 19 to 114. When
therefore the area of the steam ] ort is one 2.')tli part cd' that of the
piston, and the mean velocity of the piston is about 210 feet per
minute, we may assume, as an average for low pressure engines,

P —p = -005 P,

;;= -995 P;
and for high pressure engines,

P— ;; = •004(; P,
o.-

J, - -9954 P.

It is a very good ]ilaii In lix a sti am guage on to the slide box, or
steam pipe very near the cylii der, as that dispenses with the calcula-

tion of the loss of elastic force esperienccil by the steam during its
passage llirough the steam pipe, before it arrives at the slide box.

\Vhen speaking of the lead of the s'ide necessary to allow the waste
space at tin- end of the c)iinder to be filled with steam before the be-
ginning of the stroke of the |iiston, we said we should prove it to be
excessively small. The calculation of the exact lead re(]nired for that
purpose is verv long anil dillicult, involving integrals of a very com-
plicated nature; but it will an-wer our juirpose ciiually well to prove
it for a greater lead than necessary, for it wiU tlien be proved a fortiori
for the necessary lead.

Let P be the elastic force and D the density of the steam in the
steam pipe, and let H = (he height of a column of the same steam
whose weight is equivalent to its pressure. Also let// be the elastic
force, and S the density of »he steam in the waste space when the
port is open to a certain degree, a the area of the orifice at that mo-
ment, rtlie velocity of the steam through it, aiuWytlie volume of steam
of the density D which has passed through the pott, and let d be the
density of the steam in the condenser, and consequently a'so in the
waste space before the ])ort has begun to open. In the ease of non-
condensing engines d is equal to the density of atmospheric steam, or
1. Also let c be the contents of the waste space, A the area of the

piston, L the length of the stroke, and - the ratio of the area of the

steam port to that of the jiiston.

The height of the column of steam ecjuivalent to the pressure P — 1>,
to wliich the flowing of the steam througli the port is due, is eijual to

H ( 1 — - y the velocity will therefore be eipial to

V-^^-(-'p)-

But this formula would lead to very complicated calculations, as we
have already observed, for which reason we shall substitute the frac-
tion for ^\, which w ill render the case less favourable ; for the former

being greater than the latter, the factor ('—,)) '» '•''■s 'h.m

(.-;;). .

herefore also the value of r will be less after the sub-

stitution than before, and consequently the lime re(|uirpd to ra
pressure of the steim in (lie waste space to the maximum \\\
attains in the cvlinder w ill appear greater than it really is. If
fore we can prove this (o be exceedingly slior(, it will be demons
a fordori lor (he true time. We shall therefore assume, in p
the above equation

ise (he
licli it
(hcie-
.( rated
ace of

r

a/-^^'"\/^

S

V-'.V"-" "•

We have also bclwecn (he vaiiible (juantities q and 5 (he fi>llo«ing
rel.idon

whence

And, ly diirrientiation,

But we have also

dif. 7= ' dif. 5.

dif. (y =r a (1 dif. I,

where ilif. / is the infinitely small space of time during which the in-
finitely sm.dl (piantity (d' steam dil. 5 of the density D passes through
the orifice o. These (Wo cipiations, having their first ineinbcis cipial,
give

-'" dif. S^- av dif. /. (2.)

Let 6 c r -present the area of the steam port when bill open, 6 being its
constant length and ;■ the greatest width to which it is opened by the

1840.1

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

151

eccentrif, wliieh is er|ii;il to the eccentrioily of the latter ; we sliull
llien linvf, calling 9 tlie angle (leseril)ecl by tile e<:centrie, IVom the nio-
ment when the port began to open till its aperture had heeoine eipial
to a,

a=br sin e : (3.)

whence we obtain by differentiation

dif. a — 6 )• cos 9 (lif. p,
or

dif. a

dif. a
b r cos a

Bnt equation (3) gives

h r cos 0 = /y/A- f' — a'l
wliich, being substituted, makes

dif. a
dif. 9 = .

Vi' »•' — a-

And, if we call t the duration of a single stroke of the jiiston, or half
a revolution of the shaft, we shall also liave

wlience l)y differentiation

dif. / = ! dif. 0,
It

which becomes by substituting the value of dif. 9 just found

dif. t = dif. a.

T (i-' r" — 0-) "

Substituting this value, as well as that of v given by equatiow (V>,
in equation (2), this latter becomes

dif. S . ,

(4).

(D — 5)^

T V 2 g H D a dif. o

(i- /- — o-)-

The greatest value which S can acquire, being equal to the maxi-
nunu <lensity of the steam in the cylinder during the stroke of the
piston, cannot be quite equal to D, but will not fall far short of it. On
the other hand it is evident that, if we assume D as the maximum
value of 5, the hypothesis will be unfavourable to our demonstration;
we are therefore permitted to make it; and as the minimum v.due of
S is equal to d, we must integrate the first member of precediiig equa-
tion between the limits 5 = D and 5 ^ rf. The limits of the value
of a in the second number are a=: a, the aperture of the port when 5
has attianed its greatest value, and o ^ o. We must therefore have

D

' dif. !

J cD-5) i

tV'2,

2gHD /* g dif. tt

(6^r-a=)^

(5.)

lu the tirst integral let D — 5 ^ .r; then dif. S := — dif. .r, and
D D — (i

dif, 5

": (lif. X.

/'dif, 5 /•

a, 0

4

=z--2{V> — d) .
In the second integral make

b- r- — «'- = z.
Py difi'ereutiation we obtain

a dif. a = — i dif. z.
We have, therefore,

a h" r-

y^ g dif. g _ _ /•!

■ dif. z.

i

= — [br — (b-.-- - rr-) ].

Substituting these values of the integrals in equation (5"), we ob-
tain

2(p-d)^ = LVMii^ [i ,_ f/;: ,.. _ a-:) * ],

and, subsliluting lor a its value given by equation (3),

2 (D — (/) = -^—f [br — br(l— I'n. 9- ) ]

>j^W2gHD^.„„_,^

whence we deduce

suiv. 8 =:

2 c TT VD •

6rT^2gHD

or, putting for b r, which is the area of the steam port when full open,

, A
its value — ,

sinv. 0 --

2»ctVD — d

T A V2gHD"

Now — '■ '— expresses (he distance passed through by the piston

while the shaft ilcscribes the angle 9 round its axis, and consequently
during the time the waste sjiace is filUug with steam, therefore, if we

call I that distance, and the ratio of the waste space c to the con-

S
tents of the cylinder between the limits of the stroke, we shall have

AL, "
c = ^ and

/ =

« «• L" V D — d

St /^2gHli

/ _ M T L V D — i = iittL "y 1 — p'
L ~ S T vTg- HET S t V 2gH

or, since the densities are inversely as their relative volumes,

L

HTT

l^/\/ 1-..

SrVSgH

(G.)

As an example for low pressure steam, let L ^ 5, » — ^''vl — ^-,'''
p _ 17-7^ lbs., whence V = 1427, T = U70 and H = .)Sl,/ ..•/ ../b ;
let the temperature of the condenser be 110 degrees, '"";''.; J'^' ";•;
V = 14y.-i2 ; and, if we suppose the piston to move throu^^i -00 tee
in a minute, r = 1-5 second. We have besides n = o-UlU and

° Subrtituliug these values in the second member of equation (b), we
obtain

3-1416 X

25 X 5 /\/ ^ "

1427
14952

= -0032.

Ii
tiftl

L 1-5 X 20 V G4-3S X 58G75-737G
u the example chosen the value of / would thus be less than one-
h of an inch; and it will be remembered that this value is too great

in consequence of our having substituted the ratio — for -.

As an example for high pressure steam, we wiU^ take the^data
from locomotive engines, and assume L = 1-5, n — la, s _ ^ ,
P = 77-05 ; whence V = 3ol)-5, T = 700, and H = 'il>5^>' j'^^b ; also
,- = 1700 ; and, if we suppose the piston to move through 3bO teet
in a minute, t = -ij second.

Substituting these values, we lind

/ 3-MlOX 25 X 1-5 /y ^'

3ii'J-5
"iTOO

= •010)7.

L -25 X 20 V IJ4"38 X GG557-57(;

In this example, therefore, the value of / is but a trifle more than
•is of an inch, or less than 3 of the lead of i of an inch usually allowed
in locomotives.

The ratio - a'so expresses the proportion of the whole area of the

steam port by which its aperture is diminished at the moment the
piston reaches the middle of its stroke, and as this quantity is, as the
wo above examples show, exceedingly small, it is unnecessary to
make any allowance for it.

152

THE CIVIL ENCilNEKR AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[May,

A FEW KKMARKSON THli: CONSTRUCTION oK oni.K^UE
ARCHES, ANU ON SOME RECENT WORKS (JN THAT
SUBJEC'l'.

IIntil witliii) the last few years, the construction of oblique briilges
lias been but little nnilerstooil, from a iloiibt as to their stabililv, and
I'ruiii the dilliiHilty of their conslnidion, they were regarded to a cer-
tain degree with distrust, and the engineer would only have recourse
to tbeui when the circumstances of the case were imperative; the
superior scientific acquirements of the engineers of the present dav,
liovvever, the assistance of various books on the subject, and the great
experience (jbtained in this species of construction, l)y the demai d.
occasioned for them in the large railway undertakings which have
lately occupied so niucli*of the public attention, have contributed
luaterially to remove the veil of mystery whi(d) formerly hung over
them; the doubl wbicli was at one time entertained of their stability
is removed, the oblique bridge is now generally adopted, and the only
])oint remaining to be cleared up is, as to the iiest nietliod of working
the parts togetlier, so as to obtain the desideratum of engineering,
\iz., stability, economy, and beauty of appearance.

Since the connnencement of the London and Hirniingham Railway,
fcair authors have written on the construction of obli(pie bridges, Mr.
I'dx, .Mr. Hart, Mr. 15uck, and Mr. Nicholson. It should be observed,
with refereme to the two latter, that Mr. Buck's work appeared be-
fore the third part of Mr. Nicholson's was published. The announce-
ment of a work on this subject, by a person whose reputation as an
author, stood so high as that of Feter Nichelson, naturally gave rise,
in the practical world, to the hope tliat the diUlculties which had
lierelofore attended the constructing of oblique bridges would, with
his powerful assistance, be much reduced, if not entirely removed,
but lliat our most reasonable anticipations are sometimes doomed to
disappointment, was never more signally shown than in this instance.
A feu quotations will be sufficient to give a specimen of the errors
and inconsistencies which, we regret to say, cl;araclerize this book.
IMr. Nicholson says in his preface, " In this undertaking, the general
reader is not supposed to be nuich acquainted with scientilic re-
searches," and he accordingly goes on, in the introduction, to inform
him that a right angle contains ninety degrees, that bu niinut<'s make
a degree, and (hat " a number having a small zero or cypher placed
over the riglit hand shoulder of the iigure or last tignre, shows this
number to be as many degrees as the figure or figures express." At
page XX of the introduction, he says, " If a spiral surface be cut by a
])laue obliquely to the axis of the cylinder, the section will be a cuive
<;f contrary flexure, and if the spiral surface be cut by another plane
passing along the axis, perpendicular to the first [ilane, the section,
which is a straight line, will intersect the curve of contrary flexure at
the point of retrogression." The first of these paragr.iphs appears
intended for a person who has only learnt to read and write, while the
second, it must be admitted, seems little adapted to the understanding
of tlmse who are unacquainted with scientific researches.

In Section IV, jiage xxiii, which treats of the trihedral, he states
thai " If a trihedral be cut by a plane perpendicular to one of its
oljlique edges, the section shall be a right angle." Now a trihedral
7nay have all three of its edges oblique, or one obtuse and two oblique
edges, or one right and two ob'.ique edges, and the above assertion
only holds good with regard to the latter ; with such a glaring error
as this among the definitions on which his trihedral svstem is founded,
it is of course unnecessary to examine it further. One part of the
subject in which Mr. Nicholson has been very unfortunate, is relative
to the sections of s)>iral surfaces; of this we will only give one in-
stance here, as we shall have occasion to return to this subject. He
.says, page ■24, "the transverse section is, Ihcrclore, the onlv section of
the spiral surface v\hich is a straight line." \\'liereas, in introduction,
page .\i-\, we find, "If a spiral surface be cut by a ))lane, either per-
pendicular to or passing along the axis, the section will be a straight
line.

The history and theory of oblique bridges is, liy some system of
arrangement peiadiar to the author, placed after the problem for con-
structing the teiiqilets for working arch stones, and is followed by a
practical method for obtaining the templets. This history, so curi-
ously placed, a|i|)ears to be introduced chiefly for the op|iortunilv
thereby alforded the author of making his own sirietures on other
works; but in his anxiety to detract from the merits of ;dl authors
but himself on this subject, he has again fallen into so many errors, as
to leave no doidjt of his being but superficially acquainterl with the
subject on which he writes.

Mr. Fox has assrrted, in common with other writers on the oblique
arch, that, " when the soflit i.i developed, the edge wdiich formed the
face of the arch gives a true spiral curve." Upon this Mr. N. re-

marks, " It must, liowcver, be observed, that the edge of the devel-
loped sciui-ellipse is neither a spiral line nor (ho projection of a spiral
line." In this remark Mr. Nicholson is decidedly wrong, for it is easy
to dennjustrate that the curve above mentioned is the projection of a
true spiral, whose radius is equal (o half the obliquity of the arch, and
whose length is equal to the semieireumfereuce of the lylinder on
which the arch is assumed to be built. With reference to Mr. Fox
having stated that (he joints in the face are curves, Mr. N. says, " if
they had been curves, the curvature v.ould have been so small, that
the joint lines would nut have varied sensibly from straight lines.
The true curvature (jf the joint could not, therefo.e, have been ex-
pressed in lines," Now if Mr. Nicholson had ever had occasion to
put his rules into practice in a bridge of considerable obhqnily, he
would have found that the face joints near the springing are not only
curves, but very jierceptible ones. There is, moreover, nothing im-
possible in constructing the curves formed by the face joints, it is
nearly as simple as the construction of the sijiral itself; but this is
a part of the subject on which Mr. Nicholson is throughout \uiforlu-
nate.

Mr. Buck's Essay on the Oblique Bridge next falls under our author's
scrutiny; that it should receive his entire disapproval, is not perliaps
surprising. Mr. Buck has had the advantage of Mr. Nicholson in
being able, while engaged on the London and Birmingham and oilier
railways, to put his rules into practice, and prove them to be right
before he laid them before the public ; he has, for the same reason,
been able to select the useful parts, and pi-esent them to the reader
unencumbered by the superfluous luid weary waste of words through
which Mr. Nicholson's readers are doomed to wander. Relative to
this work Mr. Nicholson proceeds to say, "The formula cu = C/-|-e)
cot 0 fan B is due to Mr. Buck ; it gives the distance below the centre
to the puiuf of convergence, into which all the joints in the elevation
of the arch meet in the axis minor, supposing that the joints are
straight lines, which thev are not exactly." This having reference to
the section of the spiral surface, no wonder Mr. Nicholson is again
unfortunate. Mr. Buck does not wish bis readers to tin-n the curves
into straight lines, wdiich peculiar operation, if pr<q)erly conducted, is
to cause the straight lines to converge to a ])uint. He simply gives
the point to which the chords of the said curves so converge, and the
formula for finding this point is not all that is due to ]\Ir. Buck, but
(lie discovery of the fact (hat (hey do converge to a point, and the
uses to which this discovery can be applied in facilitating the con-
struction of tlie bridge.

Mr. Nicholson next complains that Mr. Buck has given, besides his
general formuki for finding the |)oint of convergence, another formula
which lia|)pens to be more convenient when making the necessary
calculations for the segmental arch. He concludes at once that the
results of these forniulie must dill'er, and puts forth bis assertion to the
world as if the book were in error. His concluding paragraph rela-
tive to Mr. Buck's book is, " One thing which we consider defective
in Bn(d>.'s Es.say on (Jblique Arches is, that his intentions are not
enunciated under regular heads, so as to call the attention of the
reader ; he gives no reason for his rules, nor does he show the prin-
ciples upon which his formulae depend. The height of the point o,
Fig 7, will depend upon the breadth of the beds."

The first part of this remark we will leave Mr. Nicholson to settle
with bis conscience in the best way he can. As regards the second
part, we would ask «liat is the K in Mr. Buck's formula if it is not the
breadth of the beds or the thickness of the arch, which is one and the
s;ime thing ? Mr. Nicholson ought, in justice, to ascertain that an
error really exists, before he implies that such is the case. That he
has not long been acquainted with the fact of the chords of the joints
in the face converging to a point below the axis of the cylinder, is
evident from his book on stone cutting, in which the joints are drawn
at right angles to the curve, and that he was unaware of the utility of
knowing this point is equally evident, or he would never have given
the laborious and complicated construction for finding the joints in the
face, beginning at page 17.

Mr. Nicholson gives rules for what he terms two kinds of oblique
bridges, namely, those in which the joints of the stones are planes,
and those in wliicli they are spiral surfaces; these rules are so jumbled
up togetlier, that the reader is at a loss to know to which of the two
species of bridges they refer. At page 15 there is a problem, " To
find the curved bevels for cutting the cproin heads of an oblique arch."
The reader being unable to learn from the heading of the problem
whether it rel.ites to square or spiral joints, naturally proceeds to
wade tlirougli it, with tlie lio|)e that it may aliijrd some means of as-
certaiuing this fact, but licre he soon becomes lost in a labyrinth. You
are told to divide the arc ABC into as many equal parts as the ring
stones are in number, and through the points of division draw b k, c i,
dj, &c., perpendicular, to the curve A D E. ABC and A D E being

]S4().]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

153

two ilitterent curves in two different dirt'ctions, there is evidently a
great omission aomewliore, wlncli, liovvcver, we might I'orgivc if hU
uieaviing could be discovered, but it cannot. A little further on he
tells yon to join a m, h in, c m, &e., but where the point la is to be
placed, Mr. jS'icholson has quite forgotten to say.

Page 10, referring, as is stated at the head of the page, to plate
21, is another example in which, from the type being completely at
variance with the plate, we are left quite in the dark as to what the
author wishes to communicate.

The practical part of this work, if, indeed, any ])art may be so
called, is scarcely less defective than that of which we have already
spoken; the direction for dividing the face of the arch into stones of
imequal thickness is unworkmanlike and unsightly, and where brick-
work is used, the joints must necessarily be larger on one side than
on tlie other.

On the whole it must be admitted that the book is far from being
worthy of the great reputation ilr. Nicholson lias hitherto justly ac-
quired ; it has the appearance of being got up by his junrneymen, and
signed with his name without a sufficiently careiul revision. But we
have said enough, though, in closing the book, we cannot but express
a wish that, before he had sought the mote in his brother's eye, he
had removed the beam from his own.

Maiicksler. W. H. B.

March 2(i, 1810,

MARINE ENGINES.

Employment of the expansive principle lo iln full extent in Marine
Engines, /vith a saving vf hulf the fuel.

Sir — In my remarks in your Journal of last month I dwelt at some length
on the advantages to be derived from the employment of the Cornish
double beat valve in marine engines, esjiecially the facility which such
afford of working the steam expansively. But it may be asked why
all this talk of working expansively where there is little or nothing to
expand ? I wouKl answer this question by another : why adopt a good
plan by halves '. take the Cornish boilers also, or a suitable modifica-
tion of them, and raising the steam to 35 lbs. ellective, carry out the
))rinci|)le of expansion to its full extent; this would at once reiluce
the consumption of coal one half, and s<j double the range of our steam
navigation. On such a startling proposition as this being mooted, the
question naturally suggests itself, how has Ibis so long escaped the
first men of the day i That I shall not attempt to answer; it is sutli-
cient that it has escaped them, and a very slight examination of the
malter will make this evident.

Thus taking the horse power at 33,000 lbs. lifted one foot per minute
with a consumption of 8 lb. of coal per hour, and tliis is below the
average consumption, we get a duty of 23,000,01)0 (though 20,000,000
would be nearer the mark, especially in steam boats).

If any be disposed to assert that this is overstated as regards the
Great Western and British Cjueen, as these vessels are said not to
consume above six or seven pounds per horse power per hour, I an-
swer, the Queen's engines are fiOO horse power at 15 strokes per
minute, or the piston travelling through 220 feet per minute, now the
pressure of steam, &c. reniaining the same, the power exerted by the
engine is exactly as the space through which the piston travels ; but
12 strokes per minute is nearly the average number the engines make,
as appears by her log; this reduces her power in the ratio of 13
to 12, and increasing the consumption of fuel per horse power in
an equal ratio, makes the six or seven pounds nominally consumed
equal to S or 'J.

Whereas many of the Cornish double acting crank engines used for
stamping ores, the most trying work an engine can possibly be sub-
jected to, and where there is greatest loss by friction, are doing a
duty of 50, 56, and even 60,000,000, as appeals from the authenticated
reports of the engineers.

Although tfiis will not be doubted by any one who has had the op-
portunity of seeing the engines at work, it may suit some to doubt and
even to deny the truth of these reports ; so they did those of the
pumping engines doing a 70 or SO,OUO,000 duty ; but as 'JO, and eveu
100,000,000 is now being done under their eyes, what credence can
such men expect for any statement they may in future make.

Having had occasion to visit Cornwall some three years ago on
business, immediately after having completed the engines of a large
vessel now on the London and Dublin station, the easy valves, the cool
engine room, and almost smouldering fires of the Cornish engines, as
contrasted with the stiff and heavy slides, the suffocating heat of the
engine room, and roaring furnaces I had just left, attracted my parti-
cular attention; and though possessing at that time no data beyond
the published reports of the engineers, I saw enough to convince ma

of their immense superiority, and at once set about considering how
the same plan could be carried out in marine engines, a point which I
hope to be now able to make clear, and the objections to which I shall
endeavour to deal with in detail.

The first is the increased danger of explosion or collapse supposed
to be occasioned by the great density of steam.

The second is the additional strength required in the engines to
withstand steam of such density wdien first admitted into the cylinders.

The third is the increased weight of the boilers, and the extent of
flue surface required for their successful application.

Tlie first objection, the increased danger, I shall begin by denying
" in toto," nay, it appears to me that there is absolutely increased
safetj', for the following reasons :

Setting aside the increased weight, &c., one boiler can be made
quite as capable of supporting a pressure of 35 lbs. as another is of
supporting 3 lbs.; the safety valves would have much less tendency to
stick fast under the higher pressure, and their becoming a little stiff,
or two or three pounds overloaded, would not be of the slightest con-
sequence on a boiler calculated for a pressure of 35 lbs., though it would
have a very dangerous tendency on one calculated for 3 lbs.

But the great argument for increased safety is this : it is an estab-
lished fact that with boilers of the usual construction, nine-tenths of
the steam boat accidents occurs through collapse of the overheated
flues, much more than from any excessive pressure of steam in the
boiler; nor is this to be wondered at if we consider how the fires are
urged. Now with the Cornish boilers and a proper system of expan-
sion, the same work can be done vvith half the coal, and if we consume
only half the coal on the same or a greater extent of fire bar and flue
surface in a given time, tlien it follows clearly that we have a fire of
only one-half the intensity, and the risk of collapse from overheated
flues diminished in like jiroportion. But if these arguments are in-
sulUcieut, then the following fact is greatly in their favour, viz., tliat
as few if not fewer accidents occur in Cornwall wliere such boilers are
in universal use, than in any part of the kingdom where steam power
to a like extent is used; and if it be further true, as I have heard
stated both in Cornwall and elsewhere, tflat many of the Cornish en-
gineers will eng.ige to keep up the boilers for ever, for tlie annual sum
of 5 or 6 per cent on their original cost,* such an argument appears to
me, as it will to most practical men, to be at once perfect and con-
clusive.

I now come to the increased strength required in the engines, and
this on examination will appear trifling. To commence then with the
paddle-wheels as they remain of the same size, and are driven at the
same speed, no alteration is required in them, and of course the same
remark will apply to the paddle-shafts through which the power is
transmitted. I'liese being subjected to no increased strain as the
average effective pressure upon the piston which takes place when
the piston is half stroke, &c., and the crank at its point of greatest
torsion, is the same as in a common engine. The intermediate shaft
alone with its cranks, in which the crank pins nve/ast, requires addi-
tional strength, and as this shaft is only about one-sixth the length of
the two padd'e shafts, and the strength of a shaft increases as the cube
of its diameter, the increased weight will be trifling: next there is the
top frame that carries this shaft, and the bottom frame supporting the
gudgeons and columns, the strength of both must be increased, and it
is as the square of their depth ; next comes the piston rod, this will
do as before, the piston rod of a large engine being equal to 20 times
the strain it is ever subjected to : the same remark will apply to the
malleable iron columns supporting the top frame, as each of them is
usually made of the same strength as the piston rod.

The piston must lie strengthened, but the cylinder will do as before,
as it is strengthened at the extremes where the greatest pressure of
the steam is by its flanges, and in ordinary cases we are under the ne-
cessity of making it much stronger then necessary to ensure a sound
casting, and also to support the framing attached to it ; besides a
cylinder of three-fourths the capacity is sullicient for the same power,
so here we are positive gainers in two most important points, strength
and space. The gudgeons of the cylinder of double the strength will
not be stronger nor heavier tlian the main centres of the beam engine
of the ordinary construction must necessarily be.

The points" then which require increased strength are, the inter-
mediate shaft and gudgeons, the top and bottom supporting frames,
and the piston. The increased weight from this cause would not ex-
ceed G or S per cent, beyonil that of the same description of engine at
the ordinary pressure, and after taking this into account, the total de-
crease, by adopting the vibrating cylinder, would be at least 25 per
cent.

I now come to the question of increased weight in the boilers, and

" Perhaps some of your readers can affirm or contradict this.

I.-,4

TITE CIVIL i:\mNKKR WD A lU'IHTErTS JOURNAL.

[M

tills I shall l)c alile to show is not iienrly so great as inav at first be
sii|i[nisi'il.

It \sill scaiXL'ly Ijo ilispuli-il that the same fliieKiiess ol' plate in
cyliiKlei's G feet diainoter, the size of the exterior eyliniler of the Cor-
nisli boiler, will bear a water |)ressure at least 3 liines greater than if
arranged in the- usual form of a steam boat boiler ; or that the former
of T)- Kith thickness W(jnlJ bear «ithont flinehing a proof pressnre of
(■>n or 7l) lbs. to the si|nare inch, while the latter would give evident
signs of weakness at 20, allhough ever so well stayed. If then it be
considered perfectly safe to work steam of ii or 7 lbs. pressure in a
boiler w Inch w onld give evident signs of weakness mider a pressnre of
20 lbs., surely it is equally safe to work steam of oU or 3.j lbs. in a
cylinder of G feet diameter, and i inch thick, which would bear with-
out the slightest signs of weakness ISUllis. on the square inch, boilers
of this size and thickness being usually worked to 10, l.'i, and even 50
lbs. per square inch Then 1 feet diameter, and 7-lt)tbs lhi( kness
will be ample for the internal cylinder, and to make security doublv
secure, let a strong angle iron be rivetled round the internal cvlindcr at
distances of about i feet apart, this would keep the cvlindcr or arch
perfect, and so prevent tlie possibility of a collapse, w'itli but trifling
addition to the weight of the boilers.

Now taking equal extent of common and Cornish boilers, the former
taking all stays, ice. into account, will barely average S-Stlis in thick-
ness, while tile latter wilh its internal tube of IS inch diameter, and
.5-lt;tlis thickness, would average about i inch. Tliis makes their
respactive weights at 3 to 4, but in order to the successful application
cf slow combustion we require addition flue surface, so take 3 to 5 as
the ratio of the weight of common and Cornish engines and water for
the same [lower, the extra space required for the boilers being much
more than compensated, by the small space occupied by the vibratiiin-
engine. "

But to go more minutely into the matter, the weight of a Cornish
boiler and water of the size and thickness named, and 35 feet in length,
is — 24 tons, exposing a surface '.t3s feet : eight such boilers might be
easily set in the space allowed for the Queen's boilers, now 8 X 24 —
192 tons, as the weight of tfie boilers, ami allowing 50 tons for setting
and clothing, we have 192+ 50= 242 tons, total weight of the boilers
and setting, &c.; 938 X 8= 7504 -f- 500 = 15 feet surface per horse
power, being one-half more than theusual allowance without increas-
ing the weight of the boiler at all, or occupying more space in the
vessel.

But allowing that we have increased the weight of the boilers in
tlie ratio of 3-5, let us take the British Queen as the subject of com-
parison.

The total weight of her engines and boilers is 500 tons, and of this
220 may go in round numbers for boilers and water, and 3 • 5 • ■
220 : 361., and 500 — 220 + 3(;0 gives G(3 1 -and less 64 ton's being
the decreased weight of the vibrating engine = 600 tons, as the
weight of her engines and water on the Cornish plan.

'I4ie account would then stand thus, on the present plan.

Engines and boilers 500 tons

20 days fuel 7^0

Total - - 1250
On the Cornish plan.

Engines and boilers (JOO

20 days fuel 375

Total - - 975

Showing a capacity for 285 tons more cargo, and a saving of 375 tons
of poal.

Though some may consider these figures as exaggerated without
being able to assign any reason to themselves or others, save that the
plan is im]iossible. those who have examined the subject w ill as-
suredly blame me for not having gone far enough : and theie is another
class of well meaning men among engineers and others, who have im-
bibed such a reverence for the name of Watt, that they almost con-
sider any deviation from the plans he followed, or improvements upon
the state in which he left the steam engine, to be an insult to his
memory, and a deduction from his fair fame; but my admiration of
Watt is as great as any man's can be ; I am proud of lii"m as a country-
man, and luinour him as a great man, and so liave endeavoured to add
a stone to the nioiiument he has raised, bv carrving out a principle
whiidi in his lliird ]iatent of 1782, he distinctly propounded, and of the
advantage of which that great man seems to have been fullv aware,
though be lived not to see it carried into eHect.

If then i am born out in these slatenieuls, and to disprove the main
point, the great increase of duty by expansive working is altogether
impossible ; and the others I think ] have succeeded in making toler-

ably clear, though on some points as the weight of the present boilers
and Water (d'the P.ritisll Quc'eii, 1 may have made some slight mislake,
iiol .uiKJunting to a few Ions either way, having assimied it from com-
parison with others, and not slated it from actual knowledge, vet on
the other hand 1 have underrated the saVing of fuel, and allowed ipiiti^
enough fur the increased weight of the boilers, as there Is le^s due to
the great extent of surface than is suppo-.ed, the expansion being the
point where the power is gained ; and however the ))roposition of
adopting steam of increased density may be cavilled at, to the princi-
ple of expansive working and slow combustion we must come at last,
and by adopting them to their full extent, which I think I have ?liown
to be equally safe and perfectly practical. The Cape of Good Hojie
is as much within our reach as New York now is, and a speedy and
sure passage open to our Indian and Australian empires.

Such then being the ease, are we content to allow our preconceived
ideas to supersede our better judgment, and go on loading our vessels
with unnecessaiy coal, and thus uselessly consuming our most valuable
mineral — limit at the same time the range of our steam navigation,
and the civilization of the world at large; or do our engineers mean
to allow that they cannot make a boiler safe under a pressure of 33
lb., or that one of the thickness and diameter that I have proposed
would not be perfectly safe under that pressuie. If they allow neither
of these propositions, then the sooner the subject is seriously taken up
the better, as every boat now fitting with the usual beam or side lever
engines, (and many of the spbudid m ill packets are being thus fitted),
is incapable of being afterwards altered, so as to work expansively, as
tliough the boilers may be altered, the beams, &c. would never stand
the increased pressure.

Before concluding, iierhaps I may be allowe<l to correct an omissiori
in my last pajier. It is a favourite remark of naval men, " get as ex-
tended a hold of the vessel as possible." Now it has often struck me,
not only in those vessels I have myself been engaged in, but in every
one I have bad the opportunity of seeing, that this very reasonable
remark is not only not complied with, l)ut that the power is positively
brought to bear on the w nmg place. Thus no attem|>t that I have seen
has been made to lay hold of the vessel fore and aft in a line w-l(h the
centre of the paddle shaft, but the framing is stayed sideways, or at
best slightly supported by the most contiguous deck beams, and the
horizontal strain of the propelling power acting at the bearings of the
shaft, the engine frame is thus used as a lever to wrench the under
frame of the vessel as it were asunder, and an action is thus created
tending materially to weaken the vessel and increase the unpleasant
vibration, to remedy this defect, and at the same time to prevent the
framing and joints of the engine from breaking, uncommonly heavy
bed plates have been resorted to; those on board the British Queen
amounting at least to 23 tons; now without entering into a discussion
on the ])oint, what I propose is this, let a strong flat bar of wrought
iron be carried fore and aft opiiosite each engine, gradually tapering
away, and running in towards either side of the vessel, being at the
same time securely bulled through tenor twelve of the deck beams,
on the end of this next the engine, let there be a strong joint and a
similar one on the engine frame joined by u strong connecting rod, this
would allow suflicient play, and at the same time, if I may use the ex-
pression, give the porter a holil of his load by the right place.

To conclude, if it be considered that I have not gone sufficiently into
detail completely to prove every point I iiave advanced, my answer is,
I have con9i<ler,ibly underrated the gain, and overrated the loss, thus
rendering minute calculation of strength and weight uncalled for; be-
sides such would liave been of no value to any one not intimately
acquainted with the subject, and practical men can examine it for them-
selves.

My object has been to keep the main jioints of the argument in
view, and to make it intelligible to all classes of your readers, and in
this I hope I have succeeded, and should you or any of your readers
be able to fninish me with the exact weight of the boilers* of the Bri-
tish Queen, and the space they occupy, with any further particulars,
I will in a future number enter more minutely into the subject, and
illustrate by a few sketches my ideas of bow the boilers on the Cor-
nish plan should be set and clothed, and wdicre the extent of surface I
have spoken of is obtained ; having no doubt that I shall be able to
establish every point that I have advanced, bearing on the increased
safety and economy of the jilaii proposed, anil at no distant period see
it carried into successful operation on a scale commensurate with the
inqiortance of the undertaking, and the vital iiiHuence wdiich such an
improvement would have on our political and commercial relation with
all parts of the world.

Pimtico, Jlpril 4, 1840, A. S.

* The niodilication of Cornish boilers I propiiBe lo adopt has no external
Huns.

IS 10.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

15.3

RAMPLES BY rHIl.O.MUSiEUS.— Nu. 6.

THE SOANF.AX Ml'SEUM.

Thk Somiean Museum is again open for tlic fow inonllis and ilaj-s
wliicli its managers tliink necessary to afTord tlic puli'.ie. Three
iiiontlis in tlie year, and two days per week, are in Ihese days tliouglit
enongli — wo wonder tlie trustees do not think of charging a shilling,
it would be carrying out the ivcoco style completely. Why not take
immediate steps for thnjwing it open ? Take up the carpets, apply
to the legislature for funds to enlarge the establishment, make the
museum worthv of the nation, and the trustees will do liouour to them-
■ selves and to the memoiv of the founder. They have, in Mr. Bailey,
a talented and well-intentioned curator, with one only fault, that he is
disposed to regard an establishment worthy of the public, us only to
be conducted for tlie use of artists,

"Who, boin for tlie universe, narrowed his mind,
And to party gave up wliat was meant for mankind."

Let Mr. Bailey, if he places any value upon the promotion of pub-
lic instruction, urge the trustees to do their duly.

This year a catalogue has been produced, which, as a first attempt,
is of course rather scanty in size, but we are bound to say that the
matter which is given is highly creditable to the exertions of the
curator. It beats the National (iallery affair hollow, and is superior
to the antiquarian portion of the British Museum catalogue. Why is
there not a catalogue at the East India Museum ? We have only one
objection, and that is to the price; we think that three pence would
have been rather nearer the v.due than a shilling; it does much honour
to Mr. Bailey ; however, there are copies left on the tables for the
jiublic to consult, besides the more extensive catalogue rainonni' of
Sir John Soane, so that the oflicers are acquitted of the slightest in-
tention of jobbing or keeping back information, although they may
have erred in a matter of judgment. Indeed, the wish to give infor-
mation, and the courtesy with which it is imparted, seem, from the
example of the superiors, to inspire the lowest ofticers of the museum,
and it were to be wished that, in other establishments, the same spirit
prevailed among the attendants.

The list of trustees given in the catalogue is far from inspiring
confidence in any one who knows anything of them ; there is only one
man, indeed, who can be regarded as an active friend to public im-
provement, for as to the others, they are many of them notorious
sticklers for acknowledged abuses. The sooner the museum is put
under more active and responsible management the better. While
the present parties doze over their duties, the place will continue to
be a knicknackery instead of a national institution, and Sir John
Soahe's weeds will be allowed to usurp the place of his laurels. What
we require is a proper classification, suHicieut space, and facility of
access for students and the public.

Sir John Soane has left the place, like his own head, with all kinds
of queer corners in it ; but irres[)ective of his arrangements, we shall
proceed to notice, under their several heads, some of the principal
objects.

The picture gallery, by means of inovtahle planer, has, crammed
into the small space of 13 ft. S in. in length, 12 ft. 4 in. in breadth,
and 19 ft. 0 in. in heigtli, as many works, according to the book, as
would cover a gallery of the same height, 45 ft. long and iO feet
broad. Besides the works in these rooms, are others dispersed
through the Museum, so th.it in all there are about fiftv paintiiu's and
f(uty drawings, besides statues and has reliefs in numbers, i'liese
works ought to be removed from the museum or sutiicicnt accommo-
dation |)rovided for them, as they are much too valuable to be sacri-
ficed in the present holes and corners. The collection of the English
school is very fine, containing 37 paintings and 25 drawings by our
first artists. Among these are 12 Hog.utlis, which cost nearly 2,5llU/.
the Rake's Progress and the Election; the Snake in the tirass by Sir
Joshua Reynolds ; a Jackson, 1 Howards besides the Ceilings, a Danhy,
a Bourgeois, a Fucssli, a Bird, a Ward, a Durno, an Eastlake, 3 of
Jones, a Hilton, a Flaxman, 3 Slothards, 3 Corboulds, 2 Calcotts, 2
Daniels, 2 Turners. t)f foreign masters there are specimens by Raft'aelle,
4 by Canaletti fand the tliif u'o:iirrc from Fontliill), by Rubens, Paul
Veronese, Watteau, Ruysdael (3), Ostade and Znccherelli.

The collection of scul|iture, marbles, casts and models both ancient
and modern, is fine. The specimens of Flaxman's works are above
Id in number, ami ought to be brought forward so as to form a collec-
tion of the works of tins great artist, who lias done so much fcu' our
progress at home, and our architectural reputation abroad. Among
them are figures and bas-reliefs of Piety, Charity, Truth, Winged
Victory, Tenderness, Resignation, Hope, The Adoration, Joseph's

Dream, Adam and Eve, Michael and Satan, aGicci.ui Feast, the Shield
of Achilles, Mercury and Pandora, the Golden and Silver Ages, Cupid,
Psyche, Britannia, Maiquis of Hastings, Warren Hastings, Lord Mans-
field, Pitt, Michael Angelo, Raffaelle, Reynolds, Kemble, &c. The
works of Banks are about ten; they include the sleeping girl, St.
Peter in Prison, the Dying Patriot, Achilles, and Caractacus. There
are also specimens by Michael Angelo, John de Bologna, Donalello
Rysbrack, Westmacott, Chantrey, Gibson, Baily, Rossi, &c.

The architectural department' includes ilrawings, models of builil-
ings, and of details, and wants only arrangement to form a collection
in the highest degree valuable. Among the drawings are all those of
Sir John Soane's works, ami others by Piranesi, Zucchi, Bibiena, Cam-
pauella, Clerissean, Pannini, Labello', As|u-ucci, Sir James Thoruhill,
Sir W. Chambers, Kent, Sir Robert Smirke, &:c. There are busts of
the following architects : Palladio, Inigo Jones, Sir C. Wren, Sir W.
Chambers, Dance, and Sir J. Soane.

The antiquities and curiosities might be made to form a museum
as useful to artists as the new rooms in the Louvre at Paris, to which
the artist and the pattern-drawer might resort with the greatest ad-
vantage. The purchase of the Belzoni vase was a terrible satire on
the mode in w liicli our museums are conducted, and a worthy pendant
of the Jigina marbles aflair; Sir John Soane said that he was but toe-
glad to give the two thousand pounds the British Jhiseum refused.
Among the miscellaneous objects may be mentioned, Sir Robert Wal-
pole's tables, Napoleon's sword and portrait, the Napoleon medals,
Peter the Great's pistol, T ippoo Saib's chairs, t^ueeu Mary's table,
&c.

CANDIDUS'S NOTE-BOOK.
FASCICULUS XV.

'* I must have liber; v
M'itluil, as larii'e a charier as the u.nds.
To blow on \vhom 1 please.*'

I. The clever and pleasant writer, " Nimrod in France," (Colburn's
New Monthly), says in regard to French Houses, "There is one essen-
tial in the construction of them, of wdiicli I cannot speak too highly,
and that is their inorfar. It appears almost to equal in hardness the
similar preparation of lime and sand mixed with water, for which the
Romans were so celebrated, and which for its ]iowers of cement and
its durability, we have not been able to e(|ual by our system of admix-
ture. Certainly the French mortar may justly be called cf»;e«/ ,■ and
it is well that it can boast of this superiority, inasmuch as French
bricks are most inferior to ours, from want of skill and care in the
burning of them. French luuises, however, generally speaking, are
miserably defective in their plans, both for convenience and comfort,
nor does there appear to be a desire to improve their structure. A
heavy tax on windows and doors would be a blessing on the country —
at all events as fir as it would relate to lumbago, rlieumatism, catarrh,
coughs, and sundry other pains and penalties which lininan fiesh is
heir to."

Perhaps, too, a heavy tax upon supernumerary windows would be a
benefit in this country, — at any rate it would be so architecturally,
since scarcely anything is more inimical to nobleness of aspect, to
solidity of appearance, and to repose, or more productive of insignifi-
cance than windows crowded together in such a manner that the piers
between them are not so wide as the apertures themselves. This is
an exceedingly common fault, the ordinary practice in Loudon house-
building being to |iut three windows wdiere two would be suHicient.
The consequence is that one side of a room is nearly all window, with
no space for other furniture than chairs or mere knick-knack tables ;
so exposed to the sun in summer time, that it is necessary to exclude
it by blinds, and occasioning a cheerless uncomfortable look in cold
and bad weather. While as additional agreuiens, may be mentioned,
that unless the street be a very wide one, your front rooms are thus
fully exposed to the full fire of your neighbour's eyes, of "the amiable
people over the way" who most disinterestedly interest themselves in
reconnoitring your iimiagt as far as they can penetrate into it ; and
who, of course, busy themselves in imagining w hat they do not see.

II. ' Marry in haste and repent at leisure,' is a proverb that mutatis
mutandis applies to architecture, — both to architects themselves, and
their employers, many designs being adopted without due examination,
the consequence of which is that their faults and delects escape notice,
until it is either too late or too expensive to correct them. Nay in
some cases the faults are so exceedingly glaring that it is wonderful
how the designs could pass muster at all, — or how any one, calling him-<

l.->r,

THE CiVTL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[Mj

self architect, could m-ake up his mind to pass off upon his employers
the biirlr.ironslv crude ideas we so frequently behold. Happy is it for
jiuch j)Pople that their employers are not only ignoramusses, hut most
tasteless igunraninsses into the harg-.iin. — And that tribe among pro-
fessioualists are therefore (]uite ri^lit Iti exclaiming against amateurs
and amateurship, since tlio more (he public become enlightened, the
worse nmst it fare witli'them. They ought to pray for blockheadly
o-uUibie patrons — persons who look upon architecture as an unfathom-
able mysterv, which the initiated alone have any right to understand.

III. Where ignorance is bliss — but I need not repeat the rest of that
very hackneyed quotation, — therefore observe thai I have sometimes
almost envied the blessedness of ignorance, as 1 lately did while walk-
ing with a friend from the country, in the Regent's Park, whos(^ rows
of paltry mock palaces called forth expressions of admiration from
him, that, I presume, were perfectly sincere. To the shade of that
miserable architectural sinner John Nash, they must have been a re-
quiem, but to me, to have to listen to the praises of that con-
summation of paltriness, was hardly endurable. And yet my companion
was a person of toler djly good taste in other respects, and what is
generally understood by '"a well educated person," though imposed
"upon by such arrant a'rchitectiu-al balderdash as those same terraces
are. It seems to me that most persons have not the slightest shame
whatever in displaying the grossest stupidity relative to every thing
connected with architecture ; and why is it so, except because the no-
tion has been instilled into them — would that it were flogged out of
tViem ! — that it is for architects, and them alone, to pretend to under-
stand its principles, these latter being, by some curious jumble ot ideas,
supposed to be entirely mcchanicdl, notwithstanding that architecture
iliself has got the name of one of the fine arts. 1 once fell in with a
o-entlenran. who was hardly less than a. Solomon in his own conceit and
pretensions, and who nevertheless staggered me by the candour with
which he confessed he never could comprehend the ground jjlan or
section of a building, or understand what they meant ! Notwithstand-
ing wdnch degree of gentlemanly or gcutecl and blissful ignorance of
low mechanical matters, my Solomon conid, 1 found, speak glibly and
boldly enough 'by look,' passing his ojiinion upon buildings, of which
it was very evident, although he did not care to make such confession,
that he understood no more than he did of sections and ground plans.
There are, 1 am afraid, too many Solomons of his kind among our en-
lightened public."

' IV. In an article entitled " The British School of Architecture,"
Blackwood's Magazine, August ls3G, it said that the fourteen columns
of the intended Uoric strucUne on the Calton Hill, are " even now the
most imposing objects of the kind in Dritain: they impress strangers
more than any modern edifice in the island, and if tlie structure be com-
pleted by the munificence of donations or bequests, on the same scale
of primirval magnificence, it will give to the Scottish metropolis a
distinction beyond what any capital in Eurojie can boast." The scheme
for that national monument is also waruily advocated in the New Edin-
burgh Review, April, !^'23. It seems, however, that the Scotch are
too poor to prosecute the undertaking any further, else no doubt their
prudence would urge them to complete as speedily as possible a
building that covdd hardly fail to attract a great many visitors to their
capital. Nevertheless some of them have so much money that they
make the most desperate efforts in order to get rid of it, for instance,
that remarkably silly Lord, Lord Eglintonn, who had he given towards
this work the thousands he expcnde<l upon his tomfoolery of a tourna-
ment, would have secured to himself a very dill'erent reputation from
what he has now got. Nay even the good people of Kdinburgh them-
selves would act more wisely were they to complete the huihiing on
the Calton Hill, before they think of such matters as the Momiment to
Sir Walter Scott, unless indeed they are of opinion that, notwithstand-
ing his hundred volumes, he is likely to be forgotten by the next gene-
ration.— Not the least singular circumstance of all is that beyond its
name being mentioned, there is no notice of the ' National Monument,'
on the Calton Hill, in John Ihitton's ' Modern Athens,'— a very re-
markable work by the by, if only on account of its exceedingly funny
dedication to " My Dear Sir Walter."

V. 'What is your opinion,' said a friend to me, 'of Italian Archi-
tecture!'— When I know what you mean, was my reply, I can perhaps
answer you, but you might just as well ask me what is my opinion of
English' literature, without particularizing any further, and I should
tell you, perhaps that at the present day a "real deal of it is most
arrant slipslop, and another great deal confoundedly villainous — to wit
the Newgate school of it. So too, in Italian architecture there is a
vast deal of most horrible rubbish, and also uuich that is admirable
and delightful. Between such men as Francesco di (iiorgio, San-
micheli, Balvassore, I'eruzi, and Borromini, with a long et caetcri, the
difference is incalculable, — as great as between Charles Barry and

MUer iSash.— As fy»' FwllwdiQ i freely absndon him to lus adniJrersi

VI. Never need the country be put to expense for a monument to
George IV., because, as long as it stands, Buckingham will jirove a
monument of his — dotage. And surely h's taste — if he ever had any
must hav(' been quite in its ilotage when he approved of Nash's designs
for that unfortunate building. 'Tis a thousand pities that two old gen-
tlemen should have laid their heads together to palm such a piece of
architecture on the country, (n one particular, indeed, it may be said
to resemble Perraidt's f i^'ade of the Louvre, inasmuch as it has coupled
columns — hoc C'iccrtmis liabil : but then even in that respect, it is egre-
giously more faulty, columns in pairs being introduced into a prostyle
l)ortico, whereas in the other edilice they form lengthened colonnades.
On the other hand, although the mode of coUunniation adopted for the
centre portico is rendered more glaringly oHeusive, by there being only
single columns in those at the ends ofihc wings. After all, defects of '
this kind shrink to nothing when ccjuipared with the insignificance,
and the pettiness of manner which characterise the whole building.

VII. 'i'he York Column is a prodigiously blank afi'air altogether, —
one excuse for which may be that it would have been a puzzling, and
somewhat ticklish atfair to introduce any kind of sculpture, because
the most appropriate and characteristic symbols would have been a
gaming-table and dice-boxes, in allusion to the exploits, the heroism,
and the martyrdom of the Royal Duke. Yet if as a piece of archi-
tecture that pillar is any thing but admirable, it may be turned to ad-
mirable accoimt as a warning, and it is devoutly to be hoped that
nothing similar will now be perpetrated in Trafalgar Square ; especially
as there is no occasion whatever to make the buildings around it ap-
pear at all lower, or more insignificant than they now do ; which would
infdiibly be the case should a "huge bully" of a colunm be creeled in
the centre of them. — According tu the newspapers, however, it would
now seem that the Nelson Column is to be begun fortlnvith, on the strength
of subscriptions coming in, which m^y pcr/mjjs provide a statue for the
top of it; if not, laiit iiikii.r, (or then it nuist at all events prove a
capita/ aft'air. — Or commemorating Nelson so flagrantly would it not
be just as well to commemorate h\m /nigranlly dher the manner in
which Delcroix has just commcitiorakd a recent event by his ' Bouquet
de Nvces Royales,' — which it should be observed does not exactly
mean Royal Noses, although intended to tickle the noses of gentility.
— I am afraid that Delcroix is a sad wag.

VUI. According to a recent (.icrman writer who professes to en-
lighten his countrymen as to our national character, English peo|)le,
especially those of ton, are exceedingly shy of Munich, whose noble
buildings and treasures of art possess far less attraction for them
than do the coteries and gaming-tables of such places as Baden-Dadin.
There is, it is to he feared a great deal of truth in this ; yet hardly is it
to be wondered at, if the same satiric.il \\ riter be correct in the classified
catalogue he gives of the kind of English who visit the Continent, for
he states that out of every thousand, 333 are half-pay ollicers, 100
ruined gamblers, 20 cas*. off kept mistresses, (who affect to pass for
patterns of virtue,) 48 'Greeks' on the look out for 'Pigeons,' ,>0
economists — ])olitical ones of course, — who adopt the prudent economy
of getting beyond the reach of their creditors, 10 people of wealth
and rank, who, by way of change, ciiiiiii themselves abroad pretty muili
after the same fashion they do at liiune ; — to cut this formidable list
short, — just one Englishman in a tlious and, who visits the continent in
order to gain information and improve his taste. Assuredly the pic-
ture is not a very flattering one, — doubtless much exaggerated, but
ciuTCct or not says a very great deal, because it shows in what light
we are looked upon by foreigners. The same writer sets us down as
absolute barbarians in music, which he says, we only hypocritically
affect to admire without the slightest feeling whatever for it; and if
he does not cens\n-e our taste in architecture, it is in all |)robability
because he does not touch upon that subject at all ; else, 1 conceive,
many of our moderns would have excited his bile, not a little. How-
ever, be our taste in architecture what it may, we cannot be accused
of much hypocrisy or affectation there ; for the public generally do not
care even to pretend to know any thing whatever about architecture,
— Where our buildings have been spoken of by Germans, it has seldom
been in terms of commendation; and it would not perhaps be amiss, if
some of our architects were to read a few of their connnents, and make
themselves acquainted with their opinions, for though ihej- could hardly
tail of being an exceedingly unpalatcable, they might also prove a
very salutary dose to them.

l.\. It is astonishing what downright silliness and nonsense is fre-
quently made to pass for argument. A notable instance of the kind
occurs'in the article Architecture in the celebrated Encyclopedic Me-
tliodique, where it is said "La colonne doit ctre roude, parceque la
Nature ne fait rien de cpiarr.'." The same mode of reasoning might
be employed to convince us that the surface of w»lls ought to he rugged,
and floors uneven, Ucaunt nature does not make the face of rocks per-
fcctly smooth, nvr the ground jieifectly solid and level ;— ov aga'n

1840.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

157

that besides being round, columns ought to have a rough surface, re-
sembling the baric of trees, — for we suppose it is to the stems of trees
we must look for the prototype of the shaft of columns. Besides, if
columns are to be made round because nature makes nothing square,
would not that be an excellent reason for making the architrave
round or cylindrical also, merely cutting away so much of the under
surface at intervals as would be requisite for its resting firmly on the
flat abaci of the capitals. This might be done ; and according to such
theory, it would be both correct and natural, — perfectly in consonance
with the Because a-ssigned. Nay, might we not say that the convex
or pulviuated frieze frequently given by Italian architects to the Ionic
entablature is formed upon strictly rational principles, namely, agree-
ably to the aforesaid Because. But then if columns are round, be-
cause, &c. — how happens it that the abaci of their capitals are square ?
— or are we to suppose that while Nature herself shapes the columns,
she leaves her apprentices and journeymen to make the capitals, &c.
as well as they can. The sober truth is, all such reasoning is mere
rigmarole, and if no more rational and likely became can be found out,
as I apprehend could be, it is not worth while attempting to offer any
at all.

X. The real Because wherefore we make our columns round, is no
other than because others have invariably done so before us ; for
which, again, there may have been more than one reason, and among
the rest that of convenience, a circular shaft or pillar occupying less
space than a square one of the same diameter, since the latter exceeds
tlie former by the difference between the measure of its diagonals and
its sides. Besides which, round pillars offer a greater contrast to
walls and other flat surfaces, consequently tend to produce variety,
while, at the same time, such form recommends itself as being, in
some degree, more consonant to the prototype furnished by nature in
the stems of vegetables and trees; and more studied and artificial also —
more recherch'' than the other. Yet, although example and habit
alone, independently of other considerations, cause us to regard the
circular form as the most suitable, as well as the most beautiful, one
for columns, it does not exactly follow that square ones are absurd —
contrary to both beauty and reason, and that they ought never to be ad-
mitted at all. It is true no authority for insulated pillars of such shape,
is to be met with in Grecian architecture ; but then, neither does it sup-
plyus with precedents for antae or pilasters continued along the front of
a building, and many other things which are nevertheless practised
without scruple, even where Greek architecture is professed to be
closely followed. I do not pretend to say that square cohunns are so
well adapted as others for general purposes, but there certainly are
cases in which they might be introduced both with propriety and
eftect, either by themselves or in combination with circular ones, and
either way would [u-oduce greater variety of design than can be ob-
tained by restricting ourselves on every occasion to the use of round
columns. Hardly will it be expected that I can explain myself more
fully without sketches and cuts ; yet I can mention one instance where
I conceive a good effect might thus be produced, which is supposing
it necessary or desirable to have two insulated orders, one above the
other, forming, for example, a lower and upper portico, that below
might have square pillars — not mere piers — of about the same diame-
ter as the columns over them ; whereby, not only would a monotonous
repetition be avoided, but greater solidity would be obtained in the
basement order.

XI. Would it be believed that a professed architectural writer, no
other, in fact, than M. Quatremere de Quincy, speaks of " Vasbrug
oa VsEsbrug," under which queer metamorphosis he gives his readers
the name of the architect of Blenheim. If it arises out of sheer igno-
rance, of the inability even to copy a word correctly when in print,
what reliance is to be placed upon "his accuracy. On the other hand,
if it is merely the affectation of ignorance, it amounts to downright
puppyism. The most ignorant Englishman would not say Boiler, or
Vaultair (instead of Boileau and Voltaire ; ) at least, no English biogra-
pher would so designate those writers. But the truth is, that, in lite-
rary blunders, one Frenchman is at any time a match for two Irishmen.
Among ludicrous instances we may find, "Hirzel an Gleim iiber Sul-
zer," translated "Hirzel sur le Gleim," with a note explaining that
" Gleim est une petite riviere de I'AUemagne." ' Poor Gleim I his
poems must have been watery compositions indeed. Another
Frenchman confounded Pressburg with St. Petersburg ; and we now
find Vanbrugh converted into Vasbrug or Vassbrug, which double
mistake plainly proves it not to be an error of the press.

Remiie's Trapezium PmhUe-wheel.— W' e understand Mr. Rennie has filled
the Lily, one of the boats plying between Loudon Bridge and Hungerford
Markei, witli bis [latent trapezium paddle, and that her speed is improved,
as well as having done away with the swell caused by the ordinary paddle.

MAUDSLAY'S AND FIELD'S STEAM ENGINE.

I'iS. 1.

a, cylinder, c, c, r, c, the four piston rods, 'cl, cross head.
/, connecting rod. ,i;- jr, crank.

, guide rods

Sir, — Your March number of the Journal contains drawings and a
description of Messrs. Maudslay and Field's patented improvements
in marine steam-engines, and it is on the second feature of their in-
vention I have presumed to offer a few remarks and suggestions.
Moreover, it is generally observed, that when a person obtains a patent
right for any invention, it no sooner publiclv appeal's to the mechani-
cal world, than it is followed up by a modification of some sort, that
modification being more or less effective, costly, or practical; and it
sometimes happens that by means of such modification, schemes which,
as they occurred originally to the mind of the inventor, could never
have answered, have, in their ett'ect, exceeded his (the original in-
ventor's) most sanguine expectation. However, the inventors in this
case are practical men (the most extensive, perhaps, in the kingdom),
and it may be thought presumption in me to oiler anything which
might seem an improvement on their schemes, but my anxiety for the
advancement of mechanical science must be my excuse.

It will be seen from the engraving, and it is obvious, that the cr?nk
shaft is placed on one side of the piston rods, consequently the action
of the piston cannot be communicated to the crank pin in a direct line

Fig. 2.

n, cylinder.

, c, the tv/o piston rods.
/,/, connecting rods.

(/, cross head. c.
Ug>sV4> cranls.

p, guide rods.

166

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[May,

How far tbi'; may answer in practice 1 don't know, but (be tbcoiy docs
not look well.

It will be apparent tbat tbe proper place for tlie crank sbaft is in
the line of tbe centre uf the centre of pressure, or centre of tbe cylin-
der, and to obtain such place, I jiropose tbat tbere be four piston rods
uniting in one cross bead, as shewn in Fig. 1. 'I'be sectional area of
tbe four rods would require to be very little greater than for two ur
only one rod, but of course tbere would be the additional friclion
caused by the enlarged surface.

The arrangement is sulBciently shown in Fig. 1, witbuut any further
description.

Fig. 2 is another plan for keeping the shaft in the same central
position wilb ouly two piston reds; in this case there will nquire a
double cranked shaft as shown, and of course two connecting ruds.

By the arrangement in Fig. 2, cylinders of a minimum diameter
may be employed.

Messrs. M. & F. may have thought of these methods of combination,
or they may not ; however, Sir, if you think the above worliiy a place
in your Jouriial, nothing would give greater satisfaction to

Amicus MACHiNARUii.
Apidm, 1S4 '.

THE ASSIZE COURTS, LIVERPOOL.

Sir — The decision has just taken place with respect to tbe desigiis
for tbe Liverpool Assize Courts, for which no fewer than eigbty-ti\ e
designs had been sent in on the 1st Jamiary, and tbe two lucky com-
petitors to whose lot the premiums have fallen, are Mr. Elmes of
London, and Mr. Grieg of Exeter. During the present week there is
to be an exhibition of all (be drawings at tbe Town-ball, Liverpool, but
the time allowed for its being open is so exceedingly slioit, tbat very
few professional men here in town, or at distance from Liverpool, will
be able to avail themselves of it, more especially as no public notice
beforehand has been given of it in tbe newspapers, — which certainly
ought to have been done. Besides which, the same egregious blunder
has been here comuiitted,- — or if not blunder, tbe same crooked and
perverse policy has been here pursued, which has justly been animad-
verted upon in similar cases; namely, instead of preceding the deci-
son, the exhibition is not allowed to take p'ace until it is over, and all
appeal from it rendered unavailing.

This surely might bo remedied — at least might be attemjjfed to be
remedied by the institute, who ought to draw up and publisli a protest
against Such a highly injinious mode of procedure, and ought also for
the future, in every similar case of the kind, that is, in a public com-
petition for a building of any magnitude, and in wdiicb numerous
members of the profession are likely to engage, — to address themselves
formally to the committee — or, however, the presiding powers may be
styled, and urge upon them the propriety and decency of granting a
public prc-exhibition of the designs, and (hat too, for a reasonable and
satisfactory time.

I certainly cannot help being of opinion, tbat tbe Institute have been
culpably supine and remiss in regard to the very important matter of
competition; and negligent both of the interests (jf architecture and
Its professors. What they have yet done towards advancing either,
I do not know, nor have 1 been able to leain : probaMy, let their dispo-
sition and zeal be what they may, there are very few cases in which
that body can exert ifscif with any effect ; but that becomes only an ad-
ditional reason wherefore they should exert themselves the more
^trenuously wherever (hey can ; and in attempting to check the abuses
of the present system of competition and establish a better one, — the
Institute would, at all events, have public opinion on its side.

As regards the particular competition here mentioned, it does look
rather odd that Mr. Elmes, who, but a few months before, bad been the
successful architect for St. (ieorge's Hall, should have obtained a
second and still more expensive in tbe very same town, ere tbe tirst
one has been fairly commenced. Indeed, it is rather singular that tlia t
gentleman should have chosen to enter a second competition imme-
diately after succeeding in a previous one, unless he bad particularly
good reasons for anticipating success. However, it is to be hoped that
bis design will be found fully to justify his so extraordinary good
fortune, and thereby remove the awkward impression now likely to be
made upon those, who at present know only the curious fact itself, and
nothing further.

I remain, &c.
; Aprinith, 1-40. Q.

GREAT WESTERN STEAM SHIP COMPANY.

The annual meeting of tbe Great Western Steam Ship Company
took place on tlie 28tb March, when discussions took place bigbly
interesting, both in a professional and public point of view. The
question in dispute is as to the propriety of the steps taken by tbe
Directors in constructing an iron vessel of im|)araileled size, and in
erecting a manufactory for supplying the pulilic with engines.

The lirst question is with regard to (he size of the vessel, wdiich, a.s
we sbotdd state, is to be of 312 feet in length, 42 feet breadtli of
beam, 32 feet depth of hold, 2-5(lU tons, and with engines of KJOO
horses power. The reasons assigned for tbif step by the Directors
are, (lie increase in stowage afforded by the use of iron, increase of
power, and consequently tpiicker and more certain passages. To
these reasons the objections are objections of expediency, and a ques-
tion of expediency (his must be considered in all its bearings, mixed
up as it is with the ci cunistances of the company, and the objects for
which it has been projected and carried into etfect. It seems tbat (he
capital of the company is small, and the difliculty of raising fiuids at
the present time is very great, and consequently, on tbat account, it is
inexpedient to engage in large enterprises, for which the funds are
insntlicicnt, and from which the returns cannot be obtained quickly,
nor dc|K'nded on with certiunty. What is wanted at the present
period is to have more frequent steam connnunication between Eng-
land and (he United States, so as to make the use of steam habitual,
and its advantages jjermanently manifest, and not to be looked on
merely as a casual relief to the regular sailers. It is only in this way
that the liners can be successfully competed with, for it seems the
saving of time is still so little ap|u-eciated, that, by a reduction of fare,
they have been enabled successfully to contend with the large steam-
ers, and force them also to reduce their prices. The Great Western,
also, at ))rescnt, has rarely her full couqilement of passengers, and in
the last three trips, there has been a considerable falling olV, so that
the necessity of a large vessel on tbe score of accouunodatiou, evi-
dently cannot be asserted. Tbe Comjjany will also, in the cour.se of
this year, be subjected to the competition of numerous steamers, so
thai they will be the more called upon to ]jrcserve (be regularity of
their communications, while they must necessarily have spcedi.'y a
new vessel on the station, not only for the purpose of securing quick
returns to the proprietors on their capital, but to prevent them from
losing all profit in the e\'cnt of the temporary or total incapacitation
of the Great Western. On all economical groimds, therefore, the con-
struction of a vessel of a larger size than the Great Western is clearly
inexpedient, and indeed the proprietors, in giving their consent to the
construction of an iron vessel, never contemplated any increase of
dimensions. Supposing, even, that the experiment should be success-
ful, the Directors will not even then be exonerated from blame, in
having unadvisedly made such an attempt, so uncalled for by tbe cir-
cumstances, and bighlj' perilous to tbe financial prospects of tbe Com-
pany. We now come to the rjuestion of the pro])riety in an engineer-
ing point of view, of engaging in such an undertaking, and we find
that not only has it no example, but, from the highest authorities, it
meets with no encouragement. We do not say tliat an iron vessel
312 feet long cannot be constructed, but we must say that it augurs
considerable temerity to attempt it in the teeth of the opinion of those
most eomijetent to judge. The largest iron steamer which has been
built is tinly of -li:(J tons, one sixth of (he size of the proposed vessel,
and Mr. Laird, the engineer, jiositively refused to contract for an iron
vessel of only 1S5U tons, so little was he disposed to proceed without
some practical result upon which to base his operations. Mr. Ditch-
bourn, the eminent iron shipbuilder, of London, expressed himself to
a similar eft'ect before the Committee on Steam Connnunication with
India. It must be further recollected that the Company's vessel,
instead of being under the responsible control of a private builder, is
being built in their own yard, so that, shou'd it prove a failuie, the
proprietors have no remedy. As if to hea]) experiment on cx])eri-
ment, the Directors liave chosen to adopt ;* form of ergine, of which
the best that can be said is that it has not succeeded, if, indeed, it be
not regarded as a total failure. Humphrys' Patent Engines will be
found in another part of the Jo\irnal to have been patented as Mr.
Broderip's, in ly2S, by Col. D'Arcy, and how they ever came to be
called after Mr, Humphrys, no one presumes to surmise. A pair of
them was put on board the Dartford, built at Gravesend about four
years ago, for Messrs, Halls, of Dartford, by Mr. Baulckham. Tbe
lines of the Dartford were very tine, and she bad a very promising ap-
pearance ; when, howevej', her engines came to be put on board, so
far was she from justifying tbe predictions of her proprietors, that
they were obliged to give up running her on the Thames, after she
had been beaten b^ piost of the boats on the rivcrt She Nvas then

1840.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

159

being also found to be dissatisfactory, she has been repeatedly
oft'ered for sale, without success, at less than half price, and may now
he found in the East India Docks with a broom at her masthead.
Both Maudslay and Seawards refused to construct engines on this
principle, and Mr. A. Jlornay has written a paper to show that the
trunk engines are good for nothing at all. Mr. Brunei, in defending
the character of the Dartford, very gravely assured the Bristolians
that she had beaten the "City of Glasgow" l)y two hours in going to
Furtsmoutli, a fact, which, if true, it is very fortunate for him that lie
did not state in London, for here the City of (jiasgow is a byeword for
slowness, a kind of Regulator, by which all the other steamers go.
Having said thus much, we shall now proceed to show, by a few cal-
cuhdions, the justness of our remarks.

The engines are to have cylinders of 10 feet diameter and 10 feet
stroke, and thus, according to the usual computation of 7 lbs. eft'ective
pressure on the square inch of the pistons, assuming their speed to be
240 feet per minute, would be equivalent to I151v") horses power, if
of the ordinary construction; but as they are to be made with (he
trunk, half the transverse section of the latter must be deducted from
the area of the piston, (say one-tiiieenth of the area of the piston), by
whiidi the nominal power of the engines is reduced to 107.5 horses
power. Tliey are expected to weigh, without the boilers, one third
less than common engines; we maj' then fairly assiune that they will
weigh, with the water in the boilers, SUO tons.

It is difficult to imagine the motive which has induced the Directors
to cram this fiwrinous power into their intended vessel, the pro-
poition of power to tonnage being about what is allowed to small
boats ; for by so doing they forego the chief advantage which large
steamers possess over small ones for long voyages. The natural con-
sequence is that the vessel will be able to carry little or nothing be-
sides the requisite fuel for the voyage across the Atlantic.

The whole area of one of the pistons is 7s-.'>4 square feet, from which
if we deduct one fifteenth for the half area of the trunk, we shall have
for the mean area acted upon by the steam, 73'3 square feet. The
mean capacity of one of the cylinders is, therefore, 733 cubic feet. If
we suppose the diameter of the paddle wheels to be 30 feet, the vessel
cannot be expected to advance more than S3 feet 0 inches for each re-
volution, which with 12 revolutions per minute, would give a speed of
nearly 10 knots an hour, and the voyage from Bristol to New York
would require the vyheels to make about "220,000 revolutions. For
this 8SO,000 cylinders full of steam will be used, but as under favour-
able circumstances the steam is to be used expansively, we will suppose
it, on an average, to be cut oft' at half stroke during one half of the
voyage, and used at full pressure during the other half. On this hy-
pothesis only 6GO,000 cylinders, fuh of full pressure steam, will be
expended, exclusive of n aste. This is equivalent to 483,780,000 cubic
feet of steam, to which if we add 10 per cent for waste, the total ex-
penditure of steam will be j32,ir)S,u00 cubic feet. We understand
the steam is not to be used at a higher pressure than 4 or ii lb. above
ilie atmosphere; at the former pressure one cubic foot of water is
required to generate 135G cubic feet of steam, so that to produce the
above quantity of steam 392,447 cubic feet of water must be evaporated.

Mr. Armstrong in his work on the Boilers of Steam Engines, gives
10 lbs. of coal as the quantity requisite to vaporize one cubic foot of
water, but as the usual allowance for marine engines is only 9 lbs., we
shall adopt this as the basis of our calculations. On this hypothesis
the consumption of coal during the voyage will amount to 1.580 tons
uearlv (say IGOO tons, to allow for emergencies). At the commence-
ment of the voyage the resistance of the water to the vessel's motion
will be of course greater than when she is light; and by the consump-
tion of some of her fuel, the engines wiU not be able to make their
full number of revolutions ; and it cannot be doubted that under these
circumstances a greater amouit of fuel will be consumed in the same
distance than when going at full speed, so that it will be scarcely safe to
take less than IGOO tons on board it Bristol, particularly as the passage
out may be reasonably expected to be prolonged by adver.-e winds,
whicli do not occasion a reduction in the consumption of fuel propor-
tiuimi to the diminution of the vessel's speed ; for it is clear that, to
obtain an equal resistance with fewer revolutions of the paddle wheels,
the floats must slip more through the water, and consequently the
progress of the vessel must be less for each revolution of the wheels
than when she has no contrary wind to contend against. Now the
quantity of fuel consumed is proportional to the number of strokes of
the engines, therefore the consumption in a given distance, although
not proportional to the time occupied, will be greater when the speed
is reduced by adverse winds than otherwise.

The directors have announced that the vessels displacement will not
exceed her tonnage, or but slightly, and that she will not vary in im-
mersion between Bristol and New York more than 2 feet G inches,
attempted to be run to several places on the south coast, but this

Now the weight of the hull, masts, yards, sails and rigging, boats,
cabins, fittings, &c. cannot be safely estimated at less than 110 J tons
The engines and boilers with water .... §00
Fuel 1600

Making altogether (without any cargo) .... 3500 tons,
wdiich is already 10(10 tons more than the measured tonnage of the
vessel. Her draught of water will, therefore, be 3 feet 6 inches, or
perliaps 4 feet more than it is expected to be.

On a rough computation we estimate that the vessel's draught of
water will vary about J ft. (J in. during the voyage, by reason of the
consumption of 1.500 tons of coal : and for (his reason, as well as on
account of the immense power of her engines, the paddle wdieels can-
not be made less than 3.) feet in diameter, with 32 floats on each, mea-
suring 15 feet in length and 4 feet broad. With a less diameter a speed
of 10 knots an hour could not be hoped for with 12 revolutions per
minute, even in calm weather, and with smaller or fewer floats the
engines would probably over-rim their speed, when (he vessel was
lightened by the consumption of the chief part of the coal. If, there-
fore, with the rioals immersed 4 feet, the wheels make 12 revolutions
per minute, and the vessel attains a speed of 10 knots, as assumedl
above, the engines will be brought up to about 7 or 7i revolutions at the
beginning of the voyage with IGOl) tons of coal on board, which would
immerse'the floats i) feet G inches instead of 4 feet, and the speed
of the vessel would most probably not exceed 5| to Gl knots.

As regards the expense of tlie new vessel, as estimated l)y the
Directors, we will cdl attention to the fact that the price per cwt. of
angle iron, plates, ^c. increases with their weight, and, if the " Rain-
bow "cost 60/. ])er ton weight of iron (which is the fac(), it is not
unreasonable to assume that the new vessel will cost 8).'. per ton;
but taking it at 70/. only, and the weight at only 650 tons, the hull
alone will cost - - £45,500

Adding to this for masts, yards, cabins, stores, &c. - 15,000

And for the engines at 35/. per horse power - - 3),000

We find for the cost of the vessel .... i£95,0L;O

which exceeds her estimated expense by 20,500/., irrespective of all
preparations, accessories, buildings, tools, Src.

The tools are to cost 30,000/., out of which we find by the last re-
port that 19,000/. was paid, and out of the cost of (he vessel 6,800/.,
leaving still to be paid for the vessel ... - £ 88,700
for the work shops ... 11,000

By the same leport there was expended ... 105,500

Required to pay debts due 11,000

Making in all £216,200

The total number of shares taken falls short of 1,900, and assuming
them at that number, and that all calls will be paid, the gross capital
of (he Company amounts to 190,000/., or 26,200/. less than the inevit-
able disbursements before the completion of the new vessel. Besides
this (here will be the rent of premises, clerks' salaries, expenses of
management, &c. during the term of completion, wdiich cannot be
safely estimated at less than two years.

Having shown the temerity with which the directors have acted,
both in regard to the size of their vessel, and the engines by which it
is to be worked, and having proved that it is inexpedient and inju-
rious, we have next to consider one of the most outrageous propo-
sitions that was ever suggested (o a public company, (hat of setting
up a factory for making vessels and engines. Without any attempt
to ascertain on what terms the vessel and engines might have been
constructed by contract, the directors have themselves determined to
execute both," and have accordingly already hud out £20,000, being
one f fill of their cajiital, in the purchase of leasehold property ! in
digging docks 1 and in buying machinery! and as if it were not enough
to waste the limited capKal of (he unfortunate shareholders in such
speculations for their own uses, but, as if (o add (he climax to their
proceedings, they actually propose to organize a regular factory for
making vessels and engines for whomsoever will buy them. With a
capital totally insutficient for the legitimate objects of the Company,
and having unadvisedly engaged in a most hazardous and unwarranted
speculation, the directors waste the resources of the shareholders on
objects which it will require a long time to make available. As to
how they propose to find money for finishing this vessel, which will
certainly cost nuich more than their estimates, or for carrying on their
extraordinary operations, no one can conceive, unless they are to bring
half shares into the market (o divide equally with the original pro-
prietors. To aggravate the injury in particular cases, they are lite-
rally employing "(he money of Mr. Acraman, the great engineer, in
competing with himself. With regard to the legality of their pro-
ceedings, it requires very little knowledge of law to be aware that it

Y2

160

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[May,

is only uiidi-r -.i new deed of settlement tliit tlie dircctois can carry
out any such plans, As to the propriety of engaging as rivals to pri-
vate manufacturers, public opinion is too strongly against sucth a prac-
tice to render any further comment necessary, wliile, as concerns the
shareholders, if this departure be allowed from their original jilans,
there is no reason why the Directors should not set up chain-cable
works, rope walks, sail lofts, machine biscuit bakeries, or anything con-
necteil or not connected with shipping, — they may engage in banking,
life assurance, or any pursuit.

We cannot, therefore, but be of opinion that, on every point, the
Directors are not only totally unwarranted in the course they have
pursued, but are o])en to severe reprobation for their imprudent ma-
nagement of the ali'airs of the shareholders, whose jiroperty must, by
such proceedings, be rendered more unsaleable than it is even at pre-
sent. The future operations of the Company are in every way em-
barrassed, both by the mismanagement of the capital, and the heavy
charge that must be created by such a lumbersome vessel ami expen-
sive establishment, which must be kept up, whatever may be the
revenues of the Company. The report which recommends and justi-
fies the course adopted, is of a most fulsome and trumpery character,
with the stamp of official paternity strongly marked ; the self-lauda-
tion is too apparent to be disguised, and, like on passing the line, every
one of the novices is abundantly bedaubed with tlie glittering slime of
the concoctors. The phraseology is as rich as the matter of which it
is the vehicle, and renders the whole affair still more sickening. We
do not think it necessary to give the report any lengthened exami-
nation, or we should waste the time of our readers and our own in
exposing this tissue of egotism and presumption. Among other infor-
mation which we see with regret is, that the Company have been
compelled to accede to the grievous demands of the Dock Company,
and pay a large sum for docks their vessels can never enter. They
were obliged to take ofl' the paddle-boxes of the Great Western to
get if into Cumberland Basin, and, as if to make the difficulty greater
the new iron vessel will be seven feet wider. This is making a man
too large for his house with a vengeance, and we very little cpiestion
that the Great Western Directors will, in time, in their zeal for the
interests of Bristol, make their vessels so large that they will not be
able to get up to the city at aU. The experience and observation of
the Directors and officials is very much praised, but if we are to judge
by one example, we fear a little too much. They coolly state that a
modification of the Cireat Western's paddle-wheels has been made,
founded upon the results of accurate observations during her voyages,
which modification, if we are informed rightly, so far from being an
improvement, has had the effectual result of reducing the speed of
the vessel. The sang-froid with wdiich they mention the superiority
of themselves and their yard is admirable; it shows a becoming
obliviousness of the Maudslays, Millers, Boltons, Acramans, Seawards,
Fawcetts, Napiers, &c. ; their confidence in the estimates and opinions
of the most eminent manufacturers is rich, the persons answering to
this descrijition are, the patrons. of the Trunk Engines, Messrs. Halls,
of Dartford, and a most eminent and practical man, in whom they
put their trust, is Mr. John .Scott Russell. Well may the direc-
tors talk about its being for the interest of the i<hareholders that their
Singular appliances should be directed to mannfacture and repair for
o/Z'e/-/aj-te.s', if they believe that anyone can feel any confidence in
their ignorance and quackery. We leave this subject with an earnest
entreaty of the shareholders concerned to look about them, and get
their affairs out of. the hands by which they are at present mismanaged,
or the end of tlie experiments vpill be the" total ruin of their property.

BAKEWELL'S PATENT BRICK MACHINE.

STEAM-Pr.ouGii.— A trial was lately made in one of the fields on tlie estate
of Fossil, near Glasgow, of the steam-ijlough, intended for tlic cultivation of
the sugar lands of British Guiana. This trial was completely successful, and
gave great satisfaction to the luimerous party who witnessed it. The field
was laid ont similar to those in the colony, which have canals on each side
running parallel with one another. The machinery consists of two iron boats,
one containing a small liigh-pressnre steam-engine, with adrnni, ronmi which
the endless diain or rope is coiled, and the otbera reversing pulley, liy means
of wliicli the chain or rope is extended, and allowed to worli whidicvcr way
is rcfpiiri'il; the plonglis are attached to this chain, and made to work hack-
wards and forwards witli great rapidity and accuracy. Mr. MacUac, whose
long residence in the colony, and great practical experience of the working
of sugar estates, had directed his attention, for a consideralilc time past, to
tlie great and absolute necessity of employing some otlier pov cr to supersede
cultivation hy manual laliour, invented the steam-plough, wliicli was executed
by those enterprising engineers Messrs, Thomas Edington and Sons, Plio-nix
Iron-works, whose great ingenuity iii constructing and ilesigning the various
parts was very much admired. — Olasgow Courier.

This machine is strong, of simple construction, and made of
cast iron. The mould for receiving the brick is fixed at the top, the
inside being accurately ground, and the bottom made to slide freely up
and down, when opeiated upon by the screw and lever underneath;
the top is made with a counterbalancing weight by which it is easily
opened on withdrawing the catch that secured it. A winch is likewise
connected with the underside of the mould to raise the brick after it
has been pressed.

The jn'ocess for pressing the bricks is as follows : — The bricks when
half dried are placed in the mould, the lid closed and secured, the
bottom is then forced up with a pressure of from 4 or 5 tons, by means
of the screw acted upon by the horizontal lever. The brick is then
raised out of the mould by simply forcing back the winch and removed
by a boy ; the bottom is then lowered by its own gravity, and is ready
for another operation: by the aid of this press, between two and three
thousand bricks may be pressed in a day with the labour of one man
and two boys.

It will be seen that this machine does not profess to make the bricks,
but is intended to improve them when made; this it accomplishes in a
superior degree; the bricks when turned out of the mould have the
sides smooth, and the arrises perfect and parallel, and when burnt, they
retain their form, and are of great hardness; they are consequently, well
adapted for facings of buildings and paving, as the joints can be laid
quite close and regular, the bricks being all of an exact size : they are
equally desirable, on account of their extreme hardness and near im-
permeability to water, for engineering works; particularly for arches
and abutments, viaducts and bridges, foundations, retaining and dock
walls, and other works requiring great resistance. The press may also
be used for quarries or fancy bricks, which can be pressed to almost any
form by merely changing the mould. This press has been in use for many
years, more particularly in the midland counties where several public
buildings have been faced with these bricks, which gives them a very
superior character, far surpassing the bricks commonly applied to that
purpose; and although the machine has been used very extensive by
Mr. Rhodes, it is not much known in London. The front of Bielefield's
extensive Papier Machc Works, in Wellington-street, are faced with
bricks of this description. We understand that several parties are now
in treaty for licenses, and that the introduction will shortly become
very general. The extra cost of the bricks will be from live to seven
shillings per thousand; — a sum comparatively small, for the superior
quality of the brick, which cannot add very greatly to the cost of the
building when used for facings only. The miserable looking brick
buildings at the several railway stations, would have been much bene-
fited by them, as they now exhibit generally a very mean and stable
like ap|.earance, which a clean well coloured facing brick, at but small
cost, would have been easily prevented. We with pleasure recom-
mend the attention of the profession to this important patent , which
can be viewed at the proprietor's office, Adelphi Chambers.

1840.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

101

ON TRUSSED BEAMS.

Invuikd bij HeuJ! Laves of Haiwvir, nad befure ilw Riii/id tnslilulc uf
Briliah ./irchitecls, on Monday, March 20, 1640, by T. L. Donaldson',
Esq., Fellow.

Mr. Laves took a beam of fir 40 ft. long and 91 in. deep, and 7a in.
wide, and supported at the ends. He gradually loaded it with
100 tbs. at a time, and found that when it had 1700tbs.it deflected
r>i in. He took a beam of the same dimensions and cut a horizontal slit
to within 3-G from each end, making the upper portion 5 inches deeper
anil the latter 4i ; he put iron straps at the ends, bound tightly round
to prevent tlie slit from extending — he then forced the upper and
lower part of the beam asunder by driving in blocks or wedges, until
they were as wide apart as half the depth of the beam -he supported
tlie beam at the ends and found that when he hud gradually loaded it
with ] 00 tbs. weight as before, until it bore 1700 lbs. it only deflected
o^ in., being 1?. less than the solid beam. He then separated the slit
apart Oi incbei or equal to the whole depth of the beam, and gradually
loaded it until it bore 17U0 tbs., wdien it deflected ili or 3 inches less than
the solid beam, and li less than the former. He then widened the
opening of the slit 13|, or equal to a depth of li of the solid beam,
and loaded it in hke manner with 1700 lbs., it deflected only 1^ inches,
being 4 inches less deflection than the solid beam. (See Fig. 1.)

Figs. 1, 2, and 3.

He then took pieces of fir 50 in. long, 2 in. deep, and 1 in. wide>
one was left solid, two others were slit so as to make the upper part
\\ inches deep, and the under | in., one piece having the slit half
the depth of the beam apart, the other J of the depth apart. See
fig. 2.

It will be perceived that the principle of this system consists in the
combination of the two chief forces of materials, that is resistance to
compression, and resistance to tension.

Resistance to compression is the one employed from the remotest
periods in the construction of arches and vaulting, and requires great
masses of materials ; and resistance to tension lias more lately been
employed, at least in Europe, for the construction of suspension bridges
by the application of chains, and requires less materials than the other
principle of compression, but frequently the insertion and use of chains
is obtained with difficulty, and produces vibrations and sensibly felt
undulations.

These inconveniences have led to the application of this system.
It will be perceived that the under line or chain attached at the two
extremities of the upper curved line acts with positive force that of
tension, which is the greatest possible force of materials varying from
10 to 20,000 lbs. on the square inch of the transverse section in various
woods used in construction, and from 20 to 100,000 lbs. in metals.

The upper line or beam acts by relative force that of compression,
and serves to prevent the lower line or chain from contracting the
two extremities.

The lower line or chain hinders the upper line or beam from press-
ing out at the extremities.

The supports and braces serve to unite the upper and lower lines or
beam and chain together, and then two forces neutralized form a com-
plete w hole, which sustains itself, and can neither thrust out nor draw
in.

It is to be observed — 1st. That the force of the chain is dependent
upon the depth of the versed sine, and that the lower it is beneath the
horizontal line or chord of the arc the stronger it will bp. Arches of
solid construction require a rise of 20 or 15 ft. for the springing of the
arch to the soffit of the key stone, in a span of 100 ft; but the
chains in this system, if they have a rise or versed sine equal to 4 ft.

2 in. in a span of 100 feet, the force of the chain reduces itself to one-
third of the absolute product — if the rise or versed sine equal (i ft.

3 in. in the same span of 100 ft., the absolute force could be reduced
a half.

Observe 2dly. That the upper line or beam, on account of the elasti
city (if llie materials, ought absolutely to have the convex form ae i
the diagrams, in order that when considerably loaded, the lengthenin
of the under line or chain by tension, and the shortening of the uppe
line or beam by compression, may not reduce the upper curved line to
an horizontal one, beneath which it would no longer serve by resistance
to the statical equilibrium of the construction.

We observe, 3rdly, That the method of tying together the extremi-
ties of the curved lines will depend on the materials employed, and
must be calculated according to the weights that they will have to
bear.

Such are the general principles of this system when applied in a
horizontal direction.

We will now consider its application in a vertical or upright direc-
tion, and when used obliquely.

It is obvious that the resistance of a story post or stay, wliether in
wood or metal, increases in a fixed proportion according to its thick-
ness.

For tvood — the pieces of wood are sawn as before described with
one cut, or two cross cuts to within a certain length of the ends, and
these tied together by bolts or straps of iron. The cuts are then forced
apart by wedged blocks and kept in their places by bolts or straps of
iron.

For iron — by connecting together at the ends, two or more bars of
iron, and separating the bars by wedges or pieces of iron, or iron
rings.

The proportions and number of the dift'erent parts as chains, stays,
posts, &c., depend upon the purposes to which they may be applied,
and must of course be calculated accordingly by the architect.

The most simple practical application of this systeui is for the pur-
pose of wooden bridges, and the upper line or beam may be materially
strengthened, and the combination stiftened by the introduction of
stays and braces.

If the span of the bridge exceed the length of one beam, two may
be taken, sawn at one end only, and connected by two scarfing pieces,
into which they must be fitted with notches, and bolted or strapped
together so as to prevent their separating. — See fig. 3.

In those parts where the ends of timbers abut upon any joints or
other timbers, it will be expedient to interpose thin plates of copper
or iron, in order to prevent the but ends from driving by the force of
compression into the beams, which would cause a sinking.

For occasional purposes or military operations it may be useful to
adopt the same system applied to rough trees, which would even be
picturesque and useful in parks and gardens — and by connecting the
forked branches of two trees, to produce a combination which would
answer every purpose.

For all the bridges hitherto described, it will be sulficient that the
versed sine of the lower arc or chain equal -yws o'" i-t of I'ls span. Thi's
is very moderate, for a beam requires -^±77 or ^ of the span, and bridges
or arches of masonry or solid construction, a rise of -^^ of the span.

If the banks of a stream be too wide apart to admit the adoption of
this system in one span, it will be necessary to have intermediate piers
or columns, and to form a succession of framings tied together with
iron straps, or constructed in cast iron.

If the bank of a river be too little elevated above high water mark,
or if it were requisite to give greater height in the middle of a series
of arches, in order to admit the ])assage of vessels, the lateral framings
admit of a gradual fall to the banks without affecting the stability of the
framing.

Various bridges upon Mr. Laves principle have been constructed.

1. One in oak at Hanover for foot passengers — the span 100 feet,
width 12 feet— cost about 112/.

2. One in oak over the Nette river at Dernebourg, near Hildesheim —
span G<.) feet, breadth 15 feet, it being for carriages — cost about 70/.

3. One in oak for foot passengers, and a water pipe at Dernebourg,
near Hildesheim — span 30 feet, breadth 10 feet — cost 26/.

4. One in fir for foot passengers over the Eger at Elnbogen, in Bo-
hemia— length 36 feet, width 5 feet — cost 50s.

5. One in fir for carriages over the Eger at Altsaltel, in Bohemia,
in two lengths, supported in the middle or junction of the two— total
length 125 feet, width 15 feet— cost about 100/.

ti. One for carriages in wrought and cast iron, in the Royal Park of
Herrenhauson, near Hanover — length 83 feet width 20 feet — cost about
550/., comprising the wood paving for the carriage way.

Besides others at Salzau, near Kiel, in the Royal Park at Hanover,
and one for the Count Munster at Dernebourg, near Hildesheim, vary-
ing from 22 to 42 feet span, and constructed in iron at a very moderate
cost, all of which are described in Mr. Laves' pamphlet.

Figure 4 explains the construction of an iron bridge over a
river, the upper line consists of hollow cast iron cylinders united by

]C,-2

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[Mat,

bands of wroiiglit iron. The ciiuin is of wroiiglit iron, ami (lie rings
may \ic made eitlier of wrought or cast iron. Tlie hollow cylinders
are for the jjurjiose of producing ligtitness in the upper line, which is
essential.

FiK. 4.

The application of this system to roofs and floors is extremely eco-
noniiral and iispfnl, and liy simple inodiliraliuns serves for the covering
of large spuves uithoiif any inlernipdiate point, of support, and pre-
sents this fnrther advantage, thai from its vertical pressure it requires
no other support than walls of moderate thickness.

When applied to floors, bridging joists will remedy the inerpiality of
surface in the beam itself.

In roofs of large span the posts may be continued up so as to receive
the purlins, and when continued downwards serve to hold up the ceiling,
whether Hat, or vaulted, or mixed.

The principal rafters of a roof may derive considerable strength
from being treated in the same way as in fig. '2, which combination is
calculated for roofs of 50 feet span ; by this arrangement of the prin-
cipal rafters at distances of lU feet apart, no intermediate stays or
posts are necessary to support the purlins, so that a fine clear span
space is left in the roof. Here the tie beam is slit according to Mr.
l.aves' system, and acquires snflicient strength to support itself without
being tied up to a truss.

Mr. Laves has applied this principle to various roofs.

<")ne in iron over the kitchen in the Royal Park at Hanover ; one in
carpentry of .'>(! feet span, over a barn belonging to tlie Baron of Wan-
genhcim, at Wangenheim, uearGotba; and likewise one at Hersuni,
near Hildesheim, and over the scenery magazine o^' the theatre at
ilanover.

'J'he painting room of the scenery in the theatre at Hanover has the
slope of the roof formed by rafters, slit down the middle and kept apart
. — the span 3b feet in the clear, and length 74 feet.

Anollier application of this system is to large ladders, which when
very long, whether used for fires, to scale batteries of beseiged towns,
or to board ships, had the inconvenience of being cumbersome, difficult
of conveyance from one part to another, so that they I'ould be managed
only by numerous assistants; hence they were comparatively little
serviceable for the end proposed, and frequently not able to bo brought
in tiuic suflii'ient to render the assistance required.

In the case of ladders each of the sides of tlie ladder is sawn in two
to within a certain distance from the ends, which are bound together
liy iron l)olts or straps. The intermediate stays, used to keep open
the cut, also serve to combine the forces of the two jiarls, and being
continued are useful to receive a side cord, as an addilioiral security to
a person ascending or descending. A ladder so constructed may be
jilaced in a horizontal position, and is sufficiently stiff' to act as a tem-
porary bridge or scaffolding, from the window of one house to tliat of
another on the opposite side of the street, or from one vessel to
another.

If the chain be formed of iron wire, it would answer the purpose
ecpially well, and be tighter.

If it be desirable to place the ladder in a slightly inclined direction,
without any iunnediate object to rest against, two props or supports
should be placed against the u|)j)ermost rail or round, which, to .ivoid
osciliation or beniUng, should also be composed of slight pieces of
timber, sawn down the centre, kept apart by small intermediate blocks,
and bound at tlie ends as already described.

Mr. Moore's pati;nt Pr.AN for FErniNc, FrRN.'CKs, J^c. Fmus, Foa
THK Consumption of Smokk. — Mr. Moore proposes to have the gr:i1c-liars
hollow sciiii-oylinilers, with the concavities upwards. The fuel is put into a
similar scmi-cylindcr scoop cap:il)le of sliding within eitltcr of the gralc-bars,
and being llii'iist in from end to end, is turned half round, and then with-
drawn, leaving the fuel in the same cylinder bars, whicli is ignited from the
burning coals aliove. Tlie patentee says he has never found ain' ditficiilty in
the scoop's forcing out tliebnnit fuel already in the gralchars, and that the
fire, tiy this contrivance, never wants any more stirring tliaii is given by the
introduction of the new fuel. Of course, tlie smoke is ignited and consumed
by passing up through the red-hot coals above. — Ra'duay iluguzine.

STEAM NAVIGATION.

Tiiii bold front shown by the Engineers and Steam .Ship Builders,
lias shaken Mr. Labouchere's confidence in the propriety of tlie mea-
sure of which he is the official custodian, and, like a prim old maiden
distrustful of the legitimacy of the little darling which she had been
parading with so much delight, is prepared to modify bis trust. He
expiesses his hope that the measure, as modified, will contain nothing
distasteful to the engineers, and appears extremely anxious not to go
at once into a discussion on the grievance. \V'e hope that the engi-
neers will think as we do, that this is not a question to lie compro-
mised, nor is it prudent to allow such a threatening attack to pass
without notice, for the animus is too evident not to render the intro-
duction of the bill certain, whenever its concocters can watch a fitting
opportunity; we therefore warn all concerned to be prepared at a
moment's notii^e to ojipose this obnoxious measure.

We have felt ourselves strengthened in the course we have adopted,
in the consideration of this momentous questimi, by an able memorial
which was addressed to Congress in February last, by the proprie-
tors and managers of steam-boats in the United States, who, so far
from concurring in the wisdom, even of the modified code brought for-
ward as an example by our roinmissioners, boldly declare its injustice
and inefficiency. Fearless of al. the exaggerated horrors of news-
pa]ier paragraphs, and of the facts and pseudo ficts raked up by
government authorities, they claim at once for steam navigation "a
degree of security in the transportation of persons and property,
which has not been equalled by any other known means of transport
or navigation." They assert, also, that the present degree of security
is due to no interference of government with mechanical arrangements
or prudential management, or to the enforcement of novel and sesere
principles of legislation, but to the inventive and discriminative pow-
ers, prudent foresight, and persevering spirit, of those engaged in that
important branch of public enterprise. The memorialists go on further
to urge,

'• 'I'liat certain enactments of peculiar novelty and severity, found in tlie
act of Congi-ess of July, 183H,are calculated to hear harshly and oppressively
upon the owners of steam vessels, and thus to alfect injuriously, this important
branch of our navigation. Tliese enactments, instead of furuisliing encour-
agement for a just and generous rivalry, in bringing steam vessels and their
machinery to the highest possible state of security and perfection, have, nn-
fortunateiy, in the view of your menioriahsts, a direct tendency to deter men
of prudence, capacity and property, from further connexion with this husi-
ness ; who are unwilling to submit to implied reproacli and degradation, to
unwarranted hazards, and to the loss of rights aud privileges which are
guarantied to all other persons engaged in a lawful calling. Your memo-
rialists refer more especially, to the clause which deprives them of the uni-
versal legal protection common to every civilized country, liy unjustly con-
struing, in the event of iiiyscriotis disaster to life and property, the presump-
tion of innocence into /irhna facie evidence of guilt: and they respectfully
re<piest of your lionourahlc body, that a provision which is so much at variance
with their fundamental rights and privileges as American citizens, may he re-
pealed.

" It is with painful regret that your memorialists have noticed an attempt to
procure a broader and more iniscliievo\is ajiplication of this unjust principle,
by means of proposed additions to this law; and they respectfully ask of
Congress to be protected from such ))roposed aggravations of the already se-
vere and relentless doctrines of the couimon law as it now governs the respon-
sibilities of common carriers; and which, if enacted, must tend to destroy
every just inducement for longer continuance in a business which is subjected
to siicli unprecedented liabilities to loss and ruin. These extraordinary hasards
and liabilities, it should lie noticed, will not pertain to om- competitors under
a foreign flag ; »nd our citizens may thus be virtually excluded from navi-
gating the ocean bv steam. Your memorialists would furl lier remark, that if
with the best knowledge possessed by this or any other country, this species
of navigation he deemed too hazanious for the public safety, the\ deem it
mure just and lionomablc to submit to its entire prohibition.

"Your memorialists believe that few opinions are more erroneous than that
which ascribes to the provisions of the existing law a generally increased
safety for persons and property carried in steam boats. This may appear
from" the inanv accidents or disasters of a serious character which have t,al;en
lilace during the short period in which this haw has been in fore*. The num-
ber of these accidents on the western waters during tlie last yl-ar is stated to
liavc been fortv ; which may serve to convince Congress that the appropriate
remedies for these disasters are not fnrnishcd by this law ; and can be found
only in the increasing practical knowledge and skill of those persons who are
engaged in the construction and management of steam vessels.

" Your memorialists do not seek to escape from any just responsibiUties in
conducting this important business. On the coiitran', they feel bound to
furnish every reasonable gnarantv for safety to life and property w hich liuman
foresight aiid prudence may be 'able to atford : aud it is for the purpose of
furnishing these guaranties 'in the most direct and practical manner, that they
further respectfully but earnestly request, that Congresi will e«U to the aid

isjo.j

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

163

of iU committees, to whose protection tliis important lunncli of navigation
Ijas been intrnsteil, tl\e infornialion iuid experience of some of tlic individuals
whose lives liave been devoted to its improvement and practice from its earliest
origin in this country : — in order that practical knowledge may form the basis
of legislalicMi upon a subject wliich affects more or loss directly the interests
and business of, probably, a great majority of the American jieople."

The nienioriulists liere declare, unequivocally, tluit such restrictions,
instead of producing improvement, must retard the progress of science,
and clipck the employment of capital, without, at the same time, en-
suring the objects, wtiicli they are intended to eftect. To show how
little desirous they are of concealing facts, and how little daunted by
the exaggerations of their opponents, the memorialists append to
their pamphlet Messrs. Pringle's and Parke's concoction of one hun-
ilrod accidents, which Irave occurred to English steam-vessels, leaving
the ungullible portion <d'the public to form their own comments on the
case. These commissioners remind us of the quack who attempted
to frighten the old lady out of her tea, by assuring her that it contained
a millionth ])art of prussic acid, and that it would certainly carry her
olV. " A verv slow poison," said she, "for it has been eighty years
iib(nit it already." Facts sliow that the loss of life by English steam-
ers, in the very worst year, 4838, was not one twentieth of the num-
ber annually lost in sailing vessels, and the amount of property not
one fiftieth! On the coasts of the United Slates last year, above 40U
sailing vessels were lost, and lUUO lives. On the New York waters
the contrast is as strong.

" Those who have laboured to inllanie the public against these unfortunate
men may well be reminded, that it is now thirty years since the juiblic have
enjoyed the use of passenger vessels impelled by fire and steam, and that dur-
ing this period not less than thirty mUlinns nf ijcrwns have lieen Iranspoited
from time to time, in the various steam boats wlncb have run to and from
the city of New York, and that these steam boats liave probably navigated a
distance equal iojiflceii millions nftiiilcs, and tliat in all this prolonged and
vai'ied e.\])osurc. ncrr,-, Imi once, lias a sijir/lc life been lo^t tiy fhebuniinyofa
steam boat. This fact alone, to the unprejudiced, s))eaks volumes in favour
of the general care an<l skill of the parties, who have been concerned in this
species of navigation."

To expose the absurdity of the protection law, and to give a fair
idea of what it may be expected to produce here, we give the follow-
ing table of known accidents and disasters to American steam-boats
since the law of 1838, w liich was to liave been such a ))alkidium to
the old womeu.

1838

\

1

Oct. 27tli

Cyuflda,

Detroit River,

Burnt ; passengers and crewl
saved by rumiing on shore. '

Nov. 25

tien. Brown,

Mississippi,

Explosion, thirty lives lost.

1839

■

January

Clarendon,

Sav. & Darieu,

Burnt; crew and passengers;
saved.

?»

Ploughboy,

Mobile,

Sunk, on arriving at Mobile.

M

.Somervillc,

Mississippi,

Sunk.

February

Oswego,

Ohio,

Sunk, near the mouth of the
Kentucky.

»»

Alert,

Mississippi,

Eruption of steam ; 4 scalded.

11

Alice,

Pearl river,

Sunk.

March

Reporter,

Ohio,

Eruption of steam ; 1 scalded.

,)

Xcw York,

New Haven,

Burnt.

May

Avalanche,

Ohio,

Eruption or collapse ; 5 killed.

,,

Rhine,

Missouri,

Exp osion.

tf

Pilot,

Mississippi,

Explosion or collapse.

n

Pouehartrain,

New Orleans for
Tainpico,

Explosion.

"

Geo. Collier,

Mississippi,

Eruption of steam ; forty-five
killed or scalded.

,,

Erie,

Hudson river.

Collapse, 1 slightly wounded.

,,

Bee,

Arkansas,

Sunk.

tt

Indian,

,,

Sunk.

Buckeye,

Mississippi,

Explosion; several killed or
wounded.

June

Empire,

Oho,

Sunk.

„

Massillon,

)i

ColUsion and eruption of steam.!

,j

Tennessee,

Cumberland

Burnt and sunk ; passengers

liver.

Saved.

Nov.

Wilmijigtou,

Mississippi,

Explosion ; nineteen killed or
wounded.

1810

Gallatin,

Cumberland
river,

Collapse ; three scalded.

1

Lexington,

Long Isl.ind
Sound,

Burnt; about 124 lives lost.

" It may be seen that the most numerous and fatal of the accidents by
steam haye happened soon after the semi-annual inspections of the first of

April and October. This fact will not appear surprising to ]iractical men ;
who fully understand tliat the care and skill of official inspectors, (■annot be
advantageously substituted for the uncontrolled vigilance and practical know-
ledge ami skill, of those wlio are in the constant care and superiulendcnce of
the boats and engines ; ami to whom a good reputation, the desire of safety
and the love of life, afford sti-ongcr and more efficient motives to correct ac-
tion, than can ever be fui-iiislicd by the requirements or penalties of special
enactments of the legislative power.

"The Cinciimati Gazette is stated to have published a Hst of steam boat
disasters on the western waters during the last year. The sum total of losses
is 40 ; of this number, 32 were an entire loss ; snagged, 21 ; struck rocks, or
other obstacles, 7 ; burnt, :> ; burst their boUers, 4 ; run into other boats, 3 —
40. There were snagged on the lower Mississippi, 11 ; on the Jlissouri, I ;
on the Ohio, 4 ; on the Ya/.oo, 1 ; on the Red River, 1. It is remarkable
that a majority of the boats were snagged on their downward trijis. Lives
lost, by bursting boilers, 39 ; by other causes, 6. Total, 45. The amount of
property destroyed in boats and their cargoes, is supposed to be not less than
a miUion of dollars.

" On events like these, flic provisions of statutory law^ can have but little
influence ; except as they may operate to deter the men of means, foresight
and mental ability, from a business already too hazardous fo their private in-
terests, and which, most unwisely, has been made sidjject to the proscriptive
action of the popular press, and of the national legislature."

Another extract gives a more powerful lesson.

" That the safety of steam boilers from explosions, does not necessarily de-
pend upon working with so low a pressure as five or seven pounds to the
square inch, and that a reasonable increase in the proportionate strength of
the boilers in steam vessels would remove all immediate hazard, and nearly
end the catalogue of these disasters, is rendered apparent by the facts which
relate to this branch of navigation, as it has l)ecn carried on in various direc-
tions from the city and port of New York. Here, wliere steam navigation
was first successfully established, and where it has probably attained its highest
degree of efticicncy, we might have expected that accidents ami disasters
would, not unfreipiciitly, attend flie use of a power af once so novel and
energetic. The accidents and fatalities which have here occurred, as well as
their probalile pro]iortion fo the pressure of steam, the number of boats em-
ployed or trips made, flie nmnber of miles navigated, and the number of pas-
sengers which from time to time have been exposed, arc set forth in a table.

" The fable, so far as relates to the service jjerformed on the different
routes and the number of iicr.sons cxjiosed, is made up approximately, by
esfimafes founded on n\y general acquaintance with our sfcaiu navigation ;
but is bchcved to be sufficiently correct for general purposes. I have sepa-
rated the business of the fifteen years which it comprises, into three several
periods of five years each, commencing with 1824; early in which year the
navigation, in this state, which had previously lieen controlled by the asso-
ciates of Fulton and Livingston, was thrown open to all conipctifors.

" It appears from the average results of the table, that during even the first
period of five years after the navigatioa was throw n open to imblic competi-
tion, the ratio of sfeam accidents was only equal to one, for more than 20,000
trips or passages ; anil that the average loss of life was only equal to one, for
nioi'c than 1 20,000 passengers exposed. Thus, at the fair outset of this noble
enterprise, a degree of safety was attained for the passenger, such as may well
challenge comparison with any artificial means of transit or locomotion that
have ever been resorted to by the human I'ace.

"It appears further, on comparing the results for these several periods,
that the ratio of steam accidents for the first and tliiid periods, as compared
with the probable nnmljcr of trips made, has decreased from one in 20,317,
for the first period, to one in 317,105, for the third or latest period ; showing
a diminution of the ratio of accidents in the average period of ten years equal
to about 84 per cent. The ratio of lives lost from these accidents during tlie
same period, has also decreased from one in 126,211, to one in 1,98.'), 787 ;
equal also to a diminution in the ratio of personal hazai'd, in tliis short period,
o/ 84 per cent.

" It appears also from the table, that during the first of these periods the
average number of miles navigated by all om- steam boats, to each explosion
which occurred, was c(|ual to 235,G4() : a distance equal to many times the
circumference of our globe, and about equal to that from the earth to the
moon. But even this ratio has been rendered tenfold more favourable in the
short average period of ten years, being for the latest five years, 2,733,725
miles navigated for each explosion ; or more than eleven times the distance
from the earth to the moon ; and reducing the ratio of hazards in proportion
to distance, almost 90 per cent.

" This remarkable diminution of accidents and hazard, it may be seen, has
taken place in the very jieriod in which the average working pressure of
steam has been more than doubled. It has also been attained solely by pro-
fessional skill and experience, and witliout any aid from legislative interfe-
rence ; for the law of Congress on tliis subject was not in force till near the
close of the year 1838. Had such a system of legislation been at first adopted,
there are sound reasons for concluding tlmt it would not have prevented dis-
asters, but might have greatly retarded the rapid advance in safety, as well
as improvement, which has been so happily attained."

It is thus seen that with an increase of pressure a decrease has
taken place in the number of casualties, In the first period the esti'

KM

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[M

AY,

milted average pressure was 7 lbs. ; in the second period 14 lbs. ; and
in the last period IS lbs.

Wc cannot oonchiile this better than by laying before our readers
the elocjuent \ indication of Western steam navigation, which was
given before Congress by the Hon. Mr. Rumsey, of Kentucky.

" Sir, yoii have no aritlimctic of powers vast enough, hy wliiili to estimate
the henctits of the steam boat iii a pecuniary point of view alone, its
labours, too, have tendeil, in no small dcgreo, lo //le preseri-a/ion of /inmnn
life. I am aware that the truth of the last assertion may not be luiivcrsally
admitted ; but it will scarcely be questioned, at least by a western or soutli-
wcstern man. who recollects the old mode of conducting our commerce.
Small as the commerce was before the introduction of the steam boat, it drew
ofl' a larger jjortion of the poi)ulation than is now necessary to transact it,
although so immensely extended. Even then, more <lied in the long, and
evposed, and laborious voyages in keels and barges, or the exhausting return
by land, under a vertical sun, than now perish by steam boat explosions. But
the) (Iropi)cd ort' one by ouc ; they sank obscurely into the grave by the way-
side ; or, after re:iehing their homes, fell victims to disease incui'red by a so-
journ and travel in southern climes. The consumption of life, though known
to be great in the aggregate, happening so much in detad, made no public
impression. But now, every steam boat itecident creates a sensation, and is
proclaimed in the universal press of the country. If the mighty commerce
now in progress on the western waters, bad to be conducted in the old way,
it would require the agency of so many individuals, that it would not belong
before the sides of the public roads from New Orleans to the Upper States,
and the banks of the great river which pours into the gulf the congregated
waters of nearly half a continent, would be almost continued grave-yards."

NOTES OF THE MONTH.

This month has been more feitile in deaths than in any thing else. In
this number is Thomas Drumniond, Lieutenant in the Royal Engineers, F.R.S.,
Under Secretary of State for Ireland, Ike. His labours in the Ordnance Sur-
vey of Ireland, and his discovery of the hydro-oxygen light, which bears
his name, are well known to the public. As an Irish Railway Comndssioner
it was our lot to oppose him, but we are free to confess that it was to Urum-
niond that the rejiort was indebted for its most valuable portions. He died
on the 18th ult., at Dublin, and was honoured with a public funeral, which
he highly merited.

I'itts, the sculptor, unfortunately conuuitled suicide on the 16tb nit., in bis
oOtb year. He was an artist of high merit, who it is to be hoped will receive
that honour now which he pined for in his lifetime. Among his works are
the Shield of Eneas, from Virgil, and that of Hercules, from Ilesiod, com-
positions and designs from Virgil and Ossian, intended to be published in the
same form as Flaxman's from Homer, the Nuptials of Perithous, the Ajjo-
theosis of the EngUsb poets, and several other reliefs which adorn Bucking-
bam Palace. The Brunswick Shield was another of bis works. — The Cheva-
lier Gasse is also dead. He was architect to the King of Naples, Corres-
ponding Memljcr of the French Institute, and of the Institute of British
Architects.

The Easter holidays have given some check to business, so that we have
little to record. Spencer's Electrotype is now receiving the attention which
it deserves ; some months ago it was smothered under the blaze of photo-
graphy. Seals and cojiies of medals are made by this means with great
accuracy and celerity. — Jacobi's galvanic engraving is also acquiring ])nblicity.
We may mention by the bye that as his other electric inventions have not
exceeded those of our countrymen, so bis application of electro magnetism .as
a motive power is deriveil from an Englishman. — Sniee's battery described in
our present number will give fresli power to the professors of this important
branch of science. — Claudet and Houghton's specimens of Dagnerre's process
of photography now exhibiting in Holliorn, are well worthy of inspection,
they give good earnest of the aid this admirable invention will artbrd to the
arts. Its appbcation to the debneation of architectural and antiquarian sub-
jects will make it of great value to the profession. The Elgin marbles should
be copied by this method.

The vacuum engine is the wonder next to be exhibited ; a new apiilication
of agriculture, by which it is said,above twenty square nules can be cultivated
by one stationary engine has been patented, and will be shown to the puldic
on a small scale early in the ensuing month. — It will be recollectccl that
Hague's draining apparatus is on this ]dan, and a steam engine erecteil by
Mr. Hague at Constantino]de, works a powder mill seven miles off, at a place
where the (Irani! Signer refused to allow any steam engine to be erected
within that distance. — Mr. Maugham, the lecturer on chemistry, has re-
moved from the Adelaide Gallery to the Poletecbnic. At this hitter Institu-
tion an ingenious application of propellers to the balloon is shown, although
their success on a large scale is doubtful, from their incapacity to contend
with currents of air.

The plan for embankment of the Thames is now before the legislature, so
that we may ex|icct sumethiug .is a beginning. — The wood pavement com-
panies are getting on faster than the asphalte, they are at work .at Ibieking-
hara Palace, in the Strand, Oxford Street, St. Giles's, and Lamli's Conduit
Street The elasticity of this material forms one of its best properties. Under
most of these jiavements a firm bed of concrete nuxed with Koman cement
and puzaolauo U laid, rather expensive we should tliiuk,

The Marine Gallery at Hampton Court Palace was opened on Easter .Mon-
day, 80 that the maritime nation has at last two marine galleries.— The (io-
verument School of Design at Somerset House has made another .step out of
the humdrum system ; having obtained a set of casts from .Messrs. Lofts in
Dean-street, llow they could persevere in their exclusion of the figure, it is
difficult to conceive ; they have only to go into their own schools and look
at the drawings of the same ornaments affixed to the walls; those from casts
are full of life and spirit, and in high relief, those from engravings more laboured
are dead and fiat. In fact the wisest thing they could do would be to turn
every engraving out of the school, where tbey can substitute nature or casts,
and above all never to let a boy begin to draw frotu a drawing, — set him before
the Apollo or the Venus at once. This has been tried at the Leicester-square
school with full success, even on its very young boys. The latter is far before
Somerset House in principle ; thanks to their badly remunerated Director
.\Ir. De Moucbet. The modelling class at Leicester-square gets on well. We
hojie the inspection of Mr. Wyse at Somerset House last month will do some
good ; that patron of the arts has, it is said, suggested many modifications in
the establishment. One fruit of bis visit is a report from the council, the
first since their institution. Pretty fair from a national establishiiient ! It
is a pity these establishments are not more frequented, where the working
classes can obtain first rate instruction in the arts for xivjience a weok. The
whole number of students at the school is not more than two hundred.

pNEi'.MATic Experiment o.v thi. Birmingh.vm, Bristol, .\nd Thamks
Junction Railwav. — The engine-house is built, and the communicating
tube between it and the raUway, by which the exhaustion of the main tube is
to be effected, is nearly laid. The permanent way and rails are also almost
completed, and fit for the laying down of the tubes for a considerable distance
out of the 1 j miles on which the experiment is to be made. We perceive also
that a great many of these tuues arc already arrived and on the gi'ound. Tbey
are nine inches diameter, and are lined inside, to about the tenth of an inch
thick, with a hard unctuous sid)stance, much resembling, in its disagreeable
and sufibeating smeU, hard tallow. The slit or aperture of the tubes through
which the arm communicates with the rumiing piston and the carriages is
about !„ inch. \\"c understand, if the experiment be successful, the company
are to liave the use of the patent gratis, for devoting the road to the trial, anil
are to purchase the whole apparatus and pre])arations at cost price ; and if it
docs not succeed, all is to be cleared otf within a given time. Supposing the
experiment etfects all that its advocates expect, we cannot see the use of so
small an ajijiaratus in such a place. If we remendier right, the inclination of
the road, about that part, is 120 feet a mile; therefore, the traction is more
than three times that on a level, or above 2t lbs. to the ton. But a circular
tube 9 inches diameter, fully exhausted, and exclusive of all friction, would
only draw about 031 fts., or, at 24 lbs. per ton, under 40 tons. The probabi-
lity, however, is, that it will never in that length be half exhausted; so that
the absolute load it would take would be under 20 tons, carriages, load and
all, assuming a perfect absence of all friction in the machinery. AVe sliall,
however, be much surprised, if the useful efl'ect is anything like this. Our
opinion is, that the patentees have made the ajqiaratus much too sm.all for any
useful i)urpose upon such a road, and also for the purpose of showing otf the
invention well, assuming it to be all that can he expected of it. A few days
ago the works were suspended, in consequence of a dispute between the
Alessrs. Sanmda and the contractors, about the point of delivery of the tubes
— that is, whether it should be a few yards on the noi-tb, or a few on the
south of the crossing of the Great Western line. Where so much is involved
as here, tins dispute is equally as ridiculous as that of the Lilliputians and
their neighbours, about which cud eggs ought to lie broken. — Uaihoay
McKjazuie.

Galvanic Engrax'ing.^U is not generally known that the method of
producing fae-similies of engraved plates by means of voltaic electricity, as
indicated by Mr. Brande, Mr. Faraday, and Professor Jacobi, has been fre-
quently demonstrated with complete success by Bachboffnor, of the Polytec-
nic Institution, in Regent-street, at which estaldishmeut many satisfactory
specimens may be witnessed. The process is as follows : — The plate from
which the duplicate is to be taken is first placed in a vessel properly adapted
for the jHupose, and is then covered with a solution of sulphate of copper,
through which the galvanic stream is transmitted. This causes a decomposi-
tion, or, in other words, the constituents of the salt arc removed from each
other, the metallic copper resulting from the action being deposited in a series
of thin laToina" upon the original plate. This deposited copper forms a second
plate, which, on removal from the other, exhibits every line a?ul mark traced
by the graver or etching-tool upon it, with this difierence, that wdi.at is bas-
relief in one is alto-relief in the other, and the engraved lines of the original
are raised lines in the duplicate. The sheet of copper thus iirodnced becomes
a normal plate or mould; from wduch, by a similar process, an acl injiiiituiu
number of plates may be taken, in even- respect equal to the original, and
callable, like it, of giving perfect printed impressions. The value of this
practical discovery is great, inasnuieb as it will supersede the necessity of
expensive steel-plate engr.ivings, by nuilliplying copies of those on copper
plates at the cost of a few shillings and loss of a few days only. Impressions
from medals, coins, and dies may be obtained in the same way, of which
there are several specimens in the gallery of the Polytecnic Institution, as
well as a very large duplicate copper plate of an elaborate engraving from one
of Domeuiehing's pictiues.

18101

THR CIVIL RNCINI':EII AND AI5< HII IXT .S .lOURNAT-

IG.:

ON BLASTING LIMESTONE ROCK.

Some ./Iccomit of Blasting the UHule Linmtoiie in the County of
Antrim, in Inland. By William Bald, F.R.S.E., M.R.I.A., &c-
Read before the Institution of Civil Engineers.

It becomes necessary to make a few short observations wliieh m.iy
perhaps be interesting to the scientific engineer. Along (he north
coast of Ireland from the Bay of Belfast to Lough Foyle, the country
consists of white limestone ; coliminar basalt, and some conglomerate
sandstone; but the hill of Carey consists of mica slate; and is of the
same formation as the Mull of Cantire, a part of the coast of Scotland
Ivino- opposite. The geologist can here easily trace the connecting
link in the formation, which joins the two countries, although a channel
yi) fithoms deep separates them. Numerous whin dykes intersect
tlie strata along this part of the Irish shore, they run nearly parallel to
each other in some cases, and are very remarkable in their structure.

The study of the peculiar qualities of the respective rocks and
strata, -and their position and inclination, will enable the engineer to
work them in a more scientific manner. And in the construction of
harbours, lighthouses, lines of navigation, drainage, roads, &c. &c., an
intimate acquaintance with the component parts of the rocks will en-
able him to select those best suited to resist the action of time, whether
thev be placed under the dominion of the deep, exposed to the ravages
of the pholas, or subject to perhaps the more wasting influence of the
atmosphere; by such studies his skill will be alike visible in the se-
lection of the best material for the repaving of even a common road,
as it will be for that of the most splendid edifice destined to survive
ages.

In constructing the Antrim coast road it became necessary to cut
through extensive and high masses of white limestone ; one of the sea
cliffs in the Little Deer Park, near Ulenarm Town, extended to a length
of nearly one thousand yards, rising from twenty feet to about two
hundred in height, washed at its base by a deep sea, and entirely ex-
posed to the run of the ocean in the north cliannel.

Above the white limestone is situate the coluumar basalt, but no
))art of the road was cut through this last mentioned rock. The white
limestone in Antrim differs from the chalk in England, in being more
indurated, while in other resjjccts it is similar to it in the quantities
of flint it con*.ains. This rock is close and fine in its texture, but it is
deeply fissured in many directions ; the scull veins it exhibits are ex-
tremely curious.* The inclinations of the limestone strata on this
part of the coast does not in general exceed 15° dipping into the land.
Under the lime rock strata lies the brownish red coloured sandstone.

In blasting down those lofty clifi's of white limestone, the borings
were always made into the toe of the rocks, ami were so arranged that
the line of least resistance should not be in the direction of the line of
boring. Hundreds of tons of rock frequently rested on a base of a few
superficial feet, which being blasted away, the cliff above tumbled
down. The patent safety fuse was used, and which was attended
with the most beneficial results, copper tubes for putting in the charges,
and also copper needles.

During three years operations not a man was lost, although upwards
of one hundred thousands tons of limestone were blasted down upon
less than one mile of the road.

The following are the results of a few experiments maile upon
loose detached blocks of white limestone at Glenarm, Little Deer
Park.

Table ok thk Worklng 1'roci;euings.

Block No. I.
2.
3.
4.

Cubic feet in
each block.

Cubic feet for each
Quantity of powder ounce of powder
used. used.

165
180
.540
8C4

12 oz.
12 oz.
38 oz.
04 oz.

13-78 ft.
15-00
14-21
13-50

From the above experiments it took one ounce of gunpowder to
rend asunder H-1-2 cubic feet of the white limestone when in blocks.
And from experiments made on the solid loose whinstone blocks, it
took about one ounce of gunpowder to blast asunder ll'7o cubic feet.

Three experiments assigned the specific gravity of the white lime-
stone at '2,747, 2,709, "2,71)3 ; and the whinstone or basalt at 3,200,
being about 13 cubic feet of white limestone to (he Ion, and 11-20
cubic feet of the whinstone to the ton.

* The grey limestone with wliicli tlic Light-house of Clare Island is built
is much traversed by scull veins, and water enlers theui during severe rain
storms.

An auger of H inch diameter.

Ditto

n

ditto

Ditto

U

ditto

Ditto

n

ditto

Ditto

ii-

ditto

Ditto

2

ditto

Ditto

2

ditto

Depth of boring.

Quantity of powder.

15 inches deep.

2G ditto

30 ditto

36 ditto

48 ditto

5 feet

6 feet

G inches.

8 ditto.

0 ditto.
12 ditto.
17 ditto.
20 ditto.
27 ditto.

The above table exhibits the diameter of the auger or jumper used,
the depth sunk, and the number of inches of gunpowder" put in.

The force of the explosion of gunpowder is assumed to be as the
cube of the length of the line of least resistance, thus if one ounce of
gunpowder will open a distance of one foot of rock, the table vvoidd
run thus : — •

Line of least resistance.
If 1 foot of rock rc(|nires
2 feet would rciiuire
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

Charge of powder exclusive of priming.

1 ounce.

8 ditto.

27 ditto.

64 ditto.

- 125 ditto.

- 21G ditto.

- 343 ditto.

- 512 ditto.

- 729 ditto.

- 1000 ditto.

I am aware there is nuich difficulty in knowing exactly where the
line of least resistance is, because the rock may be fissured, or some
bed or opening may be near to the line bored, and this is the case
where the rocks are stratified; but the hypogene rocks, such _ as
granite and syenite, lying in large solid compact masses unstratified
will be different, and these rules may be usefully applied. In blasting
asunder loose detached blocks, a much greater quantity of material
will be blown asunder by the same (piantity of gunpowder than of rock
lying in close connecteil beds.

It'is always desirable to work the rock out by the dip of the in-
clination of the strata, or as the quarrymen call it, the going way of
the rock.

In the while limestone quarries lying in the high ground north of
the town of Belfast, where the limestone is quarried lor building and
agricuhural purposes, and also for export; two men will quarry out
at an average from eight to ten tons per day, the augurs or jumpers
generally used are l^f inches, and two inches diameter; and the in-
duration of the white limestone may be estimated when two men will
bore one foot deep in half an hour ; they generally put in about three
inches of powder for 15 inches deep, and 6 inches for about 2 feet
deep ; the expense for quarrying is about from fivepence to sixpence
])er ton. There are nearly 13 cubic foot of the white limestone to the
ton, which is at the rate "of nearly about one shilling per cubic yard.
This white limestone is much esteemed in Glasgow and all the towns
on the Clyde, where it sells for five shillings per ton— but the quarrying
works near Belfast are carried on in a very limited manner, or rather
on a very small scale.

Numerous experiments made hy military engineers assign the force
of the explosion of gunpowder to be as the culae of the length of the
line of least resistance. Vauban and Belidor,-!" both of them excellent
mathematicians, and also possessing great practical skill, ingenuity
and experience, investigated this subject, doubtless more particularly
with a view to the operations of war, than to those of the works of
the civil engineer. The law of the explosive force of gunpowder re-
mains the same in all the various forms it may be applied to matter,
whether in blasting out of rock or earth, or the destruction of the ma-
sonry of fortifications by blowing them iqi, or laying in ruin bridges
built over large and deep rivers to arrest the progress of hostile
armies.

The total cubical contents of the four blocks of limestone given
above, amounted to 17 1',) cubic feet, and the quantity of powder used
12(i ounces, being at the rate of 1-94 ounces for each cubic yard blasted
asunder. But if the rate per cubic yard be deduced from the quan-

* One pound of gun]iowdcr occupies 30 cubic inches.
f Bchdor, one of t)io uiosi scientific of the French engineers, has given the
following rule for liiidiiig the charge of a surcharged mine or globe of com-
pression, " is to nmltiply the length of the line of least resistance in feet by
00, and the product will he the weight of the powder in pounds."

Z

]<;()

THE CIVIL 1]\C:INK1<:R AM) A lU'IllTKCTS JOURNAL

[May,

(ity of powdor ox|)emlotl on each block, then the following will be the
resu'ls oliliiineil (Voia tlu; four experiments.

1G5 cubic feet was blasted asiuuler by 12 ounces of gunpowder,
wliioh is at the rate of l-il.i ounces of powder for each cubic yard.

ISO cubic feet was blasted asunder by 12 ounces of gunpowder,
which is at the rate of 1-SO ounces of powder for each cubic yard.

r>{0 cubic feet was blasted asunder by 38 ounces uf guiipowder,
which is at the rate of 1-'.K» ounces of pow'der for cacli cubic yard.

81; I cubic feet was blasted asunder by 04 ounces of gunpowder,
wliiidi is at the rate of 2 ounces of powder for each cubic yard.

Therefore in the large loose limestone blocks about 2 ounces of gun-
powder may \i2 taken as the expenditure being necessary to bhist out
each cubic yard. The four blocks on which these experiments were
inade, were not at all cubical, although the one which contained 5'1()
cubic feet was nearly so. From the above results i beg to submit
some calculations regarding the force of the explosion of gunpowder,
being as the cube of the length of the Hue of least resistance.

We are in possession of the (juantity of gunpowder used in blasting
the four blocks, and also of the solid feet contained in each of thein.
Extracting therefore the cubic root of the cubical contents of each
block, we shall then have their masses all in cubical form as follows:

Cubic feet in each block. Side of the cube.

■■•-/IGS - . 5-484

'^180 - . 5-G4G

W5iQ . . 8-143

■U^8«4 - . 9-524

Taking Ihc lengtli of the line of least resistance at each of these
cubes to be equal to (he distance from the centre to the nearest point
on the sin-face, or erjuid to half the side ot" the cube, then the follow-
ing will be the lengths in feet of the lines of least resistance.

lu cube No. 1 — 2-742 feet.
No. 2 — 2-823
No. 3 — 4-071
No. 4 — 4-762.

The cpiantilies of gunpowder consumed to blast asunder a line of
least resistance, of

165 cubic feet blasted asunder.
180 diUo.
540 ditto.
864 ditto.

If 105 cubic feet be blasted asunder by 12 ounces of gunpowder, the
line of least resistance in that mass, if in cubical form, will be
V 1G5 = 2-7'12 feet.

Then the line of least resistance for one foot in cubical form w ill be
pquaj^ to S cubic feet. Then if 165 cubic feet with a line of resistance
of 2-742 feet require 12 ounces of gunpowder to open it, then 8 cubic
leet with a line of resistance of one foot will require 0-5S2 ounces of
gunpowder to open it asunder.

The following are the quantities of gunpowder required to open one
foot of least resistance through the white limestone, as determined by
the blasting of the four blocks.

Cubic feet in each block ... I65

Quantity of powder used to rend it as-
under, in oiincet! - - . . ]2

Cubic feet opened by the line of resistance

of one foot . . . . . 8

Quantity of powder required to open the
line of least resistance of one foot, in

ounces 0582

Mean 0-508 oz.

Apply the rule of the cube of the length of th(- line of least resist-
ance, and working with the element just obtained from the four ex-
]>eriments, to open asunder the line of least resistance of one fool.

No. 1 — Then (lie scale of the length of the line of least resistance in
No. 1, 2-742' feet uuiltiplied by 0-582 ounces, the ([uantity of powder
to open one foot will be 2-742' =^ 20-02 X -582 = 12 ounces.

No. 2— For a line of least resistance of 2-823 feet will be 11-95
ounces, 2'8-23' = 22-42 x -533 = 11-95 oimees.

No. 3— -For a line of least resistance of 4-071 feet, will be 37-97
ounces, 4-071-' = t;7-45 X -jiiS =37-97 om.ecE.

No. 4— For a line of least resistance of 4-702 feet, will be 01
ounces, 4-702' = 107-983 x '593 = 04 ounces.

It is therefore clear from these experiments made that (he force of
the explosion of gunpowder is as the cube of tlie length of the line of
least resistance. Taking the mean quantity of gunpowder obtained
irom the four experiments to open asimder a line of resistance of one
foot, -and wlUch is 0-508 ounces. The following will be the results

2-742 feet was 12 ounces,
2-823 - 12 ditto,
4-071 - 38 ditto,
4-762 - 64 ditto,

180

12

540

38

864

64

0-533 0-5C3 0-593

caleulated according to the cube of the length of the line of least re-
sistance.

2-7123= 20-62 X 0-568 = 11-71 oz. = lC5 cubic feet.
2-823-^= 22-42 x 0-568 = 12-73 07,.= 180
4-07P= 07-45 X 0-568 = 38-31 oz. = 540
4-7623=107-933 X 0 568 = 61-33 oz. = S64.

In having described the mode of blasting the white limestone on the
Antrim coast road in (he north of Ireland. It may be usefid as well as
interesting to the engineer to describe its qualities, and to what extent
it may be employed in the construction of works.

In treating of the nature of any kind of material to be employed in
building, the first consideration is its character, to resist decomposition
whether placed inthe 0])enair exposed to the full action of (he atmos-
phere, or buried in the earth, or entombed in the deep. Its indura-
tiim and compactness of structure, the absence of figures, the mass it
can be had in, and the facility of working or tooling it into form.

The white limestone on tlie Antrim const road lies in beds dipping
slightly to the plane ; it is generally quite white, but sometimes it is
of a yellow'ish tint; it is traversed by very small veins of calcareous
spar, but the most remarkalile feature is the quantity of Hints it con-
tains, they are dry, grey and black ; the thickness of the beds of the
white limestone is very singular, being sometimes more than 30 feet.

This white limestone is not good for building, because it moulders
by exposure to the atmosphere, it is not therefore generally used in
any public building, although it might be used in filling up the interior
parts of walls: it is inferior for road metal, being tender and wearing
quickly ; it can be procured in large masses, when reduced to pieces
containing six, twelve and eighteen cubical inches, it breaks into irre-
gular fragments with sharp edges.

The white limestone when placed under the sea is particularly sub-
ject to the ravages of the pholas, and is therefore unsuitable to be
employed in the construction of marine works, such as harbours or
breakwaters, &c., it is however a valuable niaterial for making lime
for building, and for agricultural purposes. In our quarrying o])er.i-
tions we rarely found in it shell remains.

In quarrying it out in large masses, the blocks sometimes had what
the workman call a lean and a full bed; the lean bed being less than
an angle of 90", and the full bed more than 90°. The white Limestone
can be split with plug and feather, or pooled by wedges; if the strati-
fication be in thin beds, it opens across with a very rugged and irregu-
lar face, but if very solid ami compact, and the beds of great thickness,
it will open more evenly and equal in the face. It dresses readily
with the hammer, and can be wrought and hewn into any form. I am
however of opinion that the white limestone of the county of AKtrim
shouhl not be used in constructing any work requiring durability, be-
cause it is a rock liable to decomposition when exposed to the atmos-
phere.

I have already, in the paper on blasting the white limestone, alluded
to the small fissures which traverse that rock, and which also traverse
the blue and grey limestone of Ireland, and vvhicli the stone-cutters
call scull veins doublers, on account of their exact resemblance to the
sutures in the human scull.

In concluding, I beg to mention that there are several species of the
Phohis. I.amarh in his natural history, mentions the Pholade Dactyle
or Pholas Dactylus, as btdng very prevalent on the coast of France,
and also inhabiting the shores of the Biitish seas. I have given a
sketch of the Phoyhis Dactylus, antl I beg to present to the Institution
a very beautiful specimen of this kind, from which the sketch has been
made, and which specimen I have accidentally obtained in London.
There is another species called the Pholade Scrabrelle, or Phohrs Can-
dida, which inhabits the European seas, and a veSy small kind called
by the French Saxicave Ridee, Saxicava Rugosa. It is quite foreign
to the object of this paper to enter into any thing like giving an ac-
count of all the various kinds of Pholas, or their habits; it is quite
sufficient to the engineer to know that every deserijttion of calcareous
rock, when placed under the sea, is subject to be perforated by those
bivalves ; indeed every rock upon which acids act are subject to be de-
stroyed by them, ansl it consequently has been conjectured that they
possess the power of producing an acid that decomposes the rock con-
taining calcareous matter; on the other hand some maintain this is
not the case, because the acid would also decompose the shell which
covers them. Mr. Lonsdale, of the Cieologieal .Society, mentioned to
me that some marine works constructed at Plymouth were much in-
jiu-ed by the ravages of the Pholas. Beds of calcareous rock of several
feet in thickness, in the Frith of Forth have been enturely destroyed
by the Pholas.

It will be seen that the sliell of the Pholas Dactylus, presented to the
Institution, is very tender and delicate ; from the extreme fragile nature
of the shell it would not be supposed capable of destroying indurated

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THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

167

m.irble. The external surface of the shell is rough, auil radi^ited
transversely and longitudinally in a most Ijeautiful luauucr by curved
lines of a high order; an attentive study of the mere lined surface of
the shell cannot fail to be instructive even to tlie man of science, and
worthy to be contemplated and examined by all those engaged in the
works of art and taste. The marine engineer may derive instruction
from the parabolic curves delineated, and traced out by the hand of
nature on the Fholas shell, in assisting him in giving the best shape
to the slopes of breakwaters, and harbuiu-s constructed in the deep sea,
and exposed to the run or momentum of the ocean. The curved ra-
diation or fluting on the shell cannot fail to attract the architect
engaged in the works of design and taste. It ought not to be forgotten
what struck Watt in examining the joints in the tail of a lobster ; nor
of .Smeaton in looking at the form of an oak tree ; nor the falling of an
apple which gave the impulse to the genius of a man justly the glory
of our island, and whose name stands recorded with the jiroudest
triumphs in the loftiest branches of science that has yet adorned the
efforts of human ingenuity.

William Bald.

ENCROACHMENTS OF THE SEA AND FORMATION OF
SHORES.

Sir — Public attention has of late years been mncli engaged by the
phenomena observed upon the ocean. The tidal theory, currents,
storms, &c. have each been subject to the closest scrutiny, and the re-
sidt has been much valuable information connected with them. The
recovery of land, and the encroacliment of the sea, liave been for some
time, and are now subjects of great interest to the scientific world ;
this has induced me to request the insertion of tlie following few lines
in the columns of your valuable journal.

The northern shore of the Bristol Channel from the port of Cardiff
up to Gloucester consists of a vast flat of Moor land, varying from 1 to
1^ miles in breadth; the soil is composed of a very tenacious clay
mixed with shells and a large portion of decayed vegetable matter.
This tract is formed totally from the deposit of the waters of the
Severn and Bristol Channel. This fact is inferred from the following
circumstances: — -Ist. The soil above described commences about a
mile and a half inwards, where its section presents a depth of about
a foot, under which is fovmd the natural soil of the country, a yellowish
clay intermixed with gravel; from this point it gradually deepens to
high water mark, where the depth averages from 35 to iO feet. 2nd.
If a plate or any other body, having a flat surface, be exposed on the
shore, between high and low water marV, for a single tide, a deposit
will be found thereon varying in thickness according to the calmness
of the sea during tide, as it has been observed that tlie deposit is much
increased in stormy wheather when the sea is violently agitated. 3rd.
In excavating the Bute Docks the rudder of a sliip was found about lU
feet below the surface, the iron work of which was in excellent pre-

Fig. 1. Fig. 2

r
I

!

I

I-

I ^=s?^^; ,,5.,^— i— — — ^^

I ^■-— i

I

I

H ^

I

Pig. 3.

Fi". 1 , the length of the upper ordinate is G feet, the second G feet 3 inches,
(he third 6 feet, the fuurtli 5 ieet 1 inch, an 1 the height of the vertical line
5 feet 9 inches. Fig 2, length of the upper ordinate 2 leet 11 inches, th','
second 3 feet 3 inches, the thiid 3 feel 2 inched, and the length of the vertical
line 5 feet. Fig. 3, length of the upper ordinate is 3 feet 8 inches, tbesecund
'.') feet 9 inches, the third 4 feet, the fourth 3 feet 7 inches, and the length of
the vertical line 5 feet 5 inches. The lower line is the height of high water
and spring tides.

servation. It was at first supposed that it liad sunk down by its own
weight, but its peculiar shape, and the closeness and tenacity of the.
soil, at once indicate the fallacy of such an opinion; several oak trees
were also founrl about 311 feet below the surface, and about lUO yards
above high water mark, these were of sufficient hardness to admit of
their being worked up into chairs, boxes, &c.

These facts, I presume, fully warrant my assertion that the shore i.s
a deposit, and if so, it only remains to discover the cau^e, which ap-
pears to ine to be as follows : — hi many seasons when the Severn is
swollen into a most impetuous and rapid torrent, vast quantities of the
rich soils of Hereford, Gloucester and Worcestershire are washed down
by it, and the particles prevented from sinking by the rapidity of the
current, they are thus carried along until the stream is impeded in its
progress by meeting the flowing tide, which runs in this channel with
a velocity of from .) to (J miles an hour; the tide being the more
powerfid of the two currents, and having a set towards the south-east,
pushes the other current over towards the nothern shore, wliere the
water almost stagnates and the particles settle to the bottom. I am
borne out in this opinion by the fact that there is but little current in
the space between high and low water mark, a distance of about a
mile, and wluch always sets to the westward whether the tide be ebb-
ing or flowing.

At the high water mark the shore suddenly drops about six feet
perpendicularly, the profile of the land at this part is exceedingly
curious, and accompanving this paper I have sent a few sections taken
at the more prominent parts, and consequently most exposed to the
force of the wave. I think some very valuable hints might be taken
from them in the construction of piers, sea walls, and other works ex-
posed to the action of the sea. These sections were taken with mucli
care, and may be fully relied on for accuracy.

I remain your most obedient servant,

NOTA.

EN'CRO.\CmiENT,S AND RECESSIONS OF THE SEA.

[The following article is from the Ciiujue Ports Chronicle of February last,
it is a reply to a paper which appeared in the Journal, page 04, for Feliniary
last, under tlie signature E.]

■\Ve regret that " E," while he questions the accuracy of our theory, has
not started some taugiljle objection for us to grapple with, and as he has not;
done this, we must content ourselves witli a reference to some additional
facts in corroboration of the \"iew we hold of the stdiject. "We find that as
the projections of the Hastings clift's are diminished, additional deposits of
beach are fonued in the West bay, gradually augmenting also at Dungeness
Point, the extremity of the cm've described by the sea, on account of the
land, though low, consisting, wc believe, of chalk or other formatiuii, calcu-
lated to resist the action of the waves. It is also a fact that, as the Ness
point augments to seaward by deposits of beach, the sea has receutly made
considerable encroachments to the eastward, or side opposed to the prevail-
ing current. M'ithin the last few days also, a temporarj' headland has been
caused about one mile s.w. of Dover, by the fall of an immense quantity of
chalk, denominated Round-down CUff. Now by obstructing the parallel
course of the western current, it woidd, according to our theory, throw the
tide in with additional momentum upon the weslern pier of Dover harbour,
and this, we believe, has since been reahzed, and so eti'ectually as to diminish
the bar of Ijeach, which, for some months previously to this accident, had
been collecting in serious and unusual quantities. Nature has thus, we con-
ceive, by one of her accidents, demonstrated the means, which our celebrated
engineers have hitherto searched for in vain, of preventing the formation of
a bar of beacli at the mouth of Dover harbour. Viewing that locaUty in
connexion with our theory, we have no doulit that if masses of rock, forming
a duraljlc obstruction in tlie nature of a headland, were deposited at a proper
distance from the entrance of the harbour, the artificial promontory would
give such a curviUnear and additional impetus to the waves and current, as
would tend to pass tlie beach lieyoud the east pier of the harboiu:.

Tlie recent south-westerly gales have, however, contributed events under
our immediate observation which, in our humble opinion, have triumphantly
established the theory we have Ijroached, and wliich " E " has not attacked
on any specific point. The circumstances to which we allude are the follow-
ing : a groyne was constructed some few months ago on the beach a little to
the westward of the villas between Verulam Place and Warriors' Square, for
the purpose of protecting the esplanade wall to the eastward. That it ef-
fected by retaining the beach, which effectually repels the inroads of the
waves. Here, then, we had a promontory formed on a miniature scale, and
it was not long before what we conceive to bo tlie great lav/ of nature, viz.,
the formation of a 'lay exactly proportioned to the obstruction caused to the
sea by an intervening headland, became too apparent. Tiie waters, inter-
rupted ill their course by the beach collected at the groyae, were thrown
witli an additional impetus to the eastward of the groyne, exactly, we beheve,
proportioned to the obstruction they had encountered, aii.l after repeated
assaults upon tlie wall, have undermined, washed if, the parade, and part of

Z 2

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Tiiii; CIVIL engtni:i:r am) aikiiitect.s journal.

[May,

the loail awav. clearing out a bay, wliieli, from iiieasiiremeiit, we liiid about
the perpendicular length of the groyne, which was the passive cause of the
inroad. Had the groyne in (picstion not been erected, althongh the wall
woidd have been undcrniiiied and tlirown down by the grovne farther west,
at the South Saxon hotel, yet the inroad would have been Icks considerable ;
or had the ctl'ccis of our niini.itnrc promontory been dindnishcd, by couslnict-
ing it on a smaller scale, anil ueutraliziug its mixrhieruiix tendency by a well
graduated lijie of groynes to the eastward, the inroad would have been pre-
vented. Croyncs on this pan of Ihe coast arc well Known to have the clfeet
of saving and )n-otccting land to the westw.ird, and of endangering il unless
the groynes be continued to the eastward; this any common observer would
satisfactorily demonstrate to " E," and in explaining tlie grand alterations in
the face of ihe coast, by reference to such ndniature causes, we lielievc, our
views are unquestionably snbstantiateil, as far as the encroaebnicnls of the
sea arc concerned ; and we arc efpially conliilcnt in the accuracy of our views
with respect to the recessions of the sea, that they occur in i)roportion as
the headlands, which, nndcr the agency of the prevailing current, formed
bays, are dindnishcd. This would, we belic\e, be experimentally proved if
the groyne, which has caused the injury to the esjilanade wall at St. Mary
Magdalen's, were reduced in length and height. The sea would throw up
heacli wlLCre it has recently invadcil, and there it woidd remain to an extent
exactly proportioned to the ilinunulion of tlic weslerly groyne or headland.
Similar reductions have taken jilace in groynes farther to the eastward, which
had been constructed on too large a scale, and their destructive tendency to
the eastward thereby reduced in a direct ratio. With these facts, supporting
the theory we have advanced for the general cause of the encroachmeuts and
recessions of the sea, we must, mitil " E " succeeds in shaking our data,
instead of merely questioning them, assume that we ha\e ottered a satisfac-
tory ex|danation of the interesting phenomena afforded Ijy the alteration of
the Southern coast, and, in couc-'usion, express a conviction that if 13eachy
Head and tlie Hastings cliffs were severally extended to the distance sea-
ward tliat now exists belweeti Pevensey castle ami the sea, ami also between
Winchelsca,'- and the present high-water mark, such an elongation of the
obstructing headlands would give such an additional impetus to the sea, as
to cause it again to wash the base of the hills on which those towns are
situated. We have affirmed tliat the per|ienilieular line, from the onliuary
high-water mark to the furthest discernible inland existence of beach, is equal
to the original projection of the headlands beyond their jiresent termini, and
we believe it to lie correel. We, however, invite inquiry on the sidjject, as
also to the cause of the rei/iilnr hiyh-vater marhs successively following each
other for a consiilerable distance on Lydd beach ; the early ones being covered
with green sward, evidently the produce of ages.

RESISTANCE TO RAII.M'AY TRAINS.

T)i\ I.arihier rcccnlli/ ihlh'eivil at ihe Atlienii'vm, Manchester, a eourse of
lectures " On the resistance ofraitieay trains, the effects of gradients, and
ihe i/cnerul economy of steam power."

Lecture I.

Dr. Lardner commenced by observing, that it was a strong examjile of the
manner in which practical matters were conducted in this country, that they
liad been now ten years, with all the extraordinary effects of railways passing
under their notice, stinmlating their attention and calling up the wonder of
all parts of Europe, and yet to this hour the general jiroblem, the solution of
which was the actual amount of resistance to railway trains, nught be con-
sidered to remain, so far as the engineering profession was concerned, with-
out solution.

It was not till a very recent period that, even on common roads, the
auunuit of this resistance had been made the subject of inquiry. An instru-
ment bad, however, been invented by Mr. M'Ncil, the engineer, who had
instituted experiments to ascertain the actual resistance on turnpike roads,
which he had fouml to be about one thirtieth jiart of the load. Now, the
])rinciple was ccpially applicalile to common roads as to railways, that the
resistance ^von]d be diminished in the proportion in which they enlarged the
wheel ; but when they increased the si/e, they also iiu'reased the weiglit, so
that there was a jiractical linut to the dinnnisbiug of resistance in this nuin-
ner. The average resistance which a load ]tlaec<l on a raih\'ay offered lo the
tractive ])Ower, was intiniafely comieeted with the principle n))on which rail-
Wiiys themselves were constructed ; and this connexion had been largely
acte<l n]>OM by the legislature in all incjuirics concerning contested railway
bills. It ha<l been assumed in jiarliament that an engine luight be expected
to jiull a load, with all the necessary ex]»edition, u)i an inclirted plane, pro-
virled thai inclined jilane olVcreil not more than double the resistance which
tlie engine had op])Osed to it on a level. That had been laid down and acteil
upon in parlianu'ut as a species of standing order. The principle acted upon
was, that the resistance upon a level wotdd be abocd !l ll.s. a tcui, and, conse-
queidly, an inclination which resisted 1 in 2.')0, was an incliuatifm u)) v\hich
the engine might be expected to work with a full speed. Upon this princiiile
the sections of all Ihe railways in the country had been laid. But the fact
was, that the resistance depended upon eiilirely difi'erent principles. In the

' Both places are said to have been .washed by the sea.— Vide map, &c.,
" Camden s Britannia."

iuijniricj which took place, no one ever hinted that the resistance depended
upon the sjieed — no one suspected for a nmnient that there was more resist-
ance at thirty miles an hour than at one nnle an hour. He was quite sure
that many would be perfectly astonished at this statement, but it was a fact
established by abundant evidence, and injunncrable experiments made by
pbilos()l>hers at ditfereut times and in dltfci'cnt countries, that resistance de-
pcmltMl upon friction, and did m)t dcpcml \\\y»\ speed ; that so far as resist-
ance to any degree depends iqion the friction of the axles upon their bear-
ings, or the rolling motion of the fires upon the road, it was demonstrable
that the resistance was the same at all speeds whafevi'i-, whether twenty,
thirty, fortv, or fifty miles an lioiu" Never supjiusiiig there was any other
cause, they at once assumed that resistance, at all speeds, was cither .actually
or nearly the same. This was the source of the eiTor.

One of the standing orders of iiarliamcnt was, that whenever a radway
had a cm've, with a radius of less than a mile, the commiffee must make a
sjiecial repoi't of such a ciu've, iqion the supposition that it was attended with
increased resistance or danger. The ])oi)nlar idea was, that when the wheels
got to the curve, the outer flange of tlie wheel mounted ujion the rail, by the
conical form of the tire, while the other fell from off the rail ; thus the one
wheel acquired a diameter virtually greater than the other; that, therefore,
one revolution of the outer wheel, having a virtually gre.iter diameter, would
carry it iivor a greater space than one revolution of the inner wheel ; ami
that the two things would accommodate each other so that the outer wheel
gets round a larger jiorfion of the rail, while the inner wheel, being virtually
smaller, gets over a smaller space, and that in this way the cone of the wheel
accomplished the thing. Never was there a more consummate lueehanieal
blunder. The fact was, the cone had nothing to do with the traversing of
the carriage round a curve ; and it was entirely the mechanical action of the
flange pressing on the rails.

He had alluded to one or two circumstances connected with the practi-
cable and jirobable speed likely to be attained on railways, and the means by
which flmt speed might be attained. Since the great questions which had
been agitated respecting the effect which an increased width of rails would
have on railway transit, and the effect which very large drawing wheels, of
great diameter, v\onld have on certain railways, the question of veiy vastly
increased speed had acquired considerable interest. Very recently, two ex-
periments had been made, attended with most surprising results. One was
the case of the Monmouth express. A despatch was cariicd from Twyford
to London on the Great ^^'estern Railway, a distance of thirty ndles, in thirt y-
fi\e minutes. This distance was traversed very favouralily, and being subject
to less of those casual interruptions to which a longer trip would be liable
it was performed at the rate of six miles in seven minutes, or six sevenths of
a mile in one minute, or SGO-Tths of a mile (very nearly 51 3 miles) an hour.
He had experimented on speed very largely on most of the railways of the
country, and he had never jiersonally witnessed that speed. The evaporating
jiower of those engines was enormous. Another performance, which he had
asceiiained since he arrived in this neighbourhood, showed that great ,is the
one was just mentioned, they nuist not ascribe it to any jieculiar circumstance
attending the laige engines and wide gauge of the (Jreat Western liailway.
An express was desp.atched a short time since from Liverpool to Birming-
ham, and its speed was stated in the papers. One engine, with its tender,
went from Liverpool, or rather from the top of the tunnel at Edge Hill, to
l!irmingli.iiu, in two hours and thirty-five minutes. IJut he had inquired
into the circmnstances of that trip, and it ajqieared that the time the engine
was actually in motion, after deducting a variety of stoppages, was only one
hour and fifty mimites in traversing lunety-seven miles. The feat on the
(ireat A\'estern was performed on a dead level, while, on the Grand Junction,
the engine first encountered the Whistou incline, where the line rises 1 in 90
for a nide and a half ; and after passing Crewe, it encountered a plane of
three miles to the Madeley summit, rising 20 feet a mile, succeeded by
another plane, for three nnles more, rising 30 feet a mile ; yet, with all these
imiiedimcnfs, it performed the ninety-seven miles in one hour and fifty mi-
nutes, or 110 minutes; consequently the distance traversed in each minute
was 97 divided by 110, or -^)2y^, nearly 5,'i miles an hour — a speed which, he
confessed, if he had not evidence of it, he eoidd scarcely have believed to be
within the boumls of mechanical possibility. The engine which performed
this feat had driving wheels of 5.^ feet diameter; their circumference would
be \1\ feet. Taking the speed at 5.'^ miles an hour, it was within a very
minufi' fraction of 80 feet in a second of time. This was not the greatest
speed of the engine, but the average speed spread over 97 miles, and there
could be little doubt that it must have exceeded sixty miles an hour during
a considerable portion of the distance. Hr. Lardner concluded by saying,
" there was as yet nothing to satisfy us that a much greater speed was at-
fainablc by the adoption of the very large scale or gauge of r.ailway which
had been thought desirable by fliose who were interested in the Great Wes-
fi'ru Line."

Lecturi! 1 1.
In this lecture the Doctor directed attention to a remarkable line of dis-
tinction which existed bclween inclin.'itions upon r.iilways of different kinds.
If, for instance, they had a gradient which would fall at the rate of one foot
in a thousand, the train would not roll down, because the gr.ivifafion would
be insnflicicut to overcome the mechanical resistance. But suppose the
acclivity were increased, so that the gravitation would just b.ilance the fric-
tion, that inclination would be what in mechanics was called the angle of

1«J0.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCIIITIilC TS JOURNAL.

IfiO

repose. The amount of Ibis inelinatiori had lieen made t!ie suliject of inueli
<Usi)ute ; I)ut it iiail lieen geneially assumeil to be 1 in 250, or at tlic rate of
alioiit twenty feet in the mile. Any incUjiation greater tlian tliis would
cause tlic train to move down spontaneoubly; and it bad l)een assumed in
railway investigations before committees of jiarlianient, tbat tbc train, under
such circumstances, would {loul)le its velocity every second of time. The
inevitable conehiMon to be drawn from this was, that if they liad a steep in-
clined plane of sutticient length, the consequence would be an indetiuite in-
crease of speed till they actually acquired a velocity of 100(1 miles au hour.
Now, they wouhl after this hardly crcilit the lesults which actual experiment
gave. iSotbing could be easier than tlie jn'oblem to determine the actual
resistance from the luoliou of trains ou railways, because it was a uiattcr of
easy mathematical calculation to predict whiit the velocity .icquired at the
end of the first miiiute would lie, and, ,'iccording to the rule laid down, tbat
it would be twice as great at tlie eml of the second minute, and so on. I!y
comparing this with the velocity tlie train actually acquired, the comparison
would furnish tliem with an easy clue. \J\mu this principle, Dr. Lardner
luid jiroceeded in a series of experiments made on the Winston Plane, whicli
has a fall of 1 in 90. They had four coaches, the gross weight of which
was 15! tons, and these coaches were propelled along the siunmit level to
tlie brink of the plane, until a velocity of about 29 miles au hour was given
to them, and then the engine was detacbed, leaving them to move down.
By means of stakes placed on the side of the line, they were enabled to re-
gister the length of time it took to descend every successive 110 yards.
They commenced their descent from the summit of the plane at a \clocily of
nearly thirty uules an h:)ur, which, in a very short space of time, increased
fo 31:J miles an hour, and then the\' fouiul that gravity could do no more for
them. Instead of going at the frightfid velocity anticipated by parliament,
they found they got into the most uiuform rate of motion at the third or
fom-tli stake, after which there was no increase of velocity whatsoever ; and
at this uniform motion they coulinucd to descend tdl they reached the end
of the plane. They subndtted this experimetit to all possible tests, by in-
creasing the weight of the carriages to 18 tons, but it only gave them an
increased velocity at starting of 33} miles, the train descending at a uniform
speed the remainder of the distance.

Upon these experiments Dr. Lardner proceeded to remark — " There is an
important thing connected with this which I will briefly explain to you.
The force that moves the train down an inclined plane is, as you will see, the
gravitation of the weight of the train down the plane. This gravitation
woidd, until altogether balanced by some resisting force, acquire an accele-
rated motion. So long as the resistance to the descending train is less than
the gravitation down the plane, so long will the excess of gravitating force
down the |ilane produce an acceleration of velocity, he it more or less. But
as soon as the resistance becomes equal to the gravitating force, then there
will no longer be any acceleration; the train will no longer acquire an in-
creasing speed. On the other hand, it will not lose speed ; if it did, then
the inference would be, that the retarding force exceeded the gravitation;
out they acquire an equilibrium, and as soon as the resisting force increases
to that point that it is exactly equal to the gravitation, then the motion is
uniform. The inference we deduced, therefore, was this: — that at 3\-p^
miles an ho'ir, the gravitation of this train down the plane of 1 in 96 was
equal to the resistance ; in other words, that the resistance to that speed
was Jj part of the weight. And you will see that a necessary consccincnce
of this is, that a train of equal weight, placed ou a level, and drawn along a
level at the same speed of 31} miles au hour, the resistance which it would
oppose to the moving power would be tjV part of the whole load. This alone
will show you the extent of the error which these experiments exposed ; for
the common notion before was, that the resistance in all cases was ttjtt I'art
of the load, or somewhere about 9 fts. per ton ; whereas it appeared that it
was in this case Jj part of the load, or about 23 fts. per ton ; so that the
engineer's estimate woidd be in error to the inconceivable extent of mistaking
resistance of 23 lbs. for a resistance of 9tbs. per ton."
Dr. Lardner stated that he liad tried similar experiments on the plane of
the Grand Junction Railway, which descends from Madeley towards Crewe,
at the rate of 1 in 177 for three miles; afterwards descending at the rate of
1 in 2G5, followed by another descent of 1 in 330. The coaches loaded at
IH tons were moved down this plane in exactly the same way, the wind being
fair, and they got a velocity of 21:1 niiles an hour, and with this velocity they
continued to descend the tliree planes. Ou making inquiries of the engine-
man, he found that the steam was never cut ott" in descending these planes,
so that, instead of accelerating the engines at a dangerous speed, as was an-
ticipated by the parliamentary committee, they were actually insufficient to
propel them at a sufficient speed for the work of the road. The result of all
the experiments he made on the Madeley plane was, that he never met with
an instance of propelling trains down, with a fair wind, at a specil of more
than 23 miles au hour. From a comparison of the experiments made at the
Madeley and Whiston ])lanes, Ur. Lardner said, " I made a calculation, from
which it appears tbat in the first experiment of the two trains, tbat portion
of the resistance which is due to friction amounted to 9fl lbs. only, while that
which is due to the atmosphere amounted to 268 tks. In the second experi-
ment, with eighteen tons, the portion of resistance due to mechanical causes
amounts to 100 lbs., while that which arises from the atmosphere amounts
to 321 lbs., at only 33 miles au hour'. One of the objections was, that the
train was too light, and that un fail- inference coidd be drawni from four car-
riages. We, therefore, tried trains of six and eight carriages. Several ex-

periments were made down very steep planes — that of Whiston being 1 in
96, and that of Sutton 1 in 89. In the first cxpciimeut of six carriages, (be
wind was against us. Duv.n the plane of 1 in 89, we could not get more
speed than 32^ miles an hour. At this speed the resistance was equal to
the gravitation. But w ith the w ind favourable dow n the same plane, we got
37. \ miles au hour, and a mean of these two would be about 35 miles an
hour. On the \\ liislon |ilane, 1 in 96, with the wind adverse to us, we only
got 27~, or nearly 28 miles an hour, but with the wind favourable, we got
31 miles an hour, the mean of these being about 31. In both these cases,
both on the Sutton and Whistou ]>lanes, you see the evident efl'ects of the
wind. The mean of the two, in these cases, gives, on a less steep jilane, a
less velocity than on a steeper plane the mean did in the other cases. It is
remarkable, ami very satisfactory in coulirmation of the former experiment,
that we had six carriages in a calm descending the Sutton ])lane, and what
was our uniform sjicfd ? 35^ miles an hour, the atmosphere being calm. In
two other cases down the same phme, with adverse wind, we got a speed of
32J nnles au hour; with favourable wind, 37.\ miles, the mean of which is
3Ji miles ; so tbat in a calm we got a nicaii between the speed with a fa-
vourable and that with an adverse wind. .Ml these harmonies in the results
are so many corroborations of the principle which they develop."

Lecture III.

In this lecture the Doctor cxidained a variety of experiments made on
railways, in order to ascertain the source of resistance. He found tliat an
enlarged temjiorary frontage constructed with boards, of probably double the
magnitude of tbc ordinary "front of the train, caused an increase of resisfauce
so trifling and insiguifiennt as to be entirely uuwortliy of account in practice.
Seeing that the source of resistance, so far as the air was concerned, was not
to be ascribed to the form or magnitude of the front, it next occurred to him
to inquire whether it might not arise from the general magnitude of the train
front ends, toj) and all. -An experiment was made to test this ; a train of
waggons was prepared with temporary sides and cuds, so as to rcpiesent for
all practical puriioscs, a train of carriages, which was moved from the sum-
mit of a series of inclined planes, by gravity, till it was brought to rest; it
was next moved down with the high sides and ends laid flat on the platform
of the wagaons, and the result was very remarkable. The whole frontage of
the latteiCinelndiiig the wheels and every thing, a complete transverse sec-
tion of the wagons, measured 24 feet square, and with the sides and cuds up,
so as to i>resent a cross section, it amounted to nearly -18 square feet. The
uniform velocity, attained on a plane of 1 in 177, without the sides up, was
nearly 23 miles' an hour; whereas, with the sides up, it was only 17 miles
an hour; so that, as the resistance would be in projiorfion to the square of
the velocity, other things being the same, there would be a very considerable
diflrcreuce,'duc to tbat ditlVreuce of velocity. Then, at the foot of the second
plane, while the sides were down, an undiminished velocity remained of 19J
miles au hour, whereas, with the sides up, it was reduced to Si miles an
lioiu-; so that a very extensive difterence was produced. They would see at
once, that this was a very decisive experiment to prove that the great source
of resistance was to be found in the bulk, and not the mere section or the
form, whether of the front or the back of a train; but simjily in the general
bulk of the body carried through the air. It was very likely to arise from
the successive displacements of a quantity of the atmosphere equal to the
bulk of the body ; or still more proliahly.'from the fact of the extensive sides
of the train; aiid indeed there was little doubt that the magnitude of the
sides had a very material influence ; for, if they consider what is going on in
the body of air' extending from either side of a train of coaches, they would
soon see what a mechanical power must be exercised upon it. Thus, when
a train is moving rapidly, the moving power bad not only to pull the train
on, but it had to drag a succession of columns of air, at ditferent velocities,
one outside the other, to a considerable extent outside the train ; and it did
more, for it overcame their friction one upon the other; for as these columns
of air were at dift'erent velocities, the one would be rubbing against the
other ; and all this the moving power had to encounter. This would go far
to explain the great magnitude of resistance found, and its entire discordance
with any thing iirevionslv suspected.

Dr. Lardner next proceeded to consider the practical bearings which the
experiments he had detailed would have on the construction of railways.
From these experiments a two-fold fact was deducible : first, there w as un-
questionably a great amount of resistance, and secondly, this resistance had
a material dependence on the velocity; it dimiuished in a very rapid pro|)or-
tion as the speed was diminished. If, therefore, by slaokening the speed,
thev could relieve the engine from any considerable portion of the resistance
opposed to it, thev had at once a ground for throwing ovei board all the ob-
jections wdiieh hail been raised against sections of railways which had con-
siderable gradients. It was asserted that the resistance was a resistance
quite independent of the speed, and that its average amount was quite equal
to the gravity down a plane with a fall of twenty feet a mile. Both propo-
sitions had been proved to be false. The resistance was not constant; it
depended on the speed, and its average amount was equal to a great deal
more than twenty feet a mile. The gradient that represented the average
resistance, instead of being twenty feet a mile, was probably fifty feet ; and
instead of liavinc no power of limiting the speed, they hail a power to which
there was scarcely a practical limit. The lecturer stated that he bad been
ridiculed for the opinion he bad advanced before the committee of the House

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[May.

of Commons, tliat the Sniitlianiiitou Itaihvay Section, of twenty feet to the
mile, was as inactically good as tliat of tlie Great M'estern, wbicli was on a
(lead level, lie had made that assertion on the ground that iu tlie descent
tliere would he as nuieh advantage gained as disadvantage to he encountered
iii the ascent ; and, excejit tlie inconvenience which would result from the
inequality of speed, heing at one time fast and at another time slow, there
would he no otlier inconvenience or disadvantage worth mentioning. And,
therefore, he did inntend that it was an extremely improvident .and unwise
expenditure to lavish millions in cutting through elevations and filling up
valleys hy lorgo euil)ankments, and constructing tunnels and viaducts, and
all tlie other cx|)cnsive works, to ohtaiu a dead level. Evperiments had
since heen made which jiroved the conclusions he had arrived at to he suh-
stanvially correct. These ex[)eriments had heen made hy Mr. Wood, the en-
gineer of the Liverpool and .Manchester Railway, on the Grand Junction Line.
A train of twelve carriages, each weighing five tons, was attached to the
lJei-/ii engine, the gross load heiiig ahoiit ii2 tons. This was started from
Liverpool to Birmingham, under peculiarly favourahlc circumstanres as re-
garded the calmness of the day and the state of the weather, the engine
heing allowed ta do its own work, unassisted on the various inclines ; the
velocity of speed throughout the whole way from Liverpool to Birmingham
and hack again fr.im Birmingham to Liverpool, was, of course, accurately as-
certained, and if the theory which he had endeavoured to develop was cor-
rect, they ought to find that the average speed in ascending and descending
the inclinations would he nearly equal to the sjieed they ohtained on the
level parts of tlie line. There were several jilaucs along the line, and taking
the steepest tirst, viz. 1 in 177, they ascrnded that plane at the uniform
velocity of 22} miles an hour, and descended it at the rate of Hi miles an
hour, the average heiug as nearly as possihle 31eJ- in ascending and descend-
ing. The ascent and descent of the other gradients on the hne gave the
same, or very neaily the same, results — the average speed varying little from
■jl miles an hour. There was a cousiderahle portion of the line level, and
tlie speed iqiou that portion was 31 miles, heing just the same, allowing for
inevitahle small discrepancies, as the average speed upon the inclines up and
down the line. The plain inference which Dr. Lardner drew from these ex-
jieriments was this: that the trains hctween Liverpool and iiinniiigliain ]ier-
fonned their journeys in just as short a time as they would do if the line
was a dead level from terminus to terminus. He, therefore, considered it
unadvisahle to expend money in attaining very fiat sections, gradients not
exceeding thirty feet a mile heing, iu his opiuion, practically as good as a flat
and dead level.

Dr. Lardner next ohserved that it was inexpedient to lavish money in
avoiding curves of a less radius than a mile, as no danger could, he helieved,
attend a curve having a raihus of half a mile, perhaps less. It was, likewise,
apparent that it was useless to lavish cajiital on expedients for greatly di-
minishing friction ; such, for instance, as the adoption of wheels of a large
diameter, for it was clear that friction afforded hut an insignificant p.art of
the sources of resistance, while, by increasing the bulk of the carriage, they
gave a greater frontage, and increased the resistance from other causes.
Further, observed Dr. Lardner, it seemed probable that they should not with
practical trains attain, in the present state of mechanical science, those ex-
traordinary s])eeds which they were accustomed to hope for some time since.
It was not at all likely that they should ever move at the rate of a hundred
miles an hour, for the resistance due to the velocity would increase iu so
enormous a proportion, that it would become an opponent too formidable for
any available power to overcome ; still less was it likely that those speeds
would ever he ohtained with profit. Upon this subject Dr. Lardner remarked,
" In some exiierience of railway travelling, I have never witnessed a speed
exceeding '15 miles an hour; I did once accomplish that speed with four
coaches, hut only for a short distance. Jlr. Woods has told me, that he has
himself gone 48 miles an lioiir; hut that was not for any considerable dis-
tance. Let it he remembered, that great speed might he attained in this
way. You may get an engine with plenty of steam ; you may screw the
safety-valve down so as to get a surcharge of steain ; you may ]mt no load
on the engine, so as to diminish the resistance ; and you may run it down a
gradually declining gradient till you exhaust all the steam in her boiler upon
a falling gradient. Then, if all these things be done, if the rails be clean,
and if a correct account he ke]it, then there will he no denying that great
speed has been attained. But when we s|ie.ik of great speeds, this experi-
ment, the whole length of the thaiid Junction Railway and back, at the axe-
rage rate of .'51 miles an hour tluough the whole distance, with twelve
coaches, was a very respectable performance indeed, iu the present state of
locomotive power."

LECTuau IV.

Dr. Lardner said there were two prliici])les on which railways were gene-
rally constructed : — First, by departing as little an possible from the natural
surface of the ground, and distributing the inclinations very generally and
evenly over the whole length of the line, in which case such power was given
to the engine as to make it pull up the requisite loads with requisite speed.
Others, on the eoutiary, proceeded on the principle of concentration, and in-
stead of distributing the inclinations over the entire length, they threw them
all into one place, as in the ease of the Whistou and Sutton planes on the
Liverpool and Manchester Railway, and it followed, as a uccessai-j' eonse-
queoce, that the engines which were adajited for working the greater part of

such lines nearly ou a level, could not easily draw the loads up the inclina-
tion, which must therefore be done hy additional engines ; hut if it had been
expedient to make the whole line with inclinations like those of the Wliiston
and Sutton jilauex, there xvonid not have been the least difiiculty in working
it, and those planes would have heen ascended with just as much speed as that
part of the line was now traversed which was nearly level.

Dr. Larihier next iiroceeded to consider the source of the jiower of the en-
gine, tlie niauuer iu which it was produced, and the mode in which it was
adapted to uac. They should naturally suppose that an eleriient in eiigiue-
niaking of such vital importance as the (luantity of surface which ought to he
pro\ided to receive the action of lire, in order to produce a given tpiantity of
evaporation, ought to be known to engineers, but they would probably he sur-
prised to find that even the best engineers were as ignoiant of it as themstdves.
No two of them could .tgree, and they ilitfered, not only in small quantities,
hut even as much as 100 per cent. Anolhcr thing of iinportanee was the
magnituile of the grate. Sn:iie held, that a sijuare foot of grate per horse
liowcr was siifhcient ; some allowed more, and some less ; hut generally
speaking, three quarters of a square foot was allowed. In the ajiplieation of
fuel there was also eonsideralile dilferenee. It might he applied so as to pro-
duce considerable effect, or so as produce comparatively little etfect. In this
consisted what was called the art of stoking; and iu no place was this worse
done, in no place did it need to be better done, than on board sliips. The
coals should be spread lightly upon the grate ; and when in a state of incan-
descence, the stoker should |uish it back, and lay on more coals. The first
effect would he, that the coals first laid ou woidd be coked. The heat would
be so great that the gaseous jtart would be expelled. These gases would be
impelled forward by the draught; and as the}' passed the incandescent coal,
they would he consumed, and no smoke would issue from the chimney, the
smoke heing the nnconsumed part of the fuel. As soon as the coke at the
hack was consumed, the stoker should ]msh back that in the front, and in-
troduce a further quantity of fuel. This would make a common furnace, in
fact a smoke-consuming furnafe, and there would be a uniform evaporation
of steam. But was this the iiractice observed ? By no means. Neither in
marine boilers imr in land boilers had the stoker any idea of taking any such
pains ; he adopted not the most ethcient way, but the way most comfortable
to himself. He jiroceeded in this way : he let the fire in the grate be nearly
out, he then put in an enormous quantity of coal ; the consequence was, the
very instant this was laid on, there issued an enormous quantity of smoke,
which might he frequently seen issuing from the chimney of a steam-boat.
That went on for some time, till at length the chimney got a little rest. This
was nothing more than the effect of putting on fresh fuel ; and the smoke
continued till it was burned red, and it suited the stoker's [ileuMire and con-
venience to open the grate again. In some of the bcH conducted government
vessels this was not allowed. They paid their stokers sufHeient wages, and
made them do their work ; and on the Meden, for instance, there was no
smoke from the cliimuey at all. There was nothing new in this. Mr. Watt
jiroposed it ; and in his factory at Soho, smoke was never seen issuing from
the chimney. The only effectual remedy which could be devised would be to
feetl the furnace by self-acting grates. One had been invented in wdiich the
grate was made circular, and it revolved. The feed of coal was placed in a
hopper, and the coal passed through it like a funnel. The coal was put in
that part of the grate furthest from the flue. This machine was kept in mo-
tion by the engine itself, so that to a furnace of this kind there was little ne-
cessity for the attendance of men at tdl.—Miillnml Cunii/ie.s' lleralil.

THE FRENCH HISTORICAL COMMISSION.

CEj:tracledfi-om the Geutleiiian's Magazine fur February, 1810.J

Tun Report on the labours of the Committee of Arts and Monuments is so
extremely interesting, that, were it not too long, we should be inclined to
translate the whole. The object of this Committee is not only to publish a
complete survey of the monumental antiquities of France, hut also to provide
for the preservation of the monuments themselves. A series of printed ques-
tions is sent to every parish throughout the kingdom, in order to obtain the
primary information to regulate the proceedings of the Committee in this
survey. The undertaking will require many years, and much money. Those
districts and inonuiucnts will be taken first in order which are of the greatest
interest, or are most important in their character, or which are in the greatest
danger of perishing ; for the Committee has established it as a rule, that an
edifice which is threatened with ruin shall always be preferred to a monument
which is in a good state of preservation. .Vt lu'cscntthis Committee is occu-
pied in the publication of specimens or models of the lUffereiit forms which
its labours will take. These are to he, 1, the complete survey in description
and delineation of the cathedral of Noyon, as a specimen of severe ecclesias-
tical architecture, and, 2, of that of Chartres, as being the most extensive and
superb ecclesiastical edifice in France ; 3, the Roman, Merovingian, and Car-
lovingian antiquities of I'aris, as a specimen of the mode in which the great
towns will be treated; 1, the description of the arrondissement of Rhcims, as
a model of the monumentiil st.atistics of the provinces.

" The mission of the Committee is, in fact, to search noire France monn-
inenlale ; to catalogue, describe, and delineate all the objects of art scattered
over our soil ; to draw up an archaeological register, so succinct that the

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THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

171

monuments of every age and of every kind may ho nicntinncd in it, and of
sncli an extent tliat every work of art may obtain in it a i)laee iiroportionate
to its Cotlictic or liistorical valnc.

" Two orders of works are tliercfore to lie iirosecutcd nndcr the direction
of the Committee : statistics for all the mon\nnents withont cxee|)tion ; mono-
graphics for those monuments of importance wliicli conhl not l)e developed
siiftieiciitly in the statistics. The Committee eannot itself execute all the
statistics, which will amount to eighty-six if we proceed by department, and
to three hnndreil and fifty if we proceed by arrondissenient, and give sepa-
rately the statistics of several large cities, which seems desirable and neces-
sary to produce a eomiilcte work. Neitlier can the Committee undertake
directly all the raonographies, v.hieii will amount jierhaps to tliree hundred,
which is nearly the number of the important monuments in our country
which ajijicar to merit a s))ccial work. Time and money woidd be wanting
for such a colossal work. On the other hand, it would not ilo to let the de-
signs of tiie Committee be regulated by chanec, or to abandon tliem to the
individual caprices of all those who might think proper to undertake an his-
torieal work on the monuments. It has therefore been thought indispensable
to fix an uidform plan, and to apply it invariably to everything that shall be
undertaken, without as well as with the Committee.

" Two means of Jiltaining this result ofl'cred themselves; both have been
adopted. In the first place monographies and statistics will be given as
models, to which all future monographies and statistics will conform, as well
in the scientific plan as in the luaterial execution. Next, instruction will he
sent to all the eorrespondcnfs, and to all the antiquaries in France, to indicate
tlie plan according to which their researches must he made, to fix the expres-
sions which arc to be used in the description of a monument, and the charae-
teristic signs which serve to class the works of art, and to determine their
age.

" As to the statistics, fhey will be of two kinds; those which include all
the monuments of an arrondissement, aud those which only comprehend the
niouuments of a great town.

" Kor the model of the statistic of an arrondissement, that of Rheims lias
been chosen — one of those which arc most numerous in connnuncs, and one
of the richest in monuments. .\n architect of Rheims, M. llippolyte Durami,
has been employed to make all the drawings; the archivist and librarian of
the same town, M. Louis Paris, will write the history of the edifices; the se-
cretary of the Committee, M. Didron, will give the description of all the
monuments which will be represented by engraving aiul lithography.

" Paris has been chosen as the model of the statistic of a great town. This
work has been entrusted to M. Albert Lenoir, who will give drawings and
descriptions of all the Roman, Jlerovingian, and Carlovingian monuments
w'.iich formerly adorned the town of Paris, and which have left numerous
and imposing ruins. Paris, wluch possesses monuments of all e])ochs, from
JuUns Cicsar to oiu' own days, will serve as a ty|ie for those great towns in
Fraiice, Lyons, Rouen, Bordeaux, and Strasbourg.

" The Committee w ill give also two models of monography ; for, the monu-
ments of France being splendid or austere, it is necessary to take a severe
moiunnent and a sumptuous one.

" The cathedral of Noyon, graver still since the revolution and the course
of ages have broken the statues of its portal and its jiainted windows, has
been selected as the type of a church at once severe and original. I5y an ex-
ception which is rare in France, this cathedral is rounded at the extremity of
its transepts, as at its apsis, aud it is fronted by a porch on the west. M.
Kamee has just finished the drawings of this curious monument, and M. L.
Vitet, meniber of the Cliambcr of Deputies, is preparing the text.

" The Cathedral of Cliartres appeared to be the monument the most com-
jilete and the richest in France — we may almost say, in Europe. Notre Dame
de Cliartres is a cathedral far more considerable than the others, by its crypt,
whii_h extends the whole length of the building; by the numerous sculptures
v\hich decorate its royal portal and its lateral porches ; by its two western
spires, perfect models of the architecture of the twelftli and of the fifteenth
centuries; by the six amurcen of towers which rise af the croiiHlonx and at
the apside ; liy the delicate sculptures w liich adorn the enclosure of the choir ;
by the painted glass wiiicii fills all tlie windows ; by a great chajiel — we may
almost say, a little church — which the fourteenth century has attached to the
great edifice of the thirteenth.

" The drawings and text of this monography appeared to be of too high a
degree of iuiportanee to be entrusted to a single person. Two artists have
been joined together for the graphic work : MM. Lassus, aixhiteet, and
Amaury-Duval, painter. JI. Lassus will make all the drawings of arehitec-
tiu-e aud decoration, and will make the plans, and give the sections and ele-
vations ; M. j\maury-Duval will draw all the sculpture. The text itself,
which will accompany and explain these numerous designs, will also he divided.
In a literary work on a monument like Notre Dame de Cliartres, there are
two parts which are very distir.ct : the history of this monument, which re-
lates its foundation, its vicissitudes, the life of the personages wiio have in-
habited it, so to sjieak, that of the bishops who have adorned, enlarged, and
modified it, in fact the history of its former times ; and the description which
tells its present state, which describes by language all its stones one after
another, all the statues, all tlie figures painted in fresco or on glass, all the
various forms which sculpture has impressed on different materials to give
them a character, a style, which indicates an ei)och, an age. The history of
a monument, in fact, is still more different from its description, than archi-
tectural drawings are from drawings of figures ; and, since tliere Tvere two

artists for the grajihie part, it was but logical to make the same division of
the literary part of the undertaking."

Besides doing all that may be possible to preserve the ancient monuments
from ruin, the Committee of Arts and Monuments has taken measures to
form a Museum of National .\uticputies, in w hich the fragments of such monu-
ments, as their endeavours have not l>eeii able to save from destruction, may
be deposited.

" la spite of the zeal of the correspondents, in spite of the ardour of the
Committee itself in defence of monuments threatened by men or ruined by
time, many objects of art perish, many edifices fall ; and, since there exists no
place destined to receive the fragments, we lose even the last trace of the
most interesting monuments. Sinre the destruction of the museum of the
Pelits-Augustins, our national .archajology has sustained losses of this kind
which are irreparable. Latterly, when the restorations were made at the
church of St. Denis, wiicn the mutilations were perpetrated on the eliurdi of
St. Benoit, when the churches of St. Come and of Cluny were demolished,
they were forced to throw away among the rubbish bases aud capitals of
columns, scidptured tuuiulary stones, car\ed fricses and g.ai-goyles, because
the royal museums which are consecrated to pagpu antiquities, cannot and
will not receive national antiquities. Such a state of things could not last
long without the greatest detriment to history ; for no archa.'ological studies
are possible without niouuments, and the monuments become rarer every
day.

" Struck with these injuries inflicted upon art and historical studies, the
Committee, on the proposition of Baron T.aylor, begged the JNlinister of the
Interior to grant a place for the temporary reception of the objects of art
scattered in a thousand places, and which may be collected togeiher. After-
wards, the necessity will be felt of forming a gallery of tire fragments wiiich
will be gathered by little and little at a small expense, and we shall thus
have a museum of Christian antiquities, wiiieh may be compared v\itli |nidc
to the museums of pagan antiquities. In this museum, besides the pieces
which are originals, may be placed, as has been done at Louxre fm' the Creek
.and Roman monuments, plaster-casts of the finest works of art, statues, and
has reliefs wliich decorate our edifices of the Middle Ages. Several provin-
cial towns .already jiosscss a Christian museum ; Paris must not be behind
Dijon, Orleans. Puy, Jdans, or Carcassonne. The Minister of the Interior
received in the most favourable manner the proposition of the Committee,
and has made a formal promise to dedicate the church of St. Martin-des-
Champs, now depcmlant on the Conservatory of Arts and JManufacfures, to
tlie receptiou of the fr.agmenis of Christian architecture aud seul|iture which
may be collected at Paris and in the departments. This chureli, which, wilh
St. Germaiu-des-Pri's, is the oldest in Paris, is also the most curious for the
originality of its eonstruclion and decoration; it is iidmirably fit for ils neu-
destination — the casket will be worthy of the precious objects which it will
coufain. The Minister of the Interior has promised to cause to be restored,
for the object above specified, tliis eliurch, wiiich threatened to fall into ruins
from the efr'ects of age, or wiiieh was going to be demolished to make rotmi
for a mah-ie. The Committee regards this result as one of the most inijiortant
it has yet obtained, and knows not how to thank sufficiently the Minister of
the Interior.

" When a monument falls of itself, as has lately happened to tlie church of
St. Sauvenr at Xevers, the Committee will have but one resource, and that
one it will use immediately ; this will be to send an arehiteetural drauglitsin.au
to the scene of the disaster, and to give him the task of collecting, or causing
to be preserved in a museum, a]\ the valuable fragments which may not be
broken to pieces ; of drawing, on the faith of traditions, on the inspection of
old engravings, and the examination of the localiiy, a plan, sections, eleva-
tions, det.ails ; of stating, in a cirenmstantial report, the cause of the accident,
in order to prevent the fall of monuments which may be tlireatened with ruin
under the same circumstances. The draughtsman will return to Paris wilh
tlie fragments, which will be placed in the museum, — with the drawings,
which will be engraved, — with the report, which will be published. Of the
ruined mouumnt will be ]irescnted at least its portrait and some fnigmeuts.
This is precisely the missiiui r.jiich, in the case of St. Sauvcur. the Cominil-
tee has entrusted to il. Robcliu, iirchitcct, non-resident member of the Com-
mittee, aud cliargc<l with important works in the Cathedral of Nevers, his
native place."

All the evils here mentioned and provided against, are felt equally, if not
more, in England ; our national antiquities are daily perishing ; we li.ive no
museum to receive the fragments, no public spirit in our government to pro-
vide for them, and only here and there a solitaiy individual who, o.t his own
risk and inconvenience, will use his exertions to presene, will aftbrd a shelter
to what can be saved, or will publish, or cause to be published, drawings and
descriptions. We rejoice at the exertions of our neighbours, thougli we have
reason to be ashamed at being left so far behind them. Yet we think we see
■at home a new spirit rising aud spreading itself, and we hope that it may bear
its fnut before it he too late.

AVe ought to add, that the Conuuittcc of Arts and Monuments is pubhshing
manuals of the different bi-anc.hes of arclueology, drawn up by the first scliolars
in each branch, and intended more iiarticulaiiy for the use of its corresjion-
dents, to draw their atteufion to the dirt'crent points most necessary to be
observed, to fix a standard to guide them with certainty in their researches
and observations, and to give with accuracy and certainty that elcuienlary
knowledge which is necessary to enable them to work efficiently.

172

iin: ( ivir. I'.xciM'Fji anh aikiiftixts journal.

[May,

MKSSItS. F.VWCETT AND CO.'S ENGINE FACTOIiy, LIVEUl'OOL.

(From the Livcrjiool Siamlaril.)

TnK olijpcl of tlic cstal)lisliiii(-'nl is principally the ooiistnictioii of iiiaiine
and oilier steam engines, mill niacliinery, picecs of onlnance, aTul other heavy
articles of tlic fonnihy and the forge, which here jiass from their rndest state,
tlirongh tlie various reqni.sitc processes, until they are turned out hriglit and
perfect from the hands of the liiiishers. The magnitude of the works maybe
estimated from the facts, that the premises stand upon an area of many hun-
dreil yards : that thai space, nearly covered hy lofty huihiings, is fou)id in-
commodiously small ; and that the nundjci" of workmen emjjloycd in tlie
various departments eonsiderahly exceeds seven hundred. The writer of tins
was a f('W days ago politely permitted to view the works, and was furnished
with such information as the sliortness of his visit would allow, by one of the
partners, as well as hy an attetidaut. Me shall now notice the several dc-
liartments under their respective heads, and shall conclude with some parti-
culars of the fine marine engines now in a state of forwardness.

Foioidinf/ and Borinij of Cannoti.

On entering the yard the attention of the visitor is arrested by the great
nundicr of cannons of various sizes and calibres, fi'om swivels and half-
jionnders to thirty-two pounders, ranged on the ground, or jieeping, in car-
riages, with portentous .aspect, from door-ways, entrances, and corners. The
large guns are of various fashions, some being cast from the plain models
used in the I'rench navy, otliers from those of the Dutch, and others (the
handsomest to our thinking) of the umre decorative form approved in Eng-
land. In casting these guns (all solid), what is ealleii "ahead" is cast along
with them, at the mu/.zlc end, having the appearance of a plug or long toni-
j)ion. This is cut otf before the boring is commcuecd. At the brcceh, too,
an additional stpiare piece of the metal is cast on, by which the gun is turned
I)y machinery while it is being liored.the borer being stationary in the o])era-
tion. When outwardly cleaned and finished (with the cxcejition of drilling
the touch-liole ami fiving the lock), the gun is )daccd horizontally, and se-
cured so as to turn witliout vibratory nmtiou. Tlie machinery is then ap-
jdied, and the gun turns rather slowly, advancing with an even pressure upon
the large steel boring instrnnient, and continually discharging the metal which
it cuts out. The gun has to he bored two or three times, according to its
calibre, and when the operation is completed the bore is as bright and true
as that of a fowling piece. The touch-hole is afterwards drilled out with
great incety, as are the holes, in raised jiortions of the breech, for the fixing
of the flint lock, which has now in gunnery almost superceded the use of
the match. Several guns are bored daily and simultaneously, to meet the
demand at home and abroad, and a lar,r;e " assortment" is kept constantly on
hand to supiily those governments and individuals who are bent on " mis-
chief" or self-defence. Aniongst the pieces of ordnance now in preparation
or finished at the works arc : —

2I> thirty-two pounders, for a French house.
20 twenty-four pounders, another French order.
4 twelve pounders, for the same.

The Fonndry. — This jiart of the works diffeis from most other foundries
only in the immense weight of the eastings, which, from the size of the build-
ing, and the number of blast furnaces, cranes, &c., may be turned out. Single
jneces of twenty tons each might be accomplished, if rci|nired. The ojiera-
tion is interesting, but it is too generally known to require detail. The
article to be cast is moulded (in sand) from wood, and enclosed vvithin iron
frame-work, a hole being left for the entrance of the metal. The metal
(east-iron) is tin-own, in broken iiieccs, mixed with coaN, into a Large cylin-
drical furnace, the blast thrown into which, hy niacliinery, witli great force,
makes a roaniig noise, and soon brings the whole to a white beat. The
metal, as it melts, sinks to the bottom. When all this is ready, a ))erfoiatiou
is made vvitii the jioint of an iron rod, through a sort of doorway at the bot-
tom, which at that point is st0]iped up by fire cl.iv. The boiling metal iiii-
mediatcly rushes out in liquid white fire, and is received in jiots with three
long horizontal iron handles, two at one side, like those of a hand-barrow, and
one at the other. IJy these it is carried hy three or four men, according to
its weight ; and if the casting or castings he comparatively siiuill, the imlal
is poured at once from tliis into the moulds, the pot being turned by the men
holding the two handles. If, however, the easting be large, tlie smaller pots
full of liquid nict.-d are discharged into a cauldron of siillicient size, and this,
from its great weight, is hoisted by a crane and jilacerl over the casting,
where it is discharged, in a careful maniier, of its contents. The air, forced
out of the sand by the metal, frequently makes a loud explosion, (as we
witnessed,) and when the intense beat of the hissing iron perforates
the outer jiortious of the same, blue ami sulphureous looking fiame issues
from the sides in all directions. When the metal is sufiiciently cooled, the
frame-work is removed, and the castings taken out. Here may be cast any
article, from a lath nail to a steam-engine cylinder, weighing from leu to
fifteen Ions.

The Jl'orilnr/ Fni/inc nti Iho If'urln. — flu the east of the yard, on each side
of which are the p\teuRi\e buildings, is the larger engine, of thirty-siv horse
power, \^llich works tiic greater part of the iiiacbiiierv used in the dilVereiit
rooms, ill the several operations of turning, phiiiiiig, drilling and otlier\\isc
" torturing" the obdurate but conquerable metal lluit falls under the cruel
hands of the workmen. This engine is of the ohl-fashioned principle, with

an inimeuse wooden beam, secured with iron, and a large nv-whecl. It is,
however, most ell'eetivc, coniniuiiieated b\ cog-wheels and shafts \\ilh the
several rooms in which the jiower is a]qilicd to the lathes, iVc. hv drums and
shafts. There are also other engines, but of eon-iderahly less power.

The Sinilhi/. — This is one of the most extensive jiortions of the establish-
ment. It eomprises two large buildings thrown into one ; and a great num-
ber of workmen are constantly employed. There is an avenue of anvils, and
the constant hammering, the blowing of their fires, together with the dusky
visages of the athletic workmen, remind one of the description of the .abode
of the Cyclops. Here, however, "bolts" are "forged," of which ncitlur
"Jove" nor his armourer " Vulcan" could have conceived any notion. All
the iron-work for the steam engines is here made, with the exception of the
very heavy paddle-shafts, which are brought in the rough from the .Mersey
Forge.

7V/e rianhuj-machuw Room. — In this room are valuable and elaborately-
contrived machines for the planing or levelling of large plates, or other pieces
of iron or brass, so as to give them a smooth, true, and jiolished surface.
The article or jiiece to be planed is securely fixed by screw-bolts, &c., to an
horizontal iron table, )iei-forate(l with holes fur the insertion of the holts
from beneath it in any required point, to suit the size or form of the article.
This table, when jiut in motion, travels backwards and forwards, with its
load on two iron rails, or parallel slides. Over the centre is perpendicularly
fixed what is called the "planing tool," an instrument made of steel, some-
what in the form of a hook, with the jioint so inclined as to jiresent itself to-
wards the surface of the metal to he planed, as it approaches it on the t.abic, so
as, when all is adjusted, to idough or plane it in narrow streaks or shavings as
it passes under it. The extremity of the tool is about half an inch to three
quarters in breadth, and being of a round form at the under side, and ground
or bevelled on the upper, presents a sort of point. If a plate of iron is to be
planed, the operation commences on the outer edge, and each moveinent
backwards and forwards of the table places it in such a position under the
tool, that another small parallel cut is made throughout its whole length.
The tool, in ordinary machines of this kind, is fixed so that it cuts only in
one directiiin, as the plate is drawn against its edge or ]ioint, which is raised
to allow of the backward motion of the plale. -V new patent has, however,
been obtained for a great improvement in this respect by Mr. Whitworth, of
Manchester, and several of his machines are on Messrs. Fawcctt and Co.'s
premises. In these, by a peculiarly beautiful contrivance, the cutting instru-
ment, the moment the plate passes under it, " jumps " up a little in tlie box
or case to which it is attached, and instanl.ly "turns about" in the opposite
direction, and commences cutting awey, so that both backwards and forwards
the operation goes on without loss of time. The workmen very quaintly and
appropriately call this new planing tool " Jim Crow." A worknwn attends
to each of the macliines, and when the piece to be cut is fixed with great
exactness on the moving table, by a spirit level, he has nothing to do but to
watch that it remain so, and that the machinery work evenly and correctly.
Where a very smooth suiface is required, the ojieration of planing is repeated,
and two jdates thus finished will he so truly level, that they will adhere
together. It should he added, tluat so perfect are these machines, that in
aihlition to planing horizontally, they may be so adjusted as to plane perpen-
dicularly, or at any given angle.

The Tuniiiiff Rooms. — In several of the rooms both hammered and east iron
of all jiossible dimensions arc turned, with astonishing facility and correctness,
on what are called shde lathes. In one of these we saw the paddle-shafts
for the President under the operation. Each of these weighed, when they
came from the forge, about ten tons, and they will he but slightly reduced in
weight hy turning. In the same room large piston and other rods were being
turned. While the shaft or rod is revolved, the cutting instrument, fixed to
a slide, on \\liich it is slowh' and evenly carried .along, performs its operations
with wonderful precision, frequently cutting a large and continuous shaving
of thirty or forty feet in length (as nwy be,) a)iparcntly as if it were lead,
and which, curling up, forms a curious and jierfect worm or screw. From
the great pressure of the tool, one of the edges of this screw is frequently
split into regular teeth like those of a fine comb, but shorter. The tool,
\\lien it has gone from end to end of a shaft or rod, is, liy a simple adjust-
ment, made to tr.avel back again, and the operation is eontinued till the
whole is of the required diameter, and perfectly bright and polished. Ano-
ther interesting operation in this department is the turning and polishing of
circular pieces of niacliinery, whether dished or flat. The tops or lids of the
cylinders of large eugiucs are the jirincijial, and some idea may be formed of
the advancement of this art, by an inspeclion of the cylinder tops of the
President, which arc as bright as mirrors, and are 80 inches in di.tmeler !
W.ater coiistaiilly drop|iiiig on the cutting tool from a small pipe, is all the
" oil " used either in planing or turning.

The Fif/iii(/-iiji .Shojix. — There are several rooms in which the '■ fitters-np"
are employed. These finish the sniiillcr brass and iron-work of the engines,
and have turning-latlics, and .all inanner of luand-tools. In the liuilding of
an engine, they hold the same relation to the foundry and the forge, that
the clock and w.atch maker (properly "finisher") does to the cslahlishnient
that su|iplics him with his wheels and other works in the rough.

'I'he .Model or l'o//erii-Maier.i' Room. — These rooms arc extensive, and
many first-rate workmen arc ciii|doyeil, the greatest exact iiess liciiigiT(|iiired,
otherwise the castings would be unavailable. The timber used is alimist
wholly well-seasoned deal. Many of the patterns are complicated and beau-
tiful, a great deal of taste being displayed ju the mouldings and Other ilecora-

1840]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

173

t'ons, where sucli can Ije appropriately introduced. The models are all
finished and polished in the hest possible manner.

The Moild Jiooms.— These are a lofty part of one of the Ijuildings, and are
well worthy of a visit. In one of them we were fairly lost, amidst many
lumdrcds of bevelled, cog, and other mil! wheels, of all possiblE sizes, (few
alike) and piled up to tlie very roof. Many of these are, we learned, for the
purpose of supplying foreign orders. Here, too, are a variety of engiue-bed
plates, paddle-wheel centres, patterns for water and other wheels, &c. &c. all
made with matliematical accuracy.

In auotlier room were an immense nujubcr of models of great guns, as
adopted, in outward fashion, by the Englisb, the French, the Dutch, and
others. Tlie models of beams for marine engines, of all sizes, were here
piled ; also of Ionic fluted pillars for tlieir frames. The models from which
the beams, &c., of the Royal William, and many others, were cast, are
here ileposited, as are tliose of tlie larger engines in the yard below. The
collection of patterns of all descriptions is indeed great and excellent, and
must have cost an immense smn of money.

T/if Engines now in course of completion. — The following engines are now
in hand at the works, and the three largest nearly completed :

I pair of 540 liorse power for the " President."

1 do. 420 ditto the " United States."

1 do. 4.50 ditto a French man-of-war steam frigate.

1 do. 300 ditto It. M. S. " Medina."

1 do. 50 ditto the " Calcutta Steam-tng."*

1 do. 45 ditto a Government tender.f

1 single engine of GO-horse power, for Australia.

1 do. 50 ditto for a French house.

Tlie President's Engines. — These are the most remarkable for their size,
and are really a stupendous piece of workmanship. They are already fixed
up, and strike the visitor with astonishment. Tlie castings, and all the work-
manship arc of the first description, and the architectural design of the frame-
work, or pillars, is highly ornamental, without any sacrifice to the requisite
strength. As probably the most suitable to attain this desideratum, the
Gothic style has been adopted. The massy clustered pillars arc surmounted
by the pointed and moulded arch to correspond. The diagonal stays and
their open work are in keeping ; and such is the height aud imposing effect
of the whole, that visitors generally remarked that it strikingly reseudded a
handsome Gothic chapel. The beams are beautiful castings, as are the cylin-
ders, and both of immense size and weight. The polished iron aud brass
work is superb, and the whole furnishes a gratifying proof of at once the en-
terprise and the ingenuity of the men of England. The following are some
interesting statistics of this stupendous piece of machinciy ;

Diameter of cylinder 80 inches.

Stroke of engine 7 feet 6 inches.

Weight of cylinders 11 tons.

Valve-cases, from 6 to G^ tons.

Beams (4 in number), upwards of . . 5 tons each.

Condensers, about 10 tons.

Gothic pillars, four pairs, each 11 tons, 7 cwt.

Diagonal stays, 4 in number, each. ... 4 tons.

Main, or paddle shaft 9 tons.

Two eduction pipes, each 18 cwt.

Boilers, each 30 tons.

Bed-plates, (two,) each in one casting 15 tons.
The whole engines aud boilers, with the water, will weigh about 510 tons.
The hoisting-tackle used in setting up these engines is well worthy of no-
tice. On the principals, or lower beams of the roof, which are of extraordinaiy
strength, railways are fixed, upon which traversed scaffolds, railed round, and
each carrying a powerful winch. On these scaffolds are also railways, at
right angles with those on the beams, so that, by moving the scaffolds and
the winches, any spot in the building may be attained directly perpendicular
to the article to be hoisted, whicli, by other movements, can be lowered to
any given site.

The Engines of the " United State.t."- — These are precisely similar in con-
struction to those of the President, differing only in being a little smaller. No
detailed notice of them is therefore required. The cylinders are 734 inches
in diameter, and the power is the same as that of the Great Western, —
namely, 420. They are erected in the same shed, or building, containing
those of the President, and have been equally admired.

The " Medina's" Engines. — These are of 300-horse power, and though dif-
ferent in the style of the casting, are also got up in the best manner.

The whole three pairs of engines will be ready simultaneously for ship-
ment ; but, unluckily, the want of want of proper shears to hoist in the ma-
chinery and boilers, (there being but one pair at the Canning Dock, and a
crane at the Trafalgar,) one or other of the vessels will have to wait her
turn.

The pair of 45-horse power engines, for the Admiralty, are also in a for-
ward state ; as are most of the others before enumerated.

Such is a sketch of the works at Messrs. Fawcett and Co.'s estabUshment.
We do not remember to have enjoyed a greater treat than in \'isiting it, and
it was with considerable reluctance, that having other engagements, we could

* Now building in India,
t To run, it is said, between Dover and Calais.

not prolong our stay on the premises, and examine some other departments.
The whole is a world of mechanism within itself; and though it send forth
huge and deadly weapons of wai, it also produces maritime machinery calcu-
lated to extend civilisation, and to promote the amicable commercial inter-
course, and mutual wealth and happiness, of nations scarcely known to each
other but by name.

This firm have upwards of 700 workmen. The President will be the largest
steam-packet in the world. Messrs. Fawcett and Co. have been applied to
by the Bristol Steam Packet Company to make them engines of 600 horses'
power each, but their present engagements do not permit of their accepting
the order.

DESIGNS FOR LAYING OUT THE ROYAL BOTANIC GARDENS.
INNER CIRCLE, REGENT'S PARK.

The Council of the Royal Botanic Society being desirous of giving eveiy
opportunity of securing the most efficient assistance in laying out their Gar-
dens in the Inner Circle of the Regent's Park, announced some time ago their
intention of giving a premium of fifty guineas for the best design submitted
to them. During the last month the designs were exhibited for inspection in
the rooms of the Society, in Pall Mall, where they have been visited by many
persons connected with the Society, and by artists. It is probable that the
rooms will remain open for a few days longer, previous to the decision of the
Committee, until which time any of our readers would doubtless be able to
obtain access to them.

The instructions drawn up for the guidance of candidates in some degree,
limited them both as to the nature of the jilans, aud the kind of drawings
they were recommended to send in. The instructions directed that a large
portion of the ground should be devoted to a geographic arrangement of the
plants in twelve separate eompartmin's ; the gardens should be provided for
the special study of jdants, as regards medicine, agriculture, arts and manu-
factures, scientific arrangements, and experiments ; that proper conservatories
and buildings should be provided. The plans were restricted to a scale of
fifty feet to an inch, and it was stated that sections and detailed plans were
not required. The number of designs sent in is above twenty, from many
men of eminence and respectability, principally architects, but tlie exhibition
as a whole does not show that talent which might be expected.

1, is merely a plan of the grounds in their present state.

2, by H. P.', Spring Terrace, Wandsworth, is distinguished by two principal
features, a nascent yearning for some hot water apparatus which is in futuro,
and a parade of Owen Jones's AUiambra, the Alpha and Omega of the inven-
tor's arti^tical knowledge, from this be has sucked the inspiration of a couit
in the Jloorisli style, and of a flight of stejis decorated with azulejos. These
our readers know' are painted tiles, and unless he could resuscitate tlie Anda-
hisian artists, we fear that they would be little better than the antiquated
Dutch tiles, long since consigned to the chimney corner. The design, if it
may be so called, is to form an endless walk in tlie gardens, so that you would
never pass over the same path again.

3, by John Aitox, of Mr. Pearson's Nursery, Hampstead-road, is merely
a gardener's aiTangement of the plants.

4 and 5, by M.vrtin Joseph Stutely, Architect, Gower-street, Bedford-
square — 5, is' the ground plan, and 4 an isometrieal perspective view. This
ilesign is an adaiitation to the present state of the grounds, and consequently
meagre. The buildings, mostly Italian, are poor. One excellent feature is a
large conservatory on the north side, standing on a raised terrace, which
commands a vicw'over the Lake in the Park, and up the Vale towards llamp-
stead, bringing that fine scenery as it were into the Society's domain. A
large raised seat affords a view of Primrose Hill.

G, JoHM B.vixBRiDGE, flowcr gardcucr to Lord Wenlock, Escrick Park,
near Y'oik— a botanical arrangement ; the walks in a fantastic style; and an
imitation of the various mountains on the face of the globe.

7, Alfred Bartholomew, architect, Warwick House, Gray's Inn. There
is a want of effect in this design, but the arrangement suggested for the
plants is ingenious. The ground is divided by imaginary lines into gores,
each appropriated to the plants of some geographical region, and these gores
again subdivided bv concentric circles so as farther to distribute in each re-
gion the plants into the several classes of arts and manufactures, agriculture
and science. In the centre is an angular conservatory. The explanations
attached to the designs aflTords many useful remarks. Mr. Bartholoinew
suggests that the capitals of the columns of the conservatones might be
taken from botanical subjects, and made in clay or artificial stone. A canal
supplies water all round the garden. ,„ , ^ , , t-, ■ j ■

8 W BiLLiNTON, architect and civil engineer, Wakefield. This design is
mainly a geographical arrangement, without much attempt at pietoral effect ;
it seems doubtful also whether the grouping of the bmldings would be good.
The book of explanation shows an intimate acquaintance with practical horti-
culture, and contains many good suggestions, particulariy with regard to
maintaining an equable temperature in the large conservatory by double domes.

9 John Bi'RGES WvTsox, architect, 39, Manchester-street, Manchester-
square This design is illustrated in the margin by sketches of the buildings,
niany of which are pleasing, the plan however is not eftcctive except with
respect to a lake, apparently imitated from a former design of Mr. Henry
Laxton ;* from whom he seems to have derived other ideas. The reasons

' See a plan of the Royal Botanic Gardens, in the Journal, vol. 1, p. 359.

2 A

1/4

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[May,

^Ir. Wutsou giNes for the position of the couservatories is good, and the
ctlbrls of a cultivated artist arc visible in many parts, bulh of the plan and
cxplaMutinu, ivhich show the results of his experience at Chiswick, where he
was employed ; he has not however been so successful as on former occasions,
when he caiTieil oft' the lifty guinea prize for laying out the gardens at Man-
tlicster.

10, llKXRY Laxtox, F.L.S., and John Thomtson, landscape gardener,
late head gardener to the Duke of N'orthumherlaud. This plan is principally
Mr. Laxton's, but we shall dismiss it in a few words, to come to some of his
other designs. It is chiefly laid out as a large flower gardcji, and the com-
partments exhibit great ingenuity. The hook of reference shows great ac-
quaintance with the botanical part of the subject. The conservatory in the
centre is circular, with arms in the form of a Greek cross.

11, Henry Heathcote Russell, architect and civil engineer, Springfield
Lodge, Garrat, near Wandsworth. A design adapted willi nmch ingenuity to
the present state of tlie grounds — it has, however, the usual imperfection,
■want of effect. A conservatoiT is made to run all round tlie gardens, which
however is impracticable, on account of the state of tlic giounds.

12, Edwin £. Mkrhal, 'Ab, Park Lane, J^eeds. This seems to be by the
eminent Hollander, ■ who wrote a book of boetry as diclc as dat,' the crown-
ing idea is a central platform 200 feet diameter, 5 feet high, and surmounted
vith an iron railing.

13, Henry Laxton, F.L.S., architect and landscape gardener, Adelphi
Chamber?. Mr. i^axton who had a great hand in laying out the grounds at
the Beulah Spa, is the surveyor of the gardens to tlie Royal Botanic, part of
whose gruuncls he has Ini'l out. He has sent in four designs, all exhibiting
great at'ention to the sul i,=et. No. 13Mias a lake on the north side, before
■which is an extensive lawn, most essential to a metropolitan garden, where a
large concourse of people is likely to be occasionally collected. In the centre
of the gardens is a snacicuis domed conservatory, and on the south side is the
principal liuilding for the othcial department with a large Italian garden, sur-
rounded by raised terraces with extensive conservatories on each side. The
■nhole of the gardens is surrounded by an arboretum.

14 and 15, Charles J. Nicolav, architect. Elm Grove Cottage, uear
\\ inbornc, Dorset. The ground plan is accompanied Ijy sections sliowing
buildings in the classic, oriental, and Tudor styles. Tlie conservatories are
on a raised ])latfonn in the centre, and the scenery on tlie south front is
made attractive.

1 6, WvattPapworth, architect, 10, Carol ine-street, Bedford-square. There
is considerable variety of eftect and hreadth in tliis design. The ground is
formed into three divisions. The first devoted to the business part of the
establishment-is formed by Iniildingswith south aspects, screened at the base
by trees. The second whicli has rock work at one end and the museum, &c.
at the other, is an ornamental ganhni, and has to the south, the grand front,
a conservatorj', flanked by trees anil rock work. The third division as seen
from the back of the grand conservatory is a spacious lawn with a back
gi'ound of trees and shrubs.

17, Edward Lapidge, Derby-street, ParHament-street. This would be a
grand design for St. Petersburgh, but would not be so pleasing here as it is
an entire sacrifice of tlie beauties of nature to architectural effect. On a
raised platform in the centre is a hollow square of hiiUdings covering the
area of the Great Pyramid or of Lincoln's Inn Fields.

18, is a plan of Mr. Laxton's making the arrangement of the gardens at
present, immediately available on an economical scale, the leailing feature is
a promenade walk, through the centre 30 feet wiile ; the outer lioundaiy lias
a winding walk of about three cpiarters of a mile in length, judiciously laid
out for pu arboretum.

19, also by Mr. Laxton, is a design much resembling No. 13, but grander
in its ai'chitectural and horticultural aiTaugements, so as to produce one mass
of variegated eftect in the shape of Italian, Dutch and French gardens, ro-
saries, fountains, statues, casinos, conservatories, ten'aces, iScc.,— if sufticient
funds could be raised for carrying out the whole of the design at once, with-
out regai-d to the present form of the ground, we should prefer this design
to any other.

20, G. A. Cheffins, architect, Lees-street, Piccadilly, Manchester, is the
only one of the architectural competitors who is veri- much behind hand.
His design is very nearly akin to that of the Dutch gentleman who composed
Ho. 12. It must have puzzled Mr. Cheflins to produce any thing so bad.

21, R. H. Essex, 13, York-))uildings, New-road. Tliis is the climax of all
that is rich in the ludicrous. A map of the world is laid down as the gi'ound
■work, and a most farcical distribution of the necessary buildings is made. A
gardener's cottage in the centre is at the sign of the North Pole, the lecture
rooms are in the Atlantic ocean, (a witty gentleman, thought the Pacific
better), the Great Desert of Africa serves as a nursery, the meridian of Lon-
don is denoted by a sundial, and the capital cities of Europe by sundials.
Really, really, Mr. Essex, you must have intended to enliven this otherwise
dull exhibition.

LITERARY NOTICES.

ji system of Practical Arithmetic l)y Samuel Y'oung, is intended for the
use of the working classes, from wjiose pursuits the examples are derived.
This is certainly a more laudable eflfort than some of the nauseous affairs
■which are used in reUgious schools. The work seems carefully arranged.

On the Conttruction of the 4rk, as adapted to Steam Navisation to India,

is an effusion of a Mr. Radford. If our readers have any money to spare for
metaphysical experiments, we recommend them to buy this work as a good
exanijile of how far hallucination can proceed.

On llif supply of Water to Ike Metnipi)lis.—T\n& pamplilel gives a brief acccnint
of the extensive works that have U'en carried on liy the Water Companies
fur the hist five or six years, fur impiuving tlie supply of the Metropolis with
]niie water. The author very evidently is a stickler for the existing compa-
nies, and ably ndvocales their cause: but he his allowed his zeal to overstep
llie mark of prudence. We shall, next month, make some additional remarks.

WORKING EXPENSES OF RAILWAYS.

Abstract of the difterent items of the working expenses on several lines of
Railway now open : showing the ratio per cent, each item bears to the gross
Receipts, and the amount of each per mile, for the half-year ending De-
cember 31, 1839.

^ to

°3

H

^ *£> <xi i-^ n <n CO <n ^

■sjdraaaj ssoi3
no juaa iaj

ci ^» -x> (N -^ ^

6i ^ lii 6i CO o -iro

eO

ii

"^ a

.-■^coO'-bA Oi 6i <h ^ ^

*«0-i'Oi.-S'q' -^ t^ (Xi '^ ^

•S}dpD3J ssooS
uo -fasa jaj

o

O OJ

S ^
o P

h-3

. , i"-^ M do 00 -^ -^ O A< ift o

'+? 1-^ 'S" c; l': o o c-> C-- cc ^

•S}dl3D3J ssojS
uo -juao aaj

00

CO t,-^ O "i^ <f> ■?*

■Tji .-< PH r1 to r-t >~i

•sidiaasj ssojS
no -juso 4aj

■h -^ -^ c^ oo t^ ^ +--t-i)

CO

Gross

Expenccs.

^ a

i-^CiuOOOOirt Ot~*C^COffO

^ N -v ^

no •juao 13 J

'<r-^'MM4pi^«;^00'7^<^c|7<N

w t-^ CO cs o *i> *b 00 Tf 00 -^ -if

i

O

§

^London and Birmingham . ,

Grand Junction

Liverpool and Manchester . .

Leeds and Selby

Greenwich

Sheffield and Rotherham . ,
_ Glasgow and Garnkirk ....
"Great Western

South Western

York and North Midland . .

Birmingham and Derby ....

)

mSu9[ 3ioiiA\ -psuado
3i[; panodo All^I^-^^dl

a °

I-.3

Notes. — The London and Birmingham was chargeable with maintenance of
way on 73 miles for six months, and on 34^ more for 15 weeks = 97J for 6
months. The other items are upon 112^ miles.

The Grand Junction is chargeable with maintenance of way on 82 i miles
— and the mileage of that item is calculated on that distance — but as they
carry their traffic to Liverpool and Manchester, on the Liverpool and Mau-
chestar line, the other items are calculated on 82 i -i- 30 = 1 121 miles.

The Birmingham and Derby mauitain 38j miles of line; but as they carry
for 9 miles on the Loudon and Birmingham line, the other items must be
charged upon 4 7* miles. This line was only opened in August, but the
charges are calculated at the same rate for six months. — Correspondent vfthe
Railway Times,

1840.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

irs

Iron Canal Boats in America. — The success of this class of boats in
England, with the arrival of the Iron Steamboat at New Orleans from Pitts-
burg, (of a very light draught of water, carrying a great cargo,) has led to the
oinnion that iron canal boats, if used on the Erie canal, would double its
capacity, and supersede the necessity of the enlargement. We trust that
some of our enterprising forwarders will try the experiment. We arc not
fully acquainted with the cost of these kind of boats, but have been informed,
tiiat it w ill not exceed fifty per cent, on the cost of tlie best Lalte boats. In
I'enn ylvania, witli their mixed line of canals and railroads IVoni Philadeljihia
to Pittsburg, they now use ii'on boats, divided iulo three parts. The iron
boat is carried into Market-street, Philadelphia, on the return of the cars, at
the Schuylkill canal they are hooked together, forming a complete boat,
which afterwards passes the Allegany-ridge, by ten inclined planes, when
they again take the canal and river, to reach Pittsburg. With this compli-
cated system, they compete with us successfully for the early spring trade. —
American Railroad Journal,

Destruction of Wooden Bridges in America bv Ice. — The break-
ing up of the winter lias caused a recurrence of a specie of accident which is
far from being rare. M'e allude to the destruction of bridges by the com-
bined force of a swollen stream and immense masses of ice. The liability to
this lund of accident depends more upon the character of the stream nearer its
source than at the location of the bridge itself. A river of any considerable
size receiving the drainage of a large track of country, is of course apt to be
speedily swollen by a sudden and heavy fall of rain or rapid thaw, and as one
or the other of these circumstances are sure to accompany the breaking up
of the ice, such streams must present locations badly adapted to ordinary
wooden bridges. Shallow streams, from daming up the ice, are rather worse
than others in this respect, yet they are the most frequently crossed by these
insecure structures. Bridges of a more durable construction, if not built in
the most substantial manner, are likely to sutfer from the same cause, if the
water way has been too much diminished. The proper substitute in such
localities are sv^pension bridges of iron wire. These claim the preference of
all others, whether in regard to economy of first cost, or their superior
adaptation to the circumstances of the locality. Over a large portion of our
country the character of the streams is altogether more favourable to this
than any other species of structure. The example of the new bridge at Fair
Mount will, we hope, speedily be followed in many places. — American Rail-
road Journal.

tfEW INVENTIONS, IMPROVEMENTS, «5c.

Improved Mode of Making Bricks. — A correspondent of the /Ja/fa'oy
Times describes a simple method of making bricks adopted on the Great
Western Railway on Mr. James Bedborongh's contract at or near Marstou.
It is the invention of Mr. W. B. Pritchard, Esq., Civil Engineer of this Railway,
and late of the Chester and Crewe Railway, Ikt:., is as follows : — The clay,
only watered, is thrown into a common jnig mill (or mortar mill); there it is
ground in a similar manner to mortar; the bottom of the mill is divided into
four quarters, into which are grooves cut, and under which are placed four
moulds of the same kind as those in common use by hand-moulders. Two
boys are at the quarters taking the moulds out and placing others in ; and by a
peculiar knife at the bottoln of the mill, which presses the clay into the mould,
eight bricks are made every time the horse goes round, which is twice a mi-
nute ; and at that rate the horse can travel twenty miles iu twelve hours, thus
making 960 an hour, or 11,520 per day. The bricks made by this machine
are much heavier and sounder, and the clay much better tempered, than by
any other mode of manufacturing that I have ever witnessed ; and the saving
is 2s. 6d. per thousand, besides other advantages, &c.

Moses Poole, Liucoln's-imi, improvements in apparatus applicable to
steam-boilurs , in order to render them more safe, Marcli 11. — The first im-
provement consists in a mode of applying to the boiler, as a species of safety
valve, a metallic plate or disc, which shall burst when the steam in the boiler
attains a certain degree of pressure, and thus relieve the boiler, which plate
may afterwards be replaced with a fresh one, without stopping tlie working of
the engines. To an aperture in any convenient part of the boiler is fixed a
curved tube, terminating in an enlargement or cup, having a ledge riuiuing
round the bottom for the safety disc to rest ujion. Upon the disc is laid a
ring, the edge of which is chamfered off, so as not to cut the disc, and this
ring is secured down firmly by another ring, which is screwed into the upper
part of the cup. The outer bend of the pipe contains water, both above and
below the disc, in order to maintain it at the same temperature on each side.
On any convenient part of the bent pipe, is fitted a cock, by closing which,
the connection of the cup with the boiler is shut off, and another disc may
then be replaced without stopping the operation of the engines. The second
improvement consists in the application of a steam whistle, to give notice
when the surface of the water in the boiler is below a certain point. The
whistle is of the ordinary kind, and the aperture by which it communicates
with the boiler is closed by a stem, at the lower part of which is a float, com-
posedof cork, or some light wood, and covered with copper. When the water get s
00 low, the float .and stem descend with it, and the aperture being thus un-
t opped, the steam nishes out through the whistle, and gives notice of the
e ficiency .—/Hoen/oc's Advocate. [Many years since a plan was adopted
i having a disc or plate of copper or other metal attached to some part of

a boiler, which was made weaker than the boiler, so that if there should
be too great a pressure on the boiler, this disc would rend asunder and
permit the escape of the steam, and, in some cases, allow the water within
the boiler to flow on to tlic fire and extinguish it. With regard to the
second improvement— a steam whistle has been adopted some time past in
this country, and a plan very similar to the one described above, was
adoptedby Messrs. Maudslays and Field, for the engines, at the water works
at Brentford.— See Journal, vol. I., page 3/5. Ed. C. E. and A. Journal.]

Elect ro-magtietie Engines.— A new galvanic battery, called the mechanico-
diemical battery, has lately been invented by Mr. A Smee. of the Bank of
England. »hicli promises to supersede the other forms now in use. Its prin-
ciple is simple, as its power depends entirely upon finely divided platinum,
dcp.isiled by means of a simple galvanic arrangement upon any other metal
which IS unacleil upon by dilute sulphuric acid, the only fluid used. At pre-
sent he finds that silver or plated copper answers admirably for the reception
of the platinum, but iron, when platinized, has the same power for a time as
these metals, though the iron becomes gradually dissolved. He also fiiids-^
that with his battery porous tubes can, iu most cases, be dispensed with, and
that the battery can be advantageously made in any of the various forms
lutherto employed. Its effects are more powerful than those of the sulphate
of copper batteries, and in action it is less expensive. The practical appli-
cation of galvanic batteries, except as an instrument of research in the labo-
ratory of the student, is principally confined to the explosion of powder
underwater., or in other mining operations,, for which purposes it appears
useful, from its being small iu compass, and requiring scarce any manipu-
lation. Whether it may ever be used for locomotive purposes, still remains
doubtful, but who knows whether in future ages electro-magnetic engines
may not take the place of steam-engines. — Atlas.

Oil a simple mode of obtaining, from a common Argand Lamp, a greatli/ in-
creased quayititij of Light, by Sir J. F.Herschel.—The following simple, easy,
and unexpensive mode of greatly increasing the quantity of light yielded by
a common Argand burner, has been used by me lor some years, and'is adapted
to the lamp by which I n rite, to my greatlv-increased comfort. It consists
in merely elcvatin" the glass chimney so much above the usual level at which
it stands iu the burners in ordinary use, that its lower edge shall clear
the «/>;;< r edge of ihe circular wick by a space equal to about the fourth
part of the exterior diameter of the wick itself. This m.ay be done to any
lamp of the kind, at a cost of about sixpence, by merely ndapting to the
frame which supports the chimney four pretty stifl steel wires, but in such a
manner as to form four long up'right hooks, in which the lower end of the
chimney rests; or, still better, if the lamp be so originally constructed as to
•sustain the chimney at the required elevation w ithout much addition, by thin
laminee of brass oi iron, haiing their planes directed to the axi.s of the wick.
The proper elevation is best determined by trial ; and as the limits within
which it is confined are very narrow, it would be best secured by a screw-
motion applied to the socket on which the laminse above mentioned are fixed,
by which they and the cliimney may be elevated or depressed at pleasure,
without at the same lime raising or lowering the wick. Approximately
it may be done in an instant, and the experiment is not a little striking
and instructive. Take a common Argand lamp, and alternately rai.^e
and depress the chimney vertically from the level where it usually rests,
to about as^'ar above the wick, with a moderately quick but steady motion.
It wdl be immediately perceived that a vast dillerencc in the amount of li.p,ht
subsists in the difl'erer.t posit ons of the chimney, but that a very marked
and sudden maximum occurs at or near the elevation designated in the com-
mencement ; so marked, indeed, as almost to have the eflieet of a flash if the
motion be quick, or a sudden blaze as if the wick-screw had been raised a
turn. The flame contracts somewliat in diameter, lengthens, ceases to give
ott Smoke, and attains a dazzling intensity. With this great increase of
light, there is certainly not a corresponding increased consumption of oil : at
least the servant who trims my lamp reports that a lamp so fitted consumes
very little, if any, more oil than one exactly similar on the common plan. —
Phil. Mag-
Steam Boilers.— At the last sitting of the Society for the Encouragement of
National Industry, and on the report of M. Se^guier the younger, a gold
medal was decreed to Ihe elder M. Chaussenot, for an apparatus to render
the explosion of steam-boilers impossible. According to ihe report, his in-
vention is perfect, both as regards its improvemenis or the safety-valve, and
an ingenious contrivance to give notice to the crew and passengers of im-
pending danger. Even the contingency of wilful mischief is provided against ;
as in the event of all the warnings of bis machinery failing, or being disre-
garded, the steam flows back upon the furnace, extinguishes the fire, and
destroys all possibility of an explosion.

Turning Lathes.— At an ordinary meeting of the .Society of Arts, the
large silver medal was awarded to Mr. J. Hick, jun., of Bolton, for
an improved expanding mandrel for turning-lathes, ft is necessary that
a mandrel should fit so accurately, as to bite un the inner surface with a
force iuffijient to counteract that of the tool, and, in the ordinary mode, the
same ma idrel cannot be used for tw o pietes w hich are of difi'erent diameters.
Consequentlv, in many engineering establishments, a stock of mandrels is
kept, amounting to 650 or 700. Mr. Hick piu-poscs to do the same work
with eight sizes of the mandril, from one inch and a quarter to ten inches.
He efl'ects bis object by having the spindle of the mandril shaped on the
frustrura of a cone, on the face of which are four dove-tail grooves to receive
wedges, the under faces of which have the reverse inclination ot the cone, so
that the lines of their outside laces are always parallel with the a.xis of the
mandrel. A nut is screwed on the spindle, which acts on the w edges througli
Ihe medium of a conical cup, which drives them up to their bearings inside
of the work.

The Retarder.—VuW trial has now been made of this valuable invention of
R. W. Jcarrad, Jun„ Esq., for retarding (not locking) Ihe w heels of carriage
when going down hill. Mr. Dangcrfield. coach proprietor, having had it

2 A 2

I7fi

THE CIVIL ENGlNEEll AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[May,

Hiiplictl first to one of his Smilliamplon coaches, and aitcrvcanls to the
ShrcHshiiry coach, anil in hoth cases with the greatest .success. The j.rin-
ciple of the invention is pressure so applierl to the nave of the wheel as tu
retard i Is motion, or at the will of the coachman stop it altogelhcr. The
advaiita^'es ol the invention are, that the power may be applied at the dis-
cretion of the coachman, so that he mi^lit take his coach down a steep liill,
V ilhout allowing his horses to be pressed upon .It all. This invention reflecls
p-eat credit upon ^Ir. .learrad, and we hope it will he extensively applied to
imr four wheeled carriages, for it will contribute materially to the safely of
the public. — Cheltenham Jotiritdf.

Piirrelfihi Letters. — A patent has lately been taken out for an invention to
supersede the ordinary wooden letters usvially fixed upon the facia of shop-
windows. The new letters arc made of porcelain, of every fonn and hue,
and when fixed up, present a beautiful and atlraclivc appearance. The fa-
cility of cleansing them is not the li ast of their qualiriealions ; for with a
sponge Ihey are immediately brought to their pristine beauty and elegance.
It is staleil'lliat they will not exceed the old wooden letters in price. .Some
of the patterns are very elegant, particularly the golilen ones, and, being
glazed, present a dazzling and animated appearance. They are luit quite
really for public use, but it is expected they will soon arrive from the manu-
laclory in .Stalfordshire.

A'l H' Fuel. — The Rev. Mr. C'obbold lias invented a fuel composed of peat
and tie eommr.n refuse of gas tar, which hums with a bright flame, little or
no smoke, and gives out an intense heat. It has no smell whatever, and has
been tried in a grate, in comparison with coal. According to this experi-
iTH'iit. which was made by a chemist, but without weighing the fuel, two
i|uarls of water were evaporled in 3-J minutes, leaving a good fire after-
w.irds ; while with Newcastle coal it took ol minutes, leaving a low, burnt-
out fire. Mr. C'obbold says he can render this fuel at 7s. per ton. — RaUwntj
MaiTttzhie.

.1 Xeie am! Effeeliial Method to Kyntiise Timber .—'WW^nn the last two or
three weeks the Mancliester and Birmingham Railway Company have com-
menced Kyanising their wood sleepers in a much more quick and eflectual
< manner than by the old mode of simply dcpo iling the timber immersed in
the prepared liquid. The company liave had made a large iron cylindrical
vessel, weighing about ten tons, .and w hich is about thirty feet long, and six
or seven feet diameter, made from wrought-irun plates, five-eighihs tliick,
and ikuble rivetted, which vessel is capaUe of resisting a pressure of 250 lbs.
on the inch. 'Jhe vessel being filled as compactly as po.-isible with wood
sleepers, twelve inches broad and seven inches thick, Ihe liquid is then forced
in w illi one of Brainah's hydraulic pumps, and w nrked by six men to a jiressure
of 170 lbs. on the inch. B'y this means the timber is completely saturated
througliout in about ten hours, which operation, on the old system, took
some months to eifect.

E.rtranrdhiari/ Maimer of Mamjaeturin^ Cloth.— k gentleman, residing at
piesent in London, has just obtained, we are told, a patent for making the
finest cloth lor genllemen's coats, &c., without spinning, weaving, or indeed
without the aid of any machinery similar to those processes, and at a cost
less than one-fourth the present price. The most extraordinary circumstance
in this contrivance is, that air is the only power used in the manufacture of
llie article. The ingenious inventor places in an air-tight chaml«r a quantity
of flocculent particles of wool, whicli by means of a species of ninnowing-
H heel are kept floating equally throughout Ihe atmosphere coutair\,ed therein ;
(m one side of the chamber is" a net work of metal of the finest manufacture,
which communicates with a chamber from which the air can be abstracted by
means of an exhausting syringe. comm(mly called an air pump, and on the
commLinicalion between the chambers being opened the air rushes with ex-
treme vehemence to supply the partial vacuum in the exhausted chamber,
carrying the wholly I'occula against the netting, and so interlacing the fibres,
that a tdoth of a beautiful fabric and c'ose texture is instantaneously made.
Several of the specimens of thi.i cloth that h.ive been shown to scientific gen-
tlemen and manufac'-urers have excited great admiration. This cloth is a
species of felt, but instead of adopting the old laborious method, the above,
which is denominated Ihe pr.esmatie process, is used, and produces the result
;is it were by magic. — Observer.

ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF LIME KILN.S.

EV Sm f. G. STf.^RT MENTEATU, tlARt.

Havino been engaged in burning lime for the supply of an exten.-ivc dis-
trict of country for agricultural improvrments, and being distant from coal
IH miles, it was desirable to find out the. best construclcd kiln lor l/urning
lime with the smallest quantity of coal, and having been aware from experi-
ment that the kilns generally employed in l.'rcat Britain lor burning lime are
of a construction too narrow at bottom, and too wide at lop. many kilns of
this construction being not more than three or four feel » ide at bo'ti m, and
18 feet v.'iile at the height of 21 feet, were found to waste ihe fuel during the
process of calcining the lime, or in other words, tlid not pioduce more than
two measures of burnt lime f hells for one measure of coal ; but it is to I.e
understood, that in whatever construction of kiln lime is burnt, ihe fuel
required to I urn limestone must vary according to Ihe softness, (.r hardness,
or density of the slone, and the quality or strength of the coal used. The
same measure of coal in .Scotland called chews, when employed, will burn
A greater quantity of lime in a given lime llian the same ijuanlity or weijiht
of small coal, the chews or small pieces (if coal admitling the air to circulate
more freely through the kiln. Though this fact should be well known to
limc-burncrs. yet ihey frequently cmpl(jy sm.all coal in burning lime, from its
being procured at a less price, llioneh really a.t a gi'calcr exper.ce, as it re-
quires a mueli larger quantity to produce Ihe same cllecl. anil a longer time
to admit of eL|ual (iuantiiies of lime being drawn out of the same kiln in a
given time.

For a sale of lime for agricultural purposes in a limited district, i have
found kilns of small dimensions to he most profitable; the construction of a
kiln 1 have employed for many years was of an oval shajje, five feel wiile at
boltom, widening gradually to six feet at the height of IRfeet, and continu-
ing at that width to 28 feet high from the bottom. A kiln of this construc-
tion has been found to burn lime in much less time, and with a smaller pro-
portion of fuel, than kilns of large dimensions, narrow at bottom and wide
at top, .as heat is well known to ascend more rapidly in a perpendicular than
in a sloiiing direction, from which arises the superiority of a narrow kiln,
with si<les nearly perpendicular, compared with one with sides that slope
rapidly.

Those narrow kilns will admit of being drawn out of them every day. if
fully employed, more than two-thirds or nearly three-fourths of wliat they
contain, of well burnt lime, and all'onl fully three of lime-shells fnr unc
measure of coal, when large circular kilns will not give out more than one
half of their eontenis every day. and require nearly one of coal for every two
measures of lime burnt. In a country sale of lime, the quantity sold every
d.ay is liable to great lluctualions : two u\ three cart loads will sometimes
only be rei^uired from an eslablishmeut which, the day before, supplied
forty ; .and as lime is known to be a commodity, when exposed to the aclion
of air, which becomes more bulky and heavy, and in that state dues nol ad-
mit of being carried to a distance without additional labour, it has been an
olijcct of importance with me to find out a construction of a kiln which will
allow of lime being kept for several (bays without slacking, and at the same
lime to prevent the fire escaping at the lop of the kiln, if the kiln stands 24
hours H ithout being employed, especi.'iUy ciurirg the .autumn and winter when
the air is cold and the nights long. I now employ kilns of an egg shape, and
.also oval ; the oval-shaped kilns are divided by arches across the kiln, des-
cending four feet from the top : the object of the arches across the kiln is to
prevent the sides of the kiln falling ill or contracting, and .also to enable you
to form circular openings for feeding in the stone and coal at the moulh of
the kiln ; upon this plan, a kiln of any length miglit be constructed willi
numerous round mouths. From the great expense attending the driving of
fuel from a distance of 25 miles from my own coal-pits, I have iulopted the
practice of cokeing the coal, which is a saving of two-fifths of the weight,
and I find that an equ.al measure of coal and ciike have the same (juautity of
heat in burning lime, which is somewhat paradoxical, but not the less true.
Tlie coal is found to have little cllect upon the stone till it is deprived of its
bitumen, or is coked in Ihe kiln ; for, during the time the smoke is emitted
from Ihe top of a lime kiln, little or no heat is evolved ; or, in other words,
does not the smoke carry olf the heat, which is not given out from the smoke
till if is inllamed, which does not take place in Ihe ordinary lime ki'ns ? A
kiln in which coke is the fuel employed will yield nearly a third more lime
shells in a given time than when coal is the fuel, so that coke may be used
occasionally when a greater quantity of lime is required in a certain tunc
than usual, as it is well known to lime burners that the process of burning is
done most economically w lien tj)e kiln is in full action, .so as almost constantly
to have a column of fire from the bottom to the top of the kiln, with as short
intervals as possible in working the kiln.

Having found that limestone is apt to be vitrified durin.g the process of
enVination during stormy weather, from the increased circulation of air
through the kiln, whicli adds much to the heat derived from the fuel cm-
ployed, and w hich experienced lime-burners would have diminished could
they be aware at all times oi an occurrence of this kind : from having expe-
rience of the bad ellecls of too great a circulation without properly provi ling
against it, 1 have reason to believe that by having a power to ihiow in at
pleasure an additional quantity of air into the bottom of a lime kiln, a con-
sideraWe saving of fuel necessary for the ca'cination ol lime would lake
))Iace, and another object Would be gained, that of cooling Ihe limestone in
the bottom of the kiln, which frcqueiuly retards the drawing out of the burnt
limestone for some hours, or until the 1 mestonc is so cold as not to burn the
wooden structure of carls.

In working a kiln w illi narrow circular mouths, th:' slonc and coal should
be earefu ly measured, so that ihe workmen can proporlion the fuel employed
to Ihe qua-nlity of stones, and it is obvious, that the quantity of coal to he
used must depend upon its relative quality, .and the hardness of the stone to
le burnt. If this measure was adopicd in kilns of any construction, the lime
shells would be found bolter burnt. — Ttie TJubl'm ,'ldfertiser.

STEAM NAVIGATION.

The Presidtnl Steam Ship.— 'I'hh vessel, tlie largest ever yet built, arrive,!
here a few days ago under Ihe command of Captain Kean, and is now lying
in Sloyne. .'^he is an exceedingly beautiful moilel ; built of the best material
that England and England's wealth can sujiply, and is in every respect a
nob^e vessel, ."^he is now, (her engines not being yet on board,) what is in
nautical term, called '■ light" ; and loomes very large. Her proportions are,
however, such but for the comparative size oT the Queen's mail ships near
lier. she is so compact lluil she does not appear at even a short distance to
be larger than the " Ijiverpool." A nearer approach, however, undeceives
the beholder, and a visit on hoard, realizes to 'Hn fullest extent Ihe concep-
tion of" a wooden world."

She is painted in man-of-war style, with gun ports, and is liandsomely
rigged as a three-masted schooner, with a foremast, forctopmast, and topgal-
lanlmast, approximating to those of a ship. Her how is fine, and at the ex-
trimily of her hcadrails will be placed, when completed as a figure-head, a
liust of ^Vashinglon, the hero of American independence. Her stern is pro-
jective, beautiiully formed to turn ofi' a heavy sea ; ornamented aloft w ith the
arms of England and America, quaitered iu heraldic shield, supported by

1840.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

177

" the Lion of Eiiglaml," and " Kagic of America." Tlic padille Iwxes are
comparatively very slightly raised above Iter bulnarks ; anil her general ap-
pearance is, when her side is viewed, that of a first class frigate of extraordi-
nary size, her light rigging given her at the same time a most rakish and
mischievous appearance.

The following arc the dimensions : —

Feet. In.

Ijenglh over all. from taffrail to figure-head 273 0

lieam wiihin the paddle-boxes 41 0

Breadth fVom oilsiile of paddle boxes 72 4

Depth of hold 30 0

Height between the main and spar deck 8 C

lleight between loMrr and main deck fbolh Ikish) 7 8

Tonnage supposed 2500.

Those who are versed in maritime aH'airs will readily conceive from these
dimensions that we are warranted in slating 'ihnt the President, is in reality,
•' a wooden world.'' She is indeed, more — slie is a world not only of wood,
but of iron, copper, and other materials, constituting the ne plus ullrn of
strength in naval .indiiteeture.

The President was laiilt at Limehouse. London, by Messrs. Curling and
Carter, the latter gentleman superintending her construction throughout.
Ketween decks and in her holds slip presents a perfect [licture of strength ;
and we cannot more highly compliment our metropolitan friends and
contemporaries in Transjanlic Steam Navigation, than by stating that
they seem in materials, in fastenings, and in putling together, to have taken
a leaf out of the i-ook of our townsmen Messrs. ^\'ilson and Co., whose vessels
both in point of strength and sailing have hitherto borne the bell.

K\ery available modern improvement has been taken advantage of in the
constru'clion of the President, lo addition to a remarkably strong frame,
solid to the bilge, she is diagonally fastened fore and aft with iron and wood,
in a m.-uiner that would seem to defy the rudest assaults of the ocean wave.
We have not lime to enler into details. Suffice it to say, that the materials
of the Presiileiit ihroughout arc of the best quality, and that the utmost
science, in a scientific age, has been exerted to work them to the best advan-
tage.

The engines for this vessel will be of about ( 00 horse power. They are
already built by our townsmen JJessrs. Fa« cett and Co., and present a splendid
specimen of the ingenuity ami enterprise of the age.

Tbe /Vi-.svV/r/K' will present peculiar advantages for passengers. Her spar-
deck will allord a long and delightful promenade in fine weather, and during
rain or storms a dry and sheltered walk may be enjoyed below.

The cabins are not yet fitted up. The principal or stern saloon will be
eighty-seven feet in length ; its breadth (including the small state rooms on
each side) forty -one leel.

No expense has been spared to 'render the President a crack ship. In
strength of materials and hdelily of workmanship, she is ftdly equal to any
of her Majesty's ships of war ; and is fitted up « ilh all the modern improve-
ments in pumps, tanks, &c. She is also divided into sections, so that the
springing of a leak (should such take place) would be attended with com-
paratively tritiing danger. It is calculated that the Presiileiit will carry 1.000
tims of gi'Ods beyond her compliment of coals, luggage, and materials for a
trans- Atlantic \oyage. Her steering tackle is of novel and improved con-
struction ; and such w'as required ; for, from her length and size,, she may be
deemed a floating island.

The agents of the President at this port, are Mr. Pim, of the St. George's
Steam-packet Company, and Mr. Maegregor Laird, brother of Mr. Laird, of
Nortli Birkenhead, the celebrated builder of Iron ships. — Liverpool Courier.

Tlie Sons of the Tlmmcs.— This vessel which we nolicel in the last January
number is now fairly belbrc the public, and fully sustains the speed wc then
announced ; she cclijises all the Gravesend steamers.

Steom-Pacie/s to the Wrsf Indies. — The directors of the Royal Mail Steam-
Packet Company have, with laudable promptitude, contracted for the building
and machinery for the requisite number of steamers. Three are to be of
12o0 tons burden, and arc in regard to the form and the cabins, of a superior
construction. They will be ready for sea in the autumn of next year, when
our splendid colonics in the West Indies will be brought practically as near
to us as were, not long ago, many parts of the United Kingdom to tlie me-
tropolis. It would be ditficult to exaggerate the beneficial eti'ects which may
flow from this change, but we shall not dilate on the subject at present.
Many of our readers ai-e aware that some controversy has arisen about the
route that ought to be adopted with a view to the convenience of all the in-
terests concerned, and it is doubtless a question which deserves full conside-
ration. We understand the Government has the power of altering the course
of the packets as circnmstanccs may render expedient. — Colonial Gazelle.

Steam Mail Paciets. — Government having orilered a weekly mail to be
conveyed by steam from Hull to Christiansaud and Goltenburgli, a contract
for the transit has lieen taken by Messrs. AVilsoii, Hudson, and Co., of this
port, and by whom two competent steam-vessels, of the Ih-st class, will be
immediately placed on the station. The service is to commence on the 2d of
next month. The passage which will be imperatively undertaken at specific
hours, to and from the Eastern ports, will afford a safe and certain convey-
ance, and thereby give an additional impetus to commercial enterprise. — Hull
Times.

Britisii Queen. — This noble vessel arri\ed at Portsmouth, fin Thursday
morning, ISth ult., in 14 days from New York.

The ^' Lee^^ Iron Steam Barge has been fitted with Halls patent reefing
paddles, and at the beginning of last month made several trips on the Thames,
ofl Greenwitli, to sliow the action of reeling the paddles, both when the barge

was laden and unladen. The action is very simple, in outward appearance
the paddle wdicel being similar to the common one. — although upon inspection
it will be found very dilTerent. On the shaft of the wheel is a large iron disc
about 2 ft. Gin. radius, composed of two plates of metal; the iviside face of
one of them, contains a spiral groove, in which plugs are accurately fitted,
and fixed to the inner end of sliding arms of iron, fiiese arms are attached at
the other or outer end to the float boards, when it is necessary to contract
the size of the wheel; the disc is turned round by the aid of a winch, and as
it turns round, the plugs fitted to the spiral are gradually drawn up, as the
radius of the spiral groove gets smaller; and when it is requisite to enlarge
the diameter, the disc is turned in the opposite direction, by this means the
plugs attached to the movealjle iron arm are graflually drawn into the spiral
groove of a larger radius and fores out the float boards. By this simple con-
trivance, the wheels of the " Lee" can be contracted from a large diameter to
a small diameter. For such a vessel as the "Lee"' it is highly valuable, as she
is to be engaged by the spirited pioprietiu', Mr. Lee, the extensive lime bur-
ner and brick maker, to convey lime from his works up the Medway to
Limlon, and occasionally to be employed as a tow boat for bringing up the
other vessels when the wind sets directly against them, sometimes this is his
case for several days, and we have known instances of London being almost
without a yard of lime. We have no doubt this spirited cflbrtef Mr. Lee will
cause several iron barges to appear on the Thames before many months have
passed over. Tlie ''Lee" is an iron vessel built by Messrs. Ditchbuni and
Slair, and furnished with two oscillating engines by Messrs. Penn and Son of
Greenwich: — the various experiments proved very satisfactory.

ENGINESRING "WORKS.

■WESTMINSTER BRIDGE.

In a former number (23), we described briefly the construction of this in-
teresting bridge, and the works that had been carried on for many years by
the late Mr. Telford for protecting its foundations, rendered iuseciu-e by the re-
moval of old London bridge. We also explained the extent of improvements
contemplated by the commissioners, »nd the manner in which they were
being executed "by Mr. Cuhitt, contractor, under the direction of Messrs.
Walker and Biirges.

We have now the gratification of recording the rapid progress of the works,
and of congratiflating the public on the immense advantages they are likely
to derive from the enlightened views of the Commissioners, who in addition
to the extensive improvements referred to, have decided on widening the road-
way 12 feet, thus making it e(iual in width to London bridge. The two piers
that were inclosed in the dam have been extended for that purpose, and five
courses of the soflit of the arch on each side already completed. The ditticully
of executing this work can be appreciated only by those who are acquainted
with the construction of the foundations on caissons, and a description of the
method adopted must be interesting.

By referring to the plan and section in the number afliided to, it will be
seen that the intention then was to carry the sheet piling completely round
the pier, at a short distance from the caisson to prevent the condensed ground
disturbing the framework, afterwards to fill ni) this space and the openings
in the grating with brick, anil thus form a solid bed for the Koche Portland
pavement. "This was done as far as the angles of the south cutwater — the
part of the caisson at tbat-extremity was then partially removed, and bearing
piles of beech, 10 feet long by 9 inches diameter, driven 3 feet apart over
the space on which the extended pier ami cutw.ater were to he erected, and
the sheet piling continued round ; on the bearing piles were spiked double
sills of nieiuel tir crossing over the pUes, and of scanthngs to bond with the
caisson, and form a grating the same height, the openings were filled up with
brick, and G in. York landings, upon which a course of Koche Portland stone
was laid, extending over the whole space, and bevelled off towards the sheet
piling, uniform with the pavement surroimdingthe pier. The Portland stone
on each side of the pier was cut out to a deptli of 1 ft. Ij in. and 2 feet 6 in.,
and courses of Bromley fall stone inserted, and carried round on the new
foundations; thus the .appearance of the piers and soflit of the arch, as high
as the toj) of the fifth course from the springing, is the same as if built at one
period. The north cutwaters restored h\" the late Mr. Telford were not
distm-hed.

The sluices of the dam were opened on the 13th nlf. at high water, the
dam having remained cpiite dry and secure from the time it was closed.

The work both for execution and quahty of material cannot be sufticientiy
admired, and the piers will resist for centuries the attacks of the elements
they have to contend with.

The dam round the next two piers is now partly forincd, and when the
water has been excluded, we promise our readers an account of the sunken
pier that excited the greatest interest about 100 years ago.

IVyrleij and Biiininghaiii Canals. — About twelve months ago an arrange-
ment was made for consolidating the Wyrley and Essington Canal Company
with the Birmingham Canal Company, and we observe that on the 14th
ultimo the Act of Parliament for carrying that arrangement into efi'ect re-
ceived the royal assent. This union will not only he of great advantage to
the proprietor's, hut also to the public, as the united company are going to lay
out upwards of £120,000. in making two new lines of canal lo connect the
Wyrley and Essington canal with the lower level of the Biimingham canal,
y one of which the mines in the ueighbomrhood of Wedneslield and WiUen-
all will be brought into the market; and by the other the lower part of the

178

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[May,

e;

town of Birmingham may be supplied witli coal from the extensive and
valuable mines at Bronnhills and Cannock Chase. — Wolverhampton
( 7n'onfcit'.

(iloncrstcr mirl Hereford Canal. — Abuut five luindrpd men rno now employed
in the cunliniiatioii of llu* c;inal from !jedi)iiry to llcrcfnrd. Nearly tlic
« hole of the first seven miles is in progress ; the works at present are confined
to this portion, because the siip]ily "f water will ho obtained liy il, not only
f(ir the new part. l->nt also f(ir the si\i|.en miles from Ledbury to Gloucester':
i( is therefore anticipated that tliis additional supply will cause a ecnisidirable
increase of revenue The most important works at present underhand are
the eml)anknicnl across the Leadon Valley, at Prior's Court and tlie deep
cutting at Ashberton. The weather has lately been verv favourable for the
work, and tlie jrreat pro^;ress already niaile has surprised many persons: part
of the line is f|uilc linished. and liglit boats constructed so as to be easily
moved fnuu place to place, are n(nv being used on the finished portion, for the
^urpose of shifting soil and materials. Patent bricks for facing the locks are
leing made at Ledbury. The bricks are very superior to any before seen in
this country. They are moulded in the usua'l way. and when in a particular
slate of dryness they are forced by a heavy weight ir.to the metal mould,
which opcraticin not, nidy bruigs 'the brick' into a p rfectly true and square
shape, witli a fine smooth surface, hut also condenses the clay, thereby making
the brick stronger and more diuable. — Hrrefurri Times.

Nelson Memoriai.. — On the |2d ull.. the following tenders were pre-
sented and opened by the Nelson Testimonial Connnittee, held at the National
Gallery, for the erection of Mr. Railton's colnnniin Trafalgar-square; Messrs.
Grissell and Peto, the builders, being the successful candidates.

Messrs. Grissell and I'eto XI 7,860

Messrs. Baker and Son --.--..- 17,940

Mr. Jackson 18,200

Mr. Cninily 19,700

Mr. Hicks' 20.500

Tdessrs. Malcott and Son 27,009

Skew Bridge. — Workmen arc now actively engaged in the erection of one
of the most, perhaps the most c.vtraordinary iron viaducts connected with any
raUway, either finished or in the co\nse of completion, in Great Britain. The
viaduct in question will cross Fairfield-street, better known, jierbaps, as Travis-
street, Manchester, or the Manchester and Birmingham line of railway. The
great mass of substantial masonry against which the six ribs that compose the
arch are intended to abut, is surprising to behold; petha))S anything more
substantial, or work better executed, cannot be exhibited in the kingdom. The
weight of the iron consumed in this viaduct is .540 tons, and is comprised of
six ribs, each 12H feet sjian. The viaduct is also very remarkable for its acute
angle, such angle being 215 degrees; the width of the street being only 10
yards, or 48 feet. The only erection at all aiqiroacbing to this in tlie acnte-
ness of its angle is one on the London ami Binningham line, » Inch is 28 deg.
So very correct have the masomy and iron works been executed to the plan
and si)ceificalioii, that on fitting the last segment of the first rib it was found
impossible to introduce a sixpence between the joints — /'. e. before the screws
(hat connect the two adjoining segments were tightened. In attempting,
however, to fix the last segment in the first rib, before referred to, at noon
on the previous day, it was found to be fully three-eights of an inch too long,
caused, as it was afterwards proved, by expansion, arising from the heat of
the sun — for on the following morinng, early, and before the sun's rays could
have any decided effect on the iron, it was foiunl to fit its destined place with
the utmost possible precision. — Liver/mol Chronicle.

FROaRESS OF RAII.'WAYS.

LONDON AND BLACKWALL RAILM'AY.

TIn the first volume of the ./owrwn/, ]i;ige 109, are some comments by an
" Old Knginccr," felative to the proposed working of the above railway — we
tiow have an opportunity of giving the particulars as to how it is intended to
work the line, which we select from the report of the engineers, Mr. George
Stephenson and Mr. Bidder, read at the last half yearly meeting of the Pro-
prietors of the Company.]

" In consequence of inquiries, which from time to time are made, we feel
that some explanation is desirable respecting the mode to be adopted in
ii'orl;iiig the railway, and we. therefore, trust, that a few <d)Servalions to ren-
der tills clear will not be out of place on the present occasion.

" It is. we presume, generally known, that you intend to eslablisli several
intermediate stations between London and Blackwlill, although, by the direct
course of the railway, the dislanec is little more than tiu'ee miles and a half.
This accommodation could not be aflorded on so .short a line if worked by
locomotive engines, without either doing away with the velocity usually at-
tained on railways, or by having recourse to more lines of rails, which would,
of necessity, involve an increase of locomotive power, and add largely both
to the permanent and current cx|.enditure. By means. Iiow ever, of stationary
engines, the desirable object of working intermediate .stations for the con-
venience of pa.sseugers is easily secured.

" The plan adopted to accomplish this, is as follows : — Assuming that be-
tween London :md Black wall I here .ire three stations. A, B, and C respectively,
then tlie trains starling from London, and drawn by the locomotive engine's,
would consist of at least four carriages ; the carriages might be more nume-
rous for every station, but, for the sake of perspicuity in the explanation, we
will assume for each one carriage only.

" The fgreraost carriage nill Le that destined to go all the way to Blacks

„.a)l_(liP second, that to station C— the third, that to station B— and the
fourth, that to s'aliou A. In the transit to Ulack«all, station A is first
reached, but previous to arriving at it. the last or fourth carriage is detached
from the tr.iin, and is stopped (i|iposite that station, whilst the rest of the
tram is still progressing. The third carriage is detached and stopped in like
manner at station B. and so on till the carriage for Rlackwall has arrivcil at
its ultimate destination. The engines then cease working, and the rope which
has been drawn from London, .oid is to be the means of rccmiveying the
C:irriages back, is in a state of rest. M'hile remaining so, the carriages at
their respective stations :ue loaded and attached for their return, so that in
due time when the rope is .set in motion by the London engines, all the car-
riages are started simultaneously. The carriage which was last in the train
towards Blackwall, thus becomes the first, and is attached to the rope a mile
or two nearer London than the most remote carriage ; and as they are iiU
attached to the same rope, they obviously travel at the same speed, though
at .such a distance apart. It then follows that the carriage from station A,
arrives first in London and occupies the furthest portion of the depot :— then
billows tlie carriage from station B, and so on until the last carriage frLm
Blackwall has arrived, when the engines again cease working, the cai-riages
being thus left in their proper relative positions for their next transit towards
Blackwall.

■' To these arrangements the utmost effect will be given by the adoption of
the Klectric Telegraph of Professor Wheatstone and Mr. Cooke, similar to
that which has been for a considerable period in successful aciion on (he
(Jreat Western Railway.

" It is expected that the Railway when completed will afford equal facilities
for the carriage of goods as of passengers ; but its capabilities for the former
description will not be fully developed, because until we Ii.ave the double ter-
minus in London, with the outlet on the one hand to the Dock M'arehouses
in Fenchurch .Street, and on the other to Cooper's Row, adjoining Tower
Hill, the conveyance of goods, confined as the discharge of them must be to
the limited depot in the Minories. might be calculated to embarrass and in-
terrupt, the passenger tratlie at that point."

Nmih Midland Railway.— Yieiwcun Derijy and Rotherham (and on to .Shef-
field by the Sheffield and Rotherham Railway ). the principal operation is
laying'the permanent road. A double line of iails is laid for a considerable
distance north and south of Chesterfield ; this part of the line will be opened
early in May next. The foUoiving contracts are all completed, or very nearly
so : — The Beighton. twelve miles north of (_'heslerlield ; the Eckington, M'liit-
tington, Chesterfield, Northwingfield. and Clay Cross. On the line north of
Beighton, and up to Rolhcrhaiii. the Staveley. Southwingfield, Lodge-hill
contracts, and dow n to Dcrb> . great exertions are being made to have a
double line lor the opening, ami a great portion of this distance is laid. The
only earthwork remaining on this part of the line is finishing the sides of
.sonie of the large excavations, and completing an embankment at Bull-bridge,
The stations will be completed .shortly, as most of them are now roofed in. —
yolts paper.

Sheffield and Manchester liailwny. — We nnderstand that this important line
(d' Railway is at length about to I e proceeded with in earnest. It is expee ej
that the w hole of the distance between Manchester and Glossop w ill be under
contnict during the present summer, and we think that if the Directors are
supported in their efl'orts by the Shareholders, and supplied with funds to
enable them to press forward the works with energy ami s[iiril. they may
succeed in completing and opening to the public that portion of the line in
e ursc of the summer of 1841, and thus secure at once a large and profitable
traflTic between Manchester and the populous manufacturing districts of Asli-
tnn, .Staly Bridge. Mottram, filossop. fee, besides that which they will derive
by shortening the difl^cult road journey between Manchester and ShefField. —
Liverpool Standard.

Lancaster and Preslon Railway. — We understand that the Galgate embank-
ment, which is.generally considered the heaviest work on the line, is at length
finished. Mr. Locke, the engineer of the line, accompanied by the secretary,
and other gentlemen, made a progress throughout the line, a day or two since,
and expressed the pleasure they felt at finding the works in so forward a
state. No doubt was expressed that the line would be opened for traffic early
in the month of .lune, or indeed even earlier than that if^ any special occasion
existed for the acceleration. Contrary to general report. Mr. Locke founrl
the works at the Preston terminus in a still more lorward state than any
other parts of the line. The shareholders of the railway are in high spirits
at the prospect held out by Mr. Justice Coleridge, of a return of a great por-
tion of the assize business to Lancaster from ^lancbester and other places
cast of Liverpool, as promising a material increase to their returns. — Lancas-
ter Guardian.

Trarclling at the rale of Fifly-si.c lifilcs an Honr. — The teii-feet wheels
attached to the locomotive engines employed on the Great M'estern Raibvay,
not being found fully to answer the expectations of the directors, they have
altered their plan, and in future, wheels of seven feet diameter only are to be
employed. The result has been the attainment of the speed of fifty -six miles
an liour. On Saturday the 28lh March, the Fire Fly, a new engine on this
principle, manufactured by Messrs. .loues and Cunipany, of the Viaduct
r'ounilry, at Newton, made an experimental trip from Paddington to Reading,
and the following is a correct statement of her perlbnnance : — .She left the
station at Paddington at 13 minutes and 18 seconds past 11, a.m,, ami
reached Reading at 5'J minutes 43 seconds past 11, having past the
first mile post at 11 hours 15 minutes and 57 seconds, and the thirly-fifih at
11 hours 58 mniutes and 44 seconds, which is equiva'ent to one mile in one
minute and 15.\ .seconds, or nearly 48 miles an hour. During the journey one
of the tender .springs broke, and caused some additional Iricliou on the axles.
The load w.as two carriages and one truck. At 3 hours 19 minutes and 9
seconds the party starteiT on their return to London, with two carriages.
They stopped to take in water at Twyford, which detained them 14 minutes
and 44 seconds, and finally arrived at Paddington at 21 minutes and 3 sc-
cgnds past four o'clock, The tvventj- -ninth mile post Irom London iias

1840.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AN1> ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

179

passeil at 3 hours 41 muuites anil 50 seconds, ami the second at 5 hours 16
mimilcs and 51 seconds, which is equal to the speed of 1 mile in one minute
and 1 If seconds, or an average 501 per hour. The sreatest speed attained
was from the 26th to the 24th mife post, n hich was done at the rate of 56
miles an hour. This is the greatest speed at present attaineil in tlie history
of locomotive power — what «ill ultimately he the greatest, it is impossihie to
forelell. Messrs. Jones and Co. have since forwarded a second engine from
Iheir works to London, and they have four others in process of erection for
tlie use of the Great M' astern Railway Company. — Maurhexler Courier.

Midlaml Counties' Railway.— The works on this line as far as Leicester are
in an extreme state of forwardness, and there is not the slightest doubt the
(irst week in May will see the train flying over the high embankment, or
througli the deep cuttings, to that place. From Long Eaton to .Sutton Ben-
nington, two lines of rails are completed— the splendid bridge over the Trent
being now crossed by engines and trains of waggons, and the tunnel being
also quite passable. At Sutton Bonnington there is a deep cutting beside the
church-yard, and a station is building, which will require some lillle work,
hut the number of hands employed will soon complete that. Past Norman-
1on-on-8oar and Loughborough all is finished, the station at the latter place
lieing a very large one; but at Barrow-upon-fe'oar there slill remains con-
sider.able cutting to be done, one place being cut down to 50 or 60 feet and
not being yet completed. At Cossington there is a little work, but at Sileby
this is cinmterbalanced by there being a total completion, comprising several
very high bridges, which support the line above the village streets, and also
sonie exceedingly deep cuttings. At Sy.ston. the bridges and station are also
nearly finished, the latter being only one story high, hut still very compact,
and containing plenty of room. At Tluirmaston, about a mile and a half
from Ijeicester, a piece of embankment is yet to be laid, and about a mile
from Leicester there is some embankment required, hut near to Leicester the
works are in an extreme state of forwardness. Tlie station is a noble one :
the front facing the street is supported by five huge iron pillars. The engine
house, depot for carriages, workshops for engineers. &;c., are on a most ex-
tensive scale. — The bridges across the railway at Leicester, viz.. across the
Hnniberstone-road, Lonoon-road. he. are finished, but .at the top of New
M'alk, a funnel is being built which will require sume time lo complete.
About a mile and a half i)ast Leicester, a very fine viaduct is in course of
erection : and at Rugby another viaduct, not equalled by any in the kingdom
for workmanship, is finished. In short, on the whole, the line may be fairly
said to have sprung into being, so quick has been its progress. A new plan
has been adopted at Leicester in building the bridges, viz., to build the side
walls so high as to prevent any one looking over, and thus at llie same time
proleeting numbers from accidents. The process of bla.sling is much prac-
tised at Leicester, in conclusion, we are sorry to add, that within the last
fortnight two men have been killed on the works at se]iarate times. A horse
was also killed on Tuesday morning week, by falling down an embankment.
The Directors intend giving a grant! opening day when the trains run to the
Rugby station for tlie first time. — Notts Review.

Eilitihiirgli and Glasgoto Railway. — This line of railway is getting on rapidly,
and the tunnel in Bell's Park is getting forward at a quick rate. Tliere are
three steam engines employed at this tunnel bringing up the stcmes and ruh-
hish at tin ee holes, technically called " eyes." and a great quantity of stnft'
is brought up in the cnur.se of a day. — Glasgow Chronirle.

Great Western Railway. ~-Th\s hne was opened on Monday, March 30, fo""
public traffic asi'ar as Heading ; and the day beingainusually fine, attracted
a large concourse of people there to witness the arrival of and department of
the trains. The Company appear to have made the arrangements at this
station conducive to the comfort of the passengers, as well as lo the facility
of carrying on a very considerable traffic in that important to\vn. On .Satur-
day last the Directors went down for the purpose of finallv inspected the
station and line, previously to their being opened to the public. The train,
consisting of two earriages, and a truck, with aliout forty persons, left Pad-
dington at eleven o'cloci; «ith the Fire-Fly engine, and reached Reading, a
distance of .'5J miles, in 45 minutes, being at the rate of 471 miles per hour.
On their return with the same engine and train, after stopping at Twyford
for w aler, they travelled the whole distance of 30^ miles, fmrn that station to
Paildington, in 37 minutes, being au average speed of ,50 miles per hour. The
maximum speed oluained was at the rate of .58 miles per hour. — Daily papers.

South Eastern and Dover Railway. — A report has been industriously circu-
lated by a cotemporary that a great number of men have been discharged
from the tunnel works'of this railway in our neighbourhood, which is calcu-
lated to create a suspicion that the company i< in difliculties. We are happy,
however, to be enabled to find, on the most miiuite inquiry, that such a pre-
sumption is entirely void of foundation. It is true that a few bricklayers
have been discharged, owing lo a limited supply of bricks on the part of the
contractor ; but at the same time, nearly 200 additional workmen have been
set on at the contracts extending from Abbot's C'liH to I'olkestone. On a
personal inspecli<m we find the work in a most promising condition. The
Sli ikspeare tunnel will, we doubt not, be completeil by the end of May. A
large portion of the sea wall is nearly finished, and the Warren contracts are
proceeding as well as the nature of the ground will permit. — Dover Clironiele

NE'W CHURCHES, 6tc.

Staffordshire. — The foundation stone of a new Church on the estate of
Eirl Talbot, at .Salt, near Staftbrd, was laid on Thursd.ay. March 26th. by
Kb Lordship's daughter, the Mai'chioness of Lothian. The edifice will be
Ijuilt oi stone in the Gothic style, and will aceommodale about 250 persons.

Birmingham. — On Tuesday. March 31. the foundation stone of the new church
of St. Mark, being the second of the ten churches proposed to be erected
in Birmingham, was laid by James Taylor, Esq,, in the presence of a large
and respectable body of spectators. The spot chosen for the edifice is a

beautiful and commanding site near the Sandpits gate. Messrs. Scott and
Moflatt, of London, are the architects ; and Mr. fc:. J. Brailsfnrd. late of
Huddersfield, is the builder; .Mr. ft. David, of Lichfield, being appointed
clerk of the works. The church will be built entirely of stone, obtained from
the quarries of J. F. Ledsam, Esq.. of Weoley Castle, and will contain one
thousand sittings, one-third of which will he free. It will he erecteil in the
early English style of architecture, and though the moderate sum for which
the contract is taken (£3.000.) will not .admit of much costly decoration, the
edifice will present, when finished, a very chaste and elegant appearance ;
.and the committee have every confidence that the work will be completed in
a substantial and satisfactory manner. The church will, we understand, be
finished by the 1st of M.ay, 1841. — .Midland Counties Herald.

New Episcopal Chapel at Camborne. — On Tu"fesday the lOth March, the foun-
dation stone of this building was laid by the Venerable Archdeacon Sheep-
shanks. The chapel, (designed by. and being built, under the superintendence
of Mr. M'ightwick.) is in the Early Pointed style, exhibiting, in no stinted
degree that appropriately ornate character which should distinguish every
building of its cla.ss. Indeed we understand it was to this end that Mr. Pen-
darves increased his suliscriptinn from £300 to £500. The building is in-
tended to accommodate about 330 persons, of whom not less than 200 have
their sittings free. The total length of the interior, (including the chancel
.and choir projections at the east and west ends) is about 82 feet : the width
of the main chapel 30 feet ; ami its height 31 feet. The interior will derive
its chief effect from the exhibition of the timbers of its orn.amental roof, and
the lofty arches opening before the triple windows of the chancel and choir.
The approved success of this fashi(m in the chapel at Bude Haven, erected
some years back by the .same architect, has induced him to repeat it in the
present instance. The chapel is expected to be completed in eighteen months
from the present time, — Plymouth Herald.

Rome. — The Viceroy of l<^ypt has offered to the Pope four magnificent
columns, each upwards of 13 feet in height, cut from a quarry of alabaster,
discovered a few years ago. They .are intended to adorn the new church of
Saint Paul at Rorne. Tliis splendi'd present has been accepted by his Holiness,
and is to be conveyed to Rome at his expense.

PUBLIC BUILDINGS, flee.

Cornwall. — The new Market Houses at Bodmin. Cornwall, are fast approach-
ing towards completion. This building will form a most conspicuous im-
provement to the main street of the town, as it is erected upon a site of land
formerly occupied by .several ruinous tenements with projecting pent houses.
The front is built of granite, the centre part or entrance being formed by
four massive pil'ars in single blocks, with architraves over. 14 feet long each,
weighing nine tons each ; indeed, this front may he likened unto .Stcjnehenge,
as, with the exception of the ashlar and cornice, it may le said to consist of
13 massive blocks. In the architrave over the pillars are sculptured oxen
heads, taken from the .anti.iuities of Delos. Tlie shamble fittings are to be
iron, and the front enclosed with three pair of handsome iron gates. The
cost of the erection will be about £3000. Willuam Harris, Esq.. of Bristol, is
the architect.

Cornwall. — The new Town Hall at Helstone was opened for public business
on the 14th of April, by the Recorder. This erection is in the Grecian Doric
style, and cased entirely with Constanline grar.ite ; the front is compose<l of
a basement having three entrances, viz., two to the corn markets, wliich are
uniler the Guildhall, and one to the Guildhall. Above the b.asement are
fluted granite Doric columns and pilasters, with entablature over and sculp-
tured pediment, consisting of a clock in the centre, the band of which is com-
posed of oak leaves and acorn-wreaths, and upon e.aeli side, forming sup-
ports, figures of St. Michael and the Dr.agon, being the town arms, which
have been ably pourtrayed by Mr. Thos. Tyley, Sculptor, Bristol. The new-
General Market Houses in lliis town are now quite completed, and. together
with the Town Hall and Corn Markets, reflect great credit upon the archi-
tect, William Harris, Esq., of Bristol. The cost of the Market Houses and
Town Hall, including all expenccs, £6000.

MISCSIiIjANEA.

Burning Coal Mines. — Letters and papers from the department of the Allien
bring accounts of a remarkable conflagration whi.ih broke out in the coal
mines of Commentry, on Sunday the 1.5lh March, and had been burning for
a week with daily increasing fury. It appears that Ibis fire, which, for the
last four and twenty years, has" been silently smouldering in the bowels of
the earth— revealing its existence by perpetual smoke, and occasional out-
breaks of flame, which, however, had always lieen confined within the limKs
abandoneJ to its dominion— had, at length, made its way through some
breach into one of the vast galleries of these exiensive workings ; and there,
meeting with Ihe air-current so long denied if, had spread through all the
suhferr.anean chambers and passages with a rapidity before which resistance
became utterly powerless ; showing itself at every crevice and outlet of the
vast labyrinth, and flinging its points and columns of fire far up into the air,
through all the shaf s that led into the wide fie'd of the rich deposit. Luckily
Ihe solemnities of the day h.ad emptied the workings of their human tenants,
for no mortal aid could have availed them against the suddenness with which
the fiery flood swept over all things. The authorities of the ilistrict were
early on the spot, but have hitherto been little more than idle and awe struck
spectators, ffeither Vesuvius, nor :,ny other irruption, say the accounts,
can give a notion of the dreadful and sublime scene, " If," says one writer,
" it were possible to forget that the flames have been, three whole days, de-
vouring immense wealth, and that by this conflrgration three hundred fathers

180

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[May,

of I'amilii'S will be tliiii»n out (if cnipluymeiit. tlicjc vvoiild Ije room for no
other scntiiJU'iil than that of u<lniiration at llicniagiiilicciit spectacle. Iiiiaj^inc
a deep ravine, nearly ciicnlar, in tlie form of a reversed cone, ttitli its edge's,
Iiowever. hourly enlarging. Through fourteen large openings, issuing at
alioui iweiity feel above the ground of this ravine, and giving access to the
innnnierable'galleries of the mines below, as many torrents of Hame are pour-
ed forth, with frightful violence from the cauldrons wilhin — flames of a thou-
sand hues, rushing i'nrth like tiery whirlwinds — ^di\iding, and crossing, and
mingling, and rising, and falling, and rising again! At times, a hollow
cracking founri echoes through the aby.ss; this is some huge block of coal
detaching itsidf from the roof or sides of cmc of tlie galleries, and falling into
tlie blazing gulf. Then rises np.a thick column of l<lack dust, till it rcachi'S
the ojicnin^s of the galleries, where, pierced in all directions l>y the llames.
long serpents of fire work throtigh its volume from side to side. Sixty feet
higher up, on each side of the galleries, tw o gaping mouths shoot into the air
their dazzling cidumns of fire. Suddenly one of these ceases. It seems hjr
a moment, as if checked in its wrath. Then comes a long and starlling
groan from the entrails of the earth ; and forth again rushes the dame, blood
red, roaring and terrible, threalening in its fury to lift up the burning m<iuii-
lain altogether, and bury the spectators beneath its dreadfid ruins. Again,
look around you ; it is midnight, and two thousand human faces are there,
some grouj.ied oit the opposite crest i>f the ravine, some sheUcred in the cavi-^
tics of the rocks. Vet no sound meets the ear save that of the roaring dames.
The latest accounts states that tlie rafters of the galleries had all fallen, and
the founts of flame nearly ceased to play. The whole had become one huge
burning gulf. The loss is saiil to be incalculable; millions of lieetnlitres of
coal had been consumed. The engineers were preparing to turn the course
of a stream, whidi flows at a league's distance, and direct it upon the biu'u-
ing mountain. Workmen were employed night and day in this operation, by
w hich it was hoped to lay the mines under water. — Atlienreum.

The Bride Trade. — It has been recently ordered that in estimating the duty,
the size of the brick shall be measured in its dry, and not in its moist, state,
as hitherto. Those familiar with the manufacture of bricks will at once see
the fairness of the regulation, as some clays pine in mvch more than others.

MoiM of the Cliiircli of St. Peler.—\\v beg to call the attention of our rea-
ders to this most elaborate work of art, which is now e.\liibiting in the Gal-
lery in Maddox -street, opposite ,St. (leorge's Church, Hanover-siiuare. It is
the work of Celestino Vai. who has had the boldness to come to this country,
trusting in the hope that he might reap an abundant harvest, and we most
heartily w ish him all the success the great merit of his model entitles him to
expect. M'e can truly say, that it gives a more .satisfactory idea of the cele-
hrated original — of its beautihil proportior.s and enormous size — than any
painting could possibly do. It is, therefore, a most interesting exhibition,
not only to those who have had the good fortune to have .'■een Rome, but to
that class more parlicularly who are imtravcUed. It is executed in wood, on
the scale of 1 to lOO. and conscijuently takes up a consideralde sjiace in a
very large r om. The fidelity and beauty with which every architectural
ornament is rendered, is truly surprising, and this is more parlicularly
evinced in the ntiinerous statues that ornament the buililing. Every one of
these represents a dillerent attitude, tmd their number, amounting to be-
tween 500 and COO. renders them an amusing study, ^^'e may here observe,
that the artist has represented the building as the architects intended it to
be, but, as the church is not yet finished, he has executed a much greater
number of ligures than are now tictually placed on the building. In the
centre of the piazza is the Egyptian obelisk, which rises to the height of 13 1
feet. Its structure of red granite is exactly imitated. The fountains too are
there, and the grand fl'glit of ste|is which leads to the vestibule, and all about
are scattered little diminutive figures, which will serve to show the relative
size of the building. 'J'he colonnades next attract tlie attention, and although
in (jur fipinion they are out of place, yet the fame they have acquired the
arcliitect, Cellini, is well deserved. Above all we were attracted by the
glorious dome of Michael Angelo. which is indeed a wonder to look upon.
This exhibition cost the artist (Vai) a labour of 11 years, to him a labour of
love. The room is surrounded by a clever panoramic sketch of the most
interesting objects in the immediate vicinity of this most celebrated church.

LIST OF NEW PATENTS.

GRANTED IN ENGLAND FRCM 30t1I MARCH TO 23kD Al'KIt, 1810.

Ci.AUDE Joseph Edmeu Chaddron Junot, of Brewer Street, Golden
Square, Operative Chemist, for " certain improved processes for pnrifi/ing
and nl.<to for xolidifying tallov.i, r/rease, oik, and oleayinoxis substances." —
Sealed Aiareh 30 : six months for enrohneut.

Uknrv Martin, of Morton Terrace, Camden Town, for " improveyne^its
in preparing surfaces of paper" — March 30; six months.

William Neale Clav, of ITimhy, Cumberland, Gentleman, for "imp'^ove-
ment.'i in the manufacture of iron." — March 31 ; six mouths.

John Leberecht Steinhaneser, of Upper Islington Terrace, Gentle-
man, for " improvements in spinning and doubling wool, co/ton, silt, and other
Jibrons materials." Communicated by a foreigner residing abroad. — March
31 ; six months.

Peter Bancroft, of Liverpool, Merchant, and John Mac Innes, of the
same place, Mauutacturing Chemist, for " an improved method of renot^ating
or restoring animal charcoal, after if has been used in certain processes or
manufactures to which charcoal is now generally applied, and thereby recover-
ing the ^iroperties of such animal c/iarcoal, and rendering it again ft for
similar uses." — March 31 ; six months.

Charles Cummins, of i.eadenhall Street, Chronometer Maker, for "cer-
tain improvements in barometers and sympi(someters,"—h^n\ 2 ; six months.

James Stead Crosland, of Leeds, Engiueer, "for certain improvements
a/i/jliffible to locomotive and other stcam-engiurs." — .\pril 2; six months.

Tho.mas S.meulev, of Holywell, county of Hint, Gentleman, "/or im-
provements in the manufacture of tubes, pipes, and cylinders." — April 4 ; six
months.

Harrison Blair, of Kearsley, Lancaster, Chemist, and Henry HotinH
W.\TSON, of Little Bolton, Chemist, "for an improvement or improvements
in the manufacture of sulphuric acid, crystallized soda, and soda ash, and the
recovery of a residuum or residuums, applicable lo various useful purjwses."
April 6; six months.

Richard Beard, of Egieinoiit Place, New Koad, Gentleman, "ybr i'm-
provemenls in printiny calicoes and ottter fabrics. Communicated by a
foreigner residing abroad." — April 6; six months.

EovvARo Thomas Bainbridge, of I'ark Place, Saint James', Gentleman,
"for improvements in obtaining power." — April 13; six months.

Thomas You.vg, of Queen Street, in the city of London, Merchant, "for
improvements in lamps." — .VprU 13; six months.

James Caldwell, of Mill Place, Commercial Road, Engineer, "ybr /»<-
provements in cranes, windlasses, and capstau-t." — Ajiril 15; six months.

JoH.v Gold, of Etna Glass Works, Birminghaiu, Glass Manufacturer, "ybr
improvements in the manufacture of decanters and other articles of glass." —
April 15; six months.

M'ti.LiAM PoTTS, of Birmingham, Brass Founder, "for certain apparatus
for suspending pictures and curtains." — April 15; six months.

Louis August de St. Sylvain Baron de Los Valles, of Notting-
liara Street, Mary-le-bone, "forcertainimprovementsia cleansing, decoticating,
purifying, and preserving corn and oilier grain. Communicated by a foreigner
residing at/road." — April 15; six mouths.

William Grimman, of Camden Street, Islington, Modeller, "for a new
mode of wood paving." — .\pril 15; six months.

Joseph Whitwortii, of Manchester, Engineer, "for certain improve-
ments in machinery or apparatiLs for cleaning and repairing roads or wagg,
and which machinery is also applicable to other purposes." — April 15; six
months.

Thomas Robinson Willi.vms, of Cheapside, Gentleman, "for certain
improvements in obtaining power from steatn and elastic vapours orjtuids,
and for tlie means emploged in generating such vapours or fuid^, and also for
using these improvements in conjunction with distillation or evaporation, and
other useful purposes." — April 15; six months.

William Unsworth, of Derby, Silk Lace Jlaimfacturer, "for an improved
tag for laces." — April 16; six months.

Samuel Wilks, of Darlcston, Stafford, Iron Founder, "for improvements
in the manufacture of vices." — .Vpril 16,; six months.

William Henry Bailey M'ebster, of Ipswich, Surgeon, R. N., "for
improvements in prej)aring skina ami other animal matters for the purpose of
tanning, and the manufacture of gelatine." — April 16; six months.

Samuel Marlow Banks, of Bilston, Statlbrd, Gentleman, "for improve-
ments in the manufacture of iron." — April 16; six months,

Robert Cooper, of Petvvortli, Gloucester, Gentleman, "for improvements
inploughs." — April 16; six months.

Francis Molineux, of Walbrook Buddings, London, Gentleman, "for
improvements in the manufacture of caudles, and in the means of conwming
tallow and other substances for the purposes of light." — .\pril 23; six months.

Elijah Galloway, of Manchester Street, Grays' Inn Road, Engiueer, "for
improvetnents iu steam engines, which are also applicable to engines for raising
and forcing fuids." — April 23; six months.

Jonathan Sparke, of Langley Mills, Northuiuberlaud, Agent, "for cer-
tain improved processes or operations for smelting lead ores." — April 23; six
months.

John White, of Manchester, Engineer, "for certain improvements in
vices." — April 23; six months.

James Malcolm Rymer, of Henrietta Street, Civil Engineer, "/or cer-
iain improvements in castors for furniture, such improved castors being
applicable to other purposes." — April 23; six months.

TO CORRESPONDENTS.

The sl.eteli of the gothic window at Clomel Church is received, and will he noticed
ne.xt month.

Ve do not consider Mr. Coles' plan for propelling steam boats on canals is
practicable : besides, the outlay required to carry it into execution will be too large
to induce any canal company lo adopt it .

"A Subscriber" is iiifonurd Ihtl there is a society called "The Contractors
Association" ; Mr. Barry of Manchester is the secretary.

\Y. .]. B. — We do not think, being admitted into the Institution named will be of
mneh service to him. until he has had some practice in a respectable office. fVe
regret that ur cannot give any aduiee that will be beneficial to him, for the object
be wishes to attain.

Comnnniimfions arc requested to be addressed to "The Editor of the Civil
Engineer and Architect s Journal," A'». 1\. Parliament Street, Westminster.

Boohs fur review must be .mit carli/ in the month, communications on or before
the 20th' (if with wood-cuts, earlier), and advertisements onor before the 2!>th
instant.

The First Volume may be had. bound in c i otii and lettered in gold.
Price 17s.

%* The Second Volume may also be had. Price 20s.

1840.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

181

VIEW OF THE COLUMN NOW ERECTING BY GENERAL
BROWNE CLAYTON, ON THE ROCK OF CARRICK A
DAGGON, COUNTY OF WEXFORD, IRELAND.

The column is a fac-simile of Pompev's Pillar, but not monolithic*
it is being constructed under the directions of Mr. Cobden the architecti
of granite, from the county of Carlow, with a staircase up the centre,
the situation upon which it is erected is a considerable eminence
above the sea, and when finished will form a conspicuous land mark
for mariners. The following are the principal dimensions of the
column, height of base 10 ft. 4 in., shaft and base 73 ft. 64 in., capital

10 ft. a in., total height 94 ft. 3 in., diameter of shaft at the base 8 ft.

11 in., and at the top 7 ft. 8 in.

" This column is to commemorate the conquest of Egypt, and the events of
the campaign under the command of Sir Ralph Abercromby, K.B., in the
year 1801, when General Browne Clayton, (then Lieut. Colonel), commanded
the 12th Light Dragoons, and afterwards commanded the cavalry in pursuit
of the enemy to Grand Cairo, taking besides other detachments a convoy in
the Lybian Desert, composed of 600 French cavalry, infantry, and artillery,
commanded by Colonel Cavalier, together with Buonaparte's celebrated
Dromedary corps, one four pounder, and one stand of colours, and capturing
300 horses and dromedaries, and 550 camels.

" The events of this campaign are further to be commemorated, by the ap-
pointment of trustees under the will of General Browne Clayton, who shall
annually at sun rise on the morning of the 21st of March, (when the French
under the command of General Menou, attacked the British encampment be-
No. 33.— Vol. III.— June, 1840.

fore Alexandria), raise the standard on the column, and hoist the tricolour
French flag which shall remain until the hour of 10 o'clock, when the British
flag shall be hoisted and kept up untU sunset, as a memorial of the defeat of
the French, which event forms the prelude of Britannia's triumphs through a
regular and unbroken series of glory and prosperity down to the battle of
Waterloo, in 1815. And on the 28th of March annually, the British flag
shall be hoisted half standard high as a memorial of the death of the brave
commander-in-chief Sir Ralph Abercromby, who died of the wounds which
he received before Alexandria, on the 21st of March 1801."

WYRE LIGHTHOUSE.

Description and structure of the Wyre (SeawardJ Lighthouse, leading to

Port Fleetwood*

It was my study when planning this navigation to identify the remotest
spit of bank turning into it, without subjecting the mariner to the treacherous,
and, at best, but partially-hghting agent, a Light Vessel ; Messrs. Alexander
Mitchell and Son, of Belfast, readily took up the proposition, and the Board
of Directors of the railway and harbour project, as readily adopted the appU-
cation of Mitchell's ingenious mooring screwf to the insertion and basing of
piles or pillars, in sub-marine foundation. I had given much trouble to
Messrs. Mitchell, when unavailingly submitting their plans and specifications
to the Liverpool Dock Committee, (Oct. 4, 1838,) of so perfect a mode of
establishing hghts out upon the very banks of a navigation, whereby the
power and object of a hghthouse is enhanced by proximity with the anxious
observer from sea. In fact, a hghthouse can be thus erected upon any under-
water spit, as indifferent to a 30-feet rise of tide and channel surge, whilst
sending forth its hght of the same character and stability, as if on the main
land ; thereby throwing it more intensely and effectively on the region re.
quired, especially where shoals out-he the main to any extent. Its time in
erection, the shortest possible.^ and of so portable a structure that it may be
removed, if local changes require, to another site in a month. Wherefore,
then, should not every spit, now guarded by a light-vessel, with her unavoid-
ably inferior order of lights, rendered more so in a gale of wind by pitching,
floundering about, and ever and anon submerged in the trough of sea, spray,
and spoon-drift, and that too when most wanted, and often at the very crisis
of exigency to all around, breaking adrift ? Wherefore not supersede them
by so purpose-like a fabric ? Let those who take interest, but who doubt or
cannot conceive the matter, go to Fleetwood-mount Observatory, command-
ing the mouth of Wyre, and watch the effects of a westerly gale upon the
first of its kind, (not associating the effects of a sea-way upon the Eddystone
or Bell Rock, for the screw-piled pillars do not oppose the sea). A structure
destined to save many a gallant bark that would othervrise drive, unbeaconed
and unwarned, upon the sands of Morecambe Bay, and I doubt not will give
rise to a general adoption ; whilst rendering it imperative on local guardians
of a navigation, to estabhsh refuges for the cast-away mariner, on the
isolated banks ; since, by this method, the practicabihty is manifested. In-
deed, this sub-marine method of commanding foundation and hold-fast, so
ingeniously contrived by Messrs. Mitchell, combines the vital essentials to the
seaman's hope, of warning, grading, succouring, and, when in port, securing.'
The figure of this first ' Screw-pile' Lighthouse in the United Kingdom,— in
the world I may say, is shown m the annexed engraving, and presents to the
eye a well-proportioned group of columns rising out of the sea, in the inter-
vening and over-lapping order that hexagonal or six-angled figures produce,
according to the separate angles you may be opposite to ; a systematic inter-
lacing of tension-rods renders the fabric sufficiently opaque, even below the
platform ; but above the platform, of 27 feet diameter, you have a six-angled
dwelhng-house of 20 feet diameter, by 9 feet high ; on the centre of which
rises the 12-sided lantern, with Chinese roof, of 10 feet diameter. Thus, you
have a figure of 46 feet spread at the base, contracting at the platform bal-
cony to 27 feet, and elevated 45 above low-water level ; surmounted, as
stated, by a bulky, yet pleasing and eff'ective, superstructure, comprising a

• We are indebted for this description and drawing to a very able work,
by Commander H. M. Denham, R.N., F.K.S., lately published at Liverpool.

t See Journal, Vol. II., p. 38,

♦ The Wyre Lighthouse was reared in two of the shortest-day months in
the year, not affording daylight during a low-water period, spring tides, Irut
depending on flambeaus or moonlight.

' 2 B

182

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[Junk,

comfortable residence for the light-keepers, whilst affording you a steady,
bright, uniform light, 45 feet above mean-sea level, — ranging over an eight-
mile horizon, visible 10 miles from a coaster's deck, and freed from those
breaks of brilliancy attending the offing passage from reflector to reflector,
by being fitted with a light of ' Dioptric' order. Foggy periods are provided
for by a self-acting deep-sounding bell, tolling three strokes of five-second
intervals, at one minute pauses ; and tide-time for vessels of 12-feet draft, is
denoted by 2 black halls being kept upon its flag-staff until 12-feet ceases
upon the straight course, right up ; at the same time, however, denoting 17
feet up through the buoyed channel ; and vessels requiring a Wyre pilot will
be understood at this lighthouse, if showing a weft at the peak, besides their
pilot-jack at the mast-head ; whence, a pilot-jack will also be hoisted until
she is provided. The Wyre pilot-boats are of sloop and yawl rig, with black
bottom, while top-sides and black streak, with her number and the letter F
on the mainsail. Tlicir cruising ground extends from Formby Point to Haver-
ing Point of Duddan.

ELEVATION OF WYRE LIGHTHOUSE.

REFERENCE.

A, Marl formation ; the screws are 10 feet below low water mark.

B, Sub-stratum of sand.

C, Low water equinoctial springs.

D, Low water ordinary tides, 2 feet above ditto.

E, Ditto neap tides, 9 feet ditto.

F, Half-tide level, 15 feet ditto.

G, High water neaps, 21 feet ditto.
H, Ditto ordinary tides, 28 feet ditto.
J, Ditto, equinoctial springs, 30 feet ditto.
K, Underside of platform, 45 feet ditto.

Centre of the Dioptric
Light in Lanthem 60 feet ditto.

.SPECinc.iTiON of the abort Screw Pile Lighthouse, erected on the north-
eastern lorn-water spit of North Whaif Bank, at the entrance of the
Wyre Navigation, the structure being supported upon, and secured to,
the bank with Mitchell's Patent Screw Piles, of "ifeet diameter.

The foundation of the building is formed of seven screw piles, six
of which are the angles of a hexagon, about 46 feet in diameter, and
the seventh pile stands in the centre of the figure.

The heads of all the outer piles have an inclination inwards, by
which the diameter of the frame-work connecting the top of the
columns, and upon which the house stands, is contracted to about 27
feet. Each screw pile is formed of a malleable iron shaft 15 feel long
and 5 inches diameter.

On each pile a 3-foot screw is firmly keyed near its lower ex-
tremity, beneath which is placed a large drill or opening bit.

At the upper end of the shaft is a screw of 18 inches long and 2
inches diameter, for drawing down and screwing the wooden column
to the iron pile, which latter stands about 5 feet out of the ground.

The columns are thus prepared ; — seven logs of Baltic tiinber are
selected, of the largest and best quality ; the centre one is 5G feet in
length, all the others are 4ti feet.

The pedestals rise about a third of their height, and the remainder
of the shafts are rounded, both for appearance and as lessening any
vibration from the action of the sea.

An openins in the lower end of each column is then made of 5 inches
diameter, and to the depth of about 8 fee^, by boring in the manner of
a water-pipe ; strong iron hoops are then driven upon it, hot, the first
about 8 feet up, the second about 4 feet, and the third at its lower ex-
tremity.

This hooping will give to the column greater strength than it origi-
nally possessed, especially as the wood removed by boring is the
weakest in the tree, and adds scarcely anything to its actual strength.

The column being raised perpendicularly above the iron pile, the
end of the latter is introduced into the opening prepared for it, and
which has been made to fit accurately upon it; when the top of the
pile has reached the end of the cavity, screwing on (by capstan), the
foot of the column will be inserted in the bank about 3 feet ; the wood,
when wet, will clasp firmly on the iron, but, as an additional security,
the internal screw attaches the two together.

The framing upon which the house stands is firmly secured round
the centre column, and to the heads of the outer ones, by means of
cast-iron capitals let down over the heads of the columns, the capitals
being cast hollow for the purpose ; to the abacus of these the top
framing is secured with screw bolts passing down through the wood
and iron, having nuts on the under side, all boring or cutting into the
main support of the building being thus avoided, and the adjacent parts
of the framing are bound together by wronght-iron straps and knees;
the beams which radiate from the centre to the heads of the outer
columns are 12 inches deep by 7 inches wide, and those which comiect
the head of the outer columns, 12 inches by 4.

To give lateral strength to the building to resist the effect of heavy
bodies drifting against it, twenty-four angle braces from round iron of
li inch diameter are applied, as shown in the plan, by which a resist-
ing power equal, at least, to 35U tons, is presented in every direction ;
these braces are secured at the top to trusses cast with the capitals,
and beneath to strong wrought-iron bands with projecting bolt holes ;
by these means boring into the columns is again avoided, the braces
are keyed up at their crossing, as shown in the plan.

The light-keepers' house, which is hexagonal, is in diameter from
angle to angle 22 feet, and 9 feet in height.

The centre column rises to the base of the lantern, which, with the
roof, it assists to support, giving great additional stability to the whole
structure.

The corner-posts of the house are 7 inches by 6, all remaining studs 6
inches by 4, beams of roof 9 inches by 5, and all outside planking, to-
gether with floor and roof of house, is 2 inches thick.

The house has an outside door and three windows, and is divided
into two apartments, one liaving a fire-place and the floor tiled ; the
walls and ceiling of both apartments are lathed and stuccoed.

The lantern, which is 12 sided, is 10 feet in diameter, and in height
to the top of the windows 8 feet, by which the lights are raised above
the highest spring-tide level about 31 feet, or 44i above half-tide
level.

The lights (in this case of dioptric order) show throughout the
periphery, and the roof is covered with strong sheet iron; (a lighten-
ing repeller and conductor, of course).

The light-keepers' house is covered with sheet lead, and a light
iron railing is carried round the top of the building and the platform.

60, Pall Mall, London, Henry Mangles Denuam.

Jan. 3), 1840.

1840.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

18.3

THE UNION BANK OF LONDON.

10

-t—

The Joint-Stock Banks promise like the Assurance Offices to giv e
some employment to architects in the metropolis, as they have already
done in the country. Any thing in fact is worthy of encouragement
which rises above the mere brickbat and whitewash style. This
building situated on the north side of Argyle Place, Regent Street, in-
tended to form the West-end Branch Establishment of tne Union Bank
of London is nearly completed, from the designs and under the super-
intendance of Mr. William H. Newnham and Mr. George B. Webb,
joint architects to the bank. Tenders for its erection were sent in by
public competition last September, when that of Messrs. Turner and
Sons, of Little Moorfields, being accepted by the Court of Directors, a
contract was entered into with them for building it at the sum of £38G0.
It occupies a frontage of 7U feet towards Argyle Place, and is three
stories in height. It contains on the ground floor, a banking office 28
feet long (exclusive of circular end towards Regent Street) by 20 feet
wide, and 16 feet 6 inches high, divided at one end by a screen of
Bath stone Doric columns and entablature from a lobby 20 feet by 6
feet, which communicates with the Directors' Coramittee-room, the
Manager's, and the Waiting rooms. On the basement is a groined
strong-room, 18 feet by 14 feet, washing-room, &c., for clerks, porter's
room, and coal-vaults. The remainder of the house is devoted en-
tirely to the use of the Manager, who will reside on the premises, and
comprises, on the first story, which is 13 feet high, a large drawing-
room with circular Venetian window, a breakfast parlour, bed-room,
and dressing-room, four bed-rooms and store-room on the second floor,
with kitchens, wine, coal, and wood cellars, and other requisite ac-
commodation on the basement.

Simple in its character, this building has a solidity of appearance
which we trust is appropriate to the institution to which it is devoted,
and it cannot fail to prove an ornament to the neighbourhood, and an
example to other companies,

Dyeing Timber. — Amongst the subjects lately discussed in the French Aca-
demy of Sciences are. a discovery, by a Dr. "Bourguet, for dyeing and pre-
serving timber, and one for obtaining" blue or red silk from silkworms. Dr.
Bourguet states, that if the lower part of the trunk of a tree be immersed, as
soon as it is felled, in a preparation of pyroligneousacid, the preparation will
be absorbed throughout the whole of the tree, and that the timber wdl sub-
sequently resist decay. He states, also, that if colouring matter be placed in
the liquid, it will be carried through all the vessels of the tree, even to the
leaves, and be permanently fixed. As this gentleman has made frequent ex-
periments, there appears to be no doubt of the correctness of his theory. The
mode of obtaining Ijlue or red silk from silkworms is kept a secret, except as
to an admission that it depends on the food of the insect. M. Flourens, a
member of the ncademy, had previously ascertained that the flesh, and even
the bones of animals, may be coloured, by keeping them for a long period on
food highly impregnated with colouring matter.

Bendable Stme. — In the Museum of the Asiatic Society at Calcutta, one
object of curiosity is a bending or elastic stone. This stone is, apparently,
of granite, i-> about two and a half feet by six inches in length and T)readtn.
and about an inch thick. This stone, being lifted at one end, yields to the
pressure, and from the half begins to bend as it is lifted, and as the lifted end
is raised, the bend approaches nearer to the further extremity. On the lift-
ing power becoming relaxed, the stone reverts to its former level.— Caicu«a
Paper.

TABLE OF ARCHITECTS.

Sir — There was more than one reason wherefore I did not give
authorities for the names introduced in the Table of Architects. In
the first place, I did not imagine any thing of the kind would be looked
for, it not being usual to accompany Chronological Tables with similar
references ; in the next, an additional column would have been re-
quired for the purpose ; and for reason the third, I was of opinion
that to do so, would be considered coxcombical ostentation and fussy
parade. I should have had to make out a catalogue of journals and
books in nearly half-a-dozen different languages, Italian, Spanish,
French, German, and Russian : — and to what purpose would it have
been to have referred your readers to the Khudozhestzennya Gazeta
for an account of Voronikhin, and of Thomond, — to the Entziktopeti-
tzeskii Leksikon for a notice of Bazhenov, and so on? If your corres-
pondent is desirous of meeting with a memoir of Don Ventura Ro-
driguez he will find one in Jovellanos' Works, but then unless he happen
to possess the latter, where is he to meet with them ? — certainly not in
the British Museum. Of most of the other Spanish architects inserted
in the Table, notices will be found in Llaguuo and Cean-Bermudez, and
Ponz. Relative to Quarenghi, some information may be found, prefixed
to his Fabbriche e Disegni. Of Cagnola various notices have appeared
in the Biblioteca and other Itahan Journals, and there is also a memoir
of him in Fbrster's Bauzeitung; while bis countryman and contem-
porary Zanoja has obtained mention in an English work entitled
"Notes Abroad," and a portrait of him may be found prefixed to the
"Raccolta di Poesie Satiriche del Lecolo XVni," which contains
three of his Sermoni. As regards German architects, biographical or
necrological notices of many of them will be found in Nicolai, Seidel,
Nagler, the different Kunstblatts and other periodicals ; but it is im-
possible here to specify the numerous authorities individually. A bio-
graphy of Hirt, has been recently published in Germany ; and there is
a little meagre one of Weinbrenner by Aloys Schreiber, with a por-
trait that makes him look like a butcher. Count Raczynski's "Art
Moderne," supplies us with some personal information relative to
Klenze, Gartner, and a few other architects, including Ohlmiiller,
whose name will be found in the table, and who has obtained a little
biographical niche in the Penny CyclopEedia. — Apropos to Klenze, if
the portrait given by Raczynski be a faithful one, his countenance
bears a very strong resemblance to Nelson. — Having got upon the sub-
ject of likeness and portraits, 1 may be allowed to remark that that of
II Cavalier Quarenghi, prefixed to his above-mentioned collection of
Designs, has a look of most imperturbable stupidity: — let us hope
that the artist to whom he sate betrayed instead of pourtraying his
physiognomy. — One omission in the Table lies heavy upon conscience,
to wit, that of the name of Francis Johnston, of Dublin, architect of the
Post Office, Richmond Penitentiary, St. George's Church, and other
buildings in that capital, one of which is that for the Royal Hibernian
Academy, which he erected in 1824 at his own private expense, and
bestowed on the members; — an act of public spirit in a private indi-
vidual which would here have been trumpetted in every newspaper
through the country, as one of vmparalleled munificence. I almost
deserve to be horsewhipped for having forgotten such a man; and the
more so because I have a fine portrait of him after a painting by T. C.
Thompson, R.H.A., remarkable for the vigorous intellectual expression
of the countenance and the animation of the eyes ; on which account it
forms a striking contrast to the dull fat-headed-looking phizes of
Weinbrenner and Quarenghi. Just at this moment, unfortunately, I
cannot refer to the Annual Register, where I could obtain the precise
time of Johnston's death.

There certainly is room for doing much in the department of archi-
tectural biography both English and Foreign, for the period comprised
in the Table. The greater part of the lives would be entirely new in
our language. But then cut bono ? — would more than half-a-dozen
persons among the public, and about as many among the profession,
care for such a work ? It would be ruinous to a publisher unless he
were to undertake it out of sheer public spirit, making sacrifice of the
entire cost : and therefore if anything of the kind were ever to be
attempted, it should be by such a body as the Institute.

W. H. L.

P.S. With regard to the names of Craig, Pilkington, Byfield, &c.,
whom another correspondent has pointed out as having been omitted
in the Table, it is sufficient excuse to say that I have never met with
them anywhere, therefore they can hardly be of any note, certainly
not of any historical importance. A line must be drawn somewhere,
otherwise, if all the illustrious obscure are to be included, any table
or list of names would be amplified to the extent of a Court Guide,
and would become quite the reverse of a synopsis for reference.
Methinks, too, the party who has called attention to the above-giv^n
names, might, at the same time, have stated what are their claims to
distinction.

2 B

184

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[June,

WHITE'S PATENT BRICK AND TILE MACHINE.

Fig. 1.— Plan.

Fig. 4.— Section of Screw and Cutting Apparatus.

Fig. 2.— Elevation and Section.

Fig. 7.— Section of pinning and clutch lox.

Fig. 8.— Plan of Tube-cutter.

Fig 3.— End view of Cutting Apparatus.

Scale of Feet.
?i 2

IS40.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

185

WHITE'S PATENT BRICK AND TILE MACHINE.

Specijication of the Pukiit granlcd to Jamin While, Lanihcth, in the
Coiinty of S II ire I/, Eiigineti;for certain Inipromuentu in jMachinery,
for moulding Ciaij lo the form of Bricks and Tilts, and for mixing,
compressing, and moulding other substances.

The first part of the invention relates to a mode ol' forcing clay
through moulding orifices hy tlie pressure of inclined surfaces. Se-
condly, to the application of liydrostatic lubrication to facilitate the
movement of the chiy dnriog the process of compressing and moulding
it. Thirdly, to a mode of mixing, compressing and moulding peat ;
and fourthly, to a mode of compressing and expelling the water from
peat-moss, by the superincumbent weight of the atmosphere.

Fig. 1 is a plan of a macliine constructed according to my invention
for moulding clay to the form of bricks and tiles with a portion of it
removed, and Fig. "2 is an elevation of the machine with several ]iarts
of it in section, for the purpose of showing the internal construction
more clearly. Fig. 3 is an end view of the cutting apparatus which
divides the moulded clay into the Icngtli required, removed from its
place, which is in front of the machine. There are two, one on each
side, as represented by the plan, fig. 1.

In preparing the clay for moulding, when necessary to crush it, I
prefer to do so between rollers grooved and ribbed. The ribs of the
one working into tlie grooves of the other, which will break up the
clay more eH'ectually than by crushing it between two rollers, having
plain cylindrical surfaces.

When the clay has been prepared for moulding, it is conveyed into
the machine by the apertures u, fig. 2, on an endless band or by a
shovel, or the aperture may be lower down opposite the screw b, on
the hollow lubricating shaft c, and the clay impelled into it direct by
the force of the crushing rollers ; in this case the screw may be placed
in a horizontal position, and the aperture a be above it. The -power
which gives motion to the machine is applied to the vertical shaft d,
and by means of the pinion c working into the wheel_/i the screw and
shaft c are put in motion. This shaft is supported and retained by
one bearing at top, and the screw 6 is turned and fitted to the cylinder
in which it revolves at bottom. There is a stuffing box g fitted to the
top of the lubricating shaft c, which receives the end of the pipe //
that supplies the chamber in the shaft witli water. When the nia-
cdiine is used for making bricks and tiles a brass plate i is screwed on
the lower end of the shaft c, and prevents the water which it contains
escaping in that direction; but when it is used for making circular
tubes, the plate is removed, and a plug\/ inserted, which forms the in-
side diameter of the tube as shown in fig. 4, and the \vater is then
permitted to percolate that way. The clay is lubricated from the
spiral plane of the screw b, by having a radiating channel from the
chamber in the shaft c, into which very small holes are drilled, for the
water to escape by. There are also lubricating joints, or channels, in
the flanges at the top and bottom of the cylinder in which the screw h
revolve, marked k k, in the diftercnt figures, and similar joints or chan-
nels are formed round the orifices or moulding openings, from whence
the clay exudes from the machine by the propelling power of tlie
screw ; and I would state that these lubricating joints or channels, may
be difterently constructed without departing from my invention, so long
as the application of hydrostatic pressure in supplying a fluid to them
is retained.

Fig. 2, Hs a section of a vessel containing water from which several
pipes with brass cocks on them convey water to the lubricating joints
in the top and bottom of the cylinder, in which the screw revolves,
and also to the shaft c, and the lubricating orifice, in the chamber m
from whence the clay exudes. The clay with which the machine is
charged by the aperture a, fig. 2, is drawn into the spiral ])lane of the
screw 6 as it revolves, and impelled into the bottom chamber in, from
whence it escapes in two streams in opposite directions as shown in
fig. 1, by«H. When different figures are required to be moulded, it
is only necessary to change the chamber m, and apply one having an
orifice of the form wanted. Fig. 5, is face view of a lubricating orifice
for forming bricks, and fig. 6 a similar view of one for making common
draining tiles. In both tliese figures the lubricating channels round
the orifices from w hicli the clay exudes, are represented by strong dark
lines.

In dividing the moulded clay into the lengths required, the screw 6
makes a brief stop at that moment, and consequently the clay to be
cut. The phiion e is loose on its shaft, and resting on a collar as
shown in fig. 7, which is a section of the pinion and toothed clutch-
box 0 0, which turns it. When the toothed clutch-box is withdrawn
from the pinion, as will be presently described, the shaft d may turn,
and the pinion e with the apendage it drives remain stationary, until

the clutch-box is forced up again to its present position by the spring
p. It is withdrawn twice every revolution of the shaft d, by two in-
clined planes </ ij, depressing the roller )', as they alternately pass over it,
as may veadilv be understood by reference to the drawing. These
planes <] q, can be regulated to cut the moulded clay to any length pro-
duced from one revolution of the shaft d, simply by increasing their
number or adding to the length of their planes. In addition to this
mode of cutting various lengths by my machine, tlie horizontal shaft
s s, of the cutting apparatus shown in fig. 1, can be extended and several •
cutting instruments / /, fixed at given distances from each other, and
all of them made to 0|)erate at the same instant. The levers ii u, give
motion to the slide r which ciirries the cutting instruments /, as shown
in iig. 3, at the time tbe clulch-liox o a is withdrawn from the pinion
e, by two quadrants or inclined planes .r.r, iixed on two circular plates
shown on the shaft d. The dotted lines represent the vibration of the
levers, and it will be seen that the clay is cut, and recut by their mo-
tion. Fig. s is a plan of the slide which is used for cutting circular
tubes, it is moved by the horizontal shaft s s, vibrating two levers
through openings in the top plate of the machine shown in fig. 1. In
forming principal drains with these tubes, I recommend short circular
soles to support them at the joints, the soles may be moulded after the
manner described for making common draining tiles, and cut into short
lengths by a circular saw after the clay is sutficiently dry for burning.
The advantage of forming principal drains with circular tubes is very
obvious. Tliey are stronger with less material than any other figure
having the same internal capacity, and they also olVer to the water
greater facility to escape, than would be the case if it were running
over flat surfaces, in addition to which, the expense of procuring them
is greatly diminished by my invention.

In the event of the machine fig. 1 and fig. 2 being employed for mix-
ing, compressing and moulding peat, I apply knives on the screw shaft,
and also round tlie circunii'erence of the cylinder in which it revolves,
making in fact an ordinary pug mill by which the materials will ba
mixed and blended together before they arrive at the screw, wdiere
such materials wih be pressed and mouided into rectangular bricks,
and may be cut by the apparatus described.

Another part of mv improvements relates to the compressing of
peat by the superincumbent weight of the atmosphere. To ellect
wdiich 1 form a large vessel of any known material that will keep it
surticiently air tight, such as iron, slate, or stone, a few inches from the
permanent bottom of this vessel, I place another full of small holes
and support it on the former, aiove the one full of holes a layer of
coarse cloth is spread, upon which the peat to be compressed is laid
to about 12 inches deep. The length of the vessel is immaterial, pro-
vided it being sufiiciently air tight. One, however, 200 feet long by
(> feet wide, would be a proper size for compressing about 40 tons of
peat at one time. When the vessel has been charged, the peat is to
be well blended together, which may be done after the manner clay is
made to combine in forming the bottom of a canal when making it
water tight, and it is also to be well pressed to the edges of the vessel,
to prevent as much as possible the air descending by it, or through it,
in a downward direction. When the top surface of the peat has been
well secured against the admission of air. a communication is to be
opened with an air pump, and the air exhausted from the space be-
tween the two bottoms which will cause a partial vacuum below the
peat, and thereby offer to the water which it contains great facility to
escape. At the same time the pressure of the atmosphere on the top
surface of the peat will be in proportion to the exhausted state of the
air below, and the whole mass will be compressed, and the water vvhich
it contains will be carried away by the air pump, after the manner the
air pump of a condensing steam engine performs its office.

When the peat has remained in the vessel or pit sufficiently long to
be reduced to about one-third of its original depth, it is to be removed
and properly dried by any of the modes in use. In removing it, it may
be readily cut into regular sizes by having a carriage to pass oyer it
with knives projecting downwards, and so placed as to divide it into
a number of slips about 4 inches wide, and these may be cross-cut into
lengths of 8 inchc^s, which is found to be a good size for drying.

Having described my improvements for moulding clay to the above
mentioned purposes, and also for compressing peat, I wish it to be
understood that I do not claim any of the parts, which are well known
and in use for moulding clay and compressing peat; but what I do
claim as the first part of my invention, is the application of the inclined
surfaces of a screw to press clay through moulding orifices as above
described. Secondly, I claim tlie mode of stopiiing the moulded clay
while it is being cut as above described. Thirdly, I claim the mode
of lubricating the clay with water when being moulded by pressure
through moulding orifices as above described. Fourthly, 1 claim the
mode of mixing, compressing and moulding peat by means of a pug
mill when combined with a screw to compress and mould the peat

2 C

186

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[Junk,

through moulding orifices as above explained; and lastly, I claim the
mode of compressing peat by the pressure of the atmosphere, and
separating the water from it by a pump as above described.

James White.
11, East Place, Lambeth.
May 12, 1S340.

ON THE HORIZONTAL AND PERPENDICULAR LINE IN

ARCHITECTURE.

By Frederick East, M.A.

I vpas at the Institute the same evening that Sir Gardnor Wilkin-
son, a gentleman of great acuteness, tendered to its nicmbers certain
impressions produced upon his mind by the prGv.deiice of the hori-
zontal or perpendicular line in architecture. Sir Garduor, however,
from a certain politeness of feeling, did not extend his observations to
nnv length. He conveyed them rather in the shape of suggestions,
■with a view to elicit from the profession more enlarged views upon
the subject. Probably in harmony with that wish it was that Mr.
Godwin entered the field, and favoured us at the last meeting with a
passing and pertinent criticism upon the perpendicular line. But the
bearing of his criticism atfected the frequent use of a column breaking
from the main entablature and exhausting itself in a figure. He con-
sidered it as a mere excrescence, giving perhaps too much importance
to sculpture, which I conceive most will admit as only accessory and
secondary to the design. Hence it was employed without judgment
or feeling when evidently a mere prop or support for the statue. His
observations seemed, however, limited to this; they appeared to pene-
trate no farther than to show this fallacy in taste. 1 can only regret
from tlie clearness and conciseness of those remarks that he did not
anticipate my own, and that the subject was not more indulgently
treated by one so much more competent to give them.

Feeling, however, that it is expedient to detect the true spirit of a
composition, and of the minutia- which compose it, in order to guide
our o«n taste; and that no satisfaction can result from the mere know-
ledge of the existence of this or that style without we can apply it to
our own erections, if harmonious, or shun it, if discordant; I humbly
introduce my own impressions on the subject, which I ofi'er, however,
with submission to the profession, as before men, some of whom are
no doubt perhaps more fitted to impart information, than to receive
the s ightest observation, or the smallest wrinkle from me.

By a consideration of the prevalence of these lines, so marked, and
prominent in the palaces and churches of Italy, in the middle ages, we
naturally trace out the real secrets of beauty in foreign creations, and
are enabled to judge whether they accorded with tlie spirit of the
times, and consequentlv with the beauties of real expression, as it was
then influenced. By this means we may avoid passing a hasty censure
upon that which to" an edifice in this cuuntry would be certainly de-
structive to true taste, and which we cuuld never imitate but under
similar circumstances.

Notwillistandine the correctness of Mr. Godwin's remarks, I con-
ceive a more powerful motive, than to give effect to sculpture, in-
fluenced the adoption of the perpendicular line, in the purer days of
art. And that however a series of columns might have been after-
wards sacrificed to the beauties of a figure or the ornaments of sculp-
ture. Their use sprang originally from the poetry of nature and the re-
sources of Italian fancy.

I conceive that great poetry and pathos — pleasing emotions, or
gloomy ideas are consequent upon a skilful appropriation of the per-
pendicular or horizontal lines. A partiality for the former when decked
with the garhmds of n.iture, enlivening us with gaity and mirth, and
exhil)itiiig in its tapering lightness, all that seduces and captivates;
whilst great indulgence ui the latter instils awe and inspires some idea
of the terrible and sublime.

To illustr.ite mv meaning more clearly, I would make solid simpli-
city, weight, dignity, &c. to repose upon the horizontal, whilst elegance
and grace should seek their beauty from the perpendicular. Because
there seems to me something of phisiognomy in architecture, — a
cliaracter about it— so that we are either amazed, awed, softened, or
delighted, by its mien and general bearing.

\V hen therefore we search after grace, nature reveals it, sporting
and skipping in lightness and elegance, never so beautiful as when in
action and erect, seldom shortened into repose. Hence the taperings
of the Gothic, and the careless lightness of the Corinthian. Hence also
the prevalence of the perpendicular, which might tend to insignificance
in a building, but fur a certain symmetry of parts, easily detected in
works of acknowledged merit. But to fashion the grand, the solemn,
the imposing edifice, we instinctively turn from any thing feminine or
alight. Like laughter and mirth they become noxious to our sterner

moods, and nothing satisfies but a certain breadth of ])arts, a rigidity of
aspect, a dignified reserve as we search for the sublime. Nor does
anv loftiness of character, ner height of form display itself, but what
seems natural upon the breadth, merely in fact, a necessary proportion,
to avoid contempt and ridicule. Thus perhaps it was that horizontal
lines were sometimes preferred for the Italian palace ; though oftener
defeated in ett'ect, by the lurking fondness which Italian artists had,
for fanciful embellishment, giving occasionally an eccentric and inap-
propriate feature to an otherwise imposing front.

The adoption of the one style or the other results, I conceive from
the spirit of the times. The artist wished to change the dull monotony
of a mass, to give life and sprightly features to the building. To deck
the edifice in all the fashions of elegance, sought and employed quali-
ties in form and exterior conducive to this idea.

He knew that effective grace must depend upon the happiness of
contrast, and selected the perpendicular line as the best index to variety
in a front of breadth and lateral bulk. In after times the church — the
Roman church was to betray the resources of its wealth ; — the people
were to conceive a proper notion of its splendour — the terrible and
sublime were to be lost, or rather to Oe subdued for a little, amidst
images of attraction and wonder. Hence the artist digressed, and
violated symmetry, to court the spirit of the times.

Or the Ducal palace WcC to awe the passer by, the vassal was to
shrink when near the presence of the great. Hence the judgment of
the artist fed the noble's pride, by investing the edifice with all that
indicated the suUenness of grandeur. The horizontal line traced it-
self all through the edifice, or was broken by a wing or a centre of
richness and tapering forms, as if to intermix with so much oppressive
dignity some picture of splendour and elegance too.

There seems no exact standard to test the merits of either grandeur
or grace, yet to, a mind susceptible to and attracted by natural elegance
or the puredistinctionsof art, first impressions are generally most correct.
Without entering however into examples which are unnecessary, if
the moral of the sentiment be imbibed, and we can only trace the prin-
ciple affecting the application of either to its true source, so as to assist
our own ideas of correct taste and of purity in design. I shall in con-
clusion merely test these opposites in art, by a comparison with two
opposites in nature — and would lemark that as we love in woman with
her laughing eye and elegance of motion, that aerial lightness, that
sylphlike form, which facinates and enchants ; so we expect that com-
pactness, that breadth,— that stern solidity of air in the more dignified
lord of earth. And that whereas we cede to woman with her loveli-
ness of grace, gaiety of attire, and profusion of ornament as an increase
to her cTiarms, so we expect not to find the majesty of man masked by
a whimsical dress, or cloaked by a frivolous garb. Presuming at the
same time that the coldness of our fancy may lessen the contrast, and
account for our giving the swellings and undulations of grace less pro-
minence than accorded with the fire, — -the energy of the ardent Italian.

Whether we transport ourselves to Vicenza and see the edifices
built or restored by Palladio, or follow our own great genius of the
same school Inigo Jones, into the harmonious distributions of the flat
and void of the sombre and light — -we see a felicity in outline, a play
in efi'ect, in which ancient beauty is reproduced and revived in com-
binations unknown to antiquity. This beautiful harmony seems to me
the effect of lines. In the great front of the design for the Whitehall
Palace, wdiere the facade is long, we see with what consummate skill
in the combination of lines, Inigo Jones pleases the eye, to a length of
1151 feet. How in the centre, column rears itself above column. Hon
the whole centre itself is elevated — what a noble attitude it has! how-
rich and yet how symmetrical ! Contrasted against this front of ele-
gance cornes a void where naked simplicity reigns — where little or no
ornament appears — where little of what is tapering is seen^and the
eye which seemed to soar up the rich and elegant columns of the cen-
tre, now wanders along the broad g'oomy silent mass which intervenes^

This you see is depressed — is lower than the centre — the idea of
breadth is at once visible, and the contrast with the lofty centre is ap-
parent— and thus the effect is virtually speaking one of lines. This
idea of harmonious distribution is visible in the centre itself. There
to give importance to that part in so long a facade, the length of it
must necessarily be great, and to remedy this Inigo Jones introduces
two towers, the relief of which and their tapering appearance is very
striking and effective.

As you progress along the front you catch once more the lofty wing,
the columns, their statues, and the frequency of lofty lines is again
seen, and your eye wanders as it were between dullness and life. This
peculiarity— this attention to the varied employment of lines is pecu-
liar to others as also to Palladio, and to be seen in his Palazzo del
Capilanio and other buildings at Vicenza.

'i'he introduction of columns in a long continuous edifice seemed not
only to give the idea of support but to create variety.

1840.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

187

Assuming this, it is somewhat singular to compare any Grecian
temple with any mansion erected by Inigo Jones — or any palace erected
by Palladio. We see at once by what a different method the Grecian
artist produced variety in his edifice. The Greek was all simplicity —
his outline was distinct, symmetrical, unconfused, and shadowless, ex-
cept the portico. And variety instead of being beheld in the body and
bulk of the temple, is seen rather rambling in the cornice, whilst reliefs
are visible in the mouldings of the architrave, and the figures of the
frieze.

To analyze this subject more closely, however, it becomes necessary
to class the peculiarities of the perpendicular and horizontal lines ac-
cording to time, and as seen iu the various countries of architectural
renown.

The descent from the classical originals in art was by a comparison
with Grecian art, where symmetry ruled design to introduce extremes.
And though we see eliective compositions in Italy and elsewhere, we
perceive that the bent of innovation was to introduce the perpendicu-
lar— only slightly seen at first — with the tendency to give altitude,
appearing but faintly, gradually, and then only iu a part of the edifice,
undiffused.

The tower or some part en masse reared itself square, and without
pilasters or columns at first even solid itself in plan, but this very con-
trast to the other part showed the perpendicular in its infancy. Until
as the debased Roman architecture of the lower empire which forms
the foundation of the Saxon, Norman, and Lombard school became suc-
cessively improved in England and the north of Europe, the perpendi-
cular found its way into those beautiful modifications, termed Gothic —
and finally in the religious edifice became invested with a charm to an
Englishman's fancy. For up these columns in the cathedral the eye
wanders for repose, but finds itself lost in the intricate beauties of the
roof, and rambling amidst the strange and the wonderful, as amidst
types of the vast and incomprehensible creator.

To trace the first change from the severe to tlie elegant, from the
breadth of dignity to the delicacy of after times. We find before the
invasion of Greece by Xerxes, the Doric was the only order known.
Pericles_and Cimon, however, on the rebuilding of Athens, by the in-
troduction of the Ionic order from Asia into Attica, invested the an-
cient massive simplicity with something of the lightness and elegance
of grace. The Corinthian soon after invented, introduced more softened
beauty into the taperings of elegance. The edifice before this in-
debted to Doric proportions for its effect, becomes now more lofty and
chastely beautiful without violation to the simplicity of the whole.
'And this change is of great importance, when we consider in a Grecian
temple that the circular of the column is in itself a relief, that the pe-
culiarity in change is that although the result is elegance itself, as a
whole the principles of the change are very slight.

Turning from Greece to other states of importance, who for con-
venience snatch their ideas from the polished and the civilized. The
Roman appears crude at first in his attempts, alive to the beauty of
Grecian proportion, but fashioning a style therefrom peculiarly his
own. Unpossessed of the coolness of the Grecian, we see his ideas ex-
tending, the principles of his composition dirt'erent. Unsatisfied with
the novelties of ornament and recesses, he must pierce the sky — and
we find the Pantheon in its dome, the bursting as it were of variety,
as a grand feature (and this the result of altitude) from the cradle of
ideal taste. We see here the great father of lofty turrets, tapering
domes, campaniles and minarets, which with the declining power and
fading grandeur of Rome became so welcome to the Italian artist.

The removal of the seat of empire to Constantinople accelerated the
change— St. Sophia and its mniarets betray it — and at length variety
became too important. That which appears a foil to the Grecian
edifice appears no longer such in the Italian. The old relics of gran-
deur were neglected — Venice and Pisa new-born and wealthy sought
their artists from Constantinople, and the old standard of Roman ex-
cellence and pure dignity became less and less visible in the Lombard
barbarians. The .Saracen, the Moor, the Lombard and Italian, evince
so many poor attempts to turn classic symmetry into their own love of
tapering forms and fanciful outline. The Ducal palace at Venice has
the very corners cut away to admit a thin column — lightness is seen
here where strength should appear — a fret work of shafts is the sup-
port of an impending weight, and the whole is distortion.

Palladio however seems distinct from these errors. In the Redentore
church, Venice, Palladio gives a lofty elevation — the dome diminish-
ing in contour terminates in a figure. The dome itself is winged by
turrets pierced above and capped by a cone. The whole is lotty and
imposing, because pettiness in ornament is unseen; and the statues are
judiciously placed uncrowded, and themselves important features, but
the whole is but the grandeur of the perpendicular. In the San Pe-
tronio di Bologna a change appears, with the same love of tapering
forms, the same hankering after the perpendicular we lose the grandeur

of parts in the horizontal breadth, the intersections of the cornices, the
play of breadths, the friezes are scarcely relieved by the height of the
centre, by its diminution, by its statues, or balanced by the pyramidal
terminations of the wings.

The descent from the purity of Palladio was evinced by a frequency
of columns, but then again to have these, induced another fashion of
variety. To relieve the multiplicity of cokunns from offence, horizon-
tal lines were introduced ; cornices traced themselves throughout and
extended their fatherly protection to a host of trifling perpendiculars.
In the Baptistery at Pisa we see this, and most of those cities not re-
moved from the pale of the remains of Roman taste, displayed this
confusion ot lines. Proceeding in the direction of Milan, we find Lom-
bard Gothic and orders all united. And the miscellany, as in Milan
cathedral, seems to reminds us of the full grown dignity sometimes
seen in a dwarf, mixed up with his littleness of parts. Removed from
the relics of classic influence we find the |)erpendicular gaining ground,
we see the edifices of northern Europe, of Normandy, &c. beautiful
and their own — elegant though profuse — lovely though intricate.
Turning to Sicily we find the Normans introducing a mixture of their
own with the Saracenic ; and the cloisters of Monreal, the Alharabra
of that country, aboimding in columns twisted, spiral, light, and yet
singular, a mixture of perjjendicular and arch — full of wild and fanci-
ful conceptions. In Florence we find the great exactness in the
horizontal. The palaces there are so many feudal residences — edifices
nearly 300 feet in length, in which the stylobate runs along the whole
facade where the windows are widely apart, and the very roof frowns
upon you. — The subject is a curious one, it opens a wide field of in-
formation to the antiquary and artist — but to unite these two lines is
the secret of expressuig charms, and we love the harmonious union as
we love in the broad landscape, the lofty tree, the distant mountain, or
a church tower, and thus by grasping the great principle of effect in
nature, we possess the most mighty wand in creating and displaying
the perfections of the beau ideal.

Frederick East, M.A.,

Leigh House, Tooting, Surrey.

EXfflBITION, ROYAL ACADEMY.

ARCHITECTURE.

It is with regret we feel ourselves compelled to commence our report
by stating the present exhibition to be the least interesting one for many
years past; not because it contains a greater number of interior designs,
but because there are much fewer of an attractive kind than usual.
Always has there been a great deal of trash, but there have generally
been many designs forming redeeming points — cheering oasts amidst
the surrounding desert; whereas, this year, the latter are both more
rare and less brilliant. A desert, however, will not be thought the
most appropriate simile, the walls being, on this as on every other
occasion, crowded and crammed from the floor to the very top of the
room. Whether this system his any influence at all upon the quality
of the drawings admitted — whether some are not admitted merely
because thev happen to fit nicely into vacant places, while others are
turned out because they cannot be hung up without disarranging
something else, or perhaps causing a few square inches of wall to be
left bare, we know not ; which being the case, we are bound to presume
that merit obtains preference with the Academy ; yet if so, what opi-
nion are we to form of the designs which are turned out? At all
events, the Academy seems to act very naturally, because, like Nature
herself, it evidently abhors a vacuum — upon its walls— no matter what
is hung up in order to avoid that evil.

To be more serious — we have little doubt, for our own part, that
the public are deprived of seeing much that would be creditable to
the profession, solely because architects are deterred from sending
drawings to the Academy, being aware that the space allotted to such
subjects is so utterly inadequate, that it becomes a mere chance whether
they can be received, or if they are, whether they will not be put com--
pletely out of sight, as is invariably the case with a considerable pro-
portion of those which are received. In fact, there ought not to be more
than two ranges of frames hung upon each wall, on what is teclmicaliy
termed the line, which space, being now generally occupied by the
larger and more prominent drawings, the lesser ones, which — suppos-
ing they are worth looking at at all, — -ought to be hung as near the eye
as possible, are placed either so much above or below it, that it is
frequently barely possible to make out their subjects. Thus the
catalogue may be said to be in a great measure quite delusive, pro-
mising us what appear to be interesting subjects, and when we enter
the room to look for them, we find that several are scarcely to be

aG2

J 88

THE CIVIL ENOINEER AND AHCIIITECT'S JOURNAL.

[J I'

NE,

i'oiiiiil out, ;iik1 wlicii disuoveroil, all that we can discern of them is,
tliat there is something behind a glass within a frame. In many in-
stances, perhaps, we may lose nothing liy not being able to obtain a
more satisfactory inspection, but there arc- also others in which the
being prevented from doing so is lifghly amioying and tantalizing. An
instance occurs in tlie present exhibition, with regard to Xo. ilj'J,
"View in St. Peter's at Rome, displaying tlie general decorative
cliaracter of the interior," by J. H. Steiumetz, whiVh appears to be
one of the nmst tasteful and interesting drawings in the room, beau-
tifully coloured, and treated with the feeling both of a jiainter and an
arcliitect. We say " appears," because it is jjlaced so high that it is
imjiossible to judge fairly what it is. It may, perhaps, in consecjueuce,
look to be more elaborately finished than it really is; but then it is
just as likely that we now only discern the general effect, and that the
beauties of detail and execution are lost ; at all events, it is provoking
to meet with something seemingly so very good, so disadvantageouslv
situated, while many things, scarcely worth notice, are thrust full in
view. AVe should say that, considering the great size of the drawing,
and the familiarity of the subject, j\Ir. Hardwick's View of the Rail-
way Terndnus in Kuston S(|nare, ndght very properly have been
mounted a stage higher, nnu'e particularly as another drawing of the
same building was exhibited by him on a former occasion, inordinate
space, too, is occu]iicd by No. 9-11, "Remaii^s of tlie portico of the
Lesser Tem|)le at Haalbec," whicli has hardly any right to appear in
the Architectural Room at all, (mless it had "been elevated aTuong the
oil pictures which serve as filling up stulf to hide the upper part of
the walls. It is true both Hardwick and Rolierts are associates, and
may, so far, have the privilege of getting better places than their
neighbours ; yet tliat is but sorry satisfaction to us who go to look at
the designs the catalogue promises us. No. 942 is a drawing that
ought to have been hung level with the eye, whereas, for the verv
reason that it is suudl, it is actually //ourtir/; so that it is impossible to
exandne it without stooiiing in a most painful attitude, there being
not a single chair in this room on which a person may sit dorni to
look at any thing so jjlaced ; which, by the bye, seems to be pretty
nnich of a piece with the other jiid.'ciiiiis regulations. However, anv
kind of accommcdation, we presume, is consider^'d gciod cncjugh, both
for those who send and those who go to look at arcliitectural drawings.
.Surely there must be some other room or rooms on the ground fi(j(n'
of the building, capable of being made use of during the exhibition
for works of this class ; while their being thereby kept quite ajrart
from the pictures and other drawings would, in f icf, be a decided ad-
vantage in itself, if nothing belter can be done, we see no reason
wherefore a line of architectural drawings should not be hung up in
the hall, on a screen about five feet high, before the ])edestals of the
statues facing the stairs. To be sure, only a veiy small number could
be so disposed ; yet even were no more than a dozen meritorious sub-
jects so placed, where they could be distinctly examined, it would be
a great improvement, and we should feel grateful for it. We made
remarks to the above effect in our very first volume, and ought, there-
fore, (lerhaps, both for that reason and because we are now convinced
liow utterly unavailing they have been, to desist from all comments of
the kind. Vet the evil itself is so scandalous, so contrary to common
sense, that we must lift n|i our voice against it from time to tinu-, in
the hope (jf thereby inciting others, and the profession generally, to
take some steps towards bringing about a reform, which we can only
recommend. What, we ask, is the Professor of Architecture and the
Architect-academicians about, that they look upon such absurd doings
without ihtcrference .' Do they ever look info the Architectural
Room at all ' Whether they do or do not, they have equally nuicli to
^uiswer for.

Again, we ask, what is the Professor of Architecture about i for we
do not see a single drawing by him. Is his office become altogether a
riinecKre .' — he gives no lectures, he exhibits no designs; therefore let
Jns <jualifications for office be as great as they may, tliey are at present
■((uite nugatory and valueless. Most assuredly he docs not follow in
.the iiiotsteps of Soane, who whatever Ids other failings might be, was
••ertainly diligent and zealous in the discharge? of his academical duties.
Jt isno excuse at all for him to say that Mr. (Jockerell has probably been
prevented by his private engagements from devoting any time to Kxhi-
bition-drawinj's, because, as is well known, the latter are as fVe(|uently
as not made by artists enqjloycd by the actual a\ithors of architectural
ilesigns: and we have heard that Mr. C.'s own "Tribute to tlie Me-
mory of Sir C". V. reu" (see our first vol. ))■ -'>l), so much admired for
its pictorial elfect, was the work of another hand, so that his share in
.the drawing amininted to no more than the idea of bringing togetlier
Wren's principal tjuildings into a single )iicture. Surely the jireseut
.Professor might have allowed us to see some drawings of the Libraries
he is now erecting at C.uiibridge, and also the design which has proved
the successful one in the competilioii lor the Kandol])li and Taylo

Institute at Oxford ; some of the rivals of which are here to be found —
in the catalogue ;it least, if they are not all to be seen where thev have
been stuck upon the walls.

We do not, however, find among them any drawings of the design
scut in for that bnihling liy Mr. Ilalhnan, (author of the essay on
Gripco-Russian aridiitecture, which will be fi)und at page '.13 of our
present volume,) although it has been described to us, by one who
lias seen it, as being one (jf very great merit and beautv, which, to
say the truth, is more than we dare aflirm of any of those we here
notice, for they strike us as being of a very so-soisli character.
Whether Mr. Cockerell's will, as it certainly ought to do, hereafter
satisfy us that it was deservedly jireferred to Mr. Hallman's — sup-
posing the last to possess the taste and originality ascribed to it by
our informant — remains to be seen; though we strongly suspect that
originality and taste arc almost the very last points taken into con-
sideration upon such occasions.

Among competition drawings arc one or two for the Royal Ex-
change, also for St. George's ifall, at Liverpool, and we should proba-
bly have beheld some of those for tlie Assize Courts also, at the latter
])lace, had they been returned in time for sending them to the Academy.
Next year, however, we shall doulitless meet with some of them, biit
whether with that which has obtained the first premium is cpiestion-
able, because Mr. Elmes has not thought jiroper to exhibit his design
for the St. (ieorge's Hall, though it must be poor indeed if it shrinks
from a comparfson with Mr. i). .Jones's or Mr. Alexander's. We do
not like Mr. Jones' (Nos. 97 and foiti) at all : it is in a sort of Alliam-
bra-fashion, but after such fashion as to give us what is offensive in it,
without what renders it charming. Of Mr. Alexander's we can judge
only of the interior of the Hall (No. 917), but if its chief merit lay
here, and it was on this account that tlie second premium was awarded
to it, we must confess, we look with trembling towards the design
wliicli bore off the first prize. We have heard that Mr. A. himself
was somewhat astonished at his success, and so too are we w hen we
look upon this specimen of his architectural invention and taste: for
it is a sort of Meeting-house afi'air with a few showy columns forming
a gallery around the upper part like those in our modern churches,
and is about as original and as classi<-al. 'J'lie ga|is between the columns
have certainly one advantage, which is that there would be very few
of those iucouveuieiit pillars to intercept the ]irospect of wliat the
newspapers style "the galaxy of matchless beautv and loveliness"
that invariably graces all festive meetings where ladies are admitted
to be spectators. Accordingly we have here a display of lovely
bonnets and dresses perched up in the grilleries, and if such display
can excuse tli(? poverty of the architectural (me, gallantry we sujipose
ought to get the better of grumbling. No. 977, another design for the
same building by Mr. Bardwell, being a perspective view of the ex-
terior, appears to po.sse.ss a good deal of merit and some originality of
character; but vve are compelled to speak llms dubiously as its situa-
tion prevents its being examined,- at anv rate without gettinga cramp
in the neck.

We meet witli other competition productions in Nos. KlKi and 1001,
both for the Nelson Monument, viz., the latter a model of Granville's
design for a cast iron column, the other Mr. (ioldicutt's colossal globe —
we have heard it called " (-ioldy's Pill" — for the centre id' Trafalgar-
square — and which is mystically ilcsignated in the catalogue " A Vision
of the nineteenth century" — a very taking titl'^, no doubt.

Neither of Mr. 15arry's subject's (Nos. 923 and 830) have quite
satisfied, or rather both have disappointed us. The front of the Uni-
tarian Chapel lately erected at Manchester, is undoubtedly very far
above the average, and is judiciimsly treated inasmuch as it is not
made to look like a model for a large building executed upon a small
scale. Yet while there is nothing to censure, neither is thi're any
thing particularly to admire. The other design "for the additions
and alterations at Highclerc, the seat of the Karl of C'arnarvon," shows
the proposed conversion of a plain modern house into a mansion in the
I'^li/.abcthan style, by thi? addition of turrets at the angles, and the re-
ficiiig and decoration of the other parts. The circumstance of the
architect's being fettered by the necessity of adhering to what is al-
ready erected, as regards the general form and the position of the
windows, prevents us from considering this a specimen of what lie
woulil do if left entirely to his own ideas for such a subject : still we
should have expected from him greater freedom and taste in the ap-
jdication of that style and its details, wliich he seems here to have
merely copied, without attempting to infuse into them any originality,
or in any <lcgree, refine them. It is by far too strictly faithful to that
style to be much to our taste ; nor can we conceive what there is in
the latter to recommend it to the favour it has of late obtained ; for at
any rate it is neither economy nor elegance: more likely is it to be
the disgust of the soi-disant Grecian insipidities — bald and staring
sash-windows with a few columns stuck upon before tjieilij by way o

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THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITIXTS JOURNAL.

IS!)

poi'tico, tliiit lias iiccnsioniHl a relapse into tbe still', foniial, and fantas-
tical quaintness, and little frigid conceits of this semiljarharoiis manner,
wliicli, as it lias always ajipeared to ns, originated only in a blnndering,
awkward imitation of the Renaissance style on the continent. Un-
doubtedly there is frequently, in spite of all this, a good deal of piquant
and picturesque in our examples of this class. The proper course,
therefore, would be to study and select those qualities, carefully
eschewing at the same time, all the coarse dross and rubbish, and the
gingerbreail puerilities among which they are found, but which cer-
tainly do not tend to give them any additional charm.

( To he con I i II IK d. J

STONE FOR THE NEW HOUSES OF PARLIAMENT.

Sir — Several paragraphs on the subject of the stone to be used in
the erection of the new Houses of parliament having appeared in
many of the Lomlon and provincial neus|va|)ers, which contain some
inaccuracies and mis-statements, it may not be amiss to set the public
riglit in a matter which, though not of great importance, lias yet some
national interest.

It is, of course, well known that the Commissioners ajipointed to
visit the quarries, ami to inquire into the qualities of the stone to be
used in building the new Houses of Parliament, in their report ad-
dressed to the Commissioners of Her Majesty's Woods and Forests,
after giving a variety of details respecting the numerous quarries
they had visited, the buildings they had inspected, and the experi-
ments which had been made to determine the physical and chemical
properties of many kinds of stone, specimens of which liad been ob-
tained, conclude their report by slating that having weighed, to the
best of their judgment, tiie evidence in favour of the various building
stones which had been brought uniler their consideration, tliey felt
bound to state that for durability, ;is instanced in Southwell Church,
&c., and the results of experiments, for crystalline character, combined
with a close approach to the equivalent proportions of carbonate of
lime and carbonate of magnesia, for uniformity in structure, facility
and economy in conversion, and for advantage of colour, the magnesian
limestone or dolomite of Bolsover Moor and its neighbourhood, was,
ill their opinion, the most fit and proper material to be employed in
t!ie proposed new Houses of Parliament.

Bolsover Moor is an uncultivated and rocky waste in the parish of
Bolsover, in Derbyshire, a short distance north of Mansfield, and is the
property of Earl Batliurst; its locality, immediately on the publication
of the Commissioner's report, became, of course, an object of great
interest, both to the noble proprietor and to the various parties inte-
rested in procuring stone for the great national erection; but on a
more extensive and particular inspection of the beds on the Moor,
than the Commissioners had been able to make of them, they were
found to be deficient in their capacity of furnishing blocks of a size
and form, sufficient and proper for the |nirposes required in the pro-
posed erections. New speculations, therefore, arose, and fresh hopes
were excited amongst the many candidates for the honour of supply-
ing the material for the buildings ; it, however, was the fortune of
Mr. Charles Lindley, of Mansfield, an extensive builder and quarry
owner, to discover at Mansfield Woodhouse, about a mile north of
Mansfield, another bed of the Bolsover Limestone, extending over a
considerable tract, of a quality and character precisely similar to that
of the beds on the Moor, and which promised to furnish blocks of a
size and form suitable for the ])urposes intended. Mr. Lindley im-
mediately, and upon speculation, at a considerable price made a pur-
chase of the land, which was of little worth for agricultural purposes,
though occupied for them, and having submitted specimens of the
stone to the proper authorities, which, being tested, w'ere found to
possess the requisite qualities, and therefore proper to be used in the
erection of the new Houses of Parliament. Shafts were thereupon
sunk, to ascertain what the nature and extent of the beds were that
the field contained, and the result of the trials being also satisfactory,
workmen were immediately employed to get stone, and numerous
blocks of considerable size and excellent form were speedily obtained.

The contractors for the .Torks, with a professor of geology, visited
the quarry, and there being every appearance that the field would
yield a sufficient supply of materivd, a contract was entered into with
Mr. Lindley, and he is now actively engaged in forvvar<ling a regular
supply of stone to London.

Mr. Lindley is also the proprietor of an extensive quarry of white
sandstone (magnesio-calciferous sandstone), at Mansfield, which is
also highly spoken of in the Commissioners' report for its appearance
and durability; this quarry will yield blocks to the size of 10 tons,

and the stone will work well with the Woodhouse (Bolsover) stone,
a great advantage is thereby gained, because the sandstone may be
used for purposes to which the limestone may not always be suited.

On reference to Table A in the report of tlie Commissioners, pp. 12,
13, it will be seen that the Bolsover stone is described as magnesian
limestone, that its component parts are chiefly carbonate of lime and
carbonate of magnesia, semi-crystalline, its colour a light yellowish
brown, and its weight, in an ordinary state, per cubic foot 1.5 Ith. lloz.
Table B states that Southwell church, Nottinghamshire, (of the lOth
century) is built of the magnesian liinestone of Bolsover Moor, and
that it is now in ;;e)/£C/ condition, the mouldings and enrichments of
the doorway o;;/;Mm;^ as peiftct as if jiixt compkUd, and that the
choir, wdiich is of the 12tli century, and built of a stone similar to that
of Mansfield (Mr. Lindley's magnesio-calciferous sandstone), is gene-
rally in good condition.

'fable C, of chemical analyses, shows that the Bolsover stone is
composed of silica 3-li, carbonate of lime 51-1, carbonate of magnesia
lU-i, iron alumina 1-S. water and loss 3-3. Specific gravity, dry
masses 2-31('i, particles i-SSS.

All the qualities enumerated of the Bolsover stone mentioned in
the report, belong to the Bolsover stone found at Woodhouse, and,
like the former, the latter is remarkabU; for its [lecu'.iarly beautiful
crystalline structure, and is, rather than otherwise, superior iu its
quality and appearance.

I am, Sir, your obedient servant,
Mamjidd, Amicus.

•20th May, 1S4U.

TEACHERS OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, &c.

Sii! — In the last number cf your Journal, you have inserted a letter
from "one wdio has suffered," complaining of being the dvpc of an
advertisement in the newspapers headed " Offices for Surveying,
Architecture, and Civil Engineering." Now, as I sometime ago ad-
vertized with that hading, and as I reckon your publication too re-
spectable to deal in aiwnyinovx ulandei; you will oblige me by pub-
lishing the name of the complainant, so as I may learn whether the
charge is applied to me, and if so, set myself right in the eyes of your
readers.

I am. Sir, your's respectfully,
Mai/ llt/i, ISIO. Edwat.d Junes,

24, Charlotfe Street, Author of the " Principles and

Bloonisbmij. Practice of Levelling."

[Mr. Jones must be aware, or ought to know, that we will not \nih-
lish the names of our contributors; we consider that if there be any
parties wdio hold out to the world that they can teach " Surveying,
Architecture, and Civil iMigineering," or any one branch "in a ftw
lcsso7i!S," they ought to be held up to the severe animadversion of the
jirofession. This is the charge made in last montli'.s Journal by our
correspondent " one who has suffered." If Mr. Jones' advertisements
do not contain such a statement, he cannot be in any way injured by
the letter, but ought to be ready to support us in exposing such a
practice, which exposure can only benefit, and not injure, the respect-
able practitioner. — Editor.]

ENCROACHMENTS OF THE SEA.

Sir — The encroachments of the sea on the coast of England having
aroused ])ublic attention, a little local information may be not only
interesting but useful. I have always regretted having neglected to
inform you, in my former letter on this subject, that the village and
church of Warden, in the Isle of Sheppy, are now covered by the sea;
that since I came here in June last, a great jiart of Warden Point has
slipped into the sea, and great part of the island, from Warden to
Minster, is monthly going the same way, from underground springs ■
and want of drainage.

In the old History of Hampshire it mentions that the peo]ile daily
forde-d or waded across with their cattle from the Forest to "Vectis"
to graze ; now first rate men-of-war can sail over this place. The
destruction of the western side of the island is much hastened, in con-
sequence of the removal of stones and gravel for building and road- .
making.

Your obedient servant,

Sheerness Garrison, C. F. P.\RKiNbu.\, Capt. 73rd Reg.

May 14, 1340.

190

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[June,

ON REBUILDING OLD CHURCHES.

Sir — I beg to make a few remarks ou the impolicy, as well as the
bad taste of the Ecclpsiiistical Commission for IJuildiiig Churclies, in
throwing every obstacle in the way of repairing and reslor/iig old
churches to their former beanty and embellishment, preferring pulling
them down and building in their room, a wretched little brick building,
not inaptly compared, some years since, by a celebrated demagogue
and enemy to the leformed religion, to a dog-kennel tied to a sentry-
box. Is it doing honour to, or paying proper respect lo the cause
they advocate, to consider any building, however insignificant, good
enough to celebrate the worsliip of (jod mi How ditterent the feel-
ing in the olden time I Are we not indebted to the devotion and
zeal of our forefathers for the noble architectural remains of sacred
edifices, whose lofty proportions, grandeur and s\)bliniity fill the mind
with awe and solenniity ? — -even the Heathens honoured their Gods in
stately temples. A House of Parliament, a National Gallery, a Mer-
cantile Exchange, are justly thought wortliy of a noble edifice. Is it
not an insult to our God, and does it not bring religion into disrespect
and disrepute, when those who ought to support, and who themselves
live in palaces, consider a huvel good enough for their Almighly
Father \

Scrutator.

RAILWAY COMMUNICATION BETWEEN LONDON AND
DUBLIN.

The Committee appointed by the Lords of the Treasury, in pur-
suance of an address to the Queen from the House of Commons last
sessions, " that her Majesty wiU be pleased to give directions that an
engineer or engineers may be appointed to inquire and report upon tlie
relative merits, and the preference which ought to be given to the
respective already surveyed and projected railways following: —
namely, from Holyhead, ind Bangor and Chester ; Portdynllaen, via
Caernarvon, Bangor, and Chester ; Portdynllaen, rid Barmouth, Bala,
and Shrewsbury ; Orme's Head, via Chester:" and also, "that her
Majesty will be pleased to give directions that proper persons may
be appointed to inquire and report upon the best means of communi-
cation by sea between Dublin and London, as connected with the said
intended railways."

The Committee have selected the line recommended by Mr. George
Stephenson, from Holyhead, rid Bangor and Chester ; it commences
at the termini of the Chester and Crewe and the Chester and Birken-
liead Railways at Chester, and proceeds by Bangor over the Menai
Bridge to Holyhead. The line is 85 miles long, and has only 1,504
yards of tunnel ; the gradients appear to be very favourable, viz.

Miles. Chains.

Level 41 8

5 feet per mile and under .... 8 0

Above 5 feet and up to 10 feet ... 7 20

Above 10 feet and up to 15 feet ... 20 64

1() feet per mile 7 0

19 feet per mile 0 68

85

0

That part of the report which relates to the crossing of the Menai
Bridge, we have selected and given in full.

Pussai;!' of the Menai Jiridgc. — The passage of the Menai Bridge is the next
point of importance. It lias licen supposed that this would have presented
an insujierablc obstacle to the lines of Messrs. Stephensi.n and Giles ; but
neither of these gentlemen propose to cross the bridge with locomotive en-
gines, the former suagesting that the railway carriages may be drawn over
Ijy horses, and the latter by a stationary engine.

There seems to he no objection to either of these plans, and the loss of
Jime consequent upon them would probably not exceed one-quarter of an
hour.

The following observations will show the suliicieucy of the Menai Bridge
to sustain the weightof any number of railway carriages that may be required
to pass over it.

In tlie first place, as far as regards the mode of passage, no important dilll-
culty can be lore-seen ; the only question, therefore, is one of strength.

The weight of a railway passenger-carriage, with its load, is commonly
estimalcil at about five tons, and the length occupieil by each carriage, Irom
one connectmg pin lo another, may be taken at 22 feet, when several car-
riages arc in connexion. Tins would give a pressure of only '23 of a ton per
lineal foot on the length of the bridge, supposing the platform to be wholly
filled with such carriages.

Let us now see what weight the bridge is capable of sustaining.

It appears from the statement of Mr. Proyis, who was the iesident en-

gineer during the erection of this splendid structure, that tlie suspended part

between the pier consists
Of 16 main chains, including connecting plates, screws, bolts. Tons. cwt.

&c weighing 394 5

Of transverse ties 3 16J

And of suspended rods, platform, Ktc 245 13}

The total weight being 613 l.'i

The distance l)etween the points of suspension is .570 feet lOJ inches, and
the deflection 43 feet. M'ith these data, the tension in terms of the weight
may be readily computed, from the properties of the catenary curve ; but it
will, perhaps, be more satisfactory to derive it from the actual experiments
of Mr Rhodes, who superintended the erection of the chains, and who found,
practically, the tension to amount to 17 times the weight. This makes the
tension on the supporting chains from the weight of the structure alone to
amount to 1,094 tons.

Now to sustain this tension, we have a sectional area in the 16 chains ol
260 square inches, which, according to Mr. Barlow's experiments, made ou
the chain-cable testing machine at Woolwich, are capable of sustaining 2,600
tons, without injury to the elastic force of the iron, namely, 10 tons per
square inch, the ultimate strength being 25 tons per square inch.

If. then, from the absolute strength of tlie chains 2,600 tons.

We deduct the strain due to the weight of the bridge 1 ,084

There remains a surplus of strength of 1 ,506 tons.

which is competent, therefore, to sustain a uniform load (allowing the tension
to be 17 times the weight) of 'S."J- or 886 tons. Now if the bridge were
covered with loaded r.aiUvay carriages on both sides, it would only be equi-
valent to 265 tons, leaving still a surplus strength of 621 tons. The objec-
tions, therefore, that have been raised respecting the capability of the bridge
to bear the weight of the railway eaiTiages which it might be required to
support must be considered as utterly groundless.

Mr. .Stephenson proposes to establish a station at each end of the bridge,
where the locomotive engines would be kept in readiness to be attached lo
the trains.

DESIGNS FOR THE NEW ASSIZE COURTS, LIVERPOOL.

fWe have received several communications respecting the decision
of the Committee, and our attention has also been drawn to a letter
which appeared in the Liverpool " Albion " ; it contains a general
description of the successful design of Mr. Elmes, and some very ap-
propriate remarks ; we therefore give the article entire, with which
we hope our correspondents will be satisfied, instead of publishing
their papers, as we are so pre-occupied with matter, that we can ill
spare the space for any additional remarks ; however, we shall be
glad to receive any other communication on the subject that may
throw some light on the proceedings, in order that we may be able to
make some comments on the conduct of the Committee in the next
month's Journal, if found necessary.]

Sir — A plan has been pretty generally adopted, of late years, in respect of
obtaining designs for pulilic edifices. I mean that of advertising for compe-
tition drawings, and awarding one or more prizes, in the ratio of tlieir excel-
lence or fitness, with the imjilied certainty, that the hearer of the first prize
should have still more substantial reward, in the supermtendency of the erec-
tion of the future edifice. This, in itself, would appear, and perhaps is, the
best method that, under the circumstances, cotdd be adopted. It might be
difficult to point out a better ; but, Sir, a httle reflection will at oucc show, that,
however excellent this may be, in the abstract, it cnthely loses that character
unless it be invariably coupled with the necessary quahfications for judging,
combined with excellent taste, in the awarders of the honours.

I have held this opiuion, iu common with others who have given the matter
consideration, since the plan became general ; but, whatever coufirmation it
might have then required, the award in the proposed Assize Courts has now
amply confirmed. When I say, that the sub-committee, in this case, had not
the necessary qualifications to fit them for deciding, let it not be understood,
that this is done through any feehng of disappointment or personal hostihty
to gentlemen witli some of whom 1 am on terms of intimacy : on the con-
trary, I trust I shah be able to prove the position with which I set out to the
satisfaction of your readers ; but 1 may, at once, say, that I am not an archi-
tect, the truth of which is known tu you, therefore have uot competed for the
prize, consequently am not a " disappointed niau" individually ; but, perhaps,
as one of the public, this feehng is particularly strong, and more esiiecially so
when I look around the walls of the Exhibition-room, in PostoHicc-pIace. I
am uot only disap))oiiited. Sir, with the prize-drawings there to be seen, but,
with one or two exceptions, the whole. They evidence want of invention, in
the first place, and want of judgment, in the second ; and the two designs
that combme these essentials, have, for want of judgment iu the committee,
been thrust aside. The majority of the designs, prizes included, evince a
senile imitation of the Greek style of temple arclutecture, which, ever)- day's
experience teaches us, is neither fitted to oiu- wants nor our cUmatc. If the
Greeks had had either the one or the other, they woidd have invented a style

to have suited both; but invention with «« is at once crushed, the ambitious

1840.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

191

aspirant is unceremoniously thrust out of tlie arena of competition, and all for
want of the necessary qualifications in the awarders of patronage.

In proof of this, I shall, at once, draw your attention to the plans to which
the first prize has heen awarded, those of Mr. Elmes. By a narrow inspec-
tion of these, it \\ill appear very evident the Committee were incompetent to
the task allotted them.

In Mr. Ehnes' perspective drawing we have a very pretty picture, exquisitely
drawn, showing the Railway terminus, on the one hand, and the Assize
Courts, on the other, with St. George's-hall occupying a prominent feature in
the centre. With this picture, it is very obvious, the Committee have been
misled. It is a most successful deception. Now for the proof. The height
of St. George's-hall is about eighty-five feet. The fall of the ground, in the
direction of the Coiuis, is twenty-seven feet. The height of the Courts
at the lowest end is seventy-six feet. There should, therefore, be shown,
in the drawings, a difterence of thirty-six feet in their relative hciglits ;
hut, as the Courts do not come quite to the extremity of the fall, say thirty-
two feet. This difference, however, is most dexterously evaded, and leaves
us to imagine the Courts and St. George's-hall will be, to a spectator in the
foreground, ven' nearly of one height. Bnt this is not all. In this height of
seventy-six feet is included a dead wall, rising fifteen feet above the parapet
of the colonnade. This waU is so much set back from the fi'ont that it could
not be seen except at a considerable distance from the building. This, in
effect, would rob it of fifteen feet more, which, added to the thirty-two feet
above, gives us forty-seven feet, or, in other words, taking as nuich height
from it, within three feet, as goes to a five-story warehouse. Let it he un-
derstood, this is in relation to St. George's-hall ; but, in relation to itself, this
dead wall would, practically, reduce the height of the building to sixty-two
feet, making the visual difference between the Courts and St. George's-hall
about fifty feet.

The perspective drawing, however, docs not, in the shghtest degree, convey
this difference; but, in execution, this would be necessarily exhibited. Another
example. The stylobate, at the southwest corner, is shown only six feet six
inches high, whereas the real height is about thirteen feet. Moreover, win-
dows are shown in the plans, which are omitted in the elevation ; but, had
they been shown, they would have spoiled the eft'ectof the picture.

More examples of this natm'e might he adduced, but let us come to the in-
terior arrangements, for, after all, these are, by far, the most important parts
to be taken into consideration ; but, it is very evident, Mr. Elmes calculated
on the incompetency of the Committee to measure his perspective drawing
and compare it with his plans. The event shows he was right. This gentle-
man, in the document attached to his plaus, asserts, that he has complied with
the printed instructions, and that every apartment contains the full number
of square yards required by them. Ilis designs, however, show he has ex-
ceeded the limits by thirty-sLx feet in the length of the building, but this is
concealed in the plan, and is only to l)e detected by carefully examining the
section. His Courts fall considerably short of the areas required, which were
290 square yards for the Crown Court, and 320 for the Civil Court ; but the
space given by Mr. Elmes is 231 yards for the former and 264^ yards for the
latter, making a deficiency of 59 square yards for the one and 555 for the
other, making a total deficiency of 114 square yards out of 610; but there
are two lobbies at the end of the Courts, situated behind some columns, which,
if he mean to include, would leave a deficiency of 744 square yards. From
this, it is very clear, the prize was not awarded Mr. Elmes for strict adherence
to instructions, although he deliberately says he has done so.

Let us now take a glance at the arrangements for the transaction of the
business of the Courts. The counsel have to ascend 30 feet to their lobing-
rooms, and then to descend 26 feet into court in their wigs and gowns. The
jury of the Crown Court have allotted them a small room, 15 feet by 10 feet,
and for the Civil Court, one, 17 feet 6 inches by 9 feet 6 inches, neither of
them possessing a water-closet : this last omission, no doubt, is intentional,
— nothing on earth like it to bring obstinate men to a prompt decision.

The clerk of the indictments'-room is situated 30 feet above the ground
floor. The witnesses have to ascend that height from their room, which is
on the basement floor, and then to descend to the grand jury-room, situate
midway, and, ultimately, to the ground floor into court. The most casual
observer must, at once, perceive this to be tlie worst possible arrangement.
The floor of the judge's bench is 6 feet 6 inches above the floor of the court,
which is just twice the height it should be. The semicircidar form of the
courts is objectionable, from the irregular reverberation of soimd proceeding
from a curved surface. This has been so fully proved in other buildings
sirailaiiy constructed, that various expedients have been adopted to abate the
evil.

Another most important point, the hghting of the interior apartments, is
reaUy bad. He has resorted to the most clumsy and awkward expedients,
and all to render darkness visible. The judges enter a vestibule totally dark ;
and the attorneys, barristers, &c. could not recognise one another in the cor-
ridors allotted to them. In short, the general interior arrangements are ex-
ceedingly ill contrived, being so disconnected by having four different storeys,
beside the one containing the gaol arrangements, while in no case ought it to
have exceeded two.

Now, Sir, for a word or two on the architectural composition of the ex-
terior. My opinion is, that, in execution, it woidd prove a complete failure,
and disappoint those who have been ea tight by the pictorial effect of the
drawings.

The east, or principal, fa9ade is badly arranged. The portico, contrary to

the rules of architecture, and I may add a still greater authority, good taste,
is denuded of the most essential element of grandeur and beauty ; I mean a
noble flight of steps ascending to it : instead of which it is placed on a mural
stylobate, having an insignificant door stuck in its centre, as if by accident,
or as if the architect had originally forgotten to provide liis principal en-
trance.

The colonnade on either side the portico ouglit to have been full and un-
interrtipted in its whole extent : instead of which, it is divided into three
parts, with pilastered blocks of masonry, each eighteen feet wide. This, in
execution, would totally destroy that simple unity winch ought to characterize
that style of architecture the artist himself has chosen. This defect does not
strike the observer in the picture, in consequence of the admirable manage-
ment of the lights ; but, in the actual structure, this would be most unsightly
and oftensive to good taste. Not satisfied with this violation, he has placed
a Une of dead wall, fifteen feet high, above the broken line of columns be-
neath, w hieli, in effect, would appear to crush if, niieu seen from a distance.
This ungraceful method of acquiring height has, I have observed, invariably
destroyed the effect of other buildings where it has heen resorted to. I could
point out a much greater number of defects ; hut, at best, it is a most ungra-
cious task : however, it is better to do so now than allow the building to be
quietly erected with all its faults, and then cavil w hen it is too late to apply
the remedy. Upon the whole, I consider the decision of the Committee to
be altogether an erroneous one, because, if we put the architectural beauty
out of the question, the interior arrangements will require to be entirely re-
modelled to adapt them to the purposes for which they are intended.

It would take too much time to point out w hat arrangements really should
have heen made ; but here are a few omissions.

Mr. Elmes has no magistrates'-room, nor a room for the high-sheriff ; he
has also omitted the court-keepers' apartments and has not shown cells for
prisoners ; he has no room for attorneys consulting apart with a prisoner,
neither has he any room where a prisoner can see his friends on obtaining a
judge's order. The room he has appropriated for counsel is only twenfy-six
feet by seventeen feet six inches, and this is to accommodate upwards of 200
barristers, and this number, with the increasing business of the courts, is sure
to be greater. In fact, the room in the present coiu'ts devoted to this pur-
pose is much larger.

It might be asked, if so much is abridged and omitted, what has become of
the space, seeing that the plans exceed the given amount ? I answer, it is
absorbed in large galleries, to accommodate the public attending the Crown
Court. This is plausible, no doubt ; but wiiat is the practical result ? That
the morbid taste of that portion of the community who dehght in accounts
of murder, rape, and robbery will be amply gratified ; whde the other portion
of the pubUc attending the Civil Court have but small accommodation. Kx-
perience has suflicienfly shown us, that the disgusting details of criminal
comis act more by way of precept than example on the auditory w ho frequent
them.

In fact, throughout the interior arrangements tjiere is an utter absence of
that knowledge of the business of courts which is indispensible to their pro-
per arrangement, .\partments that, according to the practice of law courts,
shoidd he together are placed on different storeys, occasionally on opposite
sides of the building ; hence would accrue a continual traveUing up and down
stairs, and traversing long dark passages, when, with proper arrangement, all
these annoyances might have been avoided.

I think, after this, you must agree with me. Sir, that the Committee have
been misled by the beauty of Mr. Elmcs's drawings, which, after all, do him-
self, or the artist he employed, great credit.

Seeing, through the medium of your paper, that a memorial was presented,
on this subject, to Council, by two of our resident architects, Messrs. Cun-
ningham and Holme, I have been, in consequence, induced to gire their de-
signs a more minute examination.

Their second design, I mean the one with the towers, having a magnificent
portico, with a flight of steps leading tip to it. This building woidd have
been a real ornament to the town. It combines many desiderata for the pro-
motion of architectural effect ; but the towers alone are worthy of Martin.
Had they been executed, they would have formed a most prominent archi-
tectural featiu'C in the eye of strangers visiting us. I ha\e not studied their
design with a view to minute criticism. Had they received the first prize, it
is highly probable they would not have been let off so easily : however, there
is, at once, boldness and novelty in the conception of their plans, wiiich bias
me very much in their favour. As to the interior arrangements proposed by
these gentlemen, they are very much superior to Mr. Elmes's. They seem to
have forgotten nothing, but have rendered the edifice, as a whole, entirely
subservient to the purpose of the courts. Yet, if I recollect aright, these gen-
tlemen's designs were, at once, placed hors de combat.

In their memorial they complained that their plans had been set aside, on
the alleged ground of having exceeded the limits pointed out in the instruc-
tions ; while, on the other hand, the plans to which the prize u-as awarded
had, in a similar manner, also very much departed from fbem. Notvrith-
standing which, they were not only allowed to retain their place among the
final ten, but actually carried off the prize ! Now, Sir, I cannot help think-
ing they had just right of complaint. Bnt how was it met by the Committee,
in the person of the Town Surveyor ? At first is was denied, and then ad-
mitted, that is, " if the porticos Kere meant to be inclnded" ! This last, Su',
is the crowning joke of the whole. Hamlet, with the principal character
omitted, is a fool to it. " If the porticos were meant to be included in the

102

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[JUNi

measurement" ! Only think. Suppose your office is in want of a devil, you

advertise for one, liis niotlier applies, (if devils have mothers,) you want to
know his heiglit. Tlie lady ri'|>lic!,, •' Four feet six." Vou ohject to this as
hrine too small, when you are met with the uflcr Ihoui/hl, that that is his
height as far as his shoulders oidy : hut, then, he is a //eni? taller still, if you
mean to include tli.it most nniinimrtant portion of his corpus. Ofsneha
nature was our surveyor's answer to Messrs. Cunningham and Holme's ob-
jection. Tlie jiorticob hein^, 1 need scarcely say, " the ven heads anil fronts "
of the huilding.

In conclusion, Sir, 1 may add, that my only motive, in this Icltcr, is, my
duty as a hurgess, and a love of having ray visual organs gratified by beauti-
fid architectural objects, in my walks through our flourishing good old town.
I <im, an old correspondent.

One of thk People.
T.lrorpool, Mni/ \lt/i.

KXTR.\fTS FRO.M 'I'lll'; LOG OF TIIF. ARCflliNTEDKS.

rirxl Dull. April 21.— Light breezes from Norlhward. A.M. 7 .lO, left Do-
ver Roads with 1 1. M.S. Ariel for falais. Arehimedes rather leading. At 8-45
liMlh vessi'l.s made sail, with lishl »ind from .S.W. At 10, Ariel one mie
aslem. and Kiiil shortened. l(J-2a, abreast of Calais — beatmg Ariel by six
minutes-

Srroud Dull, .-//ir;/ 22.— A.M. 4' 10. left Calais wilh the Ariel— Hind W.S.AV.
and fresher than on the preceding day: Ariel rather gaining, but on sail
being .set on I, iilh vessels, Arehimedes came in first by iive minutes. Close
hauled the wlirde distance, and rate with sail and steam %%. Time of arrival
in Dover Roads, fi'42 A.M. A.M. 8-.S0. the same morning, left Dover Roads
with H.M. Packet Beaver— light winds from S.M'. 920. one length a-head
of rjeaver. y'l.'). three lengths a-head of Beaver — rate 9^ knots — engine
making 27 strokes per minute — barometer 20 inches. 10'45, 2i ealdes length
a-heaii of Beaver. IPSO. Beaver made sail. Noon — light breezes from ,S.W.
Beaver two-thirds of a mile astern. At 4o3 P.M. arrived in Ostcud Roads,
hetiting Beaver by four minutes.

Tlilril Dfiji. .■Ijiril 23. — To|)masts struck, and galTs down, » ind AV. — A.M. 9.
Pollowed in Beaver's wake through the Channel. At 10, going 95 knots —
Beaver a-bead one-third of a mile. 1P30. abreast of Dunkirk. At noon —
moderate breezes from W.N.V. — Beaver one mile a-head — Strokes 26 — rate
t-'J kniits. P.M. 2. maile sail — Heaver 1^ mile a-head — 9i knots. At 4h. 28m.
.'iOs. Beaver a-breasi of Dover Pier. — 4h. 37m. 30s. Archimedes ditto. — Nine
minutes in favour of Beaver.

Fniirth Ddij. April 2.J.— A.M. 813, started a-breast of each other with H.M.
Packets Beaver .and Ariel — h.ght breezes from 1'.. by N. — rate 9S ktiots — barn,
meter 26 inches — strokes 27. Beaver arrived first in Calais lioads by 2 mi-
iiules 4.) seconds — Ariel second, not ijuite three lengths a-hcad of Archi-
medes. 11'2.'). left Calais Roads in search of II. M.S. Swallow, with the Os-
leiid mails. P.I\i. 1.28, abreast of .Swallow. 2'.52, abreast of Dover Pier,
Shallow about two lengths astern— no sail set all this day.

Fifth Dull April 27. — A.M. (j'40, started w ith the Britannia Steamer for
Boulogne, she being half a mile a-hcad. At 7. on her beam — rate 9i knots
■ — Britannia made sail. At 7"1.'). made sail also — moderate breezes from
the N.lv — course South — 10 knol.-i — 27 stri.kes — barometer 26 inches. At
Oh. 2m. 4;js. rounded the buoy off Boulogne Pier. At 9h. 49m. liritannia
passed the buoy. Difl'ereiKe of time 21m. l.js. — of distance about 3? miles.
P.M. P")2. made sail for Dover — fresh breezes from N.E. — sailing and
steaming, close hauled. 9J knots, clear full, 10 knots. At 4, the wind being
fresh and dearl a-head, took in .s.ail — steaming, 85 knots. At .IIO, o(V Dover
Pier — having made the passage, under the above circumstances, and against
an ehli tide, in .;h. 27ni.

Sixth Day. April 28.— On Ijiis d.ay. Capt. Chappell. R.N.. and Mr. Lloyd,
i'ingineer from 11. M. Oock Yard atAVooIwicb, eommeiieed the superiiiten-
dence of the trials, having been sent down specially by the Lords Commis-
sioners of the Admiralty to report thereon. A.M. S-K, left Dover Roads
with 11. M.S. AVidgeon — moderate breezes, wiml 10. by N. — rate 84 knots — for
Diuigeness light, distance 19 nautical miles. AVidgeon first by ■'im. 30s. In
returning, against a head wind — rale, 8 and 7'i — strokes, 26 per mimite.
Widgeon betit by cxtictly 10 minutes. No sail set this day. M'idgeon is the
fastest of the Dover packets, her engines being of 90 horse power: her power
is thus 10 horses grciiler than the Archimedes, while her tonnage is 80 Ions
less. Most of the Dover ])ackets ;ire of 70 horse po\\er; they are, on an
a\efage, about 90 tons stnallcr, draw 4\ feet less ^witer, and are iiol so broad
by .5 feet. During the whole of these trials the sea lias been perfectly
smooth, anil no ojjporlunily litis hitherto occurred of displaying the peculiar
advantage of the Screw over the P.addlc Wheels in a rough sea and a strong
wind. .Since the above was A\ritten — in a run to Calais, in a dead calm.
Widgeon beat Archimedes by only ij minutes in going, and i minutes in
returning: — Time in going over, 21i. 9m ; returning, 2li. llni.

The French Government Sleiuner, La Poste, was beaten on this occasion
2.0 minutes. She is about 13.) tons, ;uid her engines of 50 liorse power.

On the Isl of May, the Widgeon and Archimedes sl;irted together for
Calais, wilh ;i moderale breeze, both carrying sail and stemiiing. — Archi-
medes perlormed the distance to Cakus Ro.ads in 2h. Ini.. be;Uing Widgeon
by 9 minutes. In returning to Dover, she beat the Widgeon by 5 minutes,
making the distauie in Hi. .Ojm., the fastest passage kver made between
France :rnd F.ngland by 14 minutes.

[To render these experiments complete, the quantity of fuel consumed in
each trip and by each vessel sliould be ascertained. — Kwtor.J

NEW ROYAL EXCHANGE.

Tmi: (Ircsham Committee met on the 7tli nit., to decide on the two |ilans
for the Royal E.vchange submitted to the Committee by .Mr. Cockerel], R.A..
and Mr. Tite. President of the .\rchitectural ,S ciety, and after a protracted
discussion, the Committee finally determined in iavour of .Mr. lite bv 13
votes to 7. The bnildini;' will now be jiroceeded with without del.ay. The
fullinving description of the design appeared in tlie d;dly papers : —

The design thus ;idopted possesses fetUures of a very striking character.
and i.i much approved of 111 the city. It will be recollected that the site of
the intended building is of an irregular form. The ground westward of this
site is to be cleared bv the removal of the luo masses of building which now
stand in front of the ll:mk, so a^ to h ave an oninlerrujited area from the
inlerscclion of the streets in front of the Mansion-house ; in this area it is
intended to place the statue of the Duke of Wellington. From the nature of
the ground, any form of building w bieli should adequately occupy it, must
be much wider at the east end than at the west. This irregularity is con-
cealed, and, though not rectangular, the proposed structure is' perfectly
regular in the pbui.

At the west end, the architect has pkieed a very striking portico of eight
cohinins of the Corinthian order. The width of ibis portico is 90 feet, and
its height to the apc.x of the pediment 7.'J feet ; this is 16 feet wider and 17
feet hiKlicr than the portico of the cluirch of St. Martin-in-the-Fields. Be-
hind tlip portico is the ccntr.al entrance to the Exchange, which is deeply
recessed within a large arclied opening, having on each side an arch of cor-
responding general cliaracter. When clear of the portico, the building is in-
creased in width by pilasters and recesses, making its greatest extent at the
west end 106 feet.

The south front, or that towards Cornbill, is an unbroken line of 2.00 feet,
occupied by a r.ange ofCorinthi.an pilasters, the intervals between which ;uv
divided in height into two stories. The loner of these ccn.sists of a series o|
rusticated arches, which comprises the shops, and the entrances both to the
E.'ichange and tlie offices; the upper story includes a uniform line of de-
corated windows for the principal floor.

The north front is generally similar to the south.

The east front is terminated at its northern and southern extremities by
curved corners, each containing three laisticated arches, with windows abo\e:
and fiom the centre of this front rises a tower 160 feet in height, terminated
by a vane, formed of the ancient grasshopper, the crest of Sir T. firesham.

Tbe total length of the building, including the projection of the portico, is
293 feet, and its extreme width at the east end is 175 feet.

'The area for the merchants is nearly in the centre of the edifice. If is a
parallelogram, HO feet in length from'east to west, by 112 feet from north to
south, and is entered in the centre of each of the four side. There is a colon-
nade of the Doric order round this area, which leaves about one-third of tbe
whole space open. Over the colonntule is a second order of attached Ionic
columns, with arched mid highly decorated windows in each inteicolumnia-
tion.

With reference to the arrangements of the plan, it appears that the ground
floor is principally a]i]tropriated to shops and oflices, except a ]iart of the
north-east corner, which is given to Lloyd's, and the south-west, which is
reserved for the Royal l''.xchaiige As.suranee-olfiee. On the one pair, or prin-
ci)ial floor, tlie Subscribcrs'-room. Commerci.al-rooin, Reading-room, and
other apartments of Lloyd's, occupy the whole of the eastern portion of the
building, mid about tw o-thirds of the northern. The (he.di.am Lecture-rooms,
lilirary. and other aixirtments, fill up the rest of the north front and jiarl of
the west. The south front, in nearly all its length, is given to the corpora-
tion of the London Assurance, w liich establishment is to be accommodated in
the new buibling : ;ind the remainder of the south and west is appropriated
to the Royal ExclKingc Assurance.

THE METROPOLITAN WATER SUPPLY.

Table shewing the foreign matters contained in one gallon of Thnmrs water,
taken from ditlerent parts of the river, and of the same quantity of the
water from the I'alley nf the Cd/hc— (See Minutes of I'lvidenee, 1840, p. 19.)

Thaiiiea water.

From near Brentford

From near Hammersmith

From near Chelsea

Sources of the proposed London and

Westminster IVater Company.
From Otters pool (main spring) . . .
From mam stream (Valley of tl

Colne) ".

From the river Colne

Carbonate
of lime.

.Sulphate of Total in
lime and jl gidlon.
common salt

Grains.
16
10-9
I6o

18-8

19-3
181

Grams.
34
17
2-9

2-5

2-5
32

Grains.
1,9-4
186
19-4

213

21-8
213

Besides the above, the Thames water, as well as that from the Valley of
the Colne, was found to contain a very minute portion of oxide of iron, silica,
magnesia, and carbonaceous matter.

[We were not prepared to find that the water from the Olterspool spring,
flowing through chalk, contained such a minute quantity of carbonate of
lime ;is2 grains in 70,000 grains, (the weight of a gallon of water), more than
water of the river Thames. To us this appears to be a very satisfactory re-
sult in favour of the proposed new Company. — Editor.]

D312B&:e's iPiVJiEHa; ginsiPirfsi'OiT iBmiB'&iE.

I'LATE X.

ri« ».

Fir,. ]..

fIG. fi.

C f ttirfifin. Ijih-'g^jph'T SouthampTDQ nuildlnt^.Holboni

1840.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

IDS

SUSPENSION BRIDGES.

WITH AN ENGRAVING, PLATE X.

Lord Western's Letter lo Lord Melhourne, descriptive of a Suspension
Bridge built across the Amn, at Bath, by Mr. Dredge, a resident of
thai city, upon an entirely novel principle.

My dear Lord, — Having heard that Government is about to expend
a further sum of money on the reparation of tlie Menai Bridge, which
is said to be in a perilous state, I cannot refrain from entreating your
attention to tlie vast improvement that has been made in the con-
struction of suspension bridges by Mr. Dredge, of Bath. During a
recent residence of two months in that city, I have had an opportunity
of seeing often the bridge that has been built by him across the Avon ;
it is a beautiful structure, and at once commands admiration of its
beauty and confidence, in its stability; I have communicated with him
frequently aljout it, and altogether the consequence has been so strong
an impression upon my mind of the vast and immeasurable superiority
of the principle on which it is built over anything that has hitherto
been attempted, that I have been led into this somewhat extraordinary
intrusion upon your Lordship on a matter with which I may be, I own,
justly considered to have no very intimate or scientific acquaintance ;
such however is the simplicity of the work, that I will not hesitate to
attempt some account and explanation of it, in the hojie of drawing
your attention in the first instance, which, if I accomplish, you will be
led, ■ 'hink, to give it a closer examination, which will produce
eventually as strong a conviction in its favour on your mind as it has
produced upon mine.

Mr. Dredge's statements of the superiority of the power of his sys-
tem over the established ])lan of structure certainly at first astonislied
me ; he has indeed proved by trials, in the [jresence of very many
persons, a superiority of strength to the extent of at least 15ll per
cent. These were made upon small models of bridges formed severally
on the present and on his new principles, each out of the same quan-
tity of iron, but he carries his calculations of the accumulating power
derivable from size and extent over and above the 150 per cent, shown
upon the small models to such a degree, that I will not venture to state
it; but if he should be called upon, in the way I trust sooner or later
he will be, to exhibit his system before your Lordship and the public,
he is confident he can mathematically and practically establish any of
the statements he may make, and I have little doubt he will bo found
to be correct. He insists on the possibility of reconstructing the iron
work of the Mcnai-ljridge at a less sum than the superfluous iron
would sell for, so nuich less is requisite than was there used, and he
pledges liimself to the power of the bridge, if the irons are altogether
altered and reconstructed on his principle to be capable of supporting
on transit 1,0UU tons. The Menai-bridge is believed to have cost near
150,U0U/., and to have consumed in its construction above "2,000 tons
of iron, and to be declared only capable of sustaining 733 tons on tran-
sit. Before I submit to your Lordship a detail of some practical ex-
periments Mr. Dredge has made justificatory of the declarations he
thus ventures to put forth, I will endeavour to give some explanation,
imperfect though I am sensible it must be, of tlie fundamental princi-
ple upon which his mighty fabric is erected ; I must give it merely as
it has struck my unlearned common sense, and which it has, from its
simplicity, with a force so irresistible that it makes me believe I fully
understand it ; in aid of my endeavour I have given a few drawings
on an annexed sheet, I conceive the grand foundation may be said to
be the rendering the chains strongest and indeed very much the
strongest at the base, tapering them by regular degrees to the centre,
where they come at last, in fact, to a cipher, from the ciphei' com-
mence therefore their size, weight, and strength, which regularly in-
crease by degrees quite up to its base, which base you know in a sus-
pension bridge is the towers of masonry on which the chains are hung ;
in truth, it is the application of that principle horizontally which is so
obviously necessary in all perpendicular erections, of superior size and
strength at the base, and tapering away to a cipher on its ultimate
summit; as for example the obelisk, the pyramid, the church spire,
and which principle he shows to be as effective horizontally applied as
it is in the perpendicular; indeed, it maybe said to be far more eftec-
tive, as it has to support iu so diflBcult a position, comparatively with
the perpendicular, its own intrinsic weight, and a heavy transit load
besides. The manner in which the chains of his bridge are formed to
render them stronger at the base is shown in plate. Fig. 2 ; and Fig. 4
is a section of one of the main chain of the Menai-bridge ; these are
the same size throughout, creating thereby an enormous intrinsic and
superfluous weight, exceeding that which it has to sustain on transit,
and this it is which constitutes the grand vice of the present system,
and which sooner or later Mr. Dredge's must supersede. Mr. Dredge's
bridge may be well imagined by supposing a church spire laid hori-

zontally, and met by another of equal dimensions at the point, as re-
presented at Fig. 8.

There is anoflier figure by which the principle may be more clearly
shown; it is the bracket; two brackets meeting at their extreme
points give a very satisfactory idea of it, as in plate, Fig. 9. Every
body knows that the bracket tapering from its base will bear hori-
zontally a great weight, but if it was the same size from the base to
its extremity, though it might continue to be called a bracket, it would
hardly sustain itself if it was any considerable length.* I have to re-
mark now upon another most important peculiarity in Jlr. Dreilge's
bridge, and that is the diagonal direction of the road suspending rods,
instead of perpendicular, and forming, therefore, as it unquestionably
does, a powerful contributary effect to the support of the whole, and
this is also most easily capable of direct practical proof. There is
still a further point of difference and advantage in Mr. Dredge's bridge,
which appears to me to be equally simple and as proveable, and which
also essentially contributes to increase its aggregate power and se-

Piiritv that is, its horizontal action or pressure, which is also made

obvious by a simple -and familiar figure representing one half of a
brido-e : suppose a straight rod of any given length, fasten a cord at
one end of it, and thence to the top of a wall, place the other end to
that at which the cord or chain is fastened against the wall, at such a
distance below the top of the wall as will render the position of the
rod horizontal, and it must be plainly seen that the rod is supported
as well bv its compression against the wall at one end, as by its cord
of suspension at the other, see Fig. 10. Thus every component part
of the structure is brought harmoniously to work and in perfect unity
of action towards the grand object. I will now advert again to the
Menai-bridge, and show further in essential points the difference be-
tween that and indeed most other suspension bridges, and Mr. Dredge's.
The actual intrinsic strain at the centre of the Menai-bridge according
to " Dreivry," page 1(37, amounts to 1,S7S tons, and at each extremity
1,943 tons. This vast intrinsic weight operates its own destruction,
increasing its self-destructive power as it increases in length; thus it
becomes vibratory, and upon a gale of wind blowing upon its broad-
side, it has a swing or pendulous motion ; this I have felt myself in
passing it, the wind blowing strong at the time.

On the other hand, as I have observed before, upon Mr. Dredge's
principle, the strain and weight only commence at the centre, increas-
ing as the strength of the bridge increases up to the base, and of
course its ability to sustain it; this dilierence between these two sys-
tems may be readily imagined. By supposing a ton of iron formed
into a bar of equal dimensions from one end to the other, as is shown
in Fig. 7, and fixed into a wall, it will hardly support itself, still less
any additional load ; if extended to any considerable length it will not
support itself; on the other hand, make the same weight of iron into
a taper form, as in Fig. (5, and it will support its own weight to any
extent, and a heavy extrinsic weight in addition ; Ixit further than
this, if the parallelequal-sized bar is cut away by one-half, (see dotted
line in Fig. 7,) it will then support itself and an extrinsic weight in
addition. The reason is obvious; it has discharged itself of that,
which was altogether superfluous and therefore noxious in the ex-
treme, being wholly destructive of power to carry any extrinsic
weight. In this figure is a singularly accurate exemplification of the
vice'of the Menai-bridge, and others built upon the same principle,
and the obvious good sense of Mr. Dredge's. Thus his genius has
led him, by the simplicity and perspicuity of his conceptions, to effect
a discovery which, I firmly believe, will turn out of great national
importance, the recognition of which by the country will, i am sure,
be felt by him as the "highest possible reward. Having thus endea-
voured to show the simple principle on which Mr. Dredge's system is
founded, I proceed to give you some account of some experiments he
has made practically substantiating the truth of it, prefacing them,
however, with a brief description of the expense and particulars ol
the Victoria bridge across the Avon, built in ISSlJ, and which has proved
itself equal to its inventor's most sanguine expectations ; its cost was
1,IJ50/., its span is 15U feet, andonly 21 tons of iron were consumed in
its construction, which, at 20/. per ton, is only 420/. ; the great expense,
therefore, was on the masonry and the timbers supporting the plat-

•' It may be remarked that there is not a strict similarily between Uio
common Ijracket and the bridge, inasmuch as the platform or horizontal line
is. in the former, above and in the latter, below ; there is, however, no real
difference. Tlie ]io«er of the bracket is compounded of suspension and com-
pression, that is, suspension from the fulcrum, and compression against the
tulcrum. In the case of the cummon bracket, the horizontal line which is
uppermost, being fixed or fasteneil securely to the fulcrum, performs the
suspenson part of the work, the arch or diagonal line below the compression,
attaching itself to the fulcrum widiout fastening; the case of the liridge is,
lioHever, only so far dillerent. that the arched line does the suspension part,
and the horizontal the cumpressiou.

2 D

194

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[June,

of wire, tlieir s|)aiis were 1 ft. (i in., their deflections (J inches, and
flieir platforms were 2 feet. The parallel chain model (old system)
broke down on putting six sacks of beans on its platform, weighing
about 13 cw*. ; the taper chain model (new system) bore the six sacks
of beans, seven sacks of malt, weighing 10 cwt., 2 cwt. of iron, and 11
men at the same time, all of which did not break it down. In Bristol,
Jan. I5, 183s, before Messrs. Protheroe, Guppy, and others, two otlier
models of eipial materials and dimensions were tried. The parallel
chain model bore 1,56.') lb. ; the taper model bore 3,GS1 lb. Again,
in Bristol, Jaimary 10, 1838, more trials were made before Messrs.
Acraman, Daniels, Hillhouse, and many others of the first merchants
of Bristol, Dr. Waldron, and many others of Bath, with models of
equal material ; the parallel chains bore 1,155 lb. ; the taper chains
bore 3,691) lb. Another trial before the same party on the same dav
■was made with models constructed by Mr. Cross, of Bristol, unknown
to Mr. Dredge, in order to prove that all was fair in the former trials ;
the result was, the parallel chains bore 2,632 lb., and the taper chains
bore 6,849 lb. Each model broke on adding more weight, and the
wire throughout on the taper principle was reduced one size by the
experiments.

Now, my Lord, all I request is, in the event of further repairs or
improvements being about to be undertaken of the Menai bridge, that
you will allow Mr. Dredge to exhibit some similar experiments before
your lordship or the Treasury, or before the Bridge Commissioners,
and in the presence of any of the most eminent engineers you mav
choose to summon. Finally, my lord, Mr. Dredge declares that such
is his thorough conviction of the truth of his theory, and its facility
of execution, that he would gladly undertake, at his own expense and
risk, the whole of the iron iiork, if he should be allowed to recon-
struct it, which he believes he could do, the bridge standing all the
time, and that it should be competent to sustain lOUO tons on transit;
the superfluous iron of the present bridge he is pi-etty confident
would pay him, and give a balance in favour of Government.

Questions may, after all, fairly be put to me to learn why, with all
these advantages of Mr. Dredge's system, exhibited witli so much
apparent fairness, has not his principle been at once generally acted
upon? Why has he not been called upon in many cases to execute
what he thus promises i Why, if he can build the proposed Clifton
bridge, as he says he could, for one-third or less than Mr. Brunei's
estimate, is he not called upon to do so ? One good reason is obvious
^a prudent caution on the part of the public di.->inclines them to over-
throw long-established systems, and to oppose or even question the
judgment of long known and respected authorities ; this feeling ope-
rates very naturally and happily in philosophy as well as in politics ;
but it should not in cither be carried to the extent of checking the
progress of improven)ent by well-considered means; too great a te-
nacity for old systems may exist in the minds of many persons, though
their motives may be good and their minds not illiberal ; Mr. Dredge's
principle of suspension bridge building completely overthrows the
theory and practice of a Telford, a Brunei, whose experience and
talents we are bound highly to respect, and to w'hose genius I readilv
offer the humble tribute of uiy admiration; can we then be surprised
that the public should evince some fear, and some reluctance, hastily to
adopt Mr. Dredge's novel principle or theory, in substitution of that
which has been so long acted upon? They ought, therefore to pause,
they ouglit to inquire if there are any persons about to direct the con-
struction of other suspension bridges ; it is a duty they owe to those
for whom they may be acting, to examine fully into the merits of a
novel system which pruinisca fairly such advantages, before they de-
termine to persist in the further adoption of the present, of the cor-
rectness of which the state of the Menai bridge, and the vast expen-
diture it occasions, may well create a doubt, independent of the ob-
viously faulty principles on which it is, I think, clearly shown to be
constructed. No Ijuman being was ever exempt from error, and
Messrs. Telford, Brunei, and others, must not be considered to be
infallible. I have only to add, my dear lord, that in making this
address to you, I have no other motive than the desire of assisting to
bring forward genius, and secure for the country the benefit of a most
valuable discovery and work of art, which apjiears to me, for want of
form or road, which are still of insufficient dimensions and strength,
but which, of course, are quite unconnected with the principle on
which the bridge is built; the chains are under 10 tons, and are equal
to sustain 5U0 tons on transit. In November he began putting the
chains of this bridge together, and in the following mon'di it was
opened for general use ; its road is stoned like common roads. In
further proof of the correctness of this system, tests have been made
before various parties at various times, viz., at Bath, January 2, 1838,
before Messrs. Worsams from London, Ball of Cambridge, and others
of Bath, with models whose lengths, deflections, and weight were
equal, the chains of each model between the I'ulcruras were onlj' 9 oz,

that encouragement which I think it merits, to be in danger, like very
many others, of being lost sight of altogether.

I have the honour to be, my dear lord,

Your faithful and obedient servant.
To the Viscount Melbourne. Western.

P.S. Your lordship will of co\irse understand that I entertain no
idea of expecting or asking anything more of your lordship, than a
reference of Mr. Dredge to the proper departments, with a recom-
mendation to give his plan of improvement due attention and conside-
ration, should Government be under the necessity of engaging in fur-
ther expense upon the Menai bridge.

[At the Adelaide Gallery on the 19th ultimo, Mr. Dredge explained
the principles of his patent suspension chain bridge, and performed
some experiments in the presence of several gentlemen to show the
relative merit of his suspension chain in comparison with one on the
ordinary construction. He had made two models of suspension bridges,
each 5 feet 8o inches long, and with chains of Sj inches deflection —
the first experiment was with a model constructed with two chains on
the ordinary principle, each consist! ig of 3 wires laid parallel to
each other as in fig 4, to which by the lid of vertical wires as in fig. 5,
a plattorm of wood was suspended, this platform was loaded with 7
full grown persons, and upon the eighth getting on, it broke ^oi^n.
The wire chains were fractured at the point of suspension. ,Jpie
weight of tile wire in this model was 6^ ounces. The next experiment
was with two wire chains consisting of six wires at the point of sus-
pension, and diminishing oft' to one in the centre similar to fig. 2, these
chains supported by suspension wires jjlaced obliquely as shown in figs.
1 and 3, the platform which was loaded with 11 persons, without pro-
ducing any fracture, until one or two of the party stamped on the
platform, when it broke down, the fracture taking place at the junction
of the oblique wires with the chain of suspension. The weight of the
wire in this model was only 6 ounces. — Editor.]

REFERENCE TO THE ENGRAVING, PLATE X.

Fig. 1, a view of Victoria bridge, constructed by Mr. Dredge on hi
patent principle over the river Avon, at Bristol.

Fig. 2, a chain constructed on Mr. Dredge's principle.

Fig. 3, a bridge of large span similar to the Menai, constructed on
Mr. Dredge's principle.

Fig. 4, one of the main chains of the Menai bridge.

Fig. 5, a view of the centre suspension of Menia bridge.

Fig. 6 to 10, diagrams to illustrate the principle of Mr. Dredge's
chain.

EXHIBITIONS OF COMPETITION DRAWINGS.

Sir — In my former letter it did not occur to me to make a sugges-
tion that might possibly be deemed worth consideration, which is,
that in exhibitions of competition drawings — supposing they do not
take place until after the decision has been made, there should be no
disclosure as to which among them have obtained premiums, at least
not until a given time has elapsed. The advantages that would
attend such a regulation are, I conceive, tolerably obvious, because,
not knowing which are the rejected and which the approved designs,
the public would then give their attention to all, at any rate to such
as appeared to them of most mark and likelihood, without prepos-
session or bias, whereas, when it is known which are the premiumed
drawings, those naturally engross attention, and the rest are looked
upon, by the majority of visitors at least, as the doomed, consequently
nut entitled to admiration. Public opinion would thus be left free
from prejudice, prepossession, and prejudgment ; consequently there
would be a stimulus to diligent examination and scrutiny which does
not now exist.

How far such a plan would prove a convenient one for the judges
themselves, is a different matter. Probably it would subject them to
a severe ordeal, and place them in an awkward situation ; for it is my
opinion that had not the fact been made known beforehand, no one
would ever have suspected that Mr. Railton's and Mr. Grellier's
designs obtained the first premium, the one for the Nelson Monument,
the other for the Royal Exchange.

However, so far from being made any objection to tlie course liere
recommended, that becomes an additional argument in favour of it,
because those with whom the power of awarding the premiums rest,
would feel a much greater degree of responsibility than they now do,
and would accordingly exercise greater caution and scrupulousness,
lest they should find themselves in a most disagreeable minority.
Those who would not care to submit their judgment to such hazardous
ordeal, are but ill qualified for the important office they assume.

I remain, &c.,

1 840. J

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL,

195

MOVING BEACHES.

" I acknowledge no authority but that of observation." — Linn.

The attention of scientific and practical men has for many years
been directed to the action of the sea, and tides which give motion
to tlie shingle, and otlier matter composing the beaches of our island,
and this important affair has been a subject of much specidative opi-
nion, but it appears not hitherto to have received that systematic in-
vestigation which is essential, hideed the contrariety of opinion so
often expressed on this subject, seems to indicate an absence of a
satisfactory mode of inquiry to obtain a practical and safe deduction.

Tlie coast of Kent and Sussex seems to have attracted attention to
the subject of the commonly called /raedtoig 'jeacA, under an erroneous
presumption that such occurrences are peculiar to those shores, but
experience, the result of practical observation, demonstrates that where
nature is placed tmder similar circumstances, as to her formation, and
the operations of the wind, sea, and tides, there she is immutable in
her results, and therefore in all parts of the globe, the movement of
the beach is the same as is observed on the Dover, or Channel shores;
but in no instance throughout the world has a beach been found to travel
along the line from one point to another of a shore or coast.

We proceed then to prove the egregious error so commonly adopted
as to the /rore/Zwg of a beach — divesting our statement of all terms
thati do not belong to, or which are not generally understood by
nautical and other persons that take an interest in this affair.

The flood in the British channel sets in from the westward, and runs
with considerable velocity in many parts to the eastward; it is during
the time of this flood, with winds blowing from particular points of the
compass, that accumulation of beach occurs.

The margin of all coasts tlu'oughout our globe having beach forming
the line of high and low water mark, is constantly moving, so as to alter
the angle considerably between the two lines. The wave falling on and
moving the beach (for there is no movement of the bed of the ocean
where the sea does not ^rea^-). talces it up, and deposits it between the
high and low water mark, in extraordinary tides and winds, and high
seas, simultaneously, and with mathematical accuracy, along a line of
beach to the extent of many miles, the largest pebble or shingle, and the
greatest quantity, forming the same into a ridge or bank, in a line pa-
rallel to the high water mark (Fig. 1.) ; from the commencement of
the shingle west, to its terminus east. A beach of sand is operated on
precisely in the same way, but if the beach travelled in a right line
with the coast, from west to east, than would the line of high water
beach be on an inclined plane from west to east, and in time a
mountain would be formed at the eastern terminus of the beach. (Fig.2.)

FiK. 1.

(FMf( rv'-j ii-jir, iY'-^'- ''~ H"? - ' : r--i^'^

:\

Jj^Vr

-w

Fig. 2.

It is correctly stated that a groin or any natural projection beyond
the line of coast, intercepting tlie tide in its passage eastward, would
have its weather, or to speak nautically, its flood, or western side filled
up in the form of a right angle, but that its east, or lee side vifould be
without any extra accumulation, to a certain extent this is quite true ;
this deficiency is in proportion to the quantity left on the weather
side, whicli but for the projection or groin would of course obtain the
quantity so deposited on the west side (Fig. 3.), but at a short distance

Fig. 3.

east of the groin, or on its lee side, the beach assumes its natural form,
and the line continues till it meets with another similar interception.
So then the only object obtained is an additional accumulation west-
ward, less its amount eastward of the groin, and let it be remembered
that this eastern continuation goes on, although the accumulation
on the western side of the groin has not filled it up, to its seaward
end, and therefore does not pass round it. Beachy Head, Dungeness,
the south and north Foreland are all natural groins, but the Bays east
of the Head to leeward, the eastern side of Dungeness, the east Bay
of Dover, Deal beach, (the highest of all modern accumulation, notwith-
standing the projection of the south Foreland as a groin,) Margate,
Heme Bay; &c., all simultaneously accumulate, despite of those ex-
tended projections.

The fact of the angular formation of the accumulation at the groin,
at once proves the direction the beach takes when thrown up by
the sea. As the sea, at all times during the prevalence of the accumu-
lating tide and wind, falls on the shore at an angle of 45°, so what it
lifts up, it throws on in the same direction, but if the beach moved in
a right line with the coast, it would fall on, and form at the groin in a
like line.

The next practical fact we adduce to disprove the hypothesis of a
travelling beach is, that wherever a line of shingle beach is inter-
cepted by chalk, rock, sand, or any other material, of which such
part of the coast may be composed, there no pebble or shingle exists.
On the rocky shore west of Dover, in which there are many inter-
stices, receptacles for various shell fish, there is no shingle or pebble
found in any part of those rocks ; if the beach at Dover, &c., came
from the westward, it must pass over those rocks, and consequently
in its transit some would be deposited in the holes of the rock —
but it is not so.

Captain Martin of Ramsgate, in his recently published book on that
harbour, states, that the beach north of Deal advances eastward at the
rate of one mile in GO years. A map of this part of the coast published
GO years ago, is before us, and Sto}ie End, (meaning the end of the
shingle beach, and the commencement of a sand and muddy shore,) is
marked thereon, and although GO years have passed away since the mark
was made. Beach End remains in statu quo. About 90 years have ex-
pired since the commencement of Ramsgate harbour, and therefore
according to this gentleman's statement, the beach in the vicinity of
Sandwich Haven, during this elapsed time, has advanced towards the
mouth of Ramsgate harbour, and in time would block it up, first having
placed itself before the entrance of Sandwich harbour.

In a Report of the Commissioners of Ramsgate harbour, made in
1755, they stated " that from the east there is a drift of large shingle."
It would be well if recent assertions were sustained by proofs.

Our next fact in this controversy is, that the pebbles composing
beaches differ much in quality, colour and size. Those at Dungeness,
differ from those at Dover, &c., and therefore the latter cannot be sup-
plied from the former.

Having said what we think is sufficient to expose the error, in the
supposition that beach travels from one point to another, let us pro-
ceed to show the real extent of moving beach; we have already said
that the sea takes it up, and lodges it on the shore at an angle of 45°,
(the angle at which the wave falls when it does not roll in perpendi-
cular to the shore) ; this inclination of the wave is aided by the flood
tide, which gives the beach so lifted up, an easterly direction on the
Kentish coast, inclining with the flood as it does on all other shores.
On a change of wind, and with an ebb tide, the accumulating power
ceases, and is succeeded by the drawback, or scattering power, and the
beach recedes to its former lodgment, going off in the opposite angle
or direction — and there it remains till the accumulating power again
removes it. This is the extent of a moving beach.

A shingle beach is not carried by the drawback wave so far seaward
as is a sand beach ; the gravity of the latter being more than that of
the former, it is drawn often 50 yards beyond the low water mark, and
there forms a bank, called by pilots, and beachmen the outer bank, over
which it is with much difficulty and danger passed by boats. This is
as we have said like the shingle brought up by the accumulating wind
and tide, and lodged between high and low water mark, simultaneously
along an entire line of coast. The shingle beach atOffordness, (formed
similar to Dungeness), along the coast of Norfolk, and Suffolk, round
the British Isle, and throughout the world is operated on in a like
manner, so that the opinion of travelling or moving beach being peculiar
to any particular coast is erroneous. Nature is, we repeat, immutable
in her results, acted upon by similar causes throughout the world.

It has been asked ho >v do you account for the increase of beach ?
Observation has induced us to be of an opinion that there is a pro-
gressive principle of accretion in the pebble or shingle. Quite small
tine beach is sometimes in great quantities found near the low water
mark, and appears to be the nucleus of the larger stone or pebble.

2 D 2

196

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[Junk,

We come now to a quoslion of much importance, and intimately
connected witli onr subject, viz., wliat is the canse tiiat one convex
wave rolling witli impetnositv on the shore, and receding back with the
like rapidity, leaves behind it a quantity of beacli, so that at the end
of the ilood tide, as the water falls away during the ebb, a large extra
accunndation of beach is found n]) (ovvards the high water mark? But
with a change of wind the same formed billow falling on the shore, and
receding back to the ocean with the like velocity as the former, takes
away with it the beach to a considerable depth, and scours away what-
ever is within ils drawback influence. We ask for a solution of this
problem, if buckets of water are thrown on a floor, each produce,
as they rush up an inclined plane and fall back again like eH'ects,
taking away whatever sand or loose matter is readied by the water —
not so with the impinging and rei'ediiig billows — one has an accumu-
lating, the other a scattering power.*

The subject of moving beach is, indeed, as your intelligent corres-
pondent Nota,-|- remarks, connected with the construction of piers, and
into which, as another of your correspondents observes, celebrated
engineers have searched in vain, and therefore the lack of correct in-
formation oil this point is one cause of the failure in improving exist-
ing, or in establishing eligible refuge harbours.

Nota has also niaile some judicious remarks on the subject of the ac-
cumulation of mud on tlie northern shore of the Severn. Whether his
hypothesis be correct or not, as to the cause of this, I will not now
dis]nite, but similar operations are in action in all bays and rivers.
The deposit on the shores of the Thames is similar every flood tide,
that the watermen are obliged during the receding tide, by artificial
means to cause an undulation of the water, so that in its drawback
course it may take away the deposit of the preceding flood, and keep
the shore clean.

Your correspondent speaks of a ship's rudder having been found 10
feet below the level of the shore, while excavating the Bute Dock,
Here we liave another proof of the progressive accumulation on the
margin of the coasts, hi the bed of the river Store, in the Island of
Slieppy, and in many other parts, the relics of vessels and boats, and
also of anchors have been found. Instances have occurred of stranded
vessels having been buried between the high and low water mark for
many years, and by the efiect of the drawback wave have again been
uncovered.

Much valuable land has been redeemed from the river Humber by
a deposit of mud, a large portion of the rich marsh soil in the vicinity
of rivers is an alluvial deposition, and a great part of Holland is the
result of this principle in nature, aideil by artficial means.

The great geologist Baron Cuvier stated that which we by ob-
servation discover to be tlie fact, viz., that all bays have a disposition
to till up, the water passing along a coast with velocity is charged witli
matter in suspension, this water or tide falls on the shore inertly, and
deposits the mud or that with which it may bo cliargetl, so that tliere is
a progressive action proceeding onward, which in time forms the bay
into a straight line, and this is often accelerated by the washing down
of each jioint of the crescent which forms the bay. I with deference
to your correspondent, we are of opinion that he has confined his ex-
position of this matter to a local cause, rather then to a general prin-
ciple.

Tliere is, we humbly submit, a prevalent error in the remarks of your
correspondent, who follows Nota, and it is one of those errors which it
is most diflicult to grapple with, it pervades the minds of pilots, beach-
men, &c., viz., the deducing a coincidence from a coexistence, it is of
the character of the old tale in endeavouring to connect Tinterton
Church with the Goodwin Sand. I do not apply this to him, many of
his deductions are correct, but I am sceptical as to the fall of Chalk
Clitr west of Dover, being the cause of the diminution of the bar or
lieacli at Dover harbour, if he had watched the effect of the late pre-
valent winds, he would have seen tliat this diminishing power was at
work niany miles east and west of him, from the North Foreland to the
Isle oj Jl'ight, &r., and on the northern and eastern shores; so that he
appears to form his opinion " from partial, and not from general laws."
This gentleman asks for a solution of the problem, (. e. "the cause
of the regular high marks successively following each other on Lydd
Beach V (as it does over other parts of Dungeness), we answer, the
same cause that has produced similar effects on other coasts — here
again we revert to general laws. It is admitted that each ridge indi-
cates a former high water mark, and that the present high water mark
is considerably seaward of those ridges, the inference necessarily is
that either the tide does not flow so high as it formerly did, or tha
the beach has been raised by some unusual flow of the t'ide, the latter

* The cause appears obvious to the writer.
T See Journal for May, 1840.

is the solution, and we observe like effects on other shores, &c. Deal
IJeacdi from a ilistance, southward of Wahncr, and north of Sandown
Caslle, including the site on which Ikach Ulriet at Deal is built,
is the largest accumulation of beach we know of, caused by one of those
tides we have spoken of, since which no such rise of the tide
lias occurred, but if we pass further inland in this locality, we find
ridges of shingle similar to those at Dungeness. The same effects
have been produced on the coasts of Norfolk, and Suffolk, traced out
by the like existing proofs.

The site on which stands the town of Great Yarmouth, gives a de-
monstrative proof of the accuracy of our deductions, it vvas once a sand
in tlie ocean, called by the Romans, Cerdic sand.

It is a very natural consequence that matter thrown on the shore by
an extraordinary rise of the waters of the ocean, should increir^e its
level above the latter, inasmuch as the annually decomposed vegetable
matter, (its own produce), &c., tends to cause such an efl'ect. Build-
ings constructed thereon have after many years been again taken away
by the raging wave.

We have only to remark on the subject of the sea advancing most
prejudicial on one part of the coast, taking away fields of corn, &c.,
and receding from another part, that we see similar eflects in various
jiarts of the world, and ha\-e an opinion on the cause of this, but it
might be deemed problematical for the present, therefore we with-
hold it.

In conclusion, we remark that our globe is progressively under
transitions, and while these are going on, we detect the change of sub-
stance, but not the principle of destruction.

" See dying vegetables life sustain.
See life decaying vegetates again."

Having lengthened this letter much beyond our intention, we con-
clude, earnestly and with deference to the opinion of others, by in-
viting investigtion on the important subject here discussed, and to give
it their serious and candid attention, and let it not be forgotten that
subjects susceptible of mathematical demonstration are within the
solution of educated engineers, but those relating to the change of
form of coasts, to the impinging of the wave, efiect of currents and
tides, and the disemboguing waters are understood only by practical
observation, the result of much attention, and long and extensive ex-
perience on various coasts.

Henry Barrett.

May 11, 1840.

CATHOLIC CHAPELS— MR. PUGIN— THE INSTITUTE.

Sir — In the Argus newspaper of May 10th, it is stated that " one
architect alone, Mr. Pugin, is at present engaged in the erection of
no less (fewer) than seventeen Catholic chapels in England." If such
be really the case, no wonder that Mr Pugin should be so impressed
with the excellence of the Romish, for it seems to have operated
almost a miracle in his favour. It would, however, have been more
satisfactory, had we been also informed at wdiat places those chapels
are, whereas, not one of the se\'enteen is mentioned by name. Per-
haps some of your correspondents will be able to point out such of
them as have come to their knowledge. As for Mr. Pugin himself,
he seems to be quite satisfied with the notoriety he has earned for
himself with his professional brethren, and accordingly does not care
to communicate either through your Journal or any other medium, the
slightest intelligence of what he has lately done or is actually doing.
There never is a single architectural drawing of any kind by him in
the exliibitions of the Royal Academy, consequently, if he sends any
there at all, they are invariably among the rejected.

Pray, does not the Institute keep some kind of record of all the
public works and buildings going on through the kingdom ? If it does,
you w ill have little difficulty in ascertaining tlie correctness of the
statement in the Argus ; if, on the contrary, it does not keep such
historical record, it leaves that undone which would, in time, become
a series of valuable documents. To say the truth, it appears to me,
and I believe to many others also, that the Institute stands in need of
a little filipping to rouse them to some exertion pro bono publico.
How happens it that only one volume of its Transactions lias yet
made its appearance? why is it that it has not boldly taken up the
subject of competition and its notorious abuses, undeterred by the
various difticulties attending any attempt at reform ? and why has it
not rescued the profession from the Black Hole at the Royal Aca-
demy, by establishing an annual architectural exhibition upon a pro-
])er and becoming footing? These are questions which, I dare say,
you cannot answer personally, but can any one else.

I remain, Ike,

P. S.

1S40.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

197

ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF OBLIQUE ARCHES.

Sir — In your iiuinber for April, p. ll(i, I observe some observations
upon my work on Oblique Bridges, made by ;in anonymous writer
under the sicruLUure B. H. B., to whicli I feel disposed to make a reply,
requestincr t~lie favour of a place for it in your valuable periodical.

In the first place I wish to premise that I tliink no author is under
the necessity of replying to the criticisms of an anonymo\is writer, and
that it would be more courteous if the writer of a paper professing to
be of a scientific character were to put it forth with his name.

B. H. B. in alluding to myself says as follows : " he observes the lines
of the courses of the intrados should be made perpendicular to a line
drawn between the extremities of the face of the arch, without ever
giving any reason for it, or making any remark on the subject farther
than that it should be so."

It is f|uite true that I did not assign a reason for this construction ;
because it is obviously in order that all the courses may be as nearly
as possible at right angles to both faces of the arch, and at the same
time parallel to each other. The greatest variation from the rectan-
gular intersection is at the middle of the development, or at the crown
of the arch: and at this point wdiere the course is nearly horizontal
the variation is of no practical iraportanct or objection: and it may
be shewn that it differs from a right angle by an angle whose tangent r=

(-:-)

cot e.

The two methods suggested, proposed, or recommended by B. H. B.
to be substituted for the above, are most extraordinary. His second
method which he prefers, may be described as a recommendation to
build an oblique bridge by commencing ivith horizontal courses, and
"summering" them (in workman's pln-aseology) as the work rises
upon the centre. In this way the unscientific ugly old canal bridges
were built half a century back. B. H. B. concludes his short dis-
sertation on his proposed improvement in the following words:

" The advantages to be derived from this are, first, that this angle
being less than that commonly employed, there will be less tendency
to slip ; and secondly, that being more nearly perpendicular to the face
of the arch, there is consequently more stability."

Every thing herein contained is merely assumed ; and most cer-
tainly I venture to say that the stability of the oblique arch does not
depend upon the courses being laid at right angles to the line hounding
//le development : it is scarcely possible to conceive anything more
rotten than such a construction would prove.

B. H. B. next says, "I am astonished at the serious errors into
which Mr. Buck has fallen in his last chapter, wliich is devoted to
further inrestigation, but which had better have been omitted alto-
gether. In attempting to determine at what altitute above the level
of the axis of the cylinder the thrust of the arch will be perpendicular
to the bed of the voussoir, he gives a formula which jiroduces the
strange result that the smaller the arch-stone, the lower will be the said
altitude, that is to say, the more secure will be the arch, and also that
it will be able to be built at a more acute angle. Another still more
strange phenomenon, the result of this formula, is that the greater the
skew of the bridge, the less of the arch will have to be supported by
iron dowels and bolts : thus an arch built at an angle of 25° will require
no assistance from dowels, an arch built at 55° will require to be se-
cured by dowels to a height of 25" above the springing." I will carry
the quotation no further, because I shall now proceed to show that
"these errors" are attributable to B. H. B. and notto the formula.
For the information of those who have not read the work referred to,
I will here supply the general formula which I gave for the value of
sin T. as follows :

Vr , r -\- e -. , / a . \ 2 1 a

1(1— ^cos'«)-f (^^-^sm^e^ )-^^sin^e

In this expression fl is the angle of obliquity, r is the radius of the
cylinder, c is the thickness of the arch, and t is the angle of elevation
of the point sought above the axis of the cylinder.

Now if B. H. B. will look attentively at this expression, he will
see that its meaning is precisely the reverse of that which he has
stated ; for instance, " the smaller the arch stone " (or e is taken) the
greater will be the value of sin t ; and this is because e appears only
in the negative part of tlie expression. Again, the greater the value
of e or the thickness of the arch stone, the greater will be the negative
part of the expression, and consequently the smaller the value of sin t :
and the lower the point sought at which the thrust of the arch is
parallel to'its face. And consistently with this, " the greater the skew
of the bridge," the greater is the value of cos- 6 which is also found
only in the negative part of the expression, and consequently the

Sin T —

smaller will be the value of sin t, and " the less of the arch will have
to be supported by iron dowels and bolts." This result of the formula
is said to be a "strange phenomenon." I have no doubt it is very
startling to the reader, as I know it to be to every practical man at
first sight, but it is nevertheless true as I have satisfactorily determined
experimentally. I have constructed a model of a portion of an arch
at an angle of 25°, which is semicircular on the direct section: this
arch stands and keeps its form well without dowels, (although it is but
a narrow stripj, wdiereas one made to the same scale at an angle of
45° will not stand at all.

B. H. B. proceeds to say, " the whole of these errors arise from

having given the expression

cosec fl cos T

(nearly at the bottom of

o-\ -ill- cot 9 cos T
page 3/) instead of ;- cosine (8 + (p) where <p is such an

S IT

angle that its tangent =

cot 8 sin T

This must be evident to any one

who considers that the courses alter their angle with regard to the
face of the arch, wdiich Mr. Buck has not taken into consideration."

Here I most readily admit that I had omitted to take into consider-
ation the variable angle at which the courses intersect the face of the
arch. I discovered tliis defect about two months after the publication
of the work, and immediately prepared a correction for it, which is as
follows. I retain my former notation and the expression for the altitude
of the point C from which B. H. B. says the error arises, namely

cosec e cos T

1 , but in this case I shall substitute its equivalent for the

segmental formula, or, ~ cosec 6 cos t, because the equation thence

derived is general. I sliall now refer to the annexed diagrams : those
numbered 28 and 29 are identical with those to be found in my work ;
that numbered 27 is somewhat difierent.

Fig. 29.

Fiir. 28.

i 7i, A.E

Fig. 27.

Let A B C in the annexed diagram, called fig. 27, represent the plan
of the acute quoin of the arch, then when the point A may have
ascended to the altitude signified by t, let us suppose it to be perpen-
dicularly over the point E, fig. 27. Let us also suppose A C tig. 27

c '

which is sec 8, and CC fig. 28, which z=: - cosec 6 to remain constant,

then C w hich is the summit of the tangent CC', fig. 28, will not be per-
pendicularly over the point/, fig. 27, (the extremity of E/ drawn
parallel to A C), but it will be at ^; here fg is the projection in plan
of the tangent C C ; now draw g A perpendicular to the face of the arch
B A, and to fulfil the conditions g h must be a horizontal line, and the
distance E h, considered as radius, if multiplied by the tangent of
IE K, tig. 29, must be equal to the altitude of ^ above E, tig. 27, or to

Q

- cosec e cos T. It now becomes necessary to determine an expression

for the distance E h, and first E i is equal to A B by construction, there-
fore E A = Ei — ih, or (1 — ih.)

IflS

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[JUNH,

fg ::= CC X sin T =^ - cosec 6 sin t,

c c

and - cosec 9 sin t x sin 6 r=— sin t 1=1 fl; zn ih
a a

EA = (1— - sinr)

c r -^-e

tanIEK

a

cot'e + sin T

cosec 9 cos t

••• (1 ■

sin

.(^

c ^r -\-e

cot- fl -f" sin r

cosec 6 cos t

)

of the tangent at li above E.
Equating these we have

e

(1 sin

a

..(^

cot' 8 + sin T

cosec 6 cos T

) =

= the altitude

cosec e cos T

Whence we obtain
sin T =

The vahies of t for tlie several cases of obliquity given in my " Essay "
are here computed by the formula now given, and for the sake of
comparison, the former values are also inserted, as follows :

By formula now given.

When e = 65° then t = SS'^ 55'

55 „ T = 38 (5

45 „ T = 36 35

35 „ T = 17 50

25 40',, T= 0 0

r-\-e

As before given.
27^ 17'
25 13
21 47
15 38
0 0

If the ratio ' " were omitted as suggested by B. H. B., the ex-
pression would become

(2-c^-^«-fa) (B)

Now in this equation whatever may be the value of e, the value of
T rem.iins the same, and when the arc is a semicircle

sin T = _ =r

a 3-1416

= -63661 = sin 39° 32' 24".

This result is in accordance with the speculations of B. H. B., but
it is entirely at variance with practice and with correct theory, and so
will any formula into which an expression for the thiclcness of the arch
does not en'.er. The formula A now given contains it, and will be
found correct. By this formula sin t continually approximates to, but

2
never reaches , and vanishes when 6 ^z either 25° 40' or 90° as it

7r

ought to do.

B. H. B. says, " in finding a term for CO, I would reject the thick-
ness of the cylinder, and consider the point O as that to which the
tangents of the small curves, which show in the face of the arch tend:
this is more correct, Ijecause the joints of the voussoirs being segments
of curves there can be no point on the face of the arch at wliich a ball
would roll down the bed in a line exactly parallel to the face; this
may be considered too minute for observation, but besides being more
correct it will simplify the question much."

Here, I beg to observe B. H. B. is again wrong, and for this reason ;
these curves of tlie joints in the face of the arch are all in a vertical
plane, and if the thickness of the arch be rejected, they must be re-
garded as lints merely, and a ball would consequently roll down any
one of them, or down the chord of any one of them.

My investigation proceeds upon the supposition that the chord of
tlie small curve forms one side of a triangle, the tangent of the intra-
dusal spiral another side, and a line at right angles to the face of the
arch, the third side ; this triangle must be supposed to exist in the
thickness of the arch, and to be parallel to a tangent plane at the

point sought, and therefore this is one amongst many reasons
why the thickness of tlie arch sliould not be rejected, even if it were
attended with the advantage stated by B. II. B., namely, that " it
will s.iiiiplify the question much." But instead of simplifying, B. H. B.
has |iroduced an equation without explaining how it is obtained, and
wliich he has not been able to reduce to a form for direct solution.

He infers from his equation, "that in all arches of a moderate skew,
the point t is about 40^ above the level of the axis of the cylinder;"
but 1 have herein shown that when the thickness is omitted, the point
is independent of 0, and always 3'J- 32' 24" above the axis.

Now, although B. H. B., with much complacency, has informed
your readers that my last chapter " had better have been omitlcd al-
together," I remain of a dift'erent opinion. That chapter commenced
as follows. " It will naturally be asked to what extent of obliquity is
it safe or practicable to construct an arch on the principles herein
given ? This question we will attempt a solution of, or at least to
throw some light upon it." How far 1 have succeeded it is for others
to decide. I am well aware that the subject is not exhausted, inas-
much as I have pursued it further since the publication of the essay,
but I have herein confined my remarks to tlie matter contained in
B. H. B.'s communication.

It may be proper to observe, that in all this investigation friction is
not taken into account ; but friction is an important element in bridge :
building, indeed, no arched bridge of masonry would stand without it-
if, then, an expression for friction were to enter into the equation, the
value of sin t would be very much diminished. And for this reason,
my first equation, as given in the " Essay," though not strictly accu-
rate, is practically better than the amended one now given.

Let B. H. B. take up the subject involving friction in his con-
ditions, and he may have an opportunity of rendering considerable
service to the engineering profession.

Your obedient servant,

Manchester, May, 1840. Geo. W. Buck.

ON LMESTONE IN IRELAND.

,/lit Account of the White Limestone which lies along the Coast of the
County of Antrim, in Ireland. By William B.\ld, F.R.S.E., M.R.I.A.,
&c., June 1837.

What is the white limestone on the Antrim coast?

It is of the same geological composition and formation as the chalk
strata in England; but it possesses a characteristic difference in being
of much greater induration than in general the English chalk strata ;
the dynamic unit of the force of crushing, and fracturing it by weight
may be taken as equivalent to nearly that under which the Scotch
Craigleith sandstone moulders into ruin.

The white limestone lies under the basaltic rock, and in contact
with it, it is generally alIo%ved to differ from the chalk of the south of
England only in its being of superior induration ; the white limestone
assimilates to it in the nature and arrangement of the flints, and organic
remains which it contains. The flints as mentioned in a former paper,
are dark and grey, some of them of a reddish tint. The large nodules
of flint are sometimes from eight to twenty inches long. Organic re-
mains occur in the flints; belemnites of the real kind are common, and
generally petrified by spar of a calcareous nature and sometimes
ammonites.

The white limestone rests on the mulatto, a rock consisting of grains
of sand, with specks of green earth. This mulatto rock corresponds
with the green sandstone found under the chalk strata in England ; it
also contains fossil remains.

Under the mulatto rock lies a bluish limestone containing much
clay ; this rock is analogous to the lias limestone of England, it abounds
in animal remains.

Under tlie lias or blue limestone are beds of marl containing much
clay, and in which are beds of gypsum or sulphate of lime (alabaster),
ami the rock underneatli consists of sandstone of a reddisli colour.

I have now traced the comparison between the strata connected
with the white limestone in Ireland, and the chalk strata in England,
so as to leave no doubt whatsoever of their entire and perfect identity
with each other. Besides, my friend Dr. Smith, the father of English
geology, whom I have known for more than twenty-two years, and
who has been iu the north of Ireland, and is acquainted with the An-
trim limestone, agrees in the description which I have here given of
it; further Dr. Smith informed me that the Antrim white limestone
was rock of the same formation as Flamborough Head, in England.*

• " Carbonate of Lime. — Almost all the varieties uf marble and common
limestone, together with thuse earthy concretiuns that take place in many
natural springs and caverns, as also the numerous class of substances called

1840.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

199

As to the hardness or induration of the white limestone ; I gave
a kind of dynamic unit of the labour or ordinary force em]]loyed in
boring into it for the purposes of blasting, viz., that the force of two
men striking with hannners were able to sink into the white limestone
at the rate of one foot in depth in half an honr, fjampers 1^ of an inch
in diameter, hammers about three pounds weight) then the elements
employed were the momentum of the hammers, united to the power
of the arm, and the time; this is the common labour or force em-
ployed. It may be asked what is the amount of it ? But to answer
this is rather difficult, because one element cannot be perhaps exactly
determined, which is the force of the arm united to the momentum of
the hammer; but the induration of any rock may be reached or mea-
sured in a more exact form; in boring with heavy iron cylinders, and
merely working with the simple element of the descending force of
the gravitating mass of the iron bar ; and the amount of this force may
be estimated by the number and length of the descending strokes, using
the following formula. The momentum of a body falling is the mass
or weight multiplied by the square root of the height it has fallen
through and by s-0-21.

The number and length of the strokes, and the time occupied would
be the measure of the force employed in sinking to any depth in any
kind of rock, and this indeed might be used as a standard of compari-
son to measure the amount of the manual labour employed in boring
through all the varieties of rock.

Sir John Robison, the ingenious secretary of the Royal Society of
Edinburgh, observes with great truth that much depends on the shape
and condition of the cutting point of the bar employed in boring, and
also on the goodness of the steel and iron. In operations of this kind
approximate results can only be obtained, and tliese should never be
determined, regarding any particular rock, without numerous experi-
ments on all the varieties it would present.

The hardness or induration of rock, as well as its strength to resist
crushing by weight are matters of high importance to the engineer ;
but has any scale yet appeared to measure the amount of these two
properties ?

The weight which rock can s.ustain without crushing or fracture,
may I think be taken as the amount of its strength. And the measure
of its induration or hardness to resist perforation may be determined
by the momentum of the descending strokes of an iron bar, and the
■ time employed. The law of the relation of strength compared to
hardness may be then traced from these results in all the various kind
of rock strata.

What are the causes of the disentegration of the white limestone ?
i. e. the chemical agents which act so powerfully in decomposing its
structure? To what cause does it owe its great hardness ? If it be
ascribed to heat from its close vicinity to the trachyte formations, the
lava of the more ancient revolutions, and which I admit is a natural
inference ; but then on the other hand, I ask to what cause can be
ascribed the high induration of the secondary limestone which covers
so extensively the plains of Ireland, so far removed from any kind of
volcanic remains or formations?

Indeed since' the discovery of the carbonic acid gas contained in
limestone by the illustrious Dr. Black, the science of chemistry has
achieved but little practically in unfolding the chemical properties
which give induration to the various strata of the older series, and
among which are to be seen the most beautiful, as well as the most
imperishable material for engineering works to be found on the globe.
Some of these rocks have been wrought at periods so extremely remote
that there is difficulty sometimes even to fix the epoch, yet some of
them carry on their surface the sharp unimpaired lines of the tool
after a lapse of more than three thousand years, and this is fully proved
and illustrated in glancing at the granites and sienites employed intlie
construction of those surprising monuments of Egyptian antiquity,
which have astonished all ancient and modern travellers.

calcareous spars, consist almost entirely of liniR in chemical combination witli
carbonic acid or fixed air, the fonner constituting someH hat less than threc-
lifths, the latter somewhat more than two-fifths of their \\hole weight.
Hence in scientific language they are called earljonates of lime. The car-
bonic acid or fixed air may he expelled by heat, or Ijy the addition of any
other acid : in the latter case an effervescence takes place, and this elicc-
vescence is a very distinctive character of calcareous carbonates, (page 2.)

■' Marbles and limestones are with respect to their chemical analysis the
same, they dilier only in their uses and external character. — (Page 3j, Kkld's
Mimratogy,

Limestone chalk.

Lime S3

Carbonic acid 42

Silex and alumine .... 2

Water .••.•#.. 3

100 Kirwan.

In concluding, I find that Mr. Pkiyfair, who ranks so high in the
annals of science, has alluded to the black veins which traverse the
white granular marble of Carrara having a resemblance to the sutures
in the human scull: — are those very remarkable fissures confined alone
to the calcareous strata ?

It appears that Herm granite is effectually crushed by a pressure of
6"G4 tons on the superficial inch; and that a cube of it containing G4
inches weighed Gibs. G oz., consequently a cubic foot weighs 172"125
lbs., and that there is 13"U13 cubic feet to the ton; then it takes 6*G4
tons, or SG-il cubic feet of its own mass to crush one superficial inch,
consequently a column an inch square of Herm granite containing SG'41
cubic feet would reach to an elevation of 12,443 feet, or 2 miles and
G28 yards high, or 3G times higher than St. Paul's Steeple,* before it
would reach its maximum elevation of crushing by its own weight at
the base.

Craigleith stone is crushed by about 3 tons weight on the superficial
inch, — 137-V cubic inches weighed 11 lbs. lUoz., a cubic foot than
14G-094 lbs., being 15-34 cubic feet to the ton, or 4G-02 cubic feet of
its own mass to crush a superficial inch. A column of Craigleith stone
containing 4G'U2 cubic feet and one inch square would crush at its base
by its own weight at the height of GG24 feet, or one mile and 448
yards, being more than 19 times the height of St. Paul's steeple.

A four sided pyramid of Herm granite whose side at the base would
be one inch and containing 8G"41 cubic feet, would reach an elevation
of 37,329 feet, or 7 miles and 123 yards before it would be crushed by
its own weight at the base, equal to 1U9 times the height of St. Paul's
steeple.

And a four sided pyramid of Craigleith stone whose side at the
base would be one inch, and containing 4G'02 cubic feet, would reach
an elevation of 19,S72 feet, or 3 miles and 1344 yards, before it would
be crushed bv its own weight at the base, equal to more than 5S times
the height of St. Paul's.

PUBLIC BUILDINGS IN LONDON,

A Critical Review of the Public Buildings, Statues and Ornaments in
and about London and JVestminster — 1734.

By R.vlph.

[In consequence of this pamphlet being out of print and very scarce,
we have deemed it advisable to rejnint such portions as relate to
those buildings that still remain undisturbed. Ever since its first
appearance, it has always been read by the architect with considerable
interest. It was printed anonymously, but it was well known to be by
an eminent critic of the .day, Ralph, the progenitor of Ralph Redi-
vivus, whose eft'usions have occupied several numbers of our Journal,
and created considerable interest in many of our architectural readers ;
but since the latter has deserted us, we hope only for a short period,
we shall occupy oooasionally our pages with some extracts from the
above work.]

As nothing contributes more to the grandeur and magnificence of a
city, than noble and elegant buildings, so nothing produces a heavier
censure on a nation's taste than those which arc otherwise ; it is for
this reason highly laudable to stir up the public to an attention, to such
elegant and proper decorations as these, not only in regard to the
fame of the people in general, but their interest too. One of the
chief re.isons why Italy is so generally visited by all foreigners of
genius and distinction, is owing to the magnificence of their structures,
and their number and variety ; they are a continual bait to invite
their neighbours to lay out their money amongst them, and one may
reasonably assert, that the sums which have been expended for the
bare sight of those elegant piles, have more than paid the original
charge of their building. "Tliis Louis XIV. was sufficiently apprized
of when he undertook Versailles, and the company that single fabric
only has drawn into France, has made that crown ample amends for
the expence of erecting it; and they have both the use and reputation
of it still into the bargain.

It is high time, therefore, for us to look about us too, and endeavour
to vie with our neighbours in politeness, as well as power and empire.
Towards the end of King James I.'s reign, and in the beginning of his
son's, taste made a bold step from Italy to England at once, and scarce
staid a moment to visit France by the way. From the most profound
ignorance in architecture, the most consummate night of knowledge,
Inigo Jones started up a prodigy of art, and vied even with his master
Palladio himself. From so glorious an out-set, there was not any ex-
cellency that we might not have hoped to obtain , Britain had a rea-

* lakiBs the steeple at 340 feet,

200

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[Junk,

soniible prospect to rival Italy, and foil every nation in Europe beside.
But in the midst of these sangidne expectations, the fatal civil war
coinnienced, and all the arts and sciences were immediately laid aside,
as no way concerned in the quarrel. What followed was all darkness
and obscurity, and it is even a wonder they left us a monument of the
beauty it was so agreeable to their natures to destroy.

Wren was the next genius that arose to awake the spirit of science,
and kindle in his country a love for that science which had been so
long neglecte<l ; during his time a most melancholy opportunity of-
fered for art to exert itself in the most extraordinary manner: l)ut the
calamities of the present circumstance were so great and numerous, -
that the pleas of elegancy and beauty could not be heard, and neces-
sity and convenicncy took place of harmony and magnificence.

What I mean is this: tlie fire of London" furnished the most perfect
occasion that can ever happen in any city, to rebuild it with pomp
and reguhirity ; this Wren foresaw, and, as we are told, offered a
scheme for that purpose which would have made it the wonder of the
world. He proposed to have laid out one large street from Aldgate
to Temple-bar, in the middle of which was to have been a large
square, capable of containing the new church of St. Paul's, with" a
proper distance for the view all round it ; whereby that huge building
would not have been cooped up, as it is at present, in such a manner
as nowhere to be seen to advantage at all, but would have had a long
and ample vista at each end, to have reconciled it to a (iroper point
of view, and give it one great benefit which, in all probability, it must
now want for ever. He farther proposed to rebuild all the parish-
clun-ches in such a manner as to be seen at the end of every vista of
houses, and dispersed in such distances from each other, as to appear
neither too thick nor thin in prospect, but give a proper heightening
to the whole bulk of the city as it filled the landscape. Lastly, he
proposed to build all the houses uniform, and supported on a piazza,
like that of Covent Garden ; and, by the water-side, from the Bridge
to Ihe Temple, he had planned a long and broad wharf, or key, where
he designed to liave ranged all the halls that belong to the several
companies of the city, with proper warehouses for merchants between,
to vary the edifices, and make it at once one of the most beautiful and
most useful ranges of structure in the world. But, as I said before,
the hurry of rebuilding, and the disputes about property, prevented
this glorious scheme from taking place.

1b our own times an opportunity oflered to adorn the city, in some
degree; and though the scarcity of ground in Loudon will not allow-
as much beauty ot situation as one would desire, yet if the buildings
were suited to their place, tliey would make a better figure than they
do at present. I ha\e now the late new churches in my eye; amongst
all which, there are not five placed to advantage, and scarce so many
which are built in taste, or deserve half tlie money which they have
cost; a cirounstance which must reflect on tiie judgments of those
who chose the jdans, as well as the genius of the architects themselves.

No nation can reproadi us for want of expence in our public build-
ings, but all nations may for our want of elegance and discernment in
the execution. In the first ])lace, there are very few of our fine pieces
of architecture in sight ; they arc generally hid in holes and corners,
as if they had been built by stealtli, or the artists were ashamed of
their works; or else they are but essays, or trials of skill, and remain
unfinished, till Time himself lays them in ruin. After this, it is unne-
cessary to menlion that our structures are generally heavy, dispro-
portioned, and rather incumbered than adorned ; beauty does not con-
sist in oxpi'nce or decoration ; it is i)ossible for a slight building to be
very ]icrlect, and a costly one to be very deformed : I could easily
name instances of both kinds; but, as I propose to ]ioint out to my
readers most of the edifices al)0\it town that arc worth consideration
on either side, 1 will not antici|iatc my design, but exemplify my
meaning, as I proceed, and leave the public to make use of it as they
please.

To begin with the remotest extremity of tlie town ; as there were
no attempts, till lately, ever made there, to erect any building vvhicli
might adorn it at all, there was the more necessity to be more par-
ticularly careful that tlie first design of this nature should not miscarry ;
and yet the four following churches which have been built at Lime-
house, Ratclifi', Horslcy-down, and Spittal-fields, though they have all
the advantage (jf ground which can be desired, are not to be looked at
without displeasure. Thoy arc mere Gothic heaps of stone, without
form or order, and meet with contempt from the best and worst tastes
alike. The last, csjiecially, deserves the severest condemnation, in
that it is built at a monstruous expence, and yet is, beyond question,
one of the most absurd jiiles in Europe.

As a fabric of antiquity, it is impossible to pass by the Tower with-
out taking some notice of it, particularly, as it is visited so much by
the good people of England, as a place made venerable by the frequent
mention which lias been inude of it in history, und famous for liaving

been the scene of many tragical adventures; but 1 must caution those
of my readers whoiire unskilled in architecture, not to believe it eitlier
a place of strength, beauty, or magnificence ; it is large and old indeed,
and has a ibrmiilable row of cannons before it, to fire on rejoicing days.

The front of the cliurcli lately rebuilt in Bishopsgate Street is, I
tliink, more in taste tlian most about town; the parts it is composed
of are sinqile, beautiful, and harmonious, and the whole deserves to
be admired, for jileasing so much, at so little expence.

From hence we may pass on to the South Sea House, and there we
shall have some reason to wonder that, when the taste of building is
so much improved among us, we see so little sign of it here; at the
same expence they might have raised an edifice which would have
charmed the most profound judges ; beauty is as cheap as deformily
with respect to the pocket, but it is easier to find money than genius,
and that is the re;ison so many build and so few succeed.

The tower of St. Michael's, Cornhill, though in the Gothic style of
architecture, is undoubtedly a very magnificent pile of building, and
deserves very justly to be esteemed the finest thing of that sort in
London.

The iMouument is undoubtedly the noblest modern column in the
world: iiav, in some respects it may justly vie with those celebrated
ones of antiquity, which are consecrated to the names of Trajan and
Antonine. Nothing can be more bold and surprising, nothing more
beautiful and harmonious; the has relief at the base, allowing for
some few defects, is finely imagined and executed as well, and nothing
material can be cavilled with but the inscriptions round about it.
Nothing, indeed, can be more ridiculous than its situation, unless the
reason which is assigned for so doing. I am of opinicni if it had been
raised where Cheapside Conduit stood, it would have been as effectual
a remonstrance of the misfortune it is designed to record, and would
at once have added an inexpressible beauty to the vista, and received
as much as it gave.

The church in Walbrook, so little known among us, is famous all
over Europe, and is justly reputed the master-piece of the celebrated
Sir Christopher Wren. Perhaps Italy itself can produce no modern
building that can vie with this in taste or proportion; tliere is not a
beauty which the plan would admit of, that is not to be found here in
its greatest perfection, and foreigners very justly call our judgment in
question for understanding its graces no better, and allowing it no
higher a degree of fame.

The steeple of Bow church is another master-piece in a peculiar
kind of building, which has no fixed rules to direct it, nor is it to be
reduced to any settled laws of beauty ; without doubt, if we consider
it only as a part of some other building, it can be esteemed no other
than a delightful absurdily : hut if either considered in itself, or as a
decoration of a whole city in prospect, not only to Ije justified but ad-
mired. That which we have now mentioned is beyond question as
perfect as human imagination can contrive or execute, and till wo see
it outdone, we shall hardly think it to be equalled.

I thuik it proper to recommend the steeple of Foster Lane to the
attention of the jiassenger ; it is not a glaring pile that strikes the eye
at the first view with an idea of grandeur and magnilicence : but then
the beautiful pyramid it forms, and the just and well-proportioned
simplicity of all its parts, satisfy the mind so elfectually, that nothing
seems to be wanting, and nothing can be spared.

The new church in Old-street is so slight and trifling a building that
it is not worth the trouble of a visit ; for which reason we shall choose
rather to cross over to Smithfield, neglecting the Chartrciix (Charter-
house), at the same time, because the building is so entirely rude and
irregular, that it admits of nothing like criticism : its situation indeed
in the midst of a garden is fine, and the square in the front of it is at
least kept in better order than most in town.

In Smithfield we shall see a vast area, that is capable of great beauty,
but is at ])resent destitute of all; a scene of filth and nastiness, one of
the most nauseous places in the whole town; it is true, the use which
is made of it as a market is something of an excuse for it, and in some
degree atones for the want of that decency which would iini)rove it
so much: yet still it is my opinion that ways and means might be
found to make it tolerable at least, and an obelisk, pyianiid, or statue,
in the centre, defended with handsome and substantial rails, would go
a great way in so desirable a project.

On one side of this irregular ])lacc is the enlrancc, not the front, of
a magnificent hosipital ; in a taste not altogether amiss, Ijut so erro-
neous in point of proportion, that it rather offends than entertains ;
but what is still more provoking, the building itself is entirely de-
tached from the entrance, and though so near a large and noble o]ieu-
ing, is in a manner stiflinl with the circumjacent houses : it is indeed
a building in a box or case ; and though beautiful in itself and erected
at ju'odigious expence, is so far from giving pleasvu'c to a judge, that
he would rather regret its being built at all. It is certain that where

C^€//^</^Mo floats ^^/wi/t^M^^ c/imMe^^ =.^^«^^

Ctvi/ JiMoirie^rrinji,-lrcA^eer«,/(^ima/_ Jtm^, M40

1840.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

201

the ground will admit of it, public buildings can hardly be too grand
and magnificent ; but where they cannot be seen when finished, use
and convenience only should be consulted, and a pile of rough stones
from the quarry, w-ould answer the end, as well as the marble of Egypt
with the decorations of Greece or Rome.

Newgate, considered as a prison, is a structure of more cost and
beauty than was necessary, because the sumptuousness of the out-side
but aggravates the misery of the wretches within : but as a gate to
such a city as London, it might have received considerable additions
both of design and execution, and abundantly answered the cost in the
reputation of building.

The Physicians College, in Warwick-lane, Newgate-street, (now
occupied as a market on the ground floor,) a structure little known and
seldom talked of, is a. building of wonderful delicacy, and eminently
deserves to be considered among the noblest ornaments of this city ;
and yet so unlucky is its situation, that it can never be seen to advan-
tage, nay seldom seen at all, and wdiat ought to be conspicuous to
every body, is known only to a few, and those too people of curiosity,
who search out their own entertainments, and do not wait for the im-
pressions of vulgar reports or common fame, to cs.cite their attention
or influence their judgments.

The hall of justice at the Old Bailey, and indeed all the courts I
have ever yet seen in England are justly to be excepted to, as wanting
that grandeur, that augustness, that decency, and solemnity which
ought to be inseparable irom them, in order to give men in general a
suitable awe for the place, and strike offenders with a terror, even
more forcible than the sentence they were to undergo. The form of a
theatre agrees best with a place of "this nature : that part of the build-
ing wdiich is the stage, would answer exactly for the bench, the pit for
the council, prisoners, &c., and the circle round it, for the spectators:
but the present form of these assemblies is utterly ojiposite to this
regularity, and instead of representing the wdiole' in cue grand and
comprehensive view, divides it into me'amiess and confusion.

(To be continued.)

PAPIER MACHE.

Extracts from an Historical Account of the Application of Papier Mache
for Architectural Ornaments. By Charles Frederick Bielefeld.

WITH AN ENGRAVING, PLATE XI.

Of the Interior of the Pantlieon, Oxford Street.

[The following account we have selected from the preface to Mr.
Bielefeld's work on Papier Machi- ornaments ; the subjoined plate
shows how far Papier Mache may be introduced with consitlerable
taste, and a richness of effect produced, which is not so easily ob-
tained by any other kind of ornament at the same ex]ience, besides
the facility it affords in being fixed immediately the carpenters' work
is finished, and painted directly afterwards.]

" Though paper be one of fhe commonest bodies that we use, there are
very few that imagine it is lit to be employed other ways than ia writing, or
printing, or wrapping up of other things, or about some such obvious piece
of service, without dreaming that frames of pictures and divers fine pieces of
embossed work, with other carious moveables, may, as trial has informed us,
be made of it." — (Of man's great ignorance of the uses of natural things ;
Boyle, vol. ni. page 485, ed. m.dcc.lxxii.

Notwithstanding the name that has been given to the material, which
would seem to imply that it is of French extraction, there is yet very good
reason to believe that to England is to he attributed the merit of first apply-
ing this manufacture to important uses. Light and trivial articles, snch as
snuff-boxes, cups, &c. had, on the Continent, been made of Papier-Mache for
a long course of time ; but, from the following passage from an article " sur
I'Art de Moulage," in the " EncyclopucUe Mcthodiqne," we may safely con-
jecture that here first it was apphed to the builder's purposes : " Les Anglois
font en carton les ornamens des plafonds que nous faisons en platre : ils sont
plus durables ; sc dctachent difficUement, on s'ils se detachent, le danger est
md et la reparation est peu (hspendieuse." (Vol. v. Paris, 1788.) We may
here take occasion to remark, that the writer of the above passage appears to
have perfectly understood the pecuUar merits of Papier-lluche ; and it woidd
be impossible to explain more concisely or more accurately than in that short
paragraph, the more valuable qualities of this material. The particular cir-
cumstances that gave rise to the adoption of Papier-Mache by the architec-
tural decorator in England, deserves the especial notice of all who are inte-
rested ia the welfare of our manufactures.

It should be premised, that with the Ehzahcthan style, or the " renaissance,"
of England, enriched plaster cedings were very generally brought into use,
and in the more classic or ItaUan styles that followed, the same material was
still more extensively and more boldly employed. As the art advanced,
plaster became partially substituted for carved or panelled wood wainscoting
ou walls ! botli in that situation and upon ceilings, foliage of the highest re-

lief and of the richest character, may at the present day he found in the more
important edifices remaining of the 17th and beginning of the 18th cen-
turies : these enrichments were generally worked or rather modelled by the
hand upon the stucco in its place, whilst still in a soft and plastic state.

As this work had to be done on the spot, and with much ra])idity of exe-
cution, in order to prevent the stucco from setting before it had acquired the
intended form, the art was somewhat difficult ; tlie workman had to design
almost as he worked : therefore, to do it well, it was necessary that he should
have some of the acquirements and qualities of an artist. This circumstance
of com'se tended very much to hmit the number of workmen, and theh pay
became proportionably large.

It was no unnatural consequence that artisans thus circumstanced assumed
a consequence that belonged not to their humble rank in hfe j it ia said that
they might have been seen coming to their work girt with swords, and hav-
ing their wrists adorned with lace ruffles. Such a state of things was, as may
be conceived, attended with many inconveniences to their employers ; it was
scarcely possilile to preserve that subordination so essentially necessary in
carrying on the business of a builder, and ultimately the workers in stucco,
laying aside all restraint, combined together to extort from their employers
a most inordinate rate of wages. It would be supeiliuous here to detail all
the circumstances that followed ; it is sufficient to state that, as might have
been anticipated, the total ruin of their art was the final result of these de-
lusive efforts to promote their individual interests.

Contrivances were resorted to by tl e masters, which soon supplanted the
old mode of working in stucco. The art of moulding and casting in plaster,
as previously practised in France, was generally introduced, and the art of
jireparing the pulp of paper became improved and extended, so as ultimately
to render practicable the adoption of Papier-Miiche in the formation of archi-
tectural decorations. Thus .at last was extinguished the original mode of
producing stucco ornaments, and there probably has not been for many years
a single inilividual in England accustomed to that business.

The superior cheapness of the ])rocess of casting in plaster bro\ight it into
almost universal use ; for, although in the course of the last century an im-
mense trade was carried on in the manufacture* of architectural and other
ornaments in Papier-Mache, yet the poverty of taste they generally displayed,
.and the imperfection of machinery at that time, which i)revented this ma-
terial from coping with plaster in respect to price, ultimately caused its dis-
use. The mannfactiu'ers of Papier-Mache at that period do not seem to have
been .aware of the great improvements of which every process of their art
proves now to have been susceptible.

A most mischievous effect, however, was produced in the art of decorative
designing by this change in the mode of execution. All the deep nudereut-
tings and hold shadows which marked the style of design in the age of Queen
Anne, became impracticable when ornaments were to be cast. A meagre,
tame, petite manner ensued almost of necessity, untd by the end of the last
century the art of designing architectural ornament had fallen into a deplor-
able state of imbecility.

The subsequent introduction of Greek ornament formed a new era : the
limited cai)abihties of plaster-casting became then less inconvenient, for the
broad, flat character of the Greek style was favourable to the process of cast-
ing, and had that manner of designing continued to prevail goierally up to
the present day, it is probable that no material change would have taken
place in the manufacture of ornament. But great fluctuations have occurred
in the public taste : the pure and elegant simplicity of Greek ornament is iu
its nature appreciable only by the more highly cultivated tastes ; the gene-
rahty of persons do not understand its merits ; therefore, after the stimulus
of novelty had ceased to operate, fashion soon led the public favour into other
channels. The Ijold originality of the Gothic school, the gorgeous and mere-
tricious richness of the Flemish and French schools, the ]iicturesque and fan-
tantic forms of the Elizabethan style, soon found many adnjirers, and it ia
this great change in the manner of designing ornament that has given rise to
the important improvements in the manufacture of the highly plastic substance
called Papier-Mache. Plaster is totally inapplicable to the exact imitation of
the bold florid carvings in the above named styles, whilst to carve in wood
all these fanciful forms would occasian a cost far beyond the means of all
ordinary purses. As to the putty-composition, a material intru<luced at the
latter end of the last century as a substitute for wood carving in picture
frames, &c. its monstrous weight, its brittle, impracticable nature, and the
difliculties and heavy expenses necessarily incurred in its manufactm-e, as well
as in ILxing it up, render it properly apphcable to a veiy hmited range of pur.
poses.

Having made these preliminary remarks upon the origin of Papier-Mache,
and the causes of its improvement and re-introduction, we will proceed to
the more important objects of the present brief ess.-iy, and describe, for the
information of practical men, the mode of applying the material to the various
uses for which it is so admirably adapted. We will only premise, that the
application of steam power, and the vast improvements that have of late been
made in all branches of mcclianics, have enabled the present manufacturer to
produce a material ahke only in name to the Papier-Mache of the last cen-
tiu-y : its hard compactness, its strength, its imperishable nature, its tracta-
bihty (if such an expression may be allowed), the facility with which it may
be put together and fixed up, its lightness, the rapidity with which it may be
prepared and fixed, and finally its cheapness, are qualities which eminently
distinguish it, but which cannot perhaps be fully appreciated but by those
wUo have had e.\ten5ive experience in its use,

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[JuN£,

Panier-MAchc is ap|ilieil to tlic ciiiiclicd cornices of l)ookcases and cabinets,
to llie mouldings and corners and centre ornaments of paneling on their doors
ami sides ; to the enriched scroll legs of cabinets and pier tables in the old
French style; to ornamental brackets for clocks, busts, vases, S:c.; to the
cnriclied borders to rooms hung " ith silk or paper ; tlie ornamental jjarts for
picture and glass frames, r,o matter how curved and elaborate; also to win-
<lo\v-curtain cornices, the canopies of bedstc.ids, &c. I've. It has been very
advantageously used for tlie latter purpose in the stale bed at Chatsworth ;
and also to the canopy of the Royal Throne in the present House of Lords.
I'or the enrichment "of bookcases it is ailmiraJjly ailapted, atlbrding ojipor-
t\mities, if in the Gothic style, of introducing elaborate jnnnacles and pen-
dants, rich corbels and pierced frets of oi)en work, deeply undercut rosettes,
ami spandril and mitre, or intersection ornaments, ^c. ; also for the exterior
cases of organs it has been most advantageously and extensively used : the
lightest ami most intricate tracery is executeil with ease, and an ett'ect [iro-
duced at a very moderate cost, wli'ich by no other means could be obtained
without an extravagant expense.

It is needless to add, that when the above mentioned subjects are in classic
or other styles, the friezes, the scrolls, consoles, pateras, &e. are among the
simplest and most obvious uses of Papicr-Mache.

With regard to the mode of fixing Papicr-Miichc in cabinet work, perhaps
the simplest and yet most accurate rule that can be laid down, is to treat it
exactly as if it were wood. It is to be cut with the saw and chisel, and may
lie lieiit by steam or heat, plancil and cleaned nji with sand pajier to the
smoothest face and to the finest arris, if rcijuired ; it is to lie fastened with
brads, needle points, or glue. Tlie larger objects, such as brackets, canopies,
&c. can be made either with a wood core, or they can be wlioUy of Papicr-
Miiche : in cither case, two or three screws at once secure them in their
place. When fixed, the work can lie painted and grained without any pre-
vious vreparation whatever; and in gilding, tlic surface of the work is so
much better adapted to receive the gold than that of anyotlicr material, that
much of (he expense and delay usually attendant on the jirocess is saved.
The same observation applies to silvering ; and it may be added, th.at there
is good evidence (as at Chesterfield House, May Fair, &c.) to prove that the
metallic leaf continues untarnished longer on I'apier-Mache than on other
substances.

A great variety of brackets, consoles, and cantilevers are made of tliis sub-
stance : indeed, "one of the first applications of C. F. Bielefeld's improved
Papier-Mache to architectural purposes, was to form some large consoles and
cornices at St. James's Palace on the accession of his late Majesty. Since
that time similar work has been fixed nji at the Grocers' Hall, the King's
College, at the Carlton Club House, the Oxford and Cambridge Club House,
Jiritish Museum, State Drawing Kooms at IJublin Castle, Grand Lodge Free-
masons' Hall, Corn Exchange, &c. Chimney pieces are very efTcctively de-
corated in Pa|iier-Mache, as was formerly much jiiaetised by Sir William
Chambers and others; specimens of ornamental chiuincy pieces in the style
of Elizalicth and James may be seen in the show rooms. It would, however,
be tedious to enumerate all the purposes to which Papicr-.Maclic can be ad-
vantageously applied ; it will suffice to repeat, that there is no jiossible en-
richment, ill any style, however coni])licated or elaborate, that may not be
readily executed in it. Nor is the manufacturer disposed to limit the appli-
cation of it to interior work. The improveil Papier-.Mache is of too recent
intiuductioii to enable us to refer to any example of its use in exterior work
further back than about fourteen years'; but there are several shop fronts in
London that vv^re fitted up at that time, where the Papier-Maclu; enrichments
are at the present day as sound and perfect as when first turned out of the
mould. We may, however, fin<l in the Papier-MAche of tlic last century,
although of inm'ieasurably inferior quality, abundant jiroof of its extreme
durability in exposed situations. Sir William Chambers's own house in Bcr-
iiers-stre'ct, that must be proba'oly tliree (piarters of a century old, lias Hie
Papier-Maehc, which enriched the fanciful architecture at the back of the
liouse, in jicrfect picservation.

At Paris, the Carton-picrre, a substance analogous to Papier-Mache, but in
every way inferior to it, especially as regards its durability, being very ab-
sorbent of moisture, and therefore liable to become solt, is largely used for
exterior oniameuts, even in buildings of the most sumptuous and important
character.

As there is good evidence of the durability of the old Papier-.Macbc in the
0)ien air, it follows of course, that for interior work its iiermancncy may be
btill more implicitly relied upon. There arc many [licr-glass frames, chimney-
pieces, S:c. composed of this sub.stancc, remaining in a perfectly sound good
condition, that must have been made early in the last centm-y ; and a recent
examination of the old Papier-Mache work at Chcstei field House h,as most
satisfactorily proved, that for ceilings it is equally iliirable ; the coniiionent parts
are, in fact.'such as to render it much less likely to decay than the laths or
other work to which it may be allachcd ; and in no instance tliat has ever
come under tlie observation of the mannfaeturcr, has he delectcil the least
indication of its having been attacked by worms, one of the ingredients used
being very olinnxious to tlicm. The Pa|iier-Maclic work nnvv rcniaining in
many houses in l,ondon and the country, which was put up in the time of
Sir Svilliam Chambers, a]ipears, wherever it lias been examined, in a iierl'ectly
sound stale, iiotwillistandiiig all tliose original defects in ils composition and
inamifacture which the manufactory has been able cll'cctually to correct.

L

Ir-

It now only remains to give some general in-
structions for the fixing up of the work. There
is one rule which it will be particularly advisable
to note, since it is calculated to save luiich
trouble, and secure ]ierfcct truth in the fixing of
the eiiricbed meiiibers of cornices. In running
the plain work of a cornice, it should be remem-
bered to provide in the mould a sinking to receive
the Papiei-.Mriclie member. If, for example, it is
desired to enrich with foliage the cyina of a
cornice, the mould should be formed with a sinking
thus : or, should it be desired to insert an enrichment,
say an ogee and bead, in the bed-moulding of the cor-
nice, a sinking to reeinvc it should be proviiled thus :

These sinkings need not generally exceed one-eighth
of an inch ; a raised fillet at the bottom of the en-
riched moulding would answer the same purpose, the
only object being to secure a perfectly conlinuous and

unbroken line.

In cases where a simple cornice would be sufficient,
and where it is desirable to have nothing to do with
plaster, a siii.all fillet or moulding of wood, nailed
to the ceiling ,ind wall with the Papier-Miiehe orna-
ment inserted between them, gives a very complete
and ornamental finish to the room at a most trifling
expense, and without the diit and delay unavoidably
attendant on running plaster mouldings. Where a
flower or patera has to be applied to a ceiling, one
screw will suflice, unless the patera be of unusual
tUmensions, to attach it safely to the plaster, taking
care that the screws are long ennught to reach the
joists. Where, however, the flower is intended to
cover an oi>eiiiiig for ventila-
tion, it will be requisite to
block down from the joists;
thus screwing the flower to
the blocking.

Where ornamental corners
arc to be applied to a ceiling,
they should, if very heavy, be fastened up to the timbers w ith screws, but
generally speaking it would be (piite suflieient to use brads, taking their hold
on to the laths; this aftaeliment being made still more secure by the use of
the cement which is prcjiared and jirovidcd by the manufacturer when re-
quired, together with instnu-tioiis for using it. The same mode of fixing is
adopted for frets, friezes, and indeed for all kinds of superficial cnricbineiil,
care being at all times taken that brads lay well hold of the laths, for which
purpose it is generally expedient to drive the brads in at the hollows, and
such parts of the work to lie fixed ; it is also a useful precaution to drive the
lirads in a slanting direction, so as to prevent all chance of tlieir drawing.
\\'hen walls have to be enriched with panels, as is very usual in aiiartments
fitted up in the old French and Italian styles, exactly the same rules for fixing
as have been above prescribed for ceilings are to be followed, except that
fewer precautions arc necessary, as the weight acts dift'erently ; where the
work is of a very light character even commpn needle points will be found
sufficient, but the cement above mentioned is in all eases an useful addition.
With the assistance of the above rules, there is no sort of work in Papier-
MhcIk' thai may not be well fitted up by an ordinary joiner.

Ill drawing up these brief notes on the use of the improved Papier-Mache,
the manufacturer has yet to advert to a new application of it of almost un-
limited extent, and one to which a higher degree of importance may justly be
attached than any yet describod.

There is no art to which the lovers of the Fine Arts, and especially of
Sculpture, are more inilebted than to the art of moidding and casting in
plaster ; but for this art we should be almost wholly ignorant of the merits
of contemporary sculjitors, .and the glorious efforts of ancient art would be
all but lost to the world. Uy means of plaster-casts the chef-d'iriivres of all
ages are multiplied, and brought from the uttermost corners of the world into
the museuiii of the connoisseur and the studio of the professor.

But how perishable and fragile is a plaster-cast ! how cumbrously heavy !
how difiicult of transjiort ! such iiuleed are the risks of breakage that no one
is willing to pay for a cast, the ]irice that would coiiipensate for the dilHcnlfy
and expenses necessarily attendant on making a perfect mould and cast. The
result is, tli.at the iilastcr-casts ordinarily sold are most imperfect and un-
satisfactory representations of the works of art they arc derived from. The
new substance now under consideration presents itself to obviate all these iii-
convcnicnces ; for, whilst a copy of any piece of sculpture can be made in it
with perfect triitli and fidelity, its weight is scarcely one-sixth ofth:it of
plaster, and its liability to fracture less than that of stone, marble, or wood.

When these advantages, coupled with economy in ]irice, are considered, it
vvdl be easily seen what facilities arc now aft'orded for disseminating tliroiigh-
oiit the emjiire a knowledge of the best works of scnlpturc. The inventor
hopes to |ihice within the reach of every individual the enjoyment and ad-
vantages ilerivable from the contemplation and study of the finest specimens
of this branch of the Fine Arts.

1840.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

203

REVISIWS.

Pennij Cycloptedia, Part 87.

We liave before directed the attention of our readers, on more than
one occasion to this well conducted publication, and now point out the
article Paris, on account of the architectural remarks it contains on the

principal public buildings, and likewise for the synoptical table which
accompanies them, and which is drawn up upon the same plan as those
of London and Munich. The arraua;enient is chronological, and divided
into centuries. We extract the latter portion, or that comprising the
edifices erected within the present century, more than which we do
not consider ourselves at liberty to transfer to our Journal, else we
sliould willingly give the entire table ; but wdiether they take in the
work or not, we have no doubt that most of our readers will procure
the pal't containing the article from which our extract is taken.

Nineteenth Century.

Rue Kivoli
La Madeleine

Pont des Arts

Arch of the Tuileries .

Vendome Colamn

Arc de I'Etoile

Pont des Iiivalldes

(Pont de Jena)

Fontaine du Palmier

Portico, Chamber of Deputies
Bourse ....

Hotel des Affaires Etrangcres
(Quai d'Orsay)

Halle anx Vins
Bendy Fountain
Marche St. Germain
Chapelle Expiatoire

Ecole des Beaux Arts

July Column

Pont du Carrousel

Palais de Justice
Hotel de Ville .

laixor Obelisk
Place de la Concorde .
Notre Dame de Lorette
St. Vincent de Paul

Bazar Bonne Nouvelle

Church, Faubourg St. Germain

Date.

Architect.

1802

I'ercier

1804-36

Vignon, Ihive,&c.

1804

Cessart & Dillon

1805-10

Percier and Fon-

taine

180G

Gondouin & Le-

pere

180C-3G

Chalt^rin, fee. fi-

iiisliedbyDebret

1806

Lamandc

1806-8

Bralle

1807

Poyet

1808-1824

Brogniart & La-

barre

1810-1837

Bonnard and Le-

cointe .

1811-13

Gaucher .

1811

Girard

1813

Blonde!, M. J. B.

1815-23

Percier and Fon-

taine

1824-37

Duban and La-

brouste .

1833

Alavoine .

1834-6

Polenceau .

1834

1835

Godde and Le-

sueur

1836

Hittorff .

1825-36

Lebas

Hittoi-ff and Lc-

pere

1837

Froehlicher and

Grisart .

1839

Gau

Remarks.

A Corinthian peristyle of 52 columns (8 at each end) 62 feet high, raised on a stylobate

13 feet high.
For foot-passengers only ; arches cast iron, piers stone.
Each front lias four Corinthian columns (shafts red marble, and bronze capitals), with a

central arch and two smaller ones.
Stone cased with bronze reliefs ; total height 141 feet.

Width 147 feet, height 162 feet, depth 73 feet. Arch 47 feet wide, 90 feet high.

Five arches, length 518 feet.

A column on a pedestal, surmounted by a figme of Fame on a globe. Height to top of

capital 49 ft. 3 in. : total height, with statue, 56 feet.
A single range of twelve cohunns (44 feet high) beneath a pediment.
A Corinthian peristyle of 64 columns (40 feet high), 14 at each end.

An extensive pile, of which the projecting portion forming the facade towards the quay is
370 feet, and consists of two orders, Doric and Ionic, surmounted by an attic, and each
containing 19 large arcades or windows.

\ large circular Oasin 90 feet in diameter, with other basins or terraces rising from it.

Tetrastyle portico, Roman Doric attached to a square mass, whose three other sides have

semicircular projections crowned by scmidomes against the attic of the square part.
Two Corinthian orders (one in columns, the other in pilasters), n])ou a basement. The

gateway or screen from Chateau GaiUon, erected in front of the building.
Pedestal stone, column bronze, total height 154 feet; 13 feet higher than the VendOme

Column.
Timber and iron, with stone piers and abutments. Three arches, centre one 187 feet span,

and 16', rise. Total length 558 feet.
Interior remodelled ami rebuilt chiefly in the Renaissance style.
Restorations, cS;c. Renaissance style.

Raised by Lebas, October 25.

Embellished with fountains and architectural decorations.

Portico, tetrastyle Corinthian.

Gothic.

We should like to see a complete series of such tables for all the
principal cities of Europe, published separately, and would suggest
this to the writer in the Cyclopsdia, n ith whom the idea appears to
have originated.

j1 Brief Description of Ijie various Plans Ihal hare been proposed for
supplying the Metropolis with Pure U^altr, also a short Account of
Iht. difftrtiit Water Companies tliat now supply London.

The sujiply of water for domestic use is a subject which.in all
times has been regarded as one of grc;it public importance, for, next
to the air which we breathe, water is the most powerful agent in vit.d
economy. It is a subject, indeed, which every year becomes of deeper
interest, partiodarly to the inhabitants of a densely peopled metro-
polis; to vitiated air and vitiated water, and to an insutbcient supply
of both in purity, is ow'ing the frightful mortality which attacks the
inhabitants of towns when compared with those of the country, and
we think that the Report of Mr. Farr to the Registrar Gieneral, will
l)0t do less towards effecting a reform of these evils, than the active
agitation of the last ten years, or the labours of parliauieutary com-
mittees. Much certainly has been done within the last ten years

towards improving the supply of water, but much, very much, still
remains fu be done before the companies can be considered to have
done their dutv. The author of the pamphlet before us would have
done wisely ii he had omitted the following passage. "It is not in-
tended, in the present day, that the inhal)itants of London, generally,
complain of ti.e quality of the water supplied to them, although it
still seems to b" the policy of certain 'artful and mischievous persons'
tu use the words of a celebrated individual, now no more, by exag-
gerated statements to promote contention and inflame the passions of
the inhabitants," Though these words are supported by a quotation
from the great Telford, we nuist remember that he was speaking on
a subject on which he had strong prejudices. Is it at all probable
that the companies would have incurred the rnurmous outlay which
they have done during the last ten years, we may say, within limits, to
the tune of a million pounds sterling — if there had not been some
truth in the statements of these "artful and mischievous persons,"
would the t^rand Junction Company have removed their works from
the "former olijectiouable site near Chelsea (Sewer?) Hospital" to
Brentford, and incurred an expense of nearly £200,000, if it had not
been for these "artful and mischievous persons." 0\ir author also
subjects himself to the same deuomination, for he even has had the

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204

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[JXTNE,

iemerilt/ to tell the Companies that the present mode of filtering as
practised by them is insufficient effectually to cleanse Thames water
of all the impurities which are suspended in it after heavy rains (vide
page 9j, and he recommends as the most effectual method, the |)lan of
nlteriiig through charcoal, which we shall hereafter notice. We be-
lieve that most of the ( 'omijanies have done their best in endeavouring
to improve their supply from the Thnmtst, but whether that resort he
the best for obtaining water is a subject well worthy of inquiry. We
believe it is not dis|mted, by any party, that water obtained by the aid
of deep wells and Artesian boring is far better than obtaining the sup-
ply from the Thames, as by the latter, enormous expences are annually
incurred in filtering the water, besides the expense of pumping first
the supply into a reservoir and thence to the mains, whereas by the
former process the water might at once be pumped into the pipes,
and forced up to the elevated situation, without the expense, trouble,
or delay of filtering, or pumping a second time, but the objections
to the former plan have been that a sufficient quantity of water
cannot be obtained for this great metropolis, and also that any at-
tempt to obtain a supply by such means would materially affect
the numerous wells about the metropolis, particularly those which
belong to the manufactories and the large breweries, the latter, until
■within the last "20 years, were supplied by the various companies, but
in consequence of the heavy rental the brewers and manufacturers
were compelled to pay, they had recourse to the sinking of wells of
great extent, and, we believe, we may say safely, not one of them ever
failed affording an ample supply, and if the companies do not take
care, their other customers will be obliged to resort to the same means,
as very little consideration of the geology of London would be suf-
ficient to convince any one that an abundant supply of water for all,
exists in the lower strata, in the same manner as at Paris, a descrip-
tion of wdiich, in one of our recent numbers, will serve to illustrate
the present subject.

Before we |)roceed further with our remarks, however, we must
refer to the contents of the pamphlet which has given rise to this
notice. The work is published anonymously, but we understand that
it is by Mr. Peppercorns, a highly respectable member of the profession,
and in no way connected Vfith a gentleman of the same name acting as
secretary to one of the metropolitan water companies.

The pamphlet first proceeds to describe the several metropolitan
companies, how they obtain their supplies of water and the quality of
it. it then details the various plans devised by the water companies,
or by private individuals, wdiich are divided into three classes:

1st. Those which propose the purificatiou of the Thames water either by
filtration or by sulisidence, or by both combined, aud which method has been
put in practice on an extensive scale by some of the water companies.

2ncl. Those which suggest the taking of the water supply fi'om a higher
part of the river than where it is now obtained.

3rd. Those which recommend to draw the supply from other sources than
the Thames, and to convey it by means of extensive aqueducts to London.

Respecting the first class, it is a well known fact that although filtration
througli sand, or through sand and gravel, (as, in the case of the Chelsea
water-works,) produces a perfectly clear and transparent fluid, free from seih-
mcnt and colour, yet that it is insufficient to free the water from animal or
vegetable im])uritics held in solution, or from any taint which the water may
have thereby ac(|uire<l ; hut that filtration through charcoal, or through sand
and charcoal, as jjractised to some extent with the water of the Seine at
Paris, is cni)able of removing the whole ot the sediment, and also, by a pro-
perly regulated system, the entire of the animal and vegetable impurities con-
tained in Thiimes water taken from the London district.

With respect to the method of subsidence alone in reservoirs, as practised
now by almost all the water companies, although a large portion of the
muddy sediment contained in Thames water is thereby deposited, yet it is
clear that it cannot free the water from all the impurities dissolved in it.
The process of subsidence might, it is true, he made to free the water from
nearly the whole of theanim.al impurities contained in it, but in tliat case the
state of rest of the water, to he so purified, ought to contimie for a nmch
longer period of time than the companies usually allow, or can art'ord to
allow. It has been ascertained that if Thames water ho snfi'cred to remain
at rest, completly undisturbed, for a period of several weeks, fermentation
will take place in consequence of the presence of animal and vegetable matter,
and the liquid will become clear and transparent, with the exception of a
small proportion of insoluble sediment, and will lose all unpleasant smell,
taste, or colour. This curious fact was ascertained by Dr. liostock, who
commmiicated the result of his interesting enquurv to the Royal Society in
1829.

Of the second class, it is only necessary to observe, that mdess all the water
companies, north and south of the Thames, were simultaneously to esfaldish
their works as far to the west as at Teddington, no renmval to auv part within
the influence of the tide, conhl accomplish their intention of supplying a
purer water than they now do to the metropolis. * *

In regard to the third and last class of projects tliat have been suhuiitted
to parliament, it is only necessary to state in passing, that the one wliich

seems to have been d\dy considered by a select committee of the House of
Connnons so late as 18.'54, and which was presented by the late .Mr. Telford,
involves so much ditficidty, anil the outlay of so exorbitant a capital for the
supply of six only out of the eight w.itcr companies, that there ajipears to be no
likelihood of its ever being carried into cfli'ect. It is not ]>robal)lc, indc<'d,
that any government will authorize the expenditure of .€1,200,000 for the
construction of two aqueducts, the one sixteen, the other six mUes in length,
according to Mr. Telford's estimate, in order to bring water of very t/uestiun-
ahlc purity from the Yerulam aud the AVandle to assist «.r only of the water
companies of the metropolis.

We shall not stop now to make any inquiry as to the a\ithority,
which the author has for stating that the water from the Verulam and
Wandle is " of very questionable purity " but shall reserve it until we
notice another ])art of the pamphlet relating to Mr. Telford's evidence.

The author jiroceeds to give an interesting account of the numerous
plans which have been devised since the year 1821, for supplying the
metropolis, but as it is not our intention to notice all these schemes,
we must confine ourselves to that part wdiich relates to the supply
from the Colne near Watford, the locality of the pro))osed London and
Westminster Water (Company, now occupying the public attention and
a Committee of the House of Lords, and to wdiich the following ex-
tracts from the pamphlet alludes.

.\mong the numerous schemes for the so-called better supply of the me-
tropolis -wMi pure water, from other sources than the Thames, there are two
which at the present time claim particular attention, from an abortive attempt
that has been lately made to revive one at least of them. The one of these
relates to the supply of the south side of the metropolis from the river Wan-
dle, as proposed in 1834 by Mr. Telford, and the other of the north side from
the Colne, also originally suggested by Mr. Telford, hut the idea of which
was abandoned by him owing to the insignificancy of its stream imless after
hea\-y rains, when its waters were in a very tiuhid state. (See Mr. Telford's
report March 1834, page 3.)

A\f th respect to the water of the Colne, Mr. Telford's experiments clearly
jiroved that this river was totally inade(|uate in quantity for the supi)ly of
even tliree out of the five Water Companies on the north of the Thames, and
that with regard to ijuality, it is frequently in so tiu'bid and muddy a state,
caused by its flowing over a red soil, as to be totally unfit for use.

Mr. Telford indeed gauged t/ie river Coluc, and the result of his experi-
ments showed that that river was totally inader/iiate for the supply of even
ttiree out of the five Water Companies on the north of the Thames.

These quotations, unsupported by other parts of Mr. Telford's re-
port and evidence, would naturally, with a stranger to the subject, lead
to the belief that the efforts now being made for establishing the pro-
posed company are entirely delusive, and that all their statements are
only intended to dupe the respectable individuals who are disposed to
lend it their patronage. We have, therefore, thought it necessary to
reperuse the reports and evidence, and also at the beginning of last
month to visit the spot where the experiments are now being made.

Let us first explain the situation and course of the river Colne. It
unites with the Thames near Isleworth, in its course to Watford, it
receives several tributary streams; from Watford it proceeds (still
under the name of the Colne) for a distance of about four miles, through
O Iters Pool, the scene of the company's experiments, aud Bushey Mills,
the place from which Mr. Telford proposed to take his supply, it
then goes on to the place at which the river Verulam falls in ; the
Colne continuing on as a very small stream beyond this spot, to the
north-east, towards Colney and .South Mims, and the larger stream, the
Verulam, proceeding to the north by St. Alban's, for some distance up
the country — therefore it will be observed that the river is called the
Colne from its junction with the Verulam to the river Thames. When
Mr. Telford stated that the Colne is an insignificant stream, i&c, it
may be clearly seen by his evidence, that he alluded to that part of
the stream above its junction with the Verulam, and he proposed to
divert that part of the Colne, so as to prevent it from affording any
supply to the intended water-works at Bushey Mills, on the banks of
the Colne, but lower down the river, and that in his report he called
that part of the river Colne from the junction of the two rivers to
Watford " the Verulam," wdiereas as we have already shewn, it is
called "the Colne." Wc will now give a few extracts from the
evidence of Mr. Telford to show that at that part of the Colne " Bushey
Mills," there was an ample supjjly of pure water to be obtained in the
driest season without filtration, or pumping, sufficient to supply the
principal part of the metropolis. All this evidence the author has
carelullv kept out of view, for what purpose we will not pretend to
say, unless from a misunderstanding of Mr. Telford's evidence.

Mr. Telford in his report to the Lords of the Treasury, February
1834, states, that after having exannned the streams which fall into
the river Thames in the vicinity of London, he found an abundance of
pure, transparent water, within "the distance of IB miles on the north
(of London}, amply sufficient for the supply of three of the present

1840]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

205

companies on that side of tlie Thames, he then goes on to state that
the eastern branch (of the Cohie) called the Verulam, a transparent
stream, occupies the St. Alban's Valley, and about half way between
St. Albans and Watford, the Colne joins the Verulam ; but, unless
after heavy rain, the Colne is an insignificant stream, and at such time
very muddy, wherefore it is intended to exclude the Colne from fur-
nishing any part of the supply of water.

Mr. Telford farther states in this report that "at Watford Mill"
(near the spot the proposed company intend to erect their works), " in
the autunni of lb33, being the driest season, as regards the supply of
rivers, experienced during the last half century, file Verulam river
produced upwards of 30 cubic feet of water per second; being more
than double the quantity supplied by the three companies in the year
]S28, namely, 13 cubic feet per second;" and as a farther proof, to
show that Mr. Telford proposed taking his supply from near the spot,
the proposed company have selected, he says, " Immediately above
the commencement of the intended London Aqueduct, about two miles
above Watford, the valley of the river Verulam affords a commodious
situation for extensive reservoirs of water, and for allowing it to settle,
if such should hereafter be deemed requisite. From this place a
covered aqueduct may be made to descend with a uniform inclination
of 18 inches per mile to Primrose Hill, terminating in a set of exten-
sive receiving and distributing reservoirs, at the height of 146 feet
above high water Trinity."

This report is again supported by the subsequent evidence of Mr.
Telford, given in the report from the select committee of the House
of Commons, 183-1, from which we select the following.

23. What part of the River Verulam do you take the first portion of your
supply from ? — The supply is taken about half way between Watford and
St. Albans ; the whole supply for the nortli side is taken there.

24. Is it from a place called Grove Mill? — No, we do not take any from
Grove Mill ; Bushey Mill is the place. We make no use of the waters of the
Gade. There are six pajjer-mills immediately above Grove Mill.

29. Witli reference tlien to the River Verulam, you think that, as it would
only be necessary to apply it to the districts now served by the three com-
panies at the west end of London, that the River Verulam would supply a
quantity sufficient ? — Quite so ; for what I have estimated is without reser-
voirs ; but from the usual summer supply of the river, a great deal might be
added if it were necessary ; perhaps a tliird more by making reservoirs for
retaining flood water in that valley, but at present that is not wanted, be-
cause the quantity in the dryest season known for thirty years, was upwards
of 30 cubic feet per second, which is more than double what the three com-
panies have now.

35. There is no other part of the Colne according to yom opinion then
that would furnish an improved supply to London, except this River Verulam,
which you would take unpolluted, at the point of junction with the Colne .'
— Below the junction of the Colne. We must divert the Colne. The Colne
has in summer time very Httle water in it ; we could not get a cubic foot of
water per second ; in rainy weather there is a consideralile quantity, but as
it passes through a red soil, it is very muddy, and therefore we must divert
it, and never let it go into the River Verulam at all, imtil it has passed the
point where the London aqueduct is taken oft".

36. But alluding to those delta streams which the various soin-ces com-
monly called the Colne eventually form, is it your opinion that any of those
branches are sufticiently pine and good for the supply of London .' — The
Verulam is the ouly one.

37. No other branch of the Colne is sufficiently good for the supply of
London ? — No, not the Colne.

69. Then none of the branches of the Colne which appear to lay more
conveniently near to Loudon, are, in your opinion, fit for the supply .' — Not
so fit as the Verulam by any means.

70. Not in point of purity of water, nor being able to get high sen'ice .' —
Just so ; those were the two reasons that struck me.

71. Did you propose to make a covered aqueduct ? — Yes, 1 did.

87. Wliere does the Verulam faU into the Colne.' — It falls in about half
way between Watford and St. Albans.

88. Are you aware of any ornamental sheets of water upon the Colne
below the point at which you propose to divert the water by the aqueduct
for the supply of London ? — No, I am not.

89. Did you search to ascertain whether there were any or not .' — There
were none occmred to me.

90. The Committee obse^^■c that the stream which is commonly called the
Colne, from St. Albans down to Watford, until it arrives at Otter's Pool, is
not, in point of fact, the river which you mean by the Veridam .' — Yes, the
St. Albans river is the Vendam.

91. You have stated that in dry weather that smaller branch which is
called the Colne, and which flows in the neighbourhood of Otter's Pool, has
very little water ? — It had not a cubic foot per second wdien we measured it
twice.

92. Well then, in dry weather every seat which is below Otter's Pool must
feel the abstraction of this River Verulam, every seat between that and the
Thames ? — No doubt of it.

93. Will you tell the Committee the minimiun of water that rnns down

the Verulam at the place where you propose to take from it ? — Thirty cubic
feet was the mininnnn.

94. In what time ? — Per second.

95. Will you also tell the Committee what is the largest quantity or the
maximum quantity of water that you expect woidd be necessary to supply
the metropolis ? — I recommend to take the power of the wdiole 30 feet.

96. But in your Report you have stated the supply at present of the me-
tropoMs to he about 13 feet from those three companies ? — Yes.

1334. Why do you recommend the plan of taking the water either from
the Vendam or from the Wandle, in preference to taking it irom Richmond,
provided there is filtration in both instances ; provided both are filtered, why
should you prefer taking it from the A\'andle and the Veridam in preference
to taking the water from the Thames at Richmond? — In the first place the
appearance of the water of both the Wandle and Verulam was very tempting,
being remarkably pure and transparent ; and in the next place, as I have
already stated, my jdan saves both filtering and pumping.

1335. Would not the expense of the aquednct more than equal the ex-
pense of filtering and pumping s — I think it is a more natural way of sup-
plying the water than having recourse to artificial means, if you can get it.

1336. There is no objection to use artificial means to accomplish any ob-
ject ? — No.

1337. Do you not, in fact, by your plan, really buy the power in the shape
of compensation to the mill owners ? — We do.

1338. And that power is already possessed and in existence in the shape
of steam-engines, by the present company ? — Yes.

1339. Will you tell the Committee in yonr own way why we ought to
prefer this at the expense of £1,200,000 ? — It would be a much more perfect
scheme with respect to supplying the town, and much less objectionable to
the people.

1340. In what less objectionable? — Because there are many strong ob.
jections to the use of Thames water.

1341. Without referring to the prejudice against the Thames water, what
would be your recommendation, supposing there was no such prejudice .' —
/ should j-ecojitmeiid my own plan as being the best,

1342. Is it not infinitely more expensive .' — Yes, more expensive, I daro
say.

1343. Would it not increase very much the expense which we are now
put to for water in the metropolis ? — It might to a small extent ; but the
metropolis should certainly enjoy the purest water that can be procured.

1344. That w'ould not be desirable? — Not if you can be well served with-
out it, certahdy.

1345. Can you say it will not be as well supplied without that expense by
taking it from Richmond ? — I do not think so good a supply could be got at
Richmond.

1346. If the companies would deliver the Richmond water Altered, woidd
you say it was an objectionable supply ? — Filtering takes out only what is
mechanically suspended in the water, not what is dissolved.

From these extracts, we think there is ample testimony to show that
a very copious supply of pure water may be obtained from that part
of the Colne (called by Telford the Verulam), at Bushey Mills, for
serving a large portion of the metropolis. Now it is near this spot
that the promoters of the Company are carrying on their experiments,
not intending at present to take the supply from the river itself, but
from borings down to the springs, from which as the appearance of
those already reached will show, in several parts of the Valley at a
distance of nearly a mile from each other, the water rises to within 18
inches of the surface, and thus it is expected an ample quantity of
water will be obtained, independent of the river Colne or Verulam,
sufficient to supply the greater part of the metropolis without at all
affecting the river. The Company are determined fairly to test the
experiments for this purpose, and are now erecting a steam engine to
ascertain what quantity of water can be really obtained. From the
evidence of Mr. Telford already given as to the river coupled with
the supply from borings, it appears beyond a doubt that an abundance
of excellent water can oe obtained without filtering or pumping. We
think that the promoters are deserving of praise for the exertion which
they are now making to bring the question to an issue, and if they can
show that a large supply can be obtained sufficiently to provide water
tor at least three of the companies, it will be a great boon, not only to
the public, but to the companies themselves, as we conceive it would
be to the interest of aU parties, that the old companies should take
their supply from the new company, and thereby save the great and
heavy expences of pumping and filtering which they are now obliged
to adopt ; as according to the evidence of Mr. Telford the new company
will be able to supply the water in London at an elevation of 14G feet
above Trinity datum, a height quite sufficient for the highest cistern
of any part of London to be served by gravity.

We have extended our notice to a greater length than we originally
intended, but the importance of the subject has lea us on imperceptibly,
we must therefore defer further notice of this interesting pamphlet,
which affords abundance of materials for consideration — before we
conclude we shall give the description of a proposed filtering appara-

2on

TITE CTVTL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[Junk,

tiis dosigned by (he author, and another which has been adopted in
SwitzerUind.

i'nni>osi;D fii.tkkin<; Ai'r.\BATUs.

REFERENCE.

A, cliarooal medium (Ihe finest in the rentre). H, fine sand. C, eoarse sand.
D, fine iTavel, and pebljlcs. E, large gravel, and Ijroken pottery.

The ahovc is a slietch of a filtering apparatus, in \\nieli charcoal is proposed
to lie emjiloyed, both in a fine and coarse state, the finest being in tiie centre,
as shown. In this case, lateral fdtration by a head of water, is to be pre-
ferreil to an extended surface over which the filtering materials are laid, and
where tbe water percolates through, as in the first place, the materials, (the
charcoal in jiarticular,) will be more accessible at all times for cleansing, or
renewing, when required. The charcoal, in fact, might be taken out and re-
newed, witliout interfering in the slightest way with the rest of the filtering
niaterials, being separated from the gravel and sand, by the perforated plank-
ing, as shown in the sketch.

In the next place, the disposition of the sand, &c., the finest being placed
outermost, at its natural slope of about .'50° or 35", would in a great measure
supersede the necessity for having the surface scraped frequently, as done at
the Chelsea water works, for there would be a nn/nral feiidenoi/, in propor-
tion as the outer layer of sand became loaded with the sediment and particles
which It would arrest, for the sand to sfiiJo ilnini to the base of the slope,
where the sediment, ^vc, would accunudate, and from whence it migl\t be
easily removed. All that would be reiinircd in that case, would he to renew
occasionally the outer layer of sand, which might be done with the greatest
case from the top of the filter-bank, without disturbing the remainder. It
should be ohser\ed that where the sand conies in contact with the planking
near tlie top of the strucfurc, the ]danks should lie laid with a close joint, to
prevent the sand from being washed through.

Thirdly, the proposed method would be far less expensive, as regards the
first cost, than the method of filtering hy descent ; as the construction of the
frame-work would be entirely of timber, it could be jint together by any car-
])eiitcr .it a trifling expense. The plan proposed wouhl, in fact, combine the
advantages of two distinct filters, acting in very ilifi'erent ways, with very
little more trouble or expense, than would lie involved in the construction of
one only. With respect to the length of time during which the charcoal
would retain its pnrifj'ing qualities, it appears from Mr. Lowit/'s experiments,
before mentioneil, that charcoal retained its autipntreseeiit properties for a
v^/iolr year ; and therefore, if the supjily had to be renewed but once in that
time, the expense would be but small. This must be, however, a matter of
experiment ; probably it might be found that by remo\ing the charcoal from
time to tiiiic, washing it well, and eaposinij it ht the liijht and air, for a few
days, it would part with whatever putrescent particles it had absorbed from
Ihe water, and might be made use of over again.

In order to facilitate the deposition and subsidence of the grosser impuri-
ties and sediment, pievions to the water passing through the above filler-
bank, a very simple and ingeniims method might be employed, which lias
been put in practice with complete success in .Switzerland, for purifying a
stream of water, and which was described by Sir Henry Eiiglefield, in the
Philosoidiical .lonrnal, so far hack as 1804. It consists of a structure of
tunhcr or masonry, as shown in the jicrspectivc sketch below, where A A is
the upper surface of the stream to be ]iurificd, and li R the bottom. The
channel, or cut through which the water flows is divided into several cham-
bers by the jiarallel p.ulitinus C. C, C, altennitely rising above the surface
level of the stream, and fipeu at the liutlom, while the intermediate partitions
D, D, do not rise witliiii xenralfeet of the surface, and are contlnned to the
bottom. It is obvious that the course of the water nmst he in the direction
of the arrows, and in this rejieated slow ascent and descent, all floating hn-
)iurities will be left at the to]i, while the sediment and heavier ini]iuritics
will subside to the bottom. The sediment, &c., may he easily removed .ind
the apparatus cleansed, by sending down )iersons between tbe walls, and the
operation would he facilitated by giving to the bottom of the cut or canal,
the form of an inverted arch. The spaces between the partition walls might
be partly filled with coarse filtering materials, such as broken pottery, or
coarse gravel and pebbles, &c.

I/lmlralions of Indian Architecture from the Muhammadan Conquest
doimtvardsj'bt/ Uarkham Kittoe, Esq. Calcutta: Thacker & Co.,
1838. London: Allen.

We presume that Mr. Kittoe is not a member of the profession, but
attached to the civil service in India, but he has produced a work
which cannot but be valuable both to the student of this specific branch
of architecture, and to those who are attached to the art in general.
The buildings represented in the numbers before us, principally belong
to the end of the seventeenth century, and their details are illustrated
with an accuracy, which makes them equally useful and interesting.
It is singular to trace in the buildings of Delhi or Agra some of the
commonest ornaments of our iiuu drawing rooms, and Mr. Kittoe's
work presents variations of them which might be introduced with ad-
vantage here. Some of the trellis work in stone is particularly ad-
mirable, and would look extremely well in iron, or applied for grained
ceilings, the variations of honeysuckle ornament are also well worthy
of attention. These nundjers are indeed a great accession to our stock
of works on ornament, and Mr. Kittoe deserves the highest praise for
producing a work so valuable in despite of all the difficulties of the
Indian press. To us this work is also gratifying as it is a proof of our
labours having penetrated there and been appreciated, and we cannot
but recommend to architects and amateurs in the ditiijrent parts of our

1810.]

THE ClVlL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

•207

empire to imitate Mr. Kittoe's excellent example, there is plenty of
field ill Malta, the Ionian Isles, Atlon, our vast Indian empire, and dur-
ing the several military expeditions. Much might be done by such
observations to increase our stock of architectural works.

Ric.iUTi's Rustic Archilecture. London : Weale, 1840.

The first number of this work opens with the design and details of
a cottage in the Elizabethan style, which, if it be a fair specimen of its
successors, is highly promising. We are glad to see tlie taste which
exists among our nobility for the erection of ornamental farm buildings,
and p\iblications of this nature are highly calculated to pronuite it.
The example of the late Duke of Sutherland on his estates in Stafford-
shire, we trust, will have a lasting effect.

LITERAIiY NOTICE.

Mr. Jobbins has published a Map of the Environs of London, .30 miles
round, at a scale of 3 miles to the inch, with the railways delineated,
which for cheapness and completeness can vie with any.

FROCXIBDINGS OF SCIBKTTZFIC SOCIETIES.

ROYAL SOCIETY.

Jan. 16. — J. W. Lubbock, Esq., V. P. and Treasm-er, in tlic Chair.

A jLijier was read ciititlcil, " On Nobili's Plate nf CntoiirK," in a letter from
i. p. Gassiott, Esq., to J. W. Lubbock, Esq., V. P. and Treasurer.

The effect produced by llie late Sig. Mobili, of inducing colours tm a steel
plate, excited the curiosity of the author, and led him to the invention of tlic
following metliod of producing similar crtccts. — Two of Professor DanicU's
large constant cells were excited with the usual solutions of sulphate of cop-
per and sulphuric acid. A liighly polished steel jilatc was |)laced in a por-
celain soap-plate, and a filtered solution of acetate of lead poured upon it.
A piece of card !)oard, out of which the required figures had I»ccn previously
cut with a sharp knife, was then placed upon the steel plate. Over the
card, and resting on it, there was fixed a ring of wood, a quaiter of an inch
thick, and the inner circumference of wliich was of the same size as the
figure. K convex copjier plate was made, so that its outer edge might rest
on the inner part of the wooden ring ; and its centre |ilaccd near, but not in
actual contact wit* the card hoard. Connexion was then made by the posi-
tive electrode of the battery with the steel plate; the negative being placed
in the centre of the copper convex plate. The figure was generally obtained
in from 15 to 35 seconds. If a concave, instead of a convex plate be used,
the same coloius are obtained as in the former experiment, but in an inverse
order.

Jan. 23. — Sir Johm Baruow, Bart. V. P., in the chair.

The Rev. John Pye Smith, D.D., was elected a Fellow.

A paper was read entitled, " On the structure of Normal and Jdcentitioux
Bone." By Alfred Smee, Esip

" j-tn attempt to eatabliiih a new and r/cneral Notation, ajijiticablc to ttie
doctrine of Life Contingencies." By Peter Hardy, Esq.

After premising a short account of the labours of preceding writers, with
reference to a system of notation in the mathematical consideration of life
contingencies, the author enters at length into an exposition of the system of
symbols which he has himself devised, together with the applications which
they admit of in a variety of cases.

Jan. 30. — J. AY. Lubbock, Esq., V.P. and Treasurer, in the Chair.
James Anncslcy, Esq,, was elected a Fellow.

A paper was read, entitled " Obsercafiuns on Singte Vision until two Eijes."
By T. Wharton Jones, Esq.

The author animadverts on the doctrine which Jlr. \Vheatstone, in his
paper on the Pliysiology of Binocular Vision, published in the Philosophical
Transactions for 1838, p. 371, has ailvanced, in opimsitiou to the received
theory of single vision being dependent on the images of objects falling on
corresponding points of the two retina'. He maintains that, under these cir-
cumstances, the two impressions are not perceived by the mind at the same
instant of time, but sometimes the one and sometimes the other. If one
impression be nuich stronger than the other, the former predominates over,
or even excludes, the other ; Init still the appearance resulting from the pre-
dominating image is, nevertheless, in some manner influenced by that which
is not perceived, lie supposes that there arc compartments of the two re-
tina-, having certain limits, of which any one point or papilla of the one cor-
responds \rith any one point of the other, so that impressions on /hem are
not perceived separately; and conshlers tliat this hypothesis, combined with
the principle .above stated, is required, in order to explain the phenomena in
question.

Feb. G.— J. \V. LuRBOCK. Esq., V.P. in the Chair.
John Parkinson, Esq., and the Rev. Charles Pritchard, M.A., were elected
Fellows.

A paper was read, entitled " Observations on the Blood-eoyyuscles of cer-
tain species of the genus Cerrns." By George Gulliver, l^sq.

Feb. 13. — The ilarquis of Northampton, President, in the Cliair.

Martin Barry, M.D., and Joseph I'hillimore, LL.l)., were elected Fellows.

The paper entitled " E.rjierimental Researches in Eleciricitg ; 1 dth series ; "
by M. Faraday, Esq., D.C.L., tlie reading of wliich had been commenced at
the last meeting, was concluded.

Feb. 20. — The Marquis of Nobtuampton, President, in the Chair.
J . Caldecott, Esq. was elected a Fel.ow.

The following paper was read ;.—

" On the JJ'cf Summer of lS'i9." By 1,. Howard, Es(|. Tlie observations
of theavuhor were mnde at .Vckworth, in Yorkshire; and the following are
his results, with regard the mean leuiiieraturc and the depth of rain, in each
month, during 1839: —

Jan.

Feb.

March

April,

May,

June,

Xlean tempe-
rature.
37-04'..,
39-64 . . ,
39-08 . . ,
44-09 ..,
49-94 ..,

ram in
inches.
. 1-13
. 2-14
. 3-21
. 0-58
. 0-38

56-35 4-89

July,
Aug.
Sept.
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.

Mean tempe-
rature,
59-30 '. . ,
58-09 . . ,

rain in
inches.
. 5-13
. 2-94

54-49 3-43

48-39
43-14
37-29

3-40
4-54
1-85

Mean temperalnre of the year 47-21''.
Total depth of rain, in 1839, 33-62 inches.

lie states that the climatic mean temperature of the place is alioiil 47 ", and
the mean annual depth of rain about 26 inches. Tlie excess of rain during
the year 1839, was, therefore very great. The author describes the effect of
the hurricane of the 7th of January, and follows the changes of the weather
during the remainder of the year.

March 5. — The Marquis of Northampton, President, in the Chair.

Captain John Theophilus Boileau, was elected a Fellow.

The reading of a paper entitled, " On the Vheniicnl Action of the Rags of
the Solar Spectrum on Preparations of Stiver and other Substances, both me-
tnltic and non-metatlic ,- and on some Photographic Processes," by Sir John
F. W. Ilerschel, Bart. 6cc., was resumed and concluded. — The object which
the author has in view in this memoir is to place on record a number of in-
sulated facts and oliservations respecting the relations both of wliite light,
and of tlie dift'erently refrangible rays, to various chemical agents which have
oficred themselves to his notice in the course of his jihotographic experi-
ments, suggested by the annomicement of M. Dagnerrc's discovery. After
recapitulating the heads of his paper on this subject, which was read to the
Society on the lltli of March 1839, he rem.irks, that one of the most im-
portant branches of the iii([uiry, in jioint of practical utility, is into the best
means of obtaining the exact reproduction of indefinitely multiplied fac-similcs
of an original photograph, by wlucli alone the publication of originals maybe
acconiphslied ; and for which purpose the use of paper, or otlier similar ma-
terials, appears to lie essentially requisite. In order to avoid circumlocution,
the author employs the termi posit ice and jjeyw/icc to express, respectively,
pictures in which the lights and shades are the same as in nature, or as in the
original model, and in which they are the opposite ; that is, light represent-
ing shade ; and shade, light. The terms direct and reverse are also used to
express pictures in which objects appear, as regards right anil left, the same
as in the original, and the contrary. In respect to photograpliic publication,
the employment of a camera picture avoids the difficulty of a double transfer,
which has been found to be a great obstacle to success in the photographic
copying of engravings or drawings. Tlie princiiial objects of inquiry to which
the antlior has diret<ted his attention in the present paper, are the following.

1. The means of fixing photographs; the compiirative merits of different
chemical agents for effecting which, such as hyposulphite of soda, hydriodite
of potass, ferrocyanate of potass, &c., he discusses at some length : and lie
notices some remarkable jiroperties, in this respect, of a peculiar agent which
he has discovered.

2. The means of taking photographic copies and transfers. The author
lays great stress on the necessity, for this purpose, of preser\iug, during the
oi)eration , the closest contact of the photographic paper used with the original
to be copied.

3. The preparation of photographic paper. A'arions experiments are de-
tailed, made with the view of discovering modes of increasing the sensitive-
ness of the paper to the action of hght ; and particularly of those combina-
tions of chemical substances which applied either in succession or in combina-
tion, prepare it for that action. The operation of the oxide of lead in its
saline combinations as a mordant is studied; and the influence which the
particular kind of jiaper used has on the result, is also examined ; and various
practical rules are deduced from these experiments. The author describes a
method of precipitating on glass a coating possessing photographic properties,
and therrby of accomplishing a new and curious extension nf the art, of
photography, lie observes, that this method of coating glass with films of
prccipited .argentine, or other compounds, affords the only elfccfual means of
studying their habitudes on exposure to light, and of estimating tliclr degree
of sensibility, and other ]iartieulars of their deportment under the influence
of reagents. After stating the result of his trials with tlie iodide, chloride,
and bromide of silver, he suggests that trials should be made with the fluoride,

208

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[June,

from which, if it l>e found to be decomposed by light, the corrosion of the
glass, and ronscqucntly an etching, might possibly be obtained, by the lil]cra-
tiori uf tluorinc. As it is known that light reduces the salts of gold and of
]ilatinuur, as well as those of silver, the author was induced to make many
experiments on the chlorides of these metals, in reference to the objects of
photography ; the details of which experiments are given. A remarkable
property of bydriodic salts, applied, nnder certain circumstances, to exalt the
deoxidating action of light, and even to call into evidence that actioji, when
it did not before exist, or else was masked, is then described.

4. The chemical analysis of the solar speetrmn forms the subject of the
next section of bis pa)icr. It has long been known that rays of different
colours and rcfrangiliilitics exert very different degrees of energy in effecting
chemical changes ; and that those occupying the \ iolct end of the spectrum
possess the greatest deoxidating powers. But the author tinds that these
chemical energies are distributeil throughout the whole of the speetrmn ; that
they are not a mere function of the refraiigibility, but stand in relation to
physical i]ualities of another kind, both of the ray and of the analyzing me-
diiun ; and tint this relation is l)y no means the same as the one which de-
termines the .absorptive action of the medium on the colorific rays. His
ex])eriments .ilso show that there is a third set of rebitions concerneil in this
action, and most materially intiuencing both (he amount and the character of
the chemical action on each point of the spcctrnm ; namely, those tlepending
on the physical qualities oftlie substance on which the rays are received, and
whose changes indicate and measiu-e their action. The author endeavoured
to detect the existence of inactive spaces in the chemical spectrum, analogous
to the dark lines in the luminous one ; but without any marked success. The
attempt, however, revealed several curious facts. The maximinn of action on
the most ordinary description of jihotographic paper, namely, that prepared
with common salt, was foinnl to be, not beyoml the violet, but about the
coulines of the blue and green, near the situation of the ray F in Fraunbofer's
scale : and tlie visilile termination of the violet rays nearly bisected the pho-
tographic image impressed on the paper : in the visible violet rays there oe-
cm-red a sort of minimum of action, about one-third of the distance from
Fraunbofer's ray II, towards G; the whole of the red, up to about Fraunlio-
fer's line C appears to be inactive ; and lastly, the orange-red rays communi-
cate to the paper a brick-red tint, passing into green and dark blue. Hence
are deduced, first, the absolute necessity of perfect achromaticity in the ob-
ject-glass of a photographic camera r and secondly, the possibility of the
future ])roduction of naturally coloured photographs.

5. The extension of the vinible prismatic spectrum beyond the space ordi-
narily assigned to it, is stated as one of the results of these researches ; the
author having discovered that beyond the extreme violet rays there exist
luminous rays affecting the eyes with a sensation, not of violet, or of any
other of the recognized prismatic hues, but of a colour which may be called
lavoider-yrei/j and exerting a powerfid deoxidating action.

fi. Chemical properties of the red end of the spectrum. The rays occupy-
ing this part of the si)ectnuu were found to exert an action of an opposite
nature to that of the bkie, violet, and lavender rays. AVhen the red rays act
on ])repared paper in conjiniction with the diffused light of the sky, tlie dis-
colourating influence of the latter is suspended, and the paper remains white ;
but if the paper has been already discoloured by ordinary liglit, the red rays
change its actual colour to a bright red.

7. The combined action of rays of different degrees of refrangibility is next
investigated ; and the author inquires more particularly into the effects of the
combined action of a red ray with any other single ray in the spectrum ;
whether any, and what differences exist Ijetween the joint, ami the successive
action of rays of any two different and definite refrangibilities ; and whether
this action be cajiable, or not, of producing effects, which neither of them,
acting ahme, would be competent to produce. The result was that, although
the previous action of the less refrangible rays does not appear to modify the
subsequent effects produced by the more refrangible ; yet the converse of this
proposition does not obtain, and tlie simultaneous action of both produces
j>hotograpbic effects very different from those which either of them, acting
se)iarately are capable of iiroducing.

8. In the next section, tlie chemical action of tlie solar spectrum is traced
much beyond the extreme red rays, and the red rays themselves are shown to
exercise, under certain circumstances a blackening or deoxidating power.

9. The author then enters into a speculation suggested by some indications
which seem to have been afforded of an absorptive action in the sun's, atmo-
sphere ; of a difference in the chemical agencies of those rays wliich issue
from the central parts of his disc, and those which, emanating from its bor-
ders, have undergone the absorptive action of a much greater depth of his
atmosphere ; and conseipieutly of the existence of an absorptive solar atmo-
sjihere extending beyond the luminous one.

10. An account is next given oftlie effect of the S])ectrum on certain vege-
table colours, as determined by a series of experiments, which the author has
commenced, but in which the unfavoiu'able state of the weather has, as yet,
prevented him from making much progi'ess.

11. The whitening power of the several rays of 1 he spectnnn under the
influence of bydriodic sals, on jiaper variously iirciiared, and previously dark-
ened by the action of solar liglit. The singular property belonging to the
hydriodate of potash of rendering darkened photographic paper susceptible of
being whitened by furtlier exposure to light, is here analyzed, and shown to
afford a series of new relations among the diffweut pai'ts of the spectnm)|
with respect to theii: chemical actions.

12. The Analysis of the Chemical Rays of the Spectrum by absorbent me-
dia, which forms the subject of the next section, ojiens a singularly wide lield
of inquiry ; and tlie author describes a variety of remarkable iibenomena
which have presented themselves in the course of his experiments on this
subject. Tliey prove that the photographic properties of coloured media do
not conform to their colorific character : the laws of their absorptive action
as exerted on the chemical, being different and independent of those on tlic
luminous rays : instances are given of the absence of any darkening effect in
green and other rays of the more refrangible kind, which yet produce con-
siderable illumination on the jiaper that receives them.

13. The exalting and depressing power exercised by certain media, under
]ieciili,'ir circumstances of solar light, on the intensity of its chemical action.
This branch of the inquiry was suggested by tlie fact, noticed by the author
in his former communication, that the darkening power oftlie solar rays was
considerably increased by the interposition of a plate of glass in close contact
with the photographic paper. The influence of various other media, super-
posed on prepared paper, was ascertained by experiment, and the results are
recorded in a tabular form.

\i. The paper concludes with the description of an Aciinograph, or self-
registering photometer for meteorological purposes: its objects being to ob-
tain a permanent and self-coin]iarable register and measure, first, of the mo-
mentary amount of general illumination in the visible hemisphere, which
constitutes day-light; and secondly, of the intensity, duration, .-ind inter-
ruption of actual sunshine, or, when the sun is not visible, of that point in
tlie clouded sky behind which the sun is situated. In a postscript, dated
March 3rd, 1840, the author states that he lias discovered a process by which
the colorific rays in the solar spectrum are made to aft'ect a surface properly
prepared for that purpose, so as to form what may be called a thennorjraph
of the spectrum ; in which the intensity of the thermic ray of any given re-
frangiliility is indicated by the degree of whiteness produced on a black
ground, by the action of tlie ray at the points where it is recei\ ed at that siu'-
face, the most remarkable result of which is the insulation of heat-spots or
thermic images of the sun quite apart from the great body of the thermic
spectrum. Thus the whole extent over which prismatic dispersion scatters
the sun's rays, including the calorific effect of the least, and the chemical
agency of the most refrangible, is considerably more than twice as great as
llie Newtonian coloured spectrum. In a second note, communicated March
12, 1S40, the author describes his process for rendering lisible the thermic
spectrum, which consists in smoking one side of very tliin white pajier till it
is completely blackened, exjiosing the white surface to the spectrum and
washing it over with alcohol. The thermic rays, by dning tlie points on
which they impinge more rapidly than the rest of the surface, trace out their
extent and the law of their distribution by a whiteness^o induced on the
general blackness which the whole siuface acquires by the absorption of the
liquid into the pores oftlie paper, lie also explains a method by which the
impression thus made, and which is only transient, can be rendered perma-
nent. This method of observation is then ajijilied to the further examination
of various points connected with the distribution of the thermic rays, the
transcalescence of jiarticular media, and the polarization of radiant heat
(which is easily rendered sensible by this method), &c. The reality of more
or less insulated spots of heat distributed at very nearly equal intervals along
the axis of the spectrum (and of which the origin is probalihj to be sought iu
the flint glass prism used — but pitssihhj in atmospheric absorption) is estab-
lished. Of these spots, two of an oviil form, are situated, the one nearly at,
and the other some distance beyond the extreme red end of the spectrum,
and are less distinctly insidated ; two, i)erfectly round and well insulated, at
gi'eater distances in the same direction ; and one, very feeble and less satis-
factorily made out, at no less a distance beyond the extreme red than 422
])arts of a scale in which the whole extent of the Newtonian coloured spec-
trum occupies 539.

A paper was ,also read entitled, " Vemarks on tlie Theory of the Dispersion
of l.h/ht, as cnunected with Polarization." By (he llev. Baden Powell, M. A.
Since the ]iublicatinn of a former letter on tlie same stdijccf, the author has
been led to review the theory in coiiuexion with the valuable illustrations
given by Mr. Lubbock of the views of Kresnel; and points out, in the present
supplement, in what manner the conclusions in that paper will be affected by
these considerations.

A ]iapcr was also read, entitled, " Further Particulars of the Full of the
Cold Bokkeveld Meteorite." By Tliomas Maclear, Es(|., F.U.S., in a letter to
Sir J. r. \V. Herscbel, Bart. — This communication, which is supplementary
to the one already made to the Society by Mr. Maclear, contains reports,
supported by altiilavits, of the circumstances attending the fall of a meteoric
mass in a valley near the Cape of (iood Hope. The attention of the witnesses
had been excited by a loud explosion which took place in the air, iirevious to
the descent of the aerolite, and which was attended by a blue stream of
smoke, extending from north to west. Some of the fragments which had
been seen to fall, and which had ])eiictrated into the eartli, were picked up
by the witnesses. One of them falling on grass caused it to smoke: and was
too hot to admit of being touched. The mass which was sent to England by
11. M.S. Scout, weighed, when first picked up, four pounds. The pajier is
accompanied by a map of the district, showing the course of the aerolite.

A paper was .ilso read, entitled, " Aa account nf tlic Sliootiny Stars o/'1095
and 1243." By Sir Francis Balgrave, K.II.' — The author gives citations from
several clironicles of the middle ages, descriptive of the remarkable appear-
ance of shooting Stan \ybicU occurred on the -ith of April, 109^, ou the testi«

1840.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

209

moiiY of independent witnesses Ijotli in France and England. One of tliem
descriljcs tlieui as " falling like a shower of rain from heaven upon the earth :"
and in another case, a bystander, havinjr noted the spot where the aerolite
fell, " east water upon it, which was raised in steam, with a great noise of
boiling." The Chronicle of Rheims describes the appearance as if all the
stars iu heaven were driven, like dust, before the wind. A distinct account
of the shooting stars of July 26th, 1293, is given by Matthew Paris.

ROYAL INSTITUTE OF BRITISH ARCHITECTS.

Monday, 30th March, 1840, \V. R. Hamilton, Esq. in the chair. George
Gutch, Esq. Fellow, presented 10 guineas for the pm-chase of books.

The following papers were read : —

On Garden Walls, by J. B. Watson, Fellow.
^ A paper from Mr. Jenkins " on Talatyre Stone."

I have the pleasure of offering to your notice a stone quarry in North
Wales, whose produce is now importing into London, two cargoes having
already arrived ; and, unless I am much mistaken, the introduction of this
stone to the British architects will prove a valuable boon. The quarries are
situated on the coast of Flintshire, within a mile of the point of Air, at the
mouth of the estuary of the Dee, and adjoining the grounds of Talacre Hall,
the seat of Sir Edward Mostyn, Bart.

The uiineralogical character of this stone is that of silicious sand-stone,
with an argillo-silicious cement. It is of great density, a cubic foot weigh-
ing ISOJ^ lbs., is worked with great case, and being remarkably free from
hard untractable veins and soft places, is capable of a veiy smooth surface,
a tine arris, and the most delicate calling. The closeness of its texture and
fineness of its grain, render it very desirable for external work in a large city,
as it prevents the soot from adhering to it, and thus clogging up the moidd-
ings and carvings, reducing them to an undistingiiishal)le mass of blackness,
a fault justly complained of in the Bath and Portland stones.

For landings and steps, the Talacre stone far excels the very best kinds of
Yorkshire stone, as it is superior in strength, and not liable to scale in the
unsightly manner that so frequently destroys the appearance of the finest
pavements of Yorkshire stone, as may he seen near the Post Office, and in
the Temple ; and as the quarries are now in the ])Ossession of a London com-
pany (the Talacre Coal and Iron Company,) an abundant supply of large
sized stone may be expected.

Its colour is very uniform, and, to my taste, has a beautiful tone, which
eminently fits it for interior finishings, especially in the Gothic style.

Its durability may be seen in the shrine of St. Winifred's well, at Holy-
well, in Flintshire, which was constructed of this stone in the loth century,
and, though exposed to the humidity of the air, incident to the neighbour-
hood of mountains and an arm of the sea, as well as to the clouds of sulphu-
rous smoke from the numerous works on the stream issuing from that cele-
brated spring, yet still preserves its rich and delicate earrings in a very per-
fect state. Many other ancient buildings in the neighbourhood have been
constructed or ornamented with this stone, as the ancient mansion in the
village of Llanasa, with its curious carved porch, erected in 161'2, the carv-
ings aiul ashlar of which are still veiy ]»erfect, the quoins of Kliyddlan and
Denbigh Castles, built the latter end of the 13tli century; and among
modern buildings, Talacre Hall, the seat of Sir Edward Mostyn, Bart., the
masonry of which is the admiration of all. I luay mention that the chimney
pieces of tliis mansion, in the Gothic style, are carved in this stone, and have
a very beautiful ert'ect.

The following is the result of an experiment made on the comparative
strength of the Talacre stone with best Yorkshire.

\ piece of Talacre stone, 2 ft. (>\ in. long, 3:; in. wide, and 2

in. thick, bore, for several minutes, a weight of 4 2 1

Best Yorkshire of the same size broke immediately with a

pressure of 4 Oil

1 may add that, from the proximity of the quarries to the new harbour of
Port Talacre, this stone can be brought to London at a price little, if at all,
exceeding that of Yorkshire stone.

Mr. Donaldson read a paper ** On varion^t extraordinary tombs, recenthf
Ijroni/Jtt to liglit at ttie ancient city of Ctere, and described in a work of mncli
learning and research, forwarded to the So icty by its author, the (Javaliere
Caniiut, an Honorary and Correspondiny Member.

About half way on the road between Rome and Civita Vecchia, is the vil-
lage of Cervetri, or Cerveteri, the site of the ancient C;ere, where some ju-
dicious excavations have brought to light a tomb, which seems at once to
prove the affinity of the ancient inhabitants of these parts witli the Greeks,
and aifords a confirmation of the supposition of their common origin, derived
from other discoveries of an analogous nature. Ir.mieiliately contiguous to
Cervetri is a platform of considerable extent, on which was doubtless the
ancient Cxre, surrounded once, it is presumed, OTth walls. Within a short
distance of the precinct marked by the supposed line of wall are a number of
tombs, one of which is that now about to be explained. It evidently bears
the proofs of two distinct epochs of construction, as the original edifice,
which forms the centre, consisted of a solitary chamber in the body of a
circular mass surmounted by a mound of earth. This was subsequently en-

larged by auother ring of solid masonry, containing various cells, also sm--
mounted by a larger mound of earth. This addition so ctfectually closed
from observation the iimer chamljcr, that it has remained, until the present
period, nndcspoilcd of its precious relics ; while tlie outer chandlers have been
robbed of every object that they once contained, from their entrances being
immediately exposed to riew. The original tomb consists of a circular mass
about 82 feet in diameter, having apparently an outer ring of solid masonry,
and a central pillar of construction, which ran up to the top, and served to
support the mound of earth, which formed the conical part of the tumulus ;
and probably it was surmounted externally l)y a ])edestal, on the top of
which was a statue, or some object allusive to the deceased. The sepulchral
chambers consisted of an outer gallery, about 30 feet long, and 5 ft. 8 in.
wide, and 11 ft. 2 in. high, at tlie fiu-ther cud of wdiich were two oval-formed
chambers, about 11 ft. G in. long, by 9 ft. wide, on the right and left, rudely
worked out of the solid mass. At the extremity of the outer gallery is a wall
with a small aperture in it, opening into another gallery about two-thirds the
length of the first one, or 20 feet, and 4 ft. 3 in. wide. The walls of the
galleries seem to be formed of a rude solid perpendicular construction, about
5 feet high, above which are three overhanging com'ses, with horizontal
joints, or beds, forming an incUned roof on each side, .\nothcr u))pcrmo3t
course is perpendicular, and leaves a kind of sq\iare channel, about 18 inches
wide and 1.) inches high, running the whole length. The walls of the oval
chambers seem to be worked out of the rude solid mass, and do imt present
the appearance of any regular courses of stone. There were smaller cham-
bers in the peripheiT of the outer construction, formed in a similar manner,
and when it was deemed desirable, at a subsequent period, to procure greater
accommodation for the family, it seems to have been efiectcd by enlarging
the circumference and extencling the smaller chambers. But it is remarkable
that the large gallery or chamber in the original mass was not earned out,
as though there was the wish to hold it sacred as the deposit of the chief of
the family, and to secure it from intrusion by closing up its entrance. It
will be seen that the construction of the walls of the galleries is similar to
that of the subterraneo\is chamber at Mycena;, commonly called the Treasury
of Atreus, or Tomb of .Vgamemnon, and illustrated in the supplementary
Tolmne to Stnarfs Athens. The courses are horizontal, and gathering over
each other gradually towards the apex of the roof, and cut away so as to
give the inner face a concave appearance. B\it another remarkable instance
of this peculiar construction of ancient art, exists at Rome in the Mamertine
Prison, the lower cell of which was once evidently built in the same manner,
the upper part having subsequently been cut ofi', and the arch smTuounting
it constructed as a regular arch with concentric courses. Mr. Donaldson
then described the various objects which were found in tliis tomb. In the
first gallery next the door was a brazier placed on an iron tripod, and close
to it a bronze censer for perfumes, and next to that another brazier. Further
in was a four-wheeled car, upon which was borne the corpse laid on the
bronze bed ; and there remained many fragments of the wood of which it
was formed, and of the bronze with which it was ornamented. Near the
entrance to the right hand oval chamber was a bronze bedstead, on wliicli
lav the body of the defunct, evidenced from the bones on the floor and traces
of stains produced by the decomposition of the flesh. There were two small
iron altars, one at the head and the other at the foot of the bedstead, and
aljout two dozen small earthenware figures on the floor round the three outer
sides of the bedstead, several shields, a bundle of arrows ; and these, with
some cuirasses, which once hung on the walls, prove this to have been the
sepulcliral chamber of a warrior. In the channel in the roof were suspended
from nails some bronze vases and dishes. The inner gallery seems to have
been appropriated as the sepulchral chamber of a female. When first dis-
covered, it was found to be encumbered with the ruins of one of the side
walls, which bad fallen in ; but upon removing the rubbish and dirt, various
articles in gold and silver were found among the remains of the body, which
liad been deposited at the further end. A small silver bucket, and a cup
without handles, various bronze cups and vases, proper for scents and per-
fumes, were also <liscovered. The two oval chambers to the right and left
of the outer gillcry, were evidently of a subsequent period, and were formed
in a very rude and rough manner, as though added with great haste. The
chamber on the left contained various cups and other objects of bronze, and
in that to the right were found nimierous little tcrra-cotta figures similar to
those iu the outer gallery, near the funeral bedstead, and some earthen vases,
in one of which were deposited bm-nt bones and ashes, remains, doubtless,
of some member of the same family, and, it is to be inferred, of a period
somewhat subsequent to the outer chamber, as in that the body had not been
bm-nt, a practice of later iulroduction. Canina is of opinion, from au obser-
vatiou of the various bronze objects found in these tondjs, aud engraved with
representations of condjats and huntings of aninuds, and none of which re-
presented the events that occurred at Troy, that this tomb must have been
erected before this important period of tJreek history, a supjiosition wdiich
gains strength, from the peculiar form of the tireek characters of the inscrip-
tions. It may therefore be concluded, that this tumulus must be about 3,0U0
years old, and was erected during the period that the Pelasgi held possession
of the country.

Jpril 27. — The MAKauis or Northampton in the Chair.
Signor Gasparo Fossati, architect to the Emperor of Russia, was elected au
Honorary and Corresponding Member.
Some Roman remains from Watling Street, were e.\hibited by Mr. Fowler

2 S

210

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[Junk,

A paper was read, " On the Classification of Egyptian Architecture," by
Mr. George Alexander, the tendency of which was to show, that many build-
ings, usually attributed to the earlier Egyptian or Vharaonic dynasties, were
in reaUty mucli more recent, being erected during the Ptolemaic and Roman
rule in Egypt ; wliich gave rise tu some obseiTatious by Mr. Hamilton and
Sir Gardner Wilkinson, who were present,
A paper was also read, entitled,

"Remarks on the ijuestion raised by Sir Gardnor IVitkinson respectiny t/ie
origin oftlie Vertical Line in Architecture, and the lleturn to llie Horizontal
Line after tfie " Recival." By George Godwin, jun., F.U.S. & S.A.*

At a recent meeting of the Institute of Architects, Sir Gardnor Willdnson
laid before the mcmhers some jjertinent remarks, concerning the .ippearauce
of the vertical line in architecture at an earlier period than is generally as-
cribed to its introduction— remarks which, while thev ])rove the acuteness
of his observation, and cannot but lead to the exercise of thought on the
part of those who are engaged in the study of arcbitectur;:! liistorv, serve as
evidence of the writer's interest ill our proceedings, .-ind entitle him to our
thanks. I should be sorry, then, if they were allowed to pass unnoticed, and
am tempted, in order that this may not be the case, to offer at once a few
observations on the subject. I feel some diffidence, I must confess, in com-
ing before you on this occasion, because there are many others present much
better qualified to respond satisfactorily to the inquiry ; indeed, I should not
have done so, could I have been certain that any individual would have of-
fered himself for the task. Experience, however, teaching that the only
certain way to have one's wants and wishes fulfilled, is to bestir oneself in
carrying them out personally, I have stepped into the breach, and must
plead the goodness of the intention .as an excuse.

The bearing of Su- Gardnor Wilkinson's general argument was to the effect
that the vertical line, admitted to be the principal feature distinguishing
Gothic, or what has been termed Church Architecture from the Greek style,
whereof the predominance of horizontal lines is a characteristic — originated
at a much earlier date than the style it now distinguishes, and is to be found
extensively in tlie ruins of ancient Rome. Further, that after the revival of
the classic style in Italy, although the vertical line was still used throughout
the churches of Christian Rome, we do not jierceive it in the numerous and
splendid palazzi which arose there and in other parts of Italv, but that the
horizontal Mne is in them again made predominant. And the question be
then put was, " what was the origin of the vertical style in ancient Rome,
and the return to the horizontal style in the palaces of modem Italy."

What Sir Gardnor Wilkinson means by the vertical line in ancient Rome,
and the appearance which it offered, are very clearly pointed out in the fol-
lowing sentence extracted from his paper : —

"In an arch of triumph, a Roman composition, though the mouldings and
many other details are borrowed from the Greek, the vertical line commences
with the pedestal of the columns appended to its side, and extending up-
wards with the column, breaks through the entablature, which it obbg°es to
come forward to carry out and mark its direction, requires a projection of
the attic to correspond with the capital above the cornice, and terminates in
a statue ; thus continuing it uninterruptedly from the base to the summit of
the building."

Now it appears to me, that this mode of arrangement may be ascribed
simply to the introduction of the arch as a chief feature in" construction,
and the decline, if not original want, of jiure taste on the part of the Roman
people. In Greece, and in the earlier sacred edifices of Rome, built before
the introduction of the arch, and in imitation of those of Greece, columns
bore the beams of wood or blocks of stone forming the upper part of the
building, and were a constituent portion of the faliric. Wlien, however, it
became necessarj' to cover in larger spaces than could be convoiiicutlv
spanned by single beams or blocks reaching from piUar to inll.ir, and the
principle of the arch liecame generally understood and acted upon, a con-
tinued wall from which the arch might sjiriiig lieeame requisite, and took the
place of columns. The Romans, however, who, if I may venture to say it,
had bttlc veal appreciation of harinony and fitness, (with a love of which the
Greeks as a people were thoroughly imbued,) could not consent to abandon
columns, but used them in the shape of accessories in nearly all struc-
tures the destination of which would allow of their introduction. They were
placed against the faces of buildings — attached to but not made a portion of
them. Proliably where a great inojection was not advisable, the height of
the columns (as by that of course the diameter must have been regulated,)
was lessened, and a jiedcstal {column's foot) was used to raise them to the
required elevation. Something to bind the upper part of the column to tlie
building was, however, requisite, and the entablature, then surrounding tlic
structure itself, may have heen brought out for that purpose over each of the
columns. These, of themselves, namely columns bearing nothing, performing
no office, but simply standing before a building with which they seemed to
have little connexion, must have failed to give pleasure even to the least edu-
cated minds ; ottering, however, as they did, a convenient plinth for vases, or
sculptured figures, these were found in some degree to lessen the objection,
and therefore it is not surprising that they were usually thus terminated,
sometimes with and sometimes without, the intervention of a similar projec-
tion of the attic under the figure.

* We are glad to learn that the Socie't^ Libre des lieau.v Arts, at their last
annual meeting, awarded a silver medal to Mr. Godwin, as author of " The
Churches of London." — Editor of C, E. & A. Journal,

In examining a Roman arch of triumph, that of Septimus Severus for
instance, as well as many others, the probability of this position becomes
very striking. And throughout the buildings of Rome so long as columnar
decorations were eni])loyc(l, this mode of arrangement seems to have been
almost necessarily followed.

Sir Gardnor Wilkinson says that wherever deviation from Greek models
«as allowable, the vertical line constantly predominates, " and to such an ex-
tent, that even a Greek entablature is sacrificed to this their favourite senti-
ment, being broken up into detached parts and compelled to project and
recede, in order to allow the vertical bne to pass continuously through it to
the summit of the building."

This seems to nie, but 1 mention it with great deference, to invest the use
of the vertical line by the Romans with a little too much importance. I am
compelled to think, a desb-e for its use was not the cause of the introduction
of breaks and recesses, but that its own ap]iearaiice, as well as these breaks,
were the accidental effect of the employment of adventitious columnar deco-
ration in situations where considerations of expense or convenience prevented
the use of a continuous entablature. Although it is probable that when once
the vertical line was strongly marked in a facade, the natural love of har-
mony in mind which finds annoyance in the constant recurrence of discordant
lines, would induce subsequent arrangements in unison with the prevailing
character.

Immediately on the revival, we find columnar decoration Indulged in, even
with less restraint from good taste than before, producing in nearly all cases,
whether in Italy, France, or England, the predominance of the vertical line.
The cupola of the church of Santa Maria del Fiore, at Florence, by Briinel-
leschi, and the church dedicated to St. Francis at Rimini, by Alberti, both in
the 15th centuiy — the Basilica of Vicenza by Palladio, in the ICth — the prin-
cipal facade of St. Peter's at Rome, by Maderno, at the beginning of the
17th — and the hospital of the Intmlides in Paris, by .Mansart, in the 18th —
may all be referred to as instances. In our own metropolis, Inigo Jones, at
the Banquetting House, Whitehall, and Wren at St. Paul's Cathedral, afl'ord
us examples : and to bring the duration of this mode of an-angement up to
the present time, I may mention Jlessrs. CockereU and Richardson's design
for the Exchange, submitted to the Gresbam Committee, in the chief front of
which it strikingly prevails.

Returning, however, for a moment to Italy at the period of the revival,
we find that works of the same artists wherein adventitious columnar decora-
tion was not introduced, display the horizontal line predominant, witness for
example the facade of the Pitti Palace at Florence, by Brunclleschi, and the
greater number of the numerous palatial residences at Rome and elsewhere,
which render Italy as eminent for the possession of modern works of archi-
tectural skill as she is for the remains of her ancient glories. Tliis pre-
dominance of the horizontal line however was not quite universal. In' the
Palace of the Chancer}' at Rome, for example, the vertical line is nearly con-
tinuous throughout the facade, although the entablature is unbroken. I will
not pretend now to enter upon an examination of the feeling and motive of
the architecture of this period, although it is a subject full of interest, and
well worthy of what it has not yet sufficiently received, namely, investigation
and analysis : should what has been said chance to lead to this verj' desirable
result on the part of a qualified investigator, the profession will be greatly
indebted to Sir Gardnor Wilkinson.

Avie Moutli nf the f'istuln. — In consequence of the early breaking up of th'
ice in the Vistula, and the flood occasioned by the late heavy rains, the river
was choked up a mile and a half above the city of Dantzic, whence it takes
its course to the westward. The lelt bank of the river is here bounded by a
dyke, «b cli protects the fruitful low ruuniry behind it; the right bank is,
however, without any such artificial protection. because its immediate neigh-
bourhood consists of unfruitful sand land, and of a road of sand-hills or
downs, for a distance of several ficrniau miles, which separates the river
from the sea in such a decided manner, that it never appeared possible to any
one that from that side any danger was to be apprehended from the water in
the Vistula. But it happened on the night of the 31st of .Tanuary, when it
was expected that every moment the water would run over the dytes on the
left bank of the river, and pn duce a most dreadful inundation, that the
stream, encuniljcrcd with heavy masses of ice, took its course over the right
bank, and attained the .'sand hills. These being from forty to si.sty feet high,
stop]ied the waler, but the current undermined them just at the place where
those bills merely consist of loose sand, and are the narrowest. As soon as
they gave way. the accumulated mass of water and the heavy ice found their
way through ibis new ojiening wiih indescribable force, and made a broad
and deep channel into the sea. To stop this new natural mouth is impossible,
and if it could be done, no one would feel inclined to do it. About ihirty
years ago, the plan was proposed by members of the governnien to form
exactly the nesv moulh for ibe river which has just been made by a natural
c:uise,' Thus a great expence has been .saved, and a great benefit o crated at
llie same lime, by this occurrence. As regards the iiilluenee which this
event may have on tlie communication of the town of Dantzic with the Port
.l''airwater, and also wiih Poland and the interior oftbe country, there is not
Ihr least ground to apprehend any interruption. We by no means lose the
navigableness of the old Vistula, which, henceforward as l^efore, will bring
the Poll b barges and the timber transports to our town. Its depth is like-
wise sufiieieut in its whole lenglli to bear vessels of the same magnitude as
before. Neither does the occurrence make any change whatever in the com- ^
raunication of that town with the sea-port.— jl/orntn^ Chronicle,

1840.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL^

211

EARL DE GREY'S CONVERZATIONE.

On Tlmrsday evening the 21st nit., Earl De Grey opened his house in
St. James's Square, for the reception of the Royal Institute of British Arclii-
tects, of which Society his Lordship is the President. In addition to the
members of tlie Institute, the splendid suite of apartments was crowded by a
numerous and brilliant assemlily of the patrons and professors of every branch
of the arts and sciences, among whom we noticed the ilarquis of Lansdowne,
Lord Stuart de Rothesay, Lord Bughersh, Sir Edward Cust, Mr. Gaily Knight,
and Mr. Rogers, Sir Martin Shee, Sir Richard Westmacott, Su: Francis Chan-
trv. Sir David Wilkie, Mr. Martin, Mr. Copley Fielding. Sir Gardner Wilkin-
son', Sir Henry Ellis, Sir Frederick Madden, Mr. Walker, Mr. Brunei, Mr.
Bab'bage, Mr.AlIan Cunningham, &c. &c. Her Grace the Duchess of North-
umberland and a select party of ladies of rank were also present. The atten-
tion of the visitors was attracted by a display of works of art from the port-
folios of Mr. Stanfield, Mr. Joseph Xash, and other artists of eminence, and
bv some beautiful specimens of the Daguerrotype and electrotype.

MR. WALKER'S CONVERZATIONE.

On Wednesday evening the 27th ultimo, Mr. Walker, the President of the
Institution of Civil Engineers, invited a large number of scientific gentlemen
to a converzatioue held at liis house in Great George-street, the rooms were
crowded at an early hour of the evening, we have not witnessed so large an
assembly of the scientific and literati during the season. The company were
entertained by a display of numerous works of art, drawings and models of
new inventions, a few of which we shall just take a glance at. The portfolios
of drawings by Scanuell, Tomkins, Landseer, and Lake Price were much ad-
mired, so also the elaborate work on the .\lhambra by Owen Jones. There
was exhibited an excellent specimen of electrotype taken from an engranng
of BjTon, the original engraving was shown from wliich the electrotype was
produced, the first is in relief, and for the purjiose of taking off impressions,
a seconil electrotype is obUged to be taken oft' from the first, which brings
this last impression to the same appearance as the original plate ; tliere were
,ilso shown two impressions, one taken from the original plate, and the other
from the second electrotype, both of them were so much alike, that it was
with dilRculty any difference could be detected.— There was a fine representa-
tion in stained glass of Mary Queen of Scots and Knox, by Messrs. Hoadley
and Oldfield. — In the model room was exhibited a beautiful set of 8 models
of Mr. Brunei's block machinery at Portsmouth, showing the different opera-
tions the block passed through from the square block of wood to its com-
pletion.— Mr. Rennie's trapeziod paddle-wheel attracted considerable notice,
likewise the beautiful models of Mr. Samuel Seaward's marine atmospheric
steam-engines, also his sUde valves by which the eduction valve is opened
before the induction valve, thereby allowing a better and more rapid escape
of the steam to the condenser, and producing a better vacuum ; his brine
detector which exhibits the quantity of salt with which water in marine
boilers is impregnated, is of great advantage to the engineer, by the aid of
which he is enabled to judge the proper times it is necessary to bloiu off, for
the purpose of cleansing the boilers of the salts which are deposited at the
bottom, which if not attended to, very soon destroys the metal. — Another
very ingenious model was that of Mr. Davison's refrigerator, lately constructed
at Messrs. Truman's brewery, a vertical cylinder which contains several tubes,
is filled with a stream of cold water, constantly flowing through it, which sur-
rounds the tubes ; there is also a blast of cold air forced through the interior
of the tubes by the aid of a fan blower — the hot liquor is admitted into an
open chamber on the top of the cylinder and allowed to gradually overfow
the tubes which project above the bottom of the open chamber, and trickle
down the interior side of the tubes, thus it is cooled by the combined
operation of cold water coming in contact with the outside of the tubes, and
the cold blast up the centre of their interior, by the time the hot liquor has
arrived at the bottom, it is sufficiently cooled to be conveyed into the work-
ing tuns. — There was a model of Messrs. Maudslays and Field's double cylin-
der steam-engine, described in a late number of the Journal. — Mr. Milne's
hydrostatic gas regulator, by the aid of wluch the hghts are always kept at one
height and intensity. — The patent omnibus, if we may judge correctly by the
model, appears to be a cumbersome machine, and likely to monopolize the
whole of the streets in the city, if many are to he introduced. — There were
likewise several models of machines and apparatus connected with railways
and steam navigation, by Mr. Curtis, Mr. Cottam, Mr. England, Mr. Greener,
and others. — A very neat letter balance by Professor WilUs attracted notice.
— Some specimens of drawing paper made by Mr. Hanson's patent machinery
were exhibited, by which drawing paper may be had in unlimited lengths and
hi any width up to 4 feet, and also of any degree of fineness or quality. — Mr.
Bielefeld's Papier-Mache ornaments, particularly a Corinthian capital, were
objects worthy of notice. — Some specimens of bricks and tiles, made by
Bakewell's press, showed the superiority of bricks made by this machine over
those of the ordinary kind. Besides what we have aheady enumerated, there
were objects of considerable interest distributed through all the rooms, not
forgetthig the beautiful models and drawings of works in progress under the
directions of Mr. Walker in all parts of the kingdom.

We can tiuly say that we never saw a party more satisfied than the one of

this evening, with the judicious combination of social and scicntilic arrange-
ments, and the select, yet abundant materials for intellectual, as \veU as
hospitable entertainment provided by the worthy President.

Among the numerous distinguished individuals present, we recognized
Earl de Crev, the President of the Institute of British Architects, Lord Wes-
tern, Lord Lowther, Lord Blavntvre, Sir Roljert Peel, Sir Henry Parnel, Sir
John Renuie, Sir Duncan M'Dougal, Sir John Rae Reid, Sir George Murray,
Sir John Scott Lillic, Sir W. Pearson, Sir H. Ellis, Sir W. Burnett, Sir W.
Riddell, Sir James Duke, Sir Hesketh Fleetwood, Sir John Barrow, Sir
Da\id Wilkie, Sir Peter Laurie, Mr. Hodges, M.P., Mr. Handley, M.P.,
Mr. Baines, M.P., Mr. Pease, M.P., Professor Wilhs, Mr. Bahbage, Major
Anderson, Col. Colby, Col. Paisley, Col. Thompson, Dr. Reid, Dr. Field,
Dr. Roget, Sergeants Spankie and Ailaras, Mr. Barry, Mr. Tite, Mr. Hard-
wicke, Mr. Blorc, Mr. Basevi, Mr. Donaldson, Mr. Fonier, Mr. Kendall, Mr,
Stephanoff, Mr. Landseer, Mr. Stone, and a great number of architects,
artists, and most of the members of the Institution of Civil Engineers,

NOTES OF THE MONTH.

The Royal Exchange competition has been decided in favour of Mr. Tite,
so that we' suppose the works will now go on. Mr. Cockerel! his competitor
is exhibiting a model of his design in the Old Jem-y.— Mr. Barry, as if he
were not satisfied with providing for the legislature, has now been engaged
in making designs for the new Courts of Law, proposed to be erected in the
square of Lincoln's Inn Fields, the expenses to be mainly defrayed from the
Suitor's Fund. This plan has received the approbation of the lawyers, and
will doubtless be carried into effect, giving the architect the opportunity of
adding another colossal building to the architectural contributions of the
\ ictoria era. — The area in Trafalgar-square is now a scene of activity, the
footpath which connects the Strand with Cockspur-street, has been brought
considerablv nearer to the Wiitehall side, thus adding a large space to the
former enclosure, whicli we trust will be laid out so as to agree in character
with the National Gallery, to which it might be made to give a greater ap-
pearance of elevation. — A diminished grant has been taken for the buildings
of the British Museum, so that they must linger on in the old style.

In addition to the information wiiich we conveyed last month about the
Daguerreotype, we may mention that the attempt to produce permanent en-
gra\ings so "as to admit of impressions being taken, has perfectly succeeded.

.\niong the men of science, whose loss we have sustained may be mention,
ed Poisson, the eminent French mathematician, and Sir Roliert Seppings. —
Sir Robert was surveyor to the navy for neariy fifty years, during which time
he was the means of introducing many improvements into the navy, worthy
of his own invention, as the circular bow and stern, the system of diagonal
bracing, of scarfing short pieces, of making frigate timber applicable to line
lof battle ships, and the use of the iron knees.— Mr. Whitwell, the architect
of the unfortunate Brunswick Theatre, also died recently, but as we hope to
attain some particulars respecting him, we shall defer any farther notice of
his services.— -We may mention among the professional losses, and as a very
severe one, the unfortunate destruction of a great part of York Minster by
fire, arising from carelessness. We feel pretty siure however that this national
monument will be restored.

Durability of Iron Boats. — The question of the durability of iron
vessels, of their little liabihty to accident, and of the ease with which damage
done to them may be repaired, appears to he very clearly proved from the
experience which has already been obtained on these points ; and this is no
little, for there are boats built by Mr. Laird in both Nortli and South Ame-
rica— in all parts of India and on the Euphrates and the Indus — in Egypt,
on the Nile — and in the Mediterraneau^on the Vistula, on the Shannon, and
on the Thames. One of these boats on the Savannah has been constantly at
work for these last six years without any repair ; which is a great test, if we
consider the frequent constant caulkings required to preserve a timber-built
ship. There is also a steam-yacht built of iron, the Glow-worm, the property
of Ashetou Smith, Esq. This vessel has made the passage from Bristol to
Carnarvon, a distance of 210 miles, in 18 hours. In the report to the House
of Commons on steaAi-vessel accidents, we find the foUovving stated of the
Garryowen, one of these vessels : — " We went ashore about two cables' length
to the eastward of the pier (Kilrush), and struck very heavy for the first
hour. The ground under our weather-bilge was rather soft clay, covered
with shingle and loose stones, some of them pretty large. Under our inside,
or lee-bilge, the ground was very hard, being a footpath .at low water. I
was greatly afraid she would be very much injured by it in her bottom, but
I am happy to say she has not received any injuiy ; in fact, her bottom is as
perfect and as good, as on the day she left Liverpool— not a single rivet
started, nor a rivet-iicad flown off. If an oak vessel, with the cargo I had
on deck, was to go on shore where the Garryowen did, and get such a ham-
mering, they would have a difl'erent story to tell. * * Out
of 27 vessel's that got ashore that night, the Garryowen is the only one that
is not damaged more or less." Colonel Chesney, the commander of the Eu-
phrates expedition, writes thus of the iron vessels which were employed on
that service : — " It is but right to tell you that the iron vessels constructed
by you far exceeded my expectations, as well as those of the naval officers
employed in the late expedition, who would one and all beat testimony any-

2 F 2

212

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[June,

where to tlicir extraordiiiaiy solidity ; iiideeil, it was often re))e!\tcd by Lieut.
Cleveland, and the ulhcis, that any wooden vessel nuist have heen destroyed
liefore the service was one-half completed, whereas the Euphrates was as
perfect when tlicy laid her up at B.-iplad as the first day she was floated. —
Mr. Cruise, Vniled Henke Journal for May.

QUERIES.

A correspondent is desirous of having some comparison between Sneeze
Wood, Right Yellow Wood and Els, and those in use \\\\.\\ us, such as Fir,
Oak, &c. The woods alluded to may be found in 3rd \'ol. Royal Engineers,
" Bridge across the River Kat." A. P.

STEAM NAVIGATION.

Oxclllafivf/ Marine Engine.^. — This deseription of engine is daily beeouiing
more generally known and adopted ; their great advantage is tlie extreme
lightness and the small space they occupy in a vessel ; in both these import-
ant ))artic\dars the saving is nearly one-half. For vessels of limited draft or
for shallow water, they must ultimately become in general use. During the
last month we attended the trials of two new steam-vessels, fitted with oscil-
lating engines manufactured by j\Iessrs. Penn & Son, of Greenwich, who
liave devoted to this class of engine considerable attention, and have fitted
lip no less than 1 7 pairs of them ; they have not been known to fail in a
single instance, and are the admiration of all parties who have witnessed
their ])erformance, for the beauty of the workmanship, and the accuracy
with which they work, pai'ticularly those on board the iron steamers plying
on the River Tliames above bridge. Messrs. Penn have always found this
descrijition of engine give a result fully equal to their dimensions, in com-
jjurison with others of the ordinary construction. The first vessel whose
peil'ormanee we witnessed last month was the Courier, an iron steamer,
built by Messrs. Ditcblnirn & Mare, of Blackwall, intended to run on tne
Elbe between Hamburgh and Magdeburgh, l.'JS feet long at the water line,
and 20 feet beam ; draught of water, witli engines, boilers filled with w ater, and
1.5 tons of coke, is only 19 inches in midships, and 11 inches at stem and
stern. The engines have cylinders 34 inches diameter, with a 3 feet stroke,
and make 27 strokes per minute, and are estimated at 32 horses power
each. The weight of engines and boilers filled with water is 37 tons 15 cwt.
The paddle-wheels are 15 feet diameter, with float-boards 8 feet long and
l.'.i} inches wide. The second vessel whose performance we witnessed was
the Queen Vietoria, a new timber-built vessel, constructed by Mr. Thomp-
son, of Rotherhithe. She is 90 ft. long, 13 ft. 9 in. beam, 'and 2 ft. 9 in.
draught of water, fitted with a pair of oscillating engines of 15 horses power
each ; the weight of the engines with boiler filled with water is only 15 tons,
being 10 cwt. to the horse power; the total length of engine-room is 19 ft.
(j in. The speed of this vessel is very little inferior to the Gravesend boats,
and is by far the fastest of her power ever produced. She ran the mile at
Long Reach, with the tide, in 4 minutes and 50 seconds, and against the
tide in G minutes 30 seconds, giving an average speed of lOJ miles per hour.
This boat is intended to run between Hungerford and Woolwich.

Jlnce hetween the ^' liuhy^^ Gravesend si earner (oali hnili), and the '^ Onvell^^
and " Sons of the Thames*' irmi steamers.

Sir — As there has been of lale much attention drawn to the subject of iron
steam vessels, which are announced as possessing great advantage over those
of wood, and as 1 have perceived various notices of the progress of diflerent
Vessels of this class in your Journal. 1 shall feel obligi'd by your giving in-
sertion to the following account of a run which took place on Saturday, May
2nd, between the llLdjy. and tuo of the crack irtiii steamers.

I should premise tliat the Ruby lias now commeneed running for the fourth
season, and that no vessel lias yet been found that can compete with her.
.She is timljer-built of Knglisb oak plank, upon the imiiroved diagonal plan
adopted by the Di.amond and Woolwich Companies — a plan 1 have no hesita-
tion in saying is stronger, more durable, and .superior to that of any com-
bination 01 iron w hatcver" Slie lias never been caulked since the day she was
launched, nor a farthing laid out in repairs, and her lines arc as true as when
they Here first laid dou n on the shipwright's floor.

As the Ruby has been lying by some time to refit for the season, the
owners of the two iron boats alluded to, took the opportunity of announcing
their respective craft as the fastest vessels in the kingdom, but the Ruby has
again taken her place as number one, and like a giant refreshed Hith sleep,

goes better and faster than ever, and the victory she has achieved over the
rwell and Sons of the Thames will no doubt cause their respective partisans
to alter lluir tone for ibe future.

Your"s. &tc. A. Bii.uNGS,

Manager of i lie Diannmd Steam -boat Covepany.

Rare between the " Ruhij'' and the " Orieell."— 1st Trial. On Saturday, at
8 p. m., the Ruby got uiider weigh from Blackwall, and proceeded slowly
doun the river, to enable the Orwell to come up, as she was to start from
London at eight o'clock. The Ruby went half speed down to Long Reach,
jio " Orwell" in sight, then tried the mile one hour after Hood, spring tide,
came back as far as the Halfway House, and discoyered the Orwell coming

down Hith plenty of smoke and steam; turned round the Ruby, and went
on ipiarter speed till the Orwell was just four boats astcni at ICritli, oil" C'old
Harbour Point. .Set oil' full speed, with strong flood tide, two hours flood,
(the reasen of [ilacing the Ruby ahead was the fear of hugging, as both were
near the shore). The Ruby s engines went otV in fine style. — 31 strokes, and
she soon began to draw away perceptibly from the Orn e!l, (the Or« ell's people
at this time hoisted the jack at the main ;) however, when oil Purlleet the
Ruby had gained a. quarter of a mile upon the latter vessel, the jack was
hauled dow n. and the liuby. as the conqueror, hoisted hers, the Ruby gradually
gained upon her antagonist, till she sto\iped at Gravesend Town Pier, when,
by observations made, the Orwell was 14 miles astern, and by lime S minutes
as she jiassed the Town Pier, thus beating the Orwell in a run of It miles
about U miles, the distance of four boats length to be deducted, which was
the distance the Ruby was ahead when the race began. 'I'he Ruby ran the
whole distance against a strong flood tide and ahead, in one hour and ten
minutes, being seven minutes less time than the Orwell.

Second trial from Gravesend.— The Ruby having stopped ten minutes at
Gravesend Town Pier, allowed the Orwell time to come up on the opposite
shore and pass Tilbury Fort, when she again started for the eliace. and by
the time tlie Ruby had crossed the river against the strong flood in the
stream, the Orwell'was one mile ahead. The Ruby then ran on for forly-iive
minutes, in which time she caught the Orwell, and went right by her neck
and neck, (you might have tossed a biscuit from one vessel to the other,)
headed her liy a quarter of a mile, turned round and was back to Gniveseiid
in seventy minutes. In this second race she beat the Orwell one mile in 45
minutes : from the abi.ve it will aiipear that the Ruby, against tide, is full IJ
miles per hour faster than her antagonist.

itaee with the "Sons of the TIiames."—Tlie Ruby waited at Gravesend till
i o'clock, and then started up the river to meet the Sons of the Thames. The
latter vessel and the Mercury left London at 5 p.m., and at 40 minutes past_
five they were both discerned at the bottom of Woolwich Reach, the Sons of
the Tha'mes full a quarter of a mile .ahead of the Mercury. Some colliers
being in the stream prevented the Ruby being turned round so soon as she
ought to have been, so that when the vessel was got round with her head
down, the Sons of the Thames was a quarter of a mile ahead, and the iNler-
eury was just alongside, all three going full speed, and the tide running down
strong. It was now evident bv the Ruliy drawing away from the Mercury,
that she was gaining frst up'on the Sons of the Thames, wli cli vessel the
Rubv came up to in 15 minutes, when the Sons of the Thames had a half
miniile stop, and the Ruby shot by her. and continued to gain upon her till
the arrival at (havesend Town Pier, w'hcn the Ruljy was one mile ahe.id. It
should be ob.served that at Grcenhithe, the Sons of the Tliames had another
short stop, but as.she was going all the time with the tide, both these stoppages
could not have m.ade more than one minute's d fference. The whole distance
was done by the Rubv. from the bottom of Woolwich Reach in •'55 minutes.

General Reinarl.s.—ll is right to observe, that during the above races, the
Orwell apparently had 100 persons on board, and tlie Sons of the Thame
about 50, whilst 'the Ruby had none but her crew. 'To some this may appeas
an advantage fnr the Ruby, but the advantage would have been more ir
favour of the Ruby if she had had '200 persons on board, as her paddles
would then have had more hold of the water, and the vessel would have con-
sequently gone faster ; as during the race tlie Ruby's engines were overrun-
ning their speed for want of proper resistance to the wheels. The Ruby's
best speed is when she has 300 persons on board; in proof of which, the
Ruby started from Gravesend on Sunday night last, with 300 passengers on
board, half an hour ;ifter the Sons of the Thames had left, and arrived at
London Bridge within three minutes of the time that the latter reached
there, the Ruby thus beating tlie Sons of the Thames 27 minutes in the
whole distance, which was entirely against a sirong ebb tide. A. 13.

The "Elbe" Steamer.— T\n' "Kibe" steamer, which arrived lately from
Dunkirk, for the purpose of getting her machinery put on board by Mr.
Borrie, of the Tay Foundry, made a trial trip, on Saturdav 2nd ult., to prove
the efl^iciency of her engines. She left the West Protection AVall at one o'clock
p. in., with about sixty-five of Mr. Borrie's friends on board, for w liom he had
prepared ample cheer. She proceeded down the river. — rounded tlie Bell
Rock.— run to the Buoy of Tay in fifty-five minutes, being a distance of 12
miles ; and from the Bell Rock to the llarbour in two hours and a quarter —
a distance of 24 miles— having the ebb tide against her in coming up the
river. The vessel was built by Mr. Malo, of Dunkirk, and it was the general
impression on board that both the builder and engineer had performed their
parts well, and had. betweci. them, furnished a very superior steamer- a fact
of which, indeed, they were then witnessing the proofs. The engines (of l(i0
horse power) were much admired by several professional gentlemen on board
for smoothness of action, their eleg'ant and substantial construction, .and high
finish. 'I'he "lOlbe'' is about .500 tons burden, and belongs to tlie Dunkirk
and Hamburgh Steam Navigation Company. She will shortly join "The
Nord " — (fitted out in the early p.art of last season by Mr. Borrie)— on tlie
Dunkirk and Hamburgh station" — The great inirease in the trade of building
and fitting up steam ships at Dundee, has rendered the starting of marine
engines, at one time a rare, now a very common occurrence amongst us ; and
—not unmindful of the merits of Mr. llorrie's brother engineers in this place
— we have much pleasure in stating that both they and he, from their pro-
found knowledge, great experience, and integrity in fulfilling their engage-
ments in the best and most satisfactory manner, do honour to their profession
and to Dundee. On tlie jiresent occasion, we are specially glad to bear testi-
mony to the steady advancement of Mr. Borrie's well-earned reputation in
every department of engineering ; and to notice the gratifying fact, that his
eminence as a marine engineer has now attracted the ;utention of Govern-
ment. The great crane, erected by Mr. Borrie last season, according to the
desi;<ns of James Leslie. Es(|.. engineer of the harbour, attords. in connection
with our spacious docks, facilities equal, if not superior, to any in Great Bri-
tain, for the fitting up of the largest class steamers; and we are happy to
learn that Mr. Bor'rie will, in all lu-obability, be the first to profit by his own
labours and enterprise at the port of Dundee. — Dundee Chronielt,

1840.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

213

TRANSATLANTIC STEAMERS.
Comparison of the passages of tlie four lines of Sailing Packet Sliips be-
tween Ijiverponl antl New York, witli tliose of tlic Transatlantic Steam
Ships, during the year 1839.

Sailing Ships.

Old or Black Ball Line

Dramatic Line

Star Line

Swallow-tail Line . . . .

Steam Ships.

Great Western .
British Qiieen .
Liverpool

Days.
48 0
38 0
45 0
45 0

21 12
20 9
18 12

Average of all the Sailing

Ships '44 0

Average of all the Steam,

Ships 20 3

Difference in favour of the

Steamships ! 23 21 | 10 9

Davs.

22 ■ 0

23 0

27 0

28 0

13 0

14 21
IG 0

25 0
14 15

Days.
33 17
30 12
3G 0
35 0

IG 12
17 8
17 4

34 1]

17 0

17 U

Days.

30 0
25 0
28 0

31 0

15 0
21 12
27 0

-a
I I

Days.
18 0
17 0
21 0
17 0

12 6

13 12

13 18

30 0 ' 18 6
21 4 13 4

8 20

5 2

■<s

Days.
22 12
20 12
24 0
22 12

13 9
16 12

15 IG

15 4i

7 13J

The immense superiority, in point of speed, of the Steam Ships, will be
fully evident on inspection of the above table; where the ditference in the
first instance is more than half ; in the second almost three-fifths; in the
third more than half; in the fourth more than a quarter; in the fifth near a
third ; and in the sixth more tlian a tliird.

It must, however, be borne in mind that the Transatlantic Steam Ships
are yet in their infancy, whilst the sailing ships are perfection ; there being
no faster ships on the face of the globe than the New Tork and Liverpool
Liners.

Steam Navigation in Germany. — Besides the generally good roads, steam-
l)oats and railway lines are. of late, facilitating interior communication in
most parts of Germany. l'>erybody in Kngland knows the steam-boat com-
munications on the Rhine, which for several years past have poured out a
mighty stream of I'jnglish travellers alonj^" the western parts of Germany and
.Sivitzerland. In the course of this summer. (1840.) the banks of the iOlbe.
■•Saxony, Bohemia, and tlie whole central part of Germany, will be .as easily
adniissil)]e to the tourist, as the banks of the Rhine have hitherto been. Per-
haps a few wcn'ds on this subject may prove acceptable to persons intending
to take a trip or a ioiirney to countries conip.iratively not so generally know n.
From London or llull lo'llamljur^b steam-boats are regularly running seve-
ral times every week, llamljurgh is situated about eighty miles inland, on
the navigable Elbe. I'rom Hamburgh to Magdeburgh, the journey is per-
formed on board steam-boats, ofleriug the best accommodations. The dis-
tance, by the river, is about 250 Knglish miles. From Magdeburgh to Lei|)siL-
a railway is constructing ; it will be opened in its whole length,in the early jian
of this summer: the journey — about seventy-four miles — will then be per-
formed in three or four hours. From Leipsie to Dresden a railway has been
in operation for more than a year : the distance — seventy-one miles and a
(juarter — is performed in about 31- hours. From Dresden another line of
steam-boats laui. about lit ty miles, as far as Tetschen, in Bohemia, w here
you find yourself at a few hours' journey from Prague and To'plitz, as well
as in the vicinity of Carlsbad, Frezonsbad, and tjie other celebrated and
fashionable Bohemian watering places, which may all all now l.'C reached
without any fatigue, or any great expense, five days after embarking from
England. From Prague to Briin the liistancc is about sixty miles, where the
traveller will find excellent public coaches, or can take for private use, at any
time and at moderate prices, stage coaches, kept always in readiness by all
the post-administrations throughout llie Austrian Empire, for the accommo-
dation of families travelling without their own carriages. From Briin to
Vienna, the ji/urney — about eighty-five miles — is pert'onneJ in bjur or five
hours, by a railway which has been in operation for upwards of a year.
From Vienna the steam-boats on the Danube run through Hungary to the
Turkish frontiers, and the Black .Sea, in communication with those plying to
Constantinople, Odessa, Trebizonde, &.c. In two months, when the whole
Magdeburgh-Leit»sic Railway is opened, a person may travel from England
to Vienna, or to Constantinople by steam, with the exception of a distance
of ab lUt eighty miles, comprising the two sections of road from Tetschen to
Prague, and from Prague to Briin. where neither railway nor steam-boat
conveyance is as yet established. — Jthcniewn.

PROGRESS OF RAILV^AVS.

Bristol and Exeter Railway.— It is expected that a portion of the Bristol
and Exeter Railway, as far'as Bridgewater, will be opened in the course of
the present year. \V'e understand that the works are proceeding with great
activity. — Railway Times.

BLACKWALL RAILWAY.

CoNsiuEUAULE excrtioiis are being made to open that part of the railway
from tlie Minories to Blackwall on the IStli inst., the anniversary of the
battle of Waterloo, when it is expected that his Grace the Duke of Welling-
ton will be present ; one line of railway is nearly completed from end to end,
t/ie railway is carried on a viaduct from the Minories to the West India
Docks, thence it is continued on an embankment, until it immerges into a
shallow cutting near the terminus at Brunswick Wharf, and terminates under
a shed covered with an iron roof, similar to that of the terminus of the
London and Birmingham Railway at Euston-square ; adjoining the shed is a
spacious biulding for the offices, of the Italian style of architecture, and
forms a in-ominent feature from the river, it is erected from the designs of
Mr. Tite the architect. President of the .Vrelntectural Society; the Black-
wall terniinus is most conveniently adapted for steam-boats, being situated on
Brunswick Wharf, alongside which the largest class steamers can embark and
disembark passengers at all times of the tide, and there are already 2 Graves-
end steamers announced for starting from this spot as soon as the railway is
opened, and no doubt many others will follow ; it is more than probable, be-
fore another year jiasses over, all the steamers which now start from below
bridge will make the Blackwall terminus the starting place, thereby avoiding
the most dangerous part of the voyage through the Pool, and save in time
about three (piarters of an hour; by this means the Gravesend bo.ats will he
able to make two trips each way every day, and we have no doubt it v\ill also
he found the nmst advantageous route to Woolwich, which can be done by
railway, and steamers across the river within three quarters of an hour from
the Minories to Vroolwich.

To afford every facility for the conveyance of passengers, two classes of
carriages have been provided, part of which are already delivered ; the first
class are enclosed, painted blue, finished very tastefully, and embla-
zoned with the .\rms of the Cit.v, and the East and West India Dock Com-
panies, at the same time there is no superfluous ornament or exti-avaganee
about tbeni — the second class carriages are open at the sides, and .are not
provided with seats; the passengers will be obliged to stand dining the short
time that the}- are being conveyed, which it is expected will be in about nine
or ten mimitcs ; it is stated that the fares will be very trifling, for the first
class carriages Hd., and the second class id.

The breadth of the viaduct on the top is 24 feet in cle.ar of the eoiiing
stone or cornice, and 28 feet out ami out. The arches on the top are covered
with asjihalte to prevent the percolation of wet through the brickwork. The
rails arc light in consequence of being relieved of the heavy locomotive, the
form is T shaped, and 5 inches deep, they are laid to a 5 feet 1 inch gauge,
on transverse sleepers of English fir, 3 feet apart, upon which the chairs are
spiked — the rail is secured to the chair in rather a novel manner, a hole is
pierced through one of the arms of the chair at right angles to the rail, in
which an iron ball about the size of a bullet is dropped and rests against the
rail, an iron key or wedge is then driven through an aperture in the same
arm of the,^hair parallel to the rail, which fixes and presses the ball firmly
against the latter, this method of fixing prevents any lateral vibration of the
rail, and at the same time it allows the free expansion and contraction of the
metal, Down the centre of each railway are fixed the pulleys upon which
the tail rojies will traverse, placed 30 feet ajiart; they are 30 inches diameter,
and 8 inches wide across the sheave, the rim is lined with rope matting to
prevent any noise from the rapid motion of the rojie passing over them ; the
axles turn upon ]iluminer blocks fixed on an iron curb, and over each bearing
is a small box for grease to lubricate the axles; the pulleys are fixed verti-
cally throughout the line, both in the straight part and the curves, for the
latter they arc of a dift'erciit shape to the others, being 30 inches diameter
on one side, and '.K inches on the other; the rim is formed like the outside
of the mouth of a large bell. — In the last month's Journal, y. 178, is describeil
how the railway is to be worked, by what is technically termed tail ropes,
that is, a rope at each terminus is attached to the carnages, and as the rope
is coiled up at one end of the railway by the aid of steam-engines, it draws
the carriages, and at the same time the rope at the other end is being nii-
vvound, thus by the time the forward lope, with the carriage, is wound up at
the station at Blackwall, the rope of the station at the Minories is unwound,
it is then ready to draw the carriages from the Blackwall terminus back to
the Minories. For this purpose there are four of these ropes, two to each
line — they are each 3.1 miles long, and 5} inches diameter, and are worked
by two pairs of marine engiues at each end of the line, those at the
Blackwall terminus are 70 horses power each engine, manufactured by Mr.
Barnes, and at the Minories station each engine is 112 horses power, manu-
factured by Messrs. Maudslays and Field, the latter are of greater power than
the former, in consequence of the railway being principally upon the ascent
from Blackwall to the Minories ; each rope is worked by one pair of engines,
the power is tranferred from the engines by means of spur wheels which turn
an immense wheel or iron pulley 14 feet diameter in the clear, and 22 feet out
and out, and 3 ft. 0 in. wide on the outer circumference, and about 21 inches
at the inner circumference, — round this wheel is coiled the rope just described.
The engines at the Minories station have each a marine boiler of large dimen-
sions ; and those of Blackwall, one pair have three Cornish oval boilers, and
the other pair two marine lioilers. The engine house at Blackwall is on a
level with the railway, and at the Minories it is below the railway, under the
arches. The whole of the works do considerable credit to the respective
contractors, and to the indefatigable zeal of the engineers, Mr. George Ste-
phenson and Mr. Bidder.

214

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[JVNK,

The North Midland Railtcaij.

The Xnrlh Midland Railwaii. w liich forms a commniiicafmn between Leeds
and Derby, was partially opened for traffie on Monday, lllh nit. On Satur-
day morning, preiiaratorv to tliat openinf(, tbe J)irectors took a trip .alnnf,'
the line, starting from Derby, and traversing; to alxiiit rtitliin eleven miles
from tbe terminus at Leeds.' l!iit, altliough tbe line is in a eimdition to lie
traverseil from Derby to tbe immediate neigbbourbood of Waketield. tbe
portion open to tbe public extends only from Derby to Rotberham, a distance
of about 40 miles, giving, by means of the Slielbeld and Kotherbam Railway,
an miinterrupted railw.ay 'eonunnnication from Sliertleld to Derby ; from
thence by tbe Midland Counties Railway to Notlingb.un and Leicester ; and
by tbe I^irniingbam and Derljy Railway, to Birmiugbam and London.

Tbe railway station at Derby is a wonderfully extensive place, wbieb
.istonisbes every ()erson on arriving there for tbe first time. 'I'be length of
buildings and covered «av now erecting extend, we believe, lO'iO feet. .So
stupendous and magnitieent does every thing appear, that imagination
almost leads passengers to suppose tlu'y are arrived at a market-place for
steam engines. The buildings comprise a handsome ball, offices, refreshment
and waiting rooms, with recjuisite conveniences, 230 feet long, .3 stories high,
with a fajade wall e.Ktending each way 410 feet, with openings for the de-
parture of passengers on their arrival. The platform the whole length is
formed by large Yorkshire stone landings of a superior quality. Tbe oas-
sengers' shed extends the whole length of the walls and buildnigs, which is
covered by a light iron roof of 42 feet span. The centre part of the passen-
gers' shed' is 56 feet span, and one bay 42 feet, are also covered, in the whole
about 4.50 feet in length, and supported by handsome iron columns, 22 feet
high from the top of the rails.

The arrangements for the lines of rails vith the requisite number of turn-
tables are on an extensive scale, and appear to be well adapted for the traffic
and depot for the Company's carriages.

In addition to these buildings there is an engine-house with 16 sides, 134
feet across, with a conical roof and lanthern rising to 54 feet above the floor
from the top of the cidumns, which are 18 feet high; this building is ap-
proached by t«o wings 48 feet long, over which will be a reservoir of water
for the supply of the engines. &c.

The preparations for the repairs of the Company's engines and carriages
bear the same proportion, the shops averaging 160 feet long each, by 70 feet
wide, three stories high, and smith's furnaces to each in connexion with
other buildings.

When the extensive nature of these works is considered, and that they
have onlv been i) months in hand, tbe greatest praise is due to Mr. Jackson,
tlie contractor, for the despatcli employed, and the stability and beauty of
these structures, which, in connexion with the other stations on the line.
reflect the prreatest credit on the taste and skill of Mr. Thompson, the Com-
pany's architecf. — Abridged from the Derby Reporter. .

Cheltenham and Great Western Union Railu'aij. Engineer's Report, read at the
last Half- Yearly Meeting on the 'iOth April.

Gentleken— Notwithstanding the many causes of delay whiidi have arisen
all the principal works between the Lans'downe Rridge, at Cheltenham, an''
the proposed station at Gloucester, have been completed. Two bridges, w hie"
are three-quarters finished, and about 20,000 yards of earthwork for the ap-
proaches to one of these, namely, the Badgeworlh Road Bridge, together'
with the trimming and soiling of slopes at several places, are all that now
remains to be done to cmple'te the whole of this portion of the line, pre-
paratory to the laving the ballast and the permanent way.

The excavation lor the iunction between the Birmingham and Gloucester
<:ompany's .station at Cbelteuham and the main line at Lansdowne Bridge,
has been commenced, and upwards of 40,000 yards of ballast are prepared
and set asidi*.

The cuttings and embankments upon this district, although consisting
principally of clay, have not suiiered imich during the late wet season, and
there is now every appearance of the works standing well.

The five permanent shafts of tbe .Saperton Tunnel, referred to in the last
Report, have been completed ; the sixth, which will be the least in depth,
ami in other respects the easiest in construction, has not been commenced, in
consequence of the taking possession of any land, at that part, invcdving. by
the arrangements with the proprietor, tbe previous purchase of the whole of
the land required for the wcjrks generally in the same parish, and which ex-
pense you <leemed it unnecessary at present to incur.

Between Cirencester and the junction » ith the Great Western Railway at
.Swindon, the v.orks have, generally speaking, been actively proceeded with
during the last half-year. , . , . r ■ ■ „

Of the masonry of bridges and culverts, which is oi course principally
summer work, upwards of 3000 yards have been executed, and 7.500 remain
unfinished, independently of the covered way, winch contains about 5.300
yards, and which is just commenced.

Of tbe 000.000 yards of earthwork, which, as was stated at the last meet-
ing, then remained to be moved, 400,000 have been excavated, and formed
into embankment; and there remain, consequently, .500,000 only, to com-
plete the work.

Upon the whole extent of the works in this district, both the cuttings and
embankments have stood remarkably well ; the leu and slight symptoms of
slipping, which occurred on one single part only, have been entirely remc-
dietl, and tbe slopes are now in excellent condition.

Although the average performance, however, has thus, upon a total dis-
tance of 17 miles, been such as would, calculating at (he same rate, and
allowing but moderately for tbe great advantages of the summer season,
ensure the completion of the whole during the next five or six months, this
average rate has not been equally maintained upon all tbe contracts.

The works of the Cirencester branch to Kemble are in a forward state, and
nniglit easily be finished during the next August; and the contractor for that
\>aa of the 'line extending from the Great Western Railway to the Red Uon

at Minety, a dist.ance of upwards of nine miles, would be able to complete
the work, including the laying of the permanent way, by the month ol Sep-
tember. An embankment of about 160.000 yards, contract. No. 2, is the
principal work to be c.-cecuted on the remairaler of the line ; and if very great
exertions Mere useil, there can be little doubt tb.at the whole might be
brought into profitable work with the commencemeut of the year 1841. or
even by the end of the present year ; w bile, in the mean tirne, the nine miles
Iiefore referred to, forming part of a continuous line in conjunction with the
Great M'esteni Railway, might be brought into operation at a still earlier
period.

The prospect of the early opening of the Great Western Railway, up to
Swindon, which may be expected during the latter end of the present year,
and the great state of forwardness of several miles at that extremity of your
line, would render a successful efiort highly valuable. These exertions would,
of course, necessarily dem.and a proportionably rapid expenditure of the capi-
tal of the Company— an expenditure, however, wdiich would be unquestion-
ably economical in the end. I am. Gentlemen, yonr's obediently,

I. K. Beunel, Engineer.
Great Western Railway.— The works in the neighbourhood of Bath are
proceeding with very great activity. The foundation of the pier in the centre
of the Avon, near the Old Bridge, 'having been properly laid, operations liave
been commenced on the Widcomb? side of the water. In the Ham gardens
the erection of the arches on which the Bath depot will be situated, is being
rapidly proceeded with ; w hilst some steps have been taken towards erecting
the viaduct across the Dolemead and Pultency road. The tunnel at tbe top
of Raby-place is likewise being finished in a very rapid manner. Towards
Hampton the works are of a heavy character, and the utmost despatch is.
therefore, observable in that quarter. The workmen have made great pro-
gress in the necessary excavations for turning the course of the canal imme-
diately opposite the Cleveland Baths. The embankments for the permanent
way are here in a forward state ; while, near Hampton church, and in the
meadows beyond, the contractors have been very active, and operations have
l>een commenced throughout tbe e.-.tcnt of the line to Bathford. A together,
tliere seems no reason why the line between Bath and Bristol should not be
opened towards the close of this summer ; and we hear that the Bristol di-
rectors have been taking measures which, it is hoped, will secure the opening
of their division, and consequently of tbe entire line, in the middle ol next
yew.— Wilts Independent. The opening of the extended line to Steventon, a
'distance of 52 miles from London, is announced to take place on the 1st ot
next month. We are happy to find that there is every probability ot this
grand undertaking being opened between Bristol and Bath early m Septem-
ber. The permanent way has Lecn laid down in the neighbourhood ot
Keynsham to a considerable extent, and the locomotive engine is ,at work.
Between Keynsham and Bristol the road is all formed, and except finishing
nil the head of No. 3 tunnel, is in a perfect state. The beautiful elliptic
Gothic-arched bridge across the Avon, near the station, is completed, ami
presents a most splendid appearance. Tbe work does infinite credit to the
contractors, Messrs. Wilcox and Son. — Bristol Mirror.

Pre.fton and Wijre Railmiy.— This line of railway, it is expected, will he
opened to the public on the'lst or 2nd of July next— the North Union Com-
pany finding locomotive power and caiTiages. Above 1. 000 men are en-
gaged in the various works in progress at Fleetwood, among which may be
mentioned an liotel, intended to be one of the finest buildings of the kind in
the kingdom. A quay of considerable length, the foundation of which rests
on iron piles, is also in progress. A light-house, on Mitchell s patent screw
principle, has been erected on the end of a sand bank, about two miles out to
sea, and will be lighted in the course of next month. The house and lantern
stand from CO to 70 feet high. CUiptain Denham. R.N., has been for some
time busily engaged taking bearings for two o!bcr light-houses, wdnch are
intended shortly to be commenced. It is intended so to lower the bar, by
dredging, that t'here shall never be less than 12 feet water at low water high
spring tides, from the sea direct into the liarbour, which can readily be
elli?cted. The town of Fleetwood h:is been tastefully laid out by Decimus
Burton, I'^sq., of London, and a considerable number of houses are in pro-
gress.— Lancaster Guardian.

Birmingham and Gloucester Railwaii.—\yc can now confidently state that
the Birmingham and Gloucester Railway will be opened on or before the Isl
of July next, from Barnt Green, eleven miles from this town, to Cheltenham.
Conveyances will be furnished by the company to perform the intermediate
distance, and by the end of the year it is fully calculated that the whole line
will be completed, and opened to the public from Birmingham to Cheltenham.
— Midland Counties Jferald.

Sorthern and Ea.itern Railway.— A correspondent informs us that the open-
ing of the first portion of the Northern and Kastern Railway will take place
at least two months sooner than was anticipated— namely, in August next.
We learn from other onartcrs. that the greatest energy is displayed in the
prosecution of the works. — Ibid.

Manchester and Birmingham Railway— The exertions of the various con-
tractors, on this line of railway, at the temporary Manchester terminus, in
Travis-street, Londim-road. hav'e, for the last four or five weeks, been cpiite
astonishing. Since the 1st of April, no fewer than six more arches, ot thii-ty-
threc feet span, have been completed, besides another skew bridge. The
magnitude, or rather tlie extent of the work, may in some measure be esti-
mated, when it is .stated that the arches and bridge have consumed nearly
seven millions of bricks. The immense scafiblding or centering, rendered ne-
cessarr lor the erection of the iron skew bridge, which has so pistly attracted
public notice, has this week been removed, and this noble mechanical struc-
ture, which has certainly not its cijual in the kingdom— perhaps not in the
world, may now be seen to the best possible adv.intage. Mr. Buck, tbe com-
pany's engineer, has, it is said, the rare merit of designing this extraordinary
work of art. The permanent rails are now in the course of being laid ; the
mode of doing which presents to the eye of the scientific man a degree ot
firmness and probable dumbility not perhaps equilled, or even nearly ap-

1840.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

215

pvoaclieil, by any other vaDwav line in the kingdom. The rails, remarkably
heavy, are fifteen feet in lenglli. and laid on longitudinal jiieces of KyaniseJ
timber, the scantling of whieh is twelve inches by six inches. There are be-
sides transverse pieces, also KyaniseJ, ten inches by five inches, and screwed
to the longitudinal ones every' three feet, so that it may with safety be pro-
nounced impossible that the rails, when once truly and (irmly lixod in their
chairs, can ever afterwards be other than completely parallel to each other ;
a circumstance that cannot fail to give a motion to the cai-riages so thoroughly
easy and agreeable, as to bid defiance to all attempts at improvements on the
plan. When the archo.s, now 110 in nimiber, are extemied to the intended
permanent station. Piccadillv, near the Infirmary, the entire length of the
viaduct on brick arches will 'exceed two miles; and the quantity of timber
that will be consumed in laying the rails for this length only, will exceed
20.000 cubic feet. It is intended to open the railway, as lar as Stockport, on
the 29th May. — Manchester Chronicle.

Lancaster and Preston Junctimi llailway. —Tlus railway will be opened for
the conveyance of passengers, and of traffic, on MTiit-Monday. The works
proceed at the Lancaster terminus -with considerable activity. A single line
of rails has been laid down as far as Galgate, and during the past week a
number of men have been despatched to the contract of Messrs. lI'Mahon.
which, it is rumoured, the directors intend to take into their own hands, in
order to ensure the compUtion by the 6th of next month, v liich otherwise is
more than problematical. — Railway Times.

Paris and Rouen Rnilway. — The contract entered into between the South-
ampton Railroad Company and that between Paris and Kouen has been
.signed, and the works will be commenced immediately. The present railroad
from St. Germain will form the nucleus, and from the same point it is ima-
gined the railroad to Belgium might be commenced, and hence that goods
covild be forwarded directly from Rouen to Bmssels, without having to pass
through the French capital. — Globe.

Glasffoiv ami Ayr Rnilwaii. — The most active exertions are making along
the line in order to eli'ect tlie completion of the whole line by the end of
July. Betwixt Kilwinning and Dairy the cutting and embanking is carried
on during the night as well as the day : and the contractor of this lot,
liitherto in the most backward state, is proceeding with the greatest vigour
and success. Considerable progress has been made in overcoming the diffi-
culties of the so called bottomless meadow, whieh has required so much de-
posit in the embanking. The most formidable part of it yet remaining
extends to about three hundred yards : and it is singular to observe that as
the earth is poured on the embankment, the surface on both sides is heaved
up to a considerab e extent. As the workmen proceed, they find each new
piece of embankment to sink during the night, which depression they have
to restore by fresh portions of surface material. Having once surmounted
this obstacle, their task will be comparatively easy, as the embankment at
this part of the line is only three feet. The meadow which lies betwixt Kil-
birnic and Lochwinnoch Lochs, is supposed to have been at one time also
covered with waier, but it was not considered to have retained so much
moisture as to cause such extra labour to make it properly terra fimia. other-
wise some change would have been made on the line, by which it might have
been avoided. The lodging-houses in Ivilwinning. Dairy, and Beilli, are
crowded with lal^ourers employed on the railway, whose expenditure must
be felt in a considerable degree by those villages. The iron-works at Dairy
are in the progress of building, and appear to be on a very extensive scale. —
GlasgoiP Courier.

ENGINEERING VITORKS.

The Royal George.— Cf\\.Vas\eyhegan his proceedings for the removal of
the wreck of the Royal George on the 1st of last month, but up to the 12th
nothing very remarkable was effected. Two guns, the rudder, and a conside-
rable quantity of timber, were recovered ; but as these were merely the frag-
ments of last year's work which the inclemency of the season prevented the
engineers from picking up, no serious measures were deemed necessary till
Tuesday, 12 ultimo. At eight o'clock in the morning, the red flags at Spit-
head announced that a great explosion was to be attempted : and at eleven
one of those huge cylinders which have formerly been described, filled with
2116 11). of gunpowder, was lowered to the bottom. One of Col. Pasley's
divers (George Hall) who has acquired great expertness in these operations,
descended his rope-ladder a little in advance of the cylinder, and succeeded
in fixing it securely to one of the lower gudgeons or braces on the rudder-
post, within six or eight feet of the keel. The diver having remounted, and
the vessels being withdrawn to a safe distance, the enormous charge was
ignited by means of the voltaic apparatus. Within less than two seconds
after tlie shock was felt, the sea rose over the spot to the height of about
1.5 feet, or not quite half so high as it did on occasion of the great explosions
last year— a diilerencc ascribable, probably, to the cylinder on the present
oecas on having been placed under ihe hull instead ot alongside it. The
commotion in the w ater, however, was so great as to cause the lumps and
lighters to pitch and roll at a great rate. The whole surface of the sea for
severixl hundred yards round was presently covered with dead fish and small
fragments of the cylinder. Amongst these were innumerable tallow candles,
and a mass of butter a foot and a half in length, evidently driven upfront
the purser's store-room. As soon as the va.st commotion in the water b.ad
subsided, and the boats had returned from the universal scramble lor the
candles and dead fish, the diver proceeded again to the bottom, and soon
reported that the whole stern of the ship bad been driven to pieces, and that,
so lar as he could ascertain, there was now a free and wide channel directly
fore and aft the ship, from stem to stern, through which both the flood and
ebb tides will rush, and thus the mud with which the hull of the Royal
George has been silted for half a century, will be washed out, and the way
cleared for Col, Pasley's further operations.

Staffordshire and Worcestershire Canal Company. — This company, having
purchased of the Moat Colliery Company the unexpired term of their lease
of the river Sowe, up to this town, have this week employed no less than
150 men in improving and making navigable for heavily laden vessels, that
part of it between this town and Radford Bridge. The work has been ac-
tively proceeded with, the bed of the river being lowered in some parts about
two feet, widened or narrowed as required, and thoroughly cleansed. This
improvement has been effected with the view of opening a market for IjOrd
Hatberton's and other collieries at Church Bridge, near Cannock, to which
}tlace a branch from the canal is in progress, at an estimated expense of
£20,000. It is expected that the branch will be completed by the end of the
present summer ; .so that the inhabitants of this tow n may reasonably expect
both a cheaper and better supply of the necessary article of fuel. — Stafford-
shire Gazette.

Portsmouth Dockyard. — A Board of Admiralty, consisting of Earl Minto and
Sir M". Parker, lately visited the port. Several material points have called
their Lordships' attention to this neighbourhood : in the first place, the lioa -
ing bridge approaches required their inspection, in which they were assisted
by their engineer. Captain Brandreth i anil we have no doubt that all matters
in dispute will be satisfactorily arranged tor the company, and ailvantageously
for the public. We have reason to think that Mr. Lindegren's projecting
premises will be purchased and throw n open, by wdiich means upwards of 60
feet of high water beach will be available to the watermen ; care, however,
should be taken that the new beach be properly formed, for, as the situatimi
is removed from the operation of the tidal influence on the shingle, nature
will provide nothing but nuul to land on, unless the engineer shall e.\ercise
his art and procure a more hardened substance.

NEW CHURCHES, &c

Dorsetshire.— Tlhe foimdation stone of the new church at Ash was laid on
Wednesday, 13tli ult., by the Rev. R. Oakman. the vicar, in the (iresence of
a very large company, comprising about 2.000 of the nobility, gentry, and
yeuraanry of the county. — Dorset County Chronicle.

Nottingham. — The beautiful church of St. Mary, which has justly excited
so much admiration from antiquaries, has been completely restored, at an
expense of 3,000^., which sum was raised by subscription ; and Mr T. Wright,
of Upton-hall, has purchased and presented to the church a beautiful Cruci-
fixion, by Fra Bartolomeo, anil one of his finest works, as an altar-piece. —
Nottingham Herald.

Essex. — North and south transepts are now in progress at the parish church
of Messing, near Colchester, under the direction of John Burges Watson, Ksq..
of 39, Manchester-street, London. The style is early I'inglish ; there is ,i
beautiful eastern window in stained glass and of great antiquity, .supposed lo
have been of Dutch origin, .and is an object of attraction to visitors; it is
also contemplated to have a new tower and spire, for which designs have
been furnished.

Sisters of Mercy in Birmingham. — John Ilardman, Esq., of Handsworth, has
generously allotted to the use of this establishment, a piece of land opposite
his own dw elling ; and a convent is now in progress, from the designs of A .
W. Pugin, Esq.. the architect of St. Chad's Church. The conventual build-
ings will consist of chapel, cloister, community room, refectory, olliees, and
private chambers, or, as the are technically termed, cells ; to which will be
added a refectory, school-room, and suitable apartments for about thirty
female orphan children. The plan of the building is based chiefly upon that
of" Brown's Hospital " in Stamford ; and, as Mr. Pugin studies propriety of
destination in all his edifices, we have reason to know that the one in question
will not only be ornamental and picturesque, but in every respect conventual —
in fact, the only entire building, with purely conventual features, in the coun-
try.— Midland Counties Herald.

Staffordshire.— 7hc new church of St. James', at Handsworth, was eonse-
eratcd on the 22iid April last. It is built in the early Gothic style, with a
tower of three stories at the west end, it contains 926 sittings, ol which 518
are tree. Mr. Richard Robinson of Wolverhampton, was the contractor, for
the sum of £2,500, — and Robert Ebbels, Esq., the architect.

MISCELIiANEA.

Artificial Asphalte. — The substitution of boiling coal tar instead of
water, with crushed caustic lime and screened gravel or sharp sand, in the
usual proportions for making coucrete, forms an admirable asphalte, perhaps
equal to the foreign asphalte. C. F. P.

IJ'ood Pavement. — A considerable length of the Strand is now being
paved with wood ; the blocks are hexagonal, 9 inches deep, and 9 inches
across at right angles to the sides ; the upper edge is chamfered all round,
to form a groove to prevent the horses from slipping. The wood is laid o«
a bed of broken granite, and to us it appears that the work is behig done in
a very clumsy and unsatisfactory manner.

Asphalte. — This material has been used in lining the reservoirs and tanks
of the Southampton RaUway, and found to answer very well ; it has also
been used for covering terraces — in some situations it has not been very suc-
cessful, but in others it is perfectly water-proof. An additional length of
the footway in Whitehall hai been laid with ttus material.

2i<;

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[J UN

K,

Thames Tiniiwl. — Tlie C'oin])any liiivc oljtaiTicd aiintlier Act of Parliament,
which empowers them to purchase the [iroperty on tlie Xlichllesex side of the
river necessary' for the apjiroaclies ; the worlcs will now proceed with ra]tidity.
The tunnel is eompleteil to within 50 feet of the wharf at \Viippiug, and
pre])arations are making lo commence immediately tlie sinking of the shaft
on the Middlesex side of the river. The formatiim of the new shaft, as well
as the remaining jiortion of the tunnel, will he carried on at the same time,
ami it is expected thai in aho\it four months they will he completed. Not
less than 150 workmen are at jirescnt engaged in finishing the interior of the
western arch roadway, preparatory to its heing opened, in the first instance,
as a thoroughfare for foot passengers.

To consume /lie smoke from a boiler furnace. — Let the fresh coals he ])iit
into the furn.ice as near to the door as possible, and leave the door 0])en for
a space of two or three inches to allow cold air to enter, this will keep down
the greater part of the smoke which will he consimu'd ; the .same may he ap-
plied to marine engines. This method will he found as efficacious as any
patent that has yet heen taken out. M.

Siifrh/ I'airr lo Sleam Boilers. — At a meeting of the Socielv of Arts, on
■Wednesday, May 6tl), llie gold Isis medal «»s a« arded to Mr. ItoLert M-Ewen,
for a mercurial gauge vi liich answers the double purpose of an indicator of
steam-pre.ssnre and a safety-valve for engine boilers. The novelty of the in
venlion consists in llio eni|>loymcnt of a mereiirial tube as a safe-vent for the
steam. tJicse tubes ha\ing hitherto been used only as indietitors of pressure,
and of a length suflieient to allow the steam to acijuire a dangerous degree of
pressure, without giving any other notice uf the fact than what may l)e ob-
.served by the eye. As the action of Mr. AbEwen's safety-valve ilepends on
a purely jilii/sleiil principle, viz., the oppcsilion ot the clastic force of sle.ini to
the stjitie pressure of mercury ^\itI)OUt a nierhonieal ob.struction of any kind,
it allbrds a free vent for the steam when its pressure exceeds the limit, cor-
responding to the length lo which the lubes are adjusted, according to the
strength of the boiler.

I}iirm Coal. — Dr. Hutchison, of llie Madras artillery, has dra«n up a report
on the coal-fields recently discovered in the vicinity of Mergui. by h liich it
apiiears that this coal is easy of access, lying at m," great deiilli beneath the
.surlaee, so lliat .shafts may be sunk wiihuut' difficulty. For its emiveyanee
there seems to be every facility, the river being adjacent, and a land carriage
of one mile only being required. 1 1 is not stated wlietber the ipiality of the
eoal has been tested bv experiment, but we presume it to be the same of
which Dr. Ileifer spoke so highly in his communications. .Steamers will
begin to plv bet\veen the difl'erent ports in the bay of Bengal : and the imme-
diate cotil dejiols between the Presidencies and .Suez will be more plenlitully
supplied, and at a cheaper rate. The eflect these circumstances will produce
on the destinies of India can se.ircely be estimated. — Ea.it Intliu Magazine.

Z.IST OF NEW PATENTS.

GRANTliD IX ENGLAND FROM 2StH APRIL TO 23rU MAV, 1810.

William Crank M'ilkins, of Long Acre, Lamp Manufaeturer, and
Matthkw Samukl Kendrick, of the same jilacc, Lamp Maker, for " cer-
tain improeements in lighting and in lamps." — Sealed Ajiril 28 ; six months
for enrolment.

John Inkson, of Ryder Street, Saint James'. Gentleman, for " improve-
ments in apparattis for consmninr/ gas for tlie purpose of liijht." Communi-
cated by a foreigner residing abroad. — April .30 ; six months.

Orl.vnjio Joneh, of the City Itoad, Accountant, for " improeements in
treating or operating on farinaceous matter to obtain starch auft otfier pro-
ducts, and in manufacturing starch." — April 30; six months.

M'tLLiAM PiERCK, of Janics Placc, lIoNton, Ironmonger, for "improve-
vienls in ttte construct ion of locks and keys." — May 2 ; six months.

Arthuh Wall, of liermondsey, Surgeon, for " a neio composition for the
prevention of corrosion in metals, am! for other purposes." — May 2 ; six
months.

Thomas Gadd Mattukws, of Bristol, Merchant, and Rohkrt IjHonard,
of the same place, Merchant, for " certain improvements in machinerg or
apjiaratus for sawing, rasping, or dividing dge, iroods, or tanners^ bark." —
May 5 ; six months.

William Newton, of Chancery Lane, Patent ■\gent, for " an improved
apparatus and process for producing .sculptured forms, JigureSf or devices in
marble, and other hard substances." Coninuinicatcd by a foreigner residing
abroad. — May 5 ; six months.

Gkorgk Mackav, of Mark Lane, Ship Broker, for " certain improvements
ill rotatory engines." Communicated by a foreigner residing abroad. — May
5 ; six months.

William Beetson, of Brick Lane, Old Street, Brass I'ounder, for " im-
provements in sfuffing-bo.res applicable to water-closets, pumps, and cocks." —
May 5 ; six months.

Frank Hills, of Deptford, Kent, Manufacturing Cliemist, for "certain
improvements in the construction of steam-boilers and engines, and of locomo-
tive ca-riages." — May 5 ; six months.

Bernard Auue, of Coleman Street Buildings, Gentleman, for " improve-
ments in the preparation of wool for tlie manufacturer of woollen and other
stuffs." — May 7 ; six months.

Thomas Walker, of Galasliiels, in the county of Selkirk, Meclianic, for

" improvements in appnratu.i applicable to feeding machinerg employed in
carding, scribbling, or teazing fit/rous materials." — May 7 ; six months.

IIknrv IIollano, of Darwin Street, Binuingbam, Umbrella I'uruiturc
Maker, for "improvements in the manufacture of umbrellas and parasols." —
■May 7 ; six months.

Henry Montague Grover, of Boveney, Buckingliainshire, Clerk, for
" an improved method of retarding and stopping railway trains." — May 7 ;
six months.

Miles Bkrrv, of Chancery Lane, Patent Agent, for " certain improve-
ments ill treating, refining, and purifying oil*." Communicated by a foreigner
residing abroad. — May 9 ; six months.

AiiGusTE MoiNAN, of Philpot Tcriace, Edgware Road, Clock Maker, for
" certain improvements in the construction of time-keepers." — May 9 ; six
months.

Rice Harris, of Birmingham, Gentleman, for " certain improvements in
cylinders, plates, and blocks, vsed in printing ami embossing." — May 12; six
months.

George John Newberry, of Cripplegate Buildings, Manufacturer, for
" certain improvements in rendering silk, cotton, woollen, linen, and other
fabrics, waterproof." — May 12 ; six months.

Henry Dibcks, of Liverpool, Engineer, for " certain improvements in the
construction of locomotive steam-engines, and in wheels to be u.sed on rail and
other ways, parts of ivhicli improvements are ajipUcable to steam-engines gene-
rally."— May 12 ; six months.

John 11avid>:o.n, of Leith Walk, Edinburgh, for " on improvement in the
method of preserving salt." — May 12 ; six months.

Peter Br.^dshaw', of Dean, near Rimbolton, Bedford, Gentleman, for
"improvements in dibbling corn and seed." — May 12; six months.

James Walton, of Sowerby Bridge, Halifax, Cloth Dresser, for " im-
provements in the ^nanufacture of beds, mattresses, pillows, cushions, padi,
and other articles of a similar nature, and in materials for packing." — May
12 ; six months.

Richard Foote, of Faversham, Kent, Watch Maker, for " improvements
in alarums." — May 12; six months.

John Joseph Mechi, of Leadenhall Street, Cutler, for " an improved
method of lighting buildings." — May 12 ; two months.

Bryan J'Anson Bromwich, of Clifton-on-Teme, Worcester, Gentleman,
for " improvemeu/s in stirrup-irons." — May 13 ; six montlis.

Henry' Ernest, of Gordon Street, iliddlesex. Gentleman, for " certain
improvements in the manufacture of machines, nsually called beer-engines." —
May 13 ; six months.

William IIannis Taylor, of Norfolk Street, Strand, Esquire, for "cer-
tain improve7nents in the mode of forming or manufacturing staves, shingles,
and laths, and the machinery used for that purpose." — May 20 ; six months.
Willi.\m Bush, of CamherwcU, Merchant, for "improvements in fire-
arms and in cartridges." Communieated by a foreigner residing abroad. —
May 20 ; six months.

James Buchanan, of Glasgow, Merchant, for " certain improvements iu
the machinery ajiplicable to the preparing, twisting, and .ynnniiig, and also in
the mode of preparing, twisting, and .spinning, of lieiiip,tla.r, and other fibrous
substances, and certain improvements in the mode (f aji/ilgiug tar or other
preservative to rope and other yarns." — Alay 22 ; six months.

James Callard Davies, of College Place, Camden Town, Jeweller, for
" an improved clock or time-piece."- — May 23 ; six months.

TO CORRESFOMDENTS.

//" W. 15. will favour us with the particulars of llie addition to Thoniey Jbliry.
we will insert liieni iie.it nioiitti.

iS. P.'s method of constructing a Bridge is iinpractirahlr, il is like buildiug
castlrs in the air, bis couiniHuicatiuu will lie left at uur iiffiee.

Il'e Ihaiil; Mr. Plank for his corirclioii, il will be forwarded In Ihc author of
llie piiprr. ^

Mr. Phillip's eomuiiiiiivutioii is unavoidably postponed, togelher willi sovic
olliers.

'' Amicus" is mil aware of the dijjirnllies and delays in getting the reports be
nienlioiis, wc iiiivt' inserted some in the present .lonrnal.

" Report oil tilt phiiis for preventihg itieideiits on hoard of sleuin vessels, we
had intended to hiin given this month, but in eunsetpieuee of an over pressure oj
matter, we are eoinpelleil to postpone it J or the ne.vt Journal.

IVe are obliged to Capt. I'.for bis eomiuuiiieation, the e.ytrnris from Palladio we
luive mil Inserted, us the wort: is ueeessibte In must iifchileets — ///,v other paper e.i-
pluining how iuereused bnoyauey might lie obtained bij filing the sides of re.i.iels with
gas in reservoirs, lee Ihiilh is iinpnletituble, us the weight of the rest rroirs eou-
tiiining the gas and the iuereused ballast ill the bottom of the vessel, wilt more tliau
eoiintfirbalauce the bnoyauey if the gas.

The eominuiiieuiiim from Mr. Niehol.ioii\s reply to Mr. rtuel;, S,-e.. leas received too
lute iu till month for the pri sent .hnirniil. we leill not fail inserting it iie.it month.

Coinmiuiiealions are reipiested to be addressed to "The lOditor ot the Civil
Engineer and Archileet's Journal," A". \\, Parliament Street. It'eslminster.

lioohs for reeiew ninst be sent eai;ly in the month, comwiinieittions mi or before
tlie 20th (if with wood-cuts, earlier), and advertisements on or before ttic 'Z5th
instant.

Tut; l''msT Volume M,<\v i)e had, bound in cloth and LErrKRED in gold,
Price IJs.

'*,* The Second Volume may .^lso be had. Price 20s.

1840.1

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

217

FINSBURY SAVINGS' BANK.

Architect, Alfred Bartholomew.

The sum allowed for the erection of this building was only £2850,
whifh, taking into consideration its size, is not 50 per cent, upon the
ratio of cost of any other of the savings' banks of the metropolis ; the
consequence is, that it is neither built externally of the materials, nor
finished internally in the style, which the architect of it desired : a
previous design was prepared by hira for a larger and superior build-
ing, to be finished externally with Portland stone, internally fitted up
in a handsome manner, and with the novelty of an entire fire-proof
construction, the particulars of which are to be found in Mr. Bartho-
lomew's "Specifications for Practical Architecture," just published.
The absolute tender for the difference between external stucco and
Portland stone (the frontage remaining the same), was less than 5 per
cent, upon the cost of the original design, and less than 7 per cent,
upon the reduced one ; and the fire-proof construction added only
about G per cent, to the cost.

The frontage of the building extends 72 feet, and consists of a range
of seven large windows, for the admission of a great body of light to
the offices, between ten rusticated pilasters, 13 ft. G in. high, which
are diminished. They are surmounted by an entablature ; above is a
range of three Palladian windows (lighting a board-room), flanked by
long rustic quoins, and surmounted by a fascia and a bold cornice,
from the outer edge of which commences the slope of tiie roof, which
has a sunk or concealed gutter. At the sides of the pilastrade before
mentioned, are rusticated wings, containing the entrances, each G feet
wide, above which the building retires, so as to detach it from the
adjoining houses. All the fascias are made very broad, for the pur-
pose of receiving inscriptions to be visible at a considerable distance.

The interior of the building, which is totally destitute of every
description of decoration, contains a public office 3U feet long, three
private offices, a strong-room, a depositors' waiting-hall 44 feet long,
two entrance halls, each 11 feet S inches by 20 feet, a board-room 30
feet by 14 feet, two staircases, and besides these thirteen domestic
apartments, most of which are concealed from view in order to avoid
as much as possible the meanness of many small external windows.

All the proportions of this building have suffered from retrenchment,
and it is thus rendered in dimension, having regard to its business,
twice as large as any similar establishment.

The external cornices and chimneys are not yet finished.

The sum allowed for this building was so restricted, that the archi-
tect chose to be at some part of the expense of the external decora-
tions of it, rather than suffer it to undergo farther mutilation.

No. 34.— Vol. III.- July, 1S40.

ON THE PRESENT STATE OF THE ART OF GLASS PAINT-
ING IN ENGLAND AND FRANCE, AND ON THE NECES-
SITY FOR EFFORTS IN ITS FAVOUR.

By George Godwin, Jun., F.R.S. & S.A.*

The extraordinary degree of apathy universally manifested with
regard to the well-being and progress of an art, the admirable results of
which throughout a period of at least five or six hundred years are
scattered over the whole of Europe, is so much to be lamented, and
calls so loudlv for exertion on the part of those who feel its importance,
that I am induced to raise earnestly a feeble voice in its behalf. And
I do this without any fear of the imputation of vanity or self-confidence,
and with a strong hope that however weak the advocate, some good
may be effected by the effort. Many men with earnest wishes and
strong inward promptings, avoid speaking out simply through feelings
of their own want of importance and dread lest interference on their
part may be construed into presumption, or at the best be entirely dis-
regarded. This 1 am disposed to think is an evil and should be com-
batted, experience showing that a word uttered in due season, however
humble and weak the utterer, may, and often does, have effects which
could not possibly have been calculated upon : and further, that an
individual, however unimportant who with strong conviction iterates,
and reiterates the necessity of a certain step will be sure of finding a
response in the public mind, provided his statement be founded in
truth, and sooner or later will most probably effect his purpose. This
introduction is a little too pompous for the very brief remarks which
follow, but nevertheless perhaps, may not be deemed useless or im-
pertinent.

To bring together and relate the circumstances attending the pro-
gress of the art of painting, and staining glass from the foundation of
Constantinople, where it attained a certain degree of excellence, and
whence, there seems reason to believe, it was brought to Rome, and
afterwards by our Norman, if not our Saxon, ancestors to England,
would be a pleasant task, but as all the facts are well known, the repe-
tition might prove tiresome. In the 14th and 15th centuries the art
reached great perfection in England, and ultimately became so popular
that stained glass was not merely used for ecclesiastical purposes, but
as an essential feature of decoration in domestic architecture. At the
Reformation the onward progress of glass painting was checked, and
many fine specimens cf it were destroyed as evidences and encouragers
of superstition. Further ravages were made in the reign of Charles I.
and during the continuance of the Commonwealth; indeed it seems
surprising, bent as the Puritans were upon its destruction, that so much
yet remains,

" Innumerable of stains and splendid dyes.
As are the tiger-moths deep damask'd wings,"

to prove its power in exciting holy emotions ; " to add new lustre to
religious light," and a further charm to the many inherent beauties of
those numerous buildings in the pointed style of architecture scattered
over England, of which we have just right to be proud.

Dallaway in the first edition of his " Observations on English Archi-
tecture,"!- gives a valuable list of the various professors of the art of
painting on glass, who practised in England from the period of the re-
storation of the reigning family up to the year 1805, when Francis
Egington died, — a man of celebrity in the exercise of the art, who had
been established near Birmingham.

A little time previous to this date, Charles Muss came to London to
obtain emplovnient as a colourer of prints. He lodged at the house of
an individual who painted upon china for Messrs. Mortlock, and was
induced by accident, on the death of iiis landlord, to undertake the
completion of some work of this description which had been left un-
finished. Succeeding in this he became a china painter, and ultimately
a glass painter, and was employed in that capacity for many years by
Mr. Collins of the Strand. He afterwards executed a number of works
in his own name, — of which one of the finest that I know is a window
in the church of St. Mary at Redriff. Muss had a number of pupils,
some of whom are now practising: as for example Mr. Nixon and Mr.
Hoadley. Backler, who painted the window at St. George's church
in the Boroagh, was another of his scholars, as was also Mr. John
Martin — since so deservedly celebrated in another branch of art; a
man of whom it may be said, in a parenthesis, our age will boast here-
after.l A work in stained glass from his hands is, I believe, to be

* The substance of this paper was read at the Royal Institute of British
Archiiecis, June I, 184U.

T London, 1806.

; '• It is only when we are skeleton? that we are boxed and ticketed, and
prized and shown. ' — W. S. Landor.

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^JULY,

found ;it Lord Listowel's, at Kensington. The peculiarity to be ob-
served in piintings of the Muss school, (I tliink it may also be tenne.d
the dtftcl,) is the great degree of opacity given to some of the colours ;
whereas in tlie best works of the artists of the middle ages all the
colours are more or less translucent. Of all Muss's living |)upils Mr.
Nixon, of the firm of Ward and Nixon, has peibaps most entirely
abandoned this peculiarity, and the result apparent in such of the
works executed by this firm as I have examined, is of an exceedingly
satisfactory nature.

The branch of glass painting now most encouraged appears to me,
although of itself charming, a departure from the special character of
this art. I allude to the imitation of oil paintings on single plates of
glass, or of plates composed of very few large pieces, — such for exam-
ple as the copy of " Belshazzar's Feast," and others of Martin's wonder-
ful conceptions, which have been so well executed by Messrs. Hoadley
and Oldfield.

Dallaway says that Thomas Jervais, who died in ISO], was the first
who was distinguished for exquisitely finishing small subjects, since
which time this department of the art has been much studied and has
been brought to a point of great excellence. In productions of this sort a
variety of colours are fused into the same piece of glass, and it becomes
almost impossible to obtain with such certainty equal effects of colour,
as when each tint is on a separate piece of glass, although this style has
undoubtedly its own advantages. In the works of the earlier manner the
colours are nearly always on separate pieces, the various morsels being
united by leaden or copper bands, and shaded with brown. A hardness
of outline resulted, and a great excellence in drawing was not easily
attainable, but there is nevertheless about them a character [leculiarly
their own which should not willingly be lost in decorating ecclesiasti-
cal structures of the style of the middle ages. Of course we should
not give up the power we possess through our improved mechanical
skill, to avoid injurious joinings where this can be done without dimi-
nution of excellence in other respects; what I wo\ild simply express
is, my conviction that to endeavour to make stained glass appeal to be
anything else than stained glass is not desirable.

An error, as it appears to me, is sometimes committed in placing
copies of the later Italian masters in the windows of structures erected
in the earlier pointed styles of art. Our improved taste has made us
feel that to place an Italian altar-piece in a (jtothic church is to violate
propriety and destroy harmony. Why should the filling-in of the
windows escape the general law that all portions of a building avow-
edly in imitation of the works of a particular period should be con-
gruous. The windows ought unquestionably to accord with the build-
ing itself, both as regards their design and the technical peculiarities
which mark the genuine works of the period imitated.

Mr. Willement, whose works are well known to all who have in-
quired into the subject, is justly celebrated for his imitations of the
efforts of the earlier artists in stained glass, and of these no other ex-
ample need be given than the principal window in .St. Dunstan's
church. Fleet-street, executed by him a few years since. This window
was presented to the parish by the Messrs. Hoare.*

In France at this time the art of painting on glass is making satis-
factory, although but gradual, advances. During the period of the
first revolution the abhorrence of every thing connected with royalty
which prevailed, led to the suppression of tlie government establish-
ment for the manufacture of glass and china at Sevres, and to the
destruction of numerous fine specimens of its skill. While many glass
windows were broken and melted down in the vain belief that as gold
was employed in the preparation of some of the colours, it could be
extracted and made available. Buonaparte sought to re-establish the
manufactory on its former footing, but found that, although they pos-
sessed all the written details of the processes, France which had pro-
duced so many noble works in stained glass, and the most perfect
existing history of its progress and manufacture, was unable then to
furnish artists capable of regaining for the establishment any of its
former reputation. The art however was still exercised, but so little
progress was made that prior to the year 1825, the practice of it ap-
pears to have been confined to this royal establishment at Sevres, fame,
not profit, being the object aimed at, and even there great success does
nut seem to have attended their efforts, if we may judge from the
following circumstance. A window of painted glass was conq)leted
at Se\res in 1827, for the church of Notre Dame de Lorette, and when
fixeil, which did not occur until some years afterwards, in consequence
of the building remaining unfinished, it was declared to be a chef

* Although this paper dues not pretend to give the names of aW the pro-
fessors of glass panning praclisiing in England ; (unl'urtunately necessarily
few), ihe wrier cannot omit tu rnentiun Mr. Millar, who has executed a num-
ber of works at Stiniyhurst, and Mr. Wilmnshurst uhose large production
The Field of tho Cloth ul Gold " was destroyed Ijy lire.

d'a-iu^re of modern art. In less than eighteen months however, as I am
informed by a correspondent, the colours had faded so considerably as
to render the window a public monument of failure, and permission to
take it down was in consequence applied for. The dampness of the
building was the cause assigned for the misliap, but insomuch as the
carcass had been erected many years, tliis could not have been verv
excessive : and whether so or not, this failure could not have occurred
had the colours been properly fused into the glass. Want of effect in
some of the works executed at Sevres has been attributed to the em-
ployment without modification, of the same mode of operation as is
successfully adopted for porcelain. The bases of the colours are the
same for one as for the other ; but glass, in consequence of its translu-
cent nature, requires that the tints sho\ild be much more intense than
it is necessary they should be for china, which is opaque.

We have said that, prior to 1S25, the art of painting on glass was'
nearly confined to the establishment at Sevres. In that year Monsieur
le Comte de Chabrol, then Frefet of the Seine, entered into corres-
pondence with Mr. Jones, a pupil of our countryman, Charles Muss,
already mentioned, the result of which was that Mr. Jones went to
Paris with the intention of forming a government establishment for
painting upon and staining glass, in which pecuniary profit was to be
regarded as a main consideration. Immediately on the arrival of Mr.
Jones, M. de Chabrol was virulently attacked for allurding encourage-
ment to a foreigner "to the injury of native talent," and for four years
the question was violently agitated without any result. At the end of
that time, fatigued by the continued opposition to which he had been
subjected, Mr. Jones abandoned the idea of a government establish-
ment, and devoted his energies to forming and carrying on with suc-
cess a private undertaking. He proposed to the proprietors of the
glass works at Choisy le Koi, t;\o leagues from Paris, to establish a
department for staining and painting on glass, in conjiuietion with the
other operations. They assented to his views, affairs were put tii
train, and success has attended the attempt. Nearly all the persons
at present employed in it have been educated to it by Mr. Jones, and,
in consequence, work well together, a circumstance which, in con-
nexion with the opportunities he possesses for making experiments
at small cost, and the comparatively trifling expence of the recipient
in France, places stained and painted glass within the means of a
much larger class of persons there than it is in England. Green, blue,
or red glass, for example, may be bought in Paris for lA franc per foot,
purple for 2 or 24 francs, and ruby for 3 francs. Progress in the art
of staining glass appears to have been greatly aided by M. Bontems,
the director of the works at Choisy, wdio has devoted much time to
the attainment of the ruby Coloured glass of which such magnificent
specimens are to be found in earlier works. I am informed he has
succeeded, after repeated experiments, in obtaining it at a much
cheaper rate than formerly by the use of oxide of copper instead of
oxide of gold, and without any diminution of excellence. The expe-
rience of English glass stainers is opposed to this statement, as all
ruby coloured glass prepared here from copper is inferior. I am not
able, however, on this point to do more than repeat what I am told.
M. Bontems has recently visited the costly establishments of the King
of Bavaria at Munich, where, although he found, as he considered it,
an inferiority on the whole, he gained much information. The princely
magnificence of the King of Bavaria in all matters that relate to art,
and the extraordinary results he has produced in his little capital,
will serve to throw a halo round his name in the pages of future his-
torians..

The establishment at Choisy possesses an advantage in the friendly
co-operation of some artists of talent, not glass painters. In order to
render a design effective on glass, such changes and alterations from
the original picture are sometimes necessaiy, as would be entirely ob-
jected to by painters nervously careful of their fame, so that it is
sometimes difficult to find artists of ability willing to exert their
talents for the purposes of glass-painting, as they must be subservient
in a certain degree to him who has the execution of the work, and on
whom of course depends the effect to be produced. The last works
exhibited in Paris by the Choisy establishment were designed by M.
Adolphe Fries, a warm friend of the undertaking, and obtained mucli
commendation. It is hardly necessary to say that since the successful
issue of the experiment at Choisy le Roi, attempts have been made
to form other similar establishments, but, being ill conducted, have,
for the most part, failed. Men were even seduced from Choisy by
golden promises to aid the undertaking; but the directing mind being
absent, found themselves powerless.

The works at Sevres are chiefly limited to the supply of govern-
ment wants. The only window lately executed by thein which 1 have
seen, is in the cathedral at Eti, near Dieppe. This was the gift of the
King of the French, who, on more occasions than one, has evinced j.
strong desire to advance the arts in his kingdom.

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219

Circumstances are much more favourable in France to tlie progress
of the art of glass painting than they are in England. The material
IS so much cheaper, and the remuneration expected by artists for their
labour is so much less, even after making all ahowances for the dift'e-
rence in the value of money in the two countries, that the greatest
obstacles in the way of experimental essays amongst us do not exist
there.

It is really to be desired that some efforts will shortly be made in
England by men in authority, to prevent the decay of an art so beau-
tiful and so valuable as this which we are now considering. Its present
languid state is most deplorable to behold, and cannot but terminate
fatally unless means be taken to inspirit and invigorate those who are
engaged in it. It is not asked that government should form large and
expensive establishments for this purpose, as at Munich, such a course
is not necessary, perhaps, even, it would be unadvisable ; but it does
appear exceedingly desirable that they should, by occasional com-
missions and discriminating assistance, draw public attention to the
subject, raise the hopes of its professors, and oifer some inducement
for increased exertion on their part. In consequence of the improved
state of chemical and physical science, we have tlie means of pro-
ducing works in painted glass superior to anything that has yet been
done, were proper encouragement afforded to develop our resources;
unfortunately, a directly contrary opinion prevails, and this fact,
therefore, cannot be insisted on too vehemently.*

Concerning the importance of stained glass,

" glass of thousand colourings.
Through which the deepened glories once couldenter,
Streaming from oil' the sun like seraphs' wings.''

to increase the solemnity of an ecclesiastical building, and induce holy
and religious feelings — apart from its influence as a work of art — none
disagree ; and yet, in consequence of the niggardly and ill-advised
system of church building pursued at this time, few of the new edi-
fices which are rising in all directions — mean, contracted, and poverty-
stricken — afford any specimens of it. If government were to set an
example by the bestowal of a few windows, there are many individuals
and public bodies who might be persuaded to follow it. In early times,
when funds were needed for the erection of places of worship, the
mendicant monks promised all who would subscribe, that they should
be represented in stained glass, — that they should

" knely before Christ in compas of gold.
In the wyde windowe westward, Wei neigh in the njiddell."

Notwithstanding it be pandering to the vanity and pride of frail hu-
manity, we would promise this and more than this, to all who were
willing to aid in the improvement of our churches, and to forward an
art which has such claims upon the moralist and the man of taste:
and we would point out that, by assisting to implant a knowledge and
a love of art in the minds of their fellow men, they were advancing
their welfare, raising them in the scale of beings, and effecting a
national good.

Let us hope that better times than the present are in store for the
lovers of this particular art — or rather, let us not be contented w ith
simply hoping, but diligently set our own shoulders to the wheel, and
vigorously assist to bring about that which we all admit to be so
desirable.

MEDIEVAL ARCHITECTURE IN FRANCE.— No. 2.
(Continued from page 145.^

BYZANTINE STYLE.

Throughout a great part of the existence of what is called Gothic
iirchitecture, the Byzantine style flourished in France, both in distinct
monuments, and as influencing other styles. In order to appreciate
the character of this influence, we have considered it necessary not
to limit ourselves to the examples afforded by France, seldom pure,
but to investigate its history in other countries, so that thus we mav
be enabled to see the extent to which it has acted on other schools of
art. It must be recollected that it was not until the eleventh century
that the Greek and Latin churches were completely separated, while,
during the whole period Constantinople contested with Rome for the
supremacy. Down to that epoch Constantinople might be regarded
with more propriety as the common centre of the Christian church

It may he remarked here, that care should be employed by painters in
the selection of glass for their works. Glass, as now made for ordinary pur-
poses. IS ill-suited tor painting on. A few years ago, admirable "hiss tor
this object was obtainable from a factory at Dumbarion, which is not now in
operation.

than Rome, most of the general councils being held in the eastern
empire, which was the great seat of learning. The bishops of Rome
and Constantinojile long contended for the jurisdiction over the pro-
vinces to the north of tbe Danube, and that the Greek patriarch was
not without his influence, may be seen in many of the monuments to
the north of the Alps. In France and in Germany, the examples of
the Byzantine style are only partial, but in the Slavonic countries it is
the predominant type to this day.

PLANS.

The first portion of the subject to which we shall call attention are
the dispositions adopted in the arrangement of the ground plan of
eastern churches, which, as was seen in the preceding article, com-
pletely altered the system copied from the Roman temples. Euse-
bius, in his life of Constantine,* describes some of the principal
churches erected by this emperor and his mother in different provinces
of his dominions. They were mostly circular or octagonal, and sur-
mounted by lofty doiiies. Thus was constructed the great church of
Antioch, dedicated to the Virgin, and called the Golden Temple,
erected by this prince in the twenty-second year of his reign ; it was
in the form of an octagon, surrounded with exedrse and chapels.
In the exedrae and in the porch it was lawful to bury. The
church of the Ascension, built by St. Helena, mother of Constantine,
upon the Mount of Olives, was circular, as is proved by the plan
drawn on wax in the Sth century, and engraved in the Ada Sanc-
torum. This temple and the church of the Holy Sepulchre, are the
reputed types of several churches built by the crusaders in their native
couiitries. The churches of St. Marcellin and St. Constantius at
Rome, are similar in their arrangements and were surmounted with
cupolas of stone or pottery like the Syrian monuments before men-
tioned.

Fig. 6.— Church of St. 'Vital at Ravenna.

One of the nearest approaches to the description of Eusebius is the
church of St. Vitalis, at Ravenna, founded in 534, while that city was
still the seat of the Greek exarchs. Its plan is that of an octagon
having semicircular chapels and exedrie on several points of its peri-
meter, or it may be described as round outside and octagonal
within. A gallery on the first floor, running round the central area, is
the gijTiecceum, or gallery for women, who, in the primitive church, as
in the eastern churches to this day, were separated from the rest of
the congregation. A hemispherical cupola, raised a great height
from the ground, covers the building, and lights it by means of win-
dows cut in the base. Pendents or brackets support the vault at tbe
points where the re-entering angles of the polygon prevent it from
being placed directly on the wall. The Greek architect, in construct-
ing this building, has had recourse to a system, of which this is an
early example.f Feeling the necessity for extreme lightness, since
the cupola is supported mainly by brackets, he has used pieces of
pottery in the shape of a bottle without a bottom. These vessels,
placed in contact, form first the base of the cupola, then the curve,
being continued without interruption, and in spiral, until they reach

* Eusebius, "Vita Constantini, 1. iii, c. 50; and Abulfareius.

T Another is to be found in the octagon baptistery at Ravenna, liiilt in .540,

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the top. The inside, as observed in our last number (p. 141), is
covered with cement, decorated with mosaics on a gold ground. To
the round churches of France we have already alluded at j). 143.

Fig. 7. — Church of Sergius and Bacchus at Constantinople.

We now proceed to consider the works of a later date, from the
6th to the 13th century, when we come to the church of Sergius and
Bacchus, now called by the Turks Chulchuk agia Sophia, or Little
Sancta Sophia. This was built by Justinian, as was the large church
of Sancta Sophia. The architects were Anthemius of Thrales and
Isodore of Miletus. In the central area the plan is the same as at Ra-
venna, the same polygon and the same semicircular arrangements ; on
the first floor is the gynecisum, running round the nave. Like the
church of Ravenna, it is adorned with columns of valuable stone, sur-
mounted with Byzantine capitals. The whole is covered with a cu-
pola. A modification is, however, introduced into the plan; the ex-
terior is a square, enclosing the central octagon. The church of Sancta
Sophia is also square externally, and the arrangement of the interior
preserves all the leading features of that of Sergius and Bacchus.
The example of Sancta Sophia affected art everywhere, and the square
system was adopted in every part of the east, to the exclusion of the
circle and the octagon. The two succeeding engravings, Figs. S & 9,
of the Panagia Lycodimo, and Cathedral at Athens, illustrate this.
The Panagia Lycodimo is towards Mount Hymettus, on the west of
the city ; the Cathedral is now the public library.

Fig. 8. — The Panagia Lycomido at Athens.

[qo.0^0

Fig. 9.— The Cathedral of Athens.

The plan of the Ea Miazin, or the Three Churches, at Erivan, in
Persia, one of the most celebrated Christian monuments of Asia, pub-
lished by Chardin in his Persian travels, resem!)les the Cathedral of
Athens. The only difference is in the form of the mirlhex or porch,
which is square and open on three sides, whilst generally the vesti-
bules occupy the whole breadth of the. building. The Ecs Miazin
has also a salient ahsis on each of its two lateral faces.

We may observe that it is from these models the Turks have bor-
rowed the form of their mosques. Thus, also, they adopt a Temenoa
or square area isolating the building, and on the boundary of which
are the residences of the officiating ministers and the tombs of their
predecessors.*

ELEVATIONS.
Fig. 10. — Front of the Panagia Lycodimo at Athens.

The earliest Greek churches have a very simple front, a large mass,
bounded at top by a horizontal line, without any pediment to indicate
the inclination of the roof, carpentry not being used in Byzantine ar-
chitecture, as cupolas and terraces only were used to cover in the
building. Eusebius,'!' describing the basilica of the Apostles, says
that rails cut out of gilt bronze were used to decorate the upper ter-
race, called the Solarium. It may be supposeil from that, that the
faces of the building were surmounted with horizontal cornices. The
churches of Sergius and Bacchus, of Sancta Sophia, and of the Pana-
gia Lycodimo (represented above), are all of the same kind; the
square form being apparently preserved as late as the eighth and
ninth centuries. These Byzantine churches are badly crowned, the
upper entablature being composed only of a few mouldings, in which
bricks are so placed as to form salient angles, and through which
gutters are cut at different distances to carry off the water from the
terraces or domes.

The first floor is generally marked on the front by a certain num-
ber of windows lighting the gytwceum. In the church of Sancta
Sophia these windows are of large dimensions, semi -circular, and
divided into three parts by two columns, which hold thin slabs or
plates of stone, pierced with holes to let in the light.

Under the windows of the first story, or women's gallery, are placed
the doors giving admission to the narthex, or porch. These doors are
generally formed of lintels and door-posts, ornamented with elaborate
mouldings, much in the style of the antique. Over the lintel a full
arch, sometimes q^ stone and sometimes of brick, protects the door
from the pressure of the superincumbent structure. The narthex was
the place devoted to the catechumens, but in some of the later edi-
fices it was used as a gyneceum, and thus the men entered the church
by the north and south doors (Noteiomeros, Boreiomeros).

The early Byzantine basilicas have only a single dome, as in that of

* Around the temple was a large space, on each of the sides of which were
raised porticoes, connected together. Besides the basins (for purification) of
the l)asilica, there were the habitations of the guardians supported by the
porticoes, which they equalled in extent." — Eusebius in the Life of Constan-
iine, 1. xiv, c. 58, describing the Church of the Apostles, built at Byzantium
by Constantine. We may. perhaps, find here the origin of the monastic
cloister attached to our cathedrals.

t Eusebius, 1. iv. c. 58.

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Sergius and Bacchus at Constantinople. Sancta Sophia, in the same
city, has a large central dome, and two semi-cupolas which cover the
two curved portions situated to the east and west of the nave. These
primitive domes ;u"e generally very heavy and cumbrous in form,
dilTering from those which were erected later and elevated on tam-
bours. A great number of small arched windows, very near each
other, are cut througli the base of the domes, and serve to light the
interior. The effect of the light is so brilliant, that the cupola seems
as it were isolated from the building. The cupola of Sancta Sophia,
upwards of 120 feet in diameter, not being properly poised over the
four main piers, in consequence of gathering the spandrils into too
small a compass, exhibited, in less than 25 years, symptoms of ap-
proaching downfall, and the piers were accordingly strengthened on
the outside.

Eusebius, Paul the Silent, and other authors, agree in describing the
dome of the Church of the Apostles as being covered with dazzling
gilt bronze, to keep off the rain.

Fig. 11.— Church of Monetes Koras at Constantinople.

Another system of decoration succeeded this, and was much copied
in Europe, as may be seen in St. Mark, at Venice, begun in 996. In
this system the horizontal line, as bounding the front, was entirely
given up, and was replaced by an arched line marking the extrados of
the vaults. In the Cireek islands are to be commonly seen, little
chapels with a cradle-like roof covering the only nave, and secured
vvith cement or sheet-lead. Where the building consists of several
aisles, as most of the large Byzantine edifices at Constantinople, the
roof has a festoon-like appearance, like so many round-covered trunks
placed side by side.

Thus the exterior shows, as it were, the skeleton of the Iniilding,
every series of arches in the building having the extrados delineated
outside. So in the church of Mojie tea Koras, (the House of the Vir-
gni,) at Constantinople, represented above ; the front consists of five
great arches, and as another lateral series of arches runs across to
form the narthex, this portion of the edifice is terminated at each end
by one of these arches.

The domes which were erected at this period were more hemis-
pherical, and the windows instead of being in the base of the cupola
are formed in a tambour or cylindrical base, on which it rests. At this
period too the domes began to increase in number and be added to
tlie grand one forming the centre of the cross. In the church of the
Pantocrator they crown the transepts and the anterior part of the nave,
in that of St. Theodosia, now the mosque of the Rose, in the Fanar,
the port of Constantinople, four secondary cupolas of the same form
as the central one, but smaller, are raised at the four corners of the
building. In some a dome is raised on the narthex as in the churches
ot the Pantocrator and Mone tes Koras. That of the Theotocos, near
bohmanieh, has three placed symmetrically, one in the centre, and one
at each end. The capitals of the columns in the Greek churches
were p aced on round shafts, and were little more than square blocks,
tapered downwards, and adorned with foliage or basket work.

About the time of the Venetian Conquests began a union of Byzan-
tine and Roman architecture, which is not one of the least curious
lorms of the style. Here is again restored the influence of the west,
and pediments indicate the inclination of the roof, although the Greeks
never used carpentry in their ancient churches. One of the finest
examples of this period is the Ecs Miazin, a Christian temple of

Erivan, published by Chardin, and more recently bv M. Dubois. Of
this style is also the building which down to 1S27 was used as the
cathedral of Athens.

Fig. 12.— Cathedral of Athens.

The figure above although partaking largely of the Roman, yet
shows to what an extent the influence of the Byzantine school was felt,
though in this case the interior presents much more points of resem-
blance than the outside. Our engraving, it must be observed, repre-
sents Notre Dame at Poitiers, not as it now is, but as it was before the
gallery was broken through to enlarge the great window. This gallery
although a type of the Gyneceum, is so far from being spacious, that
in very few cases in the west of Europe, is there any communication
through it. At Toscanella in the Roman States, and in the cathedral
of Pisa, the original form is however preserved.
( To be continued.)

232

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[JlLY.

EXfflBITION— ROYAL ACADEMY.

( Continued from page 189. J

Among the practical jokes played off by the hanging committee in
the architectural room, is that of placing a bird's-eye view where one
must first get up a ladder in order to look down upon it, or in fact
(0 look at it at ail : whicli is no doubt exceedingly waggish anil droll,
but carrying the juke rather too far— at all events far above our heads ;
not that we care about it, because we have no relish whatever for
drawings which carry us up into the clouds, in order to show us build-
ings PS they would appear, viewed from a balloon. In itself the cir-
cumstance may be of little or no moment as far as the subject so placed
is concerned, but it is certainly odd to meet with such blundering do-
ings witliin the walls of a Royal Academy ; where it certainly does
bespeak a reprehensible systematic inattention to every thing con-
nected witli architecture. Lest we ourselves, however, should here be
accused of inattention to our subject, we will resume our task of criti-
cism by noticing two designs which we can heartily commend, and one
of whicii we are glad to perceive is about to be executed. They are
Nos. 1030 and lOoO, both by Mr. J. W. Wild, and both for churches;
the first being the "New Church, Streathara," to be executed under
his superintendence ; and the other a " Design for the Church proposed
to be built at Paddington." They are neitlier Gothic nor Norman, —
though the application of the round arch assimilates them somewhat
to the latter; but in a style which has far more of the Lombardic
character, and which, as shown is marked by picturesqueness no less
than by simplicity, owing to the unusual breadth of surface and fewness
of parts, on which account the Streatham church more particularly
forms so striking a contrast to the impoverished, yet would-be-fine
structures of the kind that have sprung up of late years in and around
the metropolis, differing more or less from each other in their patterns,
but all pretty much on a par as to taste, and exhibiting the same jog-
trot outline system in design. Here we have at least some freshness
<if ideas and of mode of treatment, — a departure from the hackneyed
track, into a better and more artist like one. Of course we can speak
only as to general character of external design and style, for the per-
spective allow's us to see only fronts of the two buildings distinctly,
consequently we cannot undertake to say whether their character is
satisfactorily kept up throughout: neither can we judge very accurately
as to dimensions. The composition of the facade of the first-men-
tioned of the two designs, is quite Lombardic in outline and arrange-
ment, being divided into three compartments, the centre one of whicli
rises higher than the other two, and terminates in a gable, while the
side ones are covered by half gables, not forming continuations of the
principal one, but terminating lower down, before that commences. In
each compartment is an arched recess or porch, containing — if we mis-
take not, a square headed door; and above the centre entrance is a
large circular or rose window filled with two intersecting triangles,
and bordered with coloured rays around its external margin. This
polychrome effect is intended, we presume, to be produced by brick-
work ; and if so, we question if it will prove altogether so pleasing in
execution as it does in the drawing, because in the latter it is particu-
larly soft and delicate, whereas both the hue and texture of red l)rick,
even when of superior quality, do not recommend as a material for
ornament, however suitable it may lie in certain styles, as a ground for
embellishment in stone-work. Still though we have great doubts as to
the result, we will not prejudge the experiment; on the contrary, we
shall be glad to discover that our miagirings are misiakings also.

The church proposed for Paddington is similar to the other in style,
but of a more ambitious character, being apparently considerably more
extensive, unless the parts themselves are upon a smaller scale, and
being surmounted by a cupola on an elevated tambour at the inter-
section of the transepts. Putting cost out of the question, it was most
probably this latter circumstance, combined with the unusual and not
particularly English physiognomy of the whole, that caused this design
to be rejected incontinently. Perhaps, too, it may have been con-
sidered exceptionable as having too Roman Catholic a look, — for Ca-
tholicism happens to be just now one of the pet bug-bears of the day;
just as if, wliile it is losing ground everywhere else, it is likely to gain
ground in the land of Jolni Bullism. We know not w ho is to be the
architect of the churcli at Paddington, — have not, in fact learned if an
ultimate decision is yet made, but the building will, we apprehend,
not startle us by architectural innovations.

Turning from Mr. Wild's drawings to one for a similar purpose. No.
9".I2, "The approved design for the New Church now about to be
erected in the Liberty of the Rolls," we may tolerably plainly see what
kind of things suit the taste and notions of those who are entrusted
with the power of deciding on such occasions. That ' approved' does
nut exactly mean the most worthy to be apjiroved, or carry with it an

idea of superiority is evident enough — at least to ourselves, and in the
present instance because we happen to have seen two other designs
sent iu for the same building, either of which was immeasurablv better
than this approved one; therefore it is a piece of good luck for it that
neither of them are here exhibited, e,se we should most assuredly
enter into some very 'odorous' comparisons. Perhaps, too, it is another
fiiece of good luck for No. 992, that it is hung so high up as to be
likely to escape notice altogether, unless the descriptive title in the
catalogue should cause it to be hunted out.

No. 1034, Messrs. Buckler's "Design for the West Front of the
Roman Church of St. George, Southwaik," is in no danger of being
passed by unnoticed, because the intense— and for this climate unna-
tural blue of the sky, renders it too conspicuous. As to the design it-
self, his front consists only of a very lofty tower in a style of Early
Gothic, and although of good character, did not strike us as particularly
novel or tasteful.

Nos. 1U37 and 8, show us Mr. S. Smirke's design for the Reform Club
House, in an elevation of the side towards Pall Mall, and a perspective
view including that and the West end of the building, with its portico.
Although merely said to be for " a Club House," there can be no doubt
as to the particular one for which it was produced, both because it
agrees witli the description given of it in our first volume, (page liS),
and as the Travellers' and Athenaeum Club-houses are seen adjoining
it. Most certainly it is not such as to make us regret that it was not
preferred to Mr. Barry's, still we do not agree with the ' Art-Union,'
which terms it "an ordinary Italian residence, with an ugly Corinthian
portico tacked to the front of it." Now whether the epithet ordinary
is to be understood as signifying 'usn.d,' or as expre.-.sive of both mean-
ness and common-place character, we do not ihiak it very correctly
applied, because, although it may in some respects be in rather ques-
tionable taste, — we allude to the mullioned and transomed croisi'es, —
it is more than ordinarily ornate, and is stamped by a good deal of
picturesque quality. We prefer it greatly to the facade of the Ox-
ford and Cambridge University Club-house, by the same architect, it
being treated with more of artist-like feeling, and with greater con-
sistency also. As regards the Corinthian tetrastyle of the West front,
we do not pretend to say that it is particularly classical, but its effect
in the composition is decidedly better than many of our soi-disant
classical things of that kind which are tacked to buildings by no means
so good as even "an ordinary Italian residence." Most decidedly too
we prefer this to such a piece of architecture as No. 1045. "Design
for the Taylor and Randolph building at Oxford," which as far as we
can make it out where it hung, seems to us to evince neither origi-
nality of any kind, nor even study, both the composition and detail
being exceedingly tame and common-place ; yet vpe ought not to speak
too peremptorily, because the 'Art-Union' critic tells us it possesses
" much merit," further than which, said deponent sayeth nothing, but
leaves others to find out, if they can, wherein it consists.

(To he continued.)

ON EXCHANGES.

We present our readers with a brief sketch of a lecture delivered
at the the last conversazione of the Architectural Society, by its Pre-
sident, William Tite, Esq., F.R.S., upon the subject of the origin and
history of that class of buildings denominated " Exchanges ;" a subject
which has just claims not only to the attention of the public, in an
empire of such commercial importance as our own, but more speficically
so to the examination of every architectural student, in an age when
both at home and abroad, the rapid progress of improvement may be
reasonably expected to provide opportunities for the erection of Ex-
changes as well as palaces and churches.

In introducing his subject by a reference to the state of society in
the most remote ages, Mr. Tite observed that the extensive commer-
cial relations of such ancient cities as Tyre, and the vast conflux thereto
of mercantile men from all quarters of the known world, render it a
matter of little doubt that some place of public assemblage must have
been allotted to their especial use. This seems rendered yet more
probable, when we observe to what arrangements precisely similar
circumstances gave rise, though at a later period, among the Greeks
and Romans. It is clear that the a7opa of the former, and the forum
of the latter were alike applied indifferently to various public pur-
poses. Sometimes they were used for meetings of a commercial
character, as well as for the ordinary purposes of the market place ;
sometimes for the administration of the laws, or the celebration of
games and festivals; and sometimes for places of deliberation upon
municipal affairs.

As the number, wealth, and employments of the inhabitants increased,
it was found inconvenient to have so many occupations carried on to-

1840.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

223

gether, mid two classes of fora were established, viz. Venalia or market
places, properly so called, and Civilia, or places of assembly, of which,
however, there was but one until the time of Julius Csesar. The
Venalia were again divided into the Boarium or ox-market, the Pis-
carium, or fish-market, and the like. Something resembling this sepa-
ration and improvement is to be traced in the history of the establish-
ment of the English courts of law. The Saxon constitution compre-
hended but one superior court of justice in the kingdom, viz. the Great
Council ; but, after the Norman invasion, the ecclesiastical jurisdiction
was se|)arated from the civil, and the king subsequently effected another
separation between the judicial and the parliamentary power, vested
in the remaining members. He then established that very compre-
hensive court in his own residence, called "the King's Hall," composed
of the great officers of state; which became at length divided into the
different courls of Chancery, Exchequer, Common Fleas, and the Earl
Marshall's court, or Court of Honour. The simple features of a Roman
Forum appear at once to convey the image of a modern Exchange, it
having been an open area surrounded by a colonnade, about which
were subsequently established temples and prisons, courts and record
offices, public granaries, offices of money changers, and a variety of
trades, the municipal treasuries, and the rostra whence orators ad-
dressed the people. Some differences existed between the Greek and
Roman Fora, derived from the different uses to which they were to he
applied. Those of the Greeks were built square, with the columns
near together, to afford as much shelter as possible; above which was
an upper ambulatory or gallery for walking. The Roman fora, on the
contrary, were oblong in the area, having the columns set at considerable
intervals, but still surmounted by the gallery, in which latter feature,
also, they somewhat resembled the Bourses of the IGth and 17th cen-
turies. In those places which lay inland, the Forum was erected in
the centre of the city, but in marine towns it was situated at the port.
Accordingly the Pirseus, or maritime town of Athens, was the principal
place of commerce connected therewith, and it contained temples and
theatres, arsenals, granaries and shops, and also the established place
of assembly for merchants.

These circumstances are curiously illustrated by Theophrastus, in a
description of the character of an ostentatious Athenian merchant,
•€i' Tti- SayitaTi 'cs-qKois, and vaunting of his enterprise and wealth ; in
which description it is supposed by Casaubon and others, that the
SeoA'oi expresses the place where samples of merchandize were pro-
duced and examined.

Down to this period, and most probably to a much later time, the
places of assembly for merchants were to be found in the forum ; and
they appear to have generally occupied that interior extremity called
the Basilica, for the choice of which, perhaps, Vitruvius gives one of
the original reasons several centuries after, when he says, " the Basilica
should be adjoining to the forum on the warmest side, that the mer-
chants may confer together without being incommoded by the weather."
Another cause for the selection might possibly be that they were there
completely removed from the noise and confusion of the rest of the
market or forum.

Livy also alludes to the formation of a " collegium mercatorum," in
the fifth century before the Christian aera; but it maybe doubted
whether this phrase of itself can fairly be considered as proving any
thing more than the existence of a "fraternity of merchants." It will
be proper also to observe, before dismissing all notice of that period of
remote antiquity, that there were certain secular points of view in
which the Temple at Jerusalem may be taken as aft'ording an illustra-
tion of this subject. The first Temple, it will be remembered, con-
sisted of several square courts, surrounded by colonnades and chambers ;
and this building was an extended and greatly improved copy of the
tabernacle, to which, therefore, may be referred the remote original of
that extremely natural ar.d convenient form for places of public assem-
bly, which were subsequently to be found throughout the whole of the
civilized world. When the corrupted traditions of the Hebrews led
them to misemploy and profane the second temple, by making it a
place of merchandize, the resemblance between the court of the Gen-
tiles and a Roman Forum was very remarkable. After the conclusion
of the feast of Purim, in commemoration of the triumph of Esther and
Mordecai, the money-changers considered it lawful to seat themselves
■in the outer court, to exchange foreign coins for such as were current
at Jerusalem; for the temple tribute, though collected in heathen
money, was required to be paid in the shekels of the sanctuary, and
several offerings also required the addition of parts of shekels to make
them complete.

In this last circumstance, it will be shown hereafter, that there may
be an especial parallel found to the facts that probably gave rise to the
disignation of our own edifice of London. The court of the great
temple at Mecca, as dccribed by Sale, and many of the eastern Khans
or Caravanserais will furnish some additional illustration of the forms

of buildings applied in later ages and other climes to mixed purposes,
not dissimilar to those under consideration.

From precedents such as these it may have been that the Venetians,
in more modern times, but during the earlier ages of their republic,
obtained a model for their great Exchange on the Island of the Rialto.
It will be observed that this place of mercantile concourse was not the
celebrated Bridge of the Rialto, as is usually imagined, but a portion
of the Island of that name immediately adjacent to the Bridge. This
island appears to have been the first inhabited among the many that
now constitute the City of Venice ; it became the centre of commerce,
and the vast depository of the most valuable merchanize of all nations.
As described by Sabellico in the year 14'.):2, it appears that nothing
was wanting to the completeness of this site, not only for mercantile,
but for municipal purposes. The great place of meeting was a spacious
quadrangular piazza, almost surrounding the church of St. Jacopo; and
in its immediate vicinity were warehouses, banks, shops, markets,
public offices, and halls of every description. The greater portion of
these buildings was destroyed by fire in 15 15, but was rebuilt, in a style
of superior magnificence, during the following nine years, under the
architectural superintendence of Antonio Scarpagni.

Passing by other Italian structures of inferior note, raised for the
same objects, we shall find the example derived from them followed
with conspicuous splendour in some of the cities of the Netherlands.
To meet the rising commercial importance of Antwerp, at the begin-
ning of the IGth century, a Bourse (according to the name introduced
froili Bruges), was erected in the year 1531. This structure is ISO
feet in length bv 140 in breadth, and is supported by 44 stone pillars,
which are differently sculptured. It contains numerous subterranean
warehouses, over which are the halls occupied by the tribunal and the
chamber of commerce. It was not until nearly 40 years after this
period that England possessed any similar building, during all which
time the merchants v\ere accustomed to assemble twice in each day,
in the open air in Lombard-street. The king himself, however, so
early as 1535, proposed that they should remove to the old edifice ot
Leadenhall, which they declined doing; and in 1537 Sir Richard
Gresham laid before Thomas Cromwell, then Lord Privy Seal, the plan
of a Bourse for London, in the old resort of Lombard-street, to which
he had been probably incited by a visit to Antwerp. Before retiring
from his Mayoralty in the following year, he made another effort to
complete this design in a letter to Lord Cromwell, which is still ex-
tant. He states therein that " it vsiU cost £2,000 and more," and at
the same time shows the real cause why the work was not then and
there carried into effect; since he adds, "there is certain houses in
the said street belonging to Sir George Monnocks, and, except we may
purchase them, the said Burse cannot be made. Wherefore, may it
please your good lordship to move the King's Highness to have his
most gracious letters directed to the said Sir George, willing, and also
commanding him to cause the said houses to be sold to the Mayor and
Commonalty of the City of London, for such prices as lie did purchase
them for, and that he "fault not but to accomplish his gracious com-
mandment. The letter must be sharply made, for he is of no gentle
nature ; and, that he shall give farther credence to the Mayor, I will
deliver the letter, and handle him the best I may: and, if I may obtain
to have the said houses, I doubt not hut to gather £ 1,000 toward the
building, or I depart out of mine office. There shall lack no good will
in me."

The project which thus originated with Sir Richard Gresham, was
realized by the liberality and enterprise of his son Sir Thomas, who
commenced his edifice in London in the year 1 50 J. The similarity which
subsisted between this building and that of Antwerp, was very conspi-
cuous. Like the latter, the Exchange of London had a tall tower
placed on the east side of the principal entrance, containing a bell,
which twice in the day summoned the merchants to assemble, at noon,
and at six in the evening. In the interior of both we observe the same
quadrangular arcade, carrying a similar upper story, and surmounted
again by a high roof and regular gabled dormers of the same char cter.
The Royal Exchange received its name on being opened in person by
Queen Elizabeth, on the 23rd January, 1570-71.

There does not appear to have been assigned, either by contempo-
raneous or modern authority, any reason for the change of the name of
this edifice by the Queen ;"though, from the very time of the procla-
mation, it seems to have been most effectual and complete. If, how-
ever, at this very distant date, a conjecture may be offered, it might
have been a design of Elizabeth, which was never brought to maturity,
to have re-established, in this building, the ancient exchange of the
sovereigns of England, the former situation of wdiich remains comme-
morated, even at the present day, in the street in Cheapside called
Old 'Change. It was here that one of those ancient officers known as
"the King's Exchangers" was placed, whose duty it was to attend to
the supply of the Mints with bullion, to distribute the new coinages

224

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[July,

and to regulate the exchange of foreign coin. Of these officers there
were anciently three, two in London, at the Tower and Old 'Change,
and one in the city of Canterbury. Subsequently another was ap-
pointed with an establisliment in Lombard Street, the ancient rendez-
vous of the merchants ; and it appears not improbable that the Queen's
intention was to have removed this functionary to what was now pre-
eminently designated as the Royal Exchange.

As the Bourse of Antwer|) had furnished a model for close imitation
to the projectors of London, the work of the latter was, in its turn,
closely followed by the citizens of Amsterdam. The Bourse, which
still subsists there, was commenced in KJUS, and opened in 1613. A
rectangular area, as in the previous instances, is surrounded by a
covered way, formed by forty columns of stone, carrying an upper
story and roof exceedingly similar to those before noticed. Tliere
are principal entrances on the north and south sides, and the latter
lias the addition of a lofty bell-tower and clock.

To revert to the Royal Exchange of London, it may be noticed that,
the original structure having been destroyed in the great fire of IGGli,
its successor was erected upon the same site, under the superinten-
dence of Mr. Edward Jerman, one of tlie surveyors to the city, at an
outlay of £5S,<)62. With the facts affecting the recent destruction of
this edifice by fire also, we are all too well acquainted; and with
respect to the erection of any structure that may supply its place,
It may be sufficient just to state, in conclusion, that the instructions
under which the various designs for a new Royal Exchange have been
jirepared, have determined that an open a; ea shall be preserved for
the use of the merchants, after the manner of the former building, but
about one third larger in extent. The Bourse at Paris, the more
recently erected Exchange at Glasgow, and the Exchange at St. Pe-
tersburg, are all covered buildings. The Exchange at Liverpool, on
the other hand, follows the more ancient precedent, retaining the open
area and surrounding arcade. As any discussion of the propriety of
those instructions that have been issued for the direction of architects
on the subject of the new Royal Exchange, would be beside our pre-
sent purpose, as would any observations in anticipation of a future struc-
ture, we may now close our remarks, w ith a hope that this compresseil
statement may afford our readeis some degree of that interest with
which the original lecture was received by the audience of the Archi-
tectural .Socielv,

THE ROYAL EXCHANGE.

Sir — Having taken no part whatever in the competition, or in any
of the correspondences which liave appeared in the various public
prints relative to the Royal Exchange, and feeling a general disgust at
the intemperate manner in which such correspondences are usually
conducted, but understanding that the affair appears as far off from
settlement as ever, I now crave through the medium of your widely cir-
culated journal, the promulgation of the following brief remarks.

1st. It appears pretty certain, that the plan which will be adopted
will conform, as it should, to the lines of the principal adjoining streets,
otherwise the frontages of the building would lie awkwardlv w-ith re-
gard to them, and more ground would be given up in making the site
rectangular than the required accommodation would well allow. It
seems therefore that the jilan will be in shape a trapezium.

2nd. In all plans of this shape which I have seen, (that of Mr. Tite
inciudedj, there are a multitude of frregularities, many rooms out of
square, some of the largest of them with whole wings sliced off irre-
gularly, and many doors, windows, and chimneys seemingly placed at
random, all which defects would be evident enough to those who might
use such apartments.

3rd. Now I would undertake to make such a design (merelv by re-
membering that there is in the world such an art as Geometry, of which
Wren, and his kiixl, made much use, more especially in diliicult cases),
which design should have every internal apartment, angle, door, win-
dow, and chimney regular.

4th. To effect this, 1 should need only to cut off from the site, the
large ranges of apartments in lines exactly parallel to the principal
front of the building. This would leave a smaller trapezium in the
centre of the ground.

5th. Within this smaller trapezium I should place an elliptical court,
and in tlie four spandrel spaces which would be left, I should place
semi-circular staircases, water-closets, and other offices.

Otli, The architecture of the elliptical court, I should form some-
thing after Inigo Jones's magnificent and universally admired circular
Persian court, designed for Whitehall : but instead'of having all the
culnmnar statues (say 32 in numberj made similar, which by monotony
would displease, 1 would have them each a type of some chief nation
trading to London : and if the expense of these Caryatic statues be

objected to, I doubt not that the merchants engaged in the several
trades, would find the difference between the price of them and of
plain piers.

I am, Sir, your very obedient humble servant,
Gray's Inn, June 19, 1840. g.

GEOMETRICAL THEOREM.

Siu — I believe that the following curious property of a circle has
not hitherto been noticed ; or if it has, I am not aware of its existence
in any of our works on Geometry.

Let A B C D E be a circle, of which A C D is anv given segment :
Let any number of triangles A B D, A C D, &c. be drawn in this seg-
ment, and let circles be inscribed in tliese triangles : their centres F, G,
&c. are in the arc of a circle, whose centre is at E, the middle of the
arc of the opposite segment A E D.

DEMONSTRATIOX,

Join A F, F D, AG, GD; then since F is the centre of the circle,
inscribed in the triangle ABD, the lines A F, F D, bisect the angles
BAD, B DA. (Euc. B. 4, P. 4). For a like reason A G,GD, bisect
the angles CAD. C D A ; hence the angles FAD, FDA, together,
are equal to half the angles, BAD, B D A together, and the angles
GAD, GDA together, to half the angles CAD, CD A together.
Now the angles A B D, A C D, are equal (^being in the same segment),
therefore the angles BAD, B D A together, are equal to the angles
CAD, CD A together, and as the halves of equals are equal, the
angles F A D, F D A together are equal to the angles G A D, G D A
together ; that is in the two triangles A F D, A G D, two angles of the
one, are together equal to two angles of the other, and therefore the
third angle A F D, is equal to the third angle A G D. The same rea-
soning will prove, that all angles similarly circumstanced to A FD, are
also equal to A G D : therefore, the points A, F, G, D, are in an arc
of a circle.

Join B F, and produce it to cut the opposite circumference in E and
join E A, ED; then because the angle A B E, is equal to the angle
D B E, the segment A E, is equal to the segment E D, and the chord
AE, to the chord ED. Again the angles ABE, E D A, are equal
(being in the same segment), and by construction, the angle A D F is
equal to the angle F D B, therefore the whole angle ED F, is equal to
the two A B F, F D B, that is to the two F B D, F D B, that is to the
exterior angle E F D ; therefore the angle E F D, is equal to the angle
E D F ; consequently E F, is equal to E D, that is to E A. The same
reasoning would prove E F to be equal to a line drawn from G, to the
point E. Wherefore the point E is the centre of a circle, of which
F and G, as also the centres of all other circles similarly inscribed, are
in the circumference.

H. Spencer.

Birmingham and Gloucester

Railmay Office, Wurcealer.

is4n.j

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

00

^o

CANDIDUS'S NOTE-BOOK.
FASCICULUS XVI.

" I must have liberiy
Withal, as large a cliarter as the h ;nas,
To blow on «hom 1 please.''

I. A fiifiid of mine is in the habit of exclaiming " Damn all Dic-
tionary-makers," and I am tempted to say ditto as regaiils all illus-
trators, a set of illuminati who generally display their cleverness by
leaving you as much in the dark as possible. Would it be believed
that one of these 'picturesque' geniusses, who visited St. Petersburg
' expressly' for the purpose of taking views of the most striking build-
ings in that capital, actually tiu'ned his back upon the portico and
dome of the Kazuu Church, and brought into his view of that edifice
merely an angle of one of the sweeping colonnades! Hogarth's sketch
of a Serjeant and dog entering an ale-house, which group he exhibited
in three strokes of his pencil, nught be taken as a satirical quiz upon
such shamming illustrations. What then is to be said of Soane who
has actually omitted in his 'Designs of Public and Private Builduigs,'
what is by very far the best piece of exterior architecture he ever pro-
duced— namely, the little semicircular loggia at the north-west angle
of the Bank ! ! It is indeed just discernable iu a coarse scratch of the
general elevation barely au inch in height ; but from the peculiarity of
its plan, such a piece of design required to be explained by elevations,
sections, &:c. on as large a scale as the size of the plates would admit,
which would have been about lialf au inch to a foot. That 1 am not
singular in my opinion as to the merits of that piece of architecture is
evident, because it vvas selected as the subject of the medal presented
to him by the Institute. Such an extraordinary omission induces me
to imagine that Sir John's wits were btuighttd quite as nuich as him-
self ; — at all events he seems to have been resolved that the purchasers
of his work should be left quite in the dark with resjiect to the subject
alluded to. Poor man ! he was not deficient in cunning, and had just
enough to outwit himself, one notorious instance of which is his singu-
lar donation of his house, by which he has bamboozled the public, but
damned his own character for munificence, into the bargain.

II. Conversing the other day with (who has a greater re-
putation for wit than for sanctity) on the subject of the present fashion
— style I will not call it, in church building, I remarked that Welby
Pugin was after all tolerably right in some respects, and that the prac-
tice of enclosing the congregation in separate pews was an insuper-
able disadvantage in an architectural point of view, besides which it
seemed to me objectionable as carrying wordly distinctions and the
principle of uieuin and letun into the very House of God. " As regards

architectural eftect," replied , "you are certainly right, — in

your other objection as certainly wrong. Do you not perceive the
symbolic propriety and expressive meaning of the very things you find
fault with." — "I really do not." "Why then, my good friend, you
nuist have grown quite muddy-headed. — Wliatl — do you not at once
see the striking propriety— the analogical and practical illustration of
Gospel, in putting the pastor into his pulpit, and his_;ifocA- into tsheep-
peiin ?"

III. "It is most deplorable and paltry," observes Prince Puckler-
Muskau, "when, instead of being ex])unged and corrected, a particular
part which is eviilently a failure, is allowed to remain a blemish to the
whole work, merely because it has cost so much time and money, and
the requisite alteration would cost so much more." Although the
writer is here speaking of Lauilscape-gardening, the remark is equallv
applicable to architecture, many productions of which, might be
greatly improved by amendments that are almost self-evident. It is
true, there ought never to be any occasion for improvement of such
kind, because every part and feature of a building may be, and in-
variably ought to be, thoroughly studied and foreseen from the designs
for it.

IV. Earnestly is it to be wished that architects would endeavour to
emulate the other sex in the devoted application of all their faculties,
which those exemplary and most truly cua amore artists bestow upon
their handy-works. When I perceive on the one hand with what
plodding indifference, hurry, or carelessness, many buildings have been
designed ; and on the other, what anxious thought, what patience, what
contrivance, what ingenuity, what scheming and planning, and how
much consultation, are given to devise a ball dress — as if it were a
work destined to outlive the eternal pyramids ; — when I perceive with
what critical study and exactness every part of the fabric is elaborated,
and that as much attention is paid to the precise quality and texture
of the material, as if all men were men-milliners and able to tell at a
glance where a lady's lace and velvet have been inanufaclured, or what

they cost per yard ; — when I see and perceive all this, I cannot help
drawing a comparison that is greatly to the disadvantage of us 'male
creatures,' especially of some of those who call themselves architects.
What hurried, slovenly, and slobbered work do they make of it ! in
what coarse, ill-assorted, and awkwardly put on finery do they attempt
to dress up their designs, — to say nothing of the grotesque mixture of
arrant shabbiness and such finery which they so frequently parade be-
fore our eyes in the most ridiculous manner. We men are dull jiedants
who judge only by rules, wdiile women are guided by a refined tact,
au unerring delicacy of instinct, which preserve them from committing
those gross solecisms in taste into which we are perpetually falling :
let us therefore cry out Place aiix Dames .' for they deserve to take
precedence of all the Old Women in Breeches, who bore us with their
Vitruvius, and their Palladio.

V. Lindley Murray would go just as far towards making a poet, as
the writings of Vitru\-ius, Palladio, el hoc genua vmne, towards forming
an architect who should also rank as an artist in his profession. For
what are that class of architectural writers more than mere grammaiici,
— useful as furnishing the rudiments and implements of study, and no-
thing further? But it would seem that in architecture mere gramma-
tical accuracy is held to be everything, — the ideas, the combinations,
the conception, the composition — ert'ect, character, expression, com-
paratively nothing, — what may be left to chance; because, provided no
sins be committed against the petty rules of the art, be it as intolerably
dull as it may, the work is certain of being recognized as legitimate
and orthodox. Such being the case, and negative merit being accepted
as possitive — nay as something wonderful, nothing short of a prodigious
achievement in art, can we at all wonder at beholding so many sickly
insipidities displaying themselves in stone or cement ? or such pieces
of architectimd bathos, as the Biitish Insurance Office, where Agrigen-
tum columns .shop windows, crooked balconies, figures of sprawling
drunken ladies, S:c., are all jumbled and squeezed up together. If the
author of that monstrosity be still living, with what a shudder must he
be seized every time he passes by it, — unless his nerves should happen
to be of iron, and his scull well fortified with lead. However he has
certainly given, at his own cost, an exceUent lesson ^;;-y bono publico to
the profession, showing them very forciljly what they ought to avoid.

VI. It was the opinion of that exceedingly sensible, but most horri-
ble unsentimental person, Dr. Johnson, that "marriages wciuld in gene-
ral be as happy and often more so, if they were all made by the Lord
Chancellor;" — which, liy the bye, would'be a complete death blow to
the novelists: — and i myself am sometimes inclined to adopt a similar
opinion with respect to architectural competitions, and say that innine
cases out of ten, the choice would prove as good were it left to the
Lord Chancellor, or the — Lord Mayor. Seldom could their decision
prove a worse one than what now frequently occurs; not often would
it be so bad, because ignoramus as lie might be, a Lord Mayor, would
as an individual feel obliged to pay some deierence to public opinion;
whereas a committee can aftbrd to brave it, since whatever maybe the
odium that falls upon it as a body, no member of it feels in his own
person. As to the Lord Chancellor, however, I should be loth to com-
mit the task of decision to him, because expedition ami promptitude,
are not to be looked for in that (piarter. In fact, the Royal Exchange
does seem to have been actually put into Chanccrij ; for after the lapse
of two years and a lialf the foundations of a new structure are not yet
laid, although (he space of a single twelvemonth sufficed to rebuild,
and refuriiisii the Winter Palace at St. Petersburg, an eilifice three or
four times the size of the one intended to be reared iu Cornhill. The
British Museum also goes on at the true Chancery ])ace, — dillo the
Nelson Monument that is to be. Nay, if the truth mav be told. Com-
petition itself is a sort of C'/iancertj,meYe chance ha^ingquite as much
to do with the decisions, as either judgement or taste.

VII. I incline to the opinion of Mr. Walter Fisher, when he says:
"The real truth is, I feel mortified at being kept down by a want of
ardour m our patrons. We hear a great deal of Scott and Southey,
and Byron, and Wordsworth; and folks talk of Lawrence and Rey-
nolds,— and all the rest of it ; but what is poetry of which not one
person in ten thousand can judge — to Cookery ?" When I say I in-
cline to Walter's o|iinion,— who, by the bye, if he does not lack conceit
has an equal stock of enthusiasm. — I do not mean that I form precisely
the same comparative estimate of poetry, painting, and cookery as he
does, but merely agree with him that for one who can judge of poetry,
there are ten thousand who can judge of and relish cookery; and that
there are ten times ten thousand who are most unatt'ectedly devoted
to the latter, for who is passionately addicted to — architecture.

It is invidious to scrutinize motives too narrowly, but I have certain
uncomfortable misgivings, that lead me to fancy architecture would
have still fewer votaries were it not for the attractions of cookery. If
the reader be so obtuse as to ask for further elucidation, I can only
pity—not assist him, because it would jbe impossible fur me to explain

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TIIK CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[July,

myself more clearly without becoming libellous, and forfeiting that
character for imliilgent clemency, and considerate forbearance which I
have now established. — An nslc, it would be amusing if not edifying to
draw a parallel between architecture and cookery, which latter of these
two fine arls requires a peculiar genius for combinations, combiiiatwnn-
gdat, generallv dispensed with by the other. At all events it cannot
h' denied tliat architects do show themselves less expert than our
ckfs-d(-cn/sin(,ior they seldom do more than merely /m«/i a/p afresh
the same stale remains of classicalitv.

FRESCO PAINTING IN ENGLAND.

THE DUKE OF BEAUFORT's MANSIOX.

We have several times alfuded to the works going on at Beaufort
House, but have not until now been able to give our readers any do-
tailed iiccnunt. We mav remark that this mansion is situated in Ar-
lington Street, Piccadilly, having, from the back, a view of the Green
Park. It was formerly in the occupation of the Marquis of Camden,
but is now being fitted up by the Duke of Beaufort as a tovvn resi-
dence. His grace had certainly some difliculties to contend witli in
the previous state of the house, which, like too many other mansions
in London, had been consigned to the tasteful hands of the upholsterer
and the whitewasher. It being considered that painting might look
as well on the walls as dabbed and spotted paper, a point on which
we fear there are some doubts entertained by London residents gene-
rally, it was originally suggested, under the idea that Englishmen
conld not do it so cheaply and so well, that German artists should be
employed. While the negociations were going on, Mr. Latilla was
mentioned to the Duke as having been eugageil in similar works, and
liaving been directed to send in designs, was immediately employed.
By this arrangement the work has not only been done much cheaper,
and w'e think many will consider better, but a great service has been
rendered to English art. Mr. Latilla's system of fresco painting had
•ah-eady met witli much approbation and encouragement, but it wanted
this excellent opiiortunity to ilisplay its powers more fully.

Passing on now to the works executed under Mr. Latilla's direction,
the first is a vaulted corridor leading from the entrance hall, and which,
in the Marquis of Camden's time, remained in all the simplicity of
white and unpolluted paint, but is now designed in bigio or cliiar'
oscuro with trophies and medallions, something in the Roman style.
On the side opposite the windows a range of plaster stat\ies of agri-
cultural divinities bear lights in their hands, and serve to break the
view. At the end of this corridor is a hall from which a staircase
runs to the upper apartments ; the walls and ceiling of this staircase
have also been decorated with representations of medallions and ar-
chitectural ornaments.

On the ground floor are the princii)al apartments, one of which, the
banquetting room, we are now about to describe. This apartment
may be about thirty feet by twent3', anil sixteen feet high, having on
one of the long sides three windows, the ojiposite side an entrance
door, another and a chimney at one end of the room, and at the other
end folding doors leading out of it. Six large panels are thus left,
which are painted with two series of subjects, one representing the
seasons, and the other Hebe and Ariadne. As a banquetting room
the decorations of course are of a Bacchanalian character, and without
departing from the character of the antique, are not repulsive to
modern taste. The whole style is a similar hajipy adaptation of
ancient principles, and without being restricted to any one school, has
a unity of character which establishes it as a style in itself. The de-
sign of the panels is much in the Pompeian taste, but carried out in
accordance with the advance of modern art ; the pilasters and ara-
besques have, perhaps, more of the character of (iiroiamo Koinanino, or
his model, the baths of Titu^, and the tone of colouring show s a nearer
approach to the Herculanean than the Pompeian. The ground of the
room is of a lavender colour, and upon this a brightness and harmony
of effect is jiroduced without spottiness or rawness.

The two |)anels at each end of the room are devoted to the seasons,
the first of which, Spring, is represented by a female figure clothed
in white gauze, and floating in true antique style in ambient air.
Beneath her is a landscape representing Greek scenery, and under the
panel is a mask of a young head in a festoon of spring flowers, daflb-
dils, crocuses, snow-drops, &:c.

The next on the same side is Summer, also personated by a young
female, crowned with a wreath of roses, and holding a garlaml in her
hand, and floating over scenery representing Egyptian subjects. The
festoon underneath is of roses and other summer flowers, and contains
a mask, of Baccaus. .

At the opposite end of the room, the figure next the door, that of
an older female, is the emblem of Autumn; she is crowned with pop-
pics, and presides over an autumnal landscape. A mask of a warrior
reposes on a festoon of grajies, wheat-ears, and other harvest produc-
tions. Part of tlie drapery of this is, perhaps, a little heavy.

The remaining panel of this series is devoted to Winter, a subject
treated in a beautiful and ett'ective method. In a deep blue winter
sky floats a young female closely draped, with part of her robe brought
round her head as a hood. Above her head is seen the constellation
of the Pleiades, and to her breasts she clasps a cinerary urn, the em-
blem of the closing year. Underneath is a representation of iceclad
mountains, forming ail appropriate finish to this admirable scene, the
character of which is indeed well maintained. A mask of a bearded
old man is placed on the festoon beneath, wdiich is twined of the holly
and mistletoe and other emblems of Christmas.

The other and smaller series of subjects is on the side opposite the
windows. One (xinel is appropriated to Hebe, who, with her golden
vase and cup, and usual attributes, flies over a morning scene. The
other panel represents Ariadne with the thyrsus, the scene under
being a sacrifice to Bacchus. Under each 6f these panels is a festoon
of flowers with a mask of a female head.

There is nothing much to remark in the smaller doors, they have
over them each a small panel, containing a vase and flowers. The
ornaments of the folding doors consisting of bluish ribbands and of
medallions, have much of the character of the baths of Titus, and over
the door is an arabesque on a yellow ground. The treatment of these
doors is verv skilful, the details made to tell well. The chimney and
fire-place is of black marble with ormolu ornaments, and over it is a
large glass. This chimney it was very difficult to bring in, but the
treatment has been most successful. Over the glass is a deep cho-
colate ground jianel, with boys carrying grapes, accompanying an
infant Bacchus riding on a goat. The several compartments of the
room are divided by arabesques, consisting of a red stafl' or thyrsus,
with grapes and Bacchanalian emblems. The carving round the
room lias four corners of a peculiar deep brown used by the ancients,
w hicli Mr. Latilla names Etruscan brown. Between these are arabes-
ques on a cream-coloured ground, consisting of boys playing with
panthers. The ceiling is of a low cream colour, having in the centre
a patera, formed of light festoons and flowers. From this depends a
lamp ornamented with vine leaves of ormolu, and grapes of ground
glass. The carpet is of a plain pattern, and light in appearance ; it
is of blue and yellow on a maroon ground, with a white border. The
furniture is of the simplest description, a mahogany table and red mo-
rocco chairs. These latter accessories are not of the selection of the
artist, but it does great credit to the high-minded nobleman who em-
))loyed him, that he has not, as is too often the case, allowed the fur-
niture to injure the rest of the works. The lamp might have been
more in the antique, but it is not oft'ensive. An Elizabethan stove,
intended to have been placed in the room, has been removed.

An oval saloon leading from the banquetting room to the drawdng
room is also painted by Mr. Latilla. It has a white ground with fes-
toons of gold ribband, but we cannot say we like the design of these
last. The drawing room is now under the hands of Mr. Jones, (the
author, we believe, of the work on the Alhambra.) The design is
in a style somewhat of the time of Henry the Fourth, and is of a most
gorgeous character, nearly all gold and silver. The panels represent
the story of Mary, Queen of .Scots, and the walls are of a bright blue,
with fleur-de-lis. The effect is admirable, but there are few, we be-
lieve, who will not prefer the light elegance of the banquetting room,
which both by night and by day is equally eft'ective.

The Duke of Beaufort has reason to congratulate himself on his
determination in every respect ; his banquetting room has been exe-
cuted for a tenth part of the German estimate, will remain for centu-
ries, and would be injured by any but the simplest furniture. As a
worthy encouragement of English art and an example to other patrons,
Beaufort House and its noble owner have done much valuable service,
and we shall be greatly deceived if its results are limited to such a
sphere, or confined to the employment of one man. We see, in this
mansion, the germ of what can be done in our national and civic edi-
fices, and architects and artists will do but half their duty if they do
not agitate until in this line, also, we have distanced foreign rivalry.
We have enough artists of fame in the country, we have plenty of
latent talent, and it wants but scope for exertion to place us in that
position which Englishmen, if they have the opportunity, are sure to
attain. For three hundred years we fostered foreign art, and the
result was that we did not jn'odnce even one good artist for every
foreigner employed ; we got only Hudson, Oliver, and Thornliill, in
exchange for Holbein, Rubens, Vandyke and Leiy : we began to de-
pend on our own resources, and we have produced men whose names
are known to Euiope; in all the branches of art for which we have

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THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

227

scope, wp hiive made our way, and in despite of want of instruction,
want of taste, and want of encouragement, at any rate we have shown
that we can |)roduce high art, if it be hnt called for. The barbarians
who could add \vhitewashe<l garrets to the British Miisoum, are but a
portion of the great body of Midases in art, who, by indifference or
opposition, check its encouragement by the legislature, and although
they have begun to find out that whitewash is not the best back-ground
for the Elgin marbles, yet they and their brethren nnist go a step
further, if they wish England to make a good figure in the eyes of its
neighbours. There is the British Museum, National Gallery, and
Royal Exchange to go to work upon, and above all, the new Houses
of Parliament; rich as they are in historical associations, they lose
half their value without even a mark to tell the scene of so many
great events, where the sovereigns of a mighty empire have been
created and deposed, tried and executed, where viceroys and ministers
have been arraigned, the destiny of the old world and the new deter-
mined, kings matle tributary, and slaves set free.

We must liy this time have made known the high sense which we
entertain of the talents and exertions of Mr. Latilla, and we are dis-
posed to look less at his past works, than to dwell upon the hope of
those which are to come. Even since his labours at Beaufort House,
he has in Italy acquired fresh jjower and conlidence in his art, and his
course of instruction has been such as well to fit him for a higher task.
For many years he has devoted himself to fresco painting, and tlic
history of his initiation, which we have heard, is a good lesson of the
value that may attach to what we too often tiespise as trifles.
John Nash, the architect, brought home from Italy a collection of
designs from the Loggie of the Vatican and some Italian artists, whom
he employed to paint jiart of his house in the Ratt'aelesque style,
and Latilla, then a boy, was employed in finishing it after they left,
when he was so struck by what he saw, that from'that day he devoted
liiniself to fres«o, and exerted himself for its introduction.

PUBLIC BUILDINGS IN LONDON.

^ Critical Reviem of the Public Bitildiiigs, Statues and Ornaments in
and about London and IVeslminatct — 1734.

By R.iLPH.

(Continued from page 201. J

Tlie grand catliedral of St. Paul's is undoubtedly one of the most
magnificpnt modern buildings in Europe ; all the parts of which it is
composed are superlatively beautiful ;uk1 noble ; the north and south
fronts in particular are very perfect pieces of architecture, neither
ought the east to go without due applause. The two spires at the
west end are in a finished taste, and the portico witli the ascent, and
the dome that rises in the centre of the whole, afford a very august
and surprizing prospect; but sti!!, with all these beauties, it has cer-
tainly yet more defects ; and the pleasure we receive from the first is
so much qualified and tamed by the last, that we rather wonder how
we can be pleased so much, than why we are displeased at all. But
not to condemn in the gross, I will take the liberty to touch upon a
few particulars, and lay myself justly open to censure, in case I mis-
take, or blame in the wrong place.

In the first place therefore, there is a most notorious deficiency in
point of view ; such a huge fabric as St. Paul's ought at least to be
surveyed at the distance of Temple-bar, and the vista ought to be
considerably wider than the front of the building. But this is so far
from the case here, that we cannot see it till we are upon it, and this
defect is still made worse by turning the edifice from the eye even
where it can be viewed, for the sake of that ridiculous superstition of
erecting it due east and west. In the next place, the dividing the
portico, and indeed the whole structure into two stories on the out-
side, certainly indicates a like division within : a circumstance abound-
ing with absurdities, and defeating even the very end of erecting it at
all. If indeed the architect had been embarrassed to reconcile the
distance and height of his columns, I am humbly of opinion that a light
and pro]5er attic story had answered all enils both of use and beauty,
and left him room to have enlarged his imagination, and have given
an air of majesty to the whole : let me add that 1 apprehend the por-
tico should have been farther projected on the eye, instead of retreat-
ing from it, in order to have given a grand contrast to the whole front,
and aided the perspective within.

I shall say no more on the outside than this, that aecording to my
best notions of regularity and order, the dome should have been raised
exactly in the centre of the whole, and that there should have been
two corresponding steeples at the east as well as the west end, with

all other suitable decorations ; if a view of the whole length of the
building, too, could have been opened to the water-side, it would
have added greatly to its grandeur and magnificence, and have afforded
a most nof^le prospect from off the river into the bargain. However
odd or new the first of these propositions may seem, let any body take
a view of St. Paul's from any of the neighbouring hills, and they will
instantly discern that the building is defective, and that the form of a
cross is more favourable to superstition than beauty ; in a word, they
will easily see at least, that the dome, in its present circumstance, is
abundantly too big for the rest of the pile, and that the west end has
no rational pretence to finer and more splendid decorations than the
east.

Before we begin our examination of the inside of St. Paul's, it will
not be amiss to cast an eye on the statue in the area before it, erected
in honour of the late queen. It stands exactly in the front of the
building, though it seems, by the odd situation of Ludgate Street, to
be on one side, and is, upon the whole, modelled in a tolerable taste,
and executed as well ; the principal figure, indeed, the queen herself,
is an exception to this character; such a formal Gothic habit, and
stiff, affected attitude, are neither to be endured or pardoned, and
there is not one of those round the base tliat does not justly deserve
the preference.

Whoever understands the nature of public ornamental buildings
critically, always lays it down for a rule, that they cannot be too ex-
pensive or magnificent ; for which reason St. Paul's is so far from
being admired" for being so grand and a\igust as it is, that nothing is
more common than to hear it censured for not being more so. Every
body knows that the fund which raised it from its ruins to its present
glory, was equal to any design of beauty cr majesty; and as those
who had it in trust went so far towLVrds this necessary end, it is a
thousand pities they did not carry it on much farther, and make this
pile not only the ornament of Britain, but the admiration and envy of
all Europe. St. Peter's at Rome was already built ; a model which
the most finished architect need not have been ashamed to imitate,
and as all its particular beauties have been long publicly known and
admired, I think it was incumbent on us to have equalled it at least ;
and if we had excelled it too, it would have been no more than might
have been reasonably expected from such a nation as ours, "and such
a genius as Wren.

On these principles it is that men of taste and understanding are
surprized, at entering this church, to see so many faults, and miss so
many beauties; they discover at once that it wants elevation to give
it a proportionable "grandeur, and length to assist the perspective ;
that the columns are heavy and clumsy to a prodigious decree, and
rather incumber the prospect than enrich it with symmetry and beauty ;
half the necessary breaks of light and shadow are hereby wanting, and
half the perspective in general cut off; at the same time I do not
deny but many parts of the decoration are exceedingly grand and
noble, and demand very justly a sincere applause, i'he dome is,
without question, a very stupendous fabric, and strikes the eye with
an astonishing pleasure : it is, indeed, one of those happy kinds of
building that please all kinds of people alike, from the most ignorant
clown up to the most accomplished gentleman; but yet even here the
judge cannot help taking notice that it bears no proportion to the rest
of the building, and that after you have seen this, you can look at no
other part of it; whereas a judicious builder would husband his
imagination, and still have something in reserve to delight the mind,
though nothing perhaps could be coiitrivcd to surprize after it.

For example, the very nature of a choir would not admit of any
thing so marvellous as the dome, yet it might have relieved the eye
with something equivalently beautiful ; the entrance in front might
have been more noble and uniform, cither composed of wood entirely
or marble, for the present mixture of both makes a disagreeable piece
of ])atch-work, that rather disgusts than entertains ; the opening on the
inside, through the present beautiful range of stalls, might have termi-
nated in a much more magnificent alcove than we see there at present,
adorned with all the elegance and profusion of decoration; the altar
should have been raised of the richest marble in the most expensive
taste, that it might have been of a piece with the rest of the church,
and terminated the view of the whole, with all the graces of the most
luxuriant imagination. All the intermediate spaces should have been
filled up with the noblest historical paintings ; all the majesty of
frieze-work, cornices, and carving, heightened with the most costly
gildings, should have been lavished to adorn it, and one grand flow of
man-niricent curtain, depended from the windows, to finish and adorn
the same.

Thus have I been free enough to give my impartial opinion of St.
Paul's ; I hope not too presumptuously, and if iguorantly, let every
reader's private judgment set ine right.

St. Andrew's Holborn, has the advantage of a very good situatio«,

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228

THE CIVIL ENfilNERR AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[July,

but tlipii it deserves it as little as any inodeni (^luiiuh in the whole
city. The tower is even below critioisni, but the inside of the build-
ing makes amends for tlie awkwardness of the out ; and is really as
neat and wcU-finisbcd as the manner and taste it is formed in will
allow.

Temple Bar is, indeed, the liandsomest gate about town, and de-
serves some degree of applause ; if it has any fault, it is this, that the
top being round as well as the ari'li underneath, the whole wants that
contrast of tigure which is so essential to bi-auty and taste. The
statues on the outside are good, tlieir only disadvantage is the hurry
of tlie place where they are to be viewed, which makes it dangerous
to be curious, and prevents the attention to them which they would
otherwise command.

The structure' of the Temple Gate is in the style of Inigo Jones, and
very far from ini-iegaut. I wish I could say the same of the diU'crent
detachments of building which belong to it, but that is far from being
ill my power, nor ever can or will ; the property is so divided anil
subdivided, that it is next to impossible that any ;igreeineiit should
ever be made in favour of harmony and decoration. It i^ ci'rf.dn that
nothing can be finer situated than the Temjile, along the side of the
river, and if we consider the elevation of the grounii, and how far it
extends, the must barren invention cannot fail of conceiving the uses
it might be put to, and the beauties it would admit of. At present
there is but one thing which is worth observing in the Tein])le, and
that is the old church which Ijelonged to the Knights Templars of
Jerusalem ; and the outside even of this is covered from the view,
that the whole might be of a piece. The inside indeed is yet visible,
and may justly be esteemed one of the best remains of (iothic archi-
tecture in this cit}'. The form of it is very singular; you enter first
into a large circular tower, which at top terminates in something like
a dome, and lias a very good effect on the eye ; beyond, op])Osite to
the entrance, the church extends itself in three aisles, and is built and
finished with as much elegancy and proportion as the taste of those
days would allow.

From the Teniph; it is but a natural step to Lincoln's Inn ; but, by
the way, it is worth a stranger's curiosity to visit the habitation of
the Master of the Rolls, which is certainly built with elegancy and
convenience, and can be blamed in nothing but its situation, which is
undoubtedly as bad as the building itself is good.

Lincoln's Inn may reasonably boast of one of the neatest squares in
town ; and though it is imperfect on one side, yet that very defect
produces a beaiily, liy giving a pros])ect to the gardens, which fill the
space to abundantly more advantage. I may safely add, that no area
any where is kept in better order, either for cleanliness and beauty
liy day, or illuminations and decorum by night ; the fountain in the
middle is a very pretty decoration, and if it was still kejit jilaving, as
it was some years ago, it would preserve its name with more pro-
priety, and give greater pleasure into the bargain.

The outside of the chapel belonging to this society, is a very good
piece of Gothic architecture, and the painting on the windows has
a great many admirers within ; in my opinion, indeed, it does not
deserve quite so much applause as it has received, because the designs
are poor, the faces have little expression, and there is little reason,
beside a blind regard to antiquity, to extol them at all. The raising
this chapel on pillars affords a pleasing, melancholy walk underneath,
and by night ]iarticnlarly, when, illuminated by the lamps, it Las nn
effect tliat may be fell, but not described.

The gardens are far from being admirable, but llieii they are con-
venient; and considering their situation, cannot be esteenud too
much. There is something hospitable, too, in laying fhcin open to
public use; and while we share in their pleasures, we have no title
to arraign their taste.

As I liud my business increase upon my hands, as I come nearer the
polite end of the town, 1 shall be obliged to divide it into three dis-
tinct walks, that it may appear in something like method, and be a
lietter guide to the stranger, or man of taste and curiosity ; in the
first 1 propose to go from Lincoln's Inn Fields to the end of Piccadilly ;
jn the becoud from Temple Bar to Westminster; and in the last from
Gray's Inn to Grosveuor Square.

( To be cunUmtecl.)

CATHOLIC CHAPELS— MR. PUGIN.

Sir — Youv correspondent P. S. (as well as some otlier contributors
to your Journal), evinces wliat appears to me to bo a very needless
jealousy of the name of "Pugin," and appears to wish to throw dis-
credit upon the statement of the "Argus," that no fewer than seven-
teen Catholic Chapels are baing erected under that architect. Mr.

i'ligiu has certainly done much to excite the jealousy and spleen of
Protestant architects, by the severe rubbing up which he has given
US ; but would it not be better for us to endeavour to learn wisdom
from our enemy, (if he is such), than to content ourselves b)' showing
oar spleen at every mention of his name ? Would it not be more
|irudent antl more creditable for us to eradicate the errors of taste
which he has so mercilessly exposed, rather than to liolster ourselves
up with the idea that his lamjioons are undeserved, ov that he is him-
self eqiuilly o]ien to attack ? There can be no reasonable doubt of the
fallacy of Mr. Pugin's theory that every architectural vice took its rise
among the I-^rotestants, and that every merit belongs to the Romanists ;
there can be no question that though the "Gothic" styles were in-
vented and brought to perfection amfjiig the Catholics, they were also
first nli}i(jiits/itd by the Catholics, and (in modern times) first revived
by the Protestants. There can be no doubt that Mr. Pugin himself
imbibed his taste for these styles while a Protestant, and that he has
since been the first to impart this taste to the Catholics, who had |)re-
viously (ill our times) evinced little m- no taste for the works of their
forefafhers — so that this theory of Mr. Pugin's cviilenlly falls to the
ground. This, however, so far from vindicating Protestant architects
from tlie charge of bad taste, removes the excuse which even Mr.
Pugin made for them. Mr. Pugin's equally severe, and more just
criticisms on the modern Catholic Cliapels, liave been so well received,
that w'e immediately find chapels starting up in every part of the king-
dom, in the purest taste, and many of them on a scale of magnificence
wdiich would not have disgraced the best ages of Christian architec-
ture. It now remains for Protestant architects to display their zeal
and their talents in a similar manner, and to give practical i)roof that
they have been unjustly handled, rather than to attempt a petty re-
venge by detracting from the merits of a rival, who with all his eccen-
tricities, is beyond comparison the first Ecclesiastical Architect of the
day.

I am. Sir, your most obedient servant,

A Protestant Architect.

Lvndon, Jam 10, 1840.

P.S. — Among the Catholic "Churches" or Chapels 1 have seen or
heard of ;is being erected, or about to be erected by Mr. Pugin, are
those at Derby, Birmingham, Manchester, Keighley, Whitby, Dudley,
Reading, at or near Worksop, St. George's Fields, &c., as I have only
accidentally seen or heard of these, and have forgotten many more I
have heard of, Ihave no doubt that the number exceeds that narned in
the "Argus."

ON THE HORIZONTAL AND PERPENDICULAR LINE IN
ARCHITECTURE.

By Frederick East, M.A.
( Covcludcd from page 1S7.J

I had intended with submission to any opinions current amongst
professional disqvnsitors upon the subject of horizontal and perpen-
dicular lines, to have included in tlie pourtrayal of that matter, a few
remarks upon the subject of Ijroken entablatures, so often noticed in a
critical way, by the jealons guardian of consistency in classical arclii-
tecture. Avoiding, however, any further intrusion into the columns of
last month's Journal, than the subject actnally required, I reserved
that ))rivilege for the next, and in offering a few opinions upon so in-
teresting a theme, do so with the idea that as this breaking of the
cornice is one of the peculiarities of the I^alladian school — and of per-
])endicular Italian; there is a natural link between it and the subject
of my last paper, namely, lines.

Some conceive the fashion for breaks, an Italian prejudice dis-
cordant with the harmony of correct art, and generally condemn tlieir
use as unwarrantable and unmeaning. Others again, in the warmth of
their attachment for certain masters, v\ould follow them into every
caprice of taste, and find their very eccentricities engaging. I humbly
conceive nevertheless, that we cannot employ these breaks, frequently,
nor perhaps at all, if the imagination is to be vigorously affected, — or
if the building, whether in plan or elevation, consists of many jiarts;
since greatness of manner would disappear at once from the superficies,
and the eye would compass something of what is little and mean.

Inigo Jones must not lose cast however because he introduces these
breaks, and frequently. Popular taste at his time, coveted every thing
that was Italian. The king, the court, and nobility, had already con-
ceived these notions, which led them afterwards to vie witli each other
in the treasures of Italian decoration.

Inigo Jones in the Banquettiiig House, Whitehall, betrays something
more than the ordinary sentiment of his school, by an introduction of

1840.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

920

these breaks in tlie facade. That licence so congenial to artist's feel-
ings, seems there betrayed without violence to symmetry ; and the
ellect generally entailed u])on their adoption, seems lost in the happi-
ness of his idea.

In the first place the front without them is sparing of details and of
breaks. In the second place the building itself was one dedicated to
mirth and pleasure : and ideas of strict utility or true support are
waved, when the imagination is supposed to be atl'ectcd by something
of the sprightly joys and jovial spirit reigning within. The exterior
reveals the interior; you care not as you gaze with your thoughts un-
disciplined upon the edifice of jileasure, whether you see the cohnnn
relieving a depending weight, or supporting the various breaks of the
entablature. The artist sought to please, and not to affect — to cheer,
and not to impose.

With reference to the Persian court, in the design for the Whitehall
Palace. There is a freedom, an ease, nay an almost negligent air, in
the breaks and the figures that support them — and the object in view
here, I conceive was, to |ilease the eye of the king and his favourites.
As if stirtiiess and solemnity were, unwelcome to that monarch and his
court : — as if the severities of rule, and the sternness of power, were
to vanish at once in a building sacred to ease and kingly relaxation.

However much we may dislike their iutroduction as a custom in
architecture — however nnu-li we may blame them viewed in the per-
spective of a street, and confusing to the eye in half profile, there
seems something of agreeable pleasure in their aspect when displayed
internally.

In his own dwelling, free fi'om the sti-uggles of life and the world,
the statesman is half enchanted into playfulness, by the careless assem-
blage.— The accurate line, the finish of care the student displays, tend-
ing to renew thoughts of care and disquietude — vanish in the varied
forms of the columns, which ministers to his ease, sooth and trancjuilize,
the brow of concern.

There is indeed a strange beauty in architecture. Like the com-
position of the poet and the painter, the design of the architect is at
once a tale of interest— a delusive fiction or a startling truth — and the
architect most insidiously works upon the ga^er, who most studies the
secrets of mental impression.

ON SUB-MARINE FOUNDATIONS.

Sin — There is in your last Journal a description of a light house
lately erected under the auspices of Commander Denham, R.N., on a
sand bank at the entrance of the Wyre Navigation. This structure
has been supported upon and secured to the bank with Mitchell's
patent screw moorings. The introduction of this principle to the
mooring of vessels is good in the opinion of those who have tried
them. They are durable, very compact, and take a firm hold of the
ground by means of the flanges, wliich make them exceedingly appli-
cable for that purpose ; in rivers and in harbours they can be screwed
down without much difficulty, through mud, sand, or shingle to a cer-
tain depth. They are, however, an expensive article, if we take into
account the providing of barges and the labour of screwing them down,
together with the patentee's charge for the mooring itself.

It would therefore have conferred a favour upon the profession if
along with the description of the lighthouse we had been also informed
of the cost of its erection. I am quite sure that it might have been
done at far less expense on the old principle of driving piles into the
groimd.

The mooring screws are stated in the drawing to be 10 feet below
low ivater mark, which I suppose may allow them to be S feet into the
sand. Now the expense of a 3 feet mooring with the patentee's
charge and the labour in fixing it to this depth would be about £50.
On the other hand the cost of driving a pile, say 12 feet into the
ground, with the additional length of timber, would not cost one-tenth
of the sum, and piles can be driven into as firm a foundation as the
screws. Where then is the great advantage of the screw mooring so
applied but to increase the expense.

Again, in my opinion the framing ought to have been quite naked
from half tide upwards, to prevent as much as possible the shock of
heavy seas from injuring the structure, therefore, much dislike "the
systematic interlacing of tension rods to render the fabric sufficiently
opaque below the platform." I am also much mistaken if this system
of bracing will not cause the tide to scour away the sand from the
feet of the framing, and expose the screws to its action.

No practical engineer would in my opinion have adopted such a
design.

I am Sir, your obedient servant,

0:<E Of lae Oi» School.

TIDES OF THE OCEAN.

Sir — The Newtonian theory of the tides liaving been questioned
by many, in which, I confess, I participate, I should esteem it a great
favour, if some of your intelligent correspondents would weed my mind
of the doubts that have taken deep root on this subject.

If the moon be the infiuential cause of the rise and the fall of the
tides, why is her influence not universal?

Why does she seem to exercise her influence so powerfully on one
sea, less in another, and not at all in others, and why is her supposed
jiuwer entirely subdued by the effects of particular winds on certain
coasts ?

Why does the tide, ebb and flood, commence at each turn of the
tide to run at the bottom of the sea before the water moves on its
surface ?

What is the cause that, at an island in the South Pacific Ocean,
the time of high water is always the same ?

I am ;iware that the moon and the tides retrograde coextensively,
but this does not prove a coincidence.

I am aware, too, that it is said, by way of establishing a theory, that
the Baltic and Mediterranean seas are not of sufficient expanceto ad-
mit of the moon's influence — although the seas are much more exten-
sive than the English or Irish chaimels — but the real cause why there
is no ebb and flow tides in those seas is, that the seas do not rise or
fall at either of the points connecting them with the ocean ; for the
flow and fall of the tides, and the velocity with which the current
passes out and in of a tidal harbour or arm of the sea, is governed by
the velocity and rise of the tides at the entrances thereto, and there-
fore, without looking for any other cause, here is the real cause.

The great difference of flow in the same sea, has, hitherto, not been
satisfactorily accounted for.

Thus, for example, the flow on the eastern shores of America oppo-
site the Straits of Giliraltar, is 30 to 4l) feet— »o«e on the latter.

A flow on the Pentland Kerbs and along the north coast of Scotland,
of 20 or 30 feet ; on the coast of Norway opposite, and at the Catte-
gat, the entrance to the Baltic, no rise in the water.

In the Irish Channel, on the coasts of England and Wales, the flow
of the tide is great ; on the Irish coast opposite, a small rise of the
tides.

In the English Channel, on the French coast the flow is great ; on
the English coast but comparatively small.

If an allowance is made for the particular formation of i)arts of the
coast, and other local circumstances, they are not sufficient to establish
the accuracy of the Newtonian hypothesis on the tides.

I remain, your's, &c.,
\4.th June, 1840. Nauticus.

WATER OF THE VISTULA.

Sir — In your Journal of last month there appears an account of the
casualty in Prussia, — the water of the Vistula having been diverted
from its former course, and forced for itself a passage into the Baltic
Sea in a new direc'.ion, at some distance from its former disemboguing
point, i. (. via the Old Fairwater. As the current had previously, from
times immemorial, passed into the ocean at the latter point, with great
sluicing and scouring velocity, produced an impassable bar, so will the
water, which now runs out at the new point, produce the like eflects, by-
forming a bar at its new disemboguing ]ioint.

The bar at the Old Fairwater liaving some years back blocked up
its entrance, and prevented ships entering to go up to Dantzig to dis-
charge and load their cargoes. A new lateral cut was made, and so
formed a passage to sea via the New Fairwater; and at the connecting
part of the New Cut with the Vistula, a gate was fixed to prevent the
current passage running to sea through the New Fairwater, :uid al-
though this work has been completed for many years, no bank or bar
has been formed at the new entrance, so that the egress or sluicing water
constantly in its egress action, has blocked up the old entrance, but as
there is no water or current passing to sea by the new Fairwater, no
bar accumulates.

The division of the current, before alluded to, cannot in any way
affect the entrance to Dantzig by the New Fairwater, but if the current
of the Vistula should continue its new course, and not again return to
its old channel, a material alteration will soon be discovered in the
bar or bank at the entrance of the Old Fairwater.

Nauticus.

■r.io

THE CIVIL EN(;iNEI<:il AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[Jul

ON OBLIQUE ARCHES.
(IN' Reply to Mr. Buck, C.E., &c. &c.)

Sir,— III Konseiiuence of what has already appeared in yoiir .Tournal,
I trust to your candour to insert my answer. I consider, Sir, tliat tlie
insertion of it is not only due to me, individually, hut to all who are
interested in pradical attainments. The facts which I state in reply
are plain, and whilst they expose unilue pretension, they have the
merit of being in themselves irrefutable.

I am, Sir, very truly your's,

Peter Nicholson.

My attention was accidentally called, about the first instant, to an
article in the Railway Magazine, of the 25th of January, ISIU, written
by Mr. G. W.Buck, of Ardwich, Manchester, in reply to some remarks
which appear in my Treatise on the Oblique Arch, respecting some
inconsistencies in certain formula-, &e., in his "Essay" on the same
subject. Mr. Buck says in his reply,—" At page 8 of' his preface, in
speaking of the forms of his templets which are necessary for working
the stones, Mr. Nicholson says — ' they are not shown by any other author
vyho has wrote upon the subject.' Now, if Mr. Nicli'olson will refer to
the 3rd chapter of my "Essay," he will find thatcliapter to be exclusively
devoted to an explanation of the method of making the temj)lets anil
working the voussoirs ; moreover the fifth plate contains eight diagrams
exhibiting the forms of these templets." Now, Sir, I /lare examined
the third chapter of Mr. Buck's " Essay," and I can find no method ex-
plaining the making of the curved edges of the templets, Nos. 1 and 2,
plate 2G, in my work, to which I refer when I say "they are not shown
by any other author who has written upon the subject ;" and I have
also examined the fifth plate in his " Essay," which, Mr. Buck says,
contains eight diagrams exhibiting the forrns of these templets, and I
have been equally disappointed, for lean find iwnnc/i tcmpkU txhibited.
Mr. Buck does not even show how the radius of curvature of these
templets may be found ; neither does he give a hint that thev are ne-
cessary. The arch squares, Nos. 3 and 4, entirely depend upon the
curved edges of No. 2, and No. 1. Now, Sir, that Mr. Buck should
have made these assertions is, to me, a matter of the utmost surprise,
seeing that he must have known, when he made them, that lie was
deliberately stating that which was incorrect. The only method which
Mr. Buck gives for working the arch stones is a very complicated and
a very clumsy one, the principle of which he has taken from the 'i5th
page of my work on Stone Cutting, published 12 years ago, and which
method is much more difficult, even for a person possessed of con-
siderable mathematical knowledge, to work by, and at the same time
imich more liable to error, than the method which I give, and which,
in order to guard against error, I have adapted to the understanding of
the most ordinary mason. In fact, it requires very little more attention
than a common square segmental or semicircular arch, and the rules,
or squares by vvliich the stones are wrought are exceedingly simple in
their construction. On this point it may not be amiss to add that
although every mason is naturally inclined to work the bed of a stone
tirst, yet, the first conception which I had of forming the stones of an
oblique arch was certainly the most rational : first to foniL the sotTit,
then one of the beds, and lastly the other bed. And I did this because
it was easier to conceive how the spiral surface might be obtained from
the cylindric, than the cylindric surface from the spiral surface. This
method of working the arch stones was, I believe, adopted from the
year 1828, when my book on Stone Cutting was published, and con-
tinued until the year 183G, when Mr. Fox published a small Tract, as
an original work on Obliipie Arches, supposing himself to be the in-
ventor of all lliat was known upon that subject. He says : — " But I am
not aware that any rule has been published that would enable the
stones to be wrought at the quarry into the desired form." The tem-
plets ndiicli Mr. Fox uses are shown in my Treatise on Masonry and
Stone Cutting, plate 17, where the two equal circular-edged rulesj Z, Z,
tne straight edge Y, and the arch square 7 are those which he employs.
Mr. Fox, after some trials in working arch stones, preferred to form
the bed to the spiral surface of each arch stone first; and he was cer-
tainly the first to apply the winding straightedges for working the
spiral surface of the beds, and to show the angle of the twist.

Mr. Buck next goes on to reply to the inconsistency which I noticed
in certain formula-, in his "Essay," and in one part of his Letter he
says :— " Here 1 take the opportunity of saying that, after making tlie
discovery of the mutual convergence of the chords of the curves of the
joints of the face of the arcli, and after obtaining the formula; appli-
cable thereto, I long sought in vain fur a dcmonnlraliun of the gene-
rality of this property. On applying to my mathematical friends,
both in London and in Cambridge, 1 was equally unsuccessful.
Under these circumstances, being experimentally quite certain of the
existence of this property, I assume it as a postulate in the "Essay,"

and the whole of the investigation contained in the Tth, a conehidiiig
chapter (/lie nnbj part if the murk ivitich lamsiikr thconlical ) is based
upon it. The publisher, Mr. Weale, well knows how anxious I was to
have given a demonstration in the work, and that 1 was finally under
the necessity of publishing it without, allhongh no one appears to have
noticed this deficiency." This, Sir, I consider to be a sufficient ad-
mission of the justness of my remarks, and one which renders it per-
fectly unnecessary for me to allude further to those remarks at this
time. Mr. Buck also says: "It is not my wish or intention to be.
drawn into a review of Mr. Nicholson's book, but I think it richt to
make the following few remarks. In problem '.1, referring to plates 28
and 29, he gives directions for radiating the joints of tlie face of the
arch in two different ways. By his first method the joints are to be at
right angles to a tangent to the elliptic curve ; by the second method
they will radiate to the point of convergence, which I have denominated
the focus ; this latter method is that given by me, and which Mr.
Nicholson has here adopted. Now, if the voussoirs be worked in
spiral beds, according to /lin rules, they must necessarily radiate in this
way ; and consequently they cannot be made to radiate as described in
his first method, unless tlie beds a^e /corked in some other matj, the direc-
tions/or irhich he has not given. This dilemma leads me to infer that
Mr. Nicholson is not practically familiar with the subject on which he
has written. I hive confined myself to the points referred to bv Mr.
Nicholson's strictures, or I might have added more on the subject."

Now, Sir, I will reply to these "remarks" in their order, premising
that I never have objected to anyone reviewing my vioxks pro cidtd
that they are competent to the task, and provided also that they come to
the performance of that task in a fair and manly spirit! Now, Sir,
first, as to the radiation of the joints. The lines b h, c i, dj, &c., Cplate
28 in my book) are not the joints, neither are they intended to be re-
presentations of the joint lines ; they are merely to direct the con-
struction of fig. 2, in the same plate, in order to find the angles made
by lines approximating nearly to the joint lines of the face of the arch,
and tangents to the bed lines, or the angles made by these approximat-
ing lines to the joints on the face of the arch and tangents to the bed
lines at the points in which they meet the plane of the face of the
arch; and, in speaking of these lines in my work, at page lii, I say
that the method is a near approximation, and that its simplicity is
ample compensation for its introduction. Plate 29 of my " Guide to
Railvvay Masonry," was engraved at the same time as plate 20, and is
the same in every respect, as regards the construction of the two de-
velopements. Plate 20, and its explanation in page 6, was published
in Part 2, May 11, 1839, and is referred to at page 27, as being neces-
sary in the construction of plate 29. From the difficulty of getting the
proofs from the printer, the third part was divided into two half parts;
the first of which was published in August, and the second in Novem-
ber, at Newcast'e-upon-Tyne, Mr. Buck's work being published
in July, and the 29th plate in my "Guide," showing the method of
drawing the joints, and which Jlr. Buck says I have " adopted" from
his work, being published in August, there was not time for me to have
"adopted" his plan, even if I had been driven to such a strait as to
think of, or to stoop to, such a thing; and, moreover, I can prove by
ray engraver that all the plates in my book were finished four months
before the letter-press could be got from the printer, and a very consider-
able p,eriod before the pvblication of Mr. Buck's "Essay." The joints
in the elevation of the arch, plate 29, are drawn by an entirely different
method from that used by Mr. Buck, although it may, perhaps, amount
to the same thing, and are found by making the developemeuts of the
intrados and extrados of the arch, and transferring the points made in
each developement by the joints to its corresponding curve in the ele-
vation. These points being joined form the chords of the curves which
form the joints in the elevation. We all know, Sir, that "facts are
stubborn things," and I leave Mr. Buck to reconcile these facts with
his somewhat fugacious assumption that I have " adopted" his plan in
my book.

I now proceed to the second part in which Mr. Buck says — " this
dilemma leads me to infer that Mr. Nicholson is not practically familiar
with the subject upon wdiich he has written," S;c., and upon this point
I will refer Mr. Buck 10 the luth page of the History of Obli([ue Arches,
in my work, wliich will, I think, convince him, if he be capable of con-
viction, that I was perfectly aware, when I wrote my work, of the
nature of the joints in the elevation of an oblique arch ; in addition to
this, I may say that I have seen nine oblique bridges on " the New-
castle and North Shields Railway," and /fo on " the Brandling Junction
Railway," all executed in stone, on the principle laid down by me,
making, upon the two Railways yoK/tei; bridges within a distance of
about eight miles from Newcastle, luid built, as it were, under my own
immediate inspection. To this I may add, that one oblique bridge
was built on "the Hartlepool Railway" in 1834, precisely on my prin
ciple, and that I have had the satisfaction of seeing all the stones

1810.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

2.31

wliicb were formed by my templets unite closely without rcquiriiif!;
the slightest alteratiou. By this bridge on "the liartlepool Railway,"
I clearly show that a bridge was executed from the pri'.icii)les laid
down i^ii my Treatise on Masonry and Stone Cutting before any
othi:r work, was puhi.ished on the subject, and that the templets
shown in ray "Guide to Railway Masonry," plate -2 G, No. 1, No. 2,
No. 3, and No. 4, are decidedly my own discovery or invention. The
finding of the angle of the twist is due to Mr. Fox, and I have already
said the discovery of the point of convergence in which the cliords of
the curve of the joints of the arch stones in the face of tlie arch meet
each other is due to M\: Buck ; but I liere tell him that although the
finding of this point is very useful in drawing an elevation, it is not
absolutelv necessary in the construction of the oblique arch ; and I
ao-ain maintain that, from the want of proper definitions of the terms
used by him, he has written very obscurely of the principles on which
he professes to treat, even in describing the common-place things con-
tained in chapter 3. As a farther proof of the correctness of my prin-
ciples, I insert the following letter wdiicU was spontaneously addressed
to me bv Jlr. Welch, C.E., and Bridge Surveyor for the County of
Northumberland : —

" Elswick Villas, Newcastle, April IS, 18 10.
" To Peter Nicholson, Esq.

" Sir, — Having now seen my design of the Oblique Bridge over the
River Tees, on the line of the Great North of England Railway, suc-
cessfully carried into eft'ect, I am enabled to speak with certainty upon
the correctness of your published principles for the construction of
Oblique Arches. My bridge consists of four arches, built at an angle
of .jO'', the chord of the right section of each arch is 45'9G feet, and
that of the oblique section is GO feet. I may also state that I consider
your work on the oblique arch the most practically useful of any that
I have seen ; and as the structure whicli is near to Croft fully warrants
the highest opinion of it, I beg, as a member of the profession, for
which you have done much, to (hank you for the great pains yon have
taken in working out so clearly the principle of the Oblique Arch.
" I am. Sir, your most obedient servant,

" Henry Welch, Civil Engineer."

I think, Sir, I may safely place this testimony of a praclical man,
against Mr. Buck's assertion that I was not familiar with the subject
upon which I had written 1

I will now notice one very distinguishing feature between Mr.
Buck's work and mine, although based upon the same principles : —
Mr. Buck's work is only intended for the use of those who may hap-
pen to have been trained in a proper course of mathematical study,
and which, I believe, is not the case with a tithe of the young men for
whose use, chiefly, Mr. B. has written his book. On the other hand,
mine is intended as a purely practical work, and as such, I have shown
in it, how every useful length, distance, or angle of an oblique arch
may be found, principally by common arithmetic, from the doctrine of
similar triangles.

Since the above was written, I have seen an article signed " W. H. B."
in the "Civil Engineer and Architect's Journal" for May, 1840, pur-
porting to be " a few remarks on the construction of oblique arches,
and some recent works on that subject, but which is, in fact, a mere
echo of Mr. Buck's letter, and an ill-natured review of my book, writ-
ten by some tyro, who understands lamentably little of the subject
upon which he professes to write. W. H. B. says, in speaking of my
book, " there is a problem ' to find the ciu'ved bevels for cutting the
quoin heads of an oblique arch,' the reader being unable to learn, from
the heading of the problem, whether it relates to square or, spiral
joints, naturally proceeds to wade through it, with the hope that it
may afibrd some means of ascertaining this fact, but here he soon
becomes lost in a labyrinth." Now, sir, I assert that W. H. B must
either have been very inattentive, or very stupid, not to have ob-
served to what species of joints the problem referred, since every
])age in which I treat of the oblique arch has the words " On ifie
Oblique Arch with Spiral Joinls," placed in capitals over it. W. H. B.
next says, "you are told to divide the arc ABC into as many equal
jiarts as the ring-stones are in number, and through the points of
division draw bk, ci, dj, &c., perpendicular to the curve ADE."
Again, he says, "you are told to join am, bm, cm, &c., but where the
point m is to be placed Mr. Nicholson has quite forgotten to say."
Here I acknowledge an error in point of reference ; where I say divide
the arc ABC, it should have been divide the arc ADE, which every
impartial reader would have seen was a mere error in the type, as I
immediately mention the arc ADE again, and I have also omitted to
say, " draw GM perpendicular to GL." To show W. H. B. how diffi-
cult it is to keep clear of errors in printing, I will point out, in the two
last sentences which I have quoted from him, no fewer than five blun-
ders— bk is an error, there is not a k in the page in my book to which
he refers; it ought to have been bh. Neither is there an m in the

page, which he has mentioned four times. W. H. B. should at all
events transcribe correctly from a work which he professes to criticise
so profoundly, or he will assuredly lead both himself and others into
"a labyrinth!"

I now state again to Mr. Buck, that neither himself, nor any other
writer upon the oblique arch, has shown tlie templets by wdiich the
arch-stones are wrought by niy method, and that I am the in-
ventor of all those templets ; and 1 further distinctly tell him, that liad
Jic nut piraltd liis'prinaplen from my work on stone cutting, his "Essay,"
in all probability, mould never have bun in existence. I will also tell
him that, however fine the theory of the principles of any scientific
work may be, those principles will be literally useless, if not properly
adapted to the capacity of tie person who has to execute the roork .' That
I have always considered as the grand object to be attained, and I
think I may say, without vanity, after having received testimonials
both piililicli/ and privately, that I have not been altogether unsuccess-
ful. Tlie draughtsman will find my work on the oblique arch to be as
useful and as simple in the delineation of his plans as any work on the
subject in existence.

Now, Sir, in conclusion, let me state to Mr. Buck, that this may be
the last time that I may have an opportunity of addressing him ; for
I am now an old man, and, in the ordinary course of nature, may be
considered as standing upon the brink of the grave, and am, therefore,
unable to undertake the exertion of further controversy with him.
What I have done for the working man will be a theme for posterity,
w hen neither Mr. Buck nor myself will have the power of hearing it.
I pray that this may not be deemed the boast of an old man — as such
it is not intended^iut I have thought it my duty to say so much in
justice to my own character, with which Mr. Buck has taken such
unwarrantable liberties. I could not have rested satisfied without
giving vent to my feelings at the ingratitude which Mr. Buck has
shown. But, Sir, I have now done with him, and

" PALMAM QUI meruit, FERAT ! '

Newcastle-on-T>jne, May 23, 1840.

Peter Nicholson.

SrR — In my paper on Oblique Bridges in reply to B. H. B., which
is published "in your Journal for this month, I have inadvertently in-
serted a few words which are incorrect, anil ought to be expunged.
At the second line from the bottom of the first column of the lilSth
page, the following sentence commences: — "this triangle must be
supposed to exist in the thickness of the arch, and to be parallel to a
tuni;cnt plane at the point sought, m^d therefore," &.C. The words in
italics I ought not to have inserted, and I shall be obliged by your
giving notice to this effect in your next number.

Your most obedient servant,

Manchester, June 8, 1840. Geo. W. Buck.

/Uilhiuarian Discoveries in Frmire. — " A discovery 1ms recently been made
at BcMi^on, near Mothe-Saint-Heray, in the Two Sevrps, of a tumulus, wliicli
promises to throw yreat light on the civilization of the ancient Cells. A fjal-
lerv and vast grotto lias been opened. It is formed of nine stonesiii erect
positions, covered by a slab t»enty-si.K feet three inches in length. The in-
terior is completely filled with bones. The he:;d of each skeleton touches the
walls of the grotto, and by the sides of each vases of baked earth, containing
provisions for the use of the deceased in the other world, the wahala or para-
dise promised to the biave. Nuts and acorns are found in these vases in
[lerfect pre.-.ervation. I'here have also been found two hatchets ancl t« u
knives made of tlint, several smaller sharp instruments, the use of whicli is
not known, tno collars, or necklaces, one of shells and the other ut biked
earth, several bears" tusks, the bones of a dog, and a plate, upon which llieie
are fragments of a rude design. Four of these vases are perfect : two of them
very iiiuch resemble Mom er-pots ; a third lias the form of a soup-tureen ; anil
the fourth, though much the smallest, is the most curious, as it is the cup of
a Druid. The tumulus is tsvo hundred paces in circHmference, and between
eighteen and twenty feet high. Its formation may be placed at 2.0UO years
ago. The vases and utensils attest the infancy of the arts, and the nascent
civilization of a barbarous people." — Quotidienue.

Jiiciciil Monuments.— A discovery has been made in a cellar in Paris, at the
corner of the Rue Mauconseil, in the Rue Saint-Denis, of nine figures in
stone, llic size of life, having the heads and garments coloured and gilt. They
arc the figures of saints and kings, and one of them wears a helmet. Tliev
apparently bekng to the earliest times of the revival of art ; and have, in all
probability, been buried where they were found, to escape the ravages of some
outbreak of iconoclasni. It is probable that they belonged to ihe ancient
cdiLircli of the Pelerins lie Siiinl-Jaetjues, H bicli stood near the site of their dis-
covery.

232

THE CIVTL ENniNEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[July.

AN ESSAY ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF OBLIQUE
ARCHES.*

By Edwakd Sang, M.S.A., Civil Engineer, Edinburgh.

(Mridgcdfrom the Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal for April.)

ScAHCF.LY any hrancli of civil engineering Ijcars so closelv on tlie
advancement of civilization as (lie art of road-nialuiig. Tile "immense
sums tliat are annually expended on them evince the importance of
onr roads. Our object is not merely to find a path from one town to
another, we must be transported in the most expeditious manner
possible. Is there a declivity ; thousands are spent to remove it: is
a road suspected of being a few yards longer than is needed ? a new
line is immediately chalked cut. One might almost imagine that a
monomania had seized us, and that the tulip, the dog, the pigeon,
and ail the other f mciers had deserted their peculiar departments to
concentrate their energies on this one grand matter of roads. The
madness is ii very reasonable one ; for if there be a hill, multitudes
daily climb aud descend it: or if a road be circuitous, the quantity of
unnecessary travelling might soon be sufficient to carry one com-
fortably round the globe.

While journeying, we are often annoyed by bridges. Sometimes,
for cheapness, they have been erected far out of the line of road, and
we enjoy, on one side of a river, the delightful prospect of doubling
along the other. At other times, after skirting the banks as if on a
journey to the source, we are all at once wheeled right across the
water, and ere we are certain that our necks are yet safe, an equally
sudden turn restores us to our original direction. And occasionally
our vexation is crowned by an altercation between the drivers as to
w hich of two veliiclcs is bound to back down the steep slope of some
imtiquated erection. That time has now gone by when a bridge of
any kind was hailed with satisfaction; we have scarcely such a thing
as a ford wdierewith to contrast it, ;uid liaving only bridges to compare
with bridges, we have become somewhat nice in our taste. Many of
the old high-backed bridges have been replaced by others with level
road-ivays; these again by bridges with road-ways inclined to suit the
elevation of the opposite banks, and now another improvement is be-
ginning to be called for, tliat of crossing the river obliquely, so as to
make the bridge harmonize with the general line. This we may con-
sider as the ve plus ultra in bridge building, for then the road-way
over the bridge coincides both in plan and in section with tlie rest of
the road, and therefore conducts us in the easiest manner possible
from the one bank to the other. The skewed arch is inseparable from
the railway, as by its introduction alone the engineer is able to free
the line from awkward and injurious turnings.

Having been consulted concerning the construction of an oblique
bridge of considerable magnitude, and never having met with anv
regular investigation into the theory of such structures, I was induced
to undertake the analysis. The results of that analysis 1 proceed to
hiy before the Society of Arts, in the hope that, though I m;iy be
wrong in supijosing them new, their publication may serve to dissemi-
nate correct notions on this intricate subject. It is a common idea
that the oblique is weaker than the right arch, and that the twist of
the stones causes a great waste of material. The truth is, that if
both bridges be skilfully constructed, there is no difl'erence in point of
strength between them, while the twist on the arch-stone of th(?
oblique bridge causes a most trifling loss of matter, :ui(l therefore our
road trustees should never liesitate to adojit that which agrees best
with the rest of the line. There is no limit to the obliquity, nor need
even the several abutnu'uts run parallel with each other.

The general tpiestion of the construction of an arch resolves itself
into two parts; the first relating to the connexion which ought to exist
between the curvature of the vault and the weight piled on each por-
tion of it, is absolutely identical in the two cases of right and oblique
bridges, and is therefore left out in the present inquiry; the second,
however, relating to the forms of the arch-stones, bears directly on
the oblique arch, and will therefore engross almost our whole attention.
The outline of the bridge :nid the form of the vault Ir.iving been de-
termined on, the problem becomes tliis: To Co rer the surface of the
ceittcring with blocks of such sizts and forms as may insure the slabilili/
of tlic structure. Now, if it be premised that the curved surface of
the vault must never bo vertical, the solution of the problem can
always be attained.

It is clear, from the general form of a bridge, that the lines of pres-

■' Ki'ad liclorc- llie Soiii-ly lor llic Kncourancincnt of the Useful Arls in
Si-ollamJ, un ISili NnuinUr and 2n(l Dcicniliur, liJSO ; 27lli January, 1H3G,
anil lUth May, l»3b.

sure ought to run from one abutment to the other, and should be con-
tained in vertical planes parallel to the walls of the parapet.
Imagine, then, that the vault is intersected by a multitude of such
planes, the lines of intersection will indicate the directions in wduch
the pressures ought to be transmitted from block to block. Now the
stability of a structure is obtained by making the surfaces at which
the pressures are communicated perpendicular to the directions of
those jjressures, and therefore all that is required is to trace on the
surface of the centering a line which may cross all the lines of pres-
sure at right angles. In the case of the right arch, that line is a pa-
rallel to the abutment ; but in the oblique arch it becomes bent in a
pecidiar manner.

At tlie crown of the cylindrical oblique arch, the joint-line is per-
pendicular to the parapet; of course, it begins to descend on the sur-
face of the vault, and as it descends it grailuallv bends away from that
direction to become more and more nearly parallel to the abutment.
If tlie crown line be regarded as the absciss, and the line of pressure
as the corresponding ordinate of the joint, the dilferential co-ethcient
of the line of pressure is in all cases proportional to the cosine of the
inclination which its extremity has to the horizon. If there be, then,
two closely contiguous joints, the portions of the lines of pressure
intercepted between them will be proportional to the cosines of the
obliquities, and hence it follows that the breadth (measured on a line
of pressure) of the stones in a given course dinunish in the ratio just
mentioned. It is a well known principle, that the strain upon any
arch stone is proportional to the secant of the same obliquity; and
thus, if the deptli of the stones be augmented to meet this increased
strain, it would follow that each voussoir in any given course ought to
exhibit the same extent of section by a plane parallel to the parapet.
The arch stones, both for convenience of workmanship and for appear-
ance, must be uniformly disposed from side to side ; and hence
throughout the whole structure they ought to be of uniform volume,
with the exception of the half stones left at the end of each alternate
course for the purpose of breaking the joint. The deepening of the
arch-stones toward the spring of the :irch is often, though very im-
properly, omitted ; in such c;ise the above statement does not hold
true.

Even althouga the arch-stones were all equally broad upon the cen-
tering, those nearer the abutments would appear narrower on the
Gkound Plan, the breadths of their projections being proportional to
the cosines of their obliquity : hence the ground plan of an oblique
arch must present a very rapid diminution of breadths toward the
spring of the arch, the breadths of the projectious being, indeed, pro-
portional to the squares of the cosines of the obliquities.

The Side Elevation of a vault with uniform voussoirs would ex-
hibit narrower intervals toward the crown, the breadths being propor-
tional to the sines of the obliquities; hence the side elevation of a
skewed arch must present narrow intervals both at the crown and at
the abutment, ;uid wider intervals upon the shoulders. The breadths
are proportional to the products of the sines by the cosines of the obli-
quities; that is, to the sines of twice the obliquities; and thus the
side elevations of those arch-stones which are inclined at 45" will be
the broadest.

The End Elevation, or the projection of a joint upon the plane of
the parapet, possesses the very singular property of being entirely in-
dependent of the angle of the skew, and of depending alone on the
form of the longitudinal section of the ^'ault. This curious fact can
very readily be demonstrated. The projection of a right angle upon
a (ilane |iarallel to one of its sides is alw:iys a right angle, and there-
fore the projection of the joint u))on the plane of the parapet must
cross the projection of every line of pressure upon the same plane
perpendicularly. But the projections of all the lines of pressure are
equal to, and placed side by side with, each other, and are so what-
ever may be the angle of the skew, so that the delineation of the end
elevation of a joint, which requires only the tracing of a line that may
cross all these at right angles, will be performed exactly in the same
manner whether the bjidge be nmre or less oblique. When the angle
of obliquity diminishes to zero, that is, when the bridge becomes right,
the enil projections of the joints contract into mere points, wdiich
points are the commencements, so to speak, of the permanent curves
above mentioned.

The end elevations of the beds of the voussoirs, or rather of the
lines formed by the intersection of these beds with the planes contain-
ing the lines of pressure, are also normals to the lines of pressure, and
must therefore be tangents to the end projections of the joints. From
tills it follows, that a short portion of a course, or a single arch-stone,
is very nearly contained between two planes slightly inclined to each
other; and that, therefore, the loss of material arising from the twist
o/ Me s/oKtinust always be iusignilicant. Those engineers who hav(!
experienced a loss on this account, hsvf done so because their bridges

1840.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

233

were not i)iopeily designed. If the stones be obtained in squared
blocks from the quarry, there will be a loss on the ends of the stones ;
but this, as every builder knows, can be avoided by proper inanac;e-
inent in the quarry. And thus, on the whole, the loss of material for
the skewed bridge need not exceed to any extent worth naming that
for the right one.

The above statements are true of cylindroid oblique arches, whalerer
may be the forms of their principal sectioiis ; they are at variance with
the statements and so-called experience of engineers of established
reputation: complete demonstrations of them are given in the ap-
pendix. They are equivalent to dilferential equations, and require to
be integrated in order to give practical results ; these results vary
according to the particular form assumetl for the longitudinal section
of the vault. I proceed to give a few of these results, commencing,
on account of its more frequent occurrence, with the circular arch.

On investigating the form of the projection of a joint of a circular
oblique arch upon a horizontal plane, I arrived at a new curve, to
which the name Double Logarithmic has been given.

FiK. I.

Having pi ojected the entire semicylinder, of which only a porlion
can be used with propriety, let AB, CD, be the sides of the projection,
and EF, parallel to the parapet, the plan of one of the lines of pres-
sure. Bisect EF at right angles by GUI, and form two logarithmic
curves of which AB, CD, may be the asymptotes, EG the common
subtangent, their ordinates being parallel to EF. Then draw lines
KL parallel to AB, and intercepted between the logarithmics, the
middles M of these lines trace out the horizontal projection of one of
the joints. The lines AB, CD, are thus asymptotes to the horizontal
projection, and this geometrical property illustrates the mechanical
impossibility of constructing a semirylindric arcli, without trusting to
the cohesion of the mortar. The introduction of the logarithmic curve
into investigations concerning bridges, has been of great utility, and
the analogy between this curve and the connnon catenary is striking.
The catenary is also formed by bisecting the interval between two
logarithnacs; but these have a common asymptote with rectangular
co-ordinates, while the bisected line is parallel to the ordinate. The
computations needed for the delineation of such projections, are by no
means tedious ; they may be performed rapidly by help of Napierian
logarithms ; but a better method, capable of giving all the projections,
will be explained shortly.

It may be expected, from what has been said of such elevations in
general, that the end elevation of a circular oblique arch shall present
some interesting peculiarity. The end elevation of a joint ought, in
fact, to cross at right angles the circumferences of circles described
with equal radius from points lying in a straight line ; now, this is the
distinguishing characteristic of the tractory, and that curve must there-
fore be exhibited on the end projections of all circular oblique arches.

On examining the projection of one of the joints upon a vertical
plane perpendicular to the parapets, I obtained the genesis of a pecu-
liar curve still logarithmic in its nature, and somewhat resembling in
its form the superior branch of the conchoid. If we conceive the side
elevation of the semicylinder to be traversed by horizontal lines, the
distances intercepted on these lines bear to the corresponding distances
intercepted by a certain normal curve, the ratio of cotangent of obli-
quity to radius. This normal curve, which belongs to an arch with its
obliquity 45°, I have named the Companion to the Tractory ; it
admits of a very neat mechanical delineation.

Let a rod AB, equal in length to the radius of the arch, be made to
rest upon a smooth board only at the point A, while the extremity B is
guided along the line BD ; A will, as is well known, describe the equi-
tangential curve or tractory. Suppose that the guide to which the
point B (or in an oblique position D), is attached, carries a vertical
rule DFE, and that, on that rule, there slides a right angle DFC, one
side of which is constrained to pass through C :* then will the point

* In practice, it would be more convenient to lav a jointed rod equal to
half Ab trom the middle of AB to the rule DFK as'indicated by the dutteJ
lines.

Fig. 2.

F trace the Companion to the Tractory. A very simple addition will
convert this instrument into that described by Leslie in his Geometry
of Curve Lines, for forming the catenary. A grooved rule has only to
be attached, making the right angle DCE, while the groove DF is con-
tinued to meet it: E then traces out the catenary. Since,//om the
nature of the figure, ED DF ^ AB*, it follows, that the companion to
the tractory has its ordinates inversely proportional to those of the
catenary, and that, therefore, it might, with propriety, have been
named the inverted catenary.

All these projections of the joints, and the forms too of the indi-
vidual arch-stones, can be much more readily obtained from the de-
lineation of the surface of the centering. Regarding the crown line
as the absciss, and the actual lines of pressure as the ordinates (on the
curve surface), half the ordinate plus 45°, has its logarithmic tangent
])roportional to the absciss. Having once obtained the log-tangent
corresponding to a given distance along the crown line, a simple pro-
portion will give that corresponding to any other absciss; the log.
tangent corresponding to half the length of an arch-stone having been
found, the repeated addition of that quantity to itself will lead to a
knowledge of the position of the corner of each stone in the whole
structure, the simplest operations of trigonometry only being needed.
Indeed, the labour of the whole calculation is but a minute fraction of
that expended in the drawing of the plans. By these means, the ac-
companying model of the surface of the centering, its development,
and various orthographic projections, were completed.* The simple
inspection of these, and their comparison with most of the skewed
bridges already constructed, will shew in what respects this branch of
architecture has hitherto been defective.

I cannot leave the subject of the circular arch without indicating
the extensive and indispensable use of logarithms in the calculations.
Napier, when he founded first the rudiments of the tluxional calculus,
and thence the logarithmic method, sanguine though he may have
been as to the immense value of his discoveries, could never have
imagined the prodigious impulse which they have since given to
every branch of exact science. Each new mathematical research piles
another stone on the monument of Napier.

Neither can I avoid remarking, that the ingenious speculations of
the earlier geometers concerning the various mechanical curves, spe-
culations which have been by many regarded as ianeiful and useless,
are one by one turning to account in the progress of modern philoso-
phy.

The elliptic arch, being much recommended by the gracefulness of
its form, is frequently used. If we view the circular oblique arch
from a distant point in the continuation of its axis, it does indeed ap-
pear elliptical; but then the ehipse has its major axis directed verti-
cally, so that a circular skewed bridge can hardly have a fine appear-
ance unless the segment be extremely flat. Let us then inquire into
the phases of an elliptic skew.

The horizontal plan of the joint is still a double logarithmic curve ;
and its delineation, including, of course, that for the circular arch, is
as follows.

EF being as before, the plan of one of the lines of pressure, find HQ
a third proportional to the horizontal and the vertical semi-axis;
through Q dravv Q'E parallel to HG. Describe then logarithmics
having E'G for their common subtangent, and having their ordinates

• These are deposited in the Museum of the Society of Arts of .Scoiian A

2 I

234

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[July,

Fig. 3.

parallel fo E'H, the bisection of the interval between these will give
tlip horizontal projection of the joint. Similarly, the side and end
projections are modifications of those belonging to' the circular arch: —
lliey are fully investigated in the appendix.

Having obtained a tolerable a])proximation to the forms of the arch
stones, it is not uncommon for bridge-builders to throw the remaining
resjjoiisibility on the abutments, which, besides transmitting the pres-
sure, have to continue its distribution among the parts of the pier, hi
truth, the principles of equilibrium seem never, even in the ease of the
right arcli,^ to have penetrated beyond the facing stones of the piers ;
and the etlect of the arrangement in every bridge tvhich I hare ueii, or
ilie drawings for which I have inftptcted, is to throw the whole weight
of the arch on the outside stones of the pier and on the outer row of
piles in the foundation. To see this clearly, let us draw one of the
abutment stones of a right bridge. The
oblique face AB receives the pressure of
the lowest voussoir ; and it ought to receive
that pressure perpendicularly. But the
stone is prevented from yielding by re-
sistances against the surfaces CD, DE : the
pressure of the voussoir is thus decomposed
into two pressures, one against CD, well
known to be the horizontal thrust of the
bridge, and the other against DE, equal
to the weight of all the mason-work between the crown of the arch
:nid the vertical line through B. Now, since all the stones of the piers
are squared, no change (except by improper straining) can take place
in the directions in which these pressures are propagated. The pres-
sure against CD is communicated along the abutment course to the
spring of the next arch, or to the corresponding breadth of the final
abutment; while the pressure against CD is transmitted through the
facing stones of the pier to the outer row of piles. It will, indeed, be
said, that the cohesion of the mortar, and the alternate jointing of the
courses, render the pier one mass, and that, therefore, such niceties
are not worthy of attention. But, indeed ! is the final disposal of the
entire strain of a bridge such a trifle ? Then let us fit our arch-stones
by guess, and sweep the span in any fancy. It is at this very corner
that all the care of the engineer is required; and I do maintain, that
the method in common use outrages the doctrines of eqiulibrium, and
renders our arches less secure than they ought to be. It is a piece of
bad engineering to throw the whole weight of a bridge upon one row
of its su])ports, and to give the others scarcely any strain; especially
■when it is considered that that row is most liable to decay. The al-
ternate jointing of the stones calls info action that species of resist-
ance which ordinary building-material is least capable of exhibiting ;
one end of a stoni; is pressed downwards, while its other end is en-
gaged between two Ijlocks ; the consequence is a tendency to break
the stone over, to dia/uid its upper surface ; and it is notorious that
the strength of stones in this way is much inferior to their jiower of
resisting a simple crush. The alternate jointing and the mortar are
useful enough in correcting the bad effects of unavoidable inaccuracy;
there is no need for deliberate error to )mt them to a severer use.

The best possible arrangement is to give to each square foot of the
foundation its fair share of the wdiole burden. In order to do this, it
becomes necessary to lay a counter arch, of u parabolic form (its con-
vexity downwartls), upon the pier-head. Such an abutment course
would carry the horizontal thrust to the spring of the next arch, pre-
cisely as a Hat course would ; but it would distribute a uniform down-
ward pressure on each horizontal foot : and, in tliis way, the ioun-
dation w-ould be pi-essed on exactly as if the whole weight of mason-
work, from the crown of the one arch to the crown of the other, were
piled upon it in squared courses.

On investigating the forms of the joint on a parabolic skew, I found
its plan to be a line of the third order, the double parabola; that its

end elevation is a semi-cubic parabola; and that its side elevation is
another line of the same order. Students of the higher mathematics
will at once recognise the equations of these curves as the results of
other inquiries. For the computations of the parts, on account of the
regular progression of the different examples, the method explained
in my treatise On the Solution of Equations of Jill Orders, will be
found to atibrd peculiar facilities.

Appendix,

In the preceding part of this paper, I have stated thegeneral prin-
ciples which ought to regulate the construction of oblique arches. In
this, the second part, I propose to enter more into detail, and to give
the demonstrations of the theorems above laid down.

The general investigation into the stability of a vault would neces-
sarily be complicated by the peculiarities of the ultimate abutments,
and by the assumed directions of the lines of pressure ; for these di-
rections are, within certain limits, arbitrary. For the present pur-
pose, it is enough to consider the case of a vault resting on parallel
abutments, cylindroid, and having the lines of pressure contained in
vertical planes parallel to each other.

Fig. 5.

Let AB, CD, represent the two abutments, HN the crowni line, GF
and PN the horizontal projections of two of the lines of pressure.

Of rectangular co-ordinates, let the .?■ be in the direction HG, the y
in FM, and the z vertically. For convenience, also assume oblique
co-ordinates ji along HN, u along NM, and z as before; put also GHN
the angle of the skew =: s. The formulae of conversion will be

■r ::= 11 cos s, y = V s\n g — u; g ::= z]
V := x sec s, u :=. X tan s — y, z =^ z j ' '
If the equation of the generating curve of the vault, of which EF is
the projection, be taken

u — <!>:: — 0 — B

the same equation will serve as that of the vault itself; or in rectan*
gular co-ordinates

.» tan s — 7/ — tfi z = Q := B, whence

dB dB , rfB ,

-T— = tan s ; -5— = — 1 ; -r— z^ a' z.
d X dy d z

The equation of the plane containing one of the lines of pressure is,

X — X =: 0 ^ c ; whence

d c

d c _ d c _
dlc-^'J^j-^'

d z

= 0;

so that the equations of the straight line touching B ^, 0 c = 0 are
X — X _ Y — y Z — z

0

— 1

(D)

where X, Y, Z belong to any point in the tangent ; x, y, z to the point

of contact.

Again, let ;z — 9 u = 0 = E be the equation of the horizontal pro-
jection of a joint, or in rectangular co-ordinates,

X tan 8 — y — 6 (r sec s) = 0 = E ; then

d E
dx

= tan 8 — sec s. B' r ;

d E

dy

l;15 = 0.
dz

The equations of the joint are B :
line tangent to it are

X

■^_ Y-y

: 0, c = 0, therefore, those of a
Z —z

m

<t>' z <p' z (tan s — sec s. 6' v) sec s.&v
The stability of the structure demands, that the line whose equations
are (F; be perpendicular to that whose equations are (D), therefore
the condition of stability is contained in this equation,

{<p' gy (sin s — fl' i>) — 6' V *

1840]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

23S

or „.'..= ./(-^?li^\
/y/ l sin s — e' vj

(*' z)-
or 6' « = sin s _, , ^ ,— -

The last formula may also be put thus :

(G)

— • = sm s , „ , , J
5 0 a u- ■\- a z'

in whicli the characteristic S refers to the joint, d to the line of pres-
sure. But -; "-, — is the square of the cosine of the inclination

d u- -\- d :-

of the line of pressure to the horizon ; whence, if we denote that in-
clination by /,

— := sin 8. cos r . . . (Hj
5 V

S II
When, then, as is the case at the crown of the arch, ; is zero ^-^ =

sin s ; but - = + sin s so that, at the crown, . - = o, that is,

the horizontal projection of the joint, is tliere perpendicular to the

parapet, as might easily have been anticipated ; but when i increases,

5w
its cosine decreases, and therefore -=i- = sin s. sin »' (I) must increase:

So ^ ,

that is, the line must bend away, from being perpendicular to the
parapet, until, if i could reach 90°, it would be parallel to the abut-
ment.

Since ^^ ^ sec s, the above quotation put in rectangular co-ordinates

S.V

becomes.

tan s. siu i'^

(K)

If a he taken to represent the arc of which u is the projection, cos i
du

= -T- and equation H becomes,

Sa

5 II

sm s. cos 2

.(L)

and thus, if we imagine two joints ruiming quite close to each other,
cutting the crown-line at the minute distance 5 r, the distance Sa, in-
tercepted between them on the arc, or the breadth of the course, is
proportional to cosine i.
The above equation can also be put under the form

So

-- =: tan s. cos i

■ (M)

St{

Again, we have g . = cot i; whence equation H becomes,
Sc
So
iz

:;= sm s. sin 2. cos i ::^ * sin s. sin Z i.

(N)

S.v'

. tan s. sin j. cos 2 = 4 tan s. sin 2 i.

. . (O)

From which it will be seen, that the general statement made as to
the side elevation of the joint is true.
Lastly, we have

5 )/ , Sv Sii

r^ = sin S r — :

Sr Sj Sz

Sz

: tan 8 = ^

oil,

' (P)

whence it is, that the end elevation of the joint crosses that of the line
of pressure at right angles.

Before proceeding to apply t)ie above differential equations to par-
ticular cases, the following recapitulation may be made :
Equation H gives the Horizontal Projection.
L . . Development.
O . . Side Elevation.
P . . End Elevation of the Joint.
And it is to be remarked, that these equations are absolutely general,
apijlying to every skewed eylindroid arch.

Having now completed the general investigation, I proceed to apply
the principles to specific cases ; in the first case to the circular arch.
Denoting by / the radius of tlie circle, we have

a a

i =: -, « = )• cos -, tc :

r r

r sin - ; z- -\- li^ ■=. r'' ;

equations which take the place of (B) in the general analysis.

For the horizontal projection of a joint we have
Sm_
5 y

(^■^os "^ i= sin

and thus

So

J- = cse «.

whence integrating

t. = r. cse 8 nep. log ^ {jJ^^

Now v' = r. cse s. nep. log ()• -f ;() is the equation of a logarithmic
curve to oblique co-ordinates having one side of the semicylinder for
its axis, and r cse s. for its subtaiigent: while — ti" = r. cse s. nep.
log (;• — u) is tliat of a similar curve having the other side of the
semi-cylinder for its asymptote, and thus the ji of the joint which is
the arithmetical mean of these "is obtained by bisecting the interval
between the two logarithraics.

Passing to common logarithms, and putting M for the modulus.
•43429ilS, &:c. we have

r. cse s , »• + a

2 M V
10 ;• cse 8^1

tizzzr 2 M P •
10 r cse s + 1

The horizontal projection of the joint of a circular skewed arch is
thus a new curve, to whicli I have given the name of Double Loga-
rithmic : the analogy between this curve and the common catenary has
already been pointed out.

In order to trace the side elevation, we must resume equation (O)
which, when adapted to the circular arch, is

^ = tan8.^^(^)

whence

;•. cot s

nep. log

r -\- y' j-2 — s-

r — Vjj ,3

= nep log 10. r. cot s log tan { 45^ + ,~ )

But the equation

^' = ^ nep. log . —Vi- — I-

~ r — V r — z

is just the equation of the tractory, whence

whence

is the equation of a curve having its ordinates greater than those of
the tractory by the quantity V*"' — -•', this curve I have named the
companion lo the traclonj, or, on account of the connection which is ex-
plained in the paper, and which at once flows from the above, the in-
i-erttd ca/eiiary.

The equation for the end elevation of a joint adapted to the circular
arch is

which is the well known equation of the tractory. This is the cliarac-
teristic curve of the circular oblique arch : as all tractories are similar
to each other, it is easy to make a table of its co-ordinates.

The preceding equations enable us to obtain any one of the projec-
tions of the joint, and are essential to a knowledge of the nature of the
different curves. They are, however, inconvenient when we wish to
ascertain the dimensions of the individual arch-stones, and need, for
that purpose, to know the intersection of the joint with any one of the
lines of pressure. The equation of the development furnishes us with
the means of obtaining these points, as well as all the projections, by
processes remarkable for their simplicity. To find this equation I re-
sume (L) which, adapted to the circular arch, becomes

2 I 2

230

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[July,

So a

= cse s. sec -
fa r

whence

V =: !'. cse «

■I "*" 2r)

111-, observing that - ^ ;', and passing to coninion logarithmic tables,
r

V = nep. log iO. )• cse s. log tan (-15° + ^ )

whence by inversion

1 * ,A c-j 1 ' \ M. sin s
log tan (45^ + o /~ ' ^'

from which the values of i can be very easily found ; especially when
tliey correspond to equi-dittbrent vajnes of r.

The expert computer will now perceive at a glance, that all the
operations needed to determine the co-ordinates of the various points
may now be arranged in a simple tabular form so as to require scarcely
any figuring.

I now proceed to the Elliptic Oblique Arch. Put r for the hori-
zontal and p for the vertical radius ; the equation of the curve then
becomes

1

which takes the place of (B).

This equation may also be put under the form
!( := r sin c, - ^ P cos a.
where a is the inclination of the trammel bar that would trace out the
ellipse ; from this we find

5 ;) cse s ( , ., „ , ,. 1

;— == I 0- — p-; cos a -4- p-.sec a ( whence

tt a r ^ )

V = \ (r' — p") sin a -j- p' nep log tan (45 + | ) }

we obtain

V cse s ( , _ . )■ ■>

otherwise we obtain
8

V = cse s

{^-

At first glance it might be thought that this equation gives a new
curve; it is, however, still a double logarithmic, having its parts de-
termined in the manner already described.

To find the side elevation we have

5 - ^ — )• p - \/ir - z'

— =^ tan s

Sr p^ + (,-_p^)~

whence

. = c.u{^,^+f,.„^(^±^)).

it is, however, more easily determined thus

,■- _|- p- tan a

= cot s

r p tan a

=: cot I

( >' P 1

l - cot n -j tan a ,

(p i- 1

But I z ^ — p sin B. 5 o.

— cot «

) r
I

— sin

a + - nep. 1. tan (^45 + ° ^ ]

For the end elevation we have recourse to equation (P) which gives

-^ = — / sec a — cos a I and thus

5a r I J

P-

2/ == ; / nep. log tan (45 -|- i a) — sin a i

■which is the equation of the tractory modified by the existence of the

•factor -. From this equation the determination of the individual
r

point is most easily obtained.

I now proceed to consider the Parabolic Arch. _/ being the focal
distance, the equation of the parabola is

■«- = 4/ --, whence a d u — 2/d '

whence again the equation

r = cses.l „ + -^, J-

which belongs to the horizontal projection; also

n' 1

,r = cots.|v/-- { 3-|-_J- } =
and also

X r= cot s

.■ { 2 « + -^ , or

y- =

4 z'

97

which are the equations of the three projections.

I have now run over the equations which serve to determine the
difl'ereiit parts of oblique, circular, elliptic, and parabolic arches, and
had intended to supply examples of the requisite calculations; but
after proceeding to some length in this, it occurred to me that those
who have followed the preceding investigations stand in no need of
such illustrations, and that these, therefore, would merely occupy room
without being productive of any benefit.

HARBOURS (SOUTH EASTERN COAST.)

./ Copt/ of lilt Report of the Commissioners appointed to Surrey llie llnrhours
of the South-Eastern Coast, to the Lorda Commissioners of the Admiralty^

WITH AX P;N'GBAV1N'G^ plate XII.

Having completed tlie in<|uiry on the subject of tlie H.irl)ours on the
Soutli-Easteni coast of England, -wc request you wiU lay l>efore the Lords
Commissioners of the Admiralty the result of our investigation.

Mr. Wood's letter of the 'i.'jth of July last conveyed to us the directions of
their Lordships " to -^isit tlic coast between the mouth of the Thames and
Selsea Bill, and to examine and report on the state of the existing liarhmirs
between those points, -with reference to tlieir being available as places of
shelter for vessels passing through the channel, in ease of distress from
weather, and also as places of refuge for merchant vessels fioui enemy's
criuzers in time of war, and more esjiecially as to their being made stations
for armed steam-vessels emi»loyed for the protection of our trade in the nar-
row part of the channel;" for fthich ])urpose, tln^ harbours being acccssihle
at all times iif tide, and their capability of defence, were stated to be most
important considerations.

Their Lordships furtl er desired us " to report as to what situations we
would recommend as best calculated for these various purposes ; whether in
any of tlie existing harliouis, or at any other places within the assigned
limits ; and also what works would lie necessary to render them available ;
and what the probable expense of the undeitaUing would be."

Before entering into the details of the suhjcct, it will be proper to state
that a question arose whether it fell within the ])rovinee of the Committee
to offer any remarks on those harhours which were found on inspection to be
incapable of access at all times of tide.

A perfect harbour of refuge, we understand to mean, such as is capable of
receiving any class of vessels, under all circumstances of wind and tide.

Now there is no such harbour along the whole range of coast from the
Nore to Selsea Bill ; nor are any of the existing harbours capable, by any
improvements or alterations to their inesent entrances, of being made <aeeesi-
hle at low water even to the extent of six feet, with floating berthage inside.

Most of the harbours on this part of tlie coast arc formed by piers carried
out from the main land, and are tidal harbours, dry or nearly so at low water,
with l)ars at their entrances ; these liarbours would therefore be excluded
from our consideration, if their capability of being made available at all times
of tide was to be considered a neeessaiy condition.

There can he no doubt, however, that the existing harbours are of import-
ance to iiiercbant vessels of the smaller classes .at various times of tiile, ac-
cording to their dr.aught of water; and though they may not be capable of
receiving a large ship, may afford shelter to a smaller one ; and therein' be-
come a harbour of refuge to a class of vessels the most numerous and least
prepared for heavy weather, or to cscajic an enemy in time of war.

The value of such imperfect harhours is also increased by the diminution
of late years in the size of trading vessels. The large class of sliips which
were emjiloyed in the M'est India, and the still larger in the East India trades,
have been Bueceeded by vessels of much smaller tonnage. The coasting and
coal trades are carried on in vessels of comparatively light draught of water ;
and steam-vessels, whose draught is easy compared with sailing-vessels of
eipial tonnage, arc rapidly increasing in number, and often supply the places
of the larger class of vessels which were formerly employed in the merchant
scryice.

1840.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

2.37

To these vessels, therefore, some of the harliours at the present moment
are open for several hours of each tide, and a few of them may he capable of
being rendered more accessible by tlie removal of obstrnctions at their en-
trances, or by additional works.

This part of the coast jiossesscs the advantage of a good rise of tide ; and
though the harbours are oidy availalile under special conditions, the numerous
instances of shelter and protection afforded by each to ships in distress, serve
to show their value in a national point of view, and the importance of not
allowing them to fall to decay.

Although, therefore, we are convinced that none of them can be made
perfect harbours of refuge, we still have considered them as falling within the
scope of our inquiry ; not as requiring from us specific details of the works
which may be deemed desirable, but to explain briefly their present extent
and capabilities, and to note generally what may have presented itself to us
in the wav of improvement ; and we therefore propose to consider the objects
of the inquiry under two heads, viz.: 1st, The state and capabilities of the
existing harbours, &c., (in the order in wliich we visited them) ; and 2udly,
The situations best calculated for harbours of refuge, and as stations for armed
steam-vessels in the event of war ; confining to barl)ours for these latter ob-
jects, the necessary condition of being accessible at all times of tide.

The river Thames is usually considered to terminate at the Nore. From
the Isle of Sheppey to Westgate Bay, the numerous sands and shoals which
extend in all directions along the coast, prevent the approach of vessels of
any size ; and the cliffs, which consist of sand and clay, arc gradually yield-
ing to the action of the sea, and supply a constant source of materials for
fresh accumulations.

We did not, therefore, consider it necessary to visit this part of the coast,
where no harbours at present exist.

Margatf.

Margate was the first place at which we landed after leaving the river.

The harbour is situated in a small bay l)et\veen two extensive flats of chalk
rocks, the Nayland on the west, and the Fidsam on the east, both of which
are covered before high water. The artificial harbour is formed by a stone
pier, which commences on the eastern side of the bay (around which the
town is situated), and extends 800 feet to the westward, in an irregular curve,
leaving the entrance open to the north-west.

The rise of average spring tides at the pier-head, is about 13 feet, and that
of neap tides eight feet; but spring tides ebb outside of the pier-head, and
leave the harbour dry at low w ater. A wooden jetty has been run out from t he
root of the pier, over the Fulsam rocks, to the distance of 1,100 feet, for the
convenience of passengers, &e., landing from or embarking in the steam-
packets at low water.

The pier and jetty belong to a joint-stock company, the chairman, surveyor,
and harbour-master of which attended us, and gave us the information we
required.

It is evident that the harbour in its present state possesses none of the
requisites of a harbour of refuge, and can only be considered valuable, in a
national point of view, as affording the means of supplying pilots, anchors,
and cables, &c., to vessels driven into the roads in distress.

The surveyor, by order of the directors of the pier and harbour company,
prepared and submitted to us a design for constructing a harbour of refuge at
this place, by extending curved piers upon the Nayland and Fulsam rocks ;
enclosing an area of considerable extent on and around the site of the present
harbour, and leaving an entrance of 300 or 400 feet in width towards the
north-east, with 16 feet depth of water at the mouth.

The expense of such a work is estimated by the surveyor at 275,000?. ; but
the cost of deepening the harbour is not included in this sum ; and as the
bottom rises gradually to the beach, the area possessing even 8 feet water
would be very limited, and considerable excavations would be necessary to
render it available to any extent.

A second design was submitted to us, said to be formed on a plan suggested
by the late Mr. Kennie, who is quoted as having thought highly of the situa-
tion for a harbour of refuge. It consisted of an outer harbour of less
dimensions than the one proposed by the <lireetors of the pier and harbour
company, enclosed by walls; and an inner basin with gates to shut in the
water at flood-tide, for the purpose of clearing the entrance at low water.

The power of sluicing at so great a distance as that proposed in this plan,
eoidd only be applied with advantage to a surface dry, or nearly so, at low
water ; and the idea of keeping a deep-water harbour of any useful width,
clear by means of such sluicing, appears to us to be impracticable.

Several other plans were brought before us for the construction of a har-
bour at this place ; but as we shall have occasion to show in the sequel that
other situations possess gi-eater advantages for the attainment of the objects
pointed out by their Lordships' instructions, we do not consider it necessary
to enter into any details of these suggestions.

Broadstairs.

From Margate we proceeded to Broadstairs. The harbour at this place is
formed by a wooden pier, about 100 yards in length, extending from the
northern side of a small bay.

The entrance faces south-west, but the harbour is much exposed to the sea,
which is driven in by winds from the eastward.

At spring tides there ii about 16 feet water at the pier-head, and 10 at
neaps, but the whole harbour is dry at low water ; and, during spring tides,
nearly 100 yards outside the pier is left uncovered.

A plan was submitted to us by the harbour commissioners for constructing
a larger harbour, by extcmliiig piers from the opposite extremities of the bay,
320 yards into the sea, by which eight feet in the entrance at low water might
be obtained. But we do not consider it necessary to enter into further parti-
culars of this project, as it does not appear to us that a work of such magni-
tude is required in this situation, or that the advantages anticipated would be
commensurate with the expense.

The harbour is managed by commissioners, under an Act of I'arliament
passed iu 1792.

Ramsgate.

Ramsgatc harbour, which was the next place we visited, consists of an in-
ner and outer basins, formed by substantial stone piers, extending 1,310 feet
into the sea, and encloses an area of 42 acres.

The inner basin is used as a wet dock for vessels to load or unload their
cargoes, &c., and contains a dry dock where vessels of 300 to 400 tons bur-
then can be repaired, &c.

The entrance of the outer harboiu' is 200 feet in width, and opens to the
south-west.

The rise of average spring tides is from 13 to 14 feet at the pier-heads, and
of neap tides nine feet, giving in the entrance 19 feet at liigh water of spring
tides, and 16 of neaps.

For the purpose of scouring the outer harbour at low water, powerful
sluices have been constructed through the cross wall of the inner basin, the
discharge of water from which senes to keep open the channel to the inner
basin and the gullies which extend round tlie harbour at the foot^f the piers,
in certain portions of which, near the entrance of the harboiu', tlce depth in-
creases to about six feet at low water.

The mud which remains in the middle of the harbour serves as grounding
banks, and affords a soft bed on which vessels entering with loss of anchors
and cables can take the ground in safety ; and these banks are considered
essential for the purjiose.

K new communication between the outer and inner basins has lately been
completed, the gates of which are 42 feet in width.

One of Morton's patent sUps has also been laid down in the outer harbour,
on which steam-vessels, &c. of too great beam to euter the graving dock in
the inner basin can be hauled up and repaired.

The situation of this harbour appears to have been selected more from its
position with reference to the Downs than from any local advantages afforded
by the formation of the coast. There is no natural backwater, so essential in
tidal harbours for the purpose of scouring, nor does the line of clilT oft'er
shelter against any winds but those which blow from off the land ; and yet
in this situation, without one natural facility but that of a chalk foundation,
a harbour has been constructed wliicb, notwithstanding its imperfections, is
uiuloubtcdly the best on the south-eastern coast of England.

During gales from the southward and westward, which throw a bcaw sea
into the Dowiis, aiul render the anchorage insecure for heavily-laden coasters,
and merchant vessels of the smaller classes frequently unprepared for riding
in open roadsteads during heavy weather, — this harbour affords a place of
shelter where vessels of considerable draught of water may run for protection
at fide time.

By the accounts we received from the hai hour-master of the ntimber of
vessels which have annually sought shelter from weather, &c. since the com-
pletion of the harbour, it may be inferred that the object for which it was
constructed, viz. an asylum for ships in distress in the Downs, &c., has been
to a certain extent attained.

No plans for the improvement of this harbour have been submitted to us ;
and from the nature of the bottom outside, which consists of chalk rock, with
not above six feet water at some distance from the harbour's moutli, at low
water spring tides, it is obviously incapable of being rendered accessible for
vessels drawing more than that depth of water. It cannot, therefore, be con-
sidered a perfect harbour of refuge, nor is tlic situation eligible for the pur-
poses pointed out in their Lordships' instructions.

The care and management of the harljour is placed, by Act of Parliament,
in the hands of trustees.

Deal and Sandwich.

From Ramsgatc we proceeded to Deal, where a deputation from that town
and the borougli of Sandwich waited upon us, and submitted to our inspec.
tion plans for the construction of a harbour on tlic beach, with docks, ^c,
to communicate with the latter town. The River Stour, which enters the
sea through the Sandwich flats, being proposed to be converted into a back-
water, for the purpose of scouring the entrance.

The scheme has been under couteuplation for many years, but nothing
has been undertaken towards carrying it into execution.

We thought it right, however, to inspect the coast in the neighbourhood
of the site of the proposed harbour, to ascertain the feasibility oi' otherwise,
by an extension of the plan, of rendering it subservient to the objects of our
inquu'y.

The shingle, which first makes its appearance about a mile to the north-
ward of Sandown Castle, extends in a vast bank along the shore towards the
South Foreland, and is continually moving by the action of the waves in the
direction of the prevailing winds, and forming accumulations to the north-
ward. This is an objection to the construction of a harbour on this part of
the coast, and it is very doubtful whether vessels in distress in the Downs

238

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[JULT

could make use of one in this situation. Tliese reasons appear to us to
lender the plan ineligible.

The situation to which we next directed our attention was the space
within the hreaksand, and the expediency of enclosing the "Small Downs"
and the area witliin, hy extending a hreakwater along the sand, and a pier
from the shore. Tlie magnitude aTuI extent, however, of such a work,
winch would n'i|uiro a breakwater and pier of upwards of five miles in length,
the small ileplb of water at the northern entrance, and the uncertain nature
of the foundation, induce us to abandon the idea of a harl)our of refuge at
this place.

Dover.

We next visilcd Dover. This harbour, from its itroximity to the French
coast, and as tlie principal port of communication between Great Britain and
tlie Continent, has been regarded at all times as a place of the greatest im-
portance.

We sliall have occasion to refer to the situation in the latter i)art of this
Report ; and it will only be necessary in this place to give a brief description
of the harbour in its |ucsent state.

It consists of an outer and an inner biisin, with a liackwater which opens
into the latter, called the Pent.

The outer harbour contains an area of seven acres and a half, the inner
basin six acres and a (piarter, and the pent 11 acres and a half. A wet dock,
of an acre and a half, opens into the western side of the outer harbour,
which again comnuuiicates with a graving or repairing dock.

The entrance between the pier-heads (which are partly formed of stone
and brickwork faced with wooden piles) is 110 feet in width, and opens to
the south-south-east.

The rise of average spring tides is from 18 to 19 feet, and of neap tides
from 12 to 13 feet ; but the depth at high water in the harbour at spring
tides is only 17 to 18 feet, and in the basin 16 to 17 feet, and about three
feet less during the neaps.

The harbour is therefore left dry at low water.

The bottom consists of chalk, on which a deposit of mud in certain places
has accumulated, Ijut not of sufficient depth to enable heavily-laden vessels
to take the ground with safety, especially during easterly winds, when, from
the confined area of the outer harbour, and the rebound from the upright
waUs, there is a consideralile agitation in the water.

During south-westcriy gales, vessels experience difficulty in entering, from
the heavy sea to which the harbour's mouth is exposed ; and another formi-
dable obstacle arises from the shingle bar, which winds from this quarter
throw up aeioss the entrance, and which at times has rendered the harbour
inaccessible for several weeks together. Numerous plans and suggestions
have been devised, and large sums of money expended for remedying this
evil.

Fonuerly there were only three sluices or culverts, communicating by
means of a pipe with the inner basin ; but since 1837, a new and expensive
work has been completed, consisting of a brick reservoir in the western pier,
communicating, by means of a tunnel 30 feet in width and IG in height, with
the inner basin and pent. From this reservoir, five new sluices, seven feet
in diameter, lead to the extremity of the pier-head ; and from the powerful
volume of water thus discharged, and the impetus acquired by the proximity
of the reservoir, it has generally been found sufficient, with tlie assistance of
the sluices in the cross wall, between the basin and outer harbour, to remove
the shingle from the |)ier-head, and keep the channel clear to a level below
that of tlie harbour's Iiottom.

We have been informed that since the constnietioii of this work until
January last, no instance occurred of Her Majesty's steam-packets being pre-
vented from entering the harboiu- at tide-time, in consequence of the bar.
But during the violent gales which took place in the latter end of the month
of January and beginning of February in this year (18J0), the Government
packets were ordereil to proceed to the Downs, to avoid the liability of being
shut into the biubour hy an accumulation of shingle and the heavy sea at
the entiaiice. 'i'hcie were, however, but three days during which vessels
were actually excluded.

It should he observed that these sluices, though efficacious to a certain
extent, are not capable of removing the obstruction altogether. The force
of the water, which at its exit iroiii the culverts is very great, loses its im-
petus as it spreads over a larger surface, and forces the shingle to a com-
paratively small distance, where it is Uable to form banks beyond the power
of the sluices.

With regard to the improvements ■which might be made to this harbour, it
apjicars to us that the general enlargement of the harbour, the inner basin
and pent, and the widening of the internal coninumications, would be most
desirable, as well as the extension of the stone groin, called Cheeseman's
Head, on the western side of the harbour's entrance. But these suggestions,
so far as reg.irds the entrances, will be much modified in the event of a har-
bour of refuge being constnicted at this place.

\ arious plans and suggestions for the imjirovemcnt of the present, as well
as for the formation of a new harbour, were submitted to us by Colonel
Williams, lieutenant Wortliington, Mr. JetTcry, Mr. Stuart, Mr. Tait, Captain
Meriton, and several other gentlemen ; but as we shall have occasion to re-
Commend a ))lan for the atlainment of the objects of our inquiry, in the sub-
sequent part of this report, we do not consider it necessary to enter into the
details of these propositions.

The liarbour-master and other officers gf Dover, and pilgts bclongius to

this, as well as to the other Cinque Ports, waited upon us by order of his
Grace the Lord Warden, and gave us any information we required.

The haliour is managed by commissioners, of whom the Lord Warden is
cbairnian, e.c officio.

Foliatone.

From Dover we proceeded to Folkstone. This harbour was constructed
under an Act of Parliament in 1809, by a joint-stock coiniiany, to whom the
projierty belongs, but at present it is in the hands of the Exchequer Bills Loan
Commissioners.

The harbour, wliieh is entirely artificial, is formed by rubble-stone piers,
and encloses an area of 14 acres. The western arm extends in a south-south-
west direction 140 yards across the beach, and is united with the main pier,
which is carried in a straight line east and hy south about 317 yards. A
projecting pier has since been run out from the shore, on the eastern side,
towards the south-west, 230 yards, leaving an entrance of 123 feet in width,
open to the east and hy south.

A groin has been constructed near the eastern extremity of the main pier,
which extends at right angles 130 feet seaward, for the purpose of preventing
the shingle from obstructing the harbour's mouth. This, however, has not
overcome the evil ; for the shingle having accumulated along the southern
side of the main pier to the Une of extension of the horn, finds its way round
the extremity, and creates a bar nearly across the entrance.

The rise of spring tides averages about 18 to 20 feet, and neap tides from
12 to 14 feet, hut the harbour is left dry at low water; and the greater part
of the interior is blocked up by a bank of shingle rising to the height of
several {feet above high water, and leaving only a channel of inconsiderable
width along the side of the main pier.

A small stream is pent up at the north-western side of the harbour, for the
purpose of scouring at low water; and with the assistance of manual labour,
in addition to this very inadequate backwater, the channel is kept open so as
to allow vessels of 10 to 12 feet draught to come alongside of the main pier
at the top of high water.

This harbour, in its present form, is not capable by any improvements of
being made available for the purposes of our inquu'y, and we do not consider
the situation eligible for the construction of a deep-water harbour.

From Folkstone we proceeded to Hytlie, and inspected the coast to Dunge-
ness. No barhoius at present exist between these places, and from the nature
of the coast, the situation is inapplicable for their formation ; but several
plans having been sulmiitted to us for the construction of a harbour at Dunge-
iiess, we landed for the purpose of examining the beach, and ascertaining the
practicabiUty or otherwise of the propositions.

Vice-Admiral Sir Edward Owen, in a commimication which he subsequently
addressed to the Committee, stated, that " during the late war, when the
presence of the flotilla and the encampment of troops on the opposite coast
demanded unceasing vigilance, and the employment of many armed cruisers
of the smallest description, the ineonvenience of sending these vessels to
Sheerness for the piuposes of trivial rcjiairs, and payment of the men, &c.,
was greatly felt, both in the loss of their immediate services, and from the
interruption to the more regular and important airangemcuts of defence ; and
Dimgeuess being then considered the rendezvous of greatest moment, lie con-
templated the formation of a basin within the shingle, in a position between
No. 2 battery on the east, and No. 4 battery on the west, with an outlet on
either side, by which vessels might enter or put to sea when their services
were required."

The propositions submitted to us hy Mr. Potter and Mr. Douglass were of
a similar nature ; and there can be little doubt, from the prominent position
of this extensive point of land, and the anchorage it aflfords to vessels on either
side, according to the direction of the wind, that the situation is desuablefor
a harbour.

The shore at the southern extremity is extremely steep, and descends at
once into deep water ; but the whole promontory consists of vast accunnUa-
tion of shingle, constantly increasing and extending scaw ard ; and were a
basin to be constnicted in the centre, the entrances on either side would
speedily he choked up, and, in our opinion, no scouring power would be able
to keep the channels clear below the level of low water. However desirable,
therefore, the construction of a deep-water harbour may be in this situation,
the physical obstacles to its formation and maintenance appear to us to render
the scheme impracticable.

In corroboration of this opinion, and the constant motion and increase of
shingle, it is worthy of remark, that the site of the present lighthouse, when
first erected in 1792, was only 100 yards from the sea, and now, in the lapse
of 47 years, the beach has extended 118 yards to the southward, leaving the
lighthouse 218 yards inland.

The former lighthouse, which was ])ulled down when the present one was
completed, was at that time upwards of 640 yai'ds from the extremity of the
Ness.

liye.

Rye, which Was the next harbour we visited in our progress round the
coast, is situated in the liight of the bay formed hy Fairlight Head, on the
western side, and Dungencss on the eastern. The harboiu' is formed in the
channel of the river Rother, at the point where it enters the sea, after re
eeiving the waters of the TilUngham and the Bride, two small rivers which

uoite with it mk the tgwu of Bye. A wooden pier of piles Jias been con.

1840.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL

239

stnicted on the eastern side, and emliankments have been thrown up on the
western side, leaving an entrance between of 160 feet in widtli.

The average rise of springtides is about 17 feet, and during neap tides
from 9 to 12 feet at the pier-liead, whilst the lift in the bay is 22 feet. At
low water the liarljour is left dry.

The deptli of the channel up the river decreases gradually to the town,
where tliere is 14 feet water at the top of spring tides, l)ut during neaps
seldom aliove nine feet.

T!ie approach from the bay to the entrance of the harbour is veiy intricate
aiul difficult, especially to sailing vessels, arising from the sandbanks and the
tortuous course of the channel.

The shingle, which extends on both sides of the harbour's moutli, is ac-
cumulated at the entrance with winds either fi-om the westward or eastward
of south, and forms banks on either side (according to the prevalence of the
wind), which, in combination with sand, serve to block out the sea, and ren-
der tlie channel crooked and uncertain.

There can be no doubt that these natural causes have mainly contributed
(o the deterioration of this port, formerly of greater capacity, and a place of
importance ; but at the same time it should be observed, that the encroach-
ments which have been made fi'om time to time on tlie original extent of the
river, have proved a powerful cause of injuiT. Individuals interested in the
maintenance and improvement of the harboiu: are fully aware of this fact, and
the contests wliich arise on the subject of drainage, between the landowners
and those concerned in the navigation of the river, have become a fruitful
source of litigation. Extensive low lands over which the river formerly flowed
at high water, have been reclaimed for the puri)oses of agriculture, and the
powerful backwater which was thereby acquired, and operated as a scour dur-
ing the ebb to clear the channel and keep the entrance open, has been dimi-
nished, and at the present moment is almost destroyed, by the erection of
sluice-gates across the river, a little distance above the town, for the purposes
of draining the lands at low water, and of preventing the flow of water up its
natural channel, which, if not thus obstructed, would again inundate the lands
below the level of high water.

No cause has operated more extensively to injure the entrances of harbours
of this country, than excluding the tidal waters from lands below the level of
high water, which served as natural reservoirs at flood tide, and were the
means of affording a powerful discharge during the ebb. The portion of the
river between the embankments formed for the purpose of excluding the high
water, is often benefited by the contraction of the channel, and the consequent
acceleration of the cmTcnt, but the communication with the sea below such
embankments is injured, and nothing more deserves the vigilant attention of
Gnvernnient, or of the parties entrusted with the conservancy of harboiu-s,
than tlie suliject of encroachments, which are usually made gradually and
silently, as dictated by private interest, and are diflicult afterwards to remove.

At the present moment a stone wall is in progress of erection from the
eastern pier-head, and is intended to be carried out as far as low water, across
the extensive flats which form the bar at the entrance, in a south-half-east
direction, liy this means the water, which on its exit from the harbour
S])reads over the sandbanks and forms a crooked passage as it meets with
obstructions, and is deflected from side to side, will be directed in a straight
line ; and there can be no doubt that the continuation and completion of this
stone groin will render the navigation of the entrance less difficult, and at the
same time enable vessels of greater draught of water than at present to enter
at tide-time.

By straightening and deepening the channel up to tlie wharfs or quays at
the town, a considerable improvement may also be eflteted ; but from the
limited means at the disposal of the commissioners, it will necessarily take a
long time to complete these works.

Hastings.

No harbour at present exists between Rye and Newhaven ; but the con-
struction of one at Hastings ha\ing been frequently contemplated, we visited
that town. The mayor and other gentlemen of the ))lace attended, and laid
before us several plans which had been prepared for the purpose; and Colonel
Williams, late of the Royal Engineers, afforded us much information, together
with his suggestions on the subject.

^f e do not, however, consider it necessaiy to enter into the particulars of
these plans, as a few remarks will show the unfavourable nature of the situa-
tion for the objects of our inquiry.

The coast runs, with little deviation, in a straight line, nearly east and by
south, and west and by north, and is entirely exposed to the prevailing
southerly and westerly winds. There is no natural backwater, northefaciUty
of making an artificial one to any useful extent ; the sliore composed of shingle,
and not above four fathoms water at a thstance of three quarters of a mile
from the beach, which would give but a limited area of 12 feet water (at low
water), in proportion to the size of the harbour, were piers to be carried out
to such an extent.

A small tidal harbour for the use of trading vessels, &c. would, no doubt,
be a valuable adjunct to the town and neighbourhood, but we do not consider
the situation adapted for any national work.

Cuxmere Haven,

At Cuxmere Haven, which is situated on the western side of Beachy Head,
there is no artificial harbour. The shingle beach crosses the entrance and
rises several feet above low water, and the interior of the haven is ieft dry at

tliree-quarters ebb. We did not consiilcr it necessarj' to land at this place,
but proceeded round the coast to Newhaven.

NewJtaven.

The harbour of Newhaven is formed in the channel of the river Ouse, at its
entrance into the sea, by wooden piers carried out in a southerly direction
across the beach. The river is navigable as far as the town of Lewes, and
open to the flow and ebb of the tide for four miles further up the stream, or
twelve miles altogether, and affords a powcrt'id backwater for scouring the
entrance.

The average rise of spring tide at the harbour's month is from 1!) to 20
feet, and of neap tides about 1 4 to 15 feet. The bar, however, is left dry at
low water spring tides, but within the piers there is about two feet water at
such times, and this depth conttnues uniform for a mile up the channel.

The distance between the jiicr-heads is only 106 feet. On the western
side of the liarbour, the wooden pier, which extends about 250 yards, lias
been continued inwards by a stone embankment nearly three-quarters of a
mile in a straight line ; and the bar, which formerly extended from the western
side nearly across the month of the harbour, has been considerably reduced
since the coin])letion of this work, the extension of the eastern pier, and other
improvements which have of late been made in straightening and deepening
the river above the town.

During the flood-fide and fine weather the harbour is easy of access, from
the indraught and eddy-tide which set towards the mouth ; but from the
rapidity of the stream during the ebb, it is not considered safe for a sailing
vessel to enter, and the flag at the pier-head is in consequence lowered at
high water.

This harbour appears to be one of considerable value, and to possess facili-
ties for further improvements ; and there can be little doubt that an additional
depth of water might be obtained by the adoption of judicious measures.

The observations we had occasion to make on the subject of encroachments,
when treating of Rye, are equally applicable to this harbour ; but great care
should be obsened, in sfraightcning the river, to exclude the waters only
from such places as afford a loose soil and serve to slit up the channel.

The piers at present only extend to the line of low water on the beach ;
and to render the harbour more availalile, it would be advisable to continue
them some distance into the sea, and at the same time, by deepening and en-
larging the river above the harbour, a larger body of water would flow up at
tide-time, and give a commensurate discharge on the ebb. A dock or pent
might be constructed on the low groninl on the western side, between tlie
entrance and the town, calleil Sleeper's Hole ; and a groin extended from
Burrow Head into the sea, would facilitate tlie ingress and egress of vessels,
by protecting the harbour's mouth from the swell occasioned by south-wes-
terly winds, and serve to keep oft" the approach of shingle to the entrance.
The expense, however, of these works cannot he stated without previous
minute surveys, &c.

The harbour is managed hj trustees.

Shoreham.

Slioreham,at the mouth of the river Adur, was the next harbour we visited.

The river, which formerly entered the sea nearly at right angles with the
line of coast, has been gradually diverted from its original exit by the shingle,
which constantly travels from the westward, and until a few years ago flowed
along the shore in an easterly direction for three or four miles, before it at
length found its way througli the shingle bank info the sea.

■This accumulation of shingle, consolidated by the alluvial deposit from the
river, now forms an embankment between the river and the sea,'Tarying from
200 to upwards of .'500 yards in width ; and an area of considerable extent is
left within, into which the sea flows.

The entrance which existed at the eastern extremity of this estuary, once
the river's month, has been blocked up, and an artificial channel has been cut
through the sliingle eniliankment about a mile from the town of Shoreham.
This opening is preserved by wooden jiiers (formed of piles), 218 feet apart,
which run in a south-south-west direction across the shingle into the sea.
Within this entrance a third jiicr has been built out from the shore nearly
across the harbour, for the purpose of directhig the waters on the ebb, from
the eastern and western sides of the inlet, directly to the mouth. The great
body of water which thus ebbs and flows through the entrance serves to keep
the channel open ; and though the width is so considerable, the stream nms
between the pier-heads at the rate of five or six miles an hour. The har-
bour's mouth is nevertheless subject to a hai-, which rises occasionally above
the low water level, and shifts its position from 60 to 160 feet from the pier-
heads.

The lift of spring tides is about 15 feet, and neaps about nine feet. The
depth of water over the bar at high water is from 1 4 to 1 7 feet, according to
the tides and state of the bar.

From its proximity to Brighton, this harbour is of importance to the local
trade. AVe were informed that upwards of a thousand vessels enter annually.
It is capable of improvements ; the most obvious of which are, the extension
of the present piers and the filling in of their centres with rubble, which are
now partly open, and admit the shingle into the entrance.

The interior of the harbour might, at the same time, be deepened and gene-
rally improved, but we do not consider it capable of being converted into a
deep-water harbour for the purposes pointed out by their Lordships.

The harbour is the property of a joint-stock company, established by Act
of Farliameut.

240

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[July,

Litttfhampton.

Littleliainpton, which is tlie next harbour on the coast, is formcil bv the
channel of tlie river Arnn, wliich is led in a southerly direction into the sea,
between two piers, composed of piles, with an extension of dicker-work.

The ile))tli of water in the entrance between the piers is two to three feet
below the level of low water, but a bar extends outside the dicker-work, across
the niuulli, which rises about two feet above the general surface, and is left
dry at low water.

The lift of average sjiring tides about IC feet, ami of neaps 11 feet.

The larger vessels which enter usually reniaiu near (he river's mouth, at
Liltlehampton; but a vessel of 13 feet drangbt, wbeu she has passed the bar,
can jnoceed to Arundel Bridge, a distance of six miles, the bottom continuing
of an uniform level throughout that extent.

The tide flows nearly 25 nules up the river, but the backwater thereby
afforded proves of little value, in consequence of the narrowness of the channel
and the sluggishness of (he stream. It is scarcely necessary to add, that the
harbour is not available for the objects of our inquiry, and the sboalness of
the water on this part of the coast renders the situation inapplicable for any
national undertaking.

The harbour is under the management of trustees.

Pagham..

Pagham was the last place we examined ; it consists of low ground of very
considerable extent, over which the tide flows at higli water, and is entered
by a crooked channel which coiitinues some distance inland ; vessels of 40
tons and under, with coals or niamire, are the only traders to the place.

There is no artilicial harbour, and the situation is not deserving of at-
tention.

Gknehal Remarks.

Having now completed our remarks on the state and capabilities of tlie
existing harbours, &c., it is evident that there is no port at the present mo-
ment Ijetween Sheerness .ind Selsea Bill which can be considered an available
harbour of refuge at all times of tide, or that possesses the capability of
being rendered efficient for such a purpose, by any improvements or altera-
tions which coidd be made.

We proceed, therefore, in conformity with their Lordships' instructions, to
point out the situations which, in our opinion, are best calculated for stations
for armed steam-vessels iluring war ; anil the works necessary to render them
available for such a purjiose, .and at the same time to combine all the objects
for which refuge harbours are so nuieh required for the security of shipping
navigating this part of the Chainiel.

We are decidedly of opinion that deep-watei- harbours on this part of the
coast must be formed in the sea by means of lu-eakwaters detached from the
main land, on the same jirinciple as that in I'lymoutb Sound, or connected
with the shore by ))iers similar to the harbour at Kingstown, near Dublin.

The situation which apjiears to us to be of the greatest importance, and at
the same time offers the most eligible position for a deep-water harbour, is
Dover Bay. Independently of its jiroximity to the Continent, this bay pos-
sesses considerable advantages : the depth of water at 400 yards from the
shore, is two fathoms at low water of sjiring tides, and but 'six fathoms at
1,100 yards; which therefore affords a sufficient width for the construction
of a capacious dccp-watcr harbour, without getting into such a depth for the
site of the piers or breakwater as would add greatly to the expense of the
works. The jirincipal feat\ue of the proposed plan is a breakwater, .at the
average distance of 1,000 yards from the shore, with piers projected from
the hind towards its eastern and western ends, leaving one or more entrances,
as shown on the plan. Fig. 1, at A, li, and C.

These piers and breakwaters to consist of large blocks of the hardest chalk
rock, with a thick covering of stone, either granite or hard limestone.

The space between the piers, or length of the harbour, as shown upon the
)dan. is 2,,'SOO yards, and the area enclosed would comprise 4.''iO acres,''- of
which 320 would have from six to two fathoms at low water, and 130 acres
under two fathoms. The breakwater may be connected with the east and
west piers, and have but one entrance in the middle (C), GOO or 700 feet in
width ; or it may be detached from the piers, so as to leave an entrance (A)
iieariy ojiposite the present harbour, and another opening (li) at the eastern
end.

The advantages of two entrances, one at the eastern and the other at the
western end, instead of one only in the centre, would be that vessels might
enter or leave the harbour with the wind from any quarter, and a ready ac-
i-ess be afforded to the mouth of the present harbour from the western en-
trance, witliout passing through the centre of the new harbour.

On the other hand, one entrance in the middle would have the advantage
of rendering the interior of the harbour in some degree quieter than with two
entrances.

On consideration of the subject, our opinion is in favour of the two en-
trances at the east and west ends ; but the decision of the question need not
delay or interfeie with the execution of the work, as it might be proceeded
with along its whole extent (with the exception of the entrances), and the
result of the advantages, or otherwise, be tested by actual observation.

As a second place for a harbour of refuge, we recommend the bight to the
eastward of Beacliy Head and westward of Langley Point, and the formation

Kingston Harbour is 220 acres.

there of a detached breakwater curved or in kauts, the main bodv running
nearly parallel with tlie shore, leaving entrances to the eastward and west-
ward, to enable vessels to sail out or in with any wind (I'ig. 2).

There is a siitKcient depth of water near the shore, and but a small in-
crease of de]ith for a considerable way out ; affording a large harbour space,
and facility for the formation of the neeessaiy works. Looking at the locality
as nearly equidistant from the South I'oreland on the ea»t, and the harbours
and anchorages within the Isle of Wight on the west, and to its relative
position with many harbours on the opposite shore ; also to its proximity to
the elevated prinnoirtory of licachy Head ; we think it offers important ad-
vantages, both as an asylum harbour and station for armed steam-vessels.

The breakwater, if built in five fathoms water, and one mile from the
shore, would give a width of about half a mile, having in no jiart less than
two fathoms dejith at low water ; the area of course depending on the length.

One and a half mile of breakwater, including the arms, would give shelter
over 450 acres of surface.

The tliird <nnd last situation we recommend for a harbour of refuge, is
under the chalk cliffs to the eastward of Margate. The Chalk Bank and
Longnose Spit stretch out to the north-east from Koreness Point : upon this
site we propose a pier to commence at the shore, and to be extended 1,000
yards clear in a north-north-east direction ; thence to turn west-north-west
for a length of 2,000 yards ; terminating in a round end, to form the northern
head of the entrance. The western pier to be carried out from the shore in
nearly a north-east direction, and be the same length as the east pier.

This would enclose a harbour of 4C0 acres, of which 352 acres would be
not less than two fathoms, increasing to six fathoms, and 108 acres would be
under two fathoms at low water.

Tlie entrance opening in a noith-wcstcrly direction would receire the pro-
tection of Margate Sand, and an opening in a west-north-west bearing would
also permit vessels to sail in with winds from the south round westward to
north-east, and out with winds from the north rounil eastward and southward
to south-west. And in extreme cases, when the harbour could not be entered
by sailing vessels, shelter would be given them under, or to the eastward or
westward of it.

The construction would be, as at Dover, a core of chalk blocks from the
adjoining rocks, faced with stone.

The advantages of this sifu.ation will be ajiparent when it is remembered
that our eastern coast is literally without shelter from easterly winds for ves-
sels of any magnitude.

A harbour off Foreness must, therefore, be regarded as one of refuge for
vessels stationed in the North Sea, and would more particularly have reference
to every thing connected with the opposite jiorts eastward of Calais.

For the mercantile marine, esjiecially, navigating the northern part of the
English Channel, the situation would be most desirable ; inasmuch as vessels
bound to the westward from the river Thames or the North Sea, arriving off
the North Foreland, and then finding the wind strong from the southward and
westward, would, in order to avoid anchoring in the Downs, and the liability
to accidents which so frequently occur there in south-westerly gales, gladly
avail themselves of the shelter which this harbour would afford.

To vessels, also, caught in the Downs by tempestuous weather, or having
received damage, a harbour off Foreness, accessible at all times of tide, would
prove an invaluable asylum, where heavily-laden ships would escape the danger
of grounding ; and a considerable fleet of such vessels would lie in perfect
security from storms or an enemy, until a change of wind would enable them
to i>roceed down Channel.

Similar advantages would be experienced during easterly winds, by vessels
from the westward, bound to ports upon the east coast ; whilst to steam-
vessels the harbour would be accessible iu all winds and weather.

The cost of each of the three harbours of refuge we have recommended,
may be taken as nearly equal ; none of them less than .t'2,000,000 sterling,
nor much exceeding that sum. An addition of a quarter of a mile to the
length, would give an increased area of 100 acres, and would add about
--t:300,000 to the estimated expense of each harbour.

We have not considered it necessary to enter into any details as to the de-
fences which might be required to these places of refuge, but there can be no
doubt of the ])racticability of rendering them secure.

The introduction of steam navigation will render a rapid communication
along the coast an object of far greater importance than heretofore ; and we
consider that railways along the coast, on each side of Dover, may be made
extremely useful in sending support in the shortest possible time to any point
where the presence of troops may be required.

We have, &e.

James A. Gordon, Rear-Admiral.

Alkx. T. E. Vidal, Captain.

RoiiERT Thomson, Lieut. -Col. R. E.

Richard Drew, Elder Brother of Trinity-house.

J. Walker,

W. CUBITT,

30M May 1840.

(Signed)

"' I Civil Enginers.

1S40.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

241

RAILWAY COMMUNICATION WITH SCOTLAND.

Second Report of Lieut. -Culouel Sir Frederic Smith, of the Royal Engineers,
n lid Professor Harloir, to tlie Lords of the Treasurij, in pursuance of t lie
Addresses of the House of Commons, of the \ith and 'lath Auyust, 1839.

Railwni/ Committee Office,
5, Co?nmittee Room, House of Commons,
May 10, 1810.

Sir — The instiiictions of the Lonls Coiiiinissioncrs of tlie Treasury, com-
municated to us ill your letter of tlie 26th Noveuiber, 1H.'59, having chrected
that we should examine and report niiou the surveyed and projected lines for
a railway coniniuiiieatiou lictweeii London and the cities of Edinlnirgh and
filasgow, in confornuty with the address of tlie Ilonse of Commons, dated
the lull of August. 18150, we entered upon tliis inquiry immediately on re-
ceiving from the promoters of these lines the documents which had been
]irepared for the investigation.

The address to which we liave referred prays " tliat her Majesty w ill he
pleased to give dueetious that an engineer, or engineers, may be apjiointed to
to iu([iiire and report upon the relative merits, and the preference which
ought to be given to the respective already surveyed and projected railways
between London and the cities of Edinburgh and Glasgow, following, namely,
via York, Newcastle-ujion-Tyiie, and Berwick; via York, Newcastle-upon-
Tyne, and llexbaiu; via Lancaster, Wlutehaven, and Carlisle; and via Lan-
caster, Penrith, and Carlisle ; and said inquiry and report to include the rela-
tive merits of the two lines, from London to York, by Derby and Rotherham,
aud by Cambridge and Lincoln."

The investigation entrusted to us divides itself into two branches ; the one
being the relative merits of the competing lines between London aud Edin-
burgh, and the other, of those projected lietwccn London and Glasgow.

Their lordships having granted an extension of time to the promoters of
certain lines north of tlie Carlisle and Newcastle Railway, for the jiurjiose of
enabling these pai'ties to render their surveys more coniplele, and some of
the documents necessary for testing the relative merits of the jiroposcd lines
of eoinmunicatioii from London to Newcastle not being ready for oiu- ex-
amination, we have devoted our attention principally to the subject of the
communication between London and Carlisle, and to the merits of the Cum-
berland railways, as regards their connexion with the western parts of Scot-
land, and the north of Irelaud, to which our attention is called by the address
of the House of Commons, dated the 20th August last, and we have now the
honour to report the result of our inquiries.

It ajipears tliat by the London and Birmingham, the Grand Junction, and
the North Union lines, the communication by railway is complete as fai* as
Preston, being a distance of 218 miles 51 chains, and we find that the Pres-
ton and Ijaneaster RaUway is in a state of gi'eat forwardness. When this
last-mentioned line shall be finished, the distance by railway from London to
Lancaster will be 2.38 miles 69 chains.*

Description of the comjieting Projects. — Three jirojects were laid before us
for the extension of this great trunk line to Scotland.

One from Lancaster, along the west coast of Cumberland, through White-
haven to Maryport, in order to join therailway now in jirogress between the
latter place and Carlisle.

Another from Lancaster by Kirkby Lonsdale, and the valley of the Lune
to Penrith, and from thence to Carbsle ; and a tlurd from Lancaster to Ken-
dal, and thence up the valley of Long Sleddale, and by Ilawes Water to
Penrith, to form a junction with the proposed railway from the last-men-
tioned place to Carlisle.

West Cumberland Coast line. — The documents respecting the Cumberland
coast line, delivered to us by the solicitors, Messrs. Haslam and Bischotf, and
the engineers, Messrs. Rastrick andllagne, are copies of their parliamentary
plan and section ; drawings descriptive of the proposed mode of forming the
embankments across Morccambe Bay, and the Duddcn Sands, and a general
plan of the country tbroiigh which the line would pass. AVe were also fur-
nished with a printed copy of a report on this project, liy the engineers, and
with a detailed estimate, formed by Mr. Hague, of the cost of the embanlt-
ments.

The whole of the drawings illustrative of this project have been prepared in
a very perfect and creditable manner, and have much facilitated our examina-
tion of the country.

Penrith and Carlisle line. — Mr. Larmer, the engineer, and Mr. Dixon, the
secretary to the provisional committee of a Company for forming a railway
from Carlisle to Penrith, supplied us with a section of this line, and a map of
the county, on which the proposed route is traced.

Lune line. — We may here observe, that if tlus railway should be formed, it
would be connected, at its southern terminus, with either of the inland lines
that may be established from Lancaster. Mr. Larmer not only surveyed and
projected the line from Carlisle to Penrith, but also that from Penrith to
Kirkby Lonsdale. The line from the last-named )ilace to Lancaster, we were
informed, was laid down by persons under the direction of Mr. Locke, but
the sections of the whole extent between Penrith and Lancaster, and tracing
of it on maps of Cumberland, Westmoreland, and Lancaster were placed be_

* If a line should be formed from Rugby to Staflbrd, or from Rugby to
Stone, the distance ff ouW bs shurteneil by abgut eight miles,

fore us by Mr. Larmer, by whom we were also furnished with an estimate of
the cost of the entire distance from Lancaster to Carlisle, and a report
descriptive of this project.

Kendal line. — From Mr. Cornelius Nicholson, secretary to the provisional
conuuittee for the Kendal line, we received a section of this proposed rail-
wav, and a ma]i of Westmoreland and a part of Lancashire, on which the
direction of the line is traced. The sm-vey, as well as a gross estimate of the
cost of the line, were prepared by Mr. Bintley, of Kendal, by whom a report
respecting it was drawn up, which will be found in the appendix.*

In the course of our examination of the documents sulmiittcd to us, we
found that, with the exception of the dravrings and report of the coast line,
they were insufficient for the purpose of fairly testing the relative merits of
the several projects now under consideration, and we therefore called for
further information, not only as to their nieehanieal, but also as to their
statistical properties. This information having been in part supplied on the
18th February, we commenced on that day an examination of the country
through which tliese jirojeetcd railways would pass, and we shall now give a
general description of theu- principal features, beginnuig with the Cumberland
coast line.

Cumherland Coast line. — It is proposed that this railway shoidd commence
at the terminus of the Lancaster aud Preston Railway, and that, cuning round,
towards Skirton, it should first cross the Kendal Canal, and then the River
Lune ; the latter on a bridge, the arching of which is represented by Mr.
Rastrick to be 660 yards in length, and of Ihc extreme height of 67 feet above
the bed of the river. From Skirton the line is to proceed by Torrisholme to
the village of Poidtoii ; from hence it would be carried, in the direction of
Leonard's Point, in the peninsula of Low Fimiess, on a lofty embankment of
10 miles and h\ chains in lengili, to be constructed across the cstuaiy of
Morccambe Bay, into which the Kent, the Crake, and the Leven empty them-
selves. Through the peninsula the railway would have to be formed in aline
of double curvature, and in some deep cuttings in sandstone rock. It is also
jiroposed to form an embankment across the Duddcn Sands, from Ronhead
Crag to Ilodbarrow Point, a distance of one mile and 65 chains. These em-
bankments are understood to be the suggestions of Mr. Hague, whose plan
provides locks and fiood-gates for the rivers, the channels of which he pro-
poses to straighten and embank. It is here proper to state that the pro-
moters of thisline calculate upon reclaiming by the two embankments 52,000
acres of land, which they value at 23/. per acre, and they have therefore taken
credit for £1,196,000 in the estimate of this part of their project.

From Hodl)arrow the line would pass near Bootle to Ravenglass, through
a country presenting no engineering work of difficulty or great expense until
arriving at the River Esk, where a viaduct will be necessary of upwards of a
quarter of a mile in length, and of 23 feet in the extreme height, aiiproached.
bv an embankment of about a mile in length, and of the average height of 15
feet.

The line is to curve at Ravenglass, passing the rivers Esk and Mite, and to
take a direction towards the coast, crossing the river Calder at its month. It
is also to be earned over the river Ehen, and thence to keep along the shore,
requiring the occasional formation of enibanknients, between high .•'.nd low
water niark, to the valley of St. Bees. Here a curve is proposed towards the
north-east to unite with one bending towards the north-west, which would
bring the line, witli tolcralily easy work, to Whitehaven. It is proposed to
carry the railway through the whole lengtli of this town, on a series of arches,
which Mr. Rastrick's section shows to be of the extreme height of 27 feet,
and of the length of half a mile. On leaving Whitchaveu a tunnel of 1,320
yards in length would have to be cut through sandstone. The line is from
iienceto ]iass towards Harrington, along the coast, through some short, but
rather deep cuttings, and over four embankments, measuring altogether two
miles in length, and of the respective heights of 18, 23, 27, and 3t feet.

Mr. Rastrick's plan is to cross the upjicr end of the harbour of Harrington
by a bridge, which his section shows to be 120 yards long, and 27 feet high.
' From hence the line is intended to take the direction of Workington, and
to cross the harbour, as well as the Derwent river, ou bridges and embank-
ments.

From the Derwent to the terminus of the Maryport Railway, with which
Mr. Rastrick's line is proposed to be joined, the woi-k will be easy.

Ejpemive, or ohjectionable parts of the Cumberland Coast line. — The opera-
tions of an expensive, difficult, or objectionable character on the coast line,
which we have thus briefly descrilied, aie as follows : —

1 . The bridge over the river Lune.

2. The embankments across Moreeambe Bay and the Dudden Sands, with
the embankments to confine the courses of the rivers which empty themselves
into these estuaries.

3. The cuttings in rock tlu-ough Low Fiirness.

4. The viaducts and embankment across the rivers Esk and Mite, ando\er
the sands at Ravenglass.

" We must observe, that Ihc report omits to mention some of (he expensive
operations on this line, and but slightly notices other important works in-
volved ill Mr. Bintley 's project; and we cannot help expressing our surprise
that he should have stated that the proposed tunnel through the Gale.Scarth,
which Ihe highest geological authorities represent to be composed of green
slate and porphyry, could bo formed at the rate of £50.000 per mile, a sum
which is totally'inadcquatc to cover the cost of si) formi<lable an undertaking,
particularly as the summit is nearly I, '200 feet above the tunnel,

K2

242

TJIi: CIVIL ItlNGlNKEIl AND AllClllTECT'S JOURNAL.

[July,

J. The vcrv c.Nlfiisivc (Icniolitiou of Iiduscs at Wliiteliavcii, iuid the forma-
lioii of viailiict of half a mile in U'li;;;!! tlirougb thai town,
(i. Tlie tunnel to tlic north of Whilcliaven.

7. The ernssing of Harrington Harbour, and the i]iJMrj- wliieli wouUl there-
by bccanMiil lo tliat port, anil

8. The crossing of \\'orkingt.on harbour, and the Dervvent river.

To these njay be added, the stoppage of the Ulverstonc trade during the
formation of the river channels, and a part of the ilorecambc Bay enibank-
nicnl.

Altliongb eaeli of tliesc operations woidd be attended with considerable
expense, none of them jiresents what may be termed, great engineering ditti-
cnltics, excepting the enibanknients of Morecainle Bay, and the Dndrlen
Sands ; but the.se are Morl<s of an extraordinary charaelcr and magnitude, and
therefore rcipiire our particular notice.

Mor/'cniiihi' l'>ny Ewlinnkmctil. — The formation of an embankment of up-
wards of ten miles in le.igtb. across an estuary where the sea has been known
to rise 30 feet, and wliere in gales from the liortb-wcst to tlie south-west, it
rolls in with tremendous force, and with a rate of tide during the springs, of
more than four knots an lionr, may justly be termed a ])roject of a gigantic
ebfiracler, and will, if executed, reflect much credit on the engineer.

The mode in wbicli Jlr. Hague would form the eud)imkment is both novel
ami ingenious. {Vide Jnnrnol, Vol. i., p. 409).

The n.iode projioscd for forming the embankment across the Duddeu is the
same as that for Jlorccarube Bay.

In Mr. Hague's report, (wbicli will be found in the Jottrml, Yo\. I. p. 410),
be slates that the total cost of forming the embankments and railway across
Morecandje liay and the Uuddcn .Sands, would amount to £.34 j,230'3.'.-. 4</.,
and of forming the new chanuels for the rivers which tlow into these
estuaries to 4)88,9(11 Gs., making a gross sum of .f 131,131 !).?. id.

Not being satisfied with this statement, we called for a detailed estimate,
which Mr. Hague aceordingly ]u'ei)ared for ns.

In this document tlie sum allowed for the embankments across the Bav is
.stated as .i'39.J,'lo3 Is. id., aud for the river cliannels ;f71,7.')8 ().«. 7d., mak-
ing a general total of .t'-lG7,21 1 l.s. 1 Id., which exceeds by .t'33,079 12.s. 7rf.,
the sum specified in Mr. Hague's first report.

On a careful examination of these documents it appeared to us that a
further detail was necessary, and we therefore requested additional informa-
tion in respect to the alteration of the river cliannels.

iTO'.n Mr. Hague's reply, which we received on the 23rd March, we find
that be estimates the cost of raising the soil from the jiroposed river courses
at only one-t!iird,of a ]icnny per cubic yard; and of raising, depositing, .iiid
forming it into the embankments at 2d. per cubic yard. Conceiving this
allowance to be inadcfpiate to defray the cost of the work, we considered it
jirojier to obtain the best information within our reach on this important item
of expense; and, on appbcatiou, we were supplied by the secretary* of the
Trinity Board with a statement of the average cost of working the' dredging
engine used by them in the Thames. These are of the same power as the
engines which j\lr. Hague proposes to use: and it appears that, independently
of the first outlay for the pnrehase of the vessel and machinery, the average
expense of raising the mud from the river and shooting it into the barges,
amounts to not less than Sd. per ton. Estimating the wiMght of a cubic yard
to be 1 l-.')th ton, the cost of removing the soil from the River Thames to
the barges only, according to the above statement, amounts to 3 3-5ths of a
jienny per cubic yard.

■\Ve have also been in communicaticn with 'the engineer -f- under whose
direction the improvements in the River Hart have recently been made, and
this gentleman has favoured ns with a statement, from wbiib it ajipcars that
the actual expenditure incurred in that work for dredging and ilcpositing
amounted lo W. jier tiui, or neariy 'id. per cubic yard.^ \Ve therefore feel
warranted coming to the conclusion that Mr. Hague's allowance of '.'</. ]icr
tubie yard, for dredghig and depositing .soil, in the formation of the river
conrscs within his proposed cmliankmcnt, is much too low, and that the
.smallest estimate that can be admitted for this work is :'i\d. ])er cubic yard.

This increase of l\d. jicr cubic yard would make the cost of the channels
amount to .1185,990 l.v. Id. : a sum which we are convinced would be fouml
barely suflieient for the purpose, the more especially as there are other items
in the estimate for the channels inscirtcd at inadequate |iriccs.

it is unnecesstiry for us, under all tbe circumstances of this impiiry, to go
into any great detail of the result of our examination of the estimates of tbe
endiankmeut ; but we must observe that an insiiflicieut allowance has been
made for the cost of some of t'ne items, and especially in respect to the mass
of stones jiroposcd to be jilaeed under the raihv.ay, in the centre of tbe eni-
bankmcnt.

Mr. Hague allows .i'.')0,0S9 I'.f. (id. for this item; but he lias so much
under-rated the tpumtity of stones that would be lucd, that without ailding
anytlung to (he price which he has allowed for this material, and which we
also think (oo low, we feel bound lo.add one-fourth to the above stated gross
simi, increasing it to .t02,G12 G.v. lOSrf.

We should also observe, that in Mr. Hague's estimate of the embankme-ts,
he has not only inserted very low, and, on some occasions, inailet|uatc |n-ices
for the ]n-uposed works, but he luis also given the mere net (piaiditics of ma-
terials and labour, allowing nothing for those contingencies wliicli, in all

* .bicob llerl ert, Ivu.
Mr. William Kiiigsfon.

great works, in>ariably arise. In an operation of the jicculiar and dillii;uit
character now under consideration, contending, as tbe engineer would ba\e
to do, with the rapid tide we have described as pouring into the bay, contin-
gencies beyond the ordinary jiroportion would be inevitable, and tbe least
allowance that could ])rudcntl\ be made for them would be 10 per cent.

It is slated by Mr. Hague tluil the ojieratious of the tide would suppl\'
G, 149, 379 out of the 10,l,').'i,78'i of cubic ;.artls of sand and silt reipiircfi for
bis embankments, and that when formed as ]iroposed, they will be water-
tight, without having recourse to the exiieusive operation of puddling.

We do not believe that these expectations would be realized; but even
admitting that this would he the ease, the minimum cost of the embank-
ment and channels, according to our opinion, would amount to .€193,97.'')
11.V. 9'//., and, with the addition of 10 per cent, for contingencies, tbe esti-
mate should not be stated at less than .t,')43,373 'li. ll{(/.,"bcing .€109,211
1 I.V. lid. more than the sum sjiceified in Mr. Hague's original report.

The projectors and promoters of the Morecambc Bay line appear, how-
ever, to entertain a confldent expectation of ctfecling their object at a cost
which would r(;nder the work highly advantageous in a pecuniary ]>oiut of
view, and, at the same time, most beneficial to this part of the country.

A very intelligent gentleman,* who is a land-owner at tbe upper jiart of
the hay, has made several experiments, with various kinds of grain, to test
the quality of the soil proposed to be enclosed; and based upon tbe results
he has thus obtained, he gives it as his decided ojiinion that it will be highly
productive.

It is now necessary to say a few words respecting the proposed operations
at \^'hitellaven and Han*ington.

Proponed oj/eratioiix at Jl'/iitr/mvpii. — We annex two sketches, showing
tbe line selected for the railway throu'gb those places. It will be seen, that
the intention is to take down houses in M'hitebaven to the extent of half a
mile in length, and to construct the proiiosed viaduct on the silcs which
these buildings occupy. It is true that, for the most part, they are of little
value; but, nevertheless, the compensation that would be claimed for them
would, in all ])robnhility, be considerable; and, should they become tlie sub-
ject of lirigation, the amount that would be .iwarded to the proprietors, and
the law expenees connected with this part of the work, would he found no
inconsiderable items in tbe cost of the railway.

As we have alreaily stated, it is intended to cross Harrington Harbour by
a viaduct.

y/ie crnsahir/ of >/ip Ilnrloiir at Harriitf/ton. — The whole extent of tbe
bariiour is only 7G2 feet in length, and 220 in breadth ; and, as it is used as
well for a jiort of refuge as of lading, and there is an insnttieiency of space
for vessels to anchor and swing in, an artificial beach has been formed at the
eastern or upper end, on which Ihey are enabled to bring up.

The proposed viaduct would cut otf about a third of the harbour. This
would not only be objectionable on account of its diminishing the capacity
of the port, but also by its dejiriving the shipping of- tlie artificial beach to
which we have just alluded. The olijection to curtailing tbe size of tbe
harbour will be apiiarcnt, when we state that the harbour-master supplied
us with a return (verified by the custom-house officer), by which we find
that, in the course of the last year, no fewer than 510 vessels used this port,
and that, during gales of wind, it was frequently so full that (hey were in
actual contact from side to side. After well considering this part of the
subject, we are of o]>inion, that whatever expense or other inconvenience it
nuglil cause, it would lie necessary to adopt some other mode of carrying
the railway past Harrington than that proposed.

I'Voni the t.ible of gi-adients it will be seen that the gradients of this hnc
are very favourable.

KXAMINATION' OF THK INLAND J.INHS.

r.'aniinafioii of ihp ]J,in from Vcnrith to Cnrlistr. — We shall now describe
tbe two inland lines, commencing witli the proposed railway from Penrith to
Carlisle, which is common to both projects.

In this line, which is .ibout 17' miles in length, no engineering difficulty
presents itself.

It would pass through or near the following places: Calthwaite, South-
waite, Biirro<'k, V.'reay, Brisco, and Upperby, to form a junction with the
Newcastle and Carlisle Railway at St. Nicholas.

Tlie greatest embankment in this distance would he about two miles in
length, and of an average licight of about IG feet, between Penrith .and the
I'eteril stream.

;Vt Sondiwaite, a cutting would be necessary of about three quarters of a
mile in length, averaging 20 feet in depth, in sand and clay.

Near Wreay, a heavy cutting is proposed, in sand and gravel. Its length
is about a mile, and its extreme depth 50 feet, the .average being 30.

K-rfiwivati'iu of tlir Uiic of the Linir, from Lancaster to Penritti. — We
shall proceed (o point out tbe course of tbe lines which are jiroposcjl to form
a junction w ith the i'enrith R.iilw.ay, and wc shall begin with tbe project of
the valley of the Lune, starting from. Lancaster.

It is intended Ih.it the terminus should be that of the Lancaster .ind Pres-
ton Railway, and that (be line should be carried in tbe direction of Kirkby
i.ousdale; a few miles lo the westward of Scdbergh; thence by Borrow
Bridge ami Orton, and through Crosby, Kavensworth, Ncwhy, Melkenthorp,
aiul Clifton, to Penrith.

Between Lancaster and Kirkby Lonsdale the prominent features of this

* Mr. James Stockdale, of Carke.

1840.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

243

line are, first, tlic crossing of the River Lune at tlie Crook, on a bridge of
GO feet ill licigiil, and consisting of tlirce arches of 50 feet span ; llien short
cuttings in gravel of 05 feet, and 50 feet in depth ; and near Kirkby Lons-
dale a cutting of a quarter of a mile in length, and of the extreme depth of
07 feet, in limestone.

From this spot to nearly ojiposite to Sedburgh, the only engineering work
requiring notice is the crossing of the Lune twice in the short distance of 1 5
chains.

.\t Borrow Bridge the Lune would have to be crossed on a bridge of about
48 feet in height, consisting of one arch of GO feet span ; and here an em-
bankment of nearly half a mile in length, and of the mean height of 20 feet,
would also be necessary. From hence to Orton the points deserving of re-
mark are the formation at Tebay of an embankment of lialf a mile in length,
and about 35 feet in height ; aud tlie crossing of the Lune on a bridge of
M feet in Keight, and about 200 feet in length.

From Tebay the line rises at the rate of 1 in 132, for upwards of three
miles to Orton Scar, the proposed summit, which is 650 feet above the Lan-
caster terminus.

In approaching this summit, where a timncl of abont 1 mile and 30 chains
would be requisite, there would be a cuttirig in rock of rather more than a
mile and a half in length, and averaging 48 feet in depth; the extreme
depth being 84 feet. On the northern side of the tunnel, another cutting in
the same material would occur, of about half a mile in length, averaging
36 feet, and of the extreme depth of 75 feet.

These two cuttings, aud the tunnel, which are in red sand-stone and lime-
stone, wouhl be the heanest and most expensive operations on this line.

The extreme height of the hill aliove t!ie tunnel is shown in Mr. Larmer's
section as being 322 feet, and this we have found to be con-ect, by a survey
made under onr directions, and to which we shall hereafter more particularly
allude.

Between the northern end of the tunnel and Crosby Ravensworth, the
railway would keep in the valley, in which Mr. Larmer proposes to cross a
mountain stream two or three times ; for this purpose bridges would be
necessary; but we ai'e of opinion that it would be better to change the
course of the stream, aud to form a proper embankment for the railway, to
keep it clear of the water during tloods.

At Crosby Ravensworth a bridge 44 feet high, and at Maids Jleaburii
another, 50 feet high, would be necessary, over two streams ; an embank-
ment would likewise be required at the latter place. At ilorland Bank there
would be an embankment of half a nnle in length, and of the extreme height
of 55 feet.

Between Newby and Melkeuthorj) a cutting in limestone, of a mile in
length, and of the extreme depth of 28 feet, would be requisite. At the last-
n.imed place the Leathe would have to be ])assed, on a bridge of GG feet in
height, with an arch of 50 feet span, approached by considerable embankments.
At Clifton there must be a cutting in sand, of about a ([uarter of a mile in
length, and averaging 30 feet in depth.

Between Clifton and Penrith, the Rivers Lowther and Eamont would have
to be crossed on bridges of 52 feet in height, and 200 yards in length.

Examination of the Kendal Line, from Lancaster to Penrith — It remains
for us to describe the Kendal line.

It is proposed that this line should form a junction with the Lancaster and
Preston Railway, at about 2 miles 54 chains from the terminus at the former
place ; that it should pass in a tunnel under the town of Lancaster, and then
by a stone bridge across the river Lune, near the ruins of the old bridge.

From this point it would pass the villages of Sline, Bolton, Carnfortb, and
Warton ; and thence crossing the Rivers Betha and Viver and the canal, it
would be carried to within about a mile of the town of Kendal.

The line would then be continued by a rather indirect course to the en-
trance of the valley of Long Sleddale, where it would cross the river Sprint.
It is intended that it should be carried to the upper end of this valley, where
a tunnel becomes necessary to pass through (iate Scarth. Issuing on the
north side of the hill, the railway would open on the valley of Mardale-green,
and after passing by another tunnel tluough Chapel Hill, be continued along
the western side of the lake of llawes ^Vater, surrounded by scenery of the
most beautiful and romantic character, as far as the village of Brampton.
From hence it would run for several miles nearly parallel to the course of the
River Lowther, as far as the village of Askham, where it would skirt the
park of Lowther Castle ; it would then have to cross the River Eamont, and
proceed direct to the proposed southern terminus of the Carlisle and Penrith
Railway.

The chief details of this line are as follow : —

The length of the tunnel proposed to be formed under the town of Lan-
caster is 13 chains ; the length of the bridge over the Lune is represented by
Mr. Bintley to be 400 feet, and its height 26 feet. Near Hestbank a tunnel
of eight chains in length is shown in ilr. Bintley's section, but it is believed
that this may be avoided.

No severe work would occur until nearly opposite to Carnfortb Lodge,
where there would be a cutting of half a mile in length, averaging 20 feet in
depth, followed by an embankment of about a mile and a quarter in length,
and 20 feet in mean height, having, about mid-way, a bridge over the River
Keer,

From hence towai-ds Burton there would be two cuttings through alluvial
soil and limestone ; the average depth being about 30 feet, and the total
ength something more than a mile.

Between the towns of Burton and Kendal the rivers Bctha ar.d Viver, as
well as the Lancaster and Kendal Canal, wouhl have to be crossed on bridges,
and a tunnel of 13 chains in length, and nearly half a mile of deep cutting in'
schistose rock, would be necessary.

From Kendal to the entrance of the proposed summit tunnel, Jlr. Bintley's
section shows the necessity of the following works ; and althuugli au inspec-
tion of the country led us to believe that t'lie line might, in some few in-
stances, be improved, we do not think that the alterations we suggested on
the spot are of sutficieut importance to be adverted to in this report.

There are two rock cuttings of the average depth of 30 feet, and measuring
together seven eighths of a mile in length ; then there is a viaihict of the
extreme height of 125 feet, aud IG chains in length; and in the following
order, a tunnel of 11 chains, another of 14; chains, then a cutting of three
quarters of a mile in length, and averaging 4"8 feet in height ; a viaduct 114
feet in extreme height, and 9 chains long, a cutting a quarter of a mile in
length, of the a\ erage depth of 30 feet ; an embankment also of a quarter of
a mile in length, and 45 feet in height ; again a cutting of the same length,
and 38 feet in dejith, an embankment half a mile in length, and 40 feet in
height, crossing tlie Sprint on a bridge ; and, finally, another cmliankmeut
of 25 chains in length, and 50 feet in height.

These cuttings are chielly in schistose rock. The River Sprint, which runs
through tlie valley of Long Sleddale, has a rather tortuous course ; and, as it
frequently crosses the line of the railway, some difficulties would necessarilv
arise in diverting the course of this river, as well as of the mountain stream's
which flow into it.

In connexion \vith the summit tunnel there is a cutting, the longitudinal
section of which is nearly of a triangular form, being three-quarters of a mile
in length, and G3 feet in extreme depth.

The length of the tunnel is shown on the section prepared by Mr. Bintley
as 2 miles aud 20 chains, aud as being 1200 feet under the summit of the
liiU through which it would have to lie pierced. On issuing from the tunnel,
on the nortli side of the hill, tlicre wouhl be a cutting of rather less than
a quarter of a mile in length, and about 40 feet in depth, and then a short
tunnel of 20 chains, through Chapel Hill. It is stated by Mr. Bintley, that
these cuttings and tunnels would'be in rock of the clay slate formation.

The Rev. A. Sedgwick, who has very minutely examined this district, re-
presents it as being composed of green slate and porphyry, which he con-
ceived to have been elevated by the protrusion of mountain granite and
syenite.*

Beyond the short tunnel there would be an embankment of about a mile
ill length, and aljoiit 28 feet in height. From hence, passing by Brainptou
and Hilton, there is nothing of importance to notice until arriving at Ask-
ham, where a cutting would be reqiusite, in rock of the grawacke formation,
of IJ mile in length, and averaging 25 feet in dejith.

Between Askham aud Penrith there is no work of consequence, excepting
the bridge across the Eamont, which would require to be 85 feet in height,
and 200 feet in length.

Operation!: of an e.rpensii'e or difficult character on the Kendal Line. — The
engineering ditticulties, or works of a very expensive character on the Kendal
line, arc as follows: —

1st. The tunnel under the town of Lancaster.
2nd. The bridge over the Lune.
3rd. The works in the valley of Long Sleddale ; and,
4th. The summit tunnel.

The tunnel under the town, although only 13 chains in length, would he
expensive, and might give rise to some opposition on the part of the in-
habitants.

It is proposed to build the bridge for the railway over the Lune at the
point where the old bridge formerly stood, and where the river makes aii
elbow towards the southern shore. In order to diminish the cost of the
work, by avoiding the necessity of using coft'cr-dams, Mr. Bintley proposes
to construct the bridge on the shore, opposite to Lancaster, and afterwards
to divert the course of the river, so tliat it may flow through the arches of
the proposed bridge, and he would then fill u]) tlie present bed of the river,
and form an embankment across it.

The operations in the valley of Long Sleddale would require to be managed
with much care and dexterity, for owing to its narrowness, and the space
required for the railway embankments, the ])resent courses of the River
Sprin:, and of its tributary streams, would be much interrupted.

However, all these matters are of but little moment in coniparison with
the great work of this line, the summit tunnel.

Summit Tanne: on the Kendal Line. — We have before remarked that this
tunnel is pro))Osed to be 2J miles in lengtli, and to be approached on the
south through a cutting of three quarters of a mile in length, and on the
north by a tunnel of one quarter of a mile in length, and a cutting of nearly
the same extent, making a total length of nearly 'ih miles of very severe
work.

Comparison of the Lines. — Having now described, in sufficient detail, the
principal features, as far as regards construction, of the three competing
lines, we shall proceed to consider their defects and advantages, in order tu
decide upon their relative merits.

In the two inland lines, which we shall first compare together, the most
striking defects are, obviously, their summit tunnels. * *

* Trans. Geological Society, 2nd Series, vol. 4. p. 67.

2 K 2

44

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[July,

Observations on the mecUanicul properties of the t/iree competing Lines. —
Coast Line. — ReferriRg now to the mechanical jiropcrtics of these lines, it
ppcars tliat the length of railroail to be executed on the coa.st line, between
the tci'niinus of the Preston and Lancaster railway at Lancaster, and the
Jlaiyport railway, amounts to 06 miles 12 chains, and that the h'ngth of the
Maryimrl and Carlisle Uailway, which is now in progress, is 2H miles 3 chains,
maliiiig tlic whole distance between Lancaster and Carlisle 94 miles -15 chains ;
the gradients being of a favourable description.

Lnne Line. — By the iidand line of the valley of the Luue, Orton, and Pen-
rith, the wliole distance between Lancaster and Carlisle is OS miles 48 chains ;
but the gradients .ire less favourable than those of tlic coast line.

Kendal line.— By the other inland line via Kendal, the distance between
the termini at Lancaster and Carlisle is only 04 miles 34 chains ; but as this
line enters Lancaster on a different level from the terminus of the Preston
and Lancaster railway, it does not form a junction with that line till it has
passed 2 miles .^) I chains farther on, towards Preston ; so that tlie whole
length'ofnew line to be executed on this route will amount to 07 miles 8
chains, the gradients being somewhat less favourable than on the line of the
Lune.

In order to make a comparison of tlie mechanical advantages and disad-
vantages of these lines, we have reduced several gradients to eijuivaleut hori-
zontal distances.

The principle of this reduction may be briefly stated as follows.

Eaplonafion of the term er/tiiralmt horizontal ilisfance. — There is always
an increased trarlive power required to ascend a plaric beyond that which is
reipusite on a level, and therefoi'e (the engine being the same) a certain
amomit of additional time is required in the ascent. This additional time
would allow the eug-ine to pass over a certain extent of horizontal distance
with the same load, aud this increase of distance may Ije taken as a measure
of the retarding effect of the ascending plane.

In desceniling the same plane, the tractive force and time requisite ai'eless
than on a horizontal plane, aud this eft'ect may therefore be indicated by a
iLorizoutal line shorter than the plane; but as there is always more time lost
in ascending than is gained iu descending any given plane, a loss is sustained
on the aggregate, and this whole effect may be expressed by an increased
length of line, greater or less according to the steepness of the plane and the
amount of the load, and this increased line is what has been denominated tlie
equivalent horizontal distance.*

This mode of reduction has been carefully applied to the several gradients
on each of the three lines now under consideration. \Ve fmd that the loeo-
jnotive power requisite to work the coast line of 94 miles .'i I chains, with a
gross load of 50 tons, is cciuivaleut to that which would work a horizontal
line of 98 miles 3 ! chains ; while the mean eqlnvalent distance, for the inland
line of the valley of the Lune, is 78 miles 1 chain; aud for the Kendal line,
between Lancaster aud Carlisle, 75 miles 9 chains. As far, therefore, as re-
gards the expense of locomotive power, the advantage is ranch in favour of
either of the inland lines, as compared with the coast line, while all the other
expenses are still more in their favoin-, these latter expenses being generally
proportional to the actual distance, such as police, stations, water stations,
road repairs, govermuent taxes, &p.

In order to ascertain the effect that this increased locomotive expense
woidd have on the general working expenses of the several lines, we have
examined with great care and attention the official returns of the principal
working railways, separating, as far as possible, the charges fur locomotive
power from the other charges ; and although we have found considerable
differences in the proportions, according to the prices of fuel aud other cir-
cumstances ; yet, upon the whole, it .ippears to be a fair average to assume
the locomotive expenses as amounting to one-third (or about 33 per cent.)
of the total working expenses of a line of railway of moderate traflic ; aud
since the equivalent distance on the inland lines is about one-sixth greater
than the actual distance, the additional locomotive charge due to the gradients
will amount to about l-18th, or six per cent, on the general expenses of the
line ; or estimating, as is usually done, the total exjienses at half tlie income,
to about three per cent, on the latter; which, if borne by the traveller, would
liave the effect of increasing his fare 4d., on either the Kendal or Lune line,
assuming the fare under ordinary circumsiances at 2il. per mile. At this rate
of charge, and making the addition of 4r/.oii the inland lines, the fare for the
journey between Lancaster and Carlisle would lie-
By the Coast line IS"- 9(/.

By the Lune line 11 7

By the Kendal line 10 11

In respect of time ; estimating the speed, including stoppages, at 22\ miles
per hour on the equivalent distances on the three lines, we find it to amount —

By the Coast line to 4h. 22m.

By the Lune line 3 28

By the Kendal line 3 20

It appears therefore, notwithstanding the mccliauieal disadvantages of the
gradients on the inland lines, as compared with those on the coast line, that
the expense to the traveller, as well as the time of performing his journey,
would he considerably greater on the latter line than on either of the former.

We have next examined the claims of the three lines as regards the amount
(If population, and present coach and mail traffic.

* See appendix to Barlow's treatise on the sirenglli of Inm, Ste.. and also
fart 3, vol. iii. of the Transactions of the Institute of Ci.vil Engineei-s.

The amount of popul.ition per mile has been found by diviihng the total
population within 10 miles on each side of the respective lines by tlic number
of miles, employing in each case the ceubusof 1831, aud the amount of coacli
traffic has been determined in the usual way, from returns supplied to us from
the stamp office.

We thus find — Population Passengers

per mile. per annum.

By the Coast line 1,923 8,040

By the Lune line 2,240 21,528

By the Kendal line 2,460 21,528

To bring these several results more immediately into one point of view, we
have collected and arranged them as in the following table : —

7'ni/p showimj l/ie Relative Properties of I tie projected Lines between
Lancaster and Carlisle.

Data.

Kondal
Line.

Lune
Line.

Coast
Line.

Length of line already made, or in progress . .

M. c.

67 8

64 34"

75 9

s. d.
10 11

H. M.

3 20
2.460

21,528r

M. c.

68 48
68 48

78 1

s. d.
11 7

11. M.

3 28
2.240

21,528t

M. C.

28 3
66 42

94 45

98 34

s. d.
15 9

11. M.

4 22
1,923

8,040

Leiiglh of line to be worked between Lancaster
and Carlisle

Locomotive power reijuisile to work each line,
expressed in equivalent honzoiital distances

Kxpcnses of journey, per passenger, at 2d. per
mile of actuaj distance, incUiding 4d. extra

Time on each line between Lancaster and Car-
lisle, at 20 miles per hour, of equivalent dis-

Poimlalion per mile in length, witliin a dis-
tance of ten miles of each line

Average number of passengers licensed to be
carried per annum, by mails and sfage-

It will he clear from an inspection of this table, that it would cost each
passenger between Lancaster and Carlisle about 4.s-. more on every journey
by the coast route than by either of the inland lines, besides the loss of nearly
one hoiu in time.

For these reasons, as far as regards the corainnnication between England
and Scotland, which is the great object of our impiiry, we consider it to he
our duty to give the preference to one of the inland lines.

As regards the communication between London aud Manchester, viii Car-
lisle, with Glasgow, there can be no question, from what has been stated, that
the preference ought to be given to one of the inland lines ; but it must also
be admitftd. that the coast line would offer greater facilities for comnmni-
cating with Belfast and the north of Ireland.

We have, however, to observe, that the harbour now forming at Fleet-
wood, which, by the Preston aud Wyre Uailway, will be put in comnnnii-
cation with Loudon, and Ihe manufacturing districts of Lancashire, appears
to us likely to form a good jioint of departure for the north of Ireland and
west of Scotland.

But the great (piestlon for consideration is, whether every passenger be-
tween Lancaster and Glasgow shall be compelled to spend 4x. or 5.s. and lose
one hour each journey by being taken round by Maryport, or whether the
Irish passenger shall incur the same increased exiieuse, aud .about the same
loss of time, by being taken rounil by Cailisle to Marj'port, to embark in the
Belfast steamer, siqiposing him to select this route in preference to that by
the Preston and M'yre Uailway to the Harbour of Fleetwood. Now, as such
steamer can only be supposed to make one or two passages per week, while
the trains between Lancaster and Csrlisle would probably ruii several times
|ier day, it would be exceedingly iirejudicial to the general public interest
that the whole of the Scotch traffic should be compelled to pass .iloug the
coast line. With regard to the statistical claims of the coast hue, it appears
from returns with which we have been furnished, of the assessed taxes along
this line, as well as of the exports and imports of the several harbours, the
steam-boat traffic, aud popidation, that these, .although considerable between
Carlisle and Whitehaven, are not so for the remaining 54 miles, viz., between
Whitehaven aud Laucaster, so that when divided upon the whole distance,
they are generally less per mile than on the inland lines.

Opinion as to the preference rrliich should be given. — From a full and care-
ful consideration of all the bearings of tlie case, we therefore feel it our duly
to reject the coast line, so far as regards its being made a hnk in the chain
of connexion between England and Scotland.

The next question is, the jneference which ought to be given to one of the
two projected inland lines.

Referring again to oiir table, it appears that the mechanical superiority,
although inconsiderable, is with the Kendal line, its equivalent distance
being 75 miles 9 chains, while that of tlic Lune line is 78 miles 1 chain.

' The Kendal line passes th( ' Lane;ister station to a junction with Ihe
Preston and Lincaster. 2 miles 54 chains nearer In Preston than Lancaster,
making the distance from Carlisle to i_,ancaster only ti4 miles 34 chains.

1 Kach of these numbers include the whole present mail and stage traffic
Ijetweeu Carlisle and Lancaster, via Pcniith.

1840.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

245

The statistical properties ai-e nearly the same on both lines, with the ex-
ception that the Lunc line would not take in its route the important and
thrivuig town of Kendal. The advantages this town would derive from the
near approach of a railway from the north would be considerable, particu-
larly from the facihty it would afford for obtaining coal, of which the con-
sumption is tliere represented to be large ; and reciprocally tlie railway would
derive an increase of its revenue by its connexion with this town.

It was evident to us in tlie coiu'se of our inspection of the countrj-, that
the engineering difficulties of that part of Mr. Bintley's line which extends
from Kendal to Mai'dale Green, would entitle the Liuie line to a preference,
and we therefore inquired whether it might not be practicable to connect the
two lines together by adopting Mr. Bintley's route from Lancaster to Kendal,
and Mr. Larner's fi"om Penrith down to Borrow Bridge, and by finding a
practicable line from the last named place to Kendal ; but Mr. Larmer stated
that such a line would be of too expensive a character to admit of this pro-
position being entertained. However, since our return to London, and in-
deed since this report has been drawn up, the provisional committee of the
Kendal line have requested us to receive and report upon a survey, recently
made by Mr. Larmer, to connect the lines of the Lune and Kent, nearly in
the manner al)ove described. Our instructions preclude us from acceding
to this request, but we have no hesitation in saying, that if a line has been
found which would aftbrd the advantage of a direct railway communication
to Kendal, witliout either materially increasing the cost of construction, or
tlie length of the line l)etween Lancaster and Carlisle, and which would be
free from other defects, it might be more beneficial to the public than the
Lune line. Tliis, however, is a suliject for future consideration, and in tlio
meanweile, keeping in view tlie general tenor of our instructions, the main
feature of wliich, in the present part of our inquiry, is that we should deter-
mine what, under all circumstances, would be the best means of establishing
a railway communication between London and the city of Glasgow, having
reference, also, to the interests of the manufacturing districts of Lancashire,
the western parts of Scotland, and the iiortli of Ireland, we feel bound, after
a careful anrl deliberate review of the advantages and disadvantages of the
three competing lines, to state that we give the preference to tlie line of the
valley of tlie Lune and renrith over tlio Kendal line, on account of the
greater engineering difficulties on the latter ; and that we also give the Lime
line a preference over tlie coast line, in consequence of its shortening tlie
time anil diminishing the cost of travelling to the greater proportion of pas-
sengers wlio would require to avail tliemselves of railway communication
north of Lancaster.

We have to remark that the line to which we have thus given a prefe-
rence, w ill require a smaller capital tlian either of the other lines ; for the
cost of its construction will lie less than tliat of either the Kendal or the
roast line; and it must lie liorne in mind that as respects the last, although
its promoters calculate upon a great return for their outlay, by the land to
be reclaimed in Morecanibe Bay, still the capital for the embankments must
be raised in the first instance.

It may not be irrelevant to observe, that if the statement of Mr. Hague,
as revised by us in a former part of this report, should be nearly accurate,
viz., that the cost of forming water-tight embankments across Moreeanibe
Bay anil tlie Duddeii Sands, with the works dependent thereon, would only
amount to £r)43,372 2s. ll-ld., and if there should appear a probability of
tlie land lo be reclaimed realizing so large a sum as £1,190,000, this project
might stand on its own merits, apart from any connexion with a railway.

In conclusion, we have only to state that in our inspection of the coast
line, we were accompanied throughout the whole distance by Mr. Briscoe,
an assistant to Mr. Rastrick, and in our examination of Morecambe Bay by
Mr. Hague, the engineer, and by Mr. Yarker, the solicitor, besides other
gentlemen interested in this project. Mr. Larmer pointed out the Lune line,
and Mr. liiiitley the Kendal line, and we were also accompanied by the secre-
taiT and several members of the Kendal committee, all of whom evinced
every desire to facilitate our inquiry ; but it is to be regretted that more time
and means bad not been at the disposal of the surveyors of the inland lines,
to have enabled them to prepare their plans and other drawings in an equally
perfect and satisfactory manner with those of the coast line.
We have, &c.,

Frederic Smith, Lieut.-col. R. E.

Peter Barlow, F. R. S.

Henry Amsinck, Lieut. R.N. Sec.

To Robert Gordon, Esq., M. P.

of

Hull ami Selby Rmhoaij. — We are glad to be alile to stale that a deputation
the Directors of this Company went over the line from tlie passenger sta-
tion at Hull lo the junction with llie Li-eds and Selby Railway at Selby, on
Saturday, May 30. The carriage « as dra« ii by one of llie engines made fur
the Company, by Messrs, Fenton. Murray, and .Tackson, of Leeds. The line
being laid upwardsof one-half of its entire length upon longitudinal bearings
of Riga timber, is particularly easy and siiioolb ; the remaining portion of
the line is laid upon cross sleepers, and the whole will be completed in a
satisfaelory manner. As a considerable portion of the second line is finished,
and a great number of men are employed upon the remaining part, tliere is
no doubt that both lines will be completed for opening to the public on the
Isl July, thejtime proposed by the Direclors. The buildings at the Hull ter-
minus, and also those at thi-'Selijy terminus, are nearly finished, as are the
various station-houses on the line, and tlip Direetors have in the past week
appointed the clerks and other officers of their estaUishmenls.— //«?/ Ob-
servtr.

REPORT ON THE PLANS FOR PREVENTING ACCIDENT.^
ON BOARD STEAM VESSELS.

In' consequence of the accident of the "Earl Grey" steam boat in
lS3o, the Trustees of the river Clyde, with a laudable desire to avert
similar accidents, very shortly after tlie disaster issued the following
advertisement.

" The Parliamentary Trustees on the River Clyde hereby offer a iiremium of
One Hundred Guineas to any iiersoii who shall, in the opinion of the Trus-
tees, or of a Committee of their number, within one month of this date,
essay or fumiih the best practical mode of efteetually preventing accidents,
from the imperfect consti-iiction or use of the steam engine, or gearing of
steam vessels, in their navigation upon navigable rivers, and of carrying the
same into permanent effect or execution, independent of the control or dis-
cretion of the master or crew of the vessel.

The Trustees have also placed at the disposal of a Committee of their
number. One Hundred Pounds, to be distributed among such scientific or
other persons as may he unsuccessful coiniietitors for the above premium,
but who may, nevertheless, suggest such improvements upon the plan of the
snceessful competitors, as, in the opinion of the Committee, may be bene-
ficially adopted or ingrafted upon the said plan."

In compliance with this advertisement there were no less than G5
designs of apparatus and essays sent in. For the purpose of guiding
the judgment of the Committee, tliey determined upon referring the
whole to parties fully competent to investigate the merits of each ap-
paratus and essay, and selected the following gentlemen : Mr. Robert
Napier, Mr. James Smith, and Mr. D. Mackain, who undertook the
task referred to them.

In consequence of the advertisement not limiting the premium to
the actual inventor, numerous schemes were sent in which were the
inventions of others, and many in daily use in all parts of tlie world.
For the purpose of assisting the referees in their examinations, they
divided the several designs and essays into classes, and again sub-
divided the clas.'ies into sections, and after a careful examinution the
referees sent in their report to the Committee, accompanied with
drawings of the apparatus submitted to them. As this rejiort is of
considerable length, it is not our intention to give the whole, but shall
content ourselves by giving the most material parts of it, accompanied
with engravings of the apparatus for which the premiums were al-
lotted.

To the Trus/een of the River Cli/iie, Olaxi/ow, bij Robert Napier, Esq., of
Glaxgnw, James Smith, Esq., of Deanstone, and 1). Mackain, Esq., of
Glanymv.

In compliance with the request conveyed to us severally by Mr. Turner,
we have carefully considered the various plans, models and essays, lodged in
the Council Chambers, numbered from 1 to 65.

As the terms of the advertisement neither restrict the competitors to the
production of plans of their own invention, nor preclude from competition
any apparatus already in use, it involves the possibility of the Trustees
awarding the premium to one person, for the invention of another ; or to the
exhibitor of apparatus, which, though in general use, may still be considered
the best adapted to attain the end in view.

Though we mention this to show that, unintentionally, private wrong
might be done, or that a reward might be paid for an exhibition of that with
which every maker of steam engines is acquainted, yet the open nature of
the competition may have had the effect of obtaining, and we doubt not it
was the object of the Trustees to obtain, a general view of the opinions en-
tertained by persons whose attention has been directed to the important
subject of preventing dangerous accidents on board of steam vessels.

The competitors dirt'er in opinion as to the causes by which explosion is
produced, and in consequence, the apparatus they submit vary in tlieir con-
struction and proposed use, according to the idea which each entertains on
this subject.

A number of the plans very closely resemble each other, differing only in
unimportant details — this we consider to be the natural result of so many
persons applying themselves to the attainment of one object. It is also re-
markable, that a great number have adopted the common safety-valve, as the
principal part of their several designs ; which may be regarded as a tacit
acknowledgment of its general efficiency and extreme simplicity.

From these causes we have found it convenient, in preparing our Report,
to divide the plans into classes, according to the causes of explosion' which
they are designed to modify or prevent, and to form these classes into sec-
tions, according to the means by which these objects are expected to be
attained.

first class.

The first class contains the designs submitted oy the competitors who are
of opinion, that explosion proceeds from a gradual accumulation of steam in
the boiler, increasing in elastic force by the continued action of fire in the
furnaces, until it exceeds the strength of the boiler.

240

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[July,

This class is divided into eight sections.

Fiisl Section. — Tlie fiist section embraces those designs by wliich the
competitors proiiose to diseli;irge a quantity of water into the furnace, or
into tlie flues leading from them, whenever the force of the steam is sntiieieut
to raise the water from the lioiler to a certain height in a pijie, so that
thereby the intensity of the tire may he diminislied.

• Second Sec/ion. — The iirinciple on which the designs in this section are
construeted, is, lliat when the pressure of the steam is sutticicnt to raise
water from the lioilcr to a certain height, it rises round a hollow vessel or
float, susjieuded at that height from one end of a lever, the other end being
connected with a safety-valve of tlie common furni. In some of tlie jilaus,
the hollow vessel or tloat is designed to act as tlie load on the safety-valve,
so that, to whatever extent it may be immersed in the water, so raised by
the strengtli of the steam, to that extent is the safety-valve lightened of its
load. In others, the weight of water dis]daced by the float, is a force, in
addition to the steam, to raise a valve loailcil in the ordinary way.

T/iird Sedion. — This section embraces the greatest number of plans,
wliich contain, in general, the common safety-valve enclosed in a ease, so as
to jireveut all access to it. The design of some of the plans is, however,
worthy of .ittention, from their ingenious complexity.

Fourth Section. — These designs have the common safety-valve cased in,
to prevent it from Iieing overloaded, but have attachments to the valve, by
which it can he openeti by the engine-man whenever he fluds it necessary to
jicrmit the steam to eseajie.

Fiftti .Section. — The distinguishing feature of the plans in this section, is
the introduction of a piston in cunncxion with the safety-valve, with the
design that the gradual increase in the force of the steam shall, by acting
on the under side of the piston, become a proportionally increasing power to
open the safety-valve.

SLith Section. — The arrangement of the apparatus in this division is de-
signed with the view of loading the safety-valve when the engine is at work,
and of taking oft' the load when it is at rest.

Seimitlt Section, — In this section the exhibitors propose to substitute mer-
cury for the loaded valve, which is usually employed to confine the steam
uiitd it has acquired a certain amount of force.

Eiffhth .Section. — The competitors included in this section jiropose a con-
nexion to tie made between the throttle and safety-valves, by which, when
the speed of the engine is required to he reduced, the safety-valve is opened,
and the steam allowed to escape.

Sp;C0ND CLASS.

The second class of competitors arc those who are of opinion that the
explosion of boilers is the cfl"ect of the instantaneous production of steam,
on the evolution and ignition of inth'imnialile gases in the boiler, in conse-
quence of a deliciency of water ; by which the flues (or passages through the
boilers for the flame from the furnaces) being uncovered, they become red
hot, and on water being brought in contact with them, explosion is jiroduced.

This class is divided into two sections.

First Section. — The first section jiroposes self-acting apparatus for feeding
the boilers while the engine is in operation, so as to prevent the water from
falling below a certain level.

.Sccoml Section. — The seeoiid section ])roposes means of giving information
when the water shall have fallen below a certain point in the boiler, h\'
means of a pipe open at both ends and approaching to within a short
distance from the flues, so that, when the water shall have been sunk below
this pipe, the steam will he allowed to escape.

THIRD CLASS.

The third class are those competitors who consider explosions to be the
result of weakness in the boiler, and propose that they shall be frequently
proved.

This class might be divided into two sections, viz., those who recommend
that periodical attempts he made to explode the boilers with a great pressure
of steam, and those who suggest that they shall be frequently proved by a
forcing pump ; but it is unnecessary to make this distinction.

We shall close this summary by stating that there are several ingenious
designs which cannot he classed with any of those mentioned, nor with each
other; and, consequently, for an explanation of the principles of their con-
struction and intended mode of operating, it would he necessary to transcribe
the several essays in which they are contained ; but this we consider unnc-
eessary, from their being nothing of sufficient merit in them to recommend
them to the notice of the Trustees. It will be remarked that, almost all the
competitors jiropose their several designs to be adopted only as additions to
the existing means of preventing explosion ; that they almost unanimously
reeouimeniied the continued use of the existing safety-valve ; that several
recommend the frequent proof of boilers: while a few only propose the
ap|)ointiuent of inspectors.

In recommending to your favourable consideration some of the designs,
we beg to lay before you the circumstances which guided our selection.

The theory advanced in the Essay No. 1 , of explosions jirocceding from
the formation of gas in the boiler, by the flues becoming led-hot, thereby
decomposing t e water, and then inflaming these gases, has been, in our
opinion, most conclusively set aside by the eminent philosopher, Mons.
Arago, in a memoir on the sidiject of the present re|)ort. " Some persons,"
he writes, " struck with the prodigious and instantaneous efteets which often
result from the explosion of boilers, are persnaUecI that steam alone is in- ^

capable of producing them, and they call to their aid some gases susceptible
of explosion." On this he remarks, " Hydrogen alone, or mixed with vapour,
cannot explode — a mixture in the suitable projiurlions of oxygen and livdro-
gen is snscejitihle of explosion ; but how are these gases to be collected in
the boiler ? Hydrogen is the product of the oxidation of metal — from whence,
therefore, proceeds the oxygen ? (an it be from the air contained in the
feed water .^ It is warm, wliich prevents it from containing much air. I
shall add, in fine, that the oxygen of the air would combine it^elf much more
readily with the incandescent sides of the boiler, than with hydrogen ; and
that the |irodiict of the drcompo»ition of water would he — not hydrogen and
oxygen, lint h_\ drogeii and azote," — a non-explosion mixture. And further,
in a llcpnit by the Comniittee of the Franklin Institute, on the explosions of
steam boilers, made at the request of the Treasury department of the I'liited
States, (hey state, as the result of direct experiment, that the gas obtained
by injecting water into a red-hot boiler, was a " non-supporter ot combustion,
and non-combiistihle."

The other theory advanced by the Essajists Nos. 1, 4, 7, 8, 9, aiid20, is,
that if the flues become red hot, and water be poured into the boiler, a vo-
lume of steam, of dangerous elasticity, is instantaneously formed, to which
the safety-valves cannot give vent witli suflicient ra|iidity, and, iu consequence,
the boiler explodes. In regard to this supposed cause of ex]>losion, — the
American Commissioners succeeded in exploding an experimental boiler, by
injecting water into it while not only the flues, but the top, bottom, and
sides, were assiduously kept red hot. This was done to ascertain the greatest
effect that could be produced by steam generated under such circumstances.
Their other experiments prove that w.ater does not evajiorate so ra|iidly when
brought in contact with red-hot iron, as when the iron has been cooled down
to a niucli lower temperature, and at this redncerl tem)ierature iron does not
contain any considerable quantity of heat. In all experiments made by them
and others, //?«? has been a necessary constituent in the eircumstances which
liermit a certain volume of water to he evaporated, and confinement to give
it force ; and the opening of a safety-valve has ah\ ays been found to diminish
the pressure, and lower the temperature of the steam. AVe are inclined,
under a peculiar and merely possible combination of circumstances, to view
this as a cause of danger ; Init we have not been able to discover any authen-
tic instances in which explosion has been clearly traced to it. The general
jiraetical result of the flues being allowed to get red hot, is, that the plates
composing them crack on admission of water, and from the copious dis-
charge of boiling water and steam which ensues, many serious accidents have
happened to the engine-men and fire-men, through whose negligence they
have been occasioned.

Notwithstanding of the above theories advanced by the competitors, and
also of several others promulgated by persons of high standing in the scien-
tific world, we cannot, after a careful comparison between their reasoning
and our own experience, arrive at any other conclusion than — that the ex-
plosions of steam boilers proceed from a gradual accumulation of steam,
which, being deprived of sufhcient means of escajie, is, by the continued
action of the fire in the furnaces, raised to a dangerous, and often destructive
degree of density ; and we conceive that all danger can be avoided by the
regular action of the common safety-valve, if properly constructed and made
of snfficient capacity. It sometimes happens that these valves, from neglect,
become fixed; and we are of opinion, that the apparatus designed by the
Essayists Nos. 2 and 4 1 , which are draw n as figures 1 and 2,* are well cal-
culated to apply a force, in addition to the strength of the steam, to over-
come this adherence ; and they have the advantage of being so designed,
that after the overjilus of steam shall have escaped, the safety-valve is
allowed to resume its useful position.

We have remarked, that the greater number of explosions of steam boilers
have occurred at the instant of starting the engine. Without taking on our-
selves to assign any reason for this, or our being able to trace the immediate
circumstance which precedes, and may have caused the explosion, we are of
opinion, that the risk of accident may be lessened by the weight on the safe-
ty-valve being diminished until the engine is in motion, and the steam flowing
away by a regular current. We are not satisfied with the efficiency of the
various plans which are designed to attain this object; but we recommend
to your notice, for its novelty, the design in Essay No. 18.

We conceive it to be of importance, that the safety-valve should be se-
cm-ed from improper interference ; but, at the same time, that it should be
so connected with the ordinary occupation of the engine-man, as to be put
into almost hourly use. This must lessen, if not entirely prevent, the chance
of it becoming fixed to its seat. Of the designs submitted to us, we consider
that the plans iu the Essays 4, .'^8, .')5. and 50, are best adapted for this ob-
ject, though they have been found liable to the inconvenience of becoming
fixed at the joints which are inside of the boiler. Figiu-es 33, 36, 38, and
40, are, we believe, in use iu several steam vessels on the Thames, the Clyde,
and the Mersey, and No. 3ti has been seen on board the French Government
steamer, " I.e Meteore."

A number of the competitors recommend that the safety-valve should he
locked up, to prevent all access to it by the engine-man ; but in this recom-
mendation we do not concur, — for, if those in charge of the engine be pre-
vented from ascertaining the condition of the safety-valve, no reliance can be
placed on it as a mean of preventing accident.

' Tiie figures 1 and 2 will he found in auotherrpart of the Journal.— En.
C. and K, Journal.

1840.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

247

AA'e also feci ourselves opposed to the majority of the comiietitors as re-
gards a feeling wliich they eviiiee against engine-men as a body. In any
large class of society, there arc always to be found individuals, whose im-
proper conduct no laws can restrain ; and we are inclined to think that the
nundicr of engine-men who recklessly endanger their own lives and the pro-
jierty under their charge, are nearly in the same projiortion to the mass of
. engine-men, as felons arc to the mass of society, notwithstanding of the
watchful superintendence of the immense army of the law.

In a matter of such importance to the public, and to the proprietors of
steam engines, wc cannot avoid expressing our regret, that in the cases of
explosion which have occurred, there are no scientific rejjorts of the appear-
ance and state of the engines, valves, or boilers. If a reguhatiou were
adopted by the local .lutliorities, requiring intimation of every case of acci-
dcuit, and obtaining thereafter, before any alteration had been made on the
damaged boiler, machinery, or buildings, a detailed report of their situation
and ap]>carance, we are of opinion that more certainty \vould soon be given
to the conjectiu'al causes which jirodnce such accidents; and that, in coiise-
ipicncc, in the construction or management of steam engines, means would
be adopted which woidd lessen the chance of their reciuTence.

In regar<l to the appointment of inspectors, whieli some of the competitors
recommend, we beg to express our doubts as to the expediency of this mea-
sure. They must either lie armed with discretionary powers, to admit or
reject any alteration in construction or managenicnt of the machinery — in
which case the immense amount of capital invested in steam vessels at each
port must be subjected to the individual caprice of the inspector — or it will
be necessary, in order to furnish them with ]irecise instructions, that tlic.\ct
of Parliament by which they are apjiointed, shall regulate what are and what
are not infallible securities against accidents of every kind.

^A'hen we comjiare the almost innumei'able multitude of jiersons who have
amiually availe<l themselves of steam conveyance at sea and on railwavs, for
many years past, witli the niunbcr of accidents that have occurred, it is
gratifiing to us to consider, that, with our attention so closely turned to the
subject as it has been for some time, we not only cannot trace any cause of
alarm, Init are able to express our conviction, that it is the safest means of
transport that now exists.

In conclusion, we beg to report our opinion, that a combination of the
plans we have recommended to yoiu' notice miglit he advantageous, provided
the attachments l>y which they are connected with the safety-valve be sueli,
as that by no derangement of the new apparatus, can the former be prevented
from acting. But we can view them only in the light of experiments, which
will rerpiirc some time of watchful superintendence, to ascertain their mode
of operating under various circumstances, and to detect and remedy errors in
their construction.

ExTHACT FROM AoniTIONXL KkpORT.

In compliance with this instniction, we have no hesitatiou iu recommend-
ing to you the jilans marked by the Committee Nos. 2 and 41, lodged by
Mr. .Tames D. Xeilson and Mr. George Mills, both of Glasgow. It will be
evident on inspection, that they are identical in design, and that the dift'c-
rence in their proposed construction is quite immaterial. (See Figs. 1 and 2.)

For the reasons stated in our General Report, we conceive thent to be the
best of the designs submitted to the Trustees for jireventing explosion.

You are farther pleased to request, that we should name " the three jier-
sons who have brought forward, in your opinion, the three next best plans,
so as to enable the Trustees to consider whether any portion of the aildi-
tional Sinn of One Hundred Pounds, allocated by the trustees, is, in the cir-
cumstances, fairly and justly due to any of the competitors who may be
unsuccessful in obtaining the princijial premium of One Hundred Pounds."

From the extreme similarity in design and execution of the plans which
appear to us entitle to rank in the second class, we are unable to reduce
their number to less than four, viz., those numbered by the Committee 4,
3S, .').), and hi'i. which were severally lodged — the three first by Messrs.
Allan Clarke ami David Thomjison of Glasgow, and Mr. John Baird of Shotts;
and the last, the joint production of -Messrs. AVilliam Ncilson and William
Muir of Glasgow.

Mr. Oavid Thom|)son st.itcs that bis design has been in use at Messrs.
Roulton & AVatt's Engine Factory at Soho; and, as stated in the General
Keport, the otljcrs are precisely similar to apparatus in common use in vessels
on the Thames, the Clyde, and the Mersey; and, through the politeness of
the commander, there was exhibited to one of the reporters, on lioard of the
French Government steam vessel, " Le Jleteorc," arrangements for working
the safety-valves, which were similar in design and mode of o|ieration to the
jilans in Nos. 38, a."), and 56.

As we are of ojiinion that the premiums ofl'ered by the Clyde Trustees
were for apparatus presenting .some novelty of construetion. and possessing
means of security beyond that which the existing safely-valvea and con-
nexions have been supposed to afford, wc do not, under this impression, con-
sider these gentlemen entitled to participation in the second premium ; but
leave this to the decision of the Trustees.

AVe have no other remarks to offer to your consideration on the residue of
the plans.

FROCSEDINGS OP SCIEKTIFIO SOCIETIES.

ROYAL SOCIETY.

March 12. — The Marquis ok Northampton, President, in the Chair.

The following papers were read : —

" On certain rtiria/ionx of the mean heiijltt of the Barometer, mean Tem-
perature, and depth of Rain, connected v:ith the Lunar Phases, in the cycle
of years from 1SI5 to 1823." By Luke Howard, Esq.

The table given in this pajier contains the residts of calculations relating
to the objects specified in the title, cast into periods of six, seven, or eight
days, so as to bring the day of the lunar phase belonging to it in thc'niiddle
of the time. The observations were all nuide in the neighbourijiod of Lou-
don. It appears from them that in the period of the last quarter of the
moon the barometer is highest, the temperature a little above the mean, and
the depth of rain the smallest. In the |ieriod of the new moon, both the
barometer and temperature are considerably depressed, and the rain increased
in quantity. The intluence of the first quarter shows itself by the further
depression of the barometer ; hut the temperature rises almost to the point
from which it bad fallen, and the rain still increases, but not in au equal
ratio. Lastly, the full moon again reduces the temperature, while the baro-
meter attains its maximum mean height, and the quantity of rain is the
greatest. Thus it appears, that during this lunar cycle, the approach of the
last quarter is the signal for the clearing up of the air, and the return of
sunshine.

'* On the theory of tite Dark Bonds formed in the Solar Spectrum, front
partial interception by transparent plates." By the Rev. Baden Powell.

This paper contains the mathematical investigation of the phenomena of
peculiar dark bauds crossing the prismatic spectrum, when half the pupil of
the eye, looking through the prism, is covered by a thin plate of any trans-
parent substance, the edge being turned from the violet towards the red end
of the spectrum ; and which were first noticed by Jlr. Fox Talbot, and were
ascribed by Sir David Brewster to a new property of light, consisting of a
peculiar kind of polarity. The author shows, that on the undulatoiy theory,
in all cases, a dirt'erence of retardation between the two halves of each pri-
maiy pencil throughout the spectrum, may give bauds within certain limits;
and that it affords a complete explanation of the phenomena in question.

March 19. — The Makquis of Northampton, President, in the Chair.

The following paper was read : —

" Contributions to Terrestrial Marjiieiisnt." By Major E. Sabine.

An increased activity has recently been given to researches in terrestrial
magnetism, with the definite object of obtaining correct maps of the mag-
netic phenomena, eorresponding to the present epoch, over the w hole surface
of the globe. To aid these researches, and to facilitate the comparison of
the general theory of M. Gauss with the facts of observation, maps have been
constructed of the magnctical lines, both as computed by the theory, and as
derived from observations already obtained. The theoretical and actual hues
of the declination and intensity h.ave thus been represented in majis reeeutly
published in Germ.any and England, as have also the lines of the inclination
computed by theoiy ; but the corresjionding map or the latter element de-
rived from observations is yet wanting. Tlie object of the present communi-
cation is to supply this desideratum, as far as regards the portion of the
globe contained lietween the parallels of 5.')- X. amt.").!" S., and the meridians
of 20' E. and 80° ^\■. ; comprising the Atlantic ocean and the adjacent coasts
of the continents on either side. The observations chiefly employed for this
liurpose are two series made at sea ; one by Mr. Dunloji, of the Paramatta
oiiservatory, iu a voyage from England to New South Wales, in 1831 ; the
other by Lieut. Sulivan, of the Royal Xnvy, in a voyage from England to the
Falkland Islands and back, in 1838 and 183!). Thii observation of the mag-
netic dip at sea, which was commonly practised by the distinguislied navi-
gators of the last century, was unfortunately not resumed when the interest
in such researches was revived on the restoration of peace; but it is by such
observations only that the lines of ineUnation can he independently traced
over those large portions of the globe which are covered by the ocean. The
difficulties which attend the observation, occasioned by the motion and the
iron of the ship, require the adoption of several jireeauVious, which it is par-
ticularly desiralile at this time to make generally known. The series of
Messrs. Dnnlop and Sulivan are discussed in this view ; and the value of
results obtained under circumstarices of due precaution is pointed out by
theii- success. The position of the lines on the land poition of the map is
derived from 120 determinations in various parts of Europe, Africa, and
Amei'ica, between the years 1834 and 1839, of which about the half are now-
first communicated. The series of Messrs. Dnnlop and Sulivan contain also
observations of the magnetic intensity made at sea ; Mr. Dunlop's by the
method of horizontal vibr.ations, and Lieut. Sulivan's !jy the instrument and
method devised by .Mr. Fox. Tlie degree of precision which may be obtained
by experiments thus conducted, is shown by the comparison of these obser-
vations with each otiier, and with the isodynamic lines previously derived
from observations made on laud. The first section of this paper concludes
with discussions on the relative positions of the lines of least intensity and of
no (Up, and of the secular change which the latter line has undergone in the
ten years jireceding 1837. In the second section, the observations of Mr.
Dunlop are combined with recent observations on the coasts of Australia, by

•34S

TFIE CIVIL ENCFNKKR AND AUCHlTECT'S JOURNAL.

[JUT.V,

Captains Fit-/. Roy, Bethnnc, anil Wickham, of the Royal Navy, to fnrnish a
tirst approximation to Die |)ositiori and direction of the isodynaniic lines
over tliat portion of the Indian oecan wliicli is comprised between the me-
ridian of tlie Cape of Good Hope and New South Wales.

March 2(>. — The Marqui.s ok NoRTHAMi'roN, I'rcsident, in the Chair.

This evening was occupied by the reading of a paper, entitled " lin.iearchcs
in Klec/ricifi/, 17/// srrics : on the nource of jwwer in the Voltaic Pile" By
Michael Faraday, Esq.

Mail 14.— Major Sabine, R.A.. V.P., in the ehair.

The follow ing paper was read : —

Frpi-rii/ifr/fal lifsrarches into fhr Strength of Pillai's of Cast front "'"^ other
Matiriith. Hy ]'i;ilt)n llndgkinson, Ks({.

The author finds that in all long ])illars of the same dimensions, the re-
sistance to crushing by llexure is idjuut three times greater when the ends of
the pillar.s are Hat, than when they are rounded. A lung uniform east-iron
l>illar, Hith its ends firmly fi.\cd, whether liy means of (hscs or otherwise, has
llie same power to resist f>reaking as a pill.-ir of the same diameter, and half
the length, uilh the ends rounded, or turned so that the force wonlil pa.ss
through llie axis. The strenglh of a ]iillar with (jneend rounil and the other
(lal. is tlie arithmetical mean between that ofa pillar ot the .same dimensions
with both ends ronnd, and one with both ends tlat. Some additional strength
is given to a pillar by enlarging its diameter in the middle part. The author
next investigated the strength of long cast-iron pillars with relation to their
diameter and length. He ctmcludes that the index of the power of the diame-
ter, to which the strength is proportional, is .3'73C. He then proceeds to de-
termine, hy a comparison ot experimental results, the inverse power of the
length to which the strenglh of the ))illar is proportional. The highest value
(if this jiower isl'Jll', the lowest, I'ii.BT, the mean of all the comparisims.
r71 17. He thus deduces, first, approximate empirical formula- for the break-
ing weight of solid jiillars, and then proceeds to deduce more correct methods
of determining their strenglh. J'ixperiments on hollow pillars of cast-iron
are then described, and formula? rcjiresenting the sirength of such pillars are
derhiced from these experiments. After giving some results of experiments
still in progress for determining the power of east-iron pillars to resist lung-
conlinued pressure, the author proceeds to determine from his experiments
the sirength of pillars of wrought-iron and timber, as dependent on their
dimensions. The concln.siou for wrought iron is, that the strength varies in-
versely as the square of the pillar's length, and directly as the power .37o of
its diameter, the latter being nearly identical with the result obtained for
cast-iron ; for timber, the strength varies nearly as the fourth power of the
side of the square forming the section of the pillar. Experiments for deter-
mining the relatiim of the strength to the length in pillars of timber, were
not instituted, as, from the great llexure of the material, it was considered
that no very satisfactory conclusions on this point ctmld be derived experi-
mentally. In conclusion, the author gives the relative strength.? of long
pillars of cast-iron, w rought-iron, steel, and timber.

INSTITUTION OF CIVIL ENGINEERS.

Address of the President.

General Meeting, February i, 1840.

Tuis being our first Meeting since my re-election as your President, allow
me to thank yon for the honour conferred upon me, and to congratulate you
on the choice you have made of the other Members of Council, and Officers,
who will 1 am sure be desirous of justifying the good opinion you have formed
of them, by as freiiuent an attendance at the Meetings and attention to the
business of the Institution, as theu' avocations will permit. This will indeed
lie but a proper return for the proof of your confidence in us, and I trust that
the list of attendances, if again called for at the end of the season, will prove
my anticipations to have been correct ; for notwithstanding the truth of the
olil saying, tliat " where there is a will, there is a way," it must sometimes
ha]ipcii, that the attendance of some of us becomes impossible, from absence
at too great distance or other cogent cause; yet I hope 1 may answer for my
coUeaguci as for myself, that it is our determination to show that we have
the " vill." But, gentlemen, he it remembered on your part also, tliat there
is a reciprocal duty to perform — that of attendance at our Meetings, to give
them the importance which the Council Table being full will not give, if the
seats arnmid the room are not respectably occupied ; and that blame may not
attach where jiraise is due, the Council (following the precedent set them)
have desired a Ust to be made and tabulated of the attendance at the ileet-
jiigs of each Member, Graduate, and Associate.

1 trust, however, that there will be presented to your attention during the
session so much new and interesting matter as will rather ensure your attend-
ance as a iiersonal gratification than as a bare discharge of a duty ; unless
this should be the case, mine would be an ungracious task to require your
constant attendance, but if we succeed in exciting your attention, you will
then come unasked. This good can only be attained by numerous and useful
coniiuuuications, which arc valuable in themselves and give rise to instructive
discussions. The Council therefore reqiure plans and papers from you with
the view of ensuring your personal attendance ; and 1 wish to enforce this
especially upon the coimtry Members, from whom wc receive very few com-
munications. JiOoking !it the extent and rapid progression of public works
in this countiy at present, the new facts that are constantly being developed,
the luiinber and influence of the Members of oiu: Institution, there ought not

ta be »>}' (le«rth ;t impgitant autl uit«reiiting coiumiuucation^. Tbat Vi

have had many such, and that the number of them is increasing, I admit,
but still they ought to he much more numerous. My remarks at the last
Meeting referred more particularly to Graduates and Associates as flcfaulters
on this head, hut I must include the Memhers^ not only for what they could
themselves do, hut more for the exercise of the influence they possess over
Graduates in ihrecting their attention to ]iarticnhir objects or works on which
they might furnish communications. Half the work is done " when the sub-
ject is ^'.eei/ on" — I say this from experience, as would be proved by refer-
ence to the eommunications that have been iiiatlc through my suggestions at
works which I have visited, or by individuals over whom 1 may be supposeil
to have some influence. If gentlemen would bear in mind the wants of the
Institution whenever they visit any jiublic work, they would rarel\- leave it
without having reaped some knowledge that would be worth communicating,
and they may be assured that their labours would be duly appreciated.

I named at the last Meeting the subject of the Library. — I stated that which
many gentlemen were not aware of, the understanding amongst ourselves, that
each Member of the Council should contribute annually some Book, Picture,
Drawing, or other present for the Library — I stated also that the Secretary
was preparing a list of such books as it is desirable wc should possess. This
list will be printed and circulated, and I Avisli the Institution to understand
that the Council do not desire to monopolize the right of presenting books
hut trust that their example will be followed hy everj- one belonging to the
Institution. \Ve have space now for a good Library, and for an Institution
like ours nothing can be of greater importance. It is especi,ally necessary
that our Library should contain as many good books of reference as possible,
and I beg to suggest to Members possessing such books, that in presenting
ing them to the Institution they do not deprive themselves of the advantage
of them, but will have the satisfaction of permitting others to participate with
them.

The increasing business of the Institution appearing to the Council to re-
quire now the whole and undivided time and attention of one properly quali-
fied gentlemen as Secretary, they thought it their duty to make this a condi-
tion previous to appointment; I am glail to say Mr. Manby has accepted the
ofliee on these conditions. Mr. Webster, with whose abilities and science we
are all well acquainted, has been elected Ilonor.ary Secretary, and the more
of his time he can give us, the more, I am sure, we shall all feel obhged.

The question of qualification for Honorary Members has already engaged
the attention of the new Council, and we may think it right shortly to bring
the subject before the Institution. As the 13ye Laws now stand, the neces-
sary qualification for a candidate for election as an Hoiioran' Member is, that
"he be eminent for science a.m\ experience in pursuits connected with the
profession of a Civil Engineer, but not engaged in the practice of that pro-
fession in Great Britain or Ireland." Now this distinction is so very circum-
scribed, that few men can be found who come strictly within its limits,
whether we refer to the present list of Honorary Members, or even to the
most distinguished individuals in this country who hold the liighest places in
science or scientific institutions, such as the President of the Royal Society —
the Marquis of Northampton, — the Chancellor of the University of London,
Lord Burlington. (I cite these two noblemen, whose love of and devotion
to science, and whose eminence in certain deiiartments of it, has entitled them
to the high places they fill, as ]iersons whom it might he very desirable to
connect with the Institution, should such be their wish, but neither of w horn
can, so far as I know, be strictly said to be " eminent for science and cx-
perience in pursuits connected with the jirofessiou of a Civil Engineer."') If
it be thought desirable to extend the terms of qualification, the definition may
be altered to include individuals distingiiishcil for their patronage and pro-
motion of the studies and works of Civil Engineering, or a class of Patrons
might be formed of such men. The Council will give this matter their best
consideration, and will, I am sure, in any recommendation they may make,
be guided by their desire only to extend the reputation and importance of the
Institution.

My old and valued friend, Mr. Turner, of Rook's Nest, Surrey (formerly
the friend and ]tartiicr of Hmldart), having presented me with an excellent
portrait of that eminent philosopher and mechanic, I have thought that I
could not do better than oflcr it to the Institution, having previously had
Mr. Turner's entire approval of my so doing. Those who have seen Ilnddart's
Hope Machinery, whicli was I believe as- much the creation of his own brain
as ever machine was of any man's, will not dispute my claiuiiiig for him the
first rank for eminence in Mechanics: as a Navigator and Hydrograplier, he
was inferior to none ; I had the pleasure of knowing him, and have always
thought, that if the Mechanical Philosophers and Engineers of our d.iys were
to lie ranked in pairs, Huddart was the man to be placed by the side of Watt.
1 am glad therefore to be the instrument of putting the Institution in pos-
session of the portrait of Huddart, by Wildinan, after Iloppner ; but this is
not unmixed with a feeling of jealousy, arising from our Member Mr. Biirges
having discovered that Mr. Whitbread had, at his seat in Bedfoidshirc, a por-
trait of *'?«ra/oH (a soul-stirring name to Engineers), by Gainsborough; he
has, through Mr. Wliitbreail's kindness and by the aid of Mr. Turner, placed
the picture in the hands of iMr. Wildinan, the talented painter of Huddart's
portrait, and I can answer for Mr. Burges's kind intentions towards the In-
stitution ill the trouble he has so taken.

I have only farther to add, that the Council have come to the resolution of
devoting the rooms on the ground floor to the use of the Members of the In-
stitution, and have directed the periodical publications to be placed there.

Ws bops this nrrfiiigemegt M'iU );c found genciidl}' toiivcuieut autl iigrceablc,

1840.] I

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

249

and -we think it will lie particularly so to our jimior branches and Members
from the country, as they may there enjoy all the advantages of a club, with
the additional one of being surrounded l»y their friends.

We trust our Funds will ahvays admit of this arrangement being gratuitous,
as well as suffer us hereafter to add to it other means of attraction.

In another point of view it may be found useful, as a central point where,
gentlemen may make laiown their being at liberty to accept engagements,
and the Engineer may find the assistance he is in need of.

ROYAL INSTITUTE OF BRITISH ARCHITECTS.
June 1. — Mr. Kay, V.P., in the Chair.

At the ordinary meeting of this society, several very valuable donations
were announced, amongst whicli a volume of Inigo Jones's designs for the
Wiiteliall Palace, being the original drawings by Flitcroft, for Kent's publi-
cation. The council have been for some time engaged in forming a collection
of all matters relating to Jones and bis works, and this present was therefore
a most valuable boon. A long conversation was held on the means of con-
structing flues, so as to render the employment of climbing boys unnecessarj',
and a strong desue was shown on the part of the meeting to aid the efforts
now being made I)y the society established for the purpose. Mr. Fowler
took occasion to mention to the meeting that i\\e Socif'h' Libre lies Beaux
.Iris, of Paris, had recently awarded to Mr. G. Godwin, jun., a silver medal,
in testimony of their approbation of his published works, and conmicnted
upon the liberal feehng the society bad thus evinced. A »imilar compliment
was paid to Mr. Donaldson, on the pulilicatiou of his work on doorways.

A paper was read " On the Section of the London Bed of Clay T Hy Charles
Parker, Fellow.

The principal subject of this paper was a description of the strata passed
through in boring two wells in the village of East Acton, which we cannot
follow without reference to the diagrams and tables by wliich it was accimi-
panied. The result was, a further confinnation of the estalilished geological
fact, that a stratum of sand extends under the clay, and bears upon a chalk
basin containing an immense quantity of pure water, and a further disproval
of a commonly received opinion, that when two weUs are formed in imme-
diate vicinity, of unequal depths, the water passes from the shallower to the
deeper. The two wells in this instance were 300 yards apart. In one, the
water was found at the depth of 333 feet, in the other, the spring extended
to the depth of 403 feet. In both, the water rose to within 18 feet of the
surface, and then gradually subsided to 23 feet.

A section was also given of the strata in the vicinity of ShadwcU, and
some particulars of a well bored to the depth of 411 feet in the Temple,
which emitted an odour so disagreeable as to render the water useless. This
odoiu' (having been satisfactorily proved not to proceed from any contact with
drains) was supposed to arise from the disengagement of sulphuretted hydro-
gen. After three months had been expended in trying, without any benefit,
the suggestions of several eminent chemists for obviating this inconvenience,
the well was abandoned as a failure ; but another trial of the water being
accidentally made a year afterwards, it was then found to be free from smell,
and of a remarkably good quality. A comparison of the chemical analyses
made at the different periods, failed to explain in any way the cause of this
alteration. The paper concluded with some observations on the employment
of iron cylinders in well sinking, and a comiiarison with a similar mode of
proceeding by the ancients with cylinders of baked clay, illustrated by sec-
tions of a well at SiUnunte, and another at Girgenti.

Mr, Godwin read some observations on the modern state of painting on
glass. This paper will be found in another part of the Journal.

Jmie 15. — Mr. Moore in the Chair.

A paper " On Original Composition in Architecture, illustrated by the
umrks of Sir John Vanbrvgh," was read by James Thomson, Fellow. (This
paper we shall give in full next month.)

Mr. Donaldson read " A Memoir of the Life of Thomas Archer."

Thomas Archer, an English architect, who flourished during the early
part of the eighteenth century. He was a pupil of Sir John Vanbrugh, who,
being appointed surveyor-general for the new churches in London, which
were to be built by the grant of Queen Anne, gave several of them to his
pupils. The new church of St. John the Evangelist, in Westminster, fell to
the lot of Archer, and was built in 1728. The plan consists of an oblong
with rounded corners, having at the east and west ends deep recesses for the
altar and vestry, and on the north and south sides, bold projecting enclosed
porticoes, flanked on each side by a tower, making four in all, and which
now have staircases, to aft'ord access to the modern galleries. At first the
interior was enriched by columns, and there were no galleries : so that the
inside must have originaBy been extremely effective. In 1741, the interior
and roof were consumed by fire, which left only the walls and columns
standing. The church was then rebuilt, the columns being omitted ; in 1 758
galleries were added, and subsequently lengthened in 1826 by Mr. Inwood,
architect. When this fine building was first completed, justice was not done
to the originality and powers of the architect ; and Horace Walpole, with
some other critics of the day, unable to appreciate its beauties, reprobated its
cumbrous aspect, and its four towers.

The outside consists of a bold Doric order, well proportioned and elegantly I

profiled ; the columns are about three feet foiu- inches in diameter, and stand
upon a lofty pedestal or podium, eight feet high. The north and south por-
ticos are hexastyle, each consisting of four outer pilasters and two central
columns ; the three centre intercolumniatious being recessed, and the outer
interpilastrations being solid, these latter serve as bases to the towers, which
rise at each end of the tympana. The entablature is surmounted by a balluE-
trade, except over the porticos, where there are pediments broken through
in the centre, for the width of three intercolmnniatioiis, to admit a kind of
fantastic pedimental group, with a perforated niche. The four towers have
square bases to the height of about eight feet above the springing of the
pediments, and then assume a circular plan. At the angles there are iso-
lated columns with circular pedestals and circular entablatures, projecting
from the main body of the towers. Above the ent.alilature thei'e is a gradu-
ally receding roof of concave profile, surmounted by a pine apple. The east
and west ends of the roof arc enriched by grouped gables, flanked by large
enriched scrolls or trusses in the Roman fashion.

The whole composition is impressive, and its boldness loses nothing by the
graceful plarfulness of the outline. There are some inaccuracies of detail,
which a little more study of purer models might have corrected ; but the
whole is well worthy a distinguished place among the striking productions
of the Vanbrugh school. The exterior being entirely faced with stone, its
solid magnificence forms a striking contrast to the parsimonious meajmess,
which distinguishes the like buildings of the present day. In vol. iv. p. 70,
of Dallaway's edition of Horace Walpole's Anecdotes of Painting, Hethrop,
J. PhiUip's church at Birmingham, a work of considerable merit, the quadrant
porticoes at Chefdcn House, and a house at Roeham|)ton, pecvdiar, but strik-
ing in its eflect, given in the Vitruvius Britannicus, arc mentioned as works
of Archer. To liirn also is attributed the fanciful and attractive pavilion at
the end of the piece of water which faces the centre of ^Vrest llousi;^ in Bed-
fordshire, the seat of the Earl de Grey. This pavilion is hexagonal in plan,
with a porch at the entrance, and, with very little attention to effect, might
be made a very graceful object, well worthy the splendid mansion which has
been recently erected by the present noble possessor, from his own designs
and under his own immediate direction, and in which bis lordship has evinced
a great feeling for art, sound discrimination, and a happy adaptation of the
style chosen, which is that of the French chateau of the time of Louis XV.

Mr. Donaldson also read a brief memoir of the life of Chevalier Stefano
Gasse, of Naples, an Honorary and Corresponding Member of the Institute.

THE ARCHITECTURAL SOCIETY.
W. TiTE, Esq., President, in the Chair,

This society closed its session on the 2nd ult. with a conversazione, which
was attended by Earl de Grey, the President, and many of the Fellows of the
Institute of British Architects, also by Mr. Walker, the President, and nume-
rous members of the Institution of Civil Engineers, besides many members
of other scientific societies. The business of the meeting commenced by
Mr. Grellier, the Hon. Sec. reading the report of the Committee detailing
the lectures and papers that had been delivered, and the prizes awarded to
the student members, and expressing their warmest thanks and acknowledg-
ment to their President, iMr. Tite, for the energy aud zeal with which he has
forwarded the interests of the society.

The President then proceeded to award the prizes to the successful can-
didates, after which he read a paper of considerable researcli and interest,
" On Exchanges," which we have the pleasure of giving in another part of
the Joiu'nal.

NOTES OF THE MONTH.

The Dean and Chapter of Westminster, we are happy to announce, intend to
have twelve of the windows in Westminster Abbey glazed with painted glass. We
hope that they will be ordered at once of the artists, and not of dealers, by
whom the artists will be screwed down. Painters aud sculptors are not sub-
jected to such a vexatious process, and we do not see why painters on glass
should be deprived of a great portion of the reward of thek exertions. — The
authorities at the Temple are also engaged in the restoration of their ancient
church.

In the National Gallery, a very fine painting, the Infant Jesus, by Murillo,
has recently been placed.

The Thames Tunnel will soon make its appearance on the Middlesex side.
The Company have commenced clearing the houses for the purpose of prose-
cuting their labours with energy.

Mr. Cottingham the architect, invited a numerous party to a conversazione
at liis Museum of English .\ntiquities, in the Waterloo Bridge-road, on ThOTs-
day, the 25th ult. We, certainly, were never so much suqirised on passing
through the numerous rooms, to witness such an immense collection of spe-
cimens (about 31,000 we understand) of domestic and ecclesiastical arcliitec-
ture, painting, sculpture, ami furniture ; every architect, artist, and lover of
antiquities should not fail visiting this Museum — next month we intend to
give a description of it.

We understand that a National Mausoleum has been projected upon a most

2 L

250

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[July,

magnificent scale, to erect a sort of " Skcond Westminster ABnKv," for
the intcnncnt of tlie noble, opulent, and ilhistrious dead, and wc liave hoard
that the drawings are now ready, though wc have not yet hecn fortunate
cnoiigli to see them. We do not know who the antlior of the gi-and scheme
is, hut it is w hispered that Barry is the chief architect, an<l a friend who has
been favoured with a sight of the drawings, informs ns that the design is
noble, chaste, and beautiful, ami a most perfect siieeimen of art. No doubt
such a building is nmeh wanted, seeing thatanich iti the Abbey is not now
to be had for either " love or money," or within its precincts, and hence the
necessity of the intended National Mausoleum. We shall endeavour to oli-
tain permission to reduce and engrave the dramngs for oiu- next number.

Tlie experiment of the New Water Company which has lieen going on to
test the (juanlity of water which can be procured and brought by its own
gravity to London from near Watford, is now nearly completed. As far as it
has gone it has been most successful. Cojiioiis springs have been tapped to
the depth of 97 feet, and the well of 20 feet diameter wlien only 16 feel deep,
required .SO men to be incessantly pum])ing from 4 a.m. to 8 p. m. daily, to
enable the sinkers to proceed. Telford never made a happier hit than in
pointing out this spot for the supply of London.

The Annual Meeting of the Council of the Government School of Design
for distributing the prizes, took place on Friday, the 26th ult. AVe were
much gratified on witnessing the great progress made by the students since
the last yearly meeting, and the marked improvements that could be traced
in those drawings that were made from models and plants. The school is in
a vcrj' flourishing state, and there are not less than 100 pupils. Mr. Labou-
chere, the Tresident of the Board of Trade, distributed the prizes. Among
the comjiany present we noticed Sir K. Inglis, Bart., M.P., Sir D. Norrevs,
Bart., M.l'.,' Henry T. Hope, Esq., M.P., T. Wyse, Esq., M.l'., Sir David
Wilkie, and C. R. Cockerell, Esq., R.A., the latter gentleman read the report
of the committee.

At Paris they are now employed in engraving on the bronze of the column
of July, the names of the combatants who were killed during the revolution.
These names are .'J04 in number, consisting of about -1000 letters, and jilaced
in alphabetical order, letter A at the top. Each letter is 8 centim. ("J in.)
liigh, and .H millini. Q in.) deep. A good specimen of mgraviii;/ on a large
scale. The artists have got as far as L. It it said that the elepliant is to he
cast at last, and erected at the Barriere du Trone, the decorations of which
are tu l)e finished ; all this however is far from certain. — On the reconnnend-
ation of the Commisioners for Preserving Historical Monuments, the Minister
of tlie Interior has directed M. VioUet le Due to prc])are a plan for the re-
storation of the church of Vezclay (Yonue), and M. (Juestel plans for those
of St. Giles (Card), and I.ouillae (Lot), and for the cloister of Moissac (Tarn
and Garonne). — The French naval authorities have directed experiments to
lie made at Brest on galvanized iron, and on gutters of zinc and of tin. The
Commissioners apjiointed have already recommended tlie application of gal-
vinized metal in several cases, in order to test its properties on a large scale.
By iiolice regulations the extent of the projections of plaster cornices is limited
at Paris to 10 ni. (G in.)

REVIE'WS.

Pictorial and Practical Illustrations of Windsor Caulk, from original
Drawings. By Messrs. Gandy and Baud. London : Joliii Williams,
1840.

When Achilles died, Ajax and Ulysses contended for his arms, diie
was the conflict, and great tho perplexity of the Greeks in coining to
a decision, they ended it, however, if we recollect aright, by nnikiiig
the award in favour of one of the competitors, not as we should pro-
pose to do by giving a bit to one, and a bit to another, or forcing them
iioth to squeeze flieniselvcs into the same coat of mail. Since .Sir
JeH'ry Wyatville's death, a similar contest has taken place, ecpudly
distressing as regards the parties engaged, and the difficulty of coming
to a safe decision. Sir Jett'ry anxious for his fame, and for the proper
illustration of his great work, Windsor Castle, during his life time em-
ployed two of his pupils, Messrs. Gandy and Baud, and expendeil large
sums on the preparations of the necessary drawings. His death left
the enterprise unaccoiii|ilished, and by his will he directed his executor
to provide for the completion of a task, dear to him even in death.
Messrs. (iandy and Baud, artists of approved competence, who had
been employed by Sir Jeffry himself in carrying out the works, had
engaged to make the necessary drawings on condition that they should
be the persons solely employed in carrying out a work, the importance
of which they fully a]ipreciated, and in wliich they also took an in-
terest, as having their own reputation connected with it. From some
cause, however, which has not been explained, a dissension has taken
place between the executors and the artists, and eacdl party lias deter-
mined on producing a separate work. This step in such a case cannot
but be deeply regretted, for neither tlie ]iiiblic nor the ]iublishers can
be benefitted by a contest of this kind, the latter must have a diminished
sale, and the former a deteriorated work, instead of both parties making

a profitable union, and devoting their whole capital and energies to
the production of one magnificent volume.

The sjiecimeiis we have seen of both the contending works are
creditable and well executed, but we do hope that there is still time
to conclude amicably a contest so distressing. The executors have the
fame of Sir JeH'ry in their keeping, and Messrs. Gandy and Baud,
architects themselves, cannot be unmindful of the reputation of their
former master, or of their own; the public are not so selfish as to wish
for an injurious competition.

The illustrations of the Part before us consist, of a beautiful litho-
graphic drawing of the Xurth West View of the W'inchester Tower,
draw 11 by Mr. Ciaudy ; of the North East View of the Prince of Wales
and Brunswick Towers, drawn by Mr. Baud, and lithographed by
Hawkins ; and two engravings in outline exhibiting details.

A Treatise on Projection, mill numerous Plates. By Peter Nicholson.
London: Richard Groombridge. 1840.

Mr. Nicholson has laboured hard for the |irofession, but although far
advanced in years, he is still as fresh as ever in supplying the wants
of the professional student; to this class the volume before us will be
of great service. We will give an extract from the preface, which in
the author's own words best describes the utility of the work.

The theoiy of projection is of universal application ; a knowledge of this
useful branch of delineation will enable the designer to instruct tlie workman
with nearly as much ease as if he had the model before him, and to explain
the effect of an imaginary object as if it really existed ; this knowledge in the
workman will enable him to forsee how the different parts of an object will
join upon each other, to understand drawings and designs with readiness, and
to execute them with accuracy.

.Vniong many other uses to which this truly admirable science extends its
innuence, may be mentioned the constiuetion of the centerings of arches and
groin vaults, the formation of hand-rails and stairs, the cutting of stones for
bridges and oblique arches, and the delineation of plans, and elevations of
buildings and machinery. But the utility of an intimate acquaintance with
the pruiciiiles of this useful art is not confined to the workshop alone, a cer-
tain knowledge of these principles should form a jiart of that stock of informa-
tion which is essential to the student in the arts of design, and the rapid
strides which have of late been made in other departments of the arts and
sciences render it far from improbable that we shall shortly see the theory
and practice of projection taught in our pubhc schools, as a necessary branch
of educatiou.

Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Xaral Architecture. By Aueus-
TiN B. Crewse, Member of the late School of Naval Architecture,
&c. Edinburgh: Black. 1840.

We regret that the space occupied by other matter prevents us
from giving the remarks which we had prepared on Mr. Crewse's
work. This is a reprint of the article Ship Building in the Encyclo-
pedia Britannica, and gives in a short compass the elements of the
history and theory of the art, and also a great deal of information upon
construction. We recommend the work to the immediate notice of
our readers, as we must ourselves defer the consideration of it until
next month.

Chemistry of Science and Art, or Elements of Chemistry, adapltd for

reading, along with a Course of Lectura:,for self instruction, &c. By

Huuo Reid. Edinburgh : MaclachUin and Stewart. 1840.

Mr. Reid's work is what it professes to be, a portable compendium

of the |)riuciples of chemistry, not aiming at the extent and research

id' large works, but eschewing the superficiality of what are called

cliea]) works. It is sound, cheap, and useful, eminently calculated for

the artisan and the student, deriving its information from the highest

sources, and giving all the improvements of the latest date. We have

only one thing to quarrel witli Mr. Reid about — and he has treated

upon the subject so clearly, that we are half inclined to let it alone —

and that is, that he has in the beginning of his work enlarged upon

two or three subjects, which might better become the subject of his

forthcoming treatise on the classication of the sciences.

LITERARY NOTICES.

Mr. RooKE has brought out a new edition of his Geology as a
.Science applied to Engineering, in which he has detailed some of the
results of his last year's tour in FVance.

Dr. Day will not think us inattentive to liis pamphlet on the Doc-
trine of Parallels, in deferring our remarks upon it until next month, as
it requires a serious perusal.

J CcuJU St'

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1840.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

251

SAFETY VALVES.

The annexed engravings are referred to in tlie Report on tlie plans
for preventing accidents on board Steam- vessels, at page 24G.

Fig. 2;

ON SUSPENSION BRmGES.

Sir — I observe in your Journal of the past month, an engraving and
description of " Dredge's Patent Suspension Bridge," you viJill find at
page 23, vol. 1 of the Journal, an engraving and description of my
bridge, which was presented to the British Association for Science at
Newcastle, in 1838. Mr. Dredge's bridge was presented to the Asso-
ciation last year at Birmingham. The identity of principle in the two
bridges is evident, and if it were desired to convert my construction
into that proposed by Mr. Dredge, it would be merely necessary to
unite each radial link with the one next it, but this would necessarily
divert the rods from the diagonal line, representing the resultant of
the two forces, tending to destroy the bridge, which would be a very
unskilful arrangement, and attended with no practical benefit. I am
not desirous to enter into a controversy upon this matter, but I think I
may claim from you the small justice, of allowing me to state in your
next number, my claims to be considered the author of this system of
constructing suspension bridges ; it may not be amiss to observe that
my arrangement is much easier of construction than either that of Mr.
Dredge, or the ordinary suspension bridge, and would be cheaper and
stift'er than either.

I remain, your obedient servant,

W. J. Curtis.

15, Stamford Street, Black/riars Road,
June 17, 1840.

MYKE LIGHTHOUSE.

In our last number wo gave an engraving and description of the Wyre
Liglulunise, togotlicr with the Specification, with the signature of " Henry
Mangles Denlum," at the end. by which it may appear that the design and
specification was tliat of Captain Denham, instead of wliich it w ill appear by
the following letter to have Ijcen entirely the production of Messrs. Mitchell
and .Son.'

TO THE EniTOR OF THE PRESTON PILOT.

60, Pall Mall, London, May 9th, 1840.
Sni— It is right that llie public should clearly understand that the specifi-
cation of the Wyrc Lighthouse was the production of Messrs. Alexander
Milchell and Son, .and only signed Ijy me to show 1 had considered, approved,
and caiiseil lis adoption. Your inserting this note in your next paper will ob-
lige your humble sorvant,

H. M. Denham.
^Consulting Marine .Surveyor.

THE PROJECTED MERCHANT SEAMAN'S INSTITUTION.
(See Plate.)

The grandeur and great public importance of a project, the parti-
culars of which accompany our Journal this month, will, we trust, ex-
cuse our departing somewhat from our usual course, in criticising a
work at present to a certain extent undetermined, but which we pro-
phecy will at no distant period be equally the pride and protection of
the \-ast and deserving class for whose benefit it is especially intended,
as a glorious and lasting monument of the national estimation in which
they are so justly held.

The style selected, Palladian, so eminently suitable to buildings of
large extent and intricate internal arrangement, and the boldness and
simplicitv of the ensemble, evince considerable judgment and taste
in the artist, wdiose name however does not appear.

The plan is quadrangular, the entire length of the facade, we are
informed, about 7tJ0 feet. The lower story consists of an arched and
rusticated basement, supporting and subservient to the principal design
which is of the Corinthian order; the entablature continued through-
out and unbroken by those unnecessary and unmeaning projections
which so frequently disfigure the best compositions ; the central fea-
ture of the design is an octastyle portico of magnificent dimensions,
upwards of lUO feet in extent, supported by an open loggia communi-
cating with an arcade surrounding the quadrangle, and surmounted by
a dome novel in design, but in harmony with the general character of
the composition. Such are the leading features of the exterior; — of the
interior we can give no opinion, the very excellent method having,
we understand, been adopted of arranging it with reference to the
opinion and advice of those who are practically acquainted with the
purpose to wdiich it will be devoted. We shall, however, keep a
strict watch over its progress, and trust no petty interests or party
feelings will interfere with the completion of so useful, so creditable,
and so magnificent an undertaking.

STEAM NAVIGATION.

" THE RUBY" CHALLENGE.

Sir— The letter which appeared in the last number (for June) of your
valuable Journal, signed by ■• A. Billings, Manager of the Diamond Steam
Packet Company," has excited consideralile stir amongst steam-boat parties.
1 do not, however, observe in that letter the public challenge*-' which the
'•Ruby' gave in the Nautical Magazine for this month, and in the latter
periodical Mr. Billings, as " Manager of the Diamond Steam Packet Com-
pany," says, " 1 am readi/ to matcli ihe Uuby to run from Gravesend to Mar-
gale and back for 200 giiineas against any boat afloat, whatever may be her
size, power, or build."

Now your numerous readers may like to know if and how the match came
oft', and I beg a space in your columns to state the matter fairly.

1 accepted the challenge through Mr. Runey, the Manager ol the Polytechnic
Institution immediately, and submitted that the conditions should be— to
en'.;age to run on a certain day, three weeks notice to be given.

To deposit 200 guineas each. The course to be from GraTcsend round a
boat muoreJ ofl' Margate wood pier. Time of st.rting to be named at once,
and to take all chances uf weather.

Sails to be used or not as the challenger pleased. Here I will only observe
that as I should have to get the - Fire King" round from the Clyde, a dis-
tance of 8.50 miles, I stipulated for the above conditions as to tune, believing
the " Ruby ' to be " ready." On the 13th Mr. Roney received answer iroin
Mr. Billings, (but not signed by him as Manager of the Diamond Company;,
asking the " name of the boat, her tonnage and power, and the time she has
been running, ivhen{i. ,: Mr. B.; shall be willing to enter upon the terms ol
the match.'' , , ■ r 1

Having read so much of his answer, and finding that his tomier words
" any boat afloat," and bis Ijeing " ready," were now appearing in a new tight,
I was amused to find the f^llowing philanthropic evasion thrust in, '• provided
that your vessel is worked by low pressure steam, as I feel convinced that tlie
Diamond Steam Packet Company woulil not on any account whatever endau-
ger the lives of their fellow creatures, by permitting their boat 10 enter into a
contest with any vessel propelled hy s» hazardous an agent as high pressure
steam ! " and his letter concluded, " I shall be obligeil by an answer to the
foregoing before entering on the details ot the match.'

I protest that my regard for the lives of my fellow creatures is just as great
as that of Mr. Bilfings and his Company— and I do consider that part ot the
letter maw kish in the extreme. ., t 1 •

But the Ruby was not to get oft' the match quite so easily. 1 answered m
the following words : that '■ 1 accepted the published challenge on the part
of Ihe owner of the ' Fire King,' of fJU3 tons, and with 57-1 inch cylinders oiv
pressure. She is privale property and on no station for passengers ; she has
been alloat to my knowlcrlge s:^ven mimths.r but that has nothing to do with
your challenge, further than that the ' Fire King' comes within the words

" "We purposely omitted the paragraph, as we did not wish the Journal to
be made the medium of betting.— lid, C. E, and A. Journal.
T She has Ijeen ailoat much longer.

2 f 2

252

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[July,

used liv you. ' any boat adoat, whntever may be her size, power, or builil.
Ag.-.inl pies^cl him to enndiido the levms of tlio mateh, and signed myself
asn-ont for Rnborl Napier, of Glasgow. » bo o«ns the I'lro Km"

Atmu 1 found the Rnliy .at fault, for Mr. Billings replied on tlie l,)thjune,
that^as the " Kire Kin"" is low pressure, there could U' no objection to make
the match. Iml that his challenge was published when the Ruby waj '■ lying
up in dock. " at the present time the season is at lis lie.at. and all the boats
of the Biamnnd Comp,anv are iii full employment, and the Ruby could not
he spared olf her statiim' just now. she being their iirincipal boat, you must
therefore let the match stand over until the end oi the season, when the
Ruby could be withdrawn from her station for a few days for the purpose,
if Cmark the saving word ' if ' ) the conditions are agreed to.

To this 1 answered on the IGth .lune, " your favour ot the 1.) h has, 1 must
<!ay surprised me. In this month's " Nautical Magazine you published your
challenge, wherein you had to repeat ' that you were mir/;/ to match the
Ruby to run from firavcsend to Margate and back for 20(J guineas, against
any Ijoat nlloat. whalever may be her size, power, or build. This was pub-
lished on the 1st of ibis month. Mr. Robert Naoier, the owner of the Fire
King metwUhyourchallengesomedaysafterwards intdasgow, and although
much disinclined to race, lie could not allow it to pass unheeded, nr your
ship to be published as faster than the Fire King. He lost no time in in-
structing me. and on the 9lh inst.ant your challenge was accepted in London.
You publicly stated that the Ruliy was "nnrfi/." both last month and this
month after your season had commenced, hut now when you have learned
that th'e Fire "King accepts your challenge, you object to run until after your
" reason " has finished.—] therefore now call upon you, and those concerned
with you. to complete the match, as you are bound in honour to do within
a reasonable time." t c- < o >•

" Requesting the favour of an immediate answer, I am Sir, ytmr s, he.

My next and last letter from Mr. Billings "begs me to recollect that tlie
Ruby is the property of a Public Company, whose engagements being com-
pleted for the season^ thev will not permit the boat to he withdrawn at present
from the station."— So that the grand challenge ends thus in nothing; and I
am confident your readers will conclude with me. that the Ruby shuns the
trial altogetheV, and many of your readers will think as I do, that the Gas-
conade challenge was given in Mr. Billing's letter (which by-the-bye con-
demns " swaggering and boasting '') merely to pulT the Ruby or her engineers,
m the vain confidence that no one would accept it. I beg to assure you I in-
tend nothing disrespectful to Mr. Billings or his Company, or to those behind
the scenes ; it is a pity they should thus have tarnished the lustre of the
Ruby.

1 have now only to conclude by giving to you the '■ Fire King s " rate of
steaming, as ascertained on the fjare-loch last October, in presence of Mr.
John Wood the well known shi])-builder, Mr. Lloyd the assistant-surveyor of
steam machinery of the N.ivy, Mr. .1. Seoit Russell, Mr. Robert Napier, and
myself.

min. sec. . miles

No. 1 measured mile 4 0= 1 '1-45 per hour.

2 .. 3 43 = IB-H'

3 .. 3 r,s -' ir,\s

4 .. 4 13 = li'^

5 .. 4 5= 14U9
G .. 3 42 lC-21

7 .. 3 57 -- 1.51H

8 .. 4 I(i - 14t)(i

8 ) 120-09

Land miles on the average per liour. l.'JOl

Tlie miles were me,asured by us in three different and distinct parties, and
(he times taken by each individually. The Fire King's measurements are as
follows : —

feet. in.
Length over stem and stem posts aloft.... 180 5

Length of keel and fore rake 175 5

Breadth between paddles 28 Oi

Depth in engine-room IG SJ

M.aking in all G(J3 tons 0. M.

I am. Sir, your most obedient serviint,

Alexanobr Gordon,
Agent for Robert Napier of Glasgow.
22, Fliuh/pr-xtreet, ll'ciimiiixler,]
June 23, 1840.

LAUNCH OF TWO IRON STKAM-SHIP.S AT LIVERPOOL.

Tnr confidence entertained in the good properties of iron vessels, .and par-
ticularly their advantage in combining strength with that light draught of
w.ater requisite in some brandies of trade, in peculiar localities, is becoming
daily more and more C(julirmed, by the success, both at home .and abroad,
of the ships built of that materi.al, and the improvements in their construc-
tion which experience enables the builders to introduce. It is not, therefore,
improb.able, but in twenty years lience, or [lerhaps within a shorter period,
one half of our mercantile marine may be of iron, copper, or some compo-
sition of various metals that may be w'rought by liammer, or cast in pieces,
and afterwards jointed, to any given mould or model.

Be this as it may, the construction of "steam" vessels of strong sheet
iron is evidently much on the increase, particularly here and at Glasgow, the
two ))orts that were the first, we believe, in this country, and are still the
most succeaslul, (being piii to their " metal "j in directing their energies to
steam navigation. 'Jlie '• iron Meet " of Kngland is consequently receiving
apul accessions ; and not contented with turning out one vessel at a time.

Mr. John Laird, has several on the stocks at once, and on .Saturday
morning, 6th ultimo, launched two from his yard at North Birkenliead by the
s.ame tide ! The time appointed (the tide being early) was about nine o'clock,
and by that hour a Large cimcourse of persons, including many ladies and
gentlemen from the neighbourhood, and not a few from this side of the
water, were in attendance. Both the vessels were decorated with Hags, and
some parties, besides the workmen, preferred going on board and being
launched with them.

The first one launched was her Majesty's steam-vessel Dover, to be placed
on the station bet»een Dover and Calais, or Ostend. The following are her
dimensions and capacity : —

Length (per measurement) .... 110 feet

Breadth, or beam do. .... 21 feet

Will admeasure about .... 230 tons.

The Dover is the first iron vessel belonging to the Admiralty, and on lier
success will, no doubt, depend the future adoption of vessels oi^ her build by
the government. Slie is of a remarkably fine model, having a degree of ro-
tundity in her sides, with ample bearing, and a fineness in her lines, fore and
aft, which will, in all probability, ensure hera degree of speed and safety not
yet attained by any steam-vessel of her size. A few minutes after nine the
word was given, and she rushed into her destined element in g dlant style,
amidst the hearty cheers of the spectators, followed by a salute fired from
cannon on the quay adjoining the yard.

The second vessel launchetl was the Phlegethon : —

Lenelh (per measurement) . . . 1 .")7 feet G inches.

Breadtli 20 feet.

Capacity, upwards of . . . . .'iOO tons.

.She is intended for sea and river service, on. we believe, a foreign station,
and w ill carry two long guns, one at the bow and one at the stern, to work
within a circle. This vessel is also of a fine model, with ample bearings, so
that she may carry sail when nquirc-d, either with steam or without it.
as her paddle-wheels, on a new principle, by Mr. Forrester, may, when re-
quired, Ije thrown out of gear. .She is hanilsomely. and «e may add. rakishly
rigged as a two-masted schooner, and will, we doubt not, prove to be a clipper.

Slie was launched about halt-past nine o clock, and the sight was one of
the most gratifying ever l)eheld. ,Slie had a considerable distance to run
down Ibe ways before her forefoot reached the water, which slie took like a
swan breasting its native lake. We need scarcely say that the welkin again
rang with the acclamations of the spectators, who lined the yard and the
neighbouring shores, and w hich w ere returned with eijual enthusiasm by those
who stood on her decks. When afloat, the impression she conveyed from her
length and sharpness, w.as that of a very fast and mischievous looking craft.
She has a fine flush deck, and her paddle-boxes do not rise to an unseemly
height over her gunwale.

We believe this is the first instance of two iron vessels being launched from
the same slip by the same tide, nor do we recollect a case occurring in Liver-
pool of two wooden vessels of so large size being launched in one tide.

Both vessels exhibit many improvements in their construction, not tried in
any iion vessel previously built; and which render them two of the strongest
iron vessels afloat. They are now receiving their machinery, — the Dover,
from Messrs. Fawcett. Preston & Co., and the Phlegethon from Messrs.
Forrester & Go's establishment. Both, it is expected, will be ready in the
course of the present month.

Mr. Laird is now building three iron steam-vessels to compose the new
expedition about to be sent by government up the river Niger, under the
command of Captain Trotter, — Liverpool paper.

Tlie Archimedes. — This experimental vessel is gradually working its way all
round the coast, exhibiting its powers at the principal ports. It was at
Liverpool last month. On the 10th ult., we find by the Liverpool Slainlurd,
she made a trip, .and shortly before reaching the Crosby Light-ship, the
Duchess of Lancaster steam-ship was perceived making directly for the port,
and as she was known to be a remarkably fast sailer, and Mr. Smith being
desirous of proving the capabilities of the Archimedes, immediately 'put
about,' and awaited the arrival of the former vessel. On coming up, the screw
was immediately put in motion, and the two vessels went admirably together
for S' me dist.ancc, though we are bound in fairness to state that the Duchess
had a very .slight advantage in respect of speed, owing, as will be seen from
the subjoined comparison, to her proportions as to power, draught, ftc, being
better adapted for quick .sailing. The Archimedes had also the full strength
of the tide to contend with, whilst Iier competitor ran the whole distance in
the eddy. This is the first time the Archimedes has been beaten, with one or
two slignt exceptions.

ARCHIMEDES.

Diameter of cylinder 37 in.

.Stroke 3 ft.

Tonnage 237

Draught 10 ft.

Kstimated steam-power .. 80-horse

Length between perpendicu-
lars 107 ft.

Beam 22ft. 6 in.

Area of midship section at 10
feet draught 143 ft.

DUCHESS OF LANCASTER.

Diameter of cylinder 40 in.

Stroke 3 ft.

Tonnage 238

Draught : G ft.

Kstimated steam-power .. 90-Iiorse

Length between perpendicu-
lars 120 ft.

Beam '20 ft.

Area of midship section at fi
feet draught 100 ft.

As there was a feeling on hoard relative to the slip or loss of power from
the screw, the following explanation will doubtless be satisfactory :— The
screw, being 8 feet pitch, would, if working ina solid, advance 8 feetforeach
revolution ; but, working in a fluid, the relative difference between the speed
of the screw and the vessel appears, at first sight, to be considerable, from the
supposril oblique action of the propeller. The following mode of calculating
the speed of both will show that tlie difl'erence is barely one-sixth, which is
Considerably less than that of ordinary paddle-wheels.

1S40.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

253

"The number of revolutions of the engine per minute is 26, whicli, multi-
plied by the spur wheels 55 times, gives that number of turns to the screw
for one of the engine.

26 revolutions of the engine per minute.
5J multiple.

138 revolutions of the screw per minute.
8 feet pitch of screw.

1104 /«■/ tr.-ivelled per minute.
20 being i of 60, to bring it into

22.080 yards per hour,
wliirli. (livideil by 1760 (the numljer of yards in a statute mile), gives us 12
miles 100 yards per hour as the speed of the screw. Speed of the vessel for
26 strokes per minub", 10 1 0-23 miles per hour by the big."— She left Liverpool
on the llthult.. for the Isle of Man, and performed the run in theshort space of
seven hours and 2') minutes, which is an unusually quick jiassage. The Monn's
Isle was fully two hours longer doing the same distance on the same day,
starting about half an hoiu' later than the Arrhimciles. The Mona is 10 horses
power more than the Archimeilcs, with considerable less tonnage, and draw-
ing two feet less water.

Koi/al Mail Steam Pnci-e(s.— The contract of the " Royal Mall Steam-packet
Company " with the commissioners has just been printed, in return to an
order of the House of Commons. The company covenant to" keep a sufiicient
number (not less than 14) of good and efhcient steani-ves.sels, which shall be
able to carry guns of the largest calibre now used on board of steam-vessels
of war, supplied with engines of not less than 400 collective horse power, as
well as with men, apparel, &C.. and be of at least 1,000 tons burden. One of
these vessels is to leave a port in the British Channel twice in every calendar
month, ami proceed to Harliadnes. as soon as the mails are on board. Alter
an interval not exceeding six hours from her arrival there, she is to proceed
to Grenada, and after remaining a time not exceeding 12 hours, go with the
mails on board to Santa Cruz, thence to St. Thomas's, thence to Nicola M(de
in Hayti. thence to .Santiago de Cuba, and thence to Port Royal in Jamaica.
After remaining at Port Royal for an interv.al nut exceeding 24 hours, the
vessel, aftpr delivering her mails and receiving others, is to proceed to Savan-
nah la Mer. and after a delivery and receipt of mails there, to llavannah in
Cuba. After an interval not exceeding 48 hours she is on her return to pro-
ceed from Havannah to Savannah la Mer, thence to Port Royal, thence to
Santiago de Cuba, thence to Niccda Mole, thence to Samana in Hayti. de-
livering and receiving mails at each place, care being taken that she shall
always" arrive at Samana, after performing her voyage from Barbadoes, on
the 22nd day after the arrival of the mails at Barbadoes from England.
From Samana she is to make the best of her way back to England. Imme-
diately on the arrival at Barbadoes of every steamer employed under the
contract, another of such steam-vessels is to proceed with her mails from
Barbadoes successively to Tobago, Demerara, Berbice, and Paramaribo. The
period of delay at Paramaribo is not to exceed 48 hours, and then the vessel
is to proceed to Berbice, Demerara. Tobago, Grenada, and Barbadoes, always
arriving at Barbadoes in time to depart immediately fur Tobago on the arrival
of one of tiu> vessels at Barbadoes from England. On the arrival at Grenada
of a mail from England, another of the steam-vessels is to proceed from
Grenada successively to St. Vincent. St. Lucia, Martinique, Dominica, Guada-
loupe, Antigua, Montserrat, Nevis. St. Kitt's, Santa Cruz, Tort(da, .St.
Thomas's. St. Juan's (in Puerto Rico), .Samana, Curafoa. Porto Cabello, La
Guayra, Trinidad, and thence back to Grenada, so as always to be ready to
depart thence with the mails on their arrival from England. Another vessel^
likewise, on the arrival at Grenada of the mails from England, is to proceed'
with the mails succes.sively to the Port of Spain (in Trinidad), La Guayra,
Porto Cabello, Curafoa, Samana. St. Juan's. St. Thomas'.s, Tortola, Santa
Cruz, St. Kitt's, Nevis. Montserrat. Antigua, Guadaloupe, Dominica, Marti-
nique, St. Lucia, St. Vincent, and thence back to Grenada, so as to be ready
to depart immediately on the arrival of a mail from England. On the arrival
of any vessel at Curayoa from Grenada, a sailing vessel is to be ready then
to proceed from C'urafoa to Santa Martha, and thence to Carthagena, where
she is to remain 24 hours, and then return to Santa Martha and Curafoa.
On the arrival of a mail from Kngl.and at Nicola Mole, .another sailing vessel
is to proceed thence to the Bahama Islands, and after remaining at New Pro-
vidence for not more than 72 hours, return to Nicola Mcde in time to meet the
steam-vessel. On the arrival of the mail from England at Port Royal, another
steam-vessel is to pmceed thence to C'liagres, Carthagena, Santa Martha, and
thence back to Port Royal in time to meet the return vessels from Havannah.
On the arrival of the mails from England at Savannah la Mer, another sail-
ing vessel is to proceed thence to Trinidad deCuba and Belize (in Honduras),
where after remaining 48 hours, she is to return to Savannah la Mer by the
same route. On the arrival at Havannah of the mails from England, another
steam-vessel is to proceed thence with the mails to Vera Cruz, I'ampico, Mo-
bile, or such other port as the commissioners shall determine, returning from
the last port to Havannah in time to depart for Vera Cruz immediately on
the arrival of the English mail, and another to the Gulf of Mexico, 'Tampico,
and Vera Cruz, and then back to Havannah to meet the mails. Another
steam-packet, on the arrival of the mails from England at llavannah, is to
proceed to Mantanza.? in Cuba, and to New York, stopping at intermediate
ports to be named by the commissioners, and thence to Halifax, returning
back to Havannah, by the same route on the arrival of the mails from Eng-
land. The contract is to commence on the 1st of Decemljer, 1841, or at an
earlier period, if mutually agreed, and to continue in force for ten years from
the first day on which the first vessel shall put to sea for Barbadoes, and for
a longer period, unless determined by twelve months' notice in writing.

Transmission of the Mails to Nortii America.— The contract entered into about
a twelvemonth since for the conveyance of tlie mails by steam-packets of 300
horse power and upwards from England to North America vvill come into
operation immediately, the Britannia steam-ship having arrived at Liverpool

to carry out the first mail : she is to be followed by the Arcadia, Caledonia
and Columbia, all large and powerful vessels. The terms of the contract are,
that the mails shall bo conveyed twice in every month from Liverpool to'
Halifax in Nova Scotia, and from Halifax to Boston in the United States,
and. « bile the St. La« rence is navigable in smaller steam-vessels, from Pictou
in Nova Scotia to Quebec in C^anada. The mails to return by the same route,
twice a month to Liverpool. Tlie contract is for seven years certain, and the
cimtractor is to he paid for performing this service at the rate of 60,000;. per
annum.

Steam to /lleiandria, Egiipt. — The steam ships Oriental (late the United
Slates) and Lieerntol, have been engaged by government to carry the mails
between England and Egypt. The Oriental will be ready to s.ail from Fal-
mouth for Alexandria on the 1st of August, to be succeeded by the Liverpool,
« liich will depart on the 1st of September. These vessels « ill call at Gibral-
tar and Malta, in gong and returning; and they are to be only 15 days on
the passage to Egypt, and the same time on that b.ack to England. Both
ships will, it is expected, sail regularly from and to this port, calling at Fal-
mouth to receive ami deliver the mails and passengers ; so that one may
shortly take a trip hence direct to Egypt, and behold, in a brief visit, all the
wonders of that once glorious land.

PROGRESS OF RAIIi'lVAYS.

ATMOSPHERIC RAILWAY.

We attended on Thursday, the 11th ult., at Wormholt Scrubbs, to witness
an experiment on a portion of the Birmingham, Bristol and Thames Junction
Railway, which had been laid down by Messrs. Clegg & Sannida, on their
patent atmospheric principle ; as might have been expected, the practical
introduction of a system so diftereut from that now in use on other railways,
excited considerable interest.

The idea of employing the power of the atmosphere, against a vacuum
created in an extended jiipe, laid between the rails, and communicating the
moving power thus obtained to propel carriages travelling on a road, we
believe originated with Mr. Medhurst, who laid before the public details of
his plan in a work he published in 1827, entitled " A New System of Inland
Conveyance"; indeed so far back as 1812 he pubUshed some ideas on this
method of locomotion. About 1835 some experiments were made with a
model in Wigniore Street, by Mr. Pinkus, very similar to those described by
IMr. Medhurst ; these experiments, however, failed, from the same cause
which probably prevented Mr. Medhurst from carrying his into effect, viz.,
the impossibility of milking the continuous communication from the inside of
the pipe to the carriage tight enough to allow a useful degree of rarefaction
to be produced. Messrs. Clegg & Samuda's invention overcomes this diffi-
culty in a very simple manner ; indeed the constructing and closing this con-
tinuous valve, by henneticatli/ sealing it up with a composition each time a
train passes, forms the main feature in their invention.

The portion of the line selected on which the experiments were made is
half a mile long, with a rise of 1 in 120 for rather more than half the dis-
tance, and 1 in 115 for the remainder. A continuous cast iron pipe or tube
9 inches in diameter, is fixed between the rails, and bolted to the sleepers
which carry the rail chairs ; the inside of this pipe, which is unhored, is lined
with a strong lubrication of pressed tallow about Jjj of an inch thick, which
equalizes the surface, and prevents any unnecessary friction from the passage
of the travelling piston through it ; along the upper surface of the pipe is a
continuous sUt or groove about IJ inch wide. This groove is covered by a
valve extending the whole length of the railway, formed of a strip of leather
rivetted between iron plates, the top plates being wider than the groove, and
serving to prevent the external air forcing the leather into the pipe when the
vacuum its formed within it, and the lower plates fitting into the groove
when the valve is shut, makes up the circle of the pipe, and prevents the air
entering the tube ; one edge of this valve is securely held down by iron bars
fastened by screw bolts to a longitudinal rib cast on the pipes, and thus
allows the leather between the plates and the bar to act as a hinge, similar
to common pump valves ; the other edge of the valve falls into a groove
which contains a composition of bees-wax and tallow ; this composition is
soUd at the temperature of the atmosphere, and becomes fluid when heated
a few degrees above it. Over this valve is a protecting cover, which serves
to preserve it from snow or rain, formed of thin plates of iron about 5 feet
long, hinged \fith leather, and the end of each plate underlaps the end of the
next in the dbrection of the piston's motion, thus insuring the lifting of each
in succession . To the underside of the first carriage in each train is attached
the piston ami its apjiurtenances ; about six feet behind the piston, the hori-
zontal piston-rod is attached to a connecting arm which passes through the
continuous groove in the pipe, and being fixed to the carriage, imparts mo-
tion to the train as the tube becomes exhausted of the air ; attached to the
piston rod, and preceding the connecting arm, two steel wheels are fixed,
which serve to lift the valve to allow the connecting arm to pass, and also
for the atmospheric air to impinge immediately on the back of the piston ;
another steel wheel, which is attached to the carriage by a spring, serves to
ensure the closing of the valve, by running over it immediately after the
piston has passed, in case it should not fall by its own weight. A copper
tube about 10 feet long, which is constantly kept hot by a small stove, also
fixed to the under side of the carriage, passes over the surface of the com-
position (which has been broken up by lifting the valve out of it), and ren-

254

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[July,

(Icririg it tluiil, wliicl], upon again cooling, becomes solid and hermetically
seals the valve. Thus each train, in passing, leaves the pipe and valve in a
fit state to receive the next train.

For the jinrpose of exhausting the tuhc a steam engine of IG horse power
is emplovcd, whicli works an air-pump or exhauster IS"' inches diameter, and
'>'>\ inches stroke, malung from 40 to 43 strokes per minute. The air-pmup
is connected with the exhaust tube in tlie centre of the railway, by means of
a Inancli pipe 9 inches cUameter leading from the air-pump.

To calculate the power of this kind of apparatus, it is iiescessar>- to ascer-
tain the state of vacuum and the dirt'crencc of the jn-essure of the atmosphere
which forces the piston forward; in the present experiments the vacuum was
C(piivalent to from 13 to 'JO inches of mercury, which will give for the useful
pressure of the atmosphere on the piston about 9 Ih. on the square inch. The
arc:i of the tidie, 9 inclies diameter, is equal to C3-G2 square inches, and this
iiudtiplied bv the pressure, will give

9x63-62 = 572-58 lbs.
for the pressure on the back of the piston, or the moving power.
The load conveyed at each e.xperimeut may be taken as follows : —

Two carriages = 4 tons.

Apparatus attached = 1 ton.

Forty-five passengers = 3 tons.

Total load convejed =8 tons.

The stationary engines and air pumps on this system may he fixed in dis-
tances varying from one to four miles apart, to suit the traffic and convenience
of the line of road ; each section or length of pipe acted on by one engine is
confined between two valves; the vacuum is created to about 18 to 20 inches
of mercur\ before the piston enters the pipe, and is maintained during the
passing of Ibe train by the engine being kept at work ; having passed through
one section of pipe, the momentum the train has attained, senes to carry it
on to tlie next section, which commences at aljout 100 or 200 yards beyond,
and the entrance separating valve of the second section being opened by the
carriage immediately after it has entered, allows the vacuum prepared in this
section to act upon the piston ; thus the train can pass from section to section
without end, and without any stoppage.

F.rperimcnfs. — For the ]nirpose of ascertaining the relative velocity on
various jiortions of the half mile, it was divided into 20 sections of 2 chains
or 44 yards eacli. The carriages were started from a state of rest at the foot
of the inclined (ilane of one in 120, and allowed to run up the incline of half
a mile before the break was applied to arrest the progress of the carriages.
■Wlicn two carriages were attached, they run over the ground, after passing
the first 5 divisions at the velocities of 7, 6, 5, and 4 seconds to each section,
which is equiv.alcnt to 13, 15, 18, and 221 miles per hour; and when one
carriage only was attached, it run over the ground at tlie velocities of 6,5, 4,
and 3 seconds to each division, which is equivalent to 15, 18, 225, and 30
miles per hour. The last dirision in each experiment was done at the greatest
velocity, wldcli clearly shows that had the experiment been made on a mile
run instead of a lialf inile, the experiment would have been far more favour-
able and satisfactory ; and if the experiment had been made on a level, about
lOUr times the above load might have been conveyed at the same velocity.

We noticed that it took about 11 minute to raise tjie vacuum each trip, to
about 18 inches of mercury.

From the aliove experiments, tlie loads drawn, and the speed attained, will
be as good a criterion of the success of the undertaking at we can have, and
when we consider that in producing these results, the patentees must have
been wholly unassisted by any previous examjilcs, w^e think that the greatest
credit is due to the talent and ingenuity they have displayed. The system
appears to us to possess many advantages which must insure it the serious
consideration of the engineer. The carriages travel without noise, and with-
out the risk of explosion, or of getting off the rail. It does not seem possible
that a collision of trains can take place, for two trains cannot receive power
from the same section of pipe at the same time, neither can they receive
power in opposite directions on the same rail. The speed on this system
must be proportioned to the capacity of the air-pumps used to -maintain the
exhaustion in the tulies, and therefore any rate of travelling that may be
deemed desirable may be easily attained.

French Railwai/s.—'nw Railway Committee held another meeting last week
in Paris, and afier hearing parties interested in the five companies affoeted
ijv the (lovernmont Ijill, took into special cunsidcration that part of tlie mea-
sure which reUlcs to the lines frc.in LiUc and Valenciennes to the Belgian
fronliers. The Commiltec approved of these two lines being executed Ijy
GuvernmeiU, not only on account of precautions that might be itciulered ne-
cessary by llic defence of the frontier; but also because the .'ormation of
trealies with Belgium iniglil lender it ilcsirablc that ibese lines should Ije in
the bands of the .Sfalc. 'I'hc t'onimittee was of opinion that ibe terminalion
of these lines was the more called fur, since ibe Beli^ian lines to the frontier
were already executed. The line from Lille to the frontier near Mouserun is
14.125 meiers in length, or 47.000 English feet; and that from Valenciennes
lo Ihe frontier near tijuievrain is 03,128 metres, or 43,000 feet ; the first is to
cost I.OOO.OOOf, tbc latter 4,000,000f The Committee adopted this part of
the bill almost unanimously, as also the lines and surveys as approved of by
the administration of the Punts et Chaussees. — Railwiii/ Timrs.

IJmiclhi Jtiiilimy. — The present state of the new line is as follows : — From
the Dock at Llanelly to Parkrhyn (main line) eleven miles, and from thence
up to the terminus of Cwm Amman branch, six miles, altogether seventeen
miles, the line has been completed .and open for traffic, over uhicli the loco-

motive engines of the Company are travelling. — From that point, viz. Parkrhyn,
up to Dultryn Lodge (aljout a mile and a half further on the main hue) ibe
same is nearly completed, the rails having been laid, and the filling in in
progress. — From that point on the main line, viz., DuIlVyn Lodge, the branch
li'ading to Mr. L(mg Wrey's collieries, and Messrs. Morris, .Sayce, and Cu.'s,
is in c(,urse of forward progi-ess, and will be completed by 1st Jimnary next,
tliis Ijrancb is altogether about four miles in length, and leads lo sever.al
eolleries of capital coal. The Company have entered into a ctmlr.ict with
Mr. M'rey, to bring for seven years at least 10.000 tons yearly down this
braneli. which will yield railway and dock dues, .as a minimum amount, the
sum of 1.000/. per annum — The two new locomotive engines to which re-
fereui-e was made in the last annual Report as then ordered, are now at
Llanelly, and one of tlieni. the Albert, is engaged in traversing the line, in
hauling coal down to Llanelly. The Committee are persuaded that the carry-
ing trade » lii. h will thus be secured to them by locomotive (Xiwer, will be a
source of profit when the quantity of coal, iron, &c., shall be increased :
whilst as an auxiliary to the general traffic the use of steam pi-mer is un-
questionably of great importance. — Directors ileport.

Preston mid iVijrc Iliii I wa;/.— The Directors have made an ;u-rangemeiit for
one year with the North Union Railway to supply this Company with loco-
motive engines at 2.'.'. id. per mile per train, and with the first-class carriages
at a penny per mile each, and with second-class at a halfpenny pi-r mile each.
This Avill prevent the present outlay of a con.sider;ible capital, a circumstance
particularly desirable until the extent of the traffic on the line has been ascer-
tained.

Great North of England Railwai/. — The works of the Great North of England
Railway between York and Darlington, are in so forward a state, that the
Directors of the Company have employed Mr. Green, of Darlington, architect,
to furnish designs for depots upon the line. — Leeds Intelligencer, Mnij 30.

The Cheltenhnm /fn/Vici/;/.!.— ^Vithin the last few days the bank which sepa-
rated the Birmingham aiid Gloucester works from the Cheltenham and Great
AVestcrn, between the station and Lansdown Bridge, has been cut through,
from which circiimst nee we should infer that a satisfactory arrangement has
been entered into by the two Companies. The gieatest exertions are making:
to complete tlie work up to the Lansdown bridge, and from the number of
bands employed, and the activity displayed, we should fancy that a very
short space of time will suffice for the atta'inment of that oh'iect.— Cheltenhnm
Journal.

Locomotive Carriage .—'Wit . Hills lately made a very successful trip to and
from Camberwell and Brighton with his patent locomotive carriage, the dis-
• tancc from Camberwell to Brighton was performed in 5 hours and lU minutes,
out of which time one hour 21 minutes was lost by delays in obtaining a sup-
ply of water at the inns, and 10 minutes delay on the road. Tlic return trip
» as accomplished in 5 hours 22 minutes, out of which time one hour four
minutes was lost by delays in obtaining water, and 26 minutes delay by
stoppages on the road ; the delays in obtaining water will be reduced very
consid(?rably, when proper stations and stated periods for arrival are made,
the whole of the stoppages need not occupy more than 12 minutes, which,
according lo the speed the carriage ran on the road, the journey from London
to Brighton might be very well accomplished in about three hours and a half.
Our correspondent, who accompanied Mr. Hill on his trip to London, states
tli.at the form of the carriage is a handsome britzka, that there is scarcely
any noise from the working of the engine, or escape of steam, and no aii-
pearance of smoke ; on descending hills it is easily regulated by powerf^ul
retarders. and griided with the greatest facility. We hope at some future
time to be able to give some additional information connected with the cost
of a carriage, and the «'orking of the same.

NJiMV CHURCHES, &c

Pli/monlh. — On Tuesday 20th May the foundation stone was laid of a new
Church in Southside-streel. in this borough, and which is to be calleil
" Trinity Church." From the peculiar circumstances of its locality, itdilTera
greatly from the usual fiirm of New Churches. Its interior may be described
as a square of about 70 feet, diviiled into tlu'ee parts by t« o parallel Tuscan
colonnades, each surmounted by an attic range of semicircular windows,
forming a r/cre.t/on/ as in our cathedral churches. The traverse section of the
building, therefore, exhitjtts a nave of aljout 35 feet high, by 37 feet wide,
and two aisles, each about 23 feet high, bv Iti feet wide, the galleries being
constructed along the latter. The building being surrounded by houses. Sic.
on the north, south, and west sides, the only light, in addition to that of the
clerestories, is derived from three windows at the east end, the central one
being a large three-light Venetian window over the altar, which terminates a
recess extending about 14 feet eastward from the main body of the church :
on each side of the altar projection is an entrance porch ; and there is a third
porch in the centre of the north side to allord an entrance from Soutbside-
street. The bell turret, surmounting a pediment over the great east window,
is'in the simple form of an areli ilanked by pilasters, and crow»ed \vith a
small pediment, a repetition of the larger one below. It is anticipated that
the perspective of Ibe interior looking from the western end will be Ijoldly
pielurest|ue and ecclesiastical ; that the ellect of the loftv clerestories will be
not less striking, than novel, as a modern application of Italian architecture ;
and that the altar-piece, with its triple Venetian window over, will form an
imposing termination to tile vista. The church is calculated to allord accom-
modation for .about 1100 sittings, of which 630 are free. George Wightwick,
Esq., is the architect.

Nartliamptonshire.—'lihc Hon. H. Watson, brother of Lord Sondes, with
praiseworthy munificence, intends erecting anew church at Guilsijorougli,
entirely at his own expense. The cost of the building, it is said, will amount
to upwards of 5,000/.

1840.J

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

25''5

Tlir Temple Cliiircli. — This ancient and beautiful edifice is closed, in order to
its being thnroiiglily clecmscd, repaired, and restored, lextcrnally and inter-
nriljy. AV^e understand that the bencliers of the t\\'o Temples have determined
that no etf^irts or exi)cnse shall be spared in tliis work of renovation. The
richly ornamented Norman entrance, which is unfortunately so hidden by
the adjacent buildings, is tu be restored to its original perfection. The organ,
one of the finest in ].,ondon. is to undergo a complete examination and repair.
Some changes more in keeping with the general style of the architecture are
contemplated in the interior of the building ; and the interesting monuments,
and other decorations and anti.juilies, of this venerable pile, are to re-appear
in a state more worthy of the characters and events they are intended to
perpetuate, and more likely to command the attention and admiration of the
spectator.

Connvnll.— On Thursday. ''8th May last, Christ-church Chajjel of Ease, at
Lanner, in the parish of Gwennap, was 0j)ened. It is from designs by Mr.
Wightwick, of Plymouth, in the Anglo-Italian style, neatly finished with
grr.nite dressings, having the timbers of the roof-trusses open to view, the
under side of the rafters lieing ceiled, a plan consistent uith economy, and
affording ample breathing room for the 400 free sitters who occupy it. It
lias been built by subscription, aided by grants from the Diocesan Board and
the Incorporateil Society of fjondon. — The foundation stone of another chapel,
also from designs by Mr. ^^'ightH'ick, was laid on Whit-^Ionday last, at
Portreath, in the parish oflllogan, in the county of Cornwall. This chapel
is of about the same capacity as the one at Lanner, but in the lancet pointed
style ; and like the former, is to be entirely occupied with free sittings. — Mr.
Wightwick is also engaged in preparing plans for a free chapel in the Anglo-
Norman style at Flushing, near Falmouth ; and he is superintending the
conversion of a building. Ibrmerly used as a Unitarian Meeting House, into
an Episcopal Chapel, at Falmouth.

Sussex. — The new church in the parish of Lower Beeding, was consecrated
on Tuesday, June 2. — The building of the new Chapel of Ease in Horsham is
making satisfactory progress, the work being executed in a manner highly
creditable to the builder. Mr. Darby. — In the quarry which is worked for the
building stone of this chapel, several fossil bones, in good preservation, have
lately been discovered. They are supposed to be portions of the Iguanodon.
Thi' best specimens have been added to the excellent local collection oi' Mr.
G. B. Holmes.

Lineohishire. — An addition fo Tborney Abbey is now being made, the first
stone of which was laid June 24, 18.39, in tlie Norman style of architecture,
consisting ot a transept across the east end of the present part, ivhieh makes
the Alibey in the form of a T ; it is designed by Edivard Blore, Esq., archi-
tect. The addition is (iSfeet by 30 feel fi inches, and will have a very hand-
some painted window, a copy from the one in Becket's crown in Canterbury
Cathedral, which was put up in the old part, but was removed in a few
months for the present work. The pulpit, reading, and eb rk"s desks will be
at the altar, forming a very handsome screen, altogether executed in wainscot,
and the old part painted in imitation of that wood ; the littings are in the
Gothic style.

PUBIiIC BUILDINGS, &c.

TRAFALGAR SQUARE.

IIf.tcb.n to an order of the Hon. the House of Commons, dated .June 10, 1840'
for a return of the arrangements entered into between the Commissioners
of Woods and Forests and the Committee for erecting the Nelson Monu-
ment in Trafalgar-square; and also a Statement of the Plan approved and
sanctioned by the C'ommissioners of M'oods and Forests for laying out the
vacant .Space in front of the National Gallery, and whether it will be all
or in part open to the Public. Ordered by the House of Commons to be
nrinti'd, June 1."), 1840.

The Lords Commissioners of Her M.ijesty's Treasury having approved of
the designs submitted to them for the Nelson Monument, and of the appro-
priation of a portion of Trafalgir-s(|uare as a site lor the same, the Commis-
sioners of ^^''oods. ^e.. were authorised by Treasur}' letter, bearing date the
27lh of January, 1840, to deliver over such site to the committee. The whole
of the arrangements bet« een the Commissioners of "Woods and the comiiiiltee
for the erection of the monument up to the present time have been limited tu
the delivery of the site.

The plans submitted to the Commissioners of Woods, &c., in 1837, by the
late Mr. M'ilkins, contemplated an architectural appropriation of the square
in accordance with, and intended to increase the effect of. the National Gal-
lery. The Commissioners of Woods have adhered to the principle of the plan
suggested to them by Mr. Wilkins ; but, in consequence of his death, and
the subsequent selection of the present design for the Nelson Monument, the
Chief Commissioner of Woods, &c., has committed the laying out of the
square to Mr. Barry.

According to the plan which lie has suggested (and which, as regards the
excavation of the ground originally proposed by Mr. Wilkins, is now in pro-
gress), the whole of the space in front of the National Gallery, with the ex-
ception of the roadways forming its respective boundaries, will be low ered
from south to north to the level of the footway leading from Cockspur-street
to liie Strand. The roadway in front of the National Gallery, and conse-
quently the whole of that building, will, by this arrangement, stand upon a
terrace from eight to ten feet in elevation. The access to the s(|uare from
this roadway will be by a terrace-landing and flight of steps opposite to, and
of the width of, the portico of the building. The steps and the sustaining
walls, by which it is intended, upon three sides, to enclose the square, will he
of granite i the posts with which it is intended to surround the square are
also to be of granite, and connected with a bar of iron, as a protection to the
respective roadways. The square will be accessible on the north by the steps

already mentioned, and on the south by openings to be left between the
posts in front of the Nelson Monument. The whole of the area of the square
not occupied by that monument is to be either flagged with stone or laid
down with asphalte. and will be open to and traversable by the public at all
hours of the day.

The whole area to be excavated and appropriated as a place or square will
be in extent, from north to south, 2.50 feet, and from east to west, 340 feet.
The site of the column will occupy a space immediately connected with the
footway leading from Cockspur-street to the Strand of 82 feet square.

DuNr^NNoN f Commissioners of Her Majesty's
Charles Go'p.f.,! ^Voods, Forests Land Revenues, Works
l and Buildings.

N.B. The ground removed from Trafalgar-square is applied in levelling and
improving the surface of the Green Park.

Office of Woods, &,c., June 12, 1840.

[We highly approve of this arrangement, and have no doubt the effect of
giving he ght to the National Gallery in the manner proposed, will greatly
improve that building. — Ed. C. E. and A. Journal.]

Iiorhd(ih\ Lnnrashire. — A bank and manager's residence, in connection with
the Liverpool and Manchester District Banking Company, is in course of
erection, from the designs, and under the superintendance of Mr. Harrison,,
architect, of this town. The building comprises a bank and board-room,
strong room, and a private residence. It will present a neat fafade to Bai llie-
street, the lower part being of rusticated masonry, and the whole crowned bv
a Grecian dentil cornice and blocking course. The contracts are under 1,400/.

Tlie Kational Promnciul B(wlc nf En gland. — This establishment which with
its numerous provincial branches, has been in active operation for seven or
eight years, has lately taken possession of its new and extensive town pre-
mises in Bishop.sgate-street. better known as Salvador House, the residence of
tl:e late William Mellish. Esq., at whose death the property was sold and
purchased by the Company. To render the place suitable for its inteniied uses,
the old houses in front abutting upon the street, and the stables intervening
between them, and the mansion jiave all been taken down, and in their place
the present alterations have been made, under the direction of John Burges
Watson, Esq., architect. The entrance consists of a carriage and two loot
gates, situated between two Greek Doric lodges, that on the south side for a
porter, the opposite one, with the new ranges of ofllces behind, each being
about 100 feet in depth, are for the occupation of other officers of the estab-
lishment ; between the further termination of these and the mansion, (now
called the Bank House in contradistinction to the front offices), is sufficient
space for carriages to take up and set down. The bank-house is approached
by a spacious porch and lobby, and leads to au entrance-hall, which retains
lis original ceiling with decorated compartments, being in character with tlie
older parts of the house. It is paved throughout with black and white mar-
ble ; in the right of the entrance, is the public banking room, of large dimen-
sions, and w hich lias been procured by throwing two rooms into one, this
affords accommodation for about 40 clerks in addition o the usual counter
for cashiers, &c., ;.nd enclosures for other functionaries ; the whole has been
finished in the most complete manner. The walls are jointed and coloured
to imitate stone, having mahogany fittings, scagliola pilasters, and a richly
decorated cornice ; on tlie left of the hall are waiting rooms, and on the same
floor the accomptants' room, inspectors' room, and two strong moms. The
hall leads to the principal staircase, w Inch is unique, and consists of a centre
and two side fights leading to the landing on the first floor, in this staircase
the ends of the steps, are c.irved and a decorate<l baluster rests on ea,ch in
wdiich is introduced, a medallion of the late king, in which reign the com-
pany was first established, on the obverse is a figure emblematical of com-
merce. The apartments on the lirst lloor comprise the board-room for
directors, the room for sub-committees, manager's room, secretary's room.
See., and the remaining portion of the house forms a residence for one ot two
of the principal clerks. The pediment, which is of Portland stone, has been
added to the Bank-house, and is charged with the Arms of England and
Wales, to which porti;ins of the United Kingdom, the operations the Com-
pany are limited by Act of Parliament.

Lirerpool. — A building foJ' the use of an Institution to be called the Colle-
giate Institution for the l';ducati(m of the Commercial Trading and M'orking
Classes, is about to be erected in this town. Designs have been adverlised
for, and tn o premiums £50 ami £2.'j proposed. The cost is to be £1,5,000, and
the style of architecture Tudor pointed. The drawings to be sent in on the
1st July.

Jshton-uniler-Li/ne.—A Town-hall is in course of erection here, under the
direction of Messrs. Young and Westall. architects of Manchester. The
building, wdiich is to be faced entirely with stone, is in the Roman style of
architecture ; and consists in front of an attached Corinthian colonnade in
aiiti.'i, surmounted Ijy a balustrade of the same order, which forms a parapet;
to the centre of the lafade, and is crow ned by a group of sculpture. The
wings consist of a single interpilaster. and terminate above with a plain
parapet. The order itself, w hich is divided into first and second floor, and is
continued uninterruptedly round the edifice, is elevated upon a lofty stylo-
bate. Its proportions are chiefly taken from the Pantheon at Rome. The
interior will contain a large room 83 feet by 40 feet, and 28 feet high. It
also comprises accommodation for the town's autliorities, committees. Sec, a
constable's residence, lireman's house, anil six lockups in the basement, w hich
is principally fire-proof. The works, as contracted for, amount to about
£G,000.

Road-Brirlis Duty /"rcc— During a discussion at the last East Riding ses-
sions, on one of the applications relative to parochial highways, it was stated
by a surveyor that a request having been made to Government for leave to
manufacture bricks free of duty, for the purpose of repairing Iiigbways, the
Chancellor of the Exchequer had granted the required permission to those
parishes in which clittstone could not be obtained lor the purpose of such
epajrs.— iS'^ci'Apwf Advertmr,

25B

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[Jui.Y,

I.IST OF NEW PATENTS.

GRANTED IN ENGLAND FROM 28tH M,\Y TO 24tH JUNE, 1810.

Henry Augustus Taylor, of New York, now of Milk Street, Cheapside,
Merchant, for " hnproremcnts in the ninnufacture ofhraid and phihy Com-
municated by a foreigner residing al)road. — Sealed May 28 ; six months for
enrolment.)

Alexander Francis Campbell, of Great PUimstead, Norfolk, Esquire,
■nnd Charles 'White, of the city of Norwich, Mechanic, for " improvummfs
in ploughs and certain other a:/ricttlturat implements." — May 28 ; six niontlis.
Sir Josiah John Guest, of tlie Dowlais Iron M'orks, Glamorgan, Bart.,
and Thomas Evans, of the same jilacc, Agent, for " certain improvements
in the mannfacture of iron and other mctnls." — May 28 ; four months.

Edmund Leach, of Rochdale, Lancaster, Macliinc Maker, for " certain
improrements in machinert/ or apparatus for cardinti, dontjting, and jtrepnring
v'l/ol, cotton, silk,fla.x, and other Jilirons sntiKlances." — May 28 ; six months.
Daniel Gooch, of Paddington Green, Engineer, for " certain improve.
ments in wheels and locomotive engines to be used on railways. — May 28 ; six
months.

William Henry Smith, of York Road, Lambeth, Civil Engineer, for
" nn improvement or improvements in the mode of resisting sJtocks to raihratj
carriages and trains, and also in the mode of conneetidg and disconnecting
raiheay carriages, alio in the application of springs to carriages." — May 28 ;
six months.

George Henry Bursill, of River Lane, Islington, Gentleman, for " an
improved method or methods of weighing, and certain improvements in weigh-
ing machines." — May 28 ; six months.

James Allison, of Xlonkwearmouth, Durham, Iron Master, and Roger
LuMSDEN, of tlie same place, Cliain and Anclior Manufacturer, for "/m/)TO!'e-
ments in the manufacture of iron knees for ships and vessels" — May 30 ; six
months.

John Baptist Wicks, of Leicester, Frame-work Knitter, for " improve-
ments in maciiinerg employed in frame-work knitting or stocking fabrics" —
May 30 ; si.x niontlis.

William Pettitt, of Bradwell, Bucks, Gentleman, for " a communicating
apparatus to be applied to railroad carriages." — May 30 ; two niontlis.

John Hawi.et, of Frith Street, Soho, Watcli Maker, for " improvements
in pianos and harps." Communicated by a foreigner residing aliroad. —
June 1 ; six months.

Pierre Defaure De Montmiral, of Lonilon Wall, Gentleman, for
" certain improvements in the manufacture of bread." Communicated by a
foreigner residing abroad. — June 2 ; six months.

Richard Freen Martin, of Derby, Gentleman, for " certain improve-
ments in the manufacture of certain descriptions of cement." — June 2; six
months.

Samuel Salisbury Egales, of Liverpool, Engineer, for " certain im-
prove7nents in obtaining motive pouter." — June 2; six months.

James Harvey, of Basing Place, Waterloo Road, Timber Mercliant, for
" certain improvements in paving streets, roads, and ways, with blocks of
wood, and in the machinery or apparatus for cutting or forming such blocks."
— June 2 ; six months.

William Southwood Stoker, of Birmingliam, for " certain improve-
ments in machinery applicable to making ttails, pins, and rivets." — June 2 ;
six months.

Christopher Dain, of Edgbarton, Warwick, Gentleman, for " certain
improvements in the construction of vessels for containing and snpplying ink
arid ot tier fluids."— -June 2 ; six months.

James Roberts, of SheftieUl, Merchant, for " an improved mode of fasten-
ing certain kin/Is of horn and hoof handles to the inniruments requiring tlie
sayne." — June 3 ; six months.

Samuel Wagstaff Smith, of Leamington, Iron Founder, for " improve-
ments in apparatus for supplying and consuming gas." — June 9 ; six mouths.
Robert Hampson, of Mayfield Print-Works, Manchester, Calico Printer,
for " an improved method of block-printing on woven fabrics of cotton, linen,
.silk, or wollen, or of any two or more of tliem intermired, with improvett
machinery, apparatus, and implements for that purpose." — June 9 ; six
montlis.

Alexander Southwood Stoker, of Birmingliam, for " improveynents in
the manufacture of tubes for gas and other purposes." — June 9 ; six inontlis.
Christopher Nickels, of York Road, Lambeth, Gentleman, for " im-
provements in the manufacture of braids and plaits." Communicated by a
foreigner residing abroad. — June 9 ; six montlis.

Thomas Edmonson, of Manchester, Clerk, for " certain improvements in
printing presses." — June 9 ; six months.

John George Shuttleworth, of Fcamley Place, GIossop Road, Sheffield,
Gentleman, for "ccWam improvements in railway and other propulsion." —
June 9 ; six montlis.

Francis Greaves, of Radford Street, Sheffield, Manufacturer of Knives
and Forks, for " improvements in the manufacture of knives and forks."- —
July 11 ; six months.

William Lance, of George Y'ard, Lomliard Street, Insurance Broker, for
" a new and improved, imtrument or apparatus, to be used in wliate Jishery,

port or ]iarts ofwitich, upon an increased scale, arc also applicable as a tnotioe
power for driving machinery." — June II ; six montlis.

Benjamin Winkles, of Nortliampton Street, Islington, Copper Plate
Manufacturer, for " certain improvements in the arrangement and construc-
tion of paddle-wheels, and water-wheels." — June 11 ; six montlis.

Joseph Wolverson, of Willenhall, Stallbrd. Locksmith, and William
Rawlett, of the same place, Latcli-inaker, for " certain improvements in
locks, latches, and other fastenings .for doors." — June 13 ; six montlis.

Ezra Jenks Coates, of Bread Street, Cheapside, Merchant, for ■' certain
improvements in propelling canal and other boats." Communicated by a
foreigner residing .il)ro,id. — June 13; six months.

Edward John Carpenter, of Toft Monks, Norfolk, a Commander in the
Royal Navy, for " improvements in the application rf macfiinery for assisting
I'cssels in performing certain evolutions upon tlie water, especially tacking,
veering, propelling, steering, casting or winding, and backing astern." —
June 13; six months.

Richard Beard, of Egremont Place, New Road, Gentleman, for " ?»n-
provements in apparatus for taking or obtaining likenesses and representations
of nature and drawings and other objects." Communicated by a foreigner
residing aliroad. — June 13; six months.

Richard Prosser, of Birmingham, Civil Engineer, and John James
RippoN, of Wells Street, Middlesex, Ironmonger, for "certain improvements
in apparatus for heating apartments, and in apparatus for cooking." —
June 17; six months.

Richard Prosser, of Birmingham, Civil Engineer, for " certain improve-
ments in manufacturing buttons for certain materials, which improvements
in mnmifacturing are applicable in whole or in jiart to the production of
knofjs, rings, and ot/ier articles from the same materials." — June 17; six
montlis.

Thomas De la Rue, of Bunhill Row, Manufacturer, for " improvements
in printing calicoes and other surfaces." — June 20 ; six montlis.

John Aitchison, of Glasgow, Merchant, and Archibald Hastie, of
West Street, Finsbnry Square, Merchant, for " certain improvements in gene-
rating and condensing steam, heating, cooling, and evaporating fluids." —
June 24 ; six months.

William Hickling Bennett, of Wharton Street, Bagnigge Wells Road,
Gentleman, for " improved machinery for cutting or working wool." — June 24 ;
six montlis.

William Wood, of Wilton, Carpet Manufacturer, for " certain improve-
ments in looms for weaving carjiets and otiier fabrics." — Juue 24 ; six
montlis.

AA'illiam Ash, of Slieffield, Manufacturer, for " certain improvements in
augers, or tools for boring." Communicated by a foreigner residing abroad.
June 24 ; six months.

Joseph Leese, Jun., of Manchester, Calico Printer, for " certain improve-
ments in the art of printing calico and oilier surfaces." — June 24 : six
months.

TO CORRESPONDENTS.

r.KRATA IN LAST MONTH S JOURNAL.

The 11 last hues of col. I, p. 194, ought to liave been placed at tlie fnp of
the column.

Page 195, col. 2, 14 lines from the butlom, for "more tJian," read "less
than."

Page 196, col. 1, 26 lines from the bottom, for " I with defcraice,' icAd
" Jf'ifh dc/creuce."

P:ige 213, col. 2, 18 lines from the bottom, for " diameter '' read " circiim-
fercvcr."

IVc hnrr rerciri'd a letter from Mr. Peppereorne on the suhject of our rn-irw
of his paniphh't nn tht' supply of water to the melrnpolis. He seems t'ntirehj In
Itavv mi.sundvrlnnd whnl wr said ; in mrntioniug Ids " temeritg " in proposing a
plan for fltrriug Thames water, we only intended to give him an ironieal hint
thill he hiul, by such proposition, placed himself in the category of those " artful
and ntischievous persons," who raise doubts as to the purity oj Thames water.

Commnnieations received from Mr. East, Mr. Slieppard, Mr. Neville, Mr.
Barrett, and B., wilt be inserted mxt mouth.

The Drawings of the Bridge over the River Dove, do not enter sufficiently into
detail to render them suitable for the Journal.

IVe shall be happy to receive, from our correspondent at Liverpool, the notice he
offers.

We thank Mr. Radford and E. for their attention.

We coulinuc to receive several communications on tiic suhject of eompelitious,
which would half Jill our Journal, and the insertion of them, we are jearjul, would
net he of much, .wrviee. The remedy lies with the profession as a body.

Mr. Pjiillips ivill .find an aeknowledgmcnt of his communication in last month*s
Journal ; it is unavoidably deferred.

Communieatious are rrauested to he addressed to " The Kilitor of the Civil
iMiginc'cr and Architect s Journal," No. 11, Parliament Slrecl, Westminster _

Hooks for review must he sent early in the month, connuunicalions on or before
Ihe 20lh (if with drawings, earlier), and advertisements on or before the 25th
iusliint.

The First Volume may be had, bound in cloth and lettered in golD)
Pbjce I7s.

*^,* The Secoud Volume ma\- .\lso ee rav. Price 20i,

o

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5

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OR THE INT(L

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I • 1U«)i^ J^** W OH l^K

PRELIMINARY I'ROSI'ECTl

M E R C A N T r 1. E MARINERS' H 0 i\l E AND H 0 S P I T A L ,

TO BE ERECTED AMB PBOVXDEO FOK, IH THE FZaBT INSTAITCE, BT A

CAPITAl. or FIVE HUNDRED THOU8AKD POUNDS.

SUSCEI'TIULK <il- A I'KHPETIAL INCItEASE, BOTH BY PROI'RIKTOHS AND DdNOHS. OWNiillS AND SAII.OUS.

SIR,
Tm: gri'iit li-adiiig objvcts of this ualioiinl under Inking arc, to provide a Second Greentcicli Hospital for seamen not in the
Ko)al Service— to erect n Dpecii-s of Innarance i» t.i/v against Age, Illnejis. or Accident— to offer an inthicemeul,
un|iftralK'lcd iu any other Country, to our Coinnifrcial Mariners, not to he tc»ii>led lo enter into the Service of America or
olher Slates, where no sucli provi>ion is, or can be made for Itriliiih subjects— and. in an especial decree to cuhivate
habits of pmdeucc in those who hitherio have been proverbially iniprudcut, by offering them, for a very small portion of
ibose earnings, (generally Kuerificeii Iu intemperance or to trickery,; a noble Institution, Kood, Clothing, and lx)dging, or
an adecjuate Income to enjoy each ; and the whole conferred, not as a matter of charity, but aa b matter of properly, being
ut oneo " Tile Seaman's Refuge and Itigbl/'

All these ihingn are of eiwy neconiplishmenl. The Sailor, should he live lo be fifty years of age, and have paid his
tjuola of the Insurance, may calculate on receiving at least ten times the value of the amount he has paid, partly by the
accnmulationa of Comp«)und Interest ; parity by ibe deaths of those who pay, but <lo not live to enjoy ; partly by the joint
Subscriptions of Owners and Merchants ; partly by the Contributions of the I'otriotio. jind I'liilanthropic, many of whom
arc anlenlly disposed lo o^ist lhi» Institnliun; and, generally, from the nalionalily of its character and objects.

In nihhlion lo these wmrces «if income and objects <»f ulilily. it is contemplated to add lo the I*ro6tj», and at the same
tmie protect the Merennlde Seaman from those whom he most emphulically and most truly calU " Land Sharks." by
nuiimg ihe brnefila of a Saving Hank and a Loan Inslituliou to the olher, and more important, features of the plan.

It is proiHueil that a large proportion of the original Capital shall be devotetl to the erection of the Building, upon
some site near the 'i'hanies : and that the whole of ihe proprietary Capital, amounting lo £.'JOO,IKlO, shatt be raised by ihe
sale of lerminaWe annuilieo for sixty jmrn, al seven per ccnl. per annum interest, redeemable at the market price, when
above [mr, by ihe Trvslei-s of ihe lustiiulion, at their option; and when the whole are nxleemetl, or have expired, the
entire property to belong to Urilish Mercantile Mariners, and their succeisor?., as a Home and an Hospital for ever.

It will be necessary in the eonslniclton of Ihe Building lo divide il into classes; hence, under ihe sanction and
superintendence of the ablest and the best practical men, all disonler will he avoided ; and station and position ia Society
will be preserve<l tu meet ihe views as well as to it>nduce lo ihe comforts of ihe occu|«nls.

l^arhament will be appUed to for an Act, or the Government for a Koyal Charter, lo limit the responsibility of tho«e
who may take Shares as Proprietors. Of course, Beriuests. Donations, or Annual Subscriptions, create no risk, and hence
require no proteotion-lhe lutler, it is hoped, will furnish a very large, and consta.Kly increanng, proportion of the Funds
of the Institution, which, in addition to the small payments by the Soilors themselves, who shall, in all cases, have a
latitude of at least two years, to make up their deficiencies will, in time, dispense with the necessity of proprietorship
altogether. In the year I'JUU, if not before, the Institution will belong to the nation.

These general views are thrown out for consideration and advit
departed from, is, a Homk

The only grand principle which can never be

AND ITS COMKOIITS, KO(t AriRO, DIXAVED, OH DISAIK.ED SraHKS, NOT OTFIRItWISK I'HOVrDKD

Foit. With thankfulness, will any suggestion be received, and with cheerfulness adopted, to alter and amend any part of
the plan. Already, itidividuals of distinction have expressed their determination lo support the object by every means in
their power. W hen a sufticienl number lo form a CJcneral Committee, have signified their adhesion to that object, without
bemg expected to adhere to the plan, as sketched out, they will be called together, an.l asked to elect a Council or Hoard
of Management, from among themselves, of qualified Member.. Such Committee and such Council, if entirely approving
of each other, but not otherwise, will have their names published. It is ho,.e<l that this may be effected during the
present Session of Parliament, and nothing but a want of sufficient consideration of its great public and private benefits,
cao impede or retard its speedy completiou.

Every suggestion or adhesion is requested to be made in writing, and will be forthwilb acknowle<Ige<l by

Sir.
Your must obedient and humble Scr\'ant,

W. S. NORTHHOCSK,

(Tfinpoiaiir fRanaitt.
At titv Offti-t: a/lhv Saliiifort Iu llu- luHlUiilUm,

June, 1840.

Mi:ssKH, WlI.Kl.N'sON & P^

Oitililh'iU yard, Ijondoi

J-2E . Jhihini^^('^^ '

I840.J

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

257

ELIZABETHAN SHOP FRONT.

CORXER OF OXFORD STREET AND BERXERS STREET.

With an Engraving, Plate XIII.

Our readers will recollect that last year the decline of the Louis
Quatorze style, and approaching rise of the revival was announced
in the Journal, and already to a certain extent is this realized, the
Louis Quatorze after a long and widely extended rule has already gone
to the tomb of its predecessors, and will leave scarcely a wreck be-
hind. Known to us only in one of its very worst forms, that of its de-
cline during the reign of Louis the Fifteenth, it became Iiere the most
unmeaning and unintellectiial mass of patching and gilding by which
the public taste has ever been perverted. Still, such as it was, it was a
style harmonizing with itself however low in its degree, and as sym-
metry even in a morrice or a chimney sweeper's dance will attract the
public, we need not wonder that it was so successful, when we have
been so often tortured by styles that show no style at all. Perhaps
the reign of this trumpery was one of the evils leading to good, one of
the accidents in our artistical destiny which is to minister to our future
progress, for it may have taught the public a greater feeling for unity
of purpose, and may so far have performed a useful duty.

Slowly the revival has entered upon its career, and it is already evi-
dent that it is destined to be popular, and to take its place among the
passing fashions of the age. We are inclin.'d to view its advent with
the greater pleasure as it is at any rate higher in the scale than its
predecessor, but we must not be considered as pledging ourselves to
an admiration of it per se, or a vindication of it as a paragon of art.
We are not so enthusiastic as our French neighbours, nor so much
disposed to succumb to the fashion of the hour, we like the revival,
not for itself, not even for the good it may do, but as a type of the
coming of that better time of art, which is still we fear too distant, we
look upon it as one of the sets of artistical dumbells, with which the
public taste must be invigorated, rubbishy materials with a tawdry
outside, but which still in their exercise fortify our intellectual strength
and health. If we thought this style of itse'f calculated to produce
any permanent influence, if we thought it a part of the lesson to be
retained in after years, we should be prepared to denounce its errors
in all their extent, to expose its meritriciousness, to strip it of its tinsel
gewgaws, and to point it out as a stumbling-block to be avoided. For
we are convinced that there is nothing more to be dreaded than the
system of swimming with corks, particularly if bad ones, for we are
sure to cling to their use, or to recur to their aid, when we ought long
since to have flung them totally away. The revival has the advantage
of its predecessor, that instead of representing foreign and unknown
associations, it appeals to those which are common to all countries and
all ranks. It is more intellectual in its scope, is obliged to refer back
to higher sources, and requires the exercise of a better class of art, so
that if we reap no other fruit, we shall have the advantage in more
practised workmen, and in tlie demand for a greater degree of in-
struction. The schools of design could never have come at a better
time than when their capabilities are likely to be so much called out.
So much is the style of revival in advance of English workmen, that
when, as we mentioned last year, its introduction was seriously con-
templated, it was feared that it would be necessary to import the arti-
sans as well as well as the style. We hope, however, to see a difterent
state of things.

Most of our readers have seen the shop in Regent-street, we have
now to call their attention to another in tlie same style, that of Messrs.
Battam, Craske and Coleby, decorators, at the corner of Oxford and Ber-
ners-streets, represented in the engraving. As the details are visible
in the engraving, we shall merely describe the materials employed, a
knowledge of which as a point of economy is most important to our
architectural readers. The general ground of the whole including the
mezzanine story is of wood, parts of the upper dressings as the trusses
and dressings to lights are of cement, and the rest of paste composi-
tion. The enrichments of the entablature, mouldings, modillions, block
dressings, heads, &:c. are in paste; part of the lower dressings in deal,
the figures cast in Atkinson's cement. The whole was designed and
executed by Messrs, Jackson and Son, of Rathbone-place, and we think
will not only get for them present applause, but future patronage, the
task was arduous, and as far as they are concerned, they have per-
formed it well. We wish, however, that both here and in Regent-
street, the character of the style had been kept up in colour as well as
in form, as otherwise our works will be but the mere g'uosts of the
Parisian style. We hope no fear of the expense will deter tradesmen
from having the decora! ions complete, for we are convinced that they
would derive more benefit from a properly finished building than from
the dead white phantoms that have been produced. These want all

No. 35.— Vol. III.- August, 1840.

the light and all the life of the style, they want that provocative to
luxurious appetite that leads us into the Parisian shop wdiether we
will or not. The shutters are Bunnett and Corpe's patent, and which
when down take greatly from the effect, a defect avoided in the origi-
nal design, which provided embossed, pannelled and moulded shutters
in accordance with the general character.

EXHIBITION— ROYAL ACADEMY.

( Concluded from page 222.)

Many architects seem to entertain as great a horror of exhibition
as Bartholomew does of competition, in regard to which he is even
rabidly furious. How else happens it, that among the number of de-
signs sent to the Academy, we invariably meet with so exceedingly
few which afford us any information as to public buildings and other
works that have either been just completed, or are in ])rogress in dif-
ferent parts of the country ? Why does not Mr. Pugin, for instance,
we ask, exhibit, by way of contrast, and for the needful edification of
his Protestant brethren in the profession, some of those Catholic chapels
" in the purest taste," on which he recently has been, or is now,
actually employed?* We miss several things that, if we may trust
what we have heard concerning them, we think would have been cre-
ditable to their authors, and should have been glad to find here,
among others, Mr. Hosking's Egyptian Propylffium to the new cemetery
at Abney Park; the Gothic church lately completed by Mr. Basevi,
in Hans Place, Sloane Street, the Dorset County Hospital, now erecting
after designs by Mr. Ferrey, and the mansion just commenced, we be-
lieve, by Mr. Blore, for Lord Francis Egerton, near Manchester ; be-
sides many other works which, even if of no particular merit in them-
selves, would afford information as to what is actually going on, but of
which we seldom find more than a very small sprinkling at the Annual
Exhibitions of the Academy. Even what subjects of this class we do
meet with, are not always the best productions that might have been
furnished ; many of them, indeed, neither tasteful as designs, nor of
interest as representations of buildings of any importance. This
remark applies only in part to No. 968, " Entrance Lodge, as erected,
West of London and Westminster Cemetery, at Earl's Court, Ken-
sington," B. Baud; for the structure itself is of considerable extent,
and of a kind affording scope for design, and for marked expression of
character. As it is, it presents only a very tame composition of
Roman Doric architecture, which is, besides, altogether marred by
being filled in with windows that are equally at variance both with
the style indicated by the order, and with what seems suitable for the
particular occasion, inasmuch as they loo strongly suggest the idea of
a mere dvvelling, not otherwise distinguished than by having an arch-
way leading through it. For structures of this kind, and also for
those intended for railway terminusses, some useful hints and studies,
we may observe, are to be found in Sanmicheli's designs, for entrance
gates and similar works, demanding mass and solidity, yet not reject-
ing architectural decoration.

No. 914. "Facade of the Wesleyan Centenary Hall, now building
in the city of London," W. T. Pocock, is another drawing that shows
a building of some magnitude now in execution. We cannot say that
we greatly admire the design, either as we behold it here entire, or
judging of it from the building itself, (in Bishopsgate Street,) as far
as it is already advanced. On the contrary, we decidedly object to the
basement, which has small arches, and is merely scored by a few hori-
zontal stripes — a sort of apology for rustic joints — w hich produce a
most harsh and disagreeable effect, where, instead of radiating towards
the centres of the arches, they are cut off" by the archivolts of the

' We rejoice to have assurance afforded us by the letter from " A Protest-
ant Architect," given at pa^e 228, that the structures alluded to are su
creilitable to Mr. Pugin's taste and ability; but wo think that the wriler
altogedier overlooks a serious dilliculty when he says, "it now remains for
Protestant architects to display their zeal and their talents in a similar man-
ner " ; si roe neither the one nor the other can avail ihem much, so long as
they are obliged to move in. the shackles imposed upon them by the Church
Cummissioners, and by the pig-headed obstinacy of those who regarj all
originality of design, any abandonment ot the barbarisms and the penurious-
ness displayed in our churches— of our squeezed up pews and piled up gal-
leries, for the sake of architectural character and eticct,— as scandalous and
dangerous innovations, savouring of Popery and the Scarlet Lady with the
title unmentionalde. The regulations enforced by Church Commissioners are
of themselves calculated to operate as a " wet blanket '' upon all but mere
plodders, who may even find their account in the proscription of aught ap-
proaching to originality. We fancy it would puzzle Pugin himself to produce
much effect, were he similarly circumstanced, unless his ability be such that
he could make a Quaker's meeting-house magnificent, without depriving it
of its primitive plainness.

2 M

2oS

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[August,

latter. We hail hoped that the examples revived by Mr. Barry would,
by this time, have fairly put every one out of conceit witli that equally
))oor, monotonous, and unmeaning fashion, which certainly is not clas-
sical— neither (ircck, Roman, nor Italian — nor has it anything what-
ever in it itself, to reconcile us to it as a desirable innovation. If the
upper part of the farade satisfies us very little better, it certainly is
not because ornament has been begrudged it, for it has large fluted
attached columns, and pilasters of the Corinthian order, between which
are two scries of decorated windows (five on each floor), besides an
attic or podium over the three middle intercolumns, surmounted in
turn by a lofty lanthorn or turret copied from the well-known choragic
monument of Lysicrates. For what particular purpose this last may
be intended, we are wholly at a loss to conjecture, the purpose of the
liuiltling itself seeming to require no such appendage, while, as regards
the design, it might very well be spared, as the facade will be quite
lofty enough witjuiut it. Of finery, indeed, there is enough and to
spare, and we shall, therefore, probably hear the structure s|)oken of
as a fine piece of architecture; but in vain do we look here for origi-
nality, for study, or for taste.

We are infinitely better satisfied with No. 921, wliich shows us —
though not to particular advantage, the drawing itself being anything
l)ut an attractive one — the " Terminus of the London and Blackwall
Railway," which has just been completed by Mr. Tite. It is a pleas-
ing specimen of Italian architecture, simple in character, but free from
the mock simplicity of poverty and baldness.

Nos. lOOU and 1001, the H.W. and N.W. fronts of " Roeliampton
Priory, Surrey," with the alterations and additions in progress, from
the designs and under the direction of Gough and Romieu, exhibit a
Gothic mansion of coniiiderable extent, to which, we presume, the
conservatories are tiie chief additions; but what may he the other
alterations we know not, consequently catmot judge how far they have
contributed to improve the building generally.

Though a small sepia drawing, and rather unfavourably hung,
No. 983, " Bailitf 's Cottage, recently erected at Chequers, Bucks, for
Sir R. Frankland Russell,"Bt.," E. B. Lamb, possesses great merit as a
design, both in regard to character and picturesque effect, for it rea-
lizes the ideal of a cottage residence of that kind, and when it comes
to be a little mellowed by time, will offer a pleasing study to the
artist. We may also express our approbation of Mr. Walker's designs
for the New Hospital or Almshouses at Bedworth, of which Nos. lull
and 1014 aftbrd us two perspective views. And we wish we could
say as much in favour of No. 10G7, " View of the Casino Promenade
Concert Room, a la Musard, about to be erected on the east side of
Leicester Square," S. Beazley; but our liking for it is so little, that
we trust what the catalogue says will never be verified ; or that if any
building of the kind is to be erected there at all, it will be something
totally different froni such a Vauxhallish affair. For aught v.'e know,
Mr. Beazley may rival Vanbrugh as a dramatist, but as an architect,
we do not think he is quite equal to him. In one sense, indeed, his
buildings may very well be called theatrical, but sctnic, thev most
assuredly are not ; while in point of taste, they are the very antipodes
of those of his predecessors, being as remarkable for flimsiiiess, as the
others are for jionderous solidity.

Though we might point out several other designs, some for censr.re,
and one or two for commendation, w-e must here" conclude our notice
of this year's exhibition, and look forward to a better one next season ;
as we may do with some degree of confidence, unless the present
Decline is to terminate in a total Fall of the Academy's Arcliitectural
Room.

SEA EMBANKMENT.

The work about to be described hag lately been executed at the
moutli of tlie Thames, near the entrance to the Medway, in the parish of
St. Mary's, for the Right Honourable Lord de Vesci, who has an estate
adjoining it.

The land bounding the sea at this place being marsh, and formerly
covered with salt water every spring tide, was of very little value till
it was embanked, which took place about two centuries back, and said
to have been executed by a Dutch engineer, probably Vermuyden,
who was in Efgland about that time, having been engaged in similar
works, of which was the embanking of the Dagenham marshes on the
Essex side of the river, likewise the drainage of Hatfield Chase, near
Doncaster, and he was afterwards emploved in the Bedford Level.
Considerable damage had been done to tliis wall at diflerent periods,
ironi the prevalence of north easterly winds, which are severely felt
on this shore, the violence of the sea washing the stones from the slope
and thereby causing breaches in the bank. The old wall was protect-
ed with stones and piles, but sufficient care had not been taken in the

formation of the bank, otherwise breaches would not have so frequently
taken place.

In the formation of the new wall, which is nearly three quarters of a
mile in length, tile old formed tlie nedeus of the new work, the mate-
rial for which was got by cutting on the land side a back delpli which
was kept to a regular section at about four yards from the foot of the
back slope. The inclination of the back slope of the wall is \% hori-
zontal to 1 perpendicular, and that of the sea slope 4 horizontal to 1
perpendicular ; tlie top of the wall is 3 feet in width, and raised 7 feet
above high water of a spring tide, (Trinity datum). The bank was
formed in regular courses about 12 inches in thickness, cliopped and
puddled to form a water-tight body; the face of the sea slope after
being sufficiently consolidated, was covered with a thickness of four
inches of concrete, and afterwards pitched with Kentish Wrag stone
laid by hand, and rammed solid to a regular surface, the depth or
thickness of the stone pitching varied from 10 to 12 inches, the stones
being placed as closely as possible, and when the stones were not too
large, placed with the largest dimension downwards to expose the
least surface to the action of the water, and the joints filled in by
wedging small ))ieces of stone into them bv hand hammers. The sur-
face of the paving was covered by an inch in thickness of fine gravel,
which by the action of the water was washed into the interstices, so
that the whole formed a solid and compact mass. From the regular
slope of the sea side of this wall, and on account of its gradual rise,
the waves meet with no abrupt impediment so injurious in works of
this description, but on the contrary, spend themselves in running up
the slope, thereby much lessening the effect of the concussion. The
face of tlie sea slope above the stone pitching, and likewise the top of
the wall was covered with a thickness of sand and shells, thus forming
a footpath and preventing the heat of the sun from injuring the bank ;
the back or land slope was also properly trimmed and soiled or sown
with grass seed.

The foot of the pitching is protected by a row of piling or stakes
driven G to 7 feet into the ground, and 3 to 4 inches apart; and like-
wise protected on the sea side by a footing of stone and chalk, the re-
fuse of the old wall, which has embedded itself in the foreshore, and
thus forms quite a compact mass. There are also two rows of similar
stake piling driven into the bank at the top of the slope, for the pro-
tection of the stone ))itching ; the following section will more fully ex-
plain the nature of the work.

M, marsh. F, footpath. II. \V., high water Trinity Standard.

The novelty in the work is the introduction of concrete between the
stone pitching and the clay substratum, by whicli the water is prevented
soaking into the clay, and so wearing it away, and depriving the
pitching of its support, from whence hollows necessarily arise, and
shortly patches of stone pilcliing are removed hy (his gradual but sure
process. In the event likewise of stones being displaced, the concrete
prevents the evil spreading, forming itself a protection until the pitch-
ing be restored.

Breakwaters of stone encompassed with piling are constructed at
the two most prominent points, to protect the wall from the sea during
north-east gales, and likewise to encourage the accumulation of sanci
along the foot of the wall.

The work has been executed by Mr. Rowland, the contractor, of
Strood, under the direction of Messrs. Walker and Burges ; it was
commenced during tlie latter end of 183S, and has been in progress
with the exception of the winter months, till last April, when it was
completed, so that during the greater part of tliat time, a principal
portion of the work has been put to a fair trial.

GLASS PAINTING.

Sir — In consequence of the receipt of several letters since the pub-
lication of the brief remarks on the above subject, vvliich appeared in
the last number of your Journal, I am induced to mention, that 1 fully
intend when leisure affords an opportunity, to endeavour to make that
notice more complete, and that I shall be very glad therefore, to re-
ceive informaton concerning any glass-painter now, or lately prac-
tising in England, — his peculiarities, a list of his principal works, &c.

I am. Sir, your's,

PcUmdi CiCiCiiit, Bromptoii. Geo. Godwin, Jux.

1840.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

259

REPORT ON THE HARBOURS OF THE SOUTH EASTERN

COAST.

We should have liked to have gone at seme length into this report,
but other matter, we cannot say more important, has prevented us.
We may brieily characterize it as destitute of all ])rinciple, first pro-
posing one principle, then another, then contradicting both, and but
ill calculated to give satisfaction to the public or to men of science.
Upon none of the great physical questions, the operations of which
upon this coast have been the subject of so much controversy, does it
give any elucidation, indeed it does not enter upon them. With re-
gard to the numerous plans suggested for making harbours on these
coasts, many of them ingenious, some good, and all entitled to atten-
tion, the commissioners pass them over with silent contempt.

Just to '.how the blowing hot and cold system which characterizes
the proceedings of the commissioners with regard to the great prin-
ciples at issue, we shall call attention to the following extracts from
the last number of the Journal.

Margate. — " The power of sluicing at so great a distance as that proposed
in this plan, could only be applied with advantage to a surface dry, or nearly
so, at low water ; and the idea of keeping a deep-water harhour of any useful
width, clear by means of such sluicing, appears to us to he impracticable."

Ramsgate. — " There is no natural backwater so essential for the purpose of
scouring."

Deal and Sandwich. — " The shingle is continually moving by the action of
the waves, in the direction of the prevailing winds."

Dover. — " It should lie observed that these sluices, though efficacious to a
certain extent, are not capable of removing the obstruction altogether. The
force of the water, which at its exit from the culverts is ver>' great, loses its
impetus as it spreads over a larger surface, and forces the shiugle to a com-
paratively small distance, where it is liable to form banks beyond the power
of the sluices."

Folkstone. — " A small stream is pent up at the north-west side of the har-
bour, for the purpose of scouring at low water ; and with the assistance of
manual labour, in addition to this verj' inadequate backwater, the channel is
kept open so as to allow vessels of 10 to 12 feet draught to come alongside
of the main pier at the top of high water." " In our opinion no scouring
power would be able to keep the channels clear below the level of low water."
" Constant motion of shingle."

Rye. — " Shingle accumulated by winds." " Powerful backwater thereby
acquired, operated as a scour during the ebb, to clear the channel and keep
the entrance open."

■ Hasiings. — " There is no natural backwater, nor the facility of making an
artificial one to any useful extent."

Netvhaven. — " The river affords a powerful backwater for scouring the
entrance."

Shoreham. — " A bar rises occasionally above the low water level, and shifts
its position from 60 to ICO feet from the pier-heads."

Littlehampton. — " The backwater not enough."

These are materials for thinking, and we have no doubt will create
some excitement among the advocates and opposers of backwater.
We shall show, on a subsequent occasion, how beautifully this inde-
pendence of attachment to principles is preserved in the plans of the
commissioners themselves.

RETORT UPON RETORT.

Sir — Having myself animadverted in the first instance upon what
Mr. Bartholomew had said of the new fa^-ade of the College of Sur-
geons, Lincoln's bin Fields, which he is pleased to call both '• ill-fa-
voured" in itself, and not merely a cracking but "a creaking mass of
fracture," — it would ill-become me to complain of his animadverting
upon me in return, in the preface to his " Specifications ;" where he
has iutrodiiced a long note, in which he says : "Mr. Leeds having with
some coarseness of diction chosen to go out of his way in his 'Essay
on Modern English Architecture,' to comment upon my supposed ad-
miration of the former facade of the College of Surgeons, I here tell
him, that in this place as elsewhere, his quotations whether of the sense
or words, are not accurate. I have put forth no such sentiment either
by word or implication, I admired its portico as formerly existing,
&c., &c."

Not being able at this moment to refer to the passage in question, I
cannot pretend to be certain as to the precise words, yet whether so
intended or not, the impression it left upon me was that Mr. Bartholo-
mew considered the building to be altered greatly for tlie worse. That
he admired the portico as formerly existing, the words I have quoted
sufficiently prove; nor do I dispute his right to admire, more espe-
cially as there is scarcely any production of the present day which his
aste will permit him to admire at all. He is now, it seems, however

anxious to have it understood that he confined his admiration exclu-
sively to the portico, by which I suppose he means merely the columns,
for all that was behind them was most barbarous in design. But then
by not protesting against the deformity of the other parts, and by again
expressing his approbation of a portico, the interior of which was most
detestable, he certainly does leave it to be inferred that he was not at
all shocked at the architectural incongruities it presented. Very possi-
bly he may have regarded with profound contempt and abhorrence all
but the mere columns ; still as he did not chose to make that clear to
his readers, he ought not now to complain if he has been misunder-
stood, and his real meaning misrepresented.

With regard to the coarseness of diction which he lays to my charge,
I allow that my expressions may have seemed coarse to one who is so
guarded and refined in his own language, as to speak of modern archi-
tecture as being no better than a " fraudulent, pickpocket system," and
of those who practice it, as ignorant pretenders and qua'cks, utterly
ignorant of scientific principles of construction. The horrible coarse-
ness of which I was guilty consisted in remarking: " after this, should
any one obtain that writer's approbation or good words, he will have
reason to consider it a most unfortunate symptom, and to take himself
to task very strictly in order to ascertain what can have excited such
ominous sympathy :" which no doubt sounds bearishly rude and inde-
licate to " ears polite," and in comparison with the delicate and d\ilcet,
Mr. Bartholomew himself invariably employs.

Though he has done me the honour to single out myself, he might
find, did he care to look about, other critics and other publications
which have treated him with as little ceremony as he himself has
treated his own brother-architects. By no means therefore am I a
solitary offender; on the contrary, there are others still more coarsely
blunt, and — what is perhaps worse, some who are still more keen.

W. H. L.

CLEGG AND SAMUDA'S ATMOSPHERIC RAILWAY.

With an Engraving, Plate XIV.

In our last number we gave some particulars regarding the first ex-
periment, made on the Atmospheric Railway; we are now enabled
through the kindness of the inventors to give drawings and descriptions
of the railway and apparatus, together with some calculations.

In Clegg and Samuda's Atmospheric Railway, the power employed
is the pressure of the atmosphere, brought into action by exhaustion.
By reference to the plate, the following description of the apparatus
will be rendered more clear : —

Fig. 1, is a general elevation of the railway, with a train of carriages
passing over it.

Fig. 2, is a plan of the railway, with the upper surface of the pipe,
at the part containing the entrance separating valve, removed to show
its construction.

Fig. 3, is a longitudinal section of the railway, taken at the dotted
line mm fig. 4, showing the connection between the piston and the
train carriage and the method of lifting the continuous valve.

Fig. i, is a transverse section of the same.

Fig. 5, is a transverse section of the pipe on an enlarged scale,
showing the continuous valve and cover, and also the heater N, in dotted
lines.

Fig. 6, a plan of the continuous valve on an enlarged scale.

The moving power is communicated to the train through a con-
tinuous pipe or main, a, laid between the rails, which is exhausted by
air pumps worked by stationary steam engines, fixed on the road side,
the distance between them varying from one to three miles, according
to the nature and traffic of the road. A piston, B, which is introduced
into this pipe, is attached to the leading carriage in each train, through
a lateral opening, and is made to travel forward by means of the ex-
haustion created in front of it. The continuous pipe is fixed between
the rails and bolted to the sleepers which carry them ; the inside of
the tube is unbored, but lined or coated with tallow y^th of an inch
thick, to equalize the surface and prevent any unnecessary friction
from the passage of the traveking piston through it. Along the upper
surface of the pipe is a continuous slit or groove about two inches
wide. This groove is covered by a valve, G, extending the whole
length of the railway, formed of a strip of leather rivetted between
iron plates, as shown at fig. 5, the top plates being wider than the
groove and serving to prevent the external air forcing the leather into
the pipe when the vacuum is formed within it; and the lower plates
fitting into the groove when the valve is shut, makes up the circle of
the pipe, and prevents the air from passing the piston ; one edge of
this valve is securely held down by iron bars. No. 2, (fig. 5), fastened
by screw bolts, No. 4, to a longitudinal rib cast on the pipe, and allow*

2G0

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[August,

the leather between the plates and the bar to act as a hinge, similar
to a common pnmp valve ; the other edge of the valve falls into a
groove which contains a composition of beeswax and tallow : this com-
position is solid at the temperature of the atmosphere, and becomes
fluid when heated a few degrees above it. Over this valve is a pro-
tecting cover, I, which serves to preserve it from snow or rain, formed
of thin plates of iron about five feet long hinged with leather, and the
end of each plate underlaps the next in the direction of the piston's
motion, thus ensuring the lifting of each in succession. To the under-
side of the first carriage in each train is attached the piston, B, and its
appurtenances ; a rod passing horizontally from the piston is attached
to a connecting arm, c, about six feet behind the piston. This con-
necting arm passes through the continuous groove in the pipe, and
being fixed to the carriage, imparts motion to the train as the tube be-
comes exhausted ; to the piston rod are also attached four steel wheels,
H ir, (two in advance and two behind the connecting arm,1 which serve
to lift t!ie valve, and form a space for the passage of the connecting
arm, and also for the admission of air to the back of the piston;
another steel wheel, D, is attached to the carriage, regulated by a
spring, which serves to ensure the perfect closing of the valve, by run-
ning over the top plates immediately after the arm has passed. A
cop])er tube or heater, N, about ten feet long, constantly kept hot by a
small stove, z, also fixed to the under side of the carriage, passes over
and melts the surface of the composition (wdiich has been broken by
lifting the valve,) which upon cooling becomes solid, and hermetically
seals the valve. Thus each train in passing leaves the pipe in a fit
state to receive the next train.

The continuous pipe is divided into suitable sections (according to
the respective distance of the fixed steam engines) by separating valves,
y"and Q, whidi are opened by the train as it goes along: these valves
are so constructed that no stoppage or diminution of speed is necessary
in passing from one section to another. The exit separating valve, Q,
or that at the end of the section nearest to its steam engine, is opened
by the compression of air in front of the piston, which necessari'y takes
place after it has passed the branch which communicates with the air-
pump ; the entrance separating valve,/, (that near the commencement
of the next section of pipe,) is an equilibrium or balance valve, and
opens immediately the piston has entered the pipe. The main pipe
is put together with deep socket joints, in each of which an annular
space is left about the middle of the packing, and filled with a semi-
fluid : thus any possible leakage of air into the pipe is prevented.

From the result of the experiments already made, the inventors cal-
culate that a main pipe of eighteen inches diameter will be sufficiently
large for a traffic of 5,0OU tons per day, viz., 2,500 tons in each direc-
tion, supposing the gradients of the road to average 1 in 100.

Note. — A main pipe, 18 inches diameter, will contain a piston of 254
inches area : the usual pressure on this piston, produced by exhausting the
pipe, should he 8 lb. per square inch (as this is the most economical degree
of vacuum to work at, and a large margin is left for obtaining higher vacuums
to draw trains heavier than usual on emergencies) — a tractive force of 2,032
pounds is thus obtained, which will draw a train weighing 45 tons, at 30
miles per honr up an incline rising 1 in 100. Two and a half miles of this
pipe will contain 23,324 cubic feet of air, i{j of which, or 12,439 cubic feet,
must he pumped out to effect a vacuum equal to 8 lb. per square inch ; the
air pumji for this purpose should he 5 feet 7 in. diameter, or 24-7 feet area,
and its jjiston should move through 220 feet ])er minute, thus discharging at
the rate of 24-7 x 220 = 5,434 cubic feet per minute at first, and at the rate
of 2,536 cubic feet per minute when the vacuum has advanced to 16 inches
mercur)', or 8 lb. per square inch, the mean quantity discharged being thus
3,985 feet per minute; therefore VTi¥¥'= 3'1 minutes, the time requireil to
exhaust the pipe; and as the area of the pump piston is 14 times as great as
that in the pipe, so the velocity of the latter wdl he 14 times as great as that
of the former, or 220 feet per minute x 14 = 3,080 feet per minute, or 35
miles per hour : hut in consequence of the imperfect action of an air-pump,
slight leakages, &c., this velocity will he reduced to 30 miles per hour, and
the time requisite to make the vacuum increased to 4 minutes : the train will
thus move over the 2 J miles section in 5 minutes, and it can he prepared for
the next train in 4 minutes more, together 9 minutes; 15 minutes is there-
fore ample time to allow between each train, and supposing the working day
to consist of 14 hours, 56 trains can he started in each direction or 2,520
tons, making a total of 5,000 tons per day. The fixed engine to perform this
duty will he 110 horses power, equivalent to 22 horses power per mile in
each direction.

The next item to be considered is the comparative cost of the two
systems.

1st. The necessity of liaving the railway comparatively level, causes
the present enormous outlay fur earth-work, viaducts and tunnelling:
it also increases the cost of land, not only by lengthening the line to
save cutting and embankment, by the quantity wasted on each side of
the road wherever an endjankment or cutting is required. Thus if an
embankment or cutting has to be made of thirty feet, at least sixty feet

of land must be covered on each side of tlie railvvav in order to obtain
sufficient slope, making a width of 120 feet, besides the roa<l, except
where they occur in stone oi chalk. The comparative expense of this
item between the two systems can be ascertained by referring to the
average cost of forming a turnpike road and that of the ptinci])al rad-
ways now in operation.*

LOCOMOTIVE SYSTEM.

Per mile.
Taking five of the principal Railroads as the basis of the

calculation, their average expense of formation has

exceeded £36,000

And the original stock of Locomotives 1,600

£■37,000

ATMOSPHERIC SYSTEM. Per mUc.

The average expense of forming a turnpike road through-
out England has been 3,000 per mile, hut for the

atmospheric railroad, say £4,000

Allow extra for road-bridges 2,000

Rails, chairs, sleepers, and laying down 2,500

JIain i)ii)e and apparatus complete (on a scale for trans-
porting 360 tons per hour, or 5,000 tons per day of
fourteen hours, on a road with gradients of 1 in 100) 5,200

Fixed engines, air pumps, and engine-houses 1,400

TraveUing pistons 20

£15,120
Saving per mile in forming and furnishing on the At-
mospheric system 22,480

£37,600

Annual expenses of working per mile, when conveying fivo thousand
tons per d.iy. (This is beyond the average quantity conveyed on the
Liverpool and Manchester Railroad) : — ■

LOCOMOTIVE SYSTEM.

Per mile.

5 per cent, interest on capital sunk £37,600 £1,880

Maintenance of way 450

Locomotive department, including coke 1,800

£4,130

ATMOSPHERIC SYSTEM.

Per mile.

5 per cent, interest on capital sunk, viz., £15,120. . . . £756

Maintenance of w*ay, and attendance on mains 300

Wear and tear of fixed engines, 5 per cent, of cost . . 70

Coal -75 lb. per ton per mile, 214 tons, at 20s 214

M'ages to engine men and stokers 60

Wages to train conductors 26

Renewal of travelling apparatus and composition, and

sundries 200

£1,626
Annual saving per mile on the Atmospheric system . . 2,504

£4,130

Total expenses per ton per mile on the Locomotive system 1-54 pence.

Ditto ditto ditto on the Atmospheric ditto 0'6 do.
Exclusive of carriages and management, which may he taken as the same
on both systems.

From the above description, and the calculations made by the inge-
nious inventors, together with the success of the experiments which
have been made, almost daily, for the last month, our readers will be
able to form some judgment as to the probable introduction of this new
system into general use ; we sincerely hope that the inventors will be
able to obtain an ample reward fur the great expence and labour they
have devoted to the first ex|ieriment, which has, to say the le;ist of it,
been carried out by them in a very spirited manner.

* The calculations are founded on the reports of diflisrent companies whose
railways are complete or in a forward state.

CORRECTION— CANDIDUS.

Allow me, Sir, to correct an error in F.isciculns, No. 16, hy your Corres-
pondent Candidns, in last month's Journal, he there states that the Medal
was given by the Institute to the late Sir J. Soane. The Medal was by public
subscription, as doubtless you remember.

CLECC & SAMUDA'S ATMOSPHERIC RAILROAD.

F I C 2,

1

B

Jhtamm 7/nc ly J. C.:HaMan, Z^azui^ Flnce, Waterier Brid/rc

Hinted byJ.l'rruTc. i'.? .Vchtln^s Ituii. f.rtn

1840.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

261

AN ESSAY
ON ORIGINAL COMPOSITION IN ARCHITECTURE, AS IL-
LUSTRATED IN THE WORKS OF SIR JOHN VANBURGH.

By James Thomson, Fellow.

(Read at the Royal Institute of British Architects.)

Sir,

I slioiild feel bound to apologize for submitting any observations of
mine to your notice, had they not been written in compliance with
that general request which the council have made from time to time
to every member of the Institute, viz., that each should in his turn
contribute (though it be but a grain of information) touching the art
which it is our business, and our pleasure, to pursue.

From the time that I have been able to trace the relation of cause
and effect in architectural composition, it has appeared to me that
"there is more in it, than is commonly dreamed of, in our philosophy";
or if dreamed of, that we want more general interpreters ; not so much
for the instruction of the professional student, or practitioner, as for the
public mind, so that it may be known to all the world, in very deed
and truth, to be a fine and liberal art. To be an art, on the one hand,
dependant upon the observance of fixed principles, however variable
the practice that arises out of them ; and on the other, to inculcate a
right apprehension of the impossibility to produce a work of any
lively interest by mere attention to what are termed "the rules of
architecture."

These rules in architecture I consider to stand in the place of
grammar in a language, the due observance of which is as necessary
to the one as the other.

We know very well that an author, to be lucid and comprehensive,
must dulv attend to all the relations of words and sentences, and that,
without it, the most vigorous imagination will produce but a jargon of
execrable nonsense ; but on the other hand, I am sure you will agree
that the iitmost attention to the arrangement of thesis and antithesis,
of versification or prose, (where the master mind is wanting,) will fail
to realize a work of importance, even though the theme be one, of
which but the mention, would awaken the liveliest anticipations. Just
so in architecture, be the subject great or humble — the rules of com-
position must be duly observed to avoid incongruity, although they
should but subserve to the development of works designed to possess
contemplative interest.

And respecting this grammar of architecture, I would here observe
that, except for Roman or Italian structures, we possess at present
scarce any grammar at all! in those styles we have, from Vitruvius
down to Chambers, so much to guide us in proportion and detail, that
it is scarcely possible to err in them ; but although we have examples,
many, and valuable, in Greek and Gothic architecture, we have hardly
any principles, set forth respecting them, to say nothing of Egyptian,
Hindoo, and other Eastern styles, which, though they be but as dead
languages to us, yet possess, like their language, deep soundings of
the principles of art and science.

Now when we consider by what different means the entl has been
accomplished of giving importance and beauty to public and private
erections, each amenable to certain laws that belong, not to an arbi-
trary set of forms and features, but to the workings of the human
mind to which they have corresponding influence, I submit that it is
to these laws that we should give peculiar attention, calculated as
they are to guide, but not to fetter, the free will of the architect.
For instance : in the ponderous masses of the Hindoo and Egyptian,
the mind rests as complacently as on those of other climes ; it is ad-
dressed and responded to in a particular way ; — in the grace and
simplicity of the Greeks, it is captivated in another; — in the harmo-
nious combination of the Italians, it is equally (though differently)
charmed and dehghted: and so of the rest.

It is then I would submit the object of the architect, in an abstract
sense, so to combine the masses and subdivisions of a building as to
address themselves not merely to the eye, but to the imagination —
that the subject, be what it may, shall vibrate some string of the mental
frame as distinctly and tangibly as poetry or painting.

On this account it has appeared to me that it would be highly
valuable, if we had set forth some chart of the vast region which lies
before us, and which, if not sufficiently detailed to point out all that
could be done, might indicate with sufficient precision, the rocks of
offence to be avoided.

Thus it is obvious that a Theatre, and a Mausoleum should be very
differently treated, even though they were to be in the same style of
architecture — that the one could scarcely be too lively in its general
character, and the other scarcely too broad and simple. That in the
former every animation that form and colour combined could produce

might be adopted, — while in the latter that simplicity and repose
should prevail, so as to prepare the mind for the not less pleasing sym-
pathies, which commonly associate themselves with the memorials of
departed worth.

Again, it must be evident that a Temple for public worship should
maintain a very dirterent character to that of an Exchange, or hall of
commercial festivity, and that apart from the mere internal fittings, it
should outwardly bear some evidence of the purposes to which it is
devoted.

Yet so little has this been attended to, that without particularizing
any, I am sure it will occur to most whom I have the honour to address,
that there are instances of which, if we had no previous knowledge,
we could not possibly divine for what purpose they were erected.
So far as to character of buildings, according witli their objects.
But now with reference to style.

I think Sir, it is to be lamented that we have at this period no pre-
vailing style by which buildings of the present age, will be able in
after times to be identified, and tliat in but few of them does there
appear any recognition of the leading principles which seem to have
governed the ancients. There is, in our own day a continual struggle
in the adaptations of features at variance with the main object. The
private individual demands novelty, and the judgment of the architect
is too often called upon to bend to, instead of directing the work,
from this — confusion has resulted in the public mind as to what
is good or bad ; and to this confusion I would ascribe the indifference
which, it is to be regretted, has superinduced on the subject.

Thus we have at one and the same period of time, springing up in
all quarters, and frequently in the same quarter, buildings of every
era and of every style on the globe. So that they will witli respect to
date completely " puzzle posterity."

I do not of course include in my observations those restorations or
rebuilding of ancient structures, by which are preserved for after ages
the examples we ourselves so greatly admire, and with the perpetua-
tion of which it must be a proud event to any architect to connect his
name. I mean simply to allude to the practice we have of building in
ancient styles for modern objects. And Sir, I would ask wdiy should
this be the case ? seeing it is fraught with inconvenience at the pre-
sent— confusion hereafter— and at variance with good taste at all
times. It cannot be said that we have no other means, for we have seen
that the means are so various, it would be only difficult to fix their
limit, and as it was eloquently expi'essed,by a distinguished individual,
not long since on the subject of general design — " Sources that can
never be exhausted while the mind of man can conceive, or the hand
transfix and embody the conceptions of the mind."

In the east we have characters so expressive that there is no possi-
bility of mistaking their origin or their application. The solemn dig-
nity of the Egyptian temples, pyramids, and obelisks, are totally diffe-
rent from those of the Hindoo, although both possess great boldness
of outline and massive ])roportions. The prevalence of the pyre-like
forms in the one, and the square or cubical parts of the other, produce
in the mind varying though equally imposing effects.

So in the south — the simplicity and grace of the Greek temples,
composed of columns and entablatures, totally distinct from the eastern,
affect us by their peculiar and harmonious proportions.

Again, the Romans, borrowing it is true, the column and entablature
of the Greeks, yet so resolved them into other proportions (making
the front as well as the whole partake of the change), that by another
avenue to the human mind, they yield to the imagination another, and
a new delight.

They reduced the diameter of the columns and depth of entablature,
widened the intercolumniations, and divided their buildings into sepa-
rate stories ; adapting tliem to the habits and pursuits of another
people and another age. They retained the continuous and horizontal
lines of the Greeks, but they traversed them by vertical ones, and by
the introduction of the arch, they wove us in the loom of science a
new and beautiful fabric.

Now let us consider another class of architecture, in which neither
the pyramidal form of the Egyptians, nor the massive pillars of Hin-
doostan, nor the column and entablature of the Greeks, nor the arch of
the Romans are at all, or materially discernible, yet while it adapts
itself to almost every occupation of life, is calculated to affect the
mind perhaps more deeply than aU the rest.

I need hardly say to you, gentlemen, that I allude to Gothic archi-
tecture; or even to the non-professional to do more than mention it,
but there springs up at once from the recesses of the memory the most
vivid impressions of its venerable features. Of clustered pillars and
intersecting arches, giving a kind of endless perspective to the nave
and aisle of our cathedrals, and cloisters of our colleges.

Of capitals that appear to flourish with the more luxuriance because
freed from the trammels of attic stringing.

2 N

262

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[August,

!:

Of sjjires ami pinnacles, stuilded witli crotcliets, tliat by tlieir gradual
diminution seem to elude tlie sight.

Of massive buttresses that lilce giant champions arrange themselves
i\ith sturdy strength to protect the pile from the assaults of time or
elemental strife.

And of windows. Oh I did we ever have windows before? Loop-
holes indeed we had, and an admirable frame-work surrounded them ;
but the windows of Gothic structures are high and wide enough to be
supposed of diviner origin, designed to let in, and to difiuse the rays
of heaven.

But then again, let us dwell for a moment on the " ever vaiying,
ever new" changes which have been rung on this style, in the produc-
tion of the Tudor arch as distinguished Irom the pointed, and both in
their difference from the Saxon ; let us also notice what appropriate
" keeping" (as painters would term it) attended these different changes
in the details of mouldings and enrichments; how abrupt and bold are
the lozenge, zig-zag, and chevron, as the style to which they belong,
anil how flowing and graceful is the tracery of the apertures, canopied
niches, and finials of the others.

But, Sir, I come now to speak more particularly to the subject which
lias induced these prefatory remarks, necessary, they appeared to rue
to be, though possibly too lengthy to you, they have been made in the
attempt to show that' in availing" ourselves of the productions of art
from the earliest times to the present, and of all countries; we should
duly and carefully Anglicize the materials we so obtain, and that we
should indeed make them our oivn, not by the mere plagiary of the
■n'orks of our predecessors, whereby we abuse the talents which they
tave bequeathed us in adapting them to purpose for which they have
no aflfinitv ! but that we should so study and trace the principles which
iiided them, as to work out,alegitimate and definite style for ourselves,
n illustration of tliese remarks I purpose as a noble example to con-
sider the peculiar style and character of Sm JoH\ Vaxbuugh.

I believe. Sir, I shall not be saying too much when I assert that he
studied the characteristics of architecture of the whole eastern hemis-
phere, and that while his resources extended from the Nile to the
Ketherlands, he followed not any beaten track, but struck out for him-
self a new style and character of building which he not only adapted
to the habits of English life, but so grouped the suhonlinaic with the
stately features — that as examples of domestic architecture he has
produced some of the noblest piles of which our country can boast.
To examine this style, to analyze its principles, is my present object,
not, be it remarked for the purpose of recommending its adoption, no,
but for that of illustrating the course which in my humble opinion he
Las shown us we should pursue. And which those wdio have had the
gift and perseverance to pursue have invariably made for themselves
a fame which (during life indeed) may be unattended with any corres-
ponding celebrity ; but to whose productions after ages w ill refer (as
in our days the more ancient are), for the guidance of the student and
admiration of the world,

I had intended here to allude to the works of some of the architects
cf our own day, as possessing more decided originality than most of us
can lay claim to, but as this might seem adulatory on the one hand, and
invidious on the other, I prefer to avoid it.

And now to come more closely to the style of Sir John Vanburgh.
I liave chosen the princely mansions of Blenheim and Castle Howard.

And first of Blenheim. It certainly is not Roman, though it has
much affinity to Roman, but the intercoUunniations are too close and
divide the masses into proportions not often recognizable in the w orks
of the Italian architects, besides wliich there is less variety and sub-
divisions of detail ; it is therefore not strictly Roman.

It certainly is not Grecian. Yet how few compositions are there
professing to be Greek which retains such continuity of line and
quantity. The superior cornices range with each other, and the in-
ferior are made to follow as a string course which binds the whole,
simply and compactly together — still it is not Grecian.

It certainly is not Gothic, but it possesses (I submit) many of the
qualities of Gothic — the frequency of the pillars and piers, break up
the horizontal lines, not as in the Italian buildings where pillars are
used with entablatures breaking lound tliem, but continuing up and
surmounting them with terminal-like decorations.

I might go further and allude to that other Italian style, — to the con-
sideration of which the Institute was lately called by a paper favoured
them by Sir Gardnor Wilkinson; one, that for the matter it contained,
and the discussion it produced amongst the senior members as to its
ongin, w^as perhajjs one of the most interesting of the present ses-
sion. Here, however, was another style ditfering not in mere details, but
in the main principles of compositions.

A broad and simple facade, unbroken by proportions either as to
plan or decoration. A total absence of columns as a part of the superior

building, but used subordinatelyfor the decorations of the apertures —
these apertures placed one above another in perpendicular lines by
their unifonn size preserved also the horizontal ones. And at the
summit a cornice that for boldness of outline and richness of detail,
casts into utter insignificance all former pretensions to it. And while
it really j.'TutecIs, most magniftceyitly adoriu.

But even tliese, or all these, did not lead captive, they but excited
the energies of Sir John Vanburgh.

Secondly, of Castle Howard.*

Now I think it is universally agreed that tliere is about this facade
something strikingly simple, majestic, and harmonious, and as I have
before said of Blenheim, neither Roman, Greek, or Gothic, yet pos-
sessing much of the characteristic of each.

The great excellence, however, which belongs to it is, that while
all these styles are as I have said to be recognized, they are not crudely
combined, but while the principles of each appear to liave been fully
perceived and umlerstood by Sir John Vanburgh, he suffered them to
pass as it were through the alembic of his mind, and bring into ex-
istence a new combination.

I have said, it is not Roman, though it possess Roman features — its
moldings, its arches, are certainly of Roman origin, but with what
simplicity are they here arranged.

If you compare it with the earlier or later masters of the Italian
school, you will find that where the column and pilaster were intro-
duced as parts of the main building, they were broken and unequal in
their parts. That Palladio himself in most instances divided the
height of the building into separate stories ; piling up order above
order ; but with a felicity (it is true) that has ever since, and ever will
command universal praise. Such also is the casewdth the palaces and
basilica of Scamtcozi and San Michell as seen at Verona, Vicenza, and
Venice.

They are all, or nearly so, divided into separate stories, which at
once involves a distribution of other parts, essentially differing from
the practice afterwards pursued by Sir John Vanburgh.

Neither does the colossal aspect of these buildings depend upon
their size. They arise as I have before intimated, but in other words,
upon that philosophical arrangement of substance and void, of ordinate
and subordinate parts, that while each possesses its due interest, it
becomes but an integral part of a sublime and beautiful wdiole.

Thus then did Sir John Vanburgh proceed — in the grand features,
borrowing simplicity and breadth from the practice pursued from the
Greeks, and, in the details, from the more tractable forms of Italian
art he produced those stupendous works which are now visited and
admired by persons of every rank and degree.

The rude and uncultivated mind finds something, (it knows not
what), which impresses a kind of awe, while the poet and the painter,
whose occupation and aim it is, to engage our finer sympathies, each
have the principles of their own art expressed in another way.

Gentlemen, I have thus endeavoured to point out the principles of
arcliitectural composition as illustrated in the works of Sir John Van-
burgh.

That it might have been much better done, I am fully aware ; but
inasmuch as the ground has not to my knowledge been trodden before, —
inasmuch as that I could find no published work to assist me, —
inasmuch as our Institute has been founded not only for imparting
statistical information, but for the mutual interchange of professional
thought and sentiment. I have ventured to offer you mine on this
subject.

And as men commonly make an exchange to heneft themselves, I shall
hope and trust some abler hand than mine may be induced to dilate
upon it, more equal to its merit, so that from this small beginning now^
we may all at a future period reap a sterling, and lasting advantage.

James Thomson.

June, 1S40.

'' Here were exhiljiteJ by Mr. Thompson the series of drawings illustrative
of ihe subject of liis essay, engravings of which we are sorry tu omit. l)ut
have been obliged to do so on account of tlieir extent, ami the prescribed
limits of our Journal. — Kd. C. K. 8c A. Jock.

Antiquity of Railways and Gas. — Railways were used in Xorthum-
bcrlaiid in 1G33, and Lord ICeeper North lueutions them in IGTl in his journey
to this countr)'. A Jh'. Spcdding, coal agent to Lord Lonsdale, at White-
haven, in 1765, had the gas from Ids Lordsliip's coaj-jiits conveyed by pipes
info his otiice, for the purpose of lighting it, and ]u'oposcd to the magistrates
of Whitehaven to convev the gas by pipes through the streets to Ught the
toivn, which they refused. — Ceriisle journal.

18-10.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

263

PUBLIC BUILDINGS IN LONDON.

v4 Critical Review of the Public Btiildiiigs, Statues and Ornaments in
and about London and IVestminster — 1734.

By Ralph.

( Continued from jyage 228. J

From the terrace of Lincoln's Inn Gardens, we have a prospect of
one of the largest squares in Europe; it was originally laid out by the
masterly hand of Inigo Jones, and intended to have been built all in
the same stile and taste : but by the miscarriage of this, and many
other such noble designs, there is too much reason to believe that
England will never be able to produce people of taste enough to be of
the same mind, or unite their sentiments for the public ornament and
reputation. Several of the original houses still remain to be a re-
proach to the rest, and I wish the disadvantageous comparison had
been a warning to others to have avoided the like mistake.

Great Queen Street is another instance of our national want of
taste ; on one side is a row of houses that Italy itself would not be
ashamed of; on the other, all the variety of deformations that could
be contrived as a foil to beauty, and the opposite of taste.

Covent Garden would have been, beyond dispute, one of the finest
squares in the universe, if finished on the plan that Inigo Jones first
designed for it; but even this was neglected too, and if he deserves
the praise of the design, we very justly incur the censure for wanting
spirit to put it in executio.i. The piazza is grand and noble, and the
superstructure it supports, light and elegant.

The church here is, without a rival, one of the most perfect pieces
of architecture that the art of man can produce ; nothing can possibly
be imagined more simple, and yet magnificence itself can hardly give
greater pleasure : this is a strong proof of the force of harmony and
proportion, and at the same time a demonstration that it is taste, and
not expence which is the parent of beauty : if this building can be
said to have any defect, it is in the form and manner of the windows;
which are not only in a bad gusto, but out of proportion too.

Leicester Square has nothing remarkable in it, but the inclosure in
the middle, which alone affords the inhabitants round about it some-
thing like the prospect of a garden, and preserves it from the rudeness
of the populace too.

The portico to St. Martin's Church is at once elegant and august,
and the steeple above it ought to be considered as one of the most
tolerable in town; if the steps arising from the street to the front
could have been made regular, and on a line from end to end, it would
have given it a verv considerable grace ; but as the situation of the
ground would not allow it, this is to be esteemed rather a misfortune
than a fault. The round columns, at each angle of the church, are
very well conceived, and have a very fine efl'ect in the profile of the
building ; the east end is remarkably elegant, and very justly chal-
lenges a particular applause. In short, if there is any thing wanting
in this fabric, it is a little more elevation, which I presume is appa-
rently wanted within, and would create an additional beauty without.
I cannot help thinking, too, that, in complaisance to the galleries, the
architect has reversed the order of the windows, it being always usual
to have the large ones nearest the eye, and the small by way of attic
story on the top.

St. James's Square has an appearance of grandeur superior to any
other plan in town, and yet there is not any one elegant house in it,
and the side next Pall Mall is scandalously rude and irregular.

St. James's Church is finely situated, with regard to the prospect
on the north side of the square ; and if it had been built in suitable
taste, would have appeared most nobly to fill the vista, and add a
pomp to the whole view ; but the builders of that pile did not trouble
themselves much about beauty, and I believe it is mere accident that
even the situation itself is so favourable.

We must now pass into PiccadiUy, where we shall be entertained
with a sight of the most expensive wall in England; I mean that
before Burlington House. Nothing material can be objected to it, and
much may be said in its praise. It is certain the height is wonderfully
well proportioned to the length, and the decorations are both simple
and magnificent ; the grand entrance is august and beautiful, and by
covering the house entirely from the eye, gives pleasure and surprise,
at the opening of the whole front with the area before it, at once. If
any thing can be found fault with in this structure, it is this — that the
wall itself is not exactly on a line ; that the columns of the gate are
merely ornamental, and support nothing at all; that the rustic has not
all the propriety in the world for a palace ; and that the main body of
the pile is hardly equal to the outside. But these may be rather
imaginations of mine, than real imperfections; for which reason I
submit them to the consideration of wiser heads.

That side of Arlington Street next the Green Park, is one of the
most beautiful situations in Europe, for health, convenience, and
beauty, the front of the street is in the midst of the hurry and splen-
dour of the town, and the back in the quiet and simplicity of the
country. It is not long since, too, that the whole row was harmonious
and uniform, though not exactly in taste ; but now, under the notion of
improvement, is utterly spoilt and ruined, and for the sake of the
prospect behind, the view before is disjointed and broken to i)ieces.

I have now finished one of my walks from Lincoln's Inn Fields to
Hyde Park Corner, and, acco;ding to promise, am now to go back to
Temple Bar, in order to comment on tlie most remarkable things in my
way to Westminster.

■The New Church in the Strand is one of the strongest instances in
the world, that it is not expense and decoration that are alone produc-
tive of harmony and taste : the architect of this pile appears to have
set down with a resolution of making it as fine as possible, and, with
this view, has crowded every inch of space about it with ornament :
nay, he has even carried this humour so far, that it appears nothing
but a cluster of ornaments, without the proper vacuities, to relieve the
eye, and give a necessary contrast to the whole : he ought to have re-
membered that something should first appear as a plan or model to be
adorned, and the decorations should be only subordinate to that design ;
the embellishments ought never to eclipse the outline but heighten and
improve it. To this we may safely add, that the dividing so small a
fabric into two lines or stories, utterly ruined its simplicity, and broke
the whole into too many parts. The steeple is liable to as many ob-
jections as the church, it is abundantly too high, and, in the profile,
loses all kind of proportion, both with regard to itself and the structure
it belongs to. In short, this church will always please the ignorant,
for the very same reasons that it is sure to displease the judge.

York-stairs is unquestionably the most perfect piece of building,
that does honour to the name of Inigo Jones: it is planned in so ex-
quisite a taste, formed of such equal and harmonious parts, and adorned
with such proper and elegant decorations, that nothing can be censured,
or added. It is, at once, happy in its situation, beyond comparison,
and fancied in a style exactly suited to that situation. The rock-
work, or rustic, can never be better introduced than in buildings by
the side of water ; and, indeed, it is a great ciuestion with me, whether
it ought to be made use of any where else.

Northumberland House is very much in the Gothic taste, and, of
course, cannot be supposed very elegant, and beautiful ; and yet there
is a grandeur and majesty in it that strikes every spectator with a
veneration for it: this is owing intireU' to the simplicity of its parts,
the greatness of its extent, and the romantic air of the four towers at
the angles. The middle of the front next the Strand, is certainly much
more ancient than any other part of the building, and, though finished
in a very expensive manner, is a very mean and trifling piece of work.
It may serve indeed to preserve the idea of the original pile, and ac-
quaint the moderns with the magnificence of their forefather ; but then
it breaks the uniformity of the whole, and might be spared \\\i[\ more
propriety, than continued.

The statue at Charing-cross has the advantage of being well placed;
the pedestal is finely elevated, and the horse full of fire and spirit ; but
the man is ill designed, and as tamely executed : there is nothing of
expression in the face, nor character in the figure, and though it may
be vulgarly admired, it ought to be generally condemned.

When I have stood at this place, I have often regretted that some
such opening as this had not been contrived, to serve as a centre be-
tween the two cities of London and Westminster, and from whence,
particularly, the cathedrals of St. Paul's and the Abbey might have
been seen, as the terminations of the two vista's : I am of opinion that
nothing in Europe would have had a finer effect ; but now it is impossi-
ble it should ever take place, and I mention it only by wijy of hint,
that private property is, generally speaking, the only bar to public ov-
nameut and beauty.

The new Admiralty was erected on a spot of ground, which afforded
the architect room for all the beauties his imagination could suggest,
and the expence it was raised at, enabled him to execute all that
beauty in a grand, though simple manner ; how he has succeeded, the
building is a standing evidence ; and very much concerned I am to see
a pile of that dignity and importance, like to continue a lasting re-
proach of our national want of taste.

I must ingenuously confess that the number of pretty little boxes,
that are built on the ruins of Whitehall, make me no satisfaction for
the loss of that palace ; not that I believe it ever was a fine structure,
but because it might have been so ; because no piece of ground, so
near two great cities, could afford a finer situation ; with so noble a
river on one side, and so beautiful a park on the other: and because
Inigo Jones's plan for rebuilding it is still forthcoming, and may be
made use of to erect a structure equal to the situation.

2 N 2

204

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[AufiUST,

The majestic sample he has given of his art in the Banqnetting
Jfouse, is a continued persuasive to incline us to wisli for the rest of
that magnificent pile, of which tliis was intended to be so inconsider-
able a part: to be sure if over this co\dd be ellected, Britain might
boast of a palace, which might excel even the ]>roud Versailles, and be
as much visited too, in compliment to its siiperior taste.

I cannot leave this place without taking some notice of the admira-
ble ceiling, ])erfornied by Uubens, which is beyond controversy, one of
the finest things of the kind in Europe. It is indeed not so generally
known as one could wish, but it needs only to be known to be esteemed
according to its merit. In short, it is but an ill decoration for a jjlacc
of religious worship ; for in the first place, its contents are no ways
akin to dev(jtion, and in the next, the workmanship is so very extra-
ordinary, that a man must have abundance of zeal, or no taste, that can
attend to any thing beside.

Before I cjuit this place, I must take notice of the brazen statue,
erected here in honour of James II. The attitude is fine, the manner
free and easy, the execution finished and perfect, and the expression
in the face inimitable : it explains the very soul of that unhappy-
monarch, and is therefore as valuable as if it commemorated the fea-
tures and form of a hero. In short it is a pity it is not removed to
some more jiublic and open place, that it might be better known, and
more admired.

Marlborough House is another instance of great expense, but no
taste : it consists only of a range of windows or two ; a certain quan-
tity of unmeaning stone, wdiich was intended for a decoration, and a
weight of chimnies over all, enough to sink the roof to the foundation.
It is certain tlie ground afforded tlie architect all the opportunity ima-
ginable of exerting his utmost art and genius, and if he had, the very
place itself would have secured him the highest applause.

It is with no small concern, I am obliged to own that the palace* of
the Brilibh kings is so far from having one single beauty to recommend
it, that it is at once the contempt of foreign nations, and the disgrace
of our own : it will admit of no defjate that the court of a monarch
ought to be the centre of all politeness ; and a grand and elegant out-
side would seem, at least, an indication of a like perfection within :
we may safely add, that this is necessaiy even in a political sense : for
strangers very naturally take their impressions of a whole people by
wdiat they see at court, and the people themselves are, and ought to be
dazzled by the august a])pearance of majcsly, in everything that has any
relation to it. I could « ish, therefore, that ways and means could be
invented to bring about this necessary point; that Britain might assert
her own taste and dignity, and vie in elegance, as well as power, with
the most finished of her neighbours.

As we proceed on to Westminster,-!' a city long famous for its an-
tiquity, yet producing very little worthy of attention, and less of ad-
miration, we will begin with the house on the left hand of King Street,
and near adjoining to Privy Garden; not that it is in any way remark-
able in itself, but because it has one of the most elegant irregular
views before it of any house in town; the street before it forms a very
spacious and noble area. And yet, with all its advantages, the house is a
public nuisance, as well as all those in King Street, Channel (Cannon)
Row, and the entire space between ; nothing in the universe can be more
absurd than so wretched a communication between two sudi cities as
London and Westminster, a passage which must be frequented by all
foreigners, which is visited even by the sovereign himself many times
a vear, which is the road of all the justiciary business of the nation,
w hich is the only thoroughfare to the seat of the legislature itself, and
the rout of our most pompous cavalcades and processions: surely such
a place as this ought, at least, to be large and convenient, if not costly
and magnificent, though, in my opinion, it ought to be made the centre
of our elegance and grandeur; and to do this effectually, all thelmild-
ings I have complained of ought to be levelled to the ground, and a
space laid open from Privy Garden to Westminster Hall vn one side,
and from tlie west end of the Abbey to Storey's Gate on the other;
this should be surrounded with stone buildings all in a taste, raised on
a ))iazza or colonnade, with suitable decorations, and the middle
should be adorned with a group of statues, answerable to the extent
of the circuit round it. It is easy to imagine what an eticct such an
improvement as this would have on the spectator, and how much more
agreeable it would be to the honour and credit of the nation.

I should farther desire, too, to see all the little hovels demolished
which now incumber the Hall and the Abbey, that those buildings
might he seen at least, and if they could not be admired for their
beauty, they might be reverenced for their greatness and antiquity.
If St. Margaret's were removed with the rest, it would be yet a farther

' St. James's.

t We have retained this part of Ralph, allhouRli several improvemtnts
have taken place since his day in ibis part of Westminster,— En.

advantage ; for then the fine chapel of Henry VII. w-ould come into
play, and be attended to as it deserves. I am very far from expecting
or even imagining that any of these alterations will ever come to
pass ; I mention them only to explode the miserable taste of our an-
cestors, who neglected, or did not understand, these beauties; and
that their descendants uuiy grow wiser at their expence, and prevent
the like censures from falling upon them.

I am sometimes iuclined to w ish that the place which is now- called
Hell, was levelled, and that the new Parliament House should be
erected there in its room; it would certainly have a noble effect on
the jjrospect, and form a most admirable contrast to the ancient edifices
of each side of it : I have indeed an objection or two to this part of
the scheme ; first, I apprehend there is not room enough there for such
a pile; and, secondly, it would lose the advantage of a jirospect from
the river, which its present situation might so happily allow it.

At all events, however, I should be glad to see this noble ]iroject
put into execution : it is certain nothing can be more imworthy of so
august a body as the parliament of Great Britain, than the present
place of their assembly : it must be undoubtedly a great surprize to a
foreigner, to be forced to enquire for the Parliament House even at the
doors ; and when he found it, to see it so detached in parcels, so in-
cumbered with wretched apartments, and so contemptible in the wh.ole :
I could wish therefore to see this evil remedied ; to see so useful and
necessary a scheme take place : and if it falls into the noble hands to
execute, we have long been flattered to believe it w'ould, there is no
room to doubt but the grandeur of this appearance will answer the
majestic purposes it is to be employed in. 'The British taste in archi-
tecture, is, to be sure, more obliged to that nobleman,(?) than any other
person now living, and if Inigo Jones has any advantage, it is only in
liaving lived before him.

It will be ridiculous and foolish therefore, in me, to give the least
hint for the conduct or improvement of any design which he has en-
gaged in; I shall therefore say no more than this, that I should be
glad to have both houses under tlie same roof, built on the same line,
exactly opposite to each other, the seats ranged theatricahy, the
throne in the midst of one semicircle, the speaker's chair in the other;
and that when the king made his speech, ways and means might be
found to remove the partitions from between the two houses, and pre-
sent the whole parliament of Britain at one view, assembled in the
most grand, solemn, and elegant manner, with the sovereign at their
head, and all the decorations round them, which could strike the spec-
tator dumb with admiration, at the profusion of majesty, which set off
and adorned the whole.

After such a scene as this has been presented to the imagination, no
other has importance enough to be attended to : I expect therefore
that what has been said of Westminster Hall will meet with but a cool
reception. The structure is remarkable only for being the largest
room in Europe which lias no column to support it: all that is excel-
lent in it, therefore, is to be fountl in the contrivance and workmanship
of the roof, and no doubt both are truly admirable : but as skill and
contrivance are both thrown away, unless they are to be seen in effect,
so a room of half the extent of this, supported on beautiful pillars, and
graced with suitable cornices, according to the antique, would excite
a great deal more applause, and deserve it infinitely better.

( To be continued.)

NOTES ON ARTESIAN WELLS AND WELL BORING IN
FRANCE.

(From French Publications. )

M. Champoiseau has communicated to "the Academy of Sciences"
the result of the experiments which he made at Tours, to ascertain
the relation which existed between the water of his artesian well, and
that of the neighbouring rivers. These experiments were continued
for more than three months (March, April and May), and did not show
any vari.ition in the pro<luce at any time, whatever were the variations
in the rivers round "Tours, or in the tides; neither was the limpidity
of the water at all affected. Indeed the apparatus did not exhibit any
sensible change in the well water, and the conclusion drawn is that the
artesian weUs of Tours, from the great elevation of their feeding springs,
are not exposed to the irregularities observed elsewhere.

A singular circumstance recently occurred during the construction of
the Left Bank Versailles Railway, near Val de Fleury, varying in its
operation, and its treatment from some similar instances, which oc-
curred on the London and Birmingham, and other railways here. A
large embankment was in progress to join the viaduct then building,

1840.J

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

265

but the deposit of eartli had scarcely begun when an extraordinary
motion was communicated to the adjoining soil. In two places it was
lifted up b or 10 yards above the surface, the road w'as blocked up,
and several houses on the disturbed site were upset. It was found
that this operation proceeded from a stratum of clay, mixed with sand,
and soaked with last year's rains, so as to become fluid ; that the
weight of the embankment 30 yards high, and that of the superincum-
bent strata had put this pulpy mass in motion, and that it had disturbed
the adjoining soil on the slope of the valley, and had in several places
lifted up and broken through the upper strata. The cause was ap-
parent that water did the mischief, and though it might not have
shown itself immediately if the season had been dry, yet ultimately it
would have been productive of serious evil. To remedy this, there
were no other means than to stop the flow of water arriving from the
upper levels ; to carry which into effect it was necessary to cut the
clay stratum and replace by stone work, which would surround the site
on which the embankment was to be formed and divert the water.
This operation was found exceedingly difficult, having to be carried
on at a depth of from 0 to 20 yards in a moving soil, saturated with
water ; it was long, very dangerous, and an accident might have wasted
much valuable time, the woi-ks of the embankment being suspended in
the meanwhile, and the stone-work itself being liable to be swallowed
up in a few years, and the work to be done over again.

Under these circumstances the engineers thought it advisable to
have recourse to boring for the purpose of absorbing the water, and
applied to the General Well-boring Company at Paris. This mode
was also difficult, as the boring tube got plugged up in the soft stratum
as fast as it was emptied, but by means of good tools this was at last
got over. The first boring reached 20 yards and got into the upper
part of the chalk, notoriously full of fissures, and where the water was
rapidly absorbed. The second and third borings were carried to 35
and 40 yards in order to get at the chalky fissures which communicate
■with the Seine, and feed the neighbouring wells. A series of borings
will therefore be carried round the emijaukment at proper distances
and drains if necessary made to carry the water into the borings which
can easily be kept clear by means of a valve and cord. It is proposed
also to apply this method to get rid of the water in sand, but this ne-
cessarily de|)ends on the strata, for we believe that in the Kilsby tun-
nel it would not have been practicable.

SPEED ON RAILWAYS.

Diagram, showing the variations in the speed of a locomotive engine
and train over a journey of 2i miles, on a level railway. In the
first instance starting from a state of rest and getting up the speed ;
then travelling one mile at the rate of thirty miles an hour ; and
ultimately being brought again (by the use of the break) to a state
of rest.

From numerous observations, by R. Sheppard.

Scale of Miles.

S

0

i

f

2

i

eq

H

-

-

—

/

/

/

/

^

^

y

/

/

-

/

/

/

/

■\

/

/

/

D-

/

/

v

1

1

•a

I

v

J

'

"i

■"■"

^■^

I

■~^

■""

__

^~~

HYDRAULIC WORKS AT ALGIERS.
By M. Poirel, Engineer of Bridges and Roads.

Trnnslatedfrom the Annalei des Pouts et Chaussei's by IV. H. Emory,
Jan., U. S. Topi. Ei!gr$.,fur the Franklin Journal.

The port of Algiers was established as far back as the year 1530,
by Cheredin, brother of Barbarossa. Having made himself master of
a little island, in front of the city, which Spaniards had fortified, he
resolved, in order to secure it, and at the same time to make, at Algiers,
a harbour that would afford protection from the winds and from the
swell of the sea, to unite it to the town by means of a jetty. This is
called the Cheredin jetty, and is two hundred and twenty-three yards
long, and one hundred and twentj'-seven yards wide. Its direction is
nearly east north-east, or west south-west.

Besides the Cheredin jetty, another has been built on the prolonga-
tion of the island, which protects the harbour from easterly winds, and
is called the mole. It is one hundred and seventy-four yards long, and
forty-five yards in its greatest width. This mole runs north-east and
south-west. These two jetties with the little mole on which the
Lazaretto stands form the boundary of the basin. It contains forty
thousand seven hundred and twenty-two superficial yards, and can float
sixty vessels, of which about thirty, may be vessels of three hundred
tons, and some few, eight hundred tons. Vessels of a larger class
anchor outside the basin. The greatest depth of water is sixteen and
a half feet ; but this may be increased by dredging. The Cheredia
jetty and tlie mole were foimd in a state of complete dilapidation when
Algiers fell into the hands of the French. These two works constructed
of loose stone, (rubble) were levelled to their base. The Deys were
in the habit everv year of having the stones replaced which were
carried away in the winter by the sea.

Laugier de Tassv, one of the most faithful historians of the Algerine
regency, who resided there in 1727, says : —

"The great mole (the Cheredin jetty,) being entirely exposed to
the north, to prevent it from being carried away by the fiu-ious swells
of the sea, which roll up the sand bank, stretching along this mole and.
out into the sea, they were obliged to keep the slaves of the beylick
employed the whole year carrying hard stones from a place near point
Pescade, to put them along the mole. The sea soon carried away the
stones thus deposited, but care was always taken that they should be
replaced."

Large magazines of military supplies are placed on the Cheredin'
jetty, and it naturally claimed the first attention of government.

The preservation of these magazines required that the loose stone
upon which they rested, at the base of the jetty, should be secured.

This undertaking was confided to M. Noel, the engineer, in charge
of the hydraulic works at Toulon, from which he was temporarily re-
lieved.

He rebuilt the entire body of the jetty to a height of sixteen and %
half feet above the water, with a thickness of six and a half feet. The
new masonry is of the very best kind, and possesses great solidity ;
unfortunately the insufficiency of funds placed at the disposal of the
engineer, and his limited time did not permit him to turn his attentiorr
to the foundation of the jetty which will soon require considerable re.
pair.

The extremity of the mole, called the chop, in which the sea made
a large breach, was repaired in ISBl, but the new masonry being built
upon the fragments which the action of the sea had brought down, was
entirely destroyed by the first storm in the winter of 1832. All the
repairs made to the top of the work were necessarily liable to tire
same catastroplie, as the base upon which they rested was insecure.
It became necessary, therefore, before proceeding farther, to recon-
struct the base permanently and durably.

The locality did not permit the engineer's resorting to the ordinary-
means of establishing a foundation by throwing over loose stones, (rub-
ble.) The shore to the west, where the quarries are, has not a single
creek or harbour where a vessel could load ; it is open to the ocean
and skirted by a reef of rocks which make the landing dangerous even
in a calm. The transportation of blocks of stone could only be effected
by carriages, a tedious and difficult operation with masses, which , to
resist the action of the waves, should measure at least four cubic yards.
Besides which it would have been necessary to carry these blocks
through the most frequented and populous part of the city, very much
to the inconvenience of the inhabitants passing to and fro. Another
difficulty presented itself, even if the obstacles to an easy transporta-
tion had been overcome. To give sufficient stability to the work at
the end of the mole, a long slope of at least one in ten was necessary,
which would have entirely obstructed the navigation, as the entrance
to the basin was already very narrow, being only one hundred and

266

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

TAr

GUST,

thirty-four yards wide, measuring from the end of the mule on which
the Lazaretto stands, to that of the work in question.

Under these circumstances, the engineer was obliged to resort to
other expedients, and he was thus led to form and execute a new plan
for establishing foundations at sea, which five years experience of the
works at Algiers has proved to be, according to all accounts, superior
to all those which have here'ofore been put in practice, and particu-
larly to those made of rubble work; a method much approved of
since the construction of the Cherbourg and Plymouth breakwaters,
the two most important maritime works executed in modern times.

The principal feature of this plan is the \ise of blocks made of bt-ton.
These blocks are of two kinds ; one being constructed in the water at
the place it is intended to occupy, the other made on shore and
launched.

The first is made by pouring the beton into cases without bottoms,
sunk on the place where the block is to rest. The frames of these
cases are made by putting together pieces of scantling in a rectangular
form, to which are nailed two courses of plank placed at right angles to
each other. The lower edges of the cases are cut out to fit the profile
of the surface on which they are to rest. They are lined with tarred
cloth, throughout the whole'extent of the inside up to the level of the
water. The cloth at the bottom is allowed sufficient fullness to ac-
commodate itself to the inequalities of the ground. The cases are
thus, in fact, converted into cloth sacks, the sides of which are strength-
ened by the timber work on which they are stretched and fastened.
The cloth sacks enable the mass of bJton to accommodate itself per-
fectly to the surface which receives it, the inequalities of which serve
to bind together the rock forming the bottom, and the beton. This is
a great advantage in the use of these cases, fur with the flat bottomed
ones generally used, it is necessary to level the surface to bo built upon,
which is a difficult and uncertain operation.

The clcth bottomed cases are built upon stocks, laimched and floated
to the place they are to occupy. They are then sunk by means of
small wooden boxes, one foot square, filled with cannon balls or pig-
iron strung entirely round on the outside of the case, about one foot
and a half from the toj), by means of a cable passing through iron rings
fixed in the uprights.

A similar use of beton was made by the Italians to prevent the dis-
integration of masonry immersed in water. They filled, with bOton,
bags similar to those used in fortification for making earth defences,
and placed them compactly, one iipon the other, and in such a manner
as to fill up the inequalities of the surface on which they rested. The
cement which oozed out through the interstices of the cloth, bound the
little rolls of K-ton together and soon formed a very compact and
durable mass. The cloth between the joints rotted and disappeared
in a few years. On one occasion, they filled a much larger sack with
beton than those above described, and" threw it into the sea in stormy
weather ; some days after the storm had subsided they found this
block very hard and strong. From the result of this experiment it
was natural that the adoption of very large blocks of beton should be
thought of, but the difficulty consisted in making bags of those dimen-
sions which would not burst, and fixing them in pusition, while being
tilled with beton.

When the case is moored, the beton is lovi'ered and deposited in it
by means of a trough, which has a vertical and serai-rotary motion
communicated to it by a cylinder worked at each end by a crank. This
trough which contains a little more than a cubic yard, gives the ad-
vantage of putting in the case a large quantity at a time. The opera-
tion is thus made more rapid and there are fewer seams.

The beton blocks made on shore are moulded in cases consisting of
four sides made of thick planks and lined on the inside with another
course of plank jointed together at the bottom and removable at plea-
sure. The bottom rests upon two large sills connected transversely,
forming an inclined plane which terminates at the point where tlie
block ;s to be launched. These cases like the others, are entirely
empty and without shores. When they are filled with beton, and it
becomes sufficiently hard, the sides are taken off and the block thus
stripped is launched into tlie sea.

The mortar used in the large cases with cloth bottoms, is formed of
one part fat lime and two paj-ts of Italian puzzolana ; that used for
blocks on shore is composed of puzzolana and sand in equal propor-
tions.

The lime should be made from the grey transition limestone, fine
grained and very hard; slaked in the ordinary way, and reduced to
the consistency of thick paste, it absorbs two and a half times its
weight of water. Its bulk is increased in the proportion of 1 to 1-S.

The puzzolana is the same as that used along the Mediterranean
coast in the formation of hydraulic mortars. It is to be found in the
neighbourhood of Rome. The best comes from Saint Paul's cave,
near the church of that name. This puzzolana is brought by waggons

to the Tiber, and thence by batlcaux to Civita Vecchia, whence it is
exported. It is sent abroad in the natural condition in which it is
found, the pieces varying in size from that of an egg to the smallest
grain of sand. JI. JuUien, the engineer, found by experiment that the
very finest grains were the only ones that could be used with effect ia
hydraulic mortars, and that when it was used in grains as large, for
example, as the largest grains of sea sand, it was as ineffectual as tne sea
sand itself. From tliis it appears to be necessary that the finest grained
puzzolana alone should l)e used in hydraulic works ; and as its efficacy
and quickness in hardening are in proportion to the fineness, too much
pains cannot be taken to pulverize if.

Acting on this princi])le, the puzzolana brought from Italy and Africa
for the work on the mole was sifted at Algiers before" being used.
One half, forming the residue, was ground in a mortar mill and sifted
again, leaving a residue of one-tenth.

That ground and sifted was of a quality inferior to that furnished
by the first sifting. The price of the puzzolana delivered at the work
was thirty-six francs per cubic yard, and the cost of sifting, grinding,
&c., twelve francs, making the total cost forty-eight francs.

The cost of labour at Algiers, independently of the inferior quality
of the puzzolana obtained by trituration, and the consequent increase
of expense, made it desirable that if should be sifted at Rome and the
refuse left there. The soil on which this city and its environs stand,
is composed of this material, and is of course very cheap. The only
difference in the price would therefore arise from the cost of sifting,
which could be more than balanced by the freight saved in leaving the
refuse.

Influenced by these considerations, the author, on the requisition of
the Governor General was authorized by the Secretary of War to re-
pair to Rome and superintend in person, the details of the operation.
He there fixed up a number of strong bolting cloths pierced with small
rectangular holes. The price of sifting one cubic yard of puzzolana
with labour hired of the pontifical government, was about twenty cents.

The contractor who has leased from the Roman government, the
monopoly in the puzzolana trade, regarding the project as impracti-
cable, asked an exorbitant price for taking charge of it, but as soon as
he discovered it was both easy and cheap, he came forward and offered
for the future to send none but the sifted puzzolana to Algiers. It was
delivered there in 1S37, in this state, for forty-two francs the cubic
yard, and could, without doubt, be delivered for forty francs. By
adding one half sand, quite as good a commodity as the rough puzzo-
lana is produced, and you get for twenty francs what formerly cost
thirty-nine. At this price this material is likely to supersede all the
hydraulic lime and artificial cements made at the different localities.
It is easier worked, and the qualify is superior, or at least equal.

Algiers is not the only place where this measure can be adopted ad-
vantageously; it can be practised with advantage on the whole Medi-
terranean coast and wherever the puzzolana of Italy is used. The
engineers of Toulon and Jlarseilles have already made arrangements
for the importation of the sifted puzzolana, and there is little doubt
but that it will become an extensive article of traffic.

The mortar is made with one part lime in paste, and two parts
puzzolana. If the puzzolana is in the rough state the mortar becomes
hard in four days and resists the Vicat rod ; if it is sifted through the
bolting cloths it will become hard in two days, and if the puzzolana is
sifted through a fine hair sieve, it will become hard iu twenty-four
hours.

It takes six days for mortar to become hard, which is made of one
part lime, one of bolted puzzolana, and one of sand.

Beton is composed of one part mortar and two of stones broken to
the size of from one to two inches,* making two parts of beton.

A cubic metre (3o-317 cubic feet) of beton weighs 568(j pounds. It
acquires in twenty-four hours, sufficient cohesion to withstand the
shock of a heavy sea without disintegration. In November 1S3D, a
block containing two hiuidred and fifty cubic yards, which had been
immersed only thirty-six hours was stripped of its enclosure, and re-
sisted the action of one of the most violent storms. M. Feueon, a
mining engineer, then at Algiers, was an eye witness of this remark-
able fact.

The blocks made in the cases with cloth bottoms, measure generally
from one hundred and eighty to two hundred and fifty cubic yards ;
those made on shore, from fifteen to sixty cubic yards. When con-
structing the mole at Algiers, they placed first a set of the large b'.ocks,
and then, in advance of them, "to protect their bases, they placed a
number of the second size. The large cases serve as a platform from
which to launch the small blocks. The two lines of blocks are bound
together at intervals by large blocks of beton, and these intervals are
filled by stone measuring from five to eight cubic yards.

* Whether cubic or superficial measure, is not stateJ, Tr.

1840.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

207

The follo^ving is an estimate of quantities and labour for a b-ton
block, of thirty-six cubic yards, using rnortar made of lime, saud and
puzzolana : —

36 cubic yards of broken stone.
12 „ puzzolana.

12 „ lime in paste.

12 „ sand.

1 day's labour for a master workman.
3 " „ three labourers.

The cases used cost about one hundred dollars, and one will answer
for twenty blocks.

The whole cost of making and laying this beton at Algiers is about
five dollars and seventy cents the cubic yard.

Estimate of quantities and labour for a befon block of one hundred
and eighty-two cubic yards, sunk in a case with a tarred cloth bottom,
caulked, using mortar made of lime and puzzolana : —
182 cubic yards of broken stone.
91 „ puzzolana.

45i „ lime in paste.

1 master workman three days.

2 labourers for three days.

The construction and moving of the case cost about four hundred
dollars ; it can also be used twenty times.

The caulking at the angles, the" cloth bottom and the removal of the
case, cost about one hundred and se\-enty dollars.

The whole cost of making and laying this buton at Algiers, is esti-
mated to be about eight dollars and seventy-five cents the cubic yard.

Colonel Eniry published a work in 1S31, containing many purely
theoretical views, and at the same time many useful suggestions, in
whicli he set forth, strongly, the inconveniences of the present system
of building stone work in the sea, and proposed as a substitute, blocks
made of beton.

The blocks that he proposed were also of two kinds, one kind made
in the water, and the other on shore ; the first was to be built in a flat
bottomed case, and the other he proposed to transport to the place for
immersion ; a plan of doubtful success ; he proposed, too, that these
blocks, which were to be hexagonal prisms, should be laid regularly
one upon the other, which we regard as impossible.

During the execution of the new system at Algiers, some engineers
thought the success of it veiy doubtful ; but the manner in which the
end of the mole stands, puts all doubt to rest. This work projects
into the sea towards the quarter whence the winds blow with most
violence, and it stands without having sustained the slightest injury
from the most furious tempests. Besides other unquestioned advan-
tages presented by the use of beton blocks instead of loose stone, the
difficulty is avoided of transporting the stone of the requisite size when
the quarries are remote. This consideration amounts sometimes to
an insuperable obstacle to the use of loose stone, while the beton can
be used any where.

The Romans drew blocks of stone from Mount Circe to build the
port of Anxium, a distance of ten miles ; and the pontificial govern-
ment was obliged to abandon the port of Auzo in consequence of the
difficulty of finding a qunrry in the neighbourhood, that would furnish
proper stone to repair the jetties.

The Italians generally practise a mixed system. They build the
foundation of loose stones, even in twenty or thirty feet water, and the
top of masonry. The masonry is constructed in staunch cases, floated
to tlie place required, and the workmen, secure from water, erect a
wall usually of undressed stone and hydraulic mortar. The cases are
thus sunk by degrees until they reach the loose stone. The details of
this process are described in Belidor's Hydraulic Architecture, in his
description of the manner in which the moles at Nice, Genoa and Na-
ples were constructed.

The defects of this plan are very apparent ; the bottom of the case
rests upon an uneven and movable surface, and the consequence is, the
masonry cracks open in many places. Moles thus constructed are soon
destroyed; extensive repairs are required, which make it necessary to
be continually throwing in loose stone. This is exemplified in the
mole at Genoa, which shelters the harbour from the east winds, the
end of which constantly requires repair.

When De Cessart projected his large conical cases, he was on the
eve of discovering the simple and ingenious plan just described for
establishing foundations ; the great error which was committed, and
which fully explained the difficulty encountered by so skilful an en-
gineer, was in supposing that a wooden structure, however substan-
tially constructed, could resist the action of the sea. Acting on this
principle, he filled his cases with small stones to keep them in place ;
the consequence was that when the action of the sea beat these cases
to pieces, the stones fell down and the whole fabric was swept away,
De Cessart should have considered the case as simply a temporary

enclosure to build masonry in, which would be capable of resisting the
force acting against it after the cases were destroyed. If he had taken
up this idea, it would probably have led him to the use of beton for
filling his cases. Instead of making these cases as substantially as was
proposed, it would be sufficient to give them the form of a large cask
without a bottom, made with uprights and staves bound together by
iron chains instead of hoops, in sucli manner that the uprights can be
taken apart when the case is to be taken up. Another indispensable
condition is, that the case should be filled in the shortest possible time.
The sea at Algiers is very powerful considering the little range it has;
and it would be necessary to make such arrangements that a case made
to contain about 1300 cubic yards, should be filled in thirty-six, or
forty-eight hours. This might be done by throwing in beton blocks,
reaijymade, at the same time pouring in beton to bind them, by means
of cloth funnels fixed to the cases. This suggestion has never been
acted upon, but if the intention of making Algiers a military port be
carried out, there will be an opportunity of trying it on a large scale,
and it is believed with complete success.

Whatever may be the fate of this or other plans for using beton, one
thing is certain, that sooner or later, the practice of making founda-
tions at sea with loose stone will be entirely abandoned, and masses of
the natural rock so costly in quarrying and transportation, and so in-
sufficient in dimensions, will be replaced by artificial blocks made of
beton.

THE EFFECT OF CURVES ON RAILWAY CARRIAGES.

Sir — The influence of railway curves on engines and carriages passing
along them, appears to have been paid little attention to by those.
persons who have had the best opportunities of acquiring information
on the subject ; at least, I am not aware that the results of any obser-
vations on the subject have been made known to the world. The only
remark bearing on the matter which I have seen published, is contained
in a letter by Mr. J. Ely, at page 139, vol. 2, of your Journal, in which
he assei-ts "that when an engine is entering upon a curve, it will be
affected by the nature of the path it was previously describing, and
that the wear ami tear of the onUr rail at the commencement of a
sharp cur\e is ?tso when the previous jiath is a curve in an opposite
direction (forming an S), than when it is a straight line." I do not
for a minute doubt the correctness of the latter part of his assertion,
but think that the inference he would draw from it, that an S curve
is preferable to a straight line connected with a single curve, is erro-
neous. If you consider the subject, you will instantly perceive that
the outer rail at the commtnceiiuiit of a reversed curve, would scarcely
be aftected bv the grinding of the vv-heels, but that the inner rail would
have all the wear and tear which is, simply, not from tl.e engine or
carriages being influenced by the path they were previously describing,
in the sense which he applies it, but from the centrifugal power
throwing the carriages against the outer rail of a curve, and which, at
the point where the curve is reversed, has not had time to be counter-
acted, and which will not be the case until the carriages have passed
a considerable distance into the second or contrary curve, when the
wheels will begin to grind the outer rail of this curve as they did that
of the preceding. My principal reason for addressing you is to draw
attention to the great wear and tear of engines and carriages caused
by their traversing curves, and to induce an inquiry into the subject,
for the purpose, if possible, of modifying the evil. My opinion on
the matter is, that any engine or carriage, in traversing a curve, under-
goes a degree of torsion in the framing, and thereby partially adapts
itself to the path which it is traversing, and which, with a slight de-
gree of sliding of the wheels on one side, enables it to pass along the
line without such a vast increase of friction as might reasonably be
inferred. Now if such is the case, and a carriage is drawn or propelled
along an S curve, the extremes of torsion will almost instantly take
place where the two curves join, the framing being then twisted in
the contrary direction, and the destruction of carriages must be cora-
niensuratelv great with the suddenness or violence with which the
change is effected. I would therefore offer, as a partial remedy, the
laying in of a short tangent line to the two curves in every instance,
instead of an S curve, whereby the extremes of torsion, in place of
being sudden, and I presume 'destructive, as in the latter, would be
gradually effected, first by the restoration of the framing to its square
form, and then by the slight torsion in the contrary direction. If this
plan was pursued, I have no doubt very much greater durability in the
engines and carriages would be the consequence. Perhaps some of
your readers who have opportunities of minutely observing the effects
which I have described, and also the effect where sharp curves are
connected with a tangent, will, at some future time, communicate the
results.

June, 1340. B.

26S

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[August,

SUSPENSION BRIDGES.

Oil the Thtiinj 0/ Suspension Bridges, loitli some account of their carhj

histon/. By Mr. G. F. Fokdham, read at the Scientijic Society, March

12, 1810.

Suspension bridges appear to be of very ancient origin; travellers
li.ivc discovered tlieir existence in South America, in Cbin 1, in Tliibet,
and in tlie Indian Peninsula. They are most frequently met with in
mountainous regions, and being suspended across a deep ravine, or an
impetuous torrent, permit the ))assage of the traveller wlie.re the con-
struction of any utlier kind of bridge would be entirely impracticable.
Hiunbdlilt informs us, that in Soutli .\merica there are numerous bridges
of tins kind formed of ropes made from tlic fibrous parts of the roots
of the American agavey (^4garc amcricana). These ropes, which are
three or four inches in diameter, arc attached on each bank to a clumsy
frame work composed of the trunk of the Schijiiis mollc ; where, how-
ever, tlic banks are flat and low, this framework raises the bridge so
much above tlie ground as to prevent it from being accessible. To
remedy this inconvenience steps or ladders are, in these cases, placed
at cacli extremity of the l)ridge, by ascending which all who wish to
pass over, readily reach the roadway. The roadway is formed by
covering the ropes transversely, with small cylindrical pieces of bam-
boo. The bridge of Fenipe, erected over the Chambo, is described as
being 12U feet long, and 8 feet l>roail, but there are others winch have
much larger dimensions. A bridge of tliis kind will generally remain
in good condition 20 or 25 years, though some of the ropes require
renewing every s or 10 years. It is worthy of remark, as evincing
the high anti(pMty of these structures, tliat they are known to have
existed in South America long prior to the arrival of Europeans. The
utility of these bridges in mountaino\is countries, is placed in a strik-
ing point of view by the fact mentioned by Ilinnboldt, of a permanent
communication having been establislied between t^uito and Lima, by
means of a rope bridge of extraordinary length, al'ter 40,000^ had been
expended in a fruitless attempt to build a stone bridge over a torrent
which rushes from the Cordilleras or the Andes. Over this liridge of
ropes, which is erected near Santa, travellers with loaded mules can
])ass in safety.

But suspension bridges, composed of stronger and more durable
materials than the twisted fibres and tendrils of plants, are found to
•«xist in these remote and semi-barbarous regions ; in Thibet as well
as in China many iron suspension bridges have been discovered, and it
is no improbable conjectiM'e, that in countries so little known and visited
by Europeans, otiiers may exist of which we have as yet received no
accounts. The most remarkable bridge of this kind, of which we have
any knowleilgc in Thihet, is the bridge of Chuka-cha-zum, stretched
over the Tehintchieu river, and situated about Is miles from Muri-
clioin. "(.)nly one horse is admitted (o go over it at a time : it swings
as you tread upon it, re-acting at the same time with a force that im-
pels you every stej) you take to (inicken your pace. It may be ne-
cessary to say, ill explanation id' its construction, tliat on the five chains
■which support th'' platform, are placed several layers of strong coarse
mats of bamboo, loosely put down, so as to play with the swing of the
bridge; and that a fence on eacliside contributes to the security of tlie
jiassenger."* The date of the erection of this bridge is unknown to
the inhabitants of the country, and they even ascribe to it a fabulous
origin. The length of this bridge appears to be about l.'iO feet.

Turner describes in the following terms a bridge for foot passengers
of an extraordinary construction. " It was composed of two eliains
stretched parallel to each other across the river, distant four feet from
eacli other, and on either side resting upon a ])ile of stones, raised upon
each bank about S feet high; they were carried down with an easy
slope and buried in the rock, where being fastened round a large stone,
they were ccnifincd by a quantity of broken rock hea])ed on them. A
plank about H inches broad, hung, longitudinally suspended, across tlie
river with roots and creepers, wound over the chains with a slackness
sutlicient to allow the centre to sink to the depth of four feet below
the chains. This bridge, called Selo-cha-zum, measured, from one
side of the water to the other, seventy feet. The creepers are changed
annually, and the jilanks are all loose ; so that if the creepers give way
in any part, (hey can be removed, an^l the particular part repaired
without disturbing the whole."

Numerous suspension bridges formed of iron chains exist also in
China; and though the accounts wliidi travellers have transmitted
respecting them are less detailed and explicit than would have been
desirable, descriptions of two of them have been furnished, which are
sufliciently minute and intelligible to excite considerable interest. The
first to which 1 refer is contained in Kiicher's China lllustrata. Tlie
following is a translation of the author's words. "In the province of

to* Turner's linilajsv to ihi; Court oflhibet.

Junnan, over a valley of great depth, and through which a torrent of
water runs with great force and rapidity, a bridge is to be seen said to
have been built by the Emjieror Mingus, of the family of the Haniae,
in the year of Christ 0.5, not constructed of brickwork, or of blocks of
stone cemented together, but of chains of beaten iron and hooks, so
secured to rings from both sides of the chasm, that it forms a bridge
by planks placed upon them. There are 20 chains, each of which is
20 perches or 300 palms in length. When many persons pass over
together, the bri<lge vibrates to and fro, afl'ecting them with horror and
giddiness, lest whilst passing it should be strucK with ruin. It is im-
possible to admire sufficiently the dexterity of the architect Sinensius,
who had the liardihood to atti^mpt a work so arduous, and so conducive
to the convenience of travelling." Another suspension bridge in this
country is described in the (ilh vol. of the " Ilisloire ghit'-rale dcs
/'oijagis." The following is a translation: "The famous Iron Bridge
(such is the name given to it) at C^uay-Cheu, on the road to Yun-Nan
(Junnan?) is the work of an ancient Chinese general. On the banks
of the Pan-Ho, a torrent of inconsiderable breadth, but of great depth,
a large gateway has been formed between two massive pillars, G or 7
feet broad, and from 17 to 18 feet in height. From the two pillars of
the east depend four cliains attached to large rings, which extend to
the two pillars of the west, and which being connected together by
smaller chains, assume, in some measure, the appearance of a net. On
this bridge of cliains a number of very thick jilanks have been placed,
some means of connecting which have been ado]ited in order to obtain
a continuous platform ; but as a vacant space still remains between
this plathnan and the gateways and pillars, on account of the curve
assumed by the chains, especially wdien loaded, this defect has been
remedied liy the aid of planking supported on trusses or consoles. On
each side of this planking small pilasters of wood have been erected,
which support a roof ot the same material, the two extremities of
which rest on the pillars that stand on the banks of the river."* The
writer proceeds to remark that, "the Chinese have made several other
bridges in imitation of this. One, on the river Kin-cha-Hyang, in the
ancient canton of I.o-Lo, which belongs to the province of Yun-Nan, is
particularly known. In the province of Se-Chuen there are one or
two others, wdiich arc sustained only by ropes, but though of an incon-
siderable size, they are so unsteady and so little to be trusted that they
cannot be crossed without sensations of fear."

While our attention is directed to early accounts, and to the origin
of suspension bridges, it may be proper to remark, that altliongli, as we
liave seen, the inhaliitants of the moinitainous districts of South Ameri-
ca, or the wild and barbarous regions of Thibet, appear to have been
well ac(|uainled with the purposes for which these structures are best
adapted, and to have practised their construction from the most re-
mote ages, neither the (ireeks, the Romans, nor the Egyptians, ac-
cording to all we know of those nations had any knowledge of their
uses or properties, or ever employed them as a means for crossing a
river, or other natural impediment. It is not, therefore, from these
celebrated nations of antiquity that the engineer has derived his first
hints for the construction of suspension bridges, but from those rude
and unpolished people, the results of whose ingenuity have just been
described.

Hut it will now be interesting to inquire how far we can trace back
the antiquity of suspension bridges in more civilized countries, — on
the Continent, in the British Isles, and in the Vnited States of America.
Scamozzi speaks of suspension bridges existing in Europe in the be-
ginning of the seventeenth century, but it is very questionable if he
employed that term to designate the same structure to which it is now
ap]ilied, and this is rendered the more improbable as no such bridges
are now in existence, an<l other writers are totally silent upon the
subject. It docs not appear then that suspension bridges of other than
recent erection have existed on the Continent, and in England the
oldest of which we have any account has not been constructed more
than a century. The first suspension bridge in the United States was
erected in the year l/'.Ki. In England the oldest bridge of the kind
is believeil to have been the Wincli Chain Bridge, suspended over tlie
Tees, and liius forming a communication between the counties of Dur-
ham and York. Mr. Stevenson (Edinburgh Philosophical Journal)
expresses his regret at not having been able to learn the precise date
of the erection of this bridge; from good authority, however, he con-
cludes it to be about the year 17-11. It may also be mentioned here,
that at Carric-a-rede, near Ballantoy, in Ireland, there is a rope bridge,
which in 1800 was reported to have been in use longer than the pre-
sent generation could remember.

In the years 18 Ki and 1817 some wire suspension bridges were exe-
cuted in Scotland, and, though not of great extent, are the first example
of this species of bridge architecture in Great Britain. As, however,

1 See Navier, Memoire sur les Fonts suspcndus.

JS-tO.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

209

lull descriptions of those bridges are to be met witli elsewhere, it will
not be necessary to notice them farther.

In ISls, Mr.Telford was consulted by government as to the pra'cti-
cability of erecting a suspension liridge over the Menai Strait, and was
commissioned to prepare a design, if, upon an examination of the lo-
calities, he found the project feasible. Having accordingly surveyed
the spot, he was led to propose the construction of a suspension bridge
near Bangor Ferrv, and in ISIO an act was obtained anthori/.ing the
erection of the bridge, a sum of money having been previously voted
by Parliament for that purpose. This structure, which will always be
regarded as a monument of the engineering abilities of Telford, was
connnenced in August 1S19, and opened to the public on the 30th
January, ls:}i5, Iraving occupied six and a half years in its erection.
The Union IJridge across the Tweed was designed and executed by
Captain Brown, and was the first bar chain bridge of cousiilerable size
that was completed in this country. It was commenced in August
1810, and finished in the month of July 1S2U. After the com|)letion
of the Mcnai Bridge, bridges on the suspen>ion principle began to be
universally adopleil throughout Euro])e ; but it was not till /;«« wins
had been proved to be more jinn than bars of a gitdkr lliickiicsn that
these bridges received their most extensive api)lications.* Since 1S21
Messrs Sequin have constructed more than 50 wire briilges in France,
with the most complete success.* The wire sui))ension bridge at
Freyburg, in Switzerland, the largest in the world, was erecteil by
Mons. Challey, and depends across the valley of the Sarine. It was
commenced in 1S31, and thrown open to the pubic in 183-1. A sus-
pension bridge has also been erected at Montrose, the size of which is
scarcely inferior to that of the Menai bridge. At Clifton a very large
suspension bridge is now in progress of erection by Jlr. Brunei, and a
suspension bridge lUito feet in length is about to be erected over the
Danube, between Pest and Often, tlie design for which is the produc-
tion of Mr. W. Tierney Clark, and under whose able superintendence
its construction will be effected.

Having completed this sketch of the eaily history and subsequent
progress of these interesting structures, I shall now proceed to investi-
gate the friiicipkn upon which their stability depends, and by whose
aid we are enabled to deduce practical rules for their construction. In
this inquiry 1 prefer proceeding entirely upon abstract grounds, as by
disencumbering our ideas of iiuUcrial circamsUuiccn, a greater facility
of thought is conferred, and the results of the investigation are made
to rest upon a broader and more certain basis. When a prinei|)Ie has
once been established in a ^'tyft/'u/yu/w, its application will be found
with comparative ease, as we have then only to observe tliat in sub-
stituting the particular lor the general case, we do not violate any of
the fundamental conditions of the problem.

The theory of suspension bridges is susceptible of division into two
parts. I. The statical theory. II. The dynanucal theory. In the
first, we consider the forces which are develoi)ed, ami the laws which
are brought into operation, when all the parts are at rest ; in the second,
we suppose the action of the impressed force is evinced by the pro-
duction of motion, and upon that su|iposition proceed to investigate
the beh.iviour of each particle, and inter the effect of their cumbinetl
motions. In the pres(Mit paper the statical theory alone will be con-
sidered. The statical theory of suspension bridges is evidently in-
volved in the general problem, to dtkrmitie l/it cotidilw/m oj' aimlibriam
of aiii/fvrcis /c/iukrer, acting in space njxin pvinln cuniiiclid by Inns
loholly Jtcxibk and vicrlinxibk. In the solution of this problem, tlien,
we shall be gradually approaching our subject.

It is a principle in statical science, that when a body, acted on by
any number of forces, is supposed to be at rest, all these forces must
admit of being compounded into two, which are e()ual and opposite to
each other. The same condition, it is evident, nnist exist with regard
to each point, out of any number connected by Hexible lines, provided
the initial position of these lines be not a straight line, for then, it is
clear, no medium exists through which the lorces can be transmitted,
and be made to act and re-act upon each other. This case may then
be neglected in the present investigation, as it <loes not involve tha
principle of cotmecting lines, which here exert, in reality, no mechani-
cal influence whatever. The same remark replies .dso when the con-
necting lines are right lines, if we still suppose that each point is in
equilibrium by virtue of Ihose/orcts alone which act upon itself. But
since we easily conceive tht transmission of force from one point to the
adjacent one through the intervention of a connecting line, if that line
be inextensible and a right line, it is perfectly clear that equilibrium
may exist with regard to any number of points thus united, though
each point should not, considered by itself, be in equilibrium by virtue
of the forces applied to it, provided only we suppose tliat the inter-

* .See the Alijenicine Baiizeitung.

change of force between two consecutive point be (««/««/, i(j«ii.' and
ojiposih. Moreover, we shall suppose the forces to be receding forces,
or such as tend to cause two bodies to proceed from each other. In
general, then, it appears that in order that cipiilibrium may exist with
regard to a system of points, which we suppose not to be in a state of
inde[)eudent ecpulibrium, it is only recpiisite that two simple conditions
be observed. I. The line of connection must be a right line. II. The
transmission of t'orce between two points must be nialiial, equal and
oppusiti. It follows also, from the last condition, that the interchange
of force will take place in the direction of the connecting line. We
shall now proceed to show that these self-evident conditions being ad-
mitted, they may be resolved into others which have a more in-actical
bearing, if, to begin with the sim|ilest case, we take two points, A
and B, fig. 1, we see at once, that ecpiilibrium being s\ipposed, each
must bo acted on by ecpud forces, whose direction are denoted by the
arrows. If we now proceed to the case of three points, A, B, C, fig. '2,
it is eviileut, that cipiilibrium subsisting, each two will be iu equili-
brium with respect to one another, and therefore, as we have seen, will
be subject to equal and opposite forces. The directions of these are
denoted by the arrows. Now, let the forces acting in the directions
A B, C D, at the same point B, be compounded into BB' which re-
presents their resultant, and we have, conso([uently, a system of three
jioints kept in e(|uilibrium by three forces, of which one is applied to
each point. But as the forces acting at A and C, are transmitted
through the connecting lines to the point H, and may be regarded as
acting there, it is obvious the case differs in no respect frcuu that of
three forces in equilibrium around a single point. Consequently, call-
ing the forces B A, B B' BC, I', Q, K, we have : —

P : Q : : sin. B' BC : sin. ABC
R : g : : sin. AB B : sin. ABC

p : R : : sin. B' bc : sin. abR'.

Hence also, from these propositions ni.iy be found the values of P,
Q, and U, in terms of two of the angles and one of the other forces.

• .1 , ,, sin. B" B C ,^sin. ABB' ,„

By comparing the values, ci__^^, Q _-_--^, of P and R,

we observe that when / AB B' = Z B' B C, P =
duced bisects the /ABC. Let / A B C = 2 (8,

sin. S
sin. 2 /3

sin. $

1

2 sin 3 COS. |8 2 cos. 3
1

Hence P = R :

R, and B ■ B pro-
. sill. B'BC_
■ ■ Tsin. A B C ~

Q

2 COS. js'

If Q remain constant, P a » ami if fl remain constant, P a Q

COS. e

If Z A B C be increased

evident from the equationP ^ _^

COS. /3 is diminished, and it is therefore

-, tliat by increasing the Z AB C

2 COS. /3

we increase the value of P; consequently, when A B C becomes a

Q

right line or S =; '.'0"', the equation becomes P ^-- = a.

It follows, as Poinsot remarks (Traitc de Statique) that a cord or
thread stretched in a right line between two fixed points, will be ne-
cessarily broken by the smallest possible force that can be applied to
it transversely, sup;)03iiig the cord to bc inextensible and not to have
an infinite longitudinal resistance. It may be further remarked, that
every material cord being composed of particles having weight, would,
if extended between two fixed points lying in a horizontal line, be acted
on by transverse forces of a definite magnitude ; consequently no force,
however large, would bc sullicient to bring the cord into a horizoiita
position.

It is not difficult to extend the reasoning which has been used in re-

2 0

270

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[AUGTTST ,

fereiice to three points, to tlie case of any number of points, inexten-
sihlv anil flexibly connected. Let the points be A, H, C, D, E, F, fig. 3;
then, if the whole system beat rest, each pair of contiguous points
will be at rest with respect to each other, and conserpiently will be
connected hy a straight line, and acted on by equal and opposite forces.
Bv combining, as before, the forces at B, C, D, and E, we obtain their
resultants P, Cj, R, S, and we observe that, in general, any number of
points may be kept in equilibrium by as many forces acting se|r.irately
on each. For the sake of greater clearness, let us, however, imagine
tliat two equal and opposite forces are made to act upon B, in the de-
ductions C C, C B, respectively ; then the system will be at rest as
before, and if we suj)|)ose the force C B to act at C, the point B will
be kept in equilibrium by three forces, B A, B C, BP. In the same
manner, bj' superimposirg equal and opposite forces at the points C
und D, each will be kept at rest by three receding forces, two of which
are always in the direction of the lines of connection. By calling the
forces which act along the lines of connection V, W, X, Y, Z, we have
therefore the following proportions: —

sin. P C B : sin. ABC
sin. ABC: sin. A B P
sin. Q C D : sin. BCD
sin. BCD: sin. B C Q
sin. R D E : sin. C D E
sin. C D E : sin. C D R
sin. S E F : sin. D E F
sin. D E F : sin. D E ,S.
From these proportions the relation of any one force to any other may
be determined, and consequently any force may be represented in
terms of any other and the sines of the angles through which their
lines of direction respectively pass. For example,

V

: P

p

: w

w

Q

Q

: X

X

R

R

Y

Y

S

S

z

v = z

sin. P B C
sin. D E^

, and P =r S

siu. ABC
sin. D E F ■

If the original forces A B, C B, by the union of which the force P is
obtained, were equal, P B produced will bisect the angle ABC, and
the same is to be remarked of the forces Q, R, S ; consequently, by the
preceding proportions we have in this case, V ^ W = X ^ Y = Z.
Moreover, denoting by 2 a, 2 /3, 2 j, 2 5, the angles of the polygon, it
follows : —

R

cos. a . COS. $ • cos. -/ ; cos. 5.

Figs. 4 and

That is to say, the forces applied at the several angles of the poly-
gon are proportional to the cosines of the halves of those angles. Let
us now suppose that the lines A B and B C are equal to each other.
Through the points A, B, C, fig. 4, describe the circle A B C D, draw
the diameter B D, the arc A E, and E F at right angles to A B. Then
li D bisects the /ABC, and because B A D is a right angle (Euc.
J). 3L b. 3) :—

B A ; B D : : B F : B E : : cos. o : rad.

B A
.*. cos. a = 5-f;. Hence, as th« forces P, Q, R, S, are proportional to
B D

cos. a, cos. 0, &c., if we suppose all the sides of the polygon to be
equal, it is evident they will be inversely, as the radius of the circle
passing through the points terminating the two contiguous sides. But
if we imagine the sides of the polygon to become indefinitely small, it
then assumes the form of a curve, and the circle becomes the osculat-
ing circle, or the circle of equal curvature. If, then, a flexible curve,
the two extremities of which are immoveably fixed, be acted on at
points equidistant from each otherby a number of normal forces, these
forces will be inversely as the radii cif curvature of the points of appli-
cation, and the forces developed in the direction of the curve will be
everywhere the same. If the normal forces be equal, the reciprocals

of the radii of curvature w ill be equal, and therefore the radii of curva-
ture themselves ; consequently, in this case, the curve will be part of
a circle.

If the normal force vary as the cube of the cosine of the angle
formed by the ordinate and tangent at any point, the curve is a para-
bola, as is jjroved by Ihe following investigation.

Let P A R, fig. 5, be a parabola generated by the action of normal
forces, P T the tangent at the point P and N T, the subtangent. Let
A N = :r, N P = 7/, and/*, the principal parameter or latus I'ectum;
also call the radius of curvature R, and the normal force V.

N P

Then, cos. N P T = 5-=-

But B P^ = N T- + K P-' = 4 AN2 + N P«
N P ?/

cos. N P T =

Or since y- .

cos.= N P T =

V 4 A N= + N P-
p.r, cos. N P T =
p.r

' v-1 .!•' + r

4 X- + fx

^/ix' +px
i.,+p

Hence cos.- N P T a

1

^ X -\- p
But in the parabola R

; or cos.3 N P T a

{■ix'+p)%

{■^ x-\-p)h_
2 s/p

Consequently V a -5 a eos.^ N P T

Let « be the normal force at the vertex, and denote by <^ the
^/ N P T : — hence, because at the vertex cos. t = 1>

f : V : : 1 ; cos.' (p .■. v = r cos.' i^.

Again, since in the catenary, R CC >* <(> denoting the angle

° COS.- <p

formed by the abscissa and tangent, it is seen at once, that when
V OC cos.= (p, the curve is a catenary.

Figs. 6, 7, and S.

Assuming the system of points A, B, C, &c. fig. 6, to be in equili-
brium, we sliall now imagine the connecting lines to become perfectly
rigid. It is evident that this supposition will not affect the equili-
brium, as it does not involve the addition or abstraction oi force, the
only agent by which equilibrium is preserved or destroyed. If then
the system was in equilibrium before, it will remain so now, and we
have consequently a rigid body acted upon by the forces V, P, Q, R,

• Poinsot. Traite de Statique.

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THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

271

S, Z, which equilibrate each other. It follows, the resultant of two
or more of these forces must be equal and directly opposed to the re-
sultant of all the others, and if, therefore, A B, F E, be produced and
intersect at O, the resultant of the forces F, Q, R, S will pass through
the same point. Consequently, if the resultant be represented in mag-
nitude and direction bv the line O T, and a parallelogram be constructed,
whose diagonal is this line, and whose sides, N O, M O, are drawn in
the directions of B A, E F ; NO, M O, will represent the directions
and magnitudes of the forces to which the extreme points of the sys-
tem, A and F, are subject. To proceed now to the case where P, Q,
R, S, are parallel, fig. 1 . The proportions we have before obtained
will obviously apply here also, but in this case the supposition of equi-
librium involves another condition, which was not before essential ; all
the forces must be situated in the same plane. For, as three forces
are in equilibrium around the point B, they will necessarily be situated
in the same plane, and the same can be asserted of C, D, and E ; but
B P, C Q, being parallel, B P, B C, and C Q are in the same plane
(Euc. 7, 11) ; and consequently, all the forces acting at B and C are in
one plane. By extending this reasoning to the points D and E, we
observe that all the forces of the system will be situated in the same
plane. Referring to the proportions already established, and remark-
ing that sin. P B C ^ sin. B C Q ; sin. Q C D = sin. R D C, S;c. we
have : —

V : W : ; sin. B C Q : sin. A B P
W : X : : sin. R D C : sin. B C Q.

And so of Y and Z. From this it appears, that when a number of
parallel forces act upon points flexibly connected, the forces developed
in the directions of the connecting lines, are inversely as the sines of
the angles made by these lines witli the parallel forces. These forces
are therefore inversely as the cosines of the angle made by the sides
with lines at right angles to the directions of the parallel forces; or
denoting the angle by if>, and calling I the force thus developed ;

1

t a a sec. <f)

cos. ip

When B C is at right angles to the parallel forces, we obtain the
relation of the force acting in tlie direction C B to the force acting in
the direction E F, by supposing, as before, that the intermediate lines
C D, D E, have become rigid. B C and F E being produced will in-
tersect at O, through which will pass the resultant of Q, R, S, equal to
their sum and parallel in direction. Let tliis be called m, and denote
by a the force acting in C B ; then t being the force in E F, and cf tlie
Z made by its direction with the direction of a, we have

1

I : a :

cos. (f> ;

And I \ n :\ \ : sin. <f,

.*. w ■=. <sin. (f!.
It is also evident from these proportions, that

n : a : : sin. <f ; COS. ifi; from which m ■=. a

sin. <P

COS. l(>

.'. n =1 a tan (p.

In order to compare the forces P, Q, R, S, let the angles formed by
A B, B C, C D, fig. 8, with lines at right angles to the directions of the
forces be called a, jS, y, 5. If therefore A B be produced, the / C B b ^
o — $, and in the same manner Z DCc=:fl — 7. Adopting this nota-
tion, we have these proportions: —

P ; W : : sin. ABC (sin C B 6) : sin. P B A

: : sin. (a— (8) : cos. a

P sin. o cos. |8 — cos. o sin. $ ^ ,^ , „n

— = cos. ;8 (tan o — tan 0)

' W cos. a.

Again, W ; Q* : : sin. Q C D

: : COS. 7

w

cos. 7

cos 7

sin. BCD (sin. D C e)
sin. (fi — 7)

1

sin./3 — 7 sin. J3 cos 7 — cosj3sin7 cos.j8(tan5 — tan7)
Finally, by multiplying these equations we have : —

P tan. o — tan. p

Q tan. j8 — tan. 7'
The other forces will be found to be related in a similar manner. Let
C D become perpendicular to C Q or D R, then tan 7 = Q, and P :
Q : : tan. a — tan. p ; tan. fi ; also, P + Q : Q : : tan. a ; tan 8.

* See WliewcU's Elements of Mei.hanics.

The principles we have now been considering have been established
with regard to a polygon, acted on by given forces, but they may re-
ceive a more extended application, by imagining that the equal sides
of the polygon become continually diminished until they are less than
any assignable quantity, when, it is evident, we obtain a cane, or in
other words, a polygon, the number of whose sides is infinite. This
curve will vary in its nature, according to the magnitude and position
o the forces by which it is generated ; if, for examiile, the forces be
iqual, and radialt from the centre of the ordinate, the curve will be a.
semi-circle ; if the forces are parallel, equal, and equally distributed
along the cam, we obtain the catenary, and if, while equal' and parallel,
they are equally distributed along the 0/-duiaie, the parabola is the
curve produced. The nature of the forces employed in the production
of the serai-circle has already been shown ; and with respect to the
catenary, it is clear that this curve being defined, as the form which a
flexible thread or chain assumes when freely suspended from its ex-
tremities, we shall obtain the same curve, if we replace the forces of
gravhy by others which are equal and parallel, whether their magni-
tudes be less or greater than the forces they have supplanted. The
pi eduction of a parabola by equal and parallel forces uniformily dis-
tributed along the ordinate. I have succeeded in proving in the fol-
lowing manner : — In the first place, it is clear from what has been said,
that whatever be the form of the curve, if we denote by w the sum of
the forces acting upon the arc included between the vertex and a given
point, and denominate (p the angle farmed by the tangent and ordinate,
IV OC tan. (p. If then we assume PAR, fig. 5, to be a parabola gene-
rated by the action of parallel forces, we have — •

NT 2x

tan.^^.^=-

But y-

- pj; or X

P

, and by substitution,

tan. ^ =:

P

2i/
Hence, w d — O. y.

r

An attempt has thus been made to exhibit in the most simple and
intelligible form, some elementary principles, which must tend to sys-
teraize and illuminate our ideas upon the nature and mode of action of
the several forces to which a suspension bridge is subject. In the
composition of this paper, I am much indebted to a chapter in Poinsot's
"Traite de 8tatique-," but a somewhat different view of the subject
has here been taken, and some new matter has also been added, which
it is hoped will not be thought uninteresting.

CANDIDUS'S NOTE-BOOK,
FASCICULUS XVIL

" I must have litjerty
AVithal, as large a cliarter as the winds.
To blow on whom 1 please."

I. Much as has been said and written about styles of architecture
the Consumptive Gothic has hitherto escaped notice, and consequently
animadversion. This must not be confounded with so-called Carpen-
ter's Gothic; for it is frequently correct as to outline, but nevertheless
quite otherwise as to execution, the mouldings and details being
terribly attenuated, whereby a disagreeable meagreness and insipidity
take the place of relief and boldness,and instead of appearing carved, the
ornaments look as if they had been stamped with a butter-print. Al-
though its design may be exact as to mere pattern, yet if its mullions
and transoms be pared away, as not unfrequently happens, to about half
their due proportions, as regards the spaces between the former, a
Gothic window becomes deficient in that w hich gives character to one-
Nor is it a little strange that while architects affect as they do, to be
scandalized at the slightest deviations from the proportions of Greek,
and Roman columns, thev make no scruple whatever of deviating alto-
gether from those proportions upon which the effect of Gothic archi-
tecture very materially depends; but because greater latitude and
freedom are allowable 'in that style, with regard to composition, con-
sider themselves at libeity to disregard what may fairly be called its
constitutional principles.

II. Now that Brummagem silver, and other Brummagem productions,
are distinguished by the name of ' Victoria,'— which, by the bye, is a.

2 0 2

272

THI] CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[AlGUST ,

most left-luimled compliment to her Majesty, — we shall probably ere
long have a 'Victorian' style, as well as an Eli/iabethau one, in archi-
tecture. Inileetl, such style is now beginning to display itself in the
rows of houses rising up about the church at PadJington, which are
about the most Brummagem attairs in bricks and mortar I ever beheld.
And such enormities are quietly perpetrated before our eyes, while
good easy critics are comfortably twaddling about styles. That we
should come to such abominations in taste — such frightful barbarisms!
Better, iiitinitely better would it have been to have stuck to the unso-
phisticated, respectable dullness which stamps all the jirivate streets
at the West-end of (he Town ; inasmuch as the absence of all preten-
sion at design is far more tolerable than design run mad — as we per-
ceive it to be among the Paddingtonians. The name of a Wyatt has
been mentioned to me — a descendant, I believe, of the illustrious James
of ' execrable memory,' — as that of the offender ; — yet can it be true ? A
law, it is to be hoped, will be passed, iirohibiting foreigners from pass-
ing through Paddington, exce])t they be blindfolded. Let the l/?gis-
lature look well to it; for the honour and credit of our beloved country
are at stake. Already have we been sneered at, — nay, reviled and
rated in good set terms by certain saucy foreign critics for our Boz-
niania and Jack Shephard-mania, which they are pleased to represent
as deplorably wretched in taste ; and now we shall be cut-up, abused,
ridiculed, and made laughing-stocks of, on account of our sins in brick
and mortar at Paddington — the more suitable name for w'hich would
oe JIadding-town.

in. "And how," said I to a German friend, on his return from an
excursion to the North of England — "how did Newcastle please you ?
if there be truth in Dibdin, its magnificence must have enchanted you.
Come now, be sincere — put away all your continental prejudices; own
that at last you have met with sometliing to match the glories you
have left behind you." — "Dibdin bed — d "' was the startling rejily ;
"a man who could write greasy puffs on such a farrago of architectural
balderdash, is fit only to be flunky to your George Robins. Dibdin
must be an absolute dunce to gabble as he does about the 'Northum-
brian Vitruvius,' and cr)' up as superior creations of art, a parcel of
tawdrily bedizzened houses, among which there is not one single bit
of <lesign to be discovered." "All then that is to be said," returned
I, " is that we Englishmen do make confounded fools of ourselves."

IV. The only symptom I have yet discovered of the so much talked
of March of Intellect, is that there has been no " laying the first stone"
of the New Houses of Parliament, — none of the fussy tomfoolery,
with the "silver-trowel," and all the rest of it, which generally takes
place upon such "important occasions." The sensible example thus
set, will, I trust, be adhered to in future ; for I suspect the silly cere-
mony hitherto in vogue, Iras frequently dipped rather deeplv into tlie
building funds — or into funds that might else have been added to
them. In truth it is rather provoking to mortal patience to find that
wliile a church or other building is frequently marred and spoiled for
the sake of saving a paltry hundred pounds or so, the money can be
found forthcoming freely enough for eating and drinking after the
august ceremony alhuled to,^ — for of course all such recreation must be
paid for, though it should amount to double the architect's commis-
sion. As to the architect himself, he, poor fellow, is generally a no-
body— a mere cypher on the occasion — a creature whom the news-
]ia|iers do not think it worthwhile to name; the first fiildle on all such
occasions being some bustling body, noble or otherwise, who comjjli-
ments those around him, and is be-complimented by them as the hero
of the day.

V. On the outside of his "Palace of Architecture," Wightwick
gives us what he calls a Pyramid of Architecture, the grarfmiorcourses
of which are respectively inscribed with the name of some high
authority in the art, the lowermost being that of Vitruvius, and the
topmost that of Hosking. Whether this arrangement was merely
accidental, or intended to have some particular meaning, I pretend not
to say; but it certainly does look much like assigning the post of
supremacy and honour to Hosking that staunch Anti-Vitruvianist, and
terrible heretic and unorthodox writer, who has not scrupled to abuse
the venerable Vitruvius in good set terms, — and to bring his authority
into contempt by asserting that a man might just as well study Geo-
graphy in Gulliver's Travels, as Architecture in the wiitings'of the
great Marcus Pollio. — We here also find placed in friendly conjunction,
" cheek by jowl," the names of Britton and Pugin, an association that
is almost enough to make the latter start from his grave, for in his
life-time the association between them was of the most cat-and-dog
kind ; nor was P. at all sparing of most highly flavoured epithets to-
wartls his quandam co-partner, — of whom by the bye, Bartholomew
has just spoken as " the immortal antiquary," and w horn he no doubt
considers to be a most profound and erudite etymologist also.

VI. "There are thieves and paupers of a verv respectable kind in
the literary world"!; — So sayeth one— whom 1 take to be no other

than Carlyle, in a recent article on Lessing, in the Foreign t^u uterlv.
How many respectable paupers — that is, very respectable people, vet
very poor creatures, there may be in the architectural world, it might
be dangerous to compute ; but with regard to thieves there is no occa-
sion to deny that there is abundance of them ; since so far from being
at all ashamed of thieving or making any secret of it, the greater part
jilume themselves mainly upon it, and hold plagiarism to be a proof
not only of taste, but of talent. A literary thief — at least a " respect-
able" one, has generally the grace to blush when his pilferings are
detected, and the fine peacock feathers with which, jackdaw-like, he
has dressed himself up are plucked from him: not so the architectural
one, for he boldly challenges your admiration of wdiat notoriously does
not belong to himself, yet in which consists all the design and taste his
buildings can pretend to. Originality of any kind, — even that wdiich
extends to no more than giving a fresh turn to stale commonplace, is
generally disclaimed altogether, — under the trumpery pretence that it
is exceedingly hazardous to depart from actual precedent; and so un-
doubtedly it is for those who have no principles of taste to guide them,
and who therefore find it most convenient and politic to decry all at-
tempt at originality as dangerous innovation. Nolumus leges Anglice
mutari, is the maxim of our legislators, notwithstanding which they are
perpetually tinkering our laws, quashing old ones, and enacting new
ones — blundering ones let those say who choose. Whv should archi*
tects not venture to follow their example ? — at all events blunders in
taste are not quite so dangerous in legislation.

VII. "Obest pleruinque," says the great Roman philosopher, " iis
qui discere volunt auctoritas:" which is certainly, unfortunately like-
wise, most true with respect to architecture, in wdiich a superstitious
respect to precedent has impeded the advancement of the art, and
hindered that progressive developement wdiich might else take place.
Truly fortunate was it for the art that the writings of Vitruvius were
not brought to light an<l studied some centuries earlier, for otherwise
the world had, in all probability never beheld that exquisite Gothic
style which now enchants us. We of the present day are content to
be copyists — to do what has been done before, and nothing more. The
consequence is that when we have copied one particular style till we
are actually cloyed with it, we go back to some other, not because it is
at all better — perhaps not even so good as that we are become sick
of; but because it is, at any rate a change. Thus after a most servile
and so far erroneous admiration of Grecian examples, we suddenly,
with a High Presto ! become ardent admirers of Elizabethan architec-
ture, copying all its grotesque whims, its monstrous extravagancies,
its absurdities, and puerilities, instead of selecting out its good quali-
ties, and rejecting its vices. But to do this requires more taste and
discrimination than fall to every one's lot. Perhaps the recent appli-
cation of this style to some dashing shops at the West-end of the
Town, may help to bring it into discredit for other iiurposes, and stamp
it with the gentility-mongers, — a tolerably numerous class, as vulgar,
slow, and of course quite frightful. It happens oddly enough that
Wightwick has not given a single instance of i\\\i fashionable style in
his new work, mentioned above in the 5th section of this Fasciculus.

VIII. " The Lord deliver us from patronage," was the half-serious,
lialf-jesting exclamation of one who had had some experience of the
pig-headed obstinacy of ignoraniusses who, because they hold the
purse, fancy their own blundering whims ought to over-rule all other
taste. No wonder that poor Peruzzi declined the patronage of Cle-
ment VII., who would fain have employed him — not to decorate an-
other Farnesina, but to act as military engineer at the siege of Florence ;
Such a Mecffiuas would engage a Ude to cut bread and butter, or one
like myself to make a spelling-book. The patronage of the tasteless
is the very bane and corruption of art; and the tyranny of those who
devote themselves to it in the true spirit of artists. His most gracious
Majesty king Midas was a royal patron of the above class ; and it is to
be regretted that our modern Midasses are not similarly decorated
with donkey-ears.

IX. No tloubt it will be thought by many that I have already ex-
pressed my opinion of Palladio both frequentlt' and plainly enough ;
but inveterate prejudices are not to be put down by a few blows.
They must be attacked again and again, until the mere repetition of
the same censures attracts notice, and impresses them on people's at-
tention. I do not pretend to affirm that Palladio possesses no merit
whatever, or that he is the worst possible model an architect can fol-
low; yet I certainly do think tliat he does not deserve to be regarded
as a model or authority at all, because there is hardly a vice or solecism
which such authority will not be found to justify, if his precedent is
considered of any avail. Those whose indolence disposes them to
take up with ready-made opinions, wdiich once adopted they du not
care to have disturbed, will of course be scandalized at this, and are
welcome to be so, in like manner as many would be shocked at what
the Weber, that is Karl Julius (the most witty and entertaining of all

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THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

273

philosophers) has said of the author of Waverley, whom he speaks of
as " des zur mode geworden Vietsclimienrs, iind diistern Schotteii
Walter Scott," and t'khchnierer, be it observed, is a far strongerterm
of reproach than our English "Scribbler." Poor Sir Walter! a hun-
dred volumes are, in fact, somewhat too heavy a cargo for an author
to venture himself with upon the stream of time, for as Voltaire re-
marks " ou ne va point k la posterite avec tant de bagage."

SUTCLIFFE'S PATENT ROTATORY PUMP AND GENERAL

LEWIS.

Sir — The following is a description of Sutclilie's pump with the
result of an experiment on the discharging power of one now at work
at the Limerick Docks, where it is found far superior to the chain and
sucking pumps before in use. From the facility with which it can be
applied in all those cases where inunps arc recpiired, and not being
subject to get out of repair or choaked, it promises to be soon very
generalh' used, not only in hydraulic works, but also in the navy, and
those cases where the common pump was before used for household
purposes. The patentee has been almost constantly connected with
the execution of extensive works, as superintendant under Sir Thomas
Deane and Company, and his attention was directed to the subject by
the frequency of repairs required for the pumps usually employed in
clearing out water from foundations and dams, their great friction, and
the unequal flow of water from tliem ; and I am informed that his in-
vention has received the approval of Mr. Rhodes the engineer, and
Sir Thomas Deane and Company, the contractors for the Limerick
Docks.

In this pump a vacuum is formed by the revolution of an elliptical
frame within a cylinder, when the water rising it is carried round in
the lunar space between the ellipse and circle shown on section and
discharged.

Fig. \.

FiK

In tlie annexed figures, fig. 1 is a side elevation, fig. 2 an end eleva-
tion, fig. 3 a vertical section along the length, and fig. 4 a vertical sec-
tion across the width of the pump, and the same letters refer to the
same parts in each figure ; .r, ,i', the axis by the rotation of which the
elliptical frame f, e, e, e, is carried round in the direction indicated by
the arrow /, in fig. 3; c, c, c, c, the cylinder in which e, e, e, e, moves
both, having the common axis .r, .v ; /,/, a jacket forming with the ex-
terior of the cylinder a passage for the rising water from the pipe p ;
/, and /', fig. 3, two extreme positions of a tongue whidi hinders the
water bro\ight round in the lunes from m, of escaping again at the
same place, and which keeps touching the surface of the ellipse in its
revolution; b, b, b, b, a box into which the water is received and dis-
charged through the discharging pipe d, and when d is closed, forces
the water by the reaction of the air above through (lie forcing pipe p'.
When the pump is to be used, water is thrown in from above, which
renders the contact between the elliptical valve or frame and the cylin-
der water tight; after a few revolutions the air is exhausted, and the
water rising is carried into 6, h, b, 6, and discharged hy d or p' as before
described. It is evident the discharge wiU depend conjointly on the
velocity and sectional area of the water passing from the jacket into
the lunes, and the area of the lunes and the velocity vi'ith which they
are formed, or carried round. When the velocity and sectional area at
m is suflicient to fill a hme in the time of half a revolution, a maximum
eti'ect is produced, and the discharge is found ; when the velocity at
m is sufficient to fill the lunes, by multiplying the velocity of the lunes
by twice their area of one. Tlie foregoing figures are ilrawn from a
pump of this construction now at work, and are laid down on a scale
of 5-Stlis of an inch to the foot, but the handles and fly are not shown.
Four men discharge 12S gallons through a mean lift of 8 feet G inches
in 30 seconds, two men working at each handle, and the fly being
about 4 feet G inches in diameter. It should not be forgot that the
facility this construction of pump affords for the application of a fly
wheel, affords one tho\igh not the first of its recommendations. The
water issues in one regular and continued stream from the discharging
pipe, chips and clay attached to them when passed into the pump,
getting through without injuring the motion or apparently taking from
the discharge.

Fig. 1.

Fig. 2.

Fig. 3.

Fig. 3.

Fig. i.

The following are sketches of a lewis invented by the same ingenious
person,one of which construction is now used in setting the heavy facing
to the quays of the before-mentioned docks ; some of the stones are 3a
tons in weight. Fig. 1, front elevation; fig. 2, side elevation; and
fig. 3, a plan with half the upper ring removed. The same letters
refer to the same parts in each, 6 a ring as in the common lewis; a, a,
a collar turning on the axis ; d and d, and c, c, two pieces inserted into
the collar when the lewis is to be used, and also into the mortice, m,m,
in the stone to be set. When the lewis is drawn up, the collar a, a,
presses against the outside sloping shoulders of e, c, and causes both
pieces to approach at top and separate at bottom, thereby pressing
the pieces against the cheeks 7n, and m of the mortice, by means of
which pressure the stone rises with the lewis. The upper portions of
c and c, are perforated to admit a line being tied to them, and by
giving this line, when the stone is set, a few smart pulls in the di-
rection e e, the piece c is easily drawn up through the collar a, a, or
sufEciently to set the lewis at liberty. This lewis has a great advan-
tage over'those in ordinary use, as it is more simple in its construction,
and general in its application, than any I have yet seen ; it will set at
all depths of water with equal ease, and when the stone is set, can
speedily be drawn up again. The collar cr, a, and the construction of
the pieces e and e, form the distinctive marks between this and the
common lewis. It is similar in its manner of acting to the " Devil's
Nippers," but is more extensive in its application. By placing the
lewis hole over the centre of gravity of a stone, the stone can be let
down to its place with its bed liorizontal.

Your's, obediently,

John Neville, C. E.

Limerick, June 1340.

274

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[August,

ON OBLIQUE ARCHES.— MR. BUCK IN REPLY TO MR.
NICHOLSON.

SiK — After tlie floiirisli wliich has appeared in your last Journal from
the pen of Mr. Peter Nicliolson, I trust to your candour for the inser-
tion of the following remarks thereon. With them I have sent a copy
of my reply to him whicdi was [jublished in the Railway Magazine on
the 25th of January last. I have sent it for the purpose of begging
the favour of your giving it a place in the Civil Engineer and Archi-
tect's Journal, immediately after this, because without it the corres-
pondence is incomplete, ami neither Mr. Nicholson's letter nor my ob-
servations thereon can be properly understood by those who have not
seen the former : and the republication of my letter of that date is the
more necessarv, inasmuch as Mr. Nicholson in several instances has
repeated mistakes which were saii^factvrily exposed, to every one
except himself, in that reply. Relying therefore on your doing so I
will proceed.

It may be first proper to state that since my " Essay on Oblique
Bridges" made its ap])earance, Mr. Nicholson has published on the
same subject, his "Guide to Railway Masonry," in the commencement
of which he has very freely criticised the works of others as well as
mine, and if he had done so ably and impartially, I should have had
nothing to complain of; but it will be seen by referring to my former
letter that he had affected not to have had sufficient leisure to read
the work; is it therefore to be wondered at that he should have fallen
into errors in criticising it ? From the tone of his remarks it is quite
obvious that the first and great offence wdiich I have committed in his
sight, is the fact of my having published anything on that subject,
which he appears to claim exclusively as his own: the second unpar-
donable offence is the fact of my having, in reply to him, in the Rail-
way Magazine, exposed and refuted the errors into which he had
fallen, by putting forth his imaginary "inconsistencies in certain for-
mula."

Mr. Nicholson has chosen to sit in judgment upon others and made
the preface to his book, where no one could reply to him, the vehicle
of his denunciations: and I chose to set the jniblic and himself right
upon the subject, so far as I was concerned, by replying to him else-
where, for which purpose I selected a Journal extensively circulated,
and almost exclusively devoted to railway business.

In the latter part of Mr. Nicholson's address, he tells your readers
he "has given vent to his feelings at the ingratitude which Mr. Buck
has shewn." Therefore, before advancing any further, I beg to ob-
serve, I know nothing of Mr. Nicholson except through his writings, I
have never seen him, nor have I ever had any correspondence with
him except tliis.

In the introduction to my Essay I made mention of him in the fol-
lowing terms.

"In Nicholson's work on stone cutting, published in 1S28, the me-
thod of constructing oblique arches with spiral courses is briefly ex-
plained, and to it we are indebted for the first principles of the art,
but it does not enter sufficiently into detail. Having stated thus much,
the author will not hesitate to make use of the principles set forlh in
that work without further acknowledgement; at the same time it is

E roper to mention, that the matter which may be found common to
oth, does not extend beyond a small portion of the first and third
chapters of this Essay." Surely any one but Mr. Nicholson would
have been satisfied with this.

Alluding to the templates Mr. Nicholson has also given " vent to his
feelings," and made use of the following reprehensible language.
"Now, Sir, that Mr. Buck should have made these assertions is, tome,
a matter of the utmost surprise, seeing that he must have known, when
he made them, that he was de:iberately stating that which was incor-
rect."

Here Mr. Nichol?on has put himself out of the pale of civilised so-
ciety, and I most uneqiiivocally repel his accusation, and conscientiously
reassert the truth of every word contained in my reply, to wliich he
refers. Mr. Nicholson will be disappointed if after this he looks for
very gentle criticism at my hands.

In Mr. Nicholson's letter he has laboured very hard to show that the
strictures contained in my reply of last January were erroneous; but I
am under the necessity of declaring he has completely failed in the
attempt, and moreover that every thing stated by me remains imre-
futed, as an attentive reference thereto will make apparent. He has
taken especial pains to rebut the following : "this dilemma leads me
to infer that Mr. Nicholson is not practically familiar with the subject
upon which he has written." And probably it will astonish many when
I say that Mr. Nicholson has, but very unintentionally no doubt,
confessed that I was correct in coming to such a conclusion; a conclu-
sion at which I arrived from the internal evidence afforded by his

writings. He now says in his defence, "I have seen nine Oblique
Bridges on the Newcastle and North Shields Railway, and fi'v( on the
Brandling Junction Railway, all executed in stone on the principle
laid <lown by me, making, upon the two railways /uurUcn bridges within
a distance of about eight miles of Newcastle, and built, as it weke,
under my own immediate inspection." This is precisely what I ex-
pected ; it is a confession that he is " no/ practicullij/cmiliar icith the
tiuhjtct on U'hich he has icrilltn." He "has xuii" fourteen oblique
bridges built within eight miles of Newcastle, and there are thousands
of la<lies and gentlemen as well as others who can say so likewise.

Mr. Nicholson is highly indignant at my having stated that he
adopted from ray " Essaj'," the correct method of showing the joints
in the elevation of the face of an oblique arch. Here I beg to observe
that the method shown in his work on "Stone Cutting," is erroneous:
in his "Guide" he has given that, and added the other which I con-
sidered him to have " adopted." No doubt it is just possible he might
have found it out by watching the progress of the fourteen bridges
wdiich he has teen near Newcastle.

Mr. Nicholson exclaims against his having adopted anything as fol-
lows : " even if I had been driven to such a strait as to think of, or to
stoop to such a thing:" and he also reminds me that "facts are stub-
born things." Well, be it so. I think the following is internal evi-
dence afforded by his "Guide," of his having been driven to such a
"strait." In my " Essay " reference is made to a line which I have
denominated the " jlxial kng/h." This term never appeared in any
previous work of Mr. Nicholson's, or of any other writer, and I coined
the word axial to suit the occasion : it is not to be found in any dic-
tionary : but it is found in Mr. Nicholson's recent work, and he has
thought proper to insert its signification in his "Descriptive Defini-
tions."

Nearly at the beginning of his letter he says : " I have examined the
third chapter of Mr. Buck's Essay, and lean find no method explaining
the making of the curved edges of the templates Nos. 1 and 2, plate
26, in ray work, to which I refer when I say they are not shown by any
other author who has written on the subject : and I have also examined
the fifth plate in his 'Essay' which Mr. Buck says contains eight dia-
grams exhibiting the form of these temjilates, and I have been equally
disappointed, for I can find no such templates exhibited. Mr. Buck
does not even show how the radius of curvature of these templates
may be found ; neither does he give a hint that they are necessary."

Mr. Nicholson appears to state by the above that I have not given
diagrams for the too ^art/ew/a)' templates : this is true, because that
exhibited by figure 13, in my Essay, and which is very unlike any of
his, renders those particular templates unnecessary, and if he were
" practically familiar with the subject," he would have discoveretl that
fact, and would have been able to see that it is a much more efficient
instrument than those, the omission of which appears to have-so much
disturbed him. For the same reason I have not shown " how the radius
of curvature of those omitted templates may be found," namely, be-
cause it is not necessary.

Here I will make a remark which I should not have done had not
Mr. Nicholson brought the subject under my immediate notice ; and it
is that the method given by him for finding the radius referred to is
fallacious ; but the intolerance manifested by him excludes him from
the privilege of being put right.

Mr. Nicholson quotes my statement as to the difficulty of finding a
demonstration for the curious property of the mutual convergence of
the chords of the curves of the joints of the face of the arch, and then
adds most illogically: "This, Sir, I consider to be a sufficient admis-
sion of the justness of my remarks, and one which renders it perfectly
unnecessary for me to allude further to those remarks at this time."
Now it so happens that Mr. Nicholson had never made any remarks
upon this subject, it being absolutely impossible for hira to have done
so, inasmuch as he was previously perfectly ignorant of the facts, and
of the property for w hich a demonstration was sought. He has garbled
the quotation and misapplied it. I went on to say that subsequently
to the publication of the '■ Essay," a friend of mine had found one, a
beautiful geometrical demonstration ; it has not been published how-
ever, and 1 challenge Mr. Nicholson to produce one.

Mr. Nicholson draws a comparison between his work and mine in
the following words.

" Mr. Buck's work is only intended for the use of those who may
happen to have been trained in a proper course of mathematical study,
and which, I believe, is not the case with a tithe of the young men,
for whose use chiefly, Mr. B. has written his book. On the other
hand, mine is intended as a purely practical work, and as such, I have
shown in it how every useful length, distance, or angle of an oblique
arch may be found, principally by common arithmetic, from the doc-
trine of similar triangles."

The young men who are rising in the engineering profession no

1840.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

275

doubt will properly appreciate the value of the complement here paid
to their ;icquiremeiits by Mr. Nicholson. But I am happy to say that
not one with whom I have the pleasure of being connected is deficient
of the mathematical knowledge requisite to understand it; indeed, I
have in my employ a stonemason, acting as iaspector, who makes use
of the formulae, and prefers them to the circuituous and "c/«)«8;/"
rules given bv Mr. Nicholson. " Mine is intended as a purely practical
work," says he; nevertheless the third part of his "Guide" is headed
" Theory of the Oblique Arch." But the fact is, in consequence of
his not being " praclically familiar wilh the subject on which he has
nri/'tn," his work is altogether theoretical, and in some respects very
objectionable in practise, which I could easily show, were I disposed
to waste my time in doing so.

Mr. Nicholson calls his letter an address to me, and concludes it in
a dreamy vision of the fame to be awarded to him by '^ posterity," and
assuming the motto of the hero of Trafalgar, seems almost ready to
exclaim, "Victory, or Westminster Abbey," but to prove how easy is
the transition from the sublime to the ridiculous, he closes by saying,
" I have now done with him." Very like Nelson indeed ! — He fires
his pop-gun and runs away !

Your most obedient servant,

George W, Buck.

Manchester, July IS, 18 tO.

To The Editor of the Railway Magazine.

Sir, — Mr. Peter Nicholson has recently published a work under the title
" Guide to Railway Masonr)', comprising a complete Treatise on the Oblique
Arch." In his preface and introduction he has made some observations and
references to a work on the same subject published last June by me, and to
which I am anxious of making the following reply, requesting the favour of
your inserting it in your valuable Journal.

At page 8 of his preface, in speaking of the fonns of the templates which
are necessar)- for working the stones, Mr. Nicholson says, " they are not
shown by any other author who has wTitten upon the subject. Now, if Mr.
Nicholson will refer to the 3rd chapter of my "Essay," he will find that
chapter to be exclusively devoted to an explanation of the method of making
the templates and working the voussoirs ; moreover, the 5th plate contains
eight diagrams exhibiting the forms of those templates.

At page xiv of his " History," at the commencement of the " Guide," Mr.
Nicholson says, "The formula CO = (r + ?) cot 9 tan 3, is due to Mr. Buck.
It gives the distance below the centre to the point of convergence, into which
all the joints in the elevation of the arch meet in the axis minor, supposing
that the joints are straight lines, which they are not exactly ; liavuig given
the angle of obliquity =8, and the angle in which the bed lines cross the axis
of the cyUnders =^, or the angle which a bed line makes with the adjacent
springing hne. In this formula also r= the radius of the cylinder, r + e the
raihus of the extraJos, e being the breadth of the bed or thickness of the
arch." In reference to tins remark. I beg to obsene that not only is the/or-
muta due to me, but so also is the discovery of the beautiful and remarkable
property of the obUque arch to which it applies. At page 5 of the " Essay,"
I stated that the joints of the face " are not straight lines, but curies concave
on the upper side " : and at page 6 I stated that the chords nf these curves
produced, meet in the point to wliich I have given the name of the focus of
the elliptic face. I no sooner discovered this property than I made it sub-
sen-ient to practical utility, of which any one may be conrinced by reference
to the " Essay." The stabiUtj' of oblique bridges is intimately connected
with, and dependent upon, this property, and the investigation of the problems
relating to the limit of obhquity, and the best proportions for oblique arches,
cannot be made without it. At the same page Mr. Nicholson, alluding to
myself, writes as follows: — "He says the expression 00 = (r + e) cot. 8, tan 3,
included among some others, ' are general, that is, they are appUcable to

c cot.- S
segments as well as to semicircles ; but in page 9 he gives (»• -;- e)

= CO, the eccentricity or focal distance below the axis of the cylinder in the
oblique segment.' "

This way of stating it will lead any one to the erroneous inference that I
have fallen into a discrepancy, and given irreconcileable formulse. The ex-
planation is as follows : when it is said " these expressions are general, that
is, they are applicable to segments as well as semicircles," reference was
made to the two formula: then immediately before given, namely, CO =
r cot e tan *, and C0 = ^r + e) cot 9, tan 0.

Now at pages 6 and 7, it is shown that the tangent of the intradosal angle,
or of the angle which the bed line makes with the springing line in an oblique

cot 9
semicircular arch, in particular cases, = -j — and when it has tlus valuei

thenC0= —^ — ■ (r + e). But because, in practice, this value of the intra-

dosal angle ought sometimes to be departed from, then the distance CO may
be obtained by either of the two before-mentioned general expressions.
Again, at page 8 of the " Essay," treating of segmental arches, the tangent

c c cot- 6
of the intradosal angle is given = - cot B ; and in this case CO =

{r + e). But here, again, as before in practice, this value of the intradosal
angle ought not to be always adhered to (it requires adjustment to the par-
ticular case, as fully explained in the work), and then the distance CO is to
be found by one of the two general formulae before referred to.

Mr. Nicholson's concluding sentence of his " History " is in the following
words :— " One thing which we consider defective in Mr. Bucks' ' Essay on
Oblique Arches ' is, that his ir.structions are not enunciated under regular
hearls, so as to call the attention of the reader ; he gives no reasons for his
rules, nor does he show the principles upon which his formulae depend. The
height of the point CO, Fig. 7, will depend upon the breadth of the bed."

I am really at a loss to conceive what could have induced Mr. Nicholson
to make the several incorrect assertions contained in this short paragraph ;
and to which I shall reply in their order.

First, as to my intentions not being enunciated under regular heads : the
table of contents, consisting of the heads of the seven chapter into which the
w-ork is diviiled, affords a sufficient refutation to this charge.

Secondly. " He gives no reasons for his rules, nor does he show the prin-
ciples upon which his formula; depend." To this it is only necessary to add,
that by reference to the work itself it will be evident that the reasons which
are geometrical and mathematical, flow naturally from the first principles and
contain their "wn demonstration — the best of all reasons.

Thirdly. "The heiglit of the point 11, figure 7, will depend upon the breadth
of the beds." Verj' profound, indeed ! inasmuch as the formula informed
him of it. because e in that expression denotes the breadth of the beds.

Mr. Nicholson, at the same page, in speaking of my " Essay," says some-
what affectedly, " as far as we have had leisure to examine it.*^ Surely be-
fore any one can be competent to criticise a work he mnst read it, otherwise
he will naturally and inevitably fall into such mistakes as Mr. Nicholson has
here been guilty of.

It is not my wish or intention to be drawn into a renew of Mr. Nicholson's
book, but I tlunk it right to make the following few remarks. In problem
9, referring to plates 28 and 29, he gives directions for radiating the joints of
the face of the arch in two different ways. By his first method the joints
are to be at right angles to a tangent to the elliptic curve ; by the second
method they will radiate to the points of convergence, which I have denomi-
nated the focus; this latter method is that given by me, and which Mr.
Nicholson has here adopted. Now, if the voussoirs be worked in spiral beds,
according to his own rules, they must necessarily radiate in this way ; and
consequently they cannot be made to radiate as described in his first method,
unless the beds are worked in some other way, the directions for wliich he has
not given. This dilemma leads me to infer that Mr. Nicholson is not practi-
cally familiar with the subject on which he has written. I have confined
myself to the points referred to by Mr. Nicholson's strictures, or I might have
added more on the subject.

Here I take the opportunity of saying that after making the discovery o£
the mutual convergence of the chords of the cui-ves of the face of the arch,
and after obtaining the formulae appUcable thereto, I long sought in vain for a
demonstration of the geuerality of this property. On applying to my mathe-
matical friends, both in London and Cambridge, I was equally unsuccessful.
Under these circumstances, being experimentally quite certain of the existeuce
of this property, I assumed it as a postulate in the " Essay," and the whole
of the investigation contained in the 7th, or concluding chapter {the only
part of the work which I consider theoretical,) is based upon it. 'The pub-
lisher, Mr. Weale, well knows how anxious I was to have given a demonstra-
tion in the work, and that I was finally under the necessity of publishing it
without, although no one appears to have noticed this deficiency.

However, I have now the gratification of adding that about four months'
back my highly scientific friend and assistant, Mr. W. H. Barlow, son of Pro-
fessor iJarlow, of Woolwich, has accomplished a beautiful geometrical de-
monstration, which, in the event of another addition being called for shall,
with his permission be given therein, together with some further practical
information and additional investigations which I have recently made.

I am. Sir, your's truly,

George W. Buck.

Ardwick, Mamhester, January 21, 1840.

MR. BARLOW IN REPLY TO MR. NICHOLSON.

Sir— I perceive in your last number a commuDication from Mr.
Nicholson purporting to be a reply to Mr. Buck, and to the remarks
signed W. H. B., which appeared in your Journal for May last. Being
the writer of those remarks, I trust j^ou will allow me to say a few
words respecting that part of Mr. Nicholson's communication whicli
refers to them.

Mr. Nicholson's observations are chiefly confined to the problem for
finding " the curved bevels for cutting the quoin heads of an oblique
arch," relative to which I stated that there was considerable obscurity
as to what species of joints it referred. He replies, " Now, Sir, I
assert that W. H. B. mtist either have been very inattentive or very
stupid not to have observed to what species of joints the problem re*

276

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[AufiUST)

ferred, since every p^ge in which I treat of the ohhqne arch, has the
words 'on the oblique arch with spiral j'^ints,' placed in capitals over
it"

Kow Sir, I assert that the application of a problem is not deter-
mined by the capitals jjl.iced over it, hut by the principles on which
the construction is founded, and this problem is based on the following
assumptions, namely, that "the bed and joint lines on the face are
perpendicular to the curve which is the intersection of the cylindric
surface and the plane of the face," (I quote Mr. Xicliolson's own words).
Also that the joint lines in the face are straight lines, and that they
divide the curve of intersection into equal parts : all of hIucIi assump-
tions are incorrect, and not even an approximation to the truth in an
arch of much obliquity, that is to say, with spiral joinls, while three of
them hold good for an arch with phiiic joints, namely, that the joint
lines in the face are straight lines, that they are perpendicular to Ihe
curve of intersection, and that they divide the curve of intersection
into equal parts. I think therefore it will be admitted that there leas
some difHculty in guessing what sort of arch the author wished it to
be understood he was referring to. One point, however, the reader
may rest quite assured of, namely, that whatever species of oblique
arch the problem was intended for, it is about as near the truth for
one sort as it is for another, which is an advantage in the construction
the public will no doubt appreciate. The fact is, it is only correct for
a square arch, and the more the arch diders from the scjuare or the
greater the obliquity, the greater will be the error in the construction.
Mr. Nicholson gives it as a "near approximation," and says that "its
simplicity is ample compensation for its introduction ;" but if he really
is practically familiar with the subject on which he has written, he
must be aware that in cases of much obliquity, particularly in arches
which are semicircles on the square section, this construction would
lead to very great error, and could not be made use of.

The other discrepancies I pointed out in his book, w ith the excep-
tion of two to which he confesses, are only answered by personalities,
which may go for what they are worth; it is not my intention to re-
turn them in kind, and I can only regret that Mr. Nicholson's resjurces
suggested no other way in which he could reply to my remarks.
I am, Sir, your obedient servant,

William H. Barlow.

Manchester, July 1", 1840.

YORK MINSTER.

Sir, — As no account of York Cathedral has appeared in your valu-
able Journal since the late lamentable fire, probably your readers may
feel interested in the following short notice of its present state, which
I am enabled to give from personal inspection. The newspaper ac-
counts have led many to suppose, that the last caused little less de-
struction than the former fire: but though the damage has been most
appalling, this has been by no means the case. The fire did not extend
eastward of the central tower, which, together with the transepts,
remain entirely uninjured ; these portions are now walled off from the
nave, ready for the commencement of repairs in that part of the struc-
ture. On first catching sight of the exterior, it would hardly be per-
ceived that any fire had ocurred, since the only parts to be observed
wanting are the roof of the nave, and the niullions of the top windows
in the south-west tower, that in which the fire commenced. The
tower has sustained considerable damage, there being, I am given to
understand, several large cracks in the masonry ; but as the blocks in
ancient works are united with a tenacity unknown (?) in modern erec-
tions, it can hardly be necessary or expedient to rebuild entirely this
part of the edifice. The side aisles are untouched, but the roof of
the nave is open to the sky its whole length. Though the heat of the
burning timbers must have been excessive, the clerestory windows are
perfect, and their stained glass is, I am happy to say, but little broken.
The beautiful west window, the glory of its date, remains as before,
but the wooden door beneath it was destroyed. The columns and
capitals have received less injury than might be supposed, though not
one has entirely escaped. The restoration will be attended with
little difficulty should the requisite funds be obtained, and it is a mat-
ter of surprise that more vigorous exertions, in furtherance of this
object, have not been made by the profession, who should look upon
the cathedral as their own property. Viewing it in this light, I felt
much chagrined at being refused by the dean, though in a very polite
manner, the free range of the edifice, having visited York Minster
■with the express intention of studying closely its decorative and con-
structive beauties. All true lovers of our noble art must ardently
hope the day may soon arrive, when no fee will be required for the
inspection of any national monument. Since the former fire, all the
screens in the choir have been glazed with plate glass, and the most

happy eftect in the reflection of the stained glass is caused. At Be-
verlev the artist meets with no impediment to the prosecution of his
studies, and is allowed to wander about at his will, without the pay-
ment of any fee. Perhaps too little care is taken to prevent plunder,
and it would be better if a few attendants were stationed about the
Minster, who should not, as at Hampton Court, be allowed on any
account to exact money. But at York, au<l indeed at other cathedrals,
the choir is kept locked, and you are admitted by the verger; so that
sketching, unless you ha])])en to be personally known to the dean, is
out of the question. If you think the foregoing remarks worth notice,
I shall feel obliged by their insertion.

And am. Sir,

47, Loner Stamford Street, Your very obedient servant,

Jitlij 20th, 1S4U. A Lover of the Beautiful.

[The Institute and the Society should endeavour to remove such

obstacles as our correspondent complains of, and obtain permission

for members of the profession to take sketches and drawings of

cathedrals and public buildings. — Editor.]

MR. GODWIN'S PAPER ON STAINED GLASS.

Sir — Mr. Godwin has entered with such warmth and energy on the
advocacy of the claims which the art of jjainting on glass has upon us
for protection and encouragement, that it is to be hoped he will not
allow his eflibrts to stop where they have begun, but that he will con-
tinue to call public attention to the present languishing state of the
art, until it appear to be in some degree roused.

"There is a further reason for supervision just now, if it be true, as
stated in your last number, that the Dean and Chapter of Westminster
are about to glaze some of the windows in the Abbey with stained
glass. LTnless the old method be pursued in the design and execution
of them, they may as well put up a few painted blinds, and save the
money the glass would cost.

A Lover of Art.

REVIE'WS.

Second Series of Railieay Practice, a collection of Worlcing Plans of

Public Works. By S. C. Brees, C. E. London: Williams, 1841'.

The success of the first series of Mr. Brees's work called Railway
Practice has produced the present continuation, which, although under
the same title, is extended to engineering works in general. The
present volume is calculated to be of great use, as the author has
profited by the experience gained in his former essay, and successfully
catered for the wants of the public. Most of the illustrations are from
recent works, with the exception of two or three of works by Telford
and others, and include, besides railways, the Southampton and Croy-
don locomotive engines by the Rennies, the swing-bridges at St.
Katharine's and the London Docks, and Grand Western Canal, locks
on the Forth and Cart Caual, and River Cam, Quay Wall and Cotfer-
dara of Sunderland Harbour, pile-driving machine at the new Houses
of Parliament, &c. The i)lates are well executed, and exhibit very
learly all the minute portions of the work. Appended to the workf
there are several specifications, which form a valuable portion o
the volume. The work is one which we can with justice recommend
to our readers.

Glossary of Terms in Civil Engineering. By S. C. Bree, C. E.

A dictionary of engineering terms was one much wanted by the
student and the public. The architects have had dictionaries for
some time, and it was certainly required that the other profession
should be as well provided. Mr. Brees's work seems carefully com-
piled, and is extensively illustrated; as it is not yet in its complete
form, and we have had merely the proof sheets submitted to us, we
shall defer the farther consideration of it until next month.

Architectural Remains of the reigns of Elizabeth and James \st. By
Chari.es James Richardson, Architect, F.S.A., M.l.R.A. Part 2.

This second part is decidedly an improvement on the former one,
it contains some very excellent specimens of the style, and will prove
to the lover of Elizabethan architecture a rich treat to peruse. We are
compelled to defer our remarks until next month, when we shall exa-
mine into the merits of the work more minutely. We shall here do
no more than remark that the perspective views are treated more
tastefully and more pictorially than in the first part. The mansions of
Burghley, Kirbj', and Agnes Burton, furnish the principal subjects ;
and whichever opinion may be entertained in regard to their style,
several of them are fine specimens of it, and eminently picturesque as
compositions.

1840.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

277

Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Xa ra I Architecture. By Augus-

TIN B. Crewze, Member of the late School of Naval Architecture,

&c. Edinburgh: Black. 1S40.

This is a reprint of the article Ship Building, from the Encyclopedia
Britannica, and a work well calculated both from that circumstance
and its own intrinsic merits to become a popular treatise. Such a
form necessarily restricted the author within certain limits, and forced
on him the option of neglecting either the theory of liis subject, or the
constructive portion, and as the latter has been the subject of numerous
works, it is less perhaps to be regretted that Mr. Crewze should have
chosen to elucidate the general principles of the art, with which he is
so fully conversant. Tlie theoretical portion derived from the best
authorities, foreign and native, and illustrated from original sources, is
perhaps one of the best works to which the student can be referred.
The practical part good as far as it goes, is confined in itself, and in
the view it takes of the subject, very little being said of steam navi-
gation, and no general account of iron ship-building, steam ship-build-
ing, &c. This is to be regretted, for these departments are certainly
neither of themselves, nor considered with regard to the future, as the
least important branches of naval architecture.

The history of ship-building is sound and good, and is as useful as
it is interesting, we cannot however make any extracts from it. The
author's observations on the present state of his art, we are also ob-
liged to dismiss thus cursorily, although the subject is one impera-
tively requiring pnltlic attention, and to which the notice of our
readers should be directed. This work will doubtless go a great way
towards dispelling the ignorance and prejudice which exist on this
subject, and towards a reform so much demanded in the scientific de-
partment of the dockyards. We think with Jlr. Crewze that the ton-
nage laws and legislative restrictions are the true root of the evil, for
otherwise we feel convinced, and we think the history of the art shows
it, that our countrymen are not so far deficient but what, as in every
other case, they would have distanced their competitors. We are
favourable to a restoration of the Naval College, but then it must be
an open institution, not a jobbery for a score of cadets, but an estab-
lishment where the merchant ship-builder and the artisan may obtain
instruction on fair terms. As Mr. Crewze has well demonstrated, no-
thing has been gained by exelusiveness, and nothing will be gained,
so that the sooner the last traces of " the mysterie of sliippe buildinge "
are got rid of the better. The character of the pu]iils of the late in-
stitution Mr. Crewze has best defended by the proofs he has given in
this work of their capacity and attainments; their contributions to the
Papers on Naval Architecture, and to the present treatise, would do
honour to any profession.

Although this is an elementary treatise, it contains so much valuable
matter that we should, if our space permitted, make copious extracts
from it ; most of the tables for instance are very valuable. Perhaps
one of the best specimens will be the following comparison of the
technical differences between Frencli and English ship-building, de-
rived from Mr. Crewze's own observations, we are obliged liowever
to omit the illustrations.

We shall now proceed to notice some of the peculiarities observable in tlie
Prench practice of sliip-building. The characteristic difference in tlieir sys-
tem from our own, wliicli wouki strike an observer accustomed to English
ship-building, would evidently be a less expenditure of material.

The French have retained tlie old system of frames aad filling: timbers.
Frequently the frames are close jointed throughout tlieir height, and the fill-
ing frames put up as single timbers. The filling timbers are also fretpiently
of fir. Both frames and filling timbers are chain-ljolted. Tliere is no slielf
under the beams, only a thick clamp, and a wide chock worked u])on the short
stuff, and up to the beam. There are generally three side binding sfrakes
faced one inch on, and scored one inch over the beams, and Ijolted together
by in and out bolts passing through the water-way, which is also faced and
scored in tlie same manner. These bolts are secured with nuts and screws at
the points, on the outside plank.

The water-way is not always scored over the beams, but is sometimes
brought plain on their ends. The bolts of the binding strakes, which are tlien
also merely brought on to the beams, secure its lower edge ; and in both
cases it has in and out bolts through tlie ship's side, to secure its upper edge.
The method of connecting the beam-ends with the ship's side, which ap-
pears to be most generally adopted in the French sliips at present, consists of
a chock under the beam, securely bolted througli tlie sliip's side, the points
of the bolts being set up with a nut and screw. The beam-end hooks over
the head of this chock. A plate-knee similar in shape to that known in the
English service as Roljerts' knee is brought on each side against the chock
and beam ; but these knees, instead of ha%'ing a short arm against the ship's
side for taking in and out fastenings, themselves form the bolt, each knee
having an arm which is driven through the side by means of a shoulder
worked in the knee, similar to tlie slioulde-r of a dog-bolt. The outer end is
secured by a nut and screw. The security of the plate-knees to the beam and

chock consists only of three screws in each arm, and one screw in the diago-
nal brace. These screws are not above five inches long. Thns the security
of either knee is completely unconnected with that on the opposite side of
the beam.

The wales, diminisliing stuff', and plank of the bottom, are all treenail-fas-
tened, the huts are secured with two bolt-nails in the timber on which the
but is placed, and a through-liolt is driven in the timljcr next the but. In
some instances the plank is nail-fastened, but wdiether with nails or treenails
it is double fastened. The treenails are not caulked on the ceiling, but
wedged with conical wedges, ilost of the principal bolts, as those of the
water-ways and chocks, under the beams, are set up outside with a nut and
screw ; and great care is taken to omit the fastening of the wales and outside
planking, wherever these bolts can he advantageously made to answer as fas-
tenings for them.

There is no regular system observed in shifting the bnts of the plank, as
there is in the English service ; but the planks are worked to their full length,
without reference to the sWt : the only rule which appears to be observed
is, that there shall be about two feet shift between the Inits of following
strakes.

Katlier an interesting experiment as to the possibUity of diminishing the
scantling of the timber, to any great extent, which is used for building large
ships, is in progress in the French \\a\y. The Surveillaiite, a large frigate,
was built wholly of small timber, about ten years ago, and as yet the reports
on the system are favourable.

The following is an outline of the jilan on which she was built.

The keel, stem, and stern-post are formed of various pieces of timlier com-
bined.

The several lengths of the centre piece, or core, are scarphed together,
while the side or strengtliening pieces only but with plain huts ; care being
taken that the Ijiits and scarplis give good shift to each otlier.

There are in this system no other frames than those which form the sides
of ports, and the timbers composing these frames are bolted together, with-
out leaving any opening between them, that is, close jointed. The spaces
between the frames are filled in with single timbers, or rather with a frame
work of timber fitted together.

The cant-bodics are framed as in the ordinary method, the after-body tim-
bered round to the post witliout transoms or fashion-pieces.

From the main-deck ujiwards the scantlings of the frames are not different
from those of a ship of a similar size Iniilt in the usual manner ; but below
this line tliere is a very considerable reduction. This reduction commences
at the lower edge of the gun-deck clamps, and there a couple of thick strakes
are worked up to the lower edge of these gun-deck clamps, to form an abut-
ment for a series of internal timbers, brought on the inner surface of the
timbers of tlie frame, and crossing them at an angle of 45°, the upper ends
being placed forward in the fore-body, and aft in the after-body. These
timbers but at their lieels on the lieads of a series of internal floor-timbers,
brought on the upper surfaces of the floors of the frame. These internal
floors are laid atliwartships. The openings between the timliers of this in-
ternal diagonal frame are filled in with wedge-lillings, so that the whole hold
presents one smooth surface for stowage.

Wherever there is an athwartship bidk-head, there is a system of riders
worked on the inner surface of this diagonal frame, but taking a vertical
direction. Tlie timbers of these bends of riders are not wrouglit side by side,
but one series of timbers is worked on the inner surface of the otlier, and the
bolts pass in and out through both, and through the bottom. These riders
run up to tlie lower deck, and a beam is so disposed with respect to each
bend of riders, as to be secured to their heads, and form a part of the system.
The bulk-heads which necessarily fill in the space between the beam and the
riders run diagonally uj) on either side the middle from a midship pillar to
the beam and riders. Each bulk-head is water-tight.

It is lamentably true, we fear, that the French are superior to us in
many departments of naval architecture, and it is therefore incumbent
on all classes interested in the national prosperity to exert tliemselves
to remove the legislative obstacles, which interfere with our progress,
seriously injure us at present, and menace ruin for the future. Eng-
lishmen only want to be allowed to go in the right way, and not to be
forced into the wrong way.

GiLDixG OF Metals by Electro-Chemical Action*. — M. de la Rive
has succeeded in gdding metals by means of this powerful action. His me-
thod is as follows : he pours a solution of chloride of gold, (obtained by dis-
solving gold in a mixture of nitric and mmatic acid,) as neutral as possible
and very dilute, into a cylindrical bag made of bladder ; he then plunges the
bag into a glass vessel containing very slightly acidulated water, the metal to
be gilded is immersed in the solution of gold, and communicates by means of
metallic wire with a plate of zinc, which is placed in the acidulated water.
The process may be varied, if the operator pleases, by placing the acidulated
water and zinc in the bag, and the solution of gold with the metal to be gilded
on the glass vessel. In the course of about a minute, the metal may be with-
drawn, and wiped with a piece of Unen ; when rubbed briskly with the cloth
it will be found to be shghtly gilded ; after two or three similar immeisions
the gilding will be sufliciently thick to enable the operator to terminate the
process. — Athenmun.

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[AUGVST,

MR. PARRIS'S DECORATIONS.

A visit to a series of paintings by Mr. E. T. Parris for the deco-
ration of tlie dnwiiig-roonis at Redbo'urne Hall, the seat of the Duke
of St. Albans, has atlorded us more ])leasurc than we can well express ;
not sim))ly by the beauty of the paintings themselves and the mind
which shines in all, (of which more anon,.l but as an indication that
decorative art will yet be made to take its proper place in England,
and that we may even now triumphantly refute the statement which
lias been made more than once, that if we need able artists in this de-
partment, we miisl resort to the continent for them. England is ca-
pable of the highest efforts of art in every branch, if opportunity for
the exercise of talent be given, and fair play be but afforded the pos-
sessors of it, and we cry shame on those amongst us who would at-
tempt to gainsay it. We shall have occasion'hereafter to speak more
fully on this head in connexion with fresco paintings, with which it is
proposed to decorate the new Houses of Parliament, but at present
must confine ourselves to the pictures which have given rise to these
remarks. They consist of six large jiaintings in panels, and a variety
of smaller groups and compositions, to fill sarroumling compartments.
Paintings I'l la li'alteaii, were the task prescribed to Mr. Panis, and a
few rustic beauties and attendant swains beneath wide-spreading trees
were all that would have been needed to comply with the terms.
With a proper feeling of a painter, however, Mr. Parris has disdained
his models, and boldly taken his own jjath; he has abandoned the
constantly repeated nothings of that school, and in their stead, although
of course at much greater cost of mind, has produced a series of
pictures which all tell a long story of love, poetry, and thought, and
are in themselves most elegant and graceful. The subjects are English,
French, Indian, Italian, Swiss, and Grecian habits and feelings, each
])icture being apiiropriated to a different country, and the manner in
which the artist has contrived to convey these is wortliy of the great-
est admiration and praise. In the panel approjiriated to Italy, for
example, we have in the foreground of a delicious landscape, music
and painting suggested to the mind by a group representing Raphaelle
sketching, and the Fornarina, with her guitar, gazing with rapture
upon the production of his pencil, while, passing down a ravine at the
side, is a peasant woman with a basket of fruit upon her head, in
whom is recognized the model of one of the most beautiful ^^■orks of
the divine master. In the Grecian painting we have the sun setting
on decaying monuments of the mental energy of her sons when Greece
7vas " living Greece " while a modern Greek soldier is listlessly re-
clining at a well, and inquiring his path of the peasants. We cannot
afford space to particularize the whole of the paintings, although each
is eminently worthy of a detailed examination ; nor can we now ven-
ture to add any further remark than that they reflect the highest
credit on Mr. Parris as a decorative artist, and will serve to implant
a taste and teach to think.

KAILAVAY REPORT.
fourth Report from the Select Commit lee on Rnilway Commvnication.

The select committee appointed to inquire into the state of communica-
tiou by railways, to whom several [jetitions were referred; and who were
empowered to report their opinion and observations, together with the minutes
of evidence taken before them, from time to time, to the liouse, have further
considered tlie matters to them referred, and have agreed to tlie following
report : —

A considerable number of i)ctitious have been referred to your committee,
suggesting the justice and expediency of altering the present system on which
railway passengers are taxeil.

Much evidence upon this subject was collected by the committee on rail-
ways dming the last session of Parbament, and your committee have also
entered fidly into the same inquiry ; from both \\liicli inquiries your conuuit-
tee are satisfied that this question is of great importance to the public at large,
and especially to the poorer classes of the community; and that, in propor-
tion as radway conununication is extended through tlie country, the unequ.-d
pressui'c of this tax ^vill be more se\erely felt, inasnuich as it will he found to
limit tlie accommodation which railways might otherwise beneficially afford
to the labouring classes.

The great advantage which would result to these classes from the estab-
lishment of railway communication was reiieatedly urged as an argument in
favour of these undertakings. To convey the labourer cheaply and rapidly to
that spot where his labour might he most highly remunerated, was iVeqnently
stated to Ije one great benefit which would he derivcil from opening these
new channels of intercourse, while it was added that the health and enjoy,
ment of the mechanics, artizans, and poor inhabitants of the large towns
would he ]nomoted, by the facility with which they would bo enabled to re-
move themselves or their famihcs into healthier districts and less crowded
habitations. Your committee believe that ParUanieut would deeply regret to

find that the tax imposed on railway passengers had a tendency to deprive the
labouring classes of these promiscil advantages, and especially when it is seen
that in those parts of the country where the pressure of tliis tax is most
severely felt, the revenue dciived from it is insignificant in amount.

The income derived from the duty on railway passengers during the last
six vears has been, in the vears ending

ath Januarv 1835 £6,8:^2

1336 8,693

1837 10,29(j

183S 10,892

1839 39,570

1810 72,716

A reference to the Appendix will show, that of the sum of £72,000 de-
rived from this tax during the last year, XoS.OUO was received from the five
following Hues, namely, the Grand Junction, Great Western. Liverpool and
Manchester, London and Birmingham, London and Southampton ; so that
those railways in Scotland and in the North of England which derive their
income, as connected with the conveyance of passengers, chiefly from the
poorer classes of society, and which suffer most from the present tax, contri-
bute in a very small proportion to the revenue.

The effects of the present system of taxation are veiy clearly pointed out
by witnesses practically conversant with railway communication.

' The present duty on railway passengers is fixed by the act 2 & 3 Will. 4,
c. 1 20, which states that " the Proprietor or Company of Proprietors of
every railway, aloug which any passengers shall he conveyed for hire, shall
pay for all such passengers at "the rate of one halfpenny per mile for every
four passengers so conveyed."

Every passenger, therefore, whatever may be his fare, is taxed to the amount
of one-eighth of a penny per mile. It is obvious, that while the tax is the
same on each passenger, the proportion winch it bears to the fares of diffe-
rent classes of passengers must vary considerably. The operation of this tax
is well illustrated in the observations of Mr. Smith, the assessor of stage-
coach duties : •' Suppose a Une of 120 miles, and three classes of carriages;
suppose the first class fare to he 3d. per mile or 30s., the second class to be
20s., the third class tn be 10s., the duty on each passenger wotdd be lod."
This is a large proportion on the lowest fare, and its effect must be to pre-
vent railwayDirectors reducing their charges for the accommodation of the
poorest class of passengers. A comparison of the mileage duty with the fares
of different railways will be found in the Appendix, from which it will be
seen that the proportion of the mileage duty to the fares on the London and
Birmingham is l-22nd, while on some of the Scotch railways it amounts to
1-lOth, and in one case even to l-6th.

By examining the fares actually paid on different railways, it will be found
that, while, in some cases, the first class passenger pays a tax of only SJ per
cent, on his fare, the tliird-class passenger is taxed 12, and in some cases 15
per cent.

This inequality of taxation tends mateiially to dinunisb the profits arising
from the third class passengers, and thereby operates as a discouragement to
Railway Companies giving that accommodation which the labouring class
might otherwise derive from railways. The real hardship of this result de-
serves the greater attention on the part of the Legislature, because railway
communication lias superseded, and in many cases destroyed the conveyance
by means of waggons, vans, and carts, which afforded a cheap though dilatory
mode of travelling to the labourer and his family. How much the poorest
members of society are interested in some alteration of the present duty may
be seen by referring to the evidence of Captain Lawes, in regard to the hand-
loom weavers, and also in the answers of Mr. Lindsay Carnegie, and other
gentlemen connected with the Scotch railways, from whose statements it ap-
pears that the tax will, on some of these lines, almost put an end to the pas-
senger traffic, inasmuch as the Railway Directors must raise their fares to an
amount which will exclude the cluef part of the present passengers from the
line. The pressure of this tax is now for the first time felt on many lines of
railway ; because, in former years, the Lords of the treasury have exercised a
])ower given to them by the act 2 e^ 3 Will. 4, c. 120, and have allowed many
of the Scotch anil some of the English railways to pay an annual composition
in lieu of this tax ; this indulgence, however, which was a great accommoda-
tion to Companies opening railway communications in the poorer districts of
the country, is now no longer granted, and your committee see many objec-
tions to the future exercise of such a power by the treasury.

In considering the question of railway taxation. Parliament ought not to
overlook the facts which were elicited hy the inquiries of the committee of
last session, and which tend materially to increase the objections to a con-
tinuance of the present system. It was stated by the chairman and deputy
chairman of the Leeds and Selhy Railway that, in the year 1836 they raised
the fares on that line to an amount which diminished greatly the nuuiher of
passengers ; but they added, that by this increase of fare, although they les-
sened their number of passengers hy 12,000 in the year, yet they augmented
their profits by .•(;i,300. Evidence to the same effect has also been given by
the chairman of the Bolton and Bury Railway ; and a reference to the returns
of some of the railways, contained in the Appendix, will further prove the
same fact.

Mherever the interests of Railway Proprietors and of the pnbbc arc at va-
riance, it is- prohalile th.it the community will be in some degree restricted
from the benefits which railway communication is capable of affording ; your
committee, therefore, believe it to be inexpedient to continue a system of

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THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

279

taxation which tends to separate the interests of tlie Kaihvay Companies and
of the public, and whicli will gradually exclude a great number of persons
from the benefit of cheap conveyance.

Two modes of altering the present system of taxation have been proposed,
by which the inconvenience above mentioned would be removed.

One suggestion is, to substitute a per-centage on tlie gross receipts derived
from passengers, in lieu of the present tax. Tlie assessor of stage-coach
duties, an officer in the department of stamps and taxes, has stated that five
per cent, on the gi'O.'s receipts derived from passengers, wo\ild produce about
the same amount of revenue as is raised under the present system. This
would relieve railways from that inequality of which many complain ; and
several of the petitions leferred to your committee recommend this as the
best course wliich could be adopted.

Another suggestion has, however, been ottered to your committe, which
would be much more favourable to the interests of the puljlic, namely, to
establish a graduated scale of taxation, by which the amount of the tax should
be made immediately dajjendant on the amount of the fare ; the great advan-
tage such a system would be that it would act as a check on high fares, and
•would hold out an inducement to Railway ComiKinies to accommodate every
portion of the community.

A scale of graduation has been submitted to your committee by Captain
Lawes, which will serve to illustrate this plan. JIany Railway Companies
are limited by .ict of Pai'Uament to a maximum charge of 3Jd. per mile for
a passenger. Captain Lawes proposes that on all fares exceeding 70 percent.
of the maximum allowed by the act, a duty of 10 per cent, should be levied ;
on all fares exceeding -iO and under "0 per cent., a duty of five per cent,
should be levied ; on all fares l)elow 40 per cent, a duty of two and a half
per cent, should be le\ied.

Mr. Wickham, the chairman of the stamps and taxes, stated his objection
to the plan to arise from' a belief that such a graduated scale would be evaded,
and that the revenue \vould suffer a loss, or at least would not receive the in-
crease which may be expected from a continuance of the present system.

According to the calculation made by Mr. Smith, upon the accounts ren-
dered to your committee by several Railway Companies, it appears that there
would be a considerable increase of duty by the adoption of the proposed
scale.

Your committee have examined into the different objections urged against
a graduated scale, which are, the danger of fraud, by which the revenue
might suffer, and the difficulty of collecting duties varying in proportion to
the fare.

It is the interest of even.' Company that all its accounts should be kept in
a clear and intelligible form, and in this respect the interests of the Company
and of the Government are identical ; mider a proper system of accounts it
does not appear to your committee that frauds could lie practised without
detection ; and the mode of issuing tickets adduced by Mr. Edmoustone, or
some similar metliod, would afford considerable facility for the introduction
of a graduated scale of duty.

Your committee do not recommend that the scale proposed by Captain
Lawes should lie adopted, because they think tb.at the duty of 10 per cent,
would be too high ; but they would recommend, that wherever no maximum
has been fixed by Act of Parliament, 3id. per mile should be considered to
he the maximum, for the purpose of this graduated taxation ; and tliat on all
fares exceeding 70 per cent, of this maximum, a duty of 71 per cent, should
be levied ; on all fares exceeding 40 and under 70 per cent., a duty of 5 per
cent, should be levied; and on all fares below 40 per cent, a duty of 2i per
cent, should be levied. They believe that a scale thus graduated would be
found more just than the present system, and that while it would not di-
minish the revenue, it would afford relief and continued accommodation to
the poorer classes of the community.

Your committee would further suggest, that if it be expedient that such an
alteration should be made, it is desirable that it should be carried into effect
with as httle delay as possible, because every alteration in the principle of a
tax becomes more difficult in proportion to the extension of the traffic to
which it applies ; the traffic itself is thereby more deranged, and especially in
this case it is expedient that in those districts where railways have been al-
lowed to compound for the existing tax, a substittition to the graduated scale
should enable them still to afford accommodation to the labouring class,
before they have been induced to abandon their present system of cheap
conveyance.

Two other subjects have been incidentally brought under the notice of
your committee, on which they are desirous of offering a few observations to
the House.

The rapid conveyance of troops from one part of the country to another is
occasionally an object of great national importance ; and, for this purpose,
provision is annuaUy made in the Mutiny Act, whereby in cases of emergency
" all justices are required within their several jurisdictions to issue their war-
rants for the provision not only of waggons, wains, carts and cars, kept by or
belonging to any person, and for any use whatsoever ; but also of saddle-
horses, coaches, post-chaises, chaises and other four-wheeled carriages kept
for hire, and also of boats, barges, and other vessels used for the transport of
any commodities whatsoever upon any canal or navigalile river." Your com-
mittee recommend that similar powers should be taken with regard to rail-
way conveyance, on payment of a reasonable snm in consideration of the
accommodation required.

It appears that on the Great Western Eailway experiments have been made

to a considerable extent, with a view of ascertaining the best means of con-
veying intelligence through the medium of electricity. There is no necessary
connexion between railways and tliis new mode of communication, except
that a railway possesses continuity of property between two distant jilaces ;
and, also, that the numerous servants of an established railway are available
to protect the uir.chiuei'y required for the purposes of this comnumication.

Mr. AVheatstone, Professor of Experimental Philosopliy in King's College,
has for some years turned his attention to this subject, and has, in conjunc-
tion with Jlr. Cooke, olrtained patents for his inventions. From his evidence,
which is especially deserving of notice, it appears that there is no difficulty in
conveying intelligence to any part of the island, with an aliuost instantaneous
rajiidity, by means of a few copper wires, and small galvanic batteries. There
is great ingenuity in the various modes in which Mr. \Vheatstone has applied
the power of electricity to alphabetical communications, and your committee
believe that in a short time further improvements in this mode of intercourse
will simplify the machinery, and render the correspondence between distant
parts of the island more speedy and certain than Ijy means of such telegraphs
as have been usually employed.

Mr. Saunders, the secretan' of tl'.e Great '^'estern Railway, states the ex-
pense of constructing the electrical telegraph on the line of that railway to
have been from .-S250 to £300 a mile. This description of telegraph, how-
ever, when once constructed, is worked at a very trifling expense, whereas
the telegraph now in use between London and Portsmouth, independent of
the original outlay, costs about £3,300 a year, and the Unes of telegraphic
communication to Plymouth, to Yarmouth, and to Deal, were abandoned in
the year ISIG, on account of the expenditure required for their maintenance.

Whenever a telegraph shall have been laid down between London and the
other ports and mercantile cities of the island, it will give to its jiroprietors
great advam ages in obtaining .md transmitting information, whicli must be
attended with most important results. For the purposes of tlie railway itself
this telegraph may also be frequently used to prevent the risk of accidents
and to obviate delay and inconvenience.

Your committee" are of opinion that circumstances may arise in which it
may be very inconvenient to leave in the hands of a private company, or
possibly of an individual, tke exclusive means of intelligence which this tele-
graph will afford ; and it cannot fail to be of paramount importance that the
goverument should be furnished with similar means of procuring and trans-
mitting intelligence, and they believe that no Railway Company will object
on fair terms to give every facility to the government for establishing a line
of electrical communication over the whole length of their railway.

Your committee are aware that tliey have not fvdly developed the great
and increasing importance of this subject, ^hich perhaps does not fall strictly
within the terms of the subject-matter referred to them, but they are most
anxious to fix the attention of the House and of the pubUc on a discovery
which is no less susceptible of useful than of dangerous application.

July 2, 1840.

ADCOCK'S PATENT TOR RAISING W.iTER FROM MINES.

At the last quarterly meeting of the Manchester Geological Society, Mr.
Adcock, C.E., read a paper on'his invention for the raising of water from
mines anil other deep places, and illustrated his subject by numerous dia-
grams and cards of data, which excited much attention. Tliis invention is
unusually novel ; it is wholly unlike every thing that has preceded it ; and
should it answer as well in practice, in the large way, as it appears to have
answered in the experiments that have been conducted upon it, it must be
regarded as one of the most important and extraordinaiT inventions of the
dav, and eft'ect a revolution, as extensive as desirable, in mining affairs. It
can be put down, even in the deepest pits, at compai'atively little cost, for
there are no pumps, no pinnp rods, no clacks, no valves, but simply one pipe
extending to the bottom of the mine or to the sump, and another pipe united
with it extending from the liottora of the mine to the top. These pipes are
made of sheet zinc, or sheet copper, of the thinnest gauge; and the cost,
therefore, wlien compared with the heavy pump trees now employed, is but
of small amount. Wear and tear, comparatively speaking, there is none. We
■n-ill, however, let Mr. Adcock describe his invention in his own words. He
stated that, encouraged by the successes he had experienced in some former
attempts to improve pump work, by which he had been enabled to make one
valve perform the dutv of four ciacks, he was emboldened to attempt still
further improvements, and eventually proposed to himself the question—" Is it
possilile, in the raising of water from mines and other deep places, to do without
clacks or valves altogether ?" He stated he knew this desu-able effect could
not be produced if the water had to be raised from the mine in a compact or
solid state, as in pump work. For in a pit of 1,000 feet in depth, the column
of water being also 1,000 feet, the pressure of water against the sides of the
pipe at the bottom of the mine would be about 440 lbs. on each square inch,
and no pipe that eonld be conveniently appUed in practice could resist that
pressure. He, therefore, in the next place, questioned within himself whether
the water could not be brought up from the mine in a divided state ; and the
obvious replv to that questi"bn was, if the water be brought up in a dirided
state, it must be in the state of vapour or of rain. The chain of reasoning,
thus far continued, led him, he states, to investigate the descending velocities
of drops of rain compared with what those velocities should be by the laws
of gravitation ; and he found that, by the laws of gravitation, the rain ought

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to descend towards the eartli with a S|iecd constantly accelerating; so that if
the cloud were liigh from which it fell, it onght hy its velocity, and conse-
quently its 7)iomfnfnin, to inflict evils of a serious nature on all animal and
vegetable life. Then how is it that such effect is not produced ? Simply by
the resistance of the air. Eacli droji of rain, while in the cloud, maybe con-
sidered to be in a quiescent state. It begins to descend from a state of rest,
with a motion constantly accelerating, and thus it continues until it acquires
a certain amount of speed; from which time forth the motion of its descent
is uuiforni. This uniformity of motion, Mr. Adcock stated, is produced by
the resistance of the air ; by its not being aide to flow from beneath the drop
beyond certain rates of speeil under certain amounts of pressure, and the lUti-
mate amount of jiressure is determined by the weight of the drop. Hence
the drop descends with an accelerating speed at first, compressing the air
more and more immediately beneath it, until the resistance and the eonipres-
sioji become equal to tlie weight of the drop ; thenceforward its motion is
uniform. Mr. .\dcock stated that he then proceeded to investigate the greatest
descending velocities of drops of rain, and he found that, under ordinary cir-
cumstances, they were from eight to twelve feet in a second ; from ivhieh
time the remaining jiortion of the reasoning was to him clear and decisive,
viz., if water, in globules of a certain size and weight, like drops of rain, can-
not, under ordinaiT circumstances, and in consequence of the resistance which
they meet with in the air, descend with a greater speed than twelve feet in a
second, then it is certain that if those drops were in a quiescent state, and a
current of air were made to move upwards, at a greater speed than twelve
feet in a second, those drops would flow upwards, instead of downwards, and
that too, whatever the height. Hence the invention was perfected. He had
only to try the experiment in secret. It far surpassed all that he had ex-
jiected from it, and he forthwith secured the patents. Mr. Adcock, therefore,
does not raise water in solid mass as in pump work, hut in a <livided state
like drops of rain. His apparatus consists of a fan, which is driven the re-
quired nuuiber of revolutions by steam or water power, and two pipes, as we
have before remarked — the one to couvey the air from the fan to the bottom
of the mine, and the other to return the air back to the surface, together
with the water with which it is accompanied, ^\"ith a 20-inch fan, 6 inches
wide, he has driven up C3 gallons of water in a minute, 40 feet in height;
and by a 3-feet fan, 1 foot wide, erected at the works of Messrs. Milne, Travis,
and Milne, at Sliaw, near JIanchestcr, he states he has driven up 130 gallons
of water per minute 120 feet in height. His experiments having been seen
b_\- numerous miners and practical men, a highly respectable body of them
have subscribed a certain sum each, that its merits, so important to them,
may be at once fully tested ; and it gives us much pleasure to add that the
machinery, now being made for that purpose, will be put down at the Pem-
berton Colliery, in the neighbourhood of ^A'igall, which is under the manage-
ment of Mr. K. Daglish. Tiie deiith of the pit is 100 yards ; and from that
depth Mr. Adcock proposes to bring up 300 gallons of water per minute.
The fan, now making, will be 6 feet diameter and 18 inches wide. — Mining
Jo lima I.

NEW KAILMAY LOCOMOTIVE.

Invented and construeted ly Mr. If'alter Ilancocl; of Stratford, Essex, and
noil) on trial on the Eastern Counties' Railway.

One of the princijial advantages of tliis locomotive is presented in the
boiler, by «liich steam of greater power is generated with far greater certainty
of continued supply, and more perfect safety, than by the boilers now in use,
cither in railw,iy, marine, or stationary engines. This boiler is constructed
of a number of distinct chambers, each chamber composed of several tubes.
Each chandjer, or raid; of tubes, connects with two general cylinders or re-
servoirs— one at the bottom for the supply of water, and the other at the top
for the reception and passage of steam. The communications from each
chamber to the water, steam pipes or reservoirs, have self-acting v.ilves.
AVhcn any leakage occurs, from wear, rents, or other causes, to any one cham-
ber, the v.ilvcs belonging to it close, and are kept to their seats by the pres-
sure of the water and steam contained in the neighbouring sound' chambers,
and the boiler remains as effective as before, exce])ting that the surface of
that one chamber, is thrown out of use, without stopping the eugines, and
perhai)s it would not be observed by the engine driver uutil the end of the
trip, when tlie pressme being reduced liy withdrawing the fire, the valve
would fall from its seat, and point out the defective chamber by the discharge
of water. In half an hour a new chamber could be attached in its stead. In
the ordinary locomotive boiler, when any one of its tubes become defective,
the whole is rendered inoperative by reason of the unchecked communication
of all the parts with each other, and so it remains until the defective tube is
repaired, replaced, or plugged, which generally occupies three or four hours,
and is attended besides with the inconvenience of stopping the train until
another engine is procured from the next station.

l!y ailopting the improved boiler no such delay would occur, and the ex-
pense both in fuel and wages, of keeping a number of engines with their fires
up ready to meet such casualties, would be avoided, as well as the risk when
a train stops out of time, and having another train brought in collision with
it, and the lives of passengers and attendants endangered.

The great heating surface obtained in a com))arativelv small space, is like-
■Pise a recommendation to this boiler. It is intended to attach a reciprocating

set of fire bars to it, Ijy which a clean floor of bars can be introduced without
lowering the fire. The small weight of this boiler in comparison to its gene-
rating power, is another material i)oint in its favour, for it leaves room for
giving sufficient strength to all other parts, without exceeding the present
total weight of a locomotive.

Having given a general description of the power — the engines and ma-
chinery come next under consideration.

The engines of the present locomotives are placed horizontally, and are
thereby very much confined and ditfieult of access, but in this one they are
vertical, and therefore the whole of the machinery, pumps, &c., are open to
view, can be readily oiled, and speedily deta,ched for repairs ; or any portion
may be put right and secured whilst the engines are working.

The engines of this locomotive give motion to a separate crank shaft, and
this communicates tlie jirogressive motion to the wheel axle by an endless
chain, working over a pulley fixed on each, and which two puUies may be
either of eiiual or difterent diameters, so that ailvantage may be obtained
either for speed or power, whichever may be required. This arrangement
not only allows the wheel axle to be straiglit instead of cranked, but it also
possesses the advantages of a moderate accommodation or play, by which all
sudden jerks or concussions of the machinery, &c., are avoided.

The friction is reduced to above one-half, from such large eccentrics, crank-
bearings, &c., not being required, in consequence of the weight of the ma-
chineiy, boiler, &.C., being on straight instead of cranked axles.

This aiTangenient allows the work to be immediately thrown out, so that
the engines will work the injection pumps, and get up the fire, without work-
ing the driving wheels. By running locomotives about to efteet these pur-
poses, much of unnecessary wear and tear is incurred, besides running on the
rails in the way of trains, &c. The present locomotive need not stir from the
spot until the train is attached — the clutch then thrown in, it immediately
starts upon its trip. — Correspondent of the Railway Times,

STEAM LOCOMOTION ON COMMON KOADS.

An experimental trip of Sir J. .Anderson's stcam-dr.ig for common roads,
took place yesterday on the Ilowth road, and fully answered the anticipations
of all concerned. It ran for about two hours, backing and turning in every
direction — the object being chiefly to try the various parts in detail. It re-
peatedly turned the corners of the avenues at a speed of about twelves miles an
hour, and at a pressure of only about 10 or 48 pounds upon tlie square inch.
r."o smoke whatever was emitted, and very little steam was observed, while
even these, it is alleged, will be removed, when running publicly on the roads.
The whole machinery is ornamentally boxed in, which prevents the nervous-
ness so often experienced in railway carriages, when the movements of the
different parts are exposed to view ; neither do horses show any alarm when
it passes them.

The directors of the English company formed for the purpose of working
out Sir James .Anderson's patent, are about to assemble at Manchester, in
order to witness a trial of the carriages constructed there; and it is expected
that the noblemen and gentlemen forming the company will afterwards come
to Dublin ; it being the intention of the p.itentees to form a company, in eon-
junctiou with that of England, for establishing communications by means of
these drags, between the principal towns in Ireland, as soon as a few of the
carriages now constructing, and in a forward state, are completed. It is pro-
posed that the English company should, iu the first inst,ance, in conjunction
with the railway trains from London, run from Birmingham to Holyhead ;
the passengers to be thence conveyed by steam vessels to Dublin twice a day ;
from Dublin to Galway by the steaui drags, and thence by steam vessels to
New York, touching at Halifax. Thus making Ireland the stepping-stone
between England, Nova Scotia, and the United States, and avoiding the de-
lay and danger of beating up the channel, the most arduous and annoying
liart of the present route. The whole distance Iictween London and New
York will be accomplished, it is expected, in ten davs. — Dublin paper, June
30.

Daguerrcotjipe Eiif^raving. — AVe have received from Dr. Mackenzie, still at
Vienna, some further particulars of the interesting process by «hicb Dr.
Berres fixes and engraves the Daguerreot) jie pictures, and also two impres-
sions from .such engravings. These impressions are shadowy and very indis-
tinct, but the design is sutiiciently m.ide out to justify the hope that further
experiments and practice will render the discovery practically available.
Kespeeting the process. Dr. Mackenzie observes, " The proportions are now
fixed as follow : — Seven parts of aeidum nitricum, of forty degrees of sirength,
lo eight parts of distilled water. With gum arable the operation is a httle
longer in being finished, but the picture is much handsomer; without gum
it is quicker, but it requires much more care and attention to produce a good
engraving. M'hen it happens that the nitric acid produces a pi-ecipitateupon
the silver plate, ammonia must be poured upon the plate, and it will instantly
disappear. From time to time it is ilesirabie to take the plate out of the acid
and Have it about : thus drying it you perceive better the progress m.ade In
the engraving. Mhen the .icid becomes muddy it Is necessary to change it.''
Allii:ni€tni\

1840.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

281

FROCSSDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES.

ROYAL SOCIETY.
Hay 14.— Major Sabixe, R..\., V.P., in the Chair.

The following papers were read : —

" Tables of the Varialion, through a cycle of nine years, nf the mean height
of the Barometer, mean Temperature, aiul deptli of Rain, as connected with
the prevailing Winds, influenced in their direction by the occurrence of the
Lunar Jpsides, with some concluding observations on the result." By Luke
Howard, Esq.

From the tahles here given, tlie author draws the following conclusions '■
1st. the barometer is higher under the lunar apogee, than under the perigee ;
the mean height in the former case being 29-84517, and in the latter.
29,75J42. 2nd. the mean temper.ature is lower under the apogee than
under^the perigee ; the mean height in the former case being 48"-712G, and of
the latter, 49=-035G. The mean of the whole year was 48°-7126. 3rd. The
rain of the weeks following the apsis exceeds that uuder the perigee ; hut
with two striking exceptions in the annual result of nine years, the one in
the wettest, and the other in the driest year of the cycle. With regard to
the winds, the author remarks that those from the north, north-east, and
east, prevailed under the apogee on thirty-eight days, uuder tlie perigee on
twenty-one days; and those from the south, south-west, and west, prevailed
under the apogee on twenty days, under the perigee on tliirty-eight days. It
appears, therefore, that in the climate of London, the moon in her perigee
brings over us the southern atmosphere, which tends to lower the density
and raise the temperature of the air, oceasiouing also a larger precipitation of
rain. In the apogee, on the contraiy, there is a freer influx of air from the
northward, a higher barometer, a lower temperature, and less rain ; subject,
however, to a large addition of rain under this apsis twice in a cycle of nine
years, at the times when also the extremes of wet and dry take place on the
■whole amount of the year.

May 21. — The JL\rquis of Xorthamptox, President, in the Chair.

His Royal Highness Prince Albert, of Saxe-Cohurg and Gotha, attended
the meeting, signed his name in thechartir-book, and was admitted a Fellow
of the Society. William Burge, Esq., AValter Ewer, Esq., T. T. Giant, Esq.,
and Henry Lawson, Esq., were balloted for, and didy elected.

The following papers were read : —

" Remarks on the Meteorological Olisertmtions made at Allen, F>nmarien<
by Mr. S. H. Thomas, in the years 1837, 1838, and 1839. By Major Sabine,
E.A., and Lieut.-Col. Sykes; being a Report from the Committee of Physics
to the Council."

These observations, made at Alten, in lat. 69' 58' 3" north, and 23' 43' 10''
east of Paris, would seem to have a claim to the attention of the Royal So-
ciety, as they offer the crpcrimentum crucis of Professor Forbes's empirical
formula respecting the gradual diminution of the daily oscillations of the
barometer, within certain limit hours, from the equator to tlie poles. Pro-
fessor Forbes has laid down an assumed curve, in which the diurnal oscilla-
tion amounts to 'llOO at the equator and 0 in lat. 64° S' N., and beyond that
latilute the tide should occur with a contrary sign, plus becoming minus.
Now, Alteu being nearly in lat. 70', if Professor Forbes's law hold good, the
maxima of the diurnal oscillations should occur at the hour for the minima
at the equator, and a similar inversion should take place with respect to the
minima. Mr. Thomas has himself however modified the value his observa-
tions would otherwise have had, by adopting 2 p.m., instead of 3 p.m., for the
hour of his observations for the fall ; and he has adapted his barometrical
obsenations to a mean temperature of 50° Fahr., instead of 32'. The first
year's obsei'vatious commence on the 1st October, 1837, and terminate on
the 30th of September, 1838. The barometer stood sixty-six feet five inches
above low-water mark, and the thermometer hung at sLx feet above the
ground ; but care was not always taken to prevent the sun shining on it.
The mean height of the barometer for the year was 29'''771, and the mean of
the thermometer at the freezing point was 32''01 7. The maximum height
of the barometer was 30°'89 in January, and the minimum 28°-71 in October.
The mean of the barometer at 9 a.m. was 29'-7G4, therm. 33''455 ; at 2 p.m.
29'-765, therm..3.3'-327; and at 9 p.m.29'-784, therm. 29'-270. The diurnal
observations would seem to support Professor Forbes's theory ; but the 9 p.m.
observations are entirely opposed to it, as they appear with the same maxi-
mum sign as at the equator, whereas the sign ought to have been the reverse ;
indeed, with respect to the diurnal observations, the mean of five inonths of
the year at 9 a.m. gives a plus sign, although the mean of the year at 9 p.m.
only gives the trifling quantity of 001 plus. There is one remarkable feature
in these observations that cannot fail to strike the meteorologist. M. Arago,
from nine years' observations at Paris, reduced to the level of the sea, makes
the annual mean height 29'.9546; twenty-one years' observations at JIadras
make it 29''958 ; and three years' observations at Calcutta, by Mr. James
Prinsep, make it 29°-764 ; and Mr. Thomas brings out 29°'771. That there
should be this coincidence between the observations at Calcutta and .\lten is
curious. Neither Mr. Thomas nor Mr. Prinsep state whether or not their
means are reduced to the level of the sea. It is to be suspected they are not
For the next year, that is to say, from October 1838 to September 1839, both

inclusive, Mr. Thomas uses a French barometer and French measurements,
with centigrade thermometer attached to the Iiarometer, and Fahrenheit's for
the detached thermometer. He changes his time of observation from 9 a.m.
to 8 A.M., 2 P.M., and 8 p.xr., and he reduces his barometrical observations to
0 centigrades. The results of the year are as follows : — mean annual pres-
sures 29-627 ; English thermometer, Fahr. 33'-36 ; greatest pressure in
April, least in Januarv 1 ! The mean of 8 a.m. is 29'-620 ; theriu. 33°-75.
The mean of 2 p.m. is 29'-631 ; therm. 34°-73. .\nd at 8 p.m. 29-631 ;
therm. 30'-75. The diurnal observations assist to support Professor Forbes's
theory ; but, as in the preceding year, the p.m. observation is at fault ; and if
the hour had been 9 o'clock instead of 8 o'clock, it woidd probably have been
more so than it appears. The low annual mean state of the barometer for
the 1837-8 is even increased in the last year's observations; and as fresh in-
struments* appai-ently have been used, there appears some ground to believe
that the fact is associated with the locality, and it may be desirable not only
to record in the Proceedings of the Royal Society the data already supplied,
but to recommend to Jlr. Thomas more particular inquiry on the subject.
The phenomena of the .Aurora Borealis appear to have been observed by Mr.
Thomas with great assiduity, and recorded with great care. On examining
the registci-, with reference to M. Erman's important remark, that " in Siberia
two kinds of aurora are distinguished, one having its centre in the west, and
the other in the east, t'ue latter being the niore brilliant." I find that twenty-
two nights occur in the course of the two winters, in which the formation of
arches of the aurora is noticed and their direction recorded ; of these, ten are
to the west, having their centres rather to the southward of west, the arches
extending from N.M'. to S.S.E. and S.E. ; sei-en are to the cast, or more pre-
cisely to the southward of east, the arches extending from N.E. to S.E. and
S.W. Of the five others, four ai-e said to he from east to west across the
zenith, and cannot therefore be classed with either of the preceding, and one
is noticed generally as being to the north. The facts here recorded appear
to afford an evidence of the same nature as those mentioned by M. Erman,
as far as regards their being tw-o centres of the phenomena. In respect to
the relative brilliancy of the eastern and western aurora, nothing very decided
can be inferreil from the register. If. as M. Erman supposes, that they may
be refen-ed respectively to " les deux foyers magnetiques de I'heniisphere
boreal," it is proper to notice tliat the position of .\lten is nearly miilway be-
tween those localities. There can l)e no doubt that the frequent appearance
of the aurora, and the pecidiarities of the phenomena observed there, render
it a most desirable quarter for a magnetical and meteorological observatoi-y.

Edw.^rd Sabine.

^\. H. SVKES.

'^ Second Letter on the Electrolysis of Secondary Compounds, addressed tor
Michael Faraday, Esq." By J. F. Daniell, Esq.

The author, in this letter, prosecutes the inquiry he had commenced in the
former one. into the mode in w-hich the chemical elements group themselves
together to constitute radicles, or proximate principles. He considers his
experiments as establishing the principle that, considered as electrolytes, the
inorganic oxy-acid salts must be regarded as compounds of metals, or of that
extraordinary compound of nitrogen and four equivalents of hydrogen to which
Berzelius has given the name of ammonium, and compound anions, chlorine,
iodine, &c., of the Haloide salts ; .and as showing that this evidence goes far
to establish cxpei-imentally the hypothesis originally brought forwai-d by
Davy, of the general analogy in the constitution of all salts, whether derived
from oxy-acids or hydro-acids. Some remarks are made on the subject of
nomenclature, and the rest of the paper is occupied with the details of the
expei-iments, all bearing on the important subject which he has undertaken to
investigate.

May 28. — Francis Baily, Esq., V.P., in the Chair.

The following papers were read : —

" Meteorological Register kept at Port Arthur, Van Diemeu's Land, during
the year 183S, and Register of Tides at Port Arthur, from August 1838 to
July 1839, both inclusive." By Deputy-Assistant-Com.-Gen. Lempriere.
Communicated by Sir John Franklin, R.N.

•' Notire relative to the form of the Blood-particles of the Ornithorhynthus
hgstri^r." By John Davy.

.\ poi-tion of the blooil of the Oniithorhynehus hystrxx, mixed when fresh
with a strong solution of common salt, being examined by the author, exhi-
bited a few globules of irregular shape. Another portion, preserved in syrup,
contained numerous globules, most of v\-hich had an irregidar form, but many
were circular ; none, however, were elliptical, like those of birds. Hence the
author concludes, that in form they accord more with those of mammalia.

"Researches on Electro-Chemical Equivalents, and on a svpposed discre-
pancy between some of them and the Atomic Weight of the same bodies, as de-
duced from tlie theory of Isomorphism." By Lieut.-Col. P. Y'orke.

The author describes various experiments made with a view to determine
the electro-chemical equivalents of sodium and potassium. Three experiments
gave, respectively, 22-3, 22-9, and 25, .as the equivalent of the former; and
two other experiments gave, respectively, 45 and 41-7 as the equivalent of
ihe latter of these substances. He then inquires -nhat -would be the result of

* It appears that the barometer was compared before leaving France, and
subsequently to its being taken back to that country.

282

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT S JOURNAL.

[August,

the cicclro-lyzatlon of tUe aqueous soliitioa of soda and potash, on the hypo-
tlicsis of these bodies heing composed of two equivalents, or atoms, of metal,
and one of oxygen. To determine this question he employs a solution of
dichloride of copper in muriatic acid, as being a substance composed of two
atoii:s of metal, and one of an electro-negative element. Its electrolysis gave
as the equivalent of copper, 52'S, 53'4, and 61 'G, numbers approximating
closely to C3'2, or double the atomic weight of copper. After a long train
of investigation, he concludes that there is no reason dcducible from the
theory of isomorphism for doubting the correctness of the rcoeived atomic
weights of silver, sodium, &c., but that the difficulty, or anomaly, if it may
be so called, should be considered as attaching itscli to the di-compounds of
topper ; and that Faraday's propositions on this subject remain uuimpeached.

" On the SoluhiWy of Silica hi/ Steam; with an account of an erperiment
on the subject, conditcted in the Eaat Indies." By Julius Jeffreys, late of the
Hon. East India Company's Medical Establishment.

The inner surfaces of a flue built of siliceous brides appeared to be ileeply
eroded by the ]iass,'>.ge over it of steam at a very high temperature, and frag-
ments of siliceous materials laid in the course of the current were partially
consumed. .\ siliceous crust was deposited on several vessels of stone ware,
coated with a micaceous glaze, placed in the upper part of the furnace, and
this crust was re-dissolved when the vessels were removed to a hotter situa-
tion in the same furnace. The auth.or notices the experiments of Dr. Turner
and others, which failed in showing the soluliility of silica by steam, in con-
sequence, as he conceives, of th.e heat having not been sufficiently great to
effect the solution.

INSTITUTION OF CIVIL ENGINEERS.

Fei. 4. — The President in the Chair.
Cn Steam Engines.

The abstract of Mr. Parkes's communication {Journal, No. 31, p. 136.)
having been read, Mr. Enys remarked, that Mr. Parkes had adopted a diffe-
rent unit of power to the one he was accustomed to employ ; but that was a
point on which he was not disposed to insist, and he was prepared rather to
yield to Mr. Parkes's opinion where they differed. Agreement on terms was
very important, and he wished to see more accuracy introduced in the use of
certain terms relating to engines ; lie would confine tlie term " duty " to the
net work, and the gross work he would call " effect." In speaking of a loco-
motive engine, he conceived the goods carried to constitute the duty — the
whole mass moved, the effect. The duty in Cornwall is a theoretical term,
being the water which ought to be raised according to the column displaced,
but the whole of which did not reach the surface ; and the whole mass of
pump work, water, iVc.. set in motion is the effect. The duty is not com-
mensurate with the effect, as it is independent of friction and other expen-
diture of power. The pit-work is not always we'd executed, and is not imder
the care of the engineer. Duty in Cornwall is, in fact, entirely a commercial
question, it having been instituted as a check between the adventurers and
the engineer who originally undertook to perform the work of pumping for
a certain share of the saving of fuel to be made. There were three distinct
causes of improvement in Cornwall, viz., in the boilers, in the application of
highly expansive steam, and in the pit work.

Mr. Wicksteed, in reply to a question as to the work now being performed
by the engine at Old Ford, stated the general result to be, that with small
Newcastle coals of inferior quality, and of such a size as to pass through a
screen of thrce-qnarter inch mesh, the duty amounted to 71 millions raised
one foot high with 94 tb. of coal. He had experienced great difficulty in
procuring good 'Welsh coal, but with some MerthjT coal he had recently
tried, the duty immediately increased to 91 millions.

In tiie Old Ford engine, the steam is cut oft' at one-third of the stroke, and
the w atcr is raised by the weight of a mass of iron acting on the water at tlie
return stroke. With the ordinai-y valves there is a loss of about one-tenth,
but with the valves invented by Messrs. Harvey and West, used in the Old
Ford engine, there is no loss, and no perceptilile blow from the water on the
valves closing, although no air is admitted beneath.

The speed of this engine varies from one stroke to ten per minute, accord-
ing to the demand for water. In Cornwall, it is thought that at slow speed
there is a considerable saving of fuel, but he is of opinion thiit there is no
difference in duty at a fast or slow speed, provided there is sufficient time for
opening and shutting the valves.

As to the term duty, although it is important to know what is the ab-
solute quantity of water raised, yet that is not the whole effect. The engine
raises a certain weight of rods, which is its load, and this weight should, in
the return stroke, produce a certain given eft'ect in water brought to the sur-
face; but, owing to bad valves, leaks in the pumps, and other causes, the
iiantity of water raised is not equal to the calculated amount. We cannot
ay that an engine has not done its duty because a portion of the water is
lost. Two engines, equally good and of identical power, may not produce
equal results ; because one may be raising water close beneath the beam,
another, up a shaft at some considerable distance, by means of a series of
long horizontal-motioned pump rods ; the latter, again, may be doing a duty
of 20 millioas in working the pump rods only.
It was his intention shortly to present to the Institution a complete report

of tlie work done by Ids engine, with drawings of every iiart ; but he was
waiting to have the opportunity of ascertaining the evaporation from the
Cornish boilers, as well as from those of a pumping engine of Boulton and
Watt's, also in use at Old Ford, so as to determine, at the same time, the
respective duty and consumption of steam by the two engines.

Mr. Field insisted on tlie importance of distingiusliiug between the duty
and effect, by usiirg the former term for the water actually raised, and the
latter for the real power expended, lie understood these terms to be so
applied to engines for water works in London, and that effect included the
friction of the water iu the pipes, and all other causes of diminution of duty.
The real eft'ect should be ascertained from the pressure of the water at the
pump, as determiued by a mercurial gauge. It is generally unrlerstood tliat,
iu speaking of the real comparative cfl'ects of the water works engines in
London, it would be unfair to take the water raised, as the same power would
iu one case be expended in raising water lOtI feet, as is expended in another
case in raising water 200 feet. The pressure of the water at the pumps is
the proper standard of comparison.

Mr. Parkes stated, that in his paper he had used the term duty as distin-
guished from the absolute power o( the engine. The same Cornish pumping
engine at different periods performs very dift'ercnt amounts of duty, although
the absolute power exerted by the steam is the same. This arises from ad-
ditions to the friction by new pump rods, and from other causes. The Cor-
nish result is below the real duty done by the engine, taking the term in
their acceptation of it, and using their mode of calCTdation for that which is
by them considered a purely commercial question. The only correct manner
of ascertaining the absolute power exerted by pumping engines, so as to
eonijiare them with rotative engines, is to take the pressure on tlie piston,
and the value of the vacuum on the other side at the same time. The term
duty expresses the true, useful, or commercial performance of the engine, but
is no measure of the absolute jiower of the steam, which has to overcome the
friction of the engine, pumps, rods, &c., in addition.

Mr. Enys, iu reply to a question from Mr. Gordon as to the speed at
which an engine is worked with the greatest economy, stated the general
opinion in Corw.ill to be in favour of about 9 strokes per minute ; if there
was a pause of half a second Ijctwecn each stroke, the Cornish cngineei-s
were perfectly satisfied. The indoor stroke is usually at the rate of from
2D0 to 200 feet per minute, and the outdoor stroke about 140 feet. When
the number of strokes exceeds 9, the balance requires to be altered ; the
engine then runs out quicker, but requires a greater expenditure of steam to
bring it in again. In answer to a question relative to Woolfe's engines, he
believed they had never had a fair trial, as all tlie boilers originally adapted
to them were mu^h too small, and the tubes soon got full of oxide and mud ;
if the present system of Cornish boilers had been in use at the time, he
thought they would have acted mnch better. Some engineers are so much
impressed in their favour, that they are desirous of giving them a trial again
with all the recent improvements.

ilr. Cottani mentioned an engine on M"oolfe's principle which had worked
peifcccly well for several years. It is now grinding a bushel of corn with a
fraction less than 4 It. of coal. The pressure of the steam iu the boiler is
from 22 to 25 lb.

Mr. Cottam, in reference to the above discussion, at a subsequent evening
(Feb. IS) alluded to the pumping engine at Hammersmith, which forces the
water through five miles of pipes, and then through a vast number of smaller
pipes, and was subject to gre.at variations of service, and inquired how the
duty could be ascertained with any tolerable accuracy, as the v.iriable expen-
diture of steam under dift'ercnt circumstances must lead to considerable errors.
If a boiler, as in the Cornish engines, is adapted to raise the bob 7 times per
minute, and, owing to some cause, as the water not being able to get away,
the bol) is raised only 5 times per minute, there is two-sevenths iu favour of
the Ijoilcr; or if an engine adapted for 30 strokes per minute makes only 25
occasionally, there is great difficulty in comparing it with other engines.

Mr. Doiikiu urged the necessity of keejiing the quality of the engine and
its commercial eft'ect perfectly distinct ; if a given weight be raised to a given
height, it must produce a given eftect minus the friction ; in water-works
engines the resistance opposed by the friction is very considerable, and being
very variable, it must not be allowed to interfere with the consideration of
the intrinsic quality of the engine; of two engines having equal power, one
may discharge, owing to these circumstances, more water than the other, but
if both be of the same construction and raise a given weight, whether the
water be discharged perpendicularly or forced through any length of hori-
zontal pipes, there can be no mistake as to the amount of the effect produced,
or, in other words, of duty performed, as that woidd be determiued liy the
weight naiscd if in a Cornish engine, or by the resistance overcome if in an
ordinary pumping engine.

Mr. Wicksteed observed, that there was no difficulty in instituting a com-
parisou between the duty of a Cornish engine and of an ordinary water-works
engine, because by the former the water was raised through a perpendicular
shaft, and by the' latter forced through several miles of pipes, of varying
length and resistance. He had for several years ascertained, by means of 3
mercurial syphon gauge, the pressure at the pump piston, and this gave, with
perfect accuracy, the resistance overcome by the engine, whether arising
from the pressure of water raised to a given or varying height, or from the
friction in a great length of pipes. This was easily proved at Old Ford,
where the water was raised into a perpendicular column or stand pipe, in
which the level of the water would he that necessary for overconting the

IS40.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL

2*^3

BBsistance oiiposed by the jji^essiire and friction. lu making comparisons
between tlie common water-works engine and tlie Cornisli, tliis was the
mode lie had adopted, and he ijeUeved it to be tl.e only fair one. He liad
pi-oved the aecnracy of the mercurial gauges by the measurement of the
column of water supported. The Cornish engine at Old Ford acts by raising
a weight of metal, which, upon its return, raises the water. This is the only
engine in Loudon of the kind, and to establish a comparison between it and
any other pumping engine, it is only requisite to ajiply a mercurial gauge as
just described to the pump of each, and whether the water is lifted dkect or
forced through any length of pipes, the resistance or load against wdiich the
steam acts will be shown. Previously to his Cornish engine being set to
work, the beam and plunger were balanced with the greatest accuracy, and
their preponderance ascertained before the steam piston and plunger were
packed. The weight afterwards added to the pump end was also carefidly
ascertained. The weight raised at each stroke of the engine is thus accu-
rately known. The number of strokes performed in a giyen time is regis-
tered by the counter. The coals are carefully weighed. By ordinary atten-
tion, the boilers are so managed with regard to the work to be done, that no
steam is allowed to blow away, whether the engine l)e maldng 3 or 9 strokes
per minute ; and in calculating the dnty done by the quantity of coal con-
sumed, no deduction is made for stoppages. Thus, a certain number of
strokes being made, a known weight has lieen raised to a given height a given
iiuml)er of times by the consumption of a known weight of coals. This
engine worked under the pressure of a column of water from 110 to IIG feet
in height, and the water was forced through 300 miles of pipe, varying from
42 inches to 3 inches in diameter. The load at the pump in the common
pumping engine is ascertained by the same means, and no error can exist in
determining the duty performed by each.

Mr. Parkes observed, that the term duty did not seem to be quite under-
stood ; duty was not the weight of water raised 1 foot in height, but that
weight divided by a bushel or other measure or weight of coals also ; that
the time in which the water was raised did not enter into the computation of
duty, though it did into the determination of horse power. He would again
call attention to the fact, that coal was no measure of power or of the qnality
of an engine ; that one engine might be doing more duty than another, be-
cause it had better coal or better boilers ; and that the only standard of per-
fection between different engines was the relative consumption of water as
steam for equal effects.

Feb. 11. — The President in the Chair.

The following were balloted for and duly elected : — John Green, John
Hartley, as ilembers ; Joseph Woods, Frederick Rumble, as Graduates ; Oli-
ver Lang, John Grantham, Capt. George Smith, R.N., Lieut. E. N. Kendall,
E.N., as Associates.

"A Description of the Coffre Dam at the site for the neto Houses of Par-
tiament." By Grant S. Dalnmple.

The works described are those which necessarily precede the erection o'
the main building. They consist of the coffre dam, river wall, and the foun-
dations of the river front— according to the designs, and under the direction,
of the engineers (Messrs. Walker and Surges) and Mr. Barry, the architect ;
the whole being executed by Messrs. Lee, tlie contractors.

The mud at the site of the works varied much in depth and in consistency,
but beneath it is a bed of red gravel and sharp sand, averaging 14 feet in
tliickness, laying over a stratum of stiff clay, into which the piles are driven
to a depth of 2 feet. To faciUtate the driving of the piles, a curved trench,
27 feet wide by 8 feet deep, was dredged in the line of the dam. The main
piles of Memel fir, 36 feet long by 1 foot square, were then driven, leaving
their tops 4 J feet above the Trinity high-water mark of ordinary spring tides.
The waling pieces were then attached, and the outer sheet piles of whole
timber, 30 feet long by 13 inches sqnare, sawn square on all sides, so as to
ensure the joints being close when driven and bolted to the waling. The
inner sheet piles of half timlier w-ere then driven to the same depth as tlie
others ; the space above them was made up with liorizontal pieces, bedded
down to them, and secured with bolts to the furring pieces inserted above
the waling at each gauge pile. The whole length of the dam was secured
by diagonal braces, extending back to the old river wall, agauist which they
were ainitted. The outer and inner rows of piles were secured together by
three rows of WTOuglit iron bolts, the lower being 2 J inches diameter, and
the two upjier rows 2 inches diameter. The whole of the piles being driven,
the space between was cleared out down to the day substratum, and then
filled up with stiff clay mixed with a portion of gravel ; a portion of the
excavated matter was then laid on both sides of the dam to protect the
piling from injui-y.

The first pile was driven on the 1st of September, 1837, and the dam was
closed on the 24th of December, 1838. The extreme length of the coffre
dam along the river face is 920 feet, and the ends return at an angle until
tliey meet with and enter the old river wall, at a distance of about 200 feet
from the face of the dam.

The excavations for the foundation of the river wall were got out in lengths
of 50 feet, levelled to receive the footing courses, which were laid on a bed
of concrete of a thickness varying from 1 foot at the north end to between
5 and 6 feet in the centre and south corner, where the substratum was loose
and spongy. The concrete was composed of C measures of gravel and sand
to 1 of ground lime from the lower stratum of the chalk formation. Along

the face of the wall was driven a row of elm sheet piles, from 8 to 12 feet
long by 8 inches thick, square sawed, so as to drive close, spiked to an oak
wale, and the whole secured to the front by 1-inch wrought iron bolts, placed
at distances of 4 feet apart, stretching back 6 feet into the wall, and fixed by
cast iron washers bedded between the footing courses. The two bottom or
footing courses of the wall are 11 feet wide, of York landing, 6 inches thick ;
on these are two courses of Bramley-fall stone, each 1 foot 3 inches thick,
from which rises the stone facing of the wall, of Aberdeen and Cornish
granite, in courses vaiying in thickness from 2 feet 2 inches at the bottom
to 1 foot 7 inches at the top. The front is built to a curve of 100 feet
radius, and is backed with brickwork, maldng the total thickness of the wall
7 feet G inches at the bottom, and 5 feet at the top. Counterforts, projecting
3 feet 4A inches by 3 feet 9 inches wide, occur at intervals of 20 feet along
the whole length. At a distance of 28 feet 9 inches from the back of the
river wall is the foundation of the front wall of the main body of the bnild-
ing, the space between the two walls being filicd up with concrete, composed
of 10 parts of gravel to 1 part of ground lime. The total length of the river
wall, at the present level of 2 feet 3 inches above the Trinity standard of
high-water mark, is 876 feet 6 inches. The wings at each end, projecting
2 feet 3 inches before the face of the centre part, are 101 feet 6 inches long
each, leaving a clear teiTace walk, G73 feet 6 inclies long by 32 feet wide,
between the mugs and fronting the river. The height of the wall from the
bottom of the footing courses is 2.3 feet 9 inches.

The excavation for the wall was commenced on the 1st of January, 1839,
and the building of it was commenced in March of the same year. The
amount of tiie estimate for the dam and waU was £74,373.

" Oil Browne's Patent Hydraulic Level." By A. T. Hemming.

This instrument, designed for ascertaining the relative heights of points
not visible from each other, consists of le;igths of water-tight flexible tubing,
attached to eadi other by brass joints, and having glass vessels at each end.
The vessels and tubing being nearly filled with water, the level of the water,
as seen in these vessels at two points whose relative heights are to be com-
pared, will serve to indicate their positions, whatever may be tlie inflexions
of tlie tubing betwixt the two vessels. Graduated rods are ]>laced perpen-
dicularly at the points of observation, and the lower vessel is raised, and the
higher lowered, until the level of the fluid therein intersects the graduation
of the rods. It is conceived that this level may be peculiarly useful in mines
and excavations, and in fixing complicated machinery.

Light for Light-houses.

Captain Basil Hall briefly explained his views as to obtaining for light-
houses all the advantages of a fixed Ught by means of refracting lenses in-
revolution.

Tlie difference between a fixed and a revolving light is much in favour of
the revolving light, as the light can be concentrated and great brilliancy ob-
tained on any particular point at each succeeding flash ; — by a fixed light
being meant one in which the light is visible on every side ; and by a revolv-
ing light, one in which the light appears in periodical flashes. Fresnel's fixed
hght has only one-sixth the brilliancy of his revolving light. Fresnel's system
consists in having a large central lamp with four concentric wicks, surrounded
by eight lenses, each three feet diameter. The light is thus concentrated
and thrown off in eight pencils, which, as they strike the eye successively,
have very brilliant eftect, and are visible at a great distance.

Captain Basil Hall's inquiries have been directed to ascertain whether the
well-known superior brilliancy of a revolving light could not bs obtained for
a fixed or continuous light ; that is, for one equally visilde in all directions
at the same moment. His idea was, that by giving a certain velocity of re-
volution to a series of lenses round a fixed light, as in Fresnel's arrangement,
a continuity of illuminating powei-, equal almost in brilliancy to that of a
slowlv revolving light, might be produced. This, he expected, would prove
true, provided no intensity were then lost. He had erected some apparatus
at the Towel', and determined the effect by experiment. The apparatus con-
sisted of a fixed central light with a scries of eight lenses, 1 foot diameter
and 3 feet focal distance, so arranged as to revolve at any velocity up to 60
revolutions per minute. The light from the central lamp being concentrated
by refraction through the eight lenses into eight pencils, having a divergence
of aliout 8° each, illuminated not quite 50° of the horizon when at rest ; but
when this same svstem of lenses was put into rapid motion, every degree of
the 360' of the horizon became illumined, and to spectators placed all round
the horizon, the light would ajipear continuous and equally brUliant in every
direction. The oiilv question would be, whether or not this continuous hght
is essenfiallv less intense than the light seen through the lenses at intervals
wdien in slow motion. The fact is, that two chsfinct efl'ects are produced in
this experiment— a phvsical eft'ect in diminishing the brilUancy of the light
exactly in proportion to the I'afio of the dark portion of the horizon compared
to that of the enlightened portion, viz. as 310^ to 50" ; and a physiological
effect (suegested bv Professor Wheatstone), l>y which the sensibility of the
retina mi"ht be so'excited liy a succession of bright flashes, that not only a
continuity of light might be 'produced, but a light not much, if at all, inferior
in intensity to th,at caused by the lenses at rest. When first set in motion,
the effect is that of a series of brilliant but tremblmg flashes ; as the system
of lenses is accelerated in velocity, the steadiness of the light increases with
scarcely any apparent diminution of brilliancy. At 44 revolutions per minute
absolute continuity is produced, and at 60 revolutions neariy the steadiness
of a fixed light, yfhen viewed from the distance of half a mile, the effect is

284

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[A I' GUST,

nearly that of continuity, very uiucli resembling that of a fixed star of the
first magnitude. The only difference in the quality of the light is, tliat the
lenses being in motion, it resembles a star twinkling violently; and when at
rest, it resemljles a planet. The dilTerencc of intensity had been measured
by examining the light through a number of plates of stained glass. Some
eyes had seen the light through 13 glasses, the lenses being at rest — and
through 12, the lenses being in motion; other eyes with other glasses had
seen it through 10, the lenses being at rest — and 8, the lenses being in
motion. He had seen it through 9, the lenses being in motion, and tbra\igh
10 at rest. lie dirl not pretend to say whether mechanical difticulties might
not prevent the adoption of the system ; what he aimed at was to establish
the principle, that by putting a system of lights into a rapid rotary motion,
a continuous light visible in all directions would be the result, without any
essential diminution of brilliancy, as compared to that of the same lights
when viewed at rest. If this principle shoidd prove correct, its application
to practice might afterwards be thought of, and left to the ingenuity of the
engineer ; but if the principle should not be correct, and there was a great
loss of light by the rotary motion, then it would be tiseless to go on.

At the subsequent meeting. Feb. 18, Mr. Parkes observed, that he could
entirely confirm the account of the experiments with revolving lenses given
by Captain Basil Hall on a preceding evening. It appeared to him, that when
the lenses made 32 revolutions, the light was not quite continuous ; but at
40 revolutions it was perfectly so, although the general effect was twinkling.
The central spot was very distinct ; he saw the light equally as distuictly
through 10 coloured glasses, the lenses being in motion, and through 11, the
lenses being at rest. He would suggest, whether the tremidous appearance
of the light might not be in part accomited for by the slightness of the re-
volving frame, which, at the required velocity, vibrates considerably. In the
temporary ajiparatus erected at the Tower, one man coiUd iriaintain about -40
revolutions per minute.

Jlr. Alexander Gordon remarked the coincidence of the experiments of
Captain Basil Hall with a law of light as laid down by writers on optics, —
viz. that if a luminous body pass the eye eight times in one second, the im-
pressions are blended so as to produce the appearance of continuity, or that
the duration of an impression on the retina may lie taken at about eight
seconds. Xow, in the apparatus erected by Captain Basil Hall, there are
eight lenses, and continuity of light is produced when the frame makes 60
revolutions a minute. Thus, eight lenses flash across the eye in one second,
and the observed residt is a remarkable confirmation of the law alluded to.

Mr. Hawkins thought the light was better and steadier at 40 revolutions
than at any other speed. ^A'hen observing the reflection of the light on the
features of the by-standers, he saw them very distinctly, the lenses being at
rest ; Iiut from the moment of commencement of motion, there was a visible
fliminution in the intensity of the light, which increased with the speed. He
saw the light, the lenses being at rest, through 10 coloured glasses, and
through 9 when in motion.

Jlr. Macneil! thought the light was steadier at GO than at 40 revolutions.
The shadow was less intermittent. He did not conceive the mode of examin-
ing the intensity of the light through coloured glasses to be so con-ect as by
observing tlie depth of the shadow, as the eye was capable of judging more
correctly of the relative intensity of shadows than of lights. M'hen the lenses
were in rapid motion, there appeared a dark spot in the centre of a luminous
jiisc.

Professor Keating, of Philadelphia, stated that the dark sjiot in the centre
appeared as if he saw the wick of the lamp. The lenses being at rest, the
light was uniform ; but on their acquiring a certain degree of velocity, its
whiteness diminished ; until at 40 revolutions a decided orange tint appeared,
and at (10 revolutions both the orange hue and the centre dark spot in-
creased.

Mr. Lowe inquired whether the quantity or intensity of light was mos'
required for lighthouses. The conflicting opinions of experimenters on the
intensity of light, as ascertained by the photometers now in use, show that
some better test or means of comparison is wanted, lie should conceive
that pieces of coloured glass could not afford any accurate measurement of
the space-penetrating power of light at so small a distance as 345 feet, which
he underst lod was the length of the room in which these experiments were
tried. The depth of shadows also furnished no adequate measure of the iu-
tensity of light, for shadows were differently colom'cd for difltrcnt lights.
Perhaps the photogenic paper might furnish the tests and means of com-
)>arison now so much wanted.

The President remarked on the advantages of the revolving lights, as apar*
from the greater IjriUiancy, in that they are pecidiarly useful as being easily
distinguished from land and other lights, which tend to mislead mariners.
There may be peculiar advantage in the tremidous character of Captain Basil
Hall's liglit, as enabhng it to be more easily distinguished among others. It
is not simply the quantity of light which is diffused over the horizon which
is valuable, but the intensity of the ray in a certain direction, which, faUing
on the eye, rivets immediate attention.

Feb. 25. — The President in the Chair.

The following were balloted for and elected : — William Reed, Captain An-
drew Henderson, Edward Oliver Manby, WilUam Johnson, Alfred King, and
Gnstave Holtze, as Associates.

" Oil the Iiiijirurenimt of Xai-iyalle Jiioers, u-ith a Descriji/ion of a self-
nc/iiiff Vaslcloard at Nahurn Lock, on the River Ouse." By Henrv Kenton,
Crad. Inst. C. E.

Previously to the year 1834, the navigation of the Kivcr Ousc from Selby
up to Boronghbridge, a distance of 39 miles, was much impeded by a num-
ber of shoals or " huts," some of tliem of considerable extent — all vessels
drawing more than 5 feet water being compelled to await until the spring
tides set in, so as to afford them sufficient depth of water. Mr. Rhodes was
consulted as to the best mode of obviating this difficulty. He recommended
the employment of a steam dredging-maehine to deepen the bed, by removing
the shoals, and the construction of a self-acting wastehoard on the dam, so
as to give an additional height of water between Naburu and Linton Locks,
as it was found that no injury could occur in the adjacent lands from the
level of the river being raised 18 inches.

The greater part of the shoals consisted of compact blue clay, with a mi.\-
ture of gravel and large boulder stones, and, in a few instances, of oak trees,
such as are found near the bottom of bogs.

To use the dredging-maehine in the most advantageous manner, the prin-
ciple of the sliding tool in a turning lathe was adopted, by running the ma-
chine across the face of the shoal from side to side of the river, without al-
tering the position of the lower tumbler. This method produced a perfectly
even horizontal surface of the bed, and prevented subsequent accumulation.
Tlie whole of the shoals were thus removed, so that sea-borne vessels and
steamers, drawing from 11 to 12 feet water, could at all periods navigate to
York, a distance of 80 miles from the Ilumber. It was still necessary to
raise the height of the water at least 18 inches between Naburu and Linton
Locks, to enable vessels drawing 7 feet water to pass at all seasons from
York up to Boronghbridge, a farther distance of 20 mUes. To accompUsh
this, the self-acting wastehoard was constructed.

It is composed of two distinct boards of Jlemel timber, each 76 feet long,
18 inches high, and 4 inches thick, placed on the top of the angular face of
the dam. It is fixed by means of strong wrought-iron hinges, leaded into
the stone work at inter\als of 10 feet. Over the hinges are fixed wrought-
iron bolts, 1 inch diameter, connected by flat chains with the plimmer blocks
on a line of shafts extending behind eacli board on the face of the dam ; on
the ends of these shafts are fixed spur-wheels working into iiiuions which
drive pulleys, over which run tlie chains supporting the balance weights,
which are bung on the face of the A\ing walls. AVhen the balance weights
are at the bottom of the walls, the wastehoard will be in an upright position,
which occurs wlien the surface of the water does not rise 6 inches above the
top of the boards or 2 feet above the dam ; but when, on a sudden increase
of the volume of water, there is a considerable pressure on the face of the
wastehoard, it more than counterbalances the weights, and causes the boards
to incline towards a horizontal position, at the same time raising the balance
weights and allowing a free passage for tlie water. \Vlien the pressure di-
minishes, the weights descend and the boards resume their vertical position.

The time occujiicd in dredging the river and constructing the wasleboards
was two vears, and the cost of the latter, which was made bv Messrs J. and
^\. Laildcr, of York, was £300.

The result of these alterations has been most satisfactory, as, since their
completion, not a vessel has been detained in the upper level, and the regis-
ters of the heights of the water at Linton and Nabin-n Locks and York show,
that the winter floods have not risen to such a height, or continued for so
long a period, as previously to the improvements being carried into effect.

" On the autogenous unitinr/ of Lead and other metals." By M. Delbruick

The term " autogenous " is employed by the inventor, >L de Richemont,
of the method now described, to designate the union of pieces of metal of the
same kind with one another, without the intervention of the ordinary alloys
of tin or other connecting medium. This is effected by directing, by means
of a fine beak, the flame of a jet of hydrogen on the parts to he united. A
complete fusion of the metal is thus efi'eeted, and the parts are united in one
homogeneous mass, the metal at the points of junction being in the same
state chemically as at the parts untouched. Plates of any thickness, whatever
the direction of the edges to be joined, may thus be perfectly united, and the
lines of junction made as strong as the rest of the mass. Many circumstances
contribute to render the joints made with common solder objectionable. The
rates of expansion and contraction on changes of temperature for lead and
its alloys with tin are different ; some chemicil agents act much more on
alloys of lead and tin than on lead alone. The alloys also are fragile, and
the solder may not perfectly attach itself, without the imperfection being
observed. In addition to obviating these objections, M. de Richemont con-
ceives that his new method or union possesses the farther advantages of
economy, in saving of solder and in avoiding seams and overlappings ; in per-
mitting the use of thiimer lead and the use of lead where it is now inad-
missible, and in rendering practicable the repairs of vessels which are now
impracticalde.

M. de Richemont also applies this jet of flame to heating the common sol-
dering irons used by tinmen and plumbers. The jet is permitted to play
upon the tool, which, in a few seconds, is brought to the requisite beat, and
maintained at that heat without any injury to the tool. The heat can be
regidated to the greatest nicety by diminishing or increasing the jet. The
author conceives that the sulphate of zinc produced in the manufacture of
the gas will be found of such value as greatly to diminish the cost of this
process.

1840.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL

285

ROYAL INSTITUTE OF BRITISH ARCHITECTS.

The closing meeting of tlie Session of the Institute of British .Architects
was held on ilonday evening, the 13th of July. The chair was taken by the
President, Earl de Grey, who was supported I)y a numerous attendance of
the Meml)ers of the Society and their visitors.

The proceedings of the meeting derived a ]iecnHar interest from the pre-
sence of Mr. Morrison, of Dublin, Vice President of the lately established
Institute of Irish .\rcliitects, who was announced as the representative of that
body ; Mr. Morrison is also a Fellow of the Institute of London, and the pre-
sent occasion being the first on which he had attended since his election, he
was admitted in due form by his Lordship, who then addressed him as fol-
lows : —

Mr. Morrison, I assure you that I am extremely happy at being al)le to
attend here to night as President of this Society, to receive you as the repre-
sentative of the Royal Institute of Architects of Ireland. We have the same
feelings and views as yourself and your colleagues : namely, to promote the
arts essential to the profession, and at the same time to elevate the character
of tlie Professors themselves.

It will be remembered by many of those who hear me, that your Society
when first projected, was intended to form a brancli of our own. The word-
ing of our charter, or some technicality, combined with the distance by which
we are separated, rendered it impracticable to efiect that unioii. But though
we were thus forced to adopt separate names, we coincide and unite in one
common fecUng ; and I do not hesitate to say that by co-operation we can
always mutually be of service to each other.

The utility of such an institution is I tliink obvious. The benefit resulting
to the profession is not confined to any particular portion of it : the juniors
as well as the seniors piofit by it ; for at the same time that the jimior mem-
bers are thereby furnished with opportunities of hearing tlie opinion, and ac-
quiring information from those who are of longer standing than themselves,
it is by no means devoid of utility to the seniors by inducing them to com-
municate amongst one another the result of their more extended experience.
The Association of the Honorary Member is not without its utility. It affords
to us, who were not educated for the profession, an opportunity of becoming
acquainted with many of the most eminent men in the various branches of it,
whilst, we in return, may occasionally have it in our power to assist them,
by afibrding a facility of meeting with persons, and assembling at places
which they might not otherwise have an opportunity of doing. "With this
feeling I accepted with readiness and pleasure the complimentary offer from
the Irish Institute, of electing me an honorary Fellow, and I hailed with
satisfaction the appointment of a very intimate friend. Lord Fitzgerald, as its
President. He, like myself, was not brought up to the profession withwiiich
he has thus been associated ; but, with the talent which he possesses, I have
no doubt that his friends and colleagues will derive much advantage from his
connection with their Society.

I look upon this, and our sister Institute in Ireland as one ; though sepa-
rated by St. George's Channel, we have but one and the same object in view,
and are pursuing the same road for its attainment. !n my double capacity
therefore of member of hoth Institutes, I beg leave again to repeat the |)lea-
sure I experience in seeing you, Sir, (to whose exertions I believe I may say
our sister Society, is very mainly indebted for its present position, and whose
own private and professional character is so deservedly eminent.) now present
to take your seat amongst us, as one of our own raemliers. .Vnd I feel con-
fident that I express the unanimous sentiments of every one who hears me,
in offering to you, and through you, to the Royal Irish Institute our most
cordial wishes for continued prosperity.

Mr. Morrison said, — In rising to return thanks for the kind reception I
have met, on the occasion of this my first visit to your Institute, and for the
obliging expressions which your Lordship has addressed to me, while I feel
that I am indebted for both to the position which I hold with relation to he
sister Institute in Ireland, I am not less proud of the honour done uie, or less
grateful for the manner in which it is conferred.

It is, indeed, my Lord, to me a most gratif)ing circmnstance to find, that
the cttbrts I have made to estabUsh, on a proper footing, an Institute of
Architects in Ireland, are appreciated by your Lordship and by a Society such
as this ; and that the success wdiich has crowned my exertions is hailed by a
body of gentlemen so qualified to judge of its importance. It assures me, my
Lord, not only that the unnatural state of depression, in which for so long a
period the professors of our art have been placed in the sister kingdom, was
deplored with the sympathy of generous feeling, by our professional brethren
in this country, but that by those whose judgment on such a matter must
l)e decisive, it w'&s/eit, as it is pronounced to be, undeserved.

I have never, my Lord, for a moment, mistaken the claims of the archi-
tects of Ireland, to hold the position and to participate in the honours which
in this and in other countries, are conceded to the instructed professors of
our beautiful art. In literature, in science, and in the display of poetic taste
and feeling, Irish genius has not been behind that of other lands, in earning
for itself " a station and a name ;" and in our art, which demands the union
of both taste and knowledge, its Irish professors, as far as opportunities have
been afforded them, have (I trust I may say) shewn themselves not unen-
dowed with the admitted talent of their country. I have, then, ever felt,
that it has been owing to other unhappy causes, and not to want of ability
amongst us, that in Ireland architectural science has been depressed, as it

has been undervalued. The dark cloud which, from whatever cause, has
hung over the destinies of that country, has discouraged the eft'orts, as it has
depressed the spirits of her children ; but still, amidst her darkness, beatitiful
structures have sprung up from time to time, to testify that architectural
taste and ability were there, wliicli under happier auspices, would shed a
lustre on the land where they were protected ; and record, with enduring
monuments, the histoi-y of her reviving prosperity and social j)eace.

It was with this feeling that, while I regretted the past depression in Ire-
land of the art I loved, and with the cultivation of which I associated the
brightest visions of my country's happiness. I felt encouraged, tnider the
awakening aspect of Irish prosperity, in making an effort to" exalt my pro-
fession in Ireland, liy vindicating the true dignity of its educated members. I
do not wish to dwell njion a subject which woidd, by implication, attach
discredit to those, who from their station in society, should he the natural
protectors of native talent ; suffice it to say, what alas ! is too well under-
stood, the architects of Ireland have not been valued or encouraged by the
wealthy and educated classes of their own countrymen ; and tiicyjiave now
sought to win the favour, and the respect, which have been unjustly and im-
wisely withheld from them, by showing that ttiey understand their own pro-
per merits, and that they have learaed to respect and to do justice to them-
selves.

Such, my Lord, has been the origin of the Royal Institute of .Architects iu
Ireland, to which your noble Society has generously held out the right hand
of fellowship, and of frieridship ; declaring that you esteem us " as a branch
of your own Institute in every thing except the name."

For myself, then, and for the Members of the Irish Institute, which has
Ijcen so honoured and encouraged by this approbation, allow me, my Lord,
to retm-n my sincere and grateful thanks. We feel, indeed, that in encour-
aging and promoting the success of the Irish branch of our profession, they
have consulted our conunon interests, by vindicating the dignity of an art,
which we, in common venerate ; but while their conduct towards us, has been
wise, as it has been generous, we are not from our sense of its prudence, on
that account the less grateful for its manifestations.

To all and to each of the members of this Society, I return the respectful
and earnest thanks of the body over which I have the honour professionally
to preside. Where there are so many who have honoured us, aiul from whom
approval and encouragement are, indeed, so flattering, it is difiicidt to name
individuals to whom we would in particular, he desirous to render our ac-
knowledgments. I may, however, venture to mention one whose ap])robation
is no less valuable from his acknowledged attainments, than from his rank ;
and whose esteem is equally flattering, as, emanating from his goodfeehngor
from his good taste. I need scarcely say, I allude to the noble President of
this Institute, one of the first in tliis country who hailed tlie establishment
of the Institute of Irish Architects, and of wdiose support and patronage, ex-
tended to a scientific association such as ours, it may truly be said, " .iuctor
preciosa facit."

To Earl de Grey then, the Vice Presidents, and the Members of the Royal
Institute of British .Vrchitects, I return the warmest acknowledgments I can
express, from myself, and from the body which 1 represent.

Letters were read, from Mr. C. H. Smith, accompanied by a specimen of
white marble from .\merica, imported for the first time. — Fiom Mr. Chantrell,
of Leeds, on a remarkable case of decay in oak timber, and several other
communications from the members and correspondents of the Institute.

Jlr. Fowler read a paper on the mode of warming and ventilating the
Custom House on Dr. Arnott's principle, which eUcited a well merited com-
pliment to Dr. .\rnott for the liberality with which he has placed his scientific
inventions at the disposal of the public at large.

The noble President then congratulated the Society on the success which
had attended the proceedings of the session. The accession of ten Fellows,
nine associates, one honorary member, and two foreign members, suflicienlly
attested the estimation in which the Institute was held by all classes con-
nected with architecture. With regard especially to the interest taken in the
proceedings of the Institute by foreign architects, his Lordship adverted to
the valuable paper on Greco-Russian ecclesiastical architecture, contributed
to the literary funds of the Society by Herr Hallmann, which had been ac-
knowledged by the presentation of a medal to that gentleman. It was further
to be observed witli reference to the manner in which the Institute bad been
snppoi'ted in this respect during the session, that no lectures had been de-
livered in the rooms — and however desirable the delivery of lectiu-es might
be, in bringing before the members in a condensed form, much information
on subjects for the study of which they could not otherwise afford time, yet
it was undoubtedly to be noted as a proof of the increasing prosperity of the
Institute, that the influx of communications on professional subjects had been
such as to occupy the meetings during the whole session, and leave no oppor-
tunity for hearing lectures. (Jf the value of the papers read it was not ne-
cessary to speak, but of the advantages resulting from the mere circumstance
of professional men uniting together, an instance had been afforded during
the present evening, when in consequence of a conversation which had oc-
curred at a former meeting on the subject of the remarkable arch between
the Western towers of Lincoln Cathedral, one gentleman had produced a
drawing of the arch, and another, a resident at Lincoln, had explained its
construction ; and thus, said his Lordsliip, information is elicited and science
promoted. His Lordship then adverted to the volume which had been an-
nounced of the Transactions of the Institute. The question had sometimes
been put to him, " what were the Institute doing ?" The former volume of

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[August,

the Transactions liad snfficiently answered that question at tlie time it was
produced, and it was not to be doubted that anotlicr would equally vindicate
their proceedings though a longer delay tliau might be desirable bad inter-
vened between the two.

In conclusion his Lordship expressed his warmest wishes for the continued
jirosperity of the Institute, and his determination to contribute to it by every
means in his power.

To all who knew how greatly the Institute are indebted to the support of
their noble President, this assurance cannot fail to be gratifying in the highest
degree.

NOTES OF THE .MOXTIl.

Blenlieim Palace is likely to be repaired at the public expeuce ; a bill is
now before Parliament for providing the necessary funds.

Blackfriar's Bridge was closed on the 21st ult. against all horse-convey-
ances, for the purpose of completing the repairs and paving the roadway,
■which are expected to be finished and the l)ridge again opened by the 1st of
next month.

At Brighton, Sir Samuel Brown is engaged in making a survey and taking
soundings of the coast, for the pur))Ose of ascertaining whether it is practi-
cal)le to construct an asylum harbour by means of au extensive break-
water.

We perceive by the daily papers, that Mr. Barry has had several inter-
■views with the Commissioners of M'oods, &c. on the subject of laying the
foundation-stone of the new Houses of Parliament ; we were in hopes from
the rapid progress that is being made in the erection, that this mummery
was likely to he done away with — we hojjc so still ; it is quite a farce, to call
it the foundation-stone, now that the buikhng has considerably advanced in
height above the ground.

The bouses lately built by Jlr. Cuhitt, in Lowndes Square, near Belgrave
Square, in the combined styles of the EUzabethan and Venetian, are deserving
of a survey by the architect.

We arc hapjiy to hear that Government has determined to have engraved,
at the public expeuce, the elaborate drawings of St. Stephoi's Chapel, which
have been made with great care by Mackenzie.

The design for the Oxford memorial to the martyrs, is decided in favour
of Mr. Scott ; we understand that it is in the style of ^^'altham Cross.

The Duke of Devonshire's grand picture gallery at Chatsworth, which was
commenced under the superintcndance of the late Sir Jeffry Wyatville, has
been just completed. Many of the gems of art at Chiswick and Devonshire
House it is said, will be transfeiTcd to this gallery.

The sum of .f5,000. has been voted by Parhament for the improvement
of Trafalgar Square. Tliis amount appears to us very" inadeq\iate to do all
the work stated in the report given in the last months' Journal. A
Committee of the House of Commons has, for some time been sitting, to
consider whether it would not be prejudicial to the effect of Trafalgar Square
and the adjoining buildings, particularly the National GalleiT. The follow-
ing (pieries liave been put to Sir Richard Westmacott and Messrs. Barry,
Deering, Donaldson, Burton, Sydney Sniirke and others, with the view of
ehciting the opinions of those artists on the subject. M'hen the report of
the evidence has been pubUshed, it will be interesting to see how these gen-
tlemen have treats d the matter, and the reasons they may adduce for their
■various opinions : — What effect, in your opinion, will a column, of wdiich the
pedestal, including the steps is 43 feet high, and the height altogether 170,
have upon the National GalleiT? Wiat etfect, in your opinion, will the
said column have as an ornamental olyect, in condunation with the sur-
rounding buildings ? What etfect will the column have on the National
Gallery as you approach it from Whitehall ? How far do you consider that
position a favourable position for the column itself? "The answers, we
think, cannot be doubtful. The plans, &c. can be seen by ai)pUcation at the
Committee Clerk's office.

Mr. Bielefeld, with considerable ingenuity, has applied Papier Mache to a
new purpose, that is for delineating the map of a country, by the aid of
■jvhii'h, be is enabled to shew all the cmineucies in relief, and at one view the
comparative hciglit of the mountains, and a general character of the country.
The model which Jlr. Bielefeld has lately completed of the Pyrenees, is now
exhibiting at his mamifactory ; it was made from the elaborate model of Sir
T. L. Mitchell, wlio devoted very consideralde labour to it in marking out the
seat of the Peninsular warfare , together with the principal rivers, mountains,
vallies, villages, towns, and forests, ■which are all laid down to a scale ■with
great accuracy.

At the distribution of prizes at the King's College on the 1st ult., Profes-
sor Moseley read a statement of the progress of the department of Civil
Engineering ajid .-Vrcldtectm-e ; it was replete with information, and of such
a gratifying character, that we regret we cannot publish it in our present
months' Journal as was our intention. The mode of instruction is very
excellent, as laying the foundation of an intuitive education, and renders a
youth capable of appreciating the value of the ])rofession of which he is to
become a member, as well as prepares him to apply tlie kno^vledge he has
obtained to practical objects in the otfice of the engineer or architect.

DREDGE'S PATENT SUSPENSION BRIDGE.

Sir, — I noticed a letter in your last Journal from Mr. Curtis, on suspension
bridges, and am sorry, on his account, that he should have so strangely at-
tempted to mislead the public on so important a branch of mechanics. He
has there stated, that in 1838 he submitted his invention to the British
Association at Newcastle, that mine was introduced to their notice last year,
1839, that there is an identity of principle in the two inventions, &;c. Now
unfortunately for his claim to priority, I patented my invention early in 1330,
and carried it into practice successfully the saTne year, in the \'ictoria Bridge
at Bath. I was at Newcastle in August, 1838, and there submitted it to the
British Association, v\-ho unanimously acknowledged its merits (see the
Journal, vol. i. p. 350.) the particulars of wl'.ich were published in No. 794
of the Mechanic's ilagazine.

At Birmingham, in 1839, I read a paper on Bridge Architecture, and no
one disjjuted the position I assumed. Mr. Curtis must be ■well aware of
these facts, for I believe he was present at both meetings, but why he has
found it convenient to forget the former, I must leave for him to explain. I
am, however, most astonished that he should so imprudently assert that
there is an identity in our plans ; it is an assertion that he cannot prove, and
it is impossible for the most ordinary observer to look at them, vrithont de-
tecting that difference which he pretends not to see. I would here ask him,
was his important discovery acknowledged by the British Association to be
new and correct ? and if so, has it ever been carried out in ])ractice ? I would
thank him to answer these questions, and also to state the dift'erence between
the bridge of which he says, he is the original inventor, and that proposed
by M. Poyet, 40 years ago, and the one at King's Meadows across the Tweed,
constructed in 1817.*

It now remains to be observed, that Mr. Curtis, as an inventor, has no
reason to complain, as his invention is very different, is undoubtedly of later
date, and is in his own oiiinion, the best of all suspension bridges. If you
will insert, in your useful Journal, the above, you will obUge, Su", your hum-
ble servant,

James Dredge.

Baf/i, Juli) 9, 1840.

■^ Drewry in his work on suspension bridges, has given particulars and draw-
ings of these bridges.

STEAM PASSAGE TO INDIA.

The Prospectus of the proposed Company for carrying into effect the long
dormant plan of traversing, by means of steam, the distance between this
country and mir Oriental possessions, has been extensively circulated during
the present month ; and from the vast importance of the subject which it
embraces, as well as from its intrinsic merit, and the solidity of the basis
upon which the scheme therein set forth stands, it merits a more elaborate
notice than we have hitherto been able to give it.

Since the year 1830, two Select Committees of the House of Commons,
and one Private Committee, composed of men of the highest character for
honour, intelligence, and wealth in the city of London, have sat at intervals
of from two to four years, and have thoroughly sifted the question of Steam
Comnumication to India. The labours of these three conmiittees are em-
bodied in as many volumes of evidence, pnbhslied respectively in 1834, 1837,
and 1839 ; and it is upon the unanimous, and almost undivided opinions and
judgment of such men as the Honourable Mountstuart Elphinstone, Lord W.
Bentinck, Sir Pulteney Malcolm, Captain Sir David Dunn, Messrs. Maudslay
and Field, and other eminent engineers, and a host of other authorities,
equally valuable and weiglity in their respective departments, that the pre-
sent undertaking has been determined upon.

The line of route adopted by the Company, is the one so ably and so suc-
cessfully advocated liy Captain Barber in his pamphlet on the subject, namely,
by sea from the English port of embarkation to Alexandria, thence over the
Isthmus to Suez, and thence again down the Red Sea to G.ille, and along the
Coromandel coast to Madras and Calcutta. The other routes, as is well
known, are the Cape line, the Syrian and Eujihrates line, and variation of the
rVlexandrian line, by crossing the territory of France from Dieppe or Calais to
Marseilles ; but the objections to all these lines are so incontestibly strong,
when compared with the simple and continuous route determined upon by
the Comp<iny, that it needs only to place a few of the leading points before our
readers to iiuluce them to coincide in the decided opinion which we have
formed as to the respective merits of the different lines. A glance at the
table of rehitive distances, set forth in the Map a]ipended to Mr. Curtis's
temperate and manly exposure of " The state of the question of Indian Steam
Communieatioii," will show that the number of miles between Calcutta and
Engl.ind by the Cape route is 11,750, being 3,430 miles greater than that by
Suez and the Red Sea, consequently lengthening the voyage, and materially
enhancing its risks and annoyances, not to say its expenses, beyond those
wbicl) will attend the line chosen. It must however be fairly stated, that
even the Cape line, with all its inconveniences and additional delays, would
be far preferable to the chimerical and impracticable scheme for converting
the Euiibrates and Tigris into English canals, and for taming the ■n-ild Noma-
dians of the Syrian and Mesopotamian deserts down into well-behaved honest
rovers. Nay, we find amongst the minutes of evidence taken before the Pri-
vate Committee, of which Mr. Curtis was the cliaimian, that Captain Barber,

1840]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

287

who is iaconiparably the best-informed, anil the most sagacious aud far-seeing
of the Steam Company's agents, has expressly taken into his calculation the
possibilities of a future war with some of the Continental Powers, or a change
in the Egyptian Dynasty, slnitting up the Suez line of route, in which case
the Cape line would be adopted as a pis oiler; and Captain Barber, very
wisely in our opinion, grounds his reasons for advocating the adoption of the
largest class of vessels (2000 tons and 500-horse power) upon the distant
contingency of such a war arising, and compelling the Company to send their
boats round the African Promontory, in which case the size and consequent
speed of f lie vessels would add to their security, and diminish the duration
of the voyage.

Few of our readers woidd credit the statement, if unfortunately too flagrant
proofs could not be adduced of its exactitude, tliat the state of the conuuuni-
cations by sea, between tlie three Presidencies of Bombay, Madras, and Cal-
cutta are at this moment very little better than they were in the days of
Clive or Macartney : there arc certain periods of tlie year during which the
Monsoon rages alternately on the Malabar and Coromandel coasts, and ihuing
the continuance of these winds, which may truly be styled the approl/rinm
merMoTum, the intercourse by sea between the different ciril and military
stations is almost closed. The steamers pljing between the Presidencies, in-
chuling those established on the line from Bombay to Suez, are totally un-
equal to the effort of contending with the south-west Monsoon ; consequently,
the ports are, so to speak, sluit up, and the conmmnications take place by the
tedious and precarious foot-post or dik, which runs between Madras and
Bombay, and Calcutta aud Bombay and Madras, and which is shown by the
evidence of Jlr. Elliott and others, before the Select Committee of 1837, to
be wholly inadequate to the effort of carrying communication as rapidly as
might be done between the tlu'ee Governments, in cases of emergency whicli
are liable to arise from day to day. We have asserted that the steamers now-
employed by the East Indian Government as mail-boats between Bombay and
Suez, are not equal to tiie effort of facing and mastering the ilonsoon during
the four months of its duration, from May to September. This assertion is
l)orne out by the fact, tliat the Atalanta was compelled to put back to Bom-
bay in April 1839, and the Berenice broke her beam in an unsuccessful
struggle to make the passage against the Monsoon ; and the powers of these
two vessels afford a very fair criterion of the capabihties of the remainder,
which the East India Company has declared it to be its determination not to
alter or increase. Under these circumstances it becomes a matter of vital
importance to Madras and Calcutta, but more especially to the latter city,
which is tlie emporium of the East, to set on foot such a means of constant
and continuous communication as will supply the glaring defieienaies of the
Company's establishment ; and after the most mature dehberation, aided by
the experience and inventive capacities of some of the most eminent men in
the respective departments of the Royal and the Commercial Navy, Civil En-
gineering, and other Scientific Professionist, to whose testimony is added the
unerring and triumphant evidence afforded by tlie successful experiment tried
by the Atlantic Steam Company, as to the capability of steam to overcome
the obstacles of wind and weather, the Indian Steam Directors have deter-
mined upon building vessels of a tonnage equal to the mastery of the Mon-
soon gales, consisting of boats of two thousand tons and of six hundred horse
power. Of these boats there are to be seven, namely, four in the Indian
seas, and three on the European side, which number will, it is confidently
anticipated, be fully equal to maintain the monthly communication with the
three Presidencies, which it is the object of the patriotic and public spuited
gentlemen forming the present nucleus of the Company to achieve, and whose
efforts deserve tlie grateful co-operation of every right-thinking man in tlie
British empire.

There is one topic which we have yet to touch upon as connected with the
subject before us, and that is the question raised by the East India Company,
as to the expediency of confiding the transjiort of the Indian mails to a Pri-
vate Company. * * Appended to Mr. Curtis's pamphlet on the State of
the Steam Question is a pertinent document, furnished by the East India
Company itself, which ought to convince every holder of India Bonds, that
the sooner the conveyance of the mails is made over to a competent, well-
arranged Company, the better is his chance of continuing to secure his pre-
sent ample dividend. The document referred to is entituled, " k Return
of the present Annual Cost to the East India Company of maintainiiuj (?) the
communication between Bombay and Suez." This return extends only to
the period of eight and a half months ; but an approximate calculation has
been formed on its figures, extending it to an entire year, from which it is
shown that the total expense of maintaining the four steamers now employed
(including an aUov/ance of fifteen per cent, on the prime cost of the vessels,
J6162,000, for wear and tear,) amounts to £182,828. The receipts, accord-
ing to the same approximate estimate, were, for passengers i;<),534, and the
British Government allowed the sum of A"dO,000 for the transport of the
mails : thus a dead loss of A'123,294 has been incurred in one year on the
present incomplete and inadequate establishment, which cannot perform what
it purports to do during four months out of the twelve ; and if the num-
ber of boats were to be increased, and the establishment extended, the loss
would be proportionably greater. The only means of diminishing this loss,
or of turning the scale the other way, is by the conveyance of passengers.

Having thus, at a considerable, but we trust not an useless, expense of
time and labour, endeavoured to demonstrate the physical and commercial
advantages of the proposed plan for reducing the distance between Great
Britain aud her Indian territory, let us turn for a moment to the consideration

of the incalculable, the inestimable blessings which must inevitably follow in
the immediate train of such increased facilities for intercourse. " We have
laid it down above, as an axiom, that ci\ilization and beneflts of all classes
flow naturally from the establishment of a continuous stream of transit ; and
if this be true with respect to the deserts of .Arabia, how much more appli-
cable is it to the fat and fertile plains of Bengal, and of the Paven Ghauts,
and the millions who cultivate them ? To the philosopher, the jioet, the
philanthropist, the Christian, the mighty results whicli may be anticipated
from rendering the access to the shores of India safe and easy, are at once
exhilirating and overpowering ; nor is the gradual and insensible amelioratioa
which must of necessity take place in the minds and religious feelings of the
peaceful and tractable Hindoos, by the mere progress of events, indepen-
dently of the efforts of the Christian missionaries and others, amongst the
least of the blessings which British domination and British communication will
bestow upon the natives of India. M'hat a field will there not be opened up
for encouraging and creating fresh agricultural euterprizes ! what schemes
for reconstructing the gigantic machinery which formerly existeil in the Car-
iiatic and Mysore countries, for tlie irrigation of the thirsty, though produc-
tive soil, may not be expected to lie formed, as soon as the capabilities of the
country are developed by the discerning eye of the practical engineer ! Who
can estimate the increased consumption which will ensue of British manu-
factures, as soon as the natives discover that they can employ themselves .
more profitably in raising agricultural produce for barter or sale, than in
vrielding the shuttle and beam ? If even manufactured cottons to the amount
of two fananis a head, (1.?. 3f/.) were to be taken by the populations of the
Cai-natic, Canara, Bengal, and Orisrti, the annual increase in the export value
of calicoes would be more than £3,000,000, and surely this is a consideration
worth the attention of our manufacturing classes. — AbrUlrjed from a Morning
Paper.

STEAB2 NAVIGATION.

Steam Ttig.—Oa the 9th July, 1840, a trial satisfactory in its results was
made of the new steam tug boat, which has lieen built for the River Clyde
Trustees, by Messrs. Hedderwick & Rankiu. The engines by Messrs. Smith
& Rodgers, under the personal superintendence aud specifications of William
Buld, engineer of the Clyde. This small steamer has been built for the pur-
pose of drawing the punts which carry the material dredged up in deepening
the river. She is about 140 tons. Iler dimensions are, keel 82 feet long,
with fore rake 86 feet; breadth between paddles 18 feet, depth 9 feet, and
draws 5 feet 8 inches of water. She carries two engines, each about 30
horses power. Diameter of cylinder 30 inches ; length of stroke 3 feet 6
inches. The diameter of the paddle-wheels are 12 feet, and float-boards
5 feet S inches by 1 foot 2 inches. If the engines make 34 strokes in a
minute, the velocity of the wheel per hour will be 4-58 miles. This little
steamer has been constructed in the most solid and substantial manner, only
for the purpose of drawing heavy loaded punts, aud not for speed ; yet upon
her first trial, and against a strong breeze of wind, she steamed from" Glasgow
to Port Glasgow, a distance of eighteen miles, in one hour and fifty-nine mi-
nutes ; and there can be no doubt that her speed will exceed ten miles an
hour when everything shall have been put into proper working order, for she
has run from Glasgow to Renfrew, a distance of five miles in 32 minutes.

Pacific Steam Nauigation Company,— On Tuesday, the 4th ultimo, the Peru,
one of the vessels belonging to 'he Pacific Steam Navigation Company,
started from her moorings at Blackwall on an experimental trip <li,wn the
river and back to Blackwall. She is a very splendid steamer ; her engines
are of 90 horse power each, and her burden 700 tons. Over her paddles are
placed safety boats of a large size, and capable of aflbrding means of escape
fur the crew and passengers, in the event of fire or any other accident to
wliich long voyages are exposed, but vvhich precaution, there is every reason
to think, Irom the excellent arrangements of this steamer, will be superfluous.
Nevertheless, it is a matter of congratulation to those who are about to tra-
verse the immense space of water which divides England from .South America,
that such contrivances have been adopted for their security, and great praise
is due to Captain G. .Smith, the inventor and adapter of tiiese safety boats.
Their appearance adds to the elegance of the steamer, they take up less room
than the paddle-boxes which in general cover the paddles, and, as they are
more snug, so they hold less wind, and consequently occasion less impedi-
ment to the speed and management of the ves.sel. This ada; tation has been
made use of in the ruyal navy, and has been found to answer all the purposes
intended by the inventor, but it has never been employed in me cantile
steamers until on board the Chili (which belongs to this company) and the
Peru. A model of the invention has been exhibited at the Polytechnic Insti-
tution, and the results exhibited in miniature have been satisfactory. The
Peru and the Chili v. ere both built in the yards of Messrs. Curling and Young ;
tlieir engines are from the manufactory of Messrs. Miller and Ravenhill. In
these vessels coal will not be used during the voyages, but the prepared fuel
of Mr. Oranwill be substituted. The Chili started about a fortnight previously.
Both she and the Peru will touch at Rio. and proceed through the Straits of
Magellan to the Pacific Ocean. The arrival of these vessels in the Pacific
will be an era in the history of navigation. They will create a communica-
tion between localities which cannot be attained by sailing vessels under two
months in the short sjjace of a fortnight, and « ill help in no little degree to
civilize the inhabitanis and restore good good government.— a desideratum
too long wanted in the regions to which their operations are destined. It

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288

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[August,

<)U"lit to be mentioned that on the Peru's return to Blackwall the efllcacy of
the apparatus and tackle by which the safety-boats are to be brought into
operation were tried ; the boats were let down hy slings into the wafer in less
than lour minutes, and the comiianv convoscd by one of them to the shore.
Kach of these boats will contain upwar.ls of 100 persons. They are in length
27 feet, and 10 feet 2 inches in the beam.

rrmi .llaimer Briganil.—A rcmArkaUv fme iron built steamer, called the
Bngiiurl. arrived here on Thursdav. 9lli ult., from Liverpool, via Wexford,
being her first voyage. She is fitted up in a superb style; the saloon and
cabins arc elegantly fumi.shed ; the panels of the former are painted in a
similar style to those of the Gmil Jl'csU-ni. and in the latter si.\ty beds are
made up.' licr engines, we are infuimtd, are 180 horse power each, bhe only
draws seven feet of « atcr. The vessel is said to have cost £23,000. — ISristnl
Mirror.

FUBI.IC BUIX.DIWGS, AND IMPROVEMENTS.

The Neale Monument. — The decision for the design for the testimonial to
the late Admiral Sir llarrj- Hurrard Neale, liart., advertised in the May
Journal, has lieen given in favour of Mr. Draper, of Chichester, and is,
forthwitli, to be carried into effect under his superintendence. Mr. Draper
■was also the architect to the military column at West Park, iu the neigh-
bourhocid of Lymingtou, and to the Goodwood Race-stand, for his Grace
the Duke of Richmond.

Norwich. — On Tuesday, 23rd of June, was laid by the Dean of Koreich
the first stone of a church for the Hamlet of New Catton, on a site situated
about a quarter of a mile northward of tlie walls of this ancient city. Tlie
building which has been designed by Mr. John Brown, tlie Surveyor to the
County of Norfolk, will be cruciform, consisting of a nave, two transepts,
and a chancel. -Vt the west end will be placed a campanile or bell turret,
60 feet in height, so that although the church will not possess a regular
tower, there will be an object of sufficient eminence to mark, after the usual
manner, the sacred character of the edifice. The style adopted, is the early
English, the exterior being wrought with flint-work, white brick quoins, and
stone dressings, producing much tlie same effect as that of the Ladye Chapel
at Southwark. The church is to be completed for the sum of .t'2,400., and
will l)e capable of containing 750 persons, with the means of increasing the
accominociatiou by the future erection of galleries. It is a fact somewhat
remarkable, that this is the first chiu'ch erected in or near Norwich since the
Eefonuation. It must he lemembered, however, that within the walls of
the city, there exist no less than 35 churches, built in the olden time — a few
of these possess some good architectural features, but the majority of them
are of an exceedingly common-place character ; still, in those cases where
the innovations of the Goths of the Batty Langley school are not visible,
they are distinguished by a quality but seldom attained in our modern at-
tempts— viz. the pictitresijue.

Bedford. — .\ new cliurch is nearly completed, for the parish of St. Paul,
from the designs and under the superintendance of Mr. John Brown, of
Nonvich. The first pointed, or " early English " style has been adopted
throughout. The plan of the building is perfectly regular and uniform, and
at the west end is placed a massive square tower, the pinnacles on the sum-
mit of which, reach to the height of 100 feet. In the interior, galleries are
placed on three sides of the church ; the ceihng, which is in one span, is
divided longitudinally, by main ribs, springing from corbels, into compart-
ments corresponding with the external bays, and these principal compart-
ments arc sub-divided into panels. Some portion of the area of the
building has been excavated, and a crypt formed. The walls throughout,
are built of the rough lime-stone, from the neighbouring quarries at Broniham,
stuccoed on the external surface, the dressings are executed in Whitby stone.
The contract for the building was taken by Messrs. Rollett and Son, of
Gainsborough, for .£3,338., but the crypt, which was not originally intended,
has cost i.'50O. in addition.

Neir Cliurch at Lee, Kent. — In the notice of this church in our 29th
number, we omitted to state that Mr. John Brown, of Norwich, was the
architect, and that the contract was undertaken by a Mr. Butler, of Ather-
stoue, in Warwickshire, for .<;7,'146.

The Hirer Shannon. — Our readers will perceive by the list of advertise-
ments that very considerable works are immediately to he contracted for and
commenced for the Shannon Commission, under the directions of Mr. Rhodes
the engineer.

PROGRESS OF RAILV^AVS.

RAILWAYS IN BELGIUM.

A Report has been presented to the Legislative Chambers of Belgium, con-
taining the details relating to this branch of the public works, it appears
that the law providing fur the construction of the first raihv.ays was enacted
on the 1st of May, iSii, by H hich the Ciiivernmcnt was aulhorized to con-
struct 3fl7,10(i metres, or about 2.50 miles of railway, starting from a common
centre established at Mechlin, and forming a sort of network fur connecting
different parts of the country. Four lines were thus designed — the eastern

line, terminating on the Prussian frontier, by Louvain, Liege, and Vervicrs,
wi 111 an extent of 136.3G3 metres: the northern line, to Antwerp, with a
branch towards the .Scheldt, or2.).500; the western line, upon Oslend by
Cihent and Bruges, of 127.111 ; the southern line to the frontiers of France,
by .Soigiiies and Mons, of 108,1."2. By the law of the 26th of May. 1S37,
tliree new lines were added, viz. one from Ghent to the Prench frontier antl
to Tournay by Conrtray. 75.100 metres: the line of Nanuir. 00,074 : the
line of Limbu'rg, 10.802 : making in the whole. 131.976 metres additional,
and the total of all. 5't9.082 metres of raihiay. The proportion actually
opened for traffic was 309.291 metres : that in course of execution 43.4.'53 ;
that remaining for execution, 196,338 metres. Upon the 309.291 metres of
lines completed, three-fourths are established with a sing'e line of rails or
road ; the other fourth, or 82.000 metres, on two lines, comprehending the
.sections fr^m Brussels to Antwerp, from Mechlin to Ghent, and from Mechlin
to Louvain. The outlay incurred to the 30lh of .September last for the lines
completed, and those in course of construction, the railroad, buildings, and
materials inclusive, atnounted to 55,264.211f., or about 2,200,000/. On the
enactment of the last law for the construction of additional lines, the expe-
rience derived from working out the first lines enabled the Government to
arrive at a more exact estimate of the presumed cost. The dilfcrences betw ixt
the estimates for the first lines and the actual expenditure. Iioivcver inte-
resting as comparative data, will nut surprise those in this country conversant
with, and interested in. the details of railway enterprise : thus, —

Estimate. Cost.

Francs. Francs.

The first works, cuttings, embankments, kc. 16.512.000 .. 24.177. 648

Fi.xed stations ... - 741,100 „ 2.100,.549

Land 3.074,900 ,. 7.321.852

Material Csteam-engines, carriages. S:c.) - 2.000.000 ., 8,300.135

Surveys, &c. .... 502,250 ,. 1,394,475

Total - - - - 22,830.330 ., 43,294,659

Thus the cost has been nearly double the total amount of estimates. It is
equal to 33 per cent, increase upon the first works of the railways ; 138 per
cent, upon tlie estimated value of the land : 182 per cent, upon the stations,
work -shops, &c. ; and 315 per cent, upon the material of transport, &c. Con-
sidering the natural advantages possessed by Belgium for the formation of
railroads, in the general absence of hills or unequal ground, in the abundance
and clieapness of iron and coal, and in the low comparative price and plenty
of labour, these discrepancies between the original estimates and the ascer-
tained cost may, perhaps, be regarded as too considerable not to appear ex-
traortlinary. The lines, moreover, had the advantage of being all combined
upon one uniform plan, of parting from one common centre, and of being
executed under the same superintendence, which must have tended greatly to
simplify details, as well as to prevent waste. But it must not be forgotten
that in all enterprises where there can be no experience to guide, all previous
calculations will, to a great extent, be found fallacious in the end. The pro-
gression of the materiel on the Belgian railway presents these results: — On
the 1st of May, 1835. the number oi' locomotive engines was 3 ; of carriages,
40 : of waggons for merchandise, Sec, 5. On the 1st of May. 1856, the niim-
ber of the first was 8 ; of the second. 62: oi the third, 6. On January 1,

1837. the first stood at 12 : the second. 102; the third. 47. OnJanuarvl.

1838. the first at 29; the second, 184; the third, .55. On January 1, Vh^K
the first at 52 ; the second. 314; the third, 114. On the 1st ot November.

1 839. the number of locomotives was 82 ; of carriages for passengers. 392 : of
waggi ns, 463. The prodigious increase of waggons serves to show to what a
large extent railway carri.age has been made available for merchandise. The
full complement of' 41 locomotives more h:id still to be made up. so that the
number would be 12'^ : and as they are of greater steam power, the expense
under that head woidd be surcharged more th,an 50 per cent. The increased
means of transport were the natural consequence of the increased pressure of
traflic. both in respect of passengers and merchandise. The progressive aug-
menfatinn of travellers is thus stated: — For the eight months of 1835, the
first section of railways alone opened, 421 .439 passengers ; 1836, two sections,
871 -307 ; 1837. (three sections during eight months, and six during 4 months),
1,384,577; 1838, (six sections during three months, eight for four months,
and ten for five months), 2.238,b03 ; ten months of 1839 (ten sections for nine
months, and 13 for one month), 1,694.019. Thus in the space of something
more than four years 6.609,643 persons have paid as passengers on the Bel-
giiin railroads. The fares in the first instance were fi.xed too low, and of
course afforded no fiiir return for ca\nt:il sunk. Last year the rates were ad-
v.anced from the mean jirice of If. 43c. jier head in 1838 to 2f 6c., and the
total product of the passenger traflie, which for the month of September,
1S3S. was 412. 542f. ascended in the same month of 1839 to }01.3o9f. The
total receipts from 1835 to the first nine months of 1839 inclusive, amount to
8,759,946f. ; the expenses to 6,422. 071f. ; nett product. 2,337.875f. It may be
remarked, that the single line of Brussels to Antwerp, which alone was open
in 1836, yielded a larger net return than the clear produce of the whole of
1838, when ten sections were opened. The nett result, afiir payment of all
charges, of the first was 403.997.'. ; of the second only 364,665f ;' from which
it may be inferred, as indeed is ihe fact, that several Belgian lines do not de-
fr.ay flie charges of working, and were probably only decided upon in defe-
rence to local interests, which could not conveniently, and for political rea-
sons, be denied. The carriage of merciiandise commenced only i\ith 1838,
the product of which year was 58,5911'., and in ten months of 1839. 331.747f.
The regular progress during the last year month by month was remarkable,
the amount of receipts for .January under this heal being 7,7131.. and for
October. 74.790f. The Belgian Min'ister declared that a stock of 400 waggons
for the transport of merchandise w;is far from being adequate to ihe wants of
trade. In the first instance the directors of railroads commenced with letting
out empty waggons to tiie common carriers, and confining themselves to the
mere service ot forwarding ihcm with the trains. But this method not prov-
ing satisfactory to all interested, a charge is now made according to onnage.
tliat is. one rate of price for all under 1,000 kilogrammes, and another for all

1840.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

2S9

above. The tariff fcir the first is 40 cents, per ton, or 4 cents, per kilometre.
.or per 100 kilogrramines ; for the second, or all above 1.000 kilogrammes, tlie
invariable charge for all kiml.s, whether by measuie or weisht. is 1.31 cents.
per ton. There is a dillerence. however, in regard of the location of the
waggons, which may be .supposed to be optional with the carriers, and is
charged in that case 18 cents, per ton. These rates arc provisional only, and
are so headed in the list of charges, as " provisional tarifls for the carriage
of inerehandise."' It is hoped that by improvements, savings in expense,
and the increase of traffic, these rates liiay yet come to be reduced.

It is singular that in the face of this extraordinary increase of railway
traffic, the travelling and carriage on common roads iri Relgium should not
only not have diminished, but progressively been on the increase, Tiie con-
trarr was universally anticipated there, as here, where in many localities
sucli a result has been verified. The following statement of the pro<iuce of
the peage des barrieres, answering to our turnpike tolls, will show how the
case has worked in Belgium : — The produce of the perige tolls leMO the highest
tender in 1 1-31 w as 2.390.882 francs ; in 1832, 2.19.5.343f. : in 1 833, 2.3t0,4(jlf ;
in 18.34. 2.41.5.769f. : in 1835, 2.38.5.4.30f ; in 1836. 2,447,9S5f. ; in 1837,
2,584.791f. ; in 1838, 2,759.548f. ; in 1839, 2,749.301f.

M. Nothomb, the Belgian Minister, gives as the result of his calculations
the following comparative analysis of the advantages resulting to the public
in time and m' ney between tlie ancient mode of travelling by diligence ami
the railroad system, at the least increase of rates by ihe tarill of 1839. The
mean result is stated to amount to a " saving of one half in time, and of 33
per cent, upon fares.'' The saving in price is thus subdivided : by diligence
or first class carriages. 15 per cent. : by open carriages. 30 per cent. : by
waggons, 60 per cent. The more humble orders of society profit, therefore,
most largely, as ought to be the case everywhere, by the establishment of
r- ilroads. In Belgium, where the railroads'were undertaken directly by the
state, a consummation so desirable was. of course, more easy to carry in:o
eft'ect at any time. But (he fact may sufiice to show, that here it shoul i
have been the business of the legislature to introduce stipulations into all
railway bills which would have secured the same proportionate advantages
in favour of the lower classes. — Times, July 6.

Edinhnrgh and Glasgow RaUimij. — The following particulars respeciing this
important undertaking are abridged from the Gln.sgoir Cmislifutimiiil of Satur-
day, the 4th ult. — The works on the line from Edinburgh to the Almond
Valley, a distance of about eight miles, have recently been commenced, but
tliey are neither of a difficult nor of an expensive character, 'ihe line will be
carried across the valley by means of a viaduct of 36 arches, of 50 feet span,
and vary from 60 to 85 feet high. Near this point it has been found, on
levelling some of the embankments formed last year, that the subsidence was
only three inches, although the earth had been raised so as to allow /A inches
to "subside. This arises from the mixed character of the materials used
(stones, blaxe, Sec.,) and will prove a great saving in the future maintenance
of the line. Onwards to the west, the line passes through the Winchburgh
H'liinstone Ridge, and here is a tunnel of 360 yards, of w hich 250 yards are
compleled. This important v.oik is proceeding rapidly. The Avon and the
valley through which it runs are crossed by a stone viaduct of 20 arches,
some of them upw ards of 90 feet high. This will be a beautiful piece of ma-
sonry, and will give increased eftect to the picturesque views of the Avon
valley. The approach to Falkirk presents many fine views ot the Carse and
the ft'ith of Forth. The high ground immediately behind Falkirk is crossed
by a tunnel of 880 yanls. of which '270 are completed, and the drift mines

greatly advanced. The view, on emerging from the west end of the tunnel,
ursts on the eye, with the panoramic etl'cct of a splendid land.^cape — the
foreground — the rich valley of the Forth, w itli .Stirling Castle in the centre —
Benledi and the Oehil Hills, marking out the margin of the plain, and Ben-
lomond and the Grampians filling up the picture in the distance — the wdiole
forming an assemblage of objects of surpassing natural beauty. The line,
after crossing the Union Canal which it -Joes on a magnificent arch of 130
feet span, continues nearly level for some miles, is of easy execulion. and is
partly finished, and possesses no feature of engineering interest, until it
re.ach'es the neighbourhood of Castlecary, where it crosses the CumLernauld
road, and a deep ravine, by a viaduct of eight arches, nearly 100 feet liigh —
the one end tenninating on an embankment, and the other resting on the re-
mains of a Roman camp. Here will be the station for Stirling and towns to
the north of the Forth. The line beyond Castlecary commands an e-Vtensive
view of the valley. Croymill is the summit of the line, and here there is an
excavation of a ridge ot whinstonc and Ireestone of considerable depth, pre-
senting no difficuliy. lio» ever, but w hat time may overcome. At Co« lairs,
near Glasgow, will be erected the engine establishment ; and here the fixed
engines will be placed to work the tunnel to Queen Street. The incline w ill
be about 2.000 yards, consisting of open cut and a tunnel, divided by eyes
into three portions of 550. 300. and 298 yards. From the head of this incline
to Edinburgh, the ruling gradient is 1 iii 880 ; presenting, in the facilitv and
cheapness of working it. almost all the advantages ot a level line, of which
two-thirds arc nearly level. The distance being 46 miles, the mail trains will
easily run it in one hour and a half. Upwards of 400 yards of the tunnel are
completed, and upw ards of 200 yards of Guide Mine is carried forward. The
contract are all let to be completed by the 1st of August, 1841. and the en-
gineer is directing his energies to realise the opening of this great national
undertaking by that time. Much work is done, and this has been greatly
advanced by the late fine weather, but a great deal is still to do. There are
employed on the line, how ever, upwards of 8,000 men, horses to correspond,
and ten or twelve fi.xed engines; and, if the weather prove auspicious, this
force is adequate to the w ork.

Hull and Seldy Railway. — The importance of this railway, of the ojiening
of which more detailed notice will be found in another part of the Journal,
justities a few remarks of our own. It is comparatively but little known in
London or in the share market, partly from the shares being held chiefly by
parties in and near Hull, and partly from one of the termini, Selby, being a
small town upon the banks of the Humber, or more correctly the Ouse. and

many thinking that this is a branch from a main line terminating at Seliiy. To
con-ect this impression, the name " of Hull and Leeds Junction," has lately
been added in the Director's reports, which gives a better idea of the oiiject
of the line, although it is less correct, as the Leeds and Selby connects the
Hull and Selby line with Leeds, Selby being an intermediate station. The
Hull and Selby may, indeed, with equal truth be called the Hull and York,
or the Hull and Liverpool, or even the Hull and London, as the Hull and
Leeds, because, with the intervention of other railways, it connects Hull with
the metropolis and the other places we have named. In this remark on the
name we by no means intend to undervalue the importance of this railway,
and the very projierties we have named of so many lines being connected
into one or diverging from it, is proof of our opinion that it ought to be .and
will be better known to the public than it hitherto has been. In the more
extended sense, it forms the eastern link of the chain of railways which,
when the Manchester and Leeds is opened, will join the Irish Sea, and the
Atlantic with the German Ocean and the North of Europe. Mith the ex-
ception of the bridge over the Ouse, constructed so as to allow ships to pass
through, some other bridges, and a long embankment upon the Humber,
there has been hut little of expensive engineering works to contend with.
This railway is 31 miles long, is practically straight and level, excepting the
short lengths at the bridges, and to these unusual facilities arc, we suppose, in
a great measure, to be ascribed the rather unusual facts, that both the ways
of this line have been completed without a second application to Parliament
for additional power to borrow money, or otherwise, and that the Directors
have been enabled to complete both the ways before they opened any part to
the public.

Tlie America}) Engines on the Birmingliam and Gloucester Rnilwny. — fCo?v.)
To W. GwvNN, Esq. — Sir, — In rcjily to your request, 1 now briell'y give you
the results of our trials with the Philadelpiiia engine (manufactured by Mr.
Noiris, of Philadelphia, U. S..) and the following are the iacts up to the
present time. 7fi chains in the incline of 1 in 37J have been made ready with
a single way, and 3 chains nearly level have been laid temporarily to rest
upon" before starting. The road is quite new. and consequently not firm nor
well gauged, and the works going on close at hand occasionally cover the
rails with dirt. The waggons used are of a large class, like those on the
Siancbester and Leeds Line, and weigh, when empty, rather more than 2i
tons, but having been sent fresh from the shops a few days ago. they worfc
very stiffly. They are loaded with 4 tons, and generally wei,i;h, including
persons upon them, about 6^ tons The Philadelphia weighs fas she works')

12 tons 3 ewt.. and her tender weighs nearly 7 tons, being in all 19 tons.
She has 12i incli cylinders. "20 inch stroke. 4 feet wheel, not coupled. The
weight on her driving wheels is 6\ tons, (as I weighed her at Liverpool,)
without water. The usual loads she takes in the present state of the plane
are— eight waggons, engine, and tender, w ith persons equal to 74 tons, gross
weight, in ten minutes, or nearly 6 miles per hour ; the last quarter of a mile
being at the rate of OJ miles per hour. Seven waggons, &c.. equal to 67i
tons, gross weight, in about 9 minutes, or 6i miles per hour mean speed.
Six waggons. &:c., equal to 61 tons, gross weight, in sometimes 5\ and some-
times 61 minutes, say in 6 minutes average, or 9 miles per hour mean speed ;
the last'quarter of a mile usually giving a speed of nearly U miles per hour.
Five w.agaons, equal to about 53 tons gross, are usually taken at a speed of

13 miles per hour for the last half mile up. The foregoing results have gene-
rally occurred during fine weathr-r. but sometimes the rails have been par-
tially wet. and this has occasioned a difference of speed in the ascent of from
ha'f a minute to a minute and a half. 'J'he worst day we have had was the
19lh instant, when drizzlirg showers, and the men svalking over the rails
»ith marl on their boots, rendered the way very greasy and slippery. On
this day, also, the lower part of the plane had been tbrmed only a few hours,
and was very soft and badly gauged. Under these circumstances, the Phila-
delphia took five waggons a'nd self and tender, being a gross weight, including
persons, of about 53 tons, up at a mean rate of rather more than 5 miles per
hour, and tlie last quarter of a mile was passed at the rate of 8 miles per
hour. A\"e then took two waggons off, and the Philadelphia took the remain-
ing three waggons, self and tender, being a gross weight, including persons,
of 40 tons, up at a mean rate of 12 miles nearly per hour, her maximum
speed being nearly 16 miles per hour. I sm now making trials to determine
the actual pull required by these new and large waggons, and 1 must beg you
to excuse the rough form of this paper, as I am mut4i pressed for time.

Believe me faithfully yours,
Worcester, June 22, 1840. W. S. Moorsom.

P.S. — I ought to add that the pressure of steam in the boiler has been
from 55 to 62 per square inch. — M . S. M.

Opening of Ihe North Midland Railway. — The North Midland Railway,
which was opened on Tuesday. 30th June, not only completes the communi-
cation between this county and London, but also for several miles forms the
line by which the Manchester and Leeds, and the York and North Midland
Railways enter Leeds. When the Great North of England Railway shall be
opened from York to Darlington, (which it will be in October,) and the
Manchester and Leeds shall be opened throughout, (as it will be in Decem-
ber,) Leeds will, as it were, stretch out its arms to the German Ocean on one
side, and the Irish Sea on the other— to tlie .seat of government and the
great emporium of the w orld southwards, and the county of Durham north-
wards. Of late years Y'orksliire has been considerably behind Lancashire in
commercial activity and general enterprise, in the accumulation of wealth
and the progress of improvement. But is not this in part to be ascribed to
the earlier connexion of the towns of Lmcashire among them.selves and with
London by railways':* M"e think it is ; and when Yorkshire has the advan-
tage of the same means of rapid, cheap, safe, and agreeable transit that
Lancasiiire has liad, we anticipate that her great manufacturing and com-
mercial resources will be brought out in fuller development, and that she will
advance in the race of improvement at the same or nearly the same speed as
the sister county. Yorkshire is the seat of several of our most important

200

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[AURVST,

inannractures— the woollen, the worsted, tlie linen, and the rtitlery, l)c ides
extensive manufactures of iron, leather, pottery, Itc. ; and it h is also the
"rest seaport for our trade with the north of K'urope. Hull, and the first corn
market in the north of Kngland. AV'akoi'icId. Cy the lailways now coni|)leted,
the niainifaclLinng population will have their granary, Lincolnsh re, and thdr
sheep farm, Leicestershire, almost at their doors. All raw malerials for
manufactures will be more accessilile ; and all the goods tnaniilaetured will
he nearer to their home or foreign markets. For health or recreation, its
inhal'it.ints will he able in two or three hours to reach either the sliorcs of the
sea or the romantic- valleys of Derbyshire, or many of the most interesting-
objects ami places of resort in our own county. The agriculturists will .also
l)c able to procure more easily those necessary .articles, manure, lime, building
materials, and implements, and to bring their produce more cheaply and ex-
peditiously to market. And all of e>ery class whom business or iaste call to
the metropolis vvill be able, in the short .space of ten hours, and ere long
■|)erhaps in light hours, to glide from the heart of Yorkshire to the banks of
the " r<iyal-to»cred Thames." — Leeds Mercury.

Openhi/r nf the York and North Midlivid Raihvaij.— This li'ie, the length of
■which, frorn York to its junction with the North Midland Haihvay near Al-
tofts, is 23i miles, (e.xclusive of the short branches to JMcthloy, and of two
branches to bring it upon the level of the Leeds and Selby Sailway,) has
been opened in distinct portions at three several times. The portion from
York to the Leeds and Selby Railway, near South Milford. being a distance
of LSI miles, was opened on the 29th of May, 1?.39. A second portion, of
about three miles in length, from Milford to Burton Salmon, was opened on
the ilth of May, in the present year. And the third portion, .about seven
miles in length, completing the connexion between York and the North Mid-
land Railway, near Altofts. was opened on Tuesday. .Tune 30. when a party
of directors and friends came from York, and joinetl the immense train from
Leeds, iiy which the North J'lidland was formally opened. The York and
North Midland Railway, together with I he Le.-ds and Selby. and Hull and
Selby R-dlways. completes the communication between York and Hull : and
with the North Midland Railway, completes the communication from York
to Leeds. .'-Sheffield, and London. The York and North Mirlland Railuay
has the advantage of running on almost a dead level through its entire
length, with no heavy works, except a tunnel of two hundred yards long at
Fairbiirn, and two fine bridges over the rivers Aire and Caldi'r. One of these
bridges was erected with unprecedented despatch, only si.x weeks having
elapsed between laying the foundation of the last pier and conipleling the
bridge. The line has been as economical in the construction as almost any
railway in the country, and promises to be productive to the shareholders.
It gives great advantages to the city of York, which Is thus made very easy
of access to all the populous parts of the county, and is placed on the line of
railway from the English to the .Scotch metropolis. The engineer of this line
was George Stephenson. Esq.— The York and North Midland Kailw.-iy. though
completed as far as regards the communication between York and London, is
not quite complete as far as regards the communication by thai line with
.Leeds. It joins the Norih Midland Railway at two points, namely, near Al-
tofts for carriages to and from the south, and at Melhley lor carriages to and
from Leerls: the la;ier branch, from one to two miles in length, is not quite
finished, but will be so in a few weeks, after which passengers between Leeds
and York will, we understand, be conveyed by the North Midland and York
and North Midland lines. — Leeds Merciiri/.

Opening of the Halt and Selby Ra:iway.—7hh railway, which is 30:j miles in
length, was formally opened by the directors and their friends, on Wednesday,
July 1, preparatory to its being opened to the public on the following day.
It had been previously arranged that the opening should be signal i.^ed by a
grand procession. Lord Weulock (as lord lieutenant of the East Riding),
Lord 'Whamclilic. Ihe chairm-an of the board of directors of the Manchester
and .Sheflield Railway. Sir Thomas Cliiiord Constable, high sheriff of ihe
county, the members of the borough of Hull, and of o:her places ; the Mayor,
Recorder, and Sheriff of Hull; the Mayor of Beverley, the Chairman of the
Hull Duck C mpany. Chamber of Commerce, Trinity House, and other cor-
porations and institutions, were to go in procession through the town to the
railway station. But all these inten'.ions were abandoned in consequence of
the heavy rain that fell during the morning ; and the directors, shareiiolders,
and their friends, instiad of starting at ten o'clock, remained at the station
till noon. Indeed, it was twenty minutes past twelve when they started, in
five trains, (comprising 40 carriages and ab,jUt 1,000 passengers.) the first of
whicli reached .Selby at a quarter past two. The Hull and Selby aod Lectls
and Selby linos run into each other at the crossing of the road from Selby to
Bawtry ; and we understand that passengers from Hull, for Leeds or York,
go through in the same carnages. The numerous party remaineil tliere, in-
specting the terminus, the station. SiC, till halt'-past four, when they started
on the return trip. They reached Hesslct'liti', about five miles from the Hull
station, at half-past five, at the rate of twenty-five miles an hour ; but be-
tween Hesfle and Hull a slight hitch occurred to the engine of the first tram,
which delayed it and those in the rear I'ora short time. However, the whole
distance was perlbrmed in less than an hour and three-quarters. Groat
crowds were collected at Hull, Selby, ami other populous places on the line.
All went off well; the railway po ice exerted themselves to keep order; and
not one accident, causing the slightest personal injury, occurred during the
whole day. The directors and their friends dined together on their return to
Hull in the evening. The effect of this opening is beneficial on the shares,
whiidi, it is said, have consequently risen to par. — Leeds InlelUgeiicer. _

Eastern Coit.ittes Railway — opening from Hhorediteh to Brentwood. — About
twelve o'clock on Wednesday, July 1st, the Directors, accomnanied by
the engineer, manager, secretary, &c., left the station at .ShoreJitch, and
proceeded down the line to Brentwood, pixqiaratory to the opening to the
lublic in the afternooa ; the journey, including stoppages, was performed iu
■.") minutes, and on their return in 35 minutes. At two o'clock the line was
opened to Ihe public, aitd a train, heavily laden with passengers desirous of
availing themselves of the earliest moment to make Ihe trip, left the station
at thtit hour ; and other trains, which left in the course of the afternoon,

were all lull. The extended opening created a great sensation in the neigh-
bourhood of Shoreditch, Bethnal Green. Sec. and it is estimated that upwards
nf 30.000 persons were collecteil on the occasion ; every window, with a view
of the line, was crowded, and in some instances the roofs of the houses were
removed to admit of a sight. — Esse.x Standard.

The London and Blaekwall Railway. — This line was opened to the public on
Monday, the 6.h ult. A description of the railway was given in the Journal
for June last.

The Gla.igow and Paisley Joint Railway, extending to 7 miles, was opened
by the Directors on Monday, the 13th ult.

The Maryport and Carlisle Railieay. — The first portion of this line from Car-
lisle has been oper.cd. The road is a single line of rails exceiJting at the
ends, and the work has been throughout completed in a most substantial and
satisfactory manner. There are no heavy embankments on the line, but the
cuttings have been severe, and in one or two places several feet of freestone
rock are gone through, which must have been both difficult and expensive.
The line passes down the beautiful vale of the Ellen, and crosses the river of
that name three or four times. The terminus at present is at Arkleby Coal
Pit, near Oughtcrside, a distance of about seven miles from Maryport.

Lancaster and Preston Junction Railway. — On Saturday, Ilth ult., the above
railway, which joins the North Union Line at Preston, and thus forms a
coniinuous line from London to the county to'.vn, was opened to the public
for the conveyance of passengers, &c.

Preston and Wyre Raiheny — opening^ throughout. — This railway, which is
about 19-J miles iri length, arid places tlie rising to-, n anil port of Fleetwood
on Wyre'in connexion with Preston, the manufacturing districts, and the
metropolis, was finally opened on Wednesday, 15th ult., by the Directors and
proprietors.

The Great Western Railway— furiiier opening^. — On Monday. 20th ult., the
line of the Great Western Railway was further opened from Steventon to the
Farringdon Ro.ad. a distance of sixty -three miles from London. — The Great
Western Railway works at tlic Old Bridge, Bath, are proceeding with extra-
ordinary vigour.'and greatly excite the interest of the inhabitants and pas-
sengers. The arches tor the oblique bridge are in part erected, and every
day supplies fresh proofs of the exertions of the conlr: ctors and tlie progress
of the undertaking. It is expected that the Railw-ay will be open -as far as
Bridgewa'er early in IS-ll. if not during the present year, a distance of 150
miles from London, which will then be accomplishel by mail trains in four
ho-ois and a ball. The Railway will, it is confidently expected, be extended
to Swindon. TO miles from London, in September, and the road from Batli
to Bristol (12 miles) will be perfected at the same time ; the entire distance
between London and Bristol, by the assistance of coaches in the intermediate
road, may be then perlbrmed in .six hours. — Bristol Times.

Mi'.nchester and Birmingham Railumy.—A viaduct over the valley of the
river Dane, of dimensions nearly as gigantic as the one over the valleys on
each side of the river Mersey, in this town, is about to be contracted for on
the line of the Manchester and Birmingham Railway, between Wimslow and
Crewe. It will have 24 a-.ches of 03 feet span each, at an elev.ation of about
80 feet, and will be upwards of 1,700 feet in length. There will be but little
difference between the one here and th.it over the Dane, except that the for-
mer has 2() arches, and the latter 24, with an altitude of several feet less.
We suppose the cost will be much the same ; the one here being, wo believe,
£80,000 —Sloclcport Advertiser.

MISCZI^LAKTSA.

^

The Electrotype. — This important discovery of multiplying copperplate
engravings, medals, &c., by precipitating copper from its solutions through,
the agency of galvanism, is fast progressing iu this country. Joscjih Saxton
and Mr. I'eale of the Pliiladelphia Mint, and Messrs. Chilton, Mapes, and
Connor of this city, have made many improvements on the EngUsh process.
Dr. Chilton has caused copper to be precipitated on non-metallic bodies even,
by covering the paper -with nitrate of silver, and thus obtaining a copperplate
engraving from a mere print on paper. The saeans of England will see that
we are not behind them in science. — Xew York Morning Herald.

Electrotype. — At a recent meeting of the Academy, M. .\rago exhibited
to the members an impression of a copperplate, taken by .M. Jacobi, by means
of a galvanic current. But in England this process is already and extensively
in practical use. We have now before us a copy from E. Finden's engraving
of Dr. James, Bishop of Calcutta, and a copy from an electrotype plate of the
same, published by Mr. Palmer, of Newgate Street, and it ajipears to us im-
possible to distinguish the one from the other ; but as both are for sale, the
curious may examme and decide for themselves. — .ilhemeiim.

Brass Mouldings patented by Cuerton. — These mouldings are a great
improvement upon those made by the ordinai-y method of casting in brass
and then filing and polishing them witli considerable labour, which, after all,
are never turned out true. By the patent method the moulding is tirst made
in wood, a thin plate of sheet brass is then drawn over the surface by ma-
chinery, -which is made to fit it very accurately. The patentees are enabled
to offer their mouldings at a very low figure iu comparison with the former
prices for brass mouldings. P.atterns may be seen at Messrs. Btmnet &
Corpe's, in Lombard Street.

Dampier's Patent Geometric Balance. — We much regret that want of
space has hitherto prevented us giving this machine the attention it is
fairly entitled to. Of the many improvements in the means of weighing

1840.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

201

none have appeared so important as the simple macliiiie now before us,
indeed, it bids fair to supersede every other metliod now in use. The great
advantage of tliis machine is, that so far from requiring tlie usual number of
weights, one only is wanted ; and this weight, from its never requiring re-
moval, or the slightest alteration, ensures accuracy for an almost intermina-
ble period. In appearance, it is much like the " Spring Dial," and possesses
all the portability and readiness of action with that machine, at the same
time being entirely free from those well-grounded olijections, which have
kept that instrument from being generally adopted. The inafhematical prin-
ci])le on which Mr. Danipier's balance is founded, renders it equally applica-
ble for light or heavv- weights, and one purpose for which it is admirably
adapted, is that of a letter balance, in which form, its elegant appearance
and beautiful design, render it a necessary appendage for the hbrary.

Blowing up nf CimTion-niills Bridge.^On Friday, June 26. a vast m\iltitnde
of persons assembled to witness the blowing up of these mills. About six
o'clock, the trains communicating with 12 charges of gunpowder of 4 lbs.
each, inserted at e.ich base of the arch, to the depth of about four feet, were
set fire to ; hardly had the men time to make good their escape, before seven
tremendous explosions took place, cnrrying away the chief of the fronts of
the base of each arch. Much incidental damage was done, but still the bridge
remained standing. After clearing away the foundation, however, of the
bridge, at 11 o'clock it fell with a terrific crush, but with no damage to any
person. — Caledonian Mercury.

Painting on Lime. Sfc. — M. Heidclofl'. a professor at Nnreniburah. has Suc-
ceeded, after many investigations and numerous experiments, in fixing paint-
ings \malterably.'and at little cost, upon hme. gypsum, .and stone. Tlie ap-
plication of this process has been successfuHy tried in the cathedral at Bom-
lierg. The process is extremely sim,ple. The size, for binding the lime, is
formed only of milk, and the preservetion of the painting from heat. cold,
and damp." is solely attributable to the method of preparing this mixture.
This invention has also the ,additional advantage that the paintings done in
this manner may be washed with water without losing any of the freshness
of their colours. It may be added also, that lime receives the colours better
Ihnn fresco. — Inrentor's Advocate. [Is there anything new in this ? — Editok
C. K. & A. JoiE.]

Knhomine, a tiew paint. — A new and inodorous sort of paint, the invention
of Miss Fanny C'orbeaux. has been lately introduced to inddic notice. The
materials of which it is composed, are at first soluble in water; and while in
this state admit of the design being efiaced, or a portion of the culonring of
a wall or ceilirg being removed, if necessary : a subsequent operation renders
the paint insoluble, by a chemical change of the properties of the material,
which fixes the colour durably. It is free from any otiensive smell, dries tn a
few hours, is not acted upon injuriously by atmospheric infiuences, and is
said to be more durable than oil paint, ts well as more agreeable to the eye.
and not at all predudicial to the health ; indeed, a room painted with it one
day. maybe inhabited the next. It may also be made applicable to easel
painting also. M'e have .-Jeen a little landscape painted with this material,
which combined something of the depth and solidity of oil with the trans-
parenc'y of water-colour ; and a specimen of broad flower painting, for a room,
was shewn us, which had resisted the rude action of the scrubbing-brush.
The efl'ect of the white as a ground for gilding, is extremely clear without
being dazzling : and we can well anders'and that it possesses the property
ascribed to it of ■' softening and difi'using light." — Athenceum.

Novel Wind Engine. — We have been inuch gratified this week, in examining
a wind engine for fen drainage, upon a very improved construction. The
object of the inventor (Thomas Brighly. Esq . of Kamsey). seems to have
been to proJuce a machine that shall not be alfected by the head thrown
against it, to render the least motion of the air available to raise a corres-
ponding weight of water, which may be increased exactly in proportion to
the strength of the wind, and («hat is intirely a new feature in ihe above
machine) it may safely be left " to take care of itself," rei|niring only occa-
sional attendance ; it clothes itself when the water is high, ami when low.
unclothes and stops ; and let the wind be never so strong, it cannot stir until
the water has again risen to a certain pitch; then, if the wind is sufliciently
strong, it clothes and sets itself in motion, and continues going until the
water is reduced to a certain level, when it at once unclothes and stops. The
machinery is extremely simple, and not subject soon to get out of repair. —
Cambridge Indcpendait.

Soundings at Sea. — At a meeting of the Royal Geographical Society, a letter
was read from Captain .lames Ross, of her Majesty's ship ffidipus, giving an
account of some extraorJinarv deep soundings t.aken by him at sea. One of
these. 900 miles west ot the Islan,] of St. Helena, extended to the depth of
5,000 fathoms, the weight eoiployed amounting to 450 lb. Another made in
the latitude of 33 deg. S.. and longitude 9 deg. W.. about .300 miles from the
Cape of GoofI Hope, occupied 49| minutes, in which time 2,266 fathoms were
sounded. These facts were thought clearly to disjirove the common opinions,
that soundings could not be obtained at ve'ry great depths.

Inland Navigation. — A project is on foot for improving the navigation of
the river Nen, from the sea to Peterborough, so as to render that place an
inland seaport, connecting itself with the towns of Northampton, Leicester,
Market Harborough, Stamford. &c. ; and, at the same time, to drain 50,000
acres of lens, to lay dry Vhittlesea Mere, and to carry lines of road through
the drained country, so as to diminish the distance between London antl Hull,
ten miles and upwards. — Gloucestershire Chronicle.

A new mamifarture of Tissue . — We have had an opportunity of inspecting
the process for manufacturing an entirely new species of tissue and tapestry,
which was originally invented or discovered by M. E. Parry, and which, we
understand, has been secured by patent, and which, as the material is pro-
duced in our own colonies, promises to become an article of great commercial
■value. In particular, vve would refer to some coverings of chairs and tapes-
try, which have been especially ordered by her Majesty for the palace. It

bears so strong a resemblance to silk of the best kind, that it is diSieult,
without a minute examiration. to discover the difference. The material of
which it is composed, is the fibre of the banana, .alee, and other trees and
plants w Inch are plentifully foiind in our Yi'est India islands, and by very
accurate expcrimcnls. made by or.ler of the French Government, thev have
been found on an average to exceed the strength of hemp by one-fourth. The
experiments were made at Toulon, upon cor.lage which had been six ninnth.s
exposed to the air. and an eqn.al time immersed in the sea. AVe understand
that the French Minister of .Marine has introduced r. pes and cables made of
this inaterial, into the Royal Navy, and as it is so much superior to hemp,
we see no reason why it might not bo advantageously employed in the cordage
of the military and commercial navy of this country. — Post.

New Planing Machine. — We lately had the pleasure of seeing "n operation
a new and verv curious, as well as elVective maidune for planing iron, invented
and constructed by >Ir. Rennoldson. of South Shie'ds. The advantage ob-
tained in this machine over others winch we ha-,e seen, is that it cuts over
the whole of the surface of the metal at once, whether it be one inch or 12
inches in breadth, with great ease; by which process, a very great saving
in ime is, beyond doubt, efiec'ed. It is extremely ditfitult to convey a cor-
rect idea of the manner in which this is etiected without the assistance of
diagi-ams. We can state thus far. however : the principal feature in which
it is superior to otliers. is in the chisels or cutters, which are firmly imbedded
in an iron roller about fourteen inches in length, and about three and a half
inches in diameter. There are eight chisels in the circumference of this roller
which extends rather more than half the length. The other end is furnished
with an equal number, which likewise extend over a little more than half the
length of the roller, and also intersect the position of the cutters in the oppo-
site end. diV'ding the pow^r which would be required to work it, it the cutters
were as long as the roller itself. It is decidedly superior to the point for
which a patent has been obtained, as it is calculated to do thre.' times as
much \\\ rk, in a better style, in the same time. — Tyne Mercury.

Improved Sash and Table Fastening, tyc— By Thomas Hardeman Clark:. Bir-
mingham, cabinet-maker, June 24. — In place of the ordinary spring bolt, the in-
ventor adopts the use of a w edge formed bolt, which is jrged backwards in
the frame or s >cket attached to one window-sash, while the hasp or catch
reiching from the other sash is held bv this wedge-formed bolt. The same
improvement may be applied to tables, but the position of the bulls must be
varied, as crcumstances may recjuirc. — Inventor's Advocate.

An improved apparatus for regulating the supphj of water to stemn-hoilers^
patented by James Knowles. Little Bolton, Lancaster. — Claims the use of a
sell-acting appr.ralus, the working parts of which are within the boiler, and
communicate to the supply valve from wuhout. A lever or rod is placed
longituihnally on a fulcrum within the boiler, the longer end of which is an
upright r.jd, with a float attached thereon, p.assing to the outside of the
boiler , at the shorter end of the lever is tmother upright rod connected with
the supply valve, working in a tube. As long as there is plenty of water in
the boiler, the float will continue to press up the long end of tlie lever, and.
consequently, cause the valve on the upright rod of the short end of the iever
to press down on its bearing, and prevent the admission of water from the
tank. But when the height of the water in the boiler diminishes, the float
lowers with it. and thereby forces op the rod with the valve: thus admitting
a further supply of water until the float ag.ain rises to close dov.n the valve.
—Ibid.

Improvements in reducing friction in wheels of carriages, which in:proj'e7nents
are also applicable to bearings ni.-d journals of machinery, patented by Cliarles
Greenway, of Douglas, in the Isle of Man. July 3- — Tlie first cl.aim consists in
the method of forming a "cradle'' for the reception of spheres or rollers,
near to which, the arm of the axle is made to rotate, whereby a considerable
friction is overcome, as the sp'neres or rollers do not retmire an axis, and the
cradle is so formed as to keep them close to the axle.— In the description of
the second improvement, the inventor states that to the carriage, on which
the tninn'ons of a c.ironnade are usually fixed, w heels are not used, in order
to prevent recoiling. But in his improvement, w heels are put to the carriage,
so as to facilitate tlie mc>vement of the caroniiade towards the port-hole or
embrasure : and before Ihe act of firing, the caronnade with its trunnion is
moved by the action of a lever from the carriage tm to the deck of a vessel
to prevent recoiling, and is again restored to the carriage by the same lever,
when preparing to reload. — Ibid.

Improved mode of applying ivater-power, patented by Capt. George Davey. —
The inventor c'aims the application of air jackets or chambers to a column of
water, and the methi d of applying the pow er obtained by the pressure of Ihe
said column of water, through the medium of the compressed air contained in
the said air jacket, whcieljy so great a quantity of air is driven into the
working cylinder as toefloct a great saving of water, which, incases requiring
a reservoir at a high level, is very important. An upright tube leads from
the reservoir to the iull extent of the fall of water ; at each thirty feet this
tube is surrounded by an air jacket, and three or four fine holes tire m.ide at
the bottom of the tube, within the space covered by it. The lower part ot
the tube has a lateral connection with a small cylinder, with a double piston
or dead bo.xes working therein. At the opposite side of this cylinder, there
is a lateral connection with the working cylinder, that moves, by its piston
and rod, the pump or engine. The w atcr, passing from the reservoir, down
the tube, forces a quantity of air from the air jackets, with the water, through
the small cylinder (that has its double piston open) into the large working
cylinder, by which means the piston of this cylinder is forced up ; and the
tappets on the rod of this piston are so arranged as to strike a lever connectet!
with the rod of the double piston, which admits and shuts off the supiily of
water Irom the tube to the working cylinder. The piston of this cylinder
being now forced up. the tappet on the rod causes the lever to put the double
piston in such a posilion as to cut off the supply of water, until the water
that is below the large working cylinder fluws out into the waste, or dis-
charging level. The piston with the rod, in descending, by its gravity, causes
another tappet to strike the lever, and put the double piston or dead boxes,

202

THE CniL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[August,

in the first p sition, in order lo receive a fresh supply of rompresscd air and
nater, to set the piston in the I;irge cylinder again in mution, which com-
municates i's power to a pump or engrine.

The •' £clij!se.'' — A new iron steam-boat has just been completed by Messrs.
John and 1-rancis Napier, of Mill-uall, said to be decidedly the fastest
steamer in Knf;land. She lias niiide sevcr.il experimenlal trips up and down
the river, and from her surprising sjiecd and singu'ar app-arance (having
two funnels and the piston cross-lu-ad working above the dccli) a report has
(jot ahror.d that she is driven by high piessnre steam This, however, i^ in-
correct: she is propelled hy one enginr of 100 horse power, the cylinder is
54i inches di.-imeter. with four feet stroke : she has a double bottom, which
gives increased strength and safety, and at the same time allords a large
space wherein the steam is conveniently condensed, which keeps up a regular
supply of fresh water to the boilers, saving nearly the entire power of work-
ing .an air-pump, i^he has tour separate boilers, any three of which are
adequate to supply the engine; so that one may be repaired. See, without
causing any delay. The makers have met the report of " liisiU-pressure steam "
being used, by aii ofier to run the Erli/jse, against any steamer afloat, for any
distance under 500 miles, with steam at a lower pressure than tliat of her op-
ponent!— Mecli. Mug.

New mode of propelling Slenm Bonis. — Falkirk, July 7. — An ingenious me-
chanic, residing at Gr hamstone. has been for a long period engaged in con-
structing a small vessel to be propelled by means of pressure-pumps — the
application of a principle (juite new to the masters of this science. On Mon-
day evening the boat was launched into the Forth and Clyde canal, at Bains-
ford-bridge, and proceeded beautifully along the reach at a rate of not less
than 15 miles per hi.ur. conducted alone by the inventor, who worked the
pumps. This novel invention has produced much speculation am-ng the
members of the proiession in this place, and it is now reported tliat he is so
much satisfied with his first experiment, that another on a larger scale is
fortlmith to be undertaken, and a patent procured to protect the invention.
He has no doubt that it will, at no distant era. entirely supersede the present
mode of propulsion by means of paddle-wheels. — Times.

LIST OF NEW PATENTS.

GRANTED IN ENGLAND FROM 26tH JUNE TO 29tH JULY, 1840.

John William Nyren, of Bromley, Manufacturing Chemist, for '• im-
prfweinents in the manufacture of oxalic acid." — Sealed June 26 ; six months
for enrolment.

Thomas Spencer, of Manchester, Machine Maker, for " a certain im-
provement or improvements in twisting machinery used for roving^ spinnim/,
and doubling cotton, wool, silk, flax, and other fibrous materials." — June 26 ;
six months.

William Jefferies, of Holme Street, Mile End, Jletal Refiner, for " im-
provements in copper spelter and other metals from ores." — July 1 ; sLk
months.

William Mc.Murray, of Kenteith Mill, Edinburgh, Paper Maker, for

" certain improvements in the maiiufachtre of paper." — July 1 ; si.x months.

John David Poole, of Holborn, Practical Chemist, for " improvements

in evaporating and distilling water and other fluids." Communicated by a

foreigner residing abroad. — JtJy 2 ; six months.

Charles May, of Ipswich, Engineer, for " improvements in machinery
cuttitu/ and preparing straw, hay, and other vegetable matters." — July 6 ; sLx
months.

Edward Turner, of Leeds, in the County of York, Engineer, for " cer-
tain improvements applicable to locomotive and other steam engines." — July
6 ; six months.

James Harvey, of Bazing Place, Waterloo Road, Gentleman, for " im-
provements in extracting sulphur from pyrites and other substances contain-
ing the same." — July 8 ; six mouths.

Louis Leconte, of Paris, but now residing in Leicester Square, Gentle-
man, for "improvements in constructing fire proof buildings." — July 9 ; six
months.

Joshua Taylor Beale, of East Greenwich, Engineer, for " certain im-
provements in steam engines," — July 10 ; si.x months.

George Barnett, of Jewin Street, Tailor, for " improvements in fasten-
ings for wearing apparel." — July 11 ; six months.

Joseph Getten, of Paul's Chain, London, Merchant, for " improvements
in preparing and purifging whale oil." Communicated by a foreigner resid-
ing abroad. — July 11 ; six months.

William Palmer, of Feltwell, Norfolk, Blacksmith, for " certain im-
provements in ploughs." — July 11 ; six months.

Peter Fairbairn, of Leeds, Engineer, for " certain improvements in ma-
chinery or apparatus for heckling, combing, preparing or dressing hemp, flax,
and such other textile or fibrous materials." Communicated by a foreigner
residing abroad. — JidylS; six months.

Thomas Tassell Grant, Esq., and Oflicer in Her Majesty's Victualhng
Yard, of Gosport, for " improvements in the manufacture of fuel." — July 13 ;
six months.

Edward Travis, of Shaw Mills, near Oldham, Cotton Spinner, for " cer-

tain improvements in machinery or apparatus for preparing cototn [and other
fibrous materials for spinning." — July 1,'j ; six months.

John L.^mbert, of Coventry Street, Saint James's, Gentleman, for " cer-
tain improvements in the manufacture of soap." Communicated l)y a foreigner
residing abroad. — July 15 ; six months.

James Jamieson Cordes, and Edward Locke, of Newport, Monmouth,
for " a new rotatory engine." — July 18 ; six months.

Moses Poole, of Lincoln's Inn, Gentlemen, for "improvements in fire
arms and in apparatus to be u-ied therewith." Communicated by a foreigner
residing abroad. — July 18 ; sLx months.

James Roberts, of Brewer Street, Soiuers Town, Ironmonger, for " im-
proved machinery or apparatus to be applied to the windows of houses or
other buildings, for the purpose of preventing accidents to persons employed
in cleaning or repairing the same, and also for facilitating the escape of per-
sons from fire." — July 18; six months.

John George Bodmer, of Manchester, Engineer, an extension of a
patent for the term of seven years granted to him for " certain improvements
in the machinery for cleaning, carding, drawing, roving and spinning of cotton
and wool." — July IS; six months.

Robert Urwin, of South Shields, Engineer, for " improvements in steam
engines." — July 29 ; six months. '

Alexander Angus Croll, Superintcndaut of the Chartered Gas Com-
pany's Works, in Brick Lane, for " certain improvements in the manufacture
of gas for the purpose of illumination, and for the preparation and Jnanufac-
ture of materials to be used in the purification of gas for the purposes of
illumination." — July 29 ; four months.

Joseph Bennett, of Turnlee, near Glossop, in the County of Derby, for
" certain improvements in machinery for cutting rags, ropes, waste hay, straw,
or other soft or fibrous substances usually subject to the operation of cutting
or chopping, part of which improvements are applicable to the tearing, pull-
ing in pieces, or opening of rags, ropes, or other tough materials." — Jidy 29 ;
six months.

John Swain Worth, of Manchester, ilerchant, for "improvements in
machinery for cutting vegetable substances." — July 29; six months.

TO COSnESFONDENTS.

Books rcrcii'cd: — Paris 2 aurl 3 of Jtiranti's Rustic Architecture ; Ibhetson on
Turning, 3rd Edition, this work we before noticed as of one considerable interest to
the aniateur in Turning ; Report on Steam Communication via the Red Sea, by
W. D. Holmes, C. E.

Communications received from Pisiculus on the Tides of the Orenn : Mr. East ;
and Mr. Burstall on his Locomotive and Marine Tubular Steam Boiler.

An original .Subscriber will find in ne.rt months' Journal the information he
requires on Wood Paving.

A Comparison of the Rival "Screws'' will, if possible, be noticed next
month.

Mr. Vmkus forwarded us a paper, which was loo late for in.n'rtinn. relative to
our remarhs on the Atmospheric Railway, given in the last months' Journal.

" A Subscriber." — We arc happy to inform him, that us the Reform Club is
approaching completion, we shall giie engravings of the elevation, plans, sections,
and a description of the building either in the ne.r't or following miinths' Journal.

A constant Reader. — We will endeavour at some future opportunity to obtain
the information he suggests relative to Iron Sailing Vessels.

A Student of Architecture.— TAc work is not yet before us. ive will when it is,
attend to his suggestions.

" Ajax, &c." is mistahen.

" A Student." — U'e will enijuire and announce ne.it month, the regulation for
obtainiuq admission to the Economic Museum, we believe it is not sufficiently ad-
vanced/or its being opened to the public.

'• A Lover of Fair Play " is unavoidably postponed.

Jl'e have received a communication relative to the "Fire King'' challenge in
last months' Journal: we very much regret, that in consequence of an over-
abundance of materials for this month's Journal, we have been obliged to postpone
it : it contains an account of the run of its sister boat the Glowworm with the
Ruby, wherein it appears that the glittering of the Ruby completely took tlie shine
out of the Glowworm.

\V. H.C.— ll'e regret that llw original copy of the article which appeared in
the 29th number has been destroyed, as tve Jeel satisfied tliat that part which he
states was omitted in the Journal never appeared in the origiaal. as we are
aln;ii/s most desirous of giving the name of the architect of any public building,
uiul also the amount if the contract.

The eommunieations relative to Kerr Laves Truss Beams, will appear next
month. ^, , ^,. .,

Communications are requested to be addressed to " Ihe Mitor of the Civil
Engineer and Architect's Journal," No. \\, Parliament Street, Westminster.

Books for review must he sent earli/ in Ihe montli, communications on or before
the 20th' (if with drawings, earlier), and advertisements on or before the 25th
instant.

The First Volume may eb i!.\d, eounu in cloth and lihtered in gold,
Price 17s.

%* The Second Volusie may also be had. Price, 20s.

1840.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

293

REMARKS OX ANTIENT AND MODERN PORTICOES.

Translatiok of some Remarks of Milizen, upon the Portico of the
Piiiitlieon Lit Rome, with general observations upon that feature in
Architecture, including a notice of some of the Porticoes of Lon-
don. By A. \V. H.

To tlie uninitiated nothing may appear to be so easy as to compose
a good portico ; the fact, however, is exactly the reverse ; the very
simple and dignified character of its details, demanding consummate
taste on the part of the architect to combine it with the peculiar style
of the building to which it is to attach, and serve as chief ornament.
The beauty which shines in the building should be still more apparent
in the portico, which feature should become, as it were, the very
focus of beauty, since, owing to its position in the edifice, it acts like
the countenance in the human form, attracting the first glance, and
recalling the last look of the observer; and, as the countenance reveals
the mind, so this corresponding feature in a building, should bespeak
lU dignity and spirit ; it is therefore manifest, that whatever diffi-
culties may be overcome by taste in designing the body of a building,
those difficulties become infinitely greater in the compos-ition of its
portico. Owing to the few parts of this architectural feature, and
their striking character, it is necessary that the laws of harmony be
rigidly observed ; any, nay the least, infringement of those laws, leads
in this iujtance to some glaring deformity. One must not, therefore,
tamper with so difficult a subject, but recognise it as the legitimate
patrimony of matured skill, as a feature which, whilst it spurns all
crude attempts, afibrds, on the contrary, the finest opportun ty for the
display of real talent.

Besides, what charms in the associations, that sparkle from this gem
of architecture ! The sacred pageants of Greece and Rome, when
seen arrayed within its precincts, appear in all their glory ; from be-
neath the portico's grateful shelter, flowed with full etfect the sources
of ancient learning; from beneath its roof a Plato and a TuUy spoke,
and sages to debate, and crowds, thirsting for knowledge, flocked to
the portico's genial shade; — seen, therefore, through the hallowed
medium of the past, the portico rises to our view invested with all the
charms of association, as the bewitching scenery which surrounded
the ancient founts of wisdom.

Pantheon at Rome.

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With so much, then, to give it effect, it is not too much to say that
this feature demands the architect's chiefest care, and that every
eftbrt should be made to invest it with its w^onted power, so that it
may either strike with awe, attract through its richness and gran-
deur, be rendered imposing through dignified simplicity, or made
captivating by its grace. Milizia, in speaking of the portico of the
Pantlieon, perhaps the finest specimen of the kind which has ever
been erected, makes the following observations: —

" This portico," says that admirable critic, " all dingy as it is through
the lapse of ages, its ornaments mutilated, the whole of the upper
portion dismantled of its former richness, still expands the mind. It
is simplicity itself." This last observation, upon a work which is abun-
dantly rich, of the Corinthian order, and where the sculptor's mimic
art appears to rival nature in the production of the luxuriant acanthus,
recalls to mind the poet's invocation to that powerful attribute, when,
addressing himself to simplicity, he says,

" Though taite. though genius bless
Tu some divine excess,

Faint's the cold work till thou inspire the whole ;
M'hat each, what all supply,
May court, may charm the eye,
Thou, only thou, canst raise the meeting soul."

"A few columns merely, and a pediment, constitute this imposing
mass, nothing more satisfactory than the straight forward character of
its plan, so well adapted to the purpose for which it is designed, a

Yo. 3(3.— Vol. III. — September, 1340.

passage to an entrance." It may here be observed, that viewed rela-
tively to their position, the two internal ranges of columns gain great
value in our estimation ; they guide the visitor at once to the entrance
of the sanctuary, who, but for them, might stray to the right or to the
left of the immense area of the portico, and thus lose that high enjoy-
ment now produced by the quick succession of strong and varied sen-
sations, resulting from the contemplation of scenery at once so im-
posing and contrasting. It were in vain to attempt to describe the
sensations produced by a visit to the Pantheon; those who have en-
joyed so great a treat, will agree that such rapture must be experi-
enced to be understood ; such themes soar above mere prose, and, in
attempting them, we feel that we are trenching upon the domain of
the poet. The Roman critic continues thus ; " the eye dwells with
rapture on the justness of proportion of the various parts, those parts
either taken separately, or in conjunction with one another. Strength,
richness, grandeur, all the elements which constitute the beautiful, are
here combined. Hence that possession which it takes of the mind!
hence the universal admiration which it has ever excited among the
intelligent! How inferior in their eftect to this grand original are the
porticoes of the Vatican, and many others attached to the basilicas of
Rome, notwithstanding their artificial arrangement of plan, and prodi-
gious efibrts made to enrich them; but these lack the judgment
which has presided over the distribution of the parts of the Pantheon
portico. In this work the columns, though gigantic, appear of a
proper size, whereas those of the Vatican always appear enormous;
but in the Pantheon they are sensibly applied, inasmuch as they are
admirably adapted to their office ; to suppose the removal of one,
would be annihilation to the whole design ; whereas to remove almost
all from many of our buildings (still referring to Rome), would be to
rid these for the most part of some extravagant superfluity : " thus far
our author. Nothing can prove more satisfactorily the merits of this
portico, than the circumstance of the great Michael Angelo judging
that no design could be conceived more appropriate for an approach
to the first temple of modern times, and keenly must the lover of art
regret that such an authority as the opinion of that great man should
have been made to yield to the puerile conceit of a Carlo Maderno.

St. Genevieve at Paris.

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While upon this subject, a feeling of regret also naturally suggests
itself, that the architect of the Church of Ste. Genevii-ve at Paris,
bearing, as he seems to have done, this fine portico in his mind, should
most unaccountably have disdained to avail himself of its real merits,
and by substituting a complicated arrangement of columns, thrown
away the opportunity of producing a sublime etfect, by aiming at the
simplicity of this exquisite model. Nor can w^e compliment the
architects (three in number) to the Capitol at Washington, upon the
use which they have made of this grand Roman original; by what
those architects have added and retrenched, they have come infinitely

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short of the effect wdiich they might have produced. The additional
side columns by apparently bolstering up the portico, sadly impair its
vigorous aspect, and quite destroy the effect of its profile. Whenever
such adjuncts are deemed necessary, it is preferable to make use of a
sqnare ante instead of a column to unite them with that portion which
is more properly the j^ortico ; this not only gives solidity where it is
wanted, but causes an agreeable separation of the side columns from
the main feature, giving to the eye an opportiyjity of dwelling upon

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[Septkmber,

the more striking portion of the front. The refrencliing the depth,
Tvhifh leads from the centre portion of the portico to the interior of
the building, must be considered as a great error, as it not only de-
tracts from the solid appearance of the portico, but really weakens it,
by lessening its hold upon the body of llie building; this depth, too,
is a source of much beauty in the composition, inasmuch as, by linking
the portico with the chamber, to which the former is intended as an
approach, it produces unity in the design, and gives to the portico
the appearance of a feature of natural growth, just as in the human
form we see the head shooting from tile shoulders, connected with
them, and gracefully supported Ijy the neck. The architecture of the
ancients is full of such jiropriety, doubtlessly owing to the enlarged
and correct view which their highly instructed architects took of the
subject, — and here it may not be amiss to touch upon the importance
of the study of the human form to the architect, the necessity of which
has been so strenuously advocated by the great professors of the art,
the soundness of which advice we cannot hut admit. The mind bent
upon creating, cannot contemplate the wisdom displayed in the mecha-
nism of the human frame, without imbibing lessons of the utmost
value to its own productions ; the treasures dug from so rich a mine
of study by the architect, will go to teach liim the importance of ba-
lancing the various |)arts of his design, and of blending them one with
another in the plan, as well as in the elevations, so as to produce
symmetry and proportion througliout, and to the end that his building
may be solid in point of fact and in appearance, and that, numerous as
the parts may be, they shall strike the beholder not so much as an
accumulation of iileas, than as necessary features to the devellopment
of one single thought, the which is so beautifully exemplified in all
nature's works.

A glance of the porticoes which adorn our metropolis, may still
afford pleasure and instruction, though the attention nuiy liave been
recently directed to so exquisite a specimen as that of the Pantheon.
They divide themselves into two classes; those which were erected
at the period of the introduction of fine art into this country from Italy,
and those which have been more recently built, and subsequently to
the revival of the Greek taste. From "its size, as well as from its
merits, St. Martin's portico stands foremost amongst those which court
attention. Its columns are massive and finely proportioned, and the
capitals bold, and finely sculjitured, and the detail generally evinces
taste and study on the part of the architect; this portico recommends
itself moreover, by its great projection from the face of the building,
a requisite which should ever be a sine qua non in the composition of
this architectural feature. Its defects are, too great a distance be-
tween the columns, which gives it a straggling look, the which
detracts very much from that vigorous effect which it would otherwise
possess ; its not extending the whole w idth of the building is not
graceful, as on that account it seems not so much to grow out of it, as
to be added to it ; and the effect is also much impoverished through
the wall immediately behind the columns not receding from the face
of the two outer pilasters, and this wall or back part of the portico
being crowded with parts, the which sadly interferes with the good
effect of the columns ; this is a defect which all the porticoes of that
period partake of more or less. There is an adjunct to this portico
which acts as a very great eye-sore, and the iiiore so since present
circumstances by no means sanction its continuance ; the object al-
luded to, is the inhospitable iron railing, inserted between the columns
through which the utility of the portico is wofully curtailed, inasmuch
as the multitude, who pass to and fro, daily in that neighbourhood, are
debarred the shelter which it would otlierwise afford them, from the
inclemency of the weather; the obtaining of which shelter should
svn-ely be the primary object in erecting a portico in a populous neigh-
bourhood. It is i)ossibly very true that at the time at which this
railing was so placed, the neighbourhood of St. Martin's offered a very
dillerent scene from that whicli we now behold ; and that without some
such defence, the portico would have been exposed to injury, from the
barbarous propensities of the rude frequenters of that quarter ; but
circumstances have changed, and the reason for the defence having
vanished, the defence itself might also disappear. The feeling
which protects such barriers to puljlic comfort, is nut a charitable one.
Until lately the little portico of Vere-street Chapel, which possesses
that important and useful requisite depth, was both an object of utility
as well as of ornament, to its immediate neighbourhood; it offered
moreover the additional attraction, of plants and flowers which a poor
man used to sell, ranging his vases between the columns; the portico
thus adorned became really a pleasing sight, it imparted cheerfulness
to that portion of the street, which is itself quiet and retired ; and
offered a spectacle quite refreshing to the eye; besides the mind's eye
leing gratified by this picture of the church uhl/erivg— not encour-
aging poverty. The charm has however been sacrificed, and the jilauts
and their vendor ha^^e been driven from their sacred asylum, and, as a

substitute, the inhabitants of that (piarter, gaze upon an uncouth iron
railing, introduced in a more barbarous manner, even than in the case
with St. Martin's portico, since here, it is made to enclose the portico,
steps and all, giving to that which looked free, and inviting, an imjjri-
soned ajipearance.

A most peculiar portico, and one of a very striking character, anl a
great favourite with the Londoners, is that of St. I'aul's, Covent Gar-
den, the condemnatory terms even of a Quatremcrc di! Quincy, avail
not in shaking our admiration of a work, so very characteristic of the
bold genius of its author, — the learned Frenchman when mentioning it,
indulges in a snarl at the Knglish, and -attributes their approbation of
this work to their little oupurtuuity (jf judging; London being, accord-
ing to that learned critic, so barren of porticoes; an observation which
either prejudice, or want of local information must have prompted it, for
where is the city of modern times, that can vie with onr metropolis in
the possession of numerous admirable specimens of this fascinating
feature in architecture? The |)ropriety of applying so plain an order
as the Tuscan, to a building of so exalted a character as that of a
public place of worship, may admit of doubt, but that the effect of this
portico is truly admirable, no unprejudiced person will deny; it pos-
sesses that essential feature dtjjlh, through which a portico appears to
fulfil its apparent destination, that of affording shelter. The arched
openings in the flanks present a bold and successful expedient in giving
variety, where the stern simplicity of the building seemed to render
the task hopeless — and, the few simple means, of producing pictur-
esqueness are throughout skilfully applied. Who with a spark of
sensibiPity in his composition, can gaze upon tiiis building, and not feel
that it is the work of a painter turned architect ! This portico ap-
pears to great advantage when seen in conjunction with the crowds
which assemble about it at the time of an election in the market-
place; its grave and solemn aspect shed additional interest over the
important scene, the whole realizing to the painter's eye and patriot's
heart, a soul-intrancirig picture, and one from which the enlightened
mind reaps aid in its conceptions of kindred scenes, once enacted in
the far famed Roman Forum.

In the portico of the East India House, we perceive a new era in
taste, it displays the refinement of Greek feeling; but through the
want of that great requisite depth it is scarcely entitled to the appel-
lation of portico ; for it presents nothing more than a graceful archi-
tectural frontispiece ; and more graceful would it be deemed, if the
pediment had been suppressed, and the cornice been horizontal, be-
cause then the design would have been harmonious, and it would have
appeared to be what it really is, a mere front decorated with columns;
for the introduction of a pediment over a facade of columns far from
constituting a portico, on the contrary, becomes offensive, inasmuch as
it imparts superfluous energy of character to a feature which lacks that
balancing and corresponding vigour which it would acquire tlirough
depth. It were impossible to comment upon any portion of the East
India House, without speaking in praise of the little Doric portico at
the east front; though small, this work is full of attraction, abounding
in grace, delicacy, and much energy of character.

In the front of the Mansion House, we see a Corinthian portico raised
upon a basement of rusticated piers and arches; this certainly
produces a very inharmonious effect ; the latter features being of too
ordinary a character to suit with the grace and dignity of the Corin-
thian order. There is in this composition another very glaring defect,
viz., the portico leading to nothing ; for the hall to which it leads
from the street, instead of being of ample dimensions with the porti-
co, is low and contracted. A stately portico should not lead to mere
chambers, when it is necessary to have recourse to such economy in
the interior, it is ostentation to apply so magnificent a feature, as the
portico externally. The very eti'ect of a |iortico is to exalt the ideas
of the spectator, which become suddenly depressed when he least ex-
pects it, if it lead not to some feature of corresponding grandeur. Like
persons, buildings should not promise more than they perform : and
generally, the ideas raised by the external appearance of a building,
should be realized in its interior.

In the Corinthian portico of St. Georges, Hanover-square, the order
has been well attended to, and much vigour is produced by the columns
being comparatively closely placed, the centre opening is somewhat
wider than the rest, which is very admissible.

There is something very noble about the portico of St. Georges's,
Bloomsbury ; the order is boldly treated ; and the deep tone of shadow
obtaineil by the great jirojection from the line of wall, gives to the
front columns a fine relief; but it is dilficult to comprehend, how a
pupil of Sir C. Wren couUl introduce columns attached to the wall and
corresponding to those in fr. nt, thereby repeating in the back ground,
the front part of the picture, ^^hich is surely as absurd in architecture,
as it would be deemed in painting.

These porticoes and many others which adorn our metropolis, pos-

1840.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

29.5

sess very great merits ; and it is clieerinr; to reflect that with the ex-
ception of one or two instances they display originality of thought,
and that they are modified by circumstances peculiar to the buildings
to which they attach ; thus they aftbrd u^ valuable lessons. A question
seems here to arise, how is it that these porticoes, having so many
claims to our admiration, are not oftener the theme of praise ? The
reply naturally is, that they have to contend against very overpowiug
circumstances ; they are generally in confined situations, and much
discoloured. It would seem from their being so placed, concealed and
incumbered by buildings often of the meanest description, that great
indirterence must have prevailed towards art in general, at the time
at which they were erected, and, that but little sympathy could have
been entertained for the feelings of an artist, anxious about the efTect
his work was calculated to produce. We have to congratulate our-
selves that the times in which we live, bear the stamp of a more en-
lightened and liberal sentiment.

As much solicitude is now shown in rescuing former works from ob-
livion as in erecting new ones ; and London in its present stage may
be compared to an old picture, in the hands of an intelligent repairer,
to which the latter not only adds fresh parts, but is equally intent in
giving value to its concealed beauties, by dexterously removing the
excrescences of time and neglect. But there remams yet to be men-
tioned, a cause still more powerful in diminishing the effect of our
porticoes, than any yet alluded to, viz., the tower, which becomes a
real deformity, when seen rising immediately over the roof of the
pediment. This feature so capable of being rendered beautiful when
philosophically treated, becomes a positive eyesore when seen shoot-
ing out of the roof of the j)edinieiit, and interfering with the severe
and classical form of the latter; thus placed it produces all the de-
formity of a hump upon the back; and yet despite the incongruity
resulting from this peculiar disposition of the tower and pediment, it
has been persisted in by the generality of our architects, in spite of
the better example shown us, by our immortal countryman Sir C. Wren,
and his immediate followers. The system whicli the Italians have
adopted, in disposing of these two features, which modern custom has
rendered it necessary to combine, shows their nicer discrimination of
the true principles of beauty. They have felt, that the forced contact
of two elements, whose characteristics are so diametrically opposed —
the perpendicular predominating in the one, the horizontal in the
other — could not but be productive of an inharmonious result, and, liave
therefore invariably placed the tower at the end, or on the flank of
the ch\u-ch; thus not only, is no unpleasant sensation created, but ad-
ditional beauty results from this disposition, in the charm which both
features give through an agreeable contrast.

St. George's, Bloomsbury, aft'urds a striking instance of the last-
mentioned method of treating the subject in question, and however
opinions may differ with respect to the design itself, people of taste
are unanimous in their approbation of the system which the architect
has adopted, of combining those two important features, the portico
and tower.

The following remark from the late Mr. Thomas Hope, is quoted as
an introduction to some general observations respecting porticoes.
Touching the important requisite dtplh, that author says, " a portico
thus constructed becomes in the first place an object of "real utility; it
fulfils its apparent destination, that of affording shelter to the pedes-
trian, and screening the inhabitant waiting for the hour of prayer from
the inclemency of the weather; it becomes in the second place a means
of infinite beauty, and gives at once to the individual columns, more
relief, more distinctness, and consequently more effect, through the
deep shade it throws upon the wall behind ; and to the entire facade,
more motion, more picturesqueness, and more dignity."

Touching the utility of porticoes, it may be permitted to remark
ujion a fact connected with their projection from the face of the build-
ing, \ipon which circumstance so much of their utility depends ; it is
then quite consistent with good taste to give to the portico, if required,
a projection greater than one intercolumniation, without placing any
colunjn in the return ; owing to want of attention to this circumstance,
it is not unfrequently seen, where the projection is a little more than
one intercolumniation, that the intercolumniation itself is made out by
a colunm, immediately behind which is placed the ante ; a proceeding
which produces the very reverse of a good effect ; for the contrast of
the cylindrical form of the shaft of the column, with the square form
of the ante, pleasing when the eye is enabled, by a proper intervening
space between them, -to glance gradually from one to the other, is
quite grating to the sight, when thus made sudden, by the almost im-
mediate contract of features so dissimilar, — besides that, this ojnion of
column and ante, by producing irregularity in the distribution of the
points of support, gives to the portico an appearance of weakness.
This observation is of value to the architect who is desirous of making
liis portico an object both of utility and beautv; for in extending it

across the foot-path, additional, and very requisite, shelter is afforded,
and much picturesqueness is also produced by thus gracefully breaking
the necessary long line of street architecture. The beautiful portico of
Hanover Chapel, in Regent-street, those of the Haymarket Theatre,
and Melbourne House, Whitehall, favourably illustrate this position.

A very important item in fhe composition of a portico, is the back
ground, or wall immediately behind the columns, — this line of wall
should always be made to recede, and if possible considerably from the
front line of the ante, for by this means a deep tone of shadow is se-
cured fur the relief of the columns in front. It is not possible to ad-
mire too much the painter-like feeling displayed in this respect, in
the above mentioned exquisite portico of Hanover Chapel, where the
effect at night seems to have been a matter of study, as completely as
that by day: the lamps within the portico are so happily placed that
in two corresponding points of view they become concealed from the
eye of the observer, who freed from their glare, contemplates more
willingly the columns, which tell out in the picture, as dark objects,
relieved upon a back ground of subdued light. It is important too
that in this portion of the portico there should be as few lines as
possible, at all analogous to those of the columns; all perpendicular
lines should therefore be avoided ; the introduction of pilasters behind
the columns, according to the Italian school, is a vice in composition;
they only tend to |)roduce monotony and confusion, by repeating and
interfering with the front lines of the portico; the obtaining of Tiori-
zontal lines on the contrary should be aimed at as these by contrast, set
off" the columns well, especially if the latter be fluted.

The porticoes of the Greeks and Romans, are admirable in the con-
duct of the back orround, and in this feature we, who keep more to the
ancients, greatlv excel our ancestors, who designed more immediately
in the style of the Italians, the back grounds to whose porticoes are
oftentimes positively vulgar. The two celebrated circular temples of
Vesta at Rome, and at Tivoli have no pilasters corresponding to the
columns, which latter features thus unembarrassed, produce a striking
effect. Bramante, that great master of the art, did not escape from
this vulgarism, and has greatly impaired the eflfect of his well known
little circular temple at San Pietro, in Montorio, by the introduction of
these worse than useless appendages, pilasters.

Aspect is another grand consideration in the application of a portico ;
no portico should have a northern aspect, unless it have at the same
time a famous projection.. The grand portico of Rome, the front of
which is due north, reads us a valuable lesson upon this point; it pro-
jects no less than three intercolumniations from the face of the wall,
consequently twice in the day it receives abundance of sunshine, owing
to which circumstance it never wears a gloomy appearance. Sunshine
is to a portico, what a smile is to the countenance; though neither
of the attributes be visible for the moment, their genial influence is
ever apparent. A portico from the very boldness of its parts, and
peculiar plan, being well calculated for a sunny effect, becomes on the
contrary, a most gloomy object, if never enlivened by the the sun's
rays ; to wit, that dull looking portico affixed to the end of the College
of Physicians. In the first place, the aspect of this portico is nortti,
and stuck as it literally is against the wall, it remains throughout the,
year a complete stranger to the sun's rays ; this portico never wears a
smile, but cold, chilly and repulsive, even in the brightest season, it
has the appearance of labouring under a fit of the dumps, and presents
the novel spectacle of a portico requiring the physician's aid; its
gloomy appearance offers a strange contrast to the gay scene around,
whilst its oblique position, one can imagine it to have contracted from
a habit of darting, side-long wistful glances at the sunny, cheerful
faces of its neighbours, of the National Gallery and St. Martin's.

Surely it is a strange anomaly, that a conspicuous part of a building,
which, from its destination of College, of the guardians of the health of the
public, is so rife with associations of a cheering nature, should assume
so dreary a look. The Fa<ailty must not be surprised, should any one
imagine them, to have laboured under a heavy attack of the portico-
mania, when they pressed this woeful-looking object into their service,
standing as it does, without reason, rhyme, or sunshine. And singular
to observe, another branch of the healing profession, exhibits strong
symptoms of having laboured under the same curious malady ; the
Royal College of Surgeons having, as it were, by hook or by crook,
possessed themselves of something of the portico kind, in the shape
of four columns, with a bit of an entablature pasted against the wall,
aftbrding no shelter, but screening the light, amputation here would be
of use, for if the well known Italian question were put to tliese columns,
of " Care coloune, die fate qua ?" they might be excused answering,
" non sappiamo in veritti."

Touching the forms of porticoes, it may be observed that the num-
ber of columns should be*in such proportion to the height, and pera-
meter of the portico as to display at once its form, without the neces-
sity of the eye glancing to the steps, or to the entablature, in order to

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THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

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descrv it. Great attention shouUl be paid to tliis point, in designing
circular porticoes, for, if the columns be scantily introduced, a doubt
is raised in the mind as to whether the portico is polygonal or circular;
and then the eye is distressed at the awkward appearance, portions of
the architrave assume, in overhanging between the intercolumnia-
tions. A portico formed of a double tier of columns, viz., one tier
above the other, produces by no means a happy cfFect, owing to its
somewhat ricketty appearance, columns forming but a poor foundation
to one another. Grouped columns, commonly called coupled coUnnns,
are wholly inadmissible in a portico. So licentious a system of com-
position but ill comports with the simple character of that feature,
which should display architecture in all her severity. There is then
no feature in his art, touching the effect of which a true architect
will feel more solicitous than that of the portico ; for well does he
know, that the few, but striking members, which unite in the formation
of a well designed portico, captivate the mind, whilst ravishing the
eye of the spectator ; just as in writing an elegant assemblage of words,
conveying a simple thought, arrests and charms the mind of the
reader.

ON MALLEABLE IRON IN PERSIA.

^n Jlccouiit of ili€ Iron Mines of Caradogh, near Tabreez in Pernio,
and of the hielhod tlicre practised of producing Malleable Iron by a
ningk process directly from the Ore. By James Robehtsox, Civil
and Mining Engineer, Slajor Persian Service, and late Director of
llie Shah's Ordnance IVorks, Persia ; Cor. MI. W.S., and Cor. F.A.S.S.
Read before the Royal Society of Edinburgh, March 2, 1810.

The ancient Greeks have laid claim to the earliest discovery of the
method of manufacturing iron, but it will appear that the art was
known in Persia at least as early as among the Greeks. The method
of producing malleable-iron by a single process directly from the ore,
is not indeed quite unknown at the present day, but it is believed to
be altogether disused in Great Britain and throughout Europe ; but
there is no doubt that, in Britain, particularly at Castle Cough, Gla-
jnorganshire, and at Furness, near Ulverston, in Lancashire, as well as
elsewhere, malleable-iron must have been known long before the dis-
covery of cast-iron. In the ITtli century, malleable-iron appears to
have been made directly from the ore, in preference to the method
novp practised. In the Philosophical Transactions (for 1693, vol. xvii.
p. 695), there is the following short notice by Mr. Sturdy, of the me-
thod as then practised at Milthorpe-forge in Lancashire. " The forge
is like a common blacksmith's, with a hearth made of sow-iron, in
■which they make a charcoal fire, and put in ore, first broken into pieces
like a pigeon's egg; it is melted by the blast, leaving the iron in a
lump, which is never in a perfect fusion; this is taken out and beaten
under great hammers, played with water, and, after several heatings
in the same furnace, it is brought into bars. They get about one hun-
dred weight of metal at one melting, being the produce of about three
times as much ore ; no limestone or any other flux is used." It has
been doubted by an intelligent author (Farey on the Steam Engine, p.
271), whether, by the process here described, the iron was really made
directly from the ore, or only from pig metal. The existence, how-
ever, of a similar process at the present day in Persia, evidently the
same which has been practised in that country from a very remote
period, will make it appear not the least improbable that iron may
have been thus produced from the rich hematite or fibrous red iron-
ore of Lancashire.

The writer of this paper having resided for more than two years in
the neighbourhood of the Persian mines, and having been during that
time engaged in superintending the manufacture of cast-iron, trusts
that the following short account of the mines, and of the very primitive
process of the iron manufacture, which came constantly under his ob-
servation, may be found interesting, if it be not also of some practical
advantage, even where the manufacture is conducted with all the re-
finements of modem scientific improvements.

We have no historical record from which to ascertain the period at
which the iron mines in the district of Caradogh were first wrought.
But there is every reason to suppose that they were resorted to from
the remotest antiquity. The district itself is very secluded, and is of
a wild, forbidding aspect; it has, without almost any interval, formed
part of the Medean, and latterly of the Persian empire ; and, under
the rule of native (irinces, has all along been free from the revolutions
which have so frequently convulsed Western Asia. The iron mines
themselves also bear evident marks of an^quity. They form large
quarry-like excavations, thickly surrounded by immense tumuli of iron-
sand and small pieces of ore, thrown out in the course of working

Upon a rough calculation, founded on the size of the excavated hollow
which it exhibits, one only of the numerous iron mines which abound
in the district, was estimated by the writer of this notice to have now
afforded above 4,00U,UU0 cubic feet of iron-ore. Taking the specific
gravity of the ore at .'), a cubic foot would weigh about 3U'J lb., and
consequently seven cubic feet would weigh about a ton ; and -1,00! 1,000
cubic feet, the total quantity excavated from that mine, would weigh
57 1,-12S tons. Now, at the present day, '20UU horse loads is a full
allowance for the yearly quantity carried away, and as each horse
carries about 2 cwt., we have a total of 200 tons per annum as the ex-
ported produce at present. It may be reasonably assumed, tliat this
quantity has, upon an average, never been exceeded during the many
ages ill which the mines have been wrought. Indeed, this estimate
certainly exeeeds the actual average yearly produce ; for although a
considerable quantity of Russian iron is now imported, to supply the
increasing wants of the inhabitants, it cannot be imagined that, in
periods of their early history, the natives would require nearly so
much iron as they now do. Upon that assumption and without taking
into account the "other neighbouring mines, it would follow that 2857
years have passed since the soil was first removed from the surface of
the mine alluded to. Were the other neighbouring mines taken into
account, the antiquity of the whole would be proportionally increased.
The writer has not by any means stated these as calculations, or as at
all approximating to" accuracy, but still he thinks that, from such data,
fanciful as they may in some'raeasure appear, an estimate may legiti-
mately be formed on the very great antiquity of the Persian mines.

The native smiths are dispersed in small hamlets, situated in the
woods which clothe the sides of the ravines, through which the moun-
tain torrents flow into the river Arras (the ancient Araxes). The iron
which is produced, although soft, is extremely tough. It is much
superior to the Russian iron, with which the greater part of Asia is
now supplied, and is manufactured chiefly into horse-shoes, and horse-
shoe nails, for which there is a great demand in Tabreez and the sur-
rounding districts, and among the Koords or Nomadic tribes wdio fre-
quent the mountain pastures in summer. The trade in it is shared
between the Mahomedans and the native Armenians ; and although
by no means extensive or deserving the name of the "Persian iron
trade," it gives employment to a considerable part of the population,
in quarrying the ore, burning the charcoal, and transporting these
articles to the forge.

There are numerous mines in Caradogh, affording iron-ore of the
most valuable description, and of various kinds ; but those held in the
highest estimation are the Jewant, Koordkandy, and Marzooly ores.

The Jewant mine is situated in an immense vein of red iron-ore.
This ore, on its fracture, often exhibits streaks of prismatic colours,
as if at one time it had been subjected to the action of lieat; quanti-
ties of iron-sand are dispersed in the interstices of the vein.

The Koordkandy mine, situated on the summit of a very steep
mountain, produces rich magnetic iron-ore, from a vein of great di-
mensions. The Marzooly mine also affords excellent magnetic iron-ore
in great abundance. The vein in which the last is situated runs across
several hills, and is in most parts 100 feet in width.

In working these mines, the richest pieces only of the ore are carried
away, the remainder is thrown aside. They are worked very irregu-
larly, and without concert, as there is no restriction imposed as to the
mode of mining by the Government. A few individuals sink a shaft
through the rubbish, and excavate as much as they require; another
party soon after arrive, and fill the first hollow up in the course of
sinking another shaft ; and in this way the rubbish is repeatedly turned
over, and gradually subsides and is consolidated into a mass as the ore
is removed from beneath, thus forming a serious o'ostacle to any one
who might attempt to work the vein in a more regular manner. The
ore is carried to the villages only during the summer, as the depth of
the snow in winter renders the mountain paths impiissable. It is
there retailed to the smiths, who purchase a horse-load of 2 cwt. for
about Is. sterling, or 10s. per ton.

The ores above described, when smeUed singly, produce that kind
of iron which by English workmen is called hot-short, and by the Per-
sians salt-iron. The smiths, however, by means of a mixture, produce
iron of an excellent quality, which they term siceet-iron- The most
common mixture is two parts Jewant ore to one of Koordkandy, and
two parts of of Koordkandy to one of Marzooly.

Materials for smelting the ore are found in an extensive natural
forest which occupies the natural parts of the district of Caradogh.
This forest covers the flat bottoms between the mountains, and spreads
to a considerable height up their sheltered sides, dwindling into dwarf
trees and bushes in the elevated and more exposed situations. It con-
sists chiefly of coppice oak, which springs from the roots of trees cut
and recut during a long succession of years. This jungle is partitioned
among the villages situated on its confines, tlie inhabitants of which

1840.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL"!

207

earn a Uvelihoud by supplying the city of Tabreez and adjoining towns
witli fuel.

The cliarcoal is made in the following maimer: a rectangular hollow
is dug in the earth, about twelve feet long, six feet wide, and four
feet deep. The sides are formed of the natural ground, or common
alluvial cover ; a small sloping doorway is cut at one end. and at the
other a chimney is built rising to the height of about six feet. The
pit is filled up to the level of the ground with cut branches of all di-
mensions, placed horizontally and lengthways in the hollow, and are
covered over with earth, and secured eftectirally against the admission
of air, excepting by a small hole in the built-up door-way, which is
left open to produce a current; the heap is kindled through the small
opening in the door-way, and after it has burned for two or tln-ee days
the covering is removed, and the charcoal thus produced is then
stored for sale. One of these hearths will produce about one ton of
charcoal, which sells at thirteen shillings sterling.

The charcoal thus produced, however, is seldom used in the manu-
facture of iron, the smiths preferring that prepared in the following
manner: the cut branches are merely laid horizontally on the surface
of the ground, and piled up to a considerable lieight; having been
lighted from beneath, they are allowed to burn in the manner of an
open fire, till the smoke and flame have nearly ceased ; the fire is then
quenched with water, when there remains a charcoal which is very
light, and is found to reduce the ores of iron in a much less time than
the heavier charcoal produced by the first method.

As the iron is manufactured on a very small scale, a very simple
forge answers the purpose. It consists merelj' of a hollow hearth dug
out of the clay floor of the hut, about fourteen inches square in the
bottom, and nine inches deep, for receiving the ore and fuel ; and of
another hearth immediately thereto adjoining, intended to receive the
slag, and consisting of a larger excavation, about three inches deeper
than the former, and situated betwixt it and the wall at the other
extremity in which the chimney is constructed. A wall is built on
each of the two sides, two or three feet high, and the whole is covered
over with large stones capable of resisting the action of the fire. The
whole of the first or iron-hearth into which the blast is introduced is
left open above and at the sides ; but a low w all is built next the bel-
lows to prevent the heat from injuring them. The whole is afterwards
plastered over with clay and chopped straw, in order to maintain the
draught of the chimney entire. The chimney is carried up through
the wall of the hut, and seldom rises higher than its roof.

The construction and dimensions of these hearths will be best ex-
plained by the accompanying drawings.

Fig. 1— Vertical Si'cUon.

Fig. 3— Su'e Vie

^-M^lX-4^!r— ^— f-^ f 3

Fig. 1— Ground Plan.

The operator having carefully selected charcoal of a small size and
hght weight, proceeds to clear it from dust and sand with a small
meshed nddle, removing all the heavy pieces of charcoal or stones
that may be accidentally mixed with it. The raw ore being next
selected and mixed, and being broken into small pieces about the si/e
ot a hazel nut, is thoroughly moistened with water. A dam is then
made between the iron and slag hearths, composed of charcoal and
charcoal dust well rammed down, and the top is coped with iron slae
....,„ , f„.„o. .„,.u,™ The following sketch will show this arrange-

from a former smelting,
ment

Fig. 7,

References.— I. H. Iron Hearth.— S. H. Slag Hearth.— C. and D. Ch;ucoal
and Dust.— .S. Slag.— C. Charcoal.- O. Ore.- F. Floor.

The Twycre pipe, which is made of white clay, and bears a violent
heat for a long time without melting, is then inserted through the
small hole in the side wall of the first iron hearth. The point of the
pipe is made to reach half way across the iron hearth, and within six
inches of the bottom, as shown in Fig. 6. A layer of charcoal, of three
inches thick, is then spread over the bottom of the iron hearth, and
upon this two other layers laid across, one directly under the Twyere
pipe of about six inches in breadth and three inches deep, and the
other at the front of the hearth of the same thickness, to correspond
with the overlying part of the dam. The two trenches which are thus
formed are filled up with the moistened ore, well rammed down. A
second layer of charcoal,.in a state of ignition, is thereafter laid over
the former under the twyere pipe, and other successive layers of
charcoal and ore are filled in, corresponding with those in the bottom.

2D8

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[Septemhkr,

When the hearth has been nearl}' filled up in this way, a covering of
charcoal is spread over the surface of the whole on a level v.ith the
top of the dam. The bellows are then blown, and a workman, who
stanils at the side of the hearth, keeps constantly pushing down the
charcoal in the middle witli an iron rod, and from time to time throws
small quantities into the centre of the fire as it gtaihially subsides.
At the commencement, one man at a time is sunicient to blow the bel-
lows, but, towards the close, two are required, the one standing behind
the other. The bellows shown in Figs. 1 & 5, are in general use all over
Persia. After blowing for an hour or an hour and a half, part of
the twycre pipe having melted from the violence of the heat, the blast
is stoi]ped for a moment, for tlie purpose of pushing the twyere pipe
farther in towards the centre of the hearth. It is then again con-
tinued, and in about three hours, or three and a half hours from the
commencement, the ore becomes consolidated, but not fused. The
blast is then again stopped until that half of the bloom which is next
to the slag hearth is turned over with an iron bar, and jnished on the
top of the dam. while the oilier half is turned round to the centre of
the fire. The blast is then immediately recommenced, and the metal
of the half bloom in the centre of the fire speedily falls to the bottom.
The remaining half of the bloom is then drawn into the centre, and
treated in a similar manner, very little charcoal being placed on the
top of the fire during this part of the process. When the raetal has
entirely disappeared by sinking to the bottom of the hearth, the whole
semifluid mass is stirred about for a cjuarter of an hour longer with an
iron rod. The blast being then stopped, the twyere pipe is with-
drawn, and the operator taking his shovel, jiushes the burning charcoal
together with the dam into the lower heartli : the slag immediately
runs off, and exposes the g'owing iron lying in the bottom of the upper
hearth; the metal is then beaten with the back of the shovelinto a
more solid state, and after being dexterously cut with an iron chisel
bar, from the sides of the hearth, and forced from the bottom, it is re-
moved to the floor of the hut with a large pair of tongs. The iron is
next beaten wiih large hammers as it lies on the ground, in order to
expel the slag and other impurities from its pores; and after being in
this way formed into a rough mass, it is lifted to the anvil, when it is
again hammered into a more regular shape. It is next cut into two
pieces with large hamniers,-and is then fit for being drawn into bars of
the dimensions required.

At a single smelting, one hearth generally affords about 30 lb. of
malleable iron, to produce which there is only required about double
that quantity of ore, and three times the weight of charcoal. One
smith with Ids assistants will make about three or four smeltings in
one day, or one cwt.

It must strike every one acquainted with the iron manufacture, that
this yield is in a high proportion to the materials used. In England,
about four tons of raw ore and eight tons of coal are required to pro-
duce one ton of bar-iron ; while, by the process above described, the
same quantity of iron, of a much superior quality, is produced in Per-
sia from less than half of these materials. The greater productiveness
is no doubt to be attributed in a great measure to the superior richness
of the Persian ores, and the use of charcoal ; but the simplicity of the
pi-ocess must also have a considerable share in diminishing the waste
of materials; for the roasting, smelting, refining, puddling, shingling,
balling, and drawing-out, or something very similar, is all there effected,
as it may be said, at one heat, and in a very few hours.

The rich iron-ores of Cumberland and Lancashire, and many others
in Britain, particularly the blackband ironstone of Scotland, which has
so recently attracted the attention of iron-masters, if manufactured in
the same mar.ner, would undoubtedly produce similar results, and thus
create a great saving in time, labour, and capital, as well as diminish
the waste of materials.

In conclusion, the writer would beg once more to draw attention to
the fact that malleable-iron can be readily made directly from the ore,
contrary to what he believes to be the prevalent opinion in this conn-
try.

Since writing the preceding, the writer lias had an opportunity
of becoming acquainted with a similar process to the one already
described, now successfully practised near the town of Malatia, on the
tSyrian frontier, in the central parts of Asia Minor. The iron-ores in
this district are of the richest description, and were examined by the
■writer at the command of the Turkish government, with the view of
establishing iron-works on the scale of British iron-works, for the sup-
ply of the Turkish ordnance. The method there pursued is, if possi-
ble, still more simple than that of the Persians, as the furnaces are in
the form of a small cupola, and the fuel is simply dry wood.

SUTCLIFFE'S PATENT ROTATORY PUMP.

Sir — I take the liberty of forwarding yon the enclosed engraving of a
rotatory jiump, in wliicli you will jierccive Jlr. Sutdiffe is completely autici-
pated, and evidently (from the apparent age of the print) hy many years.
The coincidence lietween the two is more than remarkable, and I can but
regret the want of the letter-press to accompany and explain ; of tliis, how-
ever, yon (and your readers, if you think fit to publish it,*) will judge. It is
a French invention, and I consider, abandoned by our neighbours on account
of its very great friction, and the difficulty there must exist in preserving, for
any considerable time, the working surfaces in perfect contact. The ends or
water-tight points of the ellipse exi)eriencing so much more wear than the
same extent of surface in the surrounding cylinder, or chamber.

If Mr. Sutdiffe, or any person from him, wishes to see the print, 1 will leave
it with you for a time for that purpose.

A.

" [M'e have not thocglit it noccssnry to give the engraving, as it is .so
identically the same In principle as that of Mr. Sutcliffe's. The engraving,
we should say, is at least 100 years old ; it may be seen at uur o.Tice. — K.l.
C. K. 5c A. Journal.]

ADCOCK'S PATENT FOR RAISING WATER FROM MINES.

The very peculiar and extraordinary' degree of novelty exhibited iu
this process of raising water, and the high degree of importance at-
taclied to it by many of our engineering and mining friends, has induced
us to open a correspondence with the patentee, who has forwarded to
us drawings and a description, which will fully explain the invention.

It may be necessary to state, as the ajiparatus is for raining upwards,
many of our readers may have a very inadecpiate idea of the effect
which it produces, and comparing it with the velocity and quantity of
rain descending from the clouds, may conceive its effect, as practically
inefficient. And so unrjuestionably it would be, were the cases at all
analogous. But in the apparatus erected at the works of Messrs.
Milne, Travis, and Milne, at Shaw, where the pressure of the air was a
ninth part of a pound iq)on the inch, the velocity of the rain up-
wards, and its abundance were such, that if the rain were to descend
from the clouds with ecpial velocity and in equal abundance, it would
cover the earth ISi feet in a single minute of time. While, on the
contrary, it is well-known that the quantity of rain falling in the me-
tropolis in a vear, is not more than 22 inches.

To prove what we have here stated, we have only to detail the
following:

The diameter of the up-cast pipe at Shaw, was 1-lA inches =: 13-5
inches area.

Therefore the number of cubic inches in 1 foot of depth = lOSU.

And through that pipe 130 gallons per minute were carried up
120 feet in height.

And each gallon contains 277'274 cubic inches.

Hence, 130 gallons X 2"r-271 4- 19s0 = ISi feet, in depth.

Clearly proving ^vhat we have stated, that in a single minute, the
earth would be covered rather better than IS feet in depth.

Most probably we shall resume this subject in our next month's
publication. In the meanwhile we shall give Mr. Adcock's description
of the apparatus.

( Conimunicntcd by ilie Invmlor.)

By the present modes of raising water from Mines and other deep
])laces, by pumps and pump-rods, and other mechanical contrivances,
the water is raised through a series of pipes, in a compact or solid
state; in other words, if the depth through which the water must be
raised, by a pump or one lilt, be 100 feet, then the pipes, extending to
that depth, will be full of water, and the whole column of water in
those pipes will be lifted at one and the same time.

A column of water 100 feet deep, presses with a force of about 4;')
poiuids on each square inch of its base. Hence, if the diameter of the
pump-bucket, or ijUmger, be 12 inches, and its area, as a consequence,
1 13 inches, the weight of water to be lifted, at tach stroke, will be
about o085 pounds. — In a deep mine, therefore, containing lu such
colunuis or lifts of water, below one another, and acted on at the same
time, by the same ]nunp-rod, extending down the shaft or jiit of the
mine, the weight of water to be raised will be very great, being not
less than 50,850 pounds, or about 23 tons. Hence, to lift such weight
of water, and to overcome the friction of the water in the pipes, to-
gether with the !'»8 inertice to put such colunuis of water in motion,
and to support its own weight, the pump-rod must be made of great
strength ; and the steam-engine, water-wheel, or otlier prime mover,

1840.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

299

by which the effect must be produced, must be of hvrge size and great
power.

By consequence of that t)/s inertice, the friction, and tlie great weight
to be put in motion — and when steam-engines are employed, the alter-
nate action or reciprocation of the great lever or beam oif the engine —
the number of feet of (ffictive strokes, made, per minute, is compara-
tively small, being generally, in deep mines, from about 50 to !S0 feet.
To explain this more fully, the whole mass of water in the ten columns,
having to be raised at one and the same time, and therefore being
equal in weight to one column of water of the same diameter and
1000 feet in depth, may be considered as being lifted in the mass,
through a distance of 50, or from that to So feet in a minute. Whereas,
by my " Impro vemenis in raising naiti-from Jiiinea and other deep ptaci,s,
or from a loner level to a higher; which improvemenls are applicable to
the raising of liepiids gineralhj, and to other purposes," I do not raise
water or other liquids in the mass, nor do I find it necessary to exert a
pressure, at one and the same time, of 45 pounds on each square inch,
when the height to which the water must be raised is lOU feet ; nor
do I raise water by pumps and pump-rods ; but in the manner to be
described.

That is to say, by the aid of a steam-engine, water-wheel, or other
prime mover, I give motion to a fan, or i'anner (such as is used very
commonly by foundry-men, engineers, millwrights, and others, to force
a current of air into cupolas and other kinds of furnaces), or to the
piston of a blowing cylinder (such as is used by iron-masters, and
makers of iron, to force a current of air into blast furnaces, for the re-
duction of ores), and by aid of such fan or fanner, or blowing cvlinder,
I condense atmospheric air, that it may, when liberated from its con-
finement, have a tendency to escape into the atmosphere, with a velo-
city due to its pressure.

When atmospheric air is condensed to a quarter of a pound pressure
per square inch, beyond the atmospheric piessure, and is liberated
from its confinement, it moves, or has a tendency so to do, at the rate
of 173 feet in each second of time ; at half a pound pressure per square
inch, the speed, due to the pressure, is 245 feet per second ; at three
quarters of a pound pressure, 290 ft.; at one pound, 340 ft. ; at a pound
and a quarter, 375 feet; at a pound and a half, 410 feet; at a pound
and three quarters, 43G feet ; at two pounds, 4t)7 feet ; at three pounds,
555 feet; at four pounds, 624 feet; and at other pressures, with other
velocities or rates of speed, as may be known by reference to, or con-
sulting tlie Treatises that have been published on the science of Pneu-
matics.

Now, instead of raising w-ater in the mass, as herein-before describ-
ed, by pumps and pump-rods, and sucli like contrivances, I avail my-
self of the mechanical etfects that may be obtained from the velocities
of the air, as due to the pressures herein-before made known, or any
other pressures that circumstances connected with mines, in dilf'erent
localities, may prove to be desirable. 1 cause the water that must be
raised from the mine, or from a lower level to a higher, to be dispersed
and carried up in drops, like drops of rain ; but the velocity of those
drops, itp.rards, in consequence of the velocity of the air, is far greater
than the descending velocities of rain.

For drops of rain, when not receiving an impulse from winds, can
only descend through the atmosphere with a speed of about eight feet
in a second, when the diameter of each sphere or drop of rain is the
hundredth part of an inch. When the diameter of the drop is the six-
teenth part of an inch, the greatest descending velocity through the
atmosphere is about 17 feet in a second ; and the velocities in a second,
through the atmosphere, for drops of rain of other diameters, may be
thus stated : for drops of rain an eighth of an inch diameter, 24 feet;
for drops three sixteenths of an inch diameter, 30 feet; and for drops
a quarter of an inch diameter, 34 feet per second. Whereas, the
velocity of the air, when allowed to escape from a pipe upwards at
one pound pressure per square inch beyond the atmosphere, and v. ith-
out making any deductions for the friction against the sides of the
pipes, is about 310 feet in a second. But it should be stated that,
when the air is commingled with the water that must be carried up by
it from a mine, or from a lower level to a higher, its motion, to a cer-
tain extent, is retarded. The velocity of the drops of water iiprrards,
however, by this mode, or by these modes of raising water from mines
and other deep places, is far greater than the velocities at which rain
usually descends, as herein-before has been described.

In the engravings. Fig. 1, Fig. 2, and Fig. 3, represent the apparatus,
and Figs. 2 and 3 show a variation of the lower part. In each figure
the same letters of reference denote contrivances to accomplish similar
objects.

The three kinds of apparatus are shown in section —

a a, represents a pipe, made of zinc, iron, or other material, to con-
vey air from the fan or fanner, or blovving cylinder, to the bottom of
the shaft or pit of the mine — or, in a similar manner, air may be con-

veyed to any reqviired place, or depth, from which water or other
liquid must be raised.

_ I) b, another pipe, somewhat larger than the pipe a a, to convey the
air aforesaid, and the water which is carried up by it from the mine
or other depth, in drops, like drops of rain, to the surface of the earth
or to the adit, or to any required height, or place of discharge.

0, the sump, chamber, or reservoir, from which the water or other
liquid must be raised.

(/, metal, stone, or wood, to serve as supports.

By the rapid revolution of the fan or fanner, or the upward and
downward motion of the piston in the blowing cylinder, by a steam-
engine, water-wheel, or other piitne mover, imparting motion to it,
atmospheric air of the requisite amount of density is made to flow
down the pipe a a, and where the pipe turns upwards in the chamber
or reservoir c c, it comes in contact with the water or other liquid,
disperses it into drops, forces it up the pipe, 6 b, and delivers it at
the top.

In Fig. 1, a series of apertures is represented nearly at the bottom
of the pipe, /j 6. It is through those apertures that water or other
liquid flows into the pipe b b, in jets ; there to be met with, dispersed,
and carried up the pipe, by the ascending stream of air.

In Fig. 2, and in Fig. 3, the pipe 6 6 terminates in a chamber, com-
pounded, in shape, of a cone and cylinder; and the lower part of the
cylindrical chamber is represented as perforated with a series of aper-
tures, through which the water, or other liquid, flows from the reser-
voir or chamber c c into it. Tlie vfatev ascends, by the difference of

Fig. 1.

Fig. 2,

;jO()

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

I'Septkmber,

head, aljovc the termination of the air-pipe a a: it is there met by the
ascentUn"- c-nnent or stream of air; it is dispersed into drops, and
carried up by it, in tlie manner lierein-before made linown.

It slioiild ije stated tliat, in mines, and otlier deep places, where the
water may accumulate and rise to some height in the pit or shaft,
from the stoppage, bv accident or otherwise, of the steam-engine,
water-wheel, or other prime mover, or from other causes, I introduce
a stop-cock, or other contrivance adapted to the purpose, to regulate
the passage of water into, or to exchule it from, the pipe h h. 1 effect
this, bv putting the apertures aforesaid, in connexion with, and in
making them receive their supply of water from, a pipe to which such
stop-cock is applied. I attach to this stop-cock, or other contrivance,
a rod of wood or metal, of sufficient length to rise above the surface of
any water that thus may accidentally accumulate in the shaft or pit,
and of sufficient strength to enable tlie workman to open and shut the
aperture of the stop-cock, or other contrivance, by it.

It is essentially necessary that this should be attended to, as other-
wise the water, or other lifpiid, may accumulate aiwl rise to such a
height in the pipes a a, bh, as may prevent the passage of the air
from the pipe a a into the pipe h b, and thereby stop the action of the
apparatus. For a similar reason, the water or other liquid must never
be allowed to stand at a higher level above the end of the pipe a a,
than the pressure of the condensed air can displace ; and to effect this,
the reservoir c c must be so proportioned to the lower part of the pipe
b h, that whatever number of inches the water or other liquid may
descend by the pressure of the air in the one, it may ascend to an
equal number of inches in the other, as in the two limbs of a syphon
or bent guage ; and to guard still further against the chance of any
interruption of the process, either by an accumulation of water in the
mine, as aforesaid, or by an imperfect state of the stop-cock allowing
a portion of such accumulated water to flow past it into the lower
parts of the pipes aa,bb,\ connect with the lower parts of such pipes
a small pump, to be worked by the hand of a workman, and rising
sufficiently high in the mine to be above the surface of any water that,
perchance, may thus accumulate. By such ])ump, the workman,
labouring but a few minutes only, will be enabled to withilraw the
water or other liquid from the pipes a a, bb, and such liquid will be
discharged by him, not at the top of the mine, or at the adit, but back
again into the shaft, that it may be subsequently raised by the ascend-
ing stream of air.

In applying my invention, in practice, I sometimes cause the water,
or other liquid, to flow into the up-caal pipe, in any given time, in
direct proportion to the quantity that can be carried up it, in that
time ; which may be elTected by duly proportioning the sizes of the
apertures or ])erforations, or by the adoption of regulating stop-cocks ;
and in other modes of applying it, I cause the air, after it has passed
through the down-cait pipe, to be distributed and dispersed under a
large surface of water in a confined chamber, or reservoir, that it may
take up a portion of the water by adhesion, in the same way that water
is taken up in the formation of steam, — excepting that, in the one case,
the water is taken up by the air ; in the other, by caloric.

The air and the water commingled with it, or that quantity which is
thus taken up by it i» the state vf rapot/r, is then allowed to accumulate
above the surface of the solid body of water confined within such
chamber or reservoir (assimilating in its object to a boiler for the
generation of steam), until it attains the same pressure, per square
inch, as the air flowing down the down-cast pipe. After which, it
is allowed to flow through a pipe, extending above the surface of the
liquid in such chamber, into the lower part of the pipe, where it
meets with, disperses into drops, and carries up a still further quantity,
in the manner hereiu-before described.

The weight of water in the pipe, b b, at any one time, must be le--s
than the pressure given out by the ascending current of aii.

At the top of the up-cast pipe, b b, I cause the air and water taken
up by it, to be received into a dome, or other appropriate chamber,
that the greatest portion of the water may be collected together again
in a body, and thence be allowed to flow freely away. The air, and
that portion of the water still retained by it, is also allowed to esca))e.

lu other modes of raising water b\' my improvements, as aforesaid,
I produce and maintain, by any of the mechanical means adapted to
the end, a partial vacuum in the pipe, b b; and instead of employing
a down-cast pipe, a a, to convey condensed air into the pipe, b b, i
allow air to flow into it from the mine, through pipes arranged for that
purpose ; so that, by the difference of pressure between the air in the
mine, and that in the pipe, b b, the water may be carried up by an as-
cending current of air.

Another important feature of tliis invention is, that the ventilation
of a mine may be carried on free of charge. For the fan or fanner, or
blowing cylinder, may be made to receive its air frcm the open atmos-
phere ; or, by means of pipes extending to the required distance, the

air may be received from the depths of the mine ; or without enq)loy-
ing pipes, it may be received from the upper part of the np-ciist
shaft of a mine, which must be domed over for that purpose. By
which mode of operation, the impure air of a mine may be withdrawn,
that pure atmospheric air may descend the shaft or pit, by its gravitv,
to occupy its place.

Having thus described the nature of the invention, and the manner
in which the same may be performed and carried into effect, I wish it
to be understood, that the velocities of the air, as due to given pres-
sures, and the descending velocities of drops of rain, wiien falling
througli the atmospliere, are given by me as approximative uumbers
only: for atmospheric changes, and otlier causes, will produce a mate-
rial variation from tliem. And I wish it to be further understood, that
I tfo not, in this patent, confine myself to tlie precise arrangements and
dispositions of the combinations and contrivances herein described,
and shown by the engraving ; but I avail myself of all such other com-
binations and contrivances as in mechanics are equivalent thereto.

ADDENDA.

By some persons it is supposed, that air cannot be made to flow
through pipes of great length. — This supposition has been produced
by a statement made in Dr. Robisoii's ".Witural Pliilosop/ii/," art.
"Pneumatics," respecting an experiment conducted, many years ago,
at an iron-foundry in Wales. — It is there stated, that an engineer
erected a machine, at a powerful fall of water, to work a pair of blow-
ing-cylinders, or cylinder-bellows, the blow-jiipe of which was con-
ducted to the distance of a mile and a half, where the delivery-pipe,
or tui/ert, was applied to a blast-furnace in the usual manner. But
notwithstanding that every precaution was used, in making the pipes
as smooth as possible, the experiment failed ; and the failure was
ascribed to the impossibility of making the pipes air-tight. — Other
persons, since then, have ascribed the failure, with much better judg-
ment, to the friction of the air against the sides of the pipe ; but, being
unacquainted with the laws which regulate the passage of fluids, have
thence fallen into the erroneous opinion, that air cannot be made to
flow through pipes of great length.

I am not acquainted with the sizes of the pipes employed by the
engineer in Wales ; but it is certain that he was wholly ignorant of
the subject, and that the pipes were not properly proportioned to the
length. His ignorance is shown by the following: — 1, by his making
the pipes as smooth as possible in the bore; 2, by his expecting to
get the same, pressure of air from a pipe a mile and a half in length,
as from a short pipe ; and 3, from ten minutes of time elapsing after
the action of the piston in the blowing-cylinder had taken place, before
the least wind could be felt at the end of the pipe, whereas he had
calculated that the interval wou'.d not exceed six minutes.

With the view to elucidate these errors, and consequently to expose
the ignorance of tlie engineer, I shall adduce the following : —

1. It is well known to those who are acquainted with the flowing
properties of air, that providing there be no sudden enlargements and
contractions in the pipes, it is a matter of comparative indifl'erence
wdiether the pipes be smooth in the bore, or left in the rough as when
cast. For the tleliverv under the same length of pipe, under the same
pressure, whatever that length may be, is, as nearly as possible, the
same in both cases.

•2. That the greater the length of pipe, the greater, under certain
definite proportions, must be its diameter, in order to overcome the
friction, and to deliver, under the same amount of pressure in the
blowing-cylinder, a given quantity of air in a given time. Hence, as
the diameter, and consequently the area of the pipe incrcasts, the
pressure of the air must decrease in a correspondent proportion.

3. That atmospheric air, however compressed, and therefore under
whatever pressure it may act, cannot, jiractically, flow with the rate of
speeil assigned bv him, that is, 1320 feet in a second, ei'en into a va-
cuum ; much less through pipes a mile and a half in length, and under
the moderate amount of jiressure, which is tlu'ee pounds per square
inch, used, commonly, in blast-furnaces.

To illustrate this still further, and to show how easy it is for persons
unacquainted with these subjects to fall into error, and thence to de-
duce erroneous conclusions, i will suppose that 3000 cubic feet of air
per minute, at three pounds pressure per square inch beyond the
atmosphere, had to be driven into a blast-furnace ; and that "the engi-
neer, in Wales, finding that a pipe Ij inches diameter, when only from
a foot to a foot anil a half in length, would ileliver that quantity, had
jnit down a pipe of twice that area, or G inches and four-tenths in
diameter.

The quantity of air, per minute, that would have been discharged
through that pipe, when of different lengths, and under the same
amount of pressure in the blowing-cylinder, would have been as
follows : —

1840.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

.301

Length of Pipe. Discharge per minute.

100 feet 30U0 cubic feet.

200 2230 „

300 1370

400 , 1G40 „

500 „ . 1470

1000 , 1060 „

i mile 660 „

1 480 „

14 330 „

Hence, we find that, by improperly proportioning the diameter of the
pipe to the length, instead of discharging 3UU0 cubic feet of air per
minute, at the distance of a mile and a half, it would have discharged
only 330 cubic feet. In fact, that the diameter of the pipe would
have been adaj^ted, only, to 100 feet in length.

To have discharged the 3000 cubic feet of air per minute, the
diameter of the pipe for each length, and under the same pressure in
the blowing cylinder, would have been as follows:—

Lcngtit of Pipe. Diameters.

100 feet 6-4 inches.

200 „ , 7-2 „

300 „ , 7-8 „

400 „ 8-2 „

500 „ ,... S-5 „

1000 ,, , 9-8 „

^ mile ..,: 12-0 „

1 , 13-5 „

1* „ ...= 14-7 „

With these diameters, and under any one of the lengths thus given,
the 3000 cubic feet of air, per minute, would have been delivered.
But, of course, at the end of the pipe, the furthest from the power,
the pressure of the air would have been proportionably diminished, or
nearly so. This diminution of the pressure of the air, in the vp-
cast pipe, in applying the patented modes of raising water from mines
of great depth, is an advantage rather than a disadvantage ; it gradu-
ally reduces the speed of the ascending current, and allows the water,
when delivered at the top of the mine, the more freely to be collected
together again in a bod}-, that it may thence flow freely away.

The down-cast pipe may be so proportioned as to maintain nearly
an equal pressure throughout its length.

Henry Adcock,
'** Ciril Engineer.

One of Mr. Adcock's patent apparatus is now being put down at the
Pemberton Colliery, Wigan.

CANDIDUS'S NOTE-BOOK.

FASCICULUS xvra.

" I must have liberty
AVitlial, as large a charier as the ninus,
To blow on whom I please."

I. Notwithstanding the flunky sort of admiration professed to be
entertained by many lor Sir John Soane, no one, it seems, cares to imitate
him, I do not say in his peculiar style — or rather, fantastic mannerism,
but in those matters wherein he has set a really good precedent. It
is true he is an exceedingly bad authority to follow because his archi-
tectural merits and vices are invariably so mixed up together that it
requires some study to disentangle, them. While the outside of his
house in Lincoln's Inn Fields exhibits the most paltry and puerile
taste, and has a most offensive gira-crack and gin-palace physiognomy,
the interior offers much that deserves to be adopted : not that it is by
any means particularly good in itself, but on account of the hints and
ideas as to contrivances and effects, which it affords, and the sugges-
tions it holds out. While there is much in it that is exceedingly poor
or even paltry, — what no one would think of copying, or rather would
be at some pains to avoid, there are several things which might fre-
quently be imitated, and applied in a variety of ways, and iii many
cases with little trouble or expense. For instance, the very same
contrivance which is adopted in tht Picture Cabinet, is susceptible of
many modifications, some of which might be conveniently applied to
screens, bookcases, and similar pieces of furniture, witliout fitting-up
the whole of a room in that mannei'.

II. I find that Bartholomew is exceeding angry with me, pouring
cut the vials of his wrath upon my head, asserting that Caniuus would
be a more suitable name for me, and among other compliments in-

sinuating that I am descended from Gehazi the servant of Elisha — which
is certainly tracing back niv genealogy further back than that of any
one now living. But what if after all if my real name should tiun out
to be White, and that I have taken the liberty of latinizing it; instead
of arrogating to myself by mv assumed appellation any particular stock
of Candour? Any one who is not absolutely as blink-eyed as B. might
instantly have perceived from the very motto I have chosen that I
disclaim all pretensions to greater candour than my neighbours. Be-
sides there are two different sorts of candour; — oiie of which consists
in ingtmioushj confessing our own faults, the other, in ingeniously ex-
posing those of o\ir friends ; which last is that possessed by me. After
all, whether I am candid and indulgent, or quite the reveVse, has no-
thing to do with the matter: what chiefly concerns my readers is
whether my opinions are well founded and deserving of consideration.
Even Bartholomew himself does not pretend to say the contrary- — at
least he has not cared to call any one of them in question, by pointing
out its absiu-dity and fallacy. 'His compliments apart, the worst it
would seem, that he can find to say of me is that I am gi\en to bark-
ing— which is no more than I myself confess in the verv passage he
has quoted, — <uid that I like to have all the "cutting" to myself.
Gra.nting this last allegation to be well founded, though I am not con-
scious of having uttered any thing that can be construed as a desire to
monopolize that operation; — granting this, I say, it would follow that
there exists a perfect harmony of tastes between myself and Bartholo-
mew, for he is not at all sparing of cuts at his professional brethren ;
and he not only barks, but growls too, most doggedly. This man who
makes such a pleasant outcry against cutting and maiming, makes no
scruple of stabbing poor John Nash's reputation, asserting that he was
not gifted with one of the accomplishments "so necessary to an archi-
tect." Nay he may be said to massacre reputations by wholesale,
damning, as he does, in the lump, both the taste and practice of pro-
fessional men at the present day ; — for which he may perchance one day
or other be sainted by them, that is converted into a Sf, Bartliolomew,
by being flayed alive. — Most surely wdieu he calls Holland, who died
in 1306, one of the last of England's real aj'chitects, it is tantamount to
a sweeping condemnation of all the members of the profession at the
present day. Nevertheless poor Uttle Bartholomew aflects to be
shocked at me ; — which is undoubtedly highly amusing.

III. There is, I admit, one very great point of diftereuce between us,
for as he belongs to the profession himself, Bartholomew may proba-
bly feel that he has a right to abuse it as much as he pleases, without
any body's interfering to hinder him ; whereas I being no more than
one of those whom he denounces as self-made critics, cannot reason-
ably look to enjoy a similar privilege. With all due defei-ence, how-
ever to Saint Bartholomew, I conceive that all critics are and ever
have been self-made or self-constituted : at least I never heard of
their taking their degrees as such at any college ; or of their being
appointed to tiiat capacity by Her Majesty ; or of critics being made
by Act of Parliament. Critics, I should fancy, are one and all volun-
teers in the service they engage in, — and of course myself among the
rest. The day will perhaps arrive, when matters will be managed far
differently, and we critics be elected in the same manner as members
of the House of Commons. In the meanwhile the Gwilts and the
Bartholomews must submit whether they will or no to our piesent
self-election. One comfort for them is that they are not obliged to
read our impertinences, or to waste their precious time in refuting what
they would persuade others is only arrant ignorance. It certainly is extra-
ordinary that architects — and architects alone, should show a disposition
to gag criticism and stifle discussion, or even the expression of opinion.
Notwithstanding which the generality of them, I beUeve, have no par-
ticular aversion even to ignoramusses giving their opinion to the world,
when it happens to be complimentary to themselves, and of course,
most sensible, and most orthodox.

IV. Whether Mr. Wightwick will be considered altogether ortho-
dox by Bartholomew, is to me a matter of very great doubt, or rather
no doiibt at all ; the avowed object of the author of the " Palace of
Architecture," being to popularize the study of the art, to divest it of
all that mystery and luunbug which have so long rendered it an ar-
canum,— an art which the public are no less funnily than modestly-
called upon to admire with all possible admiration, and assured in the
very same breath that they can neither comprehend nor properly relish
it I " With what unspeakable horror must such gentlemen asGwiltand
Bartholomew- read the following sentence in Wightwick's book : " and
now we would finally address a concluding question to our fair coun-
trywomen. Can they do better than give some of their leisure to an
art so essentially decorative as that of architecture?" This is liberality
with a vengeance ! Is there no salic law to prevent this threatened
female tyranny over architecture ? Why in another generation we
shall have a swarm of Candidi or rather Candidae in petticoats ! By
the shades of Vitruvius and Palladio, Wightwick's doctiine is most

2 S

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THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[September,

Pestiferous .' and devoutly is it to be hoped that he will receive an
X emplary good tlirashing from St. Bartholomew the Little.

V. Upon one point, indeed, Bartholomew and Wightwick, though
in all other respects almost antipodal, agree tolerably well ; namely in
their estimate of the Elizabethan style, against which they both formally
litter their protest, — Wightwick briefly yet energetically, and Bartho-
lomew at considerable length, cataloguing its vices and deformities
one by one. So far, however, from attempting there to contradict
him, I am more inclined to say dil/o to his strictures; and if nothing
else, they certainly do show some boldness in venturing to run quite
counter to the taste of the day, for that barbarous fashion has been
taken all of a sudden most wonderfully into favour, and has in conse-
quence had several ably executed and expensive works, by Joseph
Nash, Richardson, &c., especially devoted to it; which productions
are not calculated to allay the feverish admiration of the public.

VI. "Elizabethan carving," says my worthy friend Bartholomew,
"resembles the schoolboy's performance with a penknife upon sticks
of firewood, some degrees below the workmanship of Dutch toys"l!
This is tolerably strong — nay, shows that the tender and merciful B.
is quite as well entitled to the epithet Caiumis as myself, and no less
fond of cutting up, what he does not like, — which I take to be in
general the case with all of us — both saints and sinners. — Let us pro-
ceed : "some persons," he afterwards observes, "very highly praise
the Elizabethan buildings, solely on account of their general effect ;
but they never can defend any of their licentious and childish details,
which indeed may at once be said to contain all the fattlls and cor-
7uplwns of design and composition which, have ever been condemned in
every style of architecture, by every deacripiion of critics, of every age,
and (f every country in the nmrld" ! ! .' Now for one who dislikes
" barking," this is valiantly vituperative.

Vn. Our amiable St. Bartholomew \'erifies the adage of Clodins
accnsat meechos, for though he professes to be quite scandalized at my
naughtiness, he, as has already been shown, leaves it to be inferred
plainly enough that the race of "real architects" is now altogether
extinct among the profession ; and even talks of " the sntahing, fraudu-
lent, pickpocket system which has led to extensive Faunlleroyism in mo-
dern architecture" .' ! !

— Bartholomew, my boy I we are now quits: you are ad — honest,
plain-speaking, though somewhat hard-mouthed fellow, — one who does
not mince matters at all. I would advise you, however, to have a
little more fellow feeling, and not serve me as the pot does the kettle ;
nor be quite so unmindful of your own dear self as to imagine me the
only canine candid creature in this naughty world who has a taste
"for abusing every body, and every thing," when you are pleased to
libel the whole profession at one fell swoop, and to represent modern
architecture as little better than a system of fraudulent knavery coupled
with the most disgraceful ignorance.

PUBLIC BUILDINGS IN LONDON.

jl Critical Review of the Public Buildings, Statues and Ornaments in

and about London and Westminster — 1734,

By Ralph.

( Continued from page 264. J

I suppose my readers have already observed, that during the course
of my essays on this subject, I have not contented myself with bare
remarks en the ornaments I find finished to my hand ; but that I have
taken all opportunities, beside, of pointing out ways and means which
either may, or might have been made use of to refine upon some, to
adjoin others, and make the most of every situation for the beautifying
and adorning the whole.

It is in this view I often mention things, which by the interfering of
property can never take place: and hold myself excused, in the pre-
sumption that a neglect in one particular, may be made a spur to the
improvement of another.

The new churcli (St. John's), with the four towers, at West-
minster, is situated in such a manner, with respect to Old Palace Yard,
that it might have been seen from thence, at the end of a noble vista,
to the greatest advantage imaginable: the sight of the towers over the
tops of the houses, put every body in mind of this, and it is with much
legret that we lose such a beauty.

As to the building itself, it is in a very particular taste, and has a
great mixture of beauty and caprice in it: there are many parts of it
which I approve, and many more which I condemn : it is "to be sure a
fatal mistake, to endeavour at an excellence, and than err so wide of
the mark as to stumb'e on deformity; all false ornaments become

faults instantly, and only serve to make an absurdity more conspicuous.
If the architect of this pile had once thought of this rule, I am per-
suaded lie would have been abundantly more chaste in his composi-
tions, and cut his towers, like that of Babel, off in the middle.

Henry the Seventh's rliapel has an undoubted right to be taken no-
tice of in a very particular manner, as being one of tlie most expensive
remains of the ancient English taste and magnificence : to be sure there
is no looking on it without admiration ; but then its beauty consists
much more eminently in the workmanship than the contrivance ; which
is just the reverse of what it ought to be.

The proportion and harmony of a plan is the first grand secret in
building ; nicety, and point in execution the last: thus it happeasthat
the edifice before us has nothing in its form to surprise or charm ; and
all the expence of art, which is lavished away upon it, only excites
pity that the subject deserved it no better.

I am very sensible I run no small risk of being censured for making
so free with so celebrated a pile as this : but as I profess myself clear
of all prejudice, and only in pursuit of truth, so 1 shall take all the
liberties which are of a piece with such a character, and resolve to be
governed by reason and judgment only.

On these principles, therefore, I will boldly affirm, that nothing could
be more absurd than erecting this fabric at the end of the Abbey ; it now
serving only to spoil the symmetry of both, and make a botch instead
of adding a beauty : if there were any point of view where both these
pieces might be seen together, the truth of my assertion would be ap-
parent, and as it is, a little imagination will answer the same end.

Let us farther add that, by this unnatural conjunction, the whole
magnificence of front, which might have been given to this costly
chapel, is entirely lost, and those who admire it most implicitly and
devoutly, cannot help enquiring for an entrance suitable to the rest of
the structure.

Let us for once then suppose, that it liad been entirely detached
from the Abbey, and erected opposite to the House of Lords, with a
sumptuous front to the street ; let us suppose the new Parliament
House finished on the other side, and the before-mentioned vista laid
open to the new church, and the consequence would then be another
group of beauties in building and decoration, which few cities in Europe
could parallel.

By the many things I have said of the advantage of space before a
building, in order to add magnificence to the view, no body will won-
der, I presume, that I am for levelling the Gate-house, demolishing a
large part of Dean-yard, and laying open the street at the west end of
the Abbey, at least, to an equal breadth with the building. I must
frankly own nothing appears so miserable to me, as such incumbrances
round a grand or elegant building: they abate the pleasure of the
prospect most exceedingly, and are real disadvantages to the builder's
fame.

Westminster Abbey is a fabric of great antiquity, and challenges
some kind of veneration on that account": it is besides of prodigious
bulk, and fills the eye, at least, if it does not satisfy it: to glance at it
in the landscape, without examining its parts, it pleases tolerably well ;
to examine its parts, we are under a necessity of disliking the whole :
if the height surprizes, we are out of humour with its form ; and the
fronts in particular ought to have rose eminently above the rest, in
order to have varied the lines, and given that grace it so visibly wants.
We now rather think of a barn than a church ; I believe this image is
owing intirely to the extreme sharpness of the roof, and if that was
rectified, it would be greatly to the advantage of the building in gene-
ral. It must be owned indeed, that the west end was never finished,
and there is much reason to believe that the two towers, on each side
of it, were designed to give the elevation, it is now so apparently de-
fective in.

There is indeed a rumour about the town, that the Dean and Chap-
ter still design to perfect this scheme, and raise the towers according
to their first projection : but I think it is rather too late to begin, for
unless they would new-case the church all over, the mixture of the
new and old would have a worse effect, than the defect we complain
of, and make a sort of patch-work in building, which is ever offensive
both to judgment and taste.

As to the inside of the church, it is certainly more perfect and judi-
cious than the out : the perspective is strong and beautiful, and strikes
the spectator in a very forcible manner, as soon as he makes his en-
trance ; and yet it owes the greatest part of its eft'ect to a fault in
symmetry. It is the exceeding height of the grand isle which gives
the astonishment ; but if that was only in exact proportion to the res-
of the parts, it would not be distinguished so much, and yet would de-
serve much greater praise.

Some of my readers would perhaps take it ill, if in this place, and
writing on the curiosities of the Abbey, I should not say something in
honour of tlie fine wax-work figures whicli are placed so curiously up

1840.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

30.3

and down this venerable building; particularly the king William and
queen Mary, which have been lately so amicably shut up together in
the same box. To oblige them therefore, and in compliment to the
reverend Dean and Chapter, who permit these noble decorations, I
will throw away a moment or two in giving my opinion of them. In
the first place, therefore, with all submission to better judgments, I
think they are ridiculous and unnatural in themselves, expressing neither
figure like statuary, nor colour like painting : secondly, I am humbly
of opinion that they would become a puppet-show better than a church,
as making a mere farce of what should be great and solemn : and,
thirdly, I think them higlily injurious to the characters they represent,
as showing them like jointed babies, to the stupid admiration of the
vulgar, and the contempt of men of sense ; instead of characterizing
their persons, and perpetuating their virtues.

For all which, and many more reasons, I beg leave to move that the
whole present set of waxen worthies may be demolished without be-
nefit of clergy, and that all their present patrons and abettors may be
substituted in their place; and that, as fast as any futvire reverence
should endeavour to seduce his brethren to the like idolatry, he should
be immediately chronicled in wax, and shewn with a cap and bells, to
distinguish the extent of his understanding, and the perfection of his
taste.

The inclosure, behind the altar, commonly known by the name of St.
Edward's chapel, has nothing remarkable in it but certain Gothic an-
tiquities, which are made sacred by tradition only, and serve to excite
a stupid admiration in the vulgar.

There is indeed, at the end of this place, a sort of gate to the tomb
of Henry V. which was intended for a piece of magnificence, and no
cost was spared to make it answer that design ; but the taste of it is
so unhappy, and the execution so w'retched, that it has not the least
claim to that character. The tomb of that prince challenges attention
only because it was his, and because the statue on it has lost its head :
to account for which singular injury, we are told a ridiculous tale of
its being silver, and that the value of it occasioned the sacrilege.

One thing, it is true, we meet with in this place, which merits a
peculiar regard; that is, a wooden chest of bones, said to be the re-
mains of Catharine, daughter of the king of France, and consort of
Henry V. If this account is authentic, I think nothing can be a greater
violation of decency, or more injurious to the memory of sucTi illus-
trious personages, than to expose their relics in so licentious a manner,
and make a show of what once commanded respect and adoration. If
the clergy are advocates for the decency of burial, as no doubt they
are, because of the profits which attend it, why do not those, who have
this church under their care, comply but with their common tenets,
and grant this indulgence to the ruins of majesty? To be sure I can
have no other answer but this, that they bury some for gain, and some
they leave unburied for the same reason.

It is beyond controversy, that there is something extremely shocking
in this violence to the secrets of mortality : the ancients had even a
superstitious regard for the dust of their ancestors, and surely we are
under some obligation to treat ours with good manners : and how the
reverend Dean and Chapter can reconcile this principle with their
conduct, I leave to the most learned casuist, among them, to determine.
If they would hearken to my humble advice, they would not be so very
intent on worldly interest, as to neglect worldly reputation : reputation
is interest too, and such trespasses as these, in the eyes of men of de-
licacy and understantling, are not easily forgiven or forgot.

The arch at the entrance of Henry the Seventh's chapel, is exceeding
grand and ornamental : the steps underneath are a fine preparation for
the scene at landing, and the three doors an admirable expedient to
favour the perspective w ithin ; but this, and several other beauties,
are utterly spoiled by the stalls, which cut off the collateral isles of
the chapel intirely, and thereby spoil the beauty and symmetry of the
whole.

The roof of this structure is certainly one of the finest things in the
world, I mean in the Gothic style : nothing can be in a better form, or
more richly decorated : perhaps had it been more simple it had shown
to greater advantage ; but still it is a wonder that one continued
cluster of ornament could be contrived to please so much, and answer
so well.

Were the absurd partitions mentioned above thrown down, the roof
would appear still more surprising, and the area before more spacious
and proportionable : all those tombs which are now shut up in such a
manner, that they are no where to be seen as they ought, would then
come foreward to the eye, and give an additional grandeur and solem-
nity to the scene : the pers|)ective would be finely broke, and every
object properly terminate in the founder's maiisoleum, as the principal
point of the whole view.

There are few tombs in Europe more famous than that of Henry VII.
neither indeed are there manv which deserve to be more so. The

undertaking, in itself, was vast and surprizing, the cost prodigious,
and the execution exceedingly difficult and laborious. And vet the
artist has succeeded in it to admiration; there is hardly a part in it
that is not excellent, from the chief figures to the minutest point of
the decoration : the statues of the king and queen are grand and noble,
and the bas-relief on the sides below, beautiful and expressive. I am.
of opinion the workman, wdioever he was, was equal to the noblest
scheme of this nature, and would have made a figure even amongst
the ancients. What a pity it is, therefore, that such a genius, and so
much art should be lavished away on a thing entirely out of taste, and
which, at the same expence and study, might have been made the
wonder of the world ! To explain myself farther on this head, nothing
can be more stupid than the laying statues on their backs, in such a
situation, that it is impossible they should ever be seen to advantage,
and of course, that all their perfections must be utterly thrown away.
In the next place, the brazen inclosure, which surrounds this tomb,
wonderiul as it may be, considered by itself, is a monstrous blemish,
with regard to the thing it was intended to preserve and adorn; be-
cause it rises abundantly too high, and intercepts the view intirely
from the principal objects.

Without doubt, the statues of the king and queen, ought to have
been in living attitudes, erect, and bold, and the decorating figures
should have formed a corresponding group, which in every light,
should have stood the test of criticism, and given the spectator an in-
tire satisfaction : a few more steps too should have been added to
raise the foundation higher ; a magnificent arch might have been thrown
over all, and the boundary below should have been only a guide, not
an incumbrance to the prospect.

Yet, erroneous as the taste of this fine monument may be, it may be
called excellent to that which prevailed several years after in the
reign of king James I. as may be seen by the wretched things, which
were erected at his command, to the memory of queen Elizabeth, and
his mother, Mary queen of Scotland : in these all the blunders that can
be imagined, are collected together : want of attitude and expression,
harmony and proportion, beauty and decoration : nay, the very columns,
which support the superstructure, are of different sorts of marble, and,
to make the figures splendid and natural, they are painted and dressed
out to the life, as if they were just retired from a drawing-room, and
laid down there for a little repose.

But these w hims seem to be again out of repute in the reign of his
son, as appears by the monuments of the Dukes of Richmond and
Buckingham : in these there are several fine figures in brass, and
something like meaning and design; though even then they had not
learned to distinguish the principal characters, and place them in such
attitudes, as should command the spectator's first and last attention and
regard.

Both these faults are intirely avoided by Rysbrack, in the monument
erected in the honour of the late Duke of Buckingham : there the
Duke himself is the principal figure in the group, and though he is in
a cumbent posture, and his lady, in the most beautiful manner, sitting
at his feet, yet her figure is characterized in such a manner as only to
be a guide to his, and both reflect back a beauty on each other. 'Jhe
decorations are exceedingly picturesque and elegant: the trophy at
his head, the fitiger of Time above, with the meials of his children,
fill up all the spaces with so great propriety, that as very little could
be added, nothing can be spared. In a word, I have yet seen no orna-
ment that has pleased me better, and very few so well.

I will conclude my remarks on the Abbey, with some brief reflections
on the use of sepulchral monuments in general, which will, at once,
serve to illustrate what has been said on the tombs already erected,
and likewise be of some service to the statuary in designing those
which may succeed hereafter.

However amiable fame may appear to the living, it is certainly no
advantage to tlie dead : whatever dangers they have dared, whatever
toils they have undergone, whatever difficulties they have surmounted,
the grave is deaf to the voice of applause, and the dust of the noble
and vulgar sleep in the same obscurity together. It is possible the
conscious spirit may have an idea of the honours that are paid to his
ashes ; but it is much more probable, that the prospect of this im-
aginary glory, while he lived among us, was all the pleasure it ever
could aftbrd him. I make this observation, because most monuments
are said to be erected as an honour to the dead, and the living are
supposed to be the least concerned in them : whereas on the contrary,
there are few but what were rather founded in compliment to the
builder's vanity, than in respect to the name they are inscribed with.
One man's fame is made the foundation of another's, who ordered this
sentence to be made his epitaph ; here lies Sir Philip Sidney's friend.
Some there are that mention only the names of the persons whose dust
they cover, and preserve a noble silence with regard to the hand who
raised them ; but even here, the dead can receive no benefit from such

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disinterested atl'ection; but tlie living may profit much by so noble an
exam|ile. Another tbing that displeases me, is the manner of the in-
scriptions, which frequently mistake the very design of engraving tliem,
and as frequently give the lie to themselves. To pore one's seTf blind
in guessing owt JEltrrue meiiiorite sacrum is a jest, that would make
Heraclitus laugh ; and yet most of them begin in that pompous taste,
without the least reflection that brass and marble cannot preserve
themselves from the tooth of time; and if mens' actions have not
guarded their reputations, the proudest monument would flatter in
vain.

I do not say these things because I am an enemy to the custom : so
far from it, no one can admire it more ; but what I intend is, to place
every thing on its right principle, and recommend the properest means
for the consequence. It is certain there is not a nobler amusement in
the world, than a walk in Westminster Abbey, among the tombs of
heroes, patriots, poets, and philosophers; you are surrounded with the
shades of your great forefathers; you feel" the influence of their vene-
rable society, and grow fond of fame and virtue in the contemplation :
it is the finest school of morality, and the most beautiful flatterer of the
imagination in nature. I appeal to every man's mind that has any
taste for what is sublime and noble, for a witness to the pleasure he
experiences on this occasion ; and I dare believe he will acknowletlge,
that there is no entertainment so various, or so instructive. For my
own part, I have spent many an hour of pleasing melancholy in its
venerable w alks ; and have been more delighted w ith the solemn con-
versation of the dead, than the most sprightly sallies of the living. I
have examined the characters that were inscribed before me, and dis-
tinguished every particular virtue. The monuments of real fame, I
have view-ed with real respect; but the piles that wanted a character
to excuse them, I considered as the monuments of folly. I have wan-
dered with pleasure into the most gloomy recesses of this last resort
of grandeur, to contemplate human life, and trace mankind through all
the wilderness of their frailties and misfortunes, from their cradles to
their grave. I have reflected on the shortness of our duration here,
and that I was but one of the millions who had been employed in the
same manner, in ruminating on the trophies of mortality before me ;
that I must moulder to dust in the same manner, and quit' the scene to
a new generation, without leaving the shadow of my existence behind
me ; that this huge fabric, this sacred repository of fame and grandeur,
would only be the stage for the same performances ; would receive
new accessions of noble dust ; would be adorned with other sepulchres
of cost and magnificence ; would be crowded with successive admirers ;
and at last, by the unavoidable decays of time, bury the whole collec-
tion of antiquities in general obscurity, and be the monument of its
own ruin.

Yet in spite of these sage reflections, this plain prospect of general
deciiy, I must own, it is a great pleasure to me to see a new statue
added to the last ; to see another name of glory increasing the catalo-
gue : it is a taste I am particularly fond of, and what I congratulate
the present age for encouraging so much. I am always one of the
first to survey a new monument, to criticise on its beauties, and point
out its defects. I have sometimes the pleasure of observing a beauty,
antl often a fault in our modern artists; and should be glad to take an
occasion of applauding the first, and mending the last. I would have
all w orks of ornament perfectly beautiful and elegant ; or else they
disappoint the very intent of their being. I would have all statuary-,
in a peculiar manner, excellent. A polite people are most distin-
guished as sucli, by their buildings, their statues, and their inscriptions ;
and I am sorry to say it, we are generally defective in all. There is
one noble lord amongst us indeed, who ha's taken great pains, and been
at vast expence, in improving our taste in one of these particulars ;
but I do not find so eminent an example has influenced many more to
an emulation of what has done him so much honour. In a word, sepul-
chral monuments should be always considered as the last public tribute
which is paid to virtue ; as a proof of our regard for noble characters;
and most particularly, as an excitement to others to emulate the great
example. In a word, I cannot look upon that which is raised over the
ashes of Sir Isaac Keuton in any other light: his honours were all
owing to his own merit ; neither is it in the power of the finest statue,
or the sublimest inscription, to attbrd him any addition. Had his re-
mains rested without a name, like Milton, or Shakespere, or Shafts-
bury, or Nassau, it would have been a new reproach to an ungrateful
]3eople, but no injury to him. On the other hand, the utmost magni-
ficence of funeral honours woidd only be a credit to us, without doing
him any service. Having lately observed that this stately mausoleum
had made the entrance into the" choir irregular; it was answered, that
if we waited with an equal name among fhe modems to make it uni-
form, it would hardly be so to etemitv ; and if an inferior was to be
ranged with him, it would be a disadvantage to both. It is most cer-
tain, that there are fewr characters that approach any thing near to an

equality, and the many vain trials that have been made for his epitaph,
are the highest compliment to his desert: it is a proof that language
was too weak to express it, and hyperbole itself too faint for the ad-
miration that was due to his accomplishments.

THE KELSON MONUMENT AND TRAFALGAR SQUARE.

The Select Committee (of the House of Commons) appointed to in-
quire into the Plan sanctioned by the Commissioners of the Woods
and Forests for laying out the vacant space in Trafalgar Square, in
front of the National Gallery, and wdio were empowered to report
their Observations, together with the Minutes of Evidence taken
before them, to the House, — have considered the matters to them
referred, and have agreed to the following Report.

Your Committee must begin by observing, that the nature of the
projected works in Trafalgar Square not having come under their con-
sideration till after those works were begun, they found themselves in
a position less advantageous for the performance of the task which
was placed in their hands, than had the field of inquiry been com-
pletely disembarrassed. They endeavoured, however, to free their
minds from all extraneous circumstances, and only to consider what
would most contribute to the embellishment of that part of the town.

They felt, that under the terms of their appointment, all that was to
be done within the area of Trafalgar Square came within the limits of
their inquiry, and that they should have ill discharged their duty to
the House and to the public, had they not adverted to wdiatever works
were designed for that situation ; a situation which is indisputably
one of the noblest in the metropolis ; an area which has been obtained
at a great cost, and the final decoration of which must have so large
a share in determining the character of that conspicuous part of the
capital.

Your Committee will begin with adverting to the plan for laying
out the area itself. They find that, so long as 1837, a plan for laying
out Trafalgar Square was submitted to and approved by the Lords of
the Treasury ; but, for reasons which do not appear, was never begun.
In the course of April, 1840, the plans supplied by jSIr. Barry, for the
same object, were approved by the Woods and Forests, and are now
in progress. The estimate for these works amounts to £11,000, inde-
pendent of the pavement of the square, and of certain ornaments of
bronze, which, in the judgment of Mr. Barry, are desirable. The chief
features of Mr. Barry's plan are, the levelling of the area from front to
back, and the construction of a terrace 15 feet high, on the south side
of the street, in front of the National Gallery. The etfect of this ter-
race will be greatly to improve the appearance of the National Gal-
lery, by giving it the elevation, for the want of which it has been
chiefly censured. Mr. Barry, on being questioned by your Committee,
gave it as his opinion that the appearance of the National Gallery-
might be further improved, by continuing the order of pilasters
through the whole length of the front, and relieving the baldness of
the cupola, by encircling itw'ith pillars, and giving it a bolder cornice;
which additions, he is of opinion, the existing walls would be capable
of supporting.

Your Committee having satisfied themselves that Mr. Barry's
plan for laying out the ground in front of the National Gallery was,
under all the circumstances of fhe case, well adapted to reconcile the
various ditliculties of the spot and attain the desired end, proceeded
to inquire what effect the column which is about to be raised by the
Nelson Committee in the centre of the south side of the square, would
have upon the National Gallery ; how far a column of such dimensions
would be seen to advantage in such a position ; and how far it would
contribute to the embellishment of that part of the metropolis. In
order to assist their judgment on this important point, they called
before them several architects of acknowledged merit, and availed
themselves of the opinions of eminent sculptors and men of taste.
These gentlemen were allowed an interval of two or three days to
consider the subject : at the end of which they all sent in their opi-
nions in writing. In the opinions of these gentlemen, as might be
expected in a matter of taste, there is not perfect unanimity ; but your
Committee feel to have derived great advantage from having con-
sulted them, and by carefully weighing their opinions and examining
the principles upon which these opinions are based, have arrived at
conclusions of their own.

Your Committee are of opinion that such a column so situated
would have an injurious eftect upon the National Gallery, by depress-
sing its apparent altitude, and interrupting that point of view which
should be least interfered with.

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They are of opinion that a cohimn of such dimensions ^\ill render
the surrounding buildings less important, and, so situated, will not
group well with anything in its neighbourhood.

They are of opinion that, as approached from Whitehall, as seen at
the termination of this grand avenue, which forms one of the principal
entrances of the metropolis, the appearance of the National Gallery
will be much injured by the column. In this point of view the column
will cut the National Gallery through the centre, and the pedestal of
the column alone will nearly conceal both the portico and the cupola.

They are of opinion that the site selected is not a favourable position
for the column itself.

There is another point to which your Committee will advert, which
is, that the statue of King Charles is not in a line with the column;
nor could this defect, from tlie proximity of the two objects, fail to
catch the eye. So long as there is no column in the proposed situ-
ation, the statue of King Charles, where it now stands, is a fortunate
circumstance, offering a subordinate object in front of the National
Gallery, which serves as a scale, without obstructing the view.

Your Committee, entertaining these opinions, are unable to avoid
arriving at the conclusion, that it is undesirable that the Nelson
Column should be placed in the situation which is at present selected.
If it is desirable in a great city to suggest the idea of space, and hav-
ing once obtained space, not to block it up again — if the general archi-
tectural effect of Trafalgar Square, or of the buildings around it, is to
be at all considered — or if, at any time, an equally conspicuous position
should be desired for any other monument — the situation at present
selected for the Nelson Monument is most unfortunate.

Your Committee having arrived at this decision, proceeded to
inquire at what cost a change of plan in the jjosition of Nelson's
Column could now be effected, and how far it would be consistent with
good faith now to interdict the Nelson Committee from prosecuting
their work in the situation in which it is commenced.

What has actually been done towards the erection of the Nelson
Column is no more than the excavation for the foundation, and pouring
in the concrete which is to form a bed for the masonry, the expense of
which, in Mr. Barry's opinion, would be more than covered by 1,000/.
Contracts, however, have been entered into by the Nelson Committee,
a failure to complete which would subject them to actions at law. It
is not, however, probable that, if the same work were entrusted to the
same persons in another situation, such actions would be instituted.
The pecuniary loss, therefore, w'ould not of itself entail so great a
sacrifice as to preclude the idea of even now adopting a preferable
course.

"But it appears by the Treasury Letter, bearing date 27 January,
1S40, that the Lords of the Treasury have authorized the Commissioners
of the Woods and Forests to deliver over the site appropriated for
the Nelson Monument to the Committee for carrying that object into
effect; and according to the evidence of Mr. Scott, it appears that the
Architect has taken possession of the site, and has commenced the
concrete and brickwork of the foundation, in which considerable pro-
gress has been made, and on the completion of which the Nelson Com-
mittee are bound to pay the contractors the sum of 2,0001'."

Your Committee cannot doubt that the Lords of the Treasury in
authorizing the Commissioners of Woods and Forests to give that site
to the Nelson Committee for the erection of the proposed column,
entertained the fullest confidence that funds would be provided for
carrying out the work in conformity to the plans and drawings which
had been seen and approved ; and they feel they should be wanting in
their duty if they failed to direct the attention of the House to the
fact that, according to the evidence, the subscription is at present de-
ficient for the purpose, to the amount of some tho\isand pounds. Mr.
Railton informed the Committee that his estimate of the column
amounts to £28,000, whilst the sura subscribed does not exceed
£18,000, nor does it appear that any well-grounded hope exists of any
considerable addition.

It is true that contractors have engaged to complete the pedestal
and the column for £15,000, and the metal for the capital is expected
to be supplied by the Ordnance. But your Committee submit that a
perishable statue of Portland stone is most objectionable ; and sup-
posing the terms of the contracts to be fulfilled to the letter (which in
works of such a magnitude is seldom the case), the remaining £3,000
is wholly inadequate to meet the expense of casting the capital, of
obtaining such a statue as ought to crown the summit, and of providing
the bronze bas-reliefs for the sides of the pedestal, and the lions at the
corners of the base. Even if the fund should prove sufficient to com-
plete the masonry, no statue can be raised but one of Portland stone,
and the column without its bas-reliefs will remain a denuded mass,
which, however gigantic, will have a mean effect.

[The foUo'.vingjs an analysis of the examination of the Witnesses.]

IVilliam Kaillon, Esq.. was c-\amuied, he stated that he was an architect —
that his plan was selected for the Nelson column. The height of the column
altoKether is now 170 feet, including the steps and everything ; the original
height was 203 feet ; it was reihiceJ about two months after tlie last compe-
tition, by order of the government. In conseqvience of a representation which
was made to the Government, that the height of the column, e.sceedmg that
of any other column of the Corinthian order, which had ever been executed,
would expose the column itself in that position to risk; the Government
thereupon referred the consideration of the possible danger, and the charac-
ter of its capital, to .^ir Robert Smirke and Mr. Walker, the President of the
Institution of Civil Engineers. — It was reduced altogedier 33 feet in height,
both from the shaft and the pedestal. So as again to put the whole building
of the column into just architectural jiroportions, the other proportions were
diminished altogether ; the height of the shaft is 98 feet six inches; the pe-
destal of the statue 12 feet six inches; the statue 16 feet ; the steps seven
feet, and the pedestal 30 feet six inches high. The breadth of the square part of
the pedestal is 17 feet. The amo\mt of his estimate was £30,000. It will be
done for less than that. He did not consider the reduction made any differ-
ence, as granite is to be used instead of freestone, which is of course very
much dearer; the alteration has been no pecuniary benefit, though it may
increase the durability, granite being stronger than freestone. From the use
of granite instead of freestone it mounted up to 28,000/.; if it had been in
freestone it might have been 203 feet high for the same amount : in granite
it would, of course, have been more expensive at the 203 feet ; it is to be
completed in two years. He did not think the alteration in the position ren-
ders any other alteration necessary. As far as it intercepts the view of the
National Gallery, the present position of the column is a great improvement.
Where it was be'fore, it was no detriment to the National Gallery ; the Gal-
lery is a very long line, and requires to be broken ; therelore it brings it more
into keening. The position of the column is now settled to suit Mr. Barry's
plan. The original site of the column was nearer the National Gallery than
is now proposed. He considered that the position Government has selected
for the column is as advantageous for its effect, and the general architectural
effect of the whole site, as the position originally selected. He would have
selected it himself, but at that time the ground did not belong to Government.
They have obtained it since. Ha is better satisfied with it, as it is at pre-
sent; it is certainly an improvement to the whole square; and it is seen
better from the Strand and Cockspur-street, and from different places than
it was before. He considered that a column was best calculated for this.
He had well considered many other designs, and came to the conclusion that
a column was best suited to this site, as it obstructs the view of the Gallery
and all the buildings in the square less than others possibly can do, and by
putting it in the ceutre. you have a better view of the National Ciallery from
every point than by putting it in a different situation ; he did not think any
other species of monument would so little interrupt the view of the National
Gallery. The height to the top of the dome of the National Gallery is about
120 or 130 feet. The height of the spire of St. Martin's Church is 180 feet
from the ground ; to which must be added 12feet six inchesfor the difference
in the level, making 192 feet six inches ; so that St. Martin's Church is con-
.sideraldy higher, and nearer the National Gallerv than my column ; and if
that does not injure it, he did not see how his column could. Allowing for
the difference in the elevation of the two, the difference in the height of St.
Martin's Church is 22 feet six inches above the National Gallery.

Charles Barry, Esq., was examined, he stated that he was employed in lay-
ing out the ground in front of the Nat'on-d Gallery. He explained to the
Committee the nature of his design for laying out the square. The area is
proposed to be level ; on the north side, in front of the National Gallery, a
terrace is proposed 165 feet long and 32 feet vide, with a flight of steps at
each end to the area below the same width (each step being two feet wide
and five inches high), with ample landings in the circular corners of the
square. The terrace is proposed to have at each end two large oblong pedes-
tals for groups of sculpture, and circular pedestals for candelabra are pro-
posed to be placed at the foot of each of the flights of steps, as w ell as at the
angles of ihe square towards Cockspur-street and the Strand. The terrace
and flanking w alls of the steps are proposed to be suvmounted by a balustrade.
The terrace Vail and balustrade will be 14 feet in height. The embanl<ment
or retaining walls to the surrounding streets are proposed to be surmounted
by a solid parapet tliree feet high. The front or south side of the square, and
the north side of the terrace towards the road in front of the National Gal-
lery, are proposed to be enclosed by ornamental stone posts, so placed as to
be a barrier against carriages and horses. The area is propossd to be covered
with asphaltum. The terrace to be paved ; and the whole cif the masonry in
the terrace and retaining walls, the steps and landings, the pedestals, balus-
trades, and lateral parapets, as well as the posts on the south side of the
square and on the terrace, are proposed to be wholly of Aberdeen granite. The
enclosed area from east to west is about 350 feet ; from north to south, in-
cluding the terrace on the north side which is 32 feet wide, is 290 feet. TTie
area between the building from east to west is about 500 feet wide, ami from
the statue at Charing-cross to the front of the portico of the National Cial-
lery. the length is about 470 feet. From the proposed column to the front of
the National Ciallery the length is 300 feet. From the column to Cralg's-
court, the length is 400 feet. Fri m the column to Whitehall chapel, the
length is 1,180 feet. From the column to the angles of Cockspur-street and
the Strand, the length is 240 feet. From the column to the north-west angle
of Northumberland House, the length is 180 feet ; that is, as regards the
dimensions of the square and the distance. The measurements are from the
shaft of the column. The levels of the square below the road in front of tlie
Gallery are as follows : at the base of the proposed terrace wall, 11 feet ; at
the proposed column, 11 feet ; at Craig's-court, 25 feet ; at Whitehall chapel,
about 30 feet. The amount of his estimate is 11,000;. ; the groups of sculp-
ture and candelabra surmounting the pedestals should be of bronze. The
asphaltum covering of the S'juare, the pavement of the terrace, and the
groups of sculptuie on the pedestals, form no part of the estimate. He stated
fo the Committee the effect of the proposed column upon the National Gal-
lery, when viewed from Craig's-court and Whitehall. When viewed from

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EMBER,

Craig's-coiirl, tlie slyloliate will conceal the entire centre, extemling to the
columns in front of the gateways in breadth, anil nearly the whole height of
the podium ; the bottom step of the pedestal will conceal r.ither more than
the mil width of the portico in breadth, and up to two feet from the bottom
of the column in height ; the top ste)i will conceal rather less than the width
of tlie portico in breadth, and up to eight feet from the bottom of the columns
in height; the die of the pedestal will conceal one half of the portico in
breadth, and up to within three feet of the springing of the dome in height.
V'hen viewed from M'h tehall Chapel, the stylobate will conceal the whole of
the portico and the projections on each side in breadth, and one half of the
podium in height ; the oottom step will conceal three-fuitrths of the portico
in breadth, and five-sixths of the podium in height ; the top stop will conceal
live-eighths of the portico in breadth, and up to two feet from the bottom of
the columns in height ; the die of the pedestal w ill conceal one-third of the
portico in breadth, and to the toji of the order in height ; the shaft will con-
ceal une-fourth of the portico in breadth, and the whole height of the build-
ing.— Mr. Barry gave it as his opinion that the area of Trafalgar-square was
too small and cuiifincd for a column of the height and magnitude proposed :
the effect of it would be to reduce the apparent size of the square, and render
the surrounding buildings insignificant. The National Gallery, being .small
in its parts, and low in elevation, will suffer materially in this respect, more
especially w hen view ed from ^^■hitehall and Charing-cross. « here the pedes-
tal steps and stylobate, forming the base of the proposed column, will conceal
a considerable portion of the portico, which is the most effective part of the
huilding. The irregularity in the form of the area, the variation in the levels
of the surrounding streets, and the direction of the several lines of approach,
are not calculated to afford a favourable view of the column, except from
Charing-cross and Whitehall, «heie, as he has before stated, it will have an
injurious effect upon the National Gallery, whilst the Gallery will form an
unfavourable bacKgi-ound for the column." From all other points of vieH', the
unsymmetrical position of the column, in respect of the surrounding objects,
will be striking and unsatisfactory. The views of the proposed column from
the ends of Duncannon-street and Pall Mall East, as w ell as from the road in
front of the Gallery, «ould be unfavourable, in consequence of the points of
sight being from 11 to 14 feet above the base of the stylobate on which the
column rests. Fi r these reasons, he was of opinion that the column will be
improperly jilaced in Trafalgar-square.— fn the event of the removal of the
column, he should not wish to make any change in the general principles of
it; it would in his opinion be desiuable thatUie area shouhl be left wholly
free from all insulated objects of art. which in consequence of the irregular
form of the square, and its level with reference to the higher and variable
levels of the streets which surround it on three sides, would be unfavourably
seen fiom many points of view. The four pedestals at the top of the flights
of steps from the terrace might be surmounted by groups of sculpture, say
cf a man and horse, exhibiting the characteristic varieties of the human anil
brute fonn ot each quarter of the globe : in the centre of the terrace-Hall
might be a fountain, composed of sea-horses, naiads, and tritons. surmounted
by a semi-colossal figure of Neptune, which for the sake of the composition,
and obtaining an effective view of it both from the square and the ten-ace,
might be placed above the level of the balustrade. The four circular pedes-
tals, t«o of »hich are proposed to be placed at the foot of the flight of steps
from the terrace, and the others at the angles of the square towards Cock-
spur-street and the Strand, might be surmounted by candelabra, supported
by groups of figures, and containing eachaBude or Drummond light, from
» hich the entire square should be illumined by night. Thus, an opportunity
would be afforded of giving .scope and encouragement to sculptural art of a
high class, and of giving that distinctive and artistic character to the square,
which is so much needed in the public areas and .squares of London, to excite
amongst all classes that respect and admiration for art, so essentially neces-
sary to the formation of a pure and well-grounded national taste. — In answer
to a question put to him by the Committee, if he could suggest any other place
for the Nelson monument ? Mr. Barry stated that the centre of St. James"s-
square. if a central street were made into it from Pall Mall, would perhaps be
eligible, or the Crescent at the top of Portland-place, or such a situation as
the Circus between Oxford-street and Regent-street ; or out of London, per-
haps the best and most appropriate site would be in conjunction with Green-
wich-hospital.—Mr. Barry gave the dimensions of the streets which would
be left on either side of the area. Seventy-five feet would be the average
width on the east side. The thoroughfare on the side of the Union Club and
Morley's Hotel will be nearly the same as on the north, opposite the Gallery.
On the north side in front of the National Gallery the width will be about 80
feet, w hich is the width, not of the pavement, but of the thoroughfare for
carriages ; the widtli of the street in the three cases as regards the thorough-
fare for carriages, exclusive of the foot pavement. 50 feet in front of the Na-
tional Gallery ; 52 feet is the average width of the road on the east side of
the square, and the width of the road for carriages on the nest side is 40 feet.
— There is a difference of several feet in the level of the general range of the
ground line of the National Gallery, of three or four feet at least ; the ground
IS highest near St. Martin's Church. It rather falls towards Pall Mall East.
He liad attended to the extreme difference of those two levels, and met that
tlifficu'ty by lowering the end of Duncannon-street, and raising the street at
Pall Mall East, and making a variable hanging level in the road in front of
the National Gallery. By accommodating tlie fall of the road in the front of
the National Gallery to the terrace, he makes it more in one place than the
other, so as not to create an unpleasant effect to the eye ; the balustrade is
perfectly level, parallel to the foot of the National Gallery, and on the same
plane. The plan has been sanctioned by Government, and the estimate is before
Parliament for its completion as to the terrace. He had no doubt that by the
introduction of the terrace, the effect of the National Gallery, as a buililing,
would be improved. His object is to give an increased apparent height to the
Gallery. He had no doubt that the erection of so high a column would have
the effect of malsing more prominent the defects of the National Galleiy. He
was of opinion that the appearance of the National Gallery might be further
improved ; he explained to the Committee in what » a)- it might be done. He
considered that a continuation of the order of columns or pilasters tlu'OUgh

the \i hole length of the front would be one means of improvement, and by
raising the dome and altering the design of it, Wtuld be another means of
improving it. He was not prepared to say that the existing walls were strong
enough : he had very little doubt they would, for the walls that carry the
present mass would probably carry much more. — The cupola could be encir-
cled with pillars ; he would recommend a bolder cornice, and an increased
height of the parapet, so as to conceal the lanterns which now just appear;
he thought the walls probably would bear that. He was not prepared to state
the cost of such an alteration. He had not considered the effect of removing
the columns. He could not say that the proposed alterations would have the
effect of completely curing the existing defects of the National Gallery. The .
great defect is its lowness ; this would' in part be obviated by rais ng the cen- '
tre. and giving more elevation to the dome, but it would not make the entire
mass appear high enough for effect. The original defect would in part be re-
medied, but it would still bejthere. He could not then form a rough estimate
of the cost of executing some such plan as that, and of pulling down the ma-
terials and rebuilding it ; the difference would be considerable ; it would be
cheaper. — The defects such as they are, of the National Gallery, as it now
is, or even if the National Gallery is altered, would be more prominently
brought forth by the erection of a column of that altitude in its front. In
either case it would operate disadvantagenusly to the building. He did not
consider that it would be worth while to do anything for the improvement of
the National Gallery, if the column is to be placed in front of it. — In answer
to the following question, do you think if it were thought desirable a trophy
to ^\'ellington and to Nelson should be erected in that area, that they could,
be so contrived as to contribute to the embellishment of that whole scene ? —
'■ Mr. Barry said, I think they could be so contrived, but I do not think it
would be desirable. I think the area is not large enough for tivo monuments
of a proper size for effect. And there is this objection, that the levels of the
surrounding streets being higher than the level of the square, you would look
at any monuments placed on the level of the square to a disadvantage."
'• Not if they were erected in bronze, w ould you ?" — " It w ould depend on the
nature of the monument ; it might be lifted up by a rough basement ; but I
would rather that the area should be free." " Do you not consider it would
be a glorious thing for the nation to hand down to posterity the two great
men of both services, land and sea, on the same spot, and whom England
had produced in the same war, and at the same time?" — '■ Most desirable,"
" But the spot you would select would not be the area in Trafalgar-square?"
— '• I think not."

Aiistfi'rs to Questions proposed to the U'itnesses bi/ the Committee, to leinch tltei/
were requested to/arnish Answers,

QuESTio.N I. — What eff'ect. in your opinion, will a column, of which the
|)edestal including the steps is 43 feet high, and the height altogether
170, have upon the National Gallery ?

Ansteer by Ediranl Blare. Esq. — An object of the magnitude of the column
in question, (hat is. including the plinth. 170 feet high, and occupying so
prominent a position, whether considered as an ornamental object or not. will
form by far the principal feature in any point of view in which it may be
considered, and the National Gallery and the surrounding buildings will only
have the eHi?ct of back grounds or accessories to this principal feature.

Deeimus Burton, Esq. — The column will apparently diminish the size of the
Gallery.

Sir Francis Ctiantreij. — Although I have attentively examined Mr. Railton's
very beautiful perspective drawing, and Mr. Barry's plans, yet. in the ab-
sence of a geometrical drawing;, or a model, showing the relative height of
the column with the adjacent buildings, they do not convey so clear a con-
ception to my mind as enab'es me to give a decided opinion; perhaps to the
more practised understanding of an architect they may be sufficiently intelli-
gible ; I cannot, how ever, believe that a column, or other ornamental object,
placed where this is intended to be, can injure the present appearance ot the
National Gallery, except so far as it may interrupt the view, and perhaps
tend to lower its apparent altitude.

T.L. Donaldson, Esq. — It n ill render the inadequacy of the National Gallery
for the important position which it occupies still more apparent : the want of
altitude in the National Gillery, the littleness of all the features, the number
of parts into which the elevation is divided, are so many circumstances w hicli
give an insignificance to the building. If any other ornamental erections are
to be placed in Trafalgar-square, anil restricted to being subordinate in scale
to the National Gallery, the area will consist of a vast space occupied by in-
significant obiects. The only way to restore to it that importance which it
deserves, and which it has lost through the National Gallery, is to place
within it a lofty towering edifice, to which all the buildings ar.iund will be
subordinate, and form the background. 1 conceive, therefore, the size of the
proposed column to be no objection.

Joseph Gwilt, Esq. — A column, whose pedestal is to rise to the height of 43
feet, of proportionable width, will, in every view from the south, have the
effect of^ destroying whatever unity of design the National Gallery possesses,
by cutting it into two parts, equal or unequal, as the place of the spectator
may be varied. This, of course, can only take place in the view from the
south. As respects its grouping with the Gallery and other buildings about
it, as seen from the eastern and western sides, I do not think it possible that
it can in any position be seen advantageously in connexion with them. This
opinion is founded on a survey of the spot itself, with the proposed pedestal and
steps set out by the eye ; but as the matter is reducible to strict mathematical
reasoning on a plan and section of the ground and levels of the neighbour-
hood, it may be tested by such means to positive proof, by drawing lines,
touching the boundaries of the pedestal from every point of view, and con-
tiiniing them to intersect the fafade of the National Gallery, by which will
be seen the portions of it intercepted. The portico, the best part of the build-
ing in question, will thus be found to suffer much more than the subordinate
parts.

Philip Hardwick, Esq.— I am of opinion that a column of which the pedes-
tal including the steps is 43 feet high, and the height altogether 170 feet

1840.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

.307

placed, as it is proposed to lie. in front of the National Gallery, and in aline
with the centre of the portico, must in certain points of view, on approaching
it from the south, conceal so much of it, that its efiect cannot he favourable
on that Ijuikling.

Sidney Smirke, Esq.— I think that the column and its pedestal will have the
eft'ect of detracting, in some degTee, from the importance of the National
Gallery as an architectural object.

Sir R, ll'estmacotl. — I am of opinion that a column, of which the pedestal
including the steps is 43 feet high, and 17 feet wide, and the height alto-
gether 170 feet, will be injurious to the effect of the National Gallery.

Question II. — 'What effect, in your opinion, will the said column have
as an ornamental object, in combination with the surrounding build-
ings?
Ethcaril Blore, Esq.— The effect of the column considered as a whole, in
combination with the surrounding buildings, will vary very much according
to the different points of view in which they are seen, offering with every
cliange of position, some new combination of greater or less merit.
Decimns Burton, Esq.— To render those buildings less important.
Sir Francis Chantreij. — This question involves all (he difficulties contained
in the first. As an ornamental object, the beauty and just proportions of a
Corinthian column, as forming part of a building, are matters settled 2,000
years ago ; what its effect may be .standing alone must depend much on the
base, and the object w hich crowns the summit. An injudicious association of
modern things with ancient may put the column out of the pale of classic
beauty. Of the statue which is to be made I can give no opinion, but if it be
only to measure 17 feet, its bird-like size will not be much in the way, and if
formed of Portland stone, will not be long in the way. The Trajan, the
Antonme, and the Napoleon columns, are the only monumental objects of
tins class that I have ever looked upon «i'.h entire satisfaction: I read the
history of the man on the shaft of the column, and the mind is thus recon-
ciled to see the statue so elevated. I may be told we have not money enough
for a work of this character, that naval e.\ploits furnish bad materials for
sculpture, or that the arts of this country are in too low a state to accom-
plish so noble a work : then I say. abandon the impossibility at once, and
try something more in keeping with our means and our genius.

T. L. Donrildson. Esq.— An advantageous eflect : as the judicious design
jirepared by Mr. Barry for laying out the area will mask to a great degree
the distortions and inequalities in the levels, and the irregularities in the plan,
and render them inapparent to the general mass of people. St. Martin's
church is already of such a scale, and so peculiar and distinct in character,
that it cannot suffer from the column. The masses to the cast and west,
although imposing in style, are not sufficiently monumental to deserve any
sacrifice being made to them ; and the National Gallery is so insignificant as
to require some other object to redeem the opportunity which has been lost.

Joseph Gwilf, Ei-q.—l GO not think the proposed column will combine so as
to group well with any of the surrounding buildings, and least of all, if there
be any difl'crence. with the National Gallery. In this the intention seems to
have been to preserve a strictly Greek style, in contradistinction to one of
Roman or of Italian character, whereof the small inclination of the pediment
seems to be such an indication, that a vertical feature (such as the column
w-ould be) rising through it, I think likely to produce even a ludicrous effect.
Viewed with the group of buildings on the east side of Trafalgar Square,
(St. Martin's church excepted) I do not think any bad effect would be pro-
duced, because I do not consider them as of sufficient architectural import-
ance to weigh in the matter ; but w ith those on the west side, and also of
St. Martins portico on the east, and to the south-east with a building of great
architectural merit and consistency, I mean Northumberland House, I see no
lines about the column nor its appendages which make it desirable to choose
such a site for it as that in question.

Philip Harilu'ick, Esq. — Architectural objects well designed, and of good
proportion, almost invariably combine well with surrounding buildings, and
1 think it probable that such will be the effect of the proposed column.

Sidne;/ Smirke, Esq. — It will have the same effect upon all the adjacent
buildings ; but, when viewed as a whole, in combination w ith the surround-
ing architecture, including the intended terrace, &c., I should e.?pcct that a
very fine architectural scene will be produced, however much each building
composing the group may suffer in individual importance.

Sir R. Wesfmacott. — As an ornamental object, m combination with the sur-
rounding buildings. I cannot hesitate in saying, that I think the effect of the
column itself and those buildings, from the absence of harmony of proportion
with each other, will in itself be bad ; and considered in reference to those
buildings, by reducing their scale, and more especially of St. Martin's church,
have an injurious effect on those edifices.

Question III. — What effect w ill the column have on the National Gal-
lery, as you approach it from Whitehall ?

Edward Blore, Esq. — As regards the National Gallery, the combination as
you approach it from Whitehall will be one of the least favourable, inasmuch
as the column in this point of view will cut the portico and dome of the Na-
tional Gallery almost tlirough the centre ; still, however, it must be borne in
mind, that the National Gallery, from the superior height and the prominent
position of the column, will in this point of view (pictorially considered) have
only the effect of a back-ground, an effect which will be more obvious from
the great distance interposed between the two objects, and the aerial tint
which the more remote one will acquire by this distance ; so that the disad-
vantage of combination will be very much mitigated by the relative distance
of the objects, and the atmospheric modification resulting therefrom.

Decimns Burton, Esq. — Its pedestal will obscure a portion.

Sir Francis Chmtrey. — 1 expect that when the column and the National
Gallery are seen together in their whole extent at the same moment, which
will be the case when viewed between Whitehall and Charing-cross, that the
Gallery, as I have said before, may suffer somewhat in its apparent height ;
but I do not regard this as of much importance, when I consider that Mr.

Barry's plan of sinking the base line 10 or 12 feet, must improve the elevation
of the National Gallery considerably.

T. L. Donaldson. Esq.— The Gallery will then form a subordinate back-
ground to the column ; the portico, which is the least exceptionable feature
in the building, will be intercepted ; the cupola over the centre is too paltry
in scale and character to render the interposition of the column, when seen
from Whitehall, of any consequence.

Joseph Gwilt, Esq. — This is answered in the reply to Question I, and it
would be easy to show, by carrving out the test tliere proposed, that what-
ever importance the National (5allery possesses, will be destroyed by placing
the column on the spot selected.

Philip Hardwick, Esq. — The answer to this question may be considered as
included in that to the first, as it is in the approach to the National Gallery
from the south or Whitehall, tliat the effect of the column would be unfa-
vourable to that building.

Sidney Smirke, Esq. — From the more distant parts of Whitehall, the column
will be the most conspicuous object, and will of course interfere with the
present view of the National Gallery ; and wdien the spectator advances, say
to the door of Messrs. Drummonds' bank, I apprehend that the pedestal of
the column will pretty nearly exclude from view both the portico and dome
of that building. I w'ould suggest the erection of a slight boarded scaffold,
representing three sides of the pedestal and base ; the Committee and the
public would then see, without the exercise of any imagination, the actual
effect that would be produced by that the more bulky part of the monument.
Sir R. Westmacolt.—It would have the effect at the distance of ^\'hitehalI
of concealing a gi-eat portion of the portico ; and on a nearer approach to
Charing Cross, the pedestal of the column being seen at an angle, and in-
creased several feet in width, would obstruct the view of two-thirds of the
portico, and a considerable portion of the west wing of the National Gallery.
Question IV.— How far do you consider that position a favourable po-
sition for the column itself?
Edward Blare, Esq.— I have no hesitation in stating that, in my opinion,
the position is peculiarly favourable for a lofty object, such as a column or
olelisk, provided it be in good proportion, and designed with good taste ; and
that, taking into consideration all the circumstances of the ground, and the
surrounding buildings, that no substitute could be found for such a form to
produce an equallv good effect.

Decimns Barton', Esq. — For the column itself, a very favourable position.
.Sir Francis Chanlrey.—l consider this position to be the most favourable
that can be found or imagined for any national work of art ; its aspect is
nearly south, ai.d sufficiently open on all sides to give the object placed on
that identical spot all the advantage from light and shade that can be de-
sired ; to this may be added the advantage of a happy combination of unob-
trusive buildings around ; but to conceive a national monument worthy of
this magnificent site is no easy task.

T. L. Donaldson, Esq.— One of tlie finest in the world. The best possible
position for a lutty monument is when the spectator comes upon it unex-
pectedly, and when it can only be seen from a short distance ; Trafalgar
Square unites in an eminent degree both these requisites. To those ap-
proaching from the Strand and Pall Mall, it will come upon them by sur-
prise, and the column will present itself in all its grandeur. To those ap-
proaching from Westminster, it will appear majestically on a rising ground,
with the contrast of the low National Gallery behind it, to increase its
apparent size ; both which circiunstances will give it dignity. The eye can
embrace without inconvenience an area of 60 degrees ; but it is no objection
to the dignity of an object, that it compels an efibrt on the part of the be-
holder in order to embrace all its parts ; and the very circumstance of those
approaching Trafalgar Square from the east or west being obliged to raise
their heads, and use some exertion in order to see the full height of the
column, will create an impression of dignity upon the mind; and the first
emotion which a monument produces upon the spectator is all-important.
When a lofty object is first seen from far, and kept in view up to the moment
that the beholder gets close up to it, the impression is not so overpowering,
however small may be the other objects w^hich may surround it, as when it
bursts suddenly upon the view close upon him. The gradual approach to it
from a distance begets impatience and weariness ; the impressions of gran-
deur only progressively develop themselves, and are therefore comparatively
weaker. The ancients well understood this ; their temples were never seen
isolated and from far ; they were always surrounded by colonnades and en-
closure walls. The column of Trajan was on one side of a square court of
small dimensions, probably not more than 100 feet square.

[And see General Observations by T. L. DonaHson. tsq.]
Joseph Gwilt, Esq.—\ do not think the position fayoiirable tor any columnar
monument ; because when such a form is selected, it is, in my opinion, de-
sirable that the whole, or at least the greatest part ot the outline, if it be
good, should be distinguishable or marked against a back ground, whose
colour and quality are different from the material whereof it (the column) is
composed. 1 would instance, in illustration of my meaning, the effect of the
back ground of trees and sky, in walking down Ke°ent-strcet from Picca-
dilly, "on the Duke of York's column ; and in Paris that of the column in the
Place Vendome, in walking from the Boulevard down the Rue de la Paix
towards the Tuileries gardens, the folia.ge of w hose trees and sky above give
peculiar value to the outhne and its effect. The effect of the majestic ami
beautiful Column of London, perhaps the finest in Jiurope, would, I believe,
be vastly improved if it could be seen in a long street or centre of a square,
wdiereof it only intercepted the portion of a vista, and became thus suscep-
tible of having its form thoroughly developed, instead of being backed on
three sides by' mean buildings, w-hicli confuse its forms, and tend to render
them mixed and indistinct, except under broad lights.

Philip Hardwick, is}.— There are so many circumstances in favour of the
position selected, that I am of opinion it is altogether an ehgible site for the
column.

Sidney Smirke, Esq. — I think that the situation in question is a most fa-
vourable one for the monument ; if no site for it be adopted but one wliere

308

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT.S JOURNAL.

[September.

it would not aft'oct tile apparent maRnltude of adjacent buildings, it must fi^
removed to the middle of Hyde Park or Regent's Park, where it would h''
entirely thrown away. I would not, out of regard for the surrounding build-
ings, be afraid of the height of this monument : to give it all the effect of
which it is capable, should be, I think, the paramount object ; and witli that
view, instead of dropping it down to a ground line sunk below the level of
the terrace, I would lift it uj) on to a terrace levelled out from the portico of
tlie Gallery ; ami, may I venture to add. I would have selected a design for
this ninnument that could be prudently built without the serious curtailment
of its dimensions which has been found necessary.

Sir It. Westmnrrtlt. — As a site for the column itself, or indeed for any
nioniiment, ("without reference to objects now erected.) the po-ition referred
to is most favouraljle.

C, R. Cockerel!, Esq.B..A. — In answer lo the first and second luestions of your
Honourable Committee, on the proposed column in Trafalgar Square, I beg
leave to oiler as my opinion, that such a column, on a pedestal 4.3 feet liigh,
the whole being 170 feet high, will have no ill effect on the National Gallery
and the surrounding buildings, on the score ot its scale and dimensions,
viewed from the north, west, and east sides of the square, because I believe
that the juxtaposition of colossal and ordinary proportions has been prac-
tised in all times and in all styles of architecture with success, especially by
the ancients, who observed this principle more strictly than the moderns';
vitness the column of Trajan, in an area 82 feet by 62 feet ; that of Anto-
nine, in a square not much larger; the ivory and gold colossal statues of
Jupiter and of Minerva, which occupied the entire nave of their temples.
Again, the Tower of St. Mark, at Venice. 42 feet wide at the base, and 316
feet high, in a square 5li2 by 1:32 ; the Column of London, and that of the
Duke of York ; none of which can be said to deteriorate from the architecture
in connexion with which they are seen. The placing such colossal objects in
extensive areas, as in the front or St. Peter's at Rome, Place Louis XV., at
Paris, at St. Petersburgh, and other places, is wholly a modern practice, and
a rleparture from the principle of eftect on w hich they were originally founded
l)y the ancients. My conclusion therefore is, not that the proposed column
is too large for the site, but that the site is too large for the full efieet of the
proposed column.

With reference to the third question of your Honourable Committee, I beg
leave to suggest that the principle in question appears to apply to colossal
objects seen rather from a near point of view than from a distant one ; be-
cause, in the first case, their position with respect to the objects beyond is
altered with every step of the spectator, and the contrast and combination of
their ever varying forms with those in the back ground may be advantageous
to both ; but in tlie latter case, where the gross disproportion is viewed
almost geometrically, is unrelieved by detail or change of fonn. and fixed,
during an approach from some distance in a straight line, the interposition of
such an object actually exceeding the height of the entire building, and
growing larger in the advance towards it, must divide and disunite the whole
composition of the back ground, and obstruct the view of the central feature
by its bulk, to its "^-eat disadvantage.

I believe it will be found the constant practice of the best architects to
consider the central object in front of a great building, as a scale for the
appreciation of its magnitude, and to make it always subordinate to the
uninterrupted view of its principal feature. Thus the statue of Queen Anne,
before St. Paul's, presents an admirable centre and scale to the whole front,
ivithout in any degree obstructing its view. The statue of King Charles
Tilays the same part, with reference to the National Gallery, from M'hitehall
Place, and the contrast is greatly to its advantage in approaching from Par-
liament .-'treet. The proposed column would supersede that well-proportioned
centre, and present a succession of centres, contrary to the usual architec-
tural practice, which places successive objects at the sides, but never in the
cenUe of an avenue, especiallj- when such centres would obstruct the view
cf a fine object in the back ground.

In answering the fourth question of y( ur Honourable Committee, I am con-
strained, for the above reasons, to offer my liumble opinion, that the pro-
posed position for the column is not favourable to it with reference to the
whole square, nor to the National Gallery as seen from Whitehall. And in
cliffering. with very great regret, from the able architect who has suggested
this position, and the distinguished Committee who have sanctioned it, I feel
myself in candour bound, w ith your pennission, to oftijr some further expla-
nation, both in fulfilment of my'duty towards ynur Honourable Committee,
and the great public object you have in view, and in deference to those gen-
tlemen, since my judgment may have been biased by a preconceived view of
the subject, which may apologise for the objection wiiich I have ventured to
express in reply to the questions of your Honourable Committee.

1 w as not able to offer the result of my reflections on this great national
intention in the general competition, but deeming the square too large to
admit of a central column with that effect which the ancients attained, 1 had
always conceived that the proposed memorial of a naval commander should
cecupy one side of the square, leaving the other for a future and at least
equally interesting record of a military commander.

T«o Biidi columns, placed ai, the dislauce of 70 or SO feet from the south
angles of the square would connect its somewhat straggling proportions,
present an admirable picture in emerging from Charing Cross, and leave the
Gallery open ; they would group admirably in the vicw^ from the .Strand to
Cockspur Street, they would conceal the defect of the irclincd roads, accord-
ing to the long projected terraces now forming, and their coloss.al proportions
would gain gi-eatly by their juxtaposition to the buildings. By such an
arrangement the whole area would be left open for all those monuments
which in process of time will, we hope, increase upon us. reproducing that
altis, or torum, in which the gratitude of the country may be e.xpressed inall
the variety of design suited to the situation.

It will he remembered, that the enthusiasm of the country placed the re-
mains of the immortal Nelson in the centre of St. Paul's, as if no future hero
could deserve such a position, and perhaps a much greater than Nelson will
have to be recorded by us; if, therefore, the centre of Trafalgar Square is
now to le occupied, it is certain that no other equally large monument can

be erected there, and yet it would be difficult to find elsewhere, in the metro-
polls, a site equally eligible for such a memorial.

I trust these observations iu explanation of mv view of the whole subject,
may not be deemed obtrusive by your Honourable Committee.

jolni Deering. Esq. — I think the proposed Nelson Monument presents that
precise character ot altitude most to be desired at the particular site intended,
whore a great and wide street of entrance necessarily branches oft right and
left into a principal artery of the metropolis, and w'here the idea of termi-
nation is the impression most essential to be avoided : for we must recollect
that the object is not to arrive at Trafalgar Square or the National Gallery,
it is to convey to the mind of the stranger the true and peculiar character of
our capital, its endless continuation.

If this view l)e correct, the worst object would be a plain unbroken mass,
which like the County Fire Office to its site (grasped by the eye at once),
conveys the idea of obstniction. and limits consideration to its own preten-
sions alone, as the sole object of the whole arrangement. The broken line of
architecture in the National Gallery obliges the eye to travel along its length,
but the proposed form completely gets over the difficulty, presenting a mag-
nificent object in the vista of approach, while it leaves the idea of space
beyond, and suggests the idea of divergence, without obstruction, w here that
idea is most essential.

I cannot suppose the effect would be unfavourable upon the National Gal-
lery, for although that building could be no longer seen in its whole extent
from any point more distant than the column. I doubt whether its broken
character of outline and laboured details, as well as snnllness of parts, do
not require that it should not be seen, as a whole, beyond the distance whence
those features could be visible at the same time, and so form as it were a
p.art of the design ; but on the whole. I think it equally certain that, in its
magnitude, this monument, in reducing to comparative insignificance, not
only the Gallery, but St. Martin's Churcli. fits pedestal beng nearly as large
as the portico, "and the whole nearly as high as the spire of that 'building.)
will not also be a monument equally unfavourable to the memory of those
who spoilt the National Gallery inside and outside for the assumed sake of a
building, of which the unimportance will be thus placed in its true light.

But notwithstanding, we must not forget that the great end should be to
adorn the metropolis, and not to persuade the unwilling of the architectural
beauty of Trafalgar-square, or any particular building around its circuit.

General Ohserrations by T. L. Donaldson, Esq. — The opinions I have given
are strictly confined to the questions put in reference to the column, and I
therefore do not offer any judgment as to whether any other arrangement of
Trafalgar-square would be more advantageous. As the Nelson column must
necessarily, from its size, be the most important feature in the area, it is
essential that it should form a central object, as it were, to w-liich all the rest
must be subordinate and merely contribute. .Size alone will not be sufficient.
It is to be hoped that its decorative embellishments should be of a character
consistent therewith : a denuded mass of masonry, however gigantic, will have
a mean effect, and bear a parsimonious character disgraceiid to the nation
The examples of tlie ancients and that of the moderns prove, that the eiu-ich-'
ments of sculpture, and a due decoration in the subordinate parts are essentia 1
to convey all those impressions which it is necessary to produce when erecting
a monument to the honour of one of the greatest men of a great country. It
is to be hoped that the erection of the Nelson column may not become an in-
stance of miserable national parsimony on such a noble occasion.

Appendix.
EsTiitATE OF Peoposed Works, Tr.a.falfaii-sqi:.\ee.

19.214 cubic yards of digging and carting away . at 3.5.
34.5 cubic yards of concrete .... at 6j. lOJ.

71 rods reduced brickwork 12/. Ifts.

630 feet run, 12 iu. gun-barrel drain . . . at 2s. 3rf.
9,370 cubic feet of Aberdeen gTanite, w ith a fine axed face.

joints and beds included . , . . .at 6s.

372 feet superficial extra sunk work . . .at Is. lid.
200 ditto . ditto circular ditto . . .at 2*-.
1.016 ditto . ditto moulding to ditto . . at 4,s.
74 ditto . ditto circular ditto . . at 5s. 6d.

180 ditto . ditto rock face . . .at Is. Gd.
2,615 cubic feet of Aberdeen granite steps . . at 7s.
Bosting and carving 16 blocks in four principal

pedestals at 4/.

98 Aberdeen granite posts complete, including fi.xing at 6/. 10s.
8 pedestals in balustrade of Aberdeen granite, comp. at 4/.
213 Aberdeen granile balusters • . . . at 40s.
6.062 cubic feet Irish or other gi-anite, with a fine

axed face, beds and joints included . . at 5s. 6rf.

4S7 vards superficial Roman cement . . at 2s. 3d.

2 sink stones ........ alI40s.

Cast-iron work to cable bars ... ...

Coinmission. Clerk of Works and Contingencies

Total £.

£. s.

d.

2,882 0

0

117 17

6

887 10

0

70 17

6

2,811 0

0

27 18

0

20 0

0

203 4

0

20 7

0

13 10

0

915 5

0

fit 0

0

637 0

0

32 0

0

426 0

0

1,667 1

n

54 15

9

4 0

0

220 0

0

720 0

0

11,794 3

9

.hne 1, 1840.

(Signeil)

C. B.^KBV.

Danish Railwai/.— It is not generallv known that a railway from Altona,
two miles from Hamburgh to Kiel, in the Duchy of Holstem, has been pro-
jected, and is about to be constructed, under the auspices of the King of Den-
mark, with a view of effecting a communication between the Norlh Sea and
the l!altic. Mr. George Watson Buck, [engineer-in-chief to the Manchester
and Birmingham Railway Company has been selected as the engineer to the
undertaking.

1S40.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

309

A NEW PROCESS FOR MAKING GAS FOR ILLUMINATIONS
FROM BITUMINOUS SCHIST.

The utilization of bituminous schist is a subject of great importance,
as promising to make tliis substance profitable. M. Selligue is the
inventor of the process for distilling this mineral, and has works for
the purpose on a large scale. His mines are in the department of
Saone and Loire, between Autun and the Central Canal ; his three
works are at St. Leger-du-Bois, Canton of Epinal ; Surmoulin, near
Autun, and Igernay, Canton of Cardesse. In these works the schist
is distilled in close retorts, they leave a residuum of carbonaceous
matter, which may be used for disinfection or discolouration, but not
yet made serviceable. The volatile products are oils consisting prin-
cipally of dirterent carburets of hydrogen, which are made available
for profit. A great quantity of intlammable gases are also disengaged
during the distillation, and are directed into the furnace and used as a
combustible.

The schists of Autun are very variable in character, but all are re-
jected which afford less than 6 per cent, of oil on distillation, but those
now used average 10 per cent., it is not rare however to find as much
as 20 or 25 per cent., some were as much as half their weight of
oleaginous products.

The composition of 100 parts of liquid bitumen is as follows:
Light oil of variable density from 0-766 to 0.810,

used for gas .-..-. 35.57
Oil of greater density susceptible of being used

in lamps .-.-•.. 25-85
Fattv matter containing 12 per cent, of parajfine 12-

Pitch or tar 17-28

Residue 9-3

100

It has long been suspected that the defiant gases derive their
illuminating properties from the oleaginous vapours which accompany
the generally slightly carburetted hydrogen gas which always forms
the base of these gases. M. Pelletan maintained this view in a paper
read before the Academy in December 1816, and it has been confirmed
by M. Selligue. It has been on the other hand asserted and received
as certain that oxidated carbonic gas is always injurious in illuminating
gas, and that it diminishes the brilliancy of the flame by lowering its
temperature, on account of the low degree of heat developed during
its combustion. M. Selligue has however established the fallacy of
this doctrine.

M. Selligue's process is as follows : — Three tubes or retorts, situated
vertically in a new and ingeniously constructed furnace, are heated
red. The first and second contains charcoal, and as fast as the char-
coal disappears it is reolaced, which is every five hoars. This carbon
is for the purpose of effecting the decomposition of the water intro-
duced into the first tube in a continued stream, and where it is con-
verted into hydrogen gas, and carbonic acid, and oxide of carbon. But
as the production of carbonic acid is to be avoided, the gases produced
by the first tube are conducted into the next, where they are exposed
again to incandescent charcoal, by which means the carbonic acid
first formed is converted into oxide of carbon. The furnace is so ar-
ranged that this tube is the hottest of the three, so as to favour the
total decomposition of the carbonic acid.

The third tube is fitted with iron chains, the use of which is to pre-
sent a large incandescent metallic surface, capable of distributing
caloric in an equal and rapid manner to the gases or vapours passing
through. On the one side this tube receives the gases produced by
the decomposition of the water in the two preceding tubes, and in the
other a continued stream of light schislose oil. This light oil is de-
composed into new products still more volatile, and passes with the
gas into a refrigerator, which by cooling down the products causes
some of them to reappear. The schistose oil is therefore not entirely
gasified, but that which does not change into gaseous matter is pre-
served uninjured. What is very singular is that the links of the chain
in tlie tube are never covered with any carbonaceous deposit. Thus
while the schistose oil is evidently decomposed by heat during this
operation, its decomposition is modified in a successful manner by its
diffusion amid a large volume of gas, such as that produced from the
decomposition of water, and whicYi serves as a vehicle.

From the third tube is produced hydrogen and oxide of carbon,
produced from the decomposition of the water, and the gases or va-
pours from the decomposition of the oil. By passing into the appara-
tus 20 gallons of vi'ater, and 25 of schistose oil, 50,000 gallons of oil fit
for illumination are produced in twenty hours. The gas so produced
requires no farther purification, having passed through a refrigerator

where are deposited the nondecomposed oil, and steam from the water.
From the refrigerator the gas passes into the gasometer.

M. Selligue's process and apparatus are represented as being so
simple, as to be easily used in factories and private establishments, while
the price of the gas so produced is low enough to be employed for
lighting the streets. It has been proved by experiment not to de-
teriorate, but to improve at a distance from the gasometer; at five
miles distance the flame was purer than when just issuing from the
gasometer. When cooled down to 13" F. below zero, its illuminating
power was not sensibly diminished. The gas is also free from sul-
phuretted compounds, and gives no unpleasant smell. The odour of
coal gas, we may observe, however, is attributed by some chemists to
vapour of naptha, and not to sulphur solely. As it does not act upon
metallic reflectors, M. Selligue is able to use these additions with great
advantage, so much indeed that with a parabolic reflector one of his
burners enables a middling size print to be read 80 yards off.

M. Selligue has set up gas apparatus at the Royal Printing House,
and the BatignoUes at Paris ; at Dijon, and other cities, all of which
work well.

We may observe that this process is on similar principles to that of
the air light, in which air was decomposed and the oxygen burned
with oily or bituminous matters, and in this case water is decomposed
and the hydrogen similarly combined.

STONE FOR THE NEW HOUSES OF PARLIAMENT.

Sir — 1 wish your correspondent in No. 33 of your valuable Journal who
stiles himself " Amicus," had done that which he started to do in tlie first
part of his letter, or at least what he pretended his epistle should do, and
have endeavoured to correct the many " inaccuracies and misstatements,"
which have already appeared, and not have added to their number by writing
the letter under notice, which is nothing more or less than a perfect puff, to
extol his fortunate purchase of " Mansfield Woodhouse Quarr)-," as well as
his other " White Sandstone Quarr)-," as he calls it.

It is very true and well known that Commissioners were appointed by
Government to select the best material the united kingdom could produce, as
to durability ; and well they have performed their task, certainly. In the
first place they only go two-thirds over the kingdom, leaving out the only
part that could yield them the article wanted, such an article as is to be found
in most parts of Ireland, for it is well known tliat that country abounds with
stone of an nndecaying nature (as for instance look at her " Round Towers,")
and selected a material not half so good as that which could have been pro-
cured as above, and from a quarry too according to their own showing, that
could not produce the necessary quantity or blocks of sufficient magnitude
for tlie purpose intended, as witness the Report published by the House of
Commons (which any one can purchase for sixpence), there it is stated the
depth of workable stone to be only " 12 feet," and the size of the blocks to
be no more then from " 8 inches to 2 feet." Now how can such slovenly
conduct be tolerated, but this is not all, for as " Amiens " shows, they were
within a few months obUged to abandon this mighty quarry and seek a new
one, in the newly discovered quarry purchased by Air. Lindley, alias Amicus,
which that gentleman states to be of a quality and character precisely similar
" to that of the beds on the Jloor," if that is so, and we have no reason to
say otherwise, then the stone will he found wanting in the same manner as
the Balsover, in not possessing blocks of the size required. So much for
" Amicus," having set at rest the " inaccuracies and mis-statements," that
have gone abroad. But before I have done, I must ask him a question or
two, which no doubt he will be enabled to answer, which will show how the
public are generally imposed on in jobs of this nature, lias the New Mansfield
Woodhouse Quarr)' been enabled to supply the Works yet, with either quan-
tity cr quality as to size of blocks, or will it ever ? If it has, why have the
said works been so nearly at a stand still for some time, and why has the
Steettey Quarry been apphed to for the required supply, and whether that
appUcation has not been answered by the sending of great quantities to West-
minster to carr)- on the building .' And lastly, though not the least point of
the business, whether this said stone has ever been tested by the Commis-
sioners aforesaid .' If so, I can find no report thereof, which ought to have
been done, the public having a right to expect that no material should be
stealthily used in their national buildings without having it duly tried in all
possible ways, particularly after the heavy sum that has been paid these gen-
tlemen to protect their interest and fame.

If these questions are well and truly answered, then indeed will " Amicus"'
be correcting the " inaccuracies and mis-statements" that have gone abroad,
and be rendering the public infinite service by showing them how they are
generally hoodwinked in snch matters.

I cannot conclude this letter without referring him and your readers to a
most excellent article in the same number, " On Limestone in Ireland," by
W. Bald, F.R.S.E., &c., a gentleman of the very first rate talent and ability,
which I have no doubt has been duly seen and read by all who are fortunate
enough to take in your valuable journal, but should it have escaped the eyes
of any, I can only say it will well repay their looking back to and reading it
mth attention, then all will I am sure hear me out in my censure of the

2 T

310

THE CIA IL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[September,

neglect, nav insult that lias been offered to Ireland ; jiarticularly as to the
stone that lias been tendered (at least so I have seen stated in several of the
public priiitt) yratU to the public.

I have the honour to be, your's,

A Lovua OF Fair Play.

[We always view with sus]iicion any offer that is made gratis — ^it is fre-
quently a complete delusion. We have also lieard of offers being made by
noblemen and gentlemen to supply tlie stone for the New Houses of Parlia-
ment f/rali'iloux!if. btit when the offers were sifted, they were generally found
not worth accepting, for what is meant by the word i/ralis, in this business,
is to supply the stone embedded in the quarry, which may be generally ob-
tained at any new quarry upon i)aying a royalty of Xa. to \s. (jd. per ton, or
about Irf. per foot cube — this royalty forms the most trifling part of the price
of stone — the cost is made up by the heavy and tmavoidable ctjiences of
quarrying, getting, carriage to the water side, and freightage. Besides it is
oft«n found that the stone is of such a hard quality that the labour upon
working it, is double the price of another stone which fully answers the pur-
pose— for instance the labour upon granite in working it in gothic mouldings
is treble the price of labour on Portland stone, and the same with other
stones and marbles ; which « ould render the cost of the stone work of a
htiilding when worked, nearly double, if not more ; thus instead of the coun-
try gaining by the gift, it would be very materially the loser — so much for
gratit. .\sto the injustice to Ireland, the Scotch might as well complain of
the refusal of their granite which was offered by a nobleman to be supplied
gratuitously ; but when it was explained to him that the cost of the stone
when worked would be far more than the stone which is being supplied for
the New Houses, he immediately acknowledged that his offer was not worth
accepting. — Editor.]

IMPROVTED LAND SURVEYING CHAIN.

Sir — Obsening in a former number of your Journal a description of an
improved suneying pole, I venture to trouble you with an account of what I
consider an improvement w hich I have lately made in the chain, namely, having
thellth, 21st, 31st, and4l8t links made of brass, the rest being of iron ; by this
arrangement the brass link, being in all cases nearer the middle of the chain
than the token, will at once point out whether such token be 10 or 90, 60 or
40, &c., and as a matter of course the liability to mistake 40 for 00, and so
on, entirely done away with. In mineral surveying a chain of this construc-
tion is incalculably superior to one of the old.

If you think the hint is likely to be useful to any of your readers, I shall
feel obliged by yoiu' giving it a place in the Journal.
Most respectfully your's,

William James Hindle.

Bamsley, Aug. 3, 1840.

PARISIAN AND LONDON HOUSE BUILDING.

[The following, from a series of letters in the "Dublin Evening
Post," IS, we conceive, well worthy of being triinsferred to our Journal,
where it will be better aud more conveniently preserved than in the
columns of a newspaper. Besides some direct information, it contains
some clever and pertinent remarks, although we do not subscribe to
every one of the writer's opinions.]

Paris, as a city, pleases me more this time than last year, though it cannot
boast of the grace of novelty in my travelled eyes. Hut I have looked, and
am endeavouring to look through it more carefully. There is a cheerfulness
in the warm colouriug of the buildings in that beautiful stone, of which the
city is made, which cement can never imitate. It is not one gray, uninterest-
ing, and monotonous brick like Dublin — nor, like London, is the dirty and
smoky red interrupted in some quarters of the town liy the masks of stucco,
of all colours and in all states of decomposition, which covers the skeleton
palaces. The finest and most showy parts of London are gingerbread and
pasteboard to the buildings here. I doubt not, however, to an un])ractised
eye, several parts of London — I am uot now talking of public buildings — will
appear as fine as the general run of iiouses in this city — such as the shops in
Regent Street, and flic mansions in the Regent's Park. I select these, for
they were the first erected under the new system. They were the earliest
eftbrfs of (leorgc IV., a ri;au magnificent enough in his asjiirafion, but of a
taste most tawdiy and glaring. lie wished, appareutly, to say, with Angtis-
tus, Ibat he found his capital of brii 1;, and that he left it of marble. Hut he
forgot that the Roman Emperor spent bis life — and he attained the purple
at a very early age — in building up the alia mmiia Rmnce such as Attila
found it — and that he had, in the mean time, the absolute command of all
the riches of the world, and of the genius of Greece and Italy — those riches
for such purposes would have been"useless. The Regent of England— and
he deserves some credit for the design, childish anif ridii;ulons as it was,
inasmuch as it evinced the presence of some geims of imagination in a man
whose character was stained by ra,iny dezrading vices — the Regent, I say,
thought to accomplish, in a dozen years, what occupied the entire reign of
he second Csrsar. He set about tl'ie scheme w ith great zeal — he had ready a

class of secondary arch'te-ts — he liad nra^^ings anil plans in abundance —
and, above all, he had the sanction of Parliament. To work he went — but
it was not to marble, nor yet to Portland stone, or to granite that he applied
himself — it was to making Roman cement. It was to plastering the bouses
with a verj- pretty, nay excellent composition, I admit, and cutting out the
fronts of the dwelling-houses as Temples of Theseus, P.trtlicuons, Acropolises,
and fanes dedicated to the winds. .Vll was lUrty and perishing brick within
— without all was a coating of architcclnral painting. And then the strange
variety in which all orders and ages of architecture were jumbled together.
The tailor's house had a Grecian portico, ami his next door neighbour, the
draper, rejoiced in a Gothic castle. Here was a temple of Bacchus — there
was a thing somewhat resembling a Chinese pagoda, only more full, if possible,
of pretension and exaggeration. You saw at a glance, that this part of the
city of Loudon was made for the nonce — that it was gotten u]i for a show —
that it was fine and glaring scene-iiainting, not half so fine, or half so striking
as Stanfield's sketches, because the designs and the executors of the plan
bad not half the genius of that excellent ,irt;st. But let me be just. The
design of trying to alter the dirty and ferruginoui' aspect of London was com-
mendable ; and if he deserves any praise for anything — an hypothesis upon
which I am very unwiUing to insist — George IV. is entitled to some com-
mendation for what he attempted., rather, certainly, than for anything he
accomplished. An impulse was given to architectural improvement, in a city
which, though it contains many splendid edifices, was, until this endeavour
was made, the most uninteresting — and, may 1 not add, notwitlistanding its
situation on a river twenty times more magnificent than the Seine, thchugest
and nglieet collection of brick and mortar in the world — nothing but tiles and
brick. Why, there is the Corporation of London — I have seen the halls of
some of their guilds made to dine — and principally made for that purpose —
seven or eight hundred individuals — I have seen one which was as big as a Me-
thodist meeting-house, and as ugly as a barn ; the building itself (and it was a
new one when I saw it) was placed in a nook or alley, and piled up with brick, I
know not how mit\\ /at/wi/is high. The money expended to make such an
edifice, would, in Paris or in Petersburg (a city of yesterday), produce abeauti-
ful biulding, architecturally elegant in the exterior, and containing within all
the accommodation — all the appurtenances and means to boot, of dining
gloriously on green fat, and getting gloriously drunk with dancing champaign.
The trtith is, that until a recent period, John Bull was thinking of nothing
e\en in his public buildings, but being com/orladle — a word that he delights
in, and which you hear in France pronounced with great ytixlo — John insist-
ing, truly, I believe, that the French language is without an equivalent term —
his notions of comfort, however, in tlus regard, being confined to eating and
drinking. The admission is due to George IV., I must repeat again, that to
his absurd zeal, in trying to convert the brick of London into marble, the
real improvements which that great city is now in the process of acquiring,
may be fairly enough attributed. A better order of architects are forming ;
private buildings, as well as public, .ire not any longer left to the taste of the
bricklayer, or the cunning of the carpenter. 'The two-foot rule and the plum-
met are indispensable, and the builder must employ them ; but it has been
found out at length that there are other things indispensable in building an
edifice for an imperial city. When sought for, talents of the kind required
are always to be found. They existed in what are called the dark ages, when
Westminster Abbey and Rouen Cathedral were built. It would be an un-
courtly satire on England — it would be a most false misrepresentation of her
intellect, ingenuity, and taste, to pretend that architects wouhl be wanting if
they were required. They are uot wanting. It is true the National (iallery
is a national disgrace, and the Royal Exchange, when it arises from its ashes,
may prove an ignominy, if the city don't look to it; but, on the whole,
within the last twelve or fifteen years, the signs and tokens of a better order
of things are manifest even to an observer the most cursory. But ar/es must
elapse liefore London can be what she ought to be architecturally, and what
she will be, no doubt, should she hold, as she has done, with such transcen-
dant glory, the sceptre of the seas.

But Paris has been, since it first became great, an architeclurnl town.
During all her eventful history, her public buildings held a prominent place
in the minds of her kings and politicians. The French are fond to madness
of glory — of martial renown principally — but all sorts of fame, e\ eu to the
making of a cap or periwig, are prized, perliaps, beyond their v,alue. They
value themselves upon their I'oets, their orators, their historians, their painters,
their architects. In Louis XIV. they had a king who was as vain as any of
his subjects on all these national vaiiitieg — if you will, a king, too, that had
the power to execute his will, at any expense of treasure and oppression.
The policy of his reign may be questionable, and he may have been himself a
tyrant ; but he adorned Piuis, and he completed Versailles. It was pride, if you
Uke, and selfishness; but to it the present generation is indebted, at least, for
fixing, propagating, and, I think, pcrpttuating the taste of the people in this
regard. The improccmi-nts of Paris began nearly two hundred years ago, and
they have been in constant progress. Those of London are scarcely thirty
years old. But, in the interim (of 200 years) London has increased ueaiiy
fifteen fold in population and houses, while Paris has certainly not l;eeu trebled.
At the commencement of the reign of George III., a comedy — 1 forget the
name — was produced — I saw it acted myself, when they used fo play come-
dies— in which two interlocutors are introduced, discussing the relative popu-
lation and size of the two greatest cities of Europe. In those days, statistics
was no science ; but, the circumstance is enough to show, without hunting
yoiur library to ascertain the truth, and missing tlie game, most probably, at

1840.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

311

last, tliat. about seventy or eighty years atro, the jiopulation of these two
cities v;ere nearly alike. I;i population, London is now doubled, at least, and
she contains six or eight times as many honsas, and consumes much more
ground. But London lias been built at random. It is not houses they run
up — a good, familiar, and descriptive phrase — but n'reefs. Aye — streets. An
instance has been known of a street of considerable extent being built in
three months. It takes three years to build a house in Paris ; but then it «
a house — a great house — three or four times the extent of a mansion in Mer-
rion-square, for example. The Merrion-square house may be, and is, no
doubt, more comfortable, in conformity to our notions of comfort. It con-
tains only one family, while the great buildings I speak of gives magnificent
apartracTits to two or three. And do not imagine that the families which in-
habit these houses pay less for their houses than the gentry of Merrion-square.
Two, thi-ee, and even four hundred francs a year is not an uncommon rent
for these s-eparate families in one house. Some have been mentioned to me
which brings the proprietor in from .-GL.iOO to £2,000 a year. Obsen-e. that
I am not discuasiug which is the best mode of living — the Fi-ench or the En-
glish. Por my part, I should like to have a house to myself; but that is not
the question here. I am stating a fact with a view of showing you why it is
that Paris is so much superior in its buildings to London. First, they b\uld
in Paris greater houses ; secondly, these houses occupy a longer time in build-
ing ; and thirdly, they are built of materials vastly superior to those employed
in England. Tliey are built of a coarse marble, or of a beautiful stone, as /
think it is, supplied by the quarries of Normandy and the valley of the Seine
— the stairs in many of them are of marble— the floors, all that I have seen of
them, in the latter order of houses, are made of oak — the landing places, and
little Eute-rooms, are constructed of marble, or a Roman cement, or some su-
perior preparation of tile. In short, tliese houses are made to last — not for
one genei'ation or two, but, perhaps, for ten. When finished, there they stand
compact and line, and knit together, with a view of enduring for centuries.

To build a house in Paris is a very serious thing ; the ground rent is enor-
mously high. Vou go to the stone quarn;' for your material, and not to the
brick-tield. You must employ oak instead of Canada pine. You must cm-
ploy stone-cutters and masons instead of bricklayers. In short, for the private
houses of the first class, that is to say, for houses in the first class of streets,
you must proceed in Paris as you would in London or Dublin if you ai'o about
to design a public edifice. They are built, therefore, most substantifflly, and,
as in public edifices, their exterior is designed on architectural princii)les, and
with a view to suit the r/enius loci. Now, as I have said, this system has been
in operation for centuries, and you can almost pronounce the age of a build-
ing, if you have given any previous time to the study, on inspection. Hence
it is that, notwitlistanding the vast number and beauty of the buildings made
by Napoleon, and the great addition that has been made during the present
improving reigu, the air of Paiis is that of an old city ; while London looks,
and will always look, from the material it is made of, neither new nor old, a
sort of Provisiotial City, a multitudmous congregation of houses, that are
constantly changing their aspect — that are constantly in a state of transition
of being run up or run down — qnadrata rotundis. But it cannot be expected
that on a town passing away, as it were, with the autumnal leaves, and re-
newed with the swallow and the zephyr, architecture can have impi*ssed her
permanent type. Brick, however, neatly put together, will not take the im-
pression. It is too perishable and fliinsy to l)ear the weight of her machinery
— and, indeed, it has never been tried. The bricklayers and carpenters of
London content themselves with erecting houses of three or four stories high,
with a comfortable basement for the kitchens and pantries, a hall, a front
parlour, and a dining-room — above, two drawing-rooms, opening into each
other, best beil-rooms higher up, and inferior apartments next the stairs.
They are all alike — like as eggs — the only difference being in the size — from
a sparrow's egg, or a pigeon's, to a duck or a goose's egg. In regard to the
apartments and their disposition, you might, after describing number one in
any given street of London or DubUn, write ditto against number two, and
ditto to the bottom of the page, and to the bottom of the next, and to the
end of the volume. It is curious that our ordinary builders exhibit such a
poverty ef contrivance — no taste, no variety, no resources, apparently, except
in iixiuga water-closet, or managing a projecting recess. I have httle doubt
that these deficiencies are attributable, in a great degree, to the materials we
employ, and are obliged to use, as well as from long habit, wliich has grown
up into a second nature. Houses are built, in London, to answer temporary
purposes, or for the accommodation of two, or three, or four generations.
They are made of brick — a perishable article — they are made of Canada deal
— a decaying wood. But tb.ey answer the ends of their creation. Art, science,
in the disposition of the interior, and considering also the size of the man-
sions, would be tlirown away, or rather would not have space to move about
in " the cribbed, cabined-in and confined" precincts of a London or Dublin
private house. In this city, from what I have already said, you will readily
infer that the case is quite diffeient. I have been in several houses since I
came to France, and I did not find two of them alike in their interior arrange-
ments. It would be, indeed, a sad puzzle to an ordinary London or Dublin
builder to make a house in the French fashion ; to design a house like that,
for instance, in which I a;u now residing — poh ! he would eat it as soon.

But, as I have said before, a better taste is arising amongst ourselves.
When people shall be convinced, that even in the construction of an ordinary
building, it will not be amiss to employ an architect as well as a builder —
and, I should hope, this taste is beginning to prevail, our children, and our
childreus' children wUl see a finer London and a finer Dublin than we do now

—and, / e.rpect that our country-houses— I mean the houses of our gentry—
if they can keep their station, which so many of them are built upon endan-
gering, will not be made up by a country mason and his helps — bnt, will ex-
hibit the common sense and understanding in which the mansions of their
grand-papas have been so lamentably deficient. With respect to public build-
ings, the prospect for our posterity is still more cheering. Our superior
artists are studying the Greek models with a zeal that promises excellent
effect. There are drawings and elevations of all the architectural remains of
Greece and Italy. The taste in England never died entirch-, from the time of
Athenian Stuart, but it shmibered in the interval deeply, until a few yeais
after the last war. But, t'le pure taste to be acquired from the study of these
immortal models has had to struggle hitherto with the so called Gothic, Nor-
man, and above all with that thing, now the most fashionable of all, called
the Tudor or Ehzabethan architecture, of which it may be asserted, tneo
perioulo. that it is the worst of all the rest — and only better than the poor,
bald, and miserable system prevailing in England since the Revolution. But,
Ancient Greece will conquer at last — though they are building the parliament
house after a model of their own.

This is a long letter, and upon a subject which can be popular only in cer-
tain, perhaps, rather restricted circles. But, I am writing with the glorious
Madeleine looking in at my window — that most superb copy of the finest and
purest architectural powers of Greece. Here is a building that the eye never
tires in gazing upon — so sublimely-simple, so quietly beautiful, and such a
magidficent array of Corinthian columns. But, I am not here to describe the
Madeleine, any more than any other edifice. But, looking around me, and
with this memento constantly before my eyes, I could not resist the topics
which the contemplation of these objects suggested.

ON RAILWAY AND CANAL TRAFFIC.

By Charles Ellet, Jun., of the United States, Civil Engineer.

[The following judicious remarks on Railway and Canal Tolls, which
we extract from the " Franklin Journal," are well deserving of the
serious attention of all parties connected with either railways or canals,
there will be found many hints worth their consideration.]

The object of this essay is to point out, in a brief and popular view, the
consequences of some of the errors which are committed in the charges as-
sessed on the public works of this country.

The wi-iter has recently pubUshed a work* in which he has attempted to
expose the true principles of trade, and to show the only correct mode of
determining the tolls proper to be levied on oar great lines of canals imd
railroads. But it has been suggested to him by some intelligent readers of
that work, that the method of analysing the subject which he has been com-
pelled to adopt in it, is not the best adapted to the pursuits of the class of
readers most likely to be interested in the subject ; and that some advantage
might be derived from exhiinting, in a popular form, a few of the results
which were there obtained by a different process. This essay is intended to
subsen'c that purpose ; and to show that the principles on which all the
tariffs in the countiy are based, are unsound, and lead, in their application,
to oppressive injustice to a portion of the community, and to great loss of
trade and revenue to the improvements.

Of the Importance of the Subject.

1. There arc no questions of public policy which are thought to concern
so intimately the general and particidar interests of the people of this country,
as those which relate to their internal improvements. The consideration of
this subject constitutes tlie greatest part of the legislation of nearly aU the
states in the Union, and the employment of the privileges sanctioned by the
law, constitutes a prominent portion of the efforts of individual enterprise.
There are now completed and in use in the coimtry more than three thousand
miles of railroads, and not less than three thousand miles of canals, the con-
struction of which has occasioned an actual expenditure of probably
150,000,000 dollars, and for which loans have been incurred by the state
governments or incorporated companies, to nearly an equal amount.

This enormous investment of capital is by some viewed as alarming ; and
might, indeed, appear so, when it is considered that a draft of some eight
millions of dollars will be annually made on the country for the payment of
the interest on this sum, and that the principal itself, in the brief space of
twenty years, may possibly have to be refunded. On the other hand, there
are sanguine advocates of improvements, who look to the revenue to be de-
rived from the works themselves, consequent on the rapid growth and pro-
gressively increasing productiveness of the coimtry, as offering an ample
guarantee for the prompt payment of the interest, and the due liquidation o{
the principal, of the debt.

It is not the intention now to discuss this momentous question, or to en-
deavour to ascertain which of these hypotheses approaches nearest the truth.
Both are but surmises, advanced as the result of a hasty glance at the facts,
or possibly based on no safer evidence than the prepossessions, or mere con-
jectures, of the parties. They are wanting in that detail, that exhibition of

• "An Essay on the Laws of Trade in reference to the works of Pubile
Improvement in the United States.

2 T 2

312

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[Skptember,

statistical information, williout which it is impossible to generalize with se-
curity.

Doiiljtless many of the works of the country will possess abundant means
lo sustain their credit ; and among so many enterprises, it is equally probable
that some have been undertaken wliich will fall very far short of the expec-
tations of their patrons.

But, whatever may be the general aljiUty of these immense lines of im-
provements, it is certain that the success and ])rofitableness of those which
are now progressing under the fairest auspices, are not so well established
but that it ought to be an object of deep solicitude with their proprietors to
find the means of increasing their productiveness. To every State that has
embarked in a career of internal improvement, and to every individual who
has invested his property in such stock, it is an interesting question to
ascertain the most efficient means of equalizing the charges on the trade, and
increasing the revenue and tonnage of the line.

The public improvements of I'ennsylvania are sinking that commonwealth
in debt about a million and a half per oilman — or, in other words, the inte-
rest on the loans incurred for their construction, added to the annual charges
for repairs and superintendence, exceeds the gross revenue of the works from
one to two millions of dollars per annum.

Of the Incorrectness of the Principles on which Tolls are at present assessed.

To be able to appreciate the necessity of a dei)arture from the principles on
which the present charges for the use of our public works are established, it
is essential to examine into the eft'eetive operation of the scale now in use.
To render the view which I design to take as little complicated as possible,
it may be confined for the present to one of the principal divisions of the
trade of the country. For, in treating of the laws of trade, it is found con-
venient to divide the connuerce of the line into two principal classes ; in the
first of which is included all those commodities which will bear but a hmited
charge for their trarisportation, and which, if taxed beyond that limit, will be
excluded from the line and from market. This division usually consists of
stone, coal, lumber, ore, lime, and many agricultural productions. Indeed it
embraces all articles which will seek a market along the line in question, and
no other ; and in this respect is to be distinguished from that division of the
trade which consist of more valuable commodities, and which, if not accom-
modated on one line, will find a passage by the route of a rival work.

Our present investigation will be confined to the first of these divisions.

The charges which are levied on this trade consist of what are usually
termed freight and toll. If the work be a canal, by freight is understood the
charge of the carrier, and by toll that of the state or corporation omiing the
work. In the management of railroads, it is usual for the company to act as
carrier on their own line; aiul to make but one charge, which is called toll,
for both objects. In tliis essay I shall make a somewhat different application
of these terms, and designate by freight, in either case, every expense actually
incurred in the carriage of the commodity, and by toll, the clear profit on its
transportation. So that if the carrier, or transporting company, charge seven
mills per mile for the carriage of one ton of any article, and tlie cost of re-
pairs and superintendence of the line due to the passage of that ton is three
mills per mile, I call the freight on the article one cent per ton per mile ;
and any charge exceeding this three milk; which is assessed by the state or
company, is what I denominate their toll.

In nearly every tariff of toll adopted in this country, the charge on every
article is proportional to the distance it is transported on the hue. The toll
is some fixed amount per ton per mile. This scale of taxation, I contend, is
improper and unjust.

To examine the question, let us suppose the article to be lumber, of which
the market value, at the point to which it is sent, is 10 dollars per ton. Let
us also assume that the cost of producing this article, or preparing it for
shipping on the canal, is 6 dollars per ton. It is then most olnious that if
the charge for transportation on this commodity exceed 4 dollars per ton, it
will be wholly excluded from the line ; for then the cost of carriage, added
to the cost of production, would exceed the market value of the article, and
there could be no profit to remunerate the producer. But if the charge be
less than 4 dollars, there mil l)e a certain profit, and the article will be found
to seek the market.

If now, this lumber is carried a space of 100 miles to its mart, and the
charge for freight is one cent per ton per mile, the freight for that distance
mil obviously be one dollar, and there will remain a balance of three dollars
for the extreme limit which the article will bear to be charged for toll. The
toll levied by the state, at one cent per ton per mile, will be one dollar, or
one third the amount which the article could in this case sustain.

Let us next suppose that similar lumber comes upon the line at a distance
of 300 miles from the same mart. The charge for freight would now be
three dollars, and there would consequently be a residue of only one dollar
on which the state might levy for toll. The commodity could bear no more
than one dollar, since that sum added to the three dollars freight, would be
four dollars, or the difference between the cost of producing the lumber and
its price in market. But, by the princiiile of taxation usually adopted, the
toll assessed at one cent per ton per mile, would here be three dollars, or
three times as much as the article would bear. In other words, at the dis-
tance of one hundred miles from the mart, in the usual tariffs, a commodity
is charged one dollar where it might bear a charge of three, and at three
hundred miles it is charged three dollars where it could bear but one.

Does it need any argument to prove that a scale producing such resiUts is

neither compatible with principles of equity or good economy? Is it not
manifestly unjust to charge the man who is situated 300 miles from market
three times as much as he can afford to pay, while the man at 100 miles can
afford to pay three times as nuich as be is charged ? Is it not any thing but
good economy to tax all the trade in this article beyond 200 miles so hcarily
tliat it is totally driven from the line, when, if the tolls were differently as-
sessed, it might be invited, and made to pay a respectable revenue to the
state ? And is not the primary object of the work defeated by the adoption
of a tariff that excludes those conmiodities from it which it was especially
intended to draw to market, an effect which is accompanied by a direct sacri-
fice of trade, revenue, and even justice ?

I think it can scarcely need more than this plain exposition to make clear
to any reflecting mind that some of the charges on the public works of this
country need revision ; that they are based on priucijiles which are unsound,
and at once do injury to the proprietors of the work, and injustice to a large
portion of the public. The commonwealth, as the constructor and ow ner of
the improvement, is a sufferer in the loss of the trade that is excluded, and
the reven\ie that might be derived from it ; the citizens of the emporium
w liich is the mart of the line, softer from the contraction of their business in
consequence of the exclusion of the articles in which they traftic ; and the
country traversed by the improvement, and taxeil, perhaps, for its construc-
tion, suffers from its inability to share the benefits which the work was
designed to confer.

Further evidence of the loss of Trade consequent on uniform Charges.

To render more palpable the fact that a charge for toll proportioned di-
rectly to the distance will cause the exclusion of a certain amount of tonnage
without conferring any compensating advantage, we will consider the subject
with the aid of a diagram. (See Fig. 1.)

Fig. 1.

Let M in the figure be the position of the mart, and ML the line of the
improvement ; and let us assume, as before, that the commodity will be ca-
llable of sustaining a charge of four dollars per ton for its transportation ;
that the toll is one cent per ton per mile, the freight likewise one cent, and
the cost of carriage on the lateral roads by which the tonnage is brought to
the work, is ten cents per ton per mile.

The distance M n from which this commodity can be brought to the mart
at M on the lateral roads n M, n M, will then be forty miles ; and the di--
tance M P which we can afford to carry it along tlie improvement, at an
aggregate charge of two cents per ton per mile, will of course be 200 miles.
The area of coimtry, therefore, which will supply trade to the line, will be
represented by the triangle n P n, having a base n n of eighty miles, and a
height M P of 200 miles.

Now, it is apparent that the line will receive no tonnage of this article,
from beyond tlie point P ; and therefore, that if the trade were permitted to
come free of toll from beyond that point, there would result a certain in-
crease of tonnage, which would be accompanied by no diminution of
revenue.

Under such an arrangement of the tariff, the charge for freight from P to
M, for produce coming from the country beyond P, would be only two dol-
lars, and there would consequently be left a balance at P of two dollars out
of the limit of four dollars which the article could sustain, to bear the cost
of its carriage along the lateral roads to the improvement, and down the im-
provement to the mart.

This balance will be sufficient to pay the cost of transportation on the
lateral road from y to P, a distance of twenty miles, at ten cents per ton per
mile ; and the charge for freight along the improvement, from R to P, a dis-
tance of 200 miles, at one cent per ton per mile. It would, therefore, be
within the ability of the state or company, in this example, to extend the
benefits of the improvements 400 miles into the interior instead of 200, and
increase the tonnage of the line, with all the incidental advantages, 50 per
cent., without sustaining any loss of revenue.

It is far from my intention here to advocate a tariff arranged with a view
to this efteet, but merely to show what is lost by those which are commonly
adopted. Instead of draining only the country contained in the triangle
H P H, which will supply the trade where the charge for toll is one cent, and
freight one cent, by charging toll from M to P, and permitting all articles
brought from beyond the angle P to pass free of toll, the shaded triangle
V R y in the figure will be added to the area using the work and supplying
its tonnage. The value of the improvement to the country will be increased
one half ; the trade of the city at M w ill hkewise be increased one half, and
the value of the property of the commonwealth, as far as it is dependent on
the activity of the work, will be ptoportionally augmented.

1S40]

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313

But such an arrangement would effect injustice, and could not therefore
receive the sanction of a government administered in a due regard to the
first principles of its existence — the equal protection of the citizens, and an
equitahle distribution of the benefits which its constitution was intended to
confer.

Such a tarifl" would augment the tonnage of the line — but it would pro-
duce that result by taxing the citizen immediately at P four dollars, and ex-
cluding him from tlie work, and the neighl)0ur immediately beyond P hut
two dollars, and inviting him at the expense of a preuiiuni.

Besides these oljjections to this arrangement, there exists the additional
and important one, that it would not fidfil another imperative condition —
that of obtauiing the greatest revenue from the trade.

Of the most judicious charge on articles of heavy burden and small value.

I conceive that it is essential to the fulfilment of the condition, that the
tax levied on the trade of the line shall be reconcilable with principles of
equity, that the charge at each point shall be proportional to the ability of
the article to sustain it ; and, it fortunately happens, that when the charges
are regulated in the mode that will produce the maximum revenue, this con-
dition will be fully satisfied.

We are to understand by the ability of a commodity to sustain a charge
for carriage, the difference between the cost of production and the market
value of the object. If the article be worth ten dollars in market, and it
costs six dollars to produce and prepare it for ULirket, it will sustain any
charge for transportation, including both freight and toll, not exceeding four
dollars. But its ability to sustain a charge for toll only, depends on the
position iu which it reaches the line of the improvement. For, after deduct-
ing the cost of production from the market value, the residue may go to bear
the whole cost of carriage ; but we must still deduct from this residue the
charge for freight, to obtain the sum wliich it will bear to be charged for
toll.

If, for example, the above article reach the line at 100 miles from the
mart, and the freight be one cent per ton jier mile, the charge for freight
will be one dollar, and the residue will be three dollars. If it reach the line
at 200 miles, the charge for freight will be two dollars, and this residue will
be two dollars. If it come on the work at 300 miles, the charge for freight
will be three dollars, and the residue will be one ; and if it reach it at 400
miles, the freight will be four dollars, and the residue will be nothing, I
say, therefore, that to make the tax for toll proportional to the ability of the
commodity, the charge levied by the State for its passage along
100 miles should be proportional to 3 dollars,
200 miles shoulil be proportional to 2 dollars,
300 miles should Ije proportional to 1 dollar,
and along 400 miles it should lie allowed to pass free. From which it ap-
pears, that the greater the distance the commodity is can-ied, the less should
be the toll levied ujion it. In short, I propose that the tax should be pro-
portional to the ability of the trade to sustain the cliarge ; and, by such a
tarift', to supersede those now in use — liy which the tax is increased in pro-
portion as the ability of the trade to bear the tax is diminished.

Now, it may be demonstrated, that when the toll is assessed on this prin-
ciple, both the tonnage and the revenue will be greater than if the most
profitable uniform charge per mile that it is possible to \c\y were adopted.

But the method of determining this most productive charge, cannot be
conveniently pointed out, with a demonstration of its correctness, in a mere
popular discussion. I have, however, elsewhere considered the subject in
some detail, and have shown that the toll on this division of the trade which
will yield the greatest possible revenue, is about three-eighths of the cliarge
which wo\ild exclude the article from market ; or three-eighths the limit of
the tax which it would bear.

In the above example, therefore, tlie charge at

100 miles, should be f of 3 dollars, or 1 dollar 12^- cents.
200 miles, should be t of 2 dollars, or 75 „

300 miles, should be g of 1 dollar, or STJ- „

400 miles, 0 GO „

The difference between these sums and those above given constitutes the
profits of the proprietors.

It cannot be objected to this scale of charges, that it deprives the citizen
on the line, near the mart, of any of the advantages of his position. The
work, on the contrarj-, furnishes him with the means of transporting the
products of his estate to a market for one fourth or one fifth the sum he was
compelled to expend before its construction. This is a positive advantage
for whicli he is indebted to the commonwealth ; and he has no right to com-
plain if the same commonwealth extend the benefits of the enterprise to
more distant citizens. The avowed object of the improvement is to bring to
market productions which could not otherwise reach it, and, generally, to
reduce the tax on transportation. And if the objection, that the mode of
charging here recommended may seem to disturb the relative advantages of
position of the near and distant denizen, be a valid one, it is a fortiori a
conclusive argument against all improvement. A consequence of the con-
struction of any canal or railroad, is to increase the value of estates to which
it affords new facilities, and of course disturb the relation between the ad-
vantages possessed by such property and other estates in the commonwealth,
on which it has no effect.

But such an objection, even if a legitimate one, cannot be applied to the

scale here adrised. It is not proposed to tax the distant man less for the
transportation of his effects than the nearer one; on the contrary, he is
charged more. The metlmd merely proposes to make t'lat portion of the
tax which is to be considered as the profit of the State— tliat portion which
is levied for revenue — proportional to the ability of the trade to pay it. And
tins is just.

\ix. 2.

If, now, we represent by a proper scale, as in Fig. 2, the area of the coun-
tiT which, with tlie data of this example, would furnish tlie tonnage, in the
hypothesis of an uniform charge of one cent for freight and one cent for toll,
we shall have, as before stated, a triangular figure N P N, with a base, N N,
of 80 miles, and height, M P, of 200 miles.

But if the charges were adjusted with a view to the obtaining of the maxi-
mum revenue, the triangle would have a base, n n, of 50 miles, and a lieight,
M R, of four hundred miles. In the one case the area of the country would
be represented by the triangle N P N, and in the other by the triangle n R n.

But, instead of aiming to obtain the maximum revenue on all the trade
which would reach the improvement from R to M, we may, by the system
which it is intended to recommend, adopt iu both instances an uniform
cliarge for toll, as one cent per ton per mile, from JI to M' — the point which
corresponds with the intersection n' of the sides of the superior and inferior
triangles — and confine the arrangement made with a view to the maximum
revenue, to that portion of the country situated between M' and R.

The consequence of this arrangement would be to obtain the same tonnage
and revenue from the country traversed by the portion M M' of the line, in
both cases, since the tariff would iu that distance be common ; and at the
same time to increase the area of the countiT trading on the improvement,
a quantity equal to the whole of the shaded space in the figure, and to in-
crease the revenue a quantity equal to whatever would be due to this addi-
tional trade and the charge upon it, determined in accordance with the prin-
ciples here laid down.

It will be perceived that the increase of tonnage and revenue which, in the
first part of tliis article is shown to have place, will be obtained without any
increase of toll on any part whatever of the trade. ^A■e have only to take
the present tariff of New York or Pennsylvania, or any other state or com-
pany, and obtain these results by a reduction of the charges.

For, at the point P, which is supposed to be 200 miles from M, we have
seen that a toll of one cent per ton per mile would entirely exclude the trade.
But if, instead of a charge of one cent per ton per mile, at that point, or two
dollars for the entire toll from P to M, tlie article were taxed but 75 cents
per ton, as is stated to l)e the proper toll under the circumstances, there
would remain out of the two dollars, which is the limit of the charge for toll
it would bear at that position, a balance of one dollar 25 cents, to pay the
expense of its transportation from j; to P — a distance of 12 J miles on each
side of the line. So that, Ijy simply reducing the charge resulting from a
tariff proportioned to the distance, we shaU here obtain, instead of nothing,
a revenue due to the tonnage that would be furnished by a district ji; /;, 25
miles in breadth, at a charge of 75 cents per ton.

It is true that a much more important increase of revenue might be ex-
perienced by a modification of the uniform charge supposed to be levied from
M to jr, and a reduction from the new tariff beyond M'. For, even where
we to adopt the principle of fixing on a determinate toll per ton per mile for a
certain distance, we should bear in mind that there is a certain uniform
charge which will yield a higher result than any other. But, without any
reference to this, or any of the other advantages which would be derived
from a thorough and strict regard to the laws of trade in the establishment
of the tariff", I have only sought to render clear the fact, that by simple re-
duction of the charges on a portion of the trade on all our public works, the
revenue and tonnage may be simultaneously increased, and the tax on the
public may be rendered more equitable.

EXPERIMENTS ON THE AMERICAN COTTON-GINS.

On Wednesday the 12th July, a deputation of the Board of Directors of
the East India Company, paid a visit to Liverpool, for the pm-pose of wit-
nessing a series of experiments in the cleaning of East India cotton by means
of the saw-gins brought to England by Captain Bayles. The object of these
experiments was two-fold : firstly, to show that by the introduction of the
American saw-gin into India, the cotton of that country might be so well
cleaned, and with so Uttle injury to the staple, as to render it a marketable
article to an almost unhmitcd extent; and, secondly, to ascertain which of
the four gins was best calculated for the cleaning of Indian cotton, in order
that other machines might be manufactured, either precisely on the same
principle, or with such improvements as might seem desirable.

314

THE Cn IL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[Skptkmber,

Thcexpcrimerits took jilace on Friday the 1 4tli ult., on t\:t' pvcinises of Messrs.
Fawcett and Preston, where the gins liad been fitted up. and steam-power
applied to them. There were present the directors, deputations from tlje
Gla-sgow .ind Manchester Chambers of Commerce, tlie Mayor of Liverpool,
and a great number of e.\te:;sive spinners, infiuential merchants and brokers,
probably to the extent of 150 persons.

The Chairman ot tlie directors haWng explained briefly the objects of the
Board, the experiments were commenced, under the superintendence of Cap-
tain liayles, who was assisted by the four .\merican planters remaining vitli
him. .A. quantity of Sural cotton, in the state in whieh it had been gathered,
and wliicli had been two years in this country, was first exhibited to the com-
pany. It seemed to liave been gathered when wet, and was very dirtv; and
the general opinion seemed to be that in its then state it was nearly, 'if not
altogetber, worthless. Twenty-one pounds of this cotton were put into each
of the three .American gins; No. 1, being the invention of Mr. E. Carver;
No. 2, that of Mr. Jones; and No. 3, that of Mr. W. U. Hrooks. Two of the
gins have 60 saws ; the other has 40 ; the time occupied in ginning therefore
Taricd somewhat. Two, we believe, accomplished their work in about 9i
minutes ; the third in about 1 1 1.

The result of the experiment with the gin No. 3 vras first testeil ; it was as
follows r— cotton, 5 lbs. 3 oz. ; seeds, 12 lbs. 8 oz. ; waste, 2 lbs. 11 oz. ; mak-
ing within lOoz. of the original quantity of 21 lbs. put into the macliine.
The yield of cotton, it will be seen, was one quarter. A sample was sub-
mitted to the inspection of the company generally, and they were requested
to put upon it a value. Mr. Ilardman Earle, Mr.'.Vshton, and another gen-
tleman, were appointed special valuers. They decided that this sample was
worth 45d. per lb.

Gin No. 2.— Cotton, 5 lbs. ; seeds, 14 lbs. 10 oz. ; waste, 12 oz. Value of
sample, 4d.

Gin No. 1. — Cotton, 5 lbs. 5 oz. ; seeds and waste, lolbs. Goz. Value,
4. id.

It is necessary to mention that the machines were not, as may well be
imagined, in the best working order. This was especially the case 'with No.
2, between the saws of which ulunerous seeds had forced tlieir way, thus in-
juring the staple more than would otherwise have been the case. ' The saws
having been cleaned, a second experiment was made with this gin, the result
of which was the production of a better cotton, valued at 4id.

An experiment was then made upon the fourth saw-gin. This was .ilso
from America, but it was a machine of older date than the foregoing ones.
Patterns of it had been made and sent out to each of the Presidencies, and
the machines had been tried, but were pronounced to be a failure. They were
in India worked with hand-power. Steam-power was employed in tlie pre-
sent experiment ; and 21 lbs. of the old Surat cotton was put into the gin.
The time occupied in ginning this was 141 minutes; but the comparative in-
crease of time may in part be accounted for from the fact of the machine
having a less number of saws. The result was — cotton, 4 Ibj. 10 oz. ; seed,
15 lbs. ; waste, 10 oz. The cotton was well cleared of the seed and dirt, but
the staple was vcrj- much cut. The estimated value was 4d.

As steam-engines aie at present almost unknown in the interior of India,
animal power will probaldy be employed, at least in the first instance, in the
working of the gins. The above four are so constructed that either steam or
animal power may be applied to them.

An experiment was now made on a hand-gin, constructed by Messrs. Faw.
cett and Preston, under the superintendence of Dr. Jones, who had only
commenced the macliine twelve days beforehand. The doctor stated that hi's
great object had been to produce a machine which should possess the essen-
tial qiiality of standing the climate of India without warping. That, he
thouglit, would do so ; and he felt convinced that it would, with the substi-
tution of properly finished saws, and the outlay of a little more time, turn out
a good working gin. It has twenty-five saws.'and may be worked with horse
power. As, how ever, it was scarcely in a finished state, a regular experiment
of its capabilities was not made. A small, but unspecified amount of the
Surat cotton Iiitherto employed was put into the gin, so as to obtain samples.
At first the result seemed unsuccessful. The cotton was said to be more cut
than in any other instance ; but, after closer inspection, the staple was allowed
to be very fair, and the machine to have done its work well. A samjile was
compared with the others, and the cotton was pronounced to be equal to that
produced by gins Nos. 2 and i.

These were the most important experiments of the day, and were generally
considered sufficient to prove that cotton of East Indian growth may be well
cleaned by the saw-gin, without any very material injur)- to the staple. The
establishment of this important fact will thus enable India once more to enter
into competition with America as a producer of the raw material, and to oc-
cupy the place from which she was driven by the invention and general adop-
tion of the saw-gin in America.

Improvements In obliimi}::; powrr ; patented by Moses Poole. Lincoln's Inn.
July ".—The intention cimsisis in obtaining power by means ol an apparatus.

_..l_l_l_ K_ _ ..„r,«a .^f l..l.,,l.,^ .-,- f iLl-- J. H./ .1 : .-1,1; S? .: - .-

juiy (.— ine intention cimsisls in otitaining power by ..„....o „. .... ,l,,|.,.,,.ii,^.
which has a series of blades or surfaces like fivers fixed in an oblique direction
to an axis, which is made to revolve, ami. consequently to carry them round
at any velocity required, the atmosphere actinp; as Ihc power of resistance.

Mi^u. uie aiiiMispiiere aciinx as uie power ul lesistancf
wiiereoy a gre ii potter is obtained for propelling boats, carriages. Sec. The
inventor proposes to work this apparatus by means of an engine, which, if
Vlr.ced in a boat, carriage, or car of a ballou'n. the fivers or blades actin'.' '.n
the atmosphere will cause the machine to move in any direction re.juired."

FROCESDIKGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES.

INSTITUTION OF CIVIL ENGINEERS.
March 0. — The Prksidext in the Chair.

The following were balloted for and elected : — Robert Napier and Daniell
Mackain, as Members; John Salkeld, Robert Batson, John Gandell, and Sie-
gerick Clu-istopher Kreeft, as Giaauates.

"Description of the ' Aotixnch' Iron Passage Boat phjiny on the Limeriek
narit/ntion, between that place and Killaloe." By Charles Wye Williams,
Assoc. Inst. C. E.

The attention of Mr. Williams having been attracted to the successful plan
for the conveyance of passengers adopted on the Glasgow and Paisley Canal,
where light sheet-iron boats of great length travel at a speed of nine miles
an hour, he was induced to attempt the introduction of the same system on
tlie Irish canals. .\ great difliculty, however, presented itself, as the locks
there would only admit boats 60 feet long, which length was quite inade-
quate to the carrying out with advantage the princijile involved in the long
light Scotch boat. To overcome this difliculty, he constructed a sheet-iron
boat, 80 feet long and 6 feet 6 inches wide at midships, having the stem and
stern ends (each 10 feet long) attached by strong hinges to the body, and
susceptible of being rajiidly raised to a vertical iiosition by means of winches,
thus reducing the length to 60 feet when required to pass through a lock.
It is evident that by this means there would be gained not merely the ap-
parent additional buoyancy of 10 feet at each end of the boat, which, from
the form, would not be vep.' effective, but in reality the buoyancy due to an
addition of 20 feet of the midship section. The boat thus constructed has
been found to answer jierfectly ; the buoyancy is erpial to that of the Scotch
boats of similar dimensions ; no craiikness or unsteadiness accnies wiicn the
ends are raised ; it is capable of carrying 60 passengers, travelling at a speed
of 9 miles per hour, with the same power that was required to draw a CO
feet tioat with a less load, and there is a much less action on the canal hank,
in consequence of the increased length, which at the same time imparts stiff-
ness, and enables passengers to enter and leave the boat with safety. Con-
siderable time is saved in passing the locks, by the opposition of the square
end when the bow is raised ; the boat may thus be run almost at full speed
into the lock, and both ends being raised simultaneously, it is stopped much
more easily than if the tapered ends were down. No provision is necessary
for keeping the ends down, as the weight of the bow and steersman answers
the purpose.

This boat has been working without intermission for three years between
Limerick and Killaloe, traversing twice daily a distance of 15 miles, on a
navigation of considerable intricacy, and passing 11 locks, without any acci-
dent haying hitherto occurred.

Mr. Parkcs observed that, independent of the advantages of carrying more
passengers, by continuing the midship section to the length of 60 feet, con-
siderable speed was gained by the 80 feet boat, in consequence of its fine
entrance and run. Mr. Millianis informed him that the velocity was found
to dejiend on tlie position of the boat on the wave ; that the rider of the
horses employed in towing the boat knew exactly the proper position of the
wave with respect to the boat, and regulated the exertion of the liorses ac-
cordingly— the velocity of the boat and the tractive force depending on the
relative position of the boat and wave.

Mr. Field, in reply to some remarks respecting the effect of these rising
ends on the buoyancy of the boat, stated that he did not understand it to be
Mr. Williams's design to obtain additional buoyancy thereby. The ends only
press on the water as much as is due to their own weight, and are principally
useful ill giving a fine entrance and run to the boat ; thus having the whole
space between the rising ends for the accommodation of passengers, and ob-
taining an absolute gain of the whole space that is hfted at each end, as in a
boat of the ordinary length there must he the same tapering of the bow and
stern ends. So great is the facility in managing the ends, that on quitting
a lock the bow end is lowered as the gates arc opening; the boat is set in
motion at the same time, and as it moves on the stern end is let down, and
the usual speed is obtained very soon after it clears the lock. When a lock
is to be entered, the boat is suffered nearly to reacli the gate at full speed,
when the bow end being raised, the additional resistance caused by the square
section being suddenly opposed to the water stops the boat almost imme-
diately. The weight of one man at each end is amjily sufficient to keep down
the ends wlien the boat is in motion.

" On the experiments and results nf Mr. TV. J. Ilenwood, as to the power
of the IIucl Toiran Eiujine." Jiy George Woods.

In this communication, the author refers to the experiments of Mr.
Henwood, published in the second volume of the Transactions, and to the
result there stated, that the curve traced by the pencil of the indicator
during the expansion of the steam deviates from a true parabola, according
to the temperature of the medium contained in tlie jacket. Mr. Woods
coiaes to the conclusion that, the temperature rcm.ainiiig constant, the curve
will de\iate very considerably from a true parabola. The results obtained
by the author as to the relative powers of the engine before and after the
steain is cut oflT, and the mean pressure, as given by tlie indicator diagram,
do not diflfer materiallv from those given by Mr. Henwood. But Mr. Woods

)S40.J

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

315

differs from Mr. llenwood as to tliat portion of the curve wliich the latter
selects as represenliiis the true value of expansive working.

" Description of a Riimiing Gauge for ascertaining the Parallelism of a
Raihcay." By Edward Cowper. (Described in the Journal, vol. ii, p. 245.)

" All Azimuth Cap as an addition to the common Level." By Edward
Cowper.

It is sometimes desirable in levelling operations to ascertain the bearing
of objects which are cither above or below the tield of view of the telescope.
The comiuon level alone cannot take the bearing of such objects ; for, by
elevating or depressing the telescope, the action of the compass is destroyed ;
but, by slipping the azimuth cap on to the end of the telescope of the level,
object's 50° above or below the field of view may be observed without dis-
turl>ing the compass or altering the level of the telescope.

This instrument consists of a brass cap containing two slips of looking-
glass placed at an angle to each other, precisely as in Iladley's quadrant ;
one glass being fixed at an angle to the axis of the telescope, and the other
being moveable about a centre. When any object is required to be brought
within the field of view, the cap is placed on the end of the telescope, and
the angle of the moveable glass is varied until the object is reflected on the
fixed glass, and thence to the eye.

March 10. — The President in the Chair.
The following were balloted for and elected : — John Manby, as a Graduate;
Frederick John Evans, Richard Ravenhill, and John Glutton, as Associates.

" A mode of li ending Discs of Silvered Plate Glass into Concare or Conre.v
Mirrors hg means of the pressure of the Atmosphere." By James Nasmyth.

The dilficulty of obtaining large specula for telescopes, together with the
disadvantages attending the weight, the brittleness, and liability to oxidation,
of the speculum metal generally used, induced llr. Nasmyth to turn his at-
tention to the employment of silvered plate glass for telescopic purposes, as
it possesses perfect truth of surface, is lighter than metal, is not liable to
oxidation, and a greater quantity of Ught is reflected from it than from any
metallic surface.

To give a concave or convex form to a disc of plate glass, a certain pres-
sure must be made to act equally over the surface. This equal pressure is
obtained on Mr. Nasmyth's plan, by taking advantage of tlie weight of the
atmosphere.

A- disc of silvered plate glass, 39 inches in diameter and f^ of an inch in
thickness, is fitted and cemented into a shallow cast-iron dish, turned true
on its face so as to render the chamber behind the glass perfectly au:-tight;
by means of a tube communicating with this chamber, any portion of air can
be withdrawn or injected.

To produce a concave mirror so slight a power is required, that on apply-
ing the mouth to the tube and exhausting the chamber, the weight of the
atmosphere, which amounts in this case to 3558 lb., acting with equal pres-
sure over a surface of 1186 square inches, causes the glass to assume a con-
cavity of nearly three-quarters of an inch, wliich, in a diameter of 39 inches,
is far beyond what would ever be required for telescopic purposes. On re-
admitting the air, the glass hnmediately recovers its plane surface, and on
forcing in air with the power of the lungs, it assumes a degree of convexity
nearly equal to its former concavity. The degree of concavity or convexity
may be regulated to the greatest nicety, and it is proposed to render the
degree of concavity constant, by placing in the air tight chamber a disc of
iion turned to the required form, and allowing the pressure of the atmosphere
to retain the glass in the form given to it by its close contact with the iron
disc. The curve naturally taken by the glass when under the pressure of the
atmosphere is believed by Mr. Nasmyth to be the catenary, inasmuch as its
section would be the same as that of a line suspended from each end, and
loaded equally throughout its length.

Mr. Lowe did not feel weU assured that the curve naturally taken by the
" Pneumatic Mirror" was a catenarian, as the plate being set iu a frame was
supported all round its periphery, and resembled an arch resting on its abut-
ments. He suggested the ]>ropriety of attempting to attain given curves by
grinding the plate of dilfereut thicknesses ia paits, so that the pressure of
the atmosphere should affect it unequally.

Mr. Macneill was inclined to believe the curve assumed was the " Elastic
Curve," the properties of which were exaudued by James Beruouilli, iu the
Memoirs of the Academy of Science, 17U3.

March 17. — Henry R. Palmer, V. P., in the Chair.

The following were balloted for and elected : — Theodore Budd and Thomas
Steel, as Graduates ; Geddcs Pearce, William Lane, Thomas Jevons, and
George ilills, as .\ssociates.

" An Account of the Performances of the Locomotive Engines on the Lon-
don and liirmiwjham Railtray during the gear 1839." By Edward Bury,
M. last. C. E.

The engines used on the London and Birmingham Railway are all con-
structed on the same principle as to the main parts, the whole being upon
four wheels, and oidy differing from each other in some of the minor details.
The engines used for the conveyance of passengers have cyUnders 12 inches
diameter, with an 18 inch stroke ; the driving wheels are 5 feet diameter,
and the carrying wheels 4 feet diameter. The merchandize engines have
cyhnders 13 inches diameter, with an 18 inch stroke, and differ from the

others in having all the wheels of 5 feet diameter and coupled togetl'.er. The
framing is of wrought iron, fixed inside the wheels for the greater conve-
nience of connecting it with the boiler. The cylinders are attached to the
frame by two strong wrought-iron bars passing beneath the lower semi-
diameter, and secured by bolts to the ears cast on them. The cranks and
fore axles are also fixed to the frame. By this arrangement, any concussioa
is received directly by that part of the machine best calculatcil to bear it,
and when the force of the engine is exerted in either pushing or drawing, it
is done directly tlirough the line of the framing, and thus any strain is di-
verted from the boiler or from those paits of the machine liable to be injured.
There are only two bearings on the axles, and they are inside the wheels.
.-Vny tendency towards depression iu the centre from the weight would be
counteracted Ijy the continual upward pressure, arising from blows received
by the flauneh of the wheels striking against the rails on curves, passing
crossings, lic. The bushes which the axles run in are fitted ijito the frame
in such a manner as to allow the springs to play vertically, but have flauches
which prevent any tendency to lateral action beyond that necessary for the
irregularities of the road, and they are of such a length as to enable them to
hold up the engine in case of the breakage of one of the axles. It would
appear that the breakage of the axles is a ver)- rare occurrence, and that even
when it has happened, the engines have performed the remainder of the jour-
ney and brought home the train with only a slight diminution of speed. The
engines differ in weight according to the class they belong to. A passenger
engine, with its coke and water in the fire-box and boiler, weighs 9 tons,
13 cwts. 1 qr.

Tons. cwts. qrs.
The fore end .... 3 19 1

The after end .... 5 17 2
A merchandize engine, with coke and water, weighs 11 tons, 13 cwts. 1 qr.

Tons. cwts. qrs.
The fore end ...-541

The after end .... 6 12 3

This form of engine was adopted by the atithor as early as the year 1R2!>,
when he constructed the " Liverpool," which was the original model engine
with horizontal cylinders and cranked axles. It was set to work on the
Liverpool and Manchester Railway in July, 1830. This form of engine has
been invariably used on the London and Birmingham Railway since its
opeiuug.

The paper is accompanied by complete drawings of the engines, and tabu-
lar statements of their performances during the year 1839, showing the
number of miles traversed by each engine, the weight conveyed, with the
cost in detail of coke, oil, tools, wages, repairs, and general charges.

The performances of the engines extend over a distance of 700,000 miles,
and a period of 12 months ; and it appears that with the passenger engines.
For the first 6 months the average total

cost of conveyance was
For the second 0 months the average to-
tal cost was .....
While with the merchandize engines —
For the first G months the average total

cost was i^Mr '^i**''-

And for the second G months the average

was -nnnx '^'t*0-

" Earth Falls at the Undercliff in the Isle of Wight." By William Rick-
man.

The remarkable tract of coast called the " Undercliff" extends from the
south point of the Isle of Wight, nine miles to the eastward. Its surface is
distorted in fonn, somewhat resembling in miniature tlie volcanic features of
Southern Italy ; for although the latter has been formed by the action of fire,
and the former by that of water, botli have been moulded when in a state of
partial fluidity. The soil is of a boggy nature, is intersected with numerous
springs, and in it are imbedded, in the utmost confusion, detached masses of
the weather-worn cliff-rock, forming in places natural terraces on the face of
the clitf, and inclining inwards at different angles towards the land.

A sectional view taken through the south point, bearing north to the sum-,
mit of St. Catherine's Down, would jiresent tliese features.

From the sea beach of iron sand, strewed with shingle and boulders, rises
a cliff of GO feet, and from it a rugged and irregular ascent of 320 feet iu
height, half a mile in extent, composed of vegetable soil, chalk, green sand-
stone in masses an<l fragments, and of blue marie, the whole mingleil indis-
criminately and irri::rited by numerous springs. Thus much constitutes the
Underclift"! Above it appears the perpendicular, serrated profile of the Upper
Cliff, 260 feet in height, from which the surface of the Down jirocceds with
a slight descent for :i. quarter of a mile, and then gradually rises in the extent
of half a mile to a v.- tical height of 200 feet, being the highest land in the
island — 780 feet above the level of the sea. The strata are nearly horizontal,
with a slight dip to the north-east. They are the upper part of the secon-
dary or supcrmedial order, and consist of cliallc, chalk-stone, gi'een sand.,
stone, blue marl, and iron or red sand.

This stratification would account for the subsidences of the Cliff which
have occurred so repeatedly. The water collected by the extensive surface
of the Down would percolate througli the chalk and sand-stone beds until it
reached the impervious blue marlc, where it would accumulate until it finally
escaped by oozing out over the edge of the stratum, carrying with it portions

of a penny per ton per mile.

ditto.

316

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[September,

of the saiulv subsoil ; in this state it has the a]i])carancc of a slimy grit, con.
sistiug of [laiticlcs of the saiul-stoiie luliricateil with clay; it is f.ciuiliaily
called "the blue slipper." A continuation of this infiltration for any length
of time must end by undermining certain portions of the face of the Clitt'.
which, being unsupported Ijcneath, detach themselves from the main rock
and settle ; the first settlement may not exceed a few inches, but a fissure
having been formed the whole length behind the subsidence, the surface
water ))0urs into it, and continuing to moisten and undermine it, at length
causes the slip to assume its present aspect. This soakage of water at the
back of the mass may be supposed to sap its foundation at the rear and to
give it the dii) inwards, which is observed in all cases, and most evidently in
such as are farthest advanced in their descent. A number of natural terraces
are thus formed, and the process may be traced in every stage of its progress
at ditferent parts of tlie Clitf, as at Mirables, in the Pelham Walks, at Vent-
nor, and at the Luccondie landslip. These subsidences appear to have suc-
ceeded each other at long intervals of time, but there is no record of any so
extensive as that which occurred in 1799, at which time upwards of 100
acres were set in motion. That the principal landslips took place prior to
the Norman Conquest is proved by the existence of Bonchurch and St. Law-
rence Chapel, which are supposed to have been Inult soon after the manor
was surveyed for entry in Doomsday Book.

The President oljserved, that altliough papers of this kind did not appear
to be exactly adapted for the meetings of the Institution of Civil Engineers,
yet, as geology was so intimately connected with engineering, and it was
always essential to ascertain accurately the nature of the ground where works
were to be executed, such commnnications became not only acceptable, but
very valuable, to the profession.

jlr. Lowe liad paid ranch attention to a similar formation at Hastings, and
while he agreed to the general correctness of the observations, he diil not
think a sufficient reason had been assigned for such a mass of iron sand with
its incumbent chalk being driven seaward. He would attribute the subsi-
dences at the Undercliff to the action of water percolating through the
fissures into the thin beds of clay interspersed with lignites, with which the
iron sand abounded. This, when moistened, would ooze out and permit the
chalk to crush it outwards, causing the sidjsidences so ably described by Jlr.
Rickman.

March 24, 1810.— The President in the Chair.
The following were balloted for and elected: — Charles Lanyon, as a Mem-
ber ; Henry Addams, Thomas Macdougal Smith, and Robert Richardson, as
Graduates ; Henry Heathorn and Ardaseer Cursetjee, as Associates.

" On the manufacture of Flint Glass." By ApsleyPellatt, Assoc. Inst. C.E.
Flint glass, called by the French " cristal," from its resemblance to real
crystal, is composed of silcx (whence the English name), to which is added
carbonate of potash and htharge, or red lead ; to whicli latter material is
owing, not only its great specific gravity, but its superior lustre, its ductility,
and ]iower of refraction.

It is necessary for optical purposes that flint glass should be perfectly free
from strise, otherwise the rays of light passing through it diverge and become
distorted, and this defect is caused by the want of homogeneity in the melted
mass, occasioned by the difficulty of perfectly fusing substances of such dif-
ferent density as the materials employed. The materials, being properly
prepared, are thrown at intervals into a crucible of Stourbridge clay, which
will hold about 1600 lbs. weight of glass when fused. The mouth of the
crucible is then covered with a double stopper, but not luted, to permit the
escape of th.c moisture remaining in the materials, as well as the carbonic
acid gas and excess of oxygen. It reiiuires from 50 to 60 hours application
of a rapid, intense, and equal heat to etfect the perfect fusion of the materials
and to drive ott' the gas ; during whicli time the unfused particles and excess
of salts are skimmed off as they rise to the surface. The progress of fusion
cannot be watched, nor can any mechanical means for blending the material
during fusion be resorted to, lest the intensity of heat requisite for the pro-
duction of a perfectly homogeneous glass should be diminished, the quality
of the product being influenced by any inattention on the part of the fireman,
as well as by the state of the atmospliere or of the wind. It has been ascer-
tained, that there is a certain point or crisis of fusion at which the melted
metal must be kept to insure a glass fit for optical purposes, and even when
that point be attained, and the crucible shall furnish proper glass during
several hours, should there be such diminution of heat as to require the fur-
nace to be closed, the rciuainder of the metal in the crucible becomes curdy
and full of stri;e, and thus unfit for use. It is the same with tlie glass made
for the flat bore tubes for thermometers, which are never annealed, because
the smoke of the annealing furnace would render the interior of the bore
unfit for the reception of the mercury. These tubes will only bear the heat
of the blow-]iipe when they are made from a metal which has been produced
under all the favourable circumstances before described. It is, therefore, to
be inferred, that the most homogeneous and perfect flint glass can only be
produced by exposure to an intense anil equable degree of heat, and that any
excess or diminution of that heat is injurious to its quality.

The English method of manufacturing the flint jilate for optical purposes
is thus described. About 7 lb. weight of the metal is taken in a ladle of a
conical shape from the pot at the proper point of fusion, and then blown
into a hollow cylinder, cut open, and flattened into a sheet of glass of about
14 inches by 20, and varying in thickness from J to , of an inch. This plate
is afterwards annealed, aud iu this state goes into the hands of the optician,

who cuts and grinds it into the requisite form. When a glass furnace is
about to be put out, whole pots of metal are sometimes suffered to remain in
it, and cool gradually. The crucibles' being destroyed, pieces of glass may
be cloven from the mass of metal, softened by heat, and made to assume the
requisite form, and then ground. It is believed that the excellent glasses
made by Frauenhoft'cr, and other manufacturers on the continent, are jiro-
duced by some such means. On aMempting to cut glass ware, it is easilv
]ierceived if it be sufficiently annealed ; if not, the ware is put into tcpiil
water, which is heated, and kcjit at the boiling point during several hours ;
it is then suflfered to become gradually cold. Tliis method is more efficacious
than re.anncaling by the ordinary means. A |)iece of imannealed barometer
tube of 40 inches in length being heated and quickly cooled, contracted only
-^ of an inch, whereas a similar piece, annealed by the usual means, con-
tracted nearly J of an inch. Unannealed flint glass, being heated and sud-
denly cooled in water, exhibits the appearance of a mass of crystals ; it is
thence inferred that the process of annealing renders the glass more compact
and solid ; it thus becomes incapable of polarization.

Flint glass being remarkably elastic, has caused it to be used for chro-
nometers. To prove its elasticity, a hollow ball of unannealed glass of 3
inches diameter, weighing about 10 ounces, was dropped, when cold, from a
height of 7 feet upon a stone floor; it rebounded uninjured about 31 feet,
but broke on falling to the ground after the rebound. Similar balls, both at
a bright and a low red heat, were dropped from the same height, aud both
broke immediately without any rebound ; thus demonstrating that its elasti-
city only exists while cold. Glass being sometimes deteriorated in the pro-
cess of reheating, not only in colour, but in its faculty of welding, by the sul-
phur existing in the coal or coke used in the furnace, this is prevented by
occasionally throwing about a quart of cold water on the fire ; the explosive
vapour thus raised carries off the sulphureous gas.

The process of annealing has the remarkable property of carrying off from
the glass tlie reddish tint imparted to it by manganese ; and in large masses,
not only the reddish tint disappears, but the glass sometimes becomes green
or blue, probably by the action of the sulphureous acid gas from the coke.
The reddish tint will however return, and the greenish one disappear, should
the annealed glass be afterwards heated or renielted. Should the pot crack
during fusion, and the flame or smoke come in contact with the melted metal,
a green tint and abundance of dense stria: will be the consequence. Such an
accident can only be repaired, if the crack be accessible, by throwing cold
water on the exuding metal, which thus becomes gradually cooled, and itself
forms a lute, so as to enable the process of melting to be continued. Long
experience has shown that the best fuel for melting glass in the furnaces is
oven-burnt coke mixed with a small quantity of screened coal.

Mr. Pellatt illustrated the preceding paper by specimens of glass exhibiting
peculiar eftects of crystallization ; among them were cylindrical solid pieces
of flint glass, which, from being suddenly cooled by plunging them into water,
bad the interior entirely dislocated, and were merely held together by the
exterior coating; portions of tubes showing the same effect; a portion of a
vase of white glass dipped into blue glass of a greater density — in cooling,
the interior white glass appeared to be crushed by the contraction of the ex-
terior coating ; a similar vase of white and blue glass of more equal density
had cooled, and bore cutting without cracking ; a mass of optical glass, ex-
hibiting stria:, specks, and imperfections ; which, together with the modes of
manufacture, he explained.

In answer to several questions, Mr. Pellatt was not aware of any attempt
having been made to cut the bulb of Prince Rupert's drops : he believed the
perculiar property of the bursting of these drops or tears, on the end being
broken, arose from a crack suddenly commencing and extending itself rapidly
throughout the mass, causing the dislocation of the particles. Flint glass is
seldom sufficiently fluid to make these drops ; they are generally made from
glass which does not contain lead.

Alluding to the use of plate glass in Nasniyth's Pneumatic Mirror, he ob-
served that, owing to the absence of lead, plate glass was purer and more
homogeneous than flint glass, and the equality of thickness produced by
grinding and polishing enabled the curve caused by the pressure of the atmos-
phere to be very regular.

The use of coke as a fuel, by the regularity of its combustion, assists ma-
terially in producing good results, and prevents the injury which frequently
arises from a difi'ereuce in the heating powers of various coals ; unfortunately,
the form of the furnaces causes the greatest heat to be in the centre, thus
acting most powerfully upon the backs of the pots, instead of being equally
distributed around them, which would be more desirable and would insure
better results.

Mr. Pellatt still continued to use nine parts of coke mingled with one part
of small coal iu preference to any other fuel. He had abandoned the use of
gas coke, and now purchased small coal at a low price, which he converted
into a moderately-hard coke, rather less dense than that used for smelting
iron. In the north of England, a charge of coal generally remained in the
oven during 48 hours ; in London, only 30 hours; lie made lighter charges
and coked them in 24 hours. He still found the calorific efl'ect of 8 or 9 lb.
of coke to be equal to that of 12 lb. of coal ; in his ovens, 20 cwt. of coal
produced 14 cwt. of coke.

Mr. Parkes inquired, which was the best method of annealing tubes for
water gauges on boilers ? He generally used those prepared by Mr. Adie, of
Liverpool, who annealed them by placing them in cold water and gradually
raising the temperatiux to the'boiUng point, at which it was kept for 24

1840.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

317

hours ; yet, in spite of these precautions, wliich generally were successful, he
had seen twelve of these tubes break in one day, while an apparently ill-made
tube had lasted six weeks. lie found thin tubes last longer than thick ones.
He was in the habit of removing the stains of bog water from his boiler gauges
by scouring them with emery ; when reheated, they invariably broke ; after
many experiments, he tried the use of acid, which answered iierfectly, and no
tubes were subsequently broken.

Mr. PeUatt recommended boiling as a safe and good mode of annealing all
kinds of glass ; in the ordinary method of annealing, thick and thin ware is
often subjected to the same process, and remains in the leet for the same
jieriod : this would account for the superior duration of the thin tubes. He
attributed the fracture of the tubes to the tension of the exterior coating and
tlie vibration caused by the process of cleaning : this effect was so well known
that old tube could scarcely be sold, as it generally broke in cleaning.

Mr. Hawkins observed, that tubes almost Invariably broke in merely re-
mo\ing dust from the inside, whether it was done by rubbing with a tight
packing or by slightly wiping it out. In some experiments on the production
of carbonic acid gas, he used glass tubes of -J of an inch internal diameter and
I of an inch thick : they bore a pressure of 100 atmospheres. Some wrought-
iron tubes into which holes of J of an inch diameter were drilled and pieces
of glass inserted, bore a pressure of 600 atmospheres.

REVIEVT'S.

Papers on Iron and Sleel, Practical and Experimental. By David
MusHET. London: Jolin Weale, 1840.

In the volume before us we have the result of Mr. Mushet's labours
for the last 40 years and upwards, on the investigation of the proper-
ties of iron. Most of the papers have appeared in the Philosophical
Magazine, the first as long ago as 1798, they are now collected together
in one volume with additional notes and remarks, occasioned by the
new discoveries since the period of their first publication.

It must be most gratifying to Mr. Mushet to reprint the precept at
the commencement of the present volume, which was also the prelude
of the first paper which appeared in public, and one which we are
sure every scientific man will read with pleasure.

It is much to be wished, that men practically versed in the various manu-
factures of Britain would turn their attention to the best means of dissemi-
nating a knowledge of the principles and operations which have been deter-
mined by experience as the best to be followed in the large way, according
to local and other circumstances. A candid and liberal communication of
individual observation, by promoting the common interest, would tend ulti-
mately to the benetit of each manufacturer, by the increased improvement
and perfection of their various articles ; for the real welfare of any particular
branch depends less upon the superiority of one man's article over that of
another, in the same line, than upon the general superiority of a national
product over that of any other country — a pre-eminence that depends entirely
on the aggregate mass of industry, ingenuity and intellect exerted in the one
or the other.

What I recommend is the more necessary, as inaccurate and fallacious
principles are often brought forward by men of science, even the best inten-
tioned, from a want of that practical knowledge, which can only be acquired
by a long and personal acquaintance with the processes carried on in the
large way of manufacture. The mischiefs hence occasioned are incredible :
it tends to separate the man of science and the manufacturer ; it shackles the
latter with increasing prejudice ; makes him view the former with a suspi-
cions eye ; is the principal reason why science has been so long excluded
from our manufactories ; and why the accurate results of the laboratory have
so long been despised by the practical artist, and been deemed undeserving
of experiment on an extended scale. The artist and the man of science
should mutually inform each other : principles will then, and not till then,
acquire consistence and correctness, and their value w ill be established on the
surest foundation.

The volume before us as we have stated is not a mere reprint or
collection of the original papers, but contains in addition the results of
Mr. Mushet's subsequent experience, thus forming a complete and
uniform work. Although confined only to one branch, that of the
manufacture of pig iron, and the description of the ores and fuel ne-
cessary for producing it, it gives in a volume of 952 pages a mass of
information, which is invaluable to the manufacturer ana the student.
It is fo be hoped, however, that should this volume meet with the
success, which it cannot fail to attain, if it be rewarded according to
its merits, that Mr. Mushet may be induced to give a second volume,
as he intimates, on malleable iron and steel, and possibly a third volume
on the subject of some of the other metals. We feel certain that Mr
Mushet need not delay on this account, but that in full anticipation of
a successful reception, he may go on confidently to render fresh services
to the public, and add new honours to those he has already received.
Mr. Mushet has done much himself, but he has done more in showing

how much it is in the power of an individual, by his own exertions, to
benefit his fellowmen, and increase the resources of his native land.
To those who know Mr. Mushet no enumeration of his labours is ne-
cessary, but those who do not cannot do better than peruse the narra-
tive given in the preface to the present work, from which we extract
that portion relating to the grand discovery, by which he conferred
such a boon on Scotland and the iron trade in general.

Notwithstanding these early reproaches, I have lived to see the nomencla-
ture of my youth furnish a vocabulary of terms in the art of iron making
which is used by many of the iron masters of the present dav, with freedom
and etfect, in communicating with each other on the subject of their respec-
tive manufactures.

Prejudices seldom outlive the generation to which they belong, when op-
posed by a more rational system of explanation. In this respect, indeed,
" Time," as my Lord Bacon says, " is the greatest of all innovators."

In a similar manner has Time operated in my favour, in respect to the
Black-band iron-stone. The discovery of this was made in 1801, when I
was engaged in erecting for myself and partners the Calder Iron Works.
Great prejudice was excited against me by the iron masters and others of
that day in presuming to class the wild coals of the country with iron-stones
fit and proper for the blast-furnace. Yet that discovery has elevated Scot-
land to a considerable rank amongst the iron making nations of Europe —
with resources still in store that may be considered inexhaustible.

But such are the consolatory effects of time, that the discoverer of 1801 is
no longer considered the intrusive visionary of the laboratory, but the ac-
knowledged benefactor of his country at large, and particularly of an exten-
sive class of coal and mine proprietors and iron masters, who have derived,
and are still deriving, great wealth from this important discovery ; and who,
in the spirit of grateful acknowledgment, have pronounced it worthy of a
crown of gold, or a monumental record upon the spot where the discovery
was first made.*

At an advanced period of life, such considerations are soothing and satisfac-
tory. Many under similar circumstances have not, in their own Ufe-time,
had that measure of justice awarded to them by their country, to wliich they
were equally entitled. I accept it, however, as a boon justly due to me, and
as an equivalent in some degree for that laborious course of investigation
which I had prescribed for myself, and which, in early life, was carried on
under circumstances of personal exposure and inconvenience, which nothing
but a frame of iron could have supported. They atone also, in part for that
disappointment sustained in early life by the speculative habits of one partner,
and the constitutional nervousness of another, which eventually occasioned
my separation from the Calder Iron Works, and lost me the possession of
extensive tracts of the Black-band iron-stone, which I had secured while the
value of the discovery was appreciated only by myself.

How gratifying must it be to Mr. Mushet to look back and contem-
plate these labours of his pen, which have been received by the public
with so much interest. We are unable now to enter into an examina-
tion of the very many papers which the work contains, but we can
assure those of our readers who desire information on this important
department of our national wealth and strength, that they will find it
the most valuable work on that subject yet published, one which we
are sure must find its way into every scientific library throughout the
world. We shall not suffer Mr. Mushet's work to escape us without
another notice.

* From the Airdrie estate last year, from Black-band iron-stone alone, Sir
W. Alexander derived a clear income of i£16,.500.

A Treatise on Engineering Field Work. By Peter Bruff, C. E.
London : Simpkin, Marshall, & Co. 1840.

We noticed at some length, in the first volume of the Journal, the
first edition of this work, which, we are happy to find, has arrived at
a second edition with considerable additions. It contains a great deal
of real practical information for the student, and even to the old prac-
titioner it will be valuable, who will find many hints dispersed
throughout the work well worth knowing. We perceive that the
present volume is entirely confined to land surveying, and that the
division on levelling will appear hereafter in a distinct volume. It is
our intention to turn to this volume next month, when we shall give
a few extracts ; in the mean time, we have much pleasure in recom-
mending the work to all those who wish to become acquainted with
land surveying.

./i Brie/ Surrey of Physical and Fossil Geology. By Frederick
John Francis. London: Hatchard, 1S39.

This small work is a republication of two lectures delivered at
Literary Institutions, and therefore well adapted for popular circula-
tion. The object of such a performance almost places it out of the
range of criticism, particularly, whereas in this instance, the work
seems carefully compiled.

2 U

31S

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL. [September,

STONE CHURCH.

Illmtrations of S!oiie Church, KinI, with an Historical Account. By
Edwai'd Cresy, F.S.A. Published for the Topographical Societv',
Trafiilgiir Square. London: H. Hooper, 1840.

That an active society formed of competent members, having for
ils object tlie making known those specimens of architectural, and
sculptured antiquities, which from their remoteness from the capital,
or other adventitious circumstances, are liable to be overlooked by the
mass of observers, and thus exposed to neglect, was felt to be a great
desideratum, i;o intelligent Englishman will deny; and to such a one
it must be a suljject of congratulation, that a task so replete with
•lifficulties, and requiring so much sound knowledge, and varied talent
on the part of those who engage in it, should have become the pro-
vince of a topographical society, whose members possess the valuable
acquirements displayed in theirbeautiful publication of "Stone Church."

Nothing tliat we can say can possibly enhance the merits of this
charming volume ; and in speaking of it in the highest terms of
prais', we are guided by no other motive than that of indulging a
feeling of gratitude, towards a society which shews such devotion, to
a cause in which we, in common with all sincere lovers of art and their
country, feel the deepest interest.

The creating among the masses an intelligent admiration of the
monuments which adorn their country, lias theliappy effect of binding
tlie former more and more to the land of their birth, and becomes a
sure means of fostering and promoting that noble feeling, love of coun-
try ; and we know of no subject more worthy of the civilized state in
which we live, than that of rescuing from oblivion and decay, the
numerous unpretending, but beautiful structures, left us by our ances-
tors, which, whilst they have thrown an irresistible charm over our
country, have also given birth to that taste for the beautiful, in the
exercise of which at various periods of her history, England has reaped
so many unfading laurels.

Tlie means wiiich it is clear the members of the topographical so-
ciety possess of honourably compassing their laudable object, will we
trust, insure them the willing co-operation of those who simpatbising
with the subject, are fortunate enough to have the power of exerting
themselves usefully in a sphere yielding so much personal entertain-
ment as well as benefit to the public, for be it remembered that the
revival of that which is old and good, far from being of a merely re-
trospective character, has in it an active principle, tliat of kindling a
generous emulation in the minds of the present generation, and that at
no ])eriod of our history has this stimulus to mental exertion been more
required than at the present, when throughout the country we find
coupled with great zeal for building ecclesiastical edifices, a reckless
indifference to taste, a fitness of character, degrading to our religion as
well as to art.

In selecting Stone Church for publication, the society have chosen
a subject well calculated to exercise the taste and antiqna ian know-
ledge of its members, it is an elegant building, most carefully designed
and executed in that [lure style, which was the offspring of the 13th
century, and associated wiih it are many interesting historical details,
all of which is most clearly and scientifically set forth in the work be-
fore us; connoisseurs are unanimous in their opinion of the merits of
tiiis interesting structure, and recognise in it the standard of taste in

the beautiful style in which it is designed, there being nothing to be
found, not even in our cathedrals, to transcend the fine style, and mas-
terly execution of the ornaments ; this building ofTers a peculiarity in
its system of internal decoration, viz., that of tlie ornaments gradually
assuming a richer character as they are placed nearer the altar, this
arrangement, whether the result of some fortuitous circumstance, or
the original intention of the architect, is so pleasing, as to be quite
worthy of imitation.

The following passage shows upon wdiat severe principles these
decorative accessories are composed, and we quote this passage the
more willingly, because it advocates that important principle, the
knowledge of geometry, which we believe to be the true foundation of
excellence in architecture, and because it has long been our conviction,
that a no more sure method could be adopted of upholding amongst us
a fine taste in that sublime art, than that of an assiduous cultivation of
the science of geometry, in schools destined for the education of
architects ; whose motto, over the threshold of their studios should
ever be, " Nemo geometriae expers, hue ingrediatur."

" Salisbury, Lincoln, Westminster, Winchester, and other buildings of
this time, no longer exhibited the round arch or features borrowed by
the Normans from Roman constructions, but a new style altogether,
having principles essenti.dly geometrical ; and it is in vain that we
attempt to imitate the tracery or mouldings belonging to this style
correctly, unless we consider them to emanate from some simple figure.
However numerous the mouldings, they never appear confused, which
entirely arises from tlie order observed in their arrangement; this
may be better expressed by the subjoined diagram, taken from the

1840.J

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

319

BOSSES AND ENRICHMENTS FROM THE CHANCEL.

mouldings vrhicli form the trefoil arches round the chancel of Stone
Church. The points of intersection of the two equilateral triangles
are the centres for the hollows, and the more prominent parts of the
moulding ai-e set out with the same radius at the points of the trian-
gles; or, in other words, four circles are encircled within a circle, and
bv omitting each alternate one the figure is formed. From the equi-
lateral triangle are readily produced the hexagon and duodecagon;
and the rose windows of the churches and cathedrals of France, many
nearly fifty feet in diameter, and exhibiting a great varity of figures
in their designs, are among the most beantiful exam|iles which can be
cited of the early and later application of the eqiiilateral triangle to
the figures of architecture. From the trefoil, sexfoil and their multi-
ples, as shewn at St. Denis, proceeded the flowing tracer_v, simply
produced by omission of portions of the regular geometrical fignre,
that which remained being so combined that the manner of its setting
out was concealed, probably for the ])urpose of exciting wonder in the
spectator, and thereby adding to that air of mystery which the craft
delighted to spread around them. The system depending on the equi-
lateral triangle for its variety of form continued in use till the be-
ginning of 15th century in France, when it underwent a great and im-
portant change by the introduction of the isosceles triangle, and its
compound the pentagon. A pupil of Alexander de Berneval, archi-
tect to the church of St. Ouon at Rouen, proved that these figures
could furnish novelties in design, and that all beauty was not confined
to the long used favourite triangle.

" To the common observer this theory may appear fanciful, but the
writer does not hesitate to assert that the boldest mouldings, and the
most delicate tracery, where gently flow ing lines seem the result of a
sportive fancy only, equally emanate from the same sources, and that
it is to the neglect of the application of the rules of geometry that we
may attribute the defects and failures wherever an imitation of this
early style has been attempted in the present day, which neglect has
been greatly fostered by the too prevailing opinion that all the beauty
we admire is produced by ait alone unaided by the science of geome-
try, the time devoted to line and rule being considered lost. The
beautiful tracery, called by some par excellence, the decorated English,
cannot accurately be displayed without a knowledge of these principles.
JNIany examples have been tested to prove this fact."

In this building we also find an instance of the comprehensive view
which our ancestors took of architecture, in common with other by-
gone nations excelling in that art, painting — not restricted to the
stained glass window — entering largely into tne composition.

The principle of combining painting with architecture appears to
have been upheld at all periods signalized for devotion to the latter
art, and that whatever be the styles which have arisen, their authors
seem to have participated in the feeling that a building erected for
some dignified purpose, however carefully designed and executed,
might be its architectural features, would fail to fulfil its object, if it
lacked the charm of color, considering the true province of architec-
ture to be the medium of gracefully uniting the sister arts of painting
and sculpture.

"Polvchromy was introduced into our churches at a very early
period, and became the general decoration where magnificence was
aimed at, and the more costly substitute of mosaic could not be ob-
tained. The Greek temples in the days of Pericles even had their
pure white marble painted and gilt, and traces of it may still be found
in the frieze of the admired Parthenon. The Egyptian as well as the
Roman buildings at a very early as well as later period were all
painted ; and the practice seems only to have been lost in this country
after the Reformation."

Until lately we believe there existed some doubt as to whether the
authors of the Gothic style indulged in the art of polycromy, that they
cultivated this fascinating art willingly, is however now certain — and
were consequently not partial to that gloomy aspect which many of
their buildings assume, when denuded of the brilliancy of their colours,
introduced no doubt for the express purpose of counteracting that
sombre effect incident from either the nature of the design itself or its
inclosed situation. Thus the cloisters of Westminster Abbey now so
repulsively gloomy, must have been most attractive when exhibiting,
as they once did, all the pomp of colour. It is impossible to take
leave of this subject without otfering our sincere congratulations to
the topographic society upon the success of their efibrts, and expressing
our conviction that all lovers of art will acknowledge their present
volume of Stone Church to be a valuable contribution to the store of
literature and art. The manner in which the work is executed de-
serves the highest commendation, the plates exhibiting great delicacy
as well as vigour.

Specifications for Practical Architecture. By Alfred Bartholomew,
Architect. London: John Williams, 1840.

Mr. Bartholomew has produced a very valuable work, containing a
vast accumulation of materials connected with the construction of
buildings; he has condensed in a moderate size octavo volume a larger

320

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[September,

quantity of practical information than will be found in any other work
of a similar description, we have besides IGO illustrations by wood
cuts of the first character. Although we do not agree with the author
in many of his remarks, particularly in some of his strictures on archi-
tecture and the use of cement, we are not disposed to find fault with
him on that account, as the great variety of useful instruction which is
conveyed by the many precepts, if we may be allowed to call them so,
contained in this work, far outweigh the few faults we might be dis-
posed to look into. Both professions, the architect and the engineer,
will read this work with much interest, and the student by a careful
study and perusal of it, will gain considerable practical knowledge.
We have not time now to minutely examine the contents of the volume,
as they are far too voluminous for us to attempt hastily, but we shall
not fail, next month, examining largely, and extracting freely, from
the pages of this text book, we shall, before we conclude this notice,
state tliat we fully agree with Mr. Bartholomew in what he has saiil
regarding specifications, particularly with the following:

Except for the mere manner of the work, the author can hardly think
strong general clauses just ; and he now never inserts them, unless he has
previously included in the particular description, even.' thing which he be-
lieves the building can require : indeed he cannot think it borders upon
honesty, to involve perhaps in bankniptcy, the builder, who like all labourers
is worthy of his hire, by rendering him ignorantly liable to perform, to the
detriment of his family and his creditors, and to the scandal of society, that
work, of the nature of which, at the time of signing of the contract, the
architect himself has not had a clear idea.

We have more than once, denounced the unjust sweeping clauses
which are frequently inserted into specifications, particularly one, that
the builder is to do all that is expressed or implied by the drawings
and specifications, and also another, whereby the responsibility of the
construction of the building is thrown on the builder, which is strictly
belonging to the engineer or architect, by the introduction of such
clauses, it allows any man to call himself an architect, for he is thus
enabled to escape censure and cloak his ignorance of construction.

ArcTiitectural Remains of the Reigns of Elizabeth and James I.

As a series of historical documents, illustrating the architecture of
the period referred to, and also as contributions towards topographical
information, these drawings possess considerable interest, apart from
the pictorial merit of several of them. Still, we must be allowed to
question the propriety of taking examples of that period as models
suitable for imitation, at the present day. To revert to a style of the
art that was in itself merely an attempt towards one, it being super-
seded by another before it had time to develop itself, to get rid of its
crudities, to become refined as well as matured, appears to us a rather
backward, crab-like advance, and not very much less absurd than it
would be for an adult to imitate the tottering steps of a child just
learning to walk. There might be something like sense in going back
to any Renaissance style for the purpose of taking it up where it had
been abandoned, and applying to it those lessons in taste which we
have — or ought, by this time, to have — acquired from what has since
been produced or been studied. Could we, by some architectural
chemistry, extract all the good qualities of the Elizabethan style,
leaving all its dross and impurities behind; — could we transfer to
modern designs its stateliness, its picturesque combinations and out-
lines, its freedom and spirit, without any of its barbarisms and defor-
mities, without any of its uncouthness and extravagance, its puerile
conceits and incongruities, without its inconsistent mixture of over-
done finery in one part and poverty in another, could we accomplish
this, or were we to attempt it, there would be some plausible pretext
for taking the style so far into favour again. But to adopt it, as we
find it to be when adopted at all, with all its vices, is surely somewhat
preposterous. At present it is imitated without any discrimination ;
we either find it copied in all its rude and unmeaning, yet most expen-
sive finery, or, if attempted to be simplified, reduced to naked de-
formity and insipid nionotonousness, and deprived of all that tends to
render it if extravagant, at least picturesque.

However, there is no occasion for our deprecating the imitation —
the literal imitation, we mean, of Elizabethan architecture any further,
because, we conceive, its day, as a fashion of the day, is nearly over.
The recent application of it to shop fronts is likely to open people's
eyes to its rulgarity, far sooner than all the objections of criticism.
Besides which, it has lately received some tolerably staggering blows
from criticism itself. Mr. Wightwick— and his book is likely enough
to find its way into fashionable circles— speaks of Elizabethan as
"beneath abhorring" as a style, though deserving notice as a link in
the history of the art ; which opinion will doubtless cause some of its

fashionable admirers to stand quite aghast. Mr. Bartholomew, ag.iin,
speaks of it without more respect or ceremony, denouncing it in good
set terms as founded in ignorance and corruption. Nay, he goes so
far as to say,

" Among the numerous " (quoere) " architectural publications tliat
issue from the press in these times with such rapidity, may be men-
tioned those which treat of buildings erected in England during tlie
reigns of Queen Elizabeth and King James the First ; but while these
works, some of them so splendid in their embellishments, are so valu-
able as furnishing historical records, yet is it to be regretted that no
works ever published ever had a more pernicious effect upon public
taste ; for some of those who view their embellishments feel a strange
inclination to copy that in which their eye delights, although they
know its corruption, in the same way as children look at dirt till they
desire to handle it."

"It may be said," he afterwards observes, "to contain all the faults
and corruptions of design and composition, which have ever been con-
demned in every style of architecture by every description of critics,
of everv age, and of every country in the world" !

This is a clincher! and if it does not put people out of conceit with
Elizabethan architecture, and make them heartily ashamed of their
fancy for it, we know not what will. Of course Bartholomew must
look upon Mr. Richardson as a very great offender, one of those who
have contributed to vitiate public tiiste by their splendid publications.
To say the truth, some of the subjects contained in the part before us,
are so seductive and captivating as pictures, as almost to disarm criti-
cism ; — little is it to be wondered at, therefore, if those are apt to be
mislead, and have their fancy led captive by them, who either cannot
or will not be at the pains to discriminate between the charm of pic-
torial treatment and effect, and what belongj merely to architectural
design.

The view of the quadrangle at Kirby, the seat of Lord Chancellor
Hatton, and now belonging to the Earl of Winchelsea, affords a striking
instance to the purpose ; since although a singular melange as to style,
— although the entrance tower and porch [iresent a mere grotesque
parody of Roman architecture, and although large fluted piasters of
the Ionic order appear in other parts between lofty and spacious
windows and bays, whose openings are divided into a system of small
panels, by numerous muUions and transoms, — the general effect is so
imposing, picturesque, and even scenic, that we admire almost in spite
of ourselves. Still we should not admire the less, were some of the
mere extravagances expunged or abated. However this building — or
at least a portion of it, for if not altogether so grotesque, the Garden
Front is by no means so "exciting," is of superior quality to the gene-
rality of Elizabethan designs.

The Garden Porch at Coombe Abbey, opening upon a terrace with
a rich open work parapet, is another picturesque bit, thougli a mere
bit, of architecture ; but it shows exceedingly well in the drawing, be-
cause it is given on a satisfactory scale, and the subject is confined to
it. On the same plate is another drawing representing part of the
Great Chamber and its fireplace, at Coombe ; b.it although we are well
satisfied vrith it as a picture, we have no admiration to bestow on the
subject itself, for nothing can be more barbarous and uncouth, more
perversely hideous in taste, than the whole of the chimney piece ;
however, there is very little danger of its being copied, at least not by
any one who has not a terribly heavy purse, and is distressed how to
lighten it.

Of that celebrated mansion Burghley House, we have here two
views of the North and West Fronts, but we also desiderate a ground
plan, and one, if not more elevations, notwithstanding that the character
of the detail can be tolerably well made out in the perspective draw-
ings, which show the building from a near point of view. In its gene-
ral style this edifice is rather plain, and derives its air of magnificence
and richness chiefly from its magnitude, and from the variety produced
by its being broken into numerous parts, yet so as not to interfere too
much with regularity, or with breadth of character. What decoration
there is, is almost entirely confined to the summit of the structure,
where the open parapets, turrets, domes and chimneys, make a " brave
show." The chimney stacks, however, composed of two or more
Doric columns, with a piece of entablature above them, are offensive
conceits, and tend to suggest the idea of there having been originally
some upper structure, of which they are the remaining fragments.
.Some of the parts of the parapets and their ornaments are shown at
large in one of the Plates of Details, of which several are here given.

How far these latter will be found serviceable as practical studies,
we pretend not to say, being inclined to suspect that the taste for the
style itself, of which it may truly be affirmed that it is viiiis imitabile,
will wear away as quickly as it arose.

'-'jAc '-/e'W/ttcn>€cc lyoz^ullctu

^-^^C^^^ke^

ccm.

t-ZZ^,

ELEVATION

TRANSVERSE SECTION OF THE GREAT GALLERY

Mifiht. 3S J*

Jv.jaUfUi 2Mo 't*^. w««*(^

0 c

JljI

1840.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL

321

POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTION.

U'i:h an Engraving, Plate XV.

This institution was founded in 1S3S, and shortly after its opening
we gave a brief description of it at page 318 of our first volume ; we
now present our readers with some farther details. The amiexed
engraving gives the elevation, transverse section, and ground plan of
the building, and to these we refer our re^iders as a substitute for a
lengthened description. What we anticipated at a former ptriod has
since been fully carried out, and this institution has become in its
neighbourhood, like the Adelaide Gallery, of great utility in promot-
ing the practical arts. If we have not like at Paris, an Exponition
des Jlrta el Metiers, or Mechanics Exhibitions like our provincial
towns or American cities, we have at any rate the advantage of them
as regards permanent museums, by means of these institutions. The
mechanical collections of Paris are now far from equalling those of
London, and it wants but very little exertion to give us a decided
superiority. We may observe, by the bye, on this subject, that it is
much to be regretted that the museum of the Society of Arts is not
made more available. We may remind our readers that these exhibi-
tions emanated from the attempt to form a national exhibition of arts
and manufactures in the King's Mews.

The design of the building does credit to Mr. Thomson, the archi-
tect, for having so skilfully adapted it to the purpose to which it is
devoted, the lighting of the great hall is provided for in the coved
ceiling or roof, a gallery passes all round the great hall, supported on
each side by cantilevers, as shown in the section ; on the ground line
there is a canal formed for the exhibition of hydraulic works, steam
boats, water wheels, &c., and at the end is a circular reservoir for ex-
hibiting the diving bell, and working imder water in the diving dress ;
at the east end is the entrance hall from Regent-street, above is a
theatre for lectures, &c., and below a laboratory and other rooms for
experiments. The west end of the great hall or saloon communicates
with premises in Cavendish-square. The total depth of the premises
is 320 feet, and 44 feet wide, and the great gallery 120 feet long, 40
feet wide, and 38 feet high in the centre.

HARBOURS OF REFUGE ON THE SOUTH EASTERN COAST.

In our last month's Journal we gave a few extracts from the Com-
missioners Report, pointing out some discrepancies, upon which we
intended to have made remarks, but upon mature consideration we
think it better, instead of contending with details, or occupying our-
selves with the misconception of the Commissioners, to look at the
question in a broader kind of view and on national grounds, that we
may see how far the Government will be justified in recommending
Parliament to grant so large a sum of money as is required for carry-
ing out the harbours proposed. In the first place, it is generally ad-
mitted that England has not on her south easteni shores any harbours
of sufficient magnitude or depth of water to receive a fleet of men-of-
war, or even for our largest class steamers, and the absolute necessity
of having such harbours is also admitted. It therefore only remains
to examine whether the localities selected are the best, and whether
there is any necessity for erecting them on the magnificent scale pro-
posed in the report before us. With regard to the latter question, we
have only to look at the artificial harbours which have been executed,
and we shall generally find that they have been constructed on too
small a scale, to render them of any service for shipping, such as men-of-
war of the largest class, and in consequence of their contracted scale
they soon silt np and bars are formed at their entrances, rendering
them almost useless except to mercliantmen of small tonnage. With
regard to the necessity for harbours of refuge in time of war, there
cannot be a doubt ; it is therefore highly expedient that harbours should
ba. constructed of sufficient capacity for a fleet of men-of-war, either
to sail or be towed in or out at all times of the tide, an' hour lost may
be the cause of irreparable damage to our coast, a descent on our
shores, or the escape of the enemies fleet, and on this account we
should be prepared to recommend the construction of harbours on the
boldest scale that our finances will allow, for we would rather have one
on an extensive scale than we would have half a dozen ot the small
fry, of these descriptions of harbours we have had enough, and if they
are wanted, the local authorities ought to be able to raise funds suffi-
cient without Government aid. We have always been averse to the
interference of Government for what may be justly considered private
purposes.

We shall now look to the situations selected by the Commissioners,
and the first to which our especial attention is required is the harbour

of Dover. Here all parties must admit it is a situation that requires
to be well provided and well watched ; and moreover the passage of
the Straits must be made our own, it must be kept at all hazards and
at all costs. To allow an enemy's fleet to remain there for a day would
be madness, and the only way to avoid it, is to have a good harbour,
where in case of need, the largest cUxss steamers may be able to take
shelter, for which no situation is so well adapted as Dover.

The next site selected is Beacby Head, where it will be found that
there is already a good anchorage, with a situation well adapted for a
breakwater similar to that of Plymouth. This would afford shelter for
large class vessels between Dover or the Downs and Portsmoutli, at
present a long line of coast without the slightest refuge for a man-of-
war, and consequently without protection for the small merchantmen.
The next and last situation is that of Forness, near Margate, which
affords protection to the mouth of the Thames, this requires a harbour
of spacious dimensions, in which vessels riding in the Downs may
take shelter if required. If we view the coast from Margate to Ports-
mouth, there cannot, on the whole, be found more eligible sites for
harbours than those selected, keeping in mind the grand object, that
they must be harbours of refuge, not for merchantmen alone, but for
the Queen's service also, where vessels carrying lOU or 120 guns may
take shelter at all times of the tide, and the steam frigate like the
Gorgon and the Cyclops may run in and out w ith facility, and be ready
for action at a moment's notice.

We are therefore under all the circumstances disposed to support,
most strongly, the recommendation of the Commissioners, and trust
that Parliament when called upon for a grant, will look at the question
boldly, and judge whether it be not better to grant four or five millions
in the time of peace, rather than wait until war takes place, when
shipping to more than that amount may be destroyed in one year.

REMARKS ON MR. TOMSON'S PAPER ON THE WORKS
OF SIR JOHN VANBURGH.

discussion at the Institute on Mon-
a very pleasing way, that the little

The animated and lively
day evening, manifested in

citadel of taste is becoming more and more the object of zealous and
vigilant scrutiny. The beautiful pourtrayal by Mr. Thomson of Sir
John Vanburgh's style, (the subject of Monday evening's attention)
though it requires no record of approval from a person like myself, to
give it one feature of additional interest, prevents the silence of one
insensibly attracted by any commentary upon by-gone talent, or the
merits of originality. Sir John Vanburgh, recognised as a pupil of
Wren, and included in the school of Palladio, seems to display, I
humbly imagine, too little of oniamental sweep and the flowings of
elegance, too exact a distribution of the several parts, too cool a dis-
play cf effect, to rank as a disciple of Palladio, or a pupil of Wren;
and yet, at the same time, too much of extended variety in bodily
proportion, to present a true idea of Grecian sentiment.

Exuberance with him is never beheld in the drooping festoon or the
careless sweep of foliated bands. The curves and benaings of elegant
contour, deck not the facade, but the care of distribution figures in a
thousand lines, in a prim exactness, in a minute attention to the rules
of his art. For this he seems to stand isolated from his school, and
like Soane, betrays the fretwork of a self-constituted style, connecting
and harmonizing the fashion of two rival styles, the Greek and the
Roman. More extended — more daring in his ideas than Soane, he
seems, like him, to have studied general minuteness. But it is the
proportion, the loftiness, and the general effect of magnitude, which
infuses in the mind, grand impressions, whilst contemplating Blenheim.
It is to this ability in outline, this arrangement of a mass, which
creates the desired effect; though the rules of his style appear as
licences to an admirer of the Greek or the Roman. With all the
blemish of incorrect detail, (if, as to general effect, it be a blemish),
Vanburgh had the feelmgs of an artist, and felt that poetry of senti-
ment, which shines in his works ; though unimbued with the delicate
fijiish of Chambers and a later day.

To comment further ujjon (in some respects) this Soane of the last
century, would be inconsiderate ; yet it is a gratification to see the
merits of past days recalled — and to pluck from the thousand beds of
taste some of those beauties, identified with faded talent and forgotten
genius ; to see a mind original and rare regaining its buried influence,
and asserting it with a liberal and enlightened community of archi-
tects.

The deduction in favour of the subject, the nataral effect of Van-
burgh's style, is this, that the head of the student, and the heart of the
poet — the enquiring mind, and the soul to admire its own researches,
must unite in the same man, if that man is to be an architect. A

2 X

322

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[September

mere knowledge in the existence of this style, ortIiiit,or tliat it tiourisli-
ed in tliis age, or tliat, cannot improve the architect, though it may the
mind ; and unless we can raise ourselves above that pedantry of igno-
rance, which covets every thing anticpie, be it dust or marble, we can
never rival, nor even faintly imitate, tlie lovely relics of antiquity.

It is not enough that the column or the pedestal should be brother
to some Greek or Roman model, since it is not every one whose brain
can swim with the pleasures of a connoisseur. A stranger to Athens
or Rome would perhaps turn from the external polish of a modern
edifice, however skilfully arranged, and become lost in the strange
grandeur of Blenheim,

FllEDERICK E.\ST.

Jum 18, 1840.

TRUSSED BEAMb.

Sir — In reference to the method of trussing beams, communicated
in the 32nd number of your Journal, and said to be invented by Herr
Laves of Hanover, I beg to observe that the principle is by no means
new to this country, in the practice of Mr. John 13rown of Norwich,
I have long had occasion to describe, in specifications, precisely the
same method for many purposes, but chiefly for the purlins of roofs,
where the transverse trusses have, imavoidably, been at a great dis-
tance apart. In order to show you, indeed, how little the method we
pursue difters from that of Mr. Laves, I will extract from a speci-
tication I have at hand the following: — "All lengths of purlins wliich
may exceed 9 feet between the bearings, to be sawn, lengthwise,
through the middle of the depth, and trussed as shown by the accom-
panying sketch* with a wrought iron collar at each end, and a i screw
bolt with broad clasp irons in the centre.

I remain,

ifs'oTwich, Your obedient servant,

June G/A, 1S40 William B. Colling.

LOCOMOTIVE ALARUM.

Sir — Various suggestions liave lately appeared in the public prints, rela-
tive to the best means of conimnnic.itiiig an alarnm to the eiigine-man in
case of fire or other accident in a railway train. — I would suggest a steani-
whistlc, wliich should diflfer decidedly in sound from those used by the
engine-men. — A light chain attached to the cock of the whistle would enable
each guard, .nnd (if thought desirable) the passengers in each carriage to give
an alarm in case of an accident occurring, or being likely to occur.

The advantage which such an alarum would possess over any other, is,
that not only the engine-man, hut all the guards and attendants would he
immediately on the ywi rive, and prepared to act as circumstances might re-
quire. The disadvantage is, that passengers hearing the alarum, might lose
their presence of mind, and endanger themselves by attempting to escape
from the carriages, instead of doing the only thing, which can tend to ensure
their safety, viz., firndy keeping their sittings.

I am. Sir, your obedient servant,

Robert Shkppard.

Horsham, Sutsex, Aug. 19, 1810.

ON SCREW PILE LIGHTHOUSES.

Sir — K coiTespondent in your excellent Journal for July, under the signa-
ture of " One of the Old School," endeavours to institute a comparison be-
tween the patent screw ])ile, and the common driving pile, the latter of which
it is evident enjoys his exclusive favour, on the very rational grounds of its
antiquity.

In summing up its superior merits bis readers might reasonably expect to
have their attention directed to many lighthouses, and other buildings sup.
ported by his favourite pile, and placed upon banks of loose sand covered by
the ocean.

That he has failed to do so, is for the simple reason that no such structure
ever did or ever can exist.

The experiment has indeed been frequently made of driving piles in such
positions, and it has hai)pened that owing to the buoyancy of the wood and
mobility, and want of tenacity in the sand, they have invariably been found
extracted by, and floating on the surface of the succeeding tide.

If then the old pile or pointed stake, which has been in use for at least
20 centuries, has been always found incapable of forming a sound foundation
in such positions, how can it reasonably be put in comparison with the screw

* Me have not given the sketch, as it is very similar in principle to those
shown m page IBl, excepting that in tlie above, at the end of the slit, there
is a key ot oak with au iron strap passing round the outside, and in the
centre there is a block of oak with a nut and screw bolt passing through it
and the top and bottom scantlings.— En. C. E. 6c A. JovK.

pile, which within four years of its being made public, has been successfully
applied in submarine sandbanks of the most infirm description, and has more-
over received the unqualified approbation of the first engineers of the present
day.

Of these I might furnish an ample list, but feel the impropriety of giving
names of the highest respectability to be handed about in idle discussion
with your nameless corres|iondent.

I may however mention tliat a screw pile lighthouse, on a sandbank off the
mouth of the Thames, is at present in progress of erection, luider the auspices
of a gentleman who deservedly stands at the head of his profession. And,
that another upon a sandbank' thirty miles north of Liverpool, was erected
during the past winter, at the earnest recommendation of a gentleman well
known as an ex]>erienced aiul highly talented marine surveyor, who has no
antiquated prejudices staiuling in the way of recent improvements. And I
boldly assert, without fear of contradiction, from any pracfical enyincer of
I'.rjjerimce, that, to construct such a hgbthouse on either site upon common
piles, would be totally impossible.

As the other objections raised by your correspondent to the scrc?w pile
lighthouse, are only supported by bis marvelous gift of prophecy, I sh.ill con-
tent myself with requesting him to visit the one at foot of Wyre, where he
will have proof positive of the fallacy of Ins conclusions, and when tlierc, if
he will drive a common pile into the sand, so as to resist a downward pres-
sure or upward strain, equal te that which the screw pile will bear, I shall at
once relinquish the latter as a useless expense.

1 am. Sir, your obliged and huiuble servant,

Alexander Mitchell.

Belfast, Auyust 18, 1840.

THE SAFETY ROT.VTION RAILWAY.

{A New Method of Construction in Hailwai/s, and in apphjinrj Power to pro-
pel Carriages thereon. Patented by Mr. Ranyely. Marcli, 1840.)

FROM A CORRESPONDENT.

This invention, of which, in our present number, we can give but a brief
description, aims at effecting a complete revolution in the present mode of
railway construction and locomotion. In place of having the ordinary rails
and wheeled carriages, two series of wheels are fixed along the whole length
of the road .It about two yards apart, and at an equal distance from centre
to centre of each wheel. These wheels are connected throughout the whole
length of the line by bands working in grooved pullies keyed on to the same
axle as the wheels, but the .ixlcs of one side of the line are not connected
with those of the opposite line. The axles of the wheels are raised about
one foot from the ground, the top of the wheel (which is proposed to be of
3 feet diameter,) will he therefore elevated 25 feet above the surface. On
these wheels is placed a strong framing of timber, having an iron plate
fastened on each side in the line of the two series of wheels. A little within
this bearing frame, so as just to clear the wheels, is a luggage-box or hold,
descending to within a few inches of the ground, in which it is proposed to
stow all heavy commodities, for which purpose it is well adapted, ojiening as
it does at either end, and its flooring close to the surface of the ground. At
each end of the lower part of the framing of this luggage-box, are fixed hori-
zontal guide or friction wheels working against the supports 'of the bearing
wheels and ])ullie8, by which arrangement cur\es will be traversed with little
friction, and it will be impossible for the framing to quit the track. The
framing of timber will be about 19 feet in length, so that it will rest alter-
nately on six and eight wheels, but never on less than six. On this framing
the passenger carriages are erected, which, in its progi-ession forward, it is
thought will be kept steady and free from lateral motion by the weight in
the luggage box, assisted by the horizontal guide wheels. The method by
which locomotion is produced, is by putting the wheels in motion by means
of machinery at cither end, which would be eft'ected for an immense distance
with a moderate power, as there would be very little more friction due to the
wheels than that arising from their own weight ; and the frame, bearing the
carriage, would not be run on to the bearing wheels tintil the whole w ere in
motion, when its weight woidd act almost after the manner of a fly wheel,
resting, as it would, on the periphery of the bearing wheels. It will be per-
ceived that, by this plan, the bearings of the wheels must be kept perfectly
in the direction of the plane of the road, whether inclined or horizontsl;
otherwise serious concussions would occur. But this would not he the case
by the depression of one wheel, or even by its entire removal, as the framing
will be constructed sufficiently stifl' as not to deflect by having the distance
of the hearings doubled.

If this plan should be found to answer, it will present facibties of trans-
port never before thought of, as carriages might be continually despatched
without a chance of collision, either by stojjpage or from increased speed of
the last beyond the preceding. It also promises to remove the present
great drawback to railway progression, viz. the being able to surmount but
very slight acclivities by locomotive power with any profitable load ; but by
the rotative system, inclines may be surmounted of almost any steepness
without the chance of accident. In ease a band should break, tlie action of
this railway would not be impeded, as the power being transmitted from
either end, rotation would take place throughout its whole length, but the

1840]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

323

power would not he transmitted from either ciiil past tlie disjunction. Even
slrould two l)ands be destroyed at a distance from each other and on tlie
same side of the track, its action would not lie destroyed, for althougli the
isolated portion of wheels would be dead, those on the other side of the
track would he in action, which, with the horizontal guide wheels, would
move forward tlie carriage, although, on such portion, at a diminished speed.
Instead of an increased outlay being required in the formation of railways,
on this system it is estimated that a very considerable saving will be effected,
as a single track will be sufficient, with sidings of dead wheels at the termi-
nation of the several jiortions into which a long line would be divided. In
crossing valleys, a framing of piles to sup])ort the bearing wheels would be
quite sufficient, and the road might be left quite open between each line of
wheels, as it would be impossible for the carriage to quit the track, and
therefore no necessity for making a solid read for safety sake. As this sys-
tem is so novel and rei'ohtl ionarij in its mode of action, it will of course meet
with. numerous opponents who are interested in the i)resent state of things ;
such as are not wedded thereto, or can admit the possibility of a total change
in tlie system, we would advise to pay a visit to the Polytechnic Institution
in Regent Street, where working models of this invention may be inspected.

THE ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH.

From the fifth Report of the Select Committee on RoUwoy^f.

As everything connected with the operations of a power the development
of which is calculated in its progress to effect very great changes in our social,
commercial, and perhaps political condition, must be viewed with no incon-
siderable interest, we propose to give, from time to time, condensed but com-
plete abstracts of such portions of the report as we think best calculated to
arrest pulilic attention.

The first evidence taken before the committee relative to the magnetic
telegraph, for which a patent has been taken out by Messrs. Cooke and
AVheatstone, and which is now in operation between West Drayton and Pad-
dingtou, on the Great Western line of railroad. As it would be impossible
without a representation of the dial and apparatus, to impart a distinct notion
of the manner in which intelhgence is conveyed from one station to another,
suffice it to say that the communication is effected by metallic wires made to
operate upon fine magnetic needles which point to 20 letters of the alphabet
marked upon the dial, being acted upon by electrical currents passing through
coils of wire placed immediately behind them.

According to the information contained in the evidence of Mr. C. \yiieat-
stone, professor of experimental philosophy in King's College, there is no
necessary connexion between this species of communication and railroads.
On the contrarv', it can be established on a common road, or even where no
road exists, though a railroad, in consequence of the continuity of property
which it possesses, is best adapted for the experiment. In answer to a ques-
tion, " whether (in the event of the Great Western Railway being finished
from London) the telegraph could be carried through the whole way ? " Mr.
'Wheatstone replied, that he believed it could be done, and with but little
multiplication of power, inasmuch as late experiments had shown, contrary
to former opinions, that to send an electric current to any considerable extent,
there was no need of a strong battery, a weak one in fact being quite suffi-
cient, provided it consisted of a number of elements proportionate to the
distance. The communication between London and Bristol might require
some intermediate stations at very considerable distances, though bis own
opinion was that they would not be required. From experiments which ho
made some years since, he ascertained that electricity travelled through a
copper wire at the rate of about 200,000 miles in a second, being 8,000 miles
quicker than the rate at which light passes during the same period.

Mr. Wheatstone states the advantages which the electric possesses over
the ordiuary telegraph as follows : — " It will work day and night, but the
ordinary telegraph will act only during the day. It will also work in all
states of the weather, whilst the ordinary telegraph can be worked only in
fine weather. There are a great many days in the year during which no
communications can be given by the ordinary telegraph, and besides, a great
many coimnuuications are stopped before they can be finished, on account of
changes in the state of the atmosphere ; no inconveniences of this kind would
attend the electrical telegraph. Another advantage is, that the expense of
the several stations is by no means comparable to that of the ordinary tele-
graph ; no look-out men are required, and the apparatus may be worked in
any room where there are persons to attend to it. There is another advant-
age which the electric possesses over the ordinary telegiaph, viz., the rapidity
with which the signals may be made to follow each other. 30 signals may
be made in a minute, a number which could not be made by the ordinary
telegraph. There is one thing I will take the opportunity to mention. I
lia\e been confining the attention of the committee to the telegraph now-
working on the Great Western Railroad, but having lately occupied myself in
carrying into eft'ect numerous improvements which have suggested themselves
to rac, I have, conjointly with Mr. Cooke, who has turned bis attention
greatly to the same subject, obtained a new patent for a telegraphic arrange-
ment, which I think will present very great advantages over that which at
present exists. It can be applied without entailing any additional expense of
consequence to the line now laid down, it lieing only neccssarj- to substitute
tlie new for the former instruments. This new apparatus requires only a

single pair of wires to effect all which the present one does with five, so that
three imlependent telegraphs may be immediately placed on the line of the
Great Western. It presents in tlie same place all the letters of the alphabet,
according to any order of succession, and the apparatus is so extremely
simple, that any person, without any previous acquaintance with it, can send
a communication, and read the iuswer."

.Vccording to the evidence of Mr. Alexander Saunders, secretary to the
Great Western Railroad Company, the expense of laying down the iron tubes
through which the magnetic wires pass, and completing the telegraphic line,
was from 250/. to 300/. per mile. To a question as to whether all the ad-
vantsges which were expected had been derived from the magnetic telegraph,
tliis gentleman replied, " I think we have scarcely had it in a state to say
that we have derived all the advantages which were contemplated from it,
because between West Drayton and Paddington we have very little induce-
ment to work the telegraph separately for that part ; it had much more refcj-
rence to the more distant stations, and the communications of one line with
others, or to communications between places on the line where short and
long trains together are running upon the same portion of railroad. As yet
we have had no practical benefit of that description, but it has enabled us to
ascertain that the telegraph perfectly perforins all the duty that was expected
of it. As far as it goes it works perfectly true, and if it work as well when
the whole line is completed, I fully anticipate all the useful residts contem-
plated from it."

Used with a view to commercial purposes, Mr. Saunders admitted that the
sole possession of the magnetic telegraph would give the Great Western com-
pany a great advantage over the rest of the public, who could not, and as he
conceived ought not to have any remedy, inasmuch as the company were the
sole proprietors of the land, and would be at the entire expense of laying
down the line of telegraph. If the Government chose to have a line of tele-
graph alone the Great Western Railroad, he did not see any objection, pro-
vided the company were adequately paid for the use of their land, and that
the line should be used for Government purposes only. A restriction of the
use of the telegraph by the company solely to matters relating to the railway,
and prohibiting the transmission of other intelligence, would prevent the com-
])aiiy from laying down the line. He also thought it would be a great hard-
ship if an expenditure had been incurred by any company in laying down a
line under the expectation that they were to derive a benefit from it, whether
in transmitting railway or general information, that they should be compelled
to permit another company to lay down another telegraph on their line.

Mr. Wheatstone, observing upon the expense, said the cost of the present
experiment has exceeded 2.50/. per mile. We will assume that it cannot
safely be reduced, though I think with more experience that it might be. If
we consider that the cost of laying down the whole telegraphic line from
London to Bristol will be only the cost of one mile of tlie railroad itself, the
expenditure will not ajipear great, considering the lienefits to be obtained ;
this is less than one per cent, on the original estimate of the expenditure.
Now with respect to tlie proposed Government line. The principal expense
of laying down the telegraph line is, in fact, the iron tulie, and the other
things connected with it. The mere cost of the wires is very little, not more
than 6/. or 11. per mile each ; as many wires as you please may be put in the
same tube, consequently, supposing an iron tube to be laid down hence to
Portsmouth, if wires for three distinct lines were enclosed within it, the ex-
pense of each line, considered separately, would be very considerably dimi-
nished. One line might be appropriated for the railroad purposes alone,
another for general commercial intercourse, and a third for the exclusive use
of Government. There would be no difficulty if the Government have a
telegrajibic line thus associated with others to make the terminations in their
own offices, — from the Admiralty in London, for instance, to any office be-
longing to the same department at Portsmouth, so that information might be
sent without communicating with any person but their own clerks. If this
plan was adopted, it would do away with every objection which has been
made with regard to the injury a private company would do the public by
having the conclusive means of intelligence in their own hands, and I am sure
any railway company would enter willingly into an arrangement by which the
Government might possess an exclusive line, at a very moderate expense-
much below that at which they could lay it down themselves. If the new
telegraph of which I have spoken succeeds — and it has succeeded perfectly so
far as experiments have yet been tried — we might place three telegraphs in
connexion with the six wires now used on the Great Western Railway ; and
these might be applied, as I have said before, to three specific purposes — one
exclusively for railway purposes ; another, to be let to any persons w ho choose
to avail themselves of it ; and another for Government objects."

In answer to some questions, Mr. Wheatstone said, that if Government
feared that any third person might, by means of portable instruments, be-
come acquainted with their messages, they should communicate in cypher, of
which an extremely safe and simple mode had been devised, enabling a per-
son to communicate with a thousand correspondents so as that it would be
impossible for any one of them to read what was intended for another. With,
respect to the time the apparatus would continue without requiring renewal,
he could not say. It depended upon the tubes being kept water-tight, as the
wires in that case would remain uninjured for an indefinite period. The wear
and tear of the telegraph apparatus from London to Bristol would be far less
expense than the wear and tear of the railroad for one mile.

There is one suggestion with respect to the use of the telegraph for rail-
road purposes which should not be overlooked, being of the greatest import-

2X2

324

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[September,

ance, inasmuch as all danger from collision would be obviated, and more
prompt assistance rendered in case of accident. Mr. Wlieatstone's proposal
is to have posts through which the magnetic wires can be carried up, anil
with an apparatus on the top placed at every quarter of a mile along the line.
Bjr this means the guard having with him a jiortable instrument, might com-
municate a message in either direction of the line at pleasure.

IMPORTANT DISCOVERY IN METALLURGY.

At a recent sitting of the Jcailemie des Sciences, M. Becqucrel read a paper
relating to a most important discovery, namely, the application of the electro-
chemical power to the art of metallurgy, especially as regards gold, silver,
copper, and lead.

After a few preliminary remarks, explaining tlie various serrices which this
force can render to natural sciences, to arts and manufactures, the learned
academician alluded in particular to the refining of the precious metals ; and
it will be seen in the course of tliis analysis the great advantage he lias de-
rived from the uew methods introduced by him into different branches of in-
dustry.

It will also be gratifjing to learn, that one of the poorest departments of
France possesses a gold, silver, and lead mine, and that the happy results
already obtained hold out a still more flattering prospect. The following is
an analysis of the memoir presented by M. Becquerel: —

The experiments relative to the application of the electro-chemical power
to refining (metaUitryieJ of silver, cojiper, and lead, without the aid of quick-
silver, and with little or no fuel, have been continued by M. Becqucrel with
constant success : his operations were conducted upon a large scale, and em-
braced considerable quantities of ores derived from Europe, Asia, and America.
The object of these researches was in the first place the immediate separation
(redtictionj of the metals one from the other, and especially of silver and of
lead from galena ; this operation was effected with so much rapidity, that at
the preparatory foundry in Paris four pounds weight of silver can now be
drawn off in the metalled state from silver ore in the space of six hours ; se-
condly, the preparation which the ore is to undergo, so as to render each
metal capable of being withdrawn by the electric cuiTent. This preparation
varies according to the nature of the ore, presents no obstacle when tlie silver
is in the metallic state, or in the nature of a sulphate, as usually occurs in
Mexico and Peru, but it becomes more complicated when the silver is mixed
with other substances ; the use of a small qiiantity of combustible matter is
then indispensable in order to effect the roasting at a low temperature.

Ores are generally found in great quantities in those countries, but are for
the most part abandoned, owing to the want of sufficient fuel for effecting
their amalgamation, or to their being found at too great a distance from the
sea to transport them to Europe, unless at an enormous expense.

In Columbia, where large masses of gold and silver ore are found mixed
with zinc, the richest are sometimes exported to Europe to be fused, whilst
the poorest and those of a medium quality are either rejected altogether, or
used to so little advantage, that the mining companies lose by them. Exer-
tions are now in progress for introducing the new methods, which are equally
applicable to amalgamation and to the electro-chemical process.

The silver ores which are most difficult of amalgamation are those which
contain a large portion of copper and arsenic. Ores of this description are
found in considerable quantity, especially in Cliili, where the inhabitants fre-
quently offer them to Europeans, by whom they are sometimes taken for
ballast for want of freight, and without any certainty of turning them to ad-
vantage.

The great difficulty was to be able to treat these substances in Europe so
as to obtain, in separate portions, and at little expense, all the silver, copper,
and arsenic they contained. This problem has just been solved in a satis-
factory manner, and so as to ensure immense advantages to new speculators,
w^ho will no longer have to contend with the obstacles met with by their
predecessors.

On inquiring into the causes of the delay experienced in working the mines
in America, it will be seen that the principal ones arise from the high price of
quicksilver, and the great difficulty of draining the water by which the mines
are inundated. This is not the case in Asia, in the Russian possessions,
which are rich in mineral productions, and \-ield larger profits from day to
day in consequence of the introduction of the improvements lately adopted
in Europe for reducing metalUc ores. In the silver mines of Altaic the ex-
penses for extracting the ore, process of reduction, and of the estabUshment,
do not amount to a quarter of the rough produce, Jilthough the ore in general
is of slight tenacity. These advantages are owing to the modern price of
labour, the abundant supply of combustible matter and substances required
in the fusing, and which are not to be had in America, especially in Mexico
and the Cordilleras.

The electro-chemical process can be easily applied to the ores at Altaie ;
however, in countries where sufficient fuel is at hand, and salt cannot be
procured, the fusing operation will be always preferred, except in cases of
complex ores, which often exercise the ingenuity of metallurgists.

There are but few silver mines worked in Russia. The only ones of im-
portance are those of Altaie, Nertchinsk, and those of the Caucasus and the
Ural ; but the great source of mineral riches in that kingdom consist princi-
pally of the gold and platina dust (sands), the wasliing of which engrosses
th« chief attention of the Government. This process, though methodically

conducted, is very imperfect, for a large quantity of the gold contained ia
the sand is lost ; the proceeds, however, are considerable; during the last
year no less than 12,200H>. were obtained, upwards of 800,000/. value.

The argentiferous and auriferous galenje which have been subjected to the
electro-chemical process are perfectly lit for tlie extraction of golil aud silver
by washing. This method requires that the ores should be pulverized and
roasted so as to separate the metal from the pyrites and other compounds
which detain it. The silver and lead being removed, the ore thus reduced
to about half its weight, can be washed with the greatest facility, and one
man can wash several hundred pounds i)cr day. This method was tried mth
the galena (very argentiferous) discovered a few years since at St. Santia
Cantales, in the department of Cantal, and which yielded not more than
2', grains of gold in every 2001b. of ore, with 30 per cent, of lead. But, upon
adopting the electro-chemical i)rot:ess, the same qu,intity of ore produced
something more tlian three draclims of gold. From this important result it
is supposed that the rocks in that part of the country arc amilerous, as might
also be inferred fiom the name of the place, Aurilac (imri lacus). Another
great advantage of the elect ro-chymical method is, that it enables the metal-
lurgist to separate those portions of ore which contain gold, silver, &c., from
those which contain none.

M. Becqucrel then alluded to the other uses to which electricity might be
applied in the manufacture of metals, especially in the art of gilding silver
and copper, as also for taking impressions in copper of medals, bassi relievi,
and engravings.

The learned academician concluded by observing that this new and highly
important power was only in its infancy, and that it would be impossible to
foresee the immense services it was likelv to render to the arts.

GRANTON PIER.

There are, perhaps, few engineering works at present in progress in Scot-
land that seems to attract more general interest than the magnificent pier,
now in course of being erected, by His Grace the Duke of Buccleugh, on His
Grace's property at Granton, a few miles northward from the city of Edin-
burgh.

The original object and design for a new pier at Granton, was to supply
the wants of the city of Edinburgh in regard to steam-vessel conveyances,
that passengers might there embark and disembark with safety, in all states
of the tide and weather, without boating — the inconvenience arising from the
want of which, both from there not being found a proper site, and the requi-
site funds for accomplishing so truly desirable an object elsewhere, has been
but too long felt and acknowledged in that quarter. Accordingly Mr. Walker
of London, that most talented and deseivedly celebrated ciril engineer, was
sent for in the year 1836; and after examining the coast adjacent to the
Scottish capital, without any restrictions as to locality, he pitched upon
Grautou as being the most eligible site for such a work ; and having prepared
suitable working plans, this great and useful work was forthwith commenced,
and has since been unremittingly carried on at the sole expense of a single .
indi\-idual — that' distinguished, patriotic, and benevolent nobleman the Duke
of Buccleuch.

A brief descrijition of the general plan of the pier may not prove uninte-
resting herfe. Granton Pier commences at high water mark on the shore,
and runs at right angles with it iiito the Frith of Forth ; it is intended to be
about 1,700 feet in length, by about 150 feet in breadth; is to be built
chiefly with stone, and founded upon shale rock ; it will be so arranged as
that it will have a double roadway and front wall, one on either side, with a
parapet wall in the centre (with connecting openings between the sides), on
each side of which will be a footpath. The sea or front walls will be exactly
alike, and so divided that there will be six jetties, and one slip or inclined
plane on each side of the pier, and one jetty at its outer end ; these jetties
will be each strongly faced with timber, ancl so ingeniously contrived and put
together that a platform of planking will be on its top, and an intermediate
one below, which will communicate with the roadway by means of an easy
stone staii'. Each jetty will have two cranes on an improved jirinciple, one
at each end, and a double warehouse, in the centre of which the aforesaid
stair passes ; the jib of each crane will swing right into one of the doors of
each warehouse, and obove the liatchways of vessels lying at jetty. The slips
or inclined planes are faced with wooden defenders, so that vessels landing
live stock, &c., may haul up or down as the state of the tide may be. The
depth of water on both sides of the pier, with the lowest spring ebbs, will
be twelve feet at low water at the outer end, diminishing very gradually in-
ward ; and the bottom is of a soft and fine clay. It is intended that the pier
shall have an elegant approach, and a lighthouse at its extremity.

From the principle on which Granton Pier has been carried on, namely,
finishing as it goes outwaril, it has already proved itself to answer better than
was anticipated, not only as a place where steamers of the largest size can
dash in and out with the lowest ebbs, where the passenger can by a few safe
and simple paces step from the steamer into the cab, and drive off at full
speed, and vice versa, but as a place of accommodation and refuge to all
classes of vessels, in all kinds of weather. As a pier from which steamers
can arrive and depart with ease at their respective fixed hours, it has already
been fairly proved without failure ; as a place for despatch, it may be mentioned
that one of the large London steamers lately arrived heavily laden — she was
unladen and laden again, she disembarked and embarked her passengers, and

1840.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

325

sailed, all in the course of eight hours. As a place of refuge and shelter it
was lately tested, for, with a severe easterly gale of wind in April last, the
Steam boats plying to the stone and chain piers of Ne%vhaven were obliged to
avail themselves of the facilities afforded at Grauton ; and with the same
gale seven or eight steamers might at once have been seen lying snug at, or
departing from the western side of Granton Pier. Very shortly afterward,
with a similar gale, a vessel in a sinking state, with her crew on board, run
for and obtained shelter at Granton at low water, and but for this fortunate
escape all hands must have perished.

In addition to carrying on the pier, wliich has been found to answer so
admiraljly, His Grace the Duke of Buccleuch has formed a splendid new road
between it and Edmburgh ; and a magnificent hotel and warehouse, and also
a pier master's house, adjoining the pier, have been finished lately. It is also
in contemplation, if not already commenced, to make a road from Granton
Pier to join the Cramond Road to the we'stward ; and a water-work for sup-
plying the pier and houses with good fresh water. Indeed, the improvements
at' present going forward at Granton with such gigantic strides, may justly
be viewed as an era in the history of civil engineering.

It would be improper to close the present account of Granton Pier without
observing the credit which it, as a novel and highly important work of engi-
neering, "reflects on its judicious and skilful principal engineer, Mr. Walker.
The improvements daily going forward in its detail and parts, so ingeniously
and carefully concocted by the resident engineer, Mr. Howkins, as well as
the excellent arrangements in carrying on the work without in the slightest
degree interrupting the extensive and growing trade of the pier, are richly
deserving of praise.

The Granton Pier will yet, at no distant day, give facilities to every descrip-
tion of trade, and have resources which time, together with the assiduous
endeavours of its noble and indefatigable proprietor, will only disclose. As
far as the work lias now proceeded, and in proportion as it is capable of
doing good, the public are certainly deeply indebted to the Duke of Buc-
cleuch.— Elffin Courant.

THE THAMES FLOATING FIRE-ENGINE.

Hitherto the London Fire Office has had its fire-engines on the Thames
placed in vessels or floatsc oustiucted of wood, and although built exceedingly
strong, yet considerable loss of engine power was sustained, through the
vibratory motion of the hull, in addition to which, the bottom of the vessels
or floats became soddened and foul, so that great difficulty was experienced
in removing them from their moorings to the scene of action. The fire oflice
being about to place another engine-veesel or float upon the Thames, the
advantages of a wrought-iron huU were submitted to the committee of ma-
nagement, who decided in favour of the same, and on Thursday, 20th ult.,
(off Blackwall), a novel and interesting trial took pl.ace, on board the said
WTOugbt-iron float (built by Messrs. Ditchburn & Mare). The fire engines
are by Mr. Tilley, of Blackfriars Road, of larger dimensions and different
arrangement than those hitherto used ; the handles or levers are placed
parallel to the vessel's sides, leaving a convenient passage in the middle of
the deck. Thirty men were placed to each handle or lever, (of which there
are four,) two on each side, making 120 men ; every thing being ready, the
order was given to start, when one of the fire-meu (holding the branch-pipe)
was, by the force of the water entering the pipe, knocked on the deck ; the
men were instantly stopped: on starting again, it was found that it required
four of the stoutest fire-men to manage the pipe, (the nozle aperture of which
measures two inches in diameter,) and a column of water was discharged
from it, in a direct measured distance of 200 feet. The hull of the vessel
was found, under the most \iolent effect that could be produced upon it, per-
fectly free from vibration, quivering, or roUing motion; 18 men propelled
her by the means of oars, at the rate of 6 miles an hour. The result was
highly satisfactory to all parties concerned ; but we are disposed to ask, why
does not the London Fire Office avail itself of the best motive power — steam.
A 10-horse engine would propel such a vessel 10 miles an hour in Stillwater,
and double the eft'ect, they can at present produce with manual labour; would
be witliont cessation, and under entire command ; the steam could be raised
at any time in 15 minutes, and all this for the trifling smu of dtoOO.

STEAM NAVIGATION.

THE EARL OF HARDMKKE EAST INDIAMAN.

On the 8th ult. we had the pleasure of steaming down the river with a
select naval and scientific party, who had met on board tor the purpose of
inspecting this beautiful vessel ^^ith her new improvements, which, to the
great credit of her spirited and entei-prising owners Messrs. Green, has several
cf considerable value and importance, but the one with which we were most
interested was that of a steam engine ofSO-horsc power, manufactured by
jMessrs. Seawards, employed to rotate paddle-wheels placed in the usual
position, but without paddle-boxes, and having a skeleton like appearance ;
these arc to be used as auxiliaries to the vessel during light winds and calm
» eafher, or for the purpose of keeping off a lee shore, or on any other occa-
sion when the sail fails its duty ; and in order to render these padd'es less
objectionable, they_ are constructed so as to be thrown cut of gear at a minute's

notice, and made to revolve upon their own axis, independently of the ma-
chinery, and prevent that resistance in sailing that they would otherwise
render. They can likewi.se be disengaged altogether by willidrawin;; the
several floats separately, that are attached to the shaft of the paddle by arms,
similar to the levers of a capstan,an;l secured on their boundary by a lonj
linked chain which is easily disconnected, ami the whole of the paddle-wheel
removed in case of stormy weather. The shaft ami arms are of iron, and
the floats of wood, the latter material being considered easier to handle than
if made of iron. The engine works horizontally, and occupies but little
space, being 24 feet in length, and but 10 feet wide, in that part of tlie vessel
which is but of little consequence, namely, between the fore and main hatch-
way, and being entirely between decks, neither part appears above deck, nor
in the hold. The boiler is jacketted with two coat.s of felt, over which is a
thickness of two-inch deal planking, which being an excellent non-comluctor,
entirely retains the heat, and prevents the wood-uork in the neighbourhood
of the boiler being injured by excessive heat. The fuel used was that patented
by Oram, made of pitch, small coal and muil. moulded into the form of bricks,
which are stacked up close, and by their compact form appear to occupy but
little room ; the consumption was 120 bricks of 4 lb. weight each, in 2 hours
12 minutes, or at the rate of a little more than 2 cwt. per hour, burning with-
out smoke — and, according to the patentee, with a more intense heat, and
much more economically tlian that of its rival, coal. The Earl of Hardwicke
is of 1000 tons burihen. draws 17 feet of water, bound for Bengal, and is full
of passengers, troops and cargo. She left the East India Docks on the 8tU
ult.. worked her engine down to Gravesend. but owing to a strong easterly
wind was assisted "by a steam-tug, accomplished the distance in two hours
and a half, going at the rate of six knots, with all her yards square ; upon
heaving round at the end of Gravesend Reach, the tug was cast off, and she
steamed to the town again by her o«a engines at the rate of four knots.^on a
strong ebb tide. On Monday at noon she weighed anchor, light airs W.b.W.,
steamed down to tlie Nore L'ght in three hours by her own engine, and ar-
rived at Spithead at 3, 50 p.m. on Thursday the 13th, beating the M ellington
(which she passed on Monday night) by 12 hours. The steam engine being
of the most essential service, working upwards of 40 hours. ,She tookhec
departure from Portsnumth for Calcutta, and is expected to peiform the dis-
tance in 75 days. On the Friday previous to her departure she was visited
by Admiral Bouverie, Sir E. Codrington, Mr. Blake, master shipwnglit ot
Portsmouth Dock-yard, and many other naval officers and persons connected
with the navy, who expressed themselves highly pleased with the plan.

The " 'V^ernon,'' asistership. upon which the experiment of auxiliary steam
was first tried, made the voyage from Calcutta to Spithead, in a very bad
season, in 86 days, notwithstanding she had calms and light airs all the way
down the Bay of Bengal, when she used her steam consecutive y for eiglit
days and nights, and slie came from the Cape to Spithead m 42 days, bein<j,
we believe, the shortest ^ ovage upon record, during which time she used her
steam nine days. Mr. Green, the spirited proprietor of a fleet of these splen-
did East Indiamen, intends to apply generally auxiliary steam, and there can
be little doubt but it must soon be adopted in our men-of-war. Ihe space
occupied by the machinery being the same amount as that formerly occupied
for a cable tier. .,,

It is a rather curious coincidence that the day on which the \ emoti will
sail for India, the 10th instant, is also the day fixed for the sailing ot the
" India" steam vessel of .320-horse poH cr, thus an excellent opportunity will
be afforded for ascertaining the comparative advantages of the two plans.
Many bets have already been made at Lloyds, that both the " Veirnou
(which is the only steamer that has ever made the voyage to India and back),
and the " Hardwicke," of 30-horse power each, will make the passage out
in less time than the '■ India" of 320-horse power. Shoidd this prove to be
the case, it will satisfactorily establish the superiority of steam applied as an
auxiliary over large steam power applied in the usual way.

Iron Boats.— Oa the 15th ult. there were launched from the building yard
of Messrs. Ditchburn and Mare, Blackwall, lu-o wrought iron steam vessels
at tlie same time, an occuiTence we believe never before witnessed on the
Thames; one was named the "Swallow," intended tor the Baltic, the other
•' Elberfeld." for the Rhine. Messrs. Penn and Son, ot Greennich. are the
engineers for Ihe former, Messrs. Miller and Ravenhill, Blackwall, tor the
latter ; the engines in both vessels are oscillating.

Bnthh Steamers on the A'lYc— The Oriental Steam Company have purchased
the iron steamer Dahlia, which is on the point of starting tor Egypt to ply
on the Nile, under license of the Pasha, to convey the East India mails and
passengers through Egypt.

Tlie British Queen steam ship, which sailed from Portsmouth on the after-
noon of the 1st July, arrived at New York on the morning of the IStli, hav-
ing made the passage in IGl days. The Britannia steam-ship, the first of
Mr. Cunard's Royal mail steamers, wliich sailed from Liverpool on the after-
noon of the 4th July, for Halifax and Boston, reached the latter place on the
evening uf the 18tli, having accomplished the passage, including a stoppage
at Halifax, in 14 days and a half.

The Oricr.tal built for the Peninsula and Oriental Steam Navigation Com-
pany, is believed to be one of the finest specimens of naval architecture. She
is frigate built ; her engine^ are equal to 450 horse power, and appear to be
of the best construction. The elegance with w hich she is fitted up. and the
accommodation which she offers in every department, must render her ac-
ceptable to the most fastidious passengers. She is stated to he of 1,6(3 tons
burden. The great cabin is beautifully ornamented with panels oi papier mache.
Tliere are 48 tablets on the doors and sides of the compartment, made of
the material by Messrs. Jennens and Bettridge, of Birmingham, prepared la
a manner that renders them more durable than oak : they never can decay
from dry rot, or become worm-eaten, nor are they combustible, or capable of
being broken. The tablets are ornamented in arabesques a I'orient, in bronze
scrolls of the acanthus, with gold tendrils and leaves, with sea -weed on a
primrose grotmd, which supplementary colours accord well with the black
moulding, which is richly covered with burnished gold matted tracery work.

320

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[Skptkmber.

that has tlie appearance of being raiscil from tlie ground, and produces an
effect alike Ijeaiitifnl by day cr lamp light. The makers are entitled toptreat
praise for tin' inlrudiictiun of a material capable of admitting so much elegance
and taste in decoration.

Till- Arcliimeiles. — This vessel reached Oporto from Plymouth in 70 hours,
Ijeing .sui)pn.sed to l)e the quickest steam communication that has ever been
madebetHcenthe.se places; and tliis was ellected without her liaving once
had occasion to stop her engines. The distance is about 800 miles.

PROGRESS OF RAII.WAYS.

Tht Quern Dnwdi^t'/s Trip on thr Railwmj. — E-rtrnnrdifutrij Speed, — On the
recent occasion of llie return of the Queen Dowager from Lancaster, a special
train was provided for the conveyance of her Majesty and suite, from Lan-
caster and Preston and North Union Raihva> Companies, and thence to
Stafiord, being the nearest point to Alton Towers, the .seat of the Earl of
Shrewsbury, which was her Majesty's destination, by the Orand Junction
Kailway Company. The train, consisting of tliree railway carriages, one of
which had been handsomely fitted up by the London and Birmingham Com-
pany for her Majesty's use, and five private carriages on trncKs, making
eight in all —

Started from Lancaster, at lOh. 12m., a.m.

Arrived at Preston Station llh. 15m.

Stopped there 13m.

And on the Viaduct over the Kibble Valley Gm.

Time at Preston 19m.

Arrived at Parkside 12h. Urn.

Vhere it M,as attached to an engine of the Grand Junction Railway. The
latter part of the journey, viz., from Newton Junction to Stafford, a distance
of fifty-four miles, was performed. e.\clusive of a stoppage of five minutes, at
Crenc, for water, in one hour and thirty-one minutes, or at the rate of up-
wards of S.JJ miles per hour. Her Majesty, on her arrival at Stafford, per-
sonally expressed to Captain Cleather, the manager of the Grand Junction
Company, who was in attendance, her satisfaction at the rapidity of the
passage, and the uncommon smoothness of the line. The engine, the Vandal,
on its return, brought back from Birmingham a train occupied by the direc-
tors and chief officers of the company, who had been inspecliug the line, and
holding a board ,at Birmingham on that day. It left Birmingham at fi 30r.M.,
and arrived at Kdgehill at 9 2 p.m., having made three stoppages of five, four,
and three minutes; thus running the distance in two hours and thirty-two
minutes, or at the rate of thirty-eight miles an hour including stoppages, or
forty-one miles an hour cxclu-sive of them. This is believed to be tlie most
remarkable performance, fur a continued distance of this extent, that has yet
taken place on this or any other railway in the kingdom. This engine, in
Ijoth its trips, was under the direction ol Mr. Buddicom, the superintendent
of the locomotive department of the company.

THE NORTH UNION RAILWAY.

Engineer's Report to the Directors.

GE^TLF.M^N — In drawing to a close the construction of the North Union
Kailway. I consider it will be satisfactory to the Directors and Proprietors
to have the detailed cost of the several great heads of cxpemliture brought
into one view before them. It is due to myself and the other officers of the
Company, that the rjuantity of work executed for the monev should be set
forth; .-ind without any thing beyond a simple statement of facts in this
respect I shall be content, should 'this report be promulgated, to leave the
Shareholders in this concern and the public to form their judgment. I like-
wise conceive that, as the first aullientic detailed dcrcument of the kind, it
may be taken as the coniniencement of similar statements which will here-
after be brought forward, and thereby be the means of collecting that statis-
tical information on the Railway system, which has naturally, and of late,
l)een so much sought after.

It should be noted that the total length of line embraced herein is 2.3 miles ;
the main line from Parkside through M'igan to Preston being 22 miles, and
the New Springs Branch 3 miles ; and it should be observed, that from the
peculiar nature of this railway, the total extent of sidings, extra lines, &c. is
very much above the usual proporlion.

In the total sum of £.378,931 Ki?. 2il. (say in round numbers £.580,000.) is
included the cost of re-laying the old line between Parkside and Wigan; the
Cottages now building along the line; the mainten,ance of the Railway by
the Contractors, for two years, from the respective openings ; and not only
all that has been already exnendeil on the several items, but that which is
now in progress, la- contemplated to be <lone, to make the railway complete,
and to draw the line at the foot of capital accoimt.

From a consideration of the natiue of the works on this lir.e, many of ihem
of . a gigantic character, particularly the Ribble Viaduct, and including the
various slips and accidents, I hojic I may be permitted to consider the average
cost of £23, 1.57 per mile as a moderate amount, including, as it does, stations,
carrying establishments, interest, and management.

The actual cost of the Railway itself has" been only £15,793 per mile, ex-
clusive of land ; and if the peculiarly heavy expense of the Ribble Vi.aduct
(consisiing of five arches of 120 feet span each, erected at a cost of about
£-H.885. includin"- all contingent extras) Ije excluded, as it fairly might, for
comparative results, the cost of the works alone is £13,998 per mile; the
purchase of land for the railway is £1,974 per mile additional ; £3.017 is the

Cost ]ier mile for the stations .and carrying establishments ; and £1,872 pe-
mile for intere-t and management. Separating the latter item from the in
ferest, it will be seen that the whole expense of the superintendance of th-*
North Union Railway, over a period of ten years of greater or less activity
has sciircely exceeded 7 Jier cent. This item is, of course, not in the en-
gineer's department, but it is due to the managing officer of the Company to
state the circumstance : it will also be found that the average quantities per
mile are — of eaiMh work, 11C.120 cubic yards, averaging under W\il. per v,avd ;
of masonry, 1-000 cubic y.ards, averagirig 22s. Id. per yard ; and of iron, 287
tons, averaging something below 9/. Ija-. per ton.

In respect fo the mode in which the ilitTiculties presented by the physica
obstructions on the face of the country have been surmounted, by the adop-
tion of gradients of 1 in 100 to a consider.ible extent, and thereby a vast sav-
ing effi^cted in the construction of the railway, I hope to be able to demon-
strate, at the close of the first t\\o years' entire working of the line in
October next, that, with the exception of some very little addition to the
quantity of fuel, the cost of working the North Union Railway, reduced to a
rate per mile per train, is belute that of other lines with superior gradients,
while the trains and rate of travelling are at least equal to the averages else-
where ; and I feel confident of being able shortly lo give a very close ap-
proximation of what that average expense is per mile per train, including all
the deductions from the gross receipts, before declaring a dividend.

There being then but little difference, as far as observation and experience
have liitherto gone, in the working trains of passengers and light goods on
railways, diflcring considerably in gradient, at velocities and with loads such
as usually occur, the high importance of economy in the first construction is
self-evident. It has thus told effectively on the (irand Junction Railway,
and I trust will be equally felt on the jlidland Counties Railway, each of
which lines, with similar equipments to those on the North Union Railway,
will be found to have cost at about the same rate, or but little e.weeding It,
say certainly within £23,000 per mile. Reducing the whole expenses on the
North Union Kailway to round numbers md to a per centagc, the account
will stand as follows :

Total. Percent. Per mile.

Eartli AVork £126,000 22 — £.5000

Masonrv 120,000 21 4800

Fencing 21,000 3J 800

Upper (Railway laid complete . 61,000 lOJ 2400

AVorks. (Iron 67,000 lU — 2700

Land and Damages .... 50,000 8i 2000

Stations 44,000 7A 1800

Carrying Establishment 44.000 7| 1 800

Interest .5,000. ■ « 200

Management 42,000 7^ 1700

£580,000 100 £23,200

15ut to enable a more critical examination to be made, I shall subjoin the
following abstract :

Abstract of the Cost of the Works upon the Line of the North Union Rail-
»a) — 25 miles — with the General Heads of Expenditure in the various De-
partments.

Earth Work 2,903,028 cubic yards,

(average 1 Off/. j per yard . . . £125,676 3 11

M.vsoNRv and Brihges.— 100,265 cubic yards

Masonry . . . .£113.096 0 5

325 tons Iron Work . . . 3.875 0 0

25,022 cubic feet Timber . . 3 277 14 8

FiiNci.N-o and Dr. ains.— 87,712 lineal y.ards.
— N.li. Tlii.1 iiirhldes Roiid Dirersions,
.S-c, Gates, S^T.Sfc. . . . 20,533 2 7

Ui'i'ER Works. — 6,885 tons of Iron Rails and

Chairs 66,833 17 7

91,.')-l-5 lineal yards of Railway, laid on
Blocks and Sleeiiers, including Balla.-t,
Drains, Walling. Bolls. Kevs, Felt,
■ Plugs, and small Materials ami Labour 61,538 0 2

£394,826 19 4

Land and D.VM.VGES.— 320 acres for Railway . . . 49,342 3 lU
.Stations.— Land for Stations . . ' . £17,2.57 15 5

Station Buildings .... 13.589 8 I

Warehouses 9,266 0 0

Fixtures, Turnplates, and Sundries . 4,164 16 6

Carrvino ETAni.isiiMF.NT.— Repairing Shops,

Tools, and Fixtures .... 11,8?4 0 0
Locomotive Engines, Tenders, &£c. . 18.863 6 7

Carriages, Horse Boxes, Trucks, &c. . 12.934 17 10

88,960 4 5

Intere.st.— Interest Account, Kates, Taxes. &c. 4,746 15 8
Manaof.ment. — Parliamentary and Law Ex-
penses 17,147 8 0

En'.;incering and Surveying . . . 6,193 5 9
Office Expenses. Travelling. Ad\erfising,&.c. 3.134 19 2
S.darics . . . 7 . . . 15,580 0 0

46,802 8 7

Total Cost

. £23,157 5 0 per mile.— or— £578,931 16 2

It should also be mentioned that, of the above land there remains to the
value of about four or five thousand pounds available for re-sale ; and, in
conclu.simi, I trust that the dividend of nearly 7 per cent, per annum out of
the clear profits of the Railway, since its entire completion and opemng
throughout, in October. 1838. to the present time, with a prospect of a steady

1840.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

327

increase, is a sufllcient proof of the soumlncss of the concern ; and with my
grateful acknowledgments to the Directors for their invariahle kind bupport
amidst many trying difiicullies, now happily surmounted.
'I have the hoiiour to subscribe myself.

Their very faithful servant.

CnARi.r.s Vignot.es.
4, Trafiilgnr-sqmn:. London, Engineer-in-Chief.

■ .higtist 4, 1840.

PXTBLIC BVIIiDINGS, AND IMPROVEMENTS.

New Church at Golileit Hill.— On Monday, 3rd idt., the first stone was laid
of a new church about to he erected at Golden Hill, a populous village .situated
at the northern extremity of the Potteries. The church will contain 'jOO
sittings, one-half of whicli will be free. Mr. Stanley is the arcliitcct. and
Str. Sliufllehotham is the builder, and it is expected that the building will be
ready for consecration in the month of July ne.vt year.

Kew Church at Hill Tup. West liromicich.— On Tuesday. 4lh ult., the first
stone of this church was laid. The architect is Mr. Hottert lOiibells.

The Nelson Pillar.— On Friday. 7lh ult.. the Duke of Northumberland, Sir
George Cockburn, Mr. Herries, Sir Peter Laurie, and other members of the
Nelson Testimonial Committee, met at tlie Nalional Gallery on the subject
of the magnificent pillar now rapidly rising in Trafalgar-.square. The brick-
work appears above the hoarding, and will soon be very cons[iicuous, and the
committee expressed their warm approbation of the energy manifested by the
contractors, ^Icssrs.Cirissell and Peto. It appears from what has recently
taken place before the members, that the altitude of the pillar is not to he so
great by .30 feet as was at first contemplated. Mr. Bailey is at work upon
llie figure of the naval A\"arrior, M Iiich is to be of Portland stone, and for the
execution of wliich the sculptor is to receive lOOU guineas. It is calculated
that Portland stone will retain its colour ami polish upon being strongly
salurated, better than bronze ; and Mr. Croker instanced the Nelson statue
of Dublin as a proof of the superiority of the former. Mr. Lough is to exe-
cute ■• the lions" at the pedestal ; biit they are not to be commenced until
the near approach of spring, when it is expected ihe subscription will recei\'e
numerous additions. A committee of the Uouse of Commons reported a little
while ago that Ihe Nelson pillar imght not to be raised in Trafalgar-sciuare.
hut the house having taken no notice of the suggestion, the work will pro-
ceed without a check to completion. The project of a new site would not, it
is conjectured, be very kindly received, as government gave the ground, and
contriljutors gave their money, expressly for the purpose of raising the testi-
monial on that spot to the great naval hero of Lngland. — Daili/ paper.

Ulac/.friars B'idge. — We are requested to call the attention of the pubjc
and especially of the ddlercnt paving committees, to the paving of the car-
riage way now in progress on Blackfriars Bridge. It is the first time the
narrow paving has been tried in this metropolis, and it is considered a very
great improvement, as a horse will not be so liable to slip as on wider stones.
The blocks are principally of Guernsey granite, 9 inches long, only 3 inches
wide, an<l square at the top and bottom. Tlie substratum is formed of a con-
crete 12 inches thick, of stone-lime and Thames ballast. The contractor is
Mr. .Tohn Mowlem, of Paddinglon, who has, we hear, met with very great
ditTicultv in obtaining the granite from Guernsey. It is considered the best
piece of paving in London, and it is supposed that the bridge will be o[ien in
about a week. — Times. Aug. 27.

Chard Canal. — This undertaking, which has now occupied .six years, is fast
approaching to completion. The whole extent of the line, with the exception
of a mile and a half of its basin, is almost finished. The principal and only
hazardous point is now the reservoir in Chard Common ; here liie attempts
to make a liank have once or twice alieady failed, but increased labour and
jTCrseverancc wi I. we trust, overcome the obstacle, and within a period of six
months we trust Ihe reservoir may present an immense sheet of water, occu-
]iying a sp,ace of 70 acres. The expenditure on the works has been very
great ; during the last year £20,7.j!) is. 9d. has been expended, and the whole
expenses have been i.2b',47y llis. 'Jr/. Of the 1,140 new shares created by the
committee in April last, 992 have been taken. The proprietors have now a
very cheering prospect, as the committee hope and expect the canal will be
completed in the early part of next year. — Western paper.

Napoleon Monument. — A model of the monument proposed to be executed
to tlie memory of Napoleon, has been erected beneath the dome of the Inva-
lidcs, under the ilireelion of M. Maroehctti, for the purpose of ascertaining
its effect ; from the description, it seims to combine simplicity with grandeur.
It stands in Ihe centre of the mosaic work, beneath Ihe dome, and is com-
posed of four parts. The first is a va^t base, surrounded by columns and has
reliefs, supporting, at its corners, four statues, one of which holds the globe,
another the sceptre, a third Ihe emblem of justice, and the fourth the im-
]ierial crown. On this base rests another, half the height of the first, two-
thirds smaller in extent, also adorned with has reliefs, and having, at its
angles, four eagles, with outspread wings. From this second base rises a
pedestal 8 feet in height, likewise enriched witth bas reliefs, having in its
centre the single word " Napoleon." And finally, on this pedestal, stands
the colossal equestrian statue of the Emperor, wearing the imperial mantle,
and having the laurel crown upon his brow. His left hand holds the bridle,
and in his raised right liand is the sceptre of empire. The two bases and
perlestal are 40 feet in height, and tlie equestrian statue is Ij ; the eagles are
6 leet liigh, and the four figures on the lower base ol the same proportions as
the imperial figure. The colossal and pyramidal form of tlie monument gives
us the impression of lieing well adapted to its site beneath the vast dome of
lhe Invalides. It will be entirely of bronze, and three jears arc assigned for
Us execution. — Athenteum.

Draining the Huerlent Lake. — M. Dietz. a celebrated Dutch engineer, has
invented a machine which it is supposed will be adopted for this purpose, and
by means of whichhe calculates that 100,000 cubic ells of water may be
drained o/f daily. This ingenious person estimates the body of water con-
t.iined in the Haarlem .Sea at 770,000,000 of cubic feet, to empty which it
would require 10 of his maeliines of 30 horse power each, the quantity drained
off by them daily being 1.000,000 of cubic feet, thus making the period re-
quired for its entire removal 800 days. The estimated expenditure of this
work, second only in grandeur and importance to the Thames Tunnel, is as
follows: — Florins.

10 machines, at 30.000 florins for each 300,000

Coals, Sec, .)00 florins per diem for 800 days 400,000

60 workmen at Uf. each per diem for 800 days .. 72.000
Stiperintendence, plans, &c 2.'),000

Total . . . .
About ..

797. OOU
£66,41 G

MISCELLANEA.

Electro-chemic.\l Gilding. — M. De la Rive, of Paris, has been very
successful iu gilding by electricity. This kind of gilding is thicker and firmer,
as has been ])roved by the experiments to which it has been subjected by a
Parisian goldsmith, who was requested to examine it. .'V vase, gilt by this
process, was heated in a fire to a red heat, and then thrown into cold water,
and when taken out was found to have lost notlung of its lustre.

Steam Boiler. — Lieutenant .lanvier. of tlie French navy, is said to have dis-
covered the means of getting up the steam of engines with such rapidity,
that in ten minutes from the first lighting of the fire, and although the water
in the boiler be quite cold, a vessel may be set in motion. This is, it is added,
to Ix! accomplished \vithout an_v additional apparatus, and at very little ex-
pense.

Goeeniment School of .Irrhiteetnre. — The Lords Commissioners of the Ad-
miralty having come to the determination that a civil architect's department
shall lie established at each of Her Majesty's dockyards, the w hole to be un-
der the superintendence of Capta'n Brandreth, of the Uoyal Engineers, the
following are the names of officers who will he attached to the department at
M'oolwich dockyard :— Lieutenant M'illiam Dennison, Royal f'lnginccrs ; Mr.
William Scamp, Clerk of M"orks ; Messrs, Colborne and Young. Assistants ;
Mr. .lohn Hopkins, superintendent of bricklayers ; Mr. 'William Reed, super-
intendent of carpenters.

.In Iron Express Coach, for cmssiui; Sandy Deserts. — The want of a vehicle
of this description has long been considered a desideratum by European tra-
vellers, in their toilsome jouriieyings across the arid and scorching deserts of
Egypt and Arabia, Hitherto the means of conveying travellers or merchan-
dise over these extensive and barren sands has been by camels and drome-
daries, for w ooden carriages of any constructicjn were utterly useless, as it
was found impossible to discover any species of timber that could resist the
intense heat of those districts, which soon splits and rends the best seasoned
timber. British ingenuity has, however, found out a mode of overcoming the
difficulty, by substiluting'/'roH for wood. In fact a carriage has been con-
structed, under the direction of -Mr. W'aghorn. by Messrs. Theodore, Jones,
and Co., of Spitalfields. the patent iron wheel manufacturers. This vehicle,
which is calculated to hold six person.s, their stores, water, &.C., has not the
smallest portion of wood in its construction. The frame-work, the wheels,
shafts, flooring, benches, S,:c.. are all of wrought iron bars, either flat or
round according to purpose required, the bottom being open like a net work
to allow the temperate air to come up freely, and drive out the hot air as it
generates through the top valves. There arc hair cushions placed on the
benclies, which form seats quite .as comfortable as those of any other coach.
The machine is hung on the centrical spring principle, wdiich discharges the
weight from the horse, and throws it on the wheels— this is another great
advantage in a hot country. It will thus aflord, when brought fully into
operation, p. safe and comfortable conveyance for travellers, despatches, and
the lighter articles of commerce, and is I'ikely to be the means of opening e.x-
teiisivclv th.at easy intercourse between Palestine, Persia, Arabia, and Egypt,
w hieh is greatly w anted, and wotdd vastly extend the bounds of human know-
ledge, commerce, and civilisation. — Morning Herald.

Improrenients in the construction of furnaces and in boilers ; patented by Philippe
Marie Moiudron, Bedford Place,' Russcl Square, .luly 31.— These improve-
ments are with a view to bring into action, more fully than is now practised,
the useful properties of caloric, by the combined using of polished reflecting
surfaces and non-conducting materials, by which means the heat evolved is
reflected on to the surface of a boiler or other apparatus. The heat is pre-
vented from passing awav without fulfilling the duties to which it is applied.
First, to envelop ihe boiler or other apparatus with a reflecting surface, at
sudr a distance that the heat can pass between the reflecting surfaces and
the surfaces to be heated, but in so applying reflecting surfaces, care is to
be observed in arranging the same, that they may be conveniently got at
from time to time to be polished. The materials employed for obtaining
heat, when working the invention, are comljustible gases and .'spirits, or fatty
matters, which arc consumed by burners or lamps. The boiler is placed on
a frame that will allow the gas flame, from three or more cniicentrical and
perforated rings, to pass round ; the outer casing is made of any non-con-
ducting material, and the lining nearest to the boiler consists of polished
steel ; the draft of .lir below supports combustion. Tea-kettles, or other culi-
nary articles, m,ay be encased with this reflecting surface and non-conducting
material, whereby is obtained great economy of fuel and he.at.— /«cen/ors
.Ideocatc.

328

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[September,

ylnjiiirntns for rrgtitnt'niii fl<<- ^^uppltj of wtifrr to .sh^nin /tni!,-rs : patfi.ted Ijy
James Knoulcs, Lillle Bolton. Lanc'-isliire. July 10.— C lainis tlie use of a .selt-
acling apparatus, llic working parts of which are within the holier, anil com-
municate to the siiiiply-valvc from without. A lever or roil i.^ placed longi-
tudinally on a fulcrum within the boiler, the longer end of whiciris an up
right roil, with a Hoat tittachetl thereon, passing to the outside of the hoiler ;
at the shorter end of the lever Is another upright rod connciteJ with the
supply vahe, working in a tube. As long as there is plenty of water in he
boiler, the do t will cijntiiuie to press up the long end of the lever, and, con-
sc'juently, cause the valve on the upright rod of the short end of the lever
to press (lown on its bearing, pnd prevent the admissiun of water from the
tank. But when the height of the water in the boiler diminishes, the lloat
lowers with it. and thereby forces up the rod wi;h the valve, thus admitting
a further supply of water until the Hoat again rises to close down the valve.
^Invcnior^s Advocate.

Preserving Wood from dtcajf ; patented by Arthur Howe Holdsnorth.
Brookill, Devonshire, July 21. — The object of this invention is to preserve
Wood or timber from dec.iy by inimer»ing it in certtiin liiiuids, having the
properties of receiving a temperature capable of charring or searing the .sur-
face of wood that hjs been e.\posed to their action, and of concreting or har-
dening more or less by subsequent cooling, so as to remain in those pores
into «liich they have pre\inusly entered, as well as to cover the surface of
the wood, and thus \iievent it from the injurious i fti?cts of uir and moisture.
The liquid employed is compesed of tar, pilch, resin, or tallow, or that of its
products, where it has been subsequently inspissated. This liquid, which
can be brought to a higher degree of temperature than water, is placed into a
suitable receiver, into which the wood is immersed, and allowed to remain
until all bubbling ceases, occasioned by the air passing from the wood.
VTien the wr^od is required for (IcNible purposes, sucli as the decks of vessels,
&c., then it is only allowed to remain in the liquid while at a temperature
ranging from 212° to 120' — but fur charring or searing the wood, the liquid
must be brought to the boiling point. The receiver has a cover with ascend-
ing pipes, to take oif the intiammable vapour rising from the tallow, tar,
pitcn or resin. Wlien the wood is removcci from the liquid, it must be dried
iu suitable ovens. — Ibid.

I.IST OF NEW PATENTS.

GRANTED IN ENGLAND KROM 30tH JULV TO 27tH AUGUST, 1840.

John Louis Bachklard, of Saint Martin's Laue, Gentleman, for '• im-
provements in the mamifacture of beds, tiialtresses, chairs, sofas, cushions,
pads, and other articles of a similar nature." Communicated by a foreigner
residing abroad. — Sealed July 30 ; six months for eurolment.

Felix Troub,\t, of Mark Lane, London, Merchant, for "improvements in
the manufacture of vinegar." — August 1 ; six months.

ViLLiAM Uauunev Holmes, of Lanibcth Square, Surrey, Civil Engineer,
for " certain improrements in steam engines, and in generating and applying
steam as motive pou-er." — August 1 ; six months.

Thomas Barnabas Dakt, of Birmingham, Gentleman, for "improve-
ments in itiistands or inkholders." — August 1 ; six months.

James Taaffe, of Shaw Street, UubUn, Slater and Builder, for " im-
provements in roofing and slating houses and other buildings." — August 1 ;
SLX months.

James Hodgson, of Liverpool, Engineer, for " a new mode of combining
and applying machinery for the purjiose of exit ting and planing wood, so as to
produce plane or moulded surfaces." — August 3 j six months.

John Sanders and William Williams, of Bedford, Iron Founders,
and Samuel Laurence Taylor, of Old Marden, in Bedford, aforesaid.
Machine Maker, for " improvements in ploughs." — August 3; six months.

George Edward Noon, of High Holliorn, Engineer, for "improvements
in pumps and in engines for drawing beer, cyder, and other fluids." — August
3 ; six months.

William Saunders, of China Terrace, Lambeth, Chemist, for " certain
improvements in paring streets, roads, and trays." — August 3 ; sLx months.

William Beetson, of Brick Lane, Old Street, Brass Founder, for " im-
provements in voter closets and stuffing bo.ies, applicable to pumps and cods."
—August 5 ; six months.

Colin Macrae, of Cornliill, Perthshire, Gentleman, for " improvements
in rotary engines, worked by steam, smoke, gasscs, or heated air, and in the
mode of applying such engines to ireful purposes." Communicated by a
foreigner residing abroad. — August 5 ; six months.

Theophilus Richards, of Birmingham, Merchant, for " improvements
in cutting or salving wood." Communicated by a foreigner residing abroad.
—August 5 ; six months.

Henry Trewhitt, of Nevvcastle-on-Tyne, Esquire, for " improvements in
applying the power of steam engines to paddle-shafts used in propelling vessels.
Communicated by a foreigner residing abroad. — August 7 ; six mouths.

Robert Stirling Kevvall, of Dundee, Gentleman, for " imjirorernents
in wire ropes, and in machinery for making such ropes. Partly communicated
liy a foreigner residing abroad. — August 7 ; six months.

Andrew Smith, of Princes Street, Leicester Square, Engineer, for " cer-
tain improvcmrmts in carriage wheels, rails, and chairs, for railways." —
August 7 ; six months.

Thomas John Davis, of 5, Bloomsbnry Square, Esquire, for " certain
improvements in the form and combination of blocks of such materials as are
notvtised,or hereafter maybe used, in building, on for paving public and

private roads, and court yards, or public and jirivate causeu-ays and su'nrays,
or any other purposes to which the said form and combination of blocks may
be ajijilied." — August 8 ; six months.

DowNEs Edwards, of Surbiton Hill, Kingston, Farmer, for "improve-
ments in preserving potatoes and other vegetable substances." — August 8;
six months.

JoH.N IsA.\c Hawkins, of College Place, Camden Town, Civil Engineer,
for " an improvement or improvements in buttons, and in the modes of affixing
them to clothes." Communicated by a foreigner residing abroad. — August
8 ; six mouths.

Francis William Gerish, of East Road, Ironmonger, for " improve-
ments in apparatus to be used as a fire escape, also applicable to other pur-
poses where ladders are used." — August 8 : six months.

Samuel Howard, of Manchester, Eugiaeer, for " certain improvements
in boilers and furnaces," — August 8 ; two mouths.

Baron Charles Wetterstedt, of Limeliouse, for " improvements in
preserving vegetable, animal, and other substances, from ignition and decay. "
August 11 ; six months.

John Peter Isaie Poncv, of Well Street, O.xford Street, Watch Dealer,
for " improvexnents in clocks and chronometers." Commimicated by a fo-
reigner residing abroad. — .\ugust 13; six months.

KliLES Berry, of Chancery Lane, Patent Agent, for " certain improve-
ments in the arrangement, construction, and mode of applying certain appa-
ratus fur propelling ships and other vessels." Communicated by a foreigner
residing abroad. — August 14 ; six months.

Pierre Armand Le Comte de Fontainemoreau, of Skinners Place,
Size Lane, Gentleman, '• certain improvements in covering and coating metals,
and alloys of metals," — August 1.^ ; six months.

John Young, of Wolverhampton, Ironmaster, for "improvements in the
manufacture or construction of knobs, handles, frames, tablets, bo.ies, and
other ornamental articles, applicable to tlie decoration of houses and domestic
furniture." — August 17; six mouths.

Luke Hebert, of Birmingham, Civil Engineer, for " improvements in the
manufacture of needles." — -August 17; six months.

Joseph Lockett, of Manchester, Engineer, for " certain improvements in
manufacturing, jyreparing, and engraving cylinders, rollers, or ottter surfaces,
for printing or embossing calicoes, or other fabrics." — August 27 ; six
months.

Ch.vrles Smith, of Exeter, Builder, for " improvements in the manufac-
ture of lime and cements, or compositions." — August 27 ; six mouths.

William Church, of Birmingham, Civil Engineer, for " improvements in
fastenings applicable to wearing apparel, and in apparatus for making the
same aiid like articles, and also in the method or methods of preparing the
said articles for sale." — August 27 ; six months.

Hugh Unsworth, of Blackood, Lancaster, Bleacher, for "certain im-
provements in ?nachiuery or apparatus for mangling, drying, damping, and
finishing woven goods or fabrics." — August 27 ; six months.

Thomas Robinson Williams, of Cheapside, Gentleman, for " certain
improrements in measuring the velocities with wtiich ships or other vessels or
bodies move in fluids, and also for ascertaining the velocities of fluids in mo-
tion."— August 2"; six months.

Benjamin Hick, Junior, of Bolton-le-Moors, Lancaster, Engineer, for
*' certain improvements in regulators or governors for regulating or adjusting
the speed or rotary motion of steam-engines, water-wheels, and other ma-
chinery."— August 27 ; sLx months.

Henry Waterton, of Fulmer Place, Gerards Cross, Buckingham, Esquire,
for " improvements in the manufacture of sal ammoniac." — August 27 ; six
mouths.

TO CORRESPONDENTS.

Communications jereivedfrovi Mr. Francis ; J. H. on Felling of Timber ■ and
*' A Lover of the Beautiful," will appear ue.i't month.

AVrc Town Hall at Ashton-nnder-Lyne wilt appear in a future number.

Tin' Reform Club 7ie.it month.

Reports for the Improvement of Lough Erne ; ■'ileam Navigation in France :
Authrncite Pig Iron, and some others ; also The Architecture of Liverpool; will
appear in the luwf Journal.

Air. Pinkus' rommnnieation was received too late for insertion in this month's
Journal ; it shall appear, if he wi.shes it, with some slight modification ne.xt month.

" A Lover of Machinery." IVe hare before alluded to the ingenious^ Travers-
ing Crane adopted by Messrs. Grissel l^- Peto at their works at the Refonn Club,
and since introilneed nt the building of the Setv Houses of Parliantent.

" Robortus " could not hare seen our lieo Inst numbers when he sent his coni-
munieation respecting the " Atmospheric Railway." it- ^

'■ Anagnostes" 0)1 /fni/n'ny f'Hn'fs, 7)ii(.5/ stand over with others on the same
subject.

4lr. 'Wightwick's new work, " Palace of Architecture," will be noticed Jn
the ne.xt Journal.

Comninnications are requested to be addressed to ''The Kditor of the Civil
Kugineer and Architect's Journal." A'o. il, Parliament Street, JVeslminster.

Books for review must be sent early in the month, communications on or befurc
the 20th' (if with drawings, earlier), and advertisements on or befort the 25!h
instant.

The FmsT Volume may be had, lound in cloth and Lr-rrEEED in gold
Price 17.s.

*,' The Second Volume mav also be had, Price 20s.

18-lO.J

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

329

ON BEAUTY OF OUTLINE IN BUILDING.

ScALB. 1 ' ' ' ' 1 ' ' ' ' ! ^r^;7^

Bow St. Paul's Facade.

Feft.

St. Bride's.

ScALr 1 I I I I T I 1 1 I f

Feet.

Shaking Minarets of the Mosque
at Armedabad.

No. 37.— Vol. III.- October, 1840.

Salisbcry. St. Peter's, Caen.

Freibourg. Four great angle turrets of

lung's College Chapel, Cambridge.

2 Y

330

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[OcTODKR,

Of Beauty of Outline in BuildingH ; of the Inferiority of the Bhderns,
compared in tliia respect with the Ancient Masters ; and of the inutility
of Decoration, without goodness of Outline.*

By Alfred Bartholomew, Architect.

But tliat for which the ancient masters are so eminently superior
to the modern arcliitects, is elegance of outline : almost every one of
the old buildings, however exceptionable in point of details, has a
grand, a neat, and a picturesque outline. The Gothic steeples of all
countries, the dome of Saint Paul's, and the bell-towers of Wren, and
numerous other old buildings both in England and abroad, whether
viewed from afir or near, they all have almost universally, an impos-
ing and agreeable appearance ; their considerate architects, seem at
once to have designed the elegant outward shells of buildings, so as to
contain amply all the internal requisites, without unsightly additions ;
or if from any necessity, enlargement of a pile afterwards became ne-
cessarv, the picturesque massing and grouping together of the build-
ings was never lost sight of.

But what is the mode now pursued ? In mo-^t instances very dif-
ferent. A debased exterior copy of some old baildiug, is made on a
small scale, in base materials; this pretended eeo;i<unic.d crust, in nine
cases out of ten, is discovered eventually, to be neither high enougli,
long enough, nor broad enough, to contain properly all the accommo-
dations and internal details of the building: hence are added the ex-
ternal incumbrances of lantern-lights, ngly dormers, chimneys, and
other deforming excrescences, for which modern buildings are so cele-
brated.

Nature, always contrives to place every necessary apparatus,
within the compass of the general outline; but most modern buildings,
exhibit the same contrivance, as birds would, if their giblets being
omitted within, were afterwards skewered upon their backs.

If a building at a distance, appear ngly, it is in vain that it have
delicate enrichments, and that it be composed of rich materials ; it
cannot please either the vulgar or the tasteful, ncr can the scientific
give it commendation.

The qualities of form and outline, stand apart from all the petty
quarrels about orders and styles, by which unskilful professors have
pestered and lowered a once-noble art.

The most picturesque edifices of all coimtries, have a wonderful
similarity in their outline. The most perfect architectural composi-
tion is that which forms one immense Pyramid of Decoration consist-
ing of many minor subservient pyramidal masses : — such are the cele-
brated Indo-moslem Tombs of Akbar at Secundra, Shere Sha at Sosse-
ram, Humaioon at Delhi, and the Tiij Mahal at Agra: such are St.
Paul's Cathedral, the steeples of St. Mary-le-Bow, St. Bride's, and
those of all the others of Wren's churches.

The same principle is to be found governing all Gothic steeples.

The same <lelicate and refined principle pervades Gothic turrets
and moslem minarets.

While upon the subject of outline, the author cannot refrain from
contradicting, as far as in him lies, the opinion put forth with regard
to spires by Mr. Britton, in his exquisite work upon ' The Hislory and
Anttquitits of the Cathedral Church of Salisbury,' (p. 74). 'Although
this spire is an object of popular and scientific curiosity, it cannot be
properly regarded as beautiful or elegant, either in itself, or as a mem-
ber of the edifice to which it belongs. A May pole or a poplar tree,
a pyramid or a plain single column, can never satisfy the eye of an
artist, or be vie tved with pleasure by the man of taste. Either may
be a beautiful accessory, or be )ileasing in association with other forms.
The tall thin spire is also far from being an elegant object. Divest it
of its ornamental bands, crockets, and jjinnacles, it will be tasteless and
formal, as we may see exemplified in the pitiful obelisk in the centre
of Queen Square, Bath; but associate it with proportionate pinnacles,
or other appropriate forms, and like tlie spire of St. Mary's Church in
Ox ord, and rhat of the south-western tower of Peterborough Cathe-
dral, we are then gratified.'

Very odd reasoning this, and quite at variance with the in-born
feelings of nearly every native of Christian lands. The author would
have deemed it unnecessary to refute such a passage if it had been
put forth by any other than an antiquarian gentleman to whose taste
and perseverance we owe so much.

By the denuding process mentioned by Mr. Britton, every thing
accounted beautiful in the world might be rendered both uncouth ami
ugly : thus, take away the features of the finest head and face, you

* Wc have through the kind permission of the author, taken this paper
from a work recently publiibcd by liim, cniillcil " Spccilicatiuns for Praciiral
Architecture ; preceded by an lOssay on the decline of excellence in the
Stiuctuie and in the Science of Modern English Buildings."

have remaining a raw skull : take away the sauce garniture and cookery
of a feast, and you leave but crude Hesh, raw vegetables, and a few
other thing.; equally untempting.

The builders of the Christian steeples, those outward beacons of a
religious country, so caught from the true sublime one of the chords
holding mastership over the human heart and feelings, that the totter-
ing child and the snowy-headed old man, the religionist, and the
scolfer, the churchman and the sectarian, alike pay the tribute of ad-
miration to the beauty of form of the Church spires built by o<ir fore-
fathers on principles the mechanism of which, perhaps, they cannot
understand, and from feelings, which though some of them cannot
possess, yet cannot but revere.

But the truth is, the myriads of these glorious outward church
pdornments which told at every step the alien as he came to Europe,
in this land Christ is great, now deemed useless though sublime, em-
)doyed industriously and profitably that portion of our Christian popu-
lation which from the want of employment now begs or tenants the
workhouse and the gaol.

No object exists more subhme than the steeple of St. Peters'
Church at Caen, unless it be that of St. Michael's Church at Coventry,
■ — none more sublime than .St. Michael's, unless it be that of Louth, —
none more sublime th.ui Louth, unless it be that of Chichester Cathe-
dral,— none more sublime than the steeple of Chichester Cathedral,
unless it be that of Antwerp Cathedral,— none more so than Antwerp
steeple, unless it be that of Strasbourg Cathedral, — none more so than
Strasbourgh steeple, unless it be that of Freibourg in the Breisgau, —
none more sublime than Freibourg steeple, unless it be that of Salis-
bm-y Cathedral, which tapering up to heaven in beauteous proportion
till it seems more lofty tlian it really is, appears as though it had drawn
down the very angels to work over its giand and feeling simplicity the
gems and embroidery of Paradise itself; and, indeed, the most gorgeous
of the English Horid works of architecture always retain such a pecu-
liar character of sacredness that they always unfold a truly religious
appearance.

The pyramid is Nature's own form ; her mountains, the grandest
of earthly masses, diminish to heaven; architectural science requires
that a building to endure should end in a pointed summ t: a mere heap
of sand will by its own gravity assume a pyramidal form, and so endure
for thousands of years, and long outlive a wall of granite reared per-
pendicularly.

The feeling of love for the scientific and picturesque form of the
pyramid is so inherent in man, that any modern steeple which is
erected, is immediately universally condemned if its outline be not
strictly pyramidal, and the most illiterate, who knovvs not why he con-
demns it, is strictly correct in his condemnation.

A pyramidal outline is of such importance, that if even a dome do
not conform to it, ungraceful clumsiness, and disgust to every class of
beholders, are the sure results. In this may be seen the wonderful art
of Wren, in proportioning the dome of St. Paul's Cathedral. The
cupola is placed a great distance within the tambour, so as at once to
suit the particular scheme of its construction, and to form a pyramid.

Outine of St. Paul's Cupola.

Diagonal outline of the spire of
St. Dunstan's in the East, London.

1S40.1

TTIE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

331

De Qimicy says it appears very liavmonioiis, notwitlistaiirling tliis pe-
culiarity; but the truth is, that the perfection of its form emanates
from this rliminution. Indeed, many of the modern cupolas built by
Sir J(jhn Soane and others, being almost as large in diameter as their
tambours, show as little mastery of the picturesque as of construction,
and'violating the principles of natural taste, have become so unpopular
as to have obtained for themselves the cognomen of 'Pepper-boxes;'
and the same title, but too often applies to bad copies of the ogive
domes of King's College Chapel, from their not being built with the
graceful and spiring elegance of their prototypes.

The principle of the picturesque in architecture, absolutely re-
quires tliat if a mass have not a plain square o\itline, it should appear
to be hewn out of an exact pyramidal or conical block.

The principle appears to have been first discovered in Egypt, and
to have spread over all nations from China to the farthest extremity of
Europe.

The same principle pervades the Egyptian pyramid, the Egyptian
needle, and those vast mules of masonry which ascend to an enormous
elevation before the Egyptian temples: it pervades the Grecian and
the Roman Temple, the Athenian Choragic monument, the Pagoda of
Cliina, the mysterious edifices of Mexico, the temple of ancient Hin-
doostan, the Mosque and tlie Tomb of the Moslem, and the Christian
steeple.

- The Greeks, whose sever.il states were inconsiderable, and there-
fore incapable of raising such ample funds as powerful kingdoms like
ancient Egypt or modern Britain, never erected buildings which were
not small and low ; most of their edifices, therefore, not breaking above
the general altitude of their dwellings, they did lo' require that strict
attention to perfect pyramidal outlme which was always attended to
in the lofty buildings of other nations. They made no advances what-
ever in the more lofty departments of science which were requisite,
and which were of necessity cal'ed into use in the construction of such
gigantic edifices, they contented themselves with a mere triangular
facade.

Both Greeks and Romans, however, appear to have been well
aware of the upward diminution requisite in order to correct the other-
wise overhanging appearance of the upper part of a building, whether
from optical illusion, or from the projection of a cornice ; hence we
find nianv of their finest edifices were formed with the plain faces of
their architraves receding, as if to continue the upward diminution of
their columns. But the proper display of sculpture in the Frieze of
an order, in general forbade that member to recede, except in small
buildings, such as the Choragic monuments of Lysicrates and Thrasyllus,
which were fully taken into the eye at one view. Of the following
ancient buildings the faces of the architraves recede : at Athens, the
Parthenon, the temples of Theseus and Erectheus, and the arch of
Adrian, — at Salonica, the ' Incantada,' — at Rome, the external and in-
ternal orders of the Panthenon, the temples of JU|)iter-Tunans and
Bacchus, the reputed frontispiece of Nero, the reputed temple of
Pallas in the forum of Nerva, the arch of Constantine, and the Ionic
and Composite orders of the Coliseum : at Tivoli, the reputed Temple
of Vesta : all these examples show the possession of the same know-
ledge, but different degrees of skill in making use of it ; and there is
at Agrigentum a remarkable monument, shown by Mr. Wilkins in his
'Magna Graeca,' the order, entablature, and other members of which,
all converge uj)wardly in a very peculiar manner, not altogether unlike
some of the spires of Norman architecture, as at Rochester Cathedral.
This structure is reputed to be ihe tomb of Theron, Tyrant of Agri-
gentum.

In buildings to be viewed from a great distance, the great art con-
sists in making them appear pleasing from every point of view. VV^ren
was in this as great a master as in geometry and construction: not
only do his steeples bear the test in a front view ; but when viewed
diagonally and in various other ways they still conform to pyramidal
outlines whether passed down their utmost breadth, or through the
distended open parts of them which appear in a side view.

How ill the moderns have succeeded in steeple building by piling
one discordant heap upon another, may be gathered from the almost
universal contempt with which the architect, the architectural critic,
and the public in general, view our modern steeples: to raise upon
each other, to coarse broken outlines, imitations of delicate small works
of ancient architecture which stood on the ground, cannot satisfy the
mind or the eye : these things all require to be designed on purpose:
the higher the stages of the work ascend they are more and more re-
stricted in general magnitude by the outlines of the pyramid, yet from
their superior altitude they require to be designed in a larger and sim-
pler style, otherwise, not being read by the eye, they become confused
and thence tasteless. The steeple of the new church at Shadwell,
from being formed with a good outline, has received almost geiier;il
Jiraise, althougli its details are coarse and its materials are mean and

fragile : the easy labour of drawing two pencil boundary lines, meeting
at its summit, gained for its designer this praise, and saved him from
the reprehension given to luany works, the details of which would
rank higher if placed in proper situations. The author always knew
that good steeples were formed on this principle, and he has been
much pleased by finding the boundary lines remaining in pencil upon
ancient drawings of thera.

ARCHITECTURAL COMPETITION.

Sir — I admire exceedingly the bitter complaints which the members
cf the profession never cease to pour forth, upon the manifold wrongs
and indignities to which they are exposed in architectural compe-
titions— as if the fault were attribut.dile to any one but themselves.

I am not going to waste the time of your readers upon any new
version of the lamentations of the architects — they may be "heard
wherever architects most do congregate, and will continue to be he.ird
until the profession take the remedy for their grievances into their
own hands, a course they have never yet attempted to any good pur-
pose, because they have never attempted it in earnest. The Institute
of British Architects, indeed, have published a report in wliicli they
profess to denounce the present system of competition, but they roar
you as gently as any sucking dove. They are polite enough to assume
that if any unfairness ever attaches itself to competitions, it is only
now and then by mistake. They make no endeavour to fix' the posi-
tion of the profession with regard to the competition-monger, and they
shrink from the only probable remedy for injustice on the one side,
and meanness on the other — exposure. If the profession really seek
for justice in competitions, let them ascertain their due and demand
it, let them sift every unsatisfactory proceeding and expose it, regard-
less of the regulation sneer at "disappointed candidates," and let them,
O let them acquire a little honest pride, and not persist in snapping
at every paltry bait dangled before them, without even a decent con-
cealment of the hook.

In the mean time, until the profession think it worth while to rouse
and shake themselves, it may be of some use to collect facts, and a
pretty collection we might have if every one would but speak out
who could. I consider the profession greatly indebted to Messrs.
Wyatt and Brandon for the example they set of this course of pro-
ceeding in your number for February last, but it is uio.->t discouraging
that so long an interval should have elapsed vvitlioul any one having
stepped forward to second these gentlemen. I now oSer myself in the
absence of a better supporter, and beg the favour of you to afford me
a place in your pages.

In the month of October, 1839, the following letter was issued : —

Bury St. Edmund's, 29lh Octoler, 1839.

" Sir — The subscribers to a new Cluirch to be built in Bury, having agreed
to propose to six architects to give designs and estimates of the building, beg
respectfully to invite you to do so, and to call your attention to the general
nature of the building they require, and to the mode of proceeding which
they intend to adopt. The subscribers wish that the cliurch be capable of
containing 800 persons upon the tloor of it, with an end gallery to contain
not less than loO ; provision also to be made for side galleries if it shall be found
expedient at any time to erect them. Tliat it be faced with white Woolpit
bricks with stone quoins, and they wish the architect, to specify the materials
proposed to l)e used in the several parts of the fabric, tlie thickness of the
walls, tiie dimensions of the timbers, and tlie mode of fitting up the in-
terior.

"The expense of the whole work, after being completed in every respect,
must not exceed the sum of ±'3000.

" Upon the receipt of the designs and estimates from the six architects, the
subscribers will arrange the designs in the order which they shall consider
the order of merit, and their adaptation to the peculiar circumstances of the
case, marking that which they shall most approve No. 1, the next No. 2, and
so on. If the subscribers sBall think lit themselves to employ a builder to
erect the church according to tlie design No. 1, the architect who has sup-
plied such design shall provide all the necessary specili cations and working
drawings, anti shall employ and pay a clerk of the works, who shall be con-
stantly on the spot, and the architect himself shall as often as may be neces-
sary visit the building, and direct and superintend tlie work himself, being
allowed for the designs, specitications, and working drawings ; for his time,
trouble and services, — for his journeys, and other expenses, ami for the wages
of the Clerk of the Works, ten per cent. Up m tlie sum for which the builder
shall have contracted to complete the church. — ]

" If the suliscribers shall call upon the jicrson whose design shall be marked
No. 1, to carry it into effect, he shall give security for tlie execution of his
design within mnnths, making the church complete both cxterually

and internally for the sum at which he may have estimated the co...t, — aucli
sum not to exceed £3000, and in this case the subscribers will appoint and

2 Y 2

332

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[October,

pay their own survejor ; and an addition of 5 per cent, as architect's com-
mission.

" In case of failure to give such security as may he satisfactory to the sub-
scribers, if called upon by them to do so ; he shall have no claim of any kind
upon tlieni for any payment or remuneration whatever, and they shall be at
liherty to carry into effect any other plan they may select.

" [ The subscribers will present to the gentleman whose design is marked
No. 2, £lb, and to No. 3, £10.

" Should you. Sir, be desirous upon these terms to send a design, &c., for
the Church, you will be pleased to inform the subscribers of your intention
to do so, by a letter addressed to me on or before the 30th of November next,
and you will send the designs and estimates to me on or before the 30th of
December next.

" I am, Sir, your's, obediently,

James Sparke, Hon. Sec."

" P.S. — The architect is requested to conform as nearly as may be in the
details of the work, to the printed instructions of the Incorporated Society
for promoting the building, &c. of Churches."

I wish to lay the facts of this case before the public witli as few
remarks upon them as possible, but it is necessary here to observe,
that it has been stated, by way of apology for the most offensive
clauses in this most offensive letter, that they were considered requi-
site in order to protect the subscribers against a fraud to which other
parties, in similar circumstances, had been recently exposed, by a no-
torious falsification of estimates — but this excuse can by no means be
admitted. The subscribers* selected the competitors, and were not
justified in assuming that all architects are of the stamp alluded to.
I sliould like to ask the respectable legal gentleman who signs this
document on behalf of the subscribers, (begging his pardon for using
the argiwiaitum ad hominem,) how he wculd like to be sorted with
such veimin as might be raked out of his profession?

Whatever opinion the subscribers may have thought fit to hold con-
cerning the parties to whom this letter was addressed, it is certain
that the terms it offered were peremptorily rejected by the majority,
or by the whole of them for any thing I know to the contrary, it may
be presumed, also, that somebody took the trouble to enlighten the
subscribers upon some little miscalculations into which they luul fallen
with regard to the sort of building which £3000 might be expected to
produce, since they shortly favoured the same parties with two other
letters.

The first of these coramimications, dated the 18th Nov. 1839, is
nearly word for word the same as that dated in October, to the end of
the passage marked ]. It then proceeds as follows: —

" 7f the mbscribers shall be unable to find a respectable builder willing to
execute the design of any architect for the sitm of £3000, snch architect shall
have no claim of any kind npon the subscribers for any payment or reniunera-
tion vhatever, and they shall be at liberty to carry into effect any other de-
sign they may think fit to select.

" The plans to be drawn to the scale of J of an inch to a foot.

" No colouring or shading to any of the drawings except the plans and
sections.

" No perspective views will be admitted.

" One-third of the sittings in the body of the church to be in pews 2 ft. 10
in. by 1 ft. 8 in.

" One-third in pews 2 ft. 7 in. by 1 ft. 7 in.

" One-third ditto 2 ft. 6 in. by 1 ft. 6 in.

" The west gallery te be fitted up with open seats with back rails."

The letter then concluded as before from the passage marked [ to
the end. To the postcript was added,

" Your opinion is requested whether it is desirable that any part of the
timber be Kyanized, ami if so, what ])art ?

" Your ojiinion is requested whether 800 persons be too great a number
to be accommodated on the floor of the Church, considering that £3000 is
the sum to be expended on the whole building, which it is wished to be of
an ecclesiastical character, though not of a rich or highly ornamented style."

The last is as follows : — .

" Bury St. Edmund's, Nov. 30, 1839.

" Sir — I have to inform you of the alterations the subscribers have deter-
mined upon, and shall feel obliged by your attention thereto.

" To contain (>50 on the ground tloor.

" The West gallery 200 children, and a staircase at each end, to be ser-
viceable for the side galleries when built.

" A Tower is indispensable.

" £3000 to be expended on the building exclusive of architect's commis-
sion, and of any drawback for duty on the materials.

" I bog to observe, that the term " sub.scribers" is used tliroiii;bout in the
simr- sense in which it is used by the Hon. Sec. Mr. Sparke, and in no oilier,
llie business was of course conducted by a Committee.

" Pulpit and desk to be included, but not the furniture of the Church, en-
closure of same, or bells.

" The price of Woolpit bricks is about £3 per thousand delivered, but it is
presumed allowance will be made for duty.

" It is guaranteed that the building shall be open for public competition.
" The question of Kyanizing is left open.
" Colouring of the elevation to be allowed.

" I am, &c.

" James Sparke, Hon Sec."

Upon the faith of the conditions set forth in these three letters, five
designs were sent in, three of them by members of tlie Institute of
British Architects. How these gentlemen reconciled it to themselves
or to the principles laid down in the report on competitions published
in their name, and deal on any terms with parties who had shown by
their first letter the sort of temper in which they might be rtipected to
meet the competitors, and so gross a misapprehension of the practice
and duties of their profession, is best known to themselves. Perliaps
they imagined that the passage in italics, in the second letter, was in-
serted for the purpose of being acted upon, and if so, they are greatly
to be commendeil for the purity of their minds. The other two designs
were by gentlemen not known as architects to the profession in Lon-
don, and these two were the designs preferred. And not without
reason ; that selected as No. 1, presented the striking feature of a
gpire one hundred and sixty feet high, and was not tidopted without
certain reflections, anything but flattering, upon the incompetency of
the " London Architects," none of whom had been able to produce any
thing to compare with it.

Having selected the design, the subscribers proceeded to receive
tenders for its execution; but it having been whispered that the esti-
mates of the builders greatly exceeded the stipulated sum, the result
was — not that the subscribers rejected the design and chose another —
but that the tenders were returned to the builders unopened, and the
design referred back to the architect, for the purpose of being altered
so as to bring it within the means of the subscribers. Certain alte-
rations having been effected, tenders were received a second time, a
contract was made, and the building is now in progress. How the
subscribers have fulfilled the conditions they dictated, may be seen by
the following statement:

The accepted tender amounted to £3550 (in round numbers).

Ill addition to this, extra foundations, to the amount of £150 to
£200, were found to be necessary, not in consequence of any unfore-
seen difficulty, such as might arise from the nature of the soil, but
because it was discovered that the section, (a copy of which lies before
me,) represented the foundations to be one foot below the surface of the
ground .'

The cost of the building is therefore to be from £3,700 to £3,750 %.
nor is this all, for neither plastering nor painting are included in the
contract.

Instead of G50 sittings in pews on the ground floor, there are but
3G0; ISO more are in open seats, and the remainder on benches.

Instead of stone quoins there is not an atom of stiuie in the building
but what may be indispensable. The window jambs. Sec, are of
moulded brick, not gauged brick, gentle reader, but bricks from the
kiln, with good s joints between them.

The side walls are 24 bricks tliick, but, to save materials, are built
hollow, the construction of the rest of the building being in strict keep-
ing ; the side roofs are to be covered with zinc. Whether all this is
quite acting up either to the letter or the spirit of the instructions of
the Incorporated Society, may admit of a doubt at least ; also whether
a building with bare walls of ordinary brick, and fittings of naked
deal inside, can be exactly said to maintain an ecclesiastical cha-
racter.

Now these be truths. I offer no commentary upon them, for the
case is neither sufficiently novel nor peculiar to call for it. If any
thing should be mis-stated, I hope somebody better informed will be
so lihliging as to correct it, and I am sure your columns will be open,
either for that purpose, or for an explanation of the proceedings of
the subscribers, which I should exceedingly like to see, tliat is to say,
made upon honourable and equitable grounds. The misfortune is,
fto drop now the particular case and pursue the question generally,)
that subscribers and committees, possessing the privilege of iniper-
sonalitv, and, as Lord Erskine once said of a corporation, having

neither a body to be kicked nor a soul to be d d, are apt to consider

that they have fulfilled every obligation incumbent upon them, when
they have squared their moral sense by the Law — and who is to blame
tlieiii ? They have a right to suppose that the architects, in a matter
in which they are so much interested, are as well informed both upon
the law and the practice as themselves, and content to abide by both,
since they send their designs. Lest, how ever, any professional gentle-
man should chance to be in ignorance of his legal position, or should

1840.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

333

be tempted to plead it in extenuation of liaving offered liis back to the
saddle, I beg leave to make public the following case and opinion for
the benefit of all whom it may concern, and especially of the archi-
tectural profession, to whom it is dedicated with the profouudest sen-
timents of regard.

Case.

Six architects were invited to offer designs and estimates for build-
ing a new church. The conditions proposed by the parties making
the application are, that the cost of the church shall not exceed £30UU,
and that it shall be sufficiently capacious to seat G50 persons in pews
of given dimensions ou the ground floor, and certain other requisitions,
and they engage to employ the architect whose design shall be most
approved.

From the designs sent in to the parties in consequence of this appli-
cation, one is selected by them which they consider the best ; but the
cost of carrying this design into execution will be £3750, and only a
part of the sittings is provided for in pews of the required dimensions,
the remainder being on benches occupying less space.

It is to be observed, that in the present day it is a common practice
to invite architects to make designs, &c., for public buildings, on terms
similar to those here stated, and architects of the first eminence have
tendered designs accordingly.

In making a design for a particular building, conformable with cer-
tain stipulations, and to be limited to a certain cost, an architect has
to bestow much careful consideration, in order to make the accommo-
dation req\iired as complete as possible, and, whilst employing the
cost to the best advantage, not to exceed it. To effect this, he is
obliged to curtail embellishments, which he otherwise might have
considered desirable : but another, not restraining himself by the sti-
pulations or the limited cost, makes a design much more ornamental
and likely to be accepted. The one who faithfully follows his instruc-
tions is, therefore, unfairly treated if the parties who lay down the
instructions do not themselves act upon them in making their se-
lection.

In this present case, the design which will costi£3750 in its erection,
will have less area tlian one in which all the seats were to be in pews,
and consequently, not only the extra £750, but also the difference in
the quantity of building tend to increase an outlay in the decoration,
which it could not have had if the author had followed the instruc-
tions issued to the candidates. Besides this, the design varies con-
siderably in other particulars from the written instructions.

Mr. Serjeant Talfourd's opinion is requested.

1st. Whether tliis application to the six architects created an im-
plied contract on the part of those who made it, that if the architects
would send in designs, they would select from them one which could
be built for £3000, and which should be conformable with the instruc-
tions ?

■2nd. Whether the parties, having selected one which they are
carrying into execution at a cost of £3750, and which is not conform-
able with the instructions in various particulars, are not liable to the
other architects to remunerate them for their professional labours?

3rd. Whether such liability to remunerate would depend upon the
other architects being able to prove that their designs could be severally
executed for the £3000, and were conformable with the instructions '.

Opinion.

Although the application to the six architects created an honourable
obligation to accejit the design of one in accordance with its terms, I
regret to be compelled to express my opinion that it did not create an
implied contract binding in point of law, and capable of being enforced
by action. Regarded as a several contract with each, its enforcement
would he attended with this diiiiculty, that no one could prove that^is
plan would have been accepted, if the other plan had not been pre-
ferred, withont which h could show no damage — and if regarded as a
joint contract, it must include as a complaining party the architect^re-
/erred, who has no grievance, and will not of course join in complaining
of his own success.

2nd. Unless there is some evidence, whence it can be inferred, that
the architects were entitled to expect reninnetation in the event which
has happened, beyond the mere invitation, I am of opinion that they
cannot make any legal claim for payment in respect of exertions, which
have been rendered abortive by the bad faith of the proposers.

3i'd. Supposing any claim to remuneration existing, as it could only
be founded on the failure of the parties inviting the plans to perform
the terms of their proposal, it is clear that it must depend upon the
ability of the claimant to show his own compliance with those terms.
But, for the reason a'ready given, I think the claim, even if made by

an architect who is able to prove that his design was within the esti-
mate, and conformable to the instructions, cannot be supported.

(Signed) T. N. Talfourd.

August 15, 1840.

I have nothing more to add except that I inclose my name and ad-
dress in case any thing in this communication should be construed
into a personality.

I am. Sir, your most obedient servant,

K. P. S.
Sept. 15, 1840.-

CANDIDUS'S NOTE-BOOK.
FASCICULUS XIX.

" I must have liberty
AVitlial, as large a cliarier as the winds,
To blow on whom I please."

I. In an article on the Fine Arts in Scotland, (Edinburgh Monthly
Review, vol. 5,) the writer says, with reference to some of the recent
buildings: "although we cannot but applaud the public spirit with
which these undertakings have been projected, we are compelled to
speak in less favourable terms of the taste which they display. It
unfortunatelv happens that some of them which offend us most, occupy
very conspicuous stations, namely, Nelson's Monument, the new Jail,
and the new buildings on the North Bridge ; to which, were we to
enter into a minute examination, we should feel ourselves under the
necessity of making sundry serious objections. But we prefer to draw
a veil over the subject, sincerely wishing that the next undertakings
of this kind may be conducted with more judgment and in better
taste." — This is certainly the very pink of good nature in criticism,
but as for the judgment displayed in it — it would not be amiss to dram
a veil over that also. To be sure, the passage just quoted, sounds very
prettily, and bespeaks a delicate forbearance on the part of criticism,
well calculated to render its writer popular with those who expected a
castigation from it. Yet if we draw aside the Jliinsy veil of words,
what is the writer's naked meaning ? — why this : he is perfectly aware
that reproof is richly merited, yet instead of shovving up the offenders,
he prefers screening them ; instead of holding up errors and blunders,
and failures, by way of wholesome warning for the future, — whicli, per-
haps, he felt would be venturing beyond his depth, — he contents him-
self, good, easy creature, with " sincerely wishing that the next under-
takings of this kind maybe conducted with more judgment and on
better taste"! — which amiable phrase maybe handed down to the
verv end of the chapter of architectural blunders and failures. Really
I prefer the motto of "Old Blue and Brimstone," Judex damnatur cum
noctns absolvitur ; and I'm sure there is ;io-se?ise or nonsense enough
in some one of the works mentioned in the paper referred to.

II. Let us, however, try another s.ice of it. " In examining the
various public buildings which have been erected in Edinburgh, within
the last fyrty years, no very favourable view of the progress of our
taste is afforded in the circumstance of the tirst in point of time,
namelv, the Register Office, being so much superior in design to those
which have followed it; and the recent improvements betraying, while
they profess to be formed on the style of the ancients, a strange neglect
of the principles of composition, and even of the details which come
within the grasp of ordinary talent." This is well observed, and if
for 'Edinburgh,' we substitute the word 'London,' all the rest will
still hold good. Yes we have imitated the ancients after a very strange
fashion indeed, or rather have deluded ourselves into the notion that
we were actually running a race with them, while we were only hob-
bling alter tliem on classical crutches. Which reminds me of what was
once said to one of the Servum Pecus who piqued himself on his
classical exactness: your portico may, as you observe, be (t//er the
Parthenon, but it lags a confounded way htlinid it."

III. The next slice of this criticism may not be to every one's taste
— more likely, perhaps, to turn some folks' stomachs : " We have also
to regret the mama nows so prevalent for the Gothic style, which we
cannot help thinking to be inconsistent in every respect, with the
manners and the means of the age, and with the great principles of
beauty which have been recognized in civilized Europe, as the basis
of excellence in architectural composition," — For this opinion we
consign the writer over to Welby Pugin, he being one of those who
are desperately far gone indeed in the Gothic mania, and therefore
likely to take the writer to task to some purpose.

334

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

rOcTOBKR,

IV. Perlv.i])? John Britton may fall foul upon the writer too, for John |
lias told us in his ' Modern Athens,' that at Edinhurgh, " public and I
private edifices of the most splendid description crowd on our notice" ! '
althougii there is nothing whatever in his hook to confirm — or even
give decent colouring to that piece of puff. lie assures us, indeed,
that that most horribly dowdy building the new Edinburgh Academy,
is "a handsome structure, !7/«s/ra/irf by a beautiful poTt'ico siipporltd
by Grecian Doric columns." But such handsome structures and such
"beautiful porticos," are almost enough to make us sicken at the very
name of arcliitecture. At beholding them, one is tempted to pray
that an earthquake may swallow them up. — And yet after jiraising
that balderdash, Britton actually snu\)bed the poor Queen on the sub-
ject cf Buckingham Falace, — though he had previously spoken of it
as something prodigiously grand !

V. By very far the greater part of Edinburgh architecture, as re-
gards modern buildings, is even when not censurable for* positive
faults, of that mawkishly insipid, bald, coW, tame sort, a« to be utterly
valueless in regard to assthetic quality. When you have said that the
builders employ stone instead of brick and cement, you liavegone to the
utmost extent of the eulogium they merit. As to architecture pr<iperly
so called, the Scottish capital is a perfect desert : and should the gude
folk of Auld Reikie take this character of it in dudgeon, they ought
at least to keep some of their anger for themselves; for if they have
not thought it worth while at the time to produce something really
deserving praise, they ought not now to be scandalized at finding them-
selves reproached with want of taste. At all events they may feast
upon the flowery flummery with which a certain Doctor has dosed
them, — to wit, Dibdin, describing Edinburgh as "a city of palaces, the
Genoa of ihc J\'oiih." Surely there, the Doctor drew most largely
upon his imagination ; or else must have mistaken some architectural
mirage, for a reality, and the plain homespim buildings around him for
so many palaces, after the same f.ishion that Don Quixote mistook the
frowsy Moritornes for a lovely princess.— Happy mortals those who
like the Don and the Doctor can conjure up princesses and palaces as
they please !

VI. "I do not understand what you mean by Feeling: what has
feeling to do with architecture V This was once said to me by one
who was by no means the greatest dunce in his profession ; whereupon
I was tempted almost to reply: "if you rap that thick head of yours
against the wall, you will perhaps understand what feeling is — 1 mean
the only kind of it you are capable of comprehending."

VII. 'Effect' is another word that seems banished from the archi-
tect's vocabulary: or if the term be occasionally employed, that which
it expresses is very rarely considered or aimed at. Instead of being
studied and purposely introduced, it appears rather to be shunned.
Not but that I have seen effects and singularly striking and beautiful
ones too. No thanks for them, however, to the architect ; for I have
almost invariably found that the most beautiful effects of all, have been
entirely the result of sheer accident; and never contemp'ated before-
hand in the design; and further, that where any originalitv of plan has
been adopted — any deviation from the wearisome monotony and in-
sipidity which prevail in the forms and arrangement of rooms, it has
in almost every instance been occasioned by some peculiar and iiii/o-
W!icc( circumstance in the building that has compelled the architect to
fling away his secundum aiitm recipes and prescriptions, and resort to
some expedient and contrivance — not of the ready "cut arwl dried"
school, therefore, I suppose, ilkgitnnaie — and to be more or less
original in spite of himself. — It was a marvellous mercy for Sir
Jetfry Wyatville that, instead of being ordered to raze Windsor Castle
to the ground, and prepare an entirely new plan, he was left to contend
with the dirticu ties imposed by the old one. The consequence is that
there are now many piquant parts in the interior, and much variety iu
the plan, that would else, in all probability, not have occurred.

Vm. It would not be amiss, if, instead of proposing as architectural
prize-subjects to students such high flown things as palaces, and senate
houses, which are not wanted, the Academy were to require of them
ideas, for that which none of our palace-builders have been able to
design — to wit, a sentry-box. Those at Windsor Castle and Buck-
ingham Palace, are most beggarly things, literally wooden boxes, not
only homely in material, but barbarous in taste. Surely if it were
worth wdiile to erect a marble arch before the palace in St. James'
Park, it would also have been worth while to erect sentry-boxes that
should accord w ith it ; whether they were detached from the arch
itself, or made to form part of its design. The perversitv of taste
displayed in such matters is all the more unaccountable, because one
seldom finds simdar contrast ; of shabbiness and finery iu any others.
One does not see common e,.i thouware and plate on the same table, or
rteal chairs and rosewood tables in the same room. — I shouhl certainly
like to be informed, wherefore, if there must be senlry-boxes at all in
front of a palace, they must invariably be shabby eyesores. Vet, I

believe, I might inquire for some time before any one could give me a
satisfactory reason. It might possibly be alleged that it would be quite
infra dig for any architect to attempt to design aught of the kind.
Nevertheless I apprehend that a Greek architect would not have
scrupled to do so, or iiave thought it derogatory either to his talent or
Ills art to invent even a sentry-box — if there was occasion for one,
with elegance of form. Nav, do we not find among the structures of
Athens itself, one that affords a very strr ng hint — almost a direct mo-
del, for such purpose? Would not thai example be more consistently
adopted by being so transferred than after the manner in which we
now behold it copied, without any modification to adapt it for the
modern application of it ? Scarcely shall 1 be asked what is the ex-
ample I allude to, for no doubt, every one will now instant'y discover
it. As for those who cannot, it matters little to them whether I say
what it is now, or a month hence. I am therefore determined not to
satisfy their curiosity this time.

ON THE METHOD.? OF COMPUTING THE QUANTITIES
OF EARTHWORK IN CUTTINGS AND E.MBANKMENTS.

By S. Hughes, C.E.

At.THOt'GH the prismoidal formula of Dr. Hutton, by means of which
are found the contents of the figures composing cuttings and embank-
ments, is now well understood, and although great facilities for com-
puting these contents are given by Mr. Macneil's tables, and by a
tabular sheet more lately published by Mr. Bidder, yet it seems that
a ready method of calculating separately the slopes, and the middle
part of the excavation or embankment is still wanting.

Mr. Macneil has one table in his book giving areas for a base of 1,
and aslope of 1 to 1, from which by simple multiplication the contents
for any slope and for any base may be found. Mr. Bidder's table also
gives the contents for slopes of 1 to 1, and base of 1, but for lengths of
one chain or 22 yards. These tables are useful only for cdcul.iting
sections where the scale is very small, and where the heights cannot
be taken otherwise than in feet, because the tables are only computed
for whole numbers. In the process of calculating from working sec-
tions however, where the scale is sufficiently large to show the heiglits
in feet, and decimals of a foot, the tables will be of no use, and the
following simple formula derived from that of Dr. Hutton, mentioned
above, are intended to supply the deficiency of more extensive tables,
and it is believed they may be used with so much ease as entirely to
supersede the use of any tables.

Fig. I.

Let a 6 c rf be the longitudinal section of a cutting, from whichjt is
required to find the contents down to the line A B.

The surface line should first be divided into straight portions, and
vertical lines drawn from each poi it of division to the line A B. Then
the contents of all the spaces into which these lines divide the section
being added into one sum, will be the content of the wdiole cutting. It
is required therefore, independently of tables, to adopt a ready method
of ascertaining the cubical capacity of a portion of the cutting whose
vertical area is represented by one of the before mentioned spaces, as
b b' c c'.

For this purpose let the two deptlis of the cutting at the greater
and smaller ends, or /) V, cc', be respectively = D and d; let the
breadth be = b, the ratio of slopes = r, and th' distance between the
two ends := /.

The area of this piece of cutting at the greater end will hi

Fig. 2.

And at the sinaller end

Fig. 3.

1S40.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

335

so that the solid figure, comprised between these two end areas is
composed of a middle part or core which is the frustrum of a wedge,
and of two side pieces, which together form the frustrum of a pyramid.

It is evident that the content of the core is simply lb. — — and by

file prismoidid formula the content of the side pieces is also readily
D' r + d-r + 4 (D- r 4-c?- r + 2 r D rf)

found = I.

6

which reduced becomes = l. „ (D^ -\- d'-[-V>d).

This expression appears to be so simple as scarcely to require any
table by way of aid in the calculation. It is obvious, however, that
the only table which can at all be necessary in using this method of
computing sections is one of squares, such as may be found in the
Engineer's Pocket Book, and many other works of reference.

The following example will show the manner in which the formulae
should be used.

Fig. 4.

Cutting

Embankment.

Let the above be a part of the section to be computed then the cal-
culation will be as under.

Excavation, No. 1.

Lengths

Depths

Middle

Sides

in chains.

in feet.

(D + d)l

/(D- + rf= + D<f)

215

0

9

193-5 1741 1

7-0

9

14

161-

2«21

6-5

14

29

279-5

9380

16-3

29

25

880-2

35713

3-7

25

21

170-2

5887

6-5

21

25

299-

10341

14-8

25

25

740-

27750

39

25

14

152-1

4567

20-7

14

12

538-2

10516

8-1

12

0

97-2

1166

3510-9 109882

22

Middle 3510

•9 X n — 2 = '*291 cube yards for base of 1 foot.

Sides 10988

22
2 X ^ — 7 = 44707 cube yards for slopes of i to 1.

Embankment No. 1.

6-8

0

9

61-2

551

16-8

9

17

436-8

8780

7-9

17

20

292-3

8129

4-8

20

15

168-

4440

8-5

15

17

272-

6536

8-0

17

11

224-

4776

9-2

11

6

156-4

2052

1010-7

35270

Middle 161(

22
■7 X g72 = 1969 cube yards for base of 1 foot.

Sides 35270

22
X 5 — g = 14369 cube yards for slopes of i to 1.

Very little explanation will be required to render the preceding
calculation understood. It is evident that the multiplication by the

22 11
fraction or — is necessiry (in consequence of the lengths being

JX ^ 'J

in chains, and the depths in feet,) to reduce the first results into cube
yards.

Ar.d it will also be clear that as the numbers in the column headed

7*

"sides," are determined without multiplication by the fraction-, that

o

is for a slope of 3 to 1, the further division by 6 is necessary to reduce
them to aslope of i to 1. The quantities may be determined with
equal readiness for any slope, integral or fractional, by simply raulti-

plying the numbers found as above, by the fraction -, where r is the

rate of slope required.

It will be found extremely convenient for engineers and others con-
sulting the sections of new lines of railways, or comparing together
two or more sections of the same line, to know the quantities for dif-
ferent slopes, and these may be readily exhibited by simple addition,
thus :

(For a base of 30 ftet.)

EXCAVAl

ION 1.

Embankment 1.

Cube yards.

Cube yards.

Upright sides.

128,730

Upright sides.

59,070

Slopes of i to 1

173,497

Slopes of i to 1

73,439

» 1 to 1

218,264

1 to 1

87,808

U to 1

263,031

U to 1

■ 102,177

2 to 1

307,798

2 to 1

116,546

2i to 1

352,565

2J to 1

130,915

3 to 1

397,332

„ 3 to 1

145,284

It may be useful now to glance at certain erroneous methods of cal-
culating earthwork which were at one time exceedingly prevalent.
These methods have often been the occasion of serious loss and disap-
pointment to contractors and others, by some of whom they are not
abandoned even at the present day. It will be shown that calculations
of earthwork made according to the common erroneous rules maybe
readily altered so as (o give a correct result. Hence the investigation
of these errors will furnish us with new and distinct rules for finding
the contents of earthwork sections, each rule being correct and giving
the same result as the formula already derived.

I. Let it be required to determine the error occasioned by taking
the mean of the two enrf areas, and multiplying this mean by the length
for the solid contents of a prismoid. This method may be expressed

thus -.—l

D 6 -I- D= r + db + d'r _

= lb. ^f^+ I ^(D^ ■+ i-') from

which it appears that the difference between this and the correct ex-

T

pression exists only in the side pieces, and is equal to - (D- + d^) —

liiy^-^d^ + iid)=:lB^- + ^^d'-lB^-^d^ + l^d=y:B^

. irrf^_?ZD'+^''i^+|rDrf=^(D3 -{-^-2Drf). Excess

tj 0 i> O" D

above the correct area. Now this excess is equal to one-sixth the
square of the difference of the depths multiplied by the ratio of the
slopes.

H. The other erroneous method is more commonly in practice than
the preceding, and gives a result nearer to the correct one, but the
difference here is one of defect, not excess, that is on the wrong side
for the contractor. According to this method, an area is calculated
for the arithmetical mean of the depths, and this area is used as the
one which being multiplied by the length, is to give the content of
the figure.

330

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

ro

CTOBER.

Tims 6 — c ^ '^ \ — "^ — ) '^ *''" ^""^^ corresponding to the

nipiin of llie deptlis from which it is seen that tlie difference here also
between this and the correct area exists only in the side pieces. This

r
4
4r„. . 4r „ , 4r„ , 3r_. . 3/ , , 6 r.

T T T

difierence is readily obtained thus: -\f-\--d'^ -f- Dc? — '- D^ J-

J-

= ix (D" -\-d^ — 2 D rf), which is equal to one-tnelfih the square of

tne difference of the depths multiplied by the ratio of the slopes.

We have now examined three difl^erent methods of calculating
earthwork, the two latter of which require certain corrections ; and
combining these corrections with the original erroneous rules, in order
to render them perfect, the whole three methods may be correctly ex-
pressed as follows.

I. Square the sum of the depths and deduct their product, muldplv
the remainder by one-third the ratio of slopes. To this add the half
sum of tlie depths multiplied by the breadth.

Or,

II. From the half sum of the two end areas deduct one-sixth the
square of the difference of the depths, multiplied by the ratio of the
slopes, the remainder is the correct area.

Or,

III. To the area corresponding to the half sum of the depths, add
one-twelfth the square of the ditference of the depths, multiplied by
the ratio of the slopes, the sum is the correct area.

Example.

Suppose a piece of cutting or embankment 39'8 feet deep at one
end, and 24-6 at the other end, the base or top 30 feet, and slopes 2 to
], required the area, which being multiplied by the length, shall give
the true content.

I.

II.

39-8
24-6

64-4 X 64-4 = 4147-36
39-8 X 24-6= 979'08

31G8.28
2

6336-56

(39
(24

8 X 2 + 30)
6 X 2 + 30)

2(39-8-24
6

39-8 =
24-6 =

6)=^

= 4362-08
= 1948-32

2|6310-40

3155.20
77-01

2112-19
32-2x30= 966

correct area 3078-19
III.
(39-8 + 24-6 + 30) 32-2 = 3039-68
2(39-8-24-6)2

correct area 3078-19

12

38-51

correct area 30 78- 19

The first and third of these methods are recommended to practical
men in preference to any of the common tables.

The writer having both calculated himself, and superintended others,
while calculating some thousands of miles in length of sections, can
speak very positively as to the s-aving of time which is effected by the
simple calculations here pointed out. The mode of applying the first
method to extensive sections has been already shown, and the appli-
cation of the third is equally simple. The labour of calculation is
nearly balanced between these two.

12, Universily-slreel, Sept. 12, 1S40.

THE REFORM CLUBHOUSE.

ClVilh 2 Engravings, Plates IG & 17. J

Hardly shall we be censured for bestowing farther notice on the
exterior of this edifice, because, although the Wood-cut view of it in
our May number, served very well to convey a general idea of the de-
sign and style of architecture, the details and admeasurements could
oiily be guessed at, whereas it is highly desirable that they should be
correctly represented on an intelligible scale, similarly to those given
of the Travellers' Club-house in the series of " Studies and Examples

of the English School of Architectnre." We hope that the la^t-men-
tioned building, this new production of Mr. Rarry's will be fuUv illus-
trated liv thi> s.ime artists: in the mean while we shall show in this
and our following number, as much as will enable i ur readers to under-
stand both the external elevations, and the leading arrangement, &c.
of the interior; which last we intend to expUin by a Section as well as
Ground Flan.

Whether there be any who do not admire this piece of arcliitecture,
ve cannot positively say; yet if any there are at all, we conceive that
they are very few. Neither can we be certain that there are none,
who do not regret that the style here adopted is likelv to supplant
that pun Greek architecture which, till very lately, was in such rejiute
and request among us. It happens curiously enough, however, that
the Reform and Conservative Club-houses, almost inevitalilv force a
comparison between their res[iective styles. While the contrast thev
present is most striking in itself; it is evidently enough, in favour of
Mr. Barry's building: yet whether the two styles are thus fuirlv tested
is a different question, for it may be said that we have here the very
choicest Italian confronted not with any example of Grecian architet--
ture, nor with what is considered a skilful and artist-like modification of
it, but with what exhibits only the poverty and defectiveness of that
style without any of its redeeming qualities. At all events, therefore,
the admirers of the latter must now be as little satisfied with that
specimen of Sir R. Smirke's taste and ideas of classical design, as
those who give their unqualified preference to the Italian style. In
no respect is the contrast between the two designs more striking than
as to those particulars which exhibit similarv of purpose in both. In
the one case, we perceive that so far from at all detracting from the
beauty or character of the rest, the area is so treated as to be exceed-
ingly ornamental, and to give additional dignity to the whole design,
being enclosed by a terrace-like screen consisting of a balustrade, upon
a deep socle of elegant rustic work ; while that of the Conservative
Club-house is no better than the area of a common house, and the
railing is as poor in effect, and as un-(ireciau in design, as it was
possible to make it. No less strongly marked is the contrast between
these two facades as regards the character they derive from their
crowning members : though somewhat less plain and scanty than in
some other exam))les of the same school, the entablature and cornice
of the Conservative, lame and meagre enough at the best, now appears
utterly insignificant in comparison with the cornicione one of its neigh-
bour the Reform Club-house: — which latter may in fact be considered
as the entablature to the whole structure, therefore not at all excessive
as to bulk. The same remarkable disparity of character pervades
the two designs generally: in Sir R. Smirke's building, almost every
part is left chillingly bare and poor, and at the best, shows certain
Grecian forms stripped of all their beauty, whereas in Mr. Barry's all
the lesser members and details, such as string courses, &c. are made
to conduce to architectural elegance and expression. The "Conser-
vative" may be compared to a | icture mere dead-coloured, the "Re-
form" to one consistently worked up and carefully finished in all its
accessories.

If it be objected that the microstyle application of columns to the
windows of the Reform Club-house, is not strictly legitimate, inasmuch
as those parts are thereby converted into mere decorative appendages ;
we think that so applied they are less faulty than either tnicroslyle
orders affecting to be somewhat more than decoration, or than such
apology for an order as a few large antje gratuitously stuck on here
and there to the front of a building, and which are allowed to contri-
bute as little towards decoration as they do.

Either Greek architecture does not by any possible modification of
it, admit of the variety and richness which the Italian style aflfords, —
at least not where columns are excluded ; or else no one has as yet
thought it worth while so to mould the former as to render it quite as
suitable as the other for buildings of this class. Be that as it may, the
example of the Reform Club-house most assuredly is not calculated to
obtain much favour for tlie style of its neighbour; but neither, on the
other hand, is it likely to recommend the petty Falladian manner,
which has hitherto been generally received as the quintessence of
Italian art.

In our account of the interior of Mr. Barry's building we shall have
occasion to enter into description, but on the present occasion the
elevation given in the plate renders description unnecessary, those of
the south and west sides being perfectly similar, except that there the
pediments to the windows are alternately segmental and triangular.
Besides the elevation, the details of the exterior, viz. Cornicione,
windows, &c. are shown in a separate plate, so that the design is per-
fectly intelligible.

^

^

J K t7oKtH# I

1840.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

.3.37

ON THE DISTINCTIVE CAUSES WHICH OPERATED IN
PROMOTING THE RISE AND PROGRESS OF GREEK
AND ROMAN ART.

By Frederick J. Francis, Architect.

Among all those nations the records of whose history reach to the
present time, those of Greece and Rome stand out the most conspi-
cuous and illustrious. Every thing which relates to them, is by com-
mon consent, invested with a sustained and continuous interest, which
the annals of no other countries are able to produce. The very men-
tion of their names calls up in the mind a thousand noble and spirit-
moving recollections, the dynasties of the present age seem to shrink
abashed, when placed in comparison with their ancient national gran-
deur ; and wo have but to let our thoughts sweep in the range of their
contemplations, over the successive epochs of their history to discern
at one period or another the ascendancy of every thing great or ex-
cellent, whether in political constitution — in national and individual
virtue — in the refinements of literature, or the peaceful glories of art.

And yet, great — eminently great, as were both those countries in
politics, philosophy and art, no one can doubt that the circumstances
which attended the highest national altitude of the one nation, were
singularly contrasted with those which attended the other. In Greece,
as we shall hereafter see more particularly, the period of purest poli-
tical freedom was contemporaneous with "the development of the sub-
limest philosophy, and the most exalted art: while in Rome, it is
unhappily notorious, that at the time when their literature and arts
were at their meridian, the subjects of merited astonishment to foreign
and surrounding states, extorting the homage, and compelling the ad-
miration of all— the essential freedom of their political system was
totally undermined — the roots of that despotism which was subse-
quently the wreck of every thing illustrious among them, had firmly
implanted themselves, and their successes in art did not so mucli re-
sult from the combined ettbrts of a people coUectivelv imbued with a
thorough passion for, and appreciation of, the sublime and beautiful,
as from the effects of a few accomplished but tyrannic emperors, who,
by means of a gorgeous display of the beauties of art, hoped to blind
the once free born citizens of Rome, to the disastrous consequences
which must inevitably accrue to the nation, from the establishment of
eastern absolutism ; and to amuse them with the tinsel trappings of
national prosperity, when they were, all the while, forging for them,
manacles, (he most degrading that ever weighed down the energy, and
annihilated the spirit of the noble and the free.

But to confine our i-emarks strictly to the subject we have under-
taken brietly to examine. It will not be imagined from what we have
already stated, tliat there was any similaiity in the principles which
gave to the arts of the two countiies their leading impulse, or contri-
buted to their final success. As tliere was a great ditference in the
period, so was there a marked contrast in the causes, immediate as
well as secondary, which induced their consunimatiiTn among the one
people and the otiier: and a steady consideration of this unquestioned
fact, will help to make us duly estimate the relative claims of the two
to the higher and more illustrious place in our esteem. In both coun-
tries we cannot fail to recognise a state of things wherein the arts
were loved, cherislied and venerated : but still, Greece in the meri-
dian of her arts, under the sway of Pericles, and Rome, correspondently
great, under the dominion of Augustus Cassar, present far more nume-
rous features of contrast, than analogy ; the whole current of the public
mind of the one nation ran in a diflferent channel from that of the
other ; and we contemplate with far greater satisfaction the intellec-
tual eminence of the one, than the splendid, but withal treacherous
distinctions of the other.

But it will be necessary for tlie riglit elucidation of the subject, that
we should glance with some minuteness at the various isolated and
connected chain of circumstances which attended the rise of Grecian
art, in order that it may the more clearly appear that all analogies to
it, are wanting in the correspondent progression of art in Rome.

The rise of Grecian art took place under circumstances singularly
striking. Like other nations in their infant state, the country of
Greece was originally inhabited by a wild race of hardy mountaineers,
men to whom the fortresses of nature were dwelling places, and the
pursuits of the chase, a subsistence. Gradually consolidating them-
selves into societies, settled laws took the place of that uncertain
authority founded only on might: the savage barbarism of aboriginal
life was laid aside, from being predatory wanderers they became
civilized settlers; and progressively advanced in mental and moral
acquirement. At a very early period of their existence as an inde-
pendent people, many of the inhabitants emigrated to the neighbour-
ing coasts, and long antecedent to the parent state, reached to great
national eminence and distinction.

The great Ionic migration to the fertile and beautiful settlements of
Asia Minor, was the most illustrious of them all ; and it was among
these celebrated and volu|)tuous colonies that the real and inherent
genius of the (irecian people originally manifested itself. Here philo-
sophy, poetry, history and art first found a home ; while the parent
state had scarcely emerged from the long pupilage of nations, they
had attained the summit of their intellectual development, and were
even giving unequivocal symptoms of prostration and decline. They
struggled and fell, to rise no more ; but as if by their dissolution an
additioual impetus was given to the efforts of continental Greece, it
was only subsequent to the protracted war with Persia, which had been
the ruin of her colonies, that Athens, the metropolis and heart of
Greece, took the van in the department of art; she then vindicated
her claim to that superiority which of right belonged to her, as the
capital of a free and manly race ; and although formerly she had pro-
duced no artists, and possessed no genius equal to those Sicyon, Egina,
and Miletus, she now as far outstripped them in the peaceful glories
of art, as she had done in the deeds of military and naval valour. She
soon reached to her proudest intellectual eminence, and under the
fostering sway of the renowned Pericles, showed marvellous proofs
that the really sublime and beautiful in material objects were thoroughly
appreciated and understood.

But here we pause for a moment to mark the causes which induced
these extraordinary triumphs. How was it that among these small,
independent, and comparatively insignificant states, the human mind,
as if relieved from a burden which formerly oppressed it, and visited
with an elastic and buoyant energy, previously unknown, should so
signally assert its appropriate dignity, and display its brightest
efflorescence.

How was it, that although empires, mighty and illustrious, had pre-
ceded even the commencement of her national individuality, who had
wielded the sceptres of well nigh universal monarchy, and in whose
hands were lodged, treasures the most unlimited, they had never
evidenced the possession of aught, but a narrow and contracted intel-
lect— had never been able to achieve anything remarkable in the region
of intellectual superiority, nor were even at the summit of their glory,
a tenth part so really and truly great, as were those comparatively
small and insignificant states.

Are we to look at the nations by whom Greece was surrounded, for
the germ of that architectural beauty — that sculptural grace — that
artistic excellence, whicli pre-eminently'distinguished them? Did
they derive from a source extensive to themselves, as we shall pre-
sently find to be the case with Rome, those principles of the beantiful
and the sublime, which they so exquisitely carried out and acted upon ?
Was there ought in the arts of Egypt or the Eastern world, which can
be referred to, as giving to the gifted children of Greece, any of the
original ideas of that mingled grandeur, simplicity and grace, which are
acknowledged so thoroughly to pervade their unrivalled productions?
We answer, assuredly not. We think it is doing great injustice to
the striking originality of the Grecian mind, to contend that as Rome
derived her arts from Greece, so Greece derived her arts from Egypt
or Asia. There may be, and there doubtless are, distant and obscure
analogies between the architecture of the Nile, cumbrous as it was, and
the symmetrical productions of Greece ; but still, whatever the Greeks
borrowed in this branch of art, was only incidental and subordinate,
and became so essentially changed by its tranmission, as to well nigh
the product of their own independent and unaided genius. And then,
whatever differences of opinion may exist upon this point, it must be
admitted by all, that in sculpture and painting they owe to the Egyp-
tians, absolutely notliiug. Look at the ideal beauty of their immortal
creations, that god-like expression of majesty which pervades one —
that manly grace, or matronly dignity which distinguishes another ;
that winning tenderness which beams forth in a third ; and in the
whole range of either Egyptian or Asiatic art, can there be adduced
one single group or figure, by the contemplation of which a Grecian
artist might have caught one additional ray of inspiration, or been
enabled so to guide his chisel or his pencil as to convey to his works
one previously unimagined lineament of grace, expression or beauty.
Emphatically we answer, assuredly not. The Egyptians, a severe
people — hard as their own granite — only reached a certain point in
the region of art, and attained to no progressive and advancing ex-
cellence. In their thorough hatred of reform, and scrupulous attach-
ment to the miscalled wisdom of their ancestors, they laid equally an
interdict upon novelties in art, as upon novelties in political aflFairs ;
and consequently, in architecture, were never able to reach that sin-
gular combination of the sublime and beautiful which pervades the
works of Greece : in sculpture, were ignorant of that true ideal beauty
founded in the abstract upon nature, yet soaring above any individual
instance of it: and in painting, they were, we are competently in-

2 Z

33S

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[October,

furmeii, destitute oT ;iU knowledge of expression iniii grace, and the
fascinations of varying liglits and sliadows.

If then tlie (ireeks did not owe the superiority of their attainments
in ait, to the extrinsic aid of foreign states, if tln'ough tlie entire range
of Egyptian and Asiatic prochictions, we see, speaking comparatively,
absolutely nothing of that iniiigled grandeur, grace and beauty, which
is stamped in almost every creation of the pure Greek mind : we are
driven to the conclusion that they derived their excellence from tlieir
own direct and inherent genius ; that they had, what no other nation
possessed before, the elements of \mre and exalted art, within the
precincts of their own national mind: and were able, moreover, to re-
tine and purify all that they saw around them ; bringing about, in short,
an entirely new epoch in the history of art. It was tlieir leading aim,
and they accomplished it, to raise architecture from the unmeaning
and the colossal, into the simple, tlie grand, and the graceful; to trans-
form the emblematic ugliness which pervaded all the efforts of the
earlier sculptors, into the beauty and majesty of the perfect ideal ;
and to transform into the formerly cold and lifeless ])roductious of the
Eg\ ptian painters that -perfection of form, outline, and expression,
which shines forth for instance in the Venus Anidyomene.

Now who does not perceive at once, from this brief detail, that the
rise of the arts in Rome, stands remarkably contrasted with that in the
country we have been reviewing. Greece, we have seen, was pre-
ceded by no people who had any clear or definite conception of what
was really and expressively beautiful, and evolved all that we most
admire and venerate from the recesses of her own national intellect :
Rome, on the contrary, was in the infancy of her existence, while
Greece was perfect and efflorescent, and had, in living in the midst of
such mental greatness, just that advantage which a gifted individual
has, on being born in an age of intellectual eminence.

In the rise of art in Greece, and in the correspondent rise of art in
Rome, there is just this difference, that while with the former nation
it was uriginal, with the latter it was dtriralire; it is beyond cavil
that till the treasures of Greece were disclosed by conquest to the
eyes of the ambitious and aspiring Romans, there were no advances
made in art among them, worthy distinctive mention — nothing which
at all equalled, or can he regarded even as a forerunner to the eminence
they subsequently attained.

The Romans in the first ages of their power, under the dominion of
the kings, and in the earlier periods of the republic, were practically
speaking, unacquainted witli the liberal arts. Simple, frugal, and hardy,
renowned for wisdom in the senate, and valour in the field, their minds
were more engrossed with constant endeavours to preserve unimpaired
the political institutions of their country, than to produce ought great
or noble in architecture, sculpture, and painting. The severity of their
manners forbade all unnecessary display, — they seemed entirely desti-
tute of all love for the beautiful, and all taste to appreciate it : the
great men of the time were neglectful of their city, and careless to
adorn it. They passed the principal part of their time, says Sallust,
in the retirement of the country, practising the frugality which pre-
vailed in the age, attending to the cultivation of their farms, taking
no pride in the outward decoration of their capital, and only visiting
it upon occasions of religious and judicial solemnity. Everything in
short, combines to prove that, unlike their celebrated predecessors,
they achieved nothing — unaided and alone, in exalted art. The
commencement of their artistic excellence, must be dated from the
period when the conquering legions of Scylla, laid siege to the elegant
and luxurious Athens ; and as tlie very extreme of refinement to which
she had arrived, proved a self-destroying ))o\ver in her constitution,
and, co-operating with other causes, sapped the vitals of her strength,
she fell an easy prey to the fury of the relentless dictator; under his
revolutionary violence the city of Athens was sacked, pilaged, and
destroyed : her matchless monuments of art were rudely transferred
from their legitimate resting places — were seized as trophies of Roman
valour, and sent to the cajntal to grace a Roman triumph. Unspairiiig
indeed and merciless was the hand of the conqueror upon the once
glorious and sacred city ; every thing of value was removed, even to
the ornaments which decorated the friezes of the temples, ami the
basso relievos on the walls. Syracuse, Carthage, and Corinth shared
a similar fate; spoliation and (lillage marked universally the progress
ol the Roman arms ; and the once proud states of Greece were, one
and all, compelled to own the superiority and bow to the power of the
foe.

Thenceforward, Rome presented a different asjiect from what she
had done formerly; no longer severely great, and nationally simple,
she had laid aside the just, and equitable spirit of lier ancestors, and
by embarking in an unprincipled war, became, by her conquest of
Greece, possessed of some of the proudest memorials of human genius.
Italy was at once inundated with the productions of Greek talent;
men stood astonished at the perfection of works— the similitudes to

which thev had never before witnessed, (ireciau artists were every-
where caressed and sought alter, and although this, in some respects was
desirable, yet, at the same time, it had the effect of putting a complete
extinguisher upon whatever risii'g t.ilent the Rora.in artists might have
possessed. When tlie grand, the majestic, and the beautiful from
Attica was exposed to the eyes of the proud citizens of the imperial
citv, they were charmed, fascinated, ami spell bound; they regarded
what they saw, as evidencing consummate excellence, ;uid despairing
of equalling that which they deemed unapproachable; the spirit of
emulation died within them.*

The influx of foreign productions entirely suffocated native Italian
genius, Greek productions became matters of jMoperty, and dealers
sprung up who manufactured originals to supply the market of the
rich collector; galleries were formed to produce genius, wdiich had
sprung up, from national demand, without a single gallery, or a single
collection of any works, except the produclions of their native soil.
The most celebrated works were copied and re-cojiied by the Greeks
in all parts of the Mediterranean. Horace alludes to this, and there
can be no doubt whatever that the effect was to render all native at-
tempts of the Romans and Etruscans no longer available. For not one
great artist is named during the whole period of progressive decay,
from the Caesars to Constantine; and the Romans or Latins never pro-
duced any talent worth consideration, till the revival of art in Italy,
after so many ages, in the 1.5th century.'!'

It is, therefore, abundantly clear from this comparison, that great
abatement on the score of originality must be made when reflecting on
the peculiar causes, which contributed to the full development of art
in ancient Rome. While among the gifted inhabitants of Greece, its
principles and its practice seem thoroughly indigenous; while we
search in vain, the arts of preceding and contemporaneous nations for
any traces of these manifold excellences which distinguish their im-
mortal productions ; while, in short, the eminence they attained, mainly
resulted from a creative, an ever active self energising influence pos-
sessed by the national intellect; with the people of Rome it was as
we have seen, entirely and emphatically otherwise. They of them-
selves evolved, not the material elements of the expressive and the
beautiful ; they derived all their notions of them from their prostrate
rivals, the Greeks. Their architecture, their sculpture, and their
painting, all breathes of Attica. It was constantly the aim of the
Italian artists to cultivate the Attic taste, they laboured not to produce
a distinctive style of art, but endeavoured simply to travel in the patli,
previously followed by the people of Greece.

To do them, however, justice, it should be remarked that they ap-
pear less fettered in their architectural productions. In this branch
of art, we discern characteristics more strictlv national, and less slavishly
imitative than these which distinguish their sculpture or their paint-
ing. For although we are aware that before the conquest of Greece,
the structures of Rome were both rude and inelegant, and that to the
(ireeks, the Romans were especially indebted for the more polished
forms of cohimnar architecture, yet as it has been judiciously observed
by Mr. Hosking, " the difference between the Greek and Roman styles
of architecture is not merely in the preference given to one, over
another peculiar mode of columnar arrangement and com])osition, but
a different taste pervades even the details;" and a wide dep-arture is
frequently to be traced from the primitive forms of the ancient models.
By their discovery of the arch, which undoubtedly was imknown to
the Greeks, the principles of their architecture became more flexible
and less unbending; and they were enabled thereby, we do not say to
render their productions more strictly beautiful, but more decorative
and profusely ornate. The simplicity of the Ctreek forms could not
be excelled by any additional decorative embellishment, the outline of
their purest ediflces was in perfect harmony with all the acknowledged
principles of exalted art. But still, the Romans, whom unbounded
military success had swe'.led with the workings of the most ambitious
pride, anxious to erect edifices of corresjionding majesty with their
achievements in the field, which should be lit memorials of the vic-
tories they had won, and appropriate receptacles of the trophies they
had captured, threw around the architecture of their city all the fasci-
nations of gorgeous and elaborate decoration, and that violation of the
principhsof pure taste observable in their works, which if extended
to painting and sculpture, would have appeared ridiculous — was in
architecture redeemed, bv the vastuess of the objects to which it was
a|)plied, and the nature of the ends it was intended to serve. In all
their buildings they certainly show a less refined taste than the people
of Greece : it will be seen that they relied for effect less on the sim-

' We intend Ihese remarks to apply chiefly toscili'ture and p:.in'.ing, they
cannot be extended to architeclure, as we shall here illor iec, without con-
siderable nio(li(ic;ilion.

t See Art, Paintiu';. Encv- Britannia.

1840]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

33f>

plicity of form and outline, than on the miilti|ilicity of detail, and
glittering profusion of ornament. At the same time let us not deny'
tliat splendid were the structures, and magnifii-ent the edifices which,
vinder the sway of the Cssars, adorned the Imperial city.

" Xot Baliylon,
Nor great Alcaii-o, such magnificence
Equalled in all their glories, to enshrine
Bolus or Serapis, their gods, or seat
Their kings, when Egypt with Assyria strove
In wealth and luxury."

But, even with this ready acknowledgment of the distinctive excel-
lence attained by the Romans in this branch of art, a reflection presses
immediately upon our minds, which detracts from the glory of the
nation itself, and gives us humiliating thoughts of their condition, even
while we admire the splendour of their city. With the people of
Greece the period of greatest architectural triumph Wiis contempo-
raneously with their possession of the purest political freedom. The
enthusiasm in favour of art was not confined to a few, but pervaded
the minds of the whole people; Pericles was but the instrument of
the national will — merely acted in conformity with the national spirit;
but in Rome there was unquestionably magnificence, yet it was the
magnificence not of popular enthusiasm, not as the result of any love
for the beautiful pervading the mind of the nation, but rather of a few
accomplished, but withal tyrannic emperors. The liberty which had
distinguished the nation in the purer ages of the republic, which had
been at once the consolidation of their political system, and the secret
of their military success, was fast vanishing away. Under the domi-
nation first of 'dictators and then of emperors, tlie people lost, one
after another, the principles of pure and exalted liberty ; tyranny
usurped the place of freedom, and while there was thrown around
their declining dynasty all the splendour which characterizes an
Eastern empire, it was at the same time in near connection with that
slavish and degrading prostration of the nation's mind, which is its in-
separable concomitant.

Architecture then, with all its multiform resources of grandeur and
beauty was resorted to, and diligently encouraged by the Roman em-
perors ; not, as was the ease wUh the rulers of Greece, with a view
of rousing the minds of the nation at large to an appreciation of the
varied forms of material beauty, as contributing thereby to the forma-
tion of an elevated and dignified character, but rather from the desire
to render the people unconscious of the value of those privileges they
were snatching from their grasp. The city was everywhere adorned
with emblems of their valour, and trophies of their military success —
temples, columns, triumphal arches and fora, were raised in honour of
individual emjjerors, and the mighty deeds for which they were said
to be con?|)icuous, just to cast a false glare around the real condition
of the nation, and to blind them to any sense of that thraldom, as de-

frading, as it should have been felt to be galling, of which they were
iligently forging the chains. Instead of the severe manners and stern
morality whicli marked the times of a Brutus and a Scippio, there was
introduced that extreme luxury, which comports well with the estab-
lishment of an Eastern absolutism, and which invariably weakens,
enervates, and eventually destroys the people among whom it takes
root.

Under the continual agency of such an influence, even architecture
itself gradually declined — all fc\ste was corrupted, and art consequently
soon felt into utter extinction. The empire itself fell by an act of
suicide, and dragged into the chasm, literature, science and art, and
for many ages the slumber of primitive barbarism enwrapped the face
of Europe. Unlike, however, other nations who, when once ruined,
have been ruined utterly, she " has conquered and been conquered —
and again has conquered her conquerors." After her ancient fall, she
was destined once more to rise again, — "when her carnal empire had
been stripped oif from her, she came forth as the queen of a spiritual
empire, and within her walls, the dead seem to stand side by side with
the living, in awful and most indisguisable communion." Her arts
again revived in the loth century, Italy vindicated to herself the pos-
session of that originality she had not evidenced in ancient time — she
came forth like a giant refreshed with sleep, and reared up men of
the profoundest genius, such as Michael Angelo, Rafi'aelle, Leonatdi,
Titian, and others, who have shed a halo of glory around the age they
adorned, and rendered it memorable and illustrious in the annals of
art.

Here then it is time to close — we have traced the rise of the arts in
the two countries, and have seen that while with the one they were
original, with the other they were derivative : we have traced their
progressive advancement, and have seen the different characteristics of
the two nations, at the period when they were in their highest ex-
cellence ; we have shown that while in Greece they were conjoined

with free political institutions, in Rome they, in far too great a degree
were the handmaids and attendants on tyranny. Finally, we have
glanced at tlieir downfall, and while we have perceived the dominion
of death over Greece to be total, as far as all real greatness is con-
cerned; we have marked the re-vivifying energy exhibited by Rome,
and the marvellous display of genius which she has produced in modern
times. We have endeavoured in all we have written to do full justice
to the claims whirh the arts of the two countries have, for preference
and superiority, and wliile firm in the opinion that Greece must un-
questionably bear the palm, have striven not to forget what was due
to Imperial Rome, as the once proud mistress of the world.

108, Mount S/reef, Gro^ rcnor Square,
.August •2", IS 40.

PUBLIC BUILDINGS IN LONDON.

./Z Crilical Revk.i: of the Public Buildings, Statues and Ornaments in

and about London and Westminster — 1734.

By R.iLPH.

( Concludedfrom page 30t.J

Gray's Inn is certainly too considerable a place to be passed over
unobserved : but t!ie notice we shall take of it, will be rather in com-
pliment to what it might have been made, not what it is at present;
it is no more than a confused heap of ugly buildings that have neither
order, regularity or connection, and yet the ground they stand on was
capable of all : they might have had a fine open front to the street,
and another to the gardens, and that too with as little expence : but
the taste of our ancestors did not seem to be altogether fixed on beauty,
and we ourselves make but very slow advances towards a reformation.
As to the gardens belonging to this Inn, they are certainly an advan-
tage to the students there, and a convenience to the town in general;
and if they have not many beauties to entertain you, they have few
absurdities to disgust you : it is true indeed they might be made much
better than they are, by keeping the vistas full of trees, the walks
smooth, and the borders even. The mount and summer-house upon
the top of it, might be made quite delightful, and if the two porticos
at the ends of the terrace, had been in taste, they would have given
an air of magnificence, w'iiich at present is much wanting, i could
wish too that the piece of ground between the two terraces and the
road, was made better use of by the society, than turning it into a
kitchen garden, as well as that next Gray's-inn-lane : these two spots
might have been covered with trees, in the most beautiful manner, and
supplied with fountains, which would make this place one of the most
delightful spots about town.

It will be impossible to pass by the new church of St. George,
Bloomsbury, without giving it a very particular survey ; it is built all
of stone, is adorned with a pompous portico, can boast many other
decorations, has been stinted in no expense, and yet, upon the whole,
is ridiculous and absurd, even to a proverb. The reason is this ; the
builder mistook whim for genius, and oniament for taste : he has even
erred so much, that the very portico does not seem to be in the middle
of the church, and as to the steeple, it is stuck on like a wen to the
rest of the building; then the execrable conceit of setting up the
king on the top of it, excites nothing but laughter in the ignorant, and
contempt in the judge. In short, it is a lasting reflexion on the fame
of the architect, and the understanding of those who employed him.

The new church of St. Giles's is one of the most simple and elegant
of the modern structures ; it is raised at very little expence, has very
few oniaments, and little beside the propriety of its parts, and the
harmony of the whole, to excite attention and challenge applause;
yet still it pleases, and justly too ; the east end is both plain and ma-
jestic, and there is nothing in the west to object to but the smallness
of the doors, and the poverty of ajipearance that must necessarily
follow. The steeple is light, airy, and genteel, argues a good deal of
genius in the architect, and looks very well both in comparison with
the body of the church, and when it is considered as a building by
itself, in a distant prospect. Yet, after all I have confessed in favour
of this edifice, I cannot help again arraigning the superstition of
situating churches due east and west ; for, in complaisance to this
folly, the building before us has lost a great advantage it might have
otherwise enjoyed ; I mean the making the east end the front, and
placing it in such a manner as to have ended the vista of what is
called Broad St. Giles's ; whereas, now, it is nowhere to be seen with
ease to the eye, or so as justly to comprehend the symmetry and con-
nexion of the whole.

2 Z 2

340

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[October,

Tlu're is iiolliing in the whole prodigious length of the two Bond
Streets, or in any of the luljacRnt places, though almost all erected
w ithin cnir memories, that has any thing worth our attention ; several
little, wretched attempts there are at foppery in building, but thev
are even too inconsiderable for censure.

There is something particular in the manner of George Street,
which deserves our attention, it being laid but so considerably wider
at the upper end, towards Hanover Square, that it quite reverses the
perspective, and shows the end of the vista broader than the beginning,
which was calculated to give a nobler view of the square itself at the
entrance, and a better prospect down the street from the other side ;
both ways the effect answers the intention, and we have only to lament
that the buildings themselves are not laore worthy this pains to show
them to advantage. The west side of Hanover Square is uniform,
argues a very tolerable taste in the architect, and deserves a good
deal of approbation: but all the rest are intolerable, and deserve no
attention at all.

I must own this, however, that the view down George Street, from
the upper side of the square, is one of the most entertaining in the
whole city : the sides of the square, the area in the middle, the breaks
of building that form the entrance of the vista, the vista itself, but,
above all, the beautiful projection of the portico of St. George's
Church, are all circumstances that unite in beauty, and make the
scene perfect.

If any thing is wanting, it is a graced building at the end of the
vista ; and the chapel which now stands there afforded a handsome
opportunity even for adding this too, if the undertakers had taste or
generosity enough to make the best use of it.

The church of St. George's is, at least, one of the most elegant in
London ; the portico is stately and august, the steeple handsome and
well proportioned, and the north and east prospects very well worth
a sincere approbation : but even this structure is nowhere to be seen
but in profile, as mentioned above, though situated in the very centre
of the vista that leads to Grosvenor Square, and were it not for two
or three intervening houses, would be seen in the noblest point of light
in the world. In short, it would fill the eye quite from the other side
of that square in all its perfection ; and I leave any one to judge to
what superior advantage it would then appear, and how many more
beauties it would add to the prospect.

We must now cross the road to Oxford, or Cavendish Square, I am
uncertain by which of those names it is most properly distinguished,
and there we shall see the folly of attempting great things, before we
are sure we can accomplish little ones. Hene it is, the modern plague
of building was first stayed, and I think the rude imfinished figure of
this project should deter others from a like infatuation. When we
see any thing like grandeur or beauty going forward, we are uneasy
till it is finished, but when we see it interrupted, or entirely laid aside,
we are not only angry with the disappointment, but the author too ;
I am morally assured that more people are displeased at seeing this
square lie in its present neglected condition, than are entertained with
what was meant for elegance or ornament in it. To be free, nobodv
should undertake things of this public nature, without resolving to go
through with them ; for the declining it afterwards is so notorious,
that the whole world has occasion to blame it, though few or none can
be sufficiently acquainted with the motives, so as either to defend or
absolve.

It is said the imperfect side of this square was laid out for a
certain nobleman's palace, which was to have extended the whole
length ; aud that the tw o detached houses which now stand at each
end of the line, were to have been the wings; I am apt to believe this
can be no other than a vulgar mistake, for these structures, though
exactly alike, could have been no way of a piece with any regular or
stately building; and it is to be presumed this nobleman would have
as little attempted any other, as he would have left any attempt lui-
tinished.

The house of the late Lord Bingley, on the west side of the square,
is one of the most singular pieces of architecture about town ; in my
opinion it is rather like a convent than the residence of a man of
quality, and seems more a copy of some of Poussin's landscape orna-
ments, than a design to inntate any of the genuine beauties of building.
1 may be mistaken, perhaps, in my opinion, and what I esteem Gothic,
heavy and fantastic, may really be harmonious, light and elegant ; so
1 leave the determination of it to better judges.

I have now brought this painful survey almost to an end, and am not
a little pleased on that account; it was" not so easy a task as I at first
imagined, and whoever will make it their guide to measure the same
ground, will be of the same opinion ; huge, indeed, as this city is, the
toil of examining it from place to place is the least ; for a building
ought to be viewed several times before we come to a conclusion,
either with regard to its faults or beauties: part of tluit trouble this

Review was designed to save, ujid if it will not polish the taste, or
reform the judgment, it will serve, however, as an index to the public
buildings, &c., and point out to the stranger whatever is worthy of his
attention.

Grosvenor .Square is not only the last addition which has been made
to the town, but the last in situation too ; and as it is generally under-
stood to be the finest of all our squares, I am sorry I have the oppor-
tunity to say it has so few advantages to recommend it, and that the
public is disposed to like these few so well ; I have frequently ob-
served already, that magnificence should never be attempted ; it ought
always to be perfect and complete, or else the very essay mocks the
builder, and excites ridicule instead of admiration. This is the case
of Grosvenor Square ; it was meant to be \ery fine, but has miscarried
very unfortunately in the execution; there is no harmonv or agree-
ment in the parts which compose it, neither is there one of those parts
which can make us any thing like iimends for the irregularity of the
whole. The triple house, of the north side, is a wretched attempt at
something extraordinary; but I hope not many people, beside the
l)urchasers, are deceived in their opinions of its merits; for it is not
only bad in itself, but in its situation too ; had it been in the centre of
the line, there would have been some excuse for the project, but as it
is almost in one extreme, there can be no plea remaining; unless the
view of taking in some young heir to buy it, at a great rate, may be
allowed one.

The east side is the only regular one of the four, and is undoubtedly '
nmch the most elegant for that reason ; but then even this is not in
taste, and neither the house in the middle, nor the two which serve as
wings, have anything remarkable to recommend them, though the
builder seems to design they should; the pediment over that in the
middle, particularly, is proportioned only to the breadth of that house,
and not the entire line ; whereby it appears that the artist forgot his
first design, of making this the main body to the whole.

The other two sides are little better than a collection of whims and
frolics in building, without anything like order or beauty, and there-
fore deserving no farther consideration.

I have often wondered that, in the number of squares which adorn
this city, no builder ever thought of an octangular one ; I am fully
persuaded that it would make a nobler figure than any we have seen
yet, and is capable of greater beauties ; it is to be observed, thourfi,
that I would not have it broken at the angles, for the sake of tiie
streets or entrances, because that woidd spoil the theatrical appear-
ance of the whole ; I would rather choose to have all those inlets
under an arch, in the centre of each particular side, and if the super-
structure was elevated proportionably, in a grand and noble stile, what
was principally meant as a conveniency, would prove one of the most
magnificent ornaments in the world.

I would not be understood iiere as recommending any farther addi-
tions to this mighty metropolis ; no, I am of opinion the head is al-
ready much too big for tlie body, and therefore its farther growth
cannot be checked too soon. But this I leave to the determination of
wiser heads than mine.

STONE FOU THE NEW HOUSES OF PARLIAMENT.

Sib — It is much to be wished that anonymous writers would endeavour to
give more practical proof of their candour, love of fair play, and other good
qualities and dispositions which their signatures profess. In the letter in
your last lumiber on the " Stone for the new Houses of Parliament," by " A
Lover of Fair Play," though there are some just and reasonable complaints,
there is still so much that is unjust and ungenerous, that I think few who
have taken an impartial view of the subject will think he has any claim to the
honourable title he has assumed.

I am far from thinking that Mr. Barry and the Commissioners are alto-
gether free from censure, and I am decidedly of opinion, that after donating
from their first recommendation, they should he called upon to lay before the
pubhc a second report explanatory- of the changes which have taken place ;
and till this is done, I think every body has a right to give his own opinion
on the suliject. At the same time, however, I think that the tone in which
the subject has been treated in many public prints, aud which is echoed by
your conespondcnt, cannot be too strongly deprecated. M'hen men of science
and reputation are engaged on a )>ublic object, their conduct is certainly open
to public discussion, hut such discussions should be conducted in the spirit
of cool and impartial inquiry ; the coirectness of the judgment of the parties
in qiiestion should he carefully investigated, but the correctness of their in-
tentions should not for a moment be called in question. Had this been the
course pursued on the present subject, there can be no doubt that a satisfactory-
explanation would have been given by the Commissioners ; but when every
kind of alnisc and brutal insult has been heaped upon them by the lowest
political prints, I think no one need wonder that men of science and integrity
wodd not stoop to defend themselves from such impotent attacks.

1840.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

341

The following appear to me to be {prima facie) the complaints which may
be reasonably brought against the commissioners :^

1. That having been commissioned to make a survey of the quarries
throughout the linitetl Kingdom, they omitted to examine those of Ireland.

2. That a very superior Irish stone having been offered to them, without
charge for royalty, they declined the offer.

3. That they recommended (among other reasons), "for facility and eco-
nomy of conversion," a stone which couM not be procured either in sufficient
quantity, or in blocks of a sufficient size.

4. Tliat on the failure of this quarry, tliey did not go to another which
might be considered to stand next in theh report, but to a new quarrj', which
has also proved insufficient to supply the required quantity.

5. That this deficiency of supply has not been made good by application
to the quan-y at first so strongly recommended, which is said to contain stone
exactly similar to that of the new quarry, and which might be expected to
be at the least capable of supplying some stone ; but that two other quarries
have been applied to which are not mentioned in the Commissioners' report.
In short, that after all the parade of the commission, the supply of stone has
been obtained from three several quarries, not one of wliich was recom-
mended, nor even its existence hinted at, in the report of the Commissioners.

This seems a strong case against them, and certainly evinces a want of
care in the first survey, and some inconsistency in their subsequent conduct,
but I have no doubt that many of the objections are capable of satisfactory
explanation.

The first cliarge, I think, a very dubious one, and rests upon the simple
question of whether they were commissioned to visit the Irish quarries or
not.

The second is entirely refuted by the very judicious remarks with wliich
you have favoured your readers, and by the fact that in colour and general
appearance the stone in question was altogether unsuitable to the purpose.

The third certainly evinces some want of care. As to the beauty and pro-
bable durability of the Bolsover stone, there can be no doubt, hut the thin-
ness of the majority of the beds, which is the great objection, is obvious on
a sUght examination of the quarry; though the Commissioners, in their just
admiration of the quality, might have flattered themselves that by sinking
deeper or opening new quarries in the neighbourhood, better blocks could be
obtained. It should also be borne in mind that they do not distinctly specify
the quarry, hut recommend the stone of Bolsover Mgor and il.i neiyhbonr-
hood.

The fourth objection at first sight appears reasonable, but on consideration
I think no one will deny that the stone first recommended having proved
insufficient in quantity, Mr. Barry was quite right in adopting that which
most resembled it in quality, though he had not seen it when acting on the
commission ; being also within a few miles of Bolsover, it may (though by a
little stretch of the meaning of the words) be considered to be in " its neigh-
bourhood."

The fifth objection I am unable satisfactorily to answer. I do not see why
the Bolsover stone should not have been used, so far as it would go, in sup-
plying th^deficiency (which I beheve to be only temporary) in the snjiply of
the other quarry. The quality of the Bolsover appears to me to be far su-
perior to the Anston and infinitely better than the Steetley (which latter,
however, I think is only used internally), and there certainly is stone at
Bolsover of sufficient size, though not in large quantities. The circumstance
of the Woodhouse quarry being only lately discovered (or rather re-dis-
covered), removes the objection of its not being in the report ; but the
Steetley and Anston being old and well-known quarries, it certainly looks
like negligence not to have reported on them, and like inconsistency to have
selected them though not mentioned in the report. One would certainly
have expected that before going to these quarries, consistency would have
prompted strong measures, such as sinking shafts, opening new quarries, &c.,
for ascertaining whether suitable steue was not to be obtained on Bolsover
Moor. Such measures may have been taken — I only mention this as one of
the points which require clearing up for the sake of satisfying the public.

The most important question, however, after all, is, whether tlie stone now
using is of suitable quality. On this question I am not capable of giving an
opinion, but will state a few points which have struck me on an examination
of the different varieties of stone, with a view to call forth the remarks of
more competent judges.

1. The stone from Mansfield-wood House is not, as has been stated, exactly
like the Bolsover. It very strongly resembles it, but differs in having a
browner and less brilliant colour, and in having a far greater proportion of
black metallic specks, which in some blocks arc minute and clearly defined,
in others large and difl'used. This diflference appears to be a great cause of
the difference of colour which is observed among the blocks. On the whole,
I think the Mansfield-wood House a darker coloured and less beautiful stone
than the Bolsover, but still a very beautiful stone.

2. The question may be asked, what proof have we of the durability of
this stone ? In answer to this, I think it may be safely said, that there is
every reason to believe that the stone used in the Norman parts of Southwell
Minster, and which was supposed to be the Bolsover stone, was, in fact, pro-
cured from ilansfield-wood House. A comparison of the stone from the two
quaiTies with that at Southwell would, I think, satisfy any careful observer
on this head.

3. The Anston stone does not appear equal to either the Mansfield-wood
House or the Bolsover, but is still a good and probably a very durable stone.

4. The Steetley appears to be a very friable stone, certainly scrai-ciystal-
line, but the crystals detached and ill-cemented. It is, I believe, only used
internally, but I nmch wonder that the infinitely more beautiful stone of
Roche Abbey, which is so eminently suited to internal work, was not pre-
ferred.

What your con-espondent can have discovered in Mr. Bald's very interest-
ing papers, to confirm so decidedly the superiority of the Irish limestones, I
am at a loss to discover. Mr. Bald's papers only treat of the white limestone
of Antrim, which no one even dreamed of recommending for the Houses of
Parliament, and which Mr. Bald says should never be used for any buildings
where durability is an object. Your correspondent is, perhaps, not aware
that Dr. Smith, of whom Mr. Bald speaks witli veneration as the father of
English geology, and who, he says, has carefully examined the Antrim lime-
stone, is himself one of the Commissioners who have been so much vilified.

I have the honour to be. Sir,
London, Your most obedient servant,

Sepfember 3rd, 1840. Axother Lover of Fair Play.

P.S. — It is a question worthy of being investigated, whether magnesian
limestones have not a tendency to acquire a dark and gloomy colour by age.
The old churches and other buildings on that formation have certainly a
gloomy appearance compared with those in some parts of Northamptonshire
and Lincolnshire, which arc of oolite. May it not be the case that the
lichens which grow on the magnesian limestone are of a dark disagreeable
colour, while those which thrive on the oolites are of a white liveher hue >
This is rather an important question.

ON FIRING BLASTS UNDER WATER.

Mr. Editor, — It occuis to me that a much more simple, and much more
efficient method for firing blasts under water, may be obtained, than the
method used to break up the Royal George, and a method so simple that it
would not require a colonel to superintend. A percussion cap is all that is
necessary to fire 10,0001b. of powder as easily as an ounce. Suppose that
an air-tigbt compartment at the top of the powder cylinder, to be fitted up
with an apparatus similar to the lock of a gun, and a strong spring carrying 4 or
5 hammers, to strike as many caps. The cock to set the spring being ground
into the side of the box, and fitted with a leather collar ; the trigger should
also pass into the box in a similar manner. What would be more easily for
the diver after having secured the cylinder strongly to its place, than to raise
the spring and fasten a strong line to the trigger ; the line might be of any
length, and when strongly pulled would as eft'ectnally fire the blast as a dozen
batteries. The caps being inside the air-tight box would be protected from
the water and kept dry.

Mines might thus be fired at the exact instant when they woidd do the
greatest mischief to the enemy.

It is a fact well known to engineers and miners, tliat when it is desirous
to detach a large mass of rock by means of several blasts, a great part of the
effect is lost by not being able to explode them at the same instant ; but by
means of percussion caps a hundred blasts might be fired at the same instant,
a very simple arrangement would be sufficient for this piu-pose.

Would not cannon be also very easily fired by large percussion caps, and
struck by a small hammer held in the hand of the person appointed to dis-
charge the gun ?

Those lucifer matches which explode by friction I have used without faihue
to fire trains of gunpowder, by merely placing two or three in the slit end of
a stick (kept down by a large stone), which on being bent sideways and de-
tained in that position by another stick, to which a long line is fastened, on
pulling the line the latter stick is withdrawn, and the first carrying the matches,
springs straight, the matches scrubbing on the ground or dry stone, explode,
and fire the train.

Should you think these desultory remarks worth a place in your Journal,
you will oblige,

Youi's, respectfidly,

C. L. Dresse*.

Commercial Buildings, Leeds, Sept. 4, 1840.

FELLING TIMBER.

Sir — Should the enclosed be of sufficient value in your estimation, to en-
title it to a place in the Journal, it is at your service. I cut it out of the
" New Y'ork Albion" a few years ago, while residing in America. The sub-
ject of felling timber is of more consequence to engineers and architects than
many of them have supposed, as few would feel desirous of knowing that
their labours are not destined in many instances to endure longer than the
brief period of their own life, should the dry-rot allow it even that extent of
duration.

I was told by a very skilful mechanic in the city of Philadelpliia, that he
had observed in his own experience that timber cut in the winter was in-
variably more thoroughly impregnated with sap than at any other time. That
as soon as the new wood was at its full growth, say in August, he had found
was the best time for felling the timber.

342

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[Octo'bkr,

I have mvself s''cn tliousanils of trees Iviug in the woods of Amcriea, in the
state denominated " logged," ^tl.at is cnt into Ici.gtlis for the mills) which,
were rapidly hastening to decav, and in almost all these cases it was owing
to their having heen cut in the winter, as there all the logs are left after being
cut, till they are needed for the mill, and mauy are so left fur months, nor is
it uncommon to sec timber under the saw, of which at least one-third is at
the lime in a state of absolute decay.

Your's, very respectfully,

J. IIOI.DEN.

36, Jll Saiuls Place, Ormund Slrcet, Manchester,

August 22, 1840.
" Mr. Rainey, of Middletown, Conn., a bbip-bnilder of considerable ex-
perience, having become convinced that the sap was the cause of the decay
of wood, instituted a scries of experiments to ascertain its place iu ditfcrent
seasons of the year, and found that in the winter, the heart wood contained
raucli more than the sap wood, while in the summer it seemed concentrated
in the alburnum or outside layers of wood. It has been generally supposed
that the sap of the tree was principally in the roots during tlie winter, and
acting on this supposition, Mr. Eaineyhad preferred for ship building, timber
cut in the winter; some cases, however, iu which timber cnt in the summer
was used with that cut in the winter, and remained sound while the latter
decayed, induced an investigation as to the cause, and resulted as stated. Mr.
R. now uses timber cut as far from December as possible, and finds much less
cause for complaint than formerly. The following was one of the experi-
ments that led Mr. R. to doubt the propriety of cutting timber in winter :—

" ■ Having cut a small oak staddle, on or about the 20th of June, I placed
eeveral pieces of it in the fire place, and put a fire under them ; after a little
while there appeared at the end of the sticks a wet circle describing the exact
thickness of the albiu-num, or sap wood, and when they became considerably
heated, the steam rushed with violence from the tubes of the sap wood, while
there was but a small appearance of vapour from the heart wood. About the
same day of December, of the same year, I had another small oak cut, and
went through with the same process of heating several pieces of the wood ;
and wiien they began to be heated, the whole surface of the heart wood, ex-
cept a small circle enclosing the pith, was wet, but the alburmim was dry,
and when they were fairly heated through, the steam rushed with violence
from tlie heart wood, though the whole epiantity that escaped, was not so
large as iu the former case. The results of these experiments accord with a
well known fact in regard to the sugar maple, namely, that no sap can be ob-
tained from the tubes of the alburnum of the tree, and therefore they are ob-
liged to bore a hole for the tube through the alburnum, into the heai't wood
before it w ill run.'

'• Mr. Kainey's inference as to the position of the sap during the severe
weather of winter, is probably correct, as we have observed many appearances
that ^vould go to confirm it ; but, that at the time of making sugar, the sap
is found in the heart wood of the maple, is decidedly incorrect, as every per-
son acquainted with the manufaclr.re well knows. In many cases in tapping
the trees, the heart wood is not touched at all, and it is deemed desirable to
avoid it when practicable.— The sap of the maple will not, however, flow
until the temperature of tlie earth and air has been raised by the sun of
spring, and the circulation, which is partially or totally suspended iu the al-
burnum during the severe frosts, is restored.— The relative position of the
sap is consequently changed from what it was a few weeks previous, having
passed from the centre to the surface through the lateral pores, or what is
called the silver grain, as well as commeuced its flow upwards to the expand-
ing leaves and branches.

" Farmers find the cutting of timber for posts and rails an important item
in their profit or loss account ; and if Mr. Rainey's experiments as to the
duration of timber can be fuliy relied upon, or substantiated by further ex-
perience, a very great )>oint in domestic farming economy would be gained.
We think the early settlers of Western New York could throw much light on
this subiect, by ascertaining the relative duration of their rail fences made
from tiniber cut in the winter, or midsummer, as most farms must have had
Bpechuens of both kinds ; and any notices of this nature, furnished us, shall
be inserted with pleasure."

TIDE GAUGE.

c,R J5y attention was directed by a friend, who is a Civil Engineer, to a

j)aragr.iiih in " The Civil Engineer and .A.rchitect's Journal," for May 1838,
under the head of " Proceedings of Scientific Societies," Royal Society, giving
a description of a new Tide G"auge, constructed by T. G. Bunt, and erected
on the eastern bank of the river .\von, in front of the Hotwell House,. Bristol,
in 18.37. At this I was astonished, as 1 was on a visit at Mr. Mitchell's, at
Sheerness Dock-yard, three or four years since, when Mr. T. G. Bunt was
carrying on a seljf-cstahUshed con-espondence with Mr. Mitchell, n-ho was a
strmtijer to fimi, and Mr. Mitchell, to my knowledge, actually sent him a
drawing of his tide gauge with a description, wliich so sinyularly and so
niicli/ ayrees with that given by Mr. Bunt of his neiv lido ijamje ; and Mr. M.
showed me at the time, some of the letters that he had received from Mr.
Kiint, which had they come to me from a stranger as they did Mr. Mitchell,
I should have thought it great impudence. I have since shown this para-
graph to Mr. Mitchell, who, like the immortal Watt, with " dirty" Prony,
was too inoft'ensive a man to attack the person when the injustice done was

mentioned to him. I have since this again asked Mr. Mitchell if he had
known Mr. Bunt before.' He replied, no; nor have I ever seen him. I
asked .Mr. M. why he ever answered the first letter? He said (and should
this meet his Mr. M.'s eye, 1 hope he will forgive me publishing private con-
versation), " why, really I thought the person Mr. Bunt, might have afamily
like myself, and might be it riving to gain something by working out his owu
ideas, at seeing mine in its complete state, but I had no idea of such as you
have shown me."

ilr. M. then again showed me his " tide gauge," which as aforesaid, was
erected in all her Majesty's Dock-yards, and has answered admirably for
years ; he also showed nie that of Mr. Lloyds, which is quite different.

A description of Mr. Mitchell's tide gauge may be seen in the " Nautical
Magazine," for one of the months In the year, I think, of 1835, and wliich
was inserted by a frienil of Mr. M.'s, at that frhnd's reri/ kind request.

Now these facts, for the good of the community at large, especially the
various scientific gentlemen that read your Journal, whose protection is of
importance, I lay at your disposal, and as it is the duty of every person to
crush " plagiarism," I have forwarded this, which I would thank you to give
insertion in your valuable scientific and interesting Journal, as a "beacon"
to warn persons from being unexpectedly similar passive objects.
I am. Sir, your obedient servant,

James Inglis.

London, Sept. 2, 1840.

P.S. — Since writing the foregoing, I have seen Mr. Mitchell's son who
made the drawings and WTOte the description that was sent to Mr. Bunt of
Mr. Mitchell's tide gauge, who says that the correspondence could doubtless
be produced.

[We have omitted the first part of Mr. luglis's communication, as it only
relates to the invention of a tide gauge which has failed, there is no charge
of plagiarism against the party. — Editor.]

YSTALYl-ERA ANTHRACITE IRON.
Mr. Evans, of Manchester, has given a report upon the strcni/ih of the
Y'stalyfcra .\nthracite Pig Iron, of the several qnahties, Nos. 1, 2, and 3, with
a view to ascertain its properties, particularly in relation to other irons, being
the result of about 28() experiments upon rectangular tiansverse liars. The
experiments were made liy breaking the bars between supports of their dis-
tances ; namely, of 4 ft. 0 iu. and 2 ft. 3 in. apart.

The trials were confined to the transverse strength of 1-inch rectangular
bars, with their several values, as under : —

1st. Specificgravity. — 2nd. Modulus of elasticity. — 3rd. Transverse strength
of 1-inch rectangular bars, 4 ft. 6 in. apart. — 4th. Transverse strength of
1-inch rectangular bars, 2 ft. 3 in. apart.* — 5th. Ultimate deflections. — 6th.
Power to resist impact, of v.hich the tables f are divided into, and contain
bars broken from

72 spec-imens of No. 1,
65 ditto of No. 2. •

.61 ditto of No. 3,

all cast horizontally in stand, melted by coke from the cupola in the usual
way ; —

44 specimens of bars melted as above, of equal mixtures of Nos. 1 , 2, & 3 ; —
24 specimens ditto, of the same melting and mixture, but afterwards planed
down to a perfect 1-inch square gauge; and —

16 specimens ditto, of the same mixture, but melted in the crucible.
The area of breaking section is calculated as the square of the depth, info
the breadth, and inversely as the length ; an example of which is subjoined,
for the bars requiring reduction to I'OO inch square from excess of area at
the fracture or otherwise : thus. No. 12 measured, depth 1-002, breadth 1-005,
which, reduced, stands 499 5 lb. in the table, under the head of 4 ft. 6 in.
bars.

Rule. — To find from the above table the breaking weight in rectangular
bars, calling-4 and d the breadth and depth in inches, and I the distance be-
tween the supports in feet, and putting 4-5 for 4 ft. 6 in., we have

= breaking weights iu lbs. — The value of S being taken from the above
tables.

For example: What weight would be necessary to break the bar. No. 21,
in No. 1 table, 2 inches broad, 3 inches deep, and 6 feet between the sup-
ports ? According to the rule given above, we have i = 2 inches, <?= 3 inches,

i-byihd-S 4-5x2x3-x484
/=6fcct, 5=484 from the table. Then-

0534 Ib.J

/

'■' The 2 ft. 3 in. bars are reduced to 4 ft. 6 in., as being a fair method of
obtaining a more correclmean; a separate column in the tabulated lorm being

set apart for them. , , », i^

T 'hie report contains six tables of experiments made by Mr. Iwans, «e
have given the table only containing the mean result of all the experiments.

~; The modulus of elasticiiy is taken from the deflection caused by 112 lb.
on' the 4 It. 6 in. bars. , „ . , i ,,,-,, i ■ i

Elasticity calculated from the deflection caused by 112 lb. on inch square

1840.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

343

We will briefly take the mean vaUies of each table, together with a snm-
mar>' of comparison of the whole, &c. §7%? specific yraeilij of No. 1 Iron
at 7-093, is rather under the standard 7-207, as given by Tredgold, but above
the mean of the No. 1 in Messrs. Fairbairu and Uodgkinson's list, which give
7-032 for twelve different irons of this number. .\s Tredgold's is a general
one, and not the result of any particular number ; and as it will be found in
Anthracite Iron, as well as in Messrs. F. and H.'s results, that the No. 1 is

bars. — I = distance in inches between supports. — tv =112 lb. — c = breadth
of bar. — d= depth of bar.— a =:^ defluction caused by 112 lb.

formula. ^ ^ ^., ^ = m, or modulus of elasticity in lb. to work which lo-

garitlims had better be employed.

For the above formula, see Messrs. Fairbairn and Hodgkinson's report,
Tredgold. &c.

§ ■■ The precise detenuinalion of the maximum and minimum specific gravity
of cast-iron is of importance to the Founder and Kngineer as giving llie data
upon which the weight of castings are estimated, and which, as stated by
autliois, are an unsafe guide, inasmuch as the s|iecific gravity of cast-iron
varies with its composition. — the way in which it is cast, the rate of its cool-
ing, and tlie depth of the mould, tn an extent not generilly considered ;
hence the diHerent specific gravities of bars cast vertical, and those cast hori-
zontalhj." — Mallet on Iron. See 7ih Report of British Association.

usually a lighter iron tlian either of the Nos., tlie above may be considered a
near approximation to the usual irons of the same No. or quality made- from
coke.

lis modulus of elasticity, the mean of which is 13970614 shows the.com-
parative stiffness of the metal, and is given in pounds per square inch.

The breaking weights are given in three separate tables, the mean of which
makes 444 lb., 445 tt)., and •)44-j lb. respectively, which approximate in rather
a singular manner to each other, and must be taken as the best proof of uni'
furmify ai strength and texture of this number, the value of which, as com-
pared with other irons, stand as under : —

Mean of 72 results upon the Ystalyfera Anthracite Iron, No. 1 444 tb.

Mean ditto of 10 different sorts of No. 1, in Messrs. Fairbairn and Hodg-
kinson's list ...... 430 lb.

being a superior strength in favour of the Anthracite Iron of about 3i per
cent. I regret that most of the other authorities give the breaking of 1-inch
bars on a very limited scale, in few instances distinguishing the different A'o.?.
they were made from, and broken between distances of even" variety, which
is an- additional objection to my offering them in the above comparison ; but
in a suinmarv' of a few that I found more easy to reduce, they form rather an
inferior value to Messrs. Fairbairn and Hodgkinson's irons.

The following table comprises a summary of the whole of the experiments
made by Mr. Evans, together with the same from Messrs. Fairbairu and
Hodgkinson's list : —

Summary and Comparison of the Total Mean Results from each of the Tallies, together with the same from Messrs. Fairbairn and Hodgkinson's List.

Number of experiments 4 ft. 6 in. between
supports, and 2 ft. 3 in. bars, reduced to
4 ft. 6 in.

Specific
gravity.

Modulus of

elasticity in tb.

per square

inch, or

stiffness.

Breaking

weight in lbs.

of liars, 4 ft. 6

in. between

supports.

Breaking
weight in lbs.
of bars, 2 ft. 3
in. reduced to

4 ft. 6 in.

Mean breaking
weight in lbs.

(S.)

Ultimate de-
flection of 4 ft.
6 in. bars, in
parts of an
inch.

Power of the

4 ft. 6 in. bars

to resist

impact.

Mean of 72 on No. 1

7-093
7-120
7130
7-110
7-190

7110

13970644
14544293
16622197
15200982
14894800

14676771

444 1 445
494 1 /iQO

444-5

496

533

471

574

536

1-843
1-632
1-640
1-553
1-625

2-447

821

811

916

749-7

901-2

13131

Ditto of 65 on No. 2

Ditto of 61 on No. 3

Ditto of 41 on equal mixtures of Nos. 1, 2, & 3
Ditto of the same from the crucible. No. 16. .
Ditto of 24 of equal mixtures as the 41, but

531
465
551

533

537

479
597

539

Forty-seven Specimens

from Messrs. Fairbairn and Hodgkinson's Tables of Nos. 1 , 2, and i, as under : —

No. 1. 10

7-032
7-029
7-122

14132994
14570118
17683712

433
435

478

428
443

487

430
439
483

1-597
1-626
1-374

694
711
685

No. 2. 25

No. 3. 12

Summary of the Mean of the 198 Jiesi

Ms of t tie Z Qu

alities of Anthracite, and the 47 from Messrs

Fairbairn and Hodgkinson's List.

198
47

7-114
7-060

15045711

15462274

439
448

493
542

491
450

1-705
1-532

840
696

In making a comparison of the same numbers of the Anthracite Iron, and
those which are comprised in the latter 47 results, the three first of the six
only, contained in the preceding table, must be taken, the other specimens
being on iron, under other conditions, containing the mixed, planed, and cru-
cible results, &c., a final mean of which may be taken as aliove : —

Which taken singly, or collectively, show a superior value in every column
in favour of Anthracite Iron as compared with the most numerous list of
other makes ; and it would appear that the No. 1 is the most uniform in
texture, strength, &c., having the greatest fluidity, softest, and lowest specific
gravity, and for its strength, which is the weakest, is most to be reUed upon,
as far as it extends.

The No. 2, less uniform a little in texture, and strength, fluidity, &c., but
of higher specific gravity, and stronger than No. 1.

The No. 3 still less to be depended upon in the above qualities, but of in-
creased specific gravity and strength to the No. 2.

The equal mixtures show a deterioration of the several Nos., compared to
their values separately, and the same as regards specific gravity. The same,
but cast from a crucible, e.xhibit an improved Ust of values, including a greater
specific gravity.

The planed bars show an increased stre;igth above the same metal in the
black bar : this is the only specimen whose strength is increased, without the
, specific gravity being greater also, which must be due to the planing, and not
any alteration of metal, &c.

It may be inferred from the whole of the tables, except the last, and the
higher specific gravity exhibited by the Iron, the greater the strength.

IMPROVEMENT OF LOUGH ERNE, IRELAND.

Report of the improvement of Lough Erne, for the purpose of rendering
Navigable for Steam Vessels, and other Craft, and for keeping the Lake at
a more uniform level.

The Upper Lake extends from Belturbet to Enniskillen, and can be navi-
gated through the channels or sources ; that along the eastern side is 18
miles in length, and that on the western is about 16 miles, which are de-
scribed by red dotted lines on the map or chart No. 1.

The Lower Lake extends from Enniskillen to Belleek, its north western
extremity, and measures about 24 miles.

The fall from the Upper Lake at Lisgoole Abbey to the Lake at Portora
is only 1\ inches. This is occasioned by the Danes Eel Weirs, the bridges
at Enniskillen, and the shoal at Portora.

The Upper and Lower Lakes, considered together, present a most magnifi-
cent sheet of water, interspersed with numerous islands, which are in geueral
highly cultivated j and for beauty and luxuriance of scenery cannot w ell be
surpassed, and forms one of the finest lines of inland steam boat communi-
cation in the United Kingdom, creating as it does one direct line from east
to west of upwards of 42 miles in extent, besides the numerous inlets to
every village and farm along its coasts, which may be safely calculated at
three times the above length — the whole of which may. when improved, be
navigated without the interruption of a single lock or other obstruction, so
that, with good steamers, the journey from Belleek to Enniskillen, Belturbet
and Wattle Bridge, may be accomplished in a few hours, which at present,
I am told, takes the boats, containing only a few tons of goods, upwards of
a week, besides their having to be lightened at every shoal to enable them to

344

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[October,

The I'pper Lougli may be termed a scries or chain of I^ikes, branching ami
.ramifying its courte along tlic vallies of the country, forming numerous inlets,
whicli arc sufficiently rleep at the lov.est water to navigate vessels of con-
siderable burthen, and which att'ord a ready means of transit for merchandize,
and the produce of tlie country, in eveiy direction, particularly to Belturbet,
Enniskillen, and Belleek, which latter place is situated on the Lower Lake,
and is only tliree miles distant from the seaport town of Ballyshannon.

Near Wattle Bridge, on the eastern side of the Lough, the Ulster Canal
enters, which I expect will be opened in the course of a few months. This
canal will form one of the grand outlets for the produce of this finely culti-
vated country to Belfast, -Newry, ic, it being at present shut out completely
from competition in these markets, on accouut of the want of a ready and
cheap conveyance by water ; and when such great facilities for intercourse
and trade present themselves, and requiring comparatively so small a sum for
accomplishing such a desirable object, it appears somewhat extraordinary
that the improvement of the navigation of this fine sheet of water should
have been so long deferred.

Tlie several shoals, eel weirs, and other impediments to the navigation,
besides causing the before-mentioned disadvantages, also act as dams across
the channel, and retard the natural and regular flow of the water, which is
backed up to an incalculable extent, and thrown over the low lands along
the ditterent vallies bordering on the lakes, sulnnerging and inundating for
several months of the year, from 20,000 to 30,000 acres of the finest land in
the country, which, if the water could be taken off, might be brought under
the most perfect state of cultivation.

I found, from observations and levels taken on the spot, that the difference
of level between the winter floods in January last, and the summer water in
May, at the undermentioned points, wa - as follows, viz.

Belturbet and Wattle Bridge 9 ft. 0 inches.

Enniskillen 7 10

Belleek 4 0

and the surface of the water, between these points, forms nearly an inclined
plane. The least or smallest rise is at Belleek, which is owing to the Lower
Lake being of so much greater extent than the Upper one, and acting as a
compensation reservoir, and allowing the water to escape more uniformly.

Having given a general description of the lake, I will now enter more into
detail, and describe the impediments which exist in the narrow parts of the
river, their effects, and what alterations are necessary to improve the navi-
gation and drainage of the country from Belleek to Belturbet, and having
been supplied, as 1 before mentioned, with the very accurate charts i)ublished
by order of the .\dmiralty, w hicli point out distinctly the deep and shallow
parts of the lake ; it became, therefore, unnecessary for me to take the
soundings of the whole extent of the lakes, my principal duty was to investi-
gate tlie shoals and impediments existing at the following places and points,
viz.

1st. From Belleek to Roscor.

2nd. Portora.

3rd. The two channels and bridges at Enniskillen.

4th. Dane's Eel Weirs.

5th. Carry Bridge.

6th. Black Rock, and some small ridges of gravel, on the south west
passage near Crom Castle.

7th. Blockson Shoal, which is within two miles of Belturbet, and com-
posed*of solid limestone rock.

Accurate soundings were taken at the above places, and plans, longitudinal
and transverse sections have been jirepared wiiich I now forward, showing
the depth of water, with the line of proposed deepening for improving the
navigation and drainage.

The soundings and other observations were taken at a very favourable
timfe, viz., the latter end of hist .\pril and the beginning of May, when the
season was remarkably fine and dry ; so much so that the water was within
six inches of the lowest point ever reracndjered by the oldest inhabitant re-
siding on the Lake — the floods during the previous winter season being the
highest ever recollected.

The above being the case, I was afforded a good opportunity of judging of
the effects likely to be produced by " reducing the waters to a uniform
level."

The datum or surface of water shown on the sections, is supposed to be
nine feet eight inches under the lower edge of the string-course at the
springing of the abutment arch, S. W. angle of the West bridge at Ennis-
killen.

At this level, the water being very tranquil, and with scarcely any percep-
tible current, I found, by taking accurate levels of the shoals at Portora. En-
niskillen, and Dane's Eel Weirs, that the difference of surface between the
Upper and Lower Lakes, at their extreme points, only amounted to 2| ins. —
I was gratified upon determining this fact to find there was no necessity for
erecting a lock, as I had been led to suppose there was a fall of from two
feet to three feet between the two lakes. This not being the case, it will
simplify the works required to be done, both in the execution and the ex-
penditure.

The bridge of Belleek is of old construction, and appears in a very dilapi-
dated state. It is built with rubble masonry, and composed of four arches
of the following dimensions, viz. — 35 feet, 19 feet 4 inches, 20 feet, and
7 feet G inches span. It rests on a soHd rock of limestone ; the water in the
river flows through the large arcb, under which there is a deep chasm cut

out of the rock 30 feet in depth, causeil by the incessant rushing of the
water from the falls above, wliich descend with great violence and rapidity,
falling, from the surface of the water at the Eel Weir to the level below, 15
feet in the distance of 100 feet in length.

The arches are e\ idently too small in capacity for so great a body of water
rushing dpwn during tlic floods, at which times it shakes the bridge very
much, making it appear in danger of being carried away.

I would recommend a new bridge being built at this place, in a more
direct line with the entrance of the town, with stone piers and abutments,
and a cast-iron arch of 100 feet span, witli two side arches of stone, 30 feet
span each.

The Eel Weirs at the top of the fall are a great obstruction to the free
passage of the water, being built of stone, and forming solid walls about 4
feet 6 inches high, and 4 feet Ijroad at tlie base, by which means two-thirds
of the distance across the river is blocked up. These walls or weirs should
be cleared entirely away, and a wall erected about five or six inches below
the summer level, and 1,100 feet in length, according to the form described
on the drawings. The i)roposed site is a very favourable one for the purpose,
being of solid limestone rock — the surface will require very little levelling or
preparing, and upon an average one course of stone will be sufficient to build
the Dam from one end to another ; for this pmpose and also for b\iilding the
proposed bridge there is abundance of flat bedded stone on the spot.

The falls of water at this place arc remarkably fine and well worth atten-
tion, as they present several such sites for mill power as are rarely to be met
with.

The old corn mill at the end of the bridge, which is now working to great
disadvantage, will require to be removed (to make way for the proposed weir)
to a far better site to be selected.

The three channels of the river course leading to tlie dam will require to be
deepened from one foot six inclies to two feet, which can easily be effected,
to allow the water to flow freely to the dam ; also tlie point of rock below
the line of the proposed dam should be taken oft" to allow the water to escape
to the chasm below. Above the dam there are several good sites for landing
places and quays for Steam Packets and Trade Boats.

The channel of the river from Belleek to Roscor, entering the lake is fine,
and strait, and of sufficient width. Tliere are several shoals which are com-
posed of gravel and clay, besides the Carry Eel Weir, which is similar to the
one at Belleek, (formed of stone) and dams up the water in a much greater
degree, causing a head of from one foot six inches to two feet during the
floods.

The above shoals and Eel W"eirs require to be removed to the breadth and
depth sliown on the plans and sections, ^■iz., 200 feet wide, and seven feet deep.

Tlie shoal at Portora is formed of gravel and clay, and will require to be
deepened as shown on tlie plan and section.

The West bridge at Enniskillen is of recent construction, and built of rub-
ble masonry, ashlar quoins and arch stones, string courses and parapet for
fixing the railing ; it has three arches of 45 feet 0 inches span each ; segments
of circles rise 15 feet G inches, and 19 feet 6 inches in height from the sur-
face of water to soflit of arches ; piers are 1 1 feet thick. I was informed by
Mr. Maguirc, the builder, that the west abutment is sunk G feet under the
bed of tlie river, and the other abutment and the two piers 3 feet. The
water-way under the arclies is very shallow, and the piers and east abutment
would require under-pinning, as shown in the elevation; and the channel
both above and below the bridge, as well as under it, requires deepening from
opposite tlie Castle to the deej) water near the Distilleries below the bridge.

There are several encroachments on the river at this place, in the shape of
walls and quays, which should be taken down, so as to give the river its ori-
ginal sectional area.

The East bridge is an old structure and built of rubble masonrj', it is com-
posed of five arches of the following dimensions, viz., 22 feet 3 inches; 24
feet ; 23 feet ; 2G feet ; and 21 feet span, and from the surface of the water
to the soffit of the arches is 17 feet in height. At this time nearly all the
arches were dry, with the exception of one of them, through which small
boats might pass. I would recommend the bed of the river under the arches
to be deepened and the piers under-pinned.

There are several shoals in tlie river in the East Channel, which require
deepening, particularly at Boston's Ford.

The Eel Weirs at Dane's Weirs appear very formidable erections which
■ilmost choke up the channel of the river, merely leaving a small space of
about 20 feet in w idth for the boats to pass through. In other respects, also,
it forms a very diflicult channel for the Navigation at any time ; but particu-
larly so in the winter season ; and when the head of water is great, and is
necessarily attended with much danger to the boats navigating up and down
stream. In summer the boats are required to be lightened, in order that
they may be enabled to pass over the shoal. The Eel Weirs are constructed
according to the form represented on the plan, and composed of piles, stakes,
&c., and made to close with wattles, &c., that few fish can pass through the
eyes or gaps. The bed of the river where the Weirs are erected is very
shallow, and is composed of clay and gravel.

The banks of the river at this place are high and slope towards the river's
edge.

This shoal and Eel Weir, and the shoal and contraction of the Bridges at
Enniskillen, are the principal obstructions in this quarter, and which cause
the lands and property on the Upper Lake to be inundated to a great extent
— these Eel Weirs to be cleared away, and the shoal deepened.

1S40.].

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

3J5

In case the Weirs cannot be purchased for a reasonable sum, I would pro-
pose making a cut across the bed of the river near Lisgoole Abbey. The line
I have selected is very favourable for this purpose ; it would lessen the dis-
tance considerably, and might be done for a comparatively small sum. At
the same time I would prefer keeping by the river channel, although the dis-
tance is greater ; still it would he easier accomplished and wouhl keep the
channel wider, so as to give every facility to the Drainage and Navigation.

The channel of the river from Dane's Weirs to Carry Bridge is fine and
open, with the exception of a few small ridges or shoals of gravel, which can
be cleared away in tlie course of a week, with a good Dredging Machine.

Carry Bridge forms a great obstruction to the navigation and drainage ; in
fact it can scarcely be called a bridge, as tlie opening is but 12 feet wide,
and 10 feet high, the remaining part being a long wall forming tlie roadway
to the island of Inishmore. In flood time this oljstruction creates two feet
head of water, and nearly stops the passage of the water ; so that although
this channel is the finest no boats are able to pass. This erection requires
to be entirely cleared away, and the channel deepened according to the sec-
tion ; and instead of the present bridge, I propose that a new bridge be
erected of three arches, each 40 feet span, the two side ones to be fixed stone
arches, and the centre one of cast iron, in two parts, so as to allow steamers
and masted vessels to pass at all times witliout lowering their chimneys or
masts.

Proceeding along the western channel, the Black Rock is the next obstruc-
tion to be met with, upon entering the narrow channel, which is from 70 to
80 feet in width. There are a considerable number of large detached pieces
of rocks in the sides and Ijottom of the river, which in summer have only
about two feet water upon them, which can easily be cleared away either by
blasting or lifting tiiem out of the river with proper tackle.

There are two or three smaller ridges or slioals above this in the western
channel, which are composed of clay and gravel, and which ought to be re-
moved to the depth of 7 feet from summer water, and to the width of 100
feet, which can be easily done by the Dredging Machine.

At the ferry at Inishmore there is a fine site for a snsjiension bridge, which
might be elevated sufficiently so as to allow masted vessels to pass. It would
also be of great convenience to the county.

.^.bove Crom Castle there are two shoals or ridges, also near Wattle Bridge,
which are composed of gravel and clay, and easily removed at a small ex-
pense.

Blockson's Ford is of solid limestone rock ; this shoal is a great obstruction
to the free discharge of the water, and ought to be removed. This part is
the most difficult to be remedied, and will require a C'offre Dam, so as to
clear one-half of the river, first by blasting and removing the rock, and when
this is accomplislied, to remove the Coffre Dam to the other parts of the
river, and clear it in like manner.

I have carefully prepared Estimates of the before-mentioned works, and
find that the whole may be executed in a workman-like manner, for the sum
of £29,797.

In conclnsion, I beg to remark that I am not aware of any work or project
whatever, where so much benefit might be derived at so small a cost, both on
account of the Drainage and Navigatiou, and when it is considered that the
Ulster Canal is now on the eve of completion, wliich connects the port of
Belfast with Lough Erne: and the possibilityof the projected Junction Canal,
which will join Lough Erne with the river Shannon, being carried into exe-
cution, it will form a communication from the Atlantic Ocean to St. George's
Channel, and as it is a work similar to the Shannon, and next to it in im-
portance, it well deserves the consideration of the Legislature, so as to put it
in every respect upon the same footing with that great national undertaking.

Trusting the foregoing Report may meet with your approbation, and the
Gentlemen connected therewith, I have the honour to be, Sir-,

Your most obedient and humble servant,

Thomas Rhodes.

Estimate of the cost of the proposed works for the improvement of the
navigation and drainage of Lough Erne, to accompany Mr. Rhodes's report,
dated 13th July, 1840.

New Bridge at Belleek £8,000 0 0

Dredging the bed of the river from Belleek to Roscor, includ-
ing the clearing away of the Eel Weirs and the masonry of

the proposed Weir 9,147 4 6

Dredging the bed of the river at Portora 784 14 6

Dredging both channels of the river at Enniskillen, and under-

pinning the piers of the bridges 1,860 19 6

Clearing away Dane's Eel Weurs, and dredging the bed of the

river 2,250 0 0

Dredging the bed of the river at Black Rock 150 0 0

Excavating the channel of the river at Carry Bridge, and

building a new bridge there, as shown on the plan 6,000 0 0

Excavating and blasting the rock at Blockson's Ford, and other

small fords and shoals 1,604 2 6

Total amount £29,797 1 0

N-B. — If the river course be abandoned at Dane's Weirs, and
a cut made across the low- lands near Lisgoole Abbey, a fur-
ther sum must be added of the amount of .' 3,516 13 9

£33,313 14 9

Thomas Rhodes.
In the above calculation no allowance has been made for the purchase of
Eel W'eirs.

FALL OF A SUSPENSION BRIDGE IN INDIA.

It is with feelings of much regret that we announce a lamentable accident
which has just occurred at Madras, attended witli great personal injury to
many unfortunate individuals, though, as yet, so far as we have heard, with
but one loss of life. On Monday afternoon the 33rd Regiment of Native In-
fantiT (or certain coinpanies of that corps) were crossing the Suspension-
bridge at Chintandripett, on their way to escort His Highness the Nabob,
and take part in the customary procession to his father's tomli, when one of
the great suspension chains at the eastern end of the bridge gave way, preci-
pitating the roadway and the concourse of persons then upon it (al)out a
company and a half of sepoys) into the stream below. The crash must have
been tremendous, and great personal injury sustained by manv. We hear
that 1 Subadar, ! llavildars, and 26 men were severely hurt and bruised, and
several more slightly injured ; indeed, had not the elevation of the bridge
above the water Ijeen so small, and the water itself so shallow, the accident
would have been attended with great loss of life. The part of the bridge
which gave way was the links of the eastern suspension chain, wliere they
pass over the friction roller of the nortli-eastern pier. Two of the three links
have snapped across, and on examining the fracture it is evident that both,
but one more especially, has for a long time been in a defective state, having
a crack extending almost through it. Indeed, it seems to us that the bridge
has, at some forujer period, experienced a powerful strain, which had partially-
cracked these links, weakening them so far, that the pressure of the crowd at
once tore away the remaining fibres, and occasioned the whole fabric to give
way. It is a fact ofsDme importance, and one perhaps not very generally
known, that a concourse of people is one of the greatest loads which can be
imposed upon any structure, since it brings a vast weight witliin a narrow
compass, and that the strain is especially severe in the case of a body of mili-
tary- marching in regular order. We may here observe that one of the few
occasions on vliich we have know-n an English suspension-bridge to fail was
about ten years ago at Morpeth, in Northumberland, when exposed to a some-
what similar strain to the one in question, being crowded liy persons returning
from a fair. On two other occasions, where suspension-bridges at home have
given way, it has been during the passage of troops in a regular march over
them, — we allude to the bridges at Broughton and Jlontrose. The severe
strain or vibration occasioned by the measured tread of a body of military is
indeed so tning to these structures, that it is considered by engineers that
they will in this case bear but one-eighth part of the weight they might be
otherwise safely loaded with. — Madras paper.

ERECTION OF A SAFETY BEACON ON GOODWIN SANDS.

The task undertaken by Captain Bullock, of Her Majesty's steamer Boxer,
of erecting a safety beacon on the Goodwin Sands, about seven miles from
the town of Deal, has Ijeen successfully accomplished, by which it is hoped
to avert the dreadful loss of life by shipwreck which has so frequently oc-
curred in that part of the British Channel. To the high credit of Captaia
Bullock this desirable object was accomplished on Thursday, 10th ult., under
his superintendence and that of Captain Boys, superintendent of the naval
store deparment of Deal. Captain Bullock has been long engaged in carry-
ing out the above object, and in tbe arduous duty of correcting the charts in
various parts of tlie globe, and is now doing so under the authority of Go-
vernment in the waters of England. lie commenced at 'Westminster Bridge,
and proceeded towards tlie Land's End, which is at present undergoing Ids
survey. The beacon he has succeeded in erecting consists of a column about
40 feet above tbe level of the sea, having elects and ropes attached to four
of its sides, with holds for hands and feet. At the summit of the column is
attached a gallery of hexagon form, made of trellis work, and capable of
holding 20 persons at one time. -Vbove the gallery, and in continuation of
the column, is a flagstafi' 10 feet long, thus making the entire beacon 50 feet
in height. The sides of the gallery are so constructed as to enable the per-
sons in it to be covered in with sailcloth, which is reefed in and round it,
and can be used at pleasure ; as also an awning to pass over it, which is fixed
to the flagstaff ; thus entirely protecting any unfortunate mariner who may
seek shelter on the column from foul and tempestuous weather. A barrel of
fresh water, together with a painted bag enclosing a flag of distress, is sta-
tioned on tbe gallery, and the words "hoist the flag" painted in the lan-
guages of aU nations on bosrds stationed round the inner part of the gallery,
so that the foreigner as well as native seaman may be enabled to show a sig-
nal of distress, and obtain help from shore, which is about seven miles distant
from the beacon. The means by which the beacon has been erected in so

3 A

340

THE Cn IL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[October,

cxtiaoidiiiary a |)lace as the Goodwin Sands aie as follow : — the foundation
of the column is several feet below the surface of the sand, and is secured in
the centre of a stout oak platform, extending from it on eiiher side several
yards. This is secured by ujiwards of two tons of pig-iron ballast being
lashed to it. In addition to tins, eight stout iron bars, each six feet long,
are driven obliquely on each quarter of the colunni, and two also put at a
distance of 12 feet on each quarter, and chains attached to them, conimuiu-
cating with the upper part of the column and the galler\ . The sands for
three or four hours during the tides are high and dry, anil present a fine tract
of level extending for several miles. Great numbers of visitors from Rams-
gate and Deal attended the erection of this tribute to humanity. The first
person to mount it was Lieutenant G. C. Boyes, a young and intrepid officer,
wlio, on reaching the summit, hoisted his handkerchief, a fac simile to a
union jack. The indefatigable exertions of Captain Bullock, Captain Boyes,
Lieutenants Gull and Bowes, and the other officers and men engaged in the
undertaking are deserving of the highest praise, they being compelled to
work for several hours up to their knees in water. Several visitors afterwards
ascended the column, and testified, in the strongest terms, their approbation
of this stupendous work for the benefit of humanity. — Times.

PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES.

INSTITUTION OF CIVIL ENGINEERS.

March 31. — The President in the Chair.

The following were balloted for and elected : — John Crannis Birch, Charles
Denrochc, John M'illiam Power, Henry Rawnsley, and George Dobson, as
Graduates.

" On rfclaimincj Land from the Sea, vilh Plans ilhistrathe of Works in
Lour/hs Siril/i/ and Foyle." By J. \V. Bazalgette, Grad. Inst. C.E.

The art of reclaiming land from the sea has been practised from a very
remote period. Among the instances best knowni to us are Romney Marsh,
in Kent ; the Foss Dyke, in Lincolnshire ; and the coasts of Holland and
Flanders. The extreme fertility consequent on such reclamations has caused
many attempts to be made, and nearly all have been successful ; but none
presents a greater prospect of success than that about to be undertaken under
the direction of Mr. Macneil on the borders of Loughs Swilly and Foyle, iu
the counties of Donegal and DeiTv.

Lough Foyle communicates with the Irish Channel by a narrow inlet,
above which it spreads over a wide tract of land, and then, suddenly con-
tracting, joins the river Foyle aliout four and a half miles below Londonderry,
up to which city it is navigable for vessels of 500 or 600 tons burden. The
rush of the tide through such a small inlet has carried with it great quantities
of alluvial soil, which it has gradually deposited on the side of the lough, and
thus formed a bank which extends four or five miles in length, and is only
covered by the tide at high water. In order to reclaim this tract of valuable
land, of about 25,000 acres, it is jjroposed to construct, somewhat below low-
water, an embankment or sea wall, of .ibout 14 miles in length. The tide
never rises here above 12 feet, nor is there ever any swell in the lough to
endanger the structure.

Lough Swilly is wider at the mouth which opens into the Western Ocean,
and is consequently more subject to the eflfect of wind than Lough Foyle.
The highest tides rise about 18 feet. Several embankments are proposed,
which v^ill reclaim altogether about 2000 acres of land ; a tract already
reclaimed, which is considered to be of the best quality in the counti-y, lets
at 5/. per acre. The measurements and soundings to ascertain the best
position and requisite depths of the embankments were thus taken. A tide
gauge was permanently fixed on which the range of high and low water was
marked ; a constaut register was kept of the soundings, and the time at which
they were made ; these were afterwards reduced to the high ami low water
of any one tide. The distances were determined at the same time, by means
of a pocket sextant from the boat, angles being taken between certain fixed
objects on the shore, so that the exact soundings could be ascertained and
laid down with great accuracy. The slopes of the faces of the embankments
vary on the sea face from three or four to one, and two to one on the land
side. Each has a culvert 4 feet diameter, with sluices and flood-gates,
founded upon piling with tie beams, and the spaces filled with concrete, the
whole being covered with planking. The gates are at the lowest level of
spring tides, so as to allow of the greatest degree of drainage. The wing
walls of squared rubble stone stretching on either side of the gates are founded
also on a bed of concrete, 4 feet wide by 2 feet deep. These gates are to be
used either to keep back the fresh water for the purposes of irrigation, or for
scouring away the silt which would accumulate externally in front of them.
A bed of puddle, 4 feet 6 inches wide at the bottom and 3 feet wide on the
top, extends longitudinally throughout the embankments. The land water
is carried away by a series of catcbwater drains, which extend around the
reclaimed lands at the level of high water, having sufficient fall to secure its
drainage through the sluices. These drains are puddled, and have their in-
ternal faces covered with sods, at an incUnation of two to one.

As there are many situations where stone is very scarce, and where timber

abounds, the author has turned his attention to devising a plan of eniljanking
applicable to such locaUties. It may be thus briefly described ; the body of
the embankment should be of clay, earth, gravel, and stones, dug from' the
surface and thrown up in a bank, with a slope suited to the force likely to
act upon it. On the water side is placed a strong facing of fascines, Gfeet
thick at the bottom and 4 feet thick at the top, embedded in the soil in an
oblique direction, the dip being towards the land ; they are securely fastened
down by iron screws running at right angles through the whole height. The
land face is covered witii sods. In a country where wood abovmds, this kind
of embankment woidd be formed at a very cheap rate. In other situations,
where the embankments would be subjected to greater strain, the thickness
of the mass of fascines should be increased to 13 feet at the bottom and 4
feet at the top. In this case, at four feet from the front of the bottom of
the slope should be placed a row of fender fascines, 3 feet wide by 2 feet
high, bolted down, for the purpose not only of defending the face of the
liank from the action of the sea, but for retaining all deposits left behiud by
it ; Ijy which means the embankment would in time acquire a natural face of
soil, as is the case with some of the endjankments in Holland. The average
cost of this kind of embankment, including the sluices and the necessary
bed of puddle in the centre, would be about 12/. per running yard.

This paper is accompanied by seven plans of the proposed embaukments
and charts of the loughs.

" On the use of Mica, as a substilute for Glass, in (he Windows of Work-
shops." By Joseph Glynn, F.R S., M. Inst. C. E., &c.

In the windows of the workshops at the Butterly Iron Works so much
glass was broken by the chi])pings of iron, that a substitute was sought which
should resist a moderate blow, and yet be translucent. A quantity of sheets
of mica were procured from Calcutta, which, when fixed into the cast-iron
window frames, were found to resist the blow of a chipping of iron driven oflf
by the chisel with such force as would have shivered a pane of glass. Mica
possesses both toughness and elasticity, and when a piece of iron does pene-
trate it, merely a hole is made large enough to allow the piece to pass, while
the other parts remain uninjured. It is not quite so transparent as glass, but
it is not so much less so as to be objectionable ; but this circumstance is not
important at Butterly, as, in consequence of the quantity of fluoric acid gas
evolved from the fluate of lime used as a flux in the blast furnaces, the glass
in the windows is speedily acted upon, and assumes the appearance of being
ground. Mica is a little more expensive than common glass ; but, as its
duration promises to be much longer, it must be more economical ; and if
an extensive use of it could be induced, a more ready supply would be ob-
tained— probably from Pennsylvania or from Russia, where it is commonly
used for windows in farm-houses, and also on board ships of war, as it is less
liable to be fractured Ij^v the concussion of the air during the discharge of
heavy artillery. It can be procured of almost any dimensions necessary for
ordinary purposes, as it has been found in Russia in masses of nearly 3 feet
diameter. It is susceptible of very minute subdivision, as, according to
llaiiy, it may be divided into plates no thicker than ^ „ „'^j „ „ of an inch.

" On a specimen of White Cedar from Bathurst, Aew Brnnsirici, sent by
Mr. Cliurchill."

The specimen exhibited to the meeting was of the <limensions calculated
for a railway sleeper, for which use it was proposed to introduce this timber,
as it is stated to possess, in a very superior degree, the quality of durability
in situations calciUated to try its properties. It can be imported at about
3s. 9(f. to 4s. per sleeper.

Mr. Hawkins observed, that he knew that species of timber well, having
seen it extensively employed in the United States. It is an evergreen tree,
and grows only in wet or boggy grounds, and is found most plentifully in
New Jersey, Maryland, and Virginia. It attains the height of 70 to 80 feet,
but is rarely more than 3 feet in diameter. The concentric circles in it are
always perfectly distinct, and prove that the tree only arrives at its full
growth after a long term of years — as many as 277 anmdar rings have been
counted in a trunk 21 inches diameter, at 5 feet from the ground. The wood
is light, soft, fine grained, and easily wrought. It has an aromatic odour,
which it preserves as long as it is guarded from humidity. It resists alter-
nations of dryness and moisture better than any other wood, and on this
account is extensively used for shingles for roofing. They sell at Baltimore
for 4 or 5 dollars per 1000. These shingles will last from 30 to 40 years.
It is in great demand for household utensils, so much so that a distinct class
of coopers are called cedar coopers. It is used for boat building on account
of its great buoyancy. Cedar boards are sold at Philadelphia at 20 dollars
per 1000 feet. White cedar rails, with red cedar posts, form the most du-
rable kind of fence, being known to have lasted from 50 to 60 years. The
rails are sold at 6 to 8 dollars per 100, and the posts at 12 or 15 cents each.

Mr. Brunei did not think it was a cheap or a strong wood. He had used
it chiefly for covering locomotive boilers, as it resisted heat better than any
other wood. AMien he purchased some there was but little in the market,
and it was consequently dear.

Mr. Joseph Home oiijected to its use for sleepers on account of its ten-
dency to split 30 easily ; but he had found it resist wet perfectly.

April 7. — The President in the Chair.

The following were balloted for and elected :— Thomas Hawksley, as a
Member ; William Pole and John Dickenson, as Associates.

1840.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

.347

*' Account of a scries of Experiments on Locomotive Engines, more par-
ticularly on the ' Enyland' the ' Columlia' and the ' Atlantic' mannfactiired
by Mr. Norris, of Philadelphia." By Captain Moorsom, R.E., Assoc. I.C.E.

The engines of wliicli tlie author more especially treats were constnicted
by Mr. Nonis, of Philadelphia, and sent by him to England, under an agree-
ment to supply "locomotive engines of a higher power, greater durability,
and less weight," than could be obtained in this country. They were to be
subjected to fifteen tri.ls within thirty days, and prove their capaliility of
drawing " up a gradient of 1 in 330, a load of 100 tons gross weight at the
speed of 20 miles per hour ; and up a gradient of 1 in 180, a load of 100
tons gross weight at the speed of 14 miles per hour." The pressure of the
steam in the boiler was stipulated by the Grand Junction Company (on whose
railway the trials were made) not to exceed 60 lb. per square inch.

The construction of these engines is very simple, and the work plain. The
boiler is horizontal, and contains 78 copper tubes, 2 inches diameter and
8 feet long each, with an iron fire-box. The cylinders, 10 V inches diameter,
are slightly inclined downwards, and so placed that the piston rods worii
outside the wheels, thus avoiding the necessity of cranked axles. The frame
is supported by 6 wheels ; the two driving wheels, of 4 feet diameter, are
placed close before the fire-box ; the other 4 wheels, of 30 inches diameter,
are attached to a truck, which carries the front end of the boiler, and is con-
nected with the frame by a centre-pin, on which it turns freely, allowing the
truck to accommodate itself to the exterior rail of the curve, and with the
assistance of the cone of the wheels to pass round with very little stress upon
the rails.

Tons.C'wt.
The weight of the engine, with the boiler and fire-box full was 9 11}
That of the tender, with 21 cwt. of coke and 520 gallons of

water, was 6 4}

Total weight

15 151

The engine, when empty, weighed 8 tons.

The trials were made on the Grand Junction Railway in April and May,
1839, and were continued over the whole distance from Birmingham to Liver-
pool, except when stopping short at Warrington to take loads ; and occasion-
ally making double trips, so as to travel the total distance of 156 miles per
day. Attention was more particularly paid to the speed when ascending the
gradients, which rise at the rate of 1 in 330 (16 feet in a mile), or 1 in 177
(29 ft. 4 in. per mile), and as the engines approached these gradients fre-
quently either at an accelerated or a diminished speed, the observations were
iiiade at the points most remote from the cause of variation from uniform
velocity. Some of the trials were made with such a number of empty wag-
gons to make up the weight, that the train attained a length of nearly an
eighth of a mile : this required some allowance, which was estimated at from
one-eighth to one-ninth in addition to the actual weight of the empty
waggons.

The extreme limit of working pressure of the steam in the boiler was
62 lb. per square inch, except for a few minutes on one occasion, when it rose
to 64 lb. The usual piessure for the locomotive engine boilers on railways
now generally at work, is from 50 to 75 lb. per square inch.

An analysis of the tabulated results of the several trips give these general
results : — that on a plane of 1 in 330, with a load varying from 100 to 120
tons, the speed varied from 13^ miles to 22 J miles per hour; that on a
plane of 1 in 177, with a load of 100 tons, the speed varied from 9^ miles
to 13-^ miles per hour.

From the analysis it appears, that allowing in five of the trials the stipu-
lated amount of performance to have been made, and that in five otlier trials
a doubt may exist, still in the remaining eleven trials the exact amount of
duty demanded was not performed.

A comparison of the journeys up from Liverpool to Birmingham, with
those down from Binuinghara to Liverpool, gives rather a singular result.
The aggregate rise of the gradients from Liverpool to Birmingham is about
€20 feet, that from Birmingham to Liverpool is about 380 feet (exclusive in
both cases of the Liverpool and Manchester Railway) ; the difference, there-
fore, up to Birmingham is about 240 feet. In 7 journeys of 596 miles up to
Birmingham, the engine conveyed 682 tons gross, evaporated 12,705 gallons
of water, and consumed 177 sacks of coke (l-j cwt. each). In 7 journeys of
596 miles down from Birmingham, the same engine conveyed 629 tons gross,
evaporated 12,379 gallons of water, and consumed 177 sacks of coke. It
•would thus appear that the consumption of fuel was the same in both cases,
and the only diflference was the evaporation of 326 gallons of water more in
the journey up than in the journey down, conveying nearly the same load both
ways.

The author remarks, that in the early stage of his observations on the en-
gine, he would have inferred that, from the mode of construction, it was not
calculated for high speeds, such as are required for the mail trains ; yet that
he has often seen it travel with apparent ease at the speed of 30 miles per
hour ; and he thinks that, with some slight modification of the working parts,
engines of this construction may be made to do any duty now required from
locomotive engines ; and, from the small quantity of repair required during
the trials (only renewing the fire-bars, which were originally intended for
burning wood, and putting nine stronger ferules in the tubes), he is of opinion,
that the present construction is exceedingly well calculated for heavy loads —

that it may be modified for attaining high speeds — and will prove a durable
and economical machine.

Captain Moorsom, in reply to some questions from several members, stated,
that although the -American locomotive engines had not strictly complied
with the stipulated conditions, yet he considered them good, serviceable en-
gines, and it was the intention of the directors of the Birmingham and Glou-
cester Railway Company to have ten of them on their line. The price of the
engine complete, including the import duty of 20 per cent., is from £1500 to
f 1600. One of the greatest advantages of the engines is the facility afforded
by the truck for going round curves — the same engineers managing indis-
criminately the ordinary six-wlieel engines, and the American ones are ob-
served to go faster round the curves with the latter than with the former.
Round a curve of 10 chains radius, they had gone at a speed of 20 miles per
hour. They run also quite as well on a straight road, lie had travelled on
them between Whitmore and Crewe at the speed of from 30 to 40 miles per
hour. They appeared less likely to be thrown off the rails than other engines,
as in some instances they had run over the short pointers of the Grand
Junction Railway — the engineer had merely felt a slight jar, but no accident
had occurred. He attributed this to the truck adapting itself so readily to
the rails. The coke used in the trials was the same as that in daily use on
the Grand Junction Railway, and was of average quality. The mode of at-
taching the tender to the engine was peculiar, and lie conceived it to be ad-
vantageous, as it threw a portion of the weight upon the engine and was an
assistance in starting. The engines, as they are now constructed, will do
well for all ordinary speeds ; but if higher speeds are required, a greater ex-
pense must he incurred, and certain alterations must be made in them.

Mr. Bury conceived tlie chief peculiarity of the engine to consist in the
end of the boiler being placed on the moveable truck, which certainly enabled
it to adapt itself easily to any curve in the railway. The cylinders are in the
same position as those in the first of Stephenson's engines, and the other
parts are as nearly as possible identical witli plain engines constructed in
England. The pointers on the Grand Junction Railway are constructed and
placed in such a manner as not to throw off a carriage which might run over
them, and a four-w lieeled engine would not have been thrown off by meeting
a closed pointer. To enable him to form a correct comparative estimate of
the work done by these engines, it should be shown what power was exerted
at the wheels. This was a clear mode of arriving at a result and comparison
with other engines.

Mr. Dnnkin remarked, that the flanches on the wheels appeared to be all
that retained tliein on the rails, and that the truck turning on a centre-pin
would allow considerable lateral friction, unless there was some mode of
keeping the truck in a proper position when on a straight line of railway. If
this kind of engine is superior to those generally in use in this country, it
must be in some jiart of the construction which is not shown in the model or
by the description. He inquired whetlif r, in any of the four or six-wheeled
English engines, any provision is made for changing the position of the a.xles,
so as to allow of a divergence from parallelism when rounding curves.

Mr. Bury replied, that in the engines on the Leeds and Manchester Rail-
way, although the axles were placed parallel to each other, a considerable
allowance was made in the journals of one pair of the wheels, so as to facili-
tate the passage round curves.

The President observed, that the wheels being turned conically was of
much assistance in passing curves, even although the axles were confined by
the journals in a parallel position. He was aware that (his threw an extra
strain upon the curve rails, but that would only require more attention in
securing them than on the straight line of railway.

" Model of the Coal Field of the Forest of Dean."

Mr. Sopwith exhibited a model of a tract of 30 square miles of Gloucester,
shire, comprising the mining districts in the Forest of Dean. This model
showed all the undulations of the surface, the towns, villages, and detached
buildings, railways, coal and iron mines ; and separating vertically through
the centre from north to south, and from east and west, exhibited the geolo-
gical formation down through the coal measures to the old red sand-stone :
the construction is such that, by Ufting off horizontal layers, the extent and
position of each bed of coal is shown, with the extent of the workings in the
different collieries, and on each bed is marked the portion that can be worked
by level and freed from water by natural drainage. This coal tract forms an
elliptical basin ; the longest diameter of which, from N. N. E. to S. S. W. is
about 10 miles, and the shorter about 6 miles, ranging round Coleford as a
centre. There are about 20 beds of coal of various thickness, containing to-
gether nearly 37 feet of clear coal. The carboniferous strata crop out regu-
larly all round against the mountain lime-stone and old red sand-stone, and
dip uniformly towards the centre of the basin. This could scarcely be shown
clearly, even by an almost indefinite number of plans, which induced Mr.
Sopwith to project the model, the method of constructing which he described
to be by framing together in squares a given number of thin strips of wood,
joining them b^ half lapping at the intersections ; on these strips, the profiles
of the sections were drawn, from measurements and borings. The compart-
ments of these skeleton frames were then filled in with lime-tree wood, as
being lightest and easiest to work, and carved out to the depth of the lines
drawn on the strips ; by these means a series of horizontal sections fitting
into each other were obtained, and when painted of the proper colours, both
on the surfaces and on the edges, prodaced the complete model which he
exhibited. The cost of it was about iSSO complete. It was constructed un-

3 A 2

348

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[October,

der Mr. Sojiwitli's direction,
meiil.

and from surveys made 1)\ liini for the (io\ern-

^jjril 14. — The Puesidest in the Chair.
Tlie fnlloHing were Ijalloted for and elected : — James C. Sherrard, and
George II. Phipps, as Members ; and John Harris, as a Graduate.

" Drscription of the Sfeani Ship ' India,' with a table of the proportions of
large Steam Ships." By Lieutenant E. N. Kendall, U.N'.," Assoc, lust. C. E.

This vessel was built at Greenock by Messrs. John Scott and Sons, and the
engines were constructed by Jlessrs. Scott, Sinclair, and To. To readei her
eligible as a packet sbiji bctvieen London and Calcutta, via the Cape -of Good
Hope, the timbers were lengthened so as to admit of tlie quart«r deck and
forecastle being raised 2 feet more tlian is usual ; by w hich means a llush
deck was formed along the whole lengtli of the vessel, 200 feet by 29 feet,
materially adding to tlie comfort and convenience of the passengere.

The long flat floor, with straight sides and fine ends, adopted in all the
best of the Clyde-builf ships, for the purpose of attaining a consiiiei-able speed
Avith comparatively small power, and uniting with a liglit dj-aft of water a
good cajiacity for cargo or passengers, has been adhered 1o, altiiough tlie
cstabhshed usag2 on tlie Clyde of making the length sik times tlie beam has
been somewhat exceeded, witliout impairing the speed, as the \o>ag« fixan
Greenock to London was made in 86 hours, against a strong head wind dur-
ing a considerable portion of the time.

The rigging is fitted so as to combine lightness with strength, arid th« fa-
cility of making every thing " snug" when steaming against the wind; the
spars lieiiig so jiroportioned as to carry a large sju-ead of canvass when run-
ning dowu the trade winds. There are several improvements in the rigging.
Two of them are paiticularly mentioned. 1st. The employment of iron
sockets, into which the shrouds, having been tapered, parcelled, and seried,
are inserted and firmly rivetted. Instead of passing over the mast-head, Hjey
are attached by shackles to a series of holes along the edge of a strong
wrought -iron plate or cap wliich surrounds the mast. This is more secure
than the ordinary fastening, as it prevents all chafing or injury from tlie wet,
besides being more compact, and allows any repairs to be more easily eiSitted.
2nd. The mode of fitting the foreyard for coming dovsn readily in bad weather.
The truss bow is made sufficiently large to admit of the heel of the fore-top
mast passing readily tlirougli it, and has on its fore-end an eye through
which passes an iron bolt, .5 feet long, which is held in its positioii by a chain
passing round the mast-head ; to the lower end of the bolt is attached a
chain, which passes through a swiv«l eye on the yard, and is drawn tight by
a screw traversing one of the deck-beams. When the yard is hoisted op, it
slides along tlie chain jackstay, which prevents it from swaying about uutil it
reaches the bolt which enters the swivel eye, and when' it is close up, the
yard is slung by two slioit eliains shackled on to tlie mast-head chains. Thfi
operations of striking the yard and top-mast may be thus accomplislied
simultaneously in a few minutes in the worst weather, or they may be replaoed
in the same short period.

The engines have most of the acknowledged improvements, and are fitted
with " Hall's Condensers" in such a manner that they can work with them
or with the ordinary condensers. The cylindere are 62 inches in diameter,
with 5 feet 9 inches stroke. The diamcte'r of the paddle-wheels is 26 feet ;
the length of the floats is 8 feet, divided into two parts in the depth, and
fixed one before and the other behind the arms. There is an apiiaratus for
cutting off the steam at any portion of the stroke. The boilers are of a pe-
culiar construction, combining vertical flues with a series of horizontal fire
tubes, exposing a very considerable surface so as to be worked by slow com-
bustion of the fuel from two sets of fire-places over each other; by throwing
on the coals alternately, the gas evolved from the fresh fuel is ignited in its
passage over the other fire-places. A considerable economy has been eftected
by these means.

The paper is accompanied by a drawing of the improvements in the rigging,
with plans of the vessel and engines, and a tabular statement of the propor-
tions and scantling of a number of other large steam ships.

ON IRON AND TIMBER BUILT SHIPS.

Ok the Ki'mesis primle-armeJ Siciimer, mid on tlie rompariillve effiriency of Iron-
built and Timber-built Ships. By Augustjn F. B. CRiiVzr.'of 11. M. Dock-
yard, Portsmouth.

(From the United Service Journal.)
Most persons wlio take any interest in naval afihirs v ill have olservcd.
for some years past, occasional notices in the nenspancrs. of hoats and ves-
sels buili of iioii. It appears to be very probaljle that this material may
eventually almost wholly supersede timber in the construction of boats,
barges, steam, and the smaller classes of sailing vessels; aiul therefore any
"''O'''"'''ion as to the manner of building such cratt, or on their qualities,
aiid the comparative increase either of safely or danger, bv tBe substitution
ot iron tor limber, must l,e worthy of notice. The KenieJis, a steam-vessel
of nearly 700 tons burthen, and built wholly of iron ha.-; been lately docked
at her Majesty s Yard, at F( rtsmonlh.for llie purpose of having damages re-
paired, uliich she bad .uistained by striking' on a rock off Scilly, in ihick
weaiber, «ben on her passage Irom Luerpiol to Odessa. This aflorded a
moat avourablc opportunity of obtaining considerable insight into the de-

tails of -n iron vessel, uliile the co\nteoiis anxiety displayed by the gentle-
man who buili her, Mr. LairJ, of the Berkenbcadlron Works, at Liverpool,
and by the officer. Mr. Hall, a Master in the Royal Navy, who commands
licr. t'l give ejery information tliat was in their power, removed all the diffi-
culties which generally ati«pd such a task. The following particulars, as far
as facts are coiicemcil. may therefore be relied upon as correct : the opinions
which ma^ be intermingled «ith those facts must, of course, be received only
as such. The dimensions of the Nemesis are as follows : —

Length between the perpendiculars 1 65

Length over all 181

Length from stem to taflrail 173

Breadth 29

Depth 11

Burthen (old measurement) tons 660

The keel-plate was laid in August of the last year ; the vessel was launched
in November ; her engines put on board, and .'^iie herself tried hi December ;
and. finally, she was ready for sea by the middle of January.

The vessel is l.uilt almost entirely of iron ; tlie-eyrieptkms beiagitlie ptenk-
sheer or gunwale, which is of oak 4'iiicli«s ihiek and lOiBcbes broad, -brougfat
uiipon and .secured to a jnhnksiieer or gtuivi ale of anyle iron ; the liat of tie
(leek. '>>jMeh is of 3-ii:ch &{; lour beams tinder tlic deck, yjiwljes squiuie.
Tliese are forward, and supju^rt ilie cairiek-bixts, paul-bitis.ajid tlie foremost
gun. Tlie Jemamilei' ol the beams, uilh the exeepiion of tlie piuldle-ljeams,
uliicb are of oak. 12-inch sided and 14-inch moulded, are of iron. The knee
of tie head, the rudder, llu? paildle-lxixcs, and a liglil berthing above the
gunM ale. about 2 feet 8 inches high, are of wood. The coamings and fittings
upon deck are generally of noc d, altliotigh for liiese purposes more iron is
used in the Nemesis than in timber-built vessels. The cabins and fittings
for liie oflicers, passengers and crew , are of WLod, and are very neat and
handsome.

The mean launching draught of water — with masts, yards, rigging, anchor,
and cable, with the cabi-n fittings in a forw ard state — 'yas, acconling to the
information aliijidedby Mf. Laird. 2feet4i incl*s. The mean load draught,
ivitli 12 days' full supp'ly of coals, water and provisions, for a crew of 40 men
for 4 raontlis. and 3 jears' slii-p stores of all sorts, with duplicate and extra
machiiiery. is a.lse stated to have been 6 feet.

The engines were made at Liverpool, U' Wessj-s. Forrester aJ'.d Co. Tlie
diameter of the cylinders is 44 inches, and tire length of tlie stroke 4 feet. The
estimate in horse-power for the two engi'nes is KO. The framings or supports
for the engines are of urougbt iro-n. It is 'usiuil to have them of east irom.
Tlie greater strcngtii of u roiaght iron enables them to be rande of much leas
size and v.eight. and tlifir apjiearance is also neces.-iai-ily lighter. The Ixiiiers
may be worked either separately or together. iJie jvailjle-wheels are 17 feet
G inches diameter to the ijiner edge of the rim. Th;- floats, which are 16 iu
number, are 6 feet 9 inches long, and 14| inches broad. The paddle-shaft is
78 feet abaft the fore-end of the water-line. The vessel carries two 32-pounder
medium guns, one forward and the other aft, on JiiTut-carriagcs, to fire over
all ; and it is this iriiich constitutes one of tlie c4i;ef points of intwest in the
Nemesis. T)ie guns are reported to have been fired several times with an
extra charge of powder, and double-shotted. Tlie coitcussion has left na
visible traces on the vessel : and, the expciimeiaf, as tar as it has as yet been
carried, certainly does not militate against the aJopUoiiof irou in the coo-
struction o'sliips for war.

The fore-mast rakes 2 feet in 20, and is 32 I'etH aL>aft the fore-end of the
vater-bne. The main-mast rakes 1 foot in 20, and is 1)1 feet G inches aba/t
the fore-end of the water-line. The bowsprit steaves 5 feet C irclics iu 20
feet. The foliovting are the dimensions of the spars : —

I^engUi, ft. Diameter, in.

Fore-mast, from deck to houods i2 Jo

Fore-mast, froiu head 8 —

M:iin-ni3st, from deck to hounds 42i 15

Main-mast, fi-om head 8

Fore top-mast 24

Fore head 4

Sliiling gonler-mast 28

Shding pole 8

Maintop-mast 33

Main pole 13 ..

Fore gall 23 ..

-Maingafl' 23 ..

Fore-yard cleated 52\

l""ore-yard arms 3j ''

F»ie topsail-yard, cleated 36>

Fore to|)sail-yanl arms 2) ' '

Fore topgallant-yard, cleated 25

Fore topgallant-yard, arms li .

ISowsprit, out-hoard 21

Jib-boom, out-board 13

Jib-boom, in-board 13J —

The form of the midship section may be best described by saying that it is
an olilong, 1 1 feet in depth and 29 in breadth, with its liase curved down-
wards 6 inches in 15 feel, to the middle linn of the keel, its sides slightly
curved outwards, and the lower corners rounded oil in the arc of a circle to a
radius of about three fee'. The midship portion of the body, in which the
engines, boilers and coal lie, preserves much tlie same section throughout its
length. Forward and aft, the form becomes finer, and gradually appro.ximates
to the usual bow anil stern of sailing vessels. The stern-post is plumb. The
stem rakes forward of the perpendicular at an angle of 16". It may here be
remarked, that the body is throughout remarkably fair ; and that an"observer,
standing either before 'the stem Ic^oking aft. or abaft the post looking forward,
can detect i.o more difference, if anv there be, between the two sides, than
would he uliserved in a vessel built wholly of wood.

Mlth respect to the method of connecting the various parts, strictly speak-

10

6

10

n

lOJ

8i
6
6
15
8

1840.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

.349

ing there is no keel, altlKaisli tlic lo^^"er plate of iron, wliicli connects the
two sides of the ship, and which is ahout a foot in breadth, is called the keel-
plate. This plale is slightly cm'vod. with its conve.K side downwards, so as
to form a channel for water in the direction of the length of the vessel, under
the tloors. The floors are straight bars of angle iron, with one flange, four
inches wide, lying horizontally ; the other 9 inches deep, hanging vertically.
The vertical flange is connected to the bottom-plates of the ship by 3-inch
angle iron — that is, angle iron of 3 inches width of flange. Upon the npper
surfaces of the floors, iive ranges of sleepers, of timber 12 inches square, and
extending the whole length of the hold of the ship, are laid, and securely
bolted to the horizontal flans^es of the floors, by 1 -inch bolis, their poin:s
secured umhr the flange of the floor by imts on to screws at these points.
The frames, which are of angle iron 3 inclies wide, are 18 inches apart along
the midship body of the vessel ; but forward and aft this space is gradually
increased, until they become about three feet apart. The in and out flaiif^e
of the frames is rivetrd to tlie vertical flange of the floors by J iron rivets,
about 6 inches apart. The iron plates foiming the planking, or rather skin,
of the vessef, are secured to these frames by being riveted to the other flange
of the frames with rivets of j iron, which are distant apart about 3 inches
from centre to centre.

The connection of the sleepers or keelsons, which are of red-pine timber,
with the iron floors, and of the floors with the frames, and of the iron plates
with the.se frames, may be more easily understood by reference to
Fig. 1. The rivets by \\hich the plates are secured to the frames, are luit in
from the inside of the vessel, and are clenched flush on the plate : the outer
part of the hole through the plate being counter-sunk to receive the rivet, so
tha! the bottom of the vessel is a perfectly even and smooth .surface. Tlie
whole of the riveting is pcrforineu with rivets heated nearly to a welding
heat; therefore, the contact between the surfaces of the iron is exceedingly
perfect, as it is insured not only by the care applied to the riveting, but by
the contracting of the rivets in cooling. The frames run up to and end upon
the iron gunwale, which h;'s been before mentioned. This is of 3-inch angle
iron, with one flange horizontal, to which the 4-inch wooden giinwale is
secured by screw-bolts: the other- flange is vertical, and to that the upper
ends of the frames are riveted. Between the wood and the iron forming this
compound gunwale, felt is laid, which is so firmly compressed by the screw-
bolts, that the joint is perfectly water-tight. The beams are of iron, and
formed by two bars of angle iron, having their vertical flanges back to back,
with a bar of iron 9 inches deep and \ of an inch thick riveted between these
two vertical flanges. The deck is of fir, 3 inches thick, lying upon an I being
secured down to the horizontal flanges of the beams by screv.- bolts, the heads
of which are sunk about J an inch Ijelow the surface of the plank, and are
hidden by plugs driven down upon them v. ith white lead. Thus the fasten-
ings of the deck are scarcely perceptible. The points of these bolts .are se-
cured beneath the horizontal flanges ot the beams by nuts on a screw. I he
connection of the angle-iron gunwale with the wooden gunwale and with the
planking i also, the connection of the deck with the beams, and the method
of forming the beams, will be more easily understood by the following
sketches : (Figs. 2 and 3.)

Fig. 3. — Section of beam.

r?!?-i.

z

p <

^

^

,^-J

>

1

Fig. 4.

f^n

o -y-o 6^

T

^^^■■

Fig. 2.

Reference— Fig. 1. — S, sleeper,
iron plate. fF, frame between.

Figs. 2 &.'3.— D, deck. B, beam,
frame.

Figs. 4 !!^ 5.— R, rudder. P, port,
stern.

Fig. 5.

The ends of the beams are secured to the sides by angle-iron knees. The
paddle-beams, which, it has been before said, are of timljcr, pass the sides of
the vessel through what may be called sockets, formed by bars of angle iron
placed above, below, and on each side of them. One flange of each bar is
firmly riveted to the planking o' the vessel ; and the other flange is secured
to the beam by screw bolts. Felt is also inserted here in the joiijts between
the wood and iron. This appears to be a general precaution in similar con-
nections.

The stem is formed of sheet-iron, in the same manner as has been alread^
described for the keel. At the lower part of the stem there if a sort of '"^
soA'et of iron, which forms the gripe, and in which the lower end of the
wooden knee of the her.d is inserted. It has been already mentioned that the
rudder of the Nemesis is of tinil er ; but this appears to be an exception to
the general practice in th?se iron vessels. The main piece inclusive of the
head, is usually of iron ; and when of iron, is thus formed and connected
with tlie stern-pcst. (Figs. 4 and !>.)

The s ern is strengthened by a fasliion-piece of angle iron: and the tie
across the stern is by a transom, also of angle iron. The berthing all round
the vessel, already mentioned :^s being of fir, is secured to short fop-timbers
of wood, which are let through the gunwale and run do',\n about two feet
below It. They are secured by two riveted bolts through the planking of the
vessel ; and at their intersection with the iron gunwale, by angle iron on each
side.

The sheets of iron which form the planking of the vessel are about 8 feet
long anil 2 feet 6 inches broad. Of cou se, these dimensions vary according
to the place of the sheet in the body of the vessel. The lowerGsirakes ivhich
form the bottom, and extend from the keel-pl ite to the turn of the bi'ge. are
clinker-tui t. The stnke at the turn uf the bilge, and the 5 strakes which
form the side of the vessel from this turn upw.irds, are carvel-built. The
lands of the clinker seams are riveted with f iron rivets similarly to the lands
of a clinkcr-ljuilt boat, without any strengthening bands. The carvel seams,
and the buts of b^th clinker and carvel strakes. are secured by bringing the
edges of the plates in contact, and riveting each edge to a strip of puate-iron,
lying on and linir.g the inside of the j int. The scams arc caulked by closing
the edges of the two plates tcge'.lier with blows of a cold chisel. The whole
of the rivets are flush on the outsiile of the vessel. The keel-plates are
7-16ths of an inch in thickness. The clinker-worked plates covering the
bottom of the vessel are Jihs of an inch in thickness ; and the carvel-w; rked
pi ites, covering the top-sides, are from 5-16ths to J of an inch in thlcknes.'.
The irrii work is first painted wiih several coats of red lead, and then var-
nished with a patent varnish. This covering to the iron did not appear to
beat all disturbed on any part of the botttm excepting where it had been
itibbcd ofl by the rocks on which she had grounded.

There are several peculiarities in the internal arrangements of the vessel.
The whole internal space is separated into seven water-tight compartments,
by six iron alhwar'ships bulkhe.ul .* Four of lhe;e — those in the wider part
of the vessel — are of ,5-161113 of an inch iron. The bulkhead nearest to each
extremity, be'ng of small surface, .and liable to less immersion, is only 3-lUths
in thickness. Ihe wooden sleepers necessarily pass through e'.ch of these
bulkheads, and they are secure,! where they pass through by strong flanges
bolted down to them over felt, and riveted to the bulkheads, so that no water
can possibly pass from any oiu' compartment to the other. Therefore, a leak
v. hich may be sprung in any part of the bottom of the vessel, can only anect
that compartment between' the bulkheads of which it happens. Thus tie
damage caused by the rock on which she struck, admitted 4 feet of water in'o
the compartment in which it occurred, before the leak could be stopped, but
there was none in any other part of the vessel. There is trsmall hand-pump
fitted to each compartment, the pipe from which leads into the hollow of the
keel-plate. Large pumps are not necessary, as the compartment can only
fill to'^the level of the ex'ernal water, and may then be emptied at leisure;
or, if the leak be gre:Uer than the discharge of the pump, may remain filled
until a port is reached.

In the space between the engines and the boilers, usually called the stoke-
hole, there is a very ingenious means adopted to strengthen the b-idy, with-
out interfering with the accommodations of the engine-room. Tliis is the
introduction of a partial bulkhead with an aperture bounded above by an
erect, and below by an inverted arch of bar-iron ; thus supplying by me-
clnnicnl contrivance ihc support which otherwise could not be obiained for
this part of the body, without great inconvenience. To obviate the disad-
vantages atendant on the small draught of water which this vessel diaws,
there are two sliding keels, similar in jirincip'eto Iho^e which were originally
proposed by Capt. .Shank, of the Royal Navy, when in command if the
British force on the American Lakes, during tlie War of Independence. These
keels are each 7 feel long, and capable of being protruded 5 feet below the
keel of the vessel. They are of wood, -ll inches thick, and each w orks up
and down by means of a small windlass and an endless chain, in a water-
t ght case or trunk 12 inches wide, formed like the rest of the bvdkheads. of
sheet iron, and running from the bottom of the vessel up to the deck. The
plates of these trunks are 7-16ths of ,an inch thick, and they are strongly
secured by angle iron to the athwartship bulkheads, which they also serve
to support.

The report of the officers on the advantage which they derived from these
keels, when under sail, in enabling them to keep the vessel up to windward,
and in keeping her steady, is very lavourable. In fact, they are an ingenious
modification of ihe lee-board. One of them is situated jist before the engine-
room, and the other just abaft it. There is also a contrivance by which the
depth of the rudder in the water may be increased whenever these sliding
keels are used.

Having now described the vessel, we will proceed to descrilie ihe damage
she sustained by striking. When she struck, her sped is reported to have
been nearly 9 knots : her average speed was 8i. The first blow was evident!/
received exactly in the centre of tlie front of the fore-foot or gripe, which
was dented in' about 3 inches, and split about S inches in its length. This
blow must have been inflicted by a rock at least as sharp as the pea of a mo-
derate sized anchor. The blow appears to have been repealed under the keel-

* \V"e have been told that this method of dividing the whole length of a
vessel into separate water-tight comparlments is adopted in all sea-going
Chinese junks. We trust uur naval men engaged in those seas will keep their
eyes open to these and many other interesting particulars respecting the
Chinese vessels — for a description of which our pages shall alw ays be open. —
Editor.

350

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[October,

^ilate, about 7 feet abaft the fore-foot, but tlierc it only occnsioned a sligbt.
though long indentaticn. The principal damage was on the starboard side
under the bilpe, and at the station of the foremost bulkhead. The (utside
plate or jilanking was cut ihrovifih by the blow having forced it on to the
ed<;es of the bulkhead plates ; and the lower plate of tjjC Inilkliead was broken
l)y this pressure. Tlie wooden sleeper, which lay on the iron floor almost
diiecily above the blow, was started up li inches from off the floor, and tlie
iron bolt which secured il to the Hoor was broken.

The blow, to liave produced such damage as has been described, must evi-
dently have been very severe. It apparently clearly establishes that tlie in-
jury afiects the part struck only, for the rivets seem to have held as tif;ht,
and the contiguity of the plates of iron to have remained as perfect after the
tlow as before it had occurred, excepling onlv the plates cut by the bulk-
lead. There might have been a very rational 'doubt, before the experience
this accident has aff rded, whether, under such an injury, sheets of iron
would not have rent almost as sheels of paper would teal ; and whether the
livets would not have started by the dozen at a time, as the stitches in the
seams of a sail. Several of the plates aba^t the cut plates were indented in
a long wa\7 indentation. The greatest depth of the indentation occurred at
the cut, where it was 31 inches.

The injuries were repaired by placing a shoe over the fore-foot, somewhat
similar in shape to the shoe used to drag the wheel of a carriage when going
down hill. This shoe was riveted strongly, by rivets passing through it and
tlie gripe, from side to side. The two plates of the bottom which were cut,
and the plate of the bulkhead which was broken, were taken out bv punching
out the rivets, and new plates were substituted for them. Those plates which
■H-ere only inden'ed were taken out, straightened in the fire, and replaced. A
small quantity of the angle iron framing, ccnnccting the bulkhead to the bot-
tom, was also removed, and substituted by new. According to information
afforded by Mr. I^aird, the weight of new materials used in the repairs was
under 3 cwt. and the e.xpense for tlie materials, and wages of the smiths and
riveters, about £30 ; which, he says, would have been diminished to £20, if
lie could have had the facilities that are afforded by his own factory.

It is not ea^y to institute any comparison between the expense of this re-
pair and that of a similar accident to a timber-built ship, because we cannot
ascertain what would have been tlie extent of the damage. If any timbers
had been broken, which would in all probability have been the case, the ex-
pense would h.ave been much greater. But unless timbers had been broken.
the mere upsetting of the gripe of a ship, the rubbing off' of a few sheets of
copper, and the shifting of a plank or tw o, would no! have involved expense
much exceeding that of the repair of the Nemesis.

Before the vessel was grounded upon the blocks, sights were placed towards
each extremity, 140 feet apart, with a third sight between them. By means
of these sights, observations were taken before and after groun-ling, and the
deviation from the straight line, in the length of 140 feet, was only a quarter
i)f an inch.

Two questions now naturally arise : — 1. What are the adv.-,ntages or dis-
advai ;agcs of the iubstituticn of iron for timber in the ccnstniction of ships P
— 2. To what limit may this substitution be advantageously carried? Among
the advantages are the employment of a less material, of whicli the supply
is inexhaustible, and for which supply we are totally independent of other
-nations. Also, the greater durability of the m lerial, not only arising from
its relative durability with that of timber, but from its requiring no metallic
sheathing to protect it from the ravages of worms. Also, the greater dura-
bility of the structure as a whole, in consequence of the greater permanency
in the perfect combination of its several parts, arising fr^ m the fastenings
teing of the same hardness of texture as tlie portions of maieiials brought
into connection. The metallic astenin:;s to a timber-built vessel act. it must
be remembered, not only chemically but also mechanically, to accelerate her
flertruetion, immediately the clore connection of the several parts is at all
fliriinisbed.

'These appear to be the principal advantages of iron in connection with the
qu 'Stion, as far as first expense of material and durability are concerned.
Bit these considerations are independent of the expense in relation to the
comparative total quantities of materials reiiuired to build a ship of each sort.
Fcr it must be remembered that the iron-built vessel is of iron alone: the
Jit iber-buill vessel is of timber, iron, ami copper.

iVerc it possible to compare an iron-built ship with one entirely built of
limber, setting aside the question of durability, undoubtedly the advantage
-would be wholly on the side of the timber-built ship. For the strength of
oak is one-fifth that of wrought iron, and its weight is only one-eighth tliat
of wrought iron. But this comparison is untenable, because of the great
quantity of metal which necessarily enters in the construction of the tiinber-
built shp, by which its relative weight is very much increased, and its rela-
tive strength diminished. By the term "timber," in speaking of a timber-
built ship, a compound of timber, copper and iron is meant, having less
strength in proportion to weight than the timber alone, but greater weight
in proportion to strength. It is impossible within the limits of this paper to
investigate the actual weights of wood, iron, and copper, which enter into
the composition of a timber-built ship, in order to ascertain the exact answer
to the question as to which is the heavier material ii; proportion to its strength,
the "timber" of the timber-built ship, or the iron of the iron vessel. 'We
shall, however, assume as correct that which we believe would be found to l.c
■so, viz. that the material of the timber -built ship would be the heavier in pro-
portion to its strength, and shall proceed to the further investigation of the
original questions on that assumption. Therefore, by the substitution of
iron we obtain equal strength wiih less weight of material. From which ad-
vantage it follows, that if the " limber" and the iron vessel be each built for
the same loaded displacement, the iron vessel, with equal strength will be
capable of carrying a heavier cargo, and with greater strength an equal cargo.
Also, that if a "timber" and an iron vessel be built of the same strength,
and to carry the same weight of cargo, the iron vessel may be of less dis-
placement, and consequently smaller in dimensions, or if of less displacement
with the same dimensions, may be more advantageously formed for velocity

and for weatherly qualities. The small dimensions 'nvolvc the advantage of
light dr.aught of water, diminished expense, and l.ss numerous crew, xhe
diminished displ.acement with the small dimensions involves quicker return
of capital and greater safety in navigation.

The answer to the second question, as to the limit in the size of the vessel
to which the substitution of iron for " timber " may be carried, appears also
to be in-.-olved in the foregoing considerations. For, if greater strength may-
be obtained with equal weight of material, or equal strength with less weight
of material, there can be no limit short of that limitation which may equally
apply to " timber.' And. by an application of the foregoing reasoning to the
question at issue, it appears that a first-rate may be more strongly built of
iron than of timber, with the same light displacement, and equally strong
built, but capable of carrying a greater quantity of water, provisions, and
stores, with the same load displacement; or. equally strongly built, and
capable of carrying an equal quantity of water, provisions and stores, with a
less load displacement. This may appear to be a bold and startling result of
our investigation : but if our original assumption be correct, it is nevcrtlie-
less. within the bounds of truth. Nay. it is even an under estimate of the
limit to the substitution of iron for wood in the construction of ships. For
the limit to the possibility of constructing a fabric of any conceivable dimen-
sions is necessarily dependent upon the ratio of the strength of the material
used to its weight. And as this is greater in iron than in the " timber" of
the timber-built ship, the limit of dimensions for the iron-b.iilt ship is more
extended than the limit of the dimensions of the timber-built ship.

It may. perhaps, be necessary to repeat that the word "timber" in this
investigation means the copper, iron and wood of the timber-built ship. •

If we take'into consideration the very few years that have passed since the
first application of iron as a total substitute for timber in building ships, it is
astonishing to what perfection this branch of art has arrived; and, conse-
quently, very great credit attaches to Mr. Laiid. tor the intelligence and
talent which he has displayed in thus adding to the manufacturing resources
of this country. As the art proceeds, and becomes more general, there can
be no doubt that great improvements will be made. This is said without the
slightest intention of withholding from Mr. Laird the high meed of praise
which is so justly his due. In speaking of the progress of improvement, we
are too prone virtually to set bounds to its advance ; forgetful of the fact that
perfection being unattainable by mortals, it is a mere abstract term, meaning
one thing yesterday, another to day. and another tomorrow. One improve-
ment, and that probably not an unimportant one. would be the diagonal
arrangement of the plates or planking of the vessel, and also of the angle
iron frames. Iron offers greater resistance to compression than to extension.
And bar-iron offers greater proportionate resistance to extension than plate-
iron. These facts, wHiich have been ascertained by experiment, enable us to
determine upon the positions in which to place the plates, so that the pecu-
liarities of strength of the angle and bar-iron shall be most advantageously
developed. The angle iron should be placed so as to act as tru ses in sup-
porting the weight of the extremities of the vess 1 ; the weight or dow nward
pressure of which is neces-arily greater than the upward pressure of the
water. The frames should, therefore, be placed with their heels toward the
midship part of the ship, and their heads inclining forward in the fore body,
and aft in the after body to an angle of 45 degrees with the horizon. The
plates have already been described as connected together at their edges by
being riveted to strips of bar-iron. These may form the ties, and the direc-
tion of these continuous bands should be at right angles to the direction of
the angle iron frames. Thus the whole'body would be divided by these two
series of lines into compartments ; which, in the vertical part of the body,
would be squares, each with one diameter vertical and the other horizontal,
as in the following sketch. Tlie double lines are the angle iron frames, the
single lines the continuous bais to which the edges of the sheets rre riveted.
Of course, the angle iron frames will receive the rivets of one series of seams,
and therefore by ibis adjustment some small weight of iron will be saved.

The floors and all the lower part of the vessel may remain as in the Ne-
mesis. The introduction of water-tight bulkheads is very gooil. This has
been be''ore attempted in timber-built ships, but has failed, from the igno-
rance of (he pri jectors of the nature of the pressure of water. They assumed
that a caulked bulkliead of three or four inches in thickness, that would be
quite adequate to resist the pressure of a small depth of water, would also be
of su.fficient strength to resist the pressure to which it would be subjected by
•Iceper immersion. Bulkheads, to resist the pressure of water, must increase
in strength in proportion to their depth below the surface of the water.
This fact must not be lost sight of in the construction of these water-tight
iron bulkheads. It is not of consequeni c with small draughts of water ; but
when larger and deeper vessels arc built of iron, it will become a question of
importance ; and if not duly attended to, the kha of safely from water-tight
bulkheads may be most delusive.

The question of the durability of these vessels, of their little liability to
accident, and of the ease with which damage done to them may be repaired,
appears to be very clearly proved from the experience w hich has already been
obtained on these points; and this is not little, for there are boats built by
Mr. Laird in both North and South America ; in all parts of India, and on
the Euphrates and the Indus ; in F.gypt, on the Nile and in the Mediterra-
nean ; oil the Vistula, on the Shannon, and on the Thames, One of these
boats on the Savannah has been constantly at work for these last six years
without any repair ; which is a great test, if we consider the frequent, con-
stant caulkings required to preserve a timber-built ship. There is also a
steam-yacht Iniilt of iron, the Glow-worm, the property of Asheton Smith,
Esq. This vessel has made the passage from Bristol to Carnarvon, a distance
of 210 miles, in 18 hours. In the report to the House ot Commons on steam-
vessel accidents, we find the following slated of the Garryowen, one of these
vessels : — " We went ashore about two cables' length to the eastward of the
pier (Kilrush) and struck very heavy for the first hour. The ground under
oilr weather-bilge was rather soft clay, covered with shingle and loose stones,
some of them pretty large. Under our inside, or lee-bilge, the ground was
very hard, being a footpath at low water. I was greatly afiiid slie would be

1840]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

351

very much injured by it in her bottom, but am iKippy to say she has not re-
ceived any injury ; in facf. her bottom is as perfect and as good as on tJie
day slie left Liverpool — not a single rivet started nor a rivet-head floivn oil'.
If an oak vessel, with the cargo I had on deck, was to go on shore where the
Garryowen did, and get such "a hammering, they w ould have a different story
to teil. . . . Out of twenty-seven vessels that got ashore that niglit, the
Garryowen is the only one that is not damaged more or less."

Colonel C'hesney, the commander of the Euphrates expedition, writes thus
of the iron vessels which were employed on that service : — •' It is but right
to tell you tliat the iron vessels constructed by you far exceeded my expec-
tations, as well as those of the naval officers employed in the late expedition,
who would one and all bear testimony anywhere to their extraordinary soli-
dity ; indeed, it was often repeated by Lieut. Cleavelanil and the others, that
any wooden vessel must have been destroyed befoie the .service w: s one half
completed ; whereas the Euphrates was as perfect when they laid her up at
ISagdad as the first day she w as floated. As I am now occupied in preparing
a work on the expedition. I shall have a better opportunity than the present
of doing justice to the subject of iron vessels, lor it is my belief ihat they will
entirely supersede wood, on account of their comparative strength, cheapness,
and durability, whenever people are satisfied that iheir only disadvantage —
the free working of the compass— has been overcome.

REVIE^VS.

Seville and its T'icinily. By Frank Hall Standish, Esq., Author of
the "Shores of the Mediterranean," &c., Svo. London, 184u. Black
and Armstrong.

"The work now presented to the public," we are told in the pre-
face, "contains an enumeration of almost all the Ccnvents and Public
Buildings, which existed in Seville during the last century, with their
most remarkable contents in the present ;" it is accordingly one, far
more calculated to interest architectural and antiquarian readers, and
those who study the history of art, than the public generally ; for the
description of the Alcazar and Cathedral alone, the one a splendid
monument of Moorish, the other of Gothic architecture, extends to
somewhat more than sixty pages. In fact, a considerable mass of in-
formation relative to architecture and the other arts, and to many
Spanish artists, is here presented to the English reader, which has
hitherto been hardly accessible to those who are unacquainted with
Spanish. Instead of being as its title alone would, perhaps, lead us to
suppose, a traveller's sketch of the city and its inhabitants, this volume
is altogether topographical in form, — and so far rather a phenomenon
in these days of 'light reading.' It is in fact rather one for study and
reference, than for off hand perusal ; and therefore we conceive, ought
to have been furnished with that now almost obsolete appendage, an
Index. Neither is that all we here desiderate, for we conceive that
the Alcazar and the Cathedral might very properly have been made
to furnish something like disqiiisition as to the Moorish and the Gothic
architecture of the Spanish peninsula generally ; and so also would
the Lonja (here printed throughout Louja), or Exchange, have afforded
an opportunity for discussing the peculiar character of the style trans-
planted from Italy in the 10th century. Something of this kind would
have relieved the drj-ness of the work which is written too much in the
usual technical Guide-book style. As it is, the volume is too much of
a mere catalogue raisoime of buildings and pictures, and therefore likely
to be considered dull by the many, and tantalizing by the few for whom
it seems to have been more particularly intended ; for as there are no
illustrations of any kind — not even so much as a general plan of the
city to enable us to form some distinct idea of its topography, little
positive information, except as to historical facts, and names and dates,
can be collected from it. Nor do we, we must confess, understand
why so many minor — not to call them trivial, circumstances should
have been brought forward in regard to a place so very unlikely to be
visited by English travellers, and which requires to be described to
the English public quite as much by the pencil as by the pen.

At present only one or two of its buildings are known to us, and
those very imperfectly — the Giralda or Tower of Gever, some por-
tions of the interior of the Cathedral, the Patio de Naranjos, the .Sala
de los Embazadores in the Alcazar, the Golden Tower, &c., which we
meet with in Roberts' Spanish Sketches, and the Landscape Annual,
and which are certainly calculated to excite a vehement desire for a
complete acquaintance with those edifices, and with similar informa-
tion as to others. Though not to be compared with the Alhambra,
the Alcazar alone would supply materials for an architectural volume,
if we may judge from the Sala above mentioned, and from some other
views of the edifice, which we lately met with in a recent French pub-
lication, whose exact title we do not now remember. As to the Cathe-
dral, we are here told the architecture is of all classes — Arabic, Gothic,
the 'Plateresco,' and the Greek-Roman; yet, although all these are
jumbled together, and an abominably unsightly "grand entrance" has

been recently attempted — fortunately, not finished, by a Sevillian archi-
tect, Cano, and a good deal of the outside walls are left rough, " never-
theless, of all the cathedra's I have seen, this is the one which, upon the
whole, has most pleased me in Europe," says the author. After this we
naturally look for some vindication of such opinion — for some remarks
that would explain to us, in what its particular charm and merit con-
sists, more especially as we are told that, "the Interior of this temple
is of the plainest Gothic." — However, provided too much be not ex-
pected from it, we can recommend this volume to those — their num-
ber, we fear, is but small — who have not the means of consulting Ponz
and Cean Bermudez, yet are desirous of obtaining more minute in-
formation relative to Seville, and Spanish art and artists than
English publications will supply. For our own part, we greatly regret
that Roberts did not return to the Spanish Peninsula, and devote his
pencil to illustrating and recording the, at the present almost unknown,
treasures it contains, in the class of architectural and picturesque ob-
jects, instead of proceeding to the Holy Laud which is not exactlv the
land best fitted for the display of his talent. At all events, we hope,
that in these days of travelling, some other artist will visit the Spanish
territory, and return with a portfolio well stocked with architectural
subjects there to be met with in profusion, and of which we have, as
yet, had no more than a mere whet — a slight foretaste, a provocative
that is in itself quite provoking.

Egert07i's Hems in Mexico ; being a Series of T.aelve Coloured Plates,
executed by himself from his Original Drawings. Large Folio.
London, 1840. D. T. Egerton.

If it was not every one who could afford to visit Corinth, so neither
have all of us, even in this age of steam navigation, the means or
opportunity of taking a trip to Mexico ; although in the course of
another generation such a trip may become a very ordinary feat, and
that too, in a still more expeditious mode than tliat by a sea voyage
across the Atlantic, — to wit, in a balloon, should the experiments
which are now actually making, to prove the practicabilitv of sucli
mode of travelling, be found to realize the sanguine expectations of its
projector. In the meanwhile we are well content to take our ideas of
Mexican scenery and vegetation, — of the costume of the people, of
their habitations and cities, from Mr. Egerton, an artist who has not
merely visited, but been long resident in the country, and whose draw-
ings are no less atlractive as landscapes, than they appear to be faith-
ful and characteristic as local portraitures of the sites they represent.
We say seem, because of course we cannot pledge ourselves, as eye-wit-
nesses, to their veracity ; but they certainly do bear very strong internal
proofs of it, not only the general physiognomy of the landscapes and
buildings, bearing testimony to it, but more especially the plants and"
shrubs in the foregrounds, whose particular characters are clearly dis-
criminated.

Looking at these views as imitations of the original drawings, we
may place them among the most successful attempts we have e 7er
met with, to give the effect not of mere tinted ones, but the depth of
tone, the vigour, the surface, and the^eculiar execution of the modirn
school of water-colour drawing. Therefore, though the work is much
higher in price than any of the masterly productions in lithography
that have of late been published, it cannot be called dear, considering
the great dimensions of tlie plates, and the time, labour and care be-
stowed upon the colouring, which has been executed under the artist's
immediate inspection. Naj', as compared with what is frequently
asked for a single drawing, not at all of more value as a work of art,
than one of sulyects forming this set, it may be termed cheap. One
great advantage, too, attending the form in which they are done up,
namely, their being a series of separate drawings motmted upon card-
board, and put into a portfolio, — is that any one or more of them may
be selected and framed, and would then scarcely be at all distinguish-
able from an original or autograph production of the kind. A separate
sheet of letterpress descriptions forms a very suitable accompaniment
to the engravings, for the information it affords gives additional in-
terest to the subjects it explains. Perhaps we cannot do better than
quote by way of specimen the description of tl»e first plate, the city of
Puebla, as it commences with an observation that meets an objectior*
very likely to be made by those who do not take into account the pe-
culiarity of the climate where the scenery lies.

THE CITV OF PUEBLA.

In representing scenery withia the tropics, where the atmosphere is sa
highly rarified, more particularly in situations that arc considerably elevated
above the sea, it is quite impossible to convey, to the inexperienced eye, aa
adequate Idea of distances, which always appear to be lessened; and the
hardness of outline, with the distinctive form of objects, as exhibited in faith-

352

THE CIVIL EXGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[October

ful pictures, freiiueiitly subject tne artist to tlie imputation of a want of
skill : — thus, in tlie two mountains siiown in this subject, tliey appear to come
forward upon the eye, whilst tlieir bases are at a distance in a straight line
from the forejjrounrl, of about thirty miles. Tlie sides of these mountains
are covered vitli deep forests, extending from the base to that point where
vegetation ceases to exist ; this may be observed in the picture, wliere the
grey tone of the forest is succeeded by a warm sand colour, and the higher
elevation is distinctly marked by the sno-.v, which perpetually covers the
summit. The loftiest of these mountains, called PopocatC]ictl, stands at an
elevation of 17,8S4 feet above the level of the sea (nearly three miles and a
half), and a( aliont 10,684 feet above the city of Pueb'hi, from whence the
crater of tins volcano is plainly visible, the e'dije of winch falls considerably
towards the soutli side ; it still burns feebly, and the surrounding country
bears the devastating niarks of violent eruptions ; though no records have
been kept of these. The neighbouring mountain, called htaccihuatl, is sup-
posed to be an extinguished volcano^and these two form the barrier to a
direct communication between Puebla and tlie Capital, which places are
distant from each other about 70 miles, the former being 1C2 miles from the
port of Vera Cruz. The city, a small portion of which only is seen in the
picture, is the richest bishoprick in the country, and is celebrated for its fine
cathedral, the altars of which are decorated with the most costly magnifi-
cence.

As likely to be interesting to several of our readers, we shall also
copy what is said of the Mine of Rayas.

IN'TEKIOR OF THE MINE OF RAYAS.

This mine, situated at Guanaxuato, is esteemed the richest upon the Tc/a
Madre (mother vein). One of the principal leveh is shown in this plate,
" the eafion of San Cayetaao." Tliis excavation has been formed by blasting
the rocks, .amongst wiiioli the silver is disseminated in minute panicles ;
occasionally threads and lumps of silver are found iu a pure state, hut these
form an insignificant proportion to the mass. The principal shaft of tliis
mine is of large dimensions, being 31 feet in diameter, of .an octagonal form,
and 464 TOr«s deep (1,270 feet). In the lower workings, the air is very
confined, and the heat rather oppressive, the mean temperature being 85° of
Fahrenheit; in the level represented here it is 80'. The Tenateros (carriers)
who convey the ore from the ditferent workings to the bottom of the shaft,
from whence it is raised to the surface, are paid according to weight and
distance ; they are, from long practice, rendered capalile of bearing great
weights — the average ,aIlow,ance is 9 or 10 nrrolias (2251b. and 2501b.) ; but
there are instances of their far exceeding this ; and in the Despncho (office)
of Santa Rosa, belonging to this mine, there are two m<asses of ore which
have been brought up entire liy one man, in successive journeys, one weigh-
ing IS arrohus (450 lb.), the other 22 arrobas (550 lb.), which are kept as
trophies of human strength. When it is considered that 300 lb. is the ave-
rage weight that a mule carries, and that those masses were brought from
the level shown in the id.ite, to a distance of 260 varns (nearly as many
yards), with an ascent of upwards of 100 vara^, it will appear more extra-
ordinary. The miners, who are voluntary workmen, are a very superstitious
race : they are subject to many accidents, from blasting, rush of waters,
descending and ascending the sh.ift, &c. ; but the limits of a short descrip-
tion cannot convey an adequate idea of the life of these singular men, which
is full of stirring incidents.

The Palace of jli-chiUciiire : a Romance of Art and History. By
George Wightwick, Architect. Imp. 8vo. 67 Plates and 143
Woodcuts. London : Fraser, 1840.

If the singularity of its title is well calculated to excite curiosity,
and the splendid appearance of the volume itself is likely to secure for
it admiration, the author's aim is by far more singular than the one —
more admirable than the other; while some of his opinions and re-
marks are so striking as to be absolutely startling. Jt is not tlie least
extraordinary circumstance of all that, although a professional luan,
Mr. Wightwick is so free from professional prejudices, so ultra-liberal,
in fact, that he is in danger of being considered highly illiberal in many
parts of his book by his brother architects. That he is not at all
anxious to have the art kept, as heretofore, a sort of close borough, is
evident from the very first: nor is tliere any mistaking his object,
which is nothing less than to divest the study' of architecture of that
kind of freemasonry, mystery, and mystification, in which it has
hitherto been kept shrouded from the million. Nay, he even goes so
far as to express the hope "that quackery may no longer practise its
meretricious frauds, to the delusion of ignorance ; " a pretty broad
hint that there has been a good deal of quackery in architecture ere
now, and that such quackery has succeeded mainly in consequence of
the inability of the public to detect it, and to discern plodding
feebleness and sterility of mind just plaUd over with the specious, yet
superficial surface of art. In time, perhaps, the plating wears off; and
people begin to be ashamed of the sorry stuff which they had been
taught to look upon as sterling metal ; but in the meanwhile the mis-

chief has been committed, and the public have no other means of con-
soling themselves for the despicable specimens cf taste foisted upon
them, thin by sneering at the want of discernment on the part of the
generation which could allow itself to be so duped, notwithstanding
that they themselves are probably gulled to the very same extend
although after a contrary fashion. ' Had the course here recommended
by .Mr. Wightwick been adopted a century ago, and had the study of
arcliitecture been consi.lered one of the requisites towards a polite
education, the art itself wouU!, in all probability, have been in a very
ditferent condition among us from what it now actually is. If exe-
cuted at all, many things that have in their dav obtained praise, would
have incurred derision at the very first. Hardly would such men as
Tavlor and Wyatt have obtained the celebrity they did — more to the
astonishmejit of the present time than to the credit of their own — for
their talent, more especially that of James Wyatt, is now beginning
to be better understood, and rated at its actual worth, which is ex-
ceedingly low indeed, for he was at the best a complete maimerist,
while his manner was at the best completely insipid. Nash's repu-
tation is now scarcely worth a bawbee ; nor would we give much for
the reversion of that of .Sir R. Smirke, whose frigid soulless classicalitu
has impnverisheil our modern architectural style most deplorablv.

Should Mr. Wightwick's counsel be followed, the next generation
will not, we conceive, be put to its shifts, so much as tlie present one,
to find competent judges in mailers- of architectural taste; wliereas
now it is universally complained that hardly two or three non-pro-
fessional jiersons can be found at all qualified to be entrusted with the
selection of designs at competitions. So far, therefore, Mr. W.'s book
is eminently calculated to be of service, by inducing people to discard
the fatally absurd prejudice that the study of architecture concerns
architects alone. Either it is, or it is not, a fine art ; iu the latter case,
of course it deserves to he applied to only by those who jiractise it;
but in the other, it claims the attention of all who make |)refensions to
taste, and the more extensively it is cultivated the better, else how
can the public sympathize with it ? — how can they appreciate or
enjoy it ? — how should they encourage it properly, or wherefore should
they encourage it at all ? because a public without taste for architecture
does not need architects, but merely builders. All this we take to be
pretty self-evident, whether it be exactly palateable or not.

To ourselves it is most satisfactory to find that there is at least
one individual in the profession, who, with no ordinary degree of elo«
quence and persuasion, strives to induce non-professional persons to
apply themselves to architecture as one of those pursuits which of
themselves reward the student. We do not say that others have
actually dissuaded from such attempt, or that they have not occa-
sionally acknowledged the ability and services of amateurs; but it has
been as if they looked upon the latter as a cla-ss necessarily limited to
a very few individuals, and those chiefly wealthy ones. Never do
they seem to have contemplated tlie possibility of that class— if it
now deserves the name of one — becoming a numerous one ; for never
have they uttered any exhortations to that effect ; never have they
recommended that architecture should be taught at schools and col-
leges ; never have they pointed out what course of study in it would
be most suitable for such purpose. Without doubt every one has
always been at liberty to make architecture his hobby if he pleased,
but then, whenever it has been taken up at all, it has been entirely
through accident or fortuituous circumstances, and not in consequence
of any provision made for tlie study in the usual coiu'se of pre'dous
education. The question, then, is, why has no provision of the kind
been made ? how happens it that architecture lias been completely
overlooked as a branch of education ? And to this question no one,
we will venture to say, is prepared w ith an answer, for the reason
that no one has ever tho'.ight of its being ever asked. Shall we say
it is because architecture has iiolliing wdiatever to recommend it as an
elegant and liberal pursuit to those who do not intend to follow it as
a profession ? and because, although nominally accounted one of the
fine arts, it has nothing iu common with the rest, being, in fact, no
better than a dry, plodding, mechanical calling, fit to be left entirely
to those whose trade it is ? It may be so ; at any rate such is the
light in which it is generally considered, though architects woidd fain
have the world believe quite the contrary.

Let us disguise it as we may, the truth is, there is very little relish
for art in this country ; for instead of any pains being taken to instil a
taste for it into young persons, they and all others are left either to
pick up their notions of it as well as they can, or else to remain all
their lives in a "gentlemanly ignorance" of it, while they find more
congenial food for their taste in dandyism or politics, or on the turf
and at the gaming-table — perliaps in amusements a la Waltrford.*

' It would not be amiss were we to look at some of the portraits drawn of
us by foreigners. It was not very long ago that we met with a very long

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THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

353

article in a German review whieh animadverted mast severely updn our pre-
sent extraordiiary prediloctinn for " mob literature," upon our Jack Slieppard
and Oliver Twist mania, and upon productions of that Newgate school of
literature which is calculated only lo hegct a low and scoundrelly sympathy
with crime and vice : — an odd taste fur a people who ixive themselves the airs
of being the most moral nation on the f.ace of the earth. Hardly more com-
plimentary are some of the remarks we have met with in foreign publications,
in regard to our feeling for art, and the mode in which we profess to encourage
it. As far, too, as architecture is concerned. English buildings do not always
make that favourable impression upon foreigners which it were to be wished
they should do.

Whether this state of things is at all to be regretted or not, certain it
is that we have no leason to be surprised at it; whereas it would be
almost miraculous were we to find a strong love of art diffused through-
out the public without any pains being taken to implant it, or there
being anything in the present constitution of society to cherish a pas-
sion for art, as was formerly the case in this country, as well as others,
when art was munificently patronized by the church. There is now
scarcely any inducement for those wdio have leisure, to devote any of
it to architecture as a recreative study, for they, no doubt, know that
they would have very few to sympathize with them, and also that they
may be wholly ignorant of it with perfect impunity.

Possibly the time — should it arrive at all — is not very far distant,
when an acquaintance with tlie principles and elements of architecture
will be considered nearly as indispensable as several other things that
are now taught as accomplishments. At any rate it will be no fault of
Mr. Wightwick's should such not prove lo be the case, the primary
object of his work being to gain proselytes to the study from among
the educated of both sexes, although hitherto there seems to have
been a kind of Salic law, excluding females from it altogether.
Yet wherefore an art which depends so much upon the beauty of
forms and their combinations, and the study of which tends so greatly
to correct and refine taste generally, should have been considered un-
siiited for the female sex, or else far above their mental faculties, is
one of those questions that wlien considered without prejudice, startle
us by there being any occasion for putting them at all. There can be
little doubt but that indirectly at least, female taste — or rather the
want of it — has been more influential than is suspected, upon archi-
tecture ; for almost one entire branch of the art has in consequence
been exterminated — or rather checked and prevented from developing
itself; that wdiich shoidd properly belong to the architect and the
artist, being allowed to devolve upon the upholsterer. We cannot,
however, allow ourselves to enter here upon a topic that would lead
us on to a very great length, and shall therefore merely observe that
architecture had been previous'y recommended as a very suitable study
for females, both in the Foreign Quarterly and Loudon's Architectural
Magazine ; therefore supposing theie is any absurdity in such view of
the matter, it is not here broached for the first time by Mr. W., al-
though his advice in that respect, will, no doubt, appear entirely novel
to most of his readers. Whether so considered or not, we trust that
it will not be altogether thrown away ; and coming directly from a
professional man, it may probably, have greater weight than it else
would. So far from objecting to it ourselves, we could wish that the
author had expatiated more fully upon this particular point, and had
gone so far as to advise that those who have any inclination for the
study at all should go through such a course of elementary lessons
with an Archifecture -master, as would familiarize them with all the
technicalties of architectural drawing and detail, and thereby enable
them to carry on their studies afterwards by themselves. Until an
acquaintance with geometrical representation be formed, and a relish
acqidred for that as well as perspective delineation, little progress
can be made in the pursuit ; and although such mode of study may at
first sight appear formidably tedious, it in fact opens a source of in-
terest unknown to those who for want of sucli instruction see only
general masses and forms, without taking any note of minor traits
which confer individual character and expression.

Why then not call in the Architectural Master? — Because, people
wili^ay, it would be so very odd, and after all the acquirement itself
woiild be a useless one, especially to ladies. This last ought of course
to be admitted as a most reasonable reason; yet when we consider by
how many exceedingly useless pursuits women now suffer themselves
to be engrossed, that of architecture would be such a trifling pecca-
dillo, that it need not weigh heavily upon their utilitarian consciences.
It would seem, however, that there is at least one lady, and she too of
high rank, who does not consider architecture — that is, the EEsthetic or
artistical part of it, either an unfeminine or a vulgar study ; for as
Mr. Wightwick has dedicated his volume to the Countess of Morley,
we may presume that in her he lias met with that example which h is
encouraged him to recommend the study to others of the sex. If it
be true — but as we have only newspaper report for it, it is just as
likely to be false, — if it be true, we say, that her Majesty is now taking

lessons in etching, we hope she will, by and by, condescend to take
some also in architecture, because there her taste might prove of sin-
gidar benpfit, and might encourage works that would redound to the
credit of the age and of the nation, whereas her Majesty's etchings are
likely to have just as much effect upon art as those of any other young
lady — and no more. Had George IV. possessed a tithe of the taste for
which he was so liberally credited by flattery, Buckingham Palace
would have been a worthy architectural monument of his reign, instead
of being, as at present, an ignominious one, and even Windsor might
have, perhaps, been better by several degrees, than it now actually is.
If there be any one of the fine arts which it is more especially desir-
able that a sovereign should be able to appreciate, it is surely archi-
tecture, because its more important productions are durable, and ought
therefore to be noble, memorials of the period when they were
erected.

If we have thus far said very little in regard to the volume before
us, it is Mr. Wightwick himself who has diverted our attention from
its contents generally, by adapting it to those who are without the pale
of the profession, and by his endeavouring to enlist as many as he can
into the volunteer corps of amateurs. And if we have confined
our attention to this single point, it is because we consider it to be
one of paramount importance, and perhaps go further in regard to it
than even Mr. Wightwick himself, being of opinion that unless the
public be educated to understand and relish architecture as a fine art,
it is almost hopeless to expect that it should flourish among us. We
may probably bestow some further notice on this work, but lest we
should not do so, we will here express our hearty approbation of the
writer's intention; nor do we entertain any doubt as to his book
effecting considerable good.

A Treatise on Engineering Field Worjc. By Peter Bruff, C. E.
Second edition, corrected and enlarged. London: Simpkin and
Marshall. 1840.

In our last number we took a cursory glance at the contents of this
work, we shall now proceed to point out what is additional in the new
edition: in the first place we must state that the whole of the work
has been carefully revised, and that there are several passages distri-
buted throughout, which did not appear in the former edition; we
shall now confine ourselves to the leading subjects which have been
introduced in the present volume.

Chapter 3 is entirely new, and contains directions for conducting a
survey, laying out a base line, a most important object in land survey-
ing, and more particularly in railway surveying; for the latter we
think it should be, if possible, marked out the whole length of the line
by the engineer or his principal assistant, and that the connection of
the work of the different surveyors should also be done by him. This
chapter likewise contains some useful directions for the student in
detecting and avoiding errors.

In chapter 4 we have some judicious observations on parish survey-
ing, and remarks on Captain Dawson's directions for the surveys made
under the Tithe Commissioners. ,

Chapter 5 contains instructions for surveying with angular instru-
ments— town surveys and subterranean surveying.

In chapter (j there are several hints for facilitating calculations, and
various methods and instruments explained for that purpose ; for our
own part, we are generally averse to most ready reckoners, for in nine
cases out of ten, if a person has any nouce, he will beat, by mental
calculation, one who has recourse to tables and instruments, both in
accuracy and time; — we, however, shall give the description of an in-
strument which, Mr. Bruff tells us, has lately been adopted in the Tithe
Commissioners Office, and which appears to be an instrument not easily
put out of order.

"The last, and most simple method, which we shall describe, and
which is now in the course of adoption by all surveyors, and at present
exclusively employed at the Tithe Commission Office, presents the
greatest facility in peiforming computations, without in the least
damaging the plans, by equalizing boundaries, &c., as by all the pre-
vious contrivances. "The principle of the plan has long been in use
by some few surveyors, but they prudently kept it to themselves, in
order that the price of such work might not be reduced; but at last
the method has become publicly known, and a vast reduction has taken
place in the remuneration of such operations. In the first place,
tracing paper of a superior quality is procured, and parallel lines, at
exactly one chain apart, drawn in one direction only along the whole
width of the paper. This paper is then carefully laid over the en-
closure which is to be computed ; the scale to which the map has
been plotted is then laid on the first division of one chain — the ine-

3 B

354

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL

[October,

qualities at cither end being equalized by the eye — and the distance 1
noted. Tins first distance is brought forward at the second division, j
and the sum of the first and second at the third, and so on; thus, if i
the length of the first division is five chains, the scale, when applied !
to the second, is set on the left han 1 at five chains; and if the second
division is seven chains in length, the right hand extremity is set to
twelve chains, which quantity is again brought forward at the third
division, and so on until the whole distance of a field, in strips of one I

chain, is ascertained, when the acreage is at once deduced, by cutting
off three figures from the right hand — those on the left are acres —
whicli are multi|)lied for roods and ])erclies. An ingenious application
of the above system is now in operation at the Tithe UHice, by which
means all calculation is avoided, and the area has merely to be read
off on a scale. The following diagram and explanation will enable
any surveyor instantly to practice it :

0„ 0,

1 1 1

1 , ).. 1, 2„ 2,

.'. 2.. 3, .'^, 3., 3, 4o 4, 4. 4, 5.,

I™" =11

1 _ 1

t 1

1 1

„10 „9 ^9 ,9 „9 38 ,8 ,8 „8 ,7 .7 J „7 36 „6 ,G „6 ^5 „5 ,5 „5

"The instrument consists of a box rule, with divisions at ii chains
apart, and numbered U,„0,,&c. ; at four of these divisions, or ten
chains, it is numbered 1„, or an acre — the reader bearing in mind that
the divisions, on the tracing paper laid over the field to be computed,
are one chain apart — therefore each single division, as 0,, is a rood.
There is a brass slider attached to the rule with a horsehair strained
perdendicular to its length, for the purpose of equalizing the fences
at the end of eacli strip. On this slider — which embraces rather more
than two roods in its aperture — are laid off 40 divisions, on alternate
sides, each way from tlie centre, and which are exactly the length of
one rood, consequently each division is a perch The figures on the
upper side denote the acres and roods, as far as the rule extends, and
are continued backwards on the lower part; the large figures are acres,
and the small figures roods. Now, to apply this instrument to prac-
tice, lav the ruled tracing paper over the enclosure, and move the
slider until its centre is on U„; place the scale in such a position that
the horse-hair forms a mean line of such part of the left hand bound-
ing fence as is included in the first strip of one chain wide, and press
it gentlv on the paper ; with the right hand move the slider along
the rule, until the horsehair forms a mean line on the required part of
the right hand bounding fence. Then move the instrument a/ZojjtMtT
on to the next division — the slider still remaining as last set — the
horsehair forming a mean line, as before, w ith the left hand hedge ;
press the ru'e gently, and move the slider on the scale, until the horse-
hair forms a mean line with the right hand hedge, as before ; which
process is repeated until the entire length of the rule is passed over,
when it is reversed, and the slider moved towards the left hand, the
equalization in this case commencing first on the right hand side.
When the slider is brought back to its original starting point, if there
remains any further quantity, it is again moved forward to the right,
as at first, the continuous measurement being easily kept up by the
decimal arrangement of the contents. For example, in the position
(he slider occupies in the diagram — supposing it had been moved over
the scale and back- — the contents woulii be ten acres and 3 roods; and
if, instead ot the centre exactly coinciding with the division repre-
senting 3 roods, it was '20 of the small divisions on the slider beyond
it, the contents would be 10 acres, 3 roods, and 20 perches. As a
proof of the great saving effected by this instrument, we need only
observe, that the price of scaling' has been reduced from 50 to 75 per
cent, since its introduction."

In our last number we stated that in this work, there would be found
several useful hints, we shall therefore conclude by giving another ex-
tract, although it may not be new to the experienced practitioner, we
have no doubt it will be found serviceable to the student.

"On the subject cf reducing and copying plans we cannot be ex-
jiected to say much. For ordinary purposes the pentagiaph presents the
readiest method, both for copying on the original scale, and also for
reducing or enlarging the copy to any proportional size of the original.
There are, however, several improved instruments for copying with
greater accuracy than the common pentagraph admits of. llie re-
ducing of a jilan by hand, is commonly performed by drawing squares
of a size commensurate with its minutiae all over its extent. .Similar
squares of ary required proportion to the first are then drawn on the
paper on which the plan is to be copied, and in every square of the
copy is constructed that which is contained in the corresponding
square of the original ; to enlarge a plan the operation is reversed.

"A much more accurate method than the above for reducing or en-
larging plans for railways or other similar purposes, is, to lay down
lines of construction thereon, in precisely the same manner as would
be done in surveying it; then take ofl' the lengths, offsets, &c., viith
the proper scale, and replot the survey to that scale on which it is
required. The usual method of copying plans by hand is to piick all
the angular points and principal features through the original on to a
plain sheet of paper fixed beneath it, ou which the copy is to be drawn;

these points being then connected — first with pencil lines — are inked
in, and a tolerably accurate copy obtained: but the method is not to
be recommended, from the injury it does to the original, and the inci-
dental errors from oblique punctures of the pricker, &c. The best
method of copying plans, which we are aware of, is either by a copy-
ing glass, or by tracing and transferring. That by the copying-glass
is performed thus : — in a frame, which can be fixed at any inclination,
is placed a sheet of plate glass; to the. frame is fixed the original
plan, and above it the paper on to which it is to be copied; the frame
is then placed behind a strong light — or lighted candles placed below
it — which enables the draughtsman to see all the lines of the original,
and to trace them in ink on the plain paper without difficulty.* The
second method is to make a tracing of the original on proper tracing
paper; rub the back of it with powdered black lead, and fix it down
carefully on to the paper on which the cooy is to be made; then
lightly trace all the lines with the end of a porcupine's quill, or other
pointer which will trace fine lines, and a perfect copy similar to pencil
will be obtained, which has then to be inked in."

We again with much pleasure recommend this work to the student,
we think it the best practicable work that has been published on land
surveying.

ON THE ORIGIN OF THE ARCH.

All must admit that any attempt to fix the date of antiquities is a
dangerous task : that all who steer amidst the shadows of the past are
subjects of suspicion and mistrust, is also true. Yet though I do seek
the region of doubt, and, like the antiquary, revel for a little amidst
problems and enigmas, I trust the importance of the subject may
guarantee me in some measure from the fate predicted. In throw-
ing out a few hints then, upon the "origin of the arch," wrap|)ed as it
is in mystery, it is not from an idea that to fix the period of its birth
is vital to art, but rather that to assign to the relics and fragments of
antiquity their proper age, seems virtually to guide us into the spirit
of past times. Thus we shall be prevented from identifying much
that is curious and singular in design, or grand in invention, with a
barbaric sra ; when a more civilized race might more consistently
claim It.

Rome, we say, deserves credit for this invention, because Livy, in
allusion to the "Cloaca maxima," remarks, that Tarquinius Priscus
drained the low grounds of the city about the Forum, and the valleys
lying between the Palatine and Capitoline Hills, by carrying sewers
from a higher level into the Tiber. (Lib. i, c. 38.) But the drain was
unfinished, and Tarquinius Superbus completed it, for he adds, " Tar-
quin the Proud made the great subterranean cloaca to carry olT the
filth of the city, &c. &c. (Lib. i, c. o(J.)

Let us presume Livy to be correct, and that Tarquin really con-
structed that magnificent work ; still we cannot conceal the statement
of Herodotus and Strabo in their description of Assyrian monuments,
&c. We may admit, perhaps, the cloaca maxima as a work of the
Romans, but if Strabo be an authority, the arch was instrumental in
the construction of the hanging gardens of Babylon, which must have
been raised somewhere about izM years before Christ. Authorities
may and do disagree as to the real author of those works, but that the
pile of terraces w as sustained by vast arches, raised upon other arches,
seems indisputable. (Strabo, 1. xvi, p. 73S.) Then, again, as to the
date assigned to them, v\hether we take Ktesias or Herodotus, still
their date was very long before the building of Rome. Thus it fol-

* We have frequently practised this method in copying railway plans and
sections in the c. untry — using common window class lor the purpose, and
found a great saving of time in cumparisoa with the uommon niethud of
pricking ilirough.

1S-!0.1

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

355

lows tlirtt, if Bnbylon displaveri the arch in her magnificent works, long
before Romiihis flourished, ihen Rome must (if she is to share in the
discovery of its properties), at least yield in the antiquttrj of her claim
to that of the Assyrian capital.

Then another question arises out of this. Can the statement of
Livy be coirect ? May not the cloaca maxima be as Ferguson hints
in his Roman Republic, the relics of some great city, on the ruins of
wliich Romulus pitched and settled. That-the arch existed in As-
syria is, as far as nice authorities are concerned, certain. That two
countries might discover a grand principle in construction at distinct
times, \s possiblt — but that the arch is exclusively of eastern origin, is
mort than probable. To say nothing of the magnificence of such a
work as the cloaca maxima, in the ruder times of a republic, unequalled
iis it was in the time of Augustus, there are those \vho countenance
the idea of a city on tlio site of Rome long before the time of Romu-
lus. Virgil alludes to this ; for Evander, in speaking to -Eneas, is
made to say :

"Hffic duo prffiterea disjectis oppida muris
Reliquias veterumque vides monumenta virorum :
Hanc Janus pater, hanc Satumus cundidit urbein,
Jauiculum huic, illi fuerat Saturuia nomen." — M^. viii, 355.

In another passage Virgil again alludes to this, and presumes it of
Lydian extraction:

" Ubi Lydius arva,
Inter opima virilm leni fluit agmina Tybris."

In looking into the history of Lydia, we discover that Ninus, who
married Seniirauiis (the probable author of the hanging gardens,) sub-
dued the Lydians about 1232 years B.C., and it is probable that, when
his second son Ezron became the king, the arts of Babylon might have
crept after him, and thus the arch might have travelled with he Ly-
dian colonists. Then, again, there are those who contend the arch
was unknown in Greece till within a hundred years of the Christian
aera. So that if Rome were its original source, it would seem much
more reasonable to expect its application at an earlier period, since
we discover the arch, even in China, in familiar and extensive use at
a very early period.

Such are the doubts, I humbly oflfer to the curious antiquary, and
without prejudice to the pretensions of Rome, would add, that there
seems a disposition in us to fancy that great city to be the cradle of
this important principle in construction, since in Rome we find its
boldest application. Existing evidences, too, carry us back into times
so remote, that we yield insensibly to this malerial impression, and
hush all whispers of record and history in behalf of claims, vv-hen no
remains of the past confirm them. Perhaps an abler hand than mine
may yet clearly prove these suggestions, and discover Tarquin the
elder, in his attempts to drain the city, as the finder of a hidden won-
der, and nut as the introducer of a novel discovery ; whilst Tarquin
the proud may appear only applying to the magnificence of Rome the
skill of an earlier day — worthy, however, of praise for the ingenuity
which detected, and the bold promptitude which applied it to the
improvements of Rome,

Frederick East.
Sept. IQt/i, 18-10.

THE NELSON MONUMENT.

There seems to be a pretty strong feeling entertained against
Railtou's Corinthian Column; and it is to be hoped that such a hack-
neyed and tasteless object will never be erected as a munumeat to
Nelson, for in reality, it will prove a disgrace to Brittish art.
Even at this eleven'.h hour it will be better for the parties more im-
mediately concerned, to make the best of a bad bargain, and to put up
with the loss of the money already thrown away, than obstinately to
persist in completing an absurdity, because it happens to have been
begun. The Nelson Committee ought rather to think themselves
fortunate in having a very good excuse for even yet re-tracing their
steps, and thus sparing themselves the obloquy, and art the discredit,
that must else redound to them from such a puerile monstrosity.

Are we never to profit by experience, however dearly bought ? —
Must we continue to doom ourselves, time after time, to the sneers
and reproaches directed against our blunders in nearly all matters of
taste, by other nations ?

Some may perhaps, be of opinion that quite enough has been said
upon the subject already, and that any further remonstrance would be
useless. We however, tliink very dilferently, being persuaded in our
own mind, that it is mainly owing to want of detern)ined perseverance
in remonstrance, that so many abortions in architecture are inflicted
upon this couutry. Or are we to be told that there is no public opinion

whatever worth attending to in such matters ? — that there does not as
yet exist among us even one class of persons that can justly be con-
sidered as forming an architectural public? If such be reallv the
case, the next question is, are we ever likely to have one ?

As to the Nelson bore, — for sucli it now turns out to be, — there was, if
we mistake not, a good deal said beforehand in the newspapers rela-
tive to the talent that would be elicited by the Competition. Talent,
forsooth! Well, if there was talent, the Nelson Committee had cer-
tainly not nous enough among all of them, to find it out; else never
would they have pitched upon such a miserable ^;s alkr as they have
done. — Should the Column — as we devoutly hope it will not — e'ver be
erected, at all events a statue personifying'the Collective Taste of the
Committee ought to be clapped on the summit of it. Verily it de-
serves to be extolled and in no other way.

THE NELSON MONUMENT.

Sir — I am desirous of addressing you upon the subject of the proposed
Nelson Monument ; feehng that an unaccountable etfort being now apparent
to render our metropolis a laughing-stock to foreigners, it is a duty of every
lover of art to raise his voice, however feeble, for the warding otf of tlie im-
pending calamity. I will for the most part confine myself to the examina-
tion of the question, whether an isolated column can with propriety be em-
ployed. Columns at first rude in execution, were erected by tlie ancients as
actual supports to horizontal entablatures, and indeed according to one theory,
that of Leljrun, we may say tliat their proportions, chosen as producing the
most beautiful etfect, were also those best calculated to ensure stabihty. The
epistyha being of great length, the supports or columns were corbelled out at
the top, with a \iew to shorten the part unsupported, and thus was invented
the capital. It is erroneous, accorcUng to Sir William Chambers, and all other
great artists, to employ ornaments which have not the semblance, at least,
of utility, and if this excellent maxim be observed, we shall not admire a
statue whose features cannot be distinguished, a capital without an archi-
trave, and a column with nothing to support, and in fact, as I have heard it
said, we might with as much propriety erect a colossal representation of the
leg of our great hero. But, I am aware, there is yet a powerful argument
in favour of isolated columns, viz. that they were employed by the ancients.
But those who favour this opinion surely forget, that though in the columns
of Trajan and Antoninus, the impropriety stUl exists, it is almost obscured by
the ornaments and the spiral basso-relievos which, twining round the shafts,
destroy in a considerable measure the idea of support. The object of the
Roman structures could not be mistaken, they are evidently monuments; but
the proposed erection will never have other than the appearance of a luige
fac-simile of a small column. Surely some who argue that Roman precedent
is sufficient to prove the proposed structure beautiful, pass over the numerous
instances in which Roman artists have tortured and debased their plundered
architecture. They it was, who totally ruined the proportions of the Doric
and Ionic orders, who introduced broken entablatures and overloaded cor-
nices, who placed order above order, and who set the order upon a lofty
pedestal, and crushed it with a ponderous attic.

The truth of the saying of Aristotle, let us all hope will be marufested,
and that "the people" will prove that they are the best judges of whatever
is " graceful, harmonious or sublime," and I am confident that the best re-
sults would Bave followed, if t/iei/ had been allowed, in the first instance, to
give judgment between the competing designs. Amidst the general apathy,
whilst the column is actually being commenced, an important Journal, Sir,
like your's, should raise its voice, and you will therefore pardon, I hope, my
trespass on so much of your space.

I am. Sir, very obediently, your servant,

A Lover of the Beaotiful.

47, Lower Stamford-street.

COMPARISON OF STONE AND BRONZE STATUES.

Sir — I observe with regret, that the statue for the summit of the Nelson
column is to be of stone, from the very nature of that material it is impossible
to make a statue which can look well in such a position, and this for reasons
which I think have been overlooked, not only where statues of bronze have
been placed on columns, but also in the majority of bronze statues erected
in our public places. An error in judgment and in taste is observable in
these, which becomes particularly offensive when a statue is placed on the
summit of a column, and it arises from not considering the nature of the
material em|)loyed. Bronze statues are, in our times, executed on the same
principles of composition adopted in marble statues, from the necessities of
the latter material. A glance at the arrangement of bronze statues amongst
the ancients may assist us in determining what principles of composition
should be followeil ; in these we find that trunks of trees, masses of drapery,
and the various contrivances necessary to strengthen marble statues, and onlij
tolerated because ne essary, are entirely dispensed with, and where drapery
is essential to the subject, it descends in peculiarly hght folds, and is gene-
rally tighened round the ancles, every advantage of the material being taken

356

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[October,

to imitate the thinness of real drapery. There cannot be a doubt of the
proprictv, and consequently of the taste of tliis arrangement, and an exami-
nation of (lie heavy dark masses in our streets and squares cannot fail to
impress us with the conviction that the ancient practice is the proper one.
The consequences where such masses are placed on the summit of columns,
are peculiarly disastrous ; it cannot, however, lie doubted that bronze is the
material which should, at all times, be adopted in such situations. We find,
liy the examination of ancient coins, that tlie statues of Trajan and Antoninus,
placed upon the summits of their respective columns at Rome, were of a
lightness in the arrangement wholly unattainable in marble or stone; these
were clad in the military costume of their times.

The able artists who executed the statues of St. Peter and St. Paul now
occupying (very incongruously, it is true,) the summits of these columns, had
this difficulty to contend with, that their statues were, of necessity, enve-
loped in drapery ; the talent with which the difficulty has been met is evident,
and viewed at any reasonable distance, the statues look well. The drapery
is arranged so as to be narrowest at the ancles, and the small perforation
which it has been possible to take advantage of between the feet, has not
been neglected, whilst the narrowing of the upper portion of the pedestals
has greatly aided the grace of the general contour. It seems to me apparent
thatlironze is the only material which can enable the sculptor to make a
statue fit in every respect for such a position ; besides, to raise a monumental
statue of so mean a material as that proposed, is altogether indefensible,
placed on a magnificent column it becomes absurd ; reason and good taste
require, and the universal practice of the best periods of art point out, that
statues in the position of that contemplated, should be of a more costly ma-
terial than the pillar, which can only be considered its pedestal. The same
reasoning by no means applies to the lions or sculptured portions of the
column, as witness such ancient monuments as we are acquainted with, where
the sculpture is merely intended as appropriate architectural decoration. In
the Parthenon, the exterior sculptures were of marble ; they only served to
mark distinctly the character of the temple, the statue of tlie Deity within.
The object, so to express myself, of the erection, was of far more costly
material. The columns at Rome were decorated with appropriate and historic
sculptures marking their character ; the statues of the Emperors, the objects
of the monuments, were of bronze.

I have some doubts whether the bronze columns which the French have
erected are in good taste ; they are imitations, or are designed on the princi-
ples of structures erected in marble. On the contrary, it has ever appeared
to me that Bernini has displayed more philosophy and taste in his famous
Baldachino in St. Peters, in having erected, as be has done, a light and pe-
culiar structure, in which he has taken every advantage of the capabilities of
his material.

When we look around us and see, I had almost said in every important
eitv in Europe, monuments of the most magnificent description erected, it is
with a feeling of mortification that we contemplate a proposed departure
from propriety and good taste in our great and wealthy metropolis. I hope
that an effort may yet be made to amend the resolution as to the statue.
Should you think these few general observations worthy of a place in your
excellent journal, you will gratify,

Sir,

Edinburgh, Your very obedient servant,

Sept., 1840. C. II. W.

cliinery for altcmalely closing the dampers is exceedingly simple. Tlie smoke
being all consumed a saving of fuel is olitained.

Whether the manufacturers will avail themselves of this invention, and
tliiis materially improve the town, is uuceriain ; it is to be hoped they will ;
they ouglit at least to investigate tlic matter. One of Mr. Hall's furnaces is
generally at work in Messrs, Brigg and Sons' mill in Carl Ion-street, where
its oneralion and eflects may be seen. The inhabitants of Leeds should not
lit tnis opportunity pass without making an eflnrt to abate this nuisance.
. Your's respectfully,

C. L. Dresser.

Comniercial'buildings, Leeds, Sept. IGth, ISiO.

CON.'iUMP'I^DN OF SMOKE.

■ g,H The possibility of ridding a large manufacturing town of the smoke

which rises in such dense volumes from the long chimnies has always been a
desideratum ; but the methods employed to eflect this have been so expensive
or complicated, involving loss of power or extra labour, that they have been
but little used, and the nuisance with all its disagreeable effects continues un-
abated. . . , , ,

Mr. Hall of this town has pist patented an invention, simi'le, cheap, anil
effectual. I have this day w'ilnesSed its eflects. and was much pleased with
its simplicity, and astonished by the efiective consumption of the smoke.

The principle of the invention, that smoke passed over a bright tire is con-
sumed, lias long been known; Mr. Hall only claims the adaptation of the
principle which is thu etfected: —

The fire place is divided lengthwise, by a thin wall of fire bricks, so that
there is as it were two fire places under tlie boiler, each of wliiih communi-
cates wiih Ihe main flue or chimney by a separate flue, therefore Ihe two fire
places would have no connexion were it not than an aperture is left at the top
of the partition wall, near the front of the fire-places, by which means the
two fires can communicate wilh each other, so that were Ihe flue at the end
of one (ire closed, and the other open, the only passage for the hot air and
smoke of the fire, whose direct communication wilh the chimney is cut oft',
woulil he through the aperlure at the top of the partition wall, and over the
other fire whose direct communication wilh the chimney is still open. It
will be seen that by means of this arrangement the principle is easily applied.
The fire, whose (lirect coinmunication wilh Ihe chimney is closed, being
charged with fresh fuel, its smoke, in its route to the chimney, must pass
through the aperture of the partilion and over Ihe other fire, which, being
brighl, efiectually consumes it. By Ihe time the fire last charged has burnt
bright, Ihe other will require replenishing, its C( mmnnicalion with Ihe chim-
ney is therefore closed and the other opened, the low fire is charged, its smoke
passes over and is consumed by the other bright fire. Thus by allernately
charging one fire and then the other, all the smoke is consumed. The ma-

COMMENTS ON PORTTCOES.

Sir — When in his ' Remarks on Porticoes,' page 295, speaking of those
which project across the pavement for foot passengers, A. W. II. says: "the
beautiful portico of Hanover Chapel, in Regent-street, and those of the Hay-
market Theatre, and Melbourne House, Whitehall, favourably illustrate this
position," are we to imagine that be at all regards with a favourable eye, or
intends to express himself in favour of, Nash's portico to the theatre above-
mentioned .' If he does not, be has expressed himself most incautiously ;
and if he does, I for one certainly do not envy his taste, nor covet his com-
pliments, since in my opinion that portico, in whatever direction it may be
viewed, is a most vile and trashy piece of design. Its poor miserable and
st<arved looking cornice — as meagre and shrivelled as that of the United
Clubhouse, — would alone suffice to damn both the design and the designer.

If your readers are not so ultra-genteel as to shudder at those horrible
vulgar things called proverbs, I would remind them of that which says " Fine
words butter no parsnips," as being quite a propos to the occasion, for though
that miserable affair in the Haymarket, is called Corinthian, its more proper
title would be the Cockneyfied Order. With regard to the inner or back
elevation, it would disgrace a modern Ginshop. I know not what A. W. H.'s
ideas may be of a portico " gracefully breaking," the hue of bouses by pro-
jecting into the street ; but I do know that seen in profile the Haymarket
portico, presents a most ungraceful gap, looking as if a column had been
there knocked ont pro bono publico, so as to leave room enough for a half-a-
dozen fat old ladies to walk through arm in arm.

As A. W. H. has condescended to mention St. George's, Hanover Square,
— which is so little spoken of as a piece of architecture that we might fancy
it to be some most obscure and insignificant church, not included within the
' bills of gentility,' — it is strange he should not have quoted that one as the
very best instance of all where the footway is carried through the portico.
A portico projecting over the foot pavement is it seems just about to be erected
in front of the Adelphi Theatre ; hut it may %vith tolerable safety be predicted
beforehand, that it will not be particularly ornamental to the street, since
unless extended in front of the adjoining house on each side, it cannot be
much bigger than an apple stall, and will perhaps look not much unlike aa
unglazed shop front, dragged forward before its neighbours.

c. c.

THE ARCHITECTURE OF LIVERPOOL.
By a Stranger.

In the following remarks, let it not be supposed that the writer is governed
by prejudice or partiality, or " set down aught in extenuation or malice."
He scarcely knows an individual in the town, and his visit lias been but to
add a little more to his stock of architectural knowledge, which, with a stu-
dent's patience and perseverance, he has spent days in travelling and many
nights in study, during nearly half his life, to obtain.

And first to the Custom-house. This edifice, uniting within itself the
Post-office, and one or two other departments beside, is considerably larger,
more imposing and magnificent, than its namesake in the metropolis, and yet
there are many things deteriorating from its otherwise grandeur of appear-
ance, and most painful to the practised eye of taste or travel. The principal
front facing Castle Street consists of a quadrangle, the centre composed of a
massive prostylar* octostylarf portico, the columns being copied from those
of the little Ionic Temple of Ilissus, situated upon the banks of the river of
that name in Greece. This portico is simple, grand, and expressive, and its
large and chaste proportions beautifully adapted to its purposes. The pro-
portions of the rest of the building are upon the same scale of plainness,
simphcity, and largeness, I had almost said ponderosity of proportion, suit-
able to the extent and commercial nature of the building, where not elegance,
but the substantiality and solidity commensurate to its objects are required.
The plain portions of the buildings are adorned by pilasters, but the highly
ornamental base, both of columns and (lilasters, shotdd never have been per-
mitted to continue their corrugated torrij round the edifice, thus dispropor-
tionately mixing richness and plainness upon the same face. The wings are
simple and unexceptionable, and tlie bold, handsome stylobale§ gives both

Projecting, t Eight columned. } Circular portions of the base.
§ Plinth or base, on which the building seems to rest.

1S40.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

3.57

dignity ami elevation. But, upon carrying the eye upwards, it is most pain-
fully offended by the unsightly dome and tambour upon which it rests. This
excrescence is most truly unfortunate ; firstly, the Greek character of the
architecture did not require a dome, a thing utterly unknown to the Greeks
themselves; and, secondly, the contour of the thing itself is both ugly and
inharmonious. Had the architect, when he had resolved upon a dome at all,
consulted the graceful simplicity, swelling circumference, and taiicring out-
line of that of St. Paul's, Loudon, his conceptions might have been more
chaste, and his work less open to criticism. Tlie circular heads to the win-
dows are equally architectural anachronisms. The sides facing tlie Dock and
Hanover Street, are adorned by a similar portico to tliat last described, and
placed upon a bold flight of steps. Here the critic can only praise the pilas-
ters, intercolumniations, entablature, cornice, windows, and doors; the latter,
especially, are bold, handsome specimens. Tlie rear elevation is most infa-
mously miserable. The eye is pained and disappointed at the wretched
poverty of ornament and detail ; entablatures discontinued ; two tiers of
windows in one part, and three tiers in another, the upper one being Ijeggarly
loojiholes in the place where the entablature should have been. Tlie interior
has also faults of no mean order; besides want of t.aste, the mixtures of
'styles, the commonplace, unimaginative nature of the details, it wants light.
Still, upon the whole, in spite of many serious defects, this edifice, from its
size, grandeur, chastened simplicity, isolation of position, and importance as
to utility, is well worthy of admiration from the stranger, and respect from
the citizens of the good town of Liverpool.

Let nie now turn to the Royal Bank, Dale Street, /. e. froir. the extreme of
simplicity to that of richness and luxuriance. This edifice is just completed,
and is composed of a basement of enormous height, upon which is placed a
Corinthian order containing two tiers of windows. The centre is composed
of seven-eighths columns. There is nuicli richness and originality in this
edifice, and although its gorgeousness and profusion of complicated carvings,
mouldings, and detads may please vulgar taste, it is too sadly overdone to
please the more practised eyes of the architect or amateur. The basement is
ridiculously high; the Venetian windows too redundant of carving and
various ornaments ; the cornices would not be too rich upon a plainer face,
but now, cut dentd, carved ovolo, and ruuning heads weary the eye, which,
like the dove of old, finds no resting-place to fix upon, but, wearied and fa-
tigued, it turns away, but is reluctantly compelled to own the extravagant
richness and luxuriance of ornament. And yet, whilst some parts are more
adorned than any building in the country, the central windows are mere loop-
holes, not having even an architrave round them, whilst the rest of the
windows have not merely rich architraves, hut revel amid a profusion of
carved foliations. The top is surmounted by a balustrade, which, with the
plinth, is ridiculously high. I would also call attention to the wretched
life-size sculpturing of the arms in the centre of the budding, which bears a
distant resemblance to an amatory lion making love to some sportive unicorn,
who, rejecting his addresses, and tossing up his head with its tremendous
horn, seems to repeat to himself the scriptural piece of self-satisfaction, "My
horn hall be exalted."' Upon entering the interior, the eye is dazzled by
the rich profusion of arcliitraves, friezes, cornices, ceilings, panels, and orna-
ments ; the eye is wearied and confused, and attention exhausted ; no repose,
no chasteness, all is the most lavish profusion. The grand error seems to
have been to have crammed as much ornament and expense as possible within
a given surface.

I will now turn to the Town-hall and Exehange. It is much to lie re-
gretted thr-.t the former does not face directly down Castle Street, instead of
the portico approaching one side of the street considerably more than the
other. Tills edifice is highly creditable for the day in which it was executed;
and, although there are no great beauties, there is little actually to condemn
beyond the meagre, wretched carvings between the capitals of the columns.
The ass£mbly-roouis are admirably jirnportioued, more especially the great
room, which is in sesquilateral proportion, but the ornaments are somewhat
few in number, and poor in detail. To the staircase, a later work, by Sir
Jeffry Wyatville, must be afforded the most unqualified ajiprobation. Its
proportions, decorations, colour, and all other adjuncts, are beyond all jiraise.
Its efi'ect is that of the most chaste repose ; ami. of its size, there are few
finer in tlie kingdom. Returning to the " place " forming the quadrangle of
the Exchange, the stranger is much struck with the similarity of this, upon
a small scale, with certain edifices upon the Continent. The effect of this
square from one corner, with the Nelson monument in the centre, is par-
ticularly fine ; for, although there is nothing worthy of note in the arclii-
tecfture itself, still there is an importance highly ])leasiiig and effective. The
monument is worthy of attention ; the lost arm of this great hero is here in-
geniously hidden by a flag. The base, whicli is circular, is ornamented by
basso relievos and statues, full size, chained to the base, and resting upon a
step, which gives a pleasing breadth to the lower portions. This adds much
to the effect of the base ; but whether it is worthy of the better feelings of
humanity to commemorate our triumphs by figures in chains and painful pos-
tures, thus perpetuating the fierce passions of war, new that peaceful times
are emptying their cornucopias around us, I leave to more philosophic critics_

Eder.

y/H enormous or^an is now in the course of erection in the Abbey of St. Denis.
It contains about 6,000 pipes, amongst v.hich are some measuring 52 feet,
and weighing 12,0001b. This m.iguificent instrument is nearly completed.

BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADV.VNCEMENT OF SCIENCE.
Tenth Meetixg. — Septemler, 1840.

(From tlie Athenaeum.)

Section G. — Mech.\nical Science.

President. — Sir John Robison.

Vice-Presidents. — His Grace the Duke of Argvle ; Rev. Dr. Robinson

(Armagh); Messrs. J. Taylor ; J.Walker.

Secretaries. — Jlessrs. J. S. Russell; C. Vignoles ; J. Thcmson ; J. Tod.

Committee. — Messrs. J. Dun, T. Edington, W. Fairbairn, J. Glynn, Professor

Gordon, Messrs. R. Griffiths, I. ifawkius, E. Ilodgkinson.'W. Jessop, A.

Liddell, J. Macneil, R. Napier, Sir J. Rennie, Messrs. J. Roberts, J. Smith,

C. W. Williams.

The first paper read was " On Safety-valves for Steam Boilers,'' By Mr.
Galline.

The merit of the proposed alteration rested on the general principle, that
the safety valves at present in use are not large enough ; and Mr. Galline's
object was to allow a large surface, like the lid of a chest, to rise when the
pressure becomes sufficient to force it up ; so that, on an accumulation of
steam, it might escape, before any accident could take place. His proposal
was, in brief, that a large valve shall open instead of a small one.

" On extinyuishing Fire in Steam J'essels." By Mr. Wallace.

Mr. Wallace proposes to effect this by steam itself. The plan has beeu
some time before the public, and many successful experiments made in the
presence of scientific persons. Among the most important was the following,
made on board the Leven steam-boat : — On the cabin floor, a space of 10 feet
by 14 was covered with wet sand, on which was laid iron jilates and on tliese
a fire was kindled with about 4.1 ewt. of very combustil)Ie materials, such as
tar barrels, &c. A hose S4 feet long, 2i inches in diameter, extended from
tlie boiler of the engine to the crdiin, and when the fire had been suflieicntly
kindled, so that the panes of glass in the windows of the cabin began to crack
by the heat, the steam was let in, and the door of the cabin shut. The fire
was extinguished in about four minutes. Several trials were made, and all
with like success. On another trial, a metal pipe of a greater diameter than
the hose was connected with the steam-boiler, and extended into the cabin.
.V small square hatch was cut in the deck immediately above the cabin, and
through this o]ieniiig were lowered down into the cabin two moveable grates,
each containing a blazing fire, well kindled, of about 1 cwt. of coals. The
hatch on the deck and cabin doors were then shut, and the steam let in, and
in 1j minutes the small hatch was opened, and one of the grates hoisted up,
when the whole mass of coal and cinders, which had before formed a power-
ful fire, were found to be completely extinguished. This experiment was
repeated twice with equal success.

In reply to a question from the President, Mr. Wallace said, that the hose
might be made either or silk or canvas painted. It was stated that in Phila-
delphia, and now in London, the firemen always direct the water to the
lowest part of the fire, that it might be converted into steam. Dr. Hamel,
of St. Petersburgh, mentioned, that in Russia they have used woven hemp
hose for fire-engines more than forty years. Mr. Roberts, of Manchester,
said, that in that town there had been a fire in a factory some time since,
when the men went in, broke the steam-pipes, which were charged, shut the
doors, and the fire was out immediately.

" On Wheels of Locomotive Enyines." By Mr. Grime.

The rim or felloe of the wheel is turned, welded, and blocked in the usual
way to the size required, iay three feet diameter ; the side, or front rim of
the wheel, is formed out of boiler pl,ate-iron, say | of an inch thick, clipped
round to size required. I then, said the writer, take the plates and punch
out the centre, which forms the eye of the wheel. After this the shapes are
punched out, leaving the boss and arms standing together, with a sufficient
breadth of iron at the extremity of the arms that will be eqiul to thickness
of felloe, say 1^ inch to 2 inches, for wear, and, when weldeil, forms part of
the felloe. The boss of the wheel is punched out of plate-iron, s.ay \ of an
inch thick, into what I denominate washers ; I then pile them one upon
another, to the breadtli of the wheel, taking notice to cross the grain of iron
every washer when pdingthem. By so doing, the boss, or nave, will be con-
siderably stronger and tougher thau if the grain of iron went all one way.
When this is done, it bears the name of "faggotted iron." The washers being
piled to the required thickness, I pin them to one of the punched plates, the
diameter of wheel required ; then jiiit the rim or felloe on, and pin it to the
plate. This being done, I put in the midfeathcr, say J inch thick, and the
depth of felloe and piled plates or boss, there being in every washer a half
circle punched out to receive the midfeather ; the other plate is then put on,
and pinned to the other parts. The wheel being now formed, it is taken to
the furnace, which is constructed with a revolving table at tlie bottom, so
arranged that it can be dropped or raised. This table is formed of fire-brick,
and on the top are placed five loose bricks, to keep the wheel from touching
the table, and to enable the workmen to get the wheel into the furnace and
out again by means of a fork. The furnace having been got up to an intense
heat, thstable is set to a particular mark, the door of the furnace is raised,
and the wheel slided on to the table ; the door is then closed, and the table,
which is worked from underneath by a tooth and pinion, is turned round,
presenting every part of the wheel regularly to the flame, as the flame rushes
through the furnace. The wheel, having been in about three-quarters of an

3 C

358

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[Ot TOBER.

hour, and liaving arrived at a perfect welding heat, tlic taUe ia turned to the
mark hefore uientioned, and the wheel is slided out on to r.n anvil. This
anvil is planed perfectly true on the face, and is larger in diameter than the
wheel. .Vliovc the auvil is the hammer, of al)Out 13 cwt.. suspended at a
height of about 12 feet, the face of this hammer being phined perfectly true,
to correspond with the face of the anvil. As soon as the wheel is placed on
the anvil, the hammer is released, falls on the wheel, and perfectly welds it
into one entire solid at a single blow. Before pinning tlie wheel together, I
put the various parts into a solution of vitriol and water, and, should there
he any part corroded, it immediately removes it, so that tliere is nothing but
pure iron, and a good welding is easily obtained. The wheel, when cold, is
turned up in the usual way.

'* On JJ'arntinff and Ventilatint/ Buildings." lly Mr. Ritchie.

The principal oljject of this paper was to call the attention of architects to
the construction of houses, with a view to a better provision for heating and
ventilation. The author described the method adopted by Sir J. Robison,
whose house is warmed by a large supply of air heated to "0', which is al-
lowed to issue directly into the lobby and staircase, whicli it heats to 60
even in the coldest weather. This heated air is ■'dlowed to enter the sitting
rooms freely by concealed apertures over the doors, and tlie vitiated air is
carried off tlirough openings in the ceilings by separate flues in each room.

Mr. Hawkins always found tliat, in the sitting rooms, open fires were re-
quired to warm the feet, though not necessary in bed-rooms. — Mr. Hartop
agreed, and considered Sylvester's Radiating Stove the best for the purpose,
in addition to the general heating ajiparatus. — Mr. Vignoles concurred, and
stated that nothing prevented Sylvester's stoves being universally introduced,
but their high price. — Mr. Hawkins stated, that, from experience, a large fire
with a small supply of air, was the most economical mode of using fuel. —
Sir John Kobison stated that, witli the apparatus it\ his house, he can keep
his staircase at a temperature of from .'JS' to G2', when the current of heated
air was only 61' as it issued from the appai-atus, and that the additional ex-
pense caused by his provision for ventilation did not exceed 20/.

" On the Temperature of most effective condemation in Steam Vessels.'
By Mr. J. Scott Russell.

Much (said llr. Russell) has been said regarding the perfection of the
vacuum formed in the condenser of a steam-engine, especially a marine en-
gine. It does not appear to be known, that a vacuum may be too good.
We hear it boasted every day, by rival engineers, that their engines have the
best vacuum. Some boast their vacuum at 27 inches, others at 28, others
at 29, some at 30, and at last an engineer appears who boasts a vacuum of
30 J inches 1 It is to be regretted that time and talent should be thus wasted.
It is a fact of great importance, and it is the result of theory, estabUshed on
incontrovertible truth, and confirmed by experiment and by practice, that a
vacuum may be too good, and Ijecome a loss instead of a gain. The truth is
simply this, and should be known to every engineer: If the larometer atand
at 2<i\ inches, the standard of tills cmntrij, the facuum in the condenser is
TOO GOOD if if raise in the barometer more than 28 inches nf mercury. This
important truth is incontrovertible — it is practically exhibited every day.
The following is a simple proof of this doctrine, divested, as far as possible,
of a technical form, and put in the shape of an inquiry into the best state of
a condenser ; —

Let /=tlie caloric of water of V.

c = the constituent caloric of water in the state of steam.
e = lhe total force of steam in the boiler, in inches of mercury ; and
,1= the elastic force of steam at the temperature of best condensation,
which we seek to discover.

Then from the law which connects the elastic force of steam with tempe-
rature, it follows, that in case of maximum effect, or the temperature of best
condensation, —

I

el
, that IS, .r= —

= 004

- = 0-045

Now^ (• is 1000 J and if the steam in the boiler be at 5 it., above the atmos-
phere, or if e=40 inches of mercury, and /= 1,

■'~iooo

Again, if tlie steam be at 1\ lb. = 45 inches,
45

''~Ioob

Again, if the steam be at 10 ft. = 50 inches,

50
.,=___ = 0-05
1000

Hence we find, that the best elasticity or temperature in the condenser de-
pends on the elastic force of the steam in the boiler.

Witli steam of 5 ft. in the boiler, the elasticity of maximum effect in the
con(lenser is 93- Fah., and the best vacuum on the barometer is 28.

With steam of 7v ft. in the boiler, the elasticity of maximum et%ct in the
condenser is 95°, and the best vacuum on the barometer is 27-8.

With steam of 10 ft. in the boiler, the elasticity maximum effect in the
condenser is 97°, and the best vacuum on the barotiieter is 27-6.

In like manner it would be found, tliat with steam of 50 ft. iu the boiler,

worked expansively, as in Cornwall, the best vacmuu in the condenser would
be about 2G. on the barometer.

It is hoped, therefore, that engineers will not in future distress themselves
at finding the vacuum of their condenser much less perfect than the vacuum of
others wb.o have obtained 30 andSOS inches at so great loss of fuel and power.
To obtain a v.icuum of 29A, with the weather glass at 29-75, and steam at / .1
ft., would he to sacrifice four horses' power out of every hundred, in a day
when the barometer is as low as 281 inches, the vaomm in the condenser
would indicate 26'8. In speaking of the vacuum in the condenser, it would
save much ambiguity to indicate the elasticity merely of the steam in the
condenser ; thus, if tlie barometer stand without at 29J. and the barometer
of the condenser at 28, it might be stated that the steam in the condenser
stands at 1 .' , being the point of maximum effort. The indication would con-
vey at all times more precise information.

Mr. Russel stated that the President had just jiut into his hands a com-
munication in French on this subject from Mr. Barnes. Instead of a jet play-
ing inside the condenser, M. Barnes allows it to nish in suddenly, and then
stops it by a slide valve. — Mr. Fairbairn wished to know whether the facts
staled by Mr. Russell had been jiractically estabUshed. — Mr. Russell stated
how tlie experiment might be made. — ;\Ir. Fairbairn considered tliis a very
important subject, as bearing on the economy of fuel, and regretted that Mr.
Russell had not given an account of his experiments. — Mr. Russell suggested
that Mr. Fairbairn should himself undertake the experiments. — Mr. llodgkin-
son considered it very important that experiments should be carried on ; and
Mr. Fairbairn, that experiments should be made on steam at all pressures. It
was suggested that this was a proper subject to be inquired into by the Bri-
tish Association, and it was agreed that the Committee of the Section should
discuss the propriety of applying for a grant to pursue the exjieriments. — Mr.
Taylor stated that they use plungers in tb.e air-pumps in North Wales ; and
Mr. Hartop, that in America air-pump buckets have been made without pack-
ing, and found to answer well. — Mr. Roberts stated that he had made engines
with solid pistons without packing, both cylinder and air-pump. — Mr. Vignoles
mentioned that such solid pistons had been used on some of the first locomo-
tive engines on the Dublin and Kingstown Railw.iy.

" On Timber BriJrjes of a large size, in special reference to Raihrags."
By Mr. 'V'iguoles.

Mr. Vignoles commenced his remarks by stating, that he had, by permis-
sion of the committee, selected this subject for illustration and discussion be-
foie the Mechanical Section, from the notes of a ivork he was prejiaring for
publication, ' On the fieneral Principles aud Economy of Railways,' his object
in so doing being to elicit the opinions of liis brother engineers, and to in\ite
discussion and obtain information, but especially to direct the attention of all
parties interested in the extension of the railway system to a principle of
construction which, in many cases, would he found of great advantage in the
economy and facility presented for overcoming obstacles, otherwise insur-
mountable, within reasonable limits of expense. Mr. Vignoles took a rapid
view of the history of timber bridges, tracing their first erection in Germany,
then through the United States of America, and back to Great Britain. He
also described the difference between the principles of large bridges con-
structed with baulks and half-baulks, and of timber arches, forpjed of layers
of plank laid over each other, and fastened securely together, and, with felt
or other means, to make the joints and beds wholly impervious to water. Mr.
Vignoles stated, that the first bridge on this principle in Great Britain had
been erected at some place in Scotland, by an ingenious mechanic of that
cuuntiT, whose name lie regretted not to he able to state. Tiiis was many
years since. The principle had been also made known, particularly of
late years, by the timber viaducts erected under the direction of Messrs.
Green and Son, of Newcast!e-on-Tyne, wiio had been built several, and had
designed more ; and Mr. Vignoles further explained, that Mr. Nicholas Wood,
of Killiugworth, who at this time erecting, for the Duke of Buecleugh, a tim-
ber viaduct, of great height, aud with large openings. Mr- Vignoles dis-
claimed any intention of discussing the question as to whom the merit of
orjinality belonged, and observed, tliat he, at present, purposely refrained
from any details, as these had Ijeen entered into by Mr. Green both at New-
castle and at Birmingham, reserving any remarks on such details for a future
occasion, should it present itself. Mr. Vignoles then explained the peculiar
applicability of timber bridges or viaducts to the passage of deep ravines, so
often met with in hilly and mountainous districts, illustrating his remarks by
diagrams. Tlie communications, for example, to be made between the north
of El-gland and Scotland would probably have to be sought along son\f of
the valleys leading to the passes through the Cumberland Hills, and here, as
in many similar districts, engineers iu the habit of considering such lines well
knew, that many miles of favourable country for roads or railways were often
to be obtained along the sides of sucli ]irincipal valleys, until some unavoid-
able appalling obstacle appeared in the passage across some of the lateral
openings or ravines. Instances had and might occur where the whole of
such a line, otherwise highly desirable, would have to be al'andoned. unless
some economical construction were devised to surmouut the difficulty : and
here the timber viaduct would most advantageously be introduced, since
many feet additional height in the level of the railway would add but little
to the expense. He then instanced several places of formidable height, and
of various breadths, where he had already designed, or knew of the applica-
bility of such constructions. In reference to the expense, he stated, that it
was chiefly when extraordinary height and either one arch of great span were
required, or where a scries of arches, of large openings, were wanted or could

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THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

359

be introducetl, tliat the timber viaducts weve the most economical. In ordi-
nary heights of 50 or 60 feet, and mth arches of less span than 100 feet, and
particularly in countries presenting faciUties for construction of stone, these
latter would be undoubtedly preferable; but when the height of the con-
struction became great, the great expense for the centering for arches of
masonry, and the multiplication of the number of ]ners, in order to keep the
span of the arches to a moderate size, greatly increased the expense, and
threw the balance vastly in favour of the timber. Mr. Vignoles instanced
the Ribble Viaduct on tlie North Union Railway (a model and description of
which is in the Model Room of tlie -Association'), which was about 50 feet
high, with five large arches, of 120 feet span, and had cost 60^. per lineal
foot; whereas, in another place, a timber viaduct, of 140 feet high in tlijc
centre, and averaging 100 feet high, with arches of 130 feet span, and ex-
tending for a lengtli of nearly 2000 feet, was proposed, which would not ex-
ceed in price 201. jier lineal foot, the breadth of roadway being, in both cases,
28 feet for a double line of rails. Mr. Vignoles stated, that in extending
hues of railways through the west of England to the packet stations, through
the mountains of Wales for a communication between London and Dublin,
and through many parts of Ireland, along the lines laid out by him for the
Government Railway Commissioners, the timber viaducts would, from their
cheapness, enable the works to be entered upon, which the great cost of stone
would quite forbid ; and he concluded by calling on his fellow engineers to
turn their attention to this while laying out new lines, and to take bolder
steps across the valleys, relying on the timber viaducts to accomplish their
objects.

Mr. Blytli thought that Jlr. Vignoles had over-estimated the expense of
stone, which Mr. Blyth knew had been executed at about 25/. per foot. — Mr.
Vignoles replied, that it was seldom that stone could be had at so small an
expense ; when the span is large, and the height great, it is much more costly.
— Mr. Smith, of Deanston, agreed Nvith Mr. Vignoles, but did not think that
planking was the best method, as it woidd not stand so long. A wooden
bridge should be so constructed, that any decayed part could be taken out
and replaced.

THE THAMES EMBANKMENT.

The Select Committee appointed to consider the Petition of the Cor-
POR.A.TIOX of London- relative to the Embankment of the River Thames,
and to report their observations and opinions thereupon to the House, to-
gether with the best means of carrying the same irito effect ; and to whom
several Petitions relative to the measure, and Reports of former Committees,
were severally referred ; — have considered the matters to them referred,
and have agreed to the following Report :

The Committee have met and proceeded to examine a Plan and Estiiuates
of the proposed Embankment, submitted by Mr. Walker and Mr. Higgins,
and other witnesses : that several petitions for and against the measure hav-
ing been referred to the Committee by the House, and many other witnesses
both for and against the intended plan being proposed to be examined, the
Con.imittee are obliged, by the near approach of the prorogation of Parlia-
ment, to conclude the inquiry without the examination of many i)lans for the
embankment of the river, or the consideration of any plan for the improve-
ment of the navigation, without any alteration of the present line of emljank-
ment. Upon the general subject, therefore, of the improvement of the navi-
gation, with or without any embankment, they give no opinion in the present
state of the inquiry.

29 Jvly 1840.

Abkidgement of the Evidence.

Jiniu's IValker. Es J., was examined and stated that he has been profession-
ally acquainted with the river Tharaes, in reference to the subjects of inquiry,
for the last 30 years he has been employed, either as assistant or ])riiieipal
engineer, at rhe" greater part of the dock's that hive lieen constructed in the
port of London. In ISIU he constructed Vauxhall Bridge, and in 1821 his
attention was called rlirectly to the etiecis that the then proposed removal of
London Briilge would ba\e on tiie river Thames. He has been almost con-
stantly employed on works of a similar nature ou Ihe Thames from (hat time
to the present day. He was called in by the comrailtee for letting ihe
Bridge-house estates in 1821, n.long with Iiis friend -Mr. Leach, to report on
the effect that the removal of Londc n Bridge would have on the water of the
river Thames. He did not think that ballasting h'ls done much good; it is
done for the purpose of obtaining ballast, and it is only v.here Ihe ballast is
good that the are iging' engines have got io work ; that has no; much regard
to the inlerests of the navigation. It does nothing to take away the shoals.
At present the water ebbs so low in the river, above bridge, that in some
parts of it, whore the width is very great, the shoals are periectly dry for the
greater part of Ihe widlh across the river; mostly in that part of ilie river
above Waterloo Brid;ie and the neighbourhood ; between Westminster and
Waterloo Bridges and below. The dredging vessel above bridge is used
chiefly for obtaining gravel lor roads, not for ballasting- ships and similar
[Turposes. Tlie effect of the removal of London Bridge opcra.ing in the way
he lias stated, increased the ve'ocity of the current through Blackfriars
Bridi^'e, and had nearly undennined the p ers ; so that bv going down, which
he did in a diving helmet, he could put his leg under the caissoon bottoms,
under the platibrm on«h:ch the bridge stands; the consequence was that
Ihe city, partly throauh that cause, and partly through the decayed condi-
tion of the stone, ordered a survey to be made, and an esiimate ; and since

that time, five of the piers have had coffer-dams put round them, and the
foundations exiended down to about 11 feet below- the old bottom, as re-
gards Westminster Bridge, although a gr at deal of trouljle had been taken
for a great many years in supporting it, the Commissioners of Westminster
Bridge, also for the same reason, have commenced strengtheninc; tlie piers in
the same wiy as has been done at Blackfriars Bridge, bv coffer-dams ; he
considers that both of them are the effect of the removal of London Bridge.
He did not think that any increase of ballasting v.ould prevent the accumula-
tion and increase of shoals, because while thi^river is so unequal in width as
it is now, yiu may keep ballasting, but the velocitv being slow at ihe wide
parts, you v:\\\ have a settlement always taking r^'ace there again, an 1 then
you must go on constantly with the ballasting. " The/irst thing to be dene is
to regulate the width of the river. Tlie plan of the river wdiich is before
von will show you, ihat in places now between London Bridge and Vauxhall
Bridge the river is double the width that it is at other places. The effects by-
London Brid^.e being removed since 1821. are what he has before described,
to deepen naujiow- places very much, and to cause large shoals in the places
where tiie river is so very wide. To give the Committee an idea what the
present width is, he stated, that the width now opposite the Penitentiary is
600 feet at hipli water : opposite Millbank. to the Bishop's-walk, it is 1,050 ;
opposite the Roard of Control it is 1.200 ; and opposite Buckingham-terrace it
is 1.480. Then it keeps narrowing by ilegrees, uniil belo'\- Soulhwark Bridge
it is 720, and at London Bridge the v,-aterway is 690. While Ihe river is so
unequal as that, no dredg-ng would do much good. If you (Iredged so as to
get proper depths for navigation in the wide parts, you'have a settlement of
mud, and a constant removal of that again, or an accumulation of shingle to
(ill up those cavities. The idea here was. first to endeavour to get something
like a regular section, not strictly increasing in width by degrees, but ap-
proaching to il as far as could be done consistently with the value of the
property on the sides of the river. The waterway of Vauxhall Bridge itself
is 702 feet ; the width of the river 200 or 300 yards above is G80 feet at high
water, between the wharfs. He does not consider the whole of that water-
way useful for the purposes of navigation as a thoroughfare, but it is for
the' general purposes of trade, that is to say. that the barges can go up to the
wharf-side, and can go away again at high ■« ater at all times. There was an
apprehension that the present embankments that have been carried out, such
as that one at the House of Commons and others, would have left in the
parts of the river near it a considerable quantity of mul, and the proprietors
of property above bridge had a clause introduced into the Act for building
the Houses of Parliament, keep ng open their claim for compensalion in case
of damage being done. I^e has. from time to time, as employed by the Com-
missioners of Crown Lands, sections taken of the states of the ground at dif-
ferent times, and the fears of those parties have proved to be very much
over rated ; the increase is not so great as he expected. The increase is very
variable ; perhaps in some places it is lower, and in other places higher, but
as a general posiiion he does not think there is much increase. There ai'e
now deposits in consequence of the embankments. The coffer-dam around
two of the piers of Westminster Bridge tended to send the water over to the
opposite side, and to cause a settlement of mud on Ihe Middlesex side : that
colii=r-dam is now removed, and the opening which was closed by the coffer-
dan-i is deeper ami better than ever it was. The deposits have been between
high and low-water mark. The effect, opposite the projection itse f, is to de-
crease the deposits by narrowing them ; but the effect also is to cause the
settlement of mud above and below. The effect that would otherwise be pro-
duced is much lessened by the constant passage of steam-packets up and down
the river. "The mud is kept in a stateof suspension instead of being deposited.
What tlie embar.kment would have tended to have done has been prevented
or removed by the wash of the steam-packets. The removal of the coffer-
dun from the western arch of Westminster Bridge will tend to remove the
deposit 'hat li-.s taken place in the course of last year : and when the coffer-
dam in front of the new- Houses is removed Cwhicli it will be when the Houses
of Parli.iment are finished), with the large quantity of ground «hich he had
put out for the purpose oi'sec^iring the cofler-dam, that will tend to bring the
current over totlio Middlesex side. He hopes the effect of continuing the em-
bankment will be, if properly done, to remove the shoals. The idea would be.
whether bv embankment or otherwise, to deepen the river b>- the removal of
the shoals', and to apply those shoals to filling up behind the embankment.
He contemplates two operations, both deepening the river artificially and
building the embankment; the embankment could not be made »i;hont the
material which will be taken from the bed of it to fill in behind the embank-
ment, which will have the eflect of deepening ihe river. Deepening the river,
the supply of water remaining the same, will tend to throw a greater quantity
of water within a certain part of the channel, but it will not be at
Ihe expense of that side of the river where there is no embankment ; the em-
bankment being to be Ibrnied close up to low-water mark on the north side.
There will be more water on the south side ihan there was before.

Mr. Walker explained that it is not only the land floods coming down,
that chiefly furms the cun-ent of water in the river Thames opposite Lambeth ;
but it is also owing verv much, except in extreme floods, to the tides. Now,
Mhetherit be from tidal water, or from land Hoods, the effect of narrowing
the river on the north side would be, as there is a given quantity of water to
come down during the land floods, to press that water more over to the south
side, and to increase the velocity. With land floods the quantity is given;
that is to say. it is fixed, whether the opening be large or small. With regard
to tidal water, it depends on the space to receive the tidal water ; but the
eflect in any way would be to give greater velocity, and tend to the removal
of mud from the shoals on the south side. Where the river is very wide and
straight, there is a very considerable quantity of mud, three, four, or five
feet and more ; at other places, at Waterloo Bridge, for instance, although
the width is very great, there is not so great a quantity of mud, because the
flood -tide rather takes that oft. Mr. Walker stated that his evidence dven
referred to one side of the Thames only. The ultimate scheme is to embank
both. It may be done wiih one side only, but not so complete as with both
sides. Although he uses the word embanking, the Committee must not un-
derstand that there is an intention, or that it is practicable to embank both

3 C 2

300

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[October,

sides of llic liver l^y wnl'.s from side lo side. Ijut lliat every rcsi't'Ct must te
paid to tlie way in Hliicli the ])reseiit premises are occiniied, still improving
llie navigntion, and the value of tlie property, 'iliere is a lar^'e space cccii-
pied now Lv coal larpes. some on tlie opposite side In' barges « ilh timlier.
There may he places vliere, by carrying out the embankment wall, llie trade
may be so much interfered, with as to damage the property, unle.'^.s provision
be made in llie proposed improvements for accommodating those barges. He
proposes to place tlie barges alongside the wharfs, and extended a great way
cut. and to lie on their beds as they do now ; but still the river, as regards the
navigation, and as regards the iThalth of the town, and lie thinks as regards
the property itself, niiproved. The area of the river would be diminished
where it is too viile.

The cilect of tlie removal of London Bridge on the severage has been to
expose a larger surface of the bank of the river at low water, and to render,
therefore, the iujuiious (u- unpleasant ed'ect from a d'scharge of the seivers
greater than before. The elJect on the bottom of the river generally has
been to deepen it in certain places, and to render it shoal in other places
very much, as he ascertained, and as he re;»d from the reiwrt fi'F 1821. Me
thinks it is quite impossible to look at the river Thames, at lou" water now,
without seeing, as regards the trade up the river, and the navigation opposite
to London itself, that the river is in a state that wants improvement very
much; and this is to be taken along with it. that as the ellect of all those
floods is constantly to deepen in one place, and to shoal in others, that that
deepening will extend in time, so as to be injurious to the property on the
banks of the river, as regards its foundations. He thinks the river will un-
dergo further change. The effect of the dam at London Bridge was to keep
the bottom, iibove London Bridge, very much higher than below London
Bridge; the dam is now removed, and there is, as was predicted by Mr.
Smealon. a constant movement of the bottom of the river douniwards, and an
increase in the depth in certain places ; and that will go on for many years
to come, perhajis generations. Tlie cHcct on the water-side i>roperly,'if'^con-
tinued without some protection, may he. as he has already said, to endanger
the foundations of some of the liest buildings on the river'Tliames; T refer to
the gieat current in one place, and to the forming pools in the middle of tlie
river. «hicli tends to draw the sand from under the buildings on tlie banks
of the river. It would be desirable, in his opinion, that the bed of the river
should be made uniform, or nearly so, in point of depth, and gradually
increase in width from Vauxhall Bridge downwards.

The calculation which has been made for forming the embankment has
been, in the front of the private houses, where the embankment is to be made,
built of brick and filled behind with the e.tcavations from the bed of the
river; the Government property in the neighbourhood of Whitehall, and also
Somerset House, has been estimated to be faced w itii stone. He has no hesi-
tation in saying that this embankment wouhl improve the navigation
throughout ; there is no way, he contemplates, in which any person could
say (ithenvise, excepting this, that where the embankments are made there is
a small decrease of tidal water, somewhat less of tidal w.ater comes up the
river than would before, referring to width oiilv. and tlierefore a somewhat
smaller velocity of the ebbing tide ; but ibat w'ouK! be partly compensateil
for by the deepening. He has seen this done under his own directicms on the
river Yare. and the eHect has been good, both as regards the harbour from
the removal of the bar, and the mipiovement of the navigation up lo the
tow n ; that was done not by embankment w all. but by a dw arf piling, exai-tly
as the section now before the chairman shows it. ^tensions into the river
Thames are sanctioned, and their extent defined and regulated, by the nari-
gation committee of the city of London. The proposed w idth varies from
fiOO to 800 ft. If the conservators of the river think that barges can lie without
prejudice to the navigation or highway, they may lie in tlie river afterwards
lust as they do now; but if the embankment be carried on. and those recesses
left, both as regards the current of the tide, and as regards being injured by
other barges, those docks would be snugger than the Barges lying out in the
river. Injury may be done to the individual by not allowing lu'm to go far
enough into the river, or injury may be done to the river by allowing him to
go too far, unless a general plan is laid down and ;.cted up to. When one
embankment is carried out, or a wharf carried out beyond the other, great
inconvenience arises to both of the parties ; and it is a constant source of
quarrel in the river Th:.mes at this moment; one party opposing the em-
bankment and another supporting it; ami he takes it the members of the
navigation committee itself arc mudi annoved by indi\idual applications,
they themselves having no certain rule to go by. He proposes that the
allinement should be general; it should be either an embankment or a dwarf
piling, to regulate the section of the river. He need hardly s:iy that his
answers must be very general ; but in a great work, such as this,' reference
would be had to the interests and wishes of the individual parties who have
property on the banks of the river, and their wishes complied with, so far as
that can be done without prejudice to the great public measure ; and if that
were dune, he thinks benefit would be done to all. These recesses woidd. in
degree, be injurious to the general plan of regulating the velocity of the river,
and the less of them the better; but as they would be reces'ses with their
sides at right angles with the line of the river, their eflect would be far less
injurious than gradual wideniiigs and narrowings. He presumes that the
only way the thing ci.uld be done practically, is to consider these recesses,
as well as the back ground, private property after Ihe works should be com-
plete ; he thinks it impossible to introduce any occupier or proprietor between
the present bank of the river and the jiroposed embankment. His idea is.
that all the ground reclaimed slioidd be considered as belonging, uixin terms
to be agreed, to the owner of the adjoining property. He considers that the
property on the banks of the river will be improved in value by the altera-
tions ; he docs not mean to say there may not be some exeeinions. but lie
thinks very few ; and it is impossible, in a great work like this, to have good
done to all without some injury, perhaps, to individuals. He has estimated
tor a brick wall, generally ; but, in some places, stone ; he considers all the
answers he has given now to htive reference to the north side of the river

i he w hide length of the embankment, betw een Vauxhall and London Bridge
isll,Ojj feet, which is exclusive of the part th.it is not intended to be inter'

fered wiih. The length lie has given terminates at Dowgate Dock ; that is
the whole length he proposed embanking on this plan. There has since been,
he has been in.brmed, anplicalious made by the owners of property below to
extend it farther, nearer to London Bridge. Dowgate Dock is about LCOO
feet from London Bridge. The 11.055 feet includes not only the portion he
proposes to embank, but .alsotlic.se recesses which he proposes to le.ave for
the accommodation of the trade. The total distance trom Vauxhall to Lon-
don Bridge is lo.'jOO feet, according to the present line of river frontage ; his
whole estimata is £310.000 ; £105, OJO if that, as far as he can ascertain, is
crown property. He thinks 2'/. per foot per annum would cover all the ex-
penses of the cost, with moderate additions for contingencies, expenses of
management, rent. &:c. He considers that the mud so carried aw.ay would
not be deposited in a still more im[ortant part of the river, in the Pool, fi.r
instance. There would be a diminished quantity of tidal water, but that
would be compensated partly by increased depth, by removing the shoals
w hich now appear above low water, and would be more than compensated by
making the bed of the river of a uniform character both in bread ih and depth ;
at present there is a rise at low water from London l^ridge up tri "Westminsler
Bridge of 2 ft. 3 in., the water being kept up by the shoals in the w ay describ-
ed ; it the river were regulated and deepened, ilic effect would be to lower the
water at ^\'eslminster Bridge, and all the way up the river lower than it is
now : th-3.efore in de|ith there would be a greater quantify of tidal water to
ebb and flow, which, he apprehends, in cubic quantity would exceed the con-
tents of the embankments. The width of the river when the embankment is
done, with what is ils present width at Ihose points, will be as follows: — at
the Penitentiary no diminution is proposed to take place in the 600 feet.
From Millbank'to the east end of Bishop's-w.alk is intended to be reduced
from 1.050 to 800 feet. Ojiposite the Board of Control it is proposed to re-
duce it frc.m 1.200 to S-iO feet. Opposite Buckingham terrace, from 1,480 to
850 feet. Opposite .Somerset House, from 1.250 to S70 feet. Opposite Tem-
ple-stairs to Lett's timber-yard, from l,2i0 to 870 feet. Oppo.-itc White-
friars-dock to Bull-stairs, from 1,040 to 770 feet. From Trig wharf to the
opposite side, from 920 to 7.30 feet. West side of Queenhithe dock to opp.isite
side, from 700 to GSO ; after which the diminuiions are smtill, and the river
gels narrower.

(To he continued.)

STEAM NAVIGATION.

STEAM NAVIGATION IN FEANCE.

Eftracis from the Report of Covnt Barn to ihe C7iam6er of Deputies, in the
name of n Special Co7nmi.^sion intrusted irittl the erominafion of a pro-
jected taw relative to the estahlishnent of Steam Packets detween France
and America.

The form, dimensions, and power of steam-boats evidently depend on the
service to w hich they are destined. They w^re not long merely employed in
the ascent and descent of rivers, but soon the limits of steam navigation were
enlarged, increasing the ]iower of the engines from 20 to 80, ICII, 200, and
250 horses, it became possible to extend the field of their employment to
venture on the sea with them. Towing boats, which had been constructed
in a few ports, soon threw a light on the siqieriority of the new system, by
bringing out large vessels, weather bound and condemned to inactivity, aud
drawing them in their %vake with a facility which seemed to defy the ele-
ments. From that day the bright days of sail-navigation, which, till then,
was looked upon as the chef d^icuvre of human understauding, were eclipsed.
Now vessels were started on every coast. Kegular and rapid communications
linked together every important town, such as Havre, London, Dover, Ham-
burgh, Ilotterdam. This was the forerunner of more daring attempts.

Ill 1S19 a vessel from the United States, ''the Savannah," had crossed the
ocean from Liverpool to New York, jiartly by wind and partly by steam.
America, then, had the lead again in daring to apply Fulton's machine to
long voyages, and this is the more remarkable, that it has always had but
few steam-boats on sea service. This first essay was not repeated, until, in
1835, when the English undertook the passage from Falmouth to the Cape of
Good Hope; the .\talante, provided with an engine nearly similar to that of
the Savannah, accomplished in 37 days a distance of 2,400 nautical miles.
The Berenice, the Medea, the Zenobia, ])erforined jiassages of different lengths
on the coast of .iVfrica, and in the Indian seas. All these boats were English.
In the Mediterranean, steamers of different nations, Neapolitan, Sardinian,
Austrian, French, crossed from one port to another. Lastly, our service of
steam-packets fiom Marseilles to .Mexandria was cstablisheil, and threw open
to us a nc«" access to the East. The passage to Constantinople, which was
sometimes 45 days in duration, was thus reduced to 13-i clays.

These numerous experiments gave rise to the idea that, by the aid of
steam, it was possible to accom]ili>li the distance between Europe and the
United States. The ditticidty of carrying the necessary quantity of coals for
the consumption of an engine acting, without interruption, from one shore of
the ocean to the other, during a space of from 15 to 20 days, was no longer
an obstacle. It had been discovered that the consumiition of combustible
did not increase in the same ratio with the jiowcr of the motors, — that an
engine of 250 horse power, for instance, was far from burning twice as much
fuel as was necessary for an engine of 125 horse power ; that, moreover, cer-
tain parts of the mechanism might he simplified in such a manner as to take
up less room, and consequently, leave more space at disposal for the accom-

1840.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

361

modation of passengers or merchandize. From this time operations ^\ere
commenced, anil on the -Ith of April. 1838, the first experiment was tried.
You are all acqnainted, gentlemen, with the result. You all heheld the en-
thusiasm e.\cited by the success of the voyage undertaken by the Sirius, 15
days had been sufficient for its passage. Scarcely had this vessel arrived in
the port of >'ew York, when it was joined by tlie Great AVesteni, which
started from Bristol on the 8th of the same month, after a passage of 14
days.*

Henceforth the problem was solved. America was nearer the European
continent by half the distance which formerly separated them. There could
be no more doubt concerning it ; the events which have since occurred have
ratified these first expectations.

The Great Western has crossed the .\tlantic 28 times during the period of
the 14 months just elapsed without accident, maintaining an almost uniform
speed, of which the average time was 16 days going, and 13 to 14 days
coming back: the last voyage was even accomplished in ll.V days.

During two years since tliey began their operations, with what strides
have tlie English advanced ?

A first line from Bristol to New York was established in 1S3S. The com-
pany to whom it belongs has four steamers of 450 horse-power — namely, the
Sirius, the Great Western, the Royal William, and the Liverpool. The price
of each of these boats is l,300,000f. It is said that they now are building an
iron steamer, which is to carry two engines, whose united powers will amount
to 1,000 horses. These engines were constructed on the plan of Mr. Hum-
phrevs ; the boat will only be 100 meters in lengtli, and will have room for
300 passengers, and a considerable quantity of merchandise. The works are
in active continuation, and will be terminated, according to appearances, in
the course of the year 1841.

Another line was established for the service of London and New York. Two
vessels were emi)loyed on it — the British Queen and the President ; the engine
of the British Queen was of 500 horse-power, that of the President GOO ; they
can aecommodate from 225 to 250 jiassengers, and receive a load of from
500 to COO tons. A third hue connects New fork to Liverpool, so that there
are already three establishments sending steam-vessels from different parts of
Great Britain to the L'nited States.

Moreover, a compact was sealed on the 4th of July, 1839, between the
Admiralty and Mr. Samuel Cunard for the transit of letters from Liverpool
to Halifax. Mr. Cunard has engaged that there should be two departures
per month, and receives from the Government an annual remuneration of
l,500,000f. The Britannia, of 450 horse-power, was launched into the sea
in the beginning of February, 1839.

Lastly, a more extensive service will soon connect Great Britain with the
West India islands : there is a company in existence under the name of the
Royal Steam Navigation Company, which is preparing vessels for New Orleans,
Mexico, and part of the South .American coast. This comjiany the Govern-
ment indemnifies by an annual payment of 6,000,000f.

You must all perceive, gentlemen, that we must not delay entering into the
lists, for we are urged on by competition from every quarter, and the appear-
ance of English steamers on everj' point of the New World to the exclusion
of our own would soon banish us from those regions.

However serious the character of these motives, gentlemen, they are, liow-
ever, secondary when compared to a consideration which we will not endea-
vour to conceal. The navy is a weapon, and one wliich to all appearances is
destined to play an important part in the conflicts which a future day may
bring to light. Attempting to foretell what consequences may be reserved
for a future period by the introduction of steam in constructing ships of war
would be presumptuous ; it is a question of entirely recent origin ; experi-
ments witli regard to it are in their infancy. It is, however, already dis-
cernible that the use of new motors will infallibly produce the following
eflTects ; — In the first place, it will render every vessel in similar conditions
equally supple and tractable, by whatever men she may be manned. It will
be sutiicient to have able engineers in order to effect manoeuvres with a facility
and precision as entirely independent of the state of the sea as of the greater
or less aptitude of the sadors.

Secondly, the number and proportion of the men required for the perform-
ance of the ship's duty would be entirely changed. The Great Western, whose
form and dimensions are nearly those of an ordinary frigate, is conducted by
50 men, including engineers and stokers. Now, if it be true that the naval
enrolment of France is incompetent to supply all its necessities, this incon-
venience will vaidsh ; and the more so, because the zone in which we shall
be able to find men fit for the service will be extended.

Lastly, the draught of water occasioned by a steamer depends upon its
power ; but for all it is less than that of sliips of war. Whence it follows,
that instead of the five or six ports to which our vessels and frigates can re-
sort, steam-boats will be able to cast anchor oft' any coast, and, so to speak,
in any bay.

Thus the new vessels provided with a good engine will be swiff, will offer

" The length of this bnat is 236 feet, its depth 23 feet 3 inches, its width
outside the pa.ldle boxes 58 feet 4 inches, draught corresponding to the load.
16 feet, tonnage I.S'IO tons. The engines are so constructed as to diminish
the consumption of steam and fuel. It is said that tliey consume .33 tons of
coal a day. The total cost of the vessel \\hen it was launched was 55,000/. ;
since that time improvements have been effected in it which have amounted
to 15.0C0/. It carries 700 tons o' gojds. 135 passengers. I'lic rest represents
the weight of the engine, the boilers, and the waterl

less hold to the enemy, will have a greater number of safe harbours to resort
to, will require a less numerous crew, and require less previous apprenticeship
than in sailing vessels. This will evidently become a new weapon ; and if
these ships carry guns for the discharge of bombs of a recent invention, whose
efi'ect is such that at one discharge they are capable of disabling the largest
craft, they will become a weapon at once easy of management, safe, and of
the most destructive nature. Is there not wherewithal here to change the
whole direction of naval tactics, all the jiroportions existing between the
powers of nations .' Here is an entire revolution. Slow or fast, partial or
complete, this revolution will ensue. Now, with the examjde given us by a
Government whose energetical endeavours are dedicated to the contiiuied in-
crease of its naval resources, when we see Great Britain during two years
continually nuiltiplying, at the cost of such enormous sacrifices, its steam
navigation, and finding in the gigantic establishments of its industry those in-
exhaustible resources of which we are deprived, would it be wise, would it be
prudent to ^bufinne our materiel in its present state, to abstain from making
some progress in the new career which has been traced out to us .- Un-
doubtedly we do not indidge in the chimera that our country can ever equal
the English in their naval establishment. The strength of tlie British nation
rests eutirely on its foreign trade ; they arc an exclusively seafaring nation.
.\ll the springs of its prosperity are there ; it drags after it tliat colossal
superiority which constituted at once its greatness and its peril. The condi-
tions of existence in which France is situated are difli'erent ; but the extent of
its coast, its position, the genius of a portion of its inhabitants, compel it to
possess a navy, and in that case it is becoming that, wherever she may be
pleased to hoist her flag, she may be enabled to assemble and display a suffi-
cient force in order to insure resjject. Without this she could never effectually
protect her national interests l)eyond the seas.*

The construction of steam-boats for transatlantic voyages presents, then, a
double object to our view. Applied, in time of peace, to the growth and
preservation of our commerce, they may be transformed, during hostilities,
into ships of war; they may assume, in turn, the double character of a de-
fensive wea])on and of a means of conveyance — of a commercial and of a
military navy; to-day they may carry merchandise, and when requisite guns

STE.AM PAC'KF/l'S TO CONVFA' THE MAILS BETWEEN FRANCE
AND AMERICA.

We, Louis Philippe, King of the French, have proposed, the Chambers
have adopted, we have ordered and do order the follow ing : —

Article], A line of steam-packets shall be established in order to convey
the mails between the ports of Havre and New York.

Tlie Minister of Finance is authorized to treat, within the space of three
months, »ith a commercial company who will undertake the service, on con-
dition that they receive in payment an aniui»l fee not exceeding 8S0f. per
horse power. The number of steam-packets to be employed in the service of
this line shall be three at the least, or five at the most ; each packet to be
propelled by en;;ines of -t.^O horse power.

A list of conditions, to be drawn out by the administration, will determine
the times of departure, the number of passengers, and every detail re'ative to
tlie service of this line.

2. Two principal lines of communication shall be established by the Go-
vernment, in order to convey the mails between France and America, and
served by steam-packets of 450 horse power, one starting from Bordeaux
every 20 days, and from Marseilles every month, in order to arrive at Mar-
tinique, and continuing: by Guadaloiipe. St. Thomas's, Porto Rico, Cape
Hayti, and St. Jago, to Havannali ; the other starting from St. Nazaire every
month to Rio Janeiro, passing by Lisbon, Goree, Pernambuco, and Bahia.
Three secondary lines, served by steamers of 220 horse power, will be esta-
lilished in order to continue the principal lines, the first to Mexico, touching
at Vera Crux. Tampico. Galveston, and New Orleans ; the second to Central
America, touching at Chagres, Carthagena, Santa Martha, and La Gnayra ;
the third to Montevideo and Buenos Ayres.

To effect tiiis a special credit has been opened to the Minister of the Navy,
to the amount of 28,400, OOOf'., to be devoted to the construction, arming, and
fitting up of 14 steam-packets of 4.50 horse powtr. and 4 sleam-p'ickels of
220 horse pow er. and w liich is to be appropriated to the expenditures of 1840,
1841, 1842, and 1843,

From the total sum of 28,400,000f. a grant is made to the Minister of the
Navy —

Francs.

1. For the year 1840. of 5,000.000

2. For the year 1841, of 10,000,000

Total 15,000.000

3. The steam-boats belonging to the Government shall be constructed so
as to enable them, in case of necessity, to carry guns, and when performing
the duty of packets to carry merchand se.

In the latter case the Government may either intrust them to the command
of officers of the Royal navy or to sea-captains, w hichever, in the interest of
the service, it considers preferaljle.

4. When the command is intrusted to officers of the Royal navy, an agent
commissioned by the adminis;ration shall be placed on board, and specially

* England had, in 1831, 840 commercial steam-boats, representing alto-
gether 64,700 horse power. Besides which, the English Admiralty possesses
66 vessels, whose powers amount to nearly 9,400 horses, w bile in France we
reckon only 640 commercial sle-imers, and 38 belonging to Government.

302

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[October,

intrusti'il miIi i1k- cK-iailt. ul' ihe strvke, respccliiig tlu- c:irriage ol passcn-
tters merchanilize. biillioii, ami the mails.

5 The articles of'tlic title 4 of hook 2 of the Code of Commerce, deter-
mining the responsibility of sea captMins towards the consignors and their
assi"ns. will apply exclusively to the commissioncil a-ent.

e" Ordinances, published in the form of administrative regulations, will
determine all the details of the service of steamers undertaken by the Hovem-

7. The steam-packets which are under the direction of the state will be
considered as pari of the Royal navy, and the t me served by seamen on
these packets will be considered as in the service of the state.

8. Royal ordinances, inserted i ■ the Bulletin dcs Lois, and the official por-
tioli of the Jnnales Maritimes. will fix the postage of the letters, journals,
gazettes, and printed documents of every kind transmitted by the French
Transatlatitie packets. „ .,, , .

Modifications introduced into the courses indicated in art, 2 will be pub-
lished in the same manner, but such changes caimot take place with regard
to the starting points in the kingdom or the gencial direction of tte different

lines.

9. The expences authorized by art. 2 will be provided for from the suras
granted for 1840 an 1 IPIl l.y the financial laws.

10. After the year 1842 the projected law for expenditures will include ihe
demand of the funds nccessuiy for carrying on the above lines oi' packets.

Steamtrs on Ihe Pnciflc— Extract of a. hUer from Captain Peacock, dated
on board the Pacific .Steam Navigr.tion Company's steam-vessel Peru,
lat. fl 15 N.. long. 25 50 W., out 14 days from Plymouth ;— " The Peru has
hitherto had a most prosperous voyage, answering in every respect mv most
sanguine expectations. On leaving Plymouth ve experienced a head wind,
witii a heavv cross swell, until the evening of the following day, when I
ordered the fires to be burnt down, blew out the boilers, and made sail. On
this first trial of sailing, although deep, we got seven knots out of her. There
was a good deal of swell on. and the vessel occasionally rolled deep, but
after a minute investigation of the moveable parts of the tunnel, I saw no
risk in lowering it, and in eight minutes from the commencement i had the
gratification to see it snug in' the chock, without str.aining a rivet or a rope-
yarn. When (lie wind died away, we had every thing in its place again, and
the fires alight in four minutes from hauling taut the main gears. The ope-
ration elicited the admiration of every one on board, and the correct work-
manship of the arrangement reflects the highnst credit on Messrs. Miller,
Ravenhill, and Co. The funnel, when down in the chock, lies within the
level of the paddle-box boats, and at a distance would resemble a long mid-
ship gun. It is completely out of the way of workin" the square mainsail,
anil when do«n, the operation of sweeping it is much simplified. We had
only one entire day's sailing before getting into Ihe trades, and then we had
only three more. The trade wind was very light, except for two days out of
the three, wdien, with Ihe wind dead aft, with lower, toiimast, and topgallant
studding sails set, we went 11 knots for four consecutive hours, and" in 24
hours ran 225 miles. This w as the greatest run under sail. The least was
140, and this was the fifth day of sailing, when near the edge of the variables.
We only consume half a ton of *oals per hour on the average, and find no
difficulty in keeping steam, without the additional Icng'h of funnel. The
Hull coals are excellent : and in my own. as well as the chief engineer's
opinion, are superior to the Llanelly coals. The sails all tit admiral)]y, and
the engines work extremely well. The vacuum now exceeds 28 in both. I
perceive the great advania'gc of .Sir W. Burnet's patent solution on the stud-
ding sails and :i«niu|js ; it will increase iheir value 50 per cent. I am happy
to inform you that my passengers are well, very contented, happy, and com-
fortable, which is daily expressed. I hope to lx> at Rio on the 26ih day. of
which there is every prospect."

Fatfm- T/iames. — On Tuesday the 8th ult., an experimental trip was made
w-itli this new vessel intended to run from London to Gravesend. She is an
iron boat, built by Messrs. Ditchburn and Mair, of Blackwall, and fitted with
a pair of .37 horse oscillating engines by Messrs. Penn and Son, of Greenwich.
She started from the Brunswick Wharf, Blackwall, with several Directors of the
Blackwall Railway, and a party of scientific and naval gentlemen, at 21 minutes
after 3, and arrived at the Pier, Gravesend, at 33 miuutes past -1, making the
trip in 1 hour and 12 minutes. She run the mile distance at Long Reach
(with the tide) in 3 minutes 22 seconds, which is at the rate of 178 miles
per hour. .Vffer staying a* Gravesend for some time, she started off with the
Rub;/, the crack Gra\esend boat ; it was very soon perceived that Father
Thames was making a head of the Ruby, and after running a short distance
the Father went completely round her. The Father Thames then followed
her, passed her again, and by the time she was off Blackwall, the Ruby was
2 miles astern. Messrs. Ditchburn and Mair have so constructed the bow of
the vessel that she does not throw up the slightest wave in front, in fact we
could scarcely jierceive a rijiple so clean did she cut through the water. This
is an imiiortaiit improvement, and one that Mr. Ditchburn has been trying to
obtain for many years, and v.ho at length, we are hajipy to say, is successful.

ENGINEERING -WORKS.

WOOLWICH DOCK-YARD.

constructed uf tiie iiuwt durable materials. Ijeing first laid in ihe bottom with
one foot of brickwork, and over it large granite stones, about 3 feel 6 inches,
in thickness, and each many tons in weight. The base of this dock is 230'
feet in length, and of a proportionate breadth ; but it will contain vessels of
upwards of 300 feet in length on the upper deck, owing to the manner in
which it is constructed. At the west end of the dockyard excavations h:ive
been going on during the whole summer, for the purpose of making a dock
of still greaterdiinensions, designed by Mr. Walker, engineer, and it is in-
tended "to lay the foundation stone in the course of a lew day.s. The con-
tractors for this dock. Messrs. Grissell and Peto. of York-road, Lambeth,
have had great difficulties to contend with in m.king the excavations. At a
few feet fiom the surface they came on a rich aiiuvial deposit, in which tlie
hazel and other nuts and clumps of trees were found in a perfect stii'.e of
preservation, and the loaves were in many instances in layers six feet thick.
Under these was a considerable bed of concrete liive blue clay, all of which
had to be gone through before a safe gravelly bottom could Le found. This
lias now been obtained, but nut without great interruption from ] owerful
springs rising in all directions, and it has require J the constant and unceasing
exertion of a 40-horse power steam-engine pumping night and day to enable
the men to proceed with their labours. The dimensions of this dock will be
■iOO feet at the base, and, as it will be constructed on the improved principle ,
it will admit of vessels of 400 feet in length on the upper deck. This is con-
siderably larger than any ever yet made, but it is aniicipated that sleam-ves-
sels of this g gantic size will be laid down when docks capable of containing
them for fitting and repairing are ready for their reception.

FisKERTON Drainage. — Tlie new steam water engine, for the better
drainage of the fen-lands on the north side of the river Witham, between
Fiskerton and Short Ferry, is at length upon the point of comjiletion. A
meeting of the proprietors was held at the City Arms hotel, Lincoln, on Fri-
day, the 4th idt., for the purpose of heariug the opinion of Mr. Tuxford, en-
gineer, of Boston, relative to the working of the engine, he being deputed to
inspect the works, and to advance part of the contract money to Mr. Smith,
of Belper, who furnished the building with the necessarj- works for the engine,
and to decide upon paying him the remaining sum when tile alterations
pointed out by Mr. Tuxford were completed. — Nollingham Journal.

Woolwich. — The foundation stone of the new dock at Woolwich, was laid
on Tuesday, 22nd ult., by Mr. Walker, the engineer, attended by the authori-
ties of the dock-yard. The construction of this dock is different from any
that has ever been made before. The stones are so cut that when placed
together they will act on the same principle as an inverted arch. By this
plan the greater the weight and pressure of the \ essel in the dock, the greater
the security that the bottom will not be raised by springs of water or from
any other internal cause. — Times.

Liverpool Dock Committee. — .\t the meeting of this committee on Thurs-
day, Sept. 17, Mr. Aid. Evans gave notice of his intention to move for a sub-
committee to frame a Bill to Parliament for the construction of a new dock
or docks, and warehouse on the docks and quays in this town. — Liverpool
Chronicle.

The extensive improvements taking place in this great naval depot are such
as will, in a short time, render it superior to any in the kingdom. The dry
deck opposite the blacksmith's shop at ihe east end of the yard, is without
exception the finest and must commodious that has ever been bu It, and is

PUBLIC BUILDINGS, ANQ IIYZPRO'VEIVIENTS.

The Citi/ of Lo^idnn fir,d Toirer Hnnilets Cemeteri/, aiuntcd in the Mile Knd
Road, coriiprising 22J acres of land, is now proceeding under the directions of
Messrs. Wyatt and Brandon. The style of the buililitigs and enclosure will
bj Karly English.

The Pedestal at Ilyde Park Corner, placed in the centre of the crossing
from St. Georges' Hospital to the entrance to Hyde-park, has been erected
by the trustees of the Grosvenor-place District, and is about 100 feet west-
ward of the district boundarj'. The pedestal which is circular, is executed in
Park .^prinrj sione, and is 2 ft. 8 in. diameter at the base, and 6 ft. 1 in. high.
The column supporting three lamps is executed in cast iron, and is 7 ft. 9 in.
high to the brackets, supporting the two side lights. The tot.al height from
the paving to the top of the centre light is 19 ft. 6 in. The whole pedestal
is surrounded with Aberdeen granite kirb, enclosing a causeway 10 feet
square, which is paved with Yorkshire stene, forming an octagon line round
the base of the pedestal. .\n Aberdeen granite post 13 J inches diameter at
the base, diminishing to the top, and 3 feet high is fixed at each angle of the
causeway for the protection of foot passengers on their way from one side of
the road to the other, being a distance of 87 feet. The top arrises of each of
the plinths of the pedestal is chamfered off, and the cap (above a band upon
which is inscribed " Grosvenor Place District, 1840"), molded for the purpose
of preventing persons climhiug up, and to obviate, if possible, the necessity
of having the encumbrance of iron rails or spikes. The pedestal has been
executed and fixed by Mr. Samuel Cuudy, of Belgrave-wharf ; the iron work
by Messrs. Thompson, of Ecclcston-street, East ; the granite posts by Messrs.
Thompson, of Millbank, ^\'estminster, and the paving by the workmen be-
longing to the trustees, from designs and drawings, and under the superia-
tendance of Mr. Turner, the surveyor to the trustees.

./ Church in Bethnal Green, in the Early Lombardy style of architecture,
is now being built under the directions of Messrs. Wyatt and Brandon.

Ramxgate Chapel. — This building is 110 feet in frontage, 60 feet in width,
and 90 feet in height, to the top of the tower. The style of architecture is
original, uniting the features of Saxon and Norman, with a slight indication

1840.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

363

of the Gothic, which are so deigned and hlended togetlier that the whole
buikliug is kept in perfect symmetrj' of style throughout. The interior is fitted
up in a kind of double theatre, having at each side rising seats, with a row of
seats in the centre. The interior is plain, but would have been executed in
a more elaborate style had not the limited funds prevented. There are gal-
leries at eacli end of the chapel, one appropriated for the organ, and the
other for children. The cost of the entire building is about f 4,000, and is
capable of containing 1400 persons. Mr. James Wilson, of London and
Bath, is the architect.

A spacioufi huildivi* iox Xh^ Sciitlnvark Literary and .Scientific Instilution,
situated in the Borough Road, occupying a !ronla;-e of 50 feet by 70 feet
deep, is nuw in course of erection ; it will comprise a Library. Reading Room,
Newspaper Kooni. Class Rooms. Lecturers' Room, and Libraria'i's apartments.
Messrs. Wyatt and Brandon are the Uichitects.

niISC£I.I<A?7£A.

Improved methods of coating iron, under various circtnnstances, to prevent oxida-
tion or corrosion, and for other purposes ; patented by James Beaumont Nei'son.
Glasgow, Aug. 29. — The invintor claims th^ method of coaling or covering
iron, &c., by means of copper or alloys of copper, with zinc or tin. The
copper or alloy is brought to that minute state of division in which it is ob-
tained by precipitation fi'om its solution, or it may be used in a gninulate.l
state. In order to cover cast-iron, sprinkle a thiu coating of granulated, or
other fine copper or alloy over the surface of the mould, to which may be
added borax, or other flux, to facilitate the spreading or difl'usion of the metal.
Thus, when the molten iron is poured into the mould, the copper or alloy will
be fused, so as to cover the casnng, and render it secure against o.\idation or
corrosion. If malleable iron is to be coated, put a covering of the pulverised
copper or alloy over the upper surface of the iron, wliile it is being heated,
and the borax or other flux will S"on cause it to spread over the heated part,
which should be plunged into water, to detach the sca'e of oxide that forms
upon it. — Invenfor^s Advocate.

Improvements in apparatus fir tvithdraivivg air or vapour; patented by
Samuel Carson, Caroline-street, Euston-stpi; re. Aug. 5. — The inventor states,
that revolving heads with cones have been applied to chimneys, in order to
improve the draft thereof, but in such case the cones have not been made
of sufficient length to pass beyond the opening of the chimney ; hence the
same has been of little use. owing to the w ind being blown dow n ihe chiin -
ney. First improvement is tor withdrawing heated air from chimneys, by
means of the atmospheric air blowing through a cone, situated in a cylin-
drical box that revolves, at the chimney top, by the aid of a vane or weather-
cock ; the wind passing through this cone, the orifice of which extends be-
yond the opening of the chimney or shaft, causes by its attraction or draft
the smoke from the fireplace, or rarilied air of the chamber, to rise rtith ve-
locity, and pass round the casing connected to the chimney by a revolving
joint. Second improvement consists in bringing the pi[io that is to carry off
the condensed or heated air of an apartment, down to the conical apparatus
situated near a jet of steam, or near the waste steam-pipe of a boiler. In
place of the atmospheric air passing through the cone, a jet of steam is
made to draw oH the confined air of the chamber, or from the bottom of a mine.
Third im])rovement is to introduce a jet of steam into a chamber, without
the use of a cone, whereby the vacuum is produced, and the confined air
passes up from the mine or chamber through the valve at the upper orifice of
the tube. This improvement we have examined at the Polytechnic estab-
lishment, where it works beyond all expectation, and we have since learned
that Mr. Brunei has allowed Mr. Carson to introduce it at the Thames tunnel,
where a four-horse engine cannot sufl^iciently ventilate the shaft ; by this
improvement, the waste steam alimewill perform the whole operation. — Ihid.

Materials used in lighting or landling fires ; patented by Richard Kdwards,
of Fairfield -place. Bow. Middlesex, Aug 29. — In the ordinary faggots of uood,
used for lighting fires, there is not sulhcient ventilation to allow the wood to
burn, in case it be used in the close form of a bundle, but by this improvement,
the pieces of wood are so combined with rope, cotton, paper, or other such like
material, as to leave a space between each slip of wood or reed ; ihus it be-
comes what ihe inventor terms a " Ventilated Faggot," which may have its
ends dipped into pitch, tar, resin, liquid sulphur, or other inflammable matter.
By throwing one of these "ventilated faggots'' into a lire-place, the coals
may Le heaped over it, and the servant, or other individual, will find no diffi-
culty in causing the fire to burn after it is once lighted. — Ibid.

An improved method or methods cf adjusting, shifting, and working theatrical
sceneryj and apparatus; patented by Rowland Macdonald .Stephenson. Tpper
Thames street, civil engineer. Aug. 29. — The object proposed by the patemee
is the greater speed and facility with which stage scenery may be b.ought
forward, shifted, or removed. The arrangement about to be described, pro-
vides means for shifting or removing simultaneously, and without noise, .35
distinct pieces of scenery, viz., 10 side scenes removed and 10 fresh sutjjects
brought Ibrward ; five sets of clouds removed and five substituted ; and five
main scenes removed. The general arrangement of the machinery for efi'ect-
ing the above, may be described as follows : — The interior of the house be-
tween the basement and the roof may be said to be divided into four floors or
comparments, viz., 1. a raised platform, on which the gearing for working
the stage-traps is to be placed. 2nd. The stage with traps of various forms
and dimensions, including a considerable portion formed to rise or fall by
suitable machinery, and called the sinking stage. 3rd. The lower flats, be-
tween which and the stage are placed the wing scenes : between the framing
formed by the girders and the supporting columns, and stretching from side
to side of the stage, are suspended the border frames, w hich can be raised or
lowered by means of ropes passing over drums and connected with counter-

poise weights ; and fourthly, the upper flats upon which the inventor places
the movins power to communicate motion to the whole. On each side of the
stage on the upper flat, are placed a series of frames called main scene car-
riages, having racks, which can Le connected ni'th piniors or long horizon'al
shafts when reciuired to bo moved backuards or forwards : these two shafts
are connected at their extremities by a third shaft. From the upper hori-
zontal shafts, by means of bevel gear and vertical rods, on the lower ends of
which are drums, an endless chain is driven horizontally in either direction,
tri which are attached the borders representing clouds, foliage, arches, &c.
The side frames, of which the number is limited b the depth of the stage,
may be cither flat, circular, or triangular ; in the present case they are trian-
gular, and receive a forward, backward, or rotatory motion, or both at plea-
sure, and can be placed at any convenient angle' to the audience, so as to
represent closed doors, &c. ; at every change of tlie scene they will be moved
round 130 degrees, or one-third of a circle ; the whole of the side frames may
be moved together or separately, by m"ans of gear connected with the mov-
ing power on the upper flat. Attached to the centre of the border frames,
and revolving i^n a pivot, are the traversing frames for crossing the stage in
any direction, and at any given inclination ; these, when ready for use. are
raised up and secured at one end so as to farm an inclined plane, and the
object to be traversed having been attached to a wire passing round a drum
fixed in a heavy frame, will descend Ly its own gravity. The trap-frame
consists of a rectangular platform traversing on the lower or fixed platform,
and having an upright frame of iron mounted on rollers and capable of being
traversed on the lower platform in any direction ; when brought under the
aperture in the stage, it allows the trap to be sunk steadily by bearing on a
disc or square iron plate, counterbalanced by weights. The clium is to the
improved mode of shifting and working scenes and theatrical machinery, and
to the obvious modifications of which the above arrangements are susceptible.
—Ibid.

Improvements in tlie stuffing boxes of lift pumps : patented by James Home,
Claphani Common, Esq.. March 3, 1840 — These improvements consist in the
.'ipplication of tnu cupped leathers to the purpose staled, in the following
manner: the stuffing -box consists of a metal collar and cap, each having a
projecting; ring or shoulder on the inside ; two pieces of leather are blocked
into the form of cones with a horizontal base, having an aperture at the
apex just large enough to receive the piston-rod ; one of these cones is placed
ujjon the piston-rol with it.s apex downwards, its base resung upon the
shoulder in the collar of the stuffing-box ; a metal disc is then shpped on to
the piston-rod, and af <'rwards the second leather cone with its apex upwards,
its Ijase resting upon the metal disc ; the stuffing-box cap is then put into its
place, and screwed down tight. The metal disc becomes a guide for the pis-
ton-rod. while the pressure of the fluitl telow, and of the air above, upon the
external surfaces of the tivo cui>ped leathers, keeps all tight. The arrange-
ment is doubtless a good one. but we think the patentee would hardly have
gone to ihe expence of a patent, ha, I he been acquainted with the more beau-
tiful, as weil as more ingenious mo le of constructing stuffing- boxes, employed
by Bramah in his hydraulic press half a century ago ; and which has proved
efficient under greater pressures than a lift pump can possibly be exposed to. '
— Merlianics^ Magazine. ^

Petroleum Oil Well. — About ten years since, whilst boring for salt water,
near Burksville, Kentucky, aftei penetrating through solid rock upwards of
200 feet, a fountain of pure oil was struck, which w , as thrown up more than
twelve feet above the surface of the earth. Although in qu mtity somewhat
abated after the discharge of the first few minutes, during which it was sup-
posed to emit seventy-five gallons a minute, it still continued to flow fur
several d ys successively. The well being on ;he margin and near the mouth
of a small creek emptying" mto Cumberland river, ihe oil soon found its way
thi.her, and for a long tim.- covered its surface. .St me gentlemen below ap-
plied a torch, when the suriace of the river blazed, and the flames s^^on climbed
the most elevated cliffis. and scorched the summit of the lottiest trees. It
ignites freely, and produces a flame as brilhant as gas. Its qualities were
then unknown, but a quantity w-as barrelled, most of which soon leakel out.
It is so penetrating as to be ditflcult to confine in a wooden vessel, and has
so much gas as frequently to burst bottles when filled and tightly corked.
Upon exposure to the air it assumes a greenish hue. It is extremely volatile,
has a strong, pungent, and indescribable smell, and tastes much like the heart
of pitch pine. For a short time after the discovery, a small quantity of the
oil would flow nhilst pumping the salt water, which led to the impression
that it could always be drawn by pumping. But all subserjuent attempts to
obtain it, except hy a spontaneous flow, have entirely failed. There have
been two such flows within the two last years. The last commenced on the
4;h of July last, and continued about six weeks, during which time about
twenty barrels of oil were obtained. The oil and the salt water, with which
it is invariably combined during these flows, are forced up by the gas. above
t«o hundred feet, into the pump.and thence through the spout into acovered
trough, where the water soon becomes disengaged and settles at the bottom, ^
whilst the oil is readily skimmed from thesurlace. A rumbling noise resem-
bling distant thunder, uniformly attends the flowing of the oil, whilst the
jL as, which is then visible every day at the top of the pump, leads the passing
.'ranger to inquire whether the we'll is on fiie,^Sitli7iian's Journal.

Napier's Patent Shot Machine. — The Board of Ordnance have determined
upon emiiloying Napier's machine for making balls by compression at the
iioyal Arsenal, Woolwich ; it is to be worked by steam, as also the turners
and borers r f cannon. At present, the same system as was in vogue forty
years ago, is used in the boring of large guns, horses being employed as the
moving power. This alteration will relieve about ten artiUerymeti who have
charge of the horses employed in this duty.

Hint for Hou-ie Decorators. — The walls had a novelty of decoration not pe-
culiar to Affghanistan, as I have seen it in India, though never so well done
as m the rooms I speak of; the chunam or plaster being stamped w hen moist
or plastic, and worked into a pattern, over which a varnish of po.vdered talc is
spread, which more nearly resembles the richness and hue of new and unused
frosted silver plate than anything I have seen elsewhere. This might be in-

3<54

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[October,

trodiiceU in London as a very cheap and elegant drawing-room decoration.—
Dr. KenuctUj's Campaign of the .-Irjiii/ of the Indus.

Locomotire. — Mr. E. Rudge. of Tewkesburj-, tannei-, has obtained a patent
for a new method or methods of otjtaiiiing motive power for locomotive and
other purposes, and of applying the same. These improvements are for the
construction and ajiplicatiou of a new form of atmospheric engine, which may
consist of two, three, or more open (opjied cylinders, placed cither vertically
or horizontally, the piston rods of which are connected with two or three
throw cranks. The air below each piston in the cylinder is condensed by a
jet of steam, when the preponderating influence of the atmosphere on the
external surface of the several pistons produces the available power. The
cylinders are lubricated by means of a small funnel on the top of the piston
rod, whence the oil flows into a hollow space within the rod, and thence into
a groove turned in tlie piston. In order to gain a reserve of power, for any
particular purpose, a large cylindrical receiver is filled by a condensing air-
pump placed on either side, and connected with tlie main shaft of the engine ;
thus when the carriage is descending the hill, the air-pumps will compress
the air into tlie large cylinders, which again will supply the air for working
the pistons while ascending a hill. — Glottcestersliire Chronldc.

ZiIST OF NEW PATENTS.

GRANTED IN ENGLAND FROM 30tH AUGUST TO 2GtH SKPTEMBF.R, 1840.

William Daubxey Holmes, of Cannon-row, Westminster, Civil Engi-
neer, for " certain improreynenis in naval nrchitecfnre and apparatna con-
nected thereirith, affordiny increased security from foundering and shipwreck,'*
— Sealed September 3; six montlis for enrolment.

Thomas Horne, of Birmingham, Brass Founder, for " improvements in
the manufacture of hinges." — September 3; six months.

James Bixgham, of Sheflield, Manufacturer, for " certain improved com-
positions irtiich are made to resemble ivory, tione, mother of pearly and other
s^ilstances apfilicalle to the manufacture of handles of knives, forks, and
razors, piiinofortc keys, snuff boxes, and various other articles." — September
3 ; six months.

William Freemax, of Millhank-street, Stone Merchant, for " improve-
ments in paving or covering roads and other ivags or surfaces." Communi-
cated by a foreigner residing abroad." — September 7 ; six months.

Thomas Motley, of Bath Villa, Bristol, Civil Engineer, for " improve-
ments in apparatus and means of burning concrete fatty matter." — September
7 ; six months.

AViLLiAM CoLTMAK, of I.ciccster, Framesmith, and Joseph Wall, of the
same place, Framesmith, for " their invention of imjrroventents in machinery
eTT'ployed in framework knitting or stocking fabrics." — September 7 ; six
months. ^

John Whitehouse, the younger, of Birchall-street, Birmingham, Brass
Founder, for " improvements in the construction of spring hinges and door
springs." — September 7 ; six months.

Samuel Parker, of Piccadilly, Manufacturer, for " improvements in ap-
paratus for preserving and purifying oils, and in apparatus for burning oils,
fallow, and gas." — September 10; six months.

Mark Freeman, of Sutton Common, Gentleman, for "improvements in
weighing machines." — September 10; six months.

Paul Han.ninc, of Clement's Lane, London, Solicitor, for " improvements
in the construction of govo^iors or regulators applicable to steam engines, and
to other engines naed for obtaining motive power." Being a communication.
— September 10 ; six months.

Charles Delbruck, of Oxford-street, Oentleman, for " improvements in
apparatus for applying combustible gas to the purposes of fieat." Being a
communication. — September 10; six months.

Edward John Dent, of the Strand, Chronometer Maker, for " certain
improvements in clocks and otlier time keepers." — September 10 ; six months.

Henry Houldsworth, of Manchester, Cotton Spinner, for " an improve-
ment in carriages uaed for the conveyance of passengers on railways, and an
improved seat applicable to such carriages and other purposes." — September
10 ; six months.

Hugh Lee Pattinso.v, of Bensham-grove, Durham, Manufacturing Che-
mist, for " improvemen s in tlie manufacture of white lead." — September 10;
six months.

George Alexander Gilbert, of Southampton-buildings, Gentleman, for
" certain improvements in machinery, or apparatus for obtaining and apply-
ing motive power." — September 10; six months.

Robert Goodacre, of AUesthorpe, Leicester, for "an apparatus for rais-
ing heavy loads in carts, or other receptacles contniniuy the said loads, when
it is required that the unloading should take place at any considerable eleva-
tion above the ground." — September 10 ; six months.

James Pilurow, of Tottenham, Engineer, for " certain improvements in
iteam engines." — September 10; six months.

William Bedford, of Hinckley, Leicestershire, Frame-work Knitter, for
** certain improvements in machinery employed in mannfacturing hosiery goods,
or what is commonly calledframe-vork knitting." — Seiitember 1 7 ; six months.
Henry Fourdrinier and Edward Newman Fourdrinier, of Hanley,
Stafford, Paper Makers, for '• certain improvements in steam engines for
actuatinq machinery, and in apparatus for propelling ships and other vessels
on water." — September 17; six months.

MosEs Poole, of Lincoln's Inn, Middlesex, Gentleman, for " improvements
in preparing materials to facilitate the teaching of writing." Being a com-
munication.— September 17; six mouths.

Walter Richardson, of Regent-street, Gentleman, and George Mott
Braithwaiti;, of Manor-street, Chelsea, Cientlenian, for " /;«/)TOfewe«^»- in
tinning metals." Being a communication. — September 17; six months.

Samuel Draper, of Nottingham, Lace Manufacturer, for " improvements
in the manufacfwe of ornamented twist lace, and looped fabrics." — Septem-
ber 21 ; six months.

William Mill, of Blackfriar's-road, Engineer, for "certain improvements
in propellers, and in steatn engines, and in the method of ascertaining and mea-
suring steam power, parts of which improvements are applicable to other lise-
ful poposes."- — September 21 ; six months.

Charles IIandford, of High Ilolbom, Tea Dealer, for " an improved
edible vegetable prapnration called ' Eupooi,' and tlie mode of manufacturing
the same." — September 21 ; six mouths.

Thomas Pain, Junior, of I'pper Seymour-street, Euston-square, Student
at Law, for " a plan by means of which carriages may be propelled by atmos-
pheric pressure only, without the assistance of any other power, being an im-
provement upon the Jtmospheric Hailivay now in use." — September 22 ; six
months.

John Maughan, of Connaught Terrace, Edgeware Road, Gentleman, for
" certain improvements in the construction of wheeled carriages." — September
24 ; six months.

George Goodman, of Henley, near Birmingham, Needle Manufacturer,
for " certain improvements in the manufacture of mourning and other dress
pins." — September 24 ; six months.

Thomas Muir and John Gibson, of Glasgow, Silk Manufacturers, for
" improvements in cleaning silk and other fibrous substances." — September
24 ; six months.

William Hirst, of Leeds, Clothier, for "improvements in the manufac-
ture of woollen cloth and cloth made from wool and other materials." — Sep-
tember 24 ; six months.

Henry Pinkus, of Panton-square, Coventrj'-street, Esquire, for " im-
provements in the method of applying motive power to the impelling of ma-
chinery applicable amongst other things to impelling carriages on railways on
common roads or ways and through felds, and vessels afloat, and in the me-
thods of constructing the roads or ways on which carriages may be impelled
or propelled." — September 24 : six months.

John Johnston, of Glasgow, Gentleman, for "a new method (by means
of machineryj of ascertaining the velocity of a space jiassed through by ships,
vessels, carriages, and other means of locomotion, part of which is also apj)li-
cable to the measurement of time." — September 24 ; six months.

Pierre Erard, of Great Marlborough-strcet, for " improvements in piano-
fortes."-— Se])tember 24 ; six months.

Thomas Robinson Williams, of Cheapside, Gentleman, for " improve-
ments in the manufacture of woollen fabrics or fabrics of which wools, furs
or hairs are the principal components, as well as for the machinery used there-
in."— September 24 ; six months.

.Alexander Dean .ind Evan Evans, of Birmingham, Millwrights, for
" certain improvements in mills for reducing grain and other substances to a
pulverised state and in the apparatus for dressing or bolting pulverised sub-
stances."— September 24 ; six montli.-.

TO CORRESPONDENTS.

Cnmmnnicalions arc requested In be addressed to ■'The Ivlitor of the Civil
Enirineer and Architect s Journal," No. W. Parliament Street. Westminster.

Books for review 7}iusl he sent early in the montli, communications on or before
tlie 20th (if with drawings, earlier), and advertisements c/i or before the 25th
instant.

3. D.. the substance of his communication on Suspension Bridges bus appiarcd
in print be/ore.

" .'/ Student," his communication will he noticed next month.

J. I . his communication dated 18Wi nit., was not received until the 2ith, when it
was too late to comply with his request.

" .7 Constant Reader," it is difficult for us to give the names and addresses of
the inventors at ull times, it would subject us, in many in.Ktunecs, to be charged
with the advertisement duly.^

" .7 Constant Subscriber," shall be answered ne.rt month.

G.'s work was not received until near the end of trie month, it shell be noticed in
the nt.rt Journal.

A Subscriber wishes fur the address of the agent for supplying the Porcelain
Letters, notiied in oui Journal in May lust.

Bu'Ks received — Scott's Cotton Spinner ; The Process of Blasting by Galvanism ;
On Excavation and Embankment on Itfiihvay ; Thoughts nn Steam I.oeumotion ;
and E.vperintcnls on tlie Compass on Jron-huitl Sliips : they will be noticed in the next
Journal. Jf'c have been compelled to postpone farther notices of Mr. Mushet's
eiilitdble work, and oho Mr. Bartlioh ,iu'w on Specificatifns.

Xe.cl month we shall give the Pliiii uf the Principal Floor and Section of the
Reform Club.

ERRATA.

In the August number, column 2. page '^S7, paragraph Steam Tug. /or Buld
read Bald ; fur the velocity of wheel i 58 miles rend 14 j8 miles.

In the September number, page 321, column 2, for Tomson's read Thomson's.

18-10.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

365

ON BUTTRESSES, PINNACLES, &c.

F—B. Bent of the force
communicated to the 1st
flying-buttresses.

F. B. P. C. Parallelogram
of forces.

C—F. Direction of the
combined forces.

f—b. Bent of the force
communicated from the
1st to the 2nd Flying-
buttress.

p—f. The direct downward
force of the gravity of
the 2nd pinnacle.

e—f. The active direction
of the combined forces
after leaving the 2nd
buttress, and more and
more inflected till it
reaches the ground at ff.

ON BUTTRESSES, PINNACLES, &e.
By Alfred Bartholomew, Architect.*

Were it the author's wish to prove by one example more striking
I'lan any other, the falling off of science in the absolute practice of
;ircl)iteclure, in these times of pretended superiority, in which the
ill-taugbt pr;ictitioner who wishes to pursue the integrity of his art,
is obliged, after he is turned adrift by his master, to re-educate himself
as far as he is ab!e, by picliing up whatever scraps of scientific infor-
mation may fall in his way, instead of receiving from his master at
once the full depth of skill whicli (he free-masons for centuries handed
down from father to son, from master to pupil, without diminution pnd
without reserve, — he would fearlessly instance the most singular ad-
vancement whicl) the mid-eval architects seem, by nothing short of
inspiration, to have made in the most delicate acquaintance with
Architclural DynamicB ; a knowledge which taught them at once to
unite in their abutments, strength with economy, uje with beauty:
wliile in our ignorance we fancy that strength and economy are ene-
mies of eacli other and tliat use and beauty are of necessity opposite
qualities. This refined intelligence taught them to render every ne-
cessary part of their constructions such exquisite ornaments, that the
ignorant modern looking at them, without knowing their use, fancies
them to be merely ornamental.

They first began in their vaultings with reducing the lateral thrust
of the work to the smallest limits, by cutting out all the otherwise
more level and hazardous parts of the vaulting, so that what remained
scarcely left its perpendicular bearing upon the walls : they next
greatly reduced further the weight of the vaulting, by forming it of
small stone ribs, with a mere thin cuticle of lighter materials in short
and narrow panels between the ribs ; and whereas in our modern brick

* \V"e have through the kind permission of the author, taken this paper
from a vvurk recently published by him, entitled, '• Speciticatioiis for Practical
Architecture ; preceded by an Kssay on the decline of excellence in the
Structure and in the Science of Modcin English Buildings."

No. 38.— Vol. III.— November, 1840.

vaultings, tlie groin-points are weak by their bond, and are still weaker
from the soft and inferior nature of the bricks of which they are com-
posed (vulgarly termed "ctil/ers," and wholly unfit for the purposes of
any good work), and we know scarcely any thing of the dytiatnics of
such a vault, — the mid-eval builder put all the strength in the ribs,
strutted his ribs across as he deemed necessary, and made every strut
a beauty, conducted the active force down those ribs as easily as water
is conducted down a pipe, and then, instead of leaving the active force
within each rib to expend itself in committing unknown and unre-
strained damage to the walls of the fabric, he united their force in one
[loint so that he could deal with it as an active power well ascertained;
then knowing by the laws of the resolution of forces the way in which
the united thrust of the ribs would move, he counter-acted by the

N, nave. A, A, aisles. R, R, &c., ribs of the vaulting, the several thrusts
of which all uniting at the centre C ; the dynamic action is confined to one
point lending to move from V to F. F, flying-buttress, falling against the
point C, in the direction exactly suited for opposing the united thrust of the
vaulting-ribs. B, wall-buttress from which the flying-buttress springs.
P, pinnacle. The small letters indicate the repetition of sets of the same
parts belonging to other divisions of the vaulting.

3 0

•3i]C>

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[November,

smallest possible quantity of materials set in the form of flying-but-
tresses, pinnacles, and wall-buttresses, that force which unrestrained
might have endangered the walls. Thus by making use of only a
small quantily of materials, every particle of which was brought into
active service, he was enabled to carve ornament and enrich every
part of his fabric out of those funds which we ignorant moderns expend
in raising coarse masses which iierfonn no duly, or ill-directed cither
waste much of their weight and strength, or else employ it in rending
and dilapidating the fabric.

The author comes now to a department of the dynamic knowledge
of the Gothic arcliilects, wliich, as he believes it outstrips in combi-
nation of skill and beauty all other efforts of the architectural prac-
titioner, ancient or modern, affords him matter of surprise, that as far
as he knows or remembers, it has not been noticed by any previous
writer.

The manner in which the Gothic architects conducted the active
force of a vault to one place, and then with practical certainty counter-
abutted that force by a small rpiantity of materials placed exactly in
the situation proper for the purpose, has just been shown; it is now
proposed to show the wonderful manner in which the flying-buttresses,
the wall-buttresses froni which they spring, and the surmounting pin-
nacles, are together disposed so as with the most delicate union of
the extreme of beauty, to unite the most wonderful economy and such
a knowledge of mechanics as will in vain be sought for in any other
description of buildings.

Having found out exactly tlie precise place where the active force
of the vaulting was pressing against the wall, they distended the
Jlyhig-hiiltresses or arc-boutant widely at that part, in the same manner
'as a modern carpenter, in ttm/.orary-shoring, places a board flat against
a dangerous wall ; they then gradually concentrated this distention of
tlie wall-thrust into one point, where the flying-buttress joins the wall
buttress; thus they concentrated at the head of the wall-buttress, all
the active force communicated by the vaulting, in the same manner as
in wrestling all the force received by the arms becomes concentrated
in the spine, pressing its vertebree closely together ; but then as the
operation of this force, would have required the wall-buttress to be
made sprawling out to a vast distance from the wall, in order to pre-
vent the active power from throwing it over, they change the course
of the active force, simply by running up the head of the wall-buttress
in the form of a pinnacle," which, having only a direct downward
gravity, by the resolution of forces, so changed the course of the active
force, that it could be confined within the body of a buttress of com-
1 aratively moderate dimensions,— the downwardly-increasing gravity
of the wall-buttress in fact mingling with the force communicated to
it, curved the direction of the force more and more inwards, till it was
eventually re-dift'used horizontally over the broad foundation of the
buttress, and was from thence communicated to the earth itself. Thus

f—h. Bc-nl of the force communicated
to Ibo llying-butlrcss by ihe drift
of llie vauUino;, which force would
proceed unrestrained to u, if the
pinnacle were removed, and
weuld consequently drive over
the wall-butlress in thai direc-
tion.

p—f. The direct downward force of the

fravily of the pinnacle,
he active ilirection of the two
combined forces above-slated,
more and more restrained in i[s
downward course, within the body z£
of the wall-buttress, till it reaches
the ground at ^.
f,h,p,c. Parallelogiam of forces.

pinnacles, which are vulgarly considered merely as ornaments, became
the most refined instruments in the economy and security of ecclesias-
tical and other buildings, and like the position of the human head, had
a most material influence upon the stiffness and activity of the whole

frame. With this knowledge, it was, tliat the Gothic architects pro-
portioned the weight and size of their pinnacles, and when we see
them assuming an extraordinary altitude, as at Worcester Cathedral,
it is not from idle, wild, or luxuriant caprice, but because extraor-
dinary means were required in order to change suddenly the course of
an active power, which wo\ild otherwise have expended itself beyond
the body of the abutment, and by displacing it, have brought to ruin
the whole work.*

They did not always stop here, for knowing that there was a por-
tion of the wall-buttress near the ground and adjoining to the side
aisles, which received no thrust, and lay as it were dead, this they cut
out altogether, as at Gloucester Cathedral, some of our English Chap-
ter-houses, Westminster-hall, and some of the Continental Cathedrals
which have chapels set between their wall-buttresses ;t so that in fact,
the wdiole form, position, and management of the counter-abutments
of Gothic vaultings, were like those of a human skeleton, placed in a
leaning posture, with the bones of the legs away from the base, those
of the nands and arms pressing against the moving part of the vault,
with the skull erect to confirm and steady the spine, and the whole
strengthened by sufficient flesh and muscle.

That the true mechaoical office of the pinnacles of pointed architecture
is as stated above, appeared to the author to be so evident, that it at
once struck him after coming to this knowledge, that the double 'set of
flying buttresses on the south side of Westminster Abbey, must be respec-
tively inclined, so as to receive within their solid substance the pres-
sure of the vaultiug ; and that on account of the operation of the two
sets of pinnacles, the lower flying-buttresses must be set more uprightly
than the upper ones; this upon examination pioved to be the case,
showing that if the original budders were not fully versed in the sub-
ject (which may be greatly doubted). Wren, who restored these but-
tresses, was so, and probably by his great scientific knowledge, was
enabled to adjust them more accurately to their proper positions.
The great masters who had to do with this fabric, could not avoid the
great extra consumption of materials which arose from removii:g the
great buttresses away from the wall out into the cloister-green, in
order to leave room for the north avenue of tlie cloister; but having
a difficult task to perform, they performed it with admirable skill,
and knowledge greater than is exhibited in many of the Continental
Cathedrals, some of which have two sets of buttresses in order to
admit side chapels.

With what humility should we look upon our modern use of but-
tresses, pinnacles and abutments, which we pretend are the results of
a far outstripping science, and of an improved taste, — while men whom
we have been in the habit of calling barbarians, have in a dark age
(more enlightened in many things than the best ages of Greece and
Rome) at once mingled in their works, poetry, economy, taste, strength,
and invention.

Geometrical Survey. — The officers of the engineers appointed to conduct the
survey of die island have been for the last six weeks stationed upon the top
of Ben Volicb, a high and peaked mountain in Rannocb, east of Lochgarry.
They had spent the greater part of the summer un Schihallion. but the severity
of the weather of late lias both both impeded their operations and rendered
the station very uncomfortable. For the last fortnight the snow has been
lying some inches deep around their very superficial temi'orary dwelling, and
the carriage of fuel from the surrounding districts is at once expensive and
precarious. The view from this moutain, as well as from Schihallion, is very
extensive from their commamling altitude, and enables the engineers to take
B very wide observation. — Scotch Paper.

* Ronilclet in his " Traite The'orlque et Pratique dc VArt de Bdtir," shows
that he bad sagacity enough to find out the benuty of the whole management
of the dome of St. Paul's, and that he saw plainly the consolidating effect
which the weight of the covering of the dome has upon the hollow cone; but
it is singular that this sagacity did not preserve him from in some sort depre-
cating the oblujue meeting of the cone with its supporting piers; be did not
perceive, that besides the enormous collection of surrounding abutments
which the great cone possesses, the perpendicular extension of the external
peristylium aljove the foot of the cone, acts so as by the resolution of furces
to materially change the direction of any expanding thrust which the base of
the cone may possess, and to confine it strictly within the bodies ol the first
set of piers.

t Mr Savage, at the New Chelsea Church, has omitted the nactive parts
of" the wall -buttresses in order to admit a free passage in the dry areas which
surround the basement-story of the edifice ; but he has not changed the drijt
in tile (lying. buttresses by placing p nnacles over the wall-buttresses; allow-
ing the present wall-buttresses ot the church to lie sufhcicnt, the present
combustible ceilings over the galleries of the church might be exchanged for
groined roofs of stone, and the addition of pinnacles would still confine the
drift within the present wall-buttresses, notwithstanding the added drift of
the new side vaults.

1840.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

3(17

ON CLOTfflNG OF STEAM BOILERS.

Report ttpon the advantages to be derived from Clothing Steam Boilers,
Pipes, Cylinders, ^-c, with the Patent Felt, mannfaclured by JMessrs,
Borradaile, IFTtiting, and Company.

By Thos. Wicksteed, Mem. Inst. Civil Eng., Hon. Mem. Roy. Cornish
Polytech. Soc, &c. &c.

[We feel mucli pleasure in being able through the kindness of
Messrs. Borradaile and Co., to give to our readers the following very
valuable report on Clothing of .Steam Boilers and Cylinders, and which
we are sure will be perused with much interest. We must here ob-
serve that too much praise cannot be given to those gentlemen for the
spirited manner they have had the experiments made, which could
rot have been done excepting at a very large outlay. We think after
a careful study of tliis report by those who have a steam engine not al-
ready clothed, they will hesitate no longer iu adopting that very essential
requisite, which we are sorry to say has been, heretofore, most shame-
fully neglected. The experiments were conducted under the direction
of Mr. Wicksteed, the eminent engineer of the East London Water
Works, whose abilities are too well known to the profession to need
any praise on our part for the very elaborate manner he has performed
his task.]

Upon the 25th of April last, Mr. Francis Whiting called and re-
quested me to give an opinion as to the advantages of using Borra-
daile's Patent Felt as a non-conductor; and to state what I considered
was the actual amount of saving in fuel obtained in the use thereof
as a clothing for steam-boilers, cylinders, &c. I stated that, although
I never had had the opportunity of trying experiments, I was satisfied
it was a good non-conductor, and as the amount of saving stated as
having been obtained by those that had used it varied from 6 to 17
per cent., I thought it would be advisable to try a series of experi-
ments upon a large scale, continued for so long a time that the expe-
rience obtained should put at rest all question as to the actual amount
of saving.

Mr. Whiting approved of this suggestion, and gave me instructions
to try any experiments 1 thought proper.

In pursuance of these instructions I determined to ascertain the
quantity of water evaporated by a given weight of coals, when the
boiler, steam-pipes, and flues were exposed, or not clothed, and also
when they were clothed with one, two, three, and four couts of the
Patent Felt respectively ; having been in the habit also of using hop
sacking as a covering for the boilers, I determined to ascertain the
evaporative power of tlie boiler when clothed with three and five coats
of hop-sacking respectively, these experiments would give me the
proportionate amount of fuel required to evaporate a given weight of
■water under the dilferent circumstances before stated.

To ascertain the saving obtained by the use of the Patent Felt in
clothing the cylinder, nozzle, and steam-pipes, I determined to ascer-
tain the quantity of water that was required to pass through the
cylinder in the form of steam, to do the duty of one horse, when the
cylinder, steam-pipes, &c., were exposed, or not clothed, and when
clothed partially, or wholly, with Patent Felt, as described in Table
No. IV. appended to this report.

The boiler on which the experiments were tried was made by
Boulton & Watt; it was of that form called wagon-headed, with a
flue passing through the centre, the fire being underneath; the di-
mensions were as follow :

Ft. In.
Length of boiler . . . . 21 U

Depth . . , . .88

Width in widest part . . . 5 11

Width of flue passing through the centre .26
Depth of ditto ditto . 3 0

The engine, which was a single pumping-engine, was made by the
same parties, the cylinder GO inches in diameter, and average stroke
7ft. llin. ; the cylinder had a steam jacket around it.

A long series of experiments was made, the details of which are
given in Tables Nos. 1, 2, 3, and 4, appended to this report.

Before commenting upon the experiments, I will give an expla-
nation of the Tables, to show in what way the ditFerent results have
been arrived at.

Table No. I.

The columns 1 and 2 require no explanation.

Column No. 3, shows the number of hours the engine was at work per
diem of 24 hours.

Column No. 4, gives the bushels of coals consumed, which were accurately
weighed, each bushel weighing 84 lb., being the weight of the imperial
bushel.

Column No. 5, gives the weight of water in hundred weights introduced
into the boiler every 24 hours, the way in which this was ascertained was as
follows : — There were two cisterns of given dimensions placed one above the
other, the top one communicating with the feed pump of the engine, having
an overflow, or waste water-pipe attached to it, and a valve in the bottom to
let water into the lower cistern when required ; the lower cistern communi-
cated with the boiler, supplying it in the ordinary way adopted for low pres-
sure boilers ; the lower cistern was gauged, the gauge being divided into
hundred weights, the divisions being obtained by actually weighing tlie water
into the cistern ; the lower cistern was filled with 21 cwts. of water, and
when that was exhausted in feeding the boiler, the feed valve was closed,
and the cistern was refilled with 21 cwts. more, so that the actual quantity
evaporated was most accurately obtained.

Column No. 6, represents the mean teraperatnre of the water in the lower
cistern before evaporation, and was thus obtained : the temperature of the
water each time the cistern was filled was taken, and again when it was nearly
empty, the mean of all these temperatures is represented in column No. 6.
The mean temperature in the line of Totals was otjtained by multiplying each
weight of water, given in column No. 5, by the corresponding temperature iu
column No. 6, the products being added together, and divided by the total
weight of water, which gives the true mean temperature of the whole water
evaporated.

Table No. II

Column No. 1, refers to the totals in Table No. 1.

Columns Nos. 2, 3, 4, 5, & 6, require no further explanation than has been
already given.

Column No. 7, represents the pounds weight and decimals of a pound of
water evaporated by the consumption of one pound of fuel ; the water before
evaporation being at the corresponding temperatures given in column No. 6.

Column No. 8, represents the cubic feet and decimals of a cubic foot of
water evaporated by the consumption of 1 12 tb. of coal, under similar circum-
stances to those given in column No. 7.

Column No. 9, represents the cubic feet and decimals of a cubic foot of
water, that would have been evaporated, if the temperature of the water ad-
mitted into the boiler had been equal to 212^ of Fah., and is obtained thus :*
The latent heat of steam was stated by Mr. Watt to be equal to 950°, the
sensible heat at the boiling point is 212°, the sensible and latent heat together
being equal to 1162°, but as the water to be evaporated (see experiment No.
1,) had already 80'9° of beat in it, the number of degrees of heat required to
be communicated to the water to convert it into steam would be 1081-1°
only, and if the temperature of the water had been 212°, it would have re-
quired only 950° of heat (equal to the latent heat) to be communicated to it
to convert it into steam, hence

Heat. Coal. Heat. Coal.

As 1081-1° : n2tb. :: 950° : 98-4 tb.

Thus if the temperature of the water had been 212° Fah. before it had been
admitted into the boiler, 98-4 tb. of coals would have evaporated as much
water as 112 tb. of coals would have done, the temperature being 80-9, hence
Coal, Water. Coal. Water.

98-4 tb. : 13.43 cubic feet ; : 112 tb. : 15-28 cubic feet,
in other words, 112 tb. of coal will evaporate 15-28 cubic feet of water from
212° Fah., and only 13-43 cubic feet from 80-9° Fah.

The oljject of column No. 9, is to show a fair comparison betweefi all the
experiments, reducing them to one standard, which is rendered necessary from
the circumstance of the temperatures given in column No. 6, varying in each
series of experiments.

Column No. 10, shows the amount of saving in fuel under different states
of clothine, or exposure of the boiler, steam-pipes, &c., as described in column
No. 11.

Table No. HI.

Columns Nos. 1, & 2, require no farther explanation tlian has already
been given.

Column No. 3, represents the weight of water passing through the cylinder,
or into the steam jacket in the form of steam, in the time stated in column
No. 2.

Column No. 4, represents the number of strokes made by the engine in the
time stated in column No. 2, which is necessary to be recorded, that the
power of the engine may be ascertained.

Column No. 5, is the pressure under which the engine worked, or the
height to which the water was raised, and was obtained by noting down
every 15 minutes during the time the experiments lasted, tlie pressure, indi-
cated by a mercurial syphon-gauge attached to the pump, then taking the
mean of the pressures so noted down, and adding to it the height from the
level of the water in the engine well to the datum line of the mercurial
gauge ; the mean pressure in the line of totals was obfamed by multiplying
the figures in columns No. 4 and 5 together, and dividing by the total num-
ber of strokes, which gives the true mean of the observations made every
15 minutes.

Table No. IV.
Column No. 1 refers to the totals in Table No. 3.

* Vide Mr. Parke's paper on the evaporation of water from steam boilers.
Trans.ictions of the Institution of Civil Kngineers, vol. 2. page 172.

3 D 2

6S

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[Novembkr,

Columns No. 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6, require no farther explanation than has been
already given.

Column No. 7, shows the average ntimhcr of strokes made by the engine
per minute during the time of the experiments.

Column No. 8, shows the effective power of the engine, and is obtained by
multiplying the weight of water lifted eaeh stroke (which was equal to
1920-j^) by the pressure shown in column No. 6, and by the strokes per
minute shown in column No. 7, the product being the number of pounds
weight raised I foot high per minute, which, divided by 33,0001b., will give
the horses' power indicated in column No. 8.

Column No. 9, shows the quantity of water (in decimals of a cube foot)
required per hour to pass through the cylinder and steam jacket in the form
of steam to produce one horse's power, and is obtained by reducing column
No. 4 to cubic feet, and dividing by the hours given in column No. 3, and
again dividing the quotient by the horses' power represented in column
No. 8.

Column No. 10, shows the proportional quantity of water in the form of
steam required per horse's power under different states of clothing or ex-
posure of the cylinder, &e., as described in column No. 12.

Column No. 11, shows the proportionate saving of water by clothing the
cylinder as described iu column No. 12.

Upon examination of the results shown in the Tables, a description
of which has just been given, it will be seen in Table No. 2, that when
the boiler was clothed with one coat of Bo radaile's Patent Felt, that
the evaporation was a little greater tlian when clothed with five coats
of hop sacking. When clotlied with In-o coats of felt it was not su-
perior to one coat of felt, but when clotlied with three coats, the evapo-
ration was 1-jif per cent, greater; and when one coat of felt liad been
laid on the top of the flues, on the flag stones round the boiler, the
evaporation was increased 8^77 per cent., and when the boiler was
clothed with four coats, and the top of the flues with two coats, the
evaporation was increased -^ per cent, only ; from this it would ap-
pear that to produce a considerable saving in fuel, it is necessary to
have at least three coats of felt, and that the top flues should be coated
with at least one coat of felt.

Upon examination of Table No. 4, it will be seen, (hat to obtain the
greatest effect of saving from casing with Patent Felt, that not only
the steam-jacket and steam-pipes should be clothed, but also the
cylinder-cover, and steam-nozzle. Tlie result of these experiments,
which an examination of the tables will prove to have been carried on
upon a large scale, each trial being continued for several days, shows
that by properly clothing the boilers, steam-pipes, and flues, with
Borradaile's Patent Felt, a saving of fuel of 10^ per cent, may be
elfected ; and by properly clothing the cylinder-steam-jacket, steam-
pipes, nozzle and cylinder-cover, a s iving of 15 per cent, is eft'ected in
the quantity of water converted into steam to produce a given effect ;
and consequently, the combined result is equal to a saving of fuel of
25^ per cent.

Although the saving in fuel effected may be considered as the
greatest advantage in using the Felt, yet there are others of no slight
importance which should be noticed.

1st. The saving in the repairs of the boilers ; supposing two boilers
equally well made, of equally good materials, uniler which the same
quality of coals is burnt, and in which the same quality of water is
used, it is very certain that the wear and tear of the two boilers will
be in proportion to (he quantity of fuel burnt under them ; now if the
same effect can be produced by using 25 per cent, less fuel under one
than under the othei, the wear and tear will be 25 per cent, less in
one than in the other; now although the actual amount of saving can-
not be estimated, as it must depend upon the quality of materials and
workmanship employed, which varies in almost every boiler, never-
theless, that it is a matter of importance will strike every one who
ha.s had to do with repairs of boilers.

2ndly. In steam-vessels it must be remembered that a reduction in
the weight of coals is equivalent to an increase of toimage, or in other
words, supposing a foreign vessel whose cylinders, steam-pipes, and
boilers are unclothed, carries in the course of twelve months 401JU tons
of coals as fuel for the engines, a reduction in the fuel of 25 per cent,
will enable them to carry lOOU tons extra weight of cargo.

3rd. Reduction in the cost of labour in working the engines, espe-
cially on board steam-boats. Upon this point it is not necessary to
say more than that, by reducing the quantity of fuel to be used, and
reducing the temperature of the engine room, and stoke hole, the
labour of the engine men and stokers will be considerably less, and it
is very evident a considerable saving may be made in this item of ex-
penditure.

4th. If judiciously applied, the felt will prove a great safe-guard
against fire, as it will be seen, by reference to Mr. Aikin's experiments,
an account of which is appended to this report, that it may be exposed
to a temperature of 4011" Fabi. without being aB'eeted.

EsPENXE OF Clothing.

This, of course, must vary according to the size of the engine and
boilers, whether land or marine, engines, &c. &c. ; the cost, however,
of clothing the engine upon which the trial was made, and two boilers
with four coats of felt, the engine work covered with green baize
oil-cloth, and the boiler with canvas, as herein before described, was
£'IG; the engine working 12 hours per day exposed, or not clothed,
would consume llOU tons of small Newcastle coals per annum, which,
at 17s. per ton would be equal to £03.'); 25 per cent, saving on this
would be £233 158. or 251 per cent, profit upon the outlay of £915.

Durability of the Felt.

It has been the general practice to coat the boilers, pipes, and cylin-
ders with a mixture of white lead, alum, Paris wliite, and liuseeil oil,
before the first coat of felt is laid upon it, with the intention of pre-
venting the felt from being scorched from direct contact with the
heated metal ; and it has been said that the fire which occurred in the
Great Western steam ship when in (he Thames, on her first voyage,
was occasioned by the oil hi this composition catching fire ; to ascer-
tain how far the use of this paint was necessarv, and also what heat
the felt would bear without being injuriously affected, I requested Mr.
Arthur Aikiu to try some experiments, and favour me with his opinion
on this matter, and beg to refer you to his letter, which is appended
to this report, and which to me appears most satisfactory ; I also beg
to draw your attention to his valuable suggestion of a new mixture to
be applied in the place of that used at present in places where it may
be found necessary, as being much more efficacious. With a view of
showing the saving which may be effected by the use of the patent
felt, 1 have calculated the Table No. V., shewing the saving in annual
expence in proportion to the consumption of coals per annum, and the
price per ton.

In conclusion, I beg leave to say that I had not, before I tried these
experiments, an idea that the saving would be so great as it proves to
be; the experiments have been, however, conducted with so much
care, each series has been continued for so long a time, and the coals
used having been from the same cargo, (hat 1 have not the slightest
doubt any person clothing their boilers and engines in the same man-
ner, and to the same extent hereinbefore ehscribed, will at once effect 25
per cent, saving in fuel, or in case of a boiler and steam pipes alone
where an engine is not used, a saving of 10 per cent.

THOM.4.S WiCKSTEED,

Civil Engineer.
Old Ford, August Mlh, 1840.

Report of Arthur Aikin, Esq., F.L.S., F.G.S., &c.

My dear Sir — You inform rae that it is customary to cover the outside
of steam boilers with a paint composed of lead, oil and alum previous to ap-
plying the coating of felt. This you say is done with the intention of pre-
venting the felt from being scorched by direct contact with the heated metal
of the boiler. You require my opidion if it is necessary to interpose any sub-
stance in order to avoid injury to the felt, and likewiae inform mc tliat in
one instance a fire was said to have originated from the oil paint becoming
overheated.

With the view of answering your inquiries in a satisfactory manner, my
first object was to ascertain the utmost degree of heat which felt is capable
of hearing without injury. For this purpose 1 put several pounds of mercury
in an iron basin, and then placed another smaller basin on the mercury — in
the smaller basin I put a layer of felt, and a])plied pressure to (he upper sur-
face of the felt suiiicient to force the bottom of the iron basin iu wliich it
was contained, so deep in the mercury that there was only about half an inch
of mercury between the two basins. A pot of burning charcoal was then
placed below the larger basin, and a* mercurial thermometer graduated to
COO Fah. was dipped from time to time in the mercury to ascertain the tem-
perature. When the heat had risen to 300 Fah. a small piece of felt was
immersed in the mercury between the two basins, and was withdrawn occa-
sionally as the heat increased, in order to observe the effect produced on it.
Up to the temperature of 440" or 450°, the felt appeared to suffer no injury,
the colour remaining unaltered ; but from 450° to 480° the colour first became
deeper, the elasticity of the fibre was destroyed, it then became nearly black,
and at the same time gave out the odour of burning hair. The hot charcoal
was then removed, and on examining the felt which was in tlie small basin,
it gave out, while warm, a burnt odour, and the surface in contact with the
iron had become of a dark brown colour, as you may see in the specimen
wlilch accompanies this report. 1 consider therefore the heat of 440 Fah. as
the highest to which felt can he exposed without injury, even for a short
time (for my experiment did not continue above an hour), and if the heat
were continued for several days, it probably ought not to exceed 400 Fah. If
therefore the external heat of a steam boiler is liable to rise to 400 Fah., it
would be prudent to interpose some substance between the surface of the
boiler and the felt, but for this purpose oil paiut with a basis of Utharge, red

18J0.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

.300

lead or wliite lead is not to be recommended ; for the oxides of lead are, all
of them, especially the second, very easy of decomposition when mixed with
oil and heated. While decomposing, that is, while the oxygen of the lead is
combining with the combustible ingredients of the oil, a considerable increase
of heat is excited, and this may, under favourable circumstances, be so great
as to produce actual combustion of the oil.

In making experiments with the intention of discovering a composition free
from the objections to oU paint, and at the same time cheap, the following
occurred to me, and I liud on trial that it adheres perfectly well when dry to
the surface of iron, and will bear a heat of between 500° and 600° without
material injury ; it also retards considerably the efflux of heat, and will there-
fore, I think, be found a very good protection for the felt. It is made as
follows :^

Take very stiff clay and sand (that of a bright yellow colour is best), dry
them separately at a heat not much exceeding that of boiling water ; reduce

them to powder and pass them througli a moderately fine sifve. Of the sond
take four measures, and of the clay two measures, and mix tliem well ; then
add one measure of linseed meal, and one measure of horse dung, mixing them
with the other ingredients as accurately as possible. Pour into any con-
venient vessel boiling hot water, and shake into it the above composition by
small quantities at a time, observing that the last added quantity is thoroughly
soaked Iiefore another is jjut in ; there will thus be obtained a slippery semi-
gelatinons mass whicli is best applied to the surface of the boiler by means of
a trowel.

The first layer snould be very thin, ami care must he taken that it does not
slip down while wet, when it has become dry it will adhere firmly, and if its
surface is left ratlier rough, the second layer may be applied without any
hazard of its slipping.

A. AlKIN.

7, Bloomsbury Square, Aug. 6, 18-10.

TABLE No. T.

Dttail of Coals consumed and water evaporated in the course of 72 experiments, daring which there were 4275 bushels of coals consumed, 1287 tons and

8 cvvts. of water evaporated.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7 j 1

2

3 14

5 1

6

7

id

o c

.S.a
a s

-1

■si

.2 S
P (a

111

SO g

a °

5->, i

<a o f

State of Boiler.

o

r ^

.2 a

-1-4

o ,-,■

I" 1

1

fcD «i c 1

§.^ i-

M ,„ .o a.

*5 Oj

State of Boiler.

Hours.

Bushls.

Cwts.

Degs. of
Fab re n.

lours.

Bushls.

Cwts.

Degs. of

lOi

65

357

74-8 -

11}
11}

61

02

375

368

92-4 -
92-2

lOJ
lOi
lOJ
101
lOi

63
63
64
62
64

357
357
357
354
360

76-6

79-0
83-6
85-2
80-3

Boiler, steam pipes and
flues exposed or not
clothed.

11}

lOi
10}
11}

62
59
54
53

368
344
319
314

91-2

87-0
87-4
8-)-7

Boiler and steam pipes
clothed with 2 coats of
Borradaile's patent
felt.

V.

6

66}

351

2088

89-5 -

I.

6

62i

381

2142

80-9 •

11}
11}

54
52

318
312

83-5 -
83-5

1

lOi

63

366

86-3

1

10^

63

376

86-7

11}

51

305

85-4

1

1

10^
lOi

63
62

362
357

85-0
851

11}
11}

52
53

307
316

85-0
86-3

Boiler and steam pipes
clothed with 3 coats of

1
1

lOi
104

63
63

369
364

84-9
84-7

Boiler and steam pipes

11}

Hi

52
51

314
313

87-5
90-0

Bonadaile's patent
felt.

1

m

64

375

85-6

j" clothed with 3 coats of

11}

50

312

90-7

1
1

lOf
lOJ

62
61

360
356

85-1
80-3

hop sacking.

VI

8

90

415

2497

86-4

1
1

lOf
lOf

63
63

375
376

87-0
88-0

•

11}
11}
11}
11}
lU

55
56
55
54
54

341
355
347
339
337

94-0 "

92-6

90-1

904

95-3

II.

11

116f

690

4036

85-8

1

10}

60

346

89-0

1

10*

61

383

89-0

111
12

54

345

94-8

1

lOi

60

368

910

53

339

93-3

1

lOi

57

353

94-2
92-6

12

54

338

92'0

Boiler and steam pipes

1

10}

61

341

12

54

336

93-2

clothed with 3 coats

1

10}

62

387

99-3

11 J

55

361

95-3

Y and flues round boiler,

1

11

62

361

97-7

Boiler and steam pipes

14i

72

439

96-5

with 1 coat of Borra-

1

1

11

11*

64
65

378
389

98-6
97-5

clothed with 5 coals of
hop sacking.

11}
11}

57
59

361
370

95-2
95-0

daile's patent felt.

1
1

Hi

IH

63
65

387
387

97-8
96-8

11}

Hi

58
60

371
380

93-4
94-2

1

Hi

65

375

95-8

11}
iif

63

393

94-4

1

IH

64

373

93-5

Boiler and steam pipes

63

376

95-0

HI.

13

142}

809 4828

94-9

VII.

17

202^

976

6128

93-8

1
1

11}
11}

64
65

382
383

95-0
95-7

11}
Hi

58
58

364
366

92-0
93-3

1

11}

63

380

94-3

, clothed with 1 coat of

11}

57

359

953

Boiler and steam pipes

clothed with 4 coats

y and top of flues with

1

11}

«3

380

93-4

Borradaile s patent
felt.

11}

11}

57
56

359
354

92-3
90-3

IV.

4

45

255

1525

94-6

11}

56

351

92-3

2 coats of Borradaile's

11}

56

351

88-4

patent felt.

1

vm

7

82}

398

2504

92-0

370

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[November.

TABLE No. II.

A summary of experiments detailed in Table I., and also showing the lbs. of water evaporated per lb. of coals, and cubic feet evaporated per 112 lbs. of coals

from 212° Fahrenheit.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

Cubic feet

of H aler

that would

Proportion-

Mean tem-

Cubit feet

have been

ate saving by
the increase

Refe-

Number

Duration

Quantity

Weight of

perature of

M'aler

of water

evaporated
by 112 lbs.

rence to

of

of

of coals

nater

water be-

evaporated

evaporated

of evapora-

State of Boiler.

Table

Experi -

Experi-

consumed.

evaporated.

fore evapo-

by 1 lb. of

by 112 lbs.

of coals, ii

tion 15 28

No.

ments.

ments.

Bushels.

tion.

coals.

of coals.

the initial
tempera-
ture had
been 212°.

cubic feet
being =100.

Hours.

Cwts.

Fahrenheit

Lbs.

Cubic feet.

I.

6

621

381

2142

80 9°

7*496

13 43

15 28

100

{

Boiler steam pipes and flues exposed, or
not clothecf.

II.

11

1161

690

4036

85-8°

7799

13-97

15F3

103 0

Boiler and steam pipes clothed with 3
coals of hop sacking.

III.

13

\m

809

4828

94-9°

7 957

14-25

16 00

104-7

-

Boiler and steam pipes clothed with 5
coats of hop sacking.

IV.

4

45

255

1525

94-6°

7973

14-28

16 04

1C5

•

Boiler and steam pipes clothed with 1
coat of Borradaile's patent telt.

V.

6

66J

351

2088

89-5°

7-931

1421

16 04

105

"

Boiler and sicam pipes clothed with 2
coats of Borradaile's patent felt.

VI.

8

90

415

2497

86 4°

8022

1437

1627

1064

{
{

Boiler and steam pines clothed with 3

coats of Borradaile s patent lelt.
Boiler and steam pipes clothed with 3

VII.

17

202*

976

6128

93-8°

8371

15 00

16 86

1103

coats and flues round boiler with 1 coat

of patent felt.

(

Boiler and steam pipes clothed with 4|

VIII.

7

82i

398

2504

92 0°

8-388

15 03

16 93

1108

{

coats and top of flues with 2 coats of
Borradaile's patent felt.

TABLE No. IV.

A summary of experiments detailed in Table No. III., and also showing the strokes per minute, power of engine, and water consumed per hour per horse

power under difl'erent states of clothing.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

Height of

Number of

Water eva-

Proportional

diminution in

the*-ater

Saving

Refe-

Number

Duration

Weight

.Strokes

column of

strokes

Effective

porated per

required per

efieeted

rence to

of

of

of water

made by

vvaterunder

made by

power of

hour to

hor6e's power

by cas-

State of Cylinder.

Table

experi-

experi -

evapo-

engine.

which the

engine per

engine.

produce one

per hour

ing the

No. 111.

ments.

ments.

rated.

engine
worked.

minule.

horse
power.

■828 of a

cubic foot

being=115.

cylinder
&c.

Hours.

Cwts.

Feet.

horsepower

Cubic feet.

I.

6

73

2282

48381

105-2

1104

67 59

.828

115

100

I

Cylinder, steam jacket, and steam

pipes exposed or not covered.

f
1

Cylinder, steam jacket, and steam

II.

7

82J

2504

55555

1058

11 -25

69-26

-787

109 3

105 7

pipes clothed with 4 coats of

Borradaile's patent felt.

f

Cylinder, steam jacket, and steam

III.

5

58|

1G76

39602

106 0

11-23

69-27

737

102-3

IT' 8

pipes clothed with 4 coats, and

i

cylinder cover with one cjat

of Borradaile's patent felt.

(

Cylinder, steam j icket. and steam

IV.

4

47

1.339

3IS18

106 7

11-28

70-04

•728

101-1

113-9

{

(

pipes, cylinder cover and steam
nozzle clothed with 4 coats of
patent felt.
Cylinder, steam jacket, and steam
pipes, and cylinder cover and

V.

5

58J

1608

39901

107-2

1136

7087

•720

100

115

1

steam nozzle clothed with four
coats of patent felt covered with
green baize oil cloth.

1840.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

371

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TABLE No. III.

Detail of water evaporated and strokes made by engine in the course of 23
experiments, during which the engine made 215,257 strolces.

1

2

3

4

5 1

6

"3 c
? 2 s

"Mg 0

-S & ft

0 ■^.-a ft

Average pres-
sure shown by
gauge during
each Experi-
ment.

State of Cylinder.

Hours.

lU

14i

m

111
11*

Cwts.

361
439
361
370
371
380

7484
9739
7820
7712
7950
7676

Feet.

104-9
105-1
105-3
105-3
105-1
105-6

Cylinder, steam jacket,
and steam-pipes ex-
posed or not clothed.

Cylinder, steam jacket,
and steam pipes
clothed with 4 coats
of Bonadaile's patent
felt.

Cylinder, steam jacket,
and steam pipes
clothed with 4 coats
and cylinder cover
with 1 coat of Borra-
daile's patent felt.

~, Cylinder, steam jacket,
and steam pipes, cy-
linder cover & steam
nozzle clothed with 4
coats of Borradaile's

■' patent felt.

Cylinder, steam jacket,
steam pipes, cylinder
cover and steam noz-
zle clothed with four
coats of Borradaile's
patent felt, covered
with green baize oil
cloth.

I.

73

2282

48381

105-2

11*
11*
11*
11*
11*
11*
11*

364
366
359
359
354
351
351

8218
7748
7928
8012
7909
7790
7950

105-5
105-5
105-7
104-5
105-4
108-3
106-6

II.

82i

2504

55555

105-8

11*
11*
11*
11*
11*

331
326
329
342
348

7885
8018
7819
7860
8020

106-8
105-2
106-3
106-0
106-1

III.

58f

1676

39602

106-0

11*
11*
11*
11*

336
336
335
332

7953
7811
8015
8039

106-3
107-0
106-7
107-0

IV.

47

1339

31818

106-7 -

11*
11*

lU
11*
11*

344
327
332
334
331

7804
8044
7852
8104
8097

107-3 "

107-1

107-1

107-4

107-4

V.

58J

1668

39901

107-2

COMPETITION DESIGNS.
Mr. Sparke in reply to K. P. S.

Sir — In yournumber of this present month appeared a letter signed
K. P. S., containing a charge against the persons who are engaged in
building a New Church in this town. I have to request that you will
give insertion in your forthcoming number to some observations in
reply to those charges.

Your correspondent K. P. S. i-efers to a letter, dated Oct. 29, 1839,
addressed by the Subscribers to the New Church to six Architects, in-
viting them to send designs for the proposed building, upon certain
terms therein specified.

This letter is designated by K. P. S. as "most offensive." But
surely it is impossible to conceive that the subscribers* intended an

* K. P. S. criticizes the expression '• Subscribers,'" and says " the business
\\3.i of course unducted by a committee." He is as ill informed on this as

offence to the gentlemen with whom they sought communication. The
letter indeed contained a clause, obliging the architect, whose design
should be selected to carry the work into execution for the specified
sum of £3,000, if required by the subscribers so to do. The sub-
scribers, however, learnt that this arrangement was contrary to the
practice of the profession, and therefore they at once altered the terms
of the proposition to meet the wishes of the architects, who [so far
as the subscribers are informed] were perfectly satisfied with the
terms as amended, to which they all assented.

Let me now address myself to that point which has led the sub-
scribers to think it proper to take notice of this letter of K. P. S.,
namely, the charge of bad faith towards the architects.

The substance of this complaint is, that the subscribers selected a

on other points connected with this church. The subscribers at large, and
not a committee transacted the business K. P. S. speaks of. The building
committee was not appointed till after the design was selected.

372

TFIE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[NoVKMBKn.

design, tlie execution of wliioli will cost £700 or .£750 more tluiii the
sum mentioncil in the instructions given to the architects.

Yuur correspondent K. V. S. says, "having selected the design, the
subscribers proceeded to receive tenders for its execution; and it
having been whispered that the estimates of the builders greatly ex-
ceeded the stipulated sum, the result was — not that the subscribers
rejected the design and chose another — but that the tenders were re-
turned to the builders unopened, and the designs referred back to the
architect, for the purpose of being altered, so as to bring it within the
means of the subscribers."

This statement is totally at variance with the truth. The first ten-
ders were not retarne(i to the builders, and the design was not referred
back to the architect for the reason stated. This course was taken
solely on account of an objection to the mode of constructing the roof,
made by the lncorpori<ted Society for building Churches; and the ob-
jection of the Society was communicated to the subscribers after the
first tenders were received.

Your correspondent proceeds, "how the subscribers have fulfilled
the conditions they dictated, may be seen bv the following statement:
The acce[)ted tender amounted to £35.')U in round numbers."

This .Sir, is not in accordance with the fact: the sum for which the
Church is to be completed is i;3,3.;>3.

K. P. S. continues, "in addition to this, extra foundations, to the
amount of A' 150 to ^6200, were found to be necessary, not inconse-
quence of any unforeseen difficulty, such as might arise from the nature
of the soil, \'c."

The fact. Sir, is, that the " extra foundations were required by the
nature of tlie soil." It was necessary to remove a very considerable
body of earth lor every part of the foundations, and in the site of the
tower, the ground was excavated to the depth of 13 feet ; and the
foundations was made of the best concrete, comprised of lime and
gravel, brought from a distance of nearly .3 miles.

" The cost of the building," continues K. F. S., " is therefore to be
from £3,70U to £3,75U."

This inference is very far from the truth. The sum for which the
Church is be completed is, as i have before observed, £3,353. But
from this gross sum is to be deducted the amounts of the drawback on
the duties ujjon the customable and exciseable materials used in the
building, as was expressly stated in the directions to the architects in
the letter dated Nov. 30," 183H. This drawback is estimated at £3)0.
The tost of the Church, therefore, will amount as nearly as possible
to £3,000, the sum w hich the subscribers have always stated that they
intenderl to expend.

K. P. S. continues, "neither plastering nor painting are included in
the contract."

This is opposed to the fact. The walls indeed are not to be plas-
tered, but all the plastering which the subscribers think ht to do, tn iii-
ciudtd in the contract; and so also is the painting.

K. P. S. continues, "instead of G50 sittings in pews on the ground
floor, there are but 360 ; ISO more in open seats, and tl;e remainder
on benches."

The subscribers have thought fit to substitute for pews of tliree dif-
ferent widths, seats of uniform width throughout the body of the
Church, some olose pews, some open pews, and along the middle aisle,
benciies.

K. P. S. continues, " instead of stone quoins, there is not an atom of
stone in the building but what may be indispensable."

This statement also is opposed to truth. There is much more stone
in the building than would have been indispensable in making stone
quoins : all the weatherings are of stone, as are also the string courses.
K. P. S. continues, "the window jambs, Szc, are of moulded brick,
not gauged brick, but bricks from the kiln, with good % joints between
them. The side roofs are to be covered with zinc."

1 have only to observe that there was nothing in the instructions to
the architects which rendered it improper to build in the way that has
been adopted.

K. P. S. continues, " the side walls are 2a bricks thick, but, to save
materials, are built hollow, the construction of the rest of the building
being in strict keeping."

The inference which an incautious reader might be induced to adopt
from this statement, would perhaps be this — that the walls are hollow
throughout. Nothing coulil be further from the fact. There are no
diambers, but in those parts of the walls where there is little weight
to be supported. In the latter part of the last clause, K. P. S. has
been more guarded and prudent than in the rest of his letter, because
it is only an insinuation, and therefore does not admit of any direct
contradiction.

K. P. S. continues, "whether all this is quite acting up either to tlie
letter or the spirit of the instructions of the Incoijioraled Society, may
admit of a doubt at least."

The doubt. Sir, is soon resolved ; for the subscribers have the ap-
probation of the Incorporated Society testified by the signature of
their secretary upon the plans ; and indeed the q\iantity of materials
used in the walls is greater than is required by those approved plans.

" It will admit of a doubt," continues K. P. S., " whether a building
with bare walls of ordinary brick, and fittings of naked deal inside, can
be exactly said to maintain an ecclesiastical character."

How far the New Church can be said to maintain an ecclesiastical
character, must be a matter of taste of opinion; but it is believed tlrat
no one has seen the designs of Mr. Ranger, the architect, without ad-
miration of their beauty and their perfect ad.iptation to the purposes
for which the building is required; and that no one has seen the
building itself, so far as it has already been executed, without appro-
bation of the mode in which the work is done.

So great a discordance between the statements of K. P. S. and the
facts of the case, the subscribers conceive can only have arisen from
this cause — that K. P. S. has seen neither the contract nor the build-
ing, and therefore neither knows what has been done, nor what it is
intended to do. He might have seen both by applying either to me,
or to the clerk of the woiks, and he is quite welcome to do so when-
ever he pleases.

I am, Sir, your obedient servant,

J. Sparke, Hon. See.

Bury St. Edmund's, Oct. 10, 1S40.

RANGELEY'S SAFETY ROTATION RAILWAY.
C IFith an Engraving, Plate XVII.^

In' the September nnmber of our Journal we gave a short descriptioti
of this invention, and also in the present number will be found an ab-
stract of a paper read at the British Association, but as we thought
many of our readers might feel interested in the proposed novel mode
of transit, we have prepared tlie accompanying plate illustrative of
the subject, and wdiich, with the following description, will fully enable
our readers to judge of its ])racticabiUty.

This system consists in the adoption of two parallel lines of fixed
wdieels along the proposed road, at any moderate gauge, and at a short
distance longitudinally from centre to centre of each wheel. These
are termed the bearing wheels, which, together with a double pulley,
are cast or keyed on to a common axle marked d and e in the engrav-
ing. The axles of these bearing wheels and pullies work in plummer
blocks c, fixed on to cast-iron beds or bearing frames b, wdiich are pro-
posed to be in V2 feet lengths, and secured to three wood sleepers and
to each other in the way shown in fig. 3 ; but to prevent elevating
these iron beds much above the surface of the ground, a chamber of
masonry or iron is necessary to enable the bearing wheels to revolve
free from obstruction. Over every pulley is passed an endless band
working into the adjoining pulley each way, so that for any distance
that the road may be carried there would be an equal distance of band,
but in a series of lengths, equal to the distance from each other, of
pulley from pulley. Having proceeded so far in our description, we
will now explain the method of action : — A steam engine, water wheel,
or other motive power being connected with the pullies at each end of
such a series of wheels, and motion given thereto, it would in a short
time communicate it throughout; and each wheel revolving in the
same direction, it is evident that any body placed on the upper peri-
phery of the wheels, so that it could not quit the track, would be in a
short time carried from one end to the other, and in greater or less
time according to the greater or less rapidity with which the wheels
revolve.

By referring to figs. I and 2, it will be perceived that the carriage
is without wheels, and in fact a kind of sledge; an iron rail is fixed in
the underside of the bearing frame to prevent the rapid wear which
would otherwise take place from the friction of the wheels in pro-
gressing the carriage.

The safety of this mode of transit arises from a considerable portion
of the carriage depending between the wheels, and which is termed
the baggage box k, and the steady motion of the carriage will in a
great measure depend on the load which may be stowed therein. To
prevent lateral friction against the wheels on beds, guide wheels are
fixed at each end of the baggage box, which will prevent the carriage
at any time from quitting the track, ami also assist in its passage round
corners; a break at each end (for regulating the speed, or stopping
the carriage, by slightly raising it, and of course diminishing the fric-
tion or bite of the wheels on the carriage), is shown in figs. 1 and 2,

RANGELEY'S PATENT SAFETY ROTATION RAILWAY.

Sc«U of V

t\o -l

Fig 3

T.g4

^M^ AV*r<t.

1840.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

373

CANDIDUS'S NOTE-BOOK.
FASCICULUS XX.

I must Iiave liberiy
Withal, as large a cliarter as tlic winns,

To blow on whom I please/'

I. It is somewhat odd that those who profess so greatly to admire
St. Paul's, Covent Garden, should not have cared to aim at the same
kind of effect, as regards one peculiarity in it. It is almost doubtful,
however, whether the circumstance alluded to has been taken into
account at all, since it has never been especially pointed out, as de-
serving to be noted and studied. What I mean is, the projection of
the pediment as seen in profile, and the bold shadows — or rather depth
of shadow in the tympanum of the pediment. Perhaps I shall be told
that this is a circumstance attending the peculiar kind of entablature
and cornice there employed, and (hat consequently the same effect cannot
be obtained in the pediment of a portico whose columns are of the Gre-
cian Doric, or Ionic order. Most \mdoubtedly not, if we ai-e deter-
mined merely to copy Grecian authorities, yet not only so slavishly,
but so blindly, as not to study such modifications of the originals as
shall in some degree give us a tolerable equivalent for what is un-
scrupulously abandoned in the professed copy, however essential it
may be to resemblance. There is no occasion whatever for impover-
ishing Grecian architecture, yet we do so continually without the
slightest compunction, making naked entablatures and pediments, with
scanty cornices, absolutely slarving our buildings, yet congratulating
ourselves all the while on the classicality and purity of our taste, and
fancying that we are perfectly Grecian, whereas we are no better than
architectural paupers, dressed up in old finery of which the trimmings
and embroidery have been cut away.

II. Should future generations form their ideas of Grecian architec-
ture from our modern English imitations, prodigious will be their
wonder at the praises bestowed upon it; for they will be greatly
puzzled to discover in them any of its spirit, or any adherence to its
principles — aught of refined taste and artistical feeling. In his recent
work on Kannt-Sinnhilder, Menzel makes some remarks on the ancient
orders and the modern versions of them, that architects would do well
to take into consideration. He condemns the recipes and prescriptions
for making Doric, Ionic, &c., given by Vignola, Palladio, Serlio,
Scamozzi and others, as leading only to the most servile and blind
imitation of the patterns so set, and which are certainly not the very
best in themselves. Of even the very best examples, too, the con-
tinual repetition not only becomes wearisome in itself, but also tends
to check all invention in design, — at least as regards detail, and so far
degrades the architect from an artist to a mere parrot or automaton.
Yet in this as in other matters over-strictness is apt to lead to the
opposite extreme of licentiousness : and those who would be shocked
at the idea of any innovation in Greek detail, even though it were
perfectly in accordance with Greek feeling, feel no scruple whatever
in reverting for the sake of variety, to such deformities as the Italian
Ionic, — which would be reckoned positively detestable after Greek,
were it not, that tliere is precedent for it, and it is not an invention of
our own. Out upon the sii'Vitm ptcias of pedants, whose dislike to
originality arises from their own incapacity to originate any thing
whatever, and who therefore bolster up their own imbecillity by a
most convenient veneration for precedent. — In the grounds of Mr.
Anderson's villa in the Regent's Park, there has lately been executed
a small building, the capitals of whose columns would scandalize such
pseudo-Zegitimatts, for the very reason that they must charm every one
whose taste is any thing better than mere prejudice. Ionic in charac-
ter, though unlike any existing exam|)le, they display genuine artisti-
cal feeling, and a perfect knowledge of arcliitectural principles with a
thorough contempt for ready-made architectural patterns, and for those
who make use of them. By all means, let the Institute procure a cast
of that capital ; and were the two Professors of Architecture to do so
likewise, they might get from it something they now seem to be terri-
bly in lack of.

III. In an article on Modern Churches, British Critic, No. LII, there
are many remarks worth attending to, and among others what is there
said in regard to the excessive quantity of light admitted into churches
generally, in consequence of painted glass having been destroyed or
removed from the windows of the older buildings, and its not being in-
troduced into those of modern ones, notwithstanding that the apertures
are made as large, and the spaces between them as narrow, as if it were
intended to damp the light, and hinder the effect of rawness generally,
by glazing the windows with rich material. " Nearly all our ancient

churches," says the writer, " from the cathedral to the smallest oratory
are now considerably overllghted. They are not now seen in their
proper dress; but arc like the face of nature in winter without leaves
or flowers. Thus the interior of Salisbury Cathedral is as light as the
open air ; nay, in a sense, it is lighter ; for out of doors, there, is an in-
finite variety of light and shade, and still greater variety of hue ; but
in that building, as reformers and puritans have left it, there is no
relief, no repose : with inconsiderable exception, all is one equally
monotonous, shadowless, colourless medium : nothing recedes, nothing
stands out. The proportions suffer ; for neither height nor length are
felt in the glaring mass of day-light. — The cathedral is reduced to one
great airy room. The aisles are no longer depths of shade ; the lofty
pillars and arches no longer stand out in bold relief, bathed in copious
streams of light and colour from the high clerestory windows, every
stone from the vaults above to the pavement under our feet seeming
instinct with life." — "Our churches having been nearly all built or
altered with a view to paiuted glass, as soon as this essential part of
their plan was destroyed, there was immediately found to be double
or treble the quantity of aperture sufficient for light. In spite of bad
glass, windows wholly or partially blocked up, curtains, galleries, and
staircases, lofty screens, and all the other numberless accretions of the
last three centuries, they are still greatly too light. The restorations
of the present age, by opening windows, substituting larger panes of
clear white glass, clearing away heavy screens and partitions, and
lowering pew-walls, have in fact accidentally increased the evil, and
rendered the glare of our churches, especially those of the later styles,
quite intolerable, not only to the mental feeling, but to the bodily
eye."

IV. In speaking of Vestries, the writer just quoted is of opinion
there is little occasion for them in country churches. Such a place
"is useful of course to the crack preachers of the metropolis, some of
whom sit there and comfoii themselves during the service, that they
may come forth fresh as giants to the event of the day — the sermon."
It is said also that Dr. Parr used to illustrate his attachment to rural
psalmody, by "smoking in Me «s/ry during the performance of the
choir"! Considering the character of the publication in which the
article appears, these remarks are somewhat freely satirical, though
certainly not without foundation ; for I myself have been in an exceed-
ingly snug vestry, where there was a delightful blazing fire, and every
thing vastly coiiifortable indeed, so much so that I should have mis-
taken it for the parson's own parlour, had not the sash windows been
much higher up from the floor than they are in modern houses; which
certainly did not diminish the appearance of comfort, inasmuch as it
aftbrded comfortable assurance that there was no danger of any one's
accidentally peeping in.

V. Whether I be censured or not for my last comment, the passage
which I shall now quote from the same writer, is so excellent, that I
shall be thanked for here introducing it. — " Mere novelty is not origin-

■ ality. Many things have never been done ; some things have never
been thought of, simply because they are unnatural and out of the way.
True origmality is a power of invention or discovery ; but whether
employed in the regions of science or of poetry," for of art) " it only
discovers or invents what is, in some sense, natural and true. It does
not so much make new ideas, asjiiid what have escaped the minds of
others. It conceives ideas which strike us at once as having a sort of
self-evident propriety and beauty. Its creations are at the same time
like and unlike what we know already, — like, in that they accord with
our existent taste and notions ; — unlike, in that they seem each to have
an individual essence." — This last expression, indeed, is not altogether
a happy one : perhaps it would be better to say — unlike, in that some
new modification is presented to us, for which there is no actual pre-
cedent, but which recommends itself so strongly, and withal appears
so obvious that we wonder no one should have hit upon it before.

VI. Shall I venture to quote another observation from the same
source? Yes; for what the writer says in regard to the notion of
Grecian architecture requiring greater attention to study and rules
than Gothic does, is well worthy of attention. " There cannot be a
greater mistake. Gothic architecture appears less formal and less re-
gular than its ancient rival, only because it embraces more elements of
calculation, — because it has more forms and rules of art." True, most
true ! A person may go through the whole of Grecian architecture —
may learn all the Five Orders, secundum artem, in less time than he
can make himself acquainted with the varieties of Gothic doors or
windows, or any other single feature belonging to that style. Car-
penter's Gothic indeed, — or even the Jemmy-Wyatt Gothic is a dif-
ferent matter ; — that is regular enough, all done by rule without any
study, and therefore regularly bad, or at least insipid.

3 E

374

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[November,

ON LONG AND SHORT STROKE STEAM ENGINES.
By John Seaward, C. E.

A ))oinilui- notion has for a considerable timfi ]);>.st prevailed, that a
long stroke engine is much superior to a short stroke engine ; and it
will consequently be found lliat the practice of most, if not all engineers,
is greatly regulated by this idea. On very careful consideration, how-
ever, it does not appear that this alleged superiority can be satisfac-
torily proved. That a long stroke engine, under certain circunistancrs,
may be much more advantageously emi)loyed than a sliort one, is un-
doubtedly true, but considering the steam engine ptr se, that is without
reference to adventitious or extraneous circumstances, it would be
difficult to show that the former has any advantage whatever over the
latter.

For let a careful comparison be made of a long stroke engine with a
short stroke eneine ; let there be two beam engines of thirty liorses
power eacli, both equally well made, but the one having a stroke of
eight feet, while the stroke of the other is only four feet, the cylinder
of the latter being double the area of that of tiie former ; it being un-
derstood that both engines shall make the satjie number of revolutions
per minute ; tlje steam passages and valves to be of the same area and
capacity ; and the two engines in all other respects to be well propor-
tioned and made without any limitation as to space or weight.

Now as regards the mere mechanical effect of the moving power
0'. e. of the steam) it is jjerfectly clear that it must be precisely the
same in both engines, because the same volume of steam must produce
the same mechanical effect whether it is let into a long narrow cylinder
or into a short wide one ; therefore, if there be found any difference
ill the efficient duty or economical working of these two engines, that
difference must arise from circumstances quite unconnected with the
mechanical effect of the steam power.

The only circumstances which really can make any essential diffe-
rence in the efficient duty or economical working of these two engines
are these : — First, the greater or smaller quantity of friction in the
various jiarts of the machines. Second, the greater or lesser radiation
of heat from the cylinders and passages; third, the greater or smaller
loss of steam bv the clearance of the piston at the top and bottom of
the cylinder. Fourth, the inertia and the impulse of the parts of the
machine in motion on the surrounding air.

First, then of the/iictioii. It will be found in the working of a well
made engine of the proportions of the short stroke engine under com-
parison, that more than four-fifths of the whole friction are due to the
packings of the piston and air pump bucket, and of the piston rod and
bucket rod,* and less than one-fifth to the main gudgeons, the end
gudgeons, the crank pin and other moving joints about the engine.
But the friction of the piston packing will vary as the circumference
of the piston, multiplied into the distance which the piston travels.
Now in the long stroke engine the piston supposing it to be 30 inches
diameter, will move eight feet, and the friction of the packing be
therefore as 24, while in the short stroke engine the piston will be
about 42-4 inches diameter, will move only four feet, while the friction
of the jiacking will be only as 17. In the same way it can be shown
that the friction caused by the packing of the air pump bucket, of the
piston rod, and of the bucket rod, is also respectively in the ratio of
24 to 17, in the two engines. With respect again to the friction due
to the main and end gudgeons, cSrc, it is clear that it will be less in the
long stroke engine, because in the latter engine, the force acting upon
these parts will be one-half what it is in the short stroke engine. As-
suming therefore lUO to be the whole quantity of friction in an ordinary
engine then, SO of these parts in the short stroke engine, will be due
to the piston, air |iunip, bucket, &c., while in the long stroke engines
the friction of these parts will be as 1 13 that is = f^ X SO, but the
friclion on the main and end gudgeons in the former engines will be as
20, and in the latter only 10, making the total friction in the short
stroke engine 100, and in the long stroke engines 123, or one-fourth
more.

Second. — The radiation of hat will be in proportion to the extent
of surface, but the surface of the long stroke cylinder, is much greater
than that of the short cylinder, whence it follows that the loss by radia-
tion in the former, must be greater than in the latter.

Third. — The cliuruvce (if the pinton at the top and bottom of the
cylinder, which will evidently be greater in the short stroke engine
than in the long stroke engine. Because the area of piston in the
former is double that of the latter, some persons would be disposed to
say, that the loss by clearance in the former must be double what it is
in the latter ; but this is not quite certain, for it is not required to give
so much clearance in a 4 feet stroke cylinder as it would be advisable

'llic friction of the slide is nut included, as that «ill obviously be the
same in both engines. .See remarkb on Friction at the end.

to give in an 8 feet stroke cylinder, the reason of which is obviously
that the spring and elasticity of the parts in the long stroke engine,
must be much greater than in the short stroke engine, and that they
must therefore require more clearance. However, it is probable that
there would be more loss in the latter engine than in the former.

The loss of steam by filling the passages and nozzles, as also by the
radiation of heat from those parts, must evidently be the same in both
engines.

Fourth. — The inertia and impulse of the muring parts on the sur-
rounding air. The loss in a steam engine occasioned by tliese two
causes may not be very considerable ; indeed as regards what is called
tlie inertia of matter in the moving parts, it is doubtful wliether any
such source of loss really exists; however if it does exist, it is clear
that the amount of loss must vary in proportion to the momenta of those
jjarts of the machine which are in motion, but as the momenta must be
as the mass of matter in motion mnlti|)lied by the velocity, and as
these are evidently much greater in the long stroke than in the short
stroke engines, (because the parts in the former, are if any thing, of
greater weight than in the latter, and also move at a double velocity,)
it follows that whatever loss may arise from the inertia, must be much
greater (double 0 ill the long stroke engine than in the short stroke
engine. With regard to the loss occasioned by the impulse of the
moving parts on the air ; it must be admitted that in very slow motions
it cannot he very important ; nevertheless with a material increase of
velocity this source of loss becomes serious ; it varies as the extent of
surface of the moving parts multiplied into the square of the velocity;
It is tolerably manifest however that the surface of the moving parts
in the long stroke engine, will be, if any thing, greater than in the short
stroke engine, and that the velocity oi' the former will be twice that of
the latter; therefore the loss by impulse on the air in the long stroke
engine, must be four times that in the shoit stroke engine.

Beside the foregoing causes, it is doubtful whether there are any
others that can produce any material difference in the efficient duty
or economical working of a steam engine ; at least none that can in any
way influence the question now under consideration. In estimating
therefore, the advantages of the short and long stroke engines, we
have in favour of the former a diminution of loss occasioned by fric-
tion, by radiation, by inertia, and by impulse on the air; while on the
other hand, we have in favour of the long stroke engines, a diminution
of loss in the clearance of the piston at the top and bottom of the
cylinder. It may be difficult to strike an exact balance between these
several sources of loss; but there can be no doubt that in a steam en-
gine the loss by friction is much greater than the loss by all the other
causes before mentioned put together; and it is past dispute that the
balance of loss as regards these causes, is decidedly against the long
stroke engine. (The advantages offered by the short stroke engine
as regards diminution of space ami weight, although of vast importance,
are not here adverted to, because they form no part of the immediate
inquiry.)

It may be objected that to select an engine with an 8 feet stroke
and a cylinder of only 22 feet diameter for comparison, is not a fair
proceeding, because an engine of such proportions is unusual ; and it
may be also asked whether, if the principle is further extended by
making the stroke only 2 feet, and again doubling the area of the pis-
ton, wliether the advantage would still be in favour of the short stroke
engine?

To this it may be answered that although an engine of 8 feet stroke
and 22 feet diameter of cylinder, may be unusual in this country, it is
not so in America; in that part of the world, many engines are em-
ployed of very nearly the above proportions, for purposes of steam
navigation ; and in which engines it is not unusual for the piston to
travel at the rate of 300 or 400 feet per minute. Again, as regards
the carrying out of the principle by still farther reducing the length of
stroke, say to two feet, and increasing the diameter of cylinder pro-
])ortionately, say to 5 feet* there is no doubt whatever that such an
engine would have precisely the same mechanical effect as either of
the other two ; but the balance of advantages would be against an en-
gine of such proportions; because it would be verging to an extreme
on one side as much as the 8 feet stroke engine may be thought ex-
treme on the other side. It may, however, be safely affirmed that the
principle applies most powerfully to the case where the diameter of
cylinder is the same as the length of stroke ; because in that case the
proportions are most favourable for the diminution of friction and of
radiation, and offer- the minimum of disadvantage under the several
heads of loss above enumerated.

As it. is manifest, therefore, that in all particulars which more im-
mediately affect the beneficial employment or working of a steam en-
gine, the long stroke has no manifest superiority over the short stroke;
it may appear strange that so decided a preference should have
hitherto been given to the former by the generality of engineers..

1840.1

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

37.5

Perhaps this is chieHy to be attributed to the circumstance of the long
stroke offering on most occasions greater convenience than a short
stroke. Much may be due also to fashion. The earliest application
of steam power was for the purpose of pumping water in the course
of mining operations, and in this sort of work a good long stroke was
found to be attended with considerable convenience and advantage.
In blast engines, and many other of the earlier applications of steam
power, the same result was manifest; the earlier habits and ideas of
engineers were therefore naturally associated with long stroke engines.
Moreover, the earlier manufacturers of steam engines had neither
good machinery nor good workmen; they could neither depend upon
the correctness of their proportions, nor upon the exactness of the
workmanship ; besides, timber and other inefficient materials were
formerlv employed to a considerable extent in the construction of en-
gines; from all which causes imperfections and irregidarities were
numerous in the earlier engines, and they were consequently very in-
efficient. As all these sonrces of imperfection and inefficiency operated
much more extensively against short stroke engines than against long,
it is no wonder that the latter soon obtained a preference, and that
the prejudice should still continue to exist, notwithstanding the same
causes are no longer in operation. At the present day, with our good
materials and workmanship, exact proportions and adjustments, a short
stroke engine will be found to work as accurately and as perfectly as a
long stroke engine.

There is one very important circumstance to be kept in view as re-
gards long and short stroke engines; which is, that whenever an en-
gine of the latter description has hitherto been made, it has always
been considered necessary to keep the cylinder nearly of the same
diameter, as in the long stroke engine, and to cause the engine to make
a greater number of revolutions in proportion to the shortness of the
stroke, so that the piston in every case might travel at a nearly uniform
speed of about 200 feet per minute. Now, to a short stroke engine,
made on this plan, there may undoubtedly be many objections. The
more frequent alteination of the stroke — the greater loss of steam by
the more frequent filling of the passages and nozzles, and the clearance
at the top and bottom of the cylinder — the much greater angular mo-
tion of all the bearings and moving joints, thereby materially increasing
friction and wear — are all circumstances tending to lessen the efficiency
of a sliort stroke engine made iqionthis plan. It is clear however that
an engine made upon the principle, herein before laid down, is not
open to the same objections.

And, as regard the speed of the piston in engines, whatever may be
the length of stroke, being regulated to the uniform standard of about
200 feet per minute, there can be no valid reasons given for such rule ;
no one can prove that double the above speed, or onlv one-half that
speed, might not be employed with equal or greater advantage ; it is
certain that in many steam engines of the transatlantic world the pis-
tons move at a speed of 30'>, tOO, and even as much as .500 feet per
minute, and no substantial reason can be alleged why such engines
should not do good duty ; indeed it may be safely affirmed, that whether
the speed of an engine be 100 feet, ioO feet, or 300 feet per minute,
it matters nothing; provided all the parts of the engines are well pro-
portioned for the pi'oposed speed, the efficient duty and economical
use of the engine will be much the same: keejnng this always in
mind, that the sloic speed mill be more favourable for the easy and plea-
sant working of the engine, and for durability.

This question may however be asked — Since it is shown that the
long stroke has no superiority over a short stroke, but on the contrary
that the balance of advantage is rather in favour of the latter, is it in-
tended to recommend the invariable adoption of a short stioke engine
to the total exclusion of a long stroke '. By no means. All that is
contended for is, that in every case a length of stroke should be adopted
whether long or short that shall prove to be most convenient, and best
adapted to the object for which the engines are to be employed ; and
that an engineer should not be fettered and«ramped by any fallacious
abstract notions, that what is termed a long stroke engine must neces-
sarily be more efficient than an engine with a short stroke ; and that
he should not therefore be obliged to sacrifice many other far more
important considerations, for the sake of obtaining in every case the
longest possible stroke.

The application of steam power fur the purpose of navigation has
had such wonderful results, the character of the steam engine has be-
come so greatly changed, and the proportions so altered, that a marine
engine of the present day, and a land engine of former times can
scarcely be recognised as belonging to the same class of machines.
The length of stroke of marine engines is probably not more than half
what used formerly to be given to engines of similar power for mining
and manufacturing purposes, but still no one can say that this departure
from old rules and maxims has been attended with any disadvantage ;
on the contrary, it can be shown to have been most beneficial and

glorious in its results; and if a slill further departure from old estab-
lished notions can be proved advantageous for steam navigation, we
can have no reason whatever to regret die change.

There is no question that the ordinary beam engine as employed in
steam vessels has proved most efficient, and that in its application it
has been productive of vast benefit. If however, by a modification of
the existing steam engines, these benefits can be still further augment-
ed, and that in an eminent degree, no consideration ought to stand in
the way of the proposed improvements. The great and paramount
objects to be aimed at in the construction of steam engines for navi-
gation are the following, viz., the greatest saving of fuel, the greatest
saving of space, the greatest saving of weight, and the greatest dura-
bility of the machinery. The more eminently the marine engine shall
combine the above important qualities, the more nearly will it have
arrived at perfection ; and much as may be advanced in favour of the
beam engines generally used for marine purposes, it cannot be con-
sidered presumptuous to declare that the system of engines employed
in the "Cyclops" and "Gorgon" Fiigates is far superior in all the
qualities before enumerated.

It only remains to be stated, that the real question is, not whether
the stroke of an engine shall be 8 feet or 4 feet;' but relates to a dif-
ference of stroke, of probably from 7 feet to G feet: that is, whether
the reducing of the stroke of a 200 horse engine one fool, with a pro-
portionate increase of diameter in the cylinder, can be attended with
such injury and inefficiency as shall wholly neutralise or outweigh all*
the important advantages of the Gorgon Engines.

In conclusion, it should be observed that as regards the ordinary
beam engines, there are many circumstances of convenience wdiicli
render it advisable to make the stroke as long as practicable, i. e., the
adopting a tall nan-ow cylinder instead of a short and wide cylinder;
for in the arrangement of the ordinary beam engine for marine pur-
poses, it is evident that a considerable space lengthways is required
for conveniently placing the slide jackets and passages, the condenser,
the hot-well, and the air pump ; this necessarily causes a great elonga-
tion of the side levers or beams; there is therefore much local con-
venience in making the stroke long, and thereby having a tall narrow
cylinder instead of a short wide cylinder, less strain is thrown upon
the beams ; the beams become more close and compact, and afford
more space for a passage between and on the off-sides of the pair of
engines: the cross-heads and fork -heads become shorter, and have
much less strain thrown upon them ; these are all very important con-
siderations which clearly indicate the convenience and possible advan-
tage of having as long a stroke as possible in the ordinary beam engine.
But in the Gorgon Engine none of these considerations have any in-
fluence whatever ; here there are neither beams nor cross heads ; we
can increase the diameter of the cylinder to almost any extent without
any local inconvenience whatever.

We shall conclude these observations with the remark, that as it
cannot be proved that there is any superiority in a long stroke engine,
over a short stroke engine, and as it is also evident that there is no
disadvantage whatever in employing a short connecting rod, it is there-
fore clear that the two objections are decidedly absurd and ground-
less.

Ok the Friction i.\ Steam Exgink.

In the preceding pages we have offered an investigation of the com-
parative merits of the Gorgon, and of the common beam engine; in
the course of our reuiarks it became necessary to advert to the im-
portant subject of friction; it will not therefore be deemed misplaced
to add a few general remarks upon the nature of the friction, vpliich
occurs in a steam engine of the usual construction.

To attempt anything like a correct estimate of the absolute quantity
of friction in an engine, would we conceive be very fallacious, because
there are so many circumstances which affect the quantity of friction,
which are quite bevond the reach of calculation; as for example, the
uncertain degree of tightness to which the several bearings or pack-
ing may be screwed down — the state of the rubbing surfaces, as to
smoothness, polish or roughness — the perfect or imperfect state of the
lubrication, Xrc, all of which are circumstances which have a vast in-
fluence on the quantity of friction in a steam engine. From observa-
tions which the writer has made he is induced to believe, that in a well
made engine, in good working condition, the total amount of friction
does not exceed five or six per cent, on the whole power of the engine ;
but that with no very great change of circumstances this quantity may
be increased readily to as much as 10 or 12 per cent.

It happens however that in the preceding investigation, the con-
sideration of the absolute quantity of friction in the engiue, is not re-
quired ; all that is wanted is on estimation of the relative proportions
of friction which are due to tL> several parts of the engines; now this

3 E 2

376

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[November,

sort of estinialion is not very diflicult, at all events we can arrive at an
approximation siiHiciently near fur practical pnrposes.

For, if we assume tliat all the moving or nibbing surfaces through-
out the engine are equally smooth, that all the packings and bearings
are unifiirnily secured down, that all parts are well lubricated ; then
the comparative quantity of friction in the several parts will be, as the
area of one of the rubbing surfaces, multiplied into the distance which
it moves up on the other rubbing surface.

We obtain tluis the following rules ;—

1. For the relative quantity of friction due to the piston, multiply
the circumference of the piston by the depth of the packing, and by
the distance which the piston moves up and down in the cylinder.

2. For the friction of the main shaft bearings, multiply the square
of the circumference by the length of the bearing.

3. For the friction of those bearings which do not revolve entirely
round, but oscillate backwards and forwards, as the beam, gudgeons,
&c., multiply the area of the bearing into the angular distance moved
backwards and forwards during one revolution of the engine, Sec.

4. It should be observed, however, that when one of the two rubbing
surfaces is hemp packing, the amount of friction will be at least double
what it will be when botli surfaces are metal.

5. Furthermore, there are certain bearings which receive the direct
strain of the engine, while others do not. The following receive the
direct strain, viz. ; the crank pin, the fork head gudgeons, the main
gudgeons, the upper and lower bearings of the side rods ; now the
quantity of friction upon these several bearings will be considerably
more than that which is simply due to the tightening down of the
bearings, as before assumed ; it is difficult to say what may be the in-
crease of the friction from this cause, but it will be safe to assume that
the friction on these bearings will be three times greater than what is
due to the other bearings.

Upon the foregoing principles therefore, is calculated the following
table of the comparative friction of the different parts of an engine,
having a 40-inch cylinder, a 3i-feet stroke, and furnished with the
common D slide.

Table of Comparative Friction of the moving parts of a Steam Engine.
Piston, with lieinp packing 4 in. deep,

2

(rule 4

)

120

.', in. circuui. "|

4

84

in. deep. J-
in. dist. J

2

13

m

circum. T

4J

84

in

in

deep. \
dist. J

2

82

in

cncimi.

3

42

in
in

deep
dist.

2

8

in

circum. 1

3;

42

in
in

deep I
dist. J

2-2

12

in.

circum.

3
42

in.
in.

deep
dist.

15

in.

wide "]

8

in.

2 faces

14

hi.

deep f
dist. J

2

24

in.

eircnin. I

12
14

in.
in.

deep y
dist. J

2

4.'.

in.

circum. l

2A
14

m.
in.

deep \
dist. J

2

25

m.

circum. ]

9
25

in.
in.

length V
dist. J

84-33G

niovinc; a distance of 84 in.

„ „,„ J Pis'"" i"''- hemp packing 44 in. deep,
■^ moving 84 in.

,,..nfn\ Air pump bucket, hemp packing 3 in.
•1 deep, and moving 42 in.

o.-tro\ Bucket rod, henlp packed 3a in. deep.

■\

moving 42 in

P „,„ J Two plunger poles, with
I 3 in. deep, moving 42 i

th hemp packing

10-059

Flat face
1-680

The slide face metal and

metal liack hemp packed.

Back, hemp j- G in. at top, G in. at

8-064

Slide rod
315

bottom, moving 7 in.
each wav.

U-250|^'-^

main shaft bearings moving en-
round metal and metal.

18 in. circiuii.
9 in. deep
18 in. dist.

:■. (rule 5)

2,208.) The hearing at outer end of paddle shaft

lo.V in. circum. 1 ff^ i ■ ■ i- i i

^ . , I i.nni Crank pin, moving entirely round

C in. long > i-62i< .K ' ,, ,. ". , . •^.,

fi ■ d" t I I recemng the direct strain of the en

and
gine.

3-2—

10

in

circum.

3,V

2i

in.
in.

long
dist.

3-2—

10

in

circum.

3J
2i

m
in.

long

dist.

■i-2—

18 in. circmu.

7 in. long

9 in. dist.

{The two fork liead joints moving at an
angle of 45" each way, but receiving
the direct stain of the engine.

side rods same as

fi-804 J The two main gudgeousreceiving the strain
I of the engines and moving 90° each way.

45 in. circum.

13} in. deep ^ 3-543 <j Eccentric ring moving quite round.

45 in. dist.

1000 Sundry small joints.

163 123

Therefore, if it be assumed that the total quantity of friction in a
steam engine is as 103-123, then will the relative quantity of friction
in the several parts be nearly as is represented by the numbers in the
preceding table.

ON THE THEORY OF TOLLS UPON CANALS AND
RAILWAYS.

.Sir — As I am aware that Mr. Ellett's remarks on Canal and Railway
Tolls, extracted in your Journal for September, have attracted some
attention, and have been received as sound and judicious principles by
some persons, who are in a position which enables them to carry out
these principles into practical operation, I beg to offer a few observa-
tions, with the view of pointing out what I conceive to be erroneous in
Mr. Ellett's statement.

Mr. Ellett's object is, so to regulate the charge of toll upon a canal
or railway, as that every part of the country through which the line
passes, near or remote, may derive from the improved mode of con-
veyance the same advantage, an equal share ,of trade. And he con-
tends that this cannot be effected by the system of tolls that generally
prevails, namely, a fixed mileage, or a certain rate per ton per mile ;
and he therefore recommends the adoption of the directly opposite
method, viz., that the lowest charge should be levied on the trade that
is brought from the greatest distance, and increasing grathially as we
approach nearer to the mart or place of consumption, tTiat the heaviest
toll should be charged on that which comes the shortest distance. And
Mr. Ellett then proceeds to show that this plan would produce the
largest trade, (that is, would command the largest extent of country,)
and the greatest amount of revenue.

Now all Mr. Ellett's argument depends upon one little i\ssumption,-
whicli he quietly introduces, without remark or explanation, quite un-
conscious that it contains the grossest fallacy. The market price of
any commodity at the pla^e of consumption may be said to be fixed,
(for our present purpose,) and, in order to obtain a sale for this com-
modity brought by the canal or railway, the cost of production and the
expense of conveyance must not exceed the fixed market price. Mr.
Ellett takes for granted that the cost of production is fixeil also, and on
this rests the whole theory of tolls. " Let us also assume that the cost
of producing this article (lumber) is G dollars per ton," and the market
price being fixed (10 dollars,) he consequently assumes that the ex-
treme cost of carriage which the article can bear, so as to be sold in .
the market, is fixed too, that it must not exceed 4 dollars, in the in-
stance given. But lie assumes also, and it follows in like manner from .
the preceding assumption, that the cost of production is fxed, that the
article can always bear this fixed charge of 4 dollars, that whether the
commodity be brought from near or far, whether it is carried 100 or
400 miles,' it can always bear the full charge of 4 dollars for carriage,
•and cannot, in any case, afford more. And on this assumption Mr.

1840.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

377

EUett builils his theory, — that as the cost of carriage consists of two
parts, the actual expense of conveyance, including the maintenance of
the canal or railway, called the freight, and the profit of the canal pro-
prietors, called loll ; and as the freight must necessarily be directly
proportional to the distance, the toll (their simi being fixed) should be
inversely proportioned thereto.

Even were this principle correct in theory, it would in practice be
exceedingly unjust, and therefore injurious. For nothing can be more
unreasonable tlian that the trade wiiich passes along the canal but 50
miles, should pay three times as much toll as that which comes 150
miles, thus paving actually nine timts its due proportion. Let it be
observed also that Mr. EUett's system is one that can be fully carried
out only on such a canal or railway, as has to sustain no competition
with common roads. On the latter the charges of conveyance will
always be directly proportioned to the distance, and being lowest for
the nearest parts, will of course successfully compete with the canal
or railway, whose toll is here the highest. The maximum charge for
conveyance being 4 dollars, and supposing with Mr. EUett that land
carriage is five-fold more expensive than by the "improvement," it
will, according to the scale given by him, be cheaper than the canal
for the first -10 miles, (one-tenth of its whole length,) and from so much
of the country, therefore the canal will derive no trade. With us the
proportion of the cost of land and canal carriage is much nearer, per-
haps greater than two to one ; and the portion of the country com-
manded by the superior cheapness of laud carriage, under Mr. EUett's
system of tolls, will be proportionately larger. Wherever there is the
competition of another conveyance, on which the charges are made
according to the distance, the inverse system of toll will be impracti-
cable.

Leaving, therefore, for the present, the practical objections to Mr.
EUett's proposed system, I turn again to that which forms the basis of
his whole theory, and wdiich I conceive to be a most fallacious as-
sumption. I am indeed surprised that any one writing upon such a
subject, who ought to have some acquaintance with the principles of
Political Economy, should hazard, or should carelessly make, an as-
sumption so opposed to the mere elements of that science, as well as
to ordinary experience. So far from the cost of production of any arti-
cle being a fixed sum, throughout an extensive district of country, it
is dependent upon, and varies exceedingly with, a great many circum-
stances. Every one knows that there is a difference of prices in many
markets throughout the kingdom, and the price at the place of produc-
tion is, generally, the actual cost of production, added to the usual
profits. For reasons which will be noticed hereafter, the cost of pro-
duction, and consequently, prices differ less in an improved country
like England, than in one possessed of fewer artificial advantages, such
as America or Ireland. But the fact is notorious to every one, that
differences do exist in the expenses of production, at different places,
of commodities of the same quality, and of equal value at the place of
consumption.

The cost of production is made up chiefly of rent, the wages of
labour, and the profits of the producer, (and, in manufactures, of the
price of the raw material.) Rent is well known to vary exceedingly
in different parts of the country, even for lands of the same kind, and
equal fertility. JVages differ too, not oiUy between the manufacturing
and agricultural districts, but also between different districts engaged
in the same occupations. Profits differ likewise, but being nearly in a
fixed proportion to the total cost, they need not be considered sepa-
rately. As, then, the component parts of the cost of production thus
vary throughout the country, their sum, the total cost, cannot be said
to be fixed. Yet Mr. EUett seems to have forgotten these facts, pal-
pable as they are to eveiy man's observation.

There are, however, certain articles whose value is very small, and
the cost of production of which consists merely of the wages of the
labour employed upon it ; and this labour being of the coarsest kind,
its wages vary but little. Of such commodities the expense of pro-
duction cannot differ much, and may be said to be fixed. Such are
stone, lime, and, in a wooded country like America, timber, and per-
haps coal, ores, &c. It is to such products Mr. EUett chiefly applies
his theory, but he does not confine it to them. He intimates that some
other principles come into operation with reference to the more value-
able articles of trade. But as I have not seen his observation on that
part of the subject, and as it appears to me that his principle, if cor-
rect, must be equally applicable to every branch of trade, and as I know
that it has been so interpreted and applied by some of his readers, I
have discussed the subject generaUy, endeavouring to refute the theory
in its application to either division of canal trade. In certain cases,
then, it would appear that Mr. EUett's assumption is correct, that the
cost of production is fixed (or nearly so). But it so happens, that in
these instances, our author's system of tolls would be altogether im
practicable. The commodities are of such little value as to be scare

worth removing, unless at a very small cost; they cannot, in general,
be brought from a distance, the necessary charge for freight, even if
there be no toll, acting as a prohibition ; and to have any trade, even
from the nearest places, you must levy only the lowest rate of toll.
Thus on the Irish Grand Canal the toll on stone is iid. per ton, and on
manure -id. per ton for any distance, — because at higher rates they
would scarcely be carried at all. And here, it is evident, there is no
room for graduation according to Mr. EUett's plan.

But resuming the consideration of the cost of production, where it is
not fixed, let us examine into the causes of the differences that exist ;
why rent is high in one district, and low in another, and why wages
vary so much as they are found to do in different parts of the country.
Of course they all depend upon the economical principle of the rela-
tion of supply and demand. But in the same country, all parts of
which are subject to the same laws and conditions of trade, and all
contribute to the supply of the same great market, this relation be-
tween the supply and demand, that is the different values of rent and
wages in the various parts of this district, depends mostly upon their
respective distances from the place of consumption, and the facilities
of conveyance thither. Near a large town, rent and wages, and con-
sequently the cost of production, are high, because there the great
demand can be most I'asily supplied, and with very little expense for
carriage. Farther off, as the cost of conveying the products to the
markets increase with the distance, both rent and wages are lower.
And if a canal or railroad be made into the country, as it cheapens the
cost of conveyance, and thereby facilitates its supplying the market, it
raises rent and wages, or the cost of local production. Thus the true
state of the case is very different from Mr. EUett's theory. The cost
of production is not fixed ; it is found to depend on the charges for
conveyance, varying inversely with them, (not in the same ratio,) that
is, with the distance. Of course I speak here of the natural charge
for conveyance, which consists of freight only, and is always propor-
tionate to the distance. Such is the cost of carriage upon common
roads, and as these are generally the first modes of conveyance, and
the most universal, it is by the principles and circumstances that relate
to them the cost of production is generally governed. In England the
facilities for transport are so great, and so ecjually diftused throughout
every part of the country, that the difference in the cost of production
in different places is small, as I before mentioned. But in countries
where the improved methods of conveyance are few, the diflerence of
price, or the cost of production, at places at unequal distances from
the market, or not having the same facilities, is often very striking.
In Ireland, the price of potatoes, for instance, is frequently found to
differ to an astonishing degree, in various parts more or less remote
from the large towns ; and the only cause appears to be the expense
of carriage, which being in proportion to the distance, increases or
diminishes the cost of production and the facility of removal.

If, then, the cost of production is found to vary, and inversely with
the distance, the diflerence between it and the market price is not
fixed, but varies directly with the distance ; and the total sum which
the commodity will bear as the cost of conveyance to the market is a
varying quantity, increasing with the distance. The freight, one of
its parts, is proportioned to the distance, and the other portion, the
toll, should also, in general, be regulated by the same proportion.
There are, of course, many circumstances which modify this law, at
least in practice ; but looking at the abstract question, I think that the
theory of tolls, which the principles of economy and the laws that
govern the relations of value and price indicate, is the simple, natural,
and just system of charging according to the distance, in proportion
to the benefit conferred, or to "the value given."

This is not only the true theory, but it is also the only system that
is practicable, wherever there is the competition of common roads ; it
is easy to show that, in all cases, it would be the most profitable sys-
tem also, — the most productive of revenue to the proprietors of the
canal or railway; and at the same time the most impartial, and the
most equally advantageous to every part of the country. Each district
has its own advantages, in which it is superior to the others, and, under
a natural system, its facilities for production and transport are propor-
tioned duly to its means ; while the retrograde principle must have
the effect of encouraging the remoter districts, and depressing the
nearer, — by destroying the natural and equable balance, which prevails
in the social commonwealth.

I cannot trespass on your space. Sir, by entering further on the proofs
that the natural system is also the most productive ; neither could I
do so without introducing diagrams, which would be found to differ
very much indeed from those of Mr. EUett. I shall only add, that I
hold the true and most effectual mode of gaining for a canal or railroad
the largest amount of traile and revenue to be moderate tolls, charged
fairly according to the distance. I am convinced that the charges
upon most canals and railways are much too high ; that considerably

378

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[NOVEMBKR,

lower rates would greatly increase their prosperity, and add vastly to
the resources and commercial facilities of the comitry. Wherever
the experiment of reduction has been tried, I believe it has proved
successful, in augmenting the trade and its profits ; and I have no
doubt that soon the proprietors of many public works will be compelled,
for their own sakes, to resort to such measures; and it is, therefore,
of much importance that the princi|)les of "the theory of tolls" should
be clearly understood; and, conceiving that those advocated by Mr.
EUett are fallacious, unjust, and injurious, I have endeavoured to refute
them, — and regret' that the task has been so feebly and hastily per'
formed.

C. E. B.

ON COMPETITION DESIGNS.

We receive many letters on the suVject of Competition, which are
almost unanimous in complaining of the uttek want of good faith
on the part of those who invite architects to send in designs. And
though we are sorry there should be room for sucli complaint in any
instance whatever, we are glad to find that the evil itself prevails to so
shameful an extent, because it is now likely that the profession will
be stirred up to adopt some dciisive measures to correct it. They
certainly ought to do so ; and we should advise a pubUc meeting to be
convened by them for that purpose. In the meanwhile our own pases
shall be open to the exposure of the impositions now practised under
the mask of Competition; and no doubt, many a strange tale might be
unfolded that would open the eyes of the public to the mysterious
doings of those Secret Tribunals which exercise an arbitrary and irre-
sponsible power, and generally no less injuriously to the interests of
architecture and good taste, than unjustly towards individuals in the
profession.

From among the letters addressed to us on the subject, we give the
three following as being well worthy of the attention of our readers,
though we dare not promise the writers that their remonstrances will
produce any effect.

Sir — The exposure made by your correspondent K. P. S. relative
to the Bury St. Edmund's affair, ought to produce some good effect,
yet that any is likely to result from it is more than can reasonably be
anticipated; for not only are committees — even though composed of
"all honourable men," perfectly callous to any thing like shame, but
there is a sad want of energy in architects themselves, or they
would even now have taken some decided steps to check the scanda-
lous abuses — I may say, the barefaceil impositions and deceptions at-
tending competitions.

If there is positively no remedy for the evils complained, — why
then in the name of common sense let them be endured, without any
pitiful whining on the part of those who choose to lend themselves to
a system of humbug. — Well, I liave said linmhng, and although that
word is certainly not the most delicate, there is hardly another in the
language that would be so appropriate, unless it were one more offen-
sive still. — But remedy i am persuaded there is — at least to a very
great extent, provided we choose to adopt such measures as will secure
it. No doubt, there are many difficulties to be first overcome ; but
that, I conceive is a reason the more, why they should be boldly en-
coimtered, and the task of refonn be set about with fearless resolution.
Such reform ought to iiave been carried through by the Institute ; be-
cause that Body might have taken up the matter actively without
incurring the invidiousness and risk to whicli individuals might ex-
pose themselves by so doing. There was, indeed, an attempt of the
kind, and a most feeble one it was, — amounting to nothing more than
a little palavering. It would therefore have been greatly more to the
credit of the Institute, had the subject never been brought forward at
all ; because now it looks as if the present vile system of competition
was formally acquiesced in by those who ought to leave no stone un-
turned until they correct it. But there have been two other oppor-
tunities which, had they been properly turned to account, might have
gone far towards bringing about the so-nnich-desired reform. As you
will perhaps anticipate, [ allude to the Nelson Monument and Royal
Exchange Competitions, in both ofwliich those \sho engaged in them,
suffered themselves to be more injuriously and contemptuously treated,
without venturing to protest against it. With regard to the first one,
notliing could be a more insulting piece of mockery than the pretended
Second Competition — without any warning on the part of the Com-
mittee, that tliey w ere decidedly in favour of some kind of Column ; —
although the result too plainly shows that they were predetermined to
adopt Railtou's design ; — for had they not been so predetermined, they
would at least have decently expressed their regret that they sliould
have been driven into so particularly awkward a situation, being under

the necessity of coulirming their first choice, though aware that it
would be in opposition to public opinion. No explaniilion, hewever,
was offered — and what is much more, none was demanded by the Com-
petitors.— Pity would be thrown away upon such pu'^illanimous crea-
tures; for they have shown that they deserved to be kicked.

Had a bold and resolute stand been made then, — and the public .
would almost to a man have supported them ; — had they called the
Nelson Committee to account, and let the latter know that they were
not wholly irresponsible ; there can be no doubt but that it would have
served as a most wholesome warning to the Gresham Committee, and
the Royal Exchange competition would have been conducted very dif-
ferently from what it has been. But in that, too, the Competitors have
allowed themselves to be kicked like spaniels; and the authors of the
Eight Designs which obtained the approbation of the professional
umpires, suffered themselves to be set aside, and not permitted to try
their strength again!

Tame, spiritless, pluckless \ they have been served rightly, but THE
CAUSE 1 — that has been most cowardly betrayed. Had those compe-
titors been firm, the Committee would have chaunted Pecca!v»»is in
full chorus. Had not those Competitors been milk-livered the Com-
mittee would have blushed like boiled lobsters. But now. Actum est.'
Peril .' And with such a memorable example — such a fatal precedent
before them, future Committees may laugh at both competitors and
the public. — There is but one chance left : and that is to urge Reform in
Competition, incessantly; to discuss it in every possible shape, and
without intermission; — and, not least of all, to insist in future upon
Pre-exhibition of Designs, — not for merely a day or two, but for suffi-
cient length of time, according to the number of drawings.

I remain, &c.

P. S.

Sir — Apropos to the subject of Competition there is an anecdote
now circulating of so extraordinary a nature that it ought to be either
publicly confirmed, or publicly contradicted. Reporting it, just as I
heard it, the case is this : from among the designs sent in for the Pro-
testant Memorial at Oxford, that by Mr. Blore was tina?iimonslt/ chosen,
consequently whether such selection was actually the very best or not,
it is evident that it was judged to be so by those who made it. But
they afterwards discovered to tlieir astonishment and mortification that
they had clapped the saddle on the wrong horse, for misled by the
name, they had decided in favour of that design, taking for granted
that it was by iJie Mr. Blore who has been employed at Buckingham
Palace, &c. As soon therefore as they detected their error, and ascer-
tained that /heir Mr. Blore was a different individual, and one com-
paratively unknown in the profession, they came to the worthy resolu-
tion of setting aside the design, which had jireviously been approved
of by them merely through mistake .' Is not this a most delicious
anecdote ? Does it not speak volumes as to the sort of discrimination,
and the kind of integrity and good faith, displayed by gentlemen on
such occasions ? And mark you, I pray, this extraordinary tergiver-
sation was not manifested in a paltry hole-and-corner competition in
some obscure town and village, but in — Oxford! — the seat of learning,
and of orthodoxy.

Unless the matter is altogether misrepresented — in which case it
becomes the duty of those who are concerned in it, to clear themselves
from so highly injurious a charge,- Mr. Blore has sufficient grounds
for bringing his action for damages against his quondam judges; and
would no doubt obtain them to a very heavy amount, because he has
not only suffered pecuniarily, but mwy be said to have been stigmatised
in his professional character, having been formally set aside as incom-
petent, consequently placed in a very different situation from the other
misuccessful competitors.

Dtlenda est Carthago: the Humbug and Decejiliou now attending
Competition must be blown up, — the present system must be entirely
reformed ; and as the Institute will not exert itself at all in the cause,
so much the more manfully must individuals do so. The pen and the
press must bring the subject continually before the profession and the
public, until both shall be completely roused : and then, perhaps, when
the needed reform shall have been commenced by others, the Institute
will valiantly prefer their services, and come forward to share in the
merit of the victory.

1 remain, &c.

J. P. M.

o. for this mouth of your excellent Journal, there is
rchitectural Conipetition signed " K. P. S," in which

Sill — In the No.
an article on Architectural (Jompe

some "facts" are detailed relative to that subject, especially as relates
to a church to be built or now building at Berry.

If "K. P. S." was aware of how these matters are managed with
us in Ireland, it might excite his honest indignation still more, as the

1840.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

379

system geiiernUv adopted here is to place all the competition designs
submitted into (he hands of a favonred architect, from which to choose
and model snch plans as the committee may direct, who kindly indulge
the favourite with the necessary time.

It mav be supposed that the writer is a disappointed candidate, and
that this is merely the ebulhtion of his chagrin and mortification from
defeat. Not so ; for having had the benefit of seeing the fate of
others on these occasions, he has invariably steered clear of this
species of competition.

An instance of the flagrant injustice done in this way took place a
short time since, wherein architects were invited by public advertise-
ment to send in plans for an edifice to be erected near Dublin, to be
appropriated as a place of worship. After the plans, &c., had been
sent in, considerable shuffling took place on the part of the committee.
At length, after frequent postponements and delays, it was announced
that none of the designs, in their judgment, were suitable to the re-
quired building, although they numbered upwards of a dozen designs,
some of which were shown to me jn'eviously, and possessed (in my
opinion) very great merit, and were in strict accordance with the
rules laid down in the advertisement. In a short time afterwards the
building was begun, after the design and inspection of an architect
who had not competed, ainl as the building is now nearly completed,
I can, without fear of contradiction, assert that it is a "fac simile" (as
far as I have been able to examine it) of one of the designs I had been
shown, and which was sent in to the committee.

The profession of an architect is completely degraded in Ireland;
for instance, in the erection of any county public building (the archi-
tect, if indeed any be engaged at all) is merely a subordinate to the
county surveyor, who, with very few exceptions, know nothing of our
profession, and until the clause which relates to this subject in the
present Grand Jury Act is remedied, things must remain in this state.
At present every public work is placed in their hands, and, generally
speaking, when anything architectural (or at least what should be
architectural) is to be done, they attempt it themselves, and a prettv
finish they make of it, instances of which are but too numerous.

Again, a paragraph is now going the round of our papers, eulo-
gizing a new Saving's Bank erected in Limerick, " by Sir Thomas
Deane, the Eminent Architect, the progress of the work wan superin-
tended by William H. Owen, Esq., Civil Engineer, rvhose professional
taste and skill are so highly appreciated."

Not wishing to occupy too much space in your valuable journal, I
have merely glanced at some of the strange doings perpetrated here,
which, if properly "shown up," would undoubtedly throw the gi'iev-
ances complained of by K. V. S. into the shade.

I am, Sir,

Yoiu" verv obedient servant,

DMitt, Oct. 12, 1S40. J. A.", Architect.

LAND SURVEYING.

Sir — I should not trespass on your very valuable time, and on the
pages of your most deservedly popular Journal, did I not know that
you make it your study to give publicity to every thing, however
trifling, which may be of use to any member of the profession, whose
interests you so very ably advocate on all occasions. Should this
obtain your approval, your insertion of it will much oblige the writer.

It has, I dare say, occurred to every one engaged in an extensive
survey, that there is a great danger of mistakes taking place in the
change of pins in a long chain line ; as the number of changes or re-
moves must be kept in memory, and one is very likely to become con-
fused if there are a great many of them. To obviate this incon-
venience, I would beg to propose a very simple plan, viz., that the
leader should be provided with a small bag, containing a number of
common marbles, such as school-boys employ in their games ; and
that on giving up his pins to the follower, or hind chainman, at every
remove, he should give him one of these marbles, to be kept by the
follower in another bag provided for the purpose, until they arrive at
the end of the line ; when each marble will stand for 10, and the pins
in the follower's hand, as usual, for single chains.

By this method nothing is left to the memory, and of course a
greater degree of certainty is obtained.

I have the honour to remain, Sir,

Your most obedient servant,

Dublin, Oct. 3, 1840. E. William Mansell.

LAND SURVEYING.

Sir, — I observe in your last Number an extract from Mr. Bruff's
Treatise on Engineering Field Work, wherein he says, in describing
the new instrument for measuring the contents of maps, that " the
principle of the plan has been long known to some few suveyors, but
that they prudently kept it to themselves, &c." Now, Sir, 1 should
very much like to know the names of any surveyors to whom the in-
strument was known before its introduction into "the Tithe Office, and
perhaps Mr. Bruff will be good enough to afford this information
through the medium of your Journal, as it is certainly important to
know to whom surveyors are indebted for the invention of this instru-
ment, which most justly deserves all the praise that can be bestowed
upon it.

I beg it to be understood, that in seeking this information from Mr.
Bruff, I am actuated by no hostile or cavilling spirit, on the contrary^ I
think generally the contents of his work are most valuable, and strictly
to be depended on ; in this instance, however, I think he is misin-
formed, and believing that Mr. Bruff would not wish to deprive the
inventor of his due share of credit, I trust he will have no hesitation
in stating publicly, who are the parties to whom he alludes, as having
long known the principle of the jilan.

I am. Sir, your obedient servant,

An Old Surveyor.

London, Oct. 15, 1840.

THE NELSON AFFAIR.

Mr. Editor — I send you some stanzas which you may, if you like,
suppose were intended to have been put into the foundation stone of
Railton's Column, but somehow or other escaped that honour ; allow
them therefore to be preserved in one of your columns.

A'nti-Stylites.
Nelson loquitur : —

You see that I stick to my post,

Stuck up here on the top of a peg,
And having before but one arm,

I am now left to stand on cue leg.

Though not on a leg made of wood,

Oh no ! — 'tis a leg built of stone ;
And so wondrous tall too it is,

That I stand " all aloft and alone,"

Just after that ■n liimsical fasliion

Old Simeon adopted of yore ;
But then he «as a saint most sublime.

And his practice a bit of a bore.

Yes, my case is confoundedly hard,

Tho' some other folks' heads are quite soft,

So I wish they had left me alone,
Before they had left me aloft.

For Wightwick I see there is sneering.

While others are laughing outright.
And folks seem myself to be queering,

AVhile they gape at ray pitiful pUglit.

0 ! were but the stick I am stuck on,
A good walking-stick — by my fay,

1 would not stand here to be quizzed at,

But with stick and all walk away.

PNEUMATIC OR ATMOSPHERIC RAILWAY.

Sir — ^The fairness that should guide a public Journalist, and a scien-
tific one especially, will doubtless induce you to afford me a place to
reply to an invidious article contained in your Journal for July, which
does me great injustice — has an injurious tendency, and at the same
time confers approbation on Messrs. Clegg and Samuda, who are en-
deavouring to avail themselves of the result of information communi-
cated to them, whilst they were confidentially employed by me in
1836-7-8, in the construction of works and machinery designed for
carrying into practical operation the pneumatic or atmospheric rail-
way, which was intended to be applied on the Birmingham, Bristol,
and Thames Junction Railway at Wormwood Scrubs, as the first pro-
spectus of that railway (1835) will show, and on which line ray in-
vention is now pirated by Clegg and Samuda.

The article in your Journal appears intended as a disparagement of
my invention. I Lave before publicly accused those persona of the

380

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[NOVKMBKR,

conduct coinplaiiied of in the Sun newspaper of tlio 17tli and Uttli
June last. I am preparing to stop their jjroceedings (hrongli the me-
dium of a court of justice, but that is no gn.und for my sustaining in
the mean time injurious remarks, and the public mind abused through
the columns of ])ublic journals.

I am prepared to prove that the system carried into effect, even in
all its minute details, is wholly my invention; as well as the inore im-
proved applications of the same'priuciple, as specified in my patents
of 1834 and 183G, all of which are legally held by me under the autho-
rity of the Patent Laws, which forbid those persons or others from
using any portion of that which is described in the- article inserted in
your Journal,

In regard to the remarks that "the idea of employing the power of
the atmosphere against a vacuum created in an extended pipe laid
between rails, and communicating the moving power thus obtained to
propel carriages travelling on a road, we believe originated with Mr.
Medhurst, in 1827, and that in 1812 he published some ideas on this
method.'! And that "about 1835 some experiments were made with
a model in Wigmore-street, by Mr. Pinkus, very similar to those des-
cribed by Mr. Medhurst ; these experiments, however, failed from the
same cause probably, which prevented Mr. Medhurst from carrying his
into effect, viz., the impossibility of making an air tight communication
from the inside of the pipe to" the carriage, tight enough to allow a
useful degree of rarefaction to be produced."

Now, Sir, I have to complain that not even so ranch as one particular
of all the allegations in the above quotations is true, and declare that
I can disprove them all by documentary evidence of record, and printed
publications of old dates. Myself an humble labourer in the field of
science, I trust I shall never be guilty of that meanness of mind that
would detract from another the merit justly due to him for any mental
production, and I will contend for equal justice to myself.

First, then, the merit, and it is a high one of "employing the power
of the atmosphere ag;iiiist a vacuum," and transmitting that power, as
well as the suggestion of obtaining a similar power bv plenum (the
latter though impracticable) is due to the celebrated Papin, who sug-
gested them 120 years ago, and not Mr. Medhurst.

Second. The suggestions and the experiment " employing the power
of the atmosphere against a vacuum, and by impelling a piston through
a tunnel," is due to Mr. Valance, who did' it at Brighton in 1824, and
not to Mr. Medhurst, who in 1810 only proposed thu impractical part
uf Papin' i plan of forcing arr under t/ie comprfsswn of manij almos-
p/itrts,:\s several others before him had done; and added at a subse-
quent date the idea of inovinga piston through an underground tunnel,
by forcing in air behind it, from distances of 20 miles apart, and so
impel goods and passengers therein. In 1824 Mr. Valance took out a
patent for his method of an underground tunnel, and the more correct
and practical priiiciple of rarefaction and atmospheric pressure. — Mr.
Medhurst, who held no patent, made claim to Mr. Valance's invention
of transmitting a piston through an underground tunnel. — Mr. Valance
in a pamphlet of that date, answered Mr. Medhurst, and pointed out
in what his invention differed from the other's claims ; thus both Papiu
and Valance went before Mr. Medhurst.

In 1825, not 1835 as is alleged, I proposed to apply Papin's princi-
ple by anew method, combination of apparatus and machinery, wliereby
I was enabled to transfer the power generated under partial vacuum to
the exterior of extenekd mains or pipes laid on the margin of a canal or
railway, and transmitting the power so generated along such main. I
combined the main with a canal, and proposed to use Brown's Gas
Vacuum Engine as the prime mover, my plans and specifications were
recorded, my models constructed and exhibited : these contained such
a mechanical arrangement for effecting a propelling power under rare-
faction, as alone admits of its application at all ; subsequently they
became the subject of the first patent (1834) ever taken out for that
object. As I was for tlie first time informed in 183lj, Mr. Medhurst
in 1828 reprinted liis pami)hlet of 1810, for the Underground Tunnel
and the application of a Plenum, and with it, now for the first time
proposed to transfer the power to the outside of the underground
tunnel, and to have stationary engines 20 miles apart for forcing in air,
he shewed a lithographic drawing of the method, and having 4 years
before claimed the plan of Valance, and 3 years before of my method
of transferring the power of partial vacuum to the exterior of a main,
he proposed a long box and a pipe suspended over a channel of water
in order to make a water-joint ; these suggestions made at that late
date, were nevertheless so crude and undigested, as to be utterly im-
practicable as they show. His calculation based upon them he can in no
way obtain. He never made an experiment, as I am well iuformed, and
his pamphlet was in the hands only of private friends ; 1 saw one, for
the first lime, in 183G. Having been engaged until 1830, I in that
year again prepared fresh plans and specifications, such as are now en-
rolled, and exhibited them to friends. In 1833 I commenced my patent.

scaled in 1834, and in that year constructed a large working model
tlrat was publicly exhibited, and upon its success in 183(5 an association
for working my system was formed, which is now extant ; contracts
were made for works to demonstrate the principle with my subsequent
improvements, for which patents also were taken out in various coun-
tries. The works were designed to be applied on the Birmingham
Bristol and Thames Junction Railway, at Wormwood Scrubs ; those
works were nearly completed, the line half a mile in length formed on the
margin of the Kensington Canal, which was united with that line of
railway. Samuda and Hague were the contractors for the engines, the
former as well in the construction of the pneumatic mains and valve,
and Samuel Clegg was confidentially employed and consulted, and wit-
nessed the progress of the experiments 'during such employment,
learned from me all the minute details that they have now carried into
effect, but which are nevertheless held by me under patents. Clegg
and Samuda saw my experiments in 1835-G made upon rough models,
but which were attended with perfect success, only some of the details
were pur|)osely omitted until further patents were sealed.

Not only, therefore, is the invention in all its details my own, and
legally held by my patents, which embrace such mechanical combina-
tions, as without which that well known principle cannot possibly be
carried into effect, but I shall, when my interest best requires it, stop
their further progress.

I am, Sir, your obedient servant,

H. PlNKUS.

11, Panton Square, Aug. 20, 1840.

MUSEUM OF ECONOMIC GEOLOGY,

CRAIg's court, charing cross, LONDON.

CEd tract from the President's Addrena of the Geotof/ical Society of London, J

Among the most important of the remarkable events of the past year, we
recognise with gratitude and confident anticipation of great advantage, both
to science and the arts, the establishment by her Majesty's government of an
institution hitherto unknown in England, namely, a Museum of Economic
Geology. This is to he freely accessible to the public at stated periods, in
the department of her Majesty's Woods and Forests, and Public Works, for
the express oljject of exhibiting the practical application of geology to the
useful purposes of life. In this Museum, a large store of valualjle materials
has already been collected and arranged, chiefly by the exertions, and under
the direction of Mr. De la Beche. In it will be exhibited examples of me-
tallic ores, ornamental marbles, building stones and limestones, gi-anites, por-
phyries, slates, clays, marls, brick earths, and minerals of every kind produced
in this country, that are of pecuniary value, anil applicable to the arts of life.
Information upon such subjects, thus readily and gratuitously accessible, will
he of the utmost practical importance to the miner and the mechanic, the
builder and the architect, the engineer, the whole mining interest, and the
landed proprietors. The establishment will contain also examjiles of the
results of metallurgic processes obtained from the furnace and the laboratory,
with a collection of models of the most improved machinery, chiefly employed
in mining, X well-stored laboratory is attached to this department, con-
ducted hy the distinguished analytical chemist, Mr. Richard Phillips, whose
duty it already is, at a fixed and moderate charge, to conduct the analysis of
metallic ores, and other minerals and soils submitted to him by the owners
of mines and jnoprictors of land, who n)ay wish for ijuthenfic information
upon such matters.

The pupils in this laboratory are already actively employed in learning the
arts of mineral analysis, and the various metallurgic processes,

A second department in the Economic Museum, will be assigned to the
promotion of improvements in agriculture, and will contain sections of strata
vi\ih specimens of soils, sub-soils, and of the rocks from the decomposition
of which they have been produced.

To this last-mentioned collection, proprietors of land are solicited to con-
tribute from their estates labelled examples of soils, with their respective
sub-soils ; and all persons who wish for an analysis of any sterile soil, for
the purpose of giving it fertility, by the artilicial addition of ingredients with
which natiu'e had not supplied it, may here obtain at a moderate cost, an
exact knowledge of its composition, which may point out the corrective ad-
ditions which it requires. This jiortion of the Museum will more especially
exhibit the relations of geology to agriculture, in so far as a knowledge of the
materials composing the sub-strata may afford extensive means of permanent
improvement to the surface. — Phil. Mag., October, 1840.

Si. James s Park. — An ornamenlal building in the Swiss style, consisting of
council-riiDm, briJge, and keeper's cotlaKe, is now building in .St. James's
park fiir the Oniitbological .Society of London. The site is nearly opposite
the Horse Guards, and the design, approved by the Board of Work.s, has
been prepared Ijy Mr. Watson, under whose direction it will be completed.

1S40.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

381

AN ACT FOR REGULATIXG RAILWAYS.

PASSED AUGUST 10, 1840.

.Vo railway to be opened without notice to the Board of Trade. — Wliereas
it is exjiedient for the safety of the public to provide for tlie due supervision
of railways : be it therefore enacted by the Queen's most excellent Majesty,
by and with tlie advice and consent of the Lords spiritual and temporal, and
Commons, in this present Parliament assembled, and by the authority of the
same, that, after two mouths from the passing of this Act, no railway, or
portion of any railway, shall be opened for the public conveyance of passen-
gers or goods until one calendar month after notice in writing of the intention
of opening the same shall have lieen given, by the Company to whom such
railway shall lielong, to the Lords of the Committee of Her Majesty's Privy
Council appointed for trade and foreign plantations.

Penalty /by opening railways without notice. — And be it enacted, that if
any railway, or portion of any railway, shall be opened without due notice,
as aforesaid, the Company to whom such railway shall belong shall forfeit to
her Majesty the sum of 20/. for every day during which the same shall con-
tinue open, until the expiration of one calendar month after the Company
shall have given the like notice as is liereiu-before required before the opening
of the railway ; and any such penalty may be recovered iu any of her Jla-
jesty's courts of record.

Returns to be made by railway companies. — And be it enacted, that the
lords of the said committee may order and direct every railway company to
make up and deliver to them returns, according to a form to be provided by
the lords of the said committee, of the aggregate traffic in passengers, ac-
cording to the several classes, and of the aggregate trathc in cattle and goods
respectively, on the said railway, as well as of all accidents which shall have
occurred thereon, attended with personal injury, and also a table of all tolls,
rates, and charges from time to time levied on each class passengers, and on
cattle and goods conveyed on the said railway ; and if the returns herein
specified shall not be delivered within thirty days after the same shall have
been required, every such company shall forfeit to her Majesty the sum of
20/. for every day during which the said company shall wilfully neglect to
deliver the same ; and every such penalty may be recovered in any of her
Majesty's courts of record ; provided always, that such returns shall be re-
quired, in like manner and at the same time, from all the said companies,
unless the lords of the said committee shall specially exempt any of the said
companies, and shall enter the grounds of such exemption in the minutes of
their proceedings.

Penalty /or makinrj/alse retunu. — And be it enacted, that every officer of
any company who shall wilfully make any false return to the lords of the said
committee shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor.

Board 0/ trade may appoint persons to inspect railways. — .\nd be it
enacted, that it shall be lawful for tlie lords of the said committee, if and
when they sliall think tit, to authorize any proper person or persons to in-
spect any railway ; and it shall be lawful for every person so authorized, at
all reasonal)Ie times, upon jirodncirig his authority, if requh-ed, to enter upon
and examine the said railway, and the stations, works, and buildings, and the
engines and carriages belonging thereto ; provided always, that no person
shall be eligible to ttie appointment as in.^pector as a/oresaid who shall within
one year 0/ his appointment fiave been a director or have held any office 0/
trust ar pro/t under any railway company.

Penalty on persons obstructiny in.yiector. — And be it enacted, that every
person wilfully obstructing any person, duly authorized as aforesaid, in the
execution of his duty, shall, on co^^■iction before a justice of the peace having
jurisdiction in the |ilacc where the offence shall have been committed, forfeit
and pay for every such offence any sum not exceeding 10/.; and 011 default
of payment of any penalty so adjudged, immediately or within sucli time as
the said justice of the peace shall appoint, the same justice, or any other
justice having jurisdiction in the place where the offender shall l)e or reside,
may commit tlie otfcnder to prison for any period not exceeding three calen-
dar months, such commitment to be determined on payment of the amount
of the penalty ; and every sucli penalty shall be returned to the next ensuing
court of quarter sessions in the usual uianner.

Copies 0/ existing bye-laws to be laid be/ore the board 0/ trade ; otherwise
to be ooid. — And whereas many railway companies are or may hereafter be
empowered by Act of Parliament to make bye-laws, orriei's, rules, or regu-
lations, and to impose penalties for the enforcement tliercof, upon persons
other than the servants of the said companies, and it is expedient that such
powers should he under proper control ; be it enacted, that true copies of all
such bye-laws, orders, rules, and regulations made under any such powers by
every such company before the passing of this Act, certific'd in such manner
as the lords of the said committee shall from time to time direct, shall, w ithin
two calendar months after the passing of this .\ct, be laid before the lords of
the said committee ; and that every such bye-law, order, rule, or regulation,
not so laid before the lorils of the said committee within the aforesaid period,
shall, from and after that period, cease to have any force or effect, saving in
so far as any penalty may have been then already incurred under the same.

No/uture bye-laws to be valid till two calendar months a/ter they have
been laid be/ore the board 0/ trade. — And be it enacted, that no such bye-
law, order, rule, or regulation made inuler any such power, and which shall
not be iu. force at the time of the passing of this act, and no order, rule, or
regulation annulling any such existing bye-law, rule, order, or regulation

which shall be made after the passing of this Act, shall have any force or
effect until two calendar months after a true copy of such bye-law, order,
rule, or regulation, certified as aforesaid, shall have been laid before the lords
of the said committee, unless the lords of the said committee shall, before
such period, signify their approbation fliereof.

Board 0/ trade may disallow bye-laws. — And be it enacted, that it shall be
lawful for the lords of the said committee, at any time either before or after
any bye-law, order, rule, or regulation shall have been laid before them as
aforesaid shall have come into operation, to notify to the company who shall
have made the same tlieir disallowance thereof, and in case the same shall be
iu force at the time of such disallowance, the time at which the same shall
cease to be in force ; and no bye-law, order, rule, or regulation which shall
be so disallowed shall have any force or effect whatsoever, or, if it shall be in
force at the time of such disallowance, it shall cease to have any force or
effect in tlie time limited in the notice of such disallowance, saving in so far
as any penalty may have been then already incurred under the same.

Provisions of Railway Acts requiring confirmation 0/ bye-lavs repealed. — •
.And be it enacted, that so much of every clause, provision, and enactment in
any Act of Parliament heretofore passed as may require the approval or con-
currence of any justice of the peace, court of quarter sessions, or other per-
son or persons, other than members of the said companies, to give validity
to any bye-laws, orders, rules, or regulations made liy any such company,
shall lie repealed.

Board of trade may direct prosecutions to cn/orce provisions 0/ Railway
Jet. Notice to be given to the company. — And be it enacted, that whenever
it shall appear to the lords of the said committee that any of the provisions
of the several Acts of Parliament regulating any of the said companies, or tlie
provisions of this Act, have not been complied with on the part of any of the
said companies, or any of their officers, and that it would be for the public
advantage that the due jierformance of tlie same should be enforced, the
lords of the said committee shall certify the same to her Majesty's attorney-
general for England or Irelaad, or to tlie lord advocate for Scotland, as the
case may require ; and thereupon the said attorney-general or lord advocate
shall, by information, or by action, bill, plaint, suit at law or in equity, or
other legal proceeding, as the case may require, proceed to recover such
penalties and forfeitures, or otlierwise to enforce the due performance of the
said provisions, by such means as any person aggrieved by such non-com-
pliance, or otherwise authorized to sue for such penalties, might emplo)'
under the provisions of the said acts : provided always, that no such certifi-
cate as aforesaid shall be given by the lords of the said committee until
twenty-one days after they shall have given notice of their intention to give
the same to the company against or in relation to whom they shall intend to
give the same.

Prosecutions to be under sanction 0/ board of trade, arul within one year
after the offence. — .And be it enacted, that no legal proceedings shall be
commenced under the authority of the lords of the said committee against
an> railway company for any offence against this act, or any of the several
Acts of Parliament relating to railways, except upon such certificates of the
lords of the said committee as aforesaid, and within one year after such
offence shall have been committed.

Puuisliment of servants of railway companies guilty 0/ misconduct. — And
be it enacted, that it shall be lawful for any officer or agent of any railway
company, or for any special constable duly appointed, and all such persons
as they may call to their assistance, to seize and detain any eneiue-ilriver,
guard, porter, or other servant in the employ of such company, who shall be
found drunk while employed upon the railway, or commit any offence against
any of the bye laws, rules, or regulations of such company, or shall wilfully,
maliciously, or negligently do or omit to do any act whereby tlie life or hmb
of any per^on passing along, or being upon the railway belonging to such
company, or the works thereof respectively, shall be, or might be injured or
eiiilangered, or whereby the passage of any of the engines, carriages, or trains
shall be or might be obstructed or impeded, and to convey such engine-
driver, guard, porter, or other servant so offeuding, or any person counselling,
aiding, or assisting in such offence, with all convenient despatch, before some
justice of the peace for the place within which such offence shall be com-
mitted, without any other warrant or authority than this act; and every such
person so offending, and every person counselling, aiding, or assisting therein
as aforesaid, shall, when convicted before such justice as aforesaid, (who is
hereby authorised and required upon complaint to him made, upon oath,
without information in writing, to take cognizance thereof, and to act sum-
marily iu the premises), in the discretion of justice, be imprisoned, with or
without hard labour, for any terra not exceeding two calendar months, or, in
the like discretion of such justice, shall for every such offence forfeit to her
Majestv any sum not exceerling 10/., and in default of payment thereof shall
be imprisoned, with or without hard labour as aforesaid, for such period, not
exceeding two cilendar months, as such justice shall appoint ; such comniit-
ineut to be determined on payment of the amount of the penalty ; and every
such penalty shall be returned to tlie next ensuing court of quarter sessions
iu the usual manner.

Justice of the peace empowered to send any case to be tried by the quarter
sessions. — Provided always, and be it enacted, that (if upou the hearing of
any such complaint he shall think fit) it shall be lawful for such justice, in-
stead of deciding upon the matter of complaint summarily, to commit the
person or persons charged with such offence for trial for the same at the
quarter sessions for the county or place wherein such offence shall have been

3 F

382

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[November,

committed, ami to order that any such person so committed sliall be impri-
soned and detained in any of her Majesty's gaols or houses of correction in
the said county or place in the mean time, or to take hail for his appearance,
with or without sureties, in his discretion ; and every such person so otTend-
ing, anil convicted hcfore such court of quarter sessions as aforesaid (which
saiil court is herehy required to take cognizance of and hear and determine
such complaint), shall be liulile, in tlic discretion of such court, to be impri-
soned, with or without hard lal)our, for any term not exceeding two years.

Punishnent of persons ofjsfriict'mg raitwoy. — And be it enacted, that from
and after the ])assing of this Act every person who shall wilfully do or cause
to be done any thing in such manner as to obstruct any engine or carriage
using any railway, or to endanger the safety of persons conveyed in or njion
the same, or shall aid or assist therein, shall be guilty of a misdemeanor, and
teing convicted tliereof shall he liable, at the discretion of the court before
which he shall have been convicted, to be imprisoned, with or without hard
labour, for any term not exceeding two years.

For punis/imetit of persons ohstrucling the officers of railwnij company, or
tresjiassing upon any railvay. — And be it enacted, that if any person shall
wilfully obstruct or impede any officer or agent of any railway company in
the execution of his duty upon any railway, or upon or in any of the stations
or other works or premises connected therewith, or if any person shall wilfully
trespass upon any railway, or any of the stations or other works or premises
connected therewith, and shall refuse to quit the same upon request to him
made by any officer or agent of the said company, every such person so
offending, and all others aiding or assisting therein, shall and may be seized
and detained by any such officer or agent, or any person whom he may call
to his assistance, until such offender or offenders can be conveniently taken
before some justice of the peace for the county or place wherein such offence
shall be committed, and when convicted before such justice as aforesaid (who
is hereby authorized and required, njion complaint to him upon oath, to take
cognizance, thereof, and to act summarily in the premises,) shall, in the dis-
cretion of such justice, forfeit to her Majesty any sum not exceeding 5/ , and
in defaidt of payment thereof shall or may be imprisoned for any term not
exceeding two calendar months, such imprisonment to be determined on pay-
ment of the amount of the penalty.

Proceedings not to be quashed for want of form, or removed into the supe-
rior covr/s. — And be it enacted, that no proceedings to be had and taken in
pursuance of this Act shall be quashed or vacated for want of form, or be re-
moved by certiorari, or by any other writ or process whatsoever, into any of
her Majesty's courts of record at Westminster or elsewhere, any law or statute
to the contrary notwithstanding.

Jiepefft of atl provisions in railway Acts that empmrer two justices to decide
disputes respecting the proper places for openings in tlie ledges orjtanclies of
railways. — .\nd whereas many railway companies are bound, by the provisions
of the Acts of Parliament by which they are incorporated or regulated, to
make, at the expence of the owner or occu])ier of lands adjoining the railway,
openings in the ledges or flanches thereof (except at certain places on such
railway in the said Acts specified), for effecting communications between such
railway and any collateral or branch railway to be laid down over such lands,
and any disagreement or difference which shall arise as to the proper places
for making any such openings in the ledges or flanches is by such Acts
directed to be referred to the decision of any two justices of the peace within
their respective jurisdictions : and whereas it is expedient that so much of
every clause, provision, and enactment in any Act of Parliament heretofore
passed, as gives to any justice or justices Ihe power of hearing or deciding
upon any such disagreement or difference as to the proper places for any such
openings in the ledges or flanches of any railway, should be repealed ; be it
therefore enacted, that so much of every such clause, provision, and enact-
ment as aforesaid shall be repealed.

Board of Trade to determine such disputes in future. — And be it enacted,
that in case any disagreement or difference shall arise between any such owner
or occu])ier, or other persons, and any railway company, as to the proper
places for any such openings in the ledges or flanches of any railway (except
at such i)laces as aforesaid), for the purpose of such communication, then the
same shall be left to the decision of the lords of the said committee, who are
hereby enjpowered to hear and determine the same iu such way as they shall
think fit, and their determination shall be binding on all parties.

Communications to the l/oard to be left at their office. — Comuninications
by the board how to be authenticated. What shall be deemed good service
on milway company. — And be it enacted, that all notices, returns, and other
documents required by this Act to be given to or laid before the lords of the
said committee shall be delivered to or sent by the post to the office of the
lords of the said committee ; and all notices, appointments, requisitions, cer-
tificates, or other documents in writing, signed by one of the secretaries of
tlie said connnittee, or by some officer appointed for that purpose by the lords
of the said committee, and purporting to be made by the lords of the said
oommiltee, shall, for the i)urposcs of this Act, be deemed to have been made
))y tlie lords of the said committee ; and service of the same upon any one or
more of the directors of any railway company, or on the secretary or clerk of
the said company, or by leaving the same with the clerk or officer at one of
the stations belonging to the said company, shall be deemed good service
upon the said company.

Meaning of the u'ords "railway" and "company." — And he it enacted,
that wherever the word " railway" is used in this Act it shall be construed
to extend to all railv\ays constructed under the powers of any Act of Parlia-

ment, and intended for the conveyance of passengers in or upon carriages
drawn or impelled by the power of steam or by any other mechanical power ;
and wherever the word " company" is used in this Act it shall be construed
to extend to and include the proprietors for the time being of any such rail-
way, whether a body coqiorate or iiuliWduals, and their lessees, executors,
administrators, and assigns, unless the subject or context be repugnant to
such consfniction.

Jet may be repealed this session. — And be it enacted, that this Act may
be amended or repealed by any Act to be passed in the present Session of
Parliament.

THK THAMES EMBANKMENT.

Abridgement of the Evidence.

(Concluded from p. 360.J

Mr. Stephen Leach stated, that he is clerk of the works on the river Thames,
from .Staines to Yautlet Creek; 39 years in all he has been in the service
of the corporation : nine years assistant to his predecessor, and 30 years
since. Very considerable improvements have taken place under his direction
in the navigation of the Thames between Putney and Staines ; when he came
into the oflice, the navigation there was in a very bad state ; it was no un-
usual thing for 50 or 60 barges to be aground in one place, and some of them
he has knimn to be a fortnight working through the city jurisdiction. At
present they get up with tolerable certainty, from the Pool to Staines, in 16
or 18 hours, and dowai from that place in less time ; those improvements have
been made under his direction. "The improvements consist of the building of
six pound-locks and five veirs, in ditierent places, wliere the impediments
were the greatest ; the removal of a number of shoals, and the raising of
towing-paths with the ballast so removed. He has considered the plan now
before the Committee for embanking the river Thames from Vaushall Bridge
to London Bridge, on the north side ; he considers it certainly as calculated
to effect an indispensable improvement, by a very obvious and usual mode of
improving river navigation, namely, by contraction; it is much too wide in
several places to preserve a uniform depth, and a convenient one for naviga-
tion. The object of this embankment would be to equaUze the section of the
river, to regulate the velocity, and thereby to displace and enclose the large
quantities of mud which are at present on the shores, and which receive the
noxious contents of the sewers. The embankment bef; ins at Vauxhall Bridge,
where there is a short length, not very important. With regard to the na-
vigation that joins from Vauxhall Bridge to Millbank, opposite the Peniten-
tiary, there the embankment is complete, which is carried out to the full
extent ; there is no intention in that part of carrying it further out ; he con-
siders it as a specimen of what the embankment would be if it were continued
in a similar way. The line is taken to the Horseferry-road, Horseferry-stairs,
in front of the Marquess of Westminster's property ; that vsould be a very
Ijeneficial improvement in his opinion. No part of that is embanked at pre-
sent ; the proposition is, to come flush with a very old wharf, w hich has been
there for many years, now in the possession of Mr. Johnson, a stone wharf,
in a line with Ihe embankment at the Parliament Houses, which completes it
to Westminster Bridge; below Westminster Bridge the embankment is pro-
posed to be continued to Scotland-yard ; and there, on account of the parti-
cular nature of the business, and the number of coal barges, it is proposed to
discontinue the embankment, and adopt a low embankment of some two or
three feet above low water, so as to form a dock for the more convenient
carrying and entering those barges ; that is Mr. Walker's plan, and it is one
in wliich he (Mr. Leach) quite concurs, according to the present occupation.
From Scotland-yard, in front of the llunperford Market estate, the York-
buildings' estate, the Savoy, and so on, he thinks there is a length of about
1,400 feet, and an average width of about 300 feet ; the mud on part of this
ground is alreadv so grown up as to have a pretty large vegetation upon it
in front of York-Tiuildings, already embanked with an accumulation of mud.
From Waterloo Bridge the embankment is proposed to be continued in front
of Somerset House and King's College, auout 600 feet in length, and all
average width of 130 feet ; and at no place, in his opinion, is an embankment
so much needed as in front of Somerset House, where there is a very lofty
heavy pile of building imniedialely on Ihe brink of the river, and he thinks
it wants sumething to defend it in tront of it, which woukl be a protection to
the building; there is a depth of water in frunt of it, at Ihe upper end of it
particularly; the set of the current is immediately in that direction : that
violent current has so deepened the water at Waterloo Bridge, that the late
Sir Edw ard Banks recommended a deposit of about 3.000 tons of stone to pro-
tect the Bridge. l'"rom King's Cullege the embankment proceeds about 460
feet in length, with an average wiilfh of about 190 feet to Water-street, from
whence, the occupation ot the wharfs being principally by coal merchants,
the open-dock system of low wharfing is proposed ; there must be an open
dock there to accommodate the coal trade; then the embankment »ould be
continued to the end of Temple Gardens ; it is tlieu intended to adopt the
open-dock system and the low wharfing below the Temple, from Whitefriars-
dock to Ulackfriars Bridge. There is nothing particular between Blackfriars
and Soulhwark Bridges, only to correct the present irregularities, and make
a fair and straight line. It goes on to London Bridge ; at the bridge it wants
no contraction whatever, it is already (piile small enough.

Mr. James H'hile Higgins was examineil ; he is a surveyor of long standing ;
has been engaged both in the service of the Commissioners of Woods and
Forests, and of the City of London, on very many occasions. The quantity
of land to be embanked is,'J!)5,400feet, that is, reclaimed by suld embankment ;
that 1 have from Mr. Walker's estimate, and that is independentof theCrown
property. The amount of Crown property is 430,1,'50 feet. With reference to
value, it is an exceedingly difficult question to deal with, and one that_does

1840.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

383

not often occur ; and as practice and experience are the best test of value, he
has felt !i good deal of difficulty in dealing with it. He has mide it a matter
of inquiry, and having had a great deal to do with wharf property, perhaps
more than most professional persons he has endeavoured to bring the ex-
perience he possesses and the infi rmation he could gain to bear upon the
subject ; the conviction of his mind is, that 2d. a superficial foot, which was
talked of. the property could not bear -, he thinks it would be excessive ; but
he thinks Id. a foot superficial might be borne, which would yield nearly
2,500i. per annum upon the siilid embankment ; he thinks so, as he has already
Stated, from the experience he has, from the advantages it is calculated to
afford. It involves the improvement of the navigation of the river, which
the persons using the wharfs would be benefited by; it gives them an in-
creased quantity of freehold property; and with regard to tliat freehold pro-
perty, if, as was done in a fomier case, he believes, and that to some con-
siderable extent, at the time of building Blackfriars Bridge, tlie freehold
property was madi^ also free from rates and taxes, it would atford another
advantage. That properly so reclaimed at Blackfriars Bridge was charged
at Ifi. a foot, he finds ; as far as he has been able to learn, it was found to work
well ; and one advantage that would be afibrded here is, that in some cases
persons with bad wharf walls would get good ones. In other cases, the gene-
ral property would be secured by this embankment, and a great public high-
way, the Thames, would be benefited, and persons using it. Persons possess-
ing themselves of freehold land, he thinKS. would have no just ground of
complaint in paying \d. a foot for the property reclaimed ; but tljere would
be this difficulty about It. and one which the honourable Committee will feel
perhaps to be considerable, a penny a foot on some portion of the property
would be much ton little, and on others it would be too much ; in some cases
persons would get Ihe more valuable part of the property in Thames-street;
he knows that they would be very glad to pay 2d. a foot ; but in other cases
he knows persons w ould not be willing to pay a penny per foot. The hon-
ourable member for Lambeth has alluded to eases in which the advantages
now possessed by individuals would be lessened. Those points all want con-
sideration. Every individual case, to do what he is quite sure the Committee
are desirous to do, viz. to do justice, would require a matter of consideration ;
that is an affair which he has not entered upon except in this way, he has
judged from bis own experience. He has valued a good deal of wharf pro-
perty ; he has lately had to buy a good deal for the Crown at the enormous
price that was invariably asked ; we were then told that a few feet « ere worth
nobody knows what money. He has also bad to value with reference to a
good deal of the parish assessments along the river, Hungerford Market and
other parts; now he is quite satisfied that in some cases it would be an ex-
traordinary boon at a penny per foot ; but in others \d. per foot could not be
borne. How the separate cases are to be met he must leave to the Committee ;
but, in going from wharf to wharf, (he does not mean the C^ommittee to un-
derstand that he has been on every wharf, he has been on many), he has put
down what each h harf would bear, and that comes nearly to Irf. per foot, so
that he feels warranted in saying that 2.500/. a year might be charged for the
whole line of embankment, from one extremity to the other, where a solid
embankment exists ; but it is a miilter of considerable difficulty. He has en-
deavoured to do it as honestly and impartially as he could, and bring all the
experience which he has to the subject. Then as regards the dwarf piling,
that is 72.5,700 feet ; the superficial quantity enclosed by the dwarf piling, a
halfpenny per foot has been talked of for that ; he has more difficulty in this
than in the other case, in saying what is right. There are advantages with
reference to the navigation and security oi buildings, and the possession of
freehold instead ol^ what, so far as he has heard of the evidence, appears to be
a doubtful property, the city claiming a right over it, which would be aban-
doned, he takes it. in this case. But he has not, as in the case oF Blackfriars
Bridge, any test here, and after thinking of it a good deal, he has taken an
annual sum for it of 1,133/., that is, between a halfpenny and a farthing, the
intermediate sum, as an annual sum ; a halfpenny per foot was mentioned ;
he thought it too much, for it gave larger rent in some phicesthan it appeared
to me they could bear, though they have advantages in this case ; by becom-
ing their own freehold they would have a right to embank at any future
period ; but it is a matter of so much difiicully, that to give his evidence as
he could upon some subjects, to say that he knows from experience that the
property would produce such results, he could not pretend to do. It is open
to much doubt. His impression is, that in both cases he has been moderate ;
he intended to be so. It would be worth to sell, twenty-five years' purchase.
He would not be warranted in putting it at 25 years' purchase unless it was
connected with the other portions of tbe properly. Freehold land connected
with buildings is generally at 20 years' purchase only. A ground-rent, amply
secured, has sold tor 30 or 31 years' purchase. This is an intermediate case
of 25 years' purchase. He thinks 30 years would be too much, as there is
some speculation in it, or else it is a ground-rent, and therefore he thought
25 was safer.

The following is tbe Report of Mr. Walker made in 1821. referred to in his
evidence given in the last month's Journal.

•■ From the recent, and, we believe, accurate surveys that have been made,
it appears that the difference of level in the water above and beluw' bridge,
towards the latter end of the ebb of a spring tide, is from 4 feet 4 inches to 5
feet 7 inches ; the water is therefore at present dammed up to that extent at
the bridge ; we find, by calculation, that this pen will be redticed from, .say 5
feet, to about 3 inches, by the proposed alterations ; and the water above
bridge, at low water, will therefore be 4 feet 9 inches lower than at present.
But as the velocity of the stream above bridge will be increased by a greater
quantity of water having to run through in the same time, both on-account
of the water flow ing higher at high water, and ebbing lower at low water, the
inclination of the surface will also be increased ; and this lowering of 4 feet
9 inches, above referred to, will decrease as the distance from the bridge in-
creases. Now, by the survey above referred to, the present rise in the sur-
face of the water from London Bridge to Westminster Bridjje, at low water,
is 12 inches, being 6 inches, per mile ; and supposing the velocity, after the
alterations, to be increased so as to produce twice the inclination, or 12 inches
per mile, the surface of the water at Westminster Bridge will be lowered, at

low water, 4 feet 9 inches, less one foot (the increase of fall), or 3 feet 9 inches
below its present level at spring tides. Again, from the best information we
can collect, the rise of surface from Westminster to Fulham is about 8 inches
per inile ; and as the effect of the alterations of London Bridge will be less
sensiljly felt here than nearer the bridge, we assume that tbe inclination,
after the alterations, will be 12 inches per mile, and the distance being nearly
6 miles, the water at Fulham will be lowered at low water 3 feet 9 inches less
2 feet, or 1 foot 9 inches, which will increase as we descend towards West-
minster Bridge, when (as before stated) the depression will be 3 feet 9 inches.
Again, as at Fulham. the surface will be lowered I foot 9 inches, this de-
pression will decrease upwards ; but as in any given length upwards, the
effect of the proposed alterations will also decrease, this depth (1 foot 9 inches)
will be felt a considerable way up the river ; for wc think it probable that the
efl'ect of the alterations may be sensible, in point of the navigation, for 6
miles above Fulham Bridge, or at Kew Bridge ; and that though it will really
extend higher, we apprehend that its effects will not be of any consequence
above th.at point. We believe there is no speculation in any of the above
numbers, excepting in the assumed increase of declination of surface ; for the
correctness of which we cannot vouch, but we have been guided by the con-
sideration that 4 feet 9 inches at low water, and about 9 inches at high water,
making together 5 feet 6 inches, will be added to the depth of water which
» ill pass through the bridge at every spring tide ; and by allowing an in-
crease of fall in proportion to the square of the increase of velocity or quan-
tity, and also by referring to the inclination in the upper part of the river,
say between Morllake and Teddington, as thown upon Mr. Whitwortli's sur-
vey, and making such allowance as from tbe difference of situation appeared
tons reasonable, we apprehend that we are not far from being correct, parti-
cularly between Fulham and London Bridge ; and it is hardly necessary,
after the above, to say that we agree in n|iinion w ith Mr. .Smeaton, that, by
this reduction of fall at the bridge, ' the navigation of that pjart of the river
will be materially affected.' It appears to us, from our own knowledge, and
from the statements that have been given to us, that although the increased
velocity of the river would have a tendency to restore the river to its ancient
depth, and in course of time would probably effect that object, yet that so
great a lowering at once would be productive of great temporary incon-
venience, unless artificial means were resorted to, to deepen the shoals, which,
even in the present state of the river, are attended with considerable hin-
drance to the navigation. Mr. Smeaton's opinion on this subject goes beyond
our ideas of time ; but, as great respect is due to his opinion, we extract it in
his own words: ' If this difference of bed,' that is, the difference above and
below bridge, ' is original, we must expect it to remain after the bridge is
taken away ; but if an effect, the cause being removed, the river would gra-
dually restore itself; but as this might probably take up 700 or 800 years
(the time it ha.s probaiJy been gathering), the work of restitution would go
on far too slowly to answer the demands of the present generation.' Our
opinion is. that the difference of level in the bottom of the river, above and
below bridge, is caused, in a great measure, by the pen of the bridge ; and
although we think that the work of restitution would be complete in less time
than stated by Mr. Smeaton, unless where the accumulation has got cemented
into a solid mass, which we have no doubt is in many places the case, yet,
both for the ptu-poses of present trade, and to prevent the shoals from beinjj
moved down tbe river by the current, and forming obstructions lower down
the river or below bridge, we think that ballasting to a great extent will be
expedient and requisite; as. in addition to the above reason, the stuff' that
is excavated from the upper part may be applied to raise ihe towing-paths
and banks, so as to meet the increased height of the high water, which will
occasionally be from 1 to 2 feet above the present level. One principal shoal
is close above London Bridge, on the Surrey side ; it extends almost half-way
across the river, and is even now occasionally above low water. This must
therefore be deepened to a considerable extent ; and to prevent the opening
of any of the proposed widened arches, which will he opposite to it, from
washing any part of it into the Fool, and settling upon the shoals below bridge,
it, as well as the other shoals, ought to be ballasted away before the proposed
arches are opened. In ref>:ard to Ihe navigation throvigh London Bridge, we
are of opinion that it will be very essentially improved by the proposed alter-
ations, and that the cause of the losses, accidents, and dangers to which the
ptissage is at present subject, from the great fall or shoot in the arches, will
be almost entirely removed. We have mentioned, that the velocity of the
current above bridge will be increased. Tbis will take place during both the
flood and ebb tide, but will be greatest in the latter ; and the increase of ve-
locity will, as before stated, be greatest Ijetween Westminster and L^cmdon
Bridges, in our calculation of the fall, we have supposed that the increase of
velocity will amount to one-half of the present velocity. This will, in many
ca.ses, be important, not only as regards the velocity itself, (as to which it
will sometimes be found of advantage to craft and sometimes probably other-
wise), but as the water will ebb sooner from all the wharfs, the time in each
tide during which the barges are afloat at the wharfs and when they can ffoat
to and from them, will be decreased. This will, so far, he a disadvantage
l3ut will occur only during the ebb of tide. It is evident, however, that it
will not be comiiensated by the increased velocity of the flood-tide bringing
tlie barges sooner to the wharf's above bridge, as the velocity of the flood will
not be so much increased as that of the ebb-tide, and although barges may
come up opposite to the wharfs sooner in the tide than they do at present, if
the channel is deep enough, they will not be able to get close to the wharfs
until about the same time of tide they do at present, unless a general artificial
deepening takes place opposite to each wharf. In some cases, however, barges
which may get opposite to the wharfs early in the tide, will be enabled by
having done so to draw in to the w harfs so soon as there is depth enough of
water to float them in, and, so far as this goes, the effect of this proposed
alteration « ill be useful. The great cause of shoals is the unequal velocity of
currents, and this inequality increases as the velocity mcieases; for there-
fore it is that floods, or great velocities, are always found to add to the shoals
of navigable rivers, aud lo deepen «hat was too deep before. The increased
current through the narrow' parts disturbs and carries down the materials of
the bottom through those narrow parts or deeps, and they are lodged upon

3 F 2

3S4

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[November,

the shoals liclow, where the decreased velocity, caused by the wldenlne of the
river, has not force enoii;^h to carry them along with it. There ean be no
more striking illustration of this general theory, than the effect of floods upon
the river near London Hridge, which is invariably to deejien belneen tlie
arche.s. and ai the same time to raise the shoals below the biiilge; therefore,
althoMgii the natural effect of the increase of current is \ip()n 'he ^^"holc to
deepen its channel, it does it so partially that it has also the eflect. in rivers
of unequal current, such as the Thames is, of forming and increasing shoals,
and unless guarded against by projier means may therefi re be injurious to
the navigation. Now the effect of opening London Bridge Mill be. that tlie
cbb-tidc and land-floods, not being checked by the pen of London Bridge,
will increase in velocity to the extent vp the river that the eflects of this pen
are felt, and produce the consequences we have mentioned, so that an increase
of expense in drepening the shoals after floods, and a greater iiier|uality of
level in the bottom, will I'e the consequence, and this will be a lasting ex-
pense unless means are taken to prevent it. The means we should recommend
are, the nearer approsimation to an uniform velocity, which would best be ac-

complished by producing an rqitolifij of area, such as contracting the width of
the river abreast of the shoals, by means of enthanhments or otherwise : as this
cannot, however, be done in many places to the required extent without
enormous expense, ballasting must be had recourse to until a new regimen
corresponding to the existing circumstances is obtained. Finally, althougli
we think it might have been desirable that the great change, which the pro-
posed opening of the arches in London Bridge will certainly produce in the
navigation, had been made, so that ilicir effects might have been felt, and
things conformed to the new state by degrees, yet when called upon to give
an opinion witheut these experiments, \\c feel little hesitation in saying that
if effectual means are taken for preventing the evils to which we have re-
ferred, then the proposed alterations will be benefic al to the navigation above
bridge, but that without those efleclual means they will be injurious.'"

No» , the fact is, that the alterations have been made to the full extent
stated in this report, and the consequences have been to the lull extent of
what is stated, but as yet no means have been taken to remove the evil which
was anticipated, and is now fell.

A Statement showing the .Sec'ional Areas of the River Tliames, taken in the Years 1823 and 1831.

Sectional Area

of the

Tidal Water

Sectional Area
below

Total
Sectional Area

of the
River Thames

No. 7.

below

Trinity High-water

Mark.

Difference

Low-water Mark.

Difference

below
TrinityHigh-water

Difference

Sections.

in 1831.

in 1831.

in 1831.3

By

By

By

o^y

e^-^

o'^y

Survey

Survey

Survey

Survey

Survey

Survev

[

of 1823.

of 1831.

of 1823.
Siip.Feet.

of 1831.
Sup.Feet.

of 1823.

of 183i.

Sup. Feet.

Sup. Feet.

Sup.Feet.

.Sup.Feet.

About 230 yards north of West-
minster Bridge

4

15,409

16,559

increase 1,150

3,939

3,487

decrease 4,52

19,348

20,046

increase 698

Near King's Arms Stairs and M'hite-

5

16,411

17,090

ditto 679

4,757

6,570

increase 1,813

21,168

23,660

ditto 2,492

Near Huiigerford Stairs
Near Waterloo Bridge ,
Opposite Bouverie Street

6

16,083

17.902

ditto 1,819

3.891

3,920

ditto 29

19,974

21,8:'2

ditto 1,848

8

16,818

16.958

ditto 140

3,7.52

3,947

ditto 195

20,570

20,905

ditto 335

11

13,959

14,310

ditto 351

4,332

3,900

decrease 432

18,291

18,210

decrease 81

BetHeen Blackfriars and Southwark
Bridge

13

12,982

13,822

ditto 840

3,976

3,381

ditto 595

16,958

17,203

increase 245

PROCCSDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES.

INSTITUTION OF CIVIL ENGINEERS.
/Ipril 14. — Tlie President in the Chair.

" Des-cripti07i of a Diptamomefer, or an Instrument for meai^uring Hie
Friction on Roads, Railways, Canals, Sfc." By Henry CaiT, Grad. Inst. C. E.
The object of Mr. Can-'s modification of the djTiamometer is to obviate the
irregularity of the common indicator arm, caused by the jerking motion of
the tractive power or any inequality of resistance. The instrument consists
of a cylinder half tilled with mercury, and containing a piston connected with
the spring of the dynamometer, so as to be lowered or raised as the tractive
power is increased or diminished. Two tubes of glass, connected by a pass-
age with a regulating valve, stand in front of the cylinder, one of them com-
municating freely with it, and in this tube the mercury is raised or lowered
proportionally to the power applied; while in the other, an average of the
variations is obtained as the facility of communication between the tubes is
increased or diminished by the opening or closing of the stop-valve. The in-
strument must be graduated by actual experiment, and the results of the
average power may be read oft' from the scales placed behind the tubes. The
paper is illustrated by a detailed drawing of the machine.

*' .Jn account of a proposed .Suspension Bridge over the Uaslar Lake al
Portsnionth." By Andrew Burn, Jun., Grad. Inst. C. E.

The usual calculation for the maximum load on each sujicrlicial foot of the
jilatforms of suspension bridges is 70 lb. ; b\it, as in the event of a crowd of
persons assembling the pressure may increase to nearly 100 lb. per foot, and
by the passage of soldiers marching in regular time the strain may be greatly
augmented, the projector assumed 200 lb. per superficial foot as the amount
of load to which the platform might be subjected. The pecidiar feature of
this bridge is the substitution of cast-iron chains for the wrought-iron ones
generally used. This deviation from the usual practice is adopted as a mea-
sure of cconomv, and with a view of increasing their stability and durability,
cast-iron being much less iiiflueuccd by atmospheric action than wrought-
irou. Cast-iion beams, when well proportioned, will bear a very considerable
tensile strain. As these chains would be proved beyond the weight they are
intended to bear, no doubt is entertained bv the author of their securitv. The

platform, which is formed of transverse iron girders carrv'ing cast-iron plates
f of an inch thick, with dovetails falling into holes cast in the girders, is sus-
pended by WTOught-iron rods 1^ inch square from two lines of chain only, as
the strain is more easily brought to bear on them than on a greater number
of chains. They are trussed laterally to prevent oscillation, and the balus-
trade is so constructed as to prevent the undulation so prejudicial to suspen-
sion bridges generally. To insure a perfect bearing, each pair of links of the
chains are in manufacturing cramped together, and the holes bored out to
receive the pins which are turned to fit them accurately ; they are of a larger
size than usual, being 4 inches diameter, and a less numlier are employed.
The piers on which the chains pass are of cast-iron, 33 feet high above the
level of the roadwav.

Feet.
The extreme length of the bridge is . . • . 032

The breadth of the roadway l/J

The clear waterway between the piers . . . 300

The clear headway of the platform above the high water

hne 18.\

Ditto ditto above low water hne . . 33

The tension on the chains is calculated as equal to 991'4143 tons. To sus-
tain this tension, the section of the chains is 25C square inches, and taking 7
tons per square inch as the elastic limit of cast-iron, the resistance of the
chains will equal 1792 tons, leaving a surplus of SOO'IJ tons after the calcu-
lated strain has been deducted from the real strength of the chains. Three
elaborate detailed drawings accompany tliis paper.

Jlr. Smith, of Deenston, e.rplained a nrni' system of Lockage for Canals
proposed by him, a model of which he presented to the Institution.

To avoid the present expensive construction of locks and their waste of
water, Ihc author proposes to divide the canal into a series of basins, the
water levels of which should be from 12 to 18 inches above each other. The
extremity of each basin is so contracted as to permit only the free passage of
a ho.at ; in this is placed a single gate, hinged to a sdl across the bottom, the
head pointing at a given angle against the stream, and the lateral faces press-
ing against rabbets in the masonry. The gate is to be coustrncted of buoyant
materials, or made hollow so as to float and be held up by the pressure of the
water in the higher level ; on the top is a roller to facilit.ite the passage of

1840.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

.3Se

the boats. When a boat is required to pass from a higher to a lower level,
the how end, which must be armed with an inclined ]n-ojeetion, depresses the
gate as much as the depth of the immersion of the boat, and as much water
escapes as can jjass between its sides and the walls of the contracted part of
the basin. The same action takes place in ascending, except that a certain
amount of jiower must be expended to enable the boat to surmount the dif-
ference of level betv\een the basins. The quantity of water wasted by each
boat would be in proportion to its immersion and the speed at which it passed
over the gate. In case of diflerent sized boats passing along the same canal,
it is proposed to ha%e a small gate forming pait of the main gate, so as to
avoid the loss of water which would ensue from the whole width being open
for the passage of a small boat.

This system has only been tried by models ; but it is proposed to make an
essay on an extensive canal next summer, when the results will be communi-
cated to the Institution.

May 5. — The President in the Chair.

The following were balloted for and elected : — Angier JTarch Perkins, St-
George Burke, and Beriah Botfield, as Associates.

" Description of the Enginen on board the Iron Steam Tug, the Alice^ By
J. Patrick, Inst. C. E.

The speed of this boat having far exceeded the constructor's expectations,
induced the author to send a description of her proportions, and of the con-
struction of the engines. The chief peculiarity in the engines is their being
placed in the centre of the vessel, with the two cylinders in a line with the
keel, and placed at an angle of 45°, inclining inwards towards the paddle
shaft, to which the motion is communicated direct (without the use of side
beams) by long connecting rods attached to the cross heads, which are
placed at the lower ends of the cylinders, instead of being on the top as in
the usual manner ; the connecting rods are thus enabled to be three times
instead of twice the length of the stroke, as is usually the case. The framing
is entirely of wrougbt-iron on the tension principle, and appears to resist the
tendency to vibration better than cast-iron framing. For the two cylinders
of 31 inches diameter, there is only one air pump of 22i inches diameter,
with 19-J inches length of stroke, instead of the usual complement of two air
pumps, 18 inches diameter each; this is found to be sufficient, as a vacuum
of 13f lb. per square inch is maintained. One of the advantages proposed by
this mode of construction is the reduction of weight ; these engines only
weighing 9 cwt. per horse power. The small space occupied leaving more
room for passengers, they are particularly adapted for river navigation, where
the breadth of beam must be limited. The simplicity of their construction
renders them less liable to expensive repairs.
The principal proportions of the Alice are —

Feet. Inches.
Length between perpendiculars ... 95

Breadth of beam 20

Draft of water ...... 4 6

Diameter of wheel 14

Size of engines ..... two 30 horse power

Diameter of cylinder . . . . . 0 31 inches

Length of stroke ...... 3 3

The engines were constructed by Messrs. Davenport and Grindrod, of
Liverj)0ol. Drawings of the boat and engines accompany this communica-
tion.

" Deseription of an Apparatus for preventing the Explosion of Steam
Boilers." By Robert M'Ewen.

The frequent explosions of steam boilers, caused in many instances by the
steam being confined until it acquires a density greater than the boiler can
resist, induced the author to invent a simple, self-acting apparatus, intended
to warn the engineer whenever the pressure exceeded the proper degree of
safety.

The apparatus under consideration is constructed on the principle that
steam, in proportion to its density, will support a column of water or mer-
cury, of a given height, and that any fluid will find the same level in two or
more vessels, provided there be a free communication between them. It may
be called a mercurial safety valve, and consists of a cyUnder, within w liicli
are two cups, with two pipes dipping into them of a length proportioned to
the pressiu-e of the steam ; these pipes are connected at the top with two
valves on one spindle, so arranged, as that when one is open the other must
be closed. On the top is a waste steam pipe open to the atmosphere. One pipe
being filled with mercury, and the valve connected with it being open, the
mercury remains stationary until the pressure of the steam exceeds its proper
point. It will then be blo-mi out and fall into the empty cup, allowing the
steam to escape by the waste pipe, and giving warning to the engineer by its
noise. When the pressure is again reduced to its proper point the valve is
reversed, and the mercury will, on the next occasion of an increase of pressure,
be blown back again, still giving warning on either side.
Plans and sections of this apparatus accompanied the paper.
" On setting out Railway Curves." By Charles Bourns, Assoc. Inst. C. E.
Mr. Bourns having been engaged in setting out the Taff Vale Railway
tlirough a country presenting circumstances of more than ordinary difficulty,
which rendered it necessary to vary the radii and the flexure of the cm-ves
frequently, his attention was particularly directed to the sulijeot ; and he has
treated it in this paper clearly and successfully, demonstrating the severaj

cases geometrically, and generally in a plain and satisfactory mannei-. He
calls attention to the inaccuracy of applying a square to the setting out of
segmental curves, particularly those of short radii, and recommends an offset
staff as theoretically correct and practically much more convenient. The
general rule to find the offset is — " Divide the number of inches in the chain
used by the number of such chains in the radius of the required curve, the
quotient is the offset in inches." The paper is accompanied by a table of
offsets for curves of different radii ; which the author found extremely con-
venient for use in the field.

The paper being altogether mathematical is not adapted for publication in
abstract ; but it will be given at length, with examples and diagrams, in the
Transactions of the Institution.

" Description of an Instrument for describing the Profile of Roads." By
Heniy Carr, Grad. Inst. C. E.

The object of the author was the construction of a machine, which, being
drawn along any road of moderately even surface, should describe the section
of the line over which it passed. It is evident, that if a pendulum be sus-
pended from a frame standing perpendicularly when the machine rests on a
horizontal plane, on passing over a plane inclined at any angle with the
horizon, the pendulum must form the same angle with the frame the tan-
gent of which angle in terms of the radius will be the rise or fall of the •
plane. The duration of the tangent will be determined by the paper on
which the secti.^n is drawn being made to traverse at a speed proportionate
to the distance passed over; and the extent, by the diflerence of the speeds
of a nut and screw which are made to revolve in the same direction — the nut
turning at a constant velocity, and the screw at a speed differing from that
of the nut in proportion to the tangent, slower or faster as the tangent is
plus or minus, raising or lowering the nut according to the deviation of the
plane from the horizontal line.

The machinery is set in motion by the wheels of the carriage, and a series
of wheels and pinions of given diameters cause the ground line and datum
Une to be drawn simultaneously by two pencils on a paper which gradually
unfolds itself from one drum, and is transfered to another at the rate of 16
inches per mile passed over, or on a scale of 5 chains to the inch. A profile
of a line of country may thus be obtained with sufficient accuracy for a pre-
liminary survey.

A comprehensive perspective drawing accompanies the paper, and explains
the construction of the machine.

May 12. — The President in the Chair.

" Photography, as applicable to Engineering." By Alexander Gordon, M.
Inst. C. E.

The object of the author in this paper is to direct general attention to the
advantages which may be expected to result to the profession of the Ci«I
Engineer from the discoveries of Mans. Daguerre and others, in enabling
copies of drawings, or views of buildings, works, or even of machinery when
not in motion, to be taken with perfect accuracy in a very short space of
time and with comparatively small expense. This system of copying not
only the outline, but the tints of light and shade, united with accurate linear
perspective, he contends may be easily adapted to the purpose of the engi-
neer, as well as to all those professions in which the art of drawing is used.
The photographic apparatus has already been employed to bring before us
exact copies of the most interesting monuments of antiquity, the French
antiquarians and artists having found it more easy and correct to Daguerreo-
type the Egyptian monuments and decipher the hieroglyphics at their leisure,
than to labour over the originals.

The subject is divided into two branches : the first being the art of copjing
drawings and plans by the transmission and absorption of light by prepared
paper. The drawing to be copied is placed between two pieces of plate glass,
held down in close contact with a sheet of photogenic paper, prepared by
being washed over on both sides with a neutral solution of nitrate of silver
of a spectfic gravity of 1'0G6, and afterwards with a solution of common salt
and water (lib. of salt to 25 pints of water). The paper thus prepared must
be dried and kept in the dark, on account of its peculiar delicacy. The rays
of the sun are then permitted fo pass through the white portions of the
drawing or print, while they are interrupted by the black hues, and more or
less by the tinted portions. The rays of light thus act upon the prepared
paper, and produce, in a few minutes, a reversed copy, reproducing the lights
of the oi'iginal in shadows ; this c;^ be remedied by taking a second copy
from the first, and thus the shadows are restored to their original positions.
To destroy the sensitiveness of the prepared paper, and preserve the copy, it
is soaked in pure water, which carries off the excess of nitrate of silver, then
covered with a solution of hjiio-sulphite of soda of a specific gravity of 1,055,
and again washed in pure water, so that when dried it is permanently fixed.
It is evident that a copy thus obtained must be exactly like the original, and
the value of such a process may be readily estimated by engineers.

The second branch, which is named '• Daguerreotype," after the distin-
guished artist who brought it to its present state of perfection, is of a much
higher order. This is the art of fixing and preserving on the surface of a
poUshed silvered plate the images collected in the focal plane of a camera
obscura.

The process is rather complicated, but may be thus briefly described. The
surface of the silvered plate being cleaned and polished very perfectly by
means of finely levigated pumice stone, olive oil, and cotton, is rubbed
lightly over with diluted nitric acid, in the, proportion of 1 pint of acid to

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THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[NOVKMBKR,

16 pints of distilled water; it is then subjected to the heat of charcoal or a
spirit lamp until a firm white coating is formed all over the surface of the
«Uver. The plate is then suddenly cooled. This process is repeated three
times] It is placed in a dark chamber with the face or silver surface down-
wards, where it is acted upon by the spontaneous evaporation of iodine ; this
condenses upon the silver, and produces a fine gold-coloured surface, ex-
tremely sensitive to the impressions of light. It is then placed in a camera
obscura, the light having becu until then perfectly excluded from it. It there
receives the impression of any images brought within the focal plane ; and
by subsequently e.vposing il in a dark, close chamber, with its silver surface
downwards, to'the fumes of heated mercury, the images are rendered visible ;
to fix the images so received, the iodine is removed by dipping the plate in
pure water, and then washing it either with a weak solution of hypo-sulphite
of soda or a saturated solution of common salt, and finally dipping it in dis-
tilled water and drying it. It should then be framed and glazed to preserve
it from external injury, and the picture will remain unchanged.

Attempts have been made to use this process for preparing the plates for
engravers, as much time and cost would thereby be saved, but hitherto it has
not been done to any extent.

The author presses upon the Institution the applicability of these processes
to engineering uses, and quotes the remark of "Mons. .\rago — " That photo-
graphic delineations having Ijcen subjected during their formation to the
rules of geometry, we may be enabled, by the aid of a few simple data, to
ascertain the exact dimensions of tin- most elevated parts of the most inac-
cessible edifices."

Mr. Cooper, Senior, introduced the subject of photography by explaining,
and illustrating by instruments and diagrams, the principles of the division
and dispersion of the rays of light, according to the Newtonian theory, as
well as the most recent researches into the subject. He described the
chemical properties of light — its affinity for certain combinations, such as
chloride of silver — its heating powers — the different effects of the rays on
vegetation — and the application of these known principles to photography.
He then explained the chemical properties of the chloride of silver, iodine,
and other substances used in the process. In alluding to the probable uses
of the Daguerreotype, he observed that the process might be employed to
make drawings of machinery, as graduated scales might be fixed to certain
parts of the objects, and they would be copied in their relative proportions
to the machine.

Jlr. Cooper, Junior, illustrated Mr. Gordon's communication by explaining
the photographic apparatus, and the process of obtaining a specimen of
Daguerreotype by means of the oxy-hydrogen light. He described, among
other points, the difficulty of obtaining pure silver upon the copper plates,
as, for the advantage in rolling, the manufacturer will introduce an alloy
of J to 1 5 per cent. On this account, acid is used so repeatedly in cleaning
the plates, that any particles of copper which have been rolled into the
surface may be carried off. He explained his improveiucnt to the iodine
box, which consists in spreading the iodine all over the bottom of a tray
lined with glass, and covering it with a piece of card-board, wliich becomes
saturated with the fumes of the iodine, and on the silvered plate being placed
over it, acts equally over its surface, instead of partially, as in the old system
of placing the iodine in a mass in the centre of the tray. He had found this
to be a great improvement. The shortest time in which he bad obtained a
photographic picture in England was 11 minutes; while, during a gloomy
day in November, it took an hour and a half to procure a moderately good
one.

" An Universal Screu'-Jack." By George England.

This machine, a model of which was presented to the Institution, is in-
tended for raising heav7 weights and moving them in any required direction ;
the vertical motion is similar to that of a common screw-Ufting jack, and the
lateral motion is communicated by a ratchet lever to a horizontal screw,
working in bearings on a strong cast-iron bed with planed surfaces through a
double nut attached to the base of the jack. The jack has been found useful
for erecting heavy pieces of machinery, and for replacing railway carriages
and locomotives on the rails when they have been accidentally thrown off.
" Description of a Traversiny Screw-Jack." By W. J. Curtis.
The screw-jack is attached to a plank w^itb a rack in it, and slides in a
groove in another plank which is placed beneath it, across the railway ; in
the lower plank is a rack, by means of which and a hooked lever, tlie jack,
with the engine or any other weight resting upon it, is drawn easily across
the rails and lowered to its proper position. By this apparatus, engines and
carriages of considerable weight have been replaced on a railway by two men
in a very short space of time.

A model of the machine was presented to the Institution.

May 19. — The President in the Chair.

Peter Bruff was balloted for aud elected an Associate.

'• Description of a new Gas Reyula/or." By James Milne.

The object of this instrument (which tlie inventor exhibited in action, and
presented to the Institution) is to regulate the supply of gas to burners, so
that any variation in the pressure, arising from extinguishing the adjacent
hghts along the line of the street main, or in the diflferent floors of manu-
factories, shall not affect those lights which are supplied through the regu-
lator.

The regulator consists of a cylindrical outer case, to which is affixed a
water gauge to show the pressure ; to the top is attached an inner cylinder,
open at the lower end and reaching nearly to the bottom of llie outer case;
tlie gas is introduced from beneath by a tube in the centre, terminating in a
conical valve at the top ; the male part of the valve is fixed by three arms to
the top of a float, which moves freely in the space l)etween the inner cylinder
and the centre tulie ; the areas between the outer case and the inner cylinder,
ami between the inner cylinder and the centre tube, being alike, the pressure
of the gas acts upon the water within the inner cylinder, and causes it to
rise in the outer case just as much as it is depressed in the inner space. This
depression carries down the float with the male part of the valve attached
to it, and thus diminishes the aperture of the supply pipe, until the pressure
is relieved by other burners being lighted, and enables the supply of gas to
be in proportion to the demand. The pressure may be regulated at will by
increasing or diminishing tlie quantity of v, ater in the cylinders, and it is
shown correctly by the graduated glass [range. This apparatus has been
found, in an experience of two years, to effect a saving of about 20 per cent.,
independent of its ensuring a perfect equality to all the burners in action.
Drawings of the instrument accompanied this communication.

Mr Lowe believed the " gas regulator" to be an efficient instrument. It
was of the utmost importance that the light from gas should he steady aud
equal, as the nerves of the eye were more injured by an unsteady than by an
intense light. In large estabhshraents, the greatest care would scarcely pre-
vent constant variation in the lights, so that an efficient means of producing
regularity must be valuable.

BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE.

Tenth Meeting. — September, 1840.

(From the Atheneeum.J

Section G. — Mechanic.\l Science.

Mr. Dircks gave an account of a railway irheet with wood tyre, which was
exhiliited in the museum. It was one of a set which had been in use for two
months, carrying five tons each day. The construction of the wheel will be
understood by imagining an ordinary spoked wheel, but with a deep-eAa»»-
nelled tyre. In this channel is inserted blocks of African oak, measuring
about 4 X 3i inches, prepared by filling the pores with such unctions prepa-
rations as counteract the effects of capillary attraction in regard to wet or
damp. The blocks are cut so as to fit very exactly, with the grain placed
vertically throughout, forming a kind of wooden tyre. There are about thirty
blocks of wood round each wheel, where they are retained in their places by
bolts, the two sides of the channel having corresponding holes drilled through
them for this purpose ; each block of wood is thus fastened by one or two
bolts, which are afterwards well rivetted. After being so fitted, the wheel is
put into a lathe, and fumed in the ordinary manner of turning iron tyres,
when it acquires all the appearance of a common railway wheel, but with an
outer wooden rim, and the flange only of iron. Mr. Du'cks proposes the use
of either hard or soft woods, and of various chemical preparations to prevent
the admission of water into the pores of the wood : he also contemplates the
using of wood well compressed.

Mr. JeftVey on a New Hydraulic Jppnralm. — It comprised an improvement
on the ancient endless chain of buckets, which he considers of Egyptian origin.
This apparatus has hitherto never acquired the value it admits of, on account
of a defect having remained in its construction, opposed to geometrical prin-
ciple— the buckets which bring up the water being fixed outside instead of
within the rope. The effect of this is such an acceleration of the bucket,
when it is carried round the wheel at top, as causes it to overtake the water
and carry much of it down again. But, liy placing the buckets on the centre
side of the ropes, that is, within them, the bucket when passing round the
wheel, being very near the centre, is much retarded, and the momentum of
the water causes it to ride out of the bucket very effectually into the trough.
A peculiarity in the form of the bucket also prevents the spilling of the water
in cases where the motion is very slow.

Sir J. Robison stated that, although the methods in India are rude, yet
they give a greater return of work done for power applied than other methods
known. — Mr. Jeffrey stated that he bad tried this method on a large scale,
each bucket containing IJ cwt. of water. A small valve at the liottom of the
bucket allows the air to enter, aud the bucket is thus quickly emptied.

" Additional Notice conceminy the most economical and effective proportion
of Engine Power to the tonnaye of the hull in Steam Vessels, and more espe-
cially in those desiyned for long voyages." By Mr. Scott Russell

Lai-gc power or small power ? has always been a disputed question. The
early steam boat engines had but a small power proportioned to the tonnage.
The Comet had 25 tons burden, and only three horses power— being a pro-
portion of power to tonnage amounting to i- On this subject modern prac-
tice and opinion seem to offer no guide. The East India Company have used
low proportions of power to tonnage, and in this they appear to have adopted
the general ma.\ims of Southern engineers. The Government appear also to
have followed the same course, but without going to the same extreme. The
Clyde engineers adopt the opposite maxim, and place as much power in their
vessels as can be conveniently applied. There appears at present to be a

1840.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

387

feeling in favom- of a high proportion of power to tonnage. It has been found
by some of tlie best mercantile companies that a high proportion of ])ower to
tonnage is not only better for expedition, but also more ecouomical of fuel
and of capital ; and instances are frequent of an increase in the power of a
steam vessel, producing a diminution in the consum])tion of fuel. As this
question is becoming every day of greater importance, it is proper to examine
it carefully. In the first place, it is known that the proportion of power must
be very much increased to gain a given increase of speed ; — thus, if ten horses
power propel a vessel through water five mile an hours, it will require forty
horses power to propel the same vessel ten miles an hour ; since it will re-
quire a quadruple power to obtain a double speed, in like manner it will re-
quire a ninefold power to triple the speed. A large power of engine, it may
be said, occupies nuicb useful space which might be filled with cargo. It
consumes much coal, and the speed is by no means proportioned to the ex-
pense of fuel and machinery. But this is a limited view of the subject. If
time, as an element, and a very important one in the value of mercantile con-
veyance, be calculated, then it will be found that in many cases the effects of
high speed, at any expense of fuel, will compensate for that expense. But it
is not on the value of speed at the present day that we proceed in this in-
qiiiiy. We are to ascertain what may be the best proportion of power to
tonnage in sea-going vessels. We have seen that the lowest speed is the
most economical, and that it requires expensive additions to give high veloci-
ties. But in arriving at this conclusion, we have taken only the case of smooth
water : here it is obvious that the smallest power will be most economical.
But it should be remembered that the great purposes of steam arc generally
of a different natOTe from the mere generation of motion through a quiescent
fluid. The force of adverse winds, waves, and tides are to be overcome, — and
it is the success of steam in olitaining regularity and speed, in spite of these,
which constitutes its superiority. Now. if we take a simple case of one of
these, we shall soon find that a higher proportion of power to tonnage may
be essential not only to speed hut even to economy. Suppose, a steam-boat
with a small proportion of power, capable of propelling the vessel at the velo-
city of three miles an hour through still water, to be applied to stem a cur-
rent of three miles an hour, or a proportionately strong breeze,- — is it not
plain that the vessel would make no headway .' This extreme case of too
little power shows that there is at least one proportion of power which is too
small for economy of fuel. We may now proceed to investigate the question
of best proportion, or the point where the attainment of high speed is accom-
panied by absolute saving of fuel, as compared to lower velocity. For this
purpose we merely take it for granted, that the speed through the water will
be nearly as the square root of the former, according to the general law of
the resistance of fluids ; that the resistance offered by adverse winds, &c. has
been ascertained, and is determined on a particular station, that is, that it is
known that on a given station, a given vessel, with a given power, makes a
voyage in adverse circumstances in, suppose, double the time of her most
prosperous voyage, say her prosperous voyage in fourteen, and her adverse
voyage in twenty-foiu- days, being a retarding power of ten days out of twenty-
four ; we take this retardation of ten days as the measure of the retarding
power of adverse weather in the given circumstances. By working out the
result, we obtain the very simple rule for finding the best proportion of power
to tonnage : from the square of the velocity of any given vessel in good
weather, subtract the square of the velocity of the same vessel in the worst
weather, divide the difference by the square of the velocity in good weather,
and the quotient multiplied into double the horses' power of the said vessel,
will give the power which would propel the same vessel in the same circum-
stances, with the smallest quantity of fuel. It further appears, that the con-
sumption of fuel in the worst voyage, will not exceed that of the best voyage,
in a greater proportion than 10 to 7— that is to say, for 70 tons of fuel burnt
on a good voyage, it will not be necessary to carry more than 100 tons, in
order to provide against the worst. Let us take, as example, a Transatlantic
steam-ship, which has a proportion of 1 horse power to 4 tons of capacity ;
her unfavourable voyage being, between England and America, twenty-two
days, and her favourable voyage fourteen davs, being a comparative velocity
7 and 11.

„2_»'2 121—49 72 12

Then A' = 2 V

»'2 121
— =2

49 „ 72 __

= 2 = r- nearly.

121 121 10 '

Hence the power should be increased in the ratio of 6 to 5 — that is to say,
the engines at present capable of exerting a power of 500 horses should have
been capable of exerting a power of 600 horses, and would, in this case, con-
sume less fuel, as well as produce greater regularity. The following result
also follows : — The vessel of less power burns 30 tons per day, performs the
distance in fourteen days, consuming 420 tons of coal in fair weather. The
vessel of less power burns 30 tons, performs the distance in twenty-two days,
consuming 660 tons in foul weather. The vessel of greater power burns 36
tons, performs the distance in twelve and a half days, consuming 468 tons in
fair weather. The vessel of greater power burns 36 tons, performs the dis-
tance in 17'5 days, consuming 630 tons in foul weather ; being a consumption
of 64 tons less fuel, and performing the journey in four and a half days less
than the other. It is manifest, that the store of fuel carried in the vessel
with less power, must, on all occasions, be equal to the greatest consumption,
that is to say, at least 660 tons, whereas 630 tons will be sufficient for the
vessel of greater power, and, as in all vessels for long voyages, coals carried
are much more costly than the mere price of coals, or as the freight of the
vessel is more costly than the fuel, coals carried are to be reckoned at least

as expensive as coals burnt. Moreover, as the gain in time is 4 J out of 22,
!)eiug 20 per cent., it is plain that the vessel may lie calculated to do the dis-
tance oftener in a year, because, as the times of starting must be regulated
not by the shorter, but by the longest period of a voyage, seventeen and a,
half days in the one case, stand in the place of twenty-two in the other. It
appears, therefore, that, for long voyages especially, there are great advantages
in point of economy, certainty, and speed to he obtained by the use of vessels
of a higher power than usual ; and that in a given case, the best proportion
of power to tonnage may readily be determined from the rules already laid
down. In regard to absolute or definite proportion, it may be stated, as the
result of the best vessels, that the proportion of power to tonnage should not
be greater than one horse power to two tons, nor less than one horse to three
tons ; the greater proportion holding in the smaller, and the less proportion
of power in the greater vessel.

Mr. Fairbaim agreed, that the horse power should be increased, but that
in bad weather the consumption of fuel was not so great as in fine weather.—
Mr. Russell said, that practically in good weather the engines are worked ex-
pansively. There are two systems. The south engineers are afraid of using
full powers ; they use smaller proportions of power to tonnage, and slack the
power in head winds. The north engineers always set head to wind in bad
weather, and work full power ; and in good weather work expansively. lu
steamers worked on the south system, the advantages would be as Mr. Fair-
baim stated ; in steamers worked on the north system, the advantages would
be as he stated. — Mr. Fairbairn was of opinion, that three tons to one horse
power were better than four to one. — Mr. Russell said, that it was safe to
give more power than the ride gives ; that on the introduction of longer and
sharper vessels less power would be required. — Mr. Fairbau-n observed, that
the goverment post-office steamers, in the Mediterranean, were so bad, that
the French vessels constantly pass them.

Mr. Smith made some observations " On the Drainage of Railway Embank-
menis and Slopes." — Mr. Vignoles observed, that had Mr. Smith had as much
experience on railways and their constructiou as himself, he would have
known that all he had recommended had been done on various occasions,
whenever the expense could be justified.

Mr. Mallet •' On the Action of Air and Water on Iron." — Mr. Mallet
stated, generally, the nature of the principal practical results obtained by him,
with respect to the durability and modes of protecting cast iron, wrought
iron, or steel, under various conditions, when exposed to the corroding or
chemical action of air and water, whether fresh or salt. These researches
have been made under the sanction of the Association, and are still in pro-
gress. Numerical results have ah-eady been obtained of the absolute and re-
lative durabiUties of about 100 different varieties or makes of cast iron and of
wrought iron, in each of the following conditions as to water, — viz. In clear
sea or ocean water ; in foul sea water, as in the harbours of large cities ; in
clear river water ; in foul river water ; in sea water at high temperatures ; in
sea water at various depths ; in sea water of variable saltness. The residts
in all these cases are given in voluminous tables, so arranged as to enable the
engineer to predict with confidence the durability of a given scanthng of iron
of a given sort, under given cuxumstances. The conditions of corrosion of
iron, in contact with copper, with zinc, and with tin, and with various atomic
alloys of these, have been determined, and printed tables of the results dis-
tributed to the Section. Results are also given as to the relative protecting
power of several paints or varnishes, to the surface of iron exposed as above.
The specific gravities of all the irons experimented on, have been taken by a
new method, and the increment of specific gravity due to increased depth (or
head of metal) in castings determined, and also the decrement of specific
gravity due to increased bulk or scanthng of castings determined. These are
necessaiy data to the foregoing investigation, and are in themselves of im-
portance to the engineer, with reference to the ultimate cohesion of cast iron,
which seems to be related, and probably is some function of the specific gra-
vity in any given case. The experiments are now extended to wrought iron
and steel ; a final report is proposed, to consider the nature of the chemical
changes induced on cast and wrought iron by the action of sea water, and to
complete the numerical results now given, which have lately been in several
instances submitted to control, or tested by the actual corrosion of castings
recovered from the wrecks of the Edgar and Royal George, &c., and found
strikingly to coincide.

Mr. Grimes described Dennett's Rockets for preserving lives from ship-
wreck, and read a letter from Capt. Denham, stating that the range of these
rockets exceeded that of the mortar by 100 yards, the range of the rockets
being about 350 yards, while that of the mortar was but about 250.

Dr. Wallace on Arches. The object of this paper was to exhibit a method
for geometrically constructing a catenary. After explaining Ids method. Dr.
Wallace stated that he was about to pubhsh a set of tables for constructing
the catenary, and also for suspension bridges.

Mr. Wallace exhibited and explained his smoke protector. — Mr. Haw-
kins exhibited and gave an account of Mr. J. R. Bakewell's instrument for
measuring the angles of the dip of strata. — Mr. Rayner exhibited a machine
for regulating the speed of macbinerj' in cotton-miUs, &c. — Mr. Smith, of
Deanston, exhibited a model of a new canal lock, the advantages of which
he stated to be, that the descent in each lock would not be more than twelve
to eighteen inches — that the locks were opened by the passage of the vessels
— that the locks shut of themselves— that the vessels did not require to stop
—and that Uttle or no water was lost. The lock gate is hinged at the hot-

388

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[NOVKMBER,

torn the upper portion, whicli is round, floats at the level of the higher part
of the water, and is pressed doivn by the bow of the vessel in passing, and
when it has passed, rises to its former position.

" Experimental Ini/itiri/ into the Strenytti of iron, with respect to its ap-
plication as a Substitute for IVood in Ship-ljuitdini/." By Mr. Fairbairn.

The number of vessels which of late years have been made entirely of iron,
and the probabihty of the greatly extended use of this metal in ship-building,
renders it desirable to attain additional knowledge as to its power to resist
these strains to which it is subjected, in its appUeation to the purposes above
stated. Mr. Fairbairn's experiments have convinced him, that in proportion
as the public become better acquainted with the valuable properties of this
material, and its fitness for almost any purpose of naval architecture, they
will be convinced that it is safer, and, perhajis, more duralile tlian timber,
and that confidence in it will be completely established. To meet the re-
quirements for this purpose, the following series of experiments have been
undertaken, and in a great measure completed. Part only, however, could
at present be laid before the Section. 1st. A eries of experiments on the
strength of plates of iron, as regards a direct tensile strain, both in the di-
rection of the fibre and across it. 2ud. On the strength of the joints in
plates rivetted together, and on the best modes of riveting. 3rd. On the
strength of the various forms of ribs or frames used in ship-building, whether
wholly composed of iron, or of iron and wood. 4th. On the resistance of
plates to compression and concussion, and on the power necessary to burst
them. The experiments were superintended by Mr. Ilodgkinson, to whom
Mr. Fairbairn acknowledged himself indebted for many of the results.

On Strength of Iron Plates. — In these experiments all the plates were of
uniform thickness. Their ends had plates rivetted to them on both sides,
with boles bored through them perpendicular to the plate, in order that they
might be connected by both, with shackles to tear them asunder in the
middle, which was made naiTower than the rest for that purpose. The
results were as follow : — Mean breaking weight in tons per square inch, when
drawn in the direction of the fibre.

Tons.

Yorkshire plates 25-77~l
Do do. 2276

Derbyshire do. 21-68 ^ Mean 22-52 tons.

Shropshire do. 22-83 )

Staffordshire do. 19-56 J
Mean breaking weights in tons per square inch, when drawn across the
fibre : —

Yorkshire plates 2 7-49 ~]
Do. do. 26-04

Derbyshire do. 18-65 j. Mean 23-04 tons.

Shropshire do. 22-00 I

Staffordshire do. 21 -01 J
The foregoing experiments show that there is little difference in the strength
of iron plates, whether drawn in the direction of the fibre or across it. Mr.
Fairbairn then gave the results of a long series of experiments on the strength
of riveted plates. The same description of plates was here used, as in the
previous experiments ; the plates were however, made wider than the former,
in order that they might contain (after the rivet-holes were punched out)
the same area of cross section as the previous ones. Mean breaking weights
in pounds, from four plates of equal section, rivetted by a single row of
rivets ; —

20127T

18982 1''^'"='" '8^90 lb.

I9147J
The mean breaking weights in pounds from four plates of equal sections to
the last, but united with a double row of rivets :

22699T

23371 I iiipan ooof.Q 11,
20059 f *"^^" —^•'^ '"•
22902J
Whence the strength of single to double riveting is as 18590 ! 22258. But
from a comparison of the refults taken from tlie whole experiments, the
strength derived from the double rivetted joints was to that of the single as
250.3(1 ! 18591, or as 1000 to 742. Comparing tlie strength of plates alone
with that of double and single riveted joints, Mr. Fairbairn gave their relative
values as under : —

For the strength of the plate 100

For that of double riveted joints 70

And for the single riveted joints 56

Hence the strength of plates to that of the joints, as the respective numbers,
100, 70, and 56. Mr. Fairbairn then gave a table containing the dimensions
and distances of rivets for joining together ilifferent thicknesses of plates.

A discussion ensued as to the comi)arative strength and safety of iron
boats. Mr. Fairbairn stated, that from the manner in which the shcithing
is rivetted, the whole vessel becomes one njass; and though he did not come
forward as the advocate of iron against wood, be would state that be con-
sidered iron as one-third stronger than wood, weight for weight. — Mr. Gran-
tliara knew iron boats that had lasted 28 years in fresh water. — Mr. Taylor
built an iron boat for a canal in 180.'), and it was now in good condition. —

Wheal Vor, Borlase's engine. .
Fowey Consols, Austin's . . . .
Wheal Darlington Engine . .
Cbarlcstown United Mines . .

Mr. Mallctt had found, from bis experiments on the action of sea water upon
iron, that the duration of a half-inch plate in sea water would be about 100
years.

Mr. Ilodgkinson read a paper " On the Strength of Pillars of Iron." This
was an abstract of a paper by Mr. Ilodgkinson. read at the Uoyal Society, of
which we gave an abstract at the time. — (See Journal, No. 34, page 248.)

Mr. Fairbairn " On raising JTater from Low Lands." The commissioners
for draining the Lake of Haarlem having aj)plied to Mr. Fairbairn on the
subject, he proposed a method where the water is raised by a large scoop,
which rises on the descent of a weight, which weight is raised by steam
power, on the Cornish principle. It is calculated to raise 17 tons at each
stroke. Mr. Fairbairn cxhiljited a model in illustration.

Mr. Taylor mentioned, that he had that morning received a letter from
Mr. Enys, stating that commissioners from the Dutch government had visited
Cornwall, to ascertain the duty done by the Cornish engines. Several ex-
periments had been made at their request, and the following was the result.

Feet stroke. Lifted one foot.

80 in. single 8-0 123,300,5931b.

80 „ 9-0 .... 122,731.766

80 „ 8-0 78,257,675

50 „ 7-5 55,912,.392

Ditto Stamping engine 32 hfting 66 stamps 60,525,000

Wheal Vor, ditto 36 dble. lifting 72 stamps 50,085,000

Mr. Glynn stated, that by a scoop wheel 25 feet diameter, and 80 horse
power, used by him in Lincolnshire, 4a tons of water were raised in a second,
the difference of level being about five feet.

Mr. Hawkins exhibited a Model of a Railway and Carriage, recently patented
by Mr. Rangeley, and by him called the Safety Rotation Railway ; which is
an inversion of the ordinary construction, inasmuch as wheels are made to
revolve on fixed bearings, placed in two parallel lines along the road ; and
the carriage, without wheels, is built upon a pair of running rails, carried
along upon the pcriplieries of the train of w heels kept in revolution by steam-
engines fixed at every mile or two of the road. It is intended to have the
wheels three feet diameter, and three feet apart, which will give 1760 wheels
on a mile. They are to be driven by a succession of endless bands, one band
in every case passing around two pullies attached to every two contiguous
wheels. The carriages are designed to hold forty passengers each, with their
luggage ; the whole, including the carriage, not to exceed five tons : the run-
ning rails always to hear on eight or teu wheels, so that no wheel shall have
to support more than about ten or twelve hundred weight. The wheels,
therefore, need not weigh more than half a hundred weight each, to be suffi-
ciently strong for supporting the carriage. It is found by experiment, that
three ounces suspended from the periphery of such a wheel, causes it to re-
volve. Any weight that sets a wheel in motion, will, if continued, cause the
same to revolve with accelerated velocity, until the resistance of the atmos-
phere becomes equal to the accumulated force, after which, a steady speed
will be kept up. It is inferred from observation, that the w heels driven with
a continued force of three ounces each, would acquire a constant speed of
about thirty miles an hour. It is also ascertained from experiment, that
eight pounds would draw a ton weight on four three-feet wheels running on
level rails, and thus that a force of forty pounds would draw the carriage.
The following table is constructed from data, by which it is found that seven-
teen horse power of steam-engine is required to turn each mile of wheels, and
two horse power to drive each carriage. The power to turn the wheels, is
neither increased by additional carriages nor by acclivities; each carriage
added, taking only two horse jiower more to carry it along upon a level ; and
an acclivity of 1 in 180 doubling, 1 in 90 quadrupling, and 1 in 45 octupUng
oidy the tractive force, without in any case requiring more than the seventeen
horse power to turn the wiieels.

Carriages
Every 2
Minutes.

PASSENGERS.

HORSE
Per Mile in

POM'ER.

2 Miimtes

Every 2
Minutes

In
12 Hours.

On
a Level.

Up
1 in 180.

1 in 90.

Up
1 in 45.

1

1 40 i 14,400

19

21

25

33

2

1 80

28,800

21

25

33

49

3

1 1 20

43,200

23

a 9

41

65

4

160 57,600

25

33

49

SI

5

200 , 72,000

i

27

37

57

97

Tlie Brilituniii.— This steamer has brought to Havre frnm London an iron
steamer in ,372 pieces. The vessel, which is ilestired for llio Lake of Gi'neva,
will be 135 feet long, and these materials are to bo transpined ihiiber lurib-
uilb.

1840.1

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

38f)

BEVIEWrS.

Penny Cyclopcedia. Part 92. Article "PouTico."
Unless the style adopted prohibits the introduction of sucli feature,
a portico is now considered almost a sine qua nun in a design; ample
proof of which being the case was afforded by those for the Royal
Exchange, the Assize Courts at Liverpool, &c. ; and yet, whether in
designs or executed buildings, we very rarely find any attempt at
originality, or any fresh comtjinations in regard to phm. On the con-
trary, nearly all our porticoes consist merely of a single range of
columns in front, and it is fortunate when that disposition of them is
attended with the negative merit of there being no disagreeable
drawback on the effect aimed at by them, resulting fi'om a mean back-
ground to the external elevation. In fact, notwithstanding that so
very much depends u]ion them, and almost endless variety may be
obtained from them, j5/aH and background — /. e. the interior elevation
of the portico — have scarcely any study or attention at all bestowed
upon them. We trust, however, that the very excellent article which
lias just appeared in the Penny Cyclopaedia — a work which has
already more than once obtained our notice and approbation for the
architectural information it contains — will not be thrown away upon
the profession, but spirit them up to endeavour to get out of their old
routine course, and give us something more than six or eight columns,
put beneath a pediment.

When we inform ovu' readers that the article in the Cyclopaedia ex-
tends to several pages, we hardly need observe that it is altogether
original, for we know of no other work of the kind which contains
much more thin a mere definition of the term itself, while here in

TABLE OF

addition to the information brought together, there is a very great
deal of able comment and criticism. Even were there nothing else to
recommend it, this article would deserve to be noticed by us on account
of the novel and ingenious terms invented by the writer to express
clearly at once, of what kind a portico is, as regards its flanks, and its
projection from the building to which it is attached. For this pur-
pose he makes use of the terms JMonoprostyle, Dtproslyle, Hyptr-
diprostyk, Tripws/i/le, &c., the first indicating the simplest form of
prostyle, namely, that which projects only one intercolumn before the
buildirg; the second, that which projects two intercolumns, and so on.
By this most convenient innovation in architectural terminology, — and
therefore likely to be generally adopted at once, — the plan of the por-
tico of St. Martin's Church, would be clearly described by terming it
Hexastyle Diproslyle, that i>, having six columns,or five intercolumns in
front and two intercolumns at its flanks, consequently one column there
besides that at the angle. A Tripivslyle has of course three open inter-
columns at its sides; but the meaning of Hyper-diprostyle requires
some explanation, — after which it becomes obvious enough, this term
being coined by the writer to express that besides having two open
intercolumns, the portico is advanced from the building by an addi-
tional space, whether equal to a third intercolumn or not: thus the
portico of the National Gallery is described as a Corinthian Octastyle,
Hi/per-dtprostyle, and with regard to its interior as liaving a distyle in
antis within it, — that is, a recess of three intercolumns, produced by
two columns between autas.

The article is illustrated with a great many plans, showing various
arrangements, and is further accompanied with a table of some of the
more remarkable examples, which we shall here give, referring our
readers to the Cvclopaedia itself for the rest of the article, not doubt-
ing that they will procure the number which contains it.

PORTICOES.

Class.

Dodecastyle

Decastyle

Octastyle

Octastyle-Pe-
ripteral

Octastyle

Hexastyle

Pseudo-hexa-
stvlfi

Order.

Corinth.

Doric
Ionic

Doric

Corinth.

Ionic

Doric

Corinth.

Building.

Chamber of Deputies, Paris
University College, London
Pantheon, Rome
National Gallerj', London
Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge

Victoria Rooms, Bristol
Exchange, Glasgow

Buckingham Palace
Birmingham Town-hall

La Madeleine, Paris
Girard College, Philadelphia
The Walhalla, Bavaria
Glyptotheca, Munich
Great Theatre, Petersburg
Church at Possagno
Manege, Petersburg
Royal Institution, Edinburgh
St. Martin's, Charing-cross
St. George's, Blooinsbury
St. George's, Hanover Sq.
Law Courts, Dublin

Kazan Church, Petersburg
Pantheon, Paris
Madre di Iddio, Turin

Custom-house, New York
St. Nicholas's Potsdam
Bethlem Hospital, London
Post-office, London
Theatre, Berlin
East India House, London
St. Paucras' Church, London

Royal Institution, Manchester

Post-Office, Dublin
Raadhus, Copenhagen
Colosseum, London
Hunterian Museum, Glasgow
County Hall, Chester
Wacht-Gebaude, Berlin
Front of Roman Catholic Chapel,
Finsbury Circus

Architect.

Poyet
W'ilkins

VVilkins
Basevi

Dyer
Hamilton

Nash

Hansom and
Welsh
Huve
Walter
Klenze
Kleiize
Tbomond
Canova
Quarcughi

Gihhs

Hawksraore
J. .lames
Coojcy and

Ganilon
Voroniklun
Soufflot
Buonsiguore

W. Ross
Schinkel
Lewis
Smirke
Schinkel
Jupp

Messrs. In-
wood

C. Barry

F. Johnston
Hansen

D. Burton

Remarks

T. Harrison
Schinkel

Monoprostyle. sculptured pediment.

Ilyper-diprostyle, recessed. Height of columns 30 feet.

Hyper-triprostyle. Polystyle and recessed.

Hyper-diprostyle, with distyle in antis, recess within.

Monoprostyle, recessed, and with order continued laterally, forming three

intercohunns on each side.
Unequal diprostyle, recessed, five intercolumns.
Diprostyle, with two inner columns corresiwnding with second and seventh of

the octastyle.
Columns fluted, their height 26 feet
Columns 36 feet high. Side elevations of twelve intercolumns on flanks.

See Paris.

Columns 55 feet high ; marble.

Monoprostyle, polystyle, recessed, tetrastyle in antis.

Mono])rostyle.

Diprostyle, polystyle, doul)le < ctastyle.

Monoprostyle, polystyle, recessed.

Diprostyle, height of columns 31 feet,

Diprostyle, five arched doors, and five arched windows above them.

Monoprostyle.

Monoprostyle.

Diprostyle, polystyle, a triple hexastyle.
Reliefs within portico, height of columns 62 feet.

A diprostyle, attached to a rotunda. Two inner columns behind the penulti-
mate ones in front.
Monoprostyle. White luarljle ; columns 32 feet high.
Hyper-monoprostyle.

Monoprostyle ; height of cohunns 36 feet.
Diprostyle,' recessed, cohnnus 37 feet high.
Monoprostyle, flight of steps in front.
Pseudo-prostyle ; height of columns 30 feet.
Monoprostyle; floiid Ionic; columns 36 feet high.

Monoprostyle. Order continued laterally, forming loggias of three inter-
columns on each side of prostyle.
Monoprostyle, columns 36 feet high, fluted.
Monoprostyle; deep recess in centre with steps.
A monoprostyle attached to a polygon.
Monoprostyle, recessed, with a distyle in antis.
Monoprostyle, jjolystyle, recessed. A double hexastyle.
Monoprostyle, recessed as a tetrastyle in antis.
Four pilasters and two columns beneath a pediment, or five intercolumns.

3 G

390

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. [Novkmbeu,

Papers on Iron and Slat, Praclical and Exptrimtntal. Ey David
Ml'Shet. London : Weale, 1S40.

Second Notice.

Iron possesses among metallic products tlie same pre-eminence wliicli
cotton lias over those of vegetable origin, and has for many centmies
been one of the great staples of our foreign trade, and a main sup-
porter of our internal industry; to the progress of this manufacture in
our own country we shall subsequently have occasion to refer, we shall
iiovp therefore, call attention to its origin elsewhere. Mr. Mushet in
his fourteenth paper combats tlie traditional account of the discovery
of iron in Greece by the accidental burning of a forest, and gives a
probable theory so well confirmed by experience here as to carry with
it a high degree of authority. I have seen, says lie, a mass of per-
fectly malleable iron produced by roa-iting a specie? of ironstone, iniited
with a considerable quantity of bituminous matter. After a high tem-
perature had been excited in the interior of the pile [ilates of malleable
iron of a tough and flexible nature were found, and under circumstances
%vhere there was no fuel but [hat furnished by the ore itself. Mr.
Mushet thence argues the possibility of the properties of the metal
having been discovered during the process of making charcoal by a
mass of ore accidentally dropping into Ihe burning pile. Iron, it is
most probable, was for a long time after its discovery applied solely
to agricultural purposes, for the want of a regular method of converting
it into steel long gave a preference to ha,-Jened copper and its alloys
as the material for edged tools and instruments of war. So little in-
deed was the art of making steel advanced, that a present of 40 lbs.
of steel from Porus to Alexander is quoted by biographers as a most
acceptable anrl valuable gilt.* Even in hulia "itself where this branch
of art is now carried on upon a very extensive scale, the progress seems
to have been very slow, for the value of that gift of Porus"\vould now
be the produce of one man's Uibour in 2-10 davs. It is to India how-
ever, that according to the best authorities 'we are to look for the
origin of steel, and from which other countries were supplied ; even
the obelisks of Egypt being supposed to have been worked with Indian
tools. Among ourselves the production of iron claims a very early
date, for there is every probability of the Cornish mines having beeii
worked at least 2300 years ago by the Phenicians, while we know bv
the testimony of Caesart that this branch of mining was still pursued
by the nations inhabiting Britain. The current money was of brass
01- iron, valued according to weight, although Cssar observes that the
produce of this latter met d, which was worked in the maritime dis-
tricts was small. As however the tin trade had long been a staiile,
and copper and brass were imported, it maybe reasonably doubted
whether among a mining population, the workings were, although rude,
carried on upon a greaier sca'e of magnitude than is implied from the
terms used by the Romans. During the subsequent occupation bv the
Romans, remains now existing fully attest that the workings were kept
up by them, and indeed during thewhole period of history there seems
to have been no intermission in the prosecution of this brand) of the
national wealth and strength. The Danes are particularly noted in
this pursuit, and large heaps of scoria, named after them, are to this
day to be met with in many parts of England, with so great an accumu-
lation of soil upon tliem as to bear trees of large size. At the time of
the Norman accession we find the king demanding of the inhal)itants
of Ghister 3(j icres of iron, for making nails for his fleet, every icre to
consist of 10 bars or rods of iron ; which iron was very probably made
in the neiglibourbood in the Forest of Dean. The kings of England
Iield in this forest iron works, consisting of three blast furnaces and
two forges, which are supposed to have been given up by Charles 1st,
somewhere about the year l.)37. Cromwell and other princes are also
said to have embarked capital in such pursuits, and indeed the iron
trade seems always to have been the object of the highest solicitude.

One of the first events which led to an extension of the iron trade,
particularly as regards castings, was the invention of cannon, the pre-
cise date of which is not however known. Cast iron is said by M.
Verlit to h.ive been known in Holland in the 13th century, and staves
to have been cast from it at Elass in 1400, but how produced is not
known. Cannon are mentioned in a record of the accounts of the
Chamber of Paris in 1338, and were used by the English at Cressy in
134G, and by the Venetians in 13150 and 7, but we are by no means to
conclude th.it such cannon were cast, as for two hundred years hooped
cannon were made, formed of staves of wrought iron, bound together
with strong hoops of the same metal. It was not until 1517 that the
first iron guns were cast in London by a person named Owen. The
precise date of the origin of the blast furnace is far from being ascer-
tained. Mr. Mushet who has investigated the subject with his usual

iuiulus Curlius, R. 9. cli. 2.'). Ferri candid) talcnta cunlum
T De Bi'llo Galileo, L. 5, c. 10.

research, seems to be of o|)inion that it cannot be beyrmd the beginning
of the seventeenth century. It is tlien that we perceive a fresh epoch
in the jirogress of the manufacture, as a greater power of blast was
required, {he old situations would be abandoned, and the iron trade
pass from the township in the neighbourhood of the mines to the banks
of the adjacent streams; this is particularly evident from examining
the sites of the oldest workings. The introduction, or invention of
the blast furnace here, for we seem to have some claim to its first use,
was productive of a great extension of the trade; a great exportation
of iron artillery to the continent was the result, and without giving
implicit belief to the statements of Dudley, in his Metallum Martis, we
are still bound to believe that the trade was great. According to
Dudley's computation in 1G15, there were then no less than 300 blast
furnaces for smelting iron ore vvith charcoal, and oOO forges and iron
mills. The total quantity of iron produced from the works is said to
have been 180,000 tons per year, an enormous amount considered in
relation to the then population of the country, although not impossible
so far as the question of fuel is concerned. .Supposing Dudley's state-
ment of the number of furnaces to be accurate, although some question
may be raised upon that point, a deduction is still to be made for fur-
naces out of blast and building, for which, trom modern experience we
might easily assume the deduction of a third, leaving 200 as the actual
number in work. A less njmiber of weeks (perhaps 35;, and a lower
average fsay ]2), should also be taken, and the estimated produce
would tlien not exceed 80,000 tons, a quantity by no means incredible.
It may be mentioned here by the way that the extensive exportation
of artillery is not only in favour of the origin of blast furnaces in this
Country, but also of our possessing a very large share of this trade,
which might well give an impulse to it in this country.

We have now to contemplate the history of another great improve-
ment, the use of pit coal, for which we find several patents granted by
.Tames I. In 1G12 a patent was granted to -Simeon Sturtevant, Esq.
fseeminglv a Dutch name) fir 31 years for nuking iron with pitcoal,
in return for which patent Sturtevant was bound to publish his dis-
coveries, wdiicli appeared in a quarto form under the rame of" Metal-
lica." In the next year Sturtevant, having tried his plan upon a large
scale and failed, was obliged to give up his monopoly. John Raven-
son, Esq., was the next in the field, and was also enjoined by his patent
to publish his discoveries, which he did under the title of his " Me-
t.illica." Several other candidates also failed, wlien, in lul9, anew
competitor came into the field, wdio was destined to excite more
attention. Dudley's father possessed iron works at Pinsent, in Wor-
cestershire, and it was there that Dudley perfected the patent which
he obtained in 1619. He declared that although he made only at the
rate of three tons of pig iron weekly, that be made it with profit. His
success was such as to excite the alarm of the charcoal iron manufac-
turers, who formed a powerful opposition, and obtained a limitation of
his patent from 31 to 14 years, new adventurers also spr.uig up to en-
croach upon his rights, until at last their rivalship, and his attachment
to the cause of Charles 1st, prevented his improvements from being
followed up. In the meanwhile the deficiency of wood had begun to
be felt, and Dudley had fully proved the efficacy of his plan for the
manufacture of pig and bar iron, and for various castings, all of which
he sold much lower than the charcoal-manufacturers. In the article
of castings alone, Mr. Mushet says, he must have h.id greatly the st.art
of the charcoal foundries, as the quality of c.irbonated coke pig iron
is far superior to that of the charcoal iron of this country for the gene-
ral purposes of casting. .Such success greatly provoked the hos-
tility of his rivals, particularly of those who still possessed a good
sujiply of fuel, who at last in "the true s|iirit of combination led on an
attack upon his devoted works, and led to tliee>il results to which we
have alluded. His impioved bellows, forge, &c. all fell a prey to the
lawless banditti. While he was thus openly plundered, his rivals were
not less active in endeavouring to undermine him, or at least profit by
his success by evasions of his patent. Among these attem|)ls that of
Captain Buck, Major Wildman and others is a singular instance of
failure. Attacked on all sides Dudley was also foiled in 1603,
in his last attempt to obtain a patent from Charles the Second,
and deserted by all.he was compelled to give up the pursuit. —
Dudley was the author among other works of the "Metallum Mar-
tis," in which we possess many curious det.iils of the early state of
the trade. We may here pause and view the present state of the
charcoal iron manufacture, which from 310 furnaces has dwindled
down to insignificance, so as to be almost extinct, the whole annual
quantity manufactured not exceeding 1000 tons. In Lancashire, two
or three fiunaces are occasionally in blast, and one in Argyleshire.
The jiurposes to which iron made from this fuel is now applied are
limited inileed. In Lancashire a small quantity of steel iron for the
Sheflield marker has of late years been made from it; but the principal
consumption is for casting knives, forks, razors, snuffers, bridle bits,

1840.1

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

301

stirrup irons, &c. These articles, after having been cast, undergo a
process of (leoxi(l;ition, which gives them a surprising degree of tena-
city, with great flexibility and a capacity of polish resembling steel ;
those castings, not intended to receive a polish, present surfaces capa-
ble of receiving and retaining tin for a considerable length of time.

To return to the date where we left off, we may observe that the
improvements which had been made had increased the power uf the
furnaces, from which as well probably as from their concentration a
diminution had taken place in their number. In a prospectus drawn
up about the year 1720, near the time of the .South Sea Bubble, we find
the number of furnaces rated at only .59, but as this list is manifestly
imperfect, we are perhaps bound to considerthe number aslaiger. Sus-
sex, Kent, and Hampshire were then the seat of l.i furnaces, now of not
one. Resuming the histi.ry of pitcoal iron we find that after the time of
Dudley, nothing of importance was done imtil 1740, when a new
auxiliary, the steam engine, had come into the field. The application
of this machine gave the manufacturer greater liberty in selecting the
site of his works, and enabled him to erect larger furnaces with a pro-
portionate quantity of blast. From this d^ite the use of pitcoal every
year became more prevalent, and has ended by superseding charcoal
in this country. In aid of this two other circumstances operated with
advantage, the inlroduction of Mr. Watt's double blast engine, and the
invention of puddling and rolling bar iron by Mr. Cort.

In our own days improvements not less important have been effected,
and since the commencement of tlie literary career of the author, whose
work is now before us, the quantity of pig iron necessary to pioduce a
tun of bar iron has been reduced from 40 cwt. to 2o or 27 cvvf., with
almost as great an economy of fuel. '1 his has principally been accom-
plished by means of the hot blast, the use of which however can be
onlv C(;nsidered as recently established, so strong was the prejudice
against its application. One gre.it property it possesses is that it
diminishes the qu mtity of vitreous matter formerly required in the
furnaces, so as to diminish the consumption of both fuel and limestone.
An equalization of the blast is another result, so as to dimmish the
effect of the atmospheric influence, which it is well known interferes
vritli the oper.itions of the furnace. In this, as in other countries, a
larger produce of cast iron is obtained in the winter months than dur-
ing the summer or autumn, while the quality of the metal is improved
by being nuRh more carbonated and less fuel is consumed. During
the months of June, July and August, more especially in hot seasons,
the qiialily of the iron in this country will be depreciated 3U per cent.,
and the quantity very considerably reduced, and in many parts of
.Sweden, says Ivir. Mushet, when the summer heats are intense, the
manufacturer is obliged to blow out or stop his furnace for two or
three months ; not only is he unable to make carbonated metal, but is
frequently incapable of keeping the furnace in such trim as to make a
produce of any quality whatever.

An improvement scarcely inferior in importance, although only local
was the discovery by the author in 1801, of the Mushetstone or Black
Band ironstone, a new class of carboniferous ironstone, principally
found n^ar the river Calder, near Glasgow, but also in South Stafford-
shire, NcM'th Wales, and North Statibrdshire, in which latter district
it is called Red Mine. Although used by Mr. Mushet in the Calder
iron works, so strong was the prejudice ag.iinst it that it was not until
1825 t.liat its application was at all extensive. It is now used in about
50 furnaces in Scotland, and the quantity of iron produced is above
100,0;JO tons ; on one estate alone £12,0J0 is received as royalty in
consequence of this discovery. A powerful auxiliary in the hands of
the Scotch masters has been the use of raw pit coal, and coking under
dust, which have been found to be particularly suited to the Scotch
coal and iron. A dawning discovery and one which promises to be
not less important than that of the Mushetstone, is Mr. Crane's process
for smelt ng iron with anthracite, thus making available a large supply
of mineral wealth, and extending our national resources.

»4 Practical Inquiry into the Larvs of Excavation and Embankment
upon Hallways, being an attempt to develop the natural causes which
affect the progress of such works, Sfc. By a a Resident Assistant
Engineer. London : Saunders and Otley, 1S40.

It may be laid down as a general axiom that in every inquiry of this
nature, the degree of dependance which shall be placed upon the
laws established, should be proportionate to the extent and generality
of the experiments on which such laws are founded.

If we take as our groundwork the gross performances of a long
series of months during which the attendant circumstances as to weather,
state of the earth, as it may be wet or dry, adhesive, loose, or crumb-
ling, and so troublesome or otherwise in filling and teaming, with all

the other circumstances by which earth-works are affected, we shall
be afjle to deduce from these in connection with detailed experiments
ujion the requisite particulars of getting, filling, teaming, and times of
travelling, a tolerably perfect set of expressions by which calculations
mav be made with reference to earth works in general.

it must be borne in mind, however, that ail results derived from
such expressions, however acc\irately determined, and however com-
prehensive the data from which they have been derived, are still liable
to be affected by circumstances which no liuman foresight can predict.
All that can ever be with safety relied upon is, that supposing all at-
tendant circumstances to be identical as to effects with those which
had place during the period of former observations, then that the cal-
culations applied to other works varying in form and magnitude, shall
give results agreeing with such former observations.

But if we attempt without reference to the gross performance during
some long period, to derive from the observation of a few days, fixed
laws for the actual time of executing large works, it is obvious how
impossible it must be to derive correct results in any such way. The
days during which the observations have been made, may have been
remarkably fine or remarkably unfavourable, or in some intermediate
stage between these. But whatever this stage may have been, there
is no alternative but to adopt them as our standard for the whole year,
and thus it will be seen on what an unstable foundation such a struc-
ture must be raised.

We do not mean to sav that any experimentalist would so far stultify
himself as to proceed blindly on the isolated experiments of certain
days on which tlie performances would notoriously be either much less
or much more than on the average of the year, but we can readily
imagine that the imputation of improper selection can scarcely fail to
apply more or less to the experiments of any 10 or 12 single days at
any period of the year. Let us suppose on the one hand one of the
dull gloomy days of our winter months, the ground slowly parting with
the frost which had hardened it for some weeks before — the falls of
earth possessing more than usual tenacity, the workmens' tools clogged
with the soft retentive clay adhering to every thing like bird lime;
the rails clammy and dirty from the same cause, the wagons when
teamed retaining a third of their contents plastered to the sides and
bottom, and so requiring double the time for teaming, and then let us
with this contrast a fine dry day of spring or autumn, the rails almost
free from dirt, the shovels all clean and bright, and parting instantly
with t!ie contents filled into the wagons. 'These latter again wlfen
tipped immediately discharging their contents, and leaving none to be
shovelled out by the teamers. And let us ask any man, practical or
not practical, on which day the performance will be greatest. We
shall not hesitate to say that the performance on the one day shall be
50 per cent, more than on the other, and shall be independent of the
number of hands employed, because assuming that on the favourable
day each department of the labour is occupied by the proper pro-
portion of men and horses, then on the unfavourable day an increased
number will rather serve to impede than to hasten, as they will be in
each others way, and the hands will at intervals have to wait for their
turn to exert themselves, it being im,iossible that more than a certain
number at a time can be fully employed.

We repeat we have no intention of charging the experiments before
us, or anv otiier of the same kind with such glaring absurdity as would
attach to them, did they exhibit the extraordinary results of one or
other of the extremes we have pointed out as a foundation for esti-
mating the work of the year, but we contend the chances are, that as
isolated experiments they bear more or less to one or other of the ex-
tremes. It is barely possible that the days selected shall represent a
fair average of what may be done throughout the year.

It is for such reasons that we would hesitate before adopting as the
basis of important calculations, the results of a few days observation.

We would much rather rely on well authenticated records of the
performance during many months, under different systems of working,
and we would suggest to the author of the present treatise, and to all
others who may in future undertake experimental inquiries of this na-
ture, that the really practical and experienced, whether engineers or
contractors, will invariably, as their test upon the accuracy of any par-
ticular theory, however derived, proceed at once to compare the re-
sults which such a theory will give them with their own actual know-
ledge of what has been done on the great scale in other works. They
will therefore pronounce the theory correct or otherwise, according as
it coincides or disagrees with their own experience. We are thus
over and over again impressed with the importance of founding all
theories upon the actual performance of as long a period as possible.

Let it not be understood that we are here objecting to experiments

in detail. These are exceedingly useful, because placing as they do

before our eyes the precise amount of time occupied in all the various

tages through which the soil passes from its original position in the

302

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[Nov EMBER,

cutting till it is fiiiiilly placed in tlie embankment, we are better able
justly to apportion tlie quantity of labour necessary iu each several
department, and so to economize both time and money.

Our autlior professes to have selected the experiments he has given
from a much more extensive series, and this may possibly be held as
an answer to our olyections, as to the limited space over wliich the
experiments extend, but it must be understood we are not objecting to
the insiiiTiciency of these experiments, for the purpose of showing the.
distinct periods of time occupied iu the several processes of filling,
tipping, and travelling; the real meagreness of the experiments, we
conceive, arises from the absence of all information as to the gross
performance of some long periods. It is obvious that with such in-
formation, even should the results not agree with those which might
be derived from calculation by the author's formulcP, these latter might
still be of service, as expressing the ratio of the times occupied by the
various details of earthwork operations, and this, we apprehend, is
almost the extent of what can be expected from the experiments we
are considering.

TIius should we find that the calculations on being applied to any
particular work already executed, shall afford a less result in point of
performance than we actually know to have been accomplished, we
may still perhaps rely upon the numercial relation to each other of the
several times determined in the experiments, which form the basis of
such calculations. We may conclude that the separate times assumed
for filling, teaming and travelling are all too great, but that they may
all safely be reduced in a certain ratio : and when so reduced we may
be satisfied with the conclusions they establish. Thus for purposes of
comparison as to the amounts of labour which can most advantageously
be employed in the several departments of earthworks, we hold the
experiments in this book to be extremely useful, and we think with
the restriction we have laid down against applying them to establish
gross results, that they may be safely depended upon.

We will now briefly describe the mode of investigation pursued in
this work.

From the observations of sixteen days the author proceeds to esta-
blish first the rate of speed at which the wagons travel, and then the
time occupied in tipping each wagon, or each set of wagons, suppos-
ing a sulficient number of men at the teaming place to prevent unne-
cessary delay. His method of deriving the rate of speed is neat and
ingenious, and liable to less objection than actual observation on the
time of passing between fixed points. For instance, the time occupied
in "filling, removing, and tipping the wagons," as the average of
several experiments, on a lead of half a mile, was 55 minutes. Also
the time occupied in filling, removing, nnd tipping the wagons on a
lead of three-quarters of a mile, amounted to t)0-47 minutes. Hence
we have t)9'47 — 55 = 14'47 minutes for the difference between the
time required for filling, removing, tipping and bringing back a set of
wagons upon a lead of three-quarters of a mile long; and the time
required for filling, removing, tipping and bringing back a set of
wagons upon a lead of half a mile long. This difference, namely, 14-47
minutes is evidently the time which elapsed while the horses were
drawing the loaded and empty wagons backwards and forwards over a
quarter (jf a mile, or in fact the difference in the lengths of the leads.

"This shows that the average speed of transit rates at 2-4U miles
per hour."

We regret to be under the necessity of pointing out that the author
has here made an error in calculation, as may at once be verified by
ascertaining the rate of speed corresponding to half a mile in 14-47
minutes. This rate will be found equal to 2-U7, instead of 2-40 miles
per hour; a material difference, and one which must affect any subse-
quent calculations founded upon it. We believe that the rate made
use of by the author, namely, 2-40, is more correct in practice than the
other, but this tends rather to weaken our faith in the experiments,
since they undoubtedly, by the author's own showing, establish 2-U7
miles per hour as the rate of horses' speed in transporting earih. To
proceed, the time of tip|)ing is then found ;= 7-UG minutes, and that of
filling =: 19 minutes, both these being derived, independently of the
rate of speed, and so not affected by the error we have pointed out
above.

From the data thus established, our author derives in a simple man-
ner, the necessary expressions for finding the number of wagon loads
which may be removed fron) cutting to embankment in a given time,
with a given number of wagons, both for constant and varying loads.

The next section is devoted to the investigation of the causes which
limit the rate of progress in forming an embankment. The author
shows that this rate of progress is limited by the number of teaming,
or as he terms them shunt roads, which can be fixed at the end of the
embankment, and this number will of course depend upon the height,
top breadth, and rate of slopes of the embankment, as affording a
greater or less breadth to team over. The breadth occupied by each

road, he assumes at 8 feet, so that the whole breadth available for
teaming over being divided by 8, will give the number of roads which
can be laid down.

It will now be necessary to notice the author's hypothesis as to the
available breadth of the teaming or battery head! He assumes that
most soils will stand at a slope of li to 1, when first tipped, and as
most embankments are to be finally dressed off to flatter slopes than
this, the difference between the base for a slope of lA to 1, and that
for the slope to which the embankment is to be finally dressed off will
be so much additional breadth, which being added to the top breadth
will give the whole available breadth for teaming. Thus for an em-
bankment 40 feet high, slopes 2 to 1, and top breadth 3U feet, we shal
have 40 x 2 X 2 +30 — 40 X U X2 = 190— 120= 70 feet, the avail-
able breadth for teaming over in this case.

This brief analysis contains, we believe, the elements of the author's
theory, as to the limits of progress in an embankment, for taking 7-07
minutes as the time of lipping a set of wagons, it is evident that 84-8
can be tipped from each shunt road in a day of 10 hours.

The number of wagons that can be tipped per day from each shunt
road, being multiplied by the number of these roads, gives the total
number of wagon loads that can be tipped per day from all the roads,
and this number being multiplied again by 2i;0, the working days in a
year, gives the whole performance in wagon loads ]ier annum.

The quantity in cube yards depends of course on the capacity of the
wagons, which varies from two to three cube yards, according as they
are heaped or not, and according to their build.

Our opinion of this part of the author's work is principally influenced
by comparing the gross results which his calculations establish as to
the rate of progress, with what we know to have been the actual per-
formance in cases where every effort was made to get through as large
a quantity of work as possible. Taking the case of an embankment
50 feet high, slopes 2 to 1, and top breadth 30 feel, it would appear
by the formul<e that we have been considering, that S4b wagon loads,
or say (at the most moderate allowance for each wagon) ltj9G cube
yards per day of 10 hours, can be tipped at eich end of the embank-
ment. We think our author woidd be somewhet puzzled to point out
an instance n here even two-thirds of this amount has ever been per-
formed, under the circumstances we have supposed, even for a single
day, much less during any long continued period.

There is some difficulty in comparing the formulae in detail with
actual performance, for the want of knowing the breadth of tip in the
latter cases. There is however one well authenticated example which
may be found in the evidence of Mr. Provis, on the Loudon and Brighton
Railways.

We allude to his description of the great Skelmere embankment on
the Birmingham and Liverpool Canal, where he states, that over a
breadth of 60 feet, 105,000 yards were teamed in 10 weeks during fine
summer weather, being at the rate of 1094 cube yards per day.

" During one month," how-ever, says Mr. Provis, " we worked double
gangs, beginning at three in the morning, and ending at ten at night."
So that this quantity reduced to days of ten hours in length, becomes
105,000 in 120 days, equal to 875 yards per day. It must be remem-
bered that Mr. Provis was here certainly not underslatmg the per-
formance on this work. It was his interest to show the greatest
possible quantity which had ever before been accomplished, and the
fact he relates was considered at the time, as indeed it is entitled to
be considered now, a wonderful and almost unexampled performance,
exhibiting no small share of contrivance and energy on the part of
those directing the operations.

We shall only further remark that up to April 1S37, no instance
could be found where even 200,000 yards had been teamed into em-
bankment from one face in a year; whereas our author's formulcE for
an embankment of the dimensions last described, would lead us to cal-
culate taking 250 w orking days in a year, as a performance of 124,000
yards per annum, and this too without nightwork, but simply during
250 days of 10 hours each.

The differeiice between actual experience and the results of our
author's experiments arises here, we conceive, principally from the
use of the constant 7-07 minutes as the time of tipping. This time
may be perfectly correct as applicable to small embankments, and a
few sets of wagons where there is no danger that either men, horses,
or wagons will ever be in each others way, but we conceive it is quite
inapplicable to large works, where interruptions to the regularity of
proceeding would inevitably be very frequent, if the wagons were
worked with the proper complement of labour to ensure the condition
that no instant of time shall be lost at the teaming place. Thus it will
ever be found that the theory here laid down furnishes results as to
gross performance, which must not be expected in practice.

The second part of the work commence with an inquiry into the
effects of the lead, principally as determining the number of wagons lo

18-lO.J

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

393

be employed for diftereut lengths of lead. Without accompanying
the author through his investigation of this snbject, it may be snfficient
to say that while his theoretical deductions from certain assumed data
cannot be objected to, yet these deductions are certainly at variance
with what any practical man would think of adopting. For instance,
he aseestainsby means of this investigation, that for working a 20 feet
embankment at one end only, and for a lead of 150 chains, there should
be employed no fewer than 109 horses and 235 wagons, a proposal
sufficiently monstrous to startle any one at all acquainted with the na-
ture of earjhworks.

The next section is devoted to an examination "of the amount of
friction incident upon contractor's rails." The author here establishes
that the gross load for a horse on contractors' rails may vary ton a
level?) from 5-2S to 7-17 tons, so that knowing the weight of the
wagons employed, and deducting this from the gross load mentioned
above, we may readiiy ascertain the number of wagons to be assigned
to each horse, provided the quantity of sturt' which each wagon is to
hold be known, or nee ixrsn, the quantity of stuff which each viragon
is to carry, according as. 1, 2, or 3 wagons are to be drawn by each
horse.

The following extract from this section exhibits the author's results
derived from an examination of the friction.

" Let P represent the power of a horse, F the friction per ton, upon the
load wliicli he draws, and fV the weight of a loaded wagon in tons ; then it
follows, that

P

Fx ;r

-=X

is the load proper for each horse, expressed in wagons; and this value of A'
has been given in the following table : —

Table, giving the Load proper for a singe Horse, expressed in
Wagons, according to the state of the Weather.

Value
ofF
in ft).

Value Value

of W \ oiP

in tons.! in ft.

Valne of

P
TTW

25-45 1 3-43

188-27

188'27 25-45 x 3-43
188-27

31-22! 3-43 188-27 31-22x3-43
3-43

26-86

35-54

188-27
188-27 26-06"TFl3

188-27

3-43 188-27 35-54x3-43

Value
of .Y.

2-09

1-75

State

of the

weather.

Remarks.

Fine. | Rails in good order.

Fine.

Road wet, and rails
greasy.

2-04 Fine. , ^^']\ *"^, ™='' '°
tolerable order.

Road and rails in
1-51 I Wet. verv bad order.

We observe that in several pages of this section the erroneous velo
city of 2-40 miles per hour is made use of.

'fhe eighth section contains a summary of those preceding, but as
w-e liave alreadv considered these so minutely, it may be unnecessary
to remark particularly on the summary.

The remainder of the work is occupied by an investigation into the
burrowing system, our notice of which we must defer till next month,
and in the mean time we may safely recommend the work to the
younger branches of the profession, as exhibiting a very neat, clear,
and simple application of algebraical calculation to subjects of practi-
cal inquiry.

For the reasons already so fully stated, Vf e cannot advise dependance
on the gross results to be derived from the author's mode of calcula-
tion, but whenever the student shall either from his own, or the ex-
perience of others, have acquired sufficient rfa/a to fonnd his calcula-
tions u|)on, then the method of handling the subject generally, and
particularly of adapting calculations to the practical facts on which
they are established, will be found exceedingly useful.

A great deal of useful information may also be gleaned from the
observations detailed in the work, and the young engineer in particu-
lar, can scarcely fail to have his knowledge of the subject improved by
a perusal.

Report of a Proposed Line of Raihcay from Plymouth to Exeter, over the

Forest of Dartmoor. Bv James M. Rendel, C.E. Plymouth: Stevens,

1840.

This is a well drawn up report, but we can do no more than call attention
to the mode proposed of worUing tlie inclines, respecting which we may also
mention that a similar plan is described in the First Volume of the Journal.

" From the point of divergence of the Tavistock branch, the main line
ascends to Dartmoor; the prevailing gradient being 1 in 38, and the plane 5
miles 860 yards. This part would be worked as one continuous plane, by two
water wheels, each equal to 160 horse power, constructed at the head of the
plane, and supplied with water as hereafter to lie described. The rope to be
Used for drawing tlie trains up this plane would be what is technically called
an end rope, of the whole length of the plane; being verv little longer than
the rope similarly used on the Loinlon and Blackwall Railway, upon which
there is an enormous passenger traffic."

"To insure a snpjily of water for working the water-wheels before describ-
ed, by which the trains are to be drawn up tlie two great inclined planes, at
a velocity of not less than from 15 to 20 miles an hour, I propose to throw
dams across the gorges of tlie following valleys on Dartmoor, vi-i. — across the
Blackabrook valley east of the prisons of war, the Cowsick valley above Two
Bridges, and the East Dart valley, about three miles north of Post Bridge.
These reservoirs wotdd liave an area of 255 acres, with an average depth of
20 feet, and contain a sufficient quantity of water, during a continued drought,
to pass eigiit trains per day up the planes, for three months; their height
above the wheels is from 50 to SOUfeet. The great depth of these reservoirs
will cause their sujiply of water to he independent of the severest known
frost ; whilst from their height above the Railway, the leats by whicli the
water is conveyed to the wheels, will have so quick a descent as to prevent
all chance of the passage of the water being interrupted by either frost or
snow. The wheels will work under ground, or rather, in chambers under the
Railway, and would not therefore be affected by weather."

Tlte Process of Blastivg by Galvanmn, addressed to the Hiytitand and Agri-
cultural Association of Scotland. By Martin J. Roberts, F.R.S.E.

In mentioning that Mr. Roberts has been as successful in Scotland with
blasting by Galvanism, as Col. Pasley has been in England, we say enough
for the merits of Mr. Roberts. We may farther observe that this small pam-
phlet contains in addition to a good description of the process, several dlus-
trative plates.

By Robert Scott and

Memorial, Oxford. By S. S. Scott, and W. B. Moffatt

Scott's Practical Cotton Spinner and Manufacturer.
William Scott. Preston: Livesey, 1840.

We are glad to perceive that a useful class of works by practical men are
springing up in the manufacturing districts, and likely to prove of great hene-
tit. The book now before us is a collection of calculations applied to the
several parts of cotton spinning machinery, adapted equally to the use of the
engineer and the manufacturer. It seems indeed to be a most useful work.

J Glossary of Civil Engineering. By S. C. Brees, C. E., &.C. London :
Tilt, andWeale, 1840.

Mr. Brees seems to have been so successful with his previous works, and
rendered so confident by his good reception by the public, that after a very
short interval he is again before us. The present work is one of less preten-
sions than those usual emanating from his pen, being a glossary of the terms
used in civil engineering, adapted for popular use, and that of the yonnger
members of the profession, and very useful as a handbook of reference. It
is copiously illustrated with woodcuts, some of them of considerable artistic
pretension. We should have wished that Mr. Brees had given a little more
room for mining terms, of which a manual is much wanted.

T/te Martyr^
Architects.

This fine monument is an elevated cross in the pointed style, of majestic
proportions, having in the second story statues of the three bishops. The
cross is raised upon a series of steps, and we are glad to observe without an
iron railing round it. The irregular pinnacles of the church in the back
ground are made by the cross to look rather awkward, and should he made
more symmetrical — we should suggest, by the gentlemen who have so well
fulfilled their previous task.

Jiicauti's Rustic Architecture, No. 5. Loudon : Grattan and Gilliert, 1840.

Mr. Ricauti goes on with success in his undertaking, he has shown com-
pletely how much beauty may be combined with economy by the simplest
means. Even the woodman's axe is an efficient instrument in Mr. Ricauti's
hands for giving a picturesque appearance to unbarked trees and small
branches. It appears to us that in several of the plans Mr. Ricauti might
h.->.ve greatly promoted the convenience of the arrangements by a few slight
alterations.

The Dominican Convent and Chapel at Afherstone, Wanvicishire. By
Joseph Hansom, iVrchitect.

These buildings were finished in August 1839, and consist of a pile of
mixed character in the pointed ?tyle. The turret or spire attached to the

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THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[November,

chapel is a new arrangement of tlie details of tlie pointed style, but it ap-
pears to us to be rather out of character with the remaining portions.

A Brief Suney of Physicnl and Fossil Geoloyy. By Frederick John
Francis. London: Ilatchard, 1839.

This small work is a republication of two lectures delivered at Literary Insti-
tutions, and therefore well adapted for popular circulation. The object of
such a pei-formance almost places it out of the range of criticism, particularly,
whereas in this instance, the work seems carefully compiled.

LITERARY NOTICES.

Mr. Standish Motte, the Parliamentarj- Barrister, has published at the
request of the Aborigines Protection Society, a system of registration for the
Aborigines of our Colonies, which, although it recommends engineers to he
sent out to the colonies, hardly comes within our province ; we can say,
however, that it contains many profound and original views.

Mr. ^^'vLD, the Geographer, in addition to his national wo»k on the Cam-
paigns of the English Armies in the Peninsula, has recently published several
authentic Maps and Plans of the Seat of War in the East,

Mr. Tyas is about to publish a cheap Map of England in shilling sheets,
from the graver of Mr. Jobbins, and on the scale of a third of an inch to a
mile. From the specimen it seems likely to prove a useful work.

The new Catalogue of Mr. \\'eale contains the most copious list yet pub-
lished of works on engineering and architecture.

NOTES OF THE MONTH.

M'lTH the rage for promenade concerts, it is scarcely surprising that archi-
tecture should have been a little affected with the mania. The Princess's
Theatre in Oxford Street, has been opened at present for concerts ; it is a
gorgeous building in the style of the revival ; finished by Mr. Thomas Marsh
Nelson ; tlie original design, we believe, being by Mr. Duncan. The ground in
Leicester Square, next to the Zoological Society, is being cleared preparatory to
a building for promenade concerts. — The Adelphi Theatre has had a new
front put on, we believe from the designs of Mr. Beasley. It is a novelty
admissible in such a style of decoration, but the pilasters of the lower arch
have been unfortunately contracted, from the interference of a neighbour
who possesses a right of way. — Oxford Street is being improved by the erec-
tion of several new shops on a large scale. — The Architectural Society com-
menced its pioceedings on Tuesday the 3rd. — Mr. Baily has just finished two
statues, one of Sir Thomas Brisbane, for New South Wales, and a statue of a
distinguished Irish judge for Dublin. — The foundation has been laid of the
new Collegiate School at Livcrjiool. — The British Museum has received seve-
ral accessions to its Egyptian collections ; a fine colossal head has been erected
over the doorway, which produces a fine effect. — Considerable stir is being
made as to the formation of new railways, but we fear that the Standing
Orders will jirevent their making much way this Session. Among others we
mention, the London and Manchester,- the Cambridge and Norwich, through
Thetford, the Lincoln and Nottingham, the Devon and Cornwall lines, the
Edinburgh hnes, one from Mr. JIarshall's Slate Quanies to Ulverstou.

ON TIDE GAUGES.

Sir. — In your October number you have, somewhat incautiously,
given insertion to a letter most injurious to my character, signed
" Jurnes Jnglis, London," on the subject of my new Tide Gauge, a de-
scription of which was communicated to the Royal Society by the Rev.
Professor Whewell, of Cambridge, and printed in their Transactions
for 1338.

Divested of those portions of it which, being merely ornamental,
may be safely passed over without remark, Mr. Inglis's letter contains
an assertion and an implication, to each of which I must give a se-
parate reply. It is asserkd, that in answer to various letters which
I had addressed to Mr. Mitchell, I received from him a description
and drawings of his machine, by the aid of which my own was
constructed. In reply to this assertion, I beg to state, distinctly
and simply, that I never had the slightest correspondence or com-
municntioii with Mr. Mitchell in my life, either directly or indi-
rectly, and challenge either him or his friend, Mr. Inglis, to produce
one scrap or syllable of any letter of mine in evidence of such coires-
pondence. 1 may also add that I never saw any drawing or descrip-
tion of Mr. Mitchell's tide gauge, and that I have not, at this moment,
the least idea of its principle.

The implicalioH contained in the letter of Mr. Inglis is, that as my
tide gauge was merely a copy taken from that of Mr. Mitchell, with

little or no claim either to originality or improvement, it was not only
su|ierfluous but unjust that any description of that machine should
liave been permitted to apnear, with my name attached to it, in the
Transactions of the Royal .Society. On this latter point I cannot do
better than transcribe the document itself which was the immediate
occasion of my communicating that description to the public. This
document was a letter addressed by Major J. B. Jervis, to the Hydro-
grapher to the Admiralty, Captain Beaufort, R.N., and by him enclosed
to me, with the following note : —

" Admiralty, Feb. 23, 1838.

" Mv DEAR Sir — The enclosed note is from the Engineer Officer who has
been appointed to succeed the present Surveyor General of India. — Do me
the favour to read it, and tell me how far you can assist us, and when.

" Yours verj- truly,

' " F. Beaufort."

(Note enclosed.)

"To Capt. F. Beaufort. — My dear Sir — I rejoice to say that I have
found the Court of Directors disposed to give the fullest effect to om- wishes
in respect of the registry of the Tides, throughout the whole line of coast of
India, and wherever their authority extends. I stated my own views to the
Chairman, Sir James Carnac, to Mr. Melville, and other influential persons,
and fully explained to them that unless the thing were well done, it were far
better let alone ; whereupon they directed the dispatch and instructions which
they had already prepared for the Governor General and Bombay Govern-
ment to be withheld, and empowered me to arrange with Mr. Whewell, Mr.
Lubbock, and yourself, to propose any course of proceeding and measures we
thought advisable, and point out the requisite apparatus. With such a mag-
nificent carte blanche, with such superior co-adjutors, it would indeed be a
reproach to be either su])ine or unsuccessful. Mr. Whewell heartily con-
curred with us on the importance of having the Tides registered with a far
greater degree of precision, and at shorter intervals, at several additional
points on the shores of India, Arabia, Persia, the Eastern Islands, and China ;
and was of opinion that at such stations exact meteorological observations
should also be made contemporaneously, and these punctually and promptly
transmitted home in duplicate eveiy mouth, to the Admiralty, to the India
House, and to the Royal Society. Although Mr. Mitchell's Tide Guage,
erected at Sheerness appears to Mr. Wliewell to answer sufficiently well for
the subordinate stations, he laid great stress on the necessity of something
far superior to this, for those stations where it was intended to have more
precise and frequent measurements. He spoke to me in terms of high praise,
as did also Ca))tain Washington, of Mr. Bunt's ajiparatus, but said that he
much regi'etted that it had not been puWished, although he had been in
treaty with the inventor to give it to the pubUc with a complete description."

" It is the chief object of this epistle to move you to write to Mr. B.

to publish his descriptions and drawings. Do let me urge you to use all your
influence with him in so good a cause, — and if he would permit a working
model to be made under his own eye, it would greatly assist the native arti-
ficers of India and expedite the construction of the several tide gauges. The
Directors would readily defray the expense of such model.

" Y'ours, sincerely,

" J. B. Jervis."

In compliance with this earnest solicitation, I immediately prepared
and forwarded to Professor Whewell drawings and a description of my
tide-gauge, which were soon afterwards inserted in the Transactions of
the Royal Society. In doing so, I acted in opposition to the advice
of some of my scientific friends, who thought that I was entitled to
secure to myself the fruits of so much labour and study. A few months
afterwards I was requested to superintend the construction of two
machines, similar to my own, for the East India Directors, agreeably
to the tenor of Major Jervis's letter, already quoted ; with which re-
quest I also complied without hesitation. "These machines were com-
pleted and intrusted to the care of two scientific officers in the
Company's service, Lieuts. Elliott and Ludlow; who, after visiting
Bristol for the purpose of inspecting my original tide-gauge, sailed
with the two new machines for India in February last. From one of
these gentlemen (Lieut. Elliott, who had, I think, seen Mr. Mitchell's
tide-gauge,) I have received several letters, in all of which he speaks
of my machine in terms of the highest commendation.

Immediately on the appearance of Mr. Inglis's letter, I inserted a
reply to it in several of the Bristol newspapers, and sent a copy of ray
reply to Professor Whewell, from whom I received the following note :

" Trinity College, Cambridge, Oct. 9, 1840.

" Mv DEAR Sir — I have received your shp of the Bristol Standard, and
am full of astonishment at the mahgnant absurdity of Mr. Inglis. Even on
his own letter his conduct has this character ; for no amount of correspon-
dence with Mr. Mitchell could have deprived your machine of its vast supe-
riority." "I am glad you have replied to him so calmly. Captain

Beaufort's and Major Jerris's letters must satisfy every body, and do you
justice."

F-ivr

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

395

I now beg leave to request of you, Mr. Editor, that you will write
immediately to Mr. Mitchell, and inquire of him what letters of mine
he is able to produce in confirmation of Mr. Inglis's statements ;
whether lie acknowledges any friendship or acquaintance with that
gentleman ; and whether he will favour you with his precise address :
and when you have received Mr. Mitchell's reply, that you will be
pleased to communicate it to the public.

I am. Sir, your obedient servant.
Small Street Court, Thos. G. Bunt.

Bristol, October 15, 1S40.

[In addition to Mr. Bunt's letter, we may ourselves mention that we
have written to Mr. Mitchell, and received from him a complete denial
that he was ei'er in correspondence with Mr. Bunt, or that he autho-
rized Mr. Inglis to circulate such statements. In closing this corres-
pondence, therefore, which must be most satisfactory to the claims of
Mr. Bunt, we have to express our regret that we should, by the inser-
tion of Mr. Inglis's unfounded charges, have been the means for a
moment of raising a doubt as to the originality of Mr. Bunt's invention.
We must say that we have never seen a case of grosser or more
wicked representation than this by Mr. Inglis, to call it by no other
name, and we cannot forbear expressing our severe reprobation of
such unwarrantable conduct. We hope that, if he has any feeling of
shame about him, he will see the propriety of apologizing as publicly
to Mr. Bunt as he has been the means of annoying him. — Editor.]

STATE CAPITOL AT RALEIGH, U.S.

Sir — Under the head of America, at page 52 of the volume of
183r-'8 of your learned work, entitled " The Civil Engineer and jQ.r-
chitecl's Journal," the Stale Capitol in this city is introduced to the
attention of your readers, in an extract of a letter from Ithal Town,
Esq., Architect, dated New York, Nov. 3, 1837.

As a Senator, myself, of the State Legislature which ordered its
erection, and residing on the spot, I have watched its progress with
pride and pleasure, and beg leave to tender to you my thanks and
those of my State for even that brief notice of this noble edifice, con-
fessedly unrivalled by any State Capitol in this country. But as I am
very sure your readers, and especially artists, would be pleased to see
in your Journal a more full and satisfactory description of the building
than Mr. Town's letter furnishes, I here copy such a description from
the " Star," a weekly newsjiaper published in this city, and dated
25th March last. It was furnished for publication, at the request of
the editor of that periodical, and is known to be from the pen of
David Paton, Esq., some years since of Edinburgh, Scotland, the ripe
scholar and scientific architect, under whose daily and untiring super-
vision and direction, for 5i years past, this great public work has been
executed, and is now nearly completed — a work which entitles him to
rank among the first architects, theoretical and practical, of this or
any other country, and his private virtues and retiring worth, claim for
him universal esteem.

I would not, if I could, detract aught from Mr. Town; his profes-
sional fame is the property of my country; but then, "let justice be
done, though the hearers should fall." I can not, I will not, conceal
the fact, that Mr. Town is mistaken when he supposes that the archi-
tectural honour of this fine building belongs to him. It is an honour,
indeed, of which any artist might be proud, because it is so perfect
and durable a monument of his fine taste and great ability. But this
honour belongs to David Paton, Esq., and to none else — and it will
wear well, because he has earned it well, and left to others and the
work itself, to inscribe his name upon the scroll of fame. Mr. Town
did, indeed, furnish a draft for the building, and, likewise, most fortu-
natelv for the people of this State, engaged the services of Mr. Paton,
loth Sept., 1834, to execute it ; but he is probably unaware that his
draught was laid aside, and the whole of the details, alterations, and
working drawings, made and executed by Mr. Paton himself. But to
the description: —

"The length of the State Capitol in this city, (Raleigh) from north
to south, is IGO feet, and from east to west HO feet ; the whole
height is '.)7^ feet. The columns of the east and west porticoes are
eight ill number, and are 5 ft. 2^ in. in diameter, and 30 feet high, and
standing on a stylobate 18 feet high, which, as well as tlie entablature,
which is 12 feet high, are continued romid the building; and the
details are of the Temple of Minerva, commonly called the Parthenon,
which was erected in the Acropolis of Athens, under the government
of Pericles, about 500 years before the Christian era. The Rotunda,
in the centre of the Capitol, is formed into an octagon at top, which
is built of polished granite and surmoiuits the building, ornamented

with Grecian cornice, and its dome is crowned at top with a decoration
similar to that of the Lanthem of Demosthenes at Athens.

"The interior of the Capitol is divided into three stories. The
basement consists of ten rooms, eight of which will be soon occupied
by the Governor, the Secretary of State, the Comptroller, and the
Public Treasurer; each liaving two rooms of the'same size and finish,
which, as well as the corridors, are of the Roman Doric, and are com-
pletely tire-proof, by arches springing from pillars and pilasters of
polished granite. The east and west vestibules are richly decorated
with granite columns, ants and staircases ; all of polished granite,
copied from the Ionic Temple of Ilissus, uear Athens ; also two com-
mittee-rooms.

" The second or principal story consists also of ten rooms, two of
which are appropriated, one for the Senate Chamber, and the other
for the Hall of the House of Representatives, which are 38 ft. C in. in
height, having galleries, and their walls are contained in areas of the
same size, 59 ft. by 553 ft., having retiring rooms taken off the cor-
ners, four in the former, and two in the latter. They, as well as the
rotunda and vestibules, are respectively of the octagon Tower of An-
dronicus Cyrrhestes, of the Temples of Erechtheus, Minerva, Polias
and Paiidrosus, in the Acropolis of Athens, near the Parthenon. The
other rooms on this iloor are appropriated for committee rooms.

" The third, or attic story, contains a room for the Supreme Court
of the State, and one for the State Library, which are situated in the
east and west wings ; which, as vs-ell as the galleries and other apart-
ments, will be approached by granite steps, and the lobbies and Ro-
tunda are lit with cupolas ; the whole of which is now in progress, so
as to be ready for the next meeting of the Legislature.

"Before concluding, it may be well to remark that the stone with
which this edifice is constructed is of the toughest and hardest de-
scription, containing less iron than any stone I have ever seen; hence
it presents a beautiful cream colour, of a much warmer tint than
marble. It is also variegated with beautiful veins of quartz, the con-
formation of which deserves notice, having every appearance of having
been separated and again knit, by some trembling or concussion in its
fonnation ; and from the circumstance of no petrifaction being as yet
discovered, whether of the animal, vegetable, or mineral kingdoms,
geologists would term it a primitive, if not a transition, formation.

With regard to the cost of the Capitol; the Legislature have ap-
propriated 500,300 dollars ; it may cost a little more by the time it is
finished. The President's house at Washington cost, without furni-
ture, 6t)5,527 dollars ; and the Federal Capitol cost 2,596,500 dollars,
both of which have to be repeatedly painted, at a cost of upwards of
12,000 ; and this has to be done to prevent the disintegration of the
stone, they being built of soft, loose, friable and porous sandstone.

Architectus."

Citi/ of Raleigh, North Carolina,
United States of America.
22nd November 1839.

J. B. Hinton.

RECOVERY OF THE CHAIN CABLE OF HER MAJESTY'S SHIP
HOWE, AT SPITHEAD.

The chain cable of the Howe having by an unfortunate accident run en-
tirely out of the hause-hole on Friday morning last, after the anclior was
cast, and fallen to the bottom, a creeper was euiployed to discover it, which
grappled it near the buoy over the anchor. On Saturday afternoon, in com-
pliance with a request communicated by one of the lieutenants of the Howe,
Colonel Pasley sent a boat to the spot with Mr. George Hall, one of his most
expert divers, and a party of men employed about the wreck of the Royal
George, to attend liini, who threw out a small anchor near the Howe, and
then moored their boat in the supposed diraction of the chain cable, by mak-
ing fast a hne from the stern of the boat to that cable's buoy. Mr. Hall then
descended by the rope attached to the creeper, l)y which he found the chain,
and from that point walked along the whole extent of the chain until he
reached the extreme end of it, to the last link of which he made fast one of
the bull ropes that had been used for weighing the fragments of tlie Royal
George, by means of whicli Mr. Purdo, master-attendant of Portsmouth dock-
yard, and Mr. Taylor, master of the Howe, with a strong party of seamen and
marines, got up the end of the chain cable first into a mooring lighter, and in
the course of about two hours afterwards it was passed thsough one of the
hause-holes of the Howe and properly secured. Mr. Hall went down to tlie
bottom about half-past 2, and finished his task about 1 o'clock, arid only
came up twice in ihe mean time, to communicate with the men in the boat.
It is supposed that he walked at least 200 yards along the bottom, and during
thi's period the boat with the pump, which was constantly at work to supply
him with air, being warped along in the same direction, according to signals
made by him from below. This i» the second time tiiat this excellent diver
has been of use to the navy at Portsmouth, having on a former occasion ex-

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39G

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[November,

amiiiCd tlie liottnin of the Vangiiai J after she took tlic grouiul on being towed
out of harbour by tlie Ecbo steamer. As this difficult operation required him
repe:.tedl.v to pass head foremost under the keel of the Vanguard, he per-
formed it in Mr. Sielje's improved tight diving dress, but in recovering the
cable of the Howe, which was comparatively an easy task, he used the eom-
mou diving dress, in which he has generally worked on the wreck of the
Royal George, leaving Siebe's dress to tlie divers of the Royal Sappers and
Miners, who liave lieen employed on the same wreck for the last three months,
and whom it was desirable to send down in a tight dress, as being the safest,
they not having had any i)revious experience like the professional divers with
wboii they have been co-operating.

NEW IN\'ENTIONS AND IMPUOVEMENTS.

Improvements iu Steam-engines and Steam-Ijoilers ; patented by Thomas
Craddock, of Broadheath, near Presteign, in the county of Radnor, Sept. 16.
— T);e improvements in steam-engines consist, first, iu an improved mode of
obtaining a rotary motion from the rectilinear and reciprocating motion of
the jiiston rod ; and, second, in an improved method of condensing steam.

Tlie improvements in boilers consist in an improved construction of boiler,
and in an improved method of regidating the generation of steam.

Fiist claim is to the mechanical arrangement of the apparatus delineated
and described, whether employed for converting the rectilinear into the
rotary motion, or the rotary motion into the rectilinear. In this improve-
ment'the piston rod carries two toothed racks, one being behind, on one
side of the other; one of these toothed racks works into a pinion, which
pinion takes into the teeth of a drum, which is firmly keyed on the main
shaft, which drum has teeth over half its circumference on one side, and over
the lemaining half of its circumference on the other side. The mode of
working is as follows : by the np-stroke of the piston-rod, the pinion, taking
into the teeth on one side of the drum, brings it half round, and is released ;
then by the returning stroke of the piston-rod, the other rack takes into the
teeth on the other side of the drum, and finishes the stroke in the same
direction.

Sccoiul claim is to the exclusive right of condensing the steam or vapour
of water, or other liquids, by causing it to pass into metallic tubes of small
diameter, or into metallic vessels of any other suitable figure, which tubes or
vessels are put in motion, either rotative or otherwise, either in air or water,
independently of any motion of the carriage, boat, or vessel, to which the
condenser may be attached, whereby the condensation of the steam or vapour
is greatly accelerated. This condenser is composed of two chambers, con-
nected by a liar, and supported by hollow axes revolving in bearings, which
axes are connected, the one with the eduction pipe of the engine, the other
with a liot well or reservoir. From each chamber a number of hollow arms
diverge, which are connected together by small tubes, reaching across several
times.

The condensing is performed as follows : the steam, after operating on the
piston, is introduced through the chamber into the tubes; the condenser is
then caused, by bearings from the engines, to revolve with great rapidity, by
which means the caloric is abstracted and the steam condensed ; the water
resulting from which is conveyed from the other chamber, into which it flows,
through a pipe into the hot well ; from whence it is drawn by the feed pump
into the boiler.

Third claim. — The construction and arrangement of the parts constituting
the boiler.

Fourth. — The use of a separate cylinder to supply both air and fuel to the
furnaces, and regulating the supply of steam to the cylinder by the pressure
of steam in the boiler, in such a manner that as the pressure increases, the
supply of steam to the cylinder is diminished, thereby diminishing the supply
of air and fuel to the furnace. The boiler is composed of two furnaces, the
sides of which are formed of ranges of hollow tubes, which are full of water,
conmiunicating at the top and bottom with rectangular reservoirs ; the bot-
tom is formed of smaller tubes, extending liorizontally from one reservoir to
the other, and acting as fire-bars ; the top is likewise composed of tubes
extending from one resen-oir to the other ; the ash-pit is a taidt filled with
water, which, by the heat from the fire-bars, evaporates, and jiassing up a
tube into the condenser, is there condensed ; thereby supjilying any loss from
leakage. The fuel is conveyed into the furnaces by shoots from two hoppers;
ujion being thrown into the hopper, it falls upon two fluted rollers, which
are worked by the pinion that drives the fan; it then falls through or between
these rollers, and down the shoot upon a swinging plate, which scatters it
over the surface of the fire. The wind passes from the fan through a pipe
to tlie liottom of the fire-bars. Mlien the steam gets beyond the regular
working pressure, it shuts the valve which supplies the fan cylinder with
steam, and escajies through another opening into the atmosphere, whereby
the pinion that works the fan is either stopped, or works very slowly, by
which means the sujiply of air and fuel to the furnaces is very much decreased
or cut ofi" altogether; wiien the steam has returned to the regular working
pressure, it is again admitted to the fan cylinder, which works as before.
There is a suitable opening, provided with a cover, for the admission of the
fire, and likewise a tube with an eye-piece of talc for viewing the fire when
required. There is likewise a contrivance for burning the smoke arising from
the coals when newly thrown on the fire ; it 0])erates in this manner— there
is a tube whicli communicates with the two shoots, and at the bottom of each

furnace there is a valve for slnitting off the supply of air ; when one or both
of the furnaces have burnt bright, and fresh fuel is required, the sui)i)ly of
fuel and air is shut off from the other one ; the smoke arising from the fresli
fuel is driven, by the force of the air from the fan, through the flue into the
other furnace, where it passes through the fire and is consumed. — Inrenlor's
Ath'ocate.

Improvemt-nis in the manufacture of iron and oilier metals : patented by Sir
.Tosiah .lohn Guest, of the Dowlais Iron Works. Glamorgan, Baronet, and
Thomas Ev.ms, of the same place. .Sept. 28. These consist principally in
the introduction of jets of steim into the puddling furnace while the iron is
in the state usually called "fermentation." The success of the operation
depends very mueli on bringing the steam in close contact with the melted
iron, to etlcct which, wrought iron telescope tubes, sliding one on the oilier,
are employed, the jet pipe being J of an inch in diameter, and the steam
pressure iSttj. upon the inch. These tubes are raised or lowered according
to the quantitv of fluid metal in the furnace, by means of a suitable lever.
In the seconil place, jets of damp steam are introduced into the refining
furnace, after the pig iron is melted, through the same apertures as the blast,
the quantity and pressure of tlie steam being regulated by the quality of the
metal acted upon. During this process, in order to keep the sides, bridge,
and bottom of the furnace from burning, a quantity of steam is introduced
upon the fluid cinders as soon as the heat is drawn, until the cinders become
of the consistence of paste; this paste is then raked up against the back,
sides, and bridge of the furnace, so as to fill up any cavity that may have
been burned during the previous heat of iron. The use ot cinders in this
state keeps the iron (piitc clean and free from the dirt which always attends
the use of clay and limestone. In this instance four jet pipes are used, J an
inch in diameter, and steam of 2011). on the inch. The steam may be gene-
rated in a tube or cvlinder in the furnace cbimney, or may be supplied from
a regular steam boiler. The employment of steam in a similar manlier in
melting the allovs of copper and iron, and iron and tm, is also cb:imed, but
tlie particular application is stated to be to the manufacture of iron, whereby
a better material is obtained with greater economy. The claim set forth is
for the use or application of steam forced upon or into, or in contact with
the melted iron in the refining or puddling furnaces for the manufacturing of
flic same; also for the similar use of steam in the process of melling or
manufacturing alloys of copper and iron, and of tin and iron, m such fur-
naces: and lastly, ibe application of steam to fluid cinders as described, to
produce the paste aforesaid ; and the use and application of the said paste.—
Merh. Ma2, , , tt m .•

Improvements in preparing surfaces of paper: patented by Henry Marlm, o
Morton-terrace, Camden Town. Sept. 30. The processes constituting these
improvements, are fourfold, viz.; 1. The mode of preparing surlaces of
paper by combining thereon a coating of oil paint, with subsequent embassing
as afterwards described. 2. The mode of preparing surfaces of paper in the
manufacture of paper-hangings, by combining thereon a coating of oil paint,
and aftenvards printing or producing ibereon the required pattern. 3- the
mode of preparing surfaces of paper by combining thereon a coating of oil
paint, and subsequently alazing or planishing the same. 4. ihe mode of
producingacoatingof oil paint on paper, by means of rollers, ihe paint
used for this purpose is the same as ordinarily employed in house painting;
a piece of paper of 12 yanls, or other required length, is to be laid upon a
table of similar dimensions, sized with one or two coals of common or su-
perior size, and then painted with an ordinary brush; while yet wet. the
surface is to be smoothed over with a dry brush, to take out the mirks left
by the first, and subsequently finished with a badger softener, which produces
a smooth and level surface, so essential to the success of this process. In the
other process, oil colour is laid on the surface ol paper by passing it between
two rol ers, togethei u itb an endless felt ; this felt in its revolution is sup-
plied with oil colour by passing into a trough, and under a roller partly im-
mersed in the colour ; a scraper removes the superfluous colour as it r ses.
and levels and equalizes the colour; the iraper is passed through the roi.ers
two or three times, according to the thickness ot colour required. Paper
thus prepared on the surface, may be embossed with engraved dies or rollers
in the usual manner, or printed willi blocks, ike , for paper hangings, whicli
may be washed with soap and water when soiled. If marbled paper Is to be
produced, the colours are thrown upon water in the usual manner, the eflfect
being increased by softening oft' before they are dry. II the surface is to be
glazed or enamelled, the oil colour is thinned wholly with turpentine, as a
flatting colour; when set, it is to be mounted on a woollen cloth, cotton vel-
vet, or other firm soft bed. and smoothed over with a palletle knife, or trowel
having a very smooth surface ; when dry and hard, the polish may be height-
ened by any of the usual methods, which will produce a beautiful surlace for
copper-plate printing, paper hangings, and various other purposes.— iV/ec//.
Mas.

Vahesfor Canal locks; patented in America by William Lake, Richmond.
Virginia, .lune 7, 1839. The patentee remarks, that ■■the valves of canal
locks are subject to a pressure, the intensity of which is measured by the
height of the head and the area of the valves ; and this pressure on the com-
mon sliding-valves for locks of ordinary lifts is of such magnitude, .-,nd re-
quires the application of so great a force to open them, as greatly to de ract
from the superiority which they otherwise possess."

" My improvement consists in giving such form to the valves and apertures
that, by the momentary application of a very small force in opening a small
orifice, I apply the hydrostatic pressure in such a manner .as to open the
valves. Upon ihc back of Ihe valves closing the aperture through which the
water flows in filling and discharging the lock, I attach a flaueb ot the same
length as that of the aperture, and of such a width as to have the same Jiro-
portion to the width of the valves as the friction ol ihe valve on the seat has
to the pressure. At the lower edse of the valve, below the flanch, 1 make
an orifice of about one inch in width and .about hall the lengdi of the valve l
this orifice I open and shut by means of a lever and cunnecung rod.

We were about to make further extracts from the specification, but hnd
that in so doing we must occupy more space than is convenient to allow to

1840.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

.307

the subject ; anj after all, sliould probably fail to Rive a clear idea of the
construction without the aid of the drawing ; we, therefore, skip over to the
conchidinf;' paragraph.

"1 have represented tlie valve as fixed in a locli-gate, but I by no means
intend to restrict myself in my said improvement to valves placed in this par-
ticular situation ; neither do I claim as my invent on llie manner of applying
the lever and screw as exhibited in the drawing. What I do claim as my
invention, and desire to secure by letters patent, is the application of the
hydrostatic pressure, to open sliding valves for canal and river locks, and
making such improvements in the construction of the said valves, and in the
form of the apertures to which they are applieil, as will adipt them to the
application of this pressure, as herein descnl)ed." — Franklin Journal.

RAILWAY CAUTION.

Sir — Being a frequent traveller on railways, and generally choosing the
slow trains, I beg leave to trespass on your valuable columns by suggesting
an expedient by which, in my humble opinion, travellers situated like myself
may avoid the disagreeable necessity of being run over by quicker trains.
The plan to which I allude is this : — that at each station on the line of rail-
way be placed a large dial, similar to a clock face, with minutes marked upon
it from 1 to 60. It should liave one moveable hand of sufficient size to be
distinctly visible to the guard and engineer as they tiy past ; the officer in
attendance to fix the hand at that pai'ticular number on the dial that may
denote the number of minutes which have elapsed since the preceding train
passed. This signal might be illuminated at night. Or a perfect clock face
might be adopteil to denote the hours in addition to the minutes.

I am, Sir,
Kenninqfon, Your obedient servant,

Oct.2Wi, 1840. T. W.

ROTARY ENGINE.

An engine, upon tliis principle, was latelytried in Leeds, in the pre-
sence of several engineers. Its enormous power, in so small a compass,
(the whole machinery, with the exception of the fly-wheel, being contained
in a box 2 J inches in depth and 10 inches diameter) surprised every one pre-
sent ; the speed was tremendous, making from 600 to 700 revolutions per
minute. Its power was tested by placing breaks upon the fly-wheel, which
was done to the extent that the shaft was actually twisted in two pieces, but
no accident occurred. It is the intention of the inventor to apply the ma-
chine to propel carriages on common roads, for which purpose it appears ad-
mirably adapted ; likewise for the purposes of marine navigation, where tlie
small quantity of room it requires is a material consideration ; in short, it
will answer all the purposes wherein steam is required ; and the expense will
be considerably abridged. The inventor is Josh. Briggs, watchmaker, of this
town. — Jieeds Intelligencer.

STEAM NAVIGATION.

INCRUSTATION STEAM ENGINE BOILERS.

We are informed by L'Echo dii ilonde Savant, of the 25th of July, that M.
Edouard Richard had presented to the Geological Society of France a calca-
reous incrustation, which must be considered of great value, as it was not
formed in the boiler, but in the cylinder of the engine, and beneath the pis-
ton. The incrustation formed a disc 12 J centimetres in thickness; and in
consequence of tlic pressure of the piston, it is so hard that it is capable of
receiving as high a polish as the densest marble. It is evident, therefore,
that explosions may be produced as well by calcareous concretions of the cy-
linders as of the boilers of steam engines. The engine from which this spe-
cimen was procured, has been used for the purpose of pumping water from
the mine of Auzin. and has been built after Newcomen's plan. — In L'Echo du
Monde Savant of August the 5th, we find a communication upon the subject
of steam-ljoiler explosions by M. Flesselle, a retired officer of the French
Marine, resident at Graville, near Havre. M. Flesselle suggests, that, in order
to prevent the formation of calcareous incrustations, (which have long been
considered tlie principal causes of accident,) some common salt or muriate of
potash, sliould be \mi into the boiler with each fresh supply of water. M.
Flesselle recommends this measure, because the incrustations are formed of
the carbonate, the sulphate, and perhaps the phosphate of lime — (salts, in-
soluble, or sparingly soluble) ; and these salts, boiled with the muriate of
soda (common salt), or muriate of potash, will undergo double decomposition
with these muriates; the products being the carbonate, sulphate, and phos-
phate of soda, and the muriate of lime — salts all of which are soluble.

M. Flesselle says that M. Chaix, of Maurice, has invented a method of pre-

venting explosions, which appears to have been adopted with success in the
French government steam vessels ; but M. F. considers that auxiliary means
also are requisite — ^and we tliink he is right ; for the fact we have related re-
garding the engine at Auzin, proves that we should avail ourselves of every
cheap and simple aid to prevent the fearful accidents to which incrustations
may give rise, seeing that the snipliate, carbonate, and phosphate of lime
may be held in suspension by the steam — be carried by it in a state of minute
molecular division even into the cylinders — and there also be deposited in the
form of hard concretions. — The method of M. Flesselle, seeming founded on
correct chemical principles, will, we hope, be put to the test of experience,
by some of the numerous engineers of our neighbourhood. We shall feel
great pleasure in recording the residt.

In England the precaution taken against incrustations is an index of the
density of the fluid in the boiler ; but this is evidently inadequate — for the
calcareous particles are conveyed by the steam into the pipes and cylinder.
Perhaps some of our scientific readers will have the goodness to inform us
whether the English method of preventing incrustations is identical with that
of M. ChaLx. — Gateshead Observer.

THE PROPELLER STEAM-BOAT.

This vessel was built in the yard of Mr. Dichburn, at Blackwall- The
engine by » hich her paddles, or propellers, as they are termed, are worked,
was made by Mr. Beale, the engineer, at his premises at Greenwich. She is
a small vessel, but very elegant in her proportions, and formed to cut through
ths water with great rapidity. The engine is of 24 horse power. The pro-
pellers differ from the paddle-wheels used by other steamers, in being single
bladi'S o! iron, only one b'ade on each side of the vessel, and not a series of
blades brought into the water by the revolution of wheels. Kach blade is
very broad and large, and dips almost perpendicularly into the water, so that
the concussion fomied by the blades of paddle-wheels dipping into the water
at angles is avoided, and the consequent unpleasant vibration of the vessel.
Directly the liladc rlips into the water it is forced back by an arm or limli of
iron, performing a motion similar to the leg and web-foot of an aquatic bird,
and by means of this motion the vessel is propelled forward. She can per-
form fnim 10 to 11 knots or miles an hour. The appearanceof the propellers
is like that of the legs of a grasshopper, and when in motion fheir action in
some degree resembles the legs of that insect in its walk. One great ad-
vantage is, that the propellers occasion no swell in the wafer, no wake or
trough in the river, and no backwater, so that no danger is occasioned to
small boats by the rapidity of her progress. This vessel now runs hourly
between Blackwall and Greenwich, and appears to be a great favourite, from
the number of passengers she is continually conveying backwards and for-
wards between tliose places. — Times.

Iron Steamers. — Anotlier iron steam vessel was launched from the yard of
Messrs. William Fairbairn and Co , at Millwall, on Tuesday the 27th ult.,
being the second of three vessels for New South Wales, intended for the trade
from Sydney to the Hunter's River. She glided gracefully into the water
amid the cheers of a number of spectators, and of nearly 600 men who are
employed on the premises, and was named The Thistle. She is 145 feet long,
20 feet 6 inches beam, and 11 feet 6 inches depth of hold, about 305 tons
burthen, and drew when launched only 3 feet 6 inches of water upon an even
keel. — The Rose, the first of the trio, has sailed for her destination, and she
proved herself before leaving the river to have a speed of 13. 5 miles per hour,
and to be one of the strongest and best sea going vessels afloat. The frames
of these vessels were much admired on account of their great strength, as
well as the manner in which the whole was put together. The engines,
which are of 50 horsepower each, were also manufactured, and the whole of
the fittings executed by Messrs. Fairbairn and Co., within the same premises.
The extent of work which was in progress in the yard, and in the engine
manufactory, &c., seemed to surprize many of the gentlemen present, wha
remembered the place in which these operations are now carried on as a piece
of marsh land overflowed by the tide little more than four years ago. Withia
this period the whole of the extensive workshops and iron foundry have been
built. Thirty-one iron vessels, to the amount of 6100 tons have been con-
structed, and steam engines to the extent of 1260 horse power have been
manufactured.^An iron schooner intended for the coasting trade from Lon-
don, and various steam boats, are now in course of preparation, so that it
seems this material is making rapid strides in the public estimation for the
purposes of ship building.

Tf'ar Steamer.— It will be recollected that the steamer of war Polyphemus,
of 800 tons burthen, was launched at Chatham, on Monday the 28th of
September, the same day that the London of 92 guns was launched, the
former vessel proceeded up on the following Thursday, the 1st of October, to
the engineering establishment of the Messrs. Seawards and Capel, of London,
and they have comjiletely equipped this fine vessel with engines of 200 horses
power, with all her fittings, s]iare gear, implements and stores, and coal boxes
of wrought iron to contain 220 tons of coals, in the short space of 22 work-
ing days ; being the shortest time upon record that a vessel of this magnitude
has been fitted. She proceeded down by steam to Chatham on ^^'ednesday
the 28th instant, to take in lier masts, being quite completed in her machinery ;
it is considered that it would require a period of six months in any port of

308

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[November,

Great Britain to fit a vessel of war of tlie same magnitude. There were about
220 men employed by the Messrs. Seawards on the vessel ; her engines are
upon the same system as those of the " Gorgon, Cyclops, Alecto and Pro-
metheus." The "Poh-phemus" will be immediately armed with two 10
inch guns, and will proceed directly to the Mediterranean.

Kttviyation of the Trent. — An attem])t is about to be made to revive the
steam navigation of the river Trent. There were packets on the river about
twenty years ago, but the extreme shallowness of the water in dry seasons
between Nottingham and Newark, fretjuently interrupted the navigation. —
flull .idvertisei:

Great Western Steam Ship Compant/.—'We understand that some of the
experimentalizing Directors of this Company, have resolved on adopting the
Archimedean screw for the great iron shiji, and are now reconstructing her at
an enormous expense, for that purpose. We need hardly observe, that this
course has been adopted without the sanction of the Proprietors. — Bristol
Mirror. — [How many more changes and whims ?] — Ed. C. E. & A. Journal^

Steamers in ttte Pacific. — Extract of a letter from Captain Peacock, dated
on board the Pacific Steam Navigation Company's steam vessel Peru, lai. 9
15 Jv., long. 25 50 W., out 14 days from Plymouth : — " The Peru has hitherto
had a most prosperous voyage, answering in every respect my most sanguine
expectations."

Calcutta. — A Company has been formed at Calcutta for establishing two
steam ferry boats upon the river I oghly with chains, upon the principle of
Mr. Rendel's floating bridges at I lyuiouth, Portsmouth, and Southampton ;
and orders have been sent to this country for their purchase. We have great
pleasure in stating, that the contractors are Messrs. Acraman, Morgan & Co.,
of the Bristol iron works ; their competitors ba\ing been Messrs. Fairbairn, of
London, and Messrs. Jawcett and Co., of Liverpool.- -Bristol Mirror.

Sicily. — On Thursday, the 15th ult., was launched at Mr. Pitcher's yard,
at Northfleet, the Moriyibelle, a vessel of 500 tons burden, for the service of
the Steam Navigation Company, for the kingdom of the two Sicilies. It is
intended to fit the Mongibelle with a pair of Messrs. Maudslay, Sons, and
Field's patent double cylinder engines, of the collective power of 200 horses.

America. — Two large steam-ships are building at New York for the Spanish
government, and one for the Russian. Mr. Norris, the engine manufacturer
of Philadelphia, has received an order from Frankfort-on-the-Oder for 15 of
his best locomotives. Thus American ingenuity in steam machinery is pros-
pering.— Times.

Canal Steam Navigation. — The experimental steamer, at present on the
Forth and Clyde Canal, was lately docked for the purpose of making certain
alterations on the propeller. On the former occasion the floats were fixed at
an angle of 45 deg. to the shaft of the propeller, which gave, of course, a pro-
gressive motion from six feet in each revolution, the diameter of the propeller
being two feet. On the present occasion, the floats were placed on the shaft
at a more obtuse angle, so as to reduce the progressive motion six to four feet.
On Friday week, the boat was got under way from Lock 16. To conduct to
a satisfactory conclusion, of course, the pressure of steam in the boiler was
made the same as on the first experiments, viz., 54 lb. on the square inch ;
and the result of this change in the angle of the floats to the shaft, was found
to be an acceleration of speed of 20 per cent., or rather more, as compared
with the first experiments. That is, when the floats are placed at an angle
of 45 deg. npon the shaft, the speed was found to be five miles an hour ; now,
when the angle was rendered more obtuse so as to produce four feet pro-
gressive motion, it was found that the speed was at the rate of sL\ miles an
hour. The result was extremely satisfactory to all the gentlemen present,
confirming, as it did, their former anticipations; and the boat has again been
laid up preparatory to otlier alterations which are contemplated, in order,
experimentally, to demonstrate the most eflicient angle at which the floats
should be placed upon the propelling shaft. — Paisley .lilvertisen

Improrement in Sliip-luiUUiig. — The liosranna, a new tliip, lately built by
Mr. Jnckson. at the South Shore, is the first vessel ever entirely fitted with
iron Io«er-di ck beams. '1 hey are remarkable fur their strength and neatness,
and above nil, give additional room for stowage, equivalent to 12 inches
depth of hold. It is by such practical combinations of wood and iron tlMt
we may expect to compete with other nations more highly favoured with
shipbuilding; and we advise every man who takes an interest in the " wooden
walls " to KO and judge for hinisell. The Roseanna lies at the south-west
corner of the Brunswick Dock. — Liverpool Albion.

ENGINEERING 'WORKS.

New Aqtiedvct at Dijon — It is stated in a letter from Dijon, that the ex-
periment made there of the aqueduct which is to conduct the water from the
fountain ot Rosoir to Dijon, a distance of 12,610 metres (about 13.700 yards)
eompletely fucceeded. iLrowds of people assembled on the day the aqueduct
was to be opened, to wait for the coming of the wnler. which was three hours
ami a half in flowing through that distance.— /«iT«;ors' Advocate.

The Fleet Scwtr, Blachfriars Briil^e.^A meeting v{ the City Ccmmissioners
of .Sewers took place a! ijuildhall on Tuesday the 13th ult , feir the purpose of
taking into consideration Mr. Walker's plan of a culvert at tlie mouth of
FleetJitth, adjacent to Blackfriars Bridge, as a remedy for the very great

nuisance occasioned by the want of some scientific application. After some
discussion in the cummittee, the Commissioners of Sewers agreed to the
adiiption of Mr. Walker's plan of the culvert by a ni,ajoriiy of about 15 to 3.
'j he apprehen.sions so generally entertained of the (ippcjsilion of the Com-
missioners of .Sewers to the enlightened project of the President of the Civil
Engineers, are thus very agreealily and Jiermanently removed.

Herefordshire and Gloucestershire Canal — A general meeting of the pro-
prietors of this canal was lately held at Ledbury. The report on the state of
the works was very sat'sfactory, the committee expressing their conviction
after a careful survey, that the main part of the line betw ecu Ledbury Wharf
and Ashberton, nj on w bich the heaviest portion of the works occurred, would
be completed within the estimated cost, notwithstanding that the payments
for land had been much larger than was expected. The three locks, com-
municating \v;th the summit level, would be completed before November next,
when the trade of the canal would be brought up to the town of Ledbury,
from which an immediate increase of traftic was anticipated, and by the end
of August, next year, the canal would be opened for the conveyance of goods
to the distance of 74 miles beyond Ledbury, by which extension the trade
would, in all probability, be doubled, if not'trebled. M'hen it was recollected
that the present annual average receipts of the canal, subject as it was to
suspension and loss of trade lor many months of the year from want of water,
was £1,800, the committee anticipated a profitable traffic on the completion
of the whole of the works. The estimated expense of the line to Hereford
was £76,000, of which sum £4-5,000 was to be raised by preference shares,
and they recommended that the remainder should be obt: iued by mortgage
at five per cent, upon the lolls of the canal. The report concluded by a refe-
rence to the ccimplotion of the Birmingham and Gloucester Railway, which
would open a direct communication with all the large manufacturing towns
of the north, and thus operate most beneficially upon the interests of the
canal. By the statement of accounts presented to the meeting, it appeared
that the receipts amounted to £21,477 5s. .5rf.. and the expenditure to
£21.296 3s. id., leaving a balance in hand of ±181 2s. U. Mr. Ballard, the
Company's engineer, read a satisfactory report on the state of the works, the
leading features of which are embraced in the s'atement of the committee.
The report was unanimously ailopted, and a resolution passed for raising the
sum of^ £35,000. in the manner suggested by the committee. Votes of thanks
were then passed to the committee (who were rc-appointed for the current
year) and to the Chairman, after which the meeting separated. — Midland
Counties Herald.

PROGRESS OF RAILWAYS.

Dublin and Drogheda Railway. — We are happy to announce that the Dublin
and Drogheda Railway Company made their first contract on Friday last.
The Messrs. Jeff of Lanarkshire were declared the contractors for the part of
the line between the Royal Caial and Raheny, on very favourable terms lor
the Company, and for an amount less than the estimate of Mr. Macneill, the
rngineer-in-chief. The competition was a very brisk one, there being no
fewer than seventeen temlers for the work, and from some of the principal
contractors on the great lines in Englanil and Scotland, as well as from some
very respectable Irish Companies. — The parties selected have been engaged
extensively on the Ballocbine Railway, the Monkland and Kirkintilloch
Railway, and have just completed a large work to the amount of thirty or
forty thousand pounds, on the Wishaw and Collness Railway in Scotland.
Mr. Ilarl, a contractor on the Great Western Railway at Box, near Bath,
made so satisfactory a tender, and so close in amount to that by the Messrs.
Jeff, (we hear it was within fi\c pounds.) that the Directors thought It right,
with a view of encouraging such competition, to hand him a gratuity of £50,
» ith an assurance that they will be happy to deal with him on a future occa-
sion.— Dublin Evenini^ Mail.

Norfolk, Suffolk, and Cambridgeshire Railway. — Considerable exertions are
being mode in these counties for getting up subscriptions to form a railway
to Norwich and Y.arniouth. in continuation of the Northern and Eastern
Railway from Cambridge. The latter line it is expected will be opened to
Bishop Stortford in June next.

H'est London RaiUcau. — An adjourned general meeting of the proprietors
in the West London (fate Birmingham. Bristol, and Th,ames Junction) Kail-
way C(;mpany w as held in London on fhe Titli ult., to receive the report of .Mr.
R .Stet henson. the recently appointe.l engineer, on the stale of the works.
The chairman explained lliat the report of Mr. .Stephens(m was not yet pre-
pared, but tl.at the secretary would read to the meeting the report of the
directors. It stated that it was proposed (o make two exte.sions of the line,
one to the Thames, (the originalline stopping short of Ihe river by about a
mile and a half,) and the other to Knightsljridge ; the extensions to be under-
taken by a separate company. The directors ealculated that £140.000 would
be sufficient to accomplish the object. lo;li companies to be amalgamated
when Ihe whole of the works were completed, or as soon after the extension
company had obtained an act of incorporation as ihe proprietors of the two
bodies might consider fit. The report was unanimously adopted, as was also
a series of resolutions in respect to the mode of issu ng the new shares for
the raising of ihe additional capital. It was expUiined ihat the amount of
arrears dti^e upon calls was £14,437. llie meeting adjourned to the 14lh
November, to receive Mr. .Stephenson's report.

Opening of tlie Tuff Vale Railway.— The public opening of the comnleted
portion of this interesting an 1 important line, between Cavdifl and Navi-
gation House, nine miles from Merlbyr. took place on Thursday the 8lh ult.
The manner in which the works on the line are executed, drew iurlh frequent
expressions of admiration from the parly. The tunnel and viaduct at Qua-
ker's Yard are, indeed, noble specimens of engineering skill ; the viaduct
across ihe Tail' rises to the height of 120 feet, and is built on six massive

1840.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

399

arches, the masonry of which is in admirable keeping witli the character of
the surrounding landscape. The tunnel w hich passes under Godre-y-coed is
500 yards in length ; it was brilliantly illuminated for the occasion, and as
the company passed through it, preceded by the hand, the efl'ect pr.iduccdby
the echoes of its walls and roof, and the glare tif upwards of 2,500 lights,
■R'as striking and novtd in the extreme. The line is differently constructed
from the Great Western, the company having, on account of the number of
curves which the face of the country rendered necessary, adopted the narrow-
gauge, and the rails being laid on chairs atfixed to transverse sleepers. The
travelling is easy, and will safely admit of a speed of from forty to fifty miles
per hour. The carriages, which are admirably constructed. weK' built by our
respected fellow-citizen, Mr. Walter Williams, and the two engines at present
on the line, the Tnff and the RhoniUa, by Messrs. Sliarp, Roberts, and Co.,
of Manchester, — Bristol Mercury.

Further Opetiing of the Manchester and Leeds Railway. — The first portion of
this line, which was opened in July, 1839, was a length of about fourteen
miles, from Manchester to L ttleborough ; and on Monday 5th ult., another
portion was opened, to the extent of 27J miles. This portion of the line
commences at Helxlen Bridge, about nine miles from Littleborough, and ter-
minates at Mormanton, where It joins the North Midland Railway, about
fifty miles from Manchester. — Manchester Guardian. The Leeds Mercury, in
noticing the further opening of this line of railway, says, — " We speak on
the highest authorily when we say, that this railway is the greatest triumph
of engineering science over the obstacles interposed by nature, presented
by any raihi ay in the kingdom. The high chain of liills which separates the
counties of York and Lancaster is only intersected by one valley, namely, the
valley of the C'alder, and that so narrow and winding, so lined with towns
and villages, and so preoccupied by the turnpike road, the river, and the
canal, as to make it exceedingly difficult to carry a railway through it. Yet,
by embankments and cuttings, oy removing rocks and building up arches, by
occasionally divertin" the river and the road- and often crossing both, by
piercing the hills witn short tunnels, and taking first one b.ide of the valley
and then the other, a line has been constructed not only capable of being
worked by locomotive engines, but of being easily and advantageously worked.
There are no objectionable curves, and there is not one gradient haring half
the inclination of those on the Liverpool and Manchester Railway. The line
is somewhat circuitous, and tliis is its only disadvantage ; a clisadvantage
which the speed of locomotive travelling reduces to iusignificance. The en-
gineer by wnom the line was planned, and under whose superintendenc it has
been executed, is the celebrated George Stephenson, whose genius and unpa-
ralleled works we have so often had occasion to notice witli high admiration.
Under him Mr. Gooch, one of his pupils. has been employed as resident engi-
engineer, and has displayed abilities equal to the execution of the greatest
undertakings. The managing director, who has given up his whole time to
the superintendence of the work, is Robert Gill, Esq., to whose remarkable
energy, zeal, and talent, the company are very greatly indebted for the com-
pletion of the work within so short a period."

Birmingham and Gloucester Railway. — The railway from Cheltenham to
Gloucester is now completed, or at least one line of rails is permanently laid
down through the entire distance, and along these several experimental trips
have been made during the past week, wsth the most complete success. The
first of these took place on the 17th ult., and the furiher opening of the line
for the public will certainly take place on the day already announced, viz.,
the 2nd of November. — Cheltenham Lool<er-on.

PUBLIC BUII.DZNGS, AND iraPROVEMENTS.

ROYAL EXCHANGE.

This building appears at length likely to be commenced ; the following
tenders for the foundation were received, and that of Mr. Webb accepted.
Webb ..... 8124

Grimsdale ..... 8738 6

Cubitt ..... 8984 14

Little i Son . . . . . 9423 1 8

Warde 9586 17

Piper 9979 16 4

Grissell & Peto .... 10165 5 4

Lee 10387

Bridger .... 10627 6 8

Baker & ?on .... 10932 3 4

Bennett ..... 11181 9 6

Winsland ..... 11302 6 8

The New Riding-house ayid Stabling in Windsor Park. — This extensive build-
ing, the expense of which is to be defrayed by the Parliamentary grant of
seventy thousand pounds, is now fast approaching towards completion. .Some
delay has been occasioned in consequence of extensive alterations in the roof
of the stabling on the southern side of the riding-house having been sug-
gested by Prince Albert a short time since. The woodwork of the roof of this
portion of the building, which was then nearly completed, was observed by
his Royal Highness to be discernible (from the interior) through the windows
along the top of the south side of the riding-house ; and as this was con-
sidered to be an " eye-sore," and highly disapproved of the Prince, the build-
ing was unroofed and its height reduced upwards of three feet. The riding-
house is one of the most extensive in the Kingdom ; its dimensions being as
follows : — height, 38 feet; width, 52 feet ; and its length upwardsof 170 feet.
The frontage of the whole pile facing the Home Park is nearly 300 feet.
Numerous bed -rooms for the grooms and stable boys in the service of Her
Majesty have been erected over the riding-house. These are of very small
dimensions, many of them not being more than ten feet by nine. Their long

line of windows extending the whole length of the roof, and discernible from
any point a view is oljtained of the building, tends considerably to detiMct
from the beauty and general harmony of the structure. Her Majesty and
Prince Albert, who have occasionally visited the riding-house and stables
during the progress of th.^ works, have expressed themselves much pleased
with the economy of the whole of the arrangements,— r/mes.

Improrements on the E.xlerior nf the Jl/nnsi(i«-7io«se.— Scaffolding has been
erected in front of the Mansion-house by direclion of the General Purposes
Commiltee, for the purpose of repairing' the dilapidated masonry which has
exhibited itself in several parts of the building, which lias been vastly im-
proved in appearance by the frequent appheation of the Bank water engines.
The alteration is so great that the walls actually look in some parts as if they
were whitewashed. Tlie figures above the pillars, which had been for many
years completely hidden under a mass of soot and filth, are now objects of
striking interest. As they are in a measure new to the \isitors and even the
residents in the immediate neighbourhood, we shall briefly describe them. The
centre is occuped by a female figure supposed to represent the presiding pa-
troness or genius of the city of London. She holds in her right hand a spear.
Her left hand is resting on a shield sculptured with the city arms. She sup-
ports a small sculptured castellated tower on head, and is trampling on a
recumbent figure, representing her vanquished enemies. On her right hand
stands the Roman Lictor and a boy holding the cap of liberty. Tlie extreme
right hand angle of the tympamtm is occupied by a reprcs -ntation of the
superiority of the British empire on the seas Ijy a large roclining fisure of
Neptune, with his insignia as God of the ocean ; and the spaces are filled up
with an anchor and cable, &c. On the left of the centre is another female
figure, attended by two boys, bearing the olive branch in her right hand, and
pouring out abundance from cornucopise witlj her left ; the emb'ems of com-
merce occupy the extreme angle on the left side, with casks and bales of
goods. It has been considered the more necessary to make all practical im-
provements in the exterior of the Mansion-house, as the new Royal Exchange
will much sooner than it is generally expected begin to show itself. — Times.

■StT^fr CHURCHES, arc

Boston Wesleyan Centenary Chapel, erected from the design of Mr. .Stephen
Lewin. architect of Boston, is one hundred feet long, and seventy feet wide
between the walls, and is calcidated to seat two thousand five hundred per-
sons. The design of the front is Grsco Italian : a flight of steps forty -eight
feet long, and a colonnade of Ionic columns in antis, and towers at each end,
in whicli are constructed the grand staircases that communicate with the
gallery, having steps five feet long, and landings at each angle five feet
square ; above the staircase are rooms appropriated to the Wesleyan service.
There are two main entrances to the oody of the chapel through spacious
lobbies, with jib doors communicating with the aisles. The ground floor of
the chapel contains three divisions of pews, and the sides are provided with
free sittings, on each side of the communion is occupied by the schools ; the
pulpit is approached by two flights of stairs, at the back of the pulpit are
vestries with private enlrances to the same. The ceiling is forty feet high
froni the ground fluor, it is panneled with ornamented ventilators at the
angles, and a block cornice with panneled pilasters round the gallery, uniform
with pannels of ceiling; the divisions and doors of the pews, &c., next the
aisles are made of wainscot, framed and moulded ; the orchestra is formed
at the back of the gallery with private stairs and roum for the singers. —
The building and ground will cost upwardsof eight thousand pounds.

St. Micliael's Church. Basingstoke. — Extensive alterations are being made in
this edifice, which is a fine specimen of the style of Parochial Church of the
rei.gn of Henry 6th. It is being entirely repaired and provided with new
galleries. &c. to accommodate fifteen humlred persons. The fittings through-
out will be of wainscot. The esiimated expense is upwards of two thousand
pounds, which has been raised by a liberal subscription in the town and neigh-
bourhood, with the Societies for church extension. Mr. J. B. Clacy, of Read-
ing, is the architect. The church is also undergoing extensive repairs, esti-
mated at fourteen hundred pounds, to effect wliich a vestry last week em-
powered the churchwardens to borrow one thousand pounds, in addition to a
previous rate of about five hundred pounds. This is an example worthy of
imitation by other parishes, where, from a fal e economy, memorials of an-
cient ecclesiastical architecture are fast mouldering to decay.

Birmingham. — The ceremony of consecrating the church of St. Mathew, at
Ashted. t"he first of the proposed ten new churches to be erected in the town,
took place on the 20th ult., it is a spacious and commodious building of early
decorated Gothic architecture, built of brick, with dressings to the windows,
doors. &c. of Wedley Castle red stone, and also a spire of the same stone. It
contains about one thousand and fiftv sittings, including four hundred free
seats, without side galleries. It was designed by Mr. Thomas, the architect
of Leamington, w ho very handsomely presented a window of stained glass.

Wolverhampton. — The ceremony of laying the first stone of St. Mary's
Church, wh ch. with the parsonage house and school attached, will be erected
at the sole expense of Miss llinckes, of Tettenhall, took place in the presence
of a very numerous concourse iof spectators, on Thursday last. The endow-
ment, which it is understood will ultimately amount to three hundred pounds,
and the site, are also the gift of the sameljenevolent lady ; the total cost of
the building is estimated at ten thousand pounds. — Midland Counties Herald.

Great Haywood. — The consecration of St. Stephen's Chapel, recently erected
on a beautiful site given for the purpose by the Earl of Lichfield, in the
parish of Colwich, took place last month. It is of very beautiful construction,
and reflects great credit on the taste and ability of Mr. T. Trubshaw. by whom
ti was designefl. — Staffordshire Gazette.

400

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[November ,

MtlSCELIiANCA.

New mode ofhimging Pictures.— K very clever and useful inviTilion for tlie
above purpose lias been lately ]jaleined by Mr. W. Potts, of Kini; \yilli;im
Street. Strand, wliich we think, as it becomes known, cannot fail ol l.eaig
patronised by all collectors of pictures. The metiiods of Iianjjing pi-tures
commonly in use are by drivinf; nails into tlic walls, or running iron or hrass
roils round the room. 'Both arc objectionable, the former as it damages the
decorations, and the latter not only destroying the archiiectural effect of a
well-proportioned apartment, but also that the brackets which support the
rod prevent the hooks or cords from sliiling to any part wanted. In the
patent plan, the means of fixing being above the hooks, they can be moved
all round the room with the greatest facility, and necessarily saves much
time in hanging or arranging a collection, particularly wlien any addition is
made to it. Attached tolhe invention are moveable pendant chains and rods,
with cross bars and shifting biutons or studs, which can be used or not at the
pleasure of the party. Another and very great advantage connected with
the plan is, that the rail combines a cornice miiulding with the means of sup-
porting pictures, and can be made to form the lottom member of the entabla-
ture, a's the line in front is not touched either by the hooks, chains, or cord.
We cannot but recommend the plan to the notice of archilects, as well as tJ
the artist and amateur, as an invention deserving their attention and
adoption.

Mr. Junius Smith. — The American paj ers mention that the degree of LL.D.
has been conferred by the University authorities on Mr. Junius Smith, of
London, the gentleman whose enterprise, science, and perseverance, Iiave so
eminently contributed to the establishment of steam navigation between the
old and tlie new worlds. — Morning Post.

Experiment of Large GK7iS.— On Friday. 11th ult., a party of the Royal Ar-
tillery, commanded by Major Chalmers, proceeded to the proof butt in the
Roy.al Ar.«enal, AVoolwich. at I o'clock p.m.. for the purpose of trying a plan
which has been some time in operation in France, for discharging large pieces
of ordnance by a hammer and detonating powilcr, the present system in the
British army being with a portfire, ignited and kept burning until the word
of command is given. Sir John May, Colonel Dundas, and Colonel Dancey
attended towilness the experiment. The gun selected was a 32-pounder, and
the charge each time was 101b. of powder in a flannel cartridge, with a 321b.
ball tltted in a wi oden cup made flat at the end next the T'owder. Forty
rounds were fired, and the simplicity and certainty wiih which they were
discharged gave great satisfaction. The invention is so simple, and might
be so easily applied, that there is every reason to believe it will be universally
adopted in the Ordnance department. ' It consists of a small hammi'r, with a
handle about six inches in length, the whole made of brass, acting in holes
made in two small pieces of steel fixed by screws to the right side of the gun.
The action is given by pulling a piece of cord six feet long, when the hammer
falls on the vent charged wilh detonating powder with such force as to cause
instant and certain ignition. There is a small piece of steel to cover the de-
tonating ponder, that it may not become wet in rainy we ither, and this is so
contrived that it falls back the moment the hammer begins to descend.

The New Town of Fteetwood-on- fVyre. — Three years ago there were only
two houses at Fleetwood, and the site of the town was a barren waste over-
run with rabbits ; now there are 103 houses inhabited to overflowing, and 54
in course of erection. It is said that a considerable quantity of land is pur-
chased for building upon, but there is considerable ilifhculty in procur ng a
sufficient supply of brick, stone, and lime, consequently building operations
are c nsideral)ly refaided. We may meniion. however, that a small but neat
church, capable of accommodating aijoiit 400 persons is reared, and that the
two shore ligluhouses, which will be lighted with gas. are in a for«ard state,
one being about 60 feet high, and the other about 12. As the designs are
chaste and beautiful, they will be highly atiraetive objecis to strangers visit-
ing the district. A portion of the iron pier head is completed, and the re-
mainder is in a forw ard slate. There will be a shade erected on the pu r for
the purpose of keeping the goods, as they are landed, dry, and a line of rail-
way will be laid along the pier, with suitable cranes for the landing of heavy
goods ; and it is probable that these works will, in the course of a month or
six weeks, b- so far comple'e as to enable the Company to commence the
carrying trade on a great scale, when a considerable increase of trade to the
port may reasonably be expected.

French Steam Engine Factory. — The Armoricain of Brest, in giving an ac-
count of the Government steam-engine manufactory of Indiet, says in its
present condition it can only turn out three engines of IfiO to 220 horse
power per annum, but that Government w ishes to increase it, so as to enable
it to make annually 12 engines of 4.50 horse power each. The sum allotted
to this establishment last year by Government was 700,000f.. but it has now
been carried up to 2,000,000f. Six slips for building steamers are attached
to the establishment; and a war-steamer, ih^ Gassendi, of 220 horse power,
s at present building here. — Galignani's Messtnger.

LIST OF NE-W PATENTS.

GRANTED IN ENGLAND FROM IsT OCTOBER TO 22nD OCTOBER, 1840.

Frederick Payne Mackelcan, of Birmingham, for " certain improved
thrashing machinery, a portion of which may be used as a means of trans-
mitting power to other machinery." — Sealed October 1 ; six months for en-
rolment.

Thomas Joyce, of Manchester, Ironmonger, for " a certain article which
forms or may be used as a handsome nob for parlour and other doors, bell
pulls, and curtain pins, and is also capable of being used for a variety of use-
ful and ornamental purposes in the interior of dwelling houses and other
places." — October 1 ; six months.

William Henry Fox Talbot, of Lacock Abbey, Esquire, for " improve-
7nenis in producing or obtaining motive power." — October 1 ; six months.

William Horsfall, of Manchester, Card Maker, for "an improvement
or improvement.^ in cards fur carding cotton, wool, silt, flax, and ot lie' fibrous
substances." — October 1 ; six mnnths.

James Stirlixg, of Dundee. Engineer, and Robert Stirilng, ofGalsten,
.-Vyraliu'e, Doctor of Divinity, for *' certain improvements in air-engines." —
October 1 ; six months.

George Richie, of Gracechureh Street, and Edward Bowra, of the
same place. Manufacturers, for " improvements in the manufacture of boaSf
muffs, cuffs, flounces, and tippets." — October 1 ; six months.

J.\MES FiTT, Senior, of Wilraer Gardens, Hoxtoii Old Town, Manufacturer,
for " a novel constructionof machinery for communicating mechanical power."
October 7 : six months.

John Davies, of Manchester, Civil Engineer, for "certain improvements
in machinery or apparatu.f for weaving." Communicated by a foreigner re-
siding abroad.^October 7 six months.

Thomas Spencer, of Liverpool, Carver and Gilder, and John Wilson,
of the same place, Lecturer on Chemisti-)-, for " certain improvements in the
process of engraving on metals by means of voltaic electricity" — October 7 ;
six months.

Thomas Wood, the younger, of Wandsworth Road, Clapham, Gentleman,
for " improvements in paving streets, roads, bridges, sqttares, paths, and such
Hie ways." — October 7 ; six months.

Charles Payne, of South Lambeth, Gentleman, for " improvements in
salting animal matters." — October 13 ; six months.

RoHERT Pettit, of Woodhousc Place, Stepney Green, Gentleman, for " im-
provements in railroads, and in the carriages and wheels employed thereon." —
October 15 ; six months.

Henry George Francis Earl, of Ducie, Woodchester Park, Gloucester,
Richard Clydurn, of Uley, Engineer, and Edwin Budding, of Dursley,
Engineer, for " certain improvements in machinery for cutting vegetable and
other substances." — October 15 ; six months.

William Newton, of Chancery Lane, Civil Engineer, for ■' certain im-
provements in engines, to be worked by air or other gases." — October 15 ; six
months.

James Hancock, of Sidney Square, Mile End, Civil Engineer, for " an
improved method of raising vmter and other fluids." — October 15 ; six
months.

Henry Pinkus, of Panton Square, Middlesex. Esquire, for " an improved
method of combining and applying materials, applicable to fornmtion or con-
struction of roads or ivays." — October 15 ; six months.

Charles Parker, of Darlington, Durham, Flax Spinner, for " improve-
ments in looms for weaving linen and other fabrics, to be worked by hand,
steatn, water, or any otiter motive power." —OcieAitx 22 ; si.x months.

Richard Edmiinds, of Banbury, Oxford, Gentleman, for " certain im-
provements in machines or apparatus for preparing and drilling land, and for
depositing seeds or manure therein." — October 22 ; six months.

Thomas Clark, of Wolverhampton, Ironfounder, for ** certain improve-
ments in the construction of locks, latcfus, and such like fastenings, applicable
for securing doors, gates, window shutters, and such like purposes." Com-
municated from a foreigner residing abroad. — October 22 ; six months.

Gabriel Riddle, of Paternoster Row, Stationer, and Thomas Piper, of
Bishopsgate Street, Builder, for " a certain improvement or improvements on
wheels for carriages," for the term of seven years, being an extension of former
letters patent granted to Theodore Jo.s-es, of Coleman Street, and by hira
assigned to the said Gabriel Riddle and Thomas Piper. — October 22.

TO CORRESPONDENTS.

R. U'e have some suspicion that tite Propeller is not new ; we will iui]uire
respecting its originality.

RoSerius. iVe have not space fr the ci.nnnuuication he has favoured us with,
containing a list of the " Qui ell's subjects" whose trades are connected with
Brif'sh shipping.

n We will take advantage of his communication at some future opportunity.

S. L Designs of a ff 'eslcyan Centenary Chapel were received last month.

Mr. Kingsford'sp/ffji /(ir a Harbour of Refuge at Dover, we are compelled to
omit for the present.

A Constant Reader. JVe cannot inform him.

Arcliitec;us. Ilis ronnnunicationfrom .-tnierica will appear in the next Journal.

Booh received : — Science of I'ision.

U'e have been obliged to defer until ne.tt month the Plan and Section of the
Reform Club, in consequnwe of the artist not Iwing able to complete them in time.

The ne.tt number for December will complete the Third Volume, and will con-
tain the Title. Pre/ace, and Inde.r. Subscribers are requested to complete their
sets of the Journal.

Communications are requested to be addressed to "The Editor of the Civil
Engineer and Architect s Journal,' No. II, Parliament Street, Westminster.

Books for review must he sent early in the month, communications on or befde
the 20W. (if with drawings, earlier), and advertisements on or before the 'ibth
instant.

The First Volume may be had, bound in cloth and letteeied in gold
Pr c£ 17.«.

%* The Second Volume may also be had, Phice 20s.

1840.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

401

DIRCKS' PATENT IMPROVED METALLIC RAILWAY WHEEL WITH WOOD-FACED TYRE.

ri^.-. 1.

FiK. 2.

Fig. 3.

I'nwi/lilllllNiiiiillimmi"'^

Fig. 5.

Description.

the view Ijciiig a front elevation.

Fig. 1, represents the wheel, ha'f in sedicn, as at A, and half complete, as at B ;

Kig. 2. edge elevation, in section. , i i •

Fig. 3. showing the channelled tyre aJcwith the wood inserted at rf, fastened l.y tl.e pin or rivet ee.

Fig. 4. represents one of the wooden blocks in perspective, perforated with two holes,^, lor receiving the pins or rivets.

Fig. 5, cross section of arm of w heel.

Read by Mr. Henry Dircks, before the Mechanical Section of the
Brilissh dissociation, at Glasgow, Stpt. 10, 1840. Jliid also before
the Polytechnic Society at Liverpool, Oct. 8, 1S40.

As an introduction to the observations immediately relating to the
improved wheel which is the subject of the present communication, a
few preliminary observations may serve to make its nature and ad-
vantages more generally understood.

Wooden wheels were originally in common use on railways; these
were afterwards superseded by the extensive use of cast-iron wheels;
and both of 4hese descriptions of wheels were much improved by
manufacturing them with wrought iron tyres. Modifications of these
vvheels are still in use on the Liverpool and Manchester Railway, the
wooden wheels having the nave of cast iron, and the spokes and rim
of wood, the tyre being of wrought iron. On the London and Bir-
mingham Railway, cast iron wheels are extensively used. On the
continent of Europe, and in America, cast iron wheels are seemingly
employed by preference ; and are no doubt quite as safe for travelling,
where great speed is not practised.

In England, a decided preference is given to wrought iron wheels,
in which this metal is used throughout, with the exception of the boss
being cast around the ends of the spokes. The latest improvement
on these has been the making of the entire wheel, including the boss,
of wrought iron.

The wheels now in general use derive their chief novelty from the
construction and placement of the spokes, with a view to obtain elas-
ticity, strength, and durability. One variety which does not come
under this denomination, is the plate wheel, supposed on its intro-
duction to possess some peculiar advantage in overcoming a supposed
resistance of the atmosphere. Except, however, in relation to vari-
ations in size, the present wheels are little more than varieties in

pattern. The common diameter of carriage and waggon wheels is
three feet, and the largest driving-wheels for locomotives are those
employed on the Great Western Railway, being six to seven feet in
diameter, — thougli at one time they were made as la.ige as ten feet.

The action of an iron wheel on an iron rail, though derived firom a
rolling motion, can only be compared to a series of blows, and the
rebound occasioned by iron striking iron is well known to be con-
siderably greater than is produced by striking wood on iron. To this
simple fact we may trace the tremulous motion occasioned by iron
wheels on an iron railroail ; and when, by any trifling accident, as an
inequality from the rising of one end of a rail, or sometimes even from
small flinty pebbles getting on the rail, the rebound is not more fearful
than dangerous. The tremulous motion of the rail just adverted to
renders it necessary in most cases to lay the rails on wooden sleepers.
As an illustration of what is meant, it may be mentioned that on the
Dublin and Kingstown Railway the rails were originally laid on granite
sleepers, but the tremor was so great as to loosen the rails, and oc-
casion serious fears from the consequent damage sustained by engines
and carriages passing along the line. It was, therefore, ultimately
agreed to take up the granite and lay down longitudinal wooden
sleepers, a work of considerable labour and expense. In some cases
the nature of the soil or sub-soil may allow the use of stone blocks;
and where they can be applied with safety, they are preferred, for the
reason that a road laid on stone blocks can be kept up at a lower rate
than one laid on woodtn sleepers ; and, as has been endeavoured to be
clearly shown, the only reason for laying the stone aside, arises from
the tremor imparted to the rail by iron wheels as at present used.
Brees, in his Railway Practice (1839), gives, in a copy of an estimate
for work on the "North Union Railway," the following particulars, at
page 142: —

3 I

402

THE CIA IL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[December,

Maintaining railway crossings and sidings, when laid
on stone blocks of five cubic feet, for the first year,
per mile " . £150 0 0

Ditto ditto second year . . . SO 0 0

£230 U 0

Ditto, on larch sleepers, for the first year,

per mile £200 0 0

Ditto ditto second year 120 0 0

-£320 0 0

We shall now proceed to a description of the improved metallic
wheel witli wood-faced tyre, showing its advantages in connexion with
the preceding observations. The construction of the wheel may be
undarstood by imagining a spoked wheel with a deep channelled tyre.
The wheel may be made either of cast or wrought iron, it having been
ascertained that tyre bars can be rolled to the recpiired pattern. In
this channelled tyre are inserted blocks of African oak, measuring
about four inches by three and a half inches, solidified by filling the
pores with unctuous preparations ; thereby counteracting the eti'ects
of wet by capillary attraction, — to which, by this means, it becomes
impervious, and at the same time is not liable to unequal contraction
and expansion. The blocks of wood are cut to the requisite form to
fit very exactly in the external circular cliannel of the wheel, with the
grain placed vertically throughout, forming a complete facing of wood,
as shown in the engraving. There are about from twenty-eight to
thirty of these blocks round each wheel, where they are retained in
their place by one or two bolts passing through each, the two sides of
the channel having corresponding holes drilled through them for this
purpose : the bolts are then well rivetted. After being so fitted, the
■wheel is turned in the usual manner. The wheel when finished has
all the appearance of a common railway wheel, but with a rather
deeper rim, the tyre faced with wood, and the fiacge of iron. Woods
of various qualities may be used, whether hard or soft, requiring dif-
ferent clieraicat preparations according to their porosity, and in some
instances requiring to be compressed.

The several advantages which this wheel possesses, are —

1. That the wood facing will wear a considerable time without re-
quiring any repair.

2. That the wood can be refaced, by turning it up again in the lathe,
as practised with worn iron tyres.

3. That the tyre can be re-faced with wood at little expense, and
at a far less loss of time than usual. In the operations of re-facing
these wheels, or putting in new wood, the work can be performed
without the labour and cost of removing the wheels from the axles,
which in the keying and unkeying is known to be very troublesome.*
, 4. That, in regard to their working, it is the opinion of practical
engineers, confirmed by actual experiment, that they will work
smoother, easier, and, as some have expressed it, more "sweetly"
than iron-tyred wheels ; with the advantage of going well in wet
weather, even upon inclines, — having sufficient adhesion to the rail,
without dropping sand to assist them in this respect, as practised
when iron wiieels are used.

6. That another and \eiy important result will be, that the rails
themselves will suffer less wear by using this kind of wheel, and that
the fastenings, sleepers, and blocks will receive considerably less in-
jury, and thereby favour the laying of railroads on stone blocks, where-
ever they are considered to be most desirable.+

A metallic wheel with a wood-faced tyre, which is the principle of
this construction, obviates most, if not all, the difficulties which have
been experienced, whether in the use of wooden, cast iron, or even
wrought iron wheels. Cast iron wheels may, indeed, now be con-
sidered not far short of being equal to wrought iron wheels, for safety
and durability, with all the superiority of which the ap|)lication is sus-
ceptible. They are also neither clumsy nor inelegant in form, and are
capable of being made to any pattern, even for carriage wheels for
common roads. It may, therefore, very possibly occur that they will
Lave the effect to bring cast iron wheels into as general use, and as
much reputation here as on the continent. This new construction and
simple adoption of wood makes excellent driving wheels for locomo-
tives; it may be readily stopped by using a cast iron break, and does
not undergo that wear which might be expected from the friction it

* As in every tiling allectiug railways, it is a desideratum to decrease the
expense as much as possible, it may here be mentioned that three feet cast
iron wheels, with wuoil-faceil lyres and wrought iron axles complete, can be
made much cheaper than the generality of wheels.

t Ou lines situated like the (ireenwich Railway and theBlackwall Railway,
wood faced wheels would diminish much of the noise which at present is a
source of general complaint.

then has on the rail. The wood, by use, becomes exceedingly close
and firm, acquiring a surface not easily distinguishable from metal in
appearance.

These wheels are manufactured by Messrs. Brocklehurst, Dircks,
and Nelson, millwrights, engineers, and iron-founders, at their works,
No. 12, Oil Street, Liverpool; where tliey may at any time be seen.

CANDIDUS'S NOTE-BOOK.
FASCICULUS XX.

" I must have lifjerty
Witlial. as large a charter as the winds,
To blow on whom 1 please."

I. After "-B«V' t'le niost provoking word in the language is your
"Only"; which is employed extenuatingly to apologize away, as it
were, the very sum of complaint, as being a mere trifle, too insignifi-
cant to be taken into the general account. This or that building may
have only such or such defect, and of course you run the risk of being
set down for a very ill-natured, or an exceedingly fastidious hyper-
critical sort of person, if you object to it on such account, even though
it should be of such nature as absolutely to cancel all other merits and
recommendations. There are cases in which a single defect may be
a fatal one ; I might instance this directly and architecturally by re-
ferring to buildings which furnish cases in point ; but it may be illus-
trated by the anecdote related somewhere, if I mistake not, by
Theodore Hook, of the Adonis who had only a single blemish. In
every other respect his person and countenance were unexceptionable.
His mouth, teeth, hair, eyes, hands, were all allowed to be perfect, and
were expatiated upon by a friend so elociuently that a lady fell in love
with his description, and dejired that the original might be introduced
to her; on which the other thought fit to hint that he had omitted one
slight imperfection in the portrait he had drawn, but it was "only a
single blemish," a mere trifle, absolutely, in comparison with the loss
of an arm or a leg. "Oh! some scar, I suppose — perhaps a wart ? "
inquired the lady; "an imlucky wart, perhaps, on the tip of his nose."
" A wart on tip of his nose ! Bless your heart, no! for the truth is,
he has — no nose at all ! which little defect is the one I alluded to."

II. It is precisely such "little defects" and slight blemishes that mar
so many buildings and works of architecture. They have — in description
at least — a host of merits; columns comme ilfaul, Doric or Corinthian,
unexceptionable proportions, amplitude of dimensions, solidity of
materials, &c., are expatiated upon till you raise your expectations
almost to the highest pitch. At length you discover that the "slight
defect" — the " only fault " — should any have been hinted at, renders
the anticipated piece of perfection very much in the same plight as
the Adonis with the single blemish — the Adonis without a nose.

HI. When people begin to be sick of the everlasting boring and
twaddling about styles, they will then, perhaps, begin to find out that
quite as much or more depends upon the application of a style, as
upon its merits as such. For what are the diflerent styles of archi-
tecture, but so many different languages of the art^some of them
more perfect, more expressive than others; but the excellence of a
language, and the excellence of a composition in it, are quite distinct
matters. The same language may be the vehicle of wit or of stu-
pidity ; and so also may the same style of architecture be employed
tastefully or uncouthly ; by one so as to charm and delight, by another
so as to excite only ridicule and disgust. Which being the case, of
what practical value are all those superficial, vague, and wearisome
discussions from time to time on the subject of styles, in which not a
single idea is brought forward that has not been repeated times innu-
merable before? On no other subject would such mere school-boy
stuff be endured, much less pass for any show of learning, as is parroUd
in regard to architecture. Many prate most glibly about the age of
Pericles ; yet ask one of those erudite, sagacious gentlemen, what he
thinks of that age in its chryseo-elephantine works, and architectural
polychromy, and ten to one but he will be struck all of a heap ; he
wonders what eltplia?tls have to do with the matter, nor did he know
before that Pericles had a daughter named Polly.

IV. The fact is, we are apt to j\idge of styles as we do of national
or of professional character — in the lump; which, though a most
expeditious and convenient, save-trouble mode, not unfrequently leads
into dreadful blunders. The French are a lively people, yet shall you
find Frenchmen of most excessive dulness and stupidity. You may
stumble upon honesty in the shape of a lawyer, on temperance in that

1840.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

403

of an alderman, and on perfect good-nature in the person of a sar-
castic satirist.

V. In an article in the Gardener's Magazine for November occurs
the following bit of architectural comment : " in returning we observed
two frightful chapels; the Hanover Chapel at Peckham, in the form of
a pentagon, with small mean windows without facings, and red brick
walls without cornices or any decoration whatever: and another chapel
nearer Cambervvell, of larger size, with similar walls, and three or four
Scorns of naked windows like those of a third-rate dwelling-house!
Chapels in general, throughout the country, are at present a disgrace
to it, in an architectural point of view ; but it is to be hoped that the
spread of knowledge and taste will raise them to a par with other

, religious buildings." Yes, our chapels — and churches, too — generally
are a disgrace to the country, as well on account of the beggarly,
shabby, sordid meanness, as for the execrably bad taste they display.
But as for the good taste that is to lead to a better system of things,
•where is it to come from ? Certainly not from the fountain head — not
from the Church Commissioners. However, I will not be quite sure
that even brick boxes, with three or four stories of sash windows, are
not a degree more endurable than those most trumpery Golhicisings
or Grecianizings, as the case may be, which spring up like mushrooms
in the purlieus of Islington, &c., and whose scanty pauper finery forms
a contrast no less ludicrous than woful, with the bareness of their
posterior parts. Economy is excellent, but the economy which treats
itself with a smart shirt front, while it denies itself a pair of breeches,
cannot possibly be extolled for its nice attention to decency.

VI. If I am rightly informed, more than one of the Islingtonian
buildings alluded to is the joint production of two architects, in which
case, to judge from the littleness of their united taste, the taste of
each singly must be exceedingly little indeed. Or, would not the
rather stale anecdote of the two helpmates come in here most pat ?
" What are you doing. Jack ? " "Nothing, sir." "And Tom, what
are you doing there ? " "Please, sir, I'm just helping Jack." It was
undoubtedly after some such fashion that the Messrs. Tom and Jack
there employed assisted each other in providing taste for the Isling-
tonians. Certain it is that taste fares no better among Church Com-
missioners than among their worships the Churchwardens.

ON THE ORIGIN OF ALPHABETIC WRITING ON MONU-
MENTS, TOMBS, &c., IN ANCIENT GREECE.

Amongst the many -pleasures connected with historic research, may
be recorded that which the antiquary feels, as the evidences of some
lost truth unfold themselves to his eye. To find how link after link
completes the chain, or how the past is restored to observation after a
lapse of centuries, is no less interesting, however, to the architect, the
painter, and the sculptor, whenever the purposes of art are assisted by
such a discovery. With this preface of apology for discussing the
present subject, I humbly offer my opinions, with the unpretending
■wish only, that it may lead to a deeper attention from others. My
idea of handling the theme arose from a remark of Canina's upon some
ancient tombs found at Coere, (now Cervetri, or Ceveteri). His re-
mark is embodied in a paper, read at the Institute on the 30th March,
1840. He concludes from the peculiar form of the Greek characters
of the inscriptions, that the tomb must have been erected before the
Trojan war. Now the Trojan war is an event — an epoch in history.
It encompasses within it a variety of interesting facts, customs, man-
ners and rites. To determine the existence of alphabetic writing, as
existing on monuments and tombs, before or after that period, is no
less interesting ; especially as in the investigation we trample on the
memory of the honoured dead ; for whom art has done and expected
so much, and for whose deeds and memorable acts, genius has prepared
such monuments of beauty and of skill.

Canina evidently presumes alphabetic writing as common to the
tombs of the great before the Trojan war. Witli submission then to
his opinion, as well as to others, who I know agree with him, I will
assume the contrary, and endeavour to prove it of a later period.

First, I rely greatly on the authority of Homer, on the minuteness,
care, and correctness of that poet, on his punctilious observance of
customs, and on the extreme finish of his descriptions. Assuming this,
I turn to the tale of hfAXeporpov (Iliad Gth, 1G8), not to disprove the non-
existence of letters, &c., but to reveal Wolfius a German commentator
upon Homer, guilty of the same idea as myself, since upon that tale,
he presumes alphabetic writing unknown in the heroic ages. Secondly,
our introduction to Patroclus's tomb, has no mention of any inscription,
or written memorial. Thirdly, that the word ■ypaijjeii' of such frequent
occurrence, according to Guoquet, "ne signifie jamais chez Homer
•que representer oOi decrire un objet." Fourthly, that wherever com-

mands are given, or messages sent, they are done verbally ; and when-
ever a treaty is ratified, it is done by sacrifice, or oath. Then again,
Virgil's careful picture of Misemis's death and burial, and of the tomb
erected, &c., mentions no inscription, which strengthens the argument,
when we consider that Enoeas is trying to pacify the spirit of that hero
in the infernal regions, with a minute detail of all the honours and tri-
butes paid to his memory. To omit one observance, would display a
carelessness totally at variance with an otherwise ingenious recital.

Besides no nation was ever more jealous than the Greeks of funeral
honours. The advantages of an illustrious victory were often neglected
to perform this duty. Victorious generals were sacrified for want of
zeal in burying the soldiers slain in battle ; whilst the auguries they
derived from, and the vows they made over tombs, evince with what
earnestness, the depositaries of the precepts of religion, had ever re-
commended the duties of the sepulchre. But perhaps it may be said
that Guoquet in his work "sur les origines des lois, des sciences et des
arts," admits the existence of alphabetic writing in Greece before the
Trojan war. If so, let it be remembered, he adds, " that it was less
practised." Besides if Guoquet were correct in his supposition, the
knowledge of letters as a medium of conveying thoughts through the
body of the people, must necessarily prove tardy and progressive. And
although we believe it in existence at the time of Cadmus, still a
natural inference would be, that the priests, as in ancient Egypt, were
for a long time alone familiar with the written or descriptive language.
The fact, too, that the Mexicans and Peruvians had attained to a
great degree of civilization, without the use of letters, may assist such
an idea.

The question then naturally arises, how, if inscriptions be to memo-
ralize worth, or to record virtue, and how, if the knowledge of letters
be assumed as slight, partial and confined, could the object be
effected ; or why would the artist chisel out in letters, the deeds of the
departed, when most of the passers by were unable to interpret. Upon
these grounds I humbly dispute the remark of Canina's : and I do so,
not for the bare love of agitating subjects, which but for the curious
and ingenious, would be contentedly dismissed, as unworthy and
trivial ; but from an anxiety to arouse the slumbering energies of the
artist, and to invite a cool and rational enquiry into the antiquities,
literature and minutive of his art.

Frederick East.

November, 1840.

DESCRIPTION OF THE HYPSOMETER.

^11 Instrument invented by Johk Sang, Esq., Land Surveyor, for
taking the Heights of Trees, Buildings, and other objects. Communi-
cated by Mr. Sang, Land Surveyor, Kirkcaldy.

(From the Gardeners' Magazine.)

I have taken the first leisure hour to make you the instrument for
measuring the height of trees and buildings which I mentioned to you
when having the pleasure of visiting you at Bayswater. It is sent by
post at the same time as this letter.

The instrument was tried on some houses and trees here, and it
gave their height (especially the houses) with great accuracy. It is
rather difficult to manage at first, but after a few trials it becomes
quite easy. The method is as follows : —

By means of a small hook (if a knot of white cloth be attached to it,
so much the better), fix the end of a tape line to the bole of the tree,
at exactly the height of the observer's eye from the ground. Retire
from the tree, letting the tape line unwind until, by using the instru-
ment, the top of the tree and the end of the tape line are seen quite
close together. Add the height of the observer's eye to the length of
the tape line, and the sum is the height of the tree. Now, the diffi-
culty is, to catch the image of the top of the tree in the instrument,
and it is this which requires a few trials, although any person who has
been accustomed to use a sextant will do it at the very first. Hold
the instrument at one of the milled ends, taking care that the fingers
do not project over any of the holes, and that the brim of the hat is
out of the way. Apply the eye to the round hole marked a in fig. 1,
and look through in the direction of the small square hole b, the in-
strument being held so that the line joining a 6 is about level, while the
large square hole c is turned towards the sky. You will then see some
object directly through the small hole, and at the same time the image
of some other object, the light from which enters the large aperture,
and, after being reflected by the two mirrors inside, passes into the
eye. Whatever two objects are thus seen in contact, subtend at the
eye an angle of 45°, as in fig. 2 ; so that, if one of them be the end of
the tape line on a level, or nearly so, vvith the observer's eye, while

3 I Z

404

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[December,

the other is the tup of a tree, supposed to be growing straight iij), th
distance from the eye to the bole of tlie tree will be exactly equal t
the distance from the end of the tape line to the top of the tree.

I'ib'- I' Fig. 2.

Fig. 3.

1 io'- 4.

You will thus observe that the accuracy of the measurement depends
on the tree being erect from the ground. On sloping ground the mea-
surer would require to go out from the tree in such a direction that
the tape line was perpendicular to the stem, but this could be judged
suflBciently well by the eye to give the height, of even a very high
tree, nearly correctly. The heights of those houses I tried were given
within an inch, which was no doubt owing to their being perfectly up-
right on a level court yard.

The principle of the instrument is quite simple, being exactly the
same as tliat of the sextant or quadrant, only that the mirrors are fixed
at a certain angle instead of being movable. Thus, in fig. 3, a is tlie
eye, k a mirror partly silvered, and c a larger mirror wholly silvered.
A ray of light r, falling on the mirror c, is reflected from it in the
direction cb, and again reflected from the mirror i in the direction 6 a
to the eye ; at the same time another ray of light comes from an ob-
ject o direct to the eye at a, without being reflected. From the na-
ture of reflected light, the angle r a o is equal to twice the inclination
of the mirrors, and is constant, however much the whole instrument
may be moved in the plane of the objects, as you will easily perceive
by catching the reflection of the candle in the instrument, and moving
it in the plane of the milled ends.

I am sure this very portable instrument will be useful for measuring
single trees, or buildings, which are as far asunder as they are high,
but I am afraid it will not work well in a close wood, on account of
the operator not having room to retire as far from the trees as their
heigh;. If this is found to be the case, the remedy is to construct
another instrument in which the mirrors are placed so as to give an
angle of 03" 2(j' 05". In this case the height of the trees will be
equal to twice the length of the tape, added to the height of the ob-
server's eye. (See fig. 4.) Of course a small deviation from square-
ness iu the trees and tape line will make a greater error than with the
instrument sent, bnt still it will give a result near enough for all prac-
tical purjjoses.

I have only to add, that the mirrors are made of common window
glass selected as the most even from among a great manv pieces, but
still they are not quite flat. I had some glass from London perfectly
true and flat, but so dim and badly polished as to be unfit for use.

Kirlxaldy, Jan. 31, 1S40.

Poahcript in Aimwer to Home Qiitsli07i8 asked of Mr. Sang by the
Conductor.

The instrument for measuring the height of trees is not a ])ocket
sextant, like that of Mr. Blackadder, mentioned in vol. xiv. p. 257,
although nearly allied to it. The sextant, quadrant, reflecting circle,
improved Wollaston's goniometer, as well as the optical square and
tree-measuier, are all varieties or improvements on Hadley's first in-
vention. The two latter differ from the rest in the mirrors being per-
manently fixed at angles suitable for the purposes fur which they were
intended. The pocKet sextant would measure the height of trees
quite as well, but, being expensive, and requiring some skill to use it,
it is not likely to be much employed for such purposes. There is no
sort of merit in designing the instrument; and is so exceedingly sim-
ple, that I have no doubt the idea of modifying the sextant, so as to
make it readily measure the height of trees, lias occurred to many a
one. I, however, never heard of such an instrument, and believe that
the one you have is the second of its kind in existence. The other is
one which was made for yourself. My father was so much pleased
with it that he asked me to make one for him, which turned out neater
than the first, and accordingly I sent it to you, as being the better of
tlie two. As there is nothing like a Greek name for giving identity
to it, you might call it a dendrometer, or, better still, a hypsometer
(measure of height).

Of course any instrument maker could supply these articles; the
price, I should think, would be about 20s. each. If there were any
prospect of selling a dozen or two, I could easily employ a workman
liere to make them, and they might be sent from the seedshop to any
place by post.

Kirkcaldy, Feb. 18, 1840.

BRITISH MUSEUM.

Sir — That the British Musenm is a monument — as the French term it,
which does honour to this age and country, is what, for peace sake, I will
take for granted, notwithstanding that 1 myself perceive nothing par-
ticularly monumental or dignified in the sulky and barrack-like aspect
of the exterior of the new buildings. Xo one, indeed, can deny that
the most frugal economy has been observed there — of course a very
plain proof with what rigorous conscientiousness the cash is uniformly
doled out of John Bull's public purse. Still there are illnatured grum»
biers who opine there are occasions when liberality bespeaks more
prudence than cheese-paring economy, and is the more becoming vir-
tue of the two; and that such an edifice as the "one I am speaking of,
ought to be in every respect a finished piece of architecture. Possi-
bly, the fafade — whenever that comes to be executed — may make
some amends ; yet it surely would have been better that the whole
should be of a piece, and not like Dick Wilson's fine embroidered
waistcoat, with its ' back-front' made out of one of his own picture-
canvasses. It may be very true that the rest of the building is not
intended to be seen, but still as it is not screened from view, it is
rather hard to tax the imagination of matter-of-fact folks like myself,
so far as to tell us we are to imagine we do not see what is staring us
in the face, nor to give credit to our own eyesight. Upon such nota-
ble principle of economy, the backs — I mean the East end of St. Paul's,
might have been left a plain brick wall ; but it seems Sir Chris-
topher's notions of economy were very different indeed from those of
Sir Robert.

I find I have rather committed myself, for wliat I have been saying
is likely to call the sincerity of my first sentence, terribly into question.
IS'o matter; it can't now be helped; and only proves that liars and
critics ought to liave good memories. Accordingly my willingness to
' take for granted ' and so forth, must now either be set down as a pal-
pable hnm, or be imputed to my considerate forbearance iu not dis-
cussing the architectural merits and demerits of Sir R. Smirke's edi-
fice. I will not inquire whether the taste he has shown in the interior
of the building is such as to indemnify us for its excessive homeliness
without; nor whether he has been prodigal or economical in drawing
upon his fancy ami imagination. But I will say that however much
he may have consulted convenience rather than splendour, or may havs
succeeded in combining both, in other parts of the plan, he has at-
tended to neither the one nor the other iu the Reading Rooms, which
are about as inconvenient for the purpose as could well have been
devised, — to such a degree that without taxing our fancy very much,
we might fancy no instructions respecting them had been given to the
architect, and that when it was afterwards discovered that the Book-
makers and Novel-readers who frequent the British Museum, nuistbe
put somewhere, they were accommoda/id where they are now crammed.
"Remuneration means five farthing?," and in the present case accom-

1840.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

405

modation means being left to shift as well as you can for yourself, and
perhaps be forced to sit in dim-twilight — wliere if you cannot see to
read, you may at least sit and muse, — which of course looks solemn and
meditative, and is highly becoming in a l\Lise-um.

This is no exaggeration of mine, since it is hardly possible — except,
indeed, for literary omls — to see to read at any of the tables on the
window-side of the West room, in dull weather ; those windows being
at a considerable height from the floor, and there being no others at
either end. Consequently one-half of it is so imperfectly lighted, that
were it a church people would grumble at it as a dismal dark liole,
where they could not see either to hear the sermon, or to study the
newest fashions of the congregation. There may indeed be some who
can see to read by their own inward liglit ; but the generality of people
will perhaps agree with me that apartments not intended merely as
libraries, but as public reading.rooms, wliere instead of seating them-
selves just where they can see best, people must be content with the
best vacant places they can find, — that such apartments should be
sufficiently and uniformly lighted, so that every part should be equally
commodious in that respect.

It would have been infinitely better to have had for the purpose,
rooms less lofty, and lighted entirely from above, with a clerestory
lantern along the centre, and skylight compartments along the sides, so
as to diffuse the light as equally as possible every where. But, it will
be said, it was quite out of the architect's power to do this, there
being an upper floor : yet it was surely then matter for consideration
whether it would not be more eligible to convert the present rooms to
some other purpose, and make use of one of the upper galleries (lighted
from above) as Reading-rooms. The extra trouble of having to ascend
higher in order to reach them, would be amply compensated by their
greater comfort and commodiousness, — for their present length might
then have been considerably extended. Perhaps it will be objected —
for bids and objections are always plentiful enough — that this would
have been attended with one serious inconvenience, — namely, the dis-
tance from which books would have to be fetched were the Reading-
rooms not upon the same floor as the Libraries. Yet that difficulty
would be at once obviated by having a li/t or shaft ("as many as might
be requisite), close by the bar where the books are delivered ; and by
means of whicli a whole cargo — if requisite, might be raised equally
expeditiously and easily.

There are, however, other inconveniences in the present rooms that
ought to be remedied. One is that the space is by much too conflned,
for either the tables ought to be nearly double their present width, or
there ought to be seats only on one side, for when a person has — which
is frequently the ca^ — very large folios before him, they occasion in-
convenience both to his opposite neighbour and himself: besides which
sufficient space is not allowed between one sitter and another, should
they both happen to have many books or very large ones by them.

Were it not that it might be deemed a piece of shameful extrava-
gance, I would hint that it would not be omiss if a few yards of drugget
or matting were purchased to lay down along the centre avenue of the
Reading-rooms, in order to deaden the noise of persons ])erpetually
passing to and fro on the stone pavement there. By way of providing
the ways and means for raising the sum required for buying the said
drugget, I would recommend that the open wire-work doors now en-
closing the bookcases in those rooms should be taken oft" their hinges
and sold ; because so far from being of any use, they are merely a very
gieat nuisance. Being unglazed tney do not protect the books from
dust, neither are they any protection whatever against plundering — if
such be their intended purpose, because those cases — which contain
books of reference, journals, dictionaries, &c., are accessible to any
one, as he may have as many as he pleases opened in turn, if he sum-
mons the turnkey attendant, and as wlieu once opened the cases are
left unlocked, there are always several from which persons can take
down books. There are, besides, always piles of books on the tables,
from which a person frequenting the Museum for such a purpose,
might filch away any pocketable volume, though even then he could
not pawn it without first mutilating it, by tearing oat the Museum
stamp-mark. Therefore in the way of precaution against filching
books, the doors to the cases in the Reading-rooms are quite nugatory
— a mere idle show of carefulness and security. In themselves, how-
ever, they are a nuisance, not only as imposing needless trouble and
busthng about, to both attendants and visitors ; but because they are
actually in the way when opened, while persons are referring to the
books, there being then no room for other people to pass between them
and the tables. If, therefore, there must be doors to those bookcases,
the tables ought to be shortened two feet, so as to allow greater space
between the ends of the tables and the walls. I will nut now speak
of the Catalogues except to say that I believe they are blessed unde-
voutly backwards, every day and all day long. Neither will I now
touch upon the literary wealth of the Museum in those departments

which are most likely to interest your own readers, it being utterly
impossible to do justice to either topic at the fag end of my present
letter; I must, therefore, reserve them for another. That some im-
provements have taken place of late years I do not deny, but still the
Museum requires a good deal of poking up, before it will be placed
upon the footing which it ought to be.

I remain, &c., &c., &c.,
John [but not John Wilson] Croker.
P.S. I forgot to remark that had the Reading-rooms been on the
floor above that where they now are, namely, on the first floor from
the sky, they would have been much more in character, for the votaries
of literature have always greatly aiTected the upper regions of build-
ings— vulgarly termed garrets — for their abodes.

SURVEYING.

REMARK3 ON THE NEW SCALING INSTUMENT.

Sir — '1 he last number of your Journal contained a letter from " An
Old Surveyor," in which, speaking of the New Scaling Instrument re-
cently introduced at the Tithe Office, and extracted from my Treatise
on Engiimriiig Field tVork, into your Journal for October, he remarks
" that I mnst have been misinformed when I stated that the principle
of the plan had long been known to some few surveyors, &c., and also
believing that I did not wish to deprive the inventor of his due share
of credit, to state who were the parties acquainted with tlie principle
of the plan, prior to its introduction at the Tithe Office." From the
courteous — not to say complimentary tone of your correspondent's
letter, I feel much pleasure in affording him the requisite information.
By referring to page 353 of your Journal, he will perceive what I mean
by the principle of the plan, which was communicated to me about three
years since by an esteemed professional friend, but who at the time
did not inform me that it was his own conception ; and which I was not
aware of until I applied to him, since reading "An Old Surveyor's"
letter, to know in what manner he became acquainted with the pro-
oess. Subjoined is the reply, but at his request his name is withheld ;
but for your correspondent's satisfaction, I send you the letter to take
the requisite particulars from. In the autumn of 1837, he observes,
" being engaged upon a survey of 12,000 acres, I looked with some
degree of concern at the drudgery of computing the quantities. Mr.
B. had previously explained to me his mode of ruling parallel lines
across the several enclosures, but this method I thought would be
troublesome, and be attended with the risk of injuring the maps. The
idea then occurred to me of using a thin piece of horn ruled with lines
one chain apart. In the interval that elapsed between my sending for,
and receiving the horn, I made of tracing paper the machine I described
to you, and find it to answer my purpose, used it to the end of my
survey in the spring of 183S, since which time it has not seen the
light, but is no doubt amongst my old papers."

I think the above particulars must be satisfactory to your corres-
pondent, at least I hope so ; and now perhaps I may be excused asking
him, who the inventor of the modified instrument at present in use at
the Tithe Office, is ? for certainly there is great credit due to him,
and which I indeed stated in my work, when I called it an "ingenious
application of the above system." If an Old Surveyor will favour me
with this particular, I shall have much pleasure in mentioning it in the
second part of my work shortly to be published.

I remain. Sir, your's very obediently,

Peter Bruef.

Charlotte Street, Bloomsbury, Nor. 16, 1840.

Sir — An "Old Surveyor" in your last number doubts the remark
made by Mr. BruflT, that the principle of the New Scaling Instrument
had long been in use by some few surveyors. — In reply I beg to observe
that I have known many surveyors of the old school who worked »n
this principle, by means of a long scale and pricker, taking the amount
of the chain widths and transferring them into acres, roods and perches
by the decimal table ; the new instrument has certainly much im-
proved the system, and having the parallel lines on glass paper is a
further improvement. The old system was a very defective one, and
repudiated by all really practical" men. As to the new instrument,
after using it in my office for many months, and in various large sur-
vevs— I find it unsatisfactory, it is after all (notwithstanding its high
recommendation) best adapted for the schoolboy and the tyro.

I am not surprised at its general adoption, for the former approved
system of equalizing into trapeziums and triangles is very laborious
work, if pursued for a length of time successively, but after giving
both a fair trial, I must say I find the old system the most expeditious

406

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[December,

and certainly the most satisfactory. One feels no satisfaction with
the instrument without repeating the operation, in repeating, the re-
suits will not always be the same, a third or even a fourth operation
will frequently be required, each time requiring the whole to be done
over again ; whereas by allowing two young hands to figure for each
scaler, they check one another, and repeating the operation from op-
posite points, prevents any serious errors by using proper precautions.

Perhaps I have a little feeling with yourselves against " ready
reckoners," but I have experience on my side, and I nave laid the
imlntmenl on the shelf.

It is a pity to see practical men recommending such games of mar-
bles as your Dublin correspondent, if he would work with eleven arrows
and maWe frequent use of his pen, he would bequeath his marbles to
his children. Every surveyor should follow his own chain in long
lines, and stopping to book his changes, stations, crossings, &c., will
find him plenty to do, without carrying a marble bag.

The number of mushroom surveyors whom the pressure of business
have hatched into life, has detracted much from the respectability of
the profession, the public however are beginning to find out, that old
and tried hands are most to be depended on ; an engineer too may be
a good surveyor in theory, but he will never come up in the field to an
old fashioned surveyor. I do not know any thing that would give me
greater pleasure than to give a certain eminent gentleman in that line,
(well known to our profession, fur his upright, impartial, and gentle-
manly demeanour), one week's practical surveying, he would find there
was but little "Sham Abraham" in it.

I shall conclude these few remarks by again assuming a name under
which I have before entered your columns,

As your very obedient servant,

" Surveyor."

Ailfori, Nov. 14, 1840.

ON REMOVAL OF EARTH-WORK FOR EMBANKMENTS.

f Sir — In your Number 38, for November 1840, at page 392, you
state that " up to April 1837, not even 200,000 cube yards had been
teamed to embankment on one face, in one year."
VI Between Nov. 2, 1839 and Oct. 17, 1S40, there were tipped, accord-
ing to my ofiBcial returns, on the Birmingham and Gloucester Railway,
on one face of embankment, across the valley of the river Rea, near
Birmingham, 293,240 cube yards ; the mean lead being 1| miles, and
the extreme height of embankment 62 feet from the meadows. I be-
lieve that a ratio of progress fully equal to the above, was maintained
not far from Gloucester on the same railway, for a few months in the
Autumn of 1839 ; but as the work was then in the hands of the Chel-
tenham and Great Western Company, I cannot give you farther parti-
ticulars. I am under the belief that other engineers could supply you
with information as to larger quantities than the above being tipped
in the same space of time.

I am, your's faithfully,

W. S. MooRSOM, Engineer.
[Communications similar to the above are of great importance to
the profession ; we hope other engineers will follow Mr. Moorsom's
esample, and favour us with the result of their observations. — Ed.]

THE NAPOLEON MONUMENT.

Mr. Editor- — Having in the September number of your highly in-
teresting periodical, perused an article under this head, and feeling a
deep interest in the subject, I take the liberty of sending you my own
opinion ; though, whether it is likely to effect any goo(l^ or is worthy
of insertion in your Journal, your able judgment will best decide. —
During a recent visit to Paris, I was particularly struck by the exhi-
bition (mentioned in the above number) of a full size model of the in-
tended testimonial to the Emperor in the Dome des Invalides, as not
being altogether consistent with that good taste so frequently dis-
played in the French capital. To every one who has seen the effect
of the Baldachino in St. Peter's, at Rome, which is univeisally ac-
knowledged a complete eye-sore, this striking similarity of arrange-
ment must evidently tend to give the same result. The magnificent
Dome, being itself such a tastefully decorated room, can, according to
my ideas, by no means suffer any erection, like this complicated, by
an equestrian statne crowned monument, to dispute its grand simpli-
city. A colossal statue of the hero, say from 18 to 24 feet high, cast
in leliite metal and frosted, erected on a circular pedestal of Egyptian
porphyry, in the centre of the large Mosaic star, would methinks pro-
duce a different effect. The sublime grandeur of the Egyptian colossi,

all rude and mutilated as they are, speak for themselves, and in behalf
of my opinion. They likewise convince me that supernatural size
would here especially answer the purpose. I suggested my idea on
the spot to a friend present, and have since found no reason to make
any alteration.

Your's most respectfully,

C. TOTTIE.

14, University Street, Nov. 9, 1840.

COMPETITION DESIGNS.

K. P. S. IN REPLY TO Mr. Sparke.

Sir — It gives me much pleasure to see in your number for the pre-
sent month, that you have ether correspondents who interest them-
selves in the subject of competition, and it is with especial satisfaction
that I have read the answer of Mr. Sparke, to my letter on the subject
of the Bury affair, since it leaves every essential fact in my statement
unshaken, except one. Nobody can be imposed upon for one mo-
ment by the mist of words in which the Hon. Sec. flatters himself he
has enveloped the truth.

It seems I have been misinformed as to the amount of the contract,
which is £3,353 instead of £3,550. What then? Does the amount
affect the moral principle?

There certainly are cases which differ from competitions, inasmuch
as the law is apt to take cognizance of them, in which the proper name
by which the transaction is called, varies according to the pecuniary
amount involved in it, but as we cannot suppose the Hon. Sec. to the
subscribers means to insinuate any analogy, we must conclude that he
argues like the damsel who excused her peccadillo because it was " a
very little one."

As to the conundrum about the duties, it is too shallow to be re-
spectable. The contract is £3,353, — there is £230 to be laid out in
foundations, which it was evident must be laid out to all but those
determined not to see, and then there is the painting and plastering.
£350, supposing it to be so much, will not cover an excess of upwards
of £600.

Though quite unnecessary for the argument, I will beg your readers
to peruse the clause referred to by Mr. Sparke relative to the duties.
Will any one undertake to say whether it is intended to mean that the
duties are or are not to be considered in the estimate. It is most in-
genious, and well calculated to maintain a quibble upon. Where the
meaning is obscure, we must enlighten it by the context. " Jf the sub-
scribers shall be unable to find a respectable builder willing to execute the
design of any architect for the sum of £3,000, such architect shall have
no claim of any kind upoti the subscribers," &c. This at least is plain
English, and I shall take the liberty to believe it can have but one mean-
ing, even though it should be explained away as satisfactorily as Lord
Peter proved his shoulder-knot to mean neither more nor less than a
broomstick,* or as Mr. Sparke has explained away all the rest of my
statement.

But one word more — I will not dispute whether the contrivers of
this business were called a committee, but it is notorious to all Bury
that it vras managed by a clique who, according to Mr. Sparke's show-
ing, turn out to have been as irresponsible as they were ofEcious. I
could name an occasion on which one of the leading members express-
ed himself in no measured terms, apon some symptoms of dissent from
his authority, shown by other parties concerned.

Enough of this, and more than enough for any good it is likely to
produce. I have said before, and say again, that reform must come
from the jirofession, and to them I would recommend a very simple
plan, by which it may be effected, viz., that every one should reform
himself. In the mean time. Sir, accept another contribution to the
fads, which I hope to see accumulated, until architects shall be ashamed
to rake in the filthy puddle of competition at the command of every
body and any body. For reasons which will instantly be appreciated,
I omit all names.

It is now nearly two years since the following advertisement ap-
peared in the public papers : —

"To Architects. — Any architect desirous of competing for the pro-
posed enlargement ofW church, must send in his plans, specifi-
cations, and estimates, free of all charge or expence, to the Secretary,

the Rev. Mr. T , Vicarage W , on or before tho 19th January,

1S39. For farther information apply to the Secretary."

Application having been made for farther particulars, the following
were furnished in reply : —

* SieiheTaleofaTub,

1840.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

407

"Tliattlie committee would require apian of the different floors of
the church, showing the present arrangements and pro|)osed alterations,
an elevation of each front affected by the nroposed alterations, a
longitudinal and transverse section showing the timbers of the roof,
&c., together with a detailed specification of the works, and estimate
of rendering the church, both inside and out, fit in every respect for
public worship. An additional estimate of what would be the expence
of repewing the present church on a better plan, in conformity with
the proposed new addition. An estimate of the expence for an addi-
tional gallery.

" That the limited amount of the funds would not allow of any pre-
miums being given for the plans.

"That the committee considered it indispensable for the competi-
tors to inspect the church.

•' That a commission of five per cent, on the sum expended would
be allowed to the architect for his plans, &c., including the superin-
tendance of the works."

And now, gentlemen of the profession, what do you suppose was to
be the amount of this commission for the chance of which all this was
to be done, and a journey to be made to W at the candidate's ex-
pence ?

" That the Secretary informs the several architects that the sum to
be expended will not exceed four hundred and ffty pounds .'! .'" I
■write it at length that no one may suppose a figure has been dropped.

The following letter, part of the correspondence, is too curious not
to be given entire. The naive impudence of the latter part will not
easily be surpassed : —

« W , January 5, 1S39.

" Sir — In answer to your's of this morning, I beg to state that the
committee desire me to say that they consider a personal inspection
of the church necessary. Should you consider this worth your while,
I shall be happy to give you any information in my power on the sub-
ject. I should state that the length of the church is GO feet by IG feet
10 inches, so that the work will be on a small scale. The amount to be
expended will not exceed £450. The Rector of the parish is an Archi-
tect, but has not informed me whether he intends to compete for the work.
" I am. Sir, your obedient servant,

"H S "

Begging every architect who values the respectability of his pro-
fession to lend his aid in exposing these scandalous practices.
I remain, Sir, your obedient servant,

K. P. S.

Nov. 13, 1840.

ATMOSPHERIC RAILWAY.

In our last monthly number we published a letter received from Mr.
Pinkus, commenting on an article in our July number on the atmos-
pheric railway, in which he complains that great injustice had been
done him, by giving credit to Mr. Medhurst "for having originated
the idea of employing the power of the atmosphere against a vacuum
created in an extended pipe laid between the rails, and communicating
the power thus obtained to propel carriages moving on a road," and
to Messrs. Clegg & Samuda " for having rendered this idea practicable
and useful, by their simple and ingenious invention of constructing and
closing a continuous valve, by hermetically sealing it up with a com-
position each time the train passes."

In treating on scientific inventions of interest, this Journal pursues
the undeviating course of giving the fullest and clearest information,
preserving the strictest impartiality as to the inventors; conferring
praise where it is justly due, and pointing out error where we consider
it to exist. Mr. Pinkus, after denying in tola all we have said of Med-
hurst and of himself, describes himself as " an humble labourer in the
field of science," who would "never be guilty of that meanness of
mind that would detract from another the merit justly due to him for
any mental production." This principle we admire, and Ciuinot but
regret that l:e should have lost sight of it in the very next paragraph
of his letter, where he attempts to deprive Medhurst of the praise we
awarded him, by describing Papin as the author " of employing the
power of the atmosphere against a vacuum." We are aware that
this is due to Papin, but if Mr. Pinkus had not stopped short, but
quoted our whole sentence, Medhurst must have come in for the praise
■we justly awarded him, viz. "of using the power of the atmosphere
against a vacuum created in a pipe laid between the rails, and com-
municating the power thus obtained to propel carriages on roads," —
a very diflerent tiling from simply "using the power of the atmos-
phere against a vacuum," which we were fully aware originated with
Papin, had been followed by Lewis in 1817, and Vallence in 1824.
Returning, then, to the original idea of employing atmospheric pres-

sure against a vacuum inside a pipe, and communicating that power
to carriages moving on a road outside it" ; we see nothing to alter
our assertion that it is the invention of Medhurst, who published a
detailed account of the means he employed, in 1837.*

Indeed, however reluctant Mr. Pinkus may be to admit this fact, the
following extracts from Medhurst's pamphlet, places the matter be-
yond all doubt.

In page 15, this passage occurs —

When the carriage is to go through the canal, from the engine, the air
must be forced into the canal behind it ; but, when it is to go the contrary
way, the same engine is to draw the air out of the canal, and rarify the air
before the carriage, that the atmospheric air may press into the canal behind
the carriage, and drive it the contrary way.

In the following page 16, he says —

It is practicable, upon the same principle, to form a tube so as to leave'a
continual communication between the inside and the outside of it, without
suiTering any part of the impelling air to escape ; and, by this means, to im-
pel a carriage along upon an iron road, in the open air, with equal velocity,
and, in a great degree, possessing the same advantages as in passing within-
side of the tube, with the additional satisfaction to passengers of being'uu-
confined, and in view of the country.

If a round iron tube, 24 inches in diameter, he made, with an opening of 2
inches wide in the circumference, and a flanch 6 or 8 inches deep on each
side of the opening, it will leave a channel between the flanches, and an open-
ing into the tube. If the tiauches of this tube are immersed in water up to
the circumference, as represented in fig. 1, where a, a, is a section of the
tube ; I), the channel ; and c, c, the snrface of the water.

FiR. I.

If such a tube is laid all along upon the ground, ■nith the iron channel ini-
mersed in a channel of water, up to m, and a piston or box made to fit it
loosely, and pass through it upon wheels or rollers, tliis box, driven througli
the tube by the air forced into it, may give motion to a carriage without, by
a communication through the channel and the water.

Again in page 20, he describes

A plan to combine the two modes together, that the goods may be con-
veyed nithin the canal, and a conuuunication made from the inside to the
outside of it, so that a carriage may he impelled in the open air, to carrj- pas-
sengers, would he an improvement desirable and practicable. It must be
effected without the aid of water, that it may rise and fall as the land lies ;
and it must give a continual impulse to the outside carriage, without suffer-
ing the impelling air to escape.

And aware that his only difficulty was in constructing a means of
confining the power in the tube by using a valve in lieu of the water
joint, he remarks, that

For this purpose, there must be some machinery which will diminish the
simplicity, make it more expensive, and more liable to be disordered, unless
executed in the most substantial and perfect manner ; but, by skill, by ex-
perience, and sound workmanship, it may be accomplished in various ways,
one of which I will describe, which, I presume, will evince the practicability
of it.

In order to make this in the best manner, the top of the canal should be
made of wrought iron (or copper) plates, rivetted together, and rivetted all
along, on one side, to a cast iron rail securely laid upon the top of one of the
side walls ; and made to shut down close, and aii'-tight, upon a cast iron rail
laid firmly down upon the other side wall.

In order to make the plate shut down air-tight upon the cast iron rail,
without being rivetted to it, there should be a groove all along, upon the top
and inner edge of the cast iron rail, and a thin edge of iron rivetted to the
plates all along, to fall into the gi-oove; then, if the, groove is partially filled
mth some soft and yielding substance, as cork, wood, leather, hemp, Sec, the
thin iron edge will bed itself into it, and shut so close that the air will not
escape, with so light a pressure as one pound per square inch.

The plate that is to form the top of the canal, being thus prepared, may be

* This work was entitled " A New System of Inland Conveyance."

408

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[December,

lifted up out of the groove two or tlirce inches higli, in any particular place
of the side that is not rivcttcil ; and, wlien kH down again, tlie edge will fall
into the groove, by tlie sjiring and weight of the plate, and stop close as lie-
fore.

Therefore, if there is a large and light iron wheel fixed in the front of the
interior carriage, and close to the side wall on which the plate shuts into the
groove; and if this wheel is planted to stand two inches higher than the un-
der side of the covering plate, this wheel, as it passes along, will constantly
lift up the plates, and make an opening of two inches wide, or more, and 8
or 10 feet long; and, when the wheel has passed, the plate will fall down
into the groove, and close the joint, as before.

Through this o]iening, a bar of iron may pass, that is fixed to the interior
carriage, may project over the side wall, and the outer end may be attached
to the exterior carriage by a chain or strap, and pidl it along upon its own
wheels and wheel track, which should lie along by the side of the wall of the
canal.

The iron bar will not touch any thing as it passes through the opening, for
the iron covering may be lifted up two or three inches high ; but the bar
need not be more than one inch in thickness.

In page 24, he says —

The same principle, and the same form, may be advantageously applied to
convey goods and passengers in the ojien air, upon a common road, at the
same rate of a mile in a minute, or sixty miles per hour ; and without any
obstruction, except, at times, contrary winds, which may retard its progress,
and heavy snow, which may obstruct it.

If a square iron tube be formed, 2 feet on each side. 4 feet in area, with
three sides, and one-half of the top, of cast iron, the other half of the top
made of plate iron or copper, to lift up and shut down in a groove in the cast
iron semi-top plate, as before described; and if a strong and light box or
frame be made to run upon wheels, within the tube, and an iron arm made
to pass out, through the opening made by lifting up the plate, as before
described, this arm may give motion to a carriage in the open air. and upon
the common road, without any rail-way, if the pressure within the tube is
made strong enough for the purpose.

The opening of the iron plate shoidd be made in the middle of the top, so
that the iron arm may pass out, and stand upright a few inches above the
top, to which the strap should be attached, to communicate motion to the
carriage.

The frame or box, within the tube, should be 10 or 12 feet long, and must
be guided by wheels, on all sides, as large as can be admitted, and as truly
formed and planted as possible ; the nundier will be 14 or 1 6.

A piston, or vane, must be formed near the middle of the frame, to inter-
cept the air, and must be leathered all round, so as lightly or barely to
touch the sides of the tube.

!, The inside, or middle of this vane, should be open, and the opening filled
up and closed by a valve, suspended by an axis across the middle of the open-
ing, so that this valve, by turning on its axis, may open the vane, and suifer
the air to pass through, and prevent its impulse ujion the vane and carriage,
or, by closing the valve, intercept the air, and give it motion.

By this means, the conductor of the carriage may restrain and limit the
velocity, and stop the carriage, at any time and at any place, by a communi-
cation from the valve, through the opening, to the conductor on the outside ;
and this will he done without the least violence, shock, or chance of disor-
dering any thing, either within or without.

Fig. 2 represents the vane within its frame m, m,m,m; the outside edge

FiK. 2.

Fig. 4.

of the vane, a, b, c, d, is leathered all round, and the middle part, o, p, q, r,
is open, and is to be closed by the double valve, that is to turn upon its ver-
tical axis e, e. The valve will shut, half on one side of the vane a, b, c, d.
and half on the other ; when it is shut, the air will be intercepted, and the
impulse of the air will be given to the carriage ; but, when the valve is turned
a quarter of a circle, it presents its edge to the air, and leaves the interior of
the vane open for the air to pass by unobstructed, when the carriage will
gradually be stopped, by the friction of the road and the resistance of the

outward .lir. It m.iy be put in motion again, as soon and as gradually, by
closing the valve.

m, in, m, m, is the box, or open frame, that is to )iass through the tube,
on the wheels «, n, », n, n, to support the vane, and tlie iron arm, and to be
inii»elled by the air in the tube.

rig. 3 is a section of the iron tube, with the wrought iron
semi-top, a, b, rivetted to the flanch, and represented as Ufted
up by the projection of the wheel under it; and of the
crooked iron arm w,as it is to come out through the opening,
and stand up for the carriage to be attached to it.

The semi-top of cast-iron, o, /;, is to he screwed upon
the tube by the flanch p, aiul, at the edge o, is a small pro-
jection, which the edge of the wrought iron is to cover, to
prevent the rain or dust from entering into the tube.

Fig. 4 represents a part of tlie tube, with the semi-top as lifted up at m,
and the section of the crooked iron arm, w, as it is to pass out of tlie open-
ing, besides the wheel that lifts it.

The iron tube slioukl lie in the ground, with the top of it a few inches
above the surface ; and the carriage should run over it, with the wheels on
each side ; then the iron arm n, would draw the carriage in the fairest posi-
tion.

The opening being, in this plan, made in the middle of the top of the tube,
instead of the side, the lifting wheel will act either way, without being re-
moved ; but the iron arm that passes through the opening (to draw the car-
riage), as well as the arm that is to pass through (to open and shut the valve),
must be changed to the other side, when the motion is changed to a contrary
direction.

If the carriage is attached to the regulating arm that is to pass through the
opening, and tliat arm is supported by the main bar. the effect will be, that,
if by any accident the chain should let go its hold of the arm, the inside valve
would instantly fly open ; and the vane, being no longer impelled, would soon
stop of itself, and the chain might be replaced.

In summing up tliis invention he remarks,

Although the perfection of this work is not to be olitained but by time,
skill, experience, and the wealth of a nation, yet, upon a smaller scale, and
less rapidity, the expense will be moderate, and within reach ; and the value
of it, compared with the present mode of conveyance, would be abundantly
advantageous and desirable.

Here then is a clear and full explanation of a mechanical arrange-
ment for employing the power of the atmosphere against a vacuum
inside a tube, and communicating the power so obtained to carriages
moving on a road on the outside.

No impartial person, and not even Mr. Pinkus can read these pas-
sages without being convinced that this most ingenious, though unfor-
tunate inventor Medhurst, had brought the atmospheric system to the
point where it was taken up by Messrs. Clegg and Samuda, and that
his great practical failure was, that he could not, and did not make
the valve air-tight, upon doing which the entire success of tlie system
depended.

And now that we have shown what Medhurst did, and what he
failed in, viz., "in making a continuous communication from the inside
of the pipe to the carriage tight enough to allow a useful degree of
rarifaction to be produced ;" we will examine what progress the in-
vention has made since then.

On the 3rd January, 1839, Clegg and Samuda obtained a patent
"for a new improvement in valves and the combination of them with
machinery." This valve, says the inventor, " works in a hinge of
leather, (or other flexible material wliich is practically air-tiglit), simi-
lar to the valves commonly used in air-pumps. The extremity or
edge of these valves is caused to fall into a trough containing a com-
position of beeswax and tallow, or beeswax and oil, or any substance
or composition of substances wliich is solid at the temperature of the
atmosphere, and becomes fluid when heated a few degress above it ;
after the valve is closed, and its extremity is laying in the trough, the
tallow is heated sufficiently to seal up or cement together, the fracture
round the edge or edges of the valve which the previous opening of
it had caused, and the heat being removed the tallow again becomes
hard and forms an air-tight joint or cement between the extremity of
the valve and the trough. When it is requisite to open the valve, it
is done by lifting it out of the tallow with or without the application
of heat, and the before named process of sealing it or rendering it air-
tight is repeated every time it is closed.

The inventor then goes on to describe how, by means of this valve
in combination with a line of partially exhausted tubes, it may be
rendered useful to move weights on railways. The combination em-
ployed being described precisely similar to that invented and published
by Medhurst. The only claim set up in the patent being " the method
of constructing and using valves as above described." The success of
this valve has been demonstrated by six months experience on the
Thames Junction Railway, and as the whole combination there em-
ployed, except the valve and mude of sealing it, is precisely that invent-

5

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1840.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

400

ed and published by Medhurst, — it follows that to Clegg and Samnda
is due the credit of perfecting what he began.

Now let us see what Mr. Pinkus has done. His first patent we find
is dated 1st March, 1834, in this he sets forward a combination pre-
cisely similar to that published by Medhurst seven years previously,
only proposing to use a rope for his continuous valve, which he terms
a valvular cord, and which he describes thus: "A flexible cord E lies
ill the groove at the top of the cylinder, for the purpose of closing the
longitudinal aperture ; this cord is to be of the same length as the
pneumatic railway, and to fit tightly into the groove or channel. The
cord is passed under the wheel r, and over the wheel P ; and its pur-
pose being to close the opening in the cylinder, it is required to yield
freely when acted upon by the apparatus, and it should be made heavy,
and it may be pressed down into the groove by the wheel W, which
passes over it."

Now if Mr. Pinkus can prove any better result to arise from this
rope than from the valves suggested by Medhurst, he has a perfect
right to it. We fear, however, that the success he says, attended his
experiments made in 1S35 on a model, could not have been very flat-
tering, as we find he took out another patent in lS3li, " For improve-
ments in inland transit," in which he says, " the method of carrying it
into practice consists in a method or in methods of constructing the
pneumatic valve and the valvular cord, and in the manner of using the
same, one of which methods hereinafter described, I design tosubsfi-
iuie/or and in lieu of the valve and cord described in the specification of
my said former patent." He then goes on to describe a valve formed
of iron plates secured to felt to lay against pieces oi wood, which he
proposes to fix to the inner sides of the trough, as presenting a smoother
surface than cast iron. He next describes a spring copper valve fas-
tened at its foot to the pipe, and meeting at the top in the shape of
an inverted V; and lastly, a combination of the two, viz., using half
the spring copper valve against the upraised side of the trough, and
pressing it against its surface with the valve with iron plates, as before
described, which in this case acts as a wedge pressing against the
side.

These valves, however, could not have pleased him much better,
for on 3rd August, 1839, he obtained a third patent, in which he not
only describes a valve similar in every respect to that of Messrs.
Clegg and Samuda, but also proposes to seal it with a composition to
be rendered fluid and solid, as described by them ; with the sole ex-
ception of using a galvanic wire instead of a heater to melt the cement.
As this patent was enrolled eight months after the publication of
Clegg and Samuda's specification, we cannot but think that their in-
vention was instrumental in leading Mr. Pinkus' ideas to this valve,
as nothing of the sort is discoverable in either of his previous patents.

[Erratum.— For 1837 read 1827, p. 407, 2nd col., 4 lines from the
top.]

REFORM CLUB-HOUSE.

(With 2 Engravings, Plates XVm. & XIX.;

Fully to describe and explain the interior of the structure would
require a plan of every floor — amounting altogether to six, besides as
many sections, to say nothing of particular sections on a larger scale,
of some of the rooms, perspective views, and drawings of ceilings and
other details: in short it would demand a volume similar to that on
the Travellers' Club House.* Of course we cannot devote so many
engravings to a single edifice, though it be one so deserving of atten-
tive study as this of Mr. Barry's; nevertheless a sufficiently clear idea
of the general arrangement, of the sizes of the rooms, and of the height
of the different stories, maybe obtained from the ground floor plan and
section through the building from East to West. Being confined to a
single section, we have judged this last to be the best for our purpose,
because although one through the centre from north to south, would
have shown the ascent from the vestibule to the hall, and the coftee-

* The whole of the plates in that work have lately been pirated in the most
barefaced manner by the editor of the Revue Generalo d'Architccture, with-
out the slightest acknowledgement, or mention of the source » hence they
have been taken, notwithstanding that a copy of the publication was actually
given to the French editor in order that he might give a notice of the book !
Yet instead of doing any thin^' of the kind, he does not even inform his
readers that there is such a vuUirae in existence, but makes il appear tJiat
both his article and the plates are entirely bis own. and llie informuion col-
lected hj himself while he was in London. It is true the drawings are not
exactly facsimiles, for they are considerably reduced in scale from the origi-
nals, and in other respects far less satisfacuiry : still that circumstance does
not cancel the act of piracy, or the injury done by it to the Knglish pub-
isher.

room and drawing-room above it, it would have shown merely the end
elevations of those apartments, not their longitudinal ones — which are
their more important ones: whereas the line of section chosen makes
no difference as regards the hall, while it explains the character of the
staircase, and the room over it, and also shows the kitchen court, at the
east end of the building. When, however, we say none, we mean that
it makes no other difference in respect to the hall itself than what is
evident from the ground plan, namely, that in this direction the three
intercolumns are of equal width, whereas the east and west sides being
somewhat shorter, the lateral intercolumns are narrower than the cen-
tre one, on which account those elevations are better than the others,
where the columns are wider apart than is altogether consistent with
the richness of character here observable in other respects. This ex-
cess of width in the intercolumns is not so apparent in our drawing,
because that being both a geometrical and outline one, it is the plan
which chiefly explains that the arches between the columns belong to
a different plane, viz., that of the wall within the colonnades. Hence it
is likely enough that from the first glance at the section it will be sup-
posed that, instead of being insulated the columns are attached to the
piers of the arches, in which case the internals between them would
not be too great. It becomes a question, therefore, whether it would
not have been better, to enclose the lower part at least of this salo on
by open arcades so decorated, whereby a character of solidity would
have been there produced, that would have served to relieve and set
off the upper colonnades. .Still wherefore that idea — su])posing it to
have presented itself — was not adopted is sufficiently apparent from
the plan being neither a perfect square, so as to allow three arches of
equal width, on each of its sides; nor so much greater than a square as
to afford five spaces — whether arches or intercolumns, on each of the
longer sides. Perhaps as the deficiency in the breadth from north to
south, could not be supplied without intrenching too much upon other
parts, it might have been adviseable to have got rid of the excess in
the other direction, curtailing — not the entire hall, but merely the
cetral space within the columns, reducing that to a perfect square.
By this means, indeed, the breadth of the east and west colonnades
would have been somewhat increased, yet that objection might have
been got over by apparently contracting the width, putting columns
against the wall, corresponding with those in front, and so as to render
the distance between them equal to the breadth within the north and
south colonnades. This adjustment of the plan, reducing the centre
to a square of 28 feet, instead of 34 X 28, — might have rendered
some other modifications requisite, and among the rest, some abate-
ment of the present height.

If we have thus far taken the liberty of objecting to what we regard
as a rather offensive irregularity as regards the colonnades, we com-
mend the mode of grouping of two columns and square pillar, here
employed at the angles, which produces a very desirable fulness of
effect, as well as appearance of solidity at those points, and at the
same time avoids the confusion — and perhaps heaviness withal — that
might have resulted from three columns similarly placed. Another
pleasing and, we believe, original circumstance is, that in the upper
and lower colonnade on the south side, a view is admitted into the
cott'ee-room and drawing-room over it through the centre arcade,
which is to be filled in with plate glass to within a few feet of the
floor, that is, to the level of the chimney-piece. By this means, the
saloon itself will always present a striking architectural scene as so
viewed from either of the two principal apartments, especially of an
evening when brilliantly lit up. The mode also of lighting the saloon
entirely through the cove, appears to us both a novel and happy one,
although we can at present merely guess at its effect, it being quite
blocked up vvith scaffolding when we last went over the interior of the
building, when very little progress had been made in the decorations,
or rather, they were hardly commenced at all, nor was it began to be
paved. The staircase was also then a mere shell, with brick walls,
and without any steps. Consequently, until we can see the in-
terior again, in a much more advanced, if not perfectly finished state,
we can add very little to the information the plan and section supply
as to the parts just mentioned. For which reason, we must be al-
lowed to reserve further description for another opportunity, and
request our readers to consider the present account merely a pro-
visional one.

Rilde, NoiK 7. — The committee appointed to decide on the plans for our
new' cfiureh, have selected the designs of Mr. T. Hellyer, architect It is a
handsome structure, and the interior is composed after tlie model of the
Temple church in L;ind(jn. The subscriptions for the building are progressing
steadily, and the contributions for enclosing the ne«- burial-grouiid alrea ly
amount to more than 1.50/. Too much praise cannot be given to our vicar,
the Rev. W. S. Phillips, for the energy and e.xertions he has put forth to
accomplish these two important objects.- Hampshire Advertiser.

3 K

410

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[December,

ARCHITECTURE OF LIVERPOOL.

Sir — When I first saw the remarks of your correspondent "Eder"in
a Liverpool paper, I felt strongly disposed to make a few observations
in reply to some of tlieni, which seemed to me strangely at variance
with his professions of careful and long continued architectural study.
This inclination was confirmed when I found they had obtained a place
in your journal, and would thus fall under the "notice of so many in-
terested in the matters they refer to. In putting this design in prac-
tice, I shall borrow his introductory paragraph, in so far as it relates
to partiality and prejudice, both which feelings so inimical to all fair
discussion, I can most candidly disavow.

The Custom House is the first building noticed by Eder — its size
perhaps entitles it to such priority. He applies the terms " imposing
and magnificent," to this structure. Now any very large mass of
building may be allowed to be imjmiiig, if of an adequate height, but
magnificence implies soraethine more than mere mass of material and
extension of surface: it includes, I conceive, a symmetrical arrange-
ment of parts, fine proportions, and a degree and character of orna-
ment suited to the importance and purpose of the building. In these
three points I hold the Liverpool Custom House to be most lamentably
deficient. First, as to armngttmni or composition. The building is
on a plan much like the letter H, the cupola occupying the centre of
the cross jrart of the letter, and a portico on one side of tlie cross, and
on each of the upright parts. The consequences of this arrangement
are destructive of all fine perspective eftijct, for when viewed on its
north front, the cupola serves only to destroy the effect (such as it is)
of the portico on that side, and seen from the east and west fronts that
feature seems hardly to be part of the pile, so completelv is its con-
nection with those fronts hidden by the projection of the vvings. This
cupola (in his opinion, in which every body I imagine must agree with
your correspondent), in fact never terminates the perspective from
any point of view, nor combines with any of the intersections of the
■wings and central portion of the mass. With regard to the position
of the porticoes, that to the north is buried between the wings, and
can never be seen in profile, and its projection is so slight that were it
not that the only light it ever receives from the sun falls very much
aslant, and consequently gives a great prolongation of shadow, it would
have no more relief than a row of attached columns with a pediment
over them. The above remarks as to want of projection, apply with
greater foi-ce to the other two porticoes, which however can be seen
in profile, or obliquely, though for reasons I shall point out when I
come to speak of the proportions of the parts, their eftect is completely
destroyed. The site of this building was well adapted to a cruciform
plan, and had such an arrangement been adopted, the porticoes, how-
ever deficient in projection and depth, would at least have formed
suitable terminations to the several portions of the cross ; and the
cupola, however foreign to this, so called, Grecian design, would have
risen naturally, as I may say, at the intersection, and have terminated
the converging perspective of the body and transepts with good results
as regards its own effect and importance, and without interfering with
the porticoes in those respects. Such a disposition of the plan would
also have insured a better distribution of light, and greatly have bene-
fitted the interior arrangements, which as your correspondent justly
observes, are sadly wanting in this point. As regards the proportions
of the several fronts, and the features which compose them, it seems
to me that very little consideration, or consideration to very little pnr-
posejias been bestowed on them, more especially as respects those
very important parls of the composition, the porticoes. Their pro-
jection (for they are all alike) is so slight as to appear nothing in com-
parison with their frontal extent, and to take away all idea of shelter
or shade. I do not know whether Candidus will include expression as
one of the banished or obsolete architectural terms, but tliis quality
(for I for one believe in its existence) appears to me to be utterly
wanting in three of the fronts. As I wish to advance nothing without
endeavouring to give a reason, I shall explain myself as well as I can.
I am of opinion, then, that there are two general proportions in which
a portico may be combined with a front, of which it does not occupy
the whole extent, without loosing its own efi'ect, or interfering in-
juriously with that of the front of which it forms so material a feature.
These proportions seem to me to be firstly, such as shall give to the
portico the greater part of the fafade, and make the remainder on
either side appear as mere adjuncts or accessories thereto ; or secondly,
such as shall make the portico a subordinate feature in the design,
leaving an extended surface on either hand. In the first case the im-
pression on the mind will be (such at least is the eti'ect with myself,)
that the front being of a proscribed extent both as to length and height,
and a portico a requisite part of the edifice, that portion had been
kept within the extreme dimensions of the site for the purpose of pre-

serving to it a fitting proportion as to elevation: and in the second, that
the portico being as before supposed a necessary and ornamental fea-
ture in the pioposed arrangement, had been so proportioned to the
whole extent of front as not to destroy its unity and continuiti' of ap-
pearance. The expression of the first named portico, I conceive, will
be found that of dignity and grandeur combined with use, and that of
the second more allied to comfort and convenience judiciously united
with a due regard to ornamental eftect. Of the first mentioned pro-
portion I consider the portico of the Fitzwilliam Museum at Cambridge,
a good example. As a specimen of the second I may quote that of
the India House, inharmonious as that front may be in some of its de-
tails. In spite of what I have said above, I still greatly prefer the
truly Grecian application of the portico, where it includes the whole
front of the building, and continues without interruption or break, save
its own angle, the order or entablature, as the case may be, of the
lateral portion. But to apply these remarks to the building under
consideration.

Fis. \.

The east and west porticoes of the Liverpool Custom House occupy,
to my eye, exactly the unhappy medium between the proportions I
have attempted to describe ; and instead of leaving the mind at rest
to contemplate and enjoy their air of simple dignity, or of inviting
and hospitable shelter, together with the varied effects of light and
shade of which these beautiful architectural features are capable when
happily conceived and applied, they distract the eye, both mental
and physical, by a puzzling uncertainty as to the meaning of the archi-
tect, and by their bareness and lack of depth give no idea but that of
useless show, and of an exposed, comfortless, and contracted entrance
passage. With regard to the north or principal front, the portico has
an advantage over those of the east and west fronts — having in rear a
slight projection of its own width from the main building ; this gives
an appearance of greater projection from the general line, but is of no
avail as regards the shallow and ineffective aspect arising from defi-
ciency of depth. The proportion which this portico bears to the whole
space between the wings is nearly the same as the two already described
bear to their respective fronts, and it appears to me to labour under
the same uncertainty as to whether it be a principal or accessory in
the general design. The wings themselves are perhaps not too far in
advance as respects their own proportion as wings, but they unques-
tionably do stand out to such a degree, as to drown completely the
portico and its adjoining projection. The fronts of the wings which
consist of openings of three intercolumniations divided by two columns
in antis, and a flank of about two intercolumns pierced with windows,
on each side, are certainly the most eft'ective and least objectionable
parts of the front under notice, but I am inclined to think that a greater
height of blocking either over the whole front, or at least over the
central jiortion, would tend to improve their aspect. I come now to
speak of the rear or south elevation which Eder describes as "in-
famously miserable," — terms which well apply to the whole of the
wings on that side, but not, I maintain, to the main front which com-
prises, in my opinion, the only really redeeming feature in the whole
building.

All pretension to Grecian character appears here to have been aban-
doned. The cornice of the columnar order is, to be sure, continued,
but without the frieze and architrave, and being of good projection,
with a massive ilentil member in the bed-rtiould, it harmonizes well
with the general character of this portion of the building, \VTiich is
most decidedly Italian. Though I think the central projection of this
front is, like those in the others, faulty in its indecision of proportion
to the vvhole, still, in itself, I consider it in all respects much the best
part of the structure. It consists of a plain well-proportioned ele-
vation, divided into three parts by two slight breaks. The middle
portion of the three is pierced below by three open segmental arches
leading through the building to the opposite front ; and above these,
three semicircular-headed windows of good proportions, and pleasing
though simple character. The lateral divisions have above each, one
window corresponding with those of the centre; and below, a window
recessed in an arch similar to those forming the three openings above

1840.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

411

mentioned. The front is divided horizontally by a bold string course,
and surmounted by a massive but suitably proportioned plain attic
wall, vpitli its cornice and blocking. The impost moulding of the
upper windows is also carried through, vfhich lightens, without too
much cutting up, the massive and substantial piers which divide them.
There is a good height of plain wall between these windows and the
cornice, which, in my opinion is a great assistance towards gaining
dignity of aspect, giving me always the same kind of impression as a
lofty forehead surmounting a human face. The solid and void are,
I think, very happily apportioned in this front, and though I could
wish for a better description of rustic work than the horizontal chan-
nels in the basement, still the effect of the whole is simple, s\ibstantial,
and dignified. Here, and here only, does a cupola, supposing it to be
something very different from that which really exists, not appear
misplaced. The attic wall hides the roof completely, and conveys
the idea of a solid support for the mass above it, and the breaks
dividing the front are so proportioned as to carry the eye easily
upwards to the plinth or stylobate of the cupola, which falls just
enough within their line to give the appearance of a proper degree of
stability. In the article of decoration, which I mentioned as the third
requisite to fill up my idea of magnificence, the Liverpool Custom
House offers but little for our consideration, and the quality of what
exists can hardly, I imagine, excite a wish that there was more of it.
It is difficult to conceive that Greek details could be applied with a
more complete absence of all classical effect and feeling. Unfluted
Ionic columns, with fluted tori in their bases, composed each of eleven
stones; pilasters with capitals, whose mouldings are certainly copied
from Greek examples, and enriched, according to established use,
with water-leaf, &c., but which mouldings, alas, project more than
three times as far beyond the faces of the pilasters, as the pilasters do
from the wall, the projection of these latter being barely 3i inches to
a diameter of 4 ft. <i in. The projection of the entablature follows, of
course, that of the pilasters, and shares in their meagre aspect. In
the architraves of the porticoes it appears that stone could not be
obtained in sufficient lengths to bear from column to column, and the
architect has had recourse to the method of notching shown in Fig. 2.

Fig. 2.

— =

i\ I

/

: ■'

1 '

1/ 1

•>

-

..... 1

Plan of joint at C.

The effect of this mode of jointing is, that in one portico the. part
marked a has broken through and tne stone fallen considerably out of
the horizontal, a defect which is only too clearly shown by the broken
lines of the tenia moulding and the faces of the architrave ; and in
another a fracture has occurred as shown at b, but not to the same
extent. Might not these evils have been avoided by showing a vertical
joint in front, and backjointing the stones as shown by the dotted lines
at c. This must be considered a digression as it belongs rather to
the constructive part of the matter; but it was mentioned for the
purpose of calling attention to the bad practical effect, of a mode of
construction which is in itself an eyesore, and which is enhanced in
the present case by the fact, that the stones resting on the columns are
almost uniformly some degrees darker in colour, than the intermediate
ones which are notched into them. Through some defect, as I ima-
gine, in the foundation, a very serious fracture is visible in the
N. W. wing over one of the windows within the recess. But to return
to the details ; the stylobate so much commended by Eder is a plain
square plinth, projecting just sufficiently to receive the bases of the
very slab-like pilasters 1 have described, whose moulding is also, as
noticed by yoiu- correspondent, carried entirely round the building,
with the exception of the south front and wings. This stylobate is
certainly much too low to be in proportion to the order — as to the
doors and windows, I marvel much what any one can find to admire in
them. The windows, except those I have mentioned in the south
front, and similar ones under the north poftico, are either plain oblong
holes, or have a meagre ghost-Uke architrave, without even the
knees or projections at the upper angles to be found in the only genu-
ine Grecian example of such features in the Erectheum. The doors

may be copied from Greek examples; but who can say that the up-
right unenriched cyma, is not an ungraceful member ? I imagine that
the very vertical profile of these mouldings, was adopted in the origi-
nals for the better display of the ornamental surface, which decorated
them ; but as here applied, in their naked state, they are positively
ugly. '1 he trusses of the doorways are, to my eye, little less unpleas-
ing, and the nature of the stone and quality of workmanship, give no
great effect to what ornaments they can boast. I have as yet said
nothing of the interior, or of the details of the cupola. The whole of
the former is not yet opened to the public, the fittings of the long
room being incomplete. Having had a view of this room, I can only
say that it seems to me no great improvement on the exterior. The
plan is confused and choked, and the effect of space destroyed by the
numerous columns,, which, in their disposition, evince a singular disre-
gard to any regular arrangement. The internal cupola, which springs
from pendentives rising upon the entablature of the Ionic order of
this room, is spacious, and considerably enriched, but claims no notice
on any other grounds. On its exterior companion I must decline
making any rema.iks, as my disclaimer of prejudice might perhaps not
avail me, were I to say all I think of it. I believe, however, the ori-
ginal design of the architect was not so utterly tasteless. That part
of the interior already occupied is sufficiently and fairly described by
Eder, being very dark and inconvenient. I have trespassed long on
your valuable space ; my excuses are that a great deal of unmeaning,
and I think ignorant admiration has been bestowed on this structure,
both by residents and visitors; that I li ive never heard a reason given
for any thing which has been said in its favour; that all that is the
least good in it seems to have been uniformly overlooked ; and that
it is one of the most extensive and costly buildings which have been
erected in this country of late years, having occupied more than ten
years in completion, and having cost, as I have been informed, a sum
approaching £400,000. In conclusion, I hope I have said nothing to
impugn my opening professions of impartiality. Let those who liave
seen this building judge for themselves, and if, in comparing these
remarks with the original, they consider the objections urged beyond
the bounds of just and fair criticism, I hope they will, as I have en-
deavoured to do, give the reasons which influence their opinions;
should such meet my view or that of others who think like me, I hope
they will be judged of in the spirit of candour, which I trust has
guided my pen in the foregoing observations.

Your's, &c.,
H.
Liverpool, Nov. 9, 1840.

Since the above remarks were written, the Long Room has been
completed and opened for business. I have only to add, as regards
this room, that, although a vista is preserved through its entire length,
the effect is destroyed before one third of that length is traversed, by
the confused appearance presented by the columns. This arises from
the strange indifference here manifested to regularity of intercolum-
niation, which is such that, looking on either side of the room, no two
pairs (not couples, for there are no really coupled columns, however
nearly they approach such an arrangement) of columns seem equally-
far apart. The coffers of the cupola appear much too shallow, and
the mouldings as much too large for the depth of the coffers, though
perhaps not so when viewed, with respect to their surface, rather than
their depth.

VICTORIA ROOMS, BRISTOL.

Sir — The portico of the Victoria Rooms, Bristol, although correctly
placed in the Octastyle Class in the table of porticoes given in the
Civil Engineer and Architect's Journal for this month, is therein
stated to have five intercolumniations, a contradiction which you may
not perhaps think it necessary to explain ; allow me, however, to add
that there is an important omission in the description of it, as the
pediment I am happy to say is sculptured, or more properly is being
sculptured, from a working model by Mr. M. L. Watson, the principal
relief from the face of the tympanum being 2 feet 3 inches. I shall
feel obliged by your attention to this letter.

And remain, Sir, your most obedient servant,

Charles Dyer.

36, Guilford Street, Nov. 11, 1840.

3 K 2

41:

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

' 1) K C E M B E R ,

ON THE DRAINAGE OF LOW LANDS.

Bv Mn. William Fairbairx.

Tmdi'.k are few subjects of more importance or more deserving of
public attention than the drainage of lands. In cultivating land below
the level of the sea, drainage is one of the first steps, for unless the
superfluous waters of a low marshy district be freely removed and
discharged at a level above its surface, it is in vain "to look for pro-
ductive crops, however rich the soil or tlie alluvial deposit may be.

Hydraulic machines of almost every description have been in re-
quisition for this object, and in countries, such as Holland and the Fen
districts of Lincolnshire, where tlw land is in many instances several
feet below the sea, those machines have been extensively used, and
many improvements have from time to time been introduced. Formerly
windmills and animal power applied to scoop-wheels seem the only
methods adopted, but since the introduction of the steam engine a ma-
terial change has been effected. Engines of great power may now be
seen giving motion to wheels of 25 to 30 fe'et diameter, discharging
large quantities of water from the lower to the higher levels.

The scoop-wheel, although a simple and effective machine, is not
(according to Mr. Fairbairn's opinion), the most economical for the
drainage of low lands. In countries where fuel is expensive, it is an
object of great importance to obtain power at a cheap rate, and by tlie
application of the steam engine upon the Cornish principle, a saving
of three times the fuel now consumed may be effected. The consump-
tion of fuel by a well constructed condensing engine is from 10 to 12
lbs. of coal per horse power, per hour, or 10 lbs. of coal will raise
2,000,000 lbs. of water one foot high in a minute; whereas a single
acting Cornish engine, according to the returns, will raise with the
same quantity of fuel 8,000,000 lbs.— a duty four times greater than
has yet been attained by the common condensing engine. Taking it,
however, at only three times the duty, or 6,000,000 lbs. one foot high
in a minute, the saving is even then' so great, as to be entitled to the
attention of proprietors whose lands are situated at a level requiring
the aid of steam to clear them of water.

From these considerations it appeared to Mr. Fairbairn desirable to
apply the Cornish engine, and having been requested by parties in-
terested in the drainage of the Lake of Haarlem, to consider the best
and cheapest means for the attainment of that object, he proposed a
machine, of which the following is a description.

In raising water by the scoop-wheel, it is obvious that a uniform
force is necessary to overcome the resistance upon the floats, as they
successively discharge their contents from tiie lower to the higher
level. This resistance being constant, the force applied, and the quan-
tity of fuel consumed, will be equal to the load, or to that of a low
pressure condensing engine, similarly constructed to those on board of
steam boats. The effect produced on the bailing-scoop will be totally
different, and instead of a continuous action as exhibited in the com-
mon wheel, a reciprocating motion will be produced, and the same
economy insured as is now exemplified in the returns of the Cornish
engines. In applying this description of engine it becomes necessary

to adopt the reciprocating principle, and by raising a weight suspended
at the opposite end of the engine beam B, the large bailing-scoop A,
revolving on a fulcrum at C, descends to the lower level, and is filled
with water through the opening valves D, D. The weight having
been elevated to the full height of the stroke, it descends by the force
of gravitation, and raises theTiailing-scoop to a horizontalposition as
at E, causing the water to flow over the pivot C, into the level above.
The same process is repeated, each stroke by the admission of steam
into the cylinders to raise the weight, and the bailing-scoop is again
elevated by its descent.

The principal advantage peculiar to this machine, is its adaptation
to the single-acting Cornish engine ; first, by the introduction of a por-
tion of high pressure steam to overcome the inertia of the weight;
secondly, by its subsequent expansion to maintain the momentum; and
lastly, by the gravitation of the w eight to lift the load ; on the same
principle, in fact, as the engine at the East London Water Works,
under the direction of Mr. Wicksteed, and as those in Cornwall.

The bailing-scoop is 2.5 feet long and 30 feet wide, composed of
boiler-plates, with two partitions to strengthen the bottom and support
the valves for the admission of water at D. The machine is calculated
to raise about 17 tons of water each stroke, and with an engine of UO
horse power will effect a duty equal to 2n or 3 lbs. of coal per horse
power, per hour. It will be observed that the length of the stroke
continues at all times the same in the cylinder, whilst at a a, b b, &c.
it is varied by a series of stops fixed horizontal to the sides of the
engine beams, and upon inclined planes on the bailing-scoop. This is
done in order to lessen or increase the dip, and to accommodate the
lift to a height commensurate with the difference of the levels which
may exist between the surface of the lake and the height to which tlie
water has to be raised.

ON THE COMBUSTION OF COAL.

Sir — Having lately submitted to the public an improved mode of
introducing air to the gaseous matter of coal in a furnace, by which its
complete combustion is effected, and the generation of smoke neces-
sarily prevented ; and finding that the principles on which this is pro-
duced have been misrepresented or misunderstood by the contributors
to some of the public journals, I am desirous, through the medium of
your columns, of being set right in the public view on this iuiportant
subject. In some instances, indeed, the effect produced by my mode
is attributed to causes which are the very reverse of the fact, and
though evidently by a friendly hand, yet the result is so opposed to
chemical truth, that I am unwilling to sanction such an explanation of
the principles on which I have effected perfect combustion on the
large scale of the furnace.

In the treatise published by me on the " combustion of coal, chemi-
cally considered," I have explained the source of those errors into
which the patentees of "smoke burning" systems have fallen, by their
search after a high temperature, and looking to that temperature as
the means of consuming the gas or smoke, to the utter neglect of all
that regards the quantity of air admitted to the furnace, or the condi-
tions on which it combines with the combustible. In that treatise I
have mainly relied on the fact that the question of effective combus-
tion is a question as regards the air, and not the temperature. Modern
patents have run on the erroneous idea that the gas evolved from coal
in the furnace, and from which flame is exclusively derivable, is to be
consumed by bringing it into contact with a mass of highly ignited
carbonaceous, or coky matter. This I deny, and consider it to be not
only a chemical fallacy, but a great practical error. On this ground,
therefore, I am unwilling to be considered as regarding the question
of a high temperature as the essential to the ignition or combustion of
the gaseous matter of coal. My mode of effecting combustion, by in-
troducing air to the gas in the way of numerous jets, depends for suc-
cess on principles quite distinct from those which are attributed to the
action of heated air. By one writer, the effect of my system is stated
to be attributable to the circumstance of the air being heated in the
))assage through the diffusion tubes ; now these tubes are used by me
for the sole purpose of throwing the air into small jets, corres|)onding,
in principle, to the jet from a blow pipe. This mode of explaining
my principle goes neither to the right cause or effect.

So far from the tubes or pipes, which are made of fire clay or east
iron, heating the air in its passage through them, I have proved, prac-
tically, that the combustion goes on equall)' when the tubes are black
and cold, and the air passipg through them necessarily cold ; this cold
air, on issuing from the numerous small orifices, conveying the idea of
jets oijlavie rather than air. It is important to state that I place no
reliance on the question of the temperature of the admitted air.

1840.

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

413

It has been stated in explanation of the effect produced by my dilTu-
sion tubes, that as there is always plenty of air, or oxygen, in the
furnace, and a deficiency of heat, the introducing the air at a high
temperature, supplies this deficiency. This is directly the reverse of
what I have stated to be the condition of the furnace, and the flues
leading from it. The following extracts from my tract will put this
in a clear point of view.

At page 124, I state, " The leading condition of the combustion of
the inflammable gases being the mixture with the oxygen of the air in
given quantities, and at a given temperature, those inventors have in
too many instances, to the utter neglect of the former, exclusively
directed their attention to the latter, — -the obtaining the highest de-
gree of heat, even to incandescence, for the gases. Now' this is un-
questionably the condition which demands the least attention on their
parts, if any at all."

Again, page 129, " It is the palpable oversight of the distinction be-
tween increasing the faculty of combustion, and actually producing
that combustion, which has led to that manifest chemical blunder, —
the supposing that coal gas is to be btirmd by the act of bringing it
into contact with bodies at a high tenqierature : or, in the words of
the patentees, by ' causing it to pass through, over, or among, a body
of hot glowing coals.' In our efforts then, towards effecting the com-
bustion of the gaseous products of coals, it is essential that we steer
clear of this hitherto unquestioned practice : attending solely to the
question oi an, and all that has reference to its introduction, distribu-
tion, and diffusion: for we may take it for granted, that the condition
of heat is but a secondary condition ; and tliat the required tempera-
ture will never be wanting in the furnace, from the moment we ' light
ihejire,' if air be supplied in the proper quantity, at the proper place,
and in the proper manner: but if these conditions be not satisfied, an
accession of heat cannot remedy the evil, however it mav aggravate
it."

I assert then, that there can be no greater fallacy, than su])posing that
giving a high temperature to the air admitted, can be the means of
effecting the combustion of the gases, or the prevention of smoke. An
analogy has been deawn between the effectiveness of hot air in the
manufacture of iron — this however bears no analogy with the intro-
duction of hot air to the furnace, as the means of effecting combustion
or preventing smoke. With your permission I propose considering
this point on a future occasion — at present I confine myself to denying
the assertion that my plan obtains any advantage from the circumstance
of the air being heated in its passage into the flues through the small
orifices of my diffusion or distribution tubes.

I am, Sir, your's, &c.

C. W. Williams.

Liverpool, Nov. 20, 1840.

THE NELSON MONUMENT.

Sir — Since I last addressed you, the first stone of the Nelson Colmnn
has been laid, the work is progressing rapidly, and will continue to do
so until the public rise en masse to protest against so great an outrage
upon the principles of beauty, or, peradventure, the subscriptions be,
as at present, insufficient to complete the structure. We shall then
have a piece of a column, to show succeeding generations the lofty
standard of beauty amongst us, and to point out how we delight to
honour the great, the virtuous, and the brave. Shall we, the British
nation, permit this living libel to appear against our love of art;
glorying in the matchless works of our ancestors, shall we allow pos-
terity to point with derision to the evidence of their effect upon us.
Enough has been said to show that the Nelson Committee are alone in
their project, and it will be disgraceful, if the public submit to have
this column thrust upon them, in opposition to their better judgment.
Those journals in which we place most confidence in matters of taste,
the Athenaeum, the Literary Gazette, and the Art Union, have all pro-
tested against the proposed column; but despite this and the positive
opinion of the Select Committee of the House of Commons, the pro-
jectors pursue their object ^Jeryas aiit nefas, and the stone which Wel-
lington would have been proud to lay, is laid, with no public announce-
ment, and no popular enthusiasm, by the Secretary of the Committee.
We do not hesitate to say, despite the expression of condemnation
upon the whole building, that the portico of the National Gallery, ex-
hibits many architectural beauties in its internal columns, and the depth
of shadow caused by the projection of the antJE in front of the wall,
and it is the portico which the pedestal of the column will completely
hide. With all deference to one vvfiose opinion as to the good effect
in juxta-position of colossal, and ordinary proportions, demands from
all, the liighest respect, I would beg to notice that St. Peter's at Rome,

has been objected to on account of the enormously disproportionate
figures lessening the effect of the architecture, and St. Paul's itself, for
the difference in size of its two internal orders. Sir F. Chantrey in
his evidence as to the effect of the column as an ornamental object,
says, "the Trajan, the Antonine, and the Napoleon columns are the
only monumental objects of this class that I have ever looked upon
with entire satisfaction ; I read the history of the man on the shaft of
the column, and thf mind is thus reconciled to see the statue so ele-
vated. I may be told we have not money enough for a work of this
character, that naval exploits furnish bad materials for sculpture, or
that the arts of this country are in too low a state to accomplish so
noble a work ; then I say, abandon the impossibility at once, and try
something more in keeping with our means and our genius." The
"general observations by T. L. Donaldson, Esq.," contain opinions as
to the bad effect of a naked column. If, therefore, it can be shown,
not that the funds do not suffice to enrich the shaft with bas-reliefs,
and crown the column with a statue of bronze, but that the subscrip-
tions are actually inadequate to complete the denuded shaft and the
perishable statue, and if in addition to these sufficiently cogent reasons
it can be proved, that a colossal column, when used without the struc-
ture of which it is as much a part as the leg is of the man, is an out-
rage against our most cherished principles of beauty, — it becomes the
people to prit^st lor.liy and speedily against the infliction of so great
a national indignity.

I am, Sir, your obedient humble servant,

A Lover of the Beautiful.
3G, Tollbridge Place, New Road,
November 20, 1840.

ON COMPUTING EARTHWORK.

Sir — Observing an article in your October number, page 334, on the
methods of computing Earthwork, by Mr. S. Hughes, in which the
writer asserts, that the tables of Messrs. Macneil and Bidder, " are
useful only for calculating sections where the scale is very small, and
where the heights cannot be taken otherwise than in feet — and that
where the scale is sufficiently large to show the heights in feet, and
decimals of a foot, they are of no use." I take the liberty of trans-
mitting to you tiie following for the purpose of proving that the tables
of Messrs. Macneil and Bidder, are as useful for such calculations,
where the heights are in feet and decimals, as in feet only.

I have at present the tables of Mr. Bidder only at hand, although I
constantly make use of Mr. Macneil's for similar calculations, but an
example based on the tables of the former gentleman will be equally
illustrative of the use to be made of those of the latter.

For my purpose I have selected the same example as Mr. Hughes,
in page 33[>.

E.rample. — Suppose a piece of cutting or embankment 39"8 feet
deep at one end, and 24't) at the other end, the base or top 30 feet
and slopes 2 to 1, required the area, which being multiplied by the
length, shall give the true content.

Mid. part. Slopes.
Intersection of columns 40 and 25, gives 79-5 and 2628.
'^■"" ■'■"- 39 and 24, gives 77 and 2471.

Ditto

ditto

Difference

2-5 and 157.

Then '-— -^^ = -7, -7 X 2-5 = 1-75, 1-75 -f 77= 78-75 mid. part^

•7 X 157= 109-9, 109-9 -f 2471 = 2580-9 slopes.
Mid. part 78-75 x 30 =: 2362-50
Slopes 2580-9 X 2 to 1 = 5161-8

Total contents in yards per chain
Then ^ X 9 = 3078-18 correct area.

r524-3.

In practice the last operation forms no part of the calculation, as the
lengths are taken out in chains and decimal parts.

I remain. Sir, your obedient servant,

Geo. B. W. Jackson.
Radcliffe Terrace, Gosmell Road.
Nov. 24, 1840.

[The above is a very round about way for ascertaining quantities, to
say the least of it. — Ed.]

414

THE CIA IL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. [December,

RAILWAY MANAGEMENT.

Sib,— Before railways can ever be expected to be properly managed,
several important alterations mvist be made in the present system. In
the first place, the Directors must efl'ectually suppress the propensity
to amateur engineeriitg on the part of the "clever practical men" of
their body, of whom all boards have more or less. In the next place,
they must make a common sacrifice of all patronage and personal con-
sideration in the appointment of persons to situations, when any
neglect would be likely to be followed by danger to either life or pro-
perty. Were this system to be fairly and honestly acted upon, I have
no doubt the necessary result would be the appointment of an indi-
vidual, to whom would be confided the enfire and uncontrolled manage-
ment of the whole of the out-duor business of the railway. To him
would be committed the whole charge of the selection, employment,
pay, and superintendence of every engineman, fireman, guard, porter,
rail-layer, and labourer on every part of the line, any of whom he
should fine, punish, or dismiss at his pleasure, and on him, and him
alone, should rest the responsibility, both with respect to the public
and the Directors, of every hindrance or accident which might cccur.
In proportion to the success of his management he should be paid, and
on his appointment it should be distinctly intimated to him, that in the
event of his being found unfit fc:- his office, or even unfortunate, no
hesitation or dehcacy would be tljserved with respect to his dismissal
and the appointment of another in his room. Any person aware of
the importance of the duties which would devolve on an officer of this
description, would at once perceive that they could not be properly
and efficiently fulfilled without his constantly traversing every part of
the line, and by personal inspection and observation, making himself
intimately acquainted with the respective abilities, character, and dis-
position of every man employed under him, obtaining accurate know-
ledge of the varying circumstances of the traffic, and of those parts of
the railway, where danger was most to be apprehended, and by the
foresight which, by this means, he would be enabled to exercise to
prevent the confusion and accidents with which the present system is
so rife. The influence, moreover, which an officer of this description
would exercise over the men, would be instantly visible in their
guarded and more careful conduct, the well disposed from a hope of
reward or promotion, and the bad from the fear of detection and
punishment. Energy, perseverance, and tact, combined with sobriety
and habits of business, would be the chief requisites in his character.
It would also be essential that, in addition to his being an experienced
engineer, he should be practically conversant with the nature and
details of every man's employment, especially that of the engine-men,
as a more self-important and uncontrollable set of men do not exist, if
they have reason to think that those who are placed over them are
not perfect masters of their craft.

The first thing to which I should suppose a person placed in this
situation would direct his attention and instantly prohibit, is the very
common practice of making use of either line while travelling in the
same direction, a practice so obviously fraught with danger, that I am
astonished how any board of directors or superintendant can, for a
ment, allow it, except under the most extraordinary circumstances,
and most stringent and well defined regulations, whereas, on the con-
trary, there appears to be no instructions whatever on this important
point, nor any farther discretion exercised in the practice of it, than
such as the circumstances of the case, in the opinion of those present,
seem to require. Indeed, throughout the whole system, the absence
of individual and responsible management is glaringly evident, and in
all cases of danger and emergency, every one seems to " do that which
is right in his own eyes."

Then as regards the signals, there is a red light for danger, a green
light which indicates neither " danger or safety," and a white one
which it would appear means anything or nothing, as the engine-man
can best make out, all of which are confided without check, and almost
without instructions, to ignorant, forgetful, and sometimes careless
men. Can any reasonable person for a moment expect, that with a
complex and ill-defined code of signals like fliis, railways are likely to
be free from danger, or would he not rather express his astonishment,
that so few accidents should have happened. If the road is perfectly
clear, what necessity is there for any signal whatever, if it is not so,
what need of more than one ? Instead of all this complexity, I would
at once adopt the broad and intelligible principle, that a signal of any
kind, exhibited under any circumstances, should always indicate danger;
and in order to carry it out, I would render it imperative on every
train to have a light in front and one behind from sunset to sunrise,
placed at such a height from the ground that persons moving about
could not intercept the view. Similar lights should be exhibited
during the same period at all the stations, placed at the same height,

and occupying the same relative position, as those in the trains, so that
an engine-man could not be certain, on seeing the signal, that it was
not a train in his way, But the improvement to which I should be
disposed to attach the most importance, and from which I should
anticipate the happiest results, would be to place the whole of the
station signals on a machine, which should be so far self-acting as
always, when left to itself, to indicate danger, and to require an ifforl
on the part of the attendant, before that warning could be removed;
from this very simple precaution would be derived the important
result, that wegfec^o/' or /iwHtHtoK to the signals would insure safety,
which is sufficiently evident, as, whether danger did or did not exist,
the signals would always indicate it, and cause tlfe coming train to
step until it should be removed. There are many more points con-
nected with railway management, which are by no means brought to
the greatest degree of perfection of which they are capable, but for
the present, I will leave them for a future communication, should it
be necessary.

I am. Sir,

Your's very respectfully,
November 24, 1840. A Railway Engineer.

REVIEWS.

Papers on Iron and Steel. By David Mushet.

(THIRD NOTICE.)

Continuing our remarks upon the subject of iron, we may remark
that the ores from which the metal is derived are distinguished by
the autlior into two principal classes, primary iron ores and iron stones.
The primary iron ores are defined to be those found in the older for-
mations, bearing little resemblance to those in the stratified planes,
and have, in Mr. Mushet's opinion, been formed by secondary agency,
although they differ widely from each other in their properties. Some
are distinguished as being obedient to the magnet, and others the re-
verse, but this property is by no means dependent upon the quantity
of iron contained in the ore, but on its being in the state of protoxide,
united or not with a portion of peroxyde, as ore from the Isle of Elba
yielding 70 or 80 per cent, is but slightly affected by the magnet, while
many of the Norwegian and Danish ores with only 18 to 30 per cent,
of metal are highly magnetic. Mr. Mushet well defines the magnetic
property as a test rather of the presence of iron than of the probable
quantity to be obtained. The principal localities in England for
primary iron ores are Cumberland, and Furness in Lancashire, also in
the island of Islay, Muirkirk, and other places in the north, Cornwall,
Devon, &c.

The Cumberland ores which present a perfectly formed crystal
seem to be formed by the agency of water, an opinion which is coun-
tenanced not only by the structure but by several remarkable circum-
stances, water having been found in cavities of this ore, which had
been transported several hundred miles. This ore is generally found,
as well as that of Furness, in caverns or churns of the mountain lime-
stone in large masses, splinty and globulated, consisting of various
kidney terms called hamatites, striated and smooth, of bluish and
reddish colours. The Lancashire ore is composed of smaller masses,
softer and of a more greasy appearance, but highly crystalized. Both
of these ores, in the kidney variety, contain fine specimens of graphite
or fossil plumbago. The ores both of Cumberland and Furness are
much sought after for the purpose of mixing with poorer ores, large
quantity of the Furness ore being shipped from Ulverston for South
Wales. An opinion has prevailed unfavourable to the working of
these ores on the spot, where both coal and limestone are at hand; no
effective method of reducing them having yet been employed, although
the autlior of the work before us has on more than one occasion given
his weighty testimony as to the practicability. The Islay ore is found
regularly stratified, and resembling, in point of deposition, the Nor-
wegian and Danish ores. The strata, as described, are almost vertical,
ana are found imbedded in a loose ochreous earth surrounded with
soil. The ore is not smelted with advantage owing to the excess of
silex it contains. In different parts of Scotland, in the West High-
lands, at Muirkirk, Salisbury Craggs, La Mancha, Cranston, the Ochil
hills, &c., small quantities of ore have been found, but no quantity-
sufficient to justify the working. The chief Cornwall ores found in
the granite are those of Lostwithiel, much mixed with quartz and
manganese, and averaging about 48 per cent., and those of Fowey, a
brown hsematite, with 58 per ceftt. Those of Devon are the ores of
Haytor, containing about 4."> per cent, and lying in a schistose forma-
tion. We may also notice here the alluvial Minehead, in the new red

1840.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

415

sandstone, yielding 44 per cent., and at Brisham, yielding G2 per cent.
The Devon and Cornwall ores are used extensively in South Wales,
as also a rich heematite from the neighbourhood of Bristol, containing
from 45 to liO per cent. The iron of ores of the Forest of Dean are
found like those of Cumberland in the carboniferous limestone ; brush
ore is one of the principal varieties, a hydrate, with protoxyde of iron,
containing frequently from tiO to 65 per cent, of iron, the leaner ores
containing a great deal of calcareous matter in the shape of spar, and
so yielding only about 15 or "25 per cent. The Forest of Dean ores
are the only ores worked alone, and instead of being treated with lime-
stone, require a mixture of burnt argillaceous schist, as on account of
their containing liu^estone, they are refractory and infusible.

We now come to the iron stones — these are commonly found in
horizontal strata, subject to the same acclivity and declivity as the
other stratified substances under the surface; their inclination varying
according to the nature of the ground, and the disposition of the in-
cumbent "strata. They are supposed to be of aqueous origin, and are
generally found imbedded in scliistous clay more or less compact,
which moulders away on being exposed to the atmosphere, and fre-
quently accompany coal and limestone, in immediate contact with the
coal. The ores are of two principal forms, in strata from half an inch
to twelve inches thick; regularly connected strata called bands, and
strata of detached stone found in distinct masses, from the size of a
small shot up to a weight of several hundred pounds. The smaller
masses being called in Scotland ball stones, and the larger lunkers (qy.
lumpers). Band ironstone accompanying limestone is most commonly
of inferior quality, its component parts being chiefly calcareous, and
the quantity of iron contained being small, while ball iron stones ac-
companying lime are of much superior quality. The iron stones are
divided by Mr. Mushet into four classes. 1. Argillaceous ironstone,
which has clay for its chief component earth, and this clay compara-
tively pure and free from sand. 2. Calcareous ironstone, possessing
lime for its chief mixture, and this lime also comparatively destitute
of sand. 3. Siliceous ironstones, uniting clay and lime, and containing
large proportions of silex. 4. Mixed ironstone, containing nearly an
equalized mixture of clay, lime and sand. Each of these classes re-
quires a different treatment dependent on its constituent parts, which
with the quality of the fuel are the causes of the great diversity of
processes which prevail in the manufacture of iron. Besides these
four classes must be mentioned the Muslietstone or Blackband, a car-
boniferous ironstone, partaking much of the nature of coal as generally
it contains carbonaceous matter enough to terrify the stone and make
it (it for the furnace. Its exact geological position has not yet beer,
determined, but is supposed by its discoverer to be in the lower part
of the coal field near the millstone grit. The usual criterions by which
ironstone is judged are — 1, the degree of tenacity with which it ad-
heres to the tongue after torrefaction ; 2, its colour ; 3, the obedience
to the magnet when pulverized; 4, by depriving of its iron a given
weight of the ore in the assay furnace. The first and third of these
methods are peculiarly liable to error, as the degree of adhesion to the
tongue will be more in proportion to the quantity and kind of clay
contained in the stone, than to its real contents of iron, and the in-
fluence of the magnet as before remarked, is equally deceptive. The
test by colour, although an empirical method, is one far more to be
depended upon. A correct chemical analysis, however, although the
surest test, is scarcely ever used, from the ignorance of the manufac-
turers. Mr. Mushet complains loudly and truly of the deplorable state
of scientific knowledge of this class, which is as slow in acquiring in-
structions as in adopting improvements. He asserts that to his own
knowledge the grossest mistakes have been made, and cites one case
of iron ores of 30 per cent, having been sold for and smelted as ores
containing GO per cent. Detection it appears in such cases is difficult,
as the charge of the furnace often consists of an association of iron
ores, iron stones, and scoria from the forge and mill. Nor does the
case appear to be much better among those professing some know-
ledge, as from want of proper instruction they are also open to gross
errors. Instruction of this kind therefore seems to be a legitimate
object in schools of mining and engineering, the inculcatiob of which
would be of more good than all the attempts at teaching practice by
theory.

A Practical
Pambour.

By the Comte de

Treatise on Locomotive Engines.

London : J. Weale, 1840.
We feel much gratification in being enabled to recommend to the
notice of those of our readers who are interested in the theory or
practice of locomotive endgines, a second edition of this excellent and
truly valuable work. The former edition, although conveying, in the
form of experiments, more practical information relative to locomotives
than any other work which has appeared on the subject, and embody-

ing the results of those experiments in a theory, which, though no
perfect, was nevertheless calculated by the soundness of the reasoning
in general, to throw much light on the true theory, was still defective
in several points. The resistance of the air to the motion of the
trains, and that of the extra pressure of the waste steam on the back
of the pistons, caused by the blast-pipe, did not enter into the evalu-
tion of the work done by the engines. To supply these deficiencies,
the author undertook, in the month of August, 1S36, some experiments
on the Liverpool and Manchester Railway, from the results of which
he has deduced formultB for determining those quantities which had
previously been neglected in the calculation of the resistance over-
come.

These experiments comprise also several other researches, such as
the vaporization of boilers in different circumstances of rest and
motion, the effects of different proportions between the fire-box and
the tubes on the total vaporization of the engine, and on its consump-
tion of fuel, &c.

In the first edition the loss of steam by the safety valves had been
very incorrectly measured ; this has suffered a material alteration in
the edition now before us, but how far the new determinations are to
be depended on, remains yet to be proved. It is an investigation
which demands that the experiments should be conducted witli the
utmost nicetv, and in the greatest possible variety of circumstances.

The table'of experiments on the quantity of water carried over with
the steam in the liquid state, differs in some respects from that which
was published in our Journal for December, 1S30, and to which we
appended a note explaining our reasons for not putting implicit confi.-
dence in the results obtained. Two different experiments with the
Star engine have been substituted in the work under consideration,
for those contained in the table which was published in the Journal,
and in all the other experiments which are the same as in that table,
w-e observe that a different deduction has been made for the loss by
blowing through the safety-valves during the asceut of the plane.
The first of our objections is removed by the indirect statement that
there was no loss by leakage during the experiments given in the
table, the second in some measure by the corrections in the determi-
nation of the loss through the valves, and the last by the declaration,
that the mean is only intended to be adopted approximatively for
engines that have not been directly submittea to experiment in this
respect. This mean has been corrected from 0-GS to U-70.

The second chapter, which treats of the laws which reg\ilate the
mechanical action of the steam, is the same as the corresponding
chapter of the " r/ieon/ of the Steam Engine,'" by the same author,
which vpas published last year. It has been introduced here in order
to save the reader the trouble of recurring to another work, besides
which, it has the advantage of rendering unnecessary the purchase of
that work to those who are only interested in steam engines in as
much as they are applied to the purpose of locomotion on railways,
and whose means may be too limited to justify such an addition to
their libraries.

We are compelled, for want of time, to postpone a more particular
examination of this very interesting w^ork until next month, in the
mean time assuring those of our readers who are desirous of making
themselves more thoroughly acquainted with the ettects of locomotive
engines, that they cannot do better than possess themselves of this
second edition of Comte de Pamboiir's Treatise ; for those who were
unable to obtain the first edition, will be amply recompensed for their
disappointment, by the superiority of the new one, and those who
possess the former, will find it almost equally necessary to purchase
the latter, since it can scarcely be considered as a reproduction of the
same work, but almost rather as a continuation of it, so many and
important are the corrections and additions which have been intro-
duced.

REPORT ON THE REMOVAL OF THE WEIR AT THE BROOMIELAW

BRIDGE, GLASGOW.

By William Bald, F.R.S.E.. M.R.I.A.. &e.. Engineer of the Clyde.

To the Trustees/or Improviitg the River Clyde and the Harbour of the City

of Glasgow.
My Lord, and Gentlemen,

In conformity with the remit transmitted to me, dated the 6th instaut, I
have read over the Report of Captain Jolmstone and Mr. Russell, Harbour
Masters. It has been drawn up with great care ; and from the facts therein
stated, is of great value, and merits deep attention. I have no hesitation in
signing their report, so far as it treats of the many advantages which would
arise from the opening up the spaces between the bridges for the accommo-
dation of the small steamers, sailing craft, &c. But there are other points,
in my opinion, of vital importance, connected with this subject, which have
not been mentioned in their report ; and which I beg lea^ e to lay before
your lordship and the trustees.

416

THI'] CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

]Decf.meer,

The removal of tlie weir at the Uroomiolaw Briiige, and the ileepeiiiiig and
dearing of the space upwards to Stockwell liridge, containing nearly 1-1 acres,
would give much additional tidal water ; thereby increasing the currents not
only through tlie liarbour, but also to some extent in every part of the Clyde
downwards ; thus aiding and assistijig that scouring force which acts so
powerfully in freeing and keeping clear all river estuary channels from hanks
and shoals — the great obstacle to navigation. In the improvement of the
navigation of tidal rivers, no ex]>cnse or pains should be spared to increase
xhis scouring force, arising from that uniform and constant tidal flow and
run of currents ascending and descending alternately, and which are so emi-
nently distingmshed by their beneficial effects in preserving navigaljle chan-
nels, as compared to tliose violent land-floods, which, in many instances, so
frequently carry down immense masses of matter, forming shoals, banks, and
bars in them, extremely injurious to the navigation, and involving great ex-
pense in keeping them clear.

The removal of the Weir at the Broomielaw Bridge, and the additional
receptacle for tidal water between the Bridges, would have a tendency to
sweep and scour away all those impurities which are at present discharged
into it by the city sewers. The removal of the weir, ami the deepening and
clearing away of the channel of the river, would also have the effect of les-
sening the miasma which arises from the present condition of the bed of the
Clyde between the bridges, and woidd render the atmosphere of that part of
the city much more pure and healthy.

It is noble and praiseworthy to erect hospitals and asylums for the relief
of those who may unfortunately be aftlicted with fever ; but how much more
advantageous would it be to cut oft' and destroy the sources from which that
contagion arises, by the removal of all ottensivc Matter ? In this respect, the
attention paid by the Dutch to many of their cities and towns, offers an ex-
cellent example to the jieople of other countries.

At present, the harbour of Glasgow is a receptacle, not only for a large
portion of the debris which the Clyde sends down during floods, but it is also
a reservoir for almost the whole of the matter discharged by the city sewer-
age. The quantity delivered into the present harbour from those two sources
is immense.

The flood of last .\ugust left a deposit on the steps of the upper ferry-
stairs, on the south side of the harljour, as follows ; — On the upper step,
reached by the flood, a ilepth of 2 inches ; on the descending steps, 2|, 2J,
2f, .31-, 4J, and 5 inches. The last step was about 3 feet 4 inches below
ordinary liigh water line. It has been alleged, that the River Clyde leaves
little or no deposit ; but the above facts prove the fallacy of such a statement.
Besides, no experienced observer could have a doubt on this subject, who has
seen the extremely <Iiscoloured state of the water of the Clyde during a flood,
by the quantity of alluvium held in suspension, and which is deposited in the
bed and sides of the Clyde, wherever the tranquillity of the water is not dis-
turbed by a current sutlicient to carry it away ; — and it should always be re-
collected, that, in the improvement of the navigation of a river, and the
widening of a harbour through which it runs, a velocity of 3 inches per second
at bottom will work on fine clay ; that C inches per second will lift fine sand ;
8 inches per second, sand as coarse as lintseed ; 12 inches per second will
sweep along fine gravel ; 24 inches per second, gravel one inch in diameter.
These established facts ought to govern the engineer as to the width which
should be given to rivers, and to harbours through which rivers flow, so as to
regulate the velocity of the water and prevent them from being silted up with
alluvial matter, or involve a serious expenditure in keeping them clear by the
artificial means of steam-dredging ; therefore, no exertion or expense should
be spared to increase the natural force of the scouring power, by the descend-
ing currents through river harbours and river navigations.

It may be observed, that to keep the harbour of Glasgow clear, and suffi-
ciently deep for vessels sailing out and in, requires at least the power of two
steam-dredges constantly working ; the annual approximate expense of which
is as follows : —

Expense of one dredging-boat per annum, including repair

of wear and tear, and interest on capital, at . . JE1368 9 4

Steam-power drawing the punts .... 500 0 0

Discharging the material and carrying it away . . 1200 0 0

Expense of one dredging-vessel . . . ^3068 9 4

Then, the annual expense of two steam dredging- vessels will he about
£6,130 I8.S. M. The area of the wide part of the harbour between Messrs.
Todd and Higginbotham's mill, and the Weir at the Broomielaw Bridge, is
about twenty-one acres, which requires to be operated on constantly by two
steam dredging-vessels ; this is nearly equal to the rate of 300/. per acre of
harbour surface per annum.

Immediately below the Weir, and within the Port, spaces have been cleared
and deepened to 10 feet below low-water line, but which have been filled up
in the short period of a few months to 2 feet above it ; thus fiUing up a space
of 12 feet in height. Looking at the vast expense of keeping the harbour
clear — and again, at the great inconvenience to the shipping by a reduced
depth of water, arising from shoals and banks being so rapidly formed w ithin
it, so extremely detrimental to its free navigation — I am impressed with a
more full conviction, that the most active and the most energetic steps should
be adopted to diminish those evils as far as practicable. Therefore, the clear-
ng away immediately of the Weir at the Broomielaw Bridge, the widening
of the mouth of the Harbour, and the deepening of the River up to Stock-
well Bridge, would tend partly to remove the evils here stated, because those

operations would increase the tidal currents through the harbour, and equahse
them at its mouth.

The matter discharged from the city sewers on the north side into the
harbour, might be entirely removed by the construction of a large sewer,
commencing near the .fail, and running parallel with the river down to below
Barcbiy's Slip, where it would enter the Clyde. This sewer would receive
the whole of the drainage which at ])rc>ent falls into the harbour from the
city of tilasgow on the north, and would consequently free the port from eon-
sideralile deposits which are discharged into it.

The pecuhar construction of the present harbour of Glasgow, with its nar-
row entrance, its head barred by a stone weir extending across from side to
side, over which the high tide only sometimes rises Ijut a few inches, so that
there is scarcely any percejitible tidal current upwards through it during the
whole period of flood tide, until the water has reached above the top of the
weir at the Broomielaw Bridge ; the water sent up by the tide of flood, as
well as the river water descending and falling over the weir into the harbour,
remains in a quiescent state, except iluring the times of floods. Thus, the
alluvium contained in the descending waters of the river, the silt carried in
by the city sewers, and the fine particles of matter held in suspension by the
tidal water flowing up — all meet in the harbour of CUasgow — at every tide,
forming immense deposits, undisturbed by any tidal current for more than
four hours ; which fully accounts for tlie ra])id manner in which the harbom:
of Glasgow silts up, and the great ex])ense which is constantly required to
keep it clear and open by steam dredging-vessels. But if that part of the
river between the Broondelaw Bridge and Stockwell Bridge, were deepened,
it would receive the river ilehris before it could reach the harbour, and it
could be dredged up there as cheaply as any where else, and without any in-
convenience to the shipping.

What can he compared to a fine navigable river flowing free and unfettered,
without lock or dam, through a city, liiyiug open, by its upper reaches, the
rich mineral wealth of the interior country to the enterprise and industry of
the people ; while, on the other hand, the lower reaches of the river waft the
ships to the ocean, that highway to all the regions of the world !

It must he manifest to any person who has obsei ved the immense business
which is carried on by small craft, on the waters of the Thames at London
between the bridges, on the Seine in Paris, and on many other rivers which
run through cities and towns, and the clearing away of the weir at the
Broomielaw Bridge, and making the river Clyde navigable through the city,
would be a work of the greatest public utility, conferring advantages of the
most beneficial kind, not only on the shipping interests, but also on the whole
population of Glasgow.

The Govan Railway delivers at the harbour of Glasgow annually from 60
to 05,000 tons of coal ; and although this railway will, in my opinion, con-
tinue to increase in its traflic, yet I aui confident that the opening of the up-
per navigation of the Clyde would be the means of sending down by water
considerable quantities of coal and other minerals, &c. to the shipping in the
harbour ; and it may be observed, that the descending tidal and river currents
— a power which costs nothing — would offer every facility to the transmission
of coal and other articles downwards, which could be shipjied at once from
the barges or punts into the ships and steamers lying in the harbour, without
encumbering and occupying so much of the quays, or wearing the streets by
the constant cartage of s\ich vast quantities of coal, which are not only re-
quired for exportation, but also for the supply of the numerous steamers on
the Clyde, and those plying to the ports of England and Ireland. Coal-
lighters, carrying about 100 tons, descend the Mersey, enter the docks of
Liverpool, and supply the shipping. The facilities to river navigation which
the Clyde offers, from the harbour to a considerable distance above the city,
into the coal and iron districts, are extremely inviting for the caiTying on of
a similar traflic.

The space, as already mentioned, between the Stockwell and Broomielaw
Bridges, contains an area of nearly 14 acres. The deepening and the con-
struction of wharves within it, would be less expensive, and would aflford
comparatively more acconmiodation to the small shipping craft, than any
other place which could be found anywhere within the vicinity of the harbotu".
The expense of the contemplated works will he nearly as follows : —

Masonry, in wharves and quay-walls, 1350 feet long . .d7,287 11 6
Deepening channel, paving, cranes, pauls, &c . . 8,047 17 0
Securing Stockwell Bridge 1,234 11 8

Total

.f2G,570 0 2

It may be proper to observe, that the deepening between the bridges to
two feet below low water line, will not, in my opinion, disturb the foim-
dations of the existing quay-walls in the harbour.

In concluding, it is to be hoped that the space between the Broomielaw
and Stockwell Bridges, which is now waste and useless, without a raft of
timber, or even a small boat, to adorn its surface, will very soon be covered
with numerous classes oT small vessels, presenting a scene of a busy maritime
trade neariy in the middle of the city. And now that railways are about to
compete with the steam-boat passenger trade, what immense advantages
would it confer on the steam navigation of the river, if the weir were re-
moved, thereby enabling the steamers sailing to all the lower parts of the
Clyde, to arrive and take their departure from between the bridges, or even
from the Broomielaw Bridge, which would be so extreu.ely convenient and
central to the inhabitants of the city.

1S40.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

417

BRITISH MUSEUM.— FUNEREAL MEMORIALS OF ROME.
fFrom the Times.)

There are, perhaps, few rooms in the British >Iuseum whose contents
deserve or attract more inquiry and observation among the generality of its
visitors than the one appropriated to the funereal memorials of the Romans,
and of which less account is given in tlie meagre synopsis of the institution ;
the other remains of Grecian or Egyptian antiquity wliich fill its halls, although
possibly placed with sufficient taste and judgment, yet having no connexion
■with the scenery, if it may he so called, of the localities in wliich they are
contained necessarily lose much of the effect tliey are calculated to produce.
To the artist who contemplates the beauty and boldness of their designs, or
the excellence of their execution, and takes them as models for his study, this
is perhaps scarcely felt ; his taste may discern their value ; hke the lapiilary,
he is equally aware of the brilliancy of the gem when it first meets his view,
■whether disguised by the crust that nature gave it, or set oft" with all the
splendid adjuncts which art or study can devise. Still, even the genius of the
artist may become cramped and clouded in its development from contemplat-
ing the master-pieces of antiquity isolated and unconnected from the archi-
tecture to which they appertain, and when, instead of viewing them as part
of a magnificent whole, he sees them but in a state of chaotic vagrancy and
isolated decay. In contemplating the minutiai of beauty displayed in the
dilapidated or even in the more perfect remains of antiquity, apart from tlie
designs of which they form but a portion, the imagination necessarily becomes
concentrated and confined by that which it contemplates, and however much
the taste of the observer maybe improved, and however excellent may be the
work he in consequence produces, yet in his productions that sense of unity
and grandeur of thought is often found ■wanting, which is the distinguishing
feature of ancient art. To this, perhaps, may be attributed those anomalies
of design whicli are to be seen in almost all the classic monumental sculpture
of our cathedrals, and also in most of the modern architectural elevations of
the Greek and Roman school. The different parts or sections of one or the
other will often be found perfect, but few tliere are that taken as a whole will
bear comparison witli the edifices or monuments of antiquity. We mention
this, because, in the chamber we are about to describe its architecture and
decorations, with the exception of the northern side, form a perfect repre-
sentation of a Roman columbarium, or place of family sepulture ; the urns
■which are in the niches of the walls originally occupied similar positions ; the
sculptue of few of them possesses pretensions to excellence, and had they
been placed in a room among a generality of sculptures, they probably would
have caused no observation, or if any, contempt; yet in this chamber, fitted
up in resemblance of those in which tliey were found, tliey acquire conse-
quence, and well ■worthy are they of the observation they attract. It is the
only part of the Museum in which the sculptures are in connexion witli the
edifice, and which, from that connexion, give a true idea of the purposes for
which they were designed ; in the contemplation of them the spectator, with-
out much stretch of imagination, might almost fancy himself in a family se-
pulchre of ancient Rome, surrounded by the ashes of its members.

This saloon is entered from a door in the nortliern side of the statue gallery ;
it is 16 feet in length liy 10 in breadth, and the height 10 feet ; the roof is
vaulted .ind divided into compartments ; the colour gray. On either side,
cut in the depth of the wall in lines one above the other, are niches, in which
are placed the funeral urns of a family, and on tlie pavement on the eastern
and western sides are some of greater magnitude, and also some smaller ones
placed on votive altars ; almost all of them are richly sculptured, and the
various designs have an allusion either to the mythological dreams of the an-
cients, or represent some domestic scene : none of tliem possess that cliarac-
ter of awful simplicity which distinguisli the la>t receptacles of our Gothic
ancestors. Beneath some of the niches are marble tablets, hearing inscrip-
tions, and where this is the case within the tliickness of the walls are enclosed
earthen jars, with covers, in which the ashes of the deceased were placed.
The floor is formed of Mosaic.

The niche No. 35 contains a sarcophagus, on the front of which the mar-
riage of Cupid and Psyche is sctdptured. Of this Apuleius gives tlie follow-
ing description : — " The bridegroom in the centre is lying on a couch. Psyche
' yrctmio suo comple.riis ;' Jupiter and Juno are in the centre liehind in a sit-
ting posture, and all the gods according to their rank are standing around ; a
bowl of nectar is passing from one to the other. Jupiter has a particular
cupbearer to himself to attend and fill. Bacchus waits on the others, while
Vulcan ccoks the supper ; the loaves are strewed with roses and other flowers,
and perfumes are scattered over all Ijy the graces : ■ Mime voce canora per-
sonabayit !' Ajjollo sings to the lyre, while Venus dances in time to soft music,
and the graces sing in chorus ; the pipe is Idowni Ijy a satyr, and Pan plays on
the reed. The whole of this is a representation of the rites by which Pysche
is conferred on Cupid." In this piece of sculjiture the principal figtn-es shown
are Cupid and Psyche, with their immediate attendants ; they are sitting on
a couch, in front of which is a small tripod table, on which is a fish ; around
are the attendants playing on musical instruments in honour of the bride, and
bearing to her wine, fruit, and presents : the companion of each of these at-
tendants is represented as a Cupid or a Pysche, for the ancients had many
Cupids and more than one Psyche. The ends of the sarcophagus are rounded,
the length of it is 4 feet 6 inches, tlie breadth IS inches, and the height 15 ;
it was brought from Rome.

No. 33 is a sepulchral urn of an oblong form ; three fluted spiral columns

and two pilasters divide the front into four compartments, in cacli of which
is a door ornamented on the top with pendant garlands of laurel ; tliere are
four tablets passing across the upper part, one of which has the fallowing in-
scription on it :— " 2 C. JIagio, F.. Pal. Heraclida; V. A. xviii. ;" tlie others
are blank. The lid resembles those found on the Etruscan tombs ; it is like
two lids joined together lengthways ; in the centre is an ornament of a rabbit
feeding on fruit from a basket, on each side of which ornament is a deer,
which a serpent and a dog are attacking in front and rear. Tlie doors are
supposed to be tlie portals of the abodes of departed spirits, thev are remark-
able as having their pediments of the shape generaUv chosen for the covers of
sepulchral monuments. At the end of the urn are two spears crossed, which
probably had some allusion to the youth to whom it is dedicated, who per-
haps took deliglit in the sports of the chase, and who appears to lie according
to the incription— C. Magius Ileraclidaj, of the Palatine tribe, tlie son of
Quintus ; it has a handsome pediment, in which are figures of dogs hunting.

The niche which is marked 21 contains an exceedingly curious cineraiy um
of baked clay ; the has relief on tlie front rejiresents the hero Echetles fisht-
ing at the battle of .Marathon for the Greeks, his arms are a ploughsliare.
Upon the cover is a female figure asleep in a recumbent position ; beneath
her head is a jiillow. Pausanias gives the following account of the circum-
stances of tlie combatant who used so singular a weapon : — '• It happened in
this battle (as tliey say) that a man dressed and having the appearance of a
peasant, and armed with an agricultural weapon, should appear when the
barbarians ^^•ere prevailing, who when lie liad slain a number of them shotild
vanish ; no one knew him as an Athenian, but others said, according to the
oracle, that he was a native of Echetlreum." On the border of the urn there
is an inscription over the has relief, which is slightly cut, and has not been
painted. The whole of this urn is exceedingly well designed ; there is great
spirit shown in the attitude of the figure wlio has been forced down by the
strength of the rustic weapon tlie eftbrt it is making to rise is true to na-
ture ; the figure with the helmet has tlie arms of a Roman legionary, but the
shields of all the combatants are Grecian ; much vigour and spirit is displayed
in the niele'e of the combat.

No. 13 is a sarchophagus, on which a family is represented mourning over
the body of the dead ; the corpse is that of a female lying on a couch, whicli
is surrounded liy the friends and relations of the deceased : they are exceed-
ingly well grouped, and the expressions of grief are well designed. Beneath
the couch are seen the sandals of the departed, as also a wreath which has
been used as an ornament to the hair : a dog, proiialily a favourite, is also in-
troduced, and appears as a mourner. On each side of the sarchophagus is a
griffin, resting on its hind legs ; the lid and plintli are modern. It formerly
stood in the Caprinaca palace at Rome, and has been several times engraved.
Montf.iucon mentions the sculptures of this monument, as illustrating the
Roman manner of lamenting the dead ; the two figures close to the couch
with their arms extended are alluded to in the passage of Lucan — " E.racte
ad sai-as fainnlarum brachia planetus," and represent a singular part of the
Roman ceremony, the " erclamatio," or calling aloud, on the name of the
just departed, intended either to arrest or call back the flight of the soul, or
to rouse the dormant spirit in case death should not actually have taken place,
that the person might not be exposed to neglect or placed upon the funeral
pile while any breath of life might still remain. It might be curious to in-
quire if the singular custom of the death wake, still so pertinaciously adhered
to by liie Irish peasantry, and to perform which dacently, as they call it, the
poorest will s.icrifice all they possess, and the non-performance of which is
looked upon as a sacrilege committed, derived its origin from the custom of
ancient, or the priestcraft of modern, Rome. Xt each end of the sculpture
the father and mother of the deceased are standing; an old man at the ex-
treme end holds one liand to liis eyes, in the other is a funeral cake. On
each side of the female are two children. Altogether there are ten figures in
the group. Tlie father is sitting on a stool and the mother in a curule-shaped
chair ; the Iiead of the father is wrapped in a veil.

No. 34 is an Etruscan cinerary urn of baked clay. The has relief in front
represents the single combat of Eteecles and Polynices, who were both slain
in the combat ; the first from a wound in the groin, and the latter from a
stab in the breast. The female figures standing by the combatants are furies;
eacli hold a torch in one hand, while the other is extended over the antagonist
encouraging and inflaming the combat ; at each end, on a pilaster, is an
Etruscan inscription, which is written from the right to the left in red letters.
All the figures have been painted, and some of the colours yet remains. Upon
the cover of the monument is a female figure asleep. The action of tlie
whole group is excellent ; the warrior who is down has lost his helmet ; his
hair is curled in the Etruscan fashion. His opponent is more completely
armed, and the manner in which he forces the shield from his opponent, and
drops his own while he stabs him to the heart, is masterly designed. The
expressions on the countenance of each are difterent ; extreme anguish in that
of the fallen, and the exultation of victory in the other, are strongly defined;
the figure of one of the furies is sandalled, while the other is bare. The re-
presentation of the combat as here given exactly corresponds with the account
of it by the poet Statius, and it is not unlikely that he was indebted for it to
these figures. It is highly probable that this contest was by no means an
uncommon suliject among the ancient artists. Pausanias says that the re-
presentation of it made one of the subjects which ornamented the sarchophagus
iu which the tyrant Cypselas, of Corinth, was deposited : in that the same
author mentions that Polynices is represented as having fallen on his knee,
which is the exact attitude liere represented" — "£i' (Edipifilius Polynicem

3 L

41.S

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[December,

in getiii cellajwim /rater E/ecclesvrr/e/." Take this sculpture as a whole, it
is one of the most sjilentlid specimens of sepulchral uni in existence.

No. 13. This is a sepulclual urji of a square form : in the centre of the
front is a tablet, on which is the following insci'iption : —

" Dis manilius

" Pelire. Philtatse

" M. Pilius. eucarpus

" Convgi. B. il.

" fecit, ct sibi."
At each of the four corners is an eagle j the lid resembles a pointed roof; in
the centre of the face of the urn is a bust of Pelia Philtata, and at the corners
are the usual ornaments of honeysuckle llowcrs. The particular for which
this urn is remarkable is a iieculiarity in the lid, which is occasioned by a
singular custom of the ancients, aud sometimes practised in honour of the
deceased, ^^^len the funeral rites were performed it was the custon at stateil
periods to \-isit the ashes of their friends, and to adorn their urns with flowers
and garlands, and to offer sacrifices of oil and wine to their manes. In some
cases these visits arose from friendship or affection, but the performance of
them was often strictly ordered by the will of the deceased, and funds pro-
%-ided for it. In this, i'n order that it might with greater convenience be com-
phed will), on the top of the lid of the urn a patera is formed, in the bowl of
■which is an opening through which the wine, oil, and ointments were poured
upofi the ashes. Propertius says—" Adfert hao unguenta mihi, sertisipie se-
pulcbrum ornabit, eustos ad mea hasta sedens." Ovid in mentioning libations
to the funeral urn says : —

" Jam tanien extincto cineri sua dona ferebant,
" Compositique nepos btfsta piabat avi."
On the left side of the doorway as you enter is a sepulchral urn dedicated by
riavia Dada, and by Fortunatu's, a freed man of the Emperor, to the metnory
of her deserving husband, aud his most worthy father, Admetus, a superin-
tendent of the furniture of the Imperial Palace, and also a freed man. Above
this inscription is a has reUef representing the " cffifia feraUs," or funeral
feast. Naked to the waist is the figure of Admetus reclining on a couch ; in
his left hand he holds a large cup or vessel, and in his right a wreath ; ac-
cording to the Eouian custom at feasts, his head is decorated with a garland ;
two children naked are sitting at his feet ; behind is a female attendant, who
is supporting his body ; the hair of this figure is singularly bound on tlie front
of the head in a knot. All these attendants are dwarfish in their proportions,
as was frequently the case when inferior persons or slaves were represented
on the ancient sculptures. These representations of the funeral feast are
curious and interesting : it is impossible for us to enter into the feelings which
dictated thetii ; yet the custom of offering the funeral cake and wine at the
present day may have derived its origin from it ; we kno\v not in what light
the ancients regarded a future existence, Iiut these scfilptures sufficiefitly in-
dicate their hopes, though they show the indistinctness of their ideas ; here
are the monnied dead, represented as exercising the animal functions of life ;
elegances are displayed to please the eye, food and wine to gratify the taste,
often music to charm the ear, atid garlands to perfume the air, and to these
enjoyments are addcil the presence of their fiiends who are yet in existence ;
thus' the living and the dead, the spu-itual and the material worid, are asso-
ciated together in one common act ; circumstances are represented in the
history of vfhich we can hardly participate or understand, l)ut by which we
may perceive that the ancients did cfitertain notions, though inaccurate and
ill-defined, of a future state. The urn is ornamented at the top with gariands,
which take the shape of volutes, the ends of which terminate in a rose. The
pra;fericnlum and patula are scidptured on the sides of the urn. The top has
never been separated from the body ; it has a large circular excavation in the
middle, about seven inches and a half in diameter.

On the north side of the room, in the niche, the third as you enter, is an
urn different from fuost of the others, aud yen- rarely fuet with, being square,
and of an upright shape ; it is enriched by a festoon of laurel leaves. On it
is this inscription in fovtr Mnes : — " Vernasire Cycladi. Conivgi optima, vix.
ann. xxviii. vitalis, Aug. 1. scrib. cv. B.'' The figures of a man and his wife
are represented as standing beneath a portico, the roof or which resembles
that of a sepulchral urn ; they are in the act of joining hands ; between them
are the letters F. A. P. Lighted torches, placed in an upright position, form
the corners of this urn, each side of which is embellished with a la\ucl tree ;
a WTCath is placed on the centre of the lid, and a dolphin at each corner.
The intetition of the portico on the monument is in allusion to the entrance
of the habitation of departed spirits, where the wife must take a long farewell
of her partner. Among the Romans in the earlier times of the empire their
funeral ceremonies were alwnys performed at night, which was formerly also
the custom in this country, and the torches at the corners allude to it ; and
even at a later date wlien the funerals took place in the day time, lighted
ones always formed part of the accompaniment ; those placed here are of the
sort called " ta:die," being the semblance of a nufuber of tine slips tied toge-
ther with thongs. The dolphins relate to that superstition of the ancients
wliieh supposed that the spirits of the dead were conveyed by them across
the seas to the liapjiy abodes of the blessed. Vitalis, who by the inscription
erected this moiuunent to the memory of his beloved wife, Yernasia Cyclax,
seems to have been a freed man of the Emperor, and a favourite, as he held
au oflice similar to that of private secretaiy ; the letters " F. A. P.," between
the figures, denote that the tomb was erected by order of the ffidiles. No.
6, is a small slab let into the wall, it shows the manner in which the inemorj'

of the favoured dependents of a family were preserved ;
tion —

on it is this iuscrip-

SERVILIA

IRENE.

ANNIOLENA

T. F.

MAXIMA

Within the wall which it faces are two oUae or circiUar vases of earthenware,
somewhat of the shape of the alabaster one near the centre on the south side
of the room, in it were deposited the ashes of the two persons whose names
are recorded on the slab in front. The lids of these vases alone are visible,
which can be taken off, to allow hbations to be poured which the jiious affec-
tion of survinng friends might offer to the memory of the departed. Some-
times in family tombs four or more excavations were made in each niche, in
general they are found sufficiefitly large at the top to allow the urn to be taken
out, but occasionally, as in this, they are so constructed at the mouth that
the space does not allow of the removal.

In the centre of the room is a mosaic pavement, which in the year 1805
was found on making some repairs under the south-western angle of the Bank
of England, about 20 feet west of the westcrmost gate, opening into Lothbury ;
it was 11 feet beneath the surface, the design is handsome and well executed,
but the workmanship is evidently inferior, and probably that of a native artist.
The outer border is composed of pieces of brick. It is not sepidchral, nor is
it connected with the other objects here : it endently, from the cross in the
centre, was made after the introduction of Christianity into the island.

On the south side, near the centre compartment of the room, placed on au
altar, is a sepulchral urn without either inscription or decoi'ation ; it has
handles and a cover, the shape is exceedingly elegant, the material of which
it is made is the alabaster of the ancients, which is of a yellowish colour with
pinkish stripes ; near it there is auotlier of the shape of a truncated cone,
w hich has a cover and veiy small handles ; the stripes on it are more strongly
defined ; the colour is the same, as is also the substance of which it is com-
posed ; the height of it is 20 inches, the diameter at the top 8^, and at the
bottom 12.

The saloons containing the Elgin and Phigalian marbles have lately, after
a variety of trials, been coloured in imitation of rose-colomed Egyptian por-
phyry, and the roof of grayish granite ; time may in some degree reduce the
luxuriancy and briUiancy of the colour ; at present, perhaps, the rosy warmth
which it throws over the apartments somewhat hurts the effect of the sculp-
tures. The brown and dark appearance which time has given to these mas-
ter-pieces of antiquity is comproiuised by the blooming walls by which they
are surrounded and supported, their look of youthful pretention and roseate
bloom but badly harmonizes with the severity of age. The monstrosities of
Egypt in the adjoining halls would have been more in keeping with that
mythias of colour by which their neighbours in a great degree are eclipsed
and overwhelmed.

ON DRY ROT.

I Has desirous of taking only a partial view of this subject, and of confin-
ing my observations to that species of Dry-rot vhicb is common in new
buildings ; wilhout encountering what is known by that name, which at one
time threatened the extermination of the British Navy, and is by some attri-
buted to the Fungi Sporotrichi, but I attempted in vain to make the distinc-
tion.*

The rot which I allude to. might be more properly called the damp-rot,
or wet-rot, than the dry-rot, for it appears to arise i'rom coyifitiecl moisture ;
and the prevention as well as the cure for it. I believe, may consist in merely
giving the confined moisture an opportunity to escape, by the admission of
air. 1 do not mean to say that atmospheric air is a specific, by the adminis-
tering of which rotton wood can be made sound ; but I do mean to express
my belief, that the introduction of air, even in small quantiiies, will effectually
arrest the destructive progress of the dry-rot.

1 will mention two instances now existing of this dry-rot in two new
churches, namelv, that of Trinity Church, Oswestry, and the New Church at
AberystH ilh. The fonuer is built of rublde-stone oi the neighbourhood, from
Sweeney Mountain, which is a free-stone, with a large proportion of mortar ;
the latter is built of rubble-stone of that neighbourhood, which is of a slaty
quality, with a large proportion also of mortar. In lioth these cases the ends
of the" pews are closely fitted with framed panels of deal upon damp walls,
good oak floors in the former, and I think in the latter also, and risers of
deal under the pew doors. The eftects of this dry-rot have become very con-
spicuous in both instances, by an exlensive destruction of the wood work,
against the w alls, and under the doors of the pews : upon removing the panels
Stc, it was found that a ])arasitic fungus has made extensive ramifications,
and the deal is very much decayed, but the oak has as yet sull'ered compara-
tively little injury. I believe, that if a perforated plate' containing apertures
equal to tliree or four square inches had been inserted in the upper panel,
fixed to the wall in each pew, and the like under each door, the mischief
would not have happened; and that if these means of ventilation were re-
sorted to now, they would stop the progress of the drv-rot. But I do not
know any thing more certain to produce the dry-rot tluin what I have just
noticed, and eonseqiienlly nothingcould put any expedient for the prevention
or cure of the evil to a severer test than to have thus impounded the moisture.
A pretty little gothic pattern, weighing three-quarters of a pound, has been

* The following Fungi are considered as the cause of dry-rot ;— Boletus
laehrymans, Merulius lachrymans, Polyporus destructor, and the genus
Sprorotrichum.

1840.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

419

prepared ami partially put up in Trinity Church, for ventilating the parts
afi'ected with dry-rot.

The growth of the parasitic plant, and the decay of the wood coming into
contact with it, seeming to he in a great degree contemporaneous. 1 am not
prepareil to say which is the cause, and wliicli is the efTect of the other ; but
X think that the growth of the plant takes precedence of the destruction of
the wood.

I shall relate two or three facts which have come within my knowledge,
because they strengthen my conviction as to the most effectual means for the
prevention .and cure of the dry-rot.

The usual manner of preparing the walls of a house for skirting-boards, and
fixing (hem, is likely to pruduce the dry-rot. as thus : — a coat of mortar
mixed with pounded glass tills up very closely the space behind the sk-rting-
boards, to prevent mice from having a run iHere. and a moulded cap of wood
is rabbeted and put up for receiving the plain board : on the door is sprigged
down a rib of wood, of about one inch squ re, for the whole side of a room,
without any intermission, and the skirting-board is then scribed and closely
fitted to the Moor, he.

In a new house the walls and the plaister may not be perfectly dry. and
the same mischief which has been described in the pews of a church is likely
10 occur, and does so continually, in the decay of the skirting-boards, parti-
cularly on the ground floor ; but I think that it happens less frequently when
there are arched cellars below, which m ly carry off some of the moisture. A
little of the water in washing the floor, the skirting-board being in a dry
state, will find its uay behind it, and increase its liability to decay, by im-
pounding a little more moisture.

I Iiave observed this to take place to some extent in fifteen or twenty years
after a house has been built, but not perceived till the damage w ,s consider-
able, because the paint will conceal it. In replacing the skirting-board in-
stead of a continuous rib of A\-ood sprigged on the floor, I have taken jiieces
of a foot or foot and half in length, leaving a vacant space of two or three
inches between them, and not fitfing the skirting-boards very closely to the
floor, so that a small circulation of air may be preserved ; and no decay has
occurred in a similar period, at least I can answer for a term of thir'y-five
years from the erection of the buibiing.

When a new mansion house is to be built, it often happens that a certain
quantity of sound limber I'rom an old house is to be made use of, in the shape
of beams, joists, Sec. and the old beams and joists are apt to be immediately
applied to the ground floor, which is a great mistake. An instance of this
having occurred within my knowledge, I must give a minute account of facts
and consequences in order to bring them to bear on the points which are un-
der consideration.

The front of the house faces the west, and consists of two principal rooms
extending length-ways to the right and left of an entrance room, the floors
being three steps above the ground ; and 1 am pretty sure that the joists, if
not the beams also, were of uld timber: the boarded floors were of the best
Baltic oak, prepared and finished in the most careful manner. Beneath these
front rooms there are no cellars, but arched cellars extend under all the back
rooms, which appe,ar to have prevented the evil that I am about to describe
as havi: g occurred in the floors of the two principal rooms.

In the course of twenty or t^\■enty-five years from the building of thehouse,
the deal skirting-boards on the outwai'd walls were found to have decayed,
particularly on the west, and the floor sunk nearly an inch in some places
from the skirting-boards. It was evident that the joists had failed at their
insertion into the outward walls. The floor was then taken up for an open-
ini, suflicient to admit a man with alighted candle, who crawled on his hands
and knees under the floor, to ascertain the extent of the mischief: the para-
sitic pi :nt or the dry-rot had got so great a footing, that it became'a question
whether the whole of the tw o floors ought not to have been taken up ; but it
was at length resolved to try the eflect of a less expensive operation, w hich
at tile present time, after a lapse of ten or fifteen yeirs, seems to have an-
swered perfectly well. Several new oak joists were j^laced crossways beneath
those which had partially failed, and as nearly as conveniently might be to
the decayed ends of those joists which had wholly or in part lost their holds
upon the outward walls, propping the new joists with bricks, slates, and
stones ; and the skirting-boards were then replaced in the manner before
described.

But the thing on which the greatest reliance is to be placed was the pre-
paration to be made fi r the circulation cjf air beneath the floors: plates of
iron were cast three inches square, perforated w ith many holes of a quarter
of an inch diameter, four of these plates were applied to each of the two
rooms, two distantly from each other, at the two outward sides of the walls,
below the floors, and two on either side of the fire-places in the floors, wdiereby
a continual circulation of air w'as established, and his ever since been kept
up : and I conceive that the progress of the dry-rot is stopt, while the supply
of air required for the fires is materially assisted.

The disagreeable mouldy smell of dampness accompanying the dry-rot was
evident enough as soon as the floor was opened, and continued to be less and
less perceptible for months, or perhaps years, thr, ugh the small g:-ates ; but
those near the fire-places were covered occasionally: the grates had better
have been made of brass one-;hii\l or one-fourth of an inch thick. I shall
bring forward only one more instance, to prove that confined moisture is the
cause of the dry-rot, and I must again be very minute, that I may be the bet-
ter able to support my suggestions when I attempt to apply them to general
purposes.

About the year 1820, or a little later, there was occasion to build a new
sitting-room tit a farm-house, and the site fixed upon was over a cellar, then
roofed as a shed or lean-to : the new floor was approached by four steps out
of the kitchen, the walls were built of rubble-stone eighteen inches thick, the
size of the room is 14ft. y in. by 11 ft. 6 in. — the floor over a slope, and from
four to two feet above the grtamd, w hile a grate of seven inches square venti-
lates the cellar from the north.

The object of this is to show in how short a time the new floor was totally
destroyed by the dry-rot, without in any way accounting for it, but from the
floor itself. The joists were cut out of sound poplar, probably the upper or

inferior parts of trees, and between the joists were nailed ribs of wood to sup-
port short pieces of boards for grouting in the usual manner of counter-ceil-
ing, the floor was neatly laid with inch poplar boards well seasoned, planed,
and of the best quality.

In the course of a few months, I believe, the floor joists, boards, S:c. were
entirely decayed, excepting a few feet near to the door out of the kitchen,
which were only partially so. Although, 1 believe, that the decay was very
rapid, I can only assert from recollection of some other particular occur-
rences, that in the course of three years the room was built, the one floor
laid, that floor decayed, and a new floor put up, which is perfectly sound at
the present lime, after a lapse of more than 17 years

The present floor is mule of oak teams and joists, and very good poplar
boards, without any ceiling or laths and plaister under them.

The » ay I w oiild account for this extraordinary instance of dry-rot is, that
the walls were damp when the first-mentioned floor was laid, and that the
counter-ceiling was very damp, that the boards were dry and closely fitted,
that a fire h as rarely (if ever) used in this room, and that the progress of the
dry-rot was extremely swift, as it would be in any case under similar circum-
stances of confined muisture.

I may mention chamljer floors of poplar boards at the present time, over a
considerable extent of kitchen and other ofiices, which have been laid down
for thirty-five years, and are as sound now as tliey ever were : although I
have seen poplar boards used as window shelves in inferior apartments, and
in some other ways, which have gone into complete decay, grub-eaten or
otherwise, in the course of a few years.

The reader who may have wailed through tho details of facts, which I have
thought necessarv for my purpose, may wish to have the conclusions drawn
from tliem recapitulated in a few short sentences, as' thus :— That wherever
joiner's work is to be fitted to newly-built walls, there should be means
taken for the circtilation of a little air. That the beam, and joists used for
the ground floor of a house should be of British oak, larch, or best foreign
deal. That the ends of beams or joists inserted into the outward walls of a
new house, on the ground floor, should be eased with sheet lead, zinc, or
cast iron, all impervious to moisture, but not too tightly fitted, for fear of
the sap's producing confined moisture ; or they might be secured at their
ends with cases made on purpose of fire-brick clay, or other clay impervious
to moisture. I have used cast-iron sockets and fire-brick cases very satis-
fectorily. That the wooden ribs upon whicli the lower edges of the skirting
boards are to be nailed should not be in continued lengths, without some
intermission. That wherever floors are laid with stone bricks, or slate flags,
the skirtings should be made of slate-flags from three-quarters of an inch to
one inch in thickness, with one sawed edge. That in servants' halls and
other oHices. where it may be desirable for the skirting or dado to extend to
the height of three feet or more, slate-flags of three-quarters of an inch cr-
one inch thick, might very properly be preferred to wood, but capped with a
grooved ledge of wood ; these slate-flags being worth only about 9cl. the
square yard.

Many of the particulars respecting the rooms which have been affected
with dry-rot may, as I have observed before, appear trivial, or even ludi-
crous ; but when it is recollected that we have been alluding to facts that
oceurre 1 fifteen or twenty years ago, and which engaged attention only for
the moment, I wish to state what is still to be seen ; and more particularly
to sh"W, that there was nothing in the position nor dimensions of the room
last-mentioned, neither door, window, chimney, nor any other circumstance,
whereby such an eflect of dry-rot could have been produced or promoted,
excepting only by the confined moisture, and to which al ine the dry-rot is to
be attributed.

A simnle remedy for any grievance is sometimes unpopular, aiid you may
be advised to poison unwelcome vegetation as you would rats, without con-
s dering that poison, like gun-powder or steam, is not a thing to be played
with.* Is it not more reasonable to trace a mischief, if possible, to its cause,
and by removing or counteracting the cause, endeavour to prevent or arrest
the progress of the eflect ? .Suppose that a ship may be liable to dry-rot,
from confined moisture and the sap ( juicej of unseasoned tiinber,t the natural
remedy would be to give a change and circulation to the stagnant atmosphere
by ventilation : I see no reason why dry-rot in a ship might not be prevented
or arrested by a suflicient number of small grates, wliich have been used so
successfully about ilie floors of the two rooms as above described.— «ato/jia«
Journal.

ON THE ECONOMY OF RAISING WATER FROM COAL MINES ON
THE CORNISH PRINCIPLE.

At the annual meeting of the members of the Manchester Geological Society,
held at their rooms, on Thursday, the 29th October, Mr. Fairbairn read a
communication •■ On the Ecenomy of raising Water from Coal Mines on the
Cornish Principle." In introducing his piper to the meeting, Mr. tairbairn,
after explaining the sections of the engine and pumps made by him lor some
Belgian coal mines, said, that the improvements introduced ot late years into
the Cornish engines, w ere of so important a nature as to be high.y worthy
the attention of the miners of this district. They had not. till very lately,
the slightest conception of the great saving effected by the performance of

'■■ Corrosive sublimate is the only known specific, mineral or vegetable, for
preventing the growth of the dry-rot fungi, and which, I believe, has formed
the basis of Mr. Kyan's patent. .

T Oak would require less seasoning, and be much fitter tor use, it it were
cut down in winter instead of in spring. I recollect, some fifteen or twenty
years ago. observing a sound oak plank in the gable end of a house which
was under repair: some of the sap (alburnum) and bark was still on the oak,
and very slighily grub-eaten, although it might have been in the building
an hundred years, perhaps, or more, on the inside of an outward wall, nogged
with bricks, and never had been covered with plaister nor colour of any sort.

3 L 2

420

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[December,

llie Cornisli oi>gincs. wliich Mas so groat tiiat the pressure of . steam in the
cylinder, wliicli wou'd amount td 7,500 ll>. per square inch, would raise nearly
double the amount of any in the neighbourhood, chiefly from the advanlaffe"s
of the exnan>ive principle adopted in the Cornish engine. Mr. Fairbairn then
proceeded with liis paper, of which the following is an abstract : —

" The steam engine performs so important a i art in almost all the transac-
tions of man, where great power is required, that the progressive nnprove-
ments of this mighty agent, indispensable to the miner, must be regarded
with interest by all. By the geologist its improvement will be looked at with
additional pleasure, since by its means he is enabled to explore the earth to a
much greater depth than he otherwise could have done. For this reason. I
liave thought it might not be out of place to give here some account of the
progress of the steam engine during the last 120 years, mentioning the dates
of its leading improvements.

" From the time of Savery and Newcomen, in 1707, to that of Beighton, in
1717, it remained stationary, till 1769, when Sme ton introduced considerable
improvements U|ion atmospheric engines, the average duty from fifteen of
which amounted to 5,590,000 lbs., lified one foot high by a bushel of coal*
These improvements continued ; and the duty, in 1772, was raised to 9,450,000
lbs.

" Mr. Watt's improvements commenced in 177G, when the average duty
was declared at 21,600,000— more than double that of .Smeaton's ; and, during
the years 1778-9, it was still further increased.

"In 1779. and from that to 1788. Mr. Watt introduced the improvement of
working steam expansively, which raised the duty to 26,600.000. From 1788
to 1812, few, if any improvements were made in the Cornish engines; and,
provided we except the plunger pole, which was introduced about this time,
I question whether the Cornish engineers and miners did not retrograde rather
tlian advance during a period of tw enty-lbur years.

"In 1814 considerable advances were made, which raised the duty to
32,000,000 lbs. During that year, Woolf 's engine, with two cylinders, was
introduced, which again advanced the duty to 54,000,000 lbs.

" Mr. Woolf, above all others, did most for the Cornish engines, by show-
ing the advantages peculiar to high pressure steam, and prepared for suljse-
quent improvements, wliich led to the present efiective system of expansive
working.

"During a period of six y'cars, from 1814 to 1820. Woolf 's double cylinder
engine maintained its superiority, and gave a higher duty than any other.

" Woolf 's engine, in process of time, gave way to others of a better con-
struction. They were intr. duced by Captain Samuel Grose, whose experi-
ments upon the generation and preservation of heat led to great improvements,
and ultimately established a new era in the history of the Cornisli engine.

" In 1826, Captain Grose's engine, at Wheal Hope, attained a duty of
62,000.000 lbs. ; and, in .July of the following year, one of Mr.M'oolf "s single
cylinder engines performed the unpreccdented'duty of 07 million.

" From this time Captain Grose's improvements were appreciated, and
generally introduced ; they led to a slill greater advance in the duty, wliich
this year reached as high as 87 million Ibs^

•■ Messrs. Lean and Brothers report the duty of a few of the Cornish en-
gines at this time as follow ; —

Millions lbs.

Wheal Towan Engine 87'0

Wheal Hope 74 8

Consols 676

Binner Downs 63 5

Consols 61-7

Consols 61-3

Wheal Vor 611

Wheal Towan. (Druce's) 59"4

Consols 584

PoUlice 57-8

Wheal Vor 51-9

These give a mean duty of sixty-four millions of pounds.
"Nothing remarkable took place till 1834, when the duty was raised to
90 millions lbs Since then, it has continued to increase in the ratio of 90,
100, and llOmillions : and during the last meeting of tlie British Association,
at Glasgow, Mr. Taylor reported the present duty at the unequalled perform-
ance of 123. 300.593.

" Having briefly stated the progressive improvements that have taken place
in the Cornish system of pumping, I would now direct the attention of the
society to the important results which these improvements have produced.

" The quantity of coals consumed by all the engines w orking at the mines
in Cornwall, in the year 1835, was. according to Messrs. Lean and Brothers,
1,669,421 bushels. Now, if we compare this with the number of bushels
which would have been consumed to produce tlie same power iit 1814, we
should have, for the consumption at that iicriod, 4,049,878 bushels, making a
saving of 99,18'; tons; which taken at n.s. per ton, (the price of coal in
Cornwall.) we have the enormous saving of £84,308.

" From the above facts, it cannot be doubted, that the improvements in
steam engines, and the consequent saving thus effected in the consumption of
fuel, are matters of deep importance. Lven in districts where coal is cheap,
it is a consideraticm well w orthy of attention ; and we are assured by geolo-
gists, that the coal of this country, although abundant, will not last for
ever."

In the cotirse of a very interesting discussion which followed the reading of
the paper, Mr. l''airbaim said, he might mention that so great was the saving
from the improveil system of w orking tlic Cornish engines, that it was not
improbable that, in this neighbourhood, we might come back to the old sys-
tem of power for factories- If the duty performed by the Cornish engine was

* Duty is a teim first used liy Mr. Watt for ascertaining the comparative
merits of steam engines. In Cornwall it is used for determining the number
of millions of pounds of waler lifted one foot liigh by a bushel of coal, (,94
lbs. 0 the time of lifting it not being considered.

so much more than that of any factory engine in this district, it migli: l.e
desir.able to liave a Cornish engine connected with a water-wheel to drive mill
machinery.*

Mr. Boothman. — Why not apply it to rotatory motion ?— Mr. Fairbairn
said, that it would not apply to any thing where the force required was con-
stant. The value of the tiling bay in overcoming the inertia of matter. The
Cornisli engine first raised a weight, and then, by the descent of that weight,
it raised the water. That was the w hole secret of the Cornish engines.

Mr. P. Clare asked if Mr. Fairbairn had made a calculation of tlie eftective
force of the factory engines in this neighbourhood, so as to afford a compari-
son as to the combustion of coal by them with that of the Cornish engines ?
— Mr. Fairbairn said, he had done so. The consumption of fuel in our best
condensing engines here was 10 lbs. to 12 lbs. per horse power per hour, while
the consumption of fuel by the best Cornish engines was only 21 ll«. per horse
power per hour. In other s' ords. we consume four times more coal than the
Cornish engines in producing the same effect. The circumstance was most
extraordinary; but the facts were before the meeting. The returns of the
duty performed were regularly registered in Cornwall, and published monthly,
so that any gentleman might see them, in reference to any period : and it
would be found, that the performance of the best Cornish engines (for he did
not, in reference to this question, speak of the average duty) did nut exceed a
consumption of 2i lbs. of coal per horse pow er per hour.

A Member asked whether there was not some doubt as to the accuracy of
the calculations of the duty performed by the C'ornish engines, and as to the
mode of estimating them'?— Mr. Fairbairn said, that the calculations were
made upon the area of the bucket and the length of the stroke. He was aware
that doubts hid been expre.ssed as to the accuracy of the calculations ; but
they were backed by such authorities, and the returns were so numerous and
regular, that he thought their general accuracy could not well be doubted. —
The Member observed, that a small quantity of air coming up the pumps
would make a difference.— Mr. Fairbairn : No doubt ; but still the engine has
to lift this great weight of all the pumps and iron work, and the plungers,
which must lie lifted by the force of steam. He had a return from Mi\ Wick-
steed, of the East London Water Works, which was not a pit at all ; but the
Cornish engine there was used to raise water for the supply of the eastern
[lart of London — which return gave a duty of 118,552,475 lbs. raised one foot
nigh ; the consumption of fuel being 2 4 lbs. of coal per horse power per hour.
Of course he did not speak of the duty performed by these Cornish engines
from his own knowledge, but he had every reason to believe the returns sub-
stantially correct. — The Member said, he believed some doubts liad been re-
peatedly'thrown on the method of calculation. — Mr. Fairbairn said, that some
years ago he had Ijeen present at a discussion on the subject in the .Society of
Civil Engineers, when great doubts were expressed, but further documents
were brought forward to prove the accuracy of the calculations. However,
taking the consumption of fuel by the C'ornish engines to be 3 lbs. per horse
power per hour, that was a very great difference, as compared with our factory
engines.

Mr. Eaton Hodgkinson thought there had undoubtedly been great improve-
ments made in the Cornish engines, chiefly the result of the adoption of the
expansion of steam, wh ch they had not been used to any great extent in this
neighbourhood, at least till very recently. Whether the returns Kere quite
accurate or not, no one could doubt that the improvements were immense.
He thought the p'an of making the engine to lift the pump-rods only, and
then the descent of the pump-roils lifting up the water, seemed to be a con-
siderable improvement in adaptation. Again, whether Mr. M'oolf's plan of
the expansion of steam, or that of Mr. M'att, expanding it in the s.ame cylin-
der, and cutting it off when at a distance of one-fourth or one-fitth down,
were adopted, (and it was a question as to wdiich plan was the best,) in l:oth
cases there was a great improvement upon former methods. These improve-
ments had a strong bearing upon geology, for were it not for these engines,
they could not investigate the strata in mines, for the water would drive them
out or drown them. These engines, by draining lakes, might enable the
geologist to obtain a great deal of information he must otherwise be wiihojt.

PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES.

BRITISH ASSOCL\TION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE.
Tenth Meeting. — September, 1840.

fFrom the Aihenmum.J
Section G, — Mechanical Science.

•Mr. James Milne gave an account of an instrument termed a Gas Regulator,
of his invention, by means of which the length of the flame is equalized,
notwithstanding the variations of ]>ressure that occur, and a considerable sav-
ing in the consumption of gas is effected.

Mr. Coles on Railway Carriages. — Mr. Coles proposes to introduce friction
wheels ; and that, excepting the first and last carriage in the train, the car-
riages should run on two wheels. He also proposes a step-rail at the cur\cs
or bends.

" On the Turbine Water-wheel." By Prof. Gordon.

The fundamental principle upon which the construction of the Turbine-
Foitmegron is based, is that by which the maximum of useful effect is obtained
from a given fall of water, depending on the relative velocity of the water
and its recipient, which ought to be such that the water enters the wheej

* See Mr. M'icksteed's report in the Journal for January last, page 7' — Ed.
C. E. and A. Journal.

1840.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

421

without bliock, and quits it again Tivitliont velocity. A notion of its eonstrnc-
tion may readily l)e formed, by supposing an ordinary water-wlieel laid on
its side, the water being made to enter from the interior of the wheel by the
imier circumference of the crown, flowing along the buckets, and escaping at
the outer circumference. Then centrifugal force becomes a substitute for the
of gravity. A drawing was here exhibited of a Turbine of about 5 horse force
power, the fall being 3 feet, and the expenditure of water 20 cubic feet per
second. It was explained that the Turbine consists essentially of — 1. A re-
servoir, the bottom of which is divided into radial compartments by curved
plates, serving to guide the water to take a particular direction of efflux. 2.
A circular sluice, capable of nicety of adjustment. 3. The wheel with curved
buckets, on to which, when the sluice was raised, tlie water entered at every
point of the inner circiunference, and flowing along the buckets, escaped at
every i>oint of the outer circumference. This latter is a cliaracteristic feature
in tlin Turbines of Fourneyron. Reference was made to the principal Tur-
bines erected in France and Germany, — particularly to that at Inval, near
Gisors. and tliose at Miillbach .and Jloussay, as illustrative of their use for
falls varying from 9 inches to 10 feet. And, again, to those at St. Blasier,
in the Black Forest, as instances of high falls, — the one lieing 70v feet, the
other 345 feet ; the one expending 5 cubic feet per second, the other 1 cubic
foot per second; the one being 56 horse power, the other very nearly 60
horse power ; the one giving an eiHciency of upwards of TO, the other of up-
wards of 80 per cent, of the theoretical efl^'ect. A drawing of the latter was
exhibited — full size. It is 14-j inches diameter. Its extreme dejith or breast
is -225 inch, or less than I. It makes 2,200 to 2,300 revolutions jier minute.
It serves a factory, in which are 8,000 water spindles, 34 fine and 36 coarse
carding-engiues, 2 cleansers, and other accessories. The conclusions drawn
by Morier from his experiments on these wheels with the Break dynamome-
ter, or friction strap, are these: — 1. That Turbines are with equal advantage
a])plicable for high and for low falls. 2. That their net useful effect equals
70 to 78 per cent, of the theoretical effect of the power. 3. That they may
work at speeds varying from

3-3 V 5-6 V

Where »i = number of revolutions; V = velocity due to fall; R = extreme
radius. The useful effect still not dift'ering notably from the maximum. 4.
That they work at ver)' considerable depths under water, the relation of use-
ful to theoretical effect not being thereby much diminished.

Mr. Smith (Deanstown) said, there was much in the principle for very high
and very low falls, and for varying falls. The principle had Ijeen long applied
in Perthshire, but in that part of the country a great velocity is obtained at a
great expenditure of power. — Prof. Gordon stated, that for all falls above 50
and below 10 feet, the Turbine is to be preferred.^Mr. Fairbairn : The com-
mon water-wheel at Gisors, in France, was made by himself and comparative
trials were made witli it against tlie Turbine. Mr. Fairbairn was quite satis-
fied, by Arago's experiments, and otherwise, that the Turbine is a very im-
portant machine, and gives a result of 70 to 75 per cent, of tlie theoretical
eflfect. — Mr. Smith proposed, that as he had peculiar facilities for experiment-
ing on the subject, he, along with Prof. Gordon and Mr. Fairbairn, should
investigate the comparative merits of the Tm-bine and other water-wheels
before tlie next meeting of the Association.

" On prodncing True Planes or Surfaces on Metals." By Mr. Jos. Whit-
worth.

Surface plates were exhibited, intended to illustrate the proper mode of
preparing surfaces where great accuracy is required. If one lie put upon the
other, it will float, until by its weight it has excluded some of the air, wheu
they will adhere together with considerable force. These surfaces were got
up without grinding. The only operations performed spon them were those
of planing, filing, and scraping. Practically, the excellence of a surface con-
sists in the number and equal distriliution of the bearing points ; the more
numerous these are, and the nearer together, the more perfect is tlieir action.
But, if a ground surface be carefully examined, the bearing points wUl be
generally found lying together in in'egular masses, vrith extensive cavities in-
tervening. The cause of this irregularity is evident in the unmanageable na-
ture of the process. The action of the grinding powder is under no control.
There are no means for securing its equal diflfusion, or for modifying its ap-
plication with reference to the particular condition of different parts of the
surface ; while the practical result is, that the mechanic neglects the proper
use of the file, knowing that grinding will follow, to efface all evidence either
of care or neglect. In various departments of the arts and manufactures, the
want of improvement in this respect is already felt. The valves of steam
engines, for example, the tallies of printing presses, stereotype plates, slides
of all kinds, require a degree of truth much superior to that they now possess,
for want of which there is great waste constantly accruing in time, in steam
power, in wear and tear, and, above all, in skill misapplied. The improve-
ments so much to be desired will follow upon the discontinuence of grinding,
The surface plate and the scraping tool will then come into vogue, and a new
field will be opened to the skill of the mechanic. Supposing him to be pro-
vided with a true surface plate, he will find no difficulty, after a little practice,
in bringing up his work to the required nicety. For this purpose he will find
it advantageous to employ a scraping tool made from a three-sided file, and
carefully sharpened on a Turkey stone, the use of which must be frequently
repeated. X light colouring matter, such as red chalk and oil, being spread
over the surface plate, and the work in hand applied thereto, friction will

cause the prominent places to be marked, which will instruct the experienced
mechanic where and liow to operate to the greatest advantage.

Mr. Scott Russell presented the Report of the Committee On the Form of
Vessels : the members of this Committee were Sir John Robison, Mr. Smith,
(Jordan Hill), and liimself.

Since their appointment by the Association, the Committee had been con-
stantly engaged in carrying out the various investigations committed to their
charge ; and it had been their earnest desire to discharge their duties in such
a manner as conclusively to settle the many important practical questions in
naval arcliitecture whicli were matters of uncertainty and dispute, especially
in reference to steam navigation. The importance of precise knowledge in
constructing a mercantile navy.shijis of war, and steam vessels, was reckoned
so great, that in almost all civilized kingdoms experiments had been under-
taken at the national expense, and Italy, Spain, Sweden, and France had ob-
tained by those means a very superior knowledge of the principles of the con-
struction of ships. In this country the labours of individuals had supplied
the only experiments of this nature ; and it was matter of regret, that these
were not of such a description as to furnish the ship-builder with any certain
foundation for rules of art. The new demand upon the invention of the naval
architect by the introduction of steam power, had also contributed much to
augment the disparity which already subsisted between the data of experi-
mental hydrodynamics and the demands of the practical builder of ships. It
had also been thought not improbable, that certain singular phenomena in
hydrodynamics, recently discovered, might considerably modify the views
hitherto entertained of the nature of fluid resistance ; and the Association
had, therefore, resolved on the appointment of this Committee, for the pur-
pose of giving this subject a thorough and searching examination. The first
subject of concern with the Committee, was the mechanism by whicli to con-
duct experiments on a scale sufticiently large to render the results of juactical
value, and at the same time sufficiently manageable to free the experiments,
as far as possible, from elements foreign to the immediate subject of examina-
tion. It was desirable to obtain, for experiment, a force capable of moving
the vessels subjected to experiment, through the water with an uniform force
and velocity capable of being continued for a considerable interval of time
over a considerable length of space. All the forms of apparatus hitherto
adopted for the purpose of experiment, were examined with the view of
adopting the best. None of them appeared fully to answer the end in view,
and it became necessary to invent another and better apparatus for giring
motion to the vessels. This had been found ; a simple contrivance of Mr.
Russell's had beeii adopted, by which a force, perfectly uniform, could lie ap-
plied witliout inconvenience throughout any given space, free from the usual
errors of friction, rigidity, &e., whicli had become interwoven with the results
of former experiments. This apparatus he regarded as an engine of experi-
ment so important to the future acquisition of knowledge of the resistance of
fluids, that he was desirous to communicate it to the distinguished men around
liim taking an interest in the sidiject, in order that if it met their approba-
tion, they might avail themselves of it in future investigation. He then pro-
ceeded to give a description, with illustrative drawings, of an apparatus by
which experiments were made of from a small scale up to 100 feet in length,
over a sheet of water from 100 feet to half a mile or a mile in length. For
each scale of experiment, strings, cords, and ropes of various thickness were
employed ; and for the most delicate experiments, a slender Indian fibre,
brought home by Sir John Robison, had lieen found most useful. Two
chroiiometers by Robert, of Paris, also brought over by Sir John Robison,
were employed with great advantage, as observations were obtained which
could be depended on within two-tenth parts of a second. The next point
to be determined was. tlie general metliod of conducting the experimental
inquiry, so as to elicit the most valuable truths, and those most apposite to
practical art. For this purpose the most eminent ship-builders were consult-
ed, as to the points upon wliicli they most wanted information, and were re-
quested to point out what were the forms of vessel which they would wish to
have tried. More than 100 models of vessels of various sizes, from 30 inches
to 25 feet in length, had been constructed. These were drawn tlirough the
water with various velocities, and at difl'erent degrees of immersion, so as to
determine the resistance of all the various forms that might be adopted in
practice, and enable the builder to adopt the form best suited to his purpose.
A large pile of papers, laid on the talile, contained the results of the experi-
ments, which were still continued. Of these experiments, different series
were conducted with very various objects. One class regarded the transverse
sections of sliips ; another the water-lines of the bow ; another the water-
lines of the stern; another the form of ribbaud-line and of buftock-hne;
another class, the place of greatest breadth, and so on. From these experi-
ments it resulted that vessels might be made fidler than usual at some points
and finer in others, with great advantage, A peculiar class of lines, called by
Mr. Russell " wave lines," appeared best adapted for high velocities both in
smooth water and at sea. It also appeared, that the manner in which the
particles were displaced by a moving body, and replaced themselves after its
passage, was very different from what was generally supposed. There also
appeared to be three different conditions of fluid motion and resistance, ac-
companied with distinct characteristic phenomena : motion slower than that
of the wave — motion on the wave — motion on wings of water. The last oc-
curred only at vei7 high velocities, and when two high and beautiful films of
water spread themselves in the air, and carried the boat as on gossamer wings
along the snrface of the water. Mr. Russell concluded the report, by stating,
that the experiments would soon be published, and submitted to the examina-

422

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[Deoembkr,

tion of those interested in the siiliject, in a form helter adaptcil to use than
that of verbal description. He lioped it would be found that tlieir experi-
ments had gone far to fill up one of the great desiderata of jiractical science.
Sir Jolm Robison stated, that the whole merit of imagining and conducting
he experiments belonged to Mr. Russell. — .Mr. Arch. Smith made some ob-
servations, disputing the matliematical accuracy of one of the illustrations
used bv Mr. Russell. — .Mr. Russell exjilained that the physical effect dilfered
in this instance from the niathematiral theoiT. — The Key. Mr. Brodie had
arrived, by calculation, at nearly the same results as Mr. Russell had by ex-
periment. Mr. Brodie hoiied Mr. Russell would ditect his attention to the
phenomena at very high velocities, such as fi'om 25 to 30 miles an hour. Mr.
Brodie's calculations h.ive led to such curious conchisinns. as to make him
stispect some mistake : he was, therefore, anxious that Mr. Russell should
prove their accuracy by his delicate exiierinients.

" On the Economy of Railways in resjiect of Gradients." By Mr. Vignoles.
Jlr. Vignoles stated that this was another subject, in addition to the former
one on timber bridges, selected from a general work ou the I'rinciples and
Economy of Railways, which he was preparing for publication. Looking to
the great cost of railways, he had turned his attention to a comi)arison of the
result of the working of railways, with the price paid for various degrees of
perfection. He disclaimed asserting that sh.irp curves or steep gradients were
preferable to straight and level lines, but he would endeavour to show th .t
good practicable lines might be and had Ijeen constructed, on which trains
sufficient for the traffic and public ':ccommodatioa could and did move at the
same, or nearly the same velocities. \nd with little, if any, additional expense.
Ou an average, the hitherto ascei ..iiucd cost of the principal lines might be
divided thus : —

Land 10 per cent.

Stations and carrying establishment 20 „

Management 10 „

Iron 10 „

Works of construction proper 50 „

100
though, of course, these items differed considerably in various railways, but
in general it might he said that the works of construction constituted one-
half of the whole first cost. He left out, on the present occasion, all con-
sideration of the saving of any of the items, except as to the works of con-
struction ; though it would not be difficult to show a reduction on these, to
the extent of at least one-half. Mr. ^'ignoles stated that he had analyzed
railway expenses of working, and had reduced them to a mileage, — that is,
the average expense per mile, per train, as deduced from several years' ex-
perience, and observations of various railways under different circumstances,
and with greatly difl'erent gradients, some of which lines were enumerated.
The result on passenger and light traffic lines was, that the total deductions
for expenditure from gross receipts was 3«. per mile per train ; 2s. (td. being
the least, and 3s. id. the highest ; and that this average seemed to hold good,
irrespective of gradients or curves. Particular lines might, from local circum-
stances, differ in detail, but he was satisfied fliat the following detail was a
fair average approximation : —

s. d.

Daily cost of locomotive power and repairs 1 6

Annual depreciation, sinking fund, and interest on stock, tools, shops,

and establishment 0 6

Daily and annual cost in carriage department 0 4

(iovernnient duty, office expenses, police, clerks, guards, management,

and maintenance of railway 0 8

3 0

It was not found practicable to distinguish the additional expense, if any,
arising from curves or gradients ; but as three-fourths of railway expenses
were quite independent of these curves, such addition must be small ; espe-
cially as, on the North Union Railway, a line which had 5 miles out of 22 in
the gradients of 1 in 100, or nearly 53 feet per mile, the total expenses were
less than on the Grand Junction Railway, and several other lines. Mr. Vig-
noles then proceeded to illustrate, by diagrams, the mode in which the
economy might be made in the works of construction, ou what he called the
Jirst sysfetn, by the occasional introduction of inclines of 50 and even CO feet
per mile, if not of too great a length ; and again, on the second systeem, by
introducing entire series of severe gradients, such as those of 30, 35, and 40
feet. On the first system, he had executed the Korth Union Railway ; and
had also thus designed all the goveinment railways to the south and west of
England. On the second system was the Bolton and Manchester Railway,
by the late Mr. Nimmo, Mr. Macneill's government railway lines to the north
districts of Ireland; and that engineer had lately altered the Dublin and Kil-
kenny, and the Dublin and Drogheda Railways, from better but more expen-
sive gradients, to those on the second system ; and Mr. Vignoles was about
to apply it to the DubUn and Kingstown Railway ; and he had set out the
whole extent of the Sheffield ami Manchester Railway, for 40 miles, on an
average gradient of nearly 10 feet ))er mile, mixed with occasional incUnations
of 1 in 100, and with curves of one-third mile radius. That work was now
under execution by Mr. Locke, who had succeeded Mr. Vignoles an engineer,
and who fully concurred in the general principles, — which, as also the details,
and the introdnction of timber viaducts on a large scale for economy, Mr.

Nicholas Wood ajiproved. Mr. Gibbs had also .idnptcd the saiu'! svstcm on
the first ten miles eastward of the Newcastle and Carlisle Railway. Mr.
Vignoles went on to state, that, on either one or both of these systems, in-
troduced as miglit he considered most advantageous by the directing engineer,
lines of railway might be laid out so as not to exceed 10,000/. per mile, being
jiarticularly applicable where fertile, populous, and manufacturing districts,
or the metropolis, with the extremes of the empire, had to be connected
through difficult and unproductive districts. Mr. Vignoles concluded by re-
marking, that when a continued stream of heavy Iraftic justified the ex]>ense,
he saw no reason to \ary from the general rules adopted hitherto by engineers
for laying out railways, or from his own former opinions and jn^actice. But
it was forced on him by daily experience, that, to accommodate the public
convenience, the Post Office arrangements, and business in general, it was
scarcely once in twenty times that a locomotive engine went out with more
than half its load, and in general the engines were only worked up to two-
fifths of their full power : he was, therefore, conclusively of opinion, that it
was much cheaper to put ou additional engines on extraordinary occasions;
and on such principle railways shoidd be constructed through the more re-
mote parts of the country, so as to be made in the cheapest possible manner.
The possession of all \hc profit alle lines of railway by private companies, was
likely to throw on the government theon«s of constructing their lines through
such districts, in which case economy was desu'able : or, if not to be con-
structed by the government, then was economy still more important; for
Scotland, Ireland, Wales, and western and eastern England would want rail-
ways, until some such system as those now promulgated could be brought to
bear in the laying out lines of internal conimimicatiou.

Mr. Roherfs entirely concurred with Mr. A'ignoles with regard to the gra-
dients and curves, as also to the propriety of the economy of adopting timber
bridges, and so reducing the price of conveyance to the public. — Mr. Vignoles
being asked whether, in the gradients of 1 in 100, on the North Union line,
any practical danger was to be apprehended, stated that no danger whatever
was apprehended ; and tliat, on these gradients of 1 in 100, the trains tra-
velled doivn at full speed, or about forty miles per hour.

Mr. Jeftreys described a fire-grate, exhibited in the model-room, which
may be placed, he said, so far forwards as to be (pnte out of the chimnej',
and radiate a two-fold quantity of heat into the apartment ; and yet there
shall be no tendency to send smoke into the room. By an addition, in ac-
cordance with the same principle, fresh air is introduced, comfortably warm-
ed before it enters the room.

" Timber Bridget."

Mr. Mitchell observed, that Mr. Vignoles liaving drawn attention to the
subject of Timber Bridges, with reference to their application to the econo-
mical construction of Railways, he begged to report the result of some ex-
perience in works of this nature in the Highlands of Scotland, .\bout twelve
years ago he had erected a bridge across the Spey, consisting of an arch of
100 feet span ; another about six years since of two arches of 100 feet span,
with stone abutments and piers ; a third across the Dee, of five arches of 75
feet span, with timber piers; besides a number of others of smaller dimensions.
Economy was the chief object in building bridges of this material. It was
found they were one-third less expensive ; that across the Dee with timber
piers less than lialf: the period of duration he found to be from thirty to forty
years ; the accumvdated value of the saving being more than equivalent to
rebuilding the structure. In his opinion, viaducts of this material might be
beneficially applied in the construction of railways, of course being suitably
constructed to resist the violent action and heavy weights of railway trains.
He was glad to hear that Mr. Vignoles considered that railways might be
constructed with gradients so much steeper than what has been hitherto con-
sidered practically advantageous. Of course, there could be but one opinion
about the propriety of a level and direct line both for safety and speed : but
the subject was of great importance to Scotland, where neither the country
admits nor the traffic demands such perfect construction. He thought prac-
tical exjicriraents should be made on the amount of locomotive traction at
different inclinations, and with difl'erent rates of speed ; it appears that hitherto
engineers had acted more by theory than observation. One fact he would
mention. On a railway recently constructed, he found, that with inclinations
of from 1 in 70 to 1 in 100, locomoti\es travelled nearly at full speed, and at
one point, an inclined jdaiic of half a mile with a gradient of 1 in 22, a train
of loaded carriages, with a gross weight of thirty-five tons, was drawn up
with ease, of course at a reduced speed, but not such as to affect tlie general
rate of travelling ; the carriages also passed along curves with radii less than
500 feet.

" On the application of Native Alloy for Compass Pivots." By Capt. E. J.
Johnson, R.N.

Among those portions of a ship's compass which most affect its working,
are the jiivots and caps on which the needle and card traverse, and which,
like the balance of a chronometer (but of far more importance to the practi-
cal navigator), should not only be fitted witli the most scrupulous attention
to accuracy, but be made of materials capable of maintaining a given form
under the trials to which such instruments are necessarily exi)Osed. Having
examined a great variety of compasses wliich had been used at sea, wiierein
Capt. Johnson noticed that their pivots were generally injured, and often by
rust, he searched numerous records of experiments for its |)revention, and for
improving the quality of steel in other respects, by means of alloys of plati-
num, palladium, silver, &c. (he alluded particlarly to the experiments of Dr.

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THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

423

Faraday and Mr. Stodflart) ; aiid Mr. Pepys liaving obligingly sujiplied Capt.
Johnson ^\'ith specimens of similar kinds of steel lo those used by them, these
examples, together with pivots made of the ordinary kind of steel, and har-
dened and tempered in the manner recommended by eminent instrument-
makers, were placed in a frame for experiment ; and to these again Captain
Johnson added certain contrivances of his own, such as rubbing a steel pivot
with sal-ammoniac, then dipping it into zinc in a state of fusion, and after-
wards changing the extreme point. Some specimens he coated with a mix-
ture of powdered zinc, oil of tar, and turjieutine ; and others again were set
in zinc pillars, having small zinc caps, through which the extreme point of
the pivot protnided after the manner of black lead through pencil tubes.
The whole of the specimens were then placed in a cellar, occasionally exposed
to the open air, examined from time to time during more than half a year,
and their several states, as respected oxidation, duly registered. Without
going into the details of this register, the general result was, that not any of
the kinds of steel pivots used in this trial, except such as were coated with
zinc, remained free from rust, while the ])ivot made of the "native alloy''
which is found with platinum, completely retained its brilliancy. Captain
Johnson then applied a more severe test to this singular substance, first, by
placing sulphuric acid, and then nitio-muriatic acid upon it ; but even under
this trial he could not observe that any change had been effected, although
the blade of a penknife, subjected to a similar process, was rusted to the cen-
tre. Having enumerated the facts respecting the trials to which he had sub-
jected this curious material, Capt. Johnson stated the conclusion that he had
come to, namely, that it is sufficiently tough not to break, and hard enough
not to bend, under the trials to which it would he fairly exposed; and that
being alike free from magnetic properties and liability to oxidation from ex-
posure to the atmosphere, it possesses the requisite {pialities for the iiivot of
the mariner's compass ; and he could not but anticipate that, when fitted
with a ruby cap to cori'espond, it would lie found greatly to improve the
working. Besides the application of this substance for compass pivots, Capt.
Johnson stated that it might probably be found advantageous for other in-
struments, and especially for the points of the axes of the dipping needles
fitted, on Mr. Fox's plan, for use on board ship.

Mr. Hawkins has used this "native alloy" for several years in tipping the
points of pens, and not a single instance exists of any of these pens showing
the least symptom of wear. He tried native alloy on a cap, in comparison
with ruby, when he found that in the same circumstances, the ruby was
ground away with diamond dust twice as rapidly as the native alloy. He had
made engravers' tools of the same metal, and when made too sharp they can-
not be blunted on the Turkey stone, but only by diamond dust.— Su- J.
Kohison could bear testimony to one of Mr. Hawkins's pens, which he had
used for years, not being at all changed. — Mr. Hawkins stated that this alloy
consists of native crystals of osmium and iridium in conjunction with plati-
num.

Mr. Lang " On an Improvement on the Air Pump." A letter from this
gentleman was read, but from some mistake, the paper itself had not been
received.

INSTITUTION OF CIVIL ENGINEERS.

" On the Properties and Chemical Constitution of Coal, with Remarks on
the ]\/ethods of increasing its Calorific Effect, and prevent iuf/ the Loss which
occurs duririrj its Combustion." By Charles Hood, F.R.A.S., &c.

It appears that, previous even to the invasion of the Romans, coal was
used as a fuel in Great Britain ; but such was the prejudice against it, that
wood was the fuel generally in use among the higher classes until the
eighteenth century, when the supply of it diminished so considerably as to
render necessaiT the substitution of coal ; and from that time the increase in
its consumption has been immense.

Previously to the seventeenth century, the smelting of iron and all other
metals was performed by charcoal ; but the attempts of Sturtevant and Ra-
venson in 1612-13, and of Dudley in 1619, to introduce the use of coal or
coke in blast furnaces having proved the possibility of success, the progress
of the innovation, though slow, was certain, and led to the transfer of the
iron works from many of the original positions in the midst of forests to the
coal districts where they are now placed.

The author considers his subject under three heads :— -1st, The chemical
character and composition of coal ; 2ndly, Its properties as a combustible ;
and 3dly, The nature and application of its various gaseous products.

1st. The opinion that coal is a compound of carbon and bitumen has been
objected to by some chemists, on the gi'ound that Ijy no process hitherto
pursued in analyses has it been possible to resolve it entirely into these two
substances ; even at a low temperature a quantity of gaseous matter is thrown
oif, and at an elevated degree of heat an evident decomposition of the bitu-
men takes place. Even anthracite contains a small portion of volatile matter,
its coniiionent parts being carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen; the hy-
drogen being either combined with the oxygen to form water, or with a
small portion of carbon to form carburetted hydrogen, which exists in a
gaseous state in the pores of the coal. In bituminous coal, the hydrogen is
combined with a larger proportion of oxygen and nitrogen ; the mechanical
difference being, that the bituminous and free-burning coals (more particu-
larly) melt by heat when the bitumen reaches the boiling point, whereas

anthracite is not fusible, nor will it change its form, until it is exposed to a
much higher degree of temperature.

Two tables of the analyses of different coals are given from the authorities
of Jfuslict, Thomson, Vannxem, Daniel], Ure, aud Keynault ; No. 1 showing
the proportions of carbon, ashes, and volatile matter, with the specific gravity
of the coal and of the coke ; and No. 2 showing the proportions of carbon,
hydrogen, azote, and oxygen. These tables show that the lai-gest quantity of
carbon (92'87) is contained in llie Kilkenny anthracite, and the least quan-
tity (61-72) in Cannel coal ; and that the nature of the volatile matter greatly
afi'ects the quantity of coliC — the aggregate quantity of the gaseous products
of coking, splint, and cherry coal, being very nearly similar; while the quan-
tity of coke obtained from these different species varies more than 45 per
cent.

The author then points out the continual presence of azote, which quits
the base with the greatest difficulty ; and also the affinity of sul])hu]', not
only for the coal, but for the coke, as it is rarely found to have been com-
pletely expelled, even from the most jierfectly made coke ; the only coal
found to be even partially free from it being anthracite, in some species of
which no traces of its presence are found.

2dly. The application of coal as a fuel depends on the chemical change
which it undergoes in uniting, by the agency of heat, mth some body for
which it possesses a powerful affinity. In all ordinary ease? this effect is
produced by its union with oxygen. AThen coal is entirely consumed, the
carbon is wholly converted into carbonic acid gas and carbonic oxide, and
the hydrogen into water in a state of vapour. The atmosphere supplies the
necessai-y oxygen for this puqjosc ; and in this state the products of the com-
bination are nearly or quite invisible, both of them being almost colourless
fluids ; if, therefore, any smoke be visible, it is the result of imperfect com-
bustion. Some calculations are given to ascertain the amount of loss that is
sustained when the smoke escapes unconsumed; from which it appears, that
with bituminous coal about 37 or 38 per cent, more heat is produced when
the smoke is consumed than when it escapes freely. Many modes of con-
suming smoke have been attempted ; those which appear to have been at-
tended with the greatest success are — 1st. Causing the smoke from the fresh
coals to pass through or over that portion of the fuel which is more perfectly
ignited; 2dly. Supplying heated air to the top of the fuel, as well as admit-
ting cold air through the ash-pit in the usual manner; and 3dly, Throwing
a jet of steam into the furnace or into the chimney. The various modes of
earning into effect these plans are briefly alhuled to ; from them a few may
be selected. Robertson's plan was to use inclined furnace bars, where the
fresh coals were placed close to the fire-door, and lieing there partially car-
bonized, gave out the gas, which, in passing over the mass of incandescent
fuel, was ignited, and became active flame, thus economizing fuel aud pre-
venting smoke. In this and similar cases, by the slow distillation of the coal,
a gas is jiroduced, which not only inflames at a lower temperature than the
dense defiant gas produced by rapid distillation, but which only requires for
its combustion a quantity of oxygen never exceeding double its own volume,
or ten times its bulk of atmosjilieric air, wliile defiant gas requires three
times its own volinne of oxygen, or fifteen times its bulk of atmospheric air.
The elimination of a gas which burns with so small a portion of oxygen is,
therefore, the principal cause of the non-production of smoke in furnaces of
this description. The second mode of consuming smoke is founded on the
necessity which exists for a large supply of air being requisite to inflame the
gases given oflT from coal by a rapid and intense heat ; and this is accom-
plished by introducing a qiiantity of heated air above the burning fuel. When
a qua)itity of fuel is thrown into a funiace, the increased thickness of the
mass opposes additional resistance to the passage of air through the bars ;
the temperature of the furnace is lowered, and an increased volume of gas is
at the same time given out. If at this moment a quantity of air, heated to
the temperature of the gas, be admitted, the gas immediately inflames, and
that which would have produced a dense black smoke passes oft' in the in-
visible state of carbonic acid gas and vapour of water. Different gases re-
quire dift'erent degrees of heat to inflame them ; and this explains the easy
combustibility of the volatile products of coal when the heat is so managed
as to produce those gases which inflame at the lowest temperature. A larger
quantity of air is required at the time that the coal is first thrown on than at
a subsequent period ; therefore, when economy is studied, the supply of air
should be gradually diminished as the mass approaches an incandescent state.
The use of heated air has produced most important results in the manufacture
of iron with bituminous coal, and also with anthracite; the latter fuel having
been almost neglected until the recent application of this principle of era-
ploying heated air to promote its combustion, although it is known to be
capable of producing perhaps a more intense heat than any other carbo-
naceous fuel. The rationale of the third plan of consuming smoke by in-
jecting a jet of steam into the fire or the chimney, is less obvious than the
others. In 1805, Mr. Danes Gilbert observed, that whenever the waste
steam of one of Trevithick's engines was permitted to escape into the chim-
ney, the smoke from the coal was rendered invisible. Subsequent expeii-
ments confirmed this fact; and it was supposed that the steam, being
decomposed, furnished oxygen to support combustion. The author combats
this opinion, and accounts for the efl'ect by the increased draught of the
furnace caused by the jet of steam into the chimney, by which means a larger
portion of air is brought into contact with the burning fuel ; thus supplying
the previous deficiency of oxygen to the fire, and promoting the combustion.
As steam is only about half the weight of air at a like temperature, and the

40 1

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

TDecembkr.

power of all gaseous flniils to ascend is " inversely as the square roots of their
specific gravities," the velocity of its escape hy the chimney, compared with
common air of the same temperature, is about as 1'4 to 1; therefore the
compnund mixture of steam, air, and carbonic acid gas, will escape with a
considerably increased velocity, and more air must consequently enter the
furnace. It appears that about 10 per cent, of the total quantity of steam
generated is necessary to effect the combustion of the smoke by this means;
therefore, unless the waste steam only be used, the saving of the fuel must
be reduced by this amount. Brief mention is made of the experiments of
Messrs. Apsley Pellatt, Parkes, and the Chevalier de Pambour, proving that
a given quantity of oven coke will produce as much heat as the coal from
•which it was produced ; and of the various kinds of artificial fuels which had
been invented, especially that composed of resin and peat coke, of which the
author remarks that its combustion probably produces a mechanical effect,
as the hydrogen is converted into water in a state of vapour, which escapes
through" the chimney with a great velocity, and consequently a large quan-
tity of air is drawn into the furnace, and a more perfect combustion of the
fuel is the result. In the same manner he accounts for the necessity which
exists for having the openings between the bars wider in a furnace in which
coke is burned than in one used for coal. In opposition to the general
opinion, he considers that less air is required for the consumption of coke
than for coal ; the carbon only requiring 21 times its weight of oxygen for
its combustion, while the hydrogen contained in coal requires 8 times its
weight of oxygen ; and the only reason that the openings between the bars
are required to he wider in the former tlian in the latter case, is in conse-
quence of the draught being so much slower during the combustion of coke

.■Jdly. " On the nature and application of the volatile products of coal." In
treating this portion of the subject — many of the observations on which have
l)een necessarily anticipated in the preceding sections — the author traces the
ajiplication of carburetted hydrogen gas to the purposes of artificial illumi-
nation from the year 1798, when its first successful application was made by
Murdock at Soho ; lie then proceeds to Dr. Henry's investigations of the
phenomena of its production and combustion ; the variation of the intensity
of light obtained from carburetted hydrogen, due to the proportion of carbon
contained in it; the difference in the gas olttained from different qualities of
coal ; the superiority of the illuminating power of the gas from Cannel coal ;
and the still greater power of that produced from the decomposition of oi],
which is 2 to 2i times greater than that of coal gas. He then mentions the
other products of coal by distillation, such as ammoniacal liquor, carbonic
acid and oxide, sulphuretted hydrogen, tar, essential oil, naphtha, petroleum,
asphaltum, and other substances. The paper concludes by jjointing out the
advantages which would result from the jiioduction of such gas as is usually
given out at the beginning of the distillation of coal, as it contains 2 volumes
of gaseous carbon united with 2 volumes of hydrogen, and its illuminating
power is consequently more than double that of ordinary coal gas.

Mr. Parkes observed, that the quantities of air required for the combustion
of different fuels as determined in the laboratory and on the large scale of
practice, were frequently very different. It might be quite correct that a
given weight of coal would require more air for its perfect combustion than
the same weight of coke. There was great difficulty in ascertaining the fact
practically, under steam-boilers, as the gases given out by the coal must have
air supplied to them distinct from that which passed tlirougb the grate to
ensure their perfect ignition, and many circumstances prevented the con-
sumption of air from being exactly measured. Generally, be bad found it
necessary to use wider spaces between the grate bars for coke than for coal.
In some'late experiments very carefully made on a boiler invented by Mr.
A. M. Perkins, equal weights of coal and coke required the same time for
their destruction on the same grate, the apertvu'es of the damper and ash-pit
door, which were used to govern the draught being precisely the same. Coke
effected a greater evaporation than coal at similarly rapid and slow rates of
combustion ; and in every case the temperature of an oil bath at the foot of
the chimnev was higher with coke than with coal. It must, however, be
remarked, tliat no process had been used to ignite the gases which escaped
from the furnace uniuflamed. He had tried different kinds of coke, coal, and
anthracite at this boiler, and the same fuel in every instance performed a
greater evaporative effect at a slow than at a rapid rate of combustion. He
thought that much of the air which entered the grate of a boiler passed
through the fire unconsumed, for want of time to effect a sufliciently intiuiate
combination with the fuel. In some experiments lately made at Swansea on
the properties of anthracite. Dr. Schaftcutl had found from analysis, that no
less than 40 per cent, of the products of combustion taken from the chimney
consisted of oxygen, yet he had effected the large evaporation of 11 lb. of
water with 1 lb. of that fuel.

Mr. Field stated, that Mr. Cooper had expressed an opinion that in the
use of coke as a fuel, a less portion of heat reached the chimney than with
coal, on account of the large quantity of unconsumed air that ])assed through
the fire, owing to the open spaces necessarily existing between the pieces of
such a dry fuel as coke ; whereas in a fire made of binding coal, nearly the
whole of the air combined with tlie fuel in its passage through the body of
fire.

Mr. Pellatt observed, that although in practice coke appeared to reqmrc
more air to support combustion than coal did, yet long experience had taught
him to believe that when coal was exposed to a rapid combustion, it required
more air than coke.

In answer to an observation that some experiments lately made on the

measurement of the quantity of air which entered the blast furnaces of Sir
John Guest at the Dowlais Iron Works might bear on this subject — Mr.
Farey objected to the application of such results to determine the question,
as the air is injected with considerable force into a furnace; there is fie-
quently a great reflux of blast from the Tuyere when the furnace is workiiig
close; whereas when it is working open tlie flame at the top shows that the
l>assage of the air through the mass of burning fuel is very free, and that
consequently a portion of it passes off unconsumed. He had found in his
experiments on blast furnaces, that unless there was a redundancy of carbon,
and a deficiency of oxygen, there was no chance of making good iron.

May 26t/t. — The President in the Chair.

The following were balloted for and elected : — Thomas Illman, Joseph
Chessborough Dyer, and G. S. Saunderson, as Associates.

'■ On a new Mode of Coreriny Roofs with Planking." By William Cubitt,
Assoc. Inst. C. E.

The roof itself is framed in the usu.il manner with principals and purlins,
but without rafters. The boards intended for the covering are cut, by means
of a circular saw, from planks 7 inches wide by 2i inches thick, in such
manner that each plank makes Xv;o boards, the one tapering from its centre
towards the edges, the other from its edges towards the coitre. The hollow
boards are laid side by side, at intervals of 41- iuches, and nailed to the pur-
lins by their centres only, so as to admit of shrinking ; the intervening spaces
are then covered by the other boards, overlapping \^ inch on each edge, and
nailed in like manner. The covering thus formed presents a series of alter-
nate elevations and depressions, longitudinally from the ridge to the gutter,
and consequently the rain falls off very rapidly, and a roof so constructed is
easily kept water-tight. The author conceives this to be the most economical
mode of using timber for covering, and he has adopted it extensively. The
communication was accompanied by a model of the roof and specimens of
the hoards as they are left by the saw.

'* On Lony and Short Connecting-rods for Marine Eityines."

A letter was read from Ardaseer Cursetjee, of Bombay, in^^ting a discussion
on the relative advantages of long and short connecting rods for marine
engines. He was induced to make inquiry on this subject from some obser-
vations in a communication to the Institution, relative to the engines of the
steam tug the " Alice " (Minutes of Proceedings, page 385). In that paper
their superiority is in part attributed to the increased length of the coimecting
rods. This is the point upon which he requests information, as he conceives
that the power of the piston upon the crank is the same whatever may be
the medium through which it is transmitted, and the effect to be the same
throughout a complete revolution, whetlier the connecting rod be long or
short, except that from the increased angle of a very short connecting rod
some additional friction is thrown upon the joints.

On the general construction of the engine of the " Alice," he remarks, that
engines of similar form are now used for pumping at the Tliames Tunnel
under Mr. Brunei's direction ; and that a pair of engines of this kind were
built by Messrs. Seaward, 13 years ago, for the " Staadt Francfort " steam-
boat, to ply between Francfort and Coblentz ; in this instance, the cylinders
were firmly fixed to the bed-plate and sleepers, with the cross bars above the
cylinders, thus having one connecting rod only leading to the cranks, which
he considers a superior arrangement to that of the engines of the " Alice."

A drawing of the engines of the " Staadt Francfort " accompanies the
communication.

A letter was read from Mr. John Cooper, of Dover, describing the effect of
the worm (Teredo navalis) on several kinds of timber which had been ex-
posed to the action of sea water. The kinds of timber on which the experi-
ments were made were fir, English oak, and African oak ; specimens of each
sort, some Kyauized and the others unprepared, having been tried under ex-
actly similar circumstances on the piles of the south ]iier of Dover harbour.
The results show that Kyanizing timber does not in any degree protect it ;
as, after exposure from December 1837 until May 1840, it was fouml that
the worm made equal ravages among all the specimens. The author also
tried the process of saturating timber with copperas water, but did not find
any good result from it. In July 1835, he placed under water some 2-incli
oak planks which had been prepared with copperas ; and on examining theiu
in May 1840, they were found to lie as much attacked by the worm as the
worst specimens of unprepared fir timber which had been exposed for a similar
length of time. The African oak resisted the attack of the worm better than
either fir or English oak.

It was stated that Teak timber resisted the attacks of the worm and of the
white ant, which destroy all other kinds of timber. It is, however, liable to
injury from the attacks of liarnaoles.

•' On the Corrosion of Cast and Jl'ronght Iron in Water." By Kobert
Mallet, Assoc. Inst. C. E'., &c.

This communication is one of those forwarded to the Institution in conse-
quence of the Council having considered this subject a suitable one to com-
pete for the Telford Premiums ; and the author having been long engaged in
making experiments on this subject at the request of the British Association,
refers in the introductory part of this paper to the contents of that report,
which may be viewed as a '■ precis" of the state of our knowledge on the
subject to tlie year 1S39, together with original researches forming the basis
of the present results. This communication is accompanied by a most elabo-

1840.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

425

rate set of tables of results ; but these laborious investigations being yet in
progress, the author directs his special attention to so much only of the sub-
ject as may be necessary for their elucidation, divesting his remarks as much
as possible' of a purely chemical character, and contiuing them to those prac-
tical conclusions which are of immediate use and importance of the engineer.

The tables of results are altogether twelve in number. The first five con-
tain the data and results of the chemical or corroding action of sea and fresh
water on cast and wrought iron under five several conditions, during a period
of a year and ten months ; and these five series of experiments are so co-
ordinate with each other as to form one connected and comparable whole,
whence the relative rates and absolute amounts of corrosion of cast and
wrought iron — by, 1. clear sea water, 2. foul sea water, 3. clear sea water at
temperature 115° F., 4. foul river water, and 5. clear river water — may be
ascertained. The corrosive action of water and au' combined produces on the
surface of csst or wrought iron a state of rust possessing one of the five fol-
lowing characteristics — 1. Uniform, 2. uniform with plumbago, 3. local pitted,
4. local pitted, 5. tubular — or of two or more of these characteristic condi-
tions in combination ; these facts for 82 different specimens of British and
Irish cast iron- -together with their original external characters, mode in
which they were cast, specific gi'avity, dimension and weight before and after
immersion, loss of weight per square inch of surface, this loss referred to a
standard bar, and the weight of water absorbed for clear sea water — compose
Table I. The four subsequent tables contain similar results for specimens of
iron immersed under the other four conditions mentioned above. These five
tables contain also the results of the corrosion of certain cast iron protected
by either of ten several paints or varnishes, the results of which are compara-
ble with those for the unprotected iron. Table VI. exhibits the general com-
parison of the results set forth in the preceding tables for specimens of iron
one inch thick, and reduced to one common or equal period of immersion.
Table VII. shows the average loss of all varieties of cast iron experimented
on per square inch of surface. Table VIII. the average calculated amount of
coiTosion (assumed uniform) of various specimens of east and wrought iron
per superficial foot of surface at the end of one century. From these tables
it appears, that the metallic destruction or con-osion of the iron is a maximum
in clear sea water of the temperature of 115' F. — that it is nearly as great in
foul sea water — and a minimum in clear fresh river water.

Iron under certain circumstances is subject to a peculiar increase of corro-
sive action — as, for instance, cast iron piling at the mouth of tidal rivers—
from the following cause. The salt water being of greater density than the
fresh, forms at certain times of tide an under current, while the upper or
surface water is fresh ; these two strata of different constitutions coming in
contact with the metal, a voltaic pile of one solid and two fluid elements is
formed ; one portion of the metal will be in a positive state of electrical ac-
tion with respect to the other, and the corrosive action on the former portion
is augmented. The lower end of an iron pile, for instance, under the circum-
stances just mentioned, will be positive with respect to the other, and the
corrosion of the lower part will be augmented by the negative state of the
iipper portion, while the upper will be iVse^ preserved in the same proportion.
From this theoretical view may be deduced the important practical conclu-
sion, that the lower parts of all castings subject to this increased action should
have increased scantling.

The increased corrosive action of Jbul sea water may be referred to the
quantity of hydrosulphuric acid disengaged from putrifying animal matter in
the mud, converting the hydrated oxides and carbonate of iron into various
sulphurets, which again are rapidly oxidized further under certain conditions,
and becoming sulphates are washed away. Hence the rai)id decay of iron in
the sewage of large cities, and of the bolts of marine engines exposed to the
bilge water. The corrosive action being least in fresh water may be partly
referred to this being a worse voltaic conducting fluid than salt water.

It appears also that wrought iron sufl'ers the greatest loss by corrosion in
hot sea water ; which fact has led the author to inquiries, with reference to
marine boilers, at what point of concentration of the salt water, whether
when most dilute, after the common salt has begun to deposit, or at a farther
stage of concentration, the corrosive action on wrought iron is the greatest,
and he points out the important practical use which can be made of this in-
formation. It appears also, that the removal of the exterior skin of a casting
greatly increases the corrosive action of salt water and its combined air, so
that the index of corrosion under these circumstances is not much less than
that of wrought iron, and in clear river water is greater.

It farther appears, that chilled cast iron corrodes faster than the same sort
of cast iron cast in green sand, and that the size, scantling, and perhaps form
of a casting, are elements in the rate of its corrosion in water. The explana-
tion of these facts is to be found in the want of homogenity of substance,
and the consequent formation of numerous voltaic couples, by whose action
the corrosion is promoted. It is also observable that the corroded sm-face of
all these chilled specimens is tubular.

It appears also that, in castings of equal weight, those of massive scantling
have proportionately greater durability than those of attenuated ribs and
feathers. Hence appears also the great advantage of having all castings, par-
ticularly those intended to be submerged, cooled in the sand, so as to insure
the greatest possible uniformity of texture. The principles now stated afford
an explanation of the fact often observed, that the back ribs of cast iron sheet
piling decay much faster than the faces of the piles. It is also probable that
castings in dry sand and loam will, for these reasons, be more durable than
those cast in green sand. The general residt of all these experiments gives

a preference to the Welsh cast iron for aquatic purposes, and to those which
possess closeness of grain. Generally, the more homogeneous, the denser
and closer grained, and the less graphytic, the smaller is the index of corro-
sion for any given specimen or make of cast iron.

The author next proceeds to the important question of the protection
afforded by paints and varnishes. White lead perishes at once in foul water,
both fresh and salt ; and caoutchouc dissolved in petroleum appears the most
durable in hot water, and asphaltum varnish or boiled coal tar laid on while
the iron is hot under all circumstances. The zinc paint, which is now so
much noticed as an article of commerce, the author has analyzed, and states
its composition as —

Sulphuret lead

Oxide zinc

Metalhc zinc

Sesqui-oxide iron .

Silica

Carbon

Loss

905
415
81-71
0-14
1-81
1-20
1-94

100-

It may, a priori, be considered likely to produce a most excellent body for a
sound and durable paint under water. The black oxide of mangar\ese has no
advantages but that of being a powerful drier. The defects of all oil paints
arise from the instability of their bases ; the acids which enter into the con-
stitution of all fixed oils readily quit their weakly positive organic bases to
form salts with the oxides of the metal on which they may be laid. Hence
we must look for improvements in our paints to those substances among the
organic groups which have greater stability than the fat or fixed oils, and
which, in the place of being acid or Haloid, are basic or neutral. The heavy
oUy matter obtained from the distillation of resin, called " resenien." and
eupion, obtained from rapeseed oil, have valuable properties as the bases o£
paints.

Tables IX. and X. contain the results as to the corrosion of cast iron in
sea water when exposed in Voltaic contact with various alloys of copper and
zinc, copper and tin, or either of these metals separately, per square inch of
surface. It appears that neither brass nor gun metal has any electro-chemi-
cal protective power over iron in water, but on the contrary promotes its
coiTOsion. This question is only a particular case of the following general
question : viz. if there be three metals, A. B. C, whereof A. is electro-posi-
tive, and C. electro-negative, with respect to B., and capable of forming
various alloys, 2A + C....A-(-C....A + 2C; then if B. be immersed in a
solvent fluid in the presence of A., B. will be electro-cheraically preserved,
and A. corroded, and vice versa. If B. be so immersed in the presence of C,
B. will be dissolved or corroded, and C. electro-chemically preserved ; the
amount of loss sustained in either case being determined according to Fara-
day's " general law of Volta-equivalents." The tables show that the loss
sustained by cast iron in sea water, as compared to the loss sustained by aa
equal surface of the same cast iron in contact with copper, is 8'23: I1'37;
and when the cast iron was in contact with an alloy containing 7 atoms of
copper and 1 of zinc, the ratio was 8'23 : 13'21 ; so that the addition in this
proportion of an electro-/;osi7it'e metal to the copper produces an alloy (a
new metal, in fact) with higher electro-negative powers, in respect to cast
iron, than copper itself. The author discusses many results equally remark-
able, and is therefore enabled to suggest by its chemical notation the alloy of
" no action," or that which in the presence of iron and a solvent would
neither accelerate nor retard its solution, one of the components of this alloy
being slightly electro-negative, and the other slighly electro-positive, with
respect to cast iron. These results will also enable some advances to be
made towards the solution of the important problem proposed by the author
in his former report, viz. " the obtaining a mode of electro-chemical protec-
tion, such that while the metal (iron) shall be preserved, the protector shall
not be acted on, and the protection of which shall be invariable."

Table X. exhibits especially the results of the action of sea water on cast
iron in the presence of copper and tin or their alloys. It appears that copper
and tin being doth electro-negative with respect to cast iron, all their alloys
increase or accelerate the rate of corrosion of cast iron in a solvent, though ia
very variable degrees ; the maximum increase is produced by tin alone, thus
indicating that this metal (contrary to what was previously believed) is more
electro-negative to cast iron than copper. Hence the important practical de-
duction, that, where submerged, works in iron must be in contact with either
alloy, viz. brass or gun metal ; common brass, or copper and zinc, is much to
be preferred. These experiments %viU also serve to demonstrate the fallacy
of many of the patented so-called preservatives from oxidation, which are
brought before the public with so much parade.

The author lastly proceeds to the subject of the specific gravity of cast ii'on,
tables of which aie added to the preceding. The specific gravities here re-
corded were taken on equal sized cubes of the several cast irons cut by the
planing machine, from bars of equal size, cast at the same temperature, in
the same way. and cooled in equal times. Many of these results differ con-
siderably from those given by Dr. Thompson and Mr. Fairbairn ; which the
author refers to the probability that those of Dr. Thompson were taken from
pieces of the raw pig, and those of Mr. Fairbaurn by weighing in air equal
bulks cut from the mass by the chisel and file, by which latter process the
volume is liable to condensation. The experiments of Mr. Fairbairn and Mr.

3 M

42r,

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[Dkcember,

Eaton lloilgkinson seem to show that tlie ultimate strength of cast iron is in
the ratio of some function of the specific gravity dependant upon the follow-
ing conditions : viz. 1. the bulk of the casting ; 2. the de))tli or head of metal
under which the casting was made ; 3. the temperature at which the iron was
poured into the mould ; 4. the rate at which the casting was cooled.

Tahle XI. All the irons experimented on are arranged in classes, according
to the cliaracter of the fracture; for which piu'pose the terms — 1. silverj', 2.
jnicaccous, 3. mottled, 4. bright grey, 5. dull grey, and 6. dark grey, have
been adopted hy the author as a sufficient basis on which to rest a uniform
system of nomenclature for the physical characters of all cast irons, as recog-
nisable by their fracture ; and it is to be wished that experimenters in future
would adopt this or some other uniform syitem of description, in place of
the vague and often incorrect characteristics commonly attached to the ap-
pearance of the fracture of cast iron.

The twelfth and last table contains the results of a set of experiments on
the important subject of the increase of density conferred on east iron, by
being cast uniler a considerable head of metal, the amoimt of which conden-
sation had not been previously reduced to numbers. It shows this increase
of density in large castings, for every 2 feet in depth, from 2 to 14 feet deep
of metal.

A very rapid increase of density takes place at first, and below 4 feet in
depth a ncaily uniform increment of condensation.

The importance of these results is obvious ; for, if the ultimate cohesion of
castings is as some function of their specific gravity, tlie results of experiments
in relation to strength, 7nade on casfiuffs of dijferent magnitudes, or cast un-
der different heads, can only be made comparable by involving their variable
specific gravities in the calculation.

June 2 — The President in the Chair.
The following were balloted for and elected : — Lieutenant T. il. Sale, B.E.,
and George Larmer, as Associates.

June 16 — The President in the Chair.
The following were balloted for and elected : — William Joiy Henwood, as
a Member ; John Thomas Cooper and John Oliver York, as Associates.

" On the Action of Steam as a Moving Power in the Cornish Single Punip-
ing Engine." By Josiah Parkes, M. Inst. C. E.

In this communication, the author presents a detailed analysis of some of
the facts collected and recorded by him in his former communications, with
the special object of ascertaining from the known consumption of water as
steam, the whole quantity of action developed — the quantity of action had it
been used unexpansively — the value of expansion — the correspondence be-
tween the power, and the resistance overcome— and, finally, a theory of the
steam action, with a view of determining the real causes of the economy of
the Cornish single pumping engine.

The data employed for the purposes of this investigation are those obtained
from the Iluel Towau engine by Mr. Henwood, from the llolmbush by Mr.
Wieksteed, and from the Fowey Consols, and recorded in the author's com-
munications in the Transactions of the Institution of CivU Engineers, Vols. 2
and 3.

Steam may be applied in one or other of the two following modes : expan-
sively, that is, when admitted into the cylinder at a pressure greater than the
resistance, and quitting it at a pressure less than the resistance ; or unexpan-
sively, that is, when its pressure on the piston is equal to the resistance
throughout the stroke. By the term economy in the use of steam, is meant
the increase in quantity of action obtaiued by the adoption of that mode
which produces the greatest effect.

The weight of pump-rods, &c., which effects the pumping or return stroke
in a Cornish engine is greater than the weight of the column of water, by the
amounts necessary to overcome the friction of the water in the pipes — to dis-
place the water at the velocity of the stroke — to overcome the friction of the
pitwork, and of the engine itself. The absolute resistance opposed to the
steam, consists of the weight which performs the return stroke, plus the fric-
tion of the engine and pitwork, and the elasticity of the uncondensed steam.

The water-load in the Huel Towau engine was very accurately ascertained
as 11 lbs. per square inch on the piston ; and it is shown that the additional
resistance amounted to 7 lbs. in the Huel Towan, and to Gibs, in the other
engines, so that the whole resistance in the Huel Towan engine is 18 lbs. per
square inch of the piston. Ts'ow, the elastic force of the steam at the termi-
nation of the stroke, and before the equilibrium valve is opened (ascertained
from the ratio of the volumes of steam and water consumed), is only 7 lbs.
per square inch, that is, 4 lbs. less than the water-load alone. The corres-
ponding results for the other two engines are equally remarkable, and show-
most distinctly that, at the termination of tlie stroke, the pressure of the
steam is far below the water-load, as had been previously observed hy Mr.
Henwood and others.

The next step in the analysis is to determine the portion of the stroke per-
formed when the pressure of the steam in the cylinder is just Ijelow the re-
sistance, and tlien to separate and estimate the spaces through which the
piston is driven respectively by steam of a pressure not less than the resistance,
and less tlian the resistance. These facts being ascestained, the virtual or
useful expansion, and the dynamic efficiency of the steam, during the two
portions of the stroke, are known ; and it appears that there is a deficiency
of power, as compared with the resistance overcome, of above 3 lbs. in the
Huel Towau, and more than 4 lbs. in the other engines, per square iuch on the
piston.

From these startling facts, and a careful examination of Mr. llcnwoorl's in-
dicator diagi'ams, the author was induced to inquire whether the jiiston had
not lieen impelled by a force altogether distinct from the continuous action of
the steam upon it, namely, by a force which is to be referred to the sudden
impact on the piston when the admission valve is so fully and instantaneously
0|>ened, as it is in these engines, and a free communication established be-
tween the cylinder and the boiler. To this instantaneous action on the pis-
ton, the author, for the sake of distinction, assigns the term percussion ; and,
proceeding to analyse the authentic facts under this view, it appears that the
space of the cylinder though which the piston was carried by virtue of this
percussive action was about 21 inches in the Huel Towan, 27 inches in the
llolmbush, and 33 inches in the Fowey Consols engines.

The resiUts thus unfolded, which are facts independent of any hypothesis,
appear less startling on a full consideration of the circumstances under which
the steam is admitted into the cyhnder. The engine has completed a stroke,
and is brought to rest by the cushion of steam between the piston and the
cyhnder cover ; a vacuum is formed on the other side of the piston ; the
elastic force of the steam in the cushion then nearly balances the resistance.
A communication is now suddenly opened between the cylinder and the boiler
containing steam of a high elasticity ; and the piston, being ready to move
with a slightly increased pressure, receives a violent impulse from the steam's
instantaneous action. The piston having started, the influx of the steam is
more or less retarded by the throttle valve, and its elastic force, though at
first greater than the resistance, is soon reduced considerably below it, the
mass of matter in motion acting the part of a fly wheel, absorbing the excess
of the initial power over the resistance, and discharging it by degrees until
the stroke is completed.

The indicator diagrams, which are the transcripts of the ])iston's move-
ments, show that such may be the nature of the action on the piston, and
the discussion of numerous well-established facts and phenomena, for the
Cornish engines, strongly confirms this view of the case. Whatever may be
the theory of the steam's action, the fact that the sum of those actions has
carried the piston through its course, is certain ; and it seems equally certain
that the quantity of water as steam which entered the cylinders was insuffi-
cient alone to overcome the resistance.

The author then investigates the amount of useful action due to the steam
imprisoned between the piston and the cylinder cover, and recovered each
stroke, which, for its use in bringing the engine to a state of rest at the end
of the return stroke, he terms the cushion. This quantity, though small, is
appreciable, and its value is assigned for each engine.

The author treats lastly of the evidence furnished by the diagi'ams of the
indicator, and of its utility as a pressure gauge. The communication is ac-
companied by elaljorate tables of the results of the analysis, and an appendbc
with the calculations worked out in detail.

SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY.

The opening meeting of the present Session was held by the Scientific So-
ciety on Thursday evening, Nov. 19, at their rooms in Great Russell-street,
Bloomsbury. In the absence of the President, one of the Vice-Presidents,
John Stevens, Esq., delivered the annual address, in which, after adverting
to the advanced position of the institution, he explained, at some length, its
characteristic features, and the pecuhar objects which it is designed to pro-
mote. The great and known want of adequate facilities for collecting and
registering scientific observations, seriously impeded the progress of inductive
generalization, — facts are lost for want of channels through which they may
be brought to a common centre, and there has never yet been formed a
Museum of recorded and classified data, to which the scientific inquirer may
resort for evidence to snp^iort or subvert theoretical views. The leailing pur-
pose of the Scientific Society is to supply this deficiency, but they can only
hope to succeed in so arduous an undertaking, by the most active individual
exertion, and by the friendly co-operation of those who are interested in the
advancement of science. After the address a paper was read on a new dis-
covery in Electrotype. The meeting was numerously attended, both by mem-
bers and visitors, which evince the interest taken in the proceedings of the
societv.

KING'S COLLEGE.

We understand that regretting the necessity of refusing many applications
for admission of students, whose age and previous character were not suffi-
ciently advanced, into the civil engineering department — and feeling at the
same time the advantage of having their previous education directed to those
studies, which would ground them in the subjects of the more extensive read-
ings of the senior class, and convinced as well, that even to a general studeu
would be useful, some knowledge of the principle and nature of that me-
chanism and machinery which is now becoming the subject of every day re-
mark and conversation', witliout which the education of the gentleman is
scarcely complete, the council of the college have established a junior class
for students of 14 years and upwards.

1840.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

427

ARCHITECTURAL SOCIETY.

The Tenth Session of this Society was opened on the 3rfl ult., at their
apartments in Lincohi's Inn Fields, with a conversazione. The President,
William Tite, Esq., F.R.S., the Architect of the New Royal Exchange, took
the Chair at nine o'clock ; when the Secretary, Mr. Grellier, proceeded to
read the Report of the Committee, which stated the arrangements made for
the lectures and papers of the ensuing session, and announced five prizes for
the competition of the student-mSmbers, upon the following subjects :- — The
best architectural composition ; the best measured drawing of the front of
St. George's Church, Bloomsburj' ; the best series of architectural sketches
produced during the season ; the best notes of the lectures delivered at the
several meetings of the Society ; and the best drawing iu chalk or pencil
from the plaster figure.

The President then read an elaborate essay on the history, chemistry, and
uses of bitumen and its compounds, tracing the facts of their application from
the earliest times, with illustrations from the Bible, from Herodotus, Diodorus
SiciUus, Josephus, Dioscorides, Vitruvius, and Pliny. The lectiu-er then
described the various kinds of bitumen, beginning with its most liquid state
of naptlia, and descending to petroleum, mineral tar, mineral pitch (some-
times called maltha), and then to the compact bitumen known as aspbaltum,
elastic bitumen, or mineral caoutchouc, mineral wax, and mineral tallow.
This part of the dissertation was illustrated by specimens of most of these
substances on the lecture table, and by references to the principal sources
from which they are derived in the present day. It appears that, for the
purpose of commerce and the arts, they are now obtained from the mines of
Avlona in Albania, of Lobsaun in Alsace on the left bank of the Rhine, from
Pyi-emont, which furnishes the asphalte of Seyssel, known in England as
Claridge's, besides the asphaltes of the Landes known as the Basteune and
Gaujac. Bitumens, in various states, are also found in great abundance at
Rangoon, in the Birmau Empire, at Coxitambo in South America, in the
famous Pitch-Lake of the Island of Trinidad, iu the celebrated Naptha Wells
at Baku on the Caspian, in Persia, iu Greece, Sweden, Gallicia, Moldavia,
Sicily, England, and, in fact, in all parts of the world. In many cases, the
varieties are found pure ; and in others, as at Seyssel and Lobsaun, they are
mixed with argillaceous sands, calciferous bitumens or bituminous grits or
shales : all the deposits appear to belong to the tertiary formation. There
are various opinions as to their origin ; their chemistry, however, would seem
to indicate that they must have been derived from the destructive distillation
of vegetable matter, the produce of ancient forests. Among other curious
facts facts stated by the lecturer, it was mentioned that the streets of Parma
are lighted with petroleum from the mines of Avlona ; and that a kind of
purified bitumen had been, for some centuries, used in Paris for greasing the
■wheels of carriages, under the name of graisse noire.

The introduction of bitumen into mastic, for the purposes of paving, lining
tanks, &c., though recently revived in Paris as a novelty, does not appear to
be so. Jlr. Tite noticed upon this subject, a Tract in the British Museum,
entitled, " Dissertation sur 1' Asphalte, ou ciment naturel, decouvert depuis
quelques annees an Val Travers, dans la Comte de Neufchatel, par le Sieiu:
Eirini d'Eyrinys, Professeur Grec, et Docteur en Medecine. Avec la maniere
de I'employer, tant sur la piene que sur le bois ; et les utilitee de I'huile que
I'on en tire." Paris, 1721, 12mo. From this tract the following extracts
were read ; from which it would seem that the proportions and applications
of bitumen in mastic were known more than a centuiy since. '• Pour former
le ciment, et le mettre en etat d'etre employe, il faut prendre la mine toute
pure, et la bien pulveriser. Pour le faire avec moins de peine et de frais (car
elle est fort dure), on pent I'attendrir en la mettant devant le feu, ou a sec
dans un chaudiere. Des qu'elle sentira la chalem-, on la broyera tres facile-
ment ; U vaut, cependant, mieux la piler froide, parcequ'en la chauffant,
I'huile s'evapore, et elle perd beaucoup de sa quahte et de sa force.

"Quand elle est absolument ecrasee, et reduite comme duterreau,onprend
de la poix de Bourgoyne blanche on noire (la blanche est la meilleure) on la
fait fondre a petit feu dans uue chaudiere de cuivre ou de fer ; quand la poix
est entierement fondue, it faut prendre garde que le feu n'y prenne ; on y
mele pen a pen I'asphalte en le remuant continuellement avec un baton ou
spatulc, jusqu'a ce que I'incorporatiou soit faite, on le voit parceque I'asphalte
doit L'tre liquide comme de la bouillie ; la doze de la poix est la dixieme
partie, c'est a dire, qu'il faut neuf livres de mine et une livre de poix pour
former le ciment dans sa perfection."

After giving an account of the manner of employing the asphalte as
mortar, the author continues,

" L'on pourroit encore faire des bassins, reservoirs, citemes et terrasses,
meme sans employer des pierres de taille, et cette facon, qui couteroit moins
que les autres, serrit aussi solide, et auroit sa beaute, &c. &c."
His recommendations of the invention are warm : —
" Quand le ciment d'asphalte est fait exactement, il resiste egalement au
chaud et au froid; la plus grande ardeur du soleil, ni la gelee la plus forte,
n'y peuvent faire aucun dommage. Je cvois avoir trouve la chose du monde
la plus avantageuse pour le public, principalement pour Paris, &c. &c."

The lecturer exhibited tables showing the chemical analysis of various sub-
stances from recent woody fibre down through the lignites, coals and jets to
the most compact anthracite, and from the recent tm'pentine through the
napthas, pitches, &c., down to the asphaltes. lie pointed out the chemical
analogy or isomerism of many of these substances, as contrasted with their
uses and appearances. Iu the com-se of the lecture, reference was made to

the ruins of Babylon and Nineveh, as well as to the ancient Oracles and
Nymphaia connected with tlie springs of Naptha, and particidarly to the ruins
of Avlona, which seem to connect the ancient NymphEcum spoken of by
Strabo and Dio Cassius, on the banks of the Aias, or Aous, the modern Viosa,
with the mineral pitch formation of Selenizza, furnishing the modem asphalte
of Avlona.

Mr. Tite explained, at some length, the composition of the asphalte mas-
tics, recommending to the notice of the architects present a cai'eful consider-
ation of their appUcation and introduction.

The lecture was received with the strongest marks of approbation from a
very large auditory, including many of the leading members of the Royal
Society, the Society of Civil Engineers, the Society of Arts, and the Institute
of Architects ; and, after the announcement of various donations to the
Library and JIuseum of the Society, the meeting separated.

INTERESTING EXPERIMENTS WITH LOCOMOTIVE ENGINES, ON
THE HULL AND SELBY RAILWAY.

On Tuesday, the 10th ult., a course of five days' experiments commenced
with the engines of the above Railway, originating through the following
circumstances : —

About the commencement of the present year, six engines, somewhat similar
to those on the Leeds and Selby line, were in a greater or less state of for-
wardness for the Hull and Selby Railway, at the works of Messrs. Fenton,
Murray, and Jackson, of this town, when the Hull and Selby Railway Com-
pany resolved to have six other engines, on the most approved construction
which experience up to that period could produce, from the previous working
of locomotives ou the various Railways. Four objects were particularly kept
iu view, namely, safetij, simpUcift/, accessHiUty of the various parts, and
ecmifjmy, the whole combining general efficacy and dnrability of the engine
throughout.

The first object is secured by giving a more extended Jose for the action of
the springs in supporting the weight of the engine, being about six and a half
by eleven feet, whereby a remarkably steady motiou is secured at thirty miles
per hour. It is not at all a matter of surprise that the four wheel engines of
several Railways now in use should every now and then go off the road, and
in an instant, when it is recollected the extreme base of their springs for sup-
porting the engine is only about three three quarters by about six feet ; hence
then: rocking, seqientine, and pitcliing motion, which without any other cause
than a shght increase of speed, literally lifts the flanges of the wheels above
the smface of the rails, and in three or four seconds the engine is turned end
for end, upset in the act, and the train with it ; whilst the stability of the
engine is effectually secured through an extended base upon the front and
hind wheels. By means of a new combination, the best properties of the
four-wheeled engines are also completely applied, by resting the weight on
the crankshaft immediately within the wheels, which experience has for years
proved to be the place least likely to injure it, and thereby avoid the alarm-
ing accidents which have so often taken place by the breaking of the shaft,
through placing the weight on bearings outside of the wheels ; the centre of
the engine being a sort of neutral axis, there is very httle power over its mo-
tion in that part, and this advantage, by placing the weight on the crank in-
side the wheels, is, in consequence, got without a sacrifice of stability.

Secondly,— In addition to the safety and simpUcity of having only Urn
inner frames, instead of three or four, with as many bearings on the crank
shaft, the space under the boiler is still further stripped of machinery by a
new valve motion, which gives a high degi-ee of openness and facility of access
so desirable in examination, cleaning, &c , of the working parts.

Tliirdlv,— The steam being used expansively by the valve motion above
alluded to, a great saving in fuel is effected, as will be seen on examining the
results of the experiments, and as the excessive wear and tear of locomotive
boilers arises from intense heat, it is not improbable this decided step towards
remoring the cause mil prevent the effect, namely, the rapid destruction of
the boiler. The action of this valve motion is perfectly smooth, being worked
by eccentrics (which are also of an improved construction), and any quantity
of steam from 25 to 90 per cent, on the stroke can be admitted into the
cylinders with the most ready and complete control, at any speed the engine
may be going ; if a high wind or an incline oppose the progress of the engine,
a greater quantity of steam is admitted ; if wind or gradients be favoiurable,
the steam is stUl admitted at full pressm-e into the cylinders, hut shut off at
an earUer period, propelling the pistons the remainder of the stroke by its
elastic force, similar to driving a time-piece by the uncoiling of the main
spring.

Lastly,— A combination of dimensions and proportions have been gleaned
from the best results of locomotive engines of various constructions, and in
use in different parts of the country. The driving wheels are 6 feet diameter,
length of the stroke 2 feet, diameter of cylinders 12 inches, inside dimensions
of fire-box, 2 by 3i- feet, tubes, 94 in number, by °i\ feet long, and 2 inches
diameter. The general diminution of machinerj' iuthe construction has given
room for ample dimensions in the principal working parts, and thus the whole
arrangement has a close bearing on safety, simplicity, accessibility, and
economy.
Circiunstances led to those engines being ordered of Messrs. Shepherd and

3 M 2

42S

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[December,

Todd, Railway Foiindn-, of this town. The Hull and Selby line was opened
%\ith the engines of the former order, but the public and the company being
so much annoyed by hot cinders from their chimneys, burning wliatever they
lighted upon, and rapidly destroying the smoke boxes themselves, three of
those engines were altered, and succeeded to a considerable extent in diminish-
ing the nuisance, whilst the engines performed better, and with less fuel.
That fact, however, being (piestioued, and two engines of the improved con-
struction having got to work, Mr. John Cray, the engineer of the locomotive
department, and patentee of the improved engines, urgently requested a most
rigorous and simultaneous trial of the different engines, and to be witnessed
for the parties concerned by persons above suspicion. Mr. J. Miller and Mr.
T. Lindsley represented Messrs. Fenton, Murray, and Jackson ; Mr. J. Craven
and Mr. J. Barrons represented Messrs. Shepherd and Todd ; and Messrs. E.
Fletcher, ^Y. B. Bray, J. G. Lynde, jun., J. Farnell, and J. Gray, were the re-
preaentatives of the Hull and Selby Railway Company. The arrangements
for the experiments were, that the gross load should include engine, tender,
carriages, and every thing in the train.

The steam was got up in the respective engines to the pressure of from 56
to 66 lb. per square inch ; the tires tilled to a certain level at the starting in
the morning, and filled to the same level on finishing the last trip at night.
The pressure of steam at starting was generally up to 66 lb. and was at about
half that pressure at the end of each trip. There v^eref/ty experimental
trips made in all, namely, twenty-four trips with the CoHinywood, Andreic
Marvel, and Tfellinyton, the unaltered engines of Messrs. Fenton, Murray,
and Jackson. Their average gross load was 53'4 tons, or 1656 tons, over one
mile: consumption of coke 10131b. or 0-611 lb. per ton per mile; water,
6500 lb. or 3'90 lb. per ton per mile. There were ten trips made with the
other three engines of Messrs. Fenton, Murray, and Jackson, which were
altered at Hull, namely, the Exley, Kinyston, and Selhy. Their average load
was 49'16 tons, or 1 524 tons over one mile ; consumption of coke, 635 lb. or
0-416 lb. per ton per mile: water, 42641b. or 2-79 lb. per ton per mile.

the patent, engines made by Messrs. Shepherd and Todd, viz. the Star and
Testa, made sLxteeu trips, and their average loads, &c., were 55-4 tons, or
1718 tons over one mile; coke consumed, 465 lb. or 0-271 lb. per ton per
mile; water, 2874 lb. or 1-62 lb. per ton per mile. The average gross load
of aU the fifty trips is 53-2 tons, or 1649-4 tons over one mile, and taking
that as a standard load, the consumption of fuel and water performing exactly
equal quantities of work, is represented in the following tables : —

Load in

Elsecar

Water

,Water

tons con-

Coke used

Coke used Coke used

used

Water

per ton

Class of

veyed

per trip

per mile,

per ton

per trip

per

per

Engine.

over one

of 31

in lbs.

per mile,

of 31

mile in

mile, in

mile, in

miles, in

in lbs.

miles.

lbs.

lbs.

lbs.

lbs.

in lbs.

Patent

1649-4

446-98

14-41

0-271

2672

86-19

1-62

Altered

1649-4

686-15

22-13

0-416

4601-6

148-43

2-79

Unaltered

1649-4

1007-78

32-59

0-611

6432-8

207-5

3-90

The financial annual resiJt of the three classes of engines for coke and
boilers, with such a traffic as that of the Hull and Selby hne, will be about —

£4,500 for the unaltered engines.

£3,250 for the altered ditto; and about

£2,000 for the patent engines.

In conclusion, it is deserving of remark, that all the attesting witnesses
expressed themselves highly satisfied mth the manner in which the experi-
ments had been conducted, and with the facilities which the Company so
readily granted to enable them to come at correct results. Probably no ex-
periments were ever made under similar circumstances where the parties con-
cerned displayed greater independence, impartiality, and good feeUng than on
the present occasion. — Leeds Mermry.

PATENT LAW.

An Important Case of Patent Law reyardiny the Ammdment of Specification
was heard in the Rolls' Court, on Friday, Nov. 6.

IN THE MATTER OF JOHN SHARP's LETTERS PATENT.

The petition of Joshua Wordsworth, of Leeds, machine-maker, for expung-
ing from the memorandum of alterations in the specification of Sharp's letters
patent " for machinery for converting ropes into tow, &c.," such portions as
were in substance descriptive of the same machinery as was invented by the
petitioner Wordsworth, was resumed, and Mr. Bacon for Mr. Sharp followed
Mr. Hill against the petition, and Mr. Pemberton, in behalf of Wordsworth,
the petitioner, replied.

By statute 5 and 6 Wilham IV., c. 73, " to amend the law touching letters
patent for inventions," it is enacted " that any person having obtained letters
patent for an invention may enter with the clerk of the patents (having first
obtained the leave of the Attorney or SoUcitor-Gencral) a disclaimer of any
part of his specification, or a memorandum of any alteration therein wliich is

to he deemed part of such specification." Wordsworth's petition stated that
letters patent were granted in October, 1836, to Sharp to make and vend his
invention, part of which the petitioner stated was applicable to the preparing
cotton wool and silk for spinning. The specification was enrolled in April,
1837. In May, 1838, letters patent were granted to the petitioner M'ords-
worth for an invention of improvements in machinery " for heckling and
dressing flax, hemp, and other fibrous materials," and in November following
the specification was enrolle<l. The petition then stated, that after this en-
rolment he (Wordsworth) discovered that Sharp had, in September, 1838,
obtained from the SoUcitor-General a certificate that Sharp had applied for
leave to enter with the Clerk of the Patents certain memorandums of altera-
tions of parts of his specification, and that the SoUcitor-General had directed
him to advertise the alterations, which was done ; and, no objection having
been made, the Solicitor-General granted leave to Sharp to file the memoran-
dum of alterations, which alterations the petitioner stated were a new ar-
rangement of machinery, and extended Sharp's patent to what were in sub-
stance his (Wordsworth's) inventions, as described in his specification. The
petitioner submitted that the statute did not authorize the addition to a spe-
cification of any description of new machinery, and prayed for expunging the
memorandum of alterations.

For the petition it was argued by Mr. Pemberton and Mr. James Russell,
that the Master of the Rolls (in whose custody the rolls of the Court in Chan-
cery were) had authority to permit alterations to be made in the rolls, and
his jurisdiction for that purpose remained unimpeached by the act of WilUani
TV. The jurisdiction originally inherent in tliis court had been acted upon
under the Municipal Corporation jVct in question respecting the authority
given to the Lords of the Treasury of interfering with the rolls of the court
in the cases of " The Attorney-General against the Corporation of Liverpool,"
and against the Mayor of Poole, where it had been laid down by the Lord
Chancellor, that to exclude the jurisdiction of one court there must be not
only another tribunal created, hut an absolute exclusion of all other authori-
ties enacted. In a case of charitable trusts, which were to be exercised in
such manner as the Lord Chancellor should direct, there was an appeal from
the direction to the House of Lords, in which the question whether that house
had jurisdiction was not decided, but the opinion expressed was that they had
not. In "the Attorney-General against Norsvich," the judges were unani-
mous against the jurisdiction of the bouse. To exclude the jurisdiction of
this court there must be an express legislative exclusion ; and the mere giring
an authority to another tribunal would not have that effect. Where a cleri-
cal mistake was established that might be corrected. Every coiu-t had an
entire control over its own records, as the Court of Common Pleas had over
fines and recoveries ; whether the error were clerical or otherwise, it made
no difference, for the record was not in the state it ought to be. The roUs
of tliis court were under the control of the Master of the Rolls, and the state
in which the records ought to be was subject to his determination, which
must control the opinion of the SoUcitor-General. The memorandums of
alterations were filed with the specification and became part of it. Had there
been an alteration by erasure and substitution of other words, a difficulty
would have been created ; but there was no difficulty here in ordering the
memorandum to be taken oft' the rolls. The act had not given the Solicitor-
General power to decide conclusively and without appeal what should or
should not be on the rolls, nor had it excluded the jurisdiction of the judges
of the court over its rolls. Suppose joer incuriam or by mistake in his clerk
a fiat for an inconsiderate alteration had been given, or suppose the fiat had
been attached to a wrong memorandum, the SoUcitor-General would have no
authority after he had given his fiat to correct any mistake or fraud, nor would
there be any means of making such correction if the jurisdiction of this Court
were taken away. The effect of the fiat was merely that certain things should
be placed upon the record, subject in all respects to the same concUtions as
the other records were. If the memorandum were not warranted, the Court
could take it oflf. Had the statute made the fiat absolute, that could not have
been done, but the fiat left the jiu-isdiction precisely in the same state it was
in before, and it was for his Lordship to determine whether the memorandum
of alterations ought or ought not to remain a record of the Court, and if not,
his Lordship had jurisdiction to order it to be removed. He did not contend
that his Lordship could order a patent to be taken off the roUs of the coiui;
on the ground that the invention was not new, but whether his Lordship was
to decide whether such circumstances had existed as could justify the memo-
randum being put upon the rolls. The question was not to be determined
by the law officers of the Crown without the control of any other authority.
The act had not declared their fiat conclusive, nor had it extended any right
given by the letters patent. The Legislatm-e prevented the record being al-
tered at the mere will of the parties, enacting that there must be the leave of
the Attorney or Solicitor-General. Their fiat was not to extend the exclusive
right granted by the letters patent, but this fiat extended those rights; there-
fore the memorandum of alteration was not such as the act allowed, and if
so, the fiat was good for nothing. It might be said, that if the memorandum
is not warranted by the act, the objection might be taken in an action at law ;
but the answer to that would be, that the alteration is incorporated into the
letters patent, and alters the specification ; and although the petitioner in au
action at law might say the invention as specified in the alteration was neither
new nor useful, he could not say it was no part of the specification, and he
might have a right to have his action tried upon the original specification. If
the fiat were conclusive, the alterations could not be averred to be no part of
the record, for the statute had made them part of the record so long as the

1840.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

429

fiat remained. Unless the court had jurisdiction, the fiat wouhl, in altering
the records of the Court, be conclusive not only against the Court, hut against
the Attorney and Solicitor-General themselves, for the act had not provided
a mode of amending any mistakes they might have been led into. Where
surreptitious or forged documents were discovered to he placed upon the rolls
of the court, it w-ould he no answer to an application for theu- removal to say
that an action could not be brought upon them. The Court would order an
invalid instrument to be delivered up, on the ground that it formed a cloud
upon the title of the individual whose interest was sought to be affected by
it.

Mr. Hill and Jlr. Bacon, for Mr. Sharp, against the jietition, said the argu-
ments for the petition were, that the specification witli the alteration was a
record of the court, that such records might be amended by his Lordship,
that the prayer was in substance for an amendment, and that the petitioner
had that interest in the question wiiich authorized him to make the applica-
tion. The specification with the alterations might for many purposes be a
record, but under the colour of that general term inferences not quite sound
had been drawn. The patent was granted upon a proviso that the patentee
should at a certain time enrol a specification ; but that proviso did not give
the specification any of those high attributes of records which had been
claimed for it. A record imported verity, and if the petitioner's argument
was well-founded, no person could defend an action in which the patentee
could prove an infringement of his patent. But from the statute of James I.
these records had been treated only as the statement of a party who was
bound to prove every averment he made, as that there was an invention, that
he was the first inventor, &e. The patentee could not hold up his specifica-
tion, and say " Here is a record, you are estopped from saying I am not the
first inventor ; my case was determined before we came into court." NotJiing
of that sort could be said. The specification was not a record in the sense
and for the purposes for which that word had been used, nor was the memo-
randum incorporated in the specification such a record. In one of the cases
cited (Redmond's) there was a clerical error, and that which had been in-
tended was not done. If that had been the case here, his Lordship might,
but with considerable trepidation, go back and bring the intention and the
act which had parted company into agreement again ; but his Lordship had
heen required to erect the Court into a court of appeal over judgment of the
Solicitor-General, and to do what that officer might have done had he viewed
the matter in a different light. Such a procedure would not come within the
doctrine of amendments. It might as well be said that the reversal by writ
of error of a judgment at common law was an amendment of the record ; it
was confounding things entirely different ; it was not an amendment of the
record, but the correction of the errors of an inferior court. In analogy to
the practice of the common law, there must be something to amend by. The
present was not a question of amendment. Before the statute of William IV.
there was no authority that could enable a patentee to disclaim any part of his
patent ; it was a new power given to the Crown, and vested in its legal offi-
cers. By the common law the Crown had great powers in granting monopo-
lies, which by the statute of James were restricted to new inventions, and to
the term of 14 years, and where the patentee by his specification had made
his claim too large, it was fatal to his patent ; but the late act had given the
Attorney-General power to permit the patentee to disclaim a portion of his
patent. When a power was created by the Legislature and vested in a cer-
tain tribunal, then no other court had jurisdiction. The invention was only
one condition — the inventor must have a patent and specification. The me-
morandum remaining on the files of the Court decided nothing but that the
memorandum was authentic; it did not decide tliat there was an invention,
or that the patentee was the inventor. The alleged invention might not be
new, but that would be no reason for taking the memorandum oft' the files of
the court. A bill in equity was not taken off' the files of the coiu-t because it
contained false allegations. If a judgment were eiToneous, it would be a
reason to appeal from it, but no reason to take it off" the rolls of the court.
The difl'erence was between what was genuine and what was authentic. He
did not argue that all was necessarily genuine, but he did say it was all
authentic, and the question was to try the authenticity. The argument for
the petition went to change the whole course of proceedings in patents from
the time of James I., and he would advise his friend, who was the inventor
of the doctrine, to get a patent for it. Whether it would stand as a new ma-
cliiner}- for trying the validity of patents by their specification before the
Master of the Rolls, would be a question. It was said that whatever had any
vice would be tak en oif the roUs of the court, which would not bear anything
on its rolls which contained an erroneous allegation. The question was, who
was the new inventor ? An issue could not be gi'anted to determine the ques-
tion of amendment. The SoUcitor-General required advertisements to be
made of the application to him, and gave it two hearings ; so that the fiat for
filing the memorandum of alterations was not granted in haste, but after due
consideration. The validity of patents ought not to be decided in the pre-
sent mode of proceeding. The mode of trying those questions had been
settled for years, and ought not to be altered.

Mr. Pemberton replied. As long as the memorandum of the alterations
with the fiat of the Solicitor-General remained as part of the rolls of the
court, it would not be competent for any person to deny that the memoran-
dum was a part of the specification on which the patent was granted. The
statute did not authorize the memorandum to be placed on the rolls, for the
memorandum did not form part of the specification. He would ask, had the
Crown granted letters patent with the alteration ? If it had, the objection

that his Lordship had no power to interfere would be good ; but if the me-
morandum were improperly placed, then it formed no part of the grant, and
his Lordsliip would remove it from the record, as he would remove a forged
specification or correct a clerical error.

Lord Langdale said, it was his duty to receive the records of the court,
and in his character of recipient he had no doubt of his jurisdiction. He
was to receive such documents as parties presented as tlie records of their
own acts. If it were shown that documents had been presented which were
not an accurate record, it would be his care to discover where the error arose,
and to satisfy himself that it was an error. He would see what had been
done upon former occasions.

Mr. Pemberton. — The question was not whether his Lordship could alter
a record, but whether the enrolment as it stood was a record.

NEW INVENTIONS AND IMPROVEMENTS.

An impxoved method of retarding and stopping railway trains ; patented by
Henry Montague Grover, of Boveney, Buckingham, Nov. 7.— Claim first.—
The application of electro or other magnetism, for the purpose of retardins
or stopping railway trains — A magnet, of the ordinary burse-shoe form, is
let into a block of n'ood. and fixed by sustaining rods in such a position that
its ends are a shnrt dist-.nce from the face of the tire of one of the wheels.
A galvanic battery is placed on the bed or platform of the carriage, and a
connection of the 'magnet and the face of the tire of the wheel formed when
necessary, by means of connecting wires, which will cause the wheel to be
retarded or stopped. These magnets may be applied to any number of wheels
in this manner, or through one magnet to a kver, and by cranks or otherap-
paratus, indirectly to the wheels.— /noc/i^ors' Advocate.

An improved apparatus or process for producing sculptured forms, figures, and
devices, in marble and otiier hard substances ; patented by William Newton, of
Chancery-lane, Middlesex, (being a communication from a foreigner residing
abroad), Oct. 22.— These improvements consist, first, in the construction of a
mould, die, or matrice, of metal or other hard substance, in which the coun-
terform of the figure or device intended to be sculptured has been made, and
its application to the stone or marble intended to be cut.— Secondly, in the
means by which the sculpturing is effected ; viz., by the repetition of slight
but rapid blows of the nidvdd. or die, struck against the face of the stone, by
which the surface becomes abraded, and particles are gradually broken off,
leaving the stone ultimately in a form, or figure, corresponding to the mould
or die which has been working upon it.— Claim.— Application of a mould or
striking die, which being by any arrangement made to strike a rapid succes-
sion of light blows on the substance to be sculptured, shall abrade or wear
away the superfluous parts of the surface of the material under operation, and
produce a form, or figure, corresponding with the mould or die. — The mould
must be mounted in any convenient mechanical apparatus capable of holding,
raising, and depressing it, that it miy strike very light but rapid blows on
the face of the block to bo sculptured, which must be supported upon firm
stationary bearings ; the mould or die is securely atlached to a lever, which
is a stronK frame of iron, mounted on pivots, which are made adjustable, in
order to regidate the height of the frame, from the block of marble or stone ;
to the outer end of the lever a staple also adjustable by a screw and nut is
fixed, to which is attached a cord, also connected to a series of cranks and
rods, which are mounted in a horse-shaped frame ; a crank in the lower end
of this series is acted upon by stops, notches, or teeth, in the periphery of a
tappet or rachet wheel, which is acted on by a pulley being made to revolve
on its axis driven by a band from any first mover ; so ihat on a rotary motion
of the tappet wheel, its teeth will ac"t against the arm of the lower crank, and
produce a slight reciprocating motion in the series of cranks and rods, which
nill be communicated through the cord to the lever which holds the mould,
thereby causing a rapid succession of slight blows to bear upon the surface of
the block, and in a short time to abrade all those parts of the stone against
which the mould or die strikes. The process will be facilitated by the intro-
duction of sand, emery, or diamond dust, with water, at an early stage of
the work, and may be introduced by a simple inclined plane, or in any con-
venient manner ; towards the end of the process a finer powder should be
used and the work will leave the mould in a highly-finished state. This in-
vention applies to busts, statues, and groups of figures, even the most com-
plicated and extensive, and finishes them with the greatest dehcacy, only it
is necessaiT to employ several small moulds instead of one, and it will act
equally well on crumbling stone, that would not bear the chisel, as upon a
solid mass.— The inventor claims no particular arrangement of apparatus for
causing the mould to strike the face of the block, although he considers that
above described suitable and appropriate for the purpose.— /i/rf.

A composition for tlie prevention of corrosion in metals, and for otiier purposes ;
patented by Arthur Wall, of Bermondsey, surgeon, October 15, 1840.— This
composition is prepared in the following manner :— 20 lb. of strong muriatic
acid are diluted with 3 gallons of water and placed in a shallow cast iron
vessel ; 112 lb. of steel or iron filings are heated to redness and quenched in
the diluted acid to eff'ect their oxidation ; to facilitate this action, the pan is
placed on a furnace or sand-bith, and the contents repeatedly stirred for
about 24 hours, or until ebullition lakes place, the liquor is then drawn off,
and the foregoing process repeated with such portion of the filings as remain
unoxidized. The oxide thus obtained is exposed on a red hot iron plate, till
all the moisture has been driven off, and the oxide assumes a red appearance.
When cold, 161b. of quicksilver are to be added to the mixture, by sifting
through a fine sieve, and afterwards intimately incorporated in a mortar ;
enough water to cover the surface is then poured over it, and from 8 to 9 lb.
of strong nitric or nitrous acid added ; this mixture is to be placed in a sand-
bath till all the moisture is driven off. When the mass is dry it is to be well
pounded in a mortar till it assumes a uniform state of blackness. All the

430

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[Bkcembkr,

finer particles are to be separated by wasliing in water, and left to settle ; the
sediment is to be placed in a crucible or earthen retort, with a receiver at-
tached to collect any chloride or mercury that may come over. When red
hot plunge it into frcsli boiling water, stir it well and leave it to settle, then
draw ok tlie water and add any chloride that may have come over into the
receiver. Then add one-f'ourtli of its weight of common black or red lead,
accordinj; to the colour desired. This composition is to be mi.\ed with boiled
linseed oil wiib one fifth of spirits of turpentine, and applied as thinly as
possible with a brush to the sheets of metal to be protected. The metal
coated in this manner is to be dried by the application of heat, beginning with
a low temperature, and gradually raised to about 300° of Fahrenheit, so as
to make the metal "imbibe'' the preparation. The claim is, for the invention
of the composition prepared as above described, for the prevention of corro-
sion in metals, and for other purposes. — Mech. Mag.

STEAM NAVIGATION.

The Cli/ile. — There was launched, on the 27th October last, at Clyde Bank
a new steam dredging vessel for the River Clyde trustees. This vessel is the
largest of the kind which has yet been built on the Clyde; she is 100 feet
long and 22 feet broad ; she is to carry an engine of 24 horse power, and to
work etl'ectively in 18 feet depth of water. The engine for this vessel has
been constructed by Mr. John N'lson, of Oak Bank Foundry, in accordance
with the specification drawn up ■■y Mr. Bald, engineer of tlie Clyde. This
vessel is now in the harbour of iJk' Broomielaw, for the purpose of receiving
the engine and machinery on bo ad. A very beautiful model of this vessel,
on a scale of one foot to an inch, was e.Khibited in the model room of the
British Association, and which was constructed under the direction of Mr.
Eald, before the steam dredge-boat was built.

Navigation of the Mersey. — The Warrington, a new iron steamer, of 200 tons
burthen, builder's measurement, built entirely (engines and bull) by the
Warrington Bridge Foundry Company, made her first experimental trip down
the Mersey to Liverpool and back on Wednesday, Uth ult. On her down-
ward voyage she sailed remarkably well, and toolc in tow several flats bound
for Liverpool. On her return home, she steamed from the Old Quay Pier,
Liverpool, to the Old Quay, at Runcorn, in one hour and twenty-two minutes,
towing one of Messrs. John Hodson and Company s flats. From Runcorn
to Warrington, a distance of ten miles and a half, her speed was put to the
test. In spite of a heavy fresh, and the disadvantage of getting up her speed
after stopping at Runcorn, she completed the distance in forty-seven minutes.
As far as the navigation of the Mersey is concerned, all difficulties thrown in
the way of Wanington one day becoming a bonded port have now been made
to disappear. — Liverpool Times.

The Mammoth Iron Steamer at Bristol. — A gentleman who has recently seen
the immense iron steamer buildini; by the Great Western Steam Ship Com-

Eany at Bristol, infonns us that she will register about 3,000 tons, but that
er actual tonnage will e.\ceed 3, GOO tons, or about 600 tons more than any
ship ever built. An immense saving in stowage will be gained in consequence
of the adoption of iron for her hull, whilst her draught of water will be com-
paratively small, owing to the great buoyancy possessed by iron vessels. She
will consequently be able to carry coals sufficient both for her outward and
homeward passages,— a most important point, w hen the inferior quality of
coals obtainable in America, and consetjuent diminution in speeii, is con-
sidered. Her engines, we hear, are to be of 1000 horse power, and it is con-
fidently expected that the average voyage across the Atlantic will be reduced
to ten (lays. She will carry a vast spread of canvass, so that in all proba-
bility the engines will frequently be at rest. In consequence of the adoption
of Smith's Screw Propeller, this stupendous ship, the greatest experiment in
steam navigation ever made, will, we believe, be able to pass the present
locks at Cumberland Basin, and discharge her cargo in Bristol Harbour. We
congratulate our Bristol neighbours upon the enterprise which they are dis-
playing. Two magnificent steamers are now building at Bristol, by Messrs.
Acraman. for the Royal Mail Company ; and, altogether, the ancient port
seems to be "going a-head.'' — G/oneester Chronicle.

Iron Steamer.— On Saturday the 21st ult., was ktunched from Messrs. Ditch-
burn and Mare's building yard, at Blackwall. a wrought iion steam vessel of
160 tons, named the " Mermaid," to be propelled by an engine on an entirely
new principle, if 50 horse power, invented e.\-pressly to drive the Archimedes
screw without the aid of geering-wheels. Should its power equal its simpli-
ciiy, it is likely to cause a change in steam engines. The engine is making
by Messrs. Rennie's.

Prevention of Steam Packet Coilisions.— The Corporation of tlie Trinity
House has deemed it right lo frame and promulgate the following rules,
" which, on communication with the Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty,
the Elder Brethren find have been ah'cady adopted in respect of steam-vessels
in Her Majesty's service." Rule first — "When steam-vessels on different
courses must unavoidably or necessarily cross so near that by continuing
their respeciive courses there would be a risk of coming into collision, each
vessel shall piit bt?r " helm to port,' so as always to pass on the larboard side
of each other.'' Rule second — " A steam vessel passing another in a narrow
channel must always leave the vessel she is passing on tlie 1 rboard hand."

Steamers Wanted. — We had hoped that the cry of " steamers wanted" which
we have continually kept up for the last two years, would before this have
been responded to by the arrival of steamers from England ; but as we see
that that the subject was alluded lo in several London and Liverpool papers
of November and December last, we .still hope that many months will not
elapse before several steamers ai-rive in the colnny. The following steamers
are now urgently wanted, in fact we are suHering much from the want of
them :— Two large steam-boats to run from Port Pliilip to Sydney ; a large
boat to run from Sydney to New Zealand ; a second to be added in about 12

months; three boats to run to Hunter's River; a boat to run to William's
River; a boat to run to Brisbane Water; a couple of small boats to run be-
tween Newcastle and the different towns on the Hunter, Williams, and Pater-
son. Besiiles tlie above, a boat will be rc(|uired to run to Twofold Bay very
shortly, .as the country between there and il.anaroe, called the Bija country,
is beginning to attract attention ; boats for Jervis's and Bateman's Bay will
soon be required. We consider the above boats are required at once, in addi-
tion to those now here, for there will always be some of the vessels meeting
with accidents, and otherwise requiring repair, and it is of the greatest im-
portance that boats should run regularly. Although the above are urgently
required, we believe that the only boats tb.at can be depended upon, as sure
to arrive during the present year, are two for the Hunter's River Company,
and one for Port Philip. Half a dozen vessels of different burdens sent to
this colony would be a splendid speculation.— 5i/(/«(i/ Herald, May 15.

PROGRESS OF RAII.'VirAYS.

America. — There are now 2,270 miles of railroads completed, or nearly com-
pleted, in the United States, besides 2.346 miles of railroads in progress of
construction, making a total (when finished) of 4,616 miles. — Times.

Greenwich Railway. — Tenders as delivered on Tuesday. 3rd November, for
widening the Greenwich Railway, fr.jm the Croydon Junction to Tooley Street,
(extending nearly a mile for the present contract.)

Mr. Jackson

Messrs. Grissell and Peto

Messrs. Baker & Son

Messrs. Little &. Son

Mr. Lee

Messrs. Piper &. Son

Mr. Bennett

Messrs. Ward

Mr. M'Intosh

Mr. Grimsdell

£34.900
37.791
38,734
38,800
38.850
39.300
39,972
43.320
43.500
46,596

Taff Vale Raihnay. — We are glad to perceive that the promoters of the
prosperity of this tbwni, are not unmindful of the inducements which its great
natural advantages hold out for the accomplishment of railway communi-
cation with other districts of the kingdom, as well as the importance of
meeting other places in the race of competition by the aid of this grand
achievement of modern science; The progressive commercial importance,
and the exhaustless mineral wealth of Newport and its neighbourhood, have
been so frequently the theme of observation in this journal, that it would be
superfluous at present to dwell on facts, admitted uy all, as incentives to
action during the railway undertakings now completed or in course of ope-
ration through the leading districts of the kingdom. Our position is com-
manding, our advantages great, and our exertions shoidd be commensurate
to obtain a participation in the benefits for our town and port, and for the
county at large, that railway communication with the great arteries of the
traffic of the kingdom, is now diffusing. A railway is projected between
Newport and Gloucester, taking the circuit of Monmouth and Usk. We
understand that Mr. Barber, late of the Tafl" Vale Railway, a gentleman
highly spoken of as possessing great talents in his profession, is directing
his best energies to the subject, and with the support he has already received,
we augur well for the maturity of his plans. The question shall be resumed
in our columns. — Monmouthshire Merlin.

South-Eastern. Raihvay. — Tills great undertaking is now proceeding with
tlie utmost vigour ; all the works between Tunbridge and Redhill are in a
state of great forwardne s, it being the intention of the directors to open the
line as far as Tunbridge, with the least possible delay. The tunnel, near the
village of Bletchingly. wdiich is a particularly arduous and heavy structure,
is also progressing considerably. This is one of the most interesting works
upon the line, particularly to the geologist, as it passes under ground near
the foot of Tilburston-hill. which it is well known has been subjected to some
powerful subterraneous action, the strata upon some parts of the hill being
singularly distorted. All the phenomena observed by the engineer in the
progress of the work shows this spot to have been peculiarly subjected to the
upheaving and disturbing powers which, at some remote period, liave been in
active operation. Mr. Simms, the engineer, who resides at Bletchingly, is
in possession of several interesting fossils, which he has found in the progress
of his work. — Sussex E.vpress.

Gloucester and Monmouthshire Railway. — Agreeably lo our promise, we this
week recur to the subject of a railway from Newport to Gloucester. It ap-
pears that two lines have been surveyed, the one by Usk and Monmouth, the
other by Chepstow and Newnh:ira ; and it is a matter of the greatest moment
to arrive at a sound conclusion, as to which line will best subserve the in-
terests of the public, and of the districts through which it passes. We have
been long impressed with the importance, and indeed, the necessity for
a railway communication through this rich and greatly improving district ;
and having attentively considered the subject, it appears that there can be but
one opinion as to the eligibility of the centr.il line, and of the impolicy of
allowing a trifling difference of cost, to weigh in the consideration of a ques-
tion involving results of such paramount advantage Tlie line pro| osed, to
follow the banks of the Severn, is open to so many objections from its being
parallel with a fine navigation, and with a probability of another railway from
Gloucester to Bristol being carried along the opposite bank, that we think it
will not bear comparison ,with a line embracing towns of importance, and
laying open a splendid district of country, greatly needing the facilities of
raihvay communication, i he traffic from the important districts of Ponty-
pooi, Abergavenny, Brecon. &c., largely flow into Ihc line near Usk, and the
City of Hereford would doubtless communicate near Ross. The central
character of this line atlbrds a guarantee that traffic will be derived on every

1840.J

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

431

side. We linvc bad the pleasure of inspecting the plans of the line sui-veyeil
by Mr. Barber, ami as our readers feel great interest in the subject, we will
endeavour to obtain the details of its course.^iJr;.«(()/ Paper.

Proving Steam-Engvic Boilers in Belgium. — Ey a decree of King Leopold,
flated Oct. 28. it is ordained : — " That every boiler in which the steam is re-
quired to have a pressure of more th n one atmosphere shall be submitted to
a proof of trcple the force it will be required to support. This pressure to be
determined by the diiTerence between the authorised pressure ot the steam in
the boiler .md atmospheric pressure. — Considering that tabular boilers of lo-
comiitive engines may safely be exposed to less rigorous proof, on the report
of our Minister of the Public Works, we have decreed.— Article 1. That the
toilers of locomotive engines intended to run on railroads shall be submitted
to a proof of twice the amount those engines are required to support. — Art.
2. The permission to make use of locomotives belonging to the state will be
granted after the trials prescril)ed by the articles of the first and second de-
cree, by the director of the rai'roads now in operation. — Art. 3. The proof of
the locomotive engines shall be renewed at least once a year ; they shall take
place after every important repair of the boiler. The boilers that are injured
during the proof shall not be used. — Art. 4. The director of the railroads in
operation shall address to our Minister of the Public "Works a duplicate of the
permission to use the engines, and of the declarations of proof."

Tliames Haven Doek and Railway.— CoxisiieraXAe exertions are being made
for pushing forward this important undertaking in the ensuing spring.

MISCEI.L,ANEA.

Mast Comieying. — It has been usual of late, since it has been considered ob-
iectionable tu immerse made masts in the wafer, to send them from the mast-
nouses on trucks, a process which does them no good, and occupies a whole
day when a line-of-baltle ship's lower mast is to be dealt with. A method,
however, was tiied on Tuesday last with the Indus"s foremast, and it answered
admirably, to convey it by water, without wetting it, in the following way :—
Two flat-bottomed boats, placed side by side, and having strong skids laid
on their gunwales, were brought to the slipway, at the l)ack of the mast-
houses, and properly placed ; the mast was then launched out until it pre-
lected beyond the boats, and over the centre of the skids until its heel end
rested upon tliem; the launching of the mast was then continued, the boats
hearing it, and another pair of flat-bottomed boats, similarly fitted with skids,
were brought and placed under the mast towards its head, which, as it des-
cended the slip, presently rested on them, as the heel had done before, upon
the skids of the boats first placed ; the tressel trees were then bolted on, and
the flats with their burden were towed away to the sheers, where the Indus
was waiting for, and very soon received, her foreinast, which had thus been
conveyed perfectly dry. This novel operation was carried into effect under
the superintendence of the officers of the mast-house ; for the idea, however,
and also the details of the scheme, the service is indebted to Mr. Whettem,
an intelligent and zealous inspector in the mast-making department. — Times,
Nov. 2.

A steam fire-engine has been invented at New York, by Captain Erichscn.
It weighs only 2i tons, and will throw 3.000 pounds of water per minute to a
height of 105 feet, through a nozzle of IJ inch diameter. — Times.

Patent Wire Hope for Standing Rigging. — Last week a series of trials of
Smith's Patent Wire Rope was made at the Corporation testing-machine, in
Trentham Street, Liverpool, in presence of a number of nautical gentlemen
and others interested in improvements in navigation, and the result was
highly satisfactory. The patent consists of improved melho<ls of forming a
rope from any number of wires that shall be flexible, is served with hemp,
and can also 'be spliced or knotted. The rope is tarred in the usual way, so
as to exclude the water ; and a chemical preparation is employed to prevent
oxidation. The rigging with wire rope is smaller and lighter than of hempen
rope, and as it offers much less resistance to the wind, is of great advantage
in beating to windward. The cost, too, is much less, and the durability
greater. In the trials we have alluded to, the following results were ascer-
tained : —

1-inch rope broke at 2 tons 1 cwt.
U .. .. 5 .. 0 ..
2f . . . . 8 . . 14 . .

other sizes were also tried with proportionate success ; and it should be re-
marked, that a three inch hempen rope of the best quality broke at 2 tons
1 cwt. The weight or traction borne by each piece of different sized rope far
exceeded that fixed in the scale of the patentee, thus showing great superi-
ority in the w orkmanship of the manufacturers, Messrs. Fox and Co. of Lon-
don and Birmingham. According to the scale alluded to, the weight to be
sustained by li inch wire rope is 3 tons 10 cwt., and so in proportion.
Another good quality of the wire rope is its elas;icity, which, though not of
course equal to that of hemp rope, is quite sufficient to counteract the efff!cts
of a sudden jerk while a vessel is rolling heavily at sea. One comparatively
short length of rope that was tried, stretched ISi inches before it broke. A
very short length of li inch stretched 6 inches. The machine on which the
tests were made is very ingenious, and of tremendous multiplying power ; it
is that on which iron cables for the largest ships are put to their utmost
tension of many tons. The gentlemen present took a deep interest in the
operations, and were at once gratified and astonished to witness the immense
weight or traction sustained by lengths of wire rope so comparatively small
and light. It should be added, that this patent rigging has been tested at sea
upwards of five years, and that amongst the ships htted with it in our own
port are those crack steamers the Oriental and the Liverpool. The new light
ship, the Albert, destined for the Victoria Channel, is also rigged with it, and
it has hitherto been highly approved by practical men.— Liverpool Standard.

Survey of the Northern Counties of England. — ^^"c have much satisfaction in
conveying the gratifying iufelligonce that the secretary of the Manchester
Geological Society has received a communication from the Lords of the Trea-
sury, announcing their intention to co duct the survey of the six northern
counties of England, on an enlarged scale of six inches to the mile, instead
of two inches, the .size adopted for the other counties, and that they are to
commt^nce with Lancashire forthwith. This is a matter of very great im-
portance to the landed interest, as well as to the proprietors of mines, coal
mines, and quarries, and hence to the community at large, in this thickly
peopled district. For this important improvement in the survey, we are
indebted to the exertions of the Geological Society of Manchester, with whom
the idea originated. They memorialised the Treasury, and inffuenced other
scientific societies to follow their example, and thus paved the way to this
important result. This fad alone proves the high importance of the Geo-
logical Society, seeing that their first acts are directed to the prosperity of
the county and its varied mercanti'e interests. It is, therefore, the duty of
the gentlemen of this and the surrounding towns to become members of this
society, and by increasing its funds enable it to pursue its useful and laudable
exertions with increased vigour. — Manchester Chronicle.

Ancient Window. — An ancient stained glass window of the 15th centmy,
which formerly belonged to a convent at Mechlin, has just been placed in the
church of St. George's. Hanover Square. — Times.

Improvement of the Severn. — T^he Bristol Journal has the following remarks
upon the proposed improvement of the navigation of the river Severn; — "In
the trading interests of Bristol, this long-wanted improvement must be of
the greatest advantage in developing and carrying out those vast enterprizes
which our fellow citizens have of late projected with such laudable spirit and
liberality ; thereby securing to them the readiest and cheapest conveyance
of the vast mineral products and the produce of the potteries of Staffordshire,
the salt of Droitwich, and the various manufactures of Birmingham and its
neighbourhood, through the Worcester and Birmingham canal ; nor v ill the
port of Gloucester, and more particularly those of Newport and Cardiff, in
South Wales, be less benefitted. In the present migratory state of commerce
and manufactures, with competition every where taking place, and in which
the minutest fraction in cheapness and certainty of conveyance will turn the
scale, »"e do consider the contemplated improvement of first-rate advantage
to Bristol. The great wonder is, that such an anomalous stale of things, in
these days of commercial enterprise, should so long have been suffered to
e.xist."

ZjIST op ne'w patents.

GRANrED IN ENGLAND FROM 2nD NOVEMBER TO 25TH NOVEMBER, 1840'

John Duncan, of Great George Street, Westminster, Gentleman, for
" improvements in machinery for cutting, reaping, or severing grass, grain,
com, or other Ulce growing plants or kerbs." Communicated by a foreigner
residing abroad. — Sealed November 2 ; six months for enrolment.

Elijah Galloway, of Manchester Street, Engineer, for " improvements
in propelling railroad carriages.'* — November 2 ; six months.

JosiAH Humphrey, of New Tower Row, Birmingham, Brass Founder, for
" certain improvements in machinery to be employed in the manufacture of
wire hooks and eyes." — November 2 ; six months.

Henry- Wimshurst, of Limehouse, Ship Builder, for " improvements in
steam vessels, in communicating jmifer to propellers of steam vessels, and in
shipping and uyishipping propellers." — November 2 ; six months.

James Heywood M'hitehead, of Royal George Mills, York, Manufac-
turer, for " improvements in the manufacture of vioollen belts, bands, or driv-
ing straps." — November 2 ; six months.

James Boydell, junior, of Cheltenham, for " improvements in working
railway and other carriages, in order to stop them, and aho to prevent their
running off the rails." — November 2 ; six months.

John Edward Orange, of Lincoln's Inn Old Square, Captain in the 81st
Regiment, for " improvements m apparatus for serving ropes and cables with
yarn." — November 2 ; six months.

Herman Schroeder, of Surrey Cottage, Peckham, Broker, for " improve-
ments in filters." Communicated by a foreigner residing abroad. — Novem-
ber 2 ; six months.

John Wordsworth Robson, of Wellclose Square, Artist, for "certain im-
provements in water closets." — November 2 ; six months.

Richard Farcer Emmerson, of AValworth, Gentleman, for " improve-
inents in applying a coating to the surfaces of iron pipes and tubes." — No-
vember 3 ; six mouths.

John Rapson, of Limehouse, Millwright, for " improvements in jmddle-
wheels for propelling vessels by steam or other power." — November 3 ; six
months.

Henry- Hind Edwards, of Nottingham Terrace, New Road, Engineer,
for ** improvements in evaporation." — November 5 ; six months.

Pierre M.\thew Mannourv, of Leicester Square, Gentleman, for *' im-
proveynenis in wiiid and stringed musical instruments" Communicated by a
foreigner residing abroad. — November 5 ; six months.

George Gwynne, of Duke Street, Manchester Square, Gentleman, for
" improvements in the manufacture of candles, and in the operating on oils
and fats." — November 5 ; six months.

George Dacres Paterson, of Truro, Esquire, for " improvements in
curvilinear turning, (that is to sayj a rest adapted for cutiing out wooden

432

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[Deckmber,

bowls, ami a .iel/-acliiiff side rest for other kinds of curvilinear turnings'' —
November 5 ; six months.

Henry Kirk, of Blaekheatli, Gentleman, for " imjirovements in Die apjili-
cation of a substance or composition ns a substitute for ice for statinr/ and
sliding purposes." — November T) ; six months.

Charles Joseph IIullma-ndel, Great Marlborough Street, Lithographic
Printer, for " a new effect of liglil and s/iadou; imitating a bruuli or stump
drawing or both combined, produced on paper, being an impression from a
plate or stone prepared in a particular manner for tliat purpose, as also the
mode of preparing the said plate or static fur that object." — November 5 ;
four months.

John Clarke, of Islington, Lancaster, Plumber anil Glazier, for " an
hydraulic double action force and lift-pump." Communicated by a foreigner
residing abroad. — November 5 ; six months.

George Delianson Clark, of the Strand, Gentleman, for " an improve-
ment in purifying tallow fats and oils for various uses, bg purifying them and
depriiing them of offensive smells, and solidifying sucti as are fluid, and giving
additional hardness ami solidity to such as are solid, and also by a neiv pro-
cess of separating stearine or stearic-acid from theelanie in such substances."
Communicated by a foreigner residing abroad. — November 5 ; six mouths.

Alexander Horatio Simpson, of New Palace Yard, Westminster, Gen-
tleman, for " a machine or apparatus to be med as a movable observatory or
telegraph, and as a movable platform in erecting, repairing, painting, or clean-
ing the interior and exterior of buildings, and ako as afire-escape." Com-
municated by a foreigner residing abroad." — November 5 ; six months.

.\ndrew Kurtz, of Liverpool, Manufacturing Chemist, for " a certain
improvement or certain improvements in the construction of furnaces." — No-
vember 5 ; six months.

George Halpin, jvinior, of Dublin, Civil Engineer, for " improvements in
applying air to lamps." — November 7 ; sLx months.

William Crofts, of New Radford, Nottingham, Machine Maker, for
"certain improvements in machinery, for t lie purpose of making figured or
ornamental bobbin-net or twist-lace, and other ornamental fabrics looped or
woven." — November 7 ; six months.

Charles de Bergue, of Blackheath, Gentleman, for " improvements in
machinery for making reeds used in weaving" Communicated to him by a
foreigner residing abroad. — November 7 ; six months.

Edward Dodd, of Kentish Town, Musical Instrument Maker, for " im-
provements in piano-fortes." — November 7 ; six months.

George Edward Donisthorpe, of Leicester, Machine Maker, for " cer-
tain improvements in machinery or apparatus for combining and preparing
wool, and other te.vtile substances." — November 7 ; six months.

John Joseph Mechi, of Leadeuhall Street, Cutler, for " improvements in
apparatus to be applied to lamps, in order to carry off heat and the products
of combustion." — November 10 ; two months.

Thomas Lavves, of Canal Bridge, Old Kent Road, Feather Factor, for
" certain improvements in the method or process, and apparatus for cleansing
or dressing feat tiers." — November 10; six months.

William M'Kinley, of Manchester, Engraver, for " certain improvements
in machinerg or apparatus for measuring, folding, plaiting, or lapping goods
or fabrics." — November 10; six months.

Charles Edwards Amos, of Great Guilford Street, Millwright, for " cer-
tain improvements in the manufacture of paper." — November 10 ; sLx
months.

Thomas William Parkin, and Elisha Wilde, of Portland Street,
Liverpool, Engineers, for " an improved metliod of making and working loco-
motive and other steam-engines." — November 12; two months.

Eugenius Birch, of Cannon Row, Westminster, Civil Engineer, for " im-
provements applicable to railroads, and to the engines and carriages to be
worked thereon." — November 12 ; six months.

John Heaton, of Preston, Overlooker, for " improvements in dressing
yams of linen, or cotton, or both, to be woven into various sorts of cloth." —
November 12; six months.

Otto C. Von Almonde, of Threadneedle Street, Merchant, for " im-
provements in the production of Mosaic xrork from wood." Communicated
by a foreigner residing abroad. — November 12; six months.

Charles Dod, of Buckingham Street, Adelphi, Gentleman, for " certain
methodsor processes for the manufacture of plate-glass, and also of substances
in imitation of marbles, stones, agates, and otiier minerals, of all forms and
dimensions, applicable to objects both of use and ornament." Communicated
by a foreigner residing abroad. — November 12 ; two months.

' Charles Wye Williams, of Liveriiool, Civil Engineer, for " certain im-
provements in the construction of furnaces and boilers." — November 17; six
months.

Joshua Shaw, of Goswell Street Road, Artist, for " certain improvements
in discharging ordnance, muskets, fowling-pieces, and other fire-arms." — No-
vember 17; six months.

Joseph Whitwortii, of Manchester, Engineer, and John Spear, of the
same place. Gentleman, for " certain improvements in machinerg, tools, or
apparatus for cutting and sliaping metals and other mbs(/inces." — November
1 7 ; six months.

James Deacon, of Saint John Street Road, Gentleman, for " improve,
menis in the manufacture of glass chimneys for lamps." — November 19 ; six
months.

Alexander Stevens, of Manchester, Engineer, for " certain improve-

ments in machinery or apparatus to be used as an universal cJieclcfor turning
and boring purposes, which said improvements are also applicable to other
useful purposes." — November 19; .six months.

William IIenson, of Allen Street, Lambeth, Engineer, for "improve-
ments in machinery for making or producing certain faljrics with threads or
yarns applicable to various useful purposes." — November 19 ; six months.

John Co.x, of Ironmonger Lane, Civil Engineer, for " certain improve-
ments in the comtruction of ovens applicable to the manufacture of coke, and
other purposes." — November 21 ; two months.

John Wakefield, of Salford, Hat Manufacturer, and John Ashton, of
Manchester, Hat Manufacturer, for " certain improvements in t/ie manufacture
of tiat bodies." — November 21 ; six months.

William Henry Hutchins, of Whitechapel Road, Gentleman, and
Joseph Bakewell, of BrLxton, Civil Engineer, for " improvements in pre-
venting ships ami other vessels from foundering, and also for raising vessels
when sunk."- — November 21 ; six months.

Francis Pope, of Wolverhampton, Engineer, for " improvements in de-
taching locomotive and other carriages." — November 24 ; six months.

John Haughton, of Liverpool, Clerk, M. A., for " improvements in the
means employed in railway accidents resulting from one train overtaking
anotlier." — November 24 ; sLx months.

Henry Charles Danberry, residing at Boulogne, Esquire, for " an im-
provement in the making and forming of paddle-wheels for the use of vessels
propelled on the wa ter by steam or other power, and applicable to propel ves-
sels ami mills." — November 25 ; six months.

Thomas Barratt, of Somerset, for " improvements in the manufacture
of paper." — November 25 ; six months.

Junius Smith, of Fen Court, Fenchurch Street, Esquire, for " certain im-
provements in furnaces." Comnuuiicated by a foreigner residing abroad.—
November 25 ; six months.

Charles Grellett, of Hatton Garden, for " new modes of treating pota-
toes in order to their being converted into various articles of food, and new
apparatus for drying, applicable to that and other purposes." — November 25;
six months.

William Henry Bailey Webster, of Ipswich, Surgeon, for " improve-
ments in preparing skins and other animal mattei-s, for the purpose of tanning f
and in the manufacture of gelatine." — -November 25 ; six months.

Oliver Louis Reynolds, of King Street, Cheapside, Merchant, for " cer-
tain improvements in machinery for producing stocking fabric or framework
knitting. Communicated by a foreigner residing abroad. — November 25;
six months.

Nathaniel Batho, of Manchester, Engineer, for " certain improvements
in machinery, tools, or apparatus, for planing, turning, boring, or cutting
metals, and other substances." — November 26 ; six months.

Frederick Theodore Philippi, of BeMeld Hall, Cabco Printer, for
" certain improvements in the art of printing cotton, silk, and other woven
fabrics." — November 25 ; six months.

James Lee Hannah, of Brighton, Doctor of Medicine, for " an improve-
ment or improvements in fire-escapes." — November 25 ; six mouths.

Robert Roberts, of IJradford, Blacksmith, for " a new method or process
for case tinrdening iron." — November 25 ; six months.

Henry Walker Wood, of Chester Square, Gentleman, for " an improve-
ment in producing an uneven surface in wood and other substances." Com-
municated by a foreigner residing abroad. — November 25 ; six months.

TO CORRESPONDENTS.

Notice.

The present Number concludes the Third Volume. The Title, Preface,
and Index will be given extra with the next month's Journal.

Vols. 1, II, and III, may be had, bound in cloth, price £1 each Volume.

" A Constant Reader," /F« linvr not seen the carriage.

We have rcceimd two other Mlers Ijesides the one inserted respecling Mr. Man-
seV s proposition for using marbles to check the lengths of the vliain ; we think it
unnecessary to publish any other than the one by a " Surveyor."

.lames Inglis's letter commenting on our remarks, regarding his conduct, in last
munlh's Journal, we must decline publishing, /fi" are at all limes disposed to
lend our aid in crushing plagiarism ; in doing so ive must be supported by facts,
ami no part of tlie statement should contain any matter but what could be fully
proved ill a court of law, to which we render ourselves liable to be brought, when
vindicating any particular interest, or exposing piracy. Mr. Inglis staled in his
letter, that his assertions could be supported by written documents, which, upon
investigation, turned out not to be the ease. We therefore cannot allow any further
correspondence on the subject of" Tide Gauges," unless it is the wish of eitlier
Mr. Milchell or Mr. Bunt.

A Road Engineer. Il'e shall attend to the Report on Turnpike Roads ne.rt
month.

Books received : — Lecount on the London and Birmingham Railway; Parseij
on Perspective ; Williams on Combustion ; Pambour on the Steam Engine.

Communiealimis arc requested to be addressed to "The Editor of the Civil
Kngineer and Architect s Journal.' No. M, Parliament Street, Westminster.

Books for review must be sent early in the month, communications on or before
the 20lh (if with drawings, earlier), and advertisements on or before the 25(A
instant.

"«l

NORTHEASTERN UNIVERSITY LIBRARIES

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NORTHEASTERN UNIVERSITY LIBRARIES

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