yiibrarg

THE

CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S

JOURNAL,

SCIENTIFIC AND RAILWAY GAZETTE.

VOLUME IV.— 1841.

LONDON:

PUBLISHED FOR THE PROPRIETOR : 57, KING STREET, WESTMINSTER ;

II. HOOPER, PALL MALL EAST; GROOMBRIDGE, PANYER ALLEY, PATERNOSTER ROW; J. WEALE, 59, HIGH IIOLBORN;

J. TAYLOR, I, WELLINGTON STREET, STRAND; J. WILLIAMS, 106, GREAT RUSSELL STREET, BLOOMSBURY ;

WILEY & PUTNAM, NEW YORK.

THOMAS BURROWS, PRINTER, 57, KING STREET, WESTMIXfTER.

PREFACE.

In a year in which the community generally has suffered so much from financial difficulties, and in which the government has been
occupied with party discussions and foreign wars, we may esteem it fortunate that both in architecture and engineering no retrogradation
has taken place. Although architecture has no great memorials of the present year to show us, yet its labours have been great, while its
prospects are most promising, and if neither remarkable for the completion nor the commencement of any gigantic design, it can scarcely
be denied that the present is a period of the brightest augury. The necessity for the New Courts of Law may be considered as acknow-
ledged, while the appointment of new judges makes their erection more urgent, the appointment of a commission to consider in what
way the Fine Arts can best be made available in the New Houses of Parliament, with the addition of the Victoria Record Tower to the
plan of that building, the recognized advantage to be derived from the embankment of the Thames — all these are circumstances which
are calculated to inspire the greatest satisfaction.

While prospects of employment are being opened to the profession, its general advancement may be looked upon with equal pleasure;
the question of competition is one which has been much agitated during the present year, and good can scarcely fail to arise from the
mode in which the extra-professional press have entered into the discussion. The arts have for the firsttime been made a part of general
education by the appointment of Mr. Dyce, at King's College, to a professorship of this branch of instruction, and in the same institution
a school of architecture is also formed, so that architecture may henceforth be regarded as adopted into the universitary system. The
legislature in the late session took, upon a bold and comprehensive scale, a plan for the application of architectural police and hygiene, and
political difficulties alone retarded measures, the principle of which was generally admitted. In the sister country the late representative
of the crown followed up the bestowal of royal patronage on the Institute of Irish Architects by conferring on its president Sir Richard
Morrison, the honour of knighthood, and in the present Viceroy, the long honoured President of the Institute here, we hope to see a
generous encourager of all the liberal arts. The extension of museums, and the re-opening of Westminster Abbey are measures calculated
to promote the moral welfare of architecture, while its material interests have not been neglected. A general improvement and extension
of the royal parks has been commenced, the Green Park, Hyde Park, Regent's Park, and Windsor Park are undergoing extensive altera-
tions, a new Royal Kitchen Garden is to be formed, the Kitchen Garden in Kensington Gardens removed, the East of London to be im-
proved by the opening of Victoria Park, and other Parks are contemplated in the South. The new streets in the metropolis and the
improvements in Trafalgar Square have proceeded but slowly, but the difficulties with regard to them have now been overcome. The
new street to the Post Office has however been cleared, and the approaches to the Royal Exchange nearly completed. The strike of a
large body of masons caused considerable delay with the Houses of Parliament and the works in Trafalgar Square, otherwise the new
buildings have gone on well. The Royal Stables at Windsor and the Wesleyan Centenary Hall, have been completed ; St. Bartholomew's
Hospital has been extended, the Lock Hospital commenced, and a Gresham Lecture Hall : restorations and decorations are proceeding in
the Cathedral of Hereford, Westminster Abbey, the Chapel of St. George Windsor, and King's College Cambridge ; and the Round
Churches in the Temple and at Cambridge ; many new Churches have been erected in various parts of the country. The demolition of
the old front of the British Museum has commenced, to make way for a new one, but we have this year lost the Great Armoury in the
Tower, Astley's Amphitheatre and Vauxhall. The greatest loss architecture has sustained has been by the death of the illustrious
Schinkel.

Directing our attention to engineering we find the converse of what we have observed with regard to architecture, for many noble
works have been completed, while the continuance of legislative restrictions threatens to check the progress of every department of civil
engineering. It may be said, without any important exceptions, that neither for railways, canals or harbours has any act been passed and
mechanical engineering alone remains unscathed. The government instead of affording relief to engineering, brought forward measures
which must still further have depressed it, had they not been defeated in the attempt.

In the Colonies we have to notice the increased employment of engineers, particularly in New Zealand. The Bengal Government
have at last published a report on the public works, executed by them, and it appears that the other Indian governments have of late been
stimulated to carry on extensive improvements of the canals and roads of India.

With regard to the institutions we feel it our duty to point out as a deed worthy of the profession and of the man, the munificent
conduct of President Walker, who presented to the Institute one thousand pounds consols as a prize fund. The Institute has shown a
praiseworthy disposition to commemorate the great men of the profession, by calling for a series of memoirs. Dublin has been added
to the number of engineering universities, courses have been opened in University College, a school is proposed at Manchester, a junior
school has been opened at King's College, and a school for engine drivers at the Polytechnic Institution. The first benevolent institu-
tion connected with the profession has been founded for the relief of workmen, by the mechanical and marine engineers.

It is with pleasure we chronicle among the events of the year, the knighthood of Sir Isambard Brunei, and the completion of the
great works of himself and his son, the Thames Tunnel and the Great Western Railway. The King of the Belgians has also conferred
the order of Leopold upon the younger Stephenson.

PREFACE.

One of the roost striking features of this year has been the number and importance of the scientific questions which have been
agitated. They relate mostly to the phenomena of steam and the construction of engines, impelled by if. They include the discussion
on the electricity of steam, on the percussive action attributed to it, on the comparative merits of Cornish and other engines, and of four
and six wheel locomotives, and on the combustion of coal. The plans for the improvement of the river Irwell were also made the subject
of a public disputation, in which several engineers of eminence took part.

The deaths among eminent men connected with the profession have not been numerous; they are those of Francis Bramah, the engi-
neer, John Rickraan, the author of the Life of Telford, and Sir Francis Chantrey, the eminent sculptor.

This year has witnessed the completion of nearly all the railways, for wrhich acts have passed, and we may date from this period
the establishment of a connected railway system. The number of miles executed this year is under two hundred and fifty, but the Great
Western, South Western and Gosport, Manchester and Leeds, Brighton, Stockton and Hartlepool, and Blackwall Railways have been
openetl throughout. Additional and partial openings have taken place of the Bristol and Exeter, Manchester and Sheffield, Cheltenham
and Great Western, North Eastern, Maryport and Carlisle, Glasgow and Greenock, and Ulster Railways. The Greenwich line is being
■widened, and the locomotive system has been extended to the Cromford and High Peak Railway. The sudden and unaccountable occur-
rence of serious accidents on the lines in the autumn of the last year and of the present, gave rise to violent attacks on the railways from
the press, and to the suggestion of stringent measures on the part of the Board of Trade, which was however defeated in the attempt.
The inefficiency of the Act of last year has been signally shown by the closing of the Brighton Railway shortly after the government
inspector had pronounced it to be not only in an efficient state, but to be the best executed work of any that he had seen. A bill for rail-
ways in Ireland was introduced by the government, who were compelled to modify it, and it has since been postponed. Not only our
engineers, but our workmen, have been called abroad for the execution of the Paris and Rouen Railway, and the Suspension Bridge over
the Danube at Pesth.

Wood pavement has been adopted in the neighbourhood of chuches and courts of law, for the purpose of deadening the sound, and
it has been laid down on an extensive scale in several of the principal thoroughfares of the metropolis.

The repairs of the bridges over the Thames have been proceeded with, and an extensive embankment of the river is contemplated;
the Hungerford Suspension Bridge is in progress, the Thames Tunnel has been opened throughout, and the lighthouse with Mitchell's
screw moorings on the Maplin Sands has been finished. A lighthouse on the same construction has been erected at Fleetwood, and many
improvements made in the harbour there. A lighthouse entirely of iron has also been constructed in this country and sent out to Jamaica.
The Docks at Southampton notwithstanding many difficulties are nearly ready for opening.

The extended use of iron steamers, with that of auxiliary steam power, and the attention devoted to the forms of propellers are the
principal things which strike us with regard to marine engineering, together with the progress of sounder views as to the proportions of
power to tonnage, and the bulk of the engine. The loss of the President excited much notice in the early part of the year, but no injurious
influence to ocean steam navigation has resulted from that casualty. The West India Mail Steamers have been completed, and steam
navigation has been extended to theHavannah, to the Upper Elbe, and in Australia. Ocean steam towing has been tried in the Straits
of Gibraltar. The war with China has afforded full opportunity for testing the iron war steamers, and proving their value, and the steam
navy has been greatly increased.

Gas has been introduced in Sydney, a prelude to its extension in the Australian Continent.

Mechanical engineering has found much employment ; although the depression of trade has prevented the erection of new factories,
the demand for the export trade has continued to increase. Turkey and many other countries have availed themselves of the skill of our
mechanics.

SMHIi'l' 51' st MAi6

0^L^J^L 0U.^^A ^ /'L/^r

^ Tia-. 3

i>J5!«

./ fi J, :.t,AM, Drnfi' X J.tf^r- \\nru«k t

THE

CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S

JOURNAL.

ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE MOLE DES NOIRE^^,

WHICH SHELTERS THE FRONT HARBOUR AND

ENTRANCE OF THE GATES OF ST. MALO.

(With an Engraving, Plate I.)

( Ti-amlated from the French vf M. Girard de Caudemherg, Engineer-
in-Chief of Roads and Bridges.)

The Mole ties Noires, forming part of the general plan of a floating
basin which is to be common to St. Malo and St. Servan, has been in
progress for the last two vears, and is situated as pointed out in fig. 1,
stretching from A to B. When the wind bows from S.W. to N.W.,
Jt is very much exposed to the action of the sea, and was consequently
during its construction exposed to all the most unfavourable contin-
gencies, by which works in direct contact with the sea are affected.
For the purpose of opposing this action, a form has been given to the
mole of an arc of a circle of 695 feet (212 met.) radius. The breadth
of the top, including the parapet, is 19 feet (5-SO uiet.j, which is
strictly necessary for preserving a free passage for warping to the
upper part, and for giving to the works the stability and resistance
necessary to support the difference of pressure resulting from the
maximum of the simultaneous elevation and depression of the waves
on the two opposite faces. The dimensions of the mole are given in
the section, fig. 2, in which are also shown the high and low water
marks at spring and neap tides, which sufficiently justify the great
elevation given to the work. This section also shows the great aque-
duct or interior tunnel, and of the channels communicating with it.
The aqueduct extends the whole length of the mole up to the head,
and the upper and lower channels or pipes are made at every 0,5 feet
distance. The lower inclined pipes end in a number of sluices, which
are for the purpose of clearing away the silt in the front harbour.

The opinion of M. de Caudemherg was that this silt was little to be
feared, but as the commissioners appointed by the Minister of Marine,
insisted upon having an aqueduct which could work the sluices, in the
front harbour, M. de Caudemherg suggested the plan now in execution.
The aqueduct is 197S feet (1503 met.) in length and 7 feet 2 inches
(2'20 met.) diameter, and is carried through the mass of the quay of
the front harbour, crosses the gates of the inner harbour, and takes its
rise in the floating I asin. It is constructed throughout of an annular

No. 40.— Vol. IW-Janvary, 1841.

form. The pipes carrying the water to the sluices are inclined as re-
presented in the section, and are of cast iron, their inner diameter is
about IG inches (0-4U met), and the different parts which compose
them are secured by a simple joint with resinous mastic. The upper
part is terminated by a hemispherical cup IS inches diameter, with a
ball acting as a bomb valve. This valve is for the purpose of prevent-
ing the water introduced into the great aqueduct returning back again
when the tide falls. Where however the sluices are intended to be
worked the valve is lifted up, by means of a chain comnuuiicating witli
the upper surface of the quay. The water which flows from the aque-
duct, through the inclined pipes, with the velocity of a column of
water 24 feet high is carried through an opening 3 feet 3 inches broad,
and of a mean height of 5 inches, so as to cause a stream of water to
sweep away the silt. It should be observed that the large vertical
pipes 19 inches (4 met.) diameter, serve for the evacuation of the air,
and as manholes for cleansing and repairing the aqueduct. The parts
marked a 6 e in fig. 2, are for the purpose of preventing the water at
high tides from getting through the sluices, and causing an inverse
pressure on the great aqueduct.

The engineer found considerable difficulty while constructing the
mole, on accomit of the position of the great aqueduct, which as it
was necessarily built upon a centering, would in case of wood being
employed, have been soon blown up by the waves and destroyed, or at
least have had the mortar forced out and the work to begin over again.
To prevent this M. de Caudemherg directed his attention to the con-
struction of a peculiar centering or shield. This centering was of cast
iron, in moveable pieces, so that it should be readily managed in the
progress of the works. On the outside was fixed an arm to break the
power of the wave at the period of the shock, while at the same time
the specific weight of the centering prevented it from being carried
away. It is formed of panels weighing about a hundred weight each,
so that they could be easily moved. The whole shield was 20 feet
fS met.) long, and divided into 10 rings.

M. De Caudemherg found that though by these means he broke the
shock of the wave, that the works were still liable to suffer on account
of the oscillations, particularly when the weather was rough, when
masses of compressed air were" forced into the great aqueduct, and so
up the vertical manholes, causing spouts of water 30 or 40 feet high.
These manholes however served greatly to modify the effects. As

B

THF CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[Januart,

the best remedy, and one wliirh w;is found effectual, the pannels of the
centering were covered with slieet iron, pierced with holes so as still
further to break the violence of the shock.

As l:owever the cast iron centering was in some degree an impedi-
ment to the works, whenever the state of the weather permitted it, a
wooden shield was used also moveable, so that keeping fi feet and a
half of iron centering outside, about 50 feet of wood centering was
«sed behind it. In this way 50 or tiO feet in length was got through
in a day. To get over the difficulties and expense of transporting the
materials to sucli a narrow space, small lighters, fiat bottomed boats,
and floating platforms were used, which were found to act well, al-
though some inconvenience was felt in rough weather.

ON THE CONSTRLXTION OF A PIER IN THE RIVER
AGLY.

( Translaled/rom the French of M. Fauvtllc/or the C. E. A-. A. Journal.)

M. Fauveli.e describes a process which is extensively used in Rous-
sillon for constructing wells, and has also been applied by Mr. Brunei
on a large scale in making the descending shafts of the Thames Tun-
nel. In most parts of Roussillon, and particularly on the shores of the
sea, and near ponds, at a yard or two below the surface, a layer of
quicksand is met with, which cannot be dug twenty inches deep with-
out the sand falling and filling up the excavation. This consequently
prevents tlie usual course of digging a well and building the brick-
Avork afterwards, as it would cost more in timbering and framework
than the whole well was worth. A stout circular oaken curb is there-
fore placed on the ground, the walls of the well are built several yards
liigh upon it, and then from the inside the shifting Soil is excavating
so that the well is carried down to the required depth. M. Fauvelle
had to build the pier of a bridge in the bed of the river Agly on a bed,
which although it seemed quite dry, yet filtered a great quantity of
water through pebbles and sand for yards thick, these again resting on
a bed of clay. Being prevented from want of funds from using the
ordinary means of getting rid of the water, M. Fauvelle availed him-
self of the Roussillonese plan. On the bank he placed an oaken frame
or curb, and on this he built a well or circular tower of brick, IC inches
thick, 70 feet in circumference, and 13 feet high. This well was se-
cured internally so as to resist the external and vertical pressure.
Excavations were then begun in tlie interior of the well, but some in-
jury was done to the walls at first by the workmen digging under the
curb, and so causing an unequal descent and cracking of the bricks.
The works were then limited to the interior of the well, and it gra-
dually descended until it became necessary to use the dredge, by means
of which, in about a fortnight, it was got down into the clay bed with-
out any accident or injury to the walls. Nothing then remained but
to fill up the interior so as to make a solid mass, w hich w as done, with-
out taking out the water, by throwing in concrete and stones, this work
being secured to the walls by their being rougheij vvith a chisel worked
by a long iron bar; the whole was then well rammed down by two
men so as to make a solid mass.

CANDIDUS'S NOTE-BOOK.
FASCICULUS XXII.

'* I must have liberty
Willi.il. as large a charier as the ulnils,
To b!o>v on whom I please."

I. "AiiCiiiTt.ci'iKt," says a writer in the last number of the
Monthly Review, "is under a certain degree of restraint in every state
of society. The nature of his materials, and the necessity of clipping
tlown his conceptions to the views and wants of his employer, have
accustomed the architect to act with apparent freedom, under circum-
stances which would wholly repress the ardour of the sculptor or the
painter." This is rather oddly expressed, it being not very much
unlike a contradiction in terms to attributeyje£(!?o»!, or apparent free-
dom, on the part of architects, to the reitraint imposed upon their art.
The writer does not seem to have taken the trouble of reading over
what he had put down upon paper; but his meaning probably is, that
the necessity of clipping down Lis conceptions, &c., has accustomed
the architect to act with a servile compliance — a blind deference, to

the wishes of his employers, and to do just as he is dictated to do, as
if it were perfect matter of indifference to him ; whereas a sculptor
or painter is not quite so docile, but less patient of impertinent inter-
ference, and is apt to prove restive on such occasions, or else gets
sulky, and pretends that he can do nothing if not allowed to have his
own way. This, I conceive, would be much nearer the truth; for I
do not understand how the architect can be said to act with apparent
freedom, when, however willingly he may do so, making a virtue of
necessity, he is evidently acting under control, and obliged to forego
his own ideas, and maim his design by adopting those ofother peopfe.

II. There is, I suspect, no small share of hypocrisy, and not a little
cowardice, also, with some addition of affectation into the bargain, in
the praises heaped upon Palladio, because I have never yet either
met with books, or been able to gather from any one in conversation,
in which of his works the merits so liberally ascribed to him really
consist. In speaking of him, every one seems to think it the safest
policy to confine himself to general eulogy, without venturing at all
into particulars. Nay, I have met with tliose who, after surrendering
up to criticism, one by one, every production of his mentioned, have
not had courage enough to confess that they were advocating a losing
cause, but give themselves the airs of having the better of tlie argu-
ment, because, forsooth, Palladio had always been considered a very
genius in architecture.

III. It is not without reason that Klenze has lately animadverted
upon the plodding, barren, "machine-like," manner in which modern
architects have applied themselves to Grecian architecture, without
getting a step beyond two or three very obvious and stale ideas, which
have now been hackneyed ad nauseam ; as if its elements could not,
by any possibility, be made to furnish fresh combinations or farther
modifications as to detail, but every thing must be most according to
precedent, at least, as fur as columns alone are concerned, since, in
regard to all the rest, a most convenient degree of latitude is con-
sidered quite allowable. It must not, however, be supposed that
such "machine-like " system, one so utterly at variance with every
principle of art, would be upheld in the manner it has been and
continues to be, without some motive, although it is one which it
would not do to let all the world know. The excessive reverence
affected to be entertained by the plodders for antique examples, evi-
dently does not proceed from an intelligent admiration of them ; for
it is plainly to be perceived that they have no influence whatever on
their taste, and that if such admirers have studied them at all, it has
been no otherwise than mechanically, without imbibing any of their
spirit, without extracting from them any of their delicious flavour,
after the fashion of that most praiseworthy little plagiarist, the bee,
who steals their sweetness from flowers, but mauufactures it into the
still more luscious sweetness of honey. The dunces in the profession
— and if any one chooses to include himself among the number, it
is no fault of mine — the dunces, I say, are well aware that it is good
policy in them to decry any modification of the antique, any thing
like originality in the treatment of it, as most dangerous and mis-
chievous innovation. Mischievous, indeed! no doubt — because were
any sort of freedom in that respect to be allowed, were the system
of copying and nothing but copying, to be exploded, as not exactly in
character with what, justlj' or not, assumes to be something more than
a mechanical science, even one of the fine arts, — the incompetence of
many %vould at once become apparent, they being, as Wightwick has
wickedly observed, "impotent to generate" even a single modi-
fication of what they now so clasucally follow as patterns; much
more, then, to generate an idea of their own.

IV. It is by no means uncommon to hear people complain how
exceedingly difficult it is to hit upon any new subject ; nevertheless,
there are both a good many hackneyed ones, which would admit of
being treated with some degree of novelty, by blowing away the
learned dust which now almost covers them, and freshening them up
anew; and also a few others that have as yet not been touched upon
at all, notwithstanding that they would furnish matter almost inex-
haustible, and the opening of them would be like opening a virgin
mine of unexplored wealth. It is odd that, until the other day, no
one should have thought of treating the subject of porticoes as is done
in the article in the Penny Cyclopa;dia, which, although unsatisfactory,
because little more than a brief outline of it, is most valuable as a
hint, and as pointing out what preceding writers had overlooked. I,
myself, have at least half a dozen architectural subjects in petto, any
one of which would sujiply matter for a volume, and some one of
which I have long been expecting to see pounced upon and taken up
by some less indolent or more enterprizing mortal. Nevertheless,
they still all remain untouched, as safe and as snug as if they were
buried within the innermost bowels of the earth, though really exposed
where any one who has eyes to see with may behold them. There is
plenty of fresh game to start, had but people noses to catch scent of

]841.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

3

it; for instance ■

-, and ■

-, and ■

I leave it to the reader's penetration to till up the blanks, — all choice
and fertile subjects as well as new, and only waiting for some one to
pick them up; though I fancy that were they to stumble against
them, most people would only stumble over them. It is imdoubtedly
very fine to be eternally talking about "Pericles," and such very
sublime matters ; yet that is not the way to discover any tiling par-
ticularly novel. Those who walk abroad star-gazing, do not notice
a. purse of gold under their feet, or should they chance to tread upon
it, only kick it away from them as a mer" stone in their path.

V. The author of the " Palace of Architecture " has, I see, thought
it necessary to assure the readers of Eraser's Magazine, that the
article entitled "Wightwickism," in that periodical, was not a slash-
ing cut-up of his book, as some of his own friends had conceived it to
be, and were accordingly very indignant that such a violent attack
upon it— nothing less than a downright demolisher — should liave pro-
ceeded from that quarter ; nor are they the only persons who have
taken up that singular idea, for some sapient newspaper critic has
described the paper alluded to as a complete settler for Wightwick!
It is charitable, therefore, to suppose that both the reviewer alluded
to, and those who have fallen into the same error, read no more than
the first page or two of the article, otherwise tiiey m\ist be obtuse and
obfuscated indeed, not to perceive its real drift. But there are people
in the world so dully matter-of-fact, as to have no notion whatever of
either irony or humour — people who take such a pleasantry as " A
Lesson in Reviewing" for a serious attack upon Mr. William Cowper,
the poet, fancying the writer to be in earnest when he gravely cen-
sures the bard's indeUcaey, or rather offensive grossness, in venturing
to use the term breeches, instead of employing the long-winded cir-
cumlocution resorted to by his biographer. Dr. Southey, in order to
express, or rather insinuate the idea of, that vulgar article of male
attire. And there are folks, it now appears, who either are, or affect
to be, so perversely thick-headed as altogether to misconceive the
writer's object in " Wightwickism." Nevertheless, with such exqui-
site stupidity stiring us in the face, the present age is styled that of
the March of Intellect — which "March," is, perhajis, the gravest and
most notable mystification of all.

ON LIMES.

Researches cn the several properties whicu ma7 be communi-
cated TO CEMENT STONES AND HYDRAULIC I IMEF, BY IMPERFECT
BURNING. By M. N. VlCAT.

( Translated for the C. E. and A. Journal.)

The principal object of this treatise is to illustrate several singular
properties of imperfectly burned argilo-calcareous subetances, and also
some anomalous cases with regard to hydraulic limes. It is well
known that hydraulic limes are converted into cements, when the pro-
portion of clay is increased beyond a certain limit, in which transition
may be recognised the nature of those compounds which participating
in the properties, both of limes and cements, belong to neither class.
Those compounds, which the author denominates cluiax limites, or in-
termediate limes, on being completely burned, (that is, entirely de-
prived of carbonic acid), and treated like cements, become absolute
cements, but if the cohesion be instantaneously acquired, it is lost in a
few hours by a gradual extinction of the cementing properties, which
instead of producing hydraulic lime, leave nothing but a kind of caput
mortuura. Common hydraulic Umestones have also peculiarities, be-
coming good cements, or giving products almost without value, accord-
ing as they are burned to a greater or less degree.

The confusion resulting from such apparent inconsistencies, and the
serious difficulties which had occurred in carrying on several important
works, induced M. Vicat to investigate the subject, and to present the
following observations as the result of his inquiries.

1st. All limestones containing 53 per cent, of clay should be rejected
as extremely dangerous, and never allowed to be used in any opera-
tion, being incapable of forming any useful cement.

2nd. Perfect imitation of hydraulic limes by the mixture of slack
lime and cement is impossible ; as these mixtures are but slightly
hydraulic, therefore to imitate natural hydraulic limes, the regular
process must be followed.

3rd. Every argilo-calcareous substance, capable of producing a ce-
ment after being thoroughly burned, also gives a cement on being im-
perfectly burned, provided that the proportion of clay to free lime in
the rough stone, does not exceed 273 per cent., or in other words, pro-
vided that there are less than 273 parts of clay for every hundred of

lime. In acting upon this rule, super calcination is the only thing to
be guarded against.

4th. Every argilo-calcareous substance, capable of producing an in-
tinnediate or hydraulic lime by being thoroughly burned, can on being
imperfectly burned, produce a cement, or at least a product having all
the properties of one, provided that the proportion of clay to free lime
in the rough stone is not below G2 per cent., not only the imperfectly
burned stones are no longer cements, but they may even fall into the
class of weak hydraulic limes with a gradual extinction of power. As
therefore no practical means exists of distinguishing at first sight im-
perfectly burned cements from those which are burned, and still less
of regulating the degree of heat, so as to expel uniformly the required
proportion of carbonic acid, it follows that by pulverising imperfectly
burned cements, and mixing them indiscriminately with mortar as has
been done on several works, the mortar instead of being improved, has
had introduced into it an element of destruction.

Lastly. The manufacture of cement from intermediate limes is at-
tended with serious difficulties, as it is impossible to find out which
are perfectly burned. Every assay for the purpose of testing the
quality of hydraulic lime, should be preceded by experiments on the
quantity of carbonic acid contained in the lime, for if this acid is pre-
sent in such a proportion as to show imperfectly burned non- cement,
the assay will point out as bad an hydraulic lime, which thorouglily
burned, would have the required qualities.

To the presence of imperfectly burned cements, M. Vicat attributes
most of the injuries, splitting of joints, &c., visible in buildings, and
which never occur when the lime is good. As the quickest and surest
test M. Vicat recommends chemical analysis, but disapproves of the
ordinary mode, for if the clay be separated from the carbonate by an
acid and then treated with potass, a gelatinous silex is produced from
those quartrose particles which do not enter into combination. He
therefore recommends the immediate reduction of a few finely pow-
dered grains into lime or cement ; to make sure that no carbonic acid
remains, and to dissolve the whole in an excess of hydrochlaric acid.
The residue, not reduced, will give the quantity of uncombined clay
which imbibes the hydraulicity of the lime. The rest of the assay-
may proceed in the usual way.

OPENING OF T'riE PORT OF FLEETWOOD-ON-\VYRE TO NIGHT
NAVIGATION.

This interesting and impurtant event took place on the evening of the 1st
of December. It must ever be interesting to behold the efforts of art founded
on pure science, when supported by spirited funds, eminently successlul. It
must ever be appreciated ns a vital achievement when a region, hitherto un-
approachable by night and seldom by day in stormy weather or slantin;^
winds, shall be pronounced and proved, not only accessible, but within the
instant comprehension of the weatlier-driven mariner, even though he never
sa»- the coast before. Such have resulted at Fleetwood-on-\Vyre, under the
plans and personal su; erint.ndence of C'apt. Henry Mangles Denham, R.N.,
FR.S.. consulting marine surveyor, supported by the encouraging confidence
of the board of directors, and unflinching appropriation of means. It is our
pleasing task to record tacts so honourable and gratulatory to all parties en-
£?aged." Here is a Company realising all that is due to energetic espousal of
capabilities whicli might as heretofore, have^laid useless to a nation, anti un-
profitable to enterprise, but for the exercise of perception and that moral
courage which boldly traces in perspective reasonable results. An estuary
hitherto (indeed 16 months ago) overlapped by spits in its sea'.vard reach,
precluding intercourse with its natural tijal basin and anchorage, now pre-
sents a sirsight course, of but 15 minutes run, between 20 fathoms Irish Sea
water an'! the railway terminus, which is connected by 11 hour, journey wi:h
London. The full particulars of which are set forth and illustrated in Capt.
Denham's work on the Mersey, Dee, and M'yre navigation. A'e, therefore,
need only revert to it, and glance at the simple, but eti'eclive ceremony which
locally marked the occasion of formally opening the Port. At sunset on the
evening of the 1st December, the Chairman. .>ir Hesketh FleetwooJ, Bart.,
M.P.. a party of 80 gentlemen, their Secretary, John Power, Esq., and las!,
but not least, some fair ladies, accompanied Captain Denham in a sieamer to
the offing. Passing the several buoys which mark the New Cut channel, for
daylight and hazy weather guidance — at a proper jperiod of darkness, when
no vestige or clue to land, or haven entrance, could be traced, and no access
to be hoped for until the ne.xt morning, a rocket was thrown by Capt. Den-
ham, and instantly the lantern chambers of the new light-houses were un-
masked. Three hearty cheers welcomed the lights on board, and three more
« ith every hand open, greeted Captain Denham ; w hilst peals of cannon on
shore called attention to the fact. The lights were then bro;ight in line, the
course shaped, and at a nine knot rate the party were, in fifteen minutes
alongside the Railway wharf. The instant of clearing the New Cut was sig-
nalled by a shower oi rockets from on board. Cheer after cheer was responded
to on shore by guns, rockets, and cheers ; whilst the bands sent forth our
glorious national anthem and Rule Britannia. Titith and candour avowed
itself where 'lis ever nurtured. One of the ladies eiclaimed, to the delight
of ihe gallant Captain, — '■ Why the process of coming into this port is so
Simple, /could bring a vessel in." — Railway Magazi:ic.

2 B

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[.Ianu^rv,

WHITELAW AND STIRRAT'S PATENT WATER MILL.'

Fig. 1 is ;i side elevation of the new watei-miil, in which figure
some of the parts are drawn in section. Fig. 2 is a plan showing the
arms and other parts of the machine. The main pipe a a carries the
water which drives the machine into its arras, from a reservoir or any
suitable jilace on a higher level than the arms ; h h are the arms,
which are hollow ; the water passes into them at the centre part c,
and escapes out at the jet-pipes dd; c c is the main or driving shaft
of the machine, which is shown cast in one piece witli the arms ; /is
a bevel pinion, and g a bevel wheel ; by means of which wheel and
pinion the rotary motion of the machine is communicated to the hori-
zontal shaft /(, which again communicates the power of the machine
to any machinery which it may be intended to work; i ii is a large
bracket fixed to the wall or building kk; this bracket supports the
shaft e c, while the bracket / carries one end of the shaft //. The jier-
pendicular jdane which passes through the parts represented in section
in the elevation, Fig. 1, passes through the points m m in the plan,
Fig. 2. The top journal or bearing n of the main shaft has a number
of collars on it; for, if there were but one collar, it would require to
be made larger in diameter than the collars shown in Fig. 1, in order
to get a sufficient quantity of bearing surface ; but if the diameter of
a collar be increased, the friction will be greater, as then the rubbing
surface is more distant I'roin the centre of motion; so, if a sutficient
quantity of bearing surface is obtained by a number of collars, there
w ill be le9« friction than if only one is used to resist the pressure,
(y (/ are holes through which the water escapes from the basin under
tlie arms into the tailrate after it has left the machine. As the arms
iiave a rotary motion, and the pipe ii a is fixed to the building under
it, there must be means provided to prevent the escape of water at
the place where the main-pipe meets the arms. A contrivance suit-
iiljle for this purpose is shown in Fig. 1 ; it consists of a ring or pro-
jection round the underside of the aperture c, and of a part p turned
cylindrical at the place where it fits into the pipe a a. A leather,

* We are indebted for this description to a pamphlet by James AVhitelaw,
and for the use of the wood engravings to the Editor of the Mechanics'
Jlagaiiiie.

similar to what is used in ]>acking the large piston in a Bramah press,
is inserted into the recess w ic, turned inside of the top part of the pipe
a a, in order to prevent the escape of water betwixt the pipe and the
cyhndrical part oi p. It will now be clear that if the part ;;, and the
ring on the underside of c, are accurately turned and ground upon each
other at the place where they meet, the pressure of the water in the
main pipe will act upon tlie under edge of p, and press it in contact
with the projecting (jart round the aperture c, and in this way keep
the joining of those parts water-tight. There is a flanch outside oi p,
with holes bored in it, to receive steadying-pins fixed to the top part
of the pipe a u; these pins are seen in Fig. 1 ; they prevent the part
p from re\olving, and are fitted so as to allow p to rise or fall. There
is another use for the flanch roundly, which is this: — a little rope-yarn
is wrapped betwixt it and the main j)ipe, to prevent the part p from
sliding down whenever tlicre is not a sufficient pressure of water in
the main pipe to support it. The pipe a a is bored out to receive
the part ji, which is fitted so as that it will slide easily up or down in
the bored part; rrrr are the stay-bolts which support the arms;
i i are valves, and g i a t are levers which work upon the centres It,
and form a connexion of these centres with the valves. There is a
lever on the top, and one on the bottom side of each valve. The
rods u n form a connexion with the levers s / s /, and the springs vvrt,
fixed to the arms. The end next the valve of each jet-pipe (see
Fig. 2) is a circle drawn from / as a centre ; and each valve is curved

n^

I, +Ia'

to fit and work corrcotly upon the end of its pipe. The levers atii
are adjusted so that the valres ss will work without rubbing upon the
ends of the jet-pipes, in order to get quit of the friction as much as
possible ; Ijut it is not essential that the valves should be correctly
water-tight. It will be clear, that if the machine revolves so fast as
to make the united centrifugal forces of the valves s s, the rods u ji,
the levers s I s t, and the springs, greater than the weight that will
bend the springs r ti !T to the distance shown in Fig. 2, the valves
will recede from the centre of the machine till the force of the springs
gets sufficient to overcome the centrifugal force of the valves, &c.
Therefore, the centrifugal force will cause the valves to cover tlie
ends of the jet-pipes, and so allow less water to escape, and thus
diminish the force of the water on the machine whenever it goes
quicker than the proper speed, if the springs are considerably bent

1841.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

or stniineJ when llie valves are full open, a very small increase of the
speed of the machine will cause the valves completely to cover the
ends of the jet-pipes, and when the ends of these pipes are closed, the
vater can have no power to turn the machine. From this it will be
clear, that the niachiiie can be made so that, when if is doing very
little work, it will not move at a much greater speed than it will when
acting with its greatest power.

The new water-mill acts on a principle similar to that of the well-
known Barker's mill ; but the arms are bent and otherwise shaped, so
as to allow the water to run from the centre to the extremity of the
arms when they are in motion, in a straight line, or nearly so, and in
this way the disadvantages of carrying the water round with the arms,
as is the case in Barker's mill, are got rid of.

The curve of the arms is such as to allow the water to run from
their centres out of the jet-pipes, w ilhout being carried round by the
machine, when it is in motion at its best speed. On this account, the
rotary motion of the arms will not give to the water a centrifugal
force. So the forces which work the new water-mill are simply the
force of reaction, and the weight of a column of water of the same
height as that acting on the mill, having the area of its cross section
eqnal to the sum of the cross-sectional area of each jet-pipe. When
the machine is standing, the one of these forces is as great as the
other ; but when it revolves so quick that the centres of the jet-pipes
move at the same speed as that of the water flowing from them, the
force of reaction ceases, as then the water falls from the jet-pipes
without any motion, in a horizontal direction, for the machine leaves
the water as fast as the acting column can follow it. When the re-
sistance to be overcome is as great as will balance tlie force caused by
the weight of the water, there is still the force of reaction left to bring
up the speed of the machine ; and as the weight of the water remains
the same, whether the niachine is in motion or at rest, the force of
reaction will cairy up the speed till the centres of the jet-|.>ipes re-
volve at a velocity the same as that of the water issuing from them
before it ceases. Thus the machine, when its jet-pipes revolve at a
speed as great as that of the water issuing from them, will give its
maximum of eft'ect, which maximum will be equal to the whole power
of the water it uses ; for, in the time a given weight of water is ex-
pended, in the same time the machine is able to raise as great a
weight from the level of the centres of the jet-pipes to the level of
the surface of the water in the lead. There is of course a small part
of the power lost, most of which is that caused by the resistance
which the water meets with in passing through the main pipe and the
machine. This portion of the force is very inconsiderable, as will be
shown in the next paragraph; and, by making a slight alteration on
some parts of the machine, this small fraction of loss may be still
farther diminished.

A machine erected lalely for Messrs. Xeill, Fleming, and Reid, at
their vvorks, Shaws-wafer, Greenock, gives, when tested by the fric-
tion apparatus invented by M. Frony, 75 per cent, of the whole jtower
of the water w hich works it. The power of the water is 79 horses, and
the power of the machine is eqnal to that of !)'3-25 horses or 75 per
cent, as now stated. Mr. Stirrat's water-mill of 25 horses' power is
the first that was made ; it was tested in the same way as the above-
mentioned machine, and the result of the experiment was equally
favourable.

The following are some of the advantages which the hydraulic ma-
chine of Messrs. Whitelaw and Stirrat, has over an overshot water-
wheel of the best construction. Tiie new mill has a governing appa-
ratus, which renders its motion as uniform as that of the best con-
structed steam-engine ; when a part, or even the whole, of the ma-
chinery which it works, is thrown off at once, the variation in the
speed is scarcely perceptible. The speed of the new machine is well
suited for every purpose: generally speaking, it can be formed to
make the required number of turns in a given time, and on this ac-
count, intermediate gearing is done away with. There is little wear
and tear on the paits of the new mill, for its weight is perfectly balanced
by that of the water, thus taking away almost all friction, and conse-
quently wear, at the rubbing parts : five of these machines are already
in operation, and not a workman has been employed in any way at
either of them since they were first set a-going, although one has been
in constant use for nearly two years. The new machine takes up re-
markably little room. No very expensive building or other erection
is needed for the fixing of the new water-mill, and the cost of the ma-
chine itself is very trifling in every case, and especially on a high fall,
■where an overshot wheel, as also the building and excavation recpiired
for it, become enormously expensive. On a fall of very great height,
where to erect an ordinary water-wheel would be altogether out of the
question, the new water-wheel may be employed to great advantage.
'I'he new machine may easily be made to ri^e or fall according as the
water in the tail-race is high or low, and one form of it will work to

very considerable advantage in tail-water. The best constructed over-
shot water-wheel will not, after the speed is brought up for ordinary
purposes, give more than 70 per cent, of the whole power of the water
which works it ; and the new machine, as has already been shown,
gives 75 per cent., and it can be formed to give even a greater portion
of the power of the water than this.

SUPPLY OF WATER TO THE METROPOLIS.

It is always with much pleasure that we approach this question, in-
teresting as it is not only to the profession, but also to the public at
large, being one of those subjects on which both parties meet as oii
common ground. The supply of water to the population has always
with the supply of food generally acquired great political importance,
and the provision for it has called forth some of the greatest triumph,*
of engineering. It has been but too truly staled by Dr. SouthwooiJ
Smith, in his able Reports on the Health of the Metropolis, that an iu-
suflicient or impure supply of water is one of the main causes of dis-
ease in all classes of the community, and the means of removing
which are well known to be in existence.

The valuable report which we now lay before our readers, prove*
most clearly to every unbiassed mind that London may be supplied
with pure water without having recourse either to the "IThames, or to
any other river. AU rivers and open canals are infected in some de-
gree with vegetable and animal matter, irarticularly after heavy rains —
for instance, even the New River is the receptacle of the land drain-
age for many miles. The water-works which derive their supply
from the Thames are all within the range of the tide, impregnated
as it is with the drainage of the metropolis, and the large manufac-
tories on its banks, and so must it always be. The works which stand
the farthest up the river, those of the Grand Junction Company at the
London end of Brentford, are within the immediate vicinity of large gas
works, a soap manufactorv, and the drainage of a brewery, and of one
of the largest distilleries, without reckoning the drainage of the w hole
town.

'J'o the Provisional Committee of the London and IVeslminster Watcr-V.'orks,

A.-C. i,-C.

Gentlemen — The ir.sufticleucy and baduess of the present supply of water
to the metropolis have long engaged the public atteutiou ; but although
many endeavours have been made to establish it on a better basis, owing to
causes which we must seek in the elements of the projects themselves, they
have invariably failed.

.Vb it appears, however, generally admitted, that sometliiiig siiould be done,.
we are naturally led to inquire into the reasons of the want of success of
former attempts, and by carefully avoiding these, and at the same time en-
deavouring to ]>resent an effective and practical remedy, we may still hope to
deserve the public confidence. It will, therefore, be my endeavour to show,
in the following report, that Nature has suppUed us with the means of sub-
stituting a pure and unceasing flow of spring water for the outpourings of
filthy drains, and that this can be done without encountering difficulties of
any but an ordinary nature.

Nevertheless, l)efore I proceed to do this, it may not he useless that I
should briefly enumerate the various ])lans which have hitherto been sug-
gested to attain this object ; as this will at once prove how much time and
attention, not only numerous private individuals, but even the legislature,
have bestowed on the subject ; and will also enable me to point out to you
what appear to me to liave been the causes of their rejection.

So far back as the year 1821, a committee of the House of Commons made
a long rei)ort, in which they recommended that a bill should be passed to
regulate the water companies, which had at that time caused much dissatis-
faction, on account of the great increase, which a coalition enabled tliem to
make, on their former rates. The inquiry, although it does not appear to
ha\e led to any positive result, nevertheless, called the attention of the pub-
lic to various facts which were not previously generally known, and among
others, to the very inferior cpiality of water which many of the companies-
snpplied. We accordbigly find, that in 182t, a highly respectable body of
gentlemen held a meeting, to take into consideration a proposition of Mr.
Philip Taylor's, to conduct the water of the Thames, by means of a subtei'-
raneous aqueduct, from a point near Richmond, to reservoirs at Kensal Green
and Hampstead Heath.

In 1825, a company was formed to supply the metropolis with spring
water, from beneath the Ijondos clay, a project which was agaiu brought for-
ward in 1S35, and to which I shall have occasion, in a later peiiod of this
Report, to allude at sonie length.

But it was not until the spring of 1827 that in consequence of the publica-
tion of a pamphlet, entitled " The Dolphin," by Mr. Wright, the general mass
of the inhabitants of London could be said to have been aroused to a sense of
the paramount importance of a better supply of water to their houses, than
that derived from some of the ;nost fou! portions of tltc river Thames. A!

6

T!!E CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[Janvart,

■though ilcl'errcci for auch a lengtli of time, tlie public indignation now became
^unaniiDi.us, and at a meeting lield in April 1827. which was attended i.'V a
most ir.fluential body of the nobility and residents of the V.'cst of London,
resolutions of a very strong nature were passed, and a petition agrce-.l to,
praying for the appointment, by the Crown, of a commission to inqnire into
the present modes of supply, and their ctlcct on the health of the population.

In compliance with tliis urgent demand. Dr. Iloget. Mr. Brand, and Mr.
Teifcrd were named on the lith July, 1827. to examine the allegations
brought forward, which at once led to the suggestion of mmicrous remedies,
for an evil, which no one appeared ready to controvert.

Among these we tind a Mr. Hipkins proposing to convey in an open con-
duit, the water of the Thames, from above Old Brentford. Dr. Kerrison.
from Islewortb. and Mr. James Mills, from Teddington ; Mr. Martin, the
artist, also sought to shew that the water of the river Cohie might he brought
in a canal from Denham. in the neighbourhood of Uxbridge. to London : and.
in addition to these, various other proposals emanated from Messrs. Smart.
Brown of Wf.kefield. Chambers. Jones. William Anderson. &c. &c.

None of these, however, were fully discussed by the commission, as the
demand for their Report rendered it necessary that it should be given in long
before they could well said to have terminated their labours.

The CTidencc they obtained enabled them, however, to decide ' that the
present state of the sui>ply of water requires improvement, that the com-
plaints respecting the quality are well founded, and that the water ought to
be derived from other sources than those now resorted to."

In consequence of this report it was deemed necessary that a Select Com-
mittee of the House of Commons should be appointed to make fmther en-
quiries, and at the end of the session it appears to have fully agreed that
the supply should be derived from a purer soiu-ce than the present, in further-
ance of which object it was recommended that Mr. Telford should be em-
ployed to make such surveys as would enable him to suggest a practicable
plan of supplying every part of London with wliolesome and pure water.
After several years of protracted enquiry, -Mr. Telford came to the conclusion
thaTit would be desirable to bring the water from the river Verulam. on the
north side of the Thames, and one of the branches of the Wandle. on the
south, to London, to efl'ect which so large an outlay was necessary, that he
proposed it should be met by a parliamentary grant.

Another and numerous committee of the House of Commons again met to
consider these plans, but its labours were unfortunately not terminated at the
«nd of the session : the enquiry may therefore still be considered as remain-
big nearly in the same state in which it was left in the year 1834.

The plan of sinking Artesian wells to the sands of the plastic clay or chalk.
lias indeed, as I have already mentioned, been again mooted, but abandoned
for causes to be herealter detailed ; and Mr. Telford's proposal of bringing
the water of the Vendani to London has also been taken up, with various
modifications, by Mr. Giles, who. however, did not succeed. I believe, in
the preliminary step of finding capitalists willing to embark in the under-
taking.

it will now. I think, be siiflioiently established that the present mode of
supplying London with water, has for a length of time, been any thing but
satisfactory to the public ; and if for some years past the subject has been
allowed to rest, it has probably arisen more from a prevalent idea that the
enquiry was in the hands of the legislature than from any real abatement of
the groimds of complaint.

Prom various causes it would seem, however, that there is no intention on
the part of tha government to prosecute the enquirv- ; and. indeed, this may
in some degree be accounted for from the countrj- being called upon, accord-
ing to .Mr. Telford's plan, to expend nearly Jt'l, 200,000 to cany that into
effect which many have already doubtless perceived to be but a partial remedy
for the evil.

It is indeed surprising, that with the exception of the proposal to obtain
the water by perforating the London clay, every project, including Mr. Tel-
ford's, should have contemplated using the water of streams which are all
subject to be affected by the surface drainage of a more or less extensive tract
of country, and. consequently, oidy a very few degrees better than that already
in use, whilst at the same time all the difficulties consequent on the injury to
existing interests, as navigations, mills, &c. have to be encountered. Manv,
altliongh they sought to remove the objection to using the v.ater of the
Thames in the immediate vicinity of London, continued to endeavour to de-
rive their sup)dyfrom a greater distance, where, although, certainly less hable
to contamination, it might still be considered as the common sewer of many
important towns on its banks, and the general drain into which much animal
and vegetable matter must find its way, particularly after the scouring of the
neighbouring country by every heavy fall of rain.

1 ilo not, indeed, at all contest that the extraneous bodies, which pollute
the water of rivers, are merely held in mechanical suspension, and that pro-
vided we get rid of these by allowing them to fall to the bottom, the Thames
■water may be looked upon as quite as pure as any other. But there appears
to me one material objection to the method of removing the imi)urities by
rest, which applies to all surface water, namely, that a considerable space of
time is necessary to admit of their complete separation, and as this is also in-
creased by the slightest agitation again diffusing the particles of the deposit
through the water, the gradual accumulation of filth in the reservoirs, and
the lapse of time requisite to render the water clear, must undoubtedly add
to its unpleasant odour and flavour, or, in other words, to its tendency to be-
come putrid. 1 therefore repeat, that it is scarcely to be wondered at, that

the legislature should have delayed acting on Mr. Telford'^ plan, which com-
liined these objections with a very large outlay, nor that a company should
still have found grounds for proposing .\rtesian wells in preference to his sug-
gestions. That this, however, was not to have been easily attained, appears
partly proveil by the fact, that this project was never broueht to maturity,
and the remarks I am now about to lay before you will also,"l trust, confirm
tills view.

The group of strata, designated as the lower tertiary, or eocene, and con-
sisting of two divisions, the upper called the London ciay, and the lower com-
posed of various coloured sands and argillaceous deposits, distinguished as
the plastic clay, lying immediately upon the chalk formation, may in general
terms be described as a huge mass of clay resting upon a still more exteniiTe

J-
o

p

BO
a>

o'

O

SB

p

River Thames.

River Brent.

River Co!ne.

bed of chalk. The section which accompanies this report, and which, with
slight modifications, is taken from Dr. Buckland's Bridgewater Treatise, will
shew this clearly, and by inspecting it you will at once understand that the
surface of country occupied by the clay, is surrounded on all sides by a belt
of chalk, excepting to the east, where the Genuau Ocean for some distance
interrupts the continuity, and you mil also perceive that this cretaceous circle
is, generally speaking, higher in level than the deposit of clay which fills the
centre of the basin.

It is almost needless that I should inform you, that of the water which
descends as dew or rain upon the surface of the London clay, little, if any,
can be considered as absorbed into the earth, and that whilst a part either
again reascends into the atmosphere as vapour, or enters into the composition
of animal and vegetable bodies, by far the greater portion flows off into the
main drain of the district, the river Thames.

In this respect there is a most material difference from that portion of the
surface w here the chalk comes to light, divested of any covering wliich could
intercept the passage of the moisture ; being not only extremely porous but
also full of fissures in every direction, a very rapid absorption takes place,
and we accordingly find that there are but few streams carrying off the sur-
plus surface water, and that these are insignificaht, and, indeed, many of them
<lry during the greater part of the year. The rapidity with which the water
finds its way into the bowels of the earth, also in a great measure, preveats

1841.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

evaporation, and we are therefore justified in assuming that tlie quantity wliich
descends upon the surface of tlie chalk finds its way, with very shglit diminu-
tion, into tlic fissures helow. The lower beds of the cretaceous group, and
the gault which immediately succeeds it, again present an impermeable stra-
tum of clay, causing the water to accumulate tlirough the lower regions of
the more porous chalk. An enormous natural reservoir has thus been formed
and the level up to which it may be considered as quite full of water is the
lowest point where it can find a vent and overflow, therefore, as the chalk
communicates under the coasts of Norfolk, Suffolk, and Essex with the ocean,
tliis level, in the present ease, may be considered to be the same as the mean
height of the sea.

That there is, however, an extensive accumulation of w.ater above tbis level
will be obvious, when it is considered that the friction, which from the na-
ture of the small fissures and pores must exist, will necessarily prevent the
water from exerting rapidly its hydrostatic pressure, and as for this reason it
cannot flow off with sufficient velocity, the higher parts of the chalk belt
which surround the London clay being saturated, will allow of its escape to
the surface wherever it can find a nearer and more ready vent than its sub-
terranean one.

The greater or lesser facility, which from lines of fissures soft strata and
pores, the water may encounter in flowing towards the centre of the basin,
■will also govern its surface, and cause it to assume an inclination, the angle
of which will represent the friction, and in this manner we may readily ac-
count for the different levels, which often appear anomalous, at which the
water will he found to stand in wells.

The foregoing remarks will now enable me, I think, to show that the pro-
posal of perforating the tertiary clays for the purpose of obtaining the water
for the general supply of the inhabitants of London, would not have been at-
tended with the advantages which at first sight it would appear possessed of:
it may indeed be urged that a reference to the section, shews us London
situated nearly over the centre of the basin to which it gives its name, and
that we may consequently infer, that wells sunk through eocene strata into
the chalk, will derive their supply immediately from that portion where the
greatest accumulation of water exists by my own shewing. But it will be
found that this very circumstance throws a material difficulty in the way of
any attempt to supply the inhabitants of the Metropolis from this source, and
one which has been found frequently confirmed, when private individuals
have sunk deep wells in London. The objection is, that whenever a large
quantity is extracted, the wells in tlie vicinity, which derive their water from
the same strata, are very sensibly affected ; and, for this reason, that although
a constant supply will always, as I have shown, find its way down, to take
the place of whatever water we may pump away, this cannot flow in so quickly
from the obstructions of the stratification, but that the level, for some dis-
tance round this focus, will be temporarily reduced. In other parts of the
district, as will be readily understood, this would not he the case ; or if so at
least in an inferior degree, as a well would not here derive its share from
every side of the basin at once, but only from that portion situated immedi-
ately above it. At Watford, for instance, a well would only be fed from the
chalk which intervenes between that place and the great outcropping Chiltern
ridge, and so in any other part of the belt. I may also here add, that the
sheet of water in the deeper part of the chalk, can only l)e affected to an iu-
sensible degree by such a well, which at most would merely deprive it of the
supply from a very trifling part of the great circle which erery where else
would remain untouched.

The company which had been based on the Artesian project, proljahly soon
obtained facts which proved that their proposal could not be established
without such interference with private interests, as they undoubtedly fore-
saw, would have great weight with the House of Commons ; and they must
also have taken into account the expense of forcing the requisite quantity of
water to the elevation necessary for the high services, in addition to which,
it must be borne in mind, that after perforating say two hundred feet of clay,
the water under London by no means rises to the surface. As might have
been readily foreseen, this idea was after some time, abandoned ; and it is
not surprising, that its originator, Mr. R. Paten, should have turned his at-
tention to other endeavours.

The abundance of the springs which overflow into the Colne valley, above
Watford, and the apparent purity of the water, had long attracted his atten-
tion, and now led him, in connexion with some other gentlemen, to make
various experiments to ascertain whether a sufficient quantity for the de-
mands of the Metropolis, could be obtained in that neighbourhood, at a small
depth beneath the surface ; and whether this might be effected without in-
juring the existing interests in the vicinity, \nien it was found that the re-
sult more than confirmed their most sanguine wishes, 1 was requested to
examine whether the experiments were well grounded, and to advise as to
the means of carrying the plan into effect.

I had for a length of time been acquainted with the various proposals which
have been submitted to the public, and was aware of the objections which
could with justice be urged against them. It was therefore not without plea-
sure that I undertook the examination of a plan, which I at once saw might
be possessed of advantages, which were not before contemplated.

It will be my endeavour, in the remainder of this Report, to show how far
the hope of obtaining the necessary quantity of water at Watford is weU
founded ; to describe the experiments which have been made for the purpose
of acquiring practical data, to explain the proposed method of procuring the
water and conveying it to London ; and lastly, to submit such remarks ag

will enable you, in my opinion, to present the project before parliament, with
a confident reliance that it cannot but deserve its attention and support.

As I have already described at some length the geological features of the.
country surrounding London, I am not called upon to add much to my former
explanation on this head, and shall confine myself here to stating, that as re-
gards the more inmiediatc object now in view, we may look upon the Colne
valley as marking in a great part of its length, on the one side the escarp-
ment caused by the outcroj) of the plastic clay, whilst on the other, the coun-
try rises gradually to the north-western boundary of the chalk strata, the
Cbiitern Ridge.

An attempt to fix positive quantities, by any line of argument, is naturally
attended with considerable difficulty ; nevertlieless, the following considera-
tions will give some idoa of tl'.e volume of water tliat can be derived from
the chalk of the Colne valley.

The surface oi" country which has its drainage into the Verulam and Colne
above Watford, may be taken at 113^ square miles. If, then, we assume that
the annual fall of rain amounts to twenty inches, which you will find a low-
average, the result will be 141 millions of cubic feet of water per twenty-four
hours, falling on the surface. Of this quantity, Mr. Telford found that the
Colne carried off at Watford, thirty cubic feet per second, or about 2; mil-
lions per twenty-four hours ; as this was however in a dry season, it will
be safer to assume Dr. Thompson's calculations, with respect to the annua!
quantity of water flowing off by streams and springs, which he was led to
fix at four inches, and tbis would give us for the area drain'ed l)y tlie Colne,
not quite three millions per day.

There remain then IH millions of cubic feet per twenty-four hours, either
to be again evaporated, or to find their way into the earth. In an eariier
part of this Report, you will remember that I showed that the porous nature
of the soil, in a chalk district, prevents the evaporation to a great extent ;
nevertheless, if we assume that with the portion which enters into animal and
vegetable life, one-third of the entire quantity falling, disappears in tlsis man-
ner, we still shall have upwards of 6\ milhons of cubic feet, or 42 milUons of
gallons per twenty-four hours, suppljing the sheet of water under that por-
tion of ihe chalk surface.

Mr. Telford's examination of the body of water flowing off liy tb.e Colne
river, having been made at a period of unusual drought, when the surface
water might be considered to have nearly disappeared, we shall, I think, be
correct in assuming that two millions at least of the quantity he measured,
had issued from springs. In order therefore to represent the total subter-
ranean flow, we shoiJd add these two millions to the former Ci. These in-
deed would form no part of the supply to the deep, but would designate that
supply which has been already explained, cannot find its way to the lower
depths, owing to friction, and other impediments, and therefore seeks a
readier vent at a higher level.

It was important that this should be set in its proper light, as the evident
inference we may draw is, that we cannot, by pumping from a lower level, a
quantity small in comparison to the accmnulation of water, produce any visi-
ble effect upon the springs which feed the Colne.

I am quite confident that my views as regards the manner in which the
water finds its way into the strata of the chalk, will not for a moment be
called in doubt by any scientific person, but that which may by sucii a one
be considered in the hght of a received axiom, and |)roved by numerous cor-
responding facts bearing thereon, with wiiich he will be already acquainted,
will require more lengthened demonstration to the general public, with wliom
an appeal to experience will have far greater weight than any abstract rea-
soning. To these then the experiments which have been made, will afford
far more conviction than any argument however well founded.

The alluvial bed, which covers the bottom of the Colne valley, rather ex-
ceeds twenty feet in thickness, after wliich we reach the chalk : proceeding
about five feet lower, abundant springs of water are encountered, which in-
crease in magnitude and force as we continue to descend.

It was therefore in the first place necessary to ascertain that these did not
derive their supply directly from the river, which, had it been the case, would
have affected the various mills in the vicinity ; and it was also desirable to
have direct proof of the quantity which might be calculated on being obtain-
ed. In order to obtain positive e\idence on both these points, a well was
sunk in Bushey Hall meadows, near the Colne, to a depth of about 34 feet.
Two small steam engines were then set up temporarily, for the purpose of
working four pumps, of which two were 13 inches in diameter, with a length
of stroke of 20 inches, and the others were 13s inches in diameter, with a 30
inch stroke. One of the engines might be calculated to produce from 27 to
30 strokes of the smaller pumps per minute, the other lietween 17 and 20
strokes of the larger pumps. The water of the well was now repeatedly
pumped out, as low as the power of the engines admitted, and the height of
the Colne at those times carefully noted, and it soon became ol.nious that the
height of the springs could in no degree be said to aft'ect the level of the
river, thus shewing that all direct communication between the two might be
considered as cut off by a bed of puddle or clay. The next object of enquiry
was as to the supply which a well might be expected to yield, and the result
of a careful experiment, made under my direction, and confirming those pre-
viously conducted by Mr. Paten, satisfied me that after the water had for 24
hours been kept at the lowest level to which the power of the pumps would
reduce it, (about 2S feet below its surface when undisturbed,) it rose in the
well with a velocity equal to 202 feet per second, thus yielding 174,500
cubic feet, or 1,091,000 gallons per 24 hours. As this was obtained in a

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[January,

■well, the bottom of which was only 12 feet G inches diameter, and as direct
jiroof had been obtained by borings, that below the '-'A feet reached in the
well, there was a constant recurrence of large springs, giving evidence that
the water rapidly increased with the depth, which when 80 feet were obtain-
ed, became so prodigiously plentiful as to set all temporarj' meaiis of over-
coming it at defiance, and precluded all possibility of having recourse to it for
the mere purposes of an experiment, I thought it quite unnecessary to seek
further proof that a sufficient supply for all requisite purposes might with
facility be obtained.

It would be premature to give, in the present stage of the jjrocecdings, a
detailed account of the arrangements I propose making, for augmenting the
quantity to an adequate extent, and it may be sufficient to state here //laf I
fiace not the slii/Atest doubt, that by sinking a deep well, and extending tun-
nels, or drifts in the proper direction from its bottom, the necessary supptij
will be fully accoinplisJiUd.

Being also convinced that the water filtering through the chalk might be
considered as entirely divested of all impurities, held in mechanical snspen-
suon, of which, indeed, there was abuudant ocular demonstration, (as it was
30 beautifully transparent as to ailuiit of the bottom of the well being seen
v,hen the water was upwards of thirty feet deep,) I at once turned ray atten-
tion to the best means of conveying it to London.

The principal difficulty which intervenes is the ridge formed by the escarp-
ment at the outcrop of the plastic and London clays, which Mr. Telford in
his proposal to bring the water of the A'erulam stream to London, had con-
templated perforating by a tunnel three and a-balf miles in length. My con-
nexion with the Loiiilon and liinniugham Railway has placed me in posses-
sion of facts which convince me that at the level at which Mr. Telford would
have traversed some of the beds of the chalk, and the whole of the plastic
clay, he would have met with ver\- great difficulty, in consequence of water.
For this reason, I propose, on leaving the Colne valley, that before entering
the ridge which sejiarates it from the district draining into the lirent, the water
should be forced to a height of fifty feet above its original level, at which
elevation we get rid of the difficulties of the plastic clay, as wc only traverse
((uite its upper extremity, where no water has yet accumulated. The length
of the tunnel is also considerably reduced.

I have preferred adopting a Line which is materially shorter than Mr. Tel-
ford's, as. with the exception of the said tunnel 2V miles in length, no diffi-
culty of any kind is encountered. Immediately on the water re-issuing into
the open air on the side of Brockley Hill, I propose forming a reservoir to
contain three days' supply of water, w ith a sufficient head to admit of a main
being laid hence, and conveyed, (in order to avoid all opposition from land-
owners,) from the town of Edgware to Oxford Street, along the side of the
road itself ; thereby also faciUtating the laying of the main, and rendering all
the works of any magnitude, as earthwork, aqueducts, &c. unnecessarj*. The
level of the resenoir will lastly be such, that the highest service can be given ;
and indeed a part of the town, which none of the present companies can sup-
jjly, will be included within its range.

I trust I have now said enough to convince an unbiassed person that there
exists no difficulty, l)oth in obtaining a supply of good water from the Springs
of the Chalk, near \\'atford, and in conveying it thence to London. I must,
however, impress you here with the necessity of enforcing my arguments,
with as ninnerous a body of facts as can be collected ; and I would therefore
recommend that, previously to the meeting of Parliament, I should be autho-
rised to collect such information respecting the quantity, nature and q\iality
of the wells in every part of the chalk circle which surrounds London, as will
bear practically on the subject. This might then be embodied in a second
Iiart or appendix to this Report, to be submitted to those who, being unac-
quainted with geological phenomena, may consequently hesitate in adopting
views which others, already scientifically acquainted with the subject, will not
for a moment call in doubt.

In concluding, I may be allowed to cast a retrospective glance at the ad-
vantages held out by the project I have been called upon to examine. These
then consist in its being proposed to use spring water, already naturally fil-
tered, in preference to that which has drained a portion of the earth's sur-
face ; in making use of that enormous reservoir which nature has supplied us
•>vith in the Chalk, and effecting this at a spot where no existing interests can
he injured ; and in the selection of such a situation as enables us to convey
the supply to London with facility and econoiiy. and at a sufficient elevation
to satisfy the demands of even the highest part of the metropolis.
I have the honour to be. Gentlemen,

Your obedient servant,

Robeut Stephenson.

London, Bee. IC, 1846.

A.SSI,STANT ENGINES UP INCLINED PLANES.

[At the last Meeting of the London and Croydon Raihvay. the following
reports were read, respecting the use of assistant engines up inclined planes.]

To the Directors of the London and Croydon Hailtcay,
Gentlemen — According to your instructions. I have written to the Liver-
pool and Manchester, the Grand Junction, and the London and Birmingham
Kailwavs, to ascertain whether the practice of assisting trains up inclined
planes by an engine at the rear exists on those lines, and whether it has ever
heen found to be atcended with danger or inconvenience. — I learn that on the
liverpool and Manchester H-iilw-iy, the system is in daily use, and that it has

never been found to be attended with dangerous consequences : on the con-
trary, it is considered safer with a long train to assist up an inclined plane
by an engine behind the train rather than in front— On the Gr.ind .lunction
R.ailway, the a.ssistant engine is behind in assisting up short and steep in-
clines ; but elsewhere the assistant engine, if required fur heavy or late trains,
takes the lead. Hitherto, neither ineunvcnience nor danger has resulted from
(he practice, which is piuhibitcd except on inclined p'anes. — On the London
and Birmingham Ila Iway. pushing a train on the line is only allowed in cases
where the power cannot be applied in any other way. Your obedient servant
CiiAELKS H. Gregoev, Resident Engineer.
December 8th, 1840.

To the Directors of the London and Croydon Ruiliea:i.
(ientlemen. — According to your instructions, I have this day tried an ex-
periment, in the presence of the Chairman, Deputy -Chairman, arid Mr. Haines,
for the purpose of determining practically the cflecl of the assistant engine on
the inclined yilanc at New Cross, anil the .actual amount of danger to be anti-
cipated from the sustained pressure of the assistant engine in the case of any
sudden stoppage of the train before it. With this view, a train w.is made up
of five loaden coal-wagons of a gross weight of .30J tons (« hich is ,-bout equal
to an ordinary passenger train). The Croydon engine was placed at the head
of this train, and drew it up the inclined plane, with the Herndes engine as-
sisting at the rear. — On the train acquiring a ve'ocity of 221 miles per hour,
the steam of the leading engine was suddenly shut off. The effect was in-
.stantaneously felt in the assistant engine, on which the whole weight of the
train seemed thrown back, causing a strong re-action, which reduced the ve-
locity of the train to \'> miles per hour, the steam being still acting with full
force in the assistant engine. The order was then given to stop the assistant
engine ; the steam was shut oil', and the brake screwed down, wlieii the engine
instantly separated from the train, and stopped in less than its own length. —
The same train was then taken up by the leading engine alone, and on at-
taining the same speed of 221 miles per hour, the steam was shut off. The
velocity of the train was reduced for the first furlong from 22! to 12 or 15
miles per hour, being nearly the same as in the previous case, when the as-
sistant engine was acting behind. The engine and train stopped in a distance
of7-32ndsof a mile, without the use of the brake. — The practical inference
from this experiment is valuable, as showing that there is a great deal of
unnecess.ary alarm existing as to the supposed danger of the assistant engine
on the inclined plane. — Kirst. Any stoppage of the train is instantly felt on
the assistant engine, w hich may be stopped before any serious result can arise
from its overrunning the train. — Secondly. The effect of any sudden stoppage
of the train is to cause such a sudden re-action on the assistant engine that
for the first furlong alterwards it appears to communicate scarcely any im-
pulse to the train, the velocity of the train after the steam is shut off' in the
leading engine being nearly the same, w tb or without the action of the as-
sistant engine. — Thirdly. The retarding etleet of the inclined p!,ane is so great
that the least obstruction would be suflicient to stop the train in a very short
distance, even when the assistant engine is acting w ith full force. Your most
obedient servant,

Cn.\RLEs HuTTON GREGORY, Resident Engineer.

It was stated at the meeting that Mr. M. Ricardo, of Brighton, had con-
structed a model of a machine which appeared likely to be ot use not only in
such cases as w ere now more particularly referre J to, but in cases of collision.
— The model was here exhibited. It consisted of a strong frame-work, some-
what similar to the frame-work of a goods-truck, the area being filled with
powerful springs, so arranged as to collapse upon the application of a strong
impinging force, the effect of the blow being thus of course broken. — A small
experimental railway has been constructed at New Cross staticm, for the pur-
pose of testing, as far as a model could test, the efficiency of the invention.

THE ORIENTAL STEAMER.

Abstract ot the Log of the Peninsular and Orietital Strain Navigation Com-
pany's Steamer Oriental, John Say, Commander, on her second voyage
from England to Alexandria and back.

Distance

in
Miles.

Hours
under
Steam.

Remarks.

3 -

o

i.

o
X

-Falmouth to "l

Gibraltar .)

Gibraltar to \

Malta ....(

Malta to \

- Alexandria i

-Alexandria \

to Malta . . i

Malta to \

Gibraltar. . J

Gibraltar to \

. F.almoulh .)

|l,0li9
989
827
875
981
1,074

H. M.
143 25

91 0

83 15

93 30

103 0

118 5

(Tremendous gales during
I three days.

(Fine weather, average speed,
\ 1 1 knots per hour.

Fair weather.
Heavy head sea.

Fair weather.

(Heavy gales during three
\ days.

Steamed, out, 2.885 miles, in 317 hours 40 minutes.
— home, 2,880 miles, in 314 hours 35 minutes.

Total distance, 5,765 miles, in G32 hours 15 minutes.

[■"almouth to Gibraltar, v._ ,

itc of speed, 1 1 knots per hour.

Lowest .iverage rate of speed from Falmouth to Gibraltar, violent gales,
"i knots per hours. Highest .tverage rate

1841.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

9

IMPROVEMENT ON ECCENTRIC RODS.

SiK— A plan has long been desired for working the sliding valves of
a locomotive engine with two tixed eccentrics, (that is one to each cylin-
der) so as to give the lead correctly when the motion of the engine is re-
versed, that is to sav, when the engine is working either way. There
have long since been locomotive engines constructed with only two
eccentrics, and so as to give the required lead to the valves, when
working in either direction: but these eccentrics used to work loose
upon the shaft, and when the motion of the engine was required to be
chano-ed, their situations were altered, by means of levers and catches.
But before these catches could get to their proper places, the shaft
was obliged to be turned, nearly half way round at least, therefore,
each engine was furnished with a set of rods and levers to enable the
engine man to work each valve by hand, until the shaft came to the
proper place for the catches to go together. This plan, in consequence
of the tediousness in reversing the motion, its being so very liable to
get out of repair, and other objections, has nearly fallen into disuse.

The plan now almost universally adopted, consists of four, all of
■which are tirmly fixed to the shaft. These eccentrics are so arranged
that two of them work the valves when the engine is going in the
forward direction, and the other two work the valves v/hen the
engine is going in the backward direction. The four eccentric rods
are all connected to one main lever, namely, the reversing lever, and
by this lever two of the eccentric rod-ends may be attached to, at the
same time the other two will be detached from, the levers which work
the valves. With this arrangement the starting, and the reversing, of
the engine are so simple as to be performed by the greatest novice ;
■while with the former, the engine man requires considerable practice
before he can get properly into the way of starting and reversing.

A plan for reversing the motion of the engine with greater ease,
and for giving the lead to the valves with greater accuracy than that
with four eccentrics, can hardly be desired; but it has long been the
study of many ingenious persons to contrive a method from which
they may obtain "exactly the same result with two fixtd eccentrics.
This subject has, to my knowledge, been the cause of many experi-
ments, some of which have by accident arrived pretty near to the
point of correctness; but on their being performed upon a larger scale,
in consequence of the persons engaged in them not being thoroughly
acquainted with their ruling principles, they were deemed incorrect.
There are those who have studied this subject so minutely, and made
so many unsuccessful experiments, as to at last conclude it impossible
to obtain this result in the manner alluded to. I have seen several
ingenious diagrams intended to prove the impossibility, and I have
even known attempts made to prove it impossible by geometrical de-
monstration.

I think it needless for me to enter into the details of the valve work,
but, however, I will give you a short description of the method of
setting the four eccentrics, which will refresh your memory with their
principles, and at the same time perhaps, serve for as good proof of
the plan I am about to describe, as can readily be given.

As the eccentrics, and all the other parts of the valve work, belong-
ing to the one cylinder, are generalh' the same as, but quite indepen-
dant of, those belonging to the other cylinder. And as each pair of
eccentrics require to be set at exactly the same angle with their
respective cranks, I think it will render the explanation much plainer,
to only take into consideration the two eccentrics belonging to one
cyhnder, namely, one for the forward, and the other for the backward
motion.

Suppose A B C D, fig. 1, to be a circle described by the crank,
o, the lever to which the eccentric rods are to be attached, EC, a line
drawn through the centres of the cylinder, end of the lever, and the
crank axle, and B D another line also drawn through the centre of the
crank axle, but perpendicular to E C. Suppose it to be at C. Now,
when the crank is in this situation, the piston will, of course, be at the
end of the cylinder ; and the lead is generally considered as the dis-
tance the valve has moved from the middle of its stroke, or as the
distance it is open, when the piston is in this situation. To give this
lead, when the engine is working in the direction shown by the arrow
F, the eccentric must be set about c ; and the perpendicular distance
from the line B D to c, is the quantity of lead in the eccentric. Now,
when the rod belonging to c, namely, the eccentric rod, is attached to
a, tne valve will have tlie lead for working the engine in the direction
shown by F, and it will continue to open until the crank arrives at G.
But if the crank be turned in the direction shown by H, the eccentric
will cause the valve to move in the wrong direction, and, consequently,
allow the steam to act contrary to the motion of the piston ; therefore,
another eccentric e, is furnished, which is set at exactly the same angle
with the crank as c, but on the opposite side. Both of the eccentric

rod ends are connected with the reversing lever, as I have before ob-
served, by which they may be detached from, and ■attached to the lever
a, at pleasure. It will be seen, by a little attention to tlie figure, that
the changing of the eccentric rods, when the crank is at C, will pro-
duce no alteration in the position of the valve, neither is it necessary
it should, because the piston is then at the end of its stroke, and,
although the crank be required to turn in the other direction, the
steam will still be required to act upon the same side of the piston. ^

F;g- I.

:bi g

Fig. 2.

Let us now suppose the crank to be at B, the eccentrics will now be
at/, g, and the |)iston about the middle of the cylinder. When the
engine is intended to work in the direction of F, the rod belonging to
y; must be attached to the lever, which will cause it to stand at //, and
consequently the valve will be wide open, with the exception of the
little difference caused by the lead. To reverse the motion, that is to
say, to set the valve for working the engine in the other direction,
the valve must be made to slide so as to open to the same extent, to
allow the steam to act upon the contrary side of the piston. This is
accomplished by the reversing lever, which detaches the rod belong-
ing/, and attaches that belonging to g, which, by means of its forked
end, draws the lever from Ti to /, and consequently causes the steam to
act on the other side of, and force back, the piston.

By a little attention it may be seen that, while the crank is in any
point of its revolution, the chang:ing of the eccentric rods will produce
that alteration, in the position of the valve, required to reverse the
motion of the engine ; therefore, I think the two points, in which we
have supposed the crank, will be sufficient to explain the manner in
which the lead is effected, and the motion reversed by the two fixed
eccentrics to each valve.

I shall now proceed to explain the principles of a plan for giving
the lead to the valves, ■and reversing the motion of a locomotive en-
gine, with two fixed eccentrics, instead of four. In the following ex-
planation, for the same reason as in the foregoing, I shall only speak
of the valve, &c., belonging to one cvlinder.

Suppose (as in fig. 1,) the circle A B C D, fig. 2, to be described by
the crank, E C, a line drawn through the centres of the cylinder, and
crank axle, and B D to be drawn perpendicular to E C. Suppose the
crank to be at C, and the eccentric at f. After having determined
the quantity of lead to be given by the eccentric, draw the lines F G,
and H I, at the same angles with the crank, as you would set the eccen-
trics in fig. 1, to the same quantity of lead. Then draw the line J K,
perpendicular to H I, and that end of the lever to which the eccentric
rod is attached when the engine is working in the direction of L,must
come in this line ; supposing the valve to be worked from the lever M.
Bv a little attention it will be perceived that, by setting the end of the
lever in this situation, the valve will have the same quantity of lead,
■as it would if the lever and eccentric were set as in fig. 1. To cause
the engine to be right for working in the contrary direction, no altera-
tion is necessary in the situation of the valve ; still it would not do to
let the eccentric rod remain attached to s, therefore, I introduce
another lever v, the end of which comes into the line N O, which is
drawn perpendicular to F G, and, by means of the reversing lever, I
detach the eccentric rod from t, and attach it to r, which will still

C

10

THE CIVIL ENGINEKR AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[January,

allow the valve to li.ive the lead, and also cause it to move in the pro-
per direction, when the engine is working in the direction of P.

Let us now turn the crank to B. The eccentric will now stand at ir.
To cause the piston to work the crank in the direction of L, the eccen-
tric rod end must be attached to the lever 8, as before, which will
cause it to stand at .r, and consequently cause the valve to be wide
open, with the exception of the little variation caused by the lead, ;is
I spoke of in fig. 1. To reverse the motion, tliat is, to cause the crank
to turn in tlie direction of F, I remove tlie eccentric rod end from x to
r, and by this means (the eccentric rod end being properly formed;
the lever will be drawn from r to ;;, eonsefjuently the valve will receive
the same cliange as it did in fig. 1, by clianging the eccentric rods,
when tlie crank was at B.

By setting the cranks, in figs. 1 and 2, in any two corresponding
points of their revolutions, it will be found that, when the eccentric
rod in fig. 2, is attached to tlie lever », the valve will be in the same
situation as that of fig. 1, when the rod belonging to c is attached to
the lever a. And it will also be found that the changing of the two
eccentric rods in fig. 1, will effect the same change in the situation of
the valve as the removing of the eccentric rod in fig. 2, from the one
end to the other. Hence it is evident that one eccentric, with the two
levers, arranged in the manner described, will produce the same effect,
in every respect, upon the valve, as is now produced with the two
eccentrics.

The distance s r, fig. 2, will depend upon the length of the eccen-
tric rod, and the quantity of lead in the eccentric. If the eccentric be
required to give a greater quantity of lead than common, it w ill per-
haps be advisable to use two bell crank levers instead. But these
particulars are of little importance, the principal object to be attended
to is to set the ends of these two levers in the proper places.

I am afraid I am trespassing too far upon your pages, tlierefore I
will conclude with a short explanation of a little deviation in this latter
arrangement from the former, whicli, before, I did not think worthy of
notice. When the crank is at C, fig. 1, either of the eccentric rods
may be attached to the lever a, without moving it. But in fig. 2,
when the crank is in that same position, it will be found that the
eccentric rod cannot be removed from s to r, without making a little
alteration in the levers. It would be a waste of time to enter into
a minute explanation of this little alteration, which is caused by the
vibration of that end of the eccentric rod which is in connection with
the eccentric; upon the same principles as the piston is caused to be
in the middle of the cylinder when the crank is at B.

I remain, Sir, your's, very respectfully,

John Chjirles Peapxe.

Leedi, Nov. 9, 1840.

IMPROVEMENT OF THE HYPSOMETER.

Sir — The ingenious little instrument for taking altitudes, invented
by Mr. Sang and described in your last number, cppears to me greatly
deficient in one particular, and that is in tlie means of obtaining a level
base line on which to conduct operations; the absence of this qualify,
indeed, renders it almost useless on uneven ground, and should the
base be extended over a space of SU or IdO feet or yards, the difficulty
greatly increases ; in this case, to trust to the eye for obtaining a level,
would be out of the question; one miglit as well guess the altitude at
once, as a quicker and equally correct method of arriving at the desired
result; the instrument, tlierefore, if used alone, is rather contracted in
its sphere of usefulness, an additional observation with a spirit level
being necessary to obtain a near approach to truth. In saying this,
my intention is not in any way to detract from the merits of Mr.
Sang's invention; on the contrary, I confess myself much taken with
it, and on that account have been turning over the scanty resources of
a cranium somewhat obtuse, in hopes of finding something tliat might
obviate the defects, which appear as such, in my humble opinion.

I would propose, therefore, the addition
of a small milled-lieaded steel bar, an isos-
celes triangle in section, on which the instru-
ment should be suspended ; balancing itself
thus, a base line will be obtained constant in
its level; a cross wire over the aperture b
will be necessary to complete the line of
coUimation. By these simple additions,
altitudes may be taken with much greater precision, and tlie instru-
ment will also acquire the properties of a level, sufficiently accurate
for the purposes of gardening, for draining, or for levelling banks, and
may be used generally except where great mathematical nicety is
required.

0

should you consider this modification, which springs from a dull
man's brain, worthy a place in your Journal, it might, bv chance, be
turned to good account by some of your more intelligent readers.
Lirerpool, ' Azimuth.

December 9M, 1840.

REVIE\VS.

Companion to the Almanac for 1>)41. Knight and Co.

We are requested to explain in our notice of the present volume of
the "Companion," a most singularly unlucky and vexatious accident which
has befallen pages 245 and 6, owing to the hurry with which the sheet
containing them was made up for press, nor was the mistake dis-
covered till it was too late to correct it by a cancel, the larger number
of copies having previously been disposed of. Those of our readers,
therefore, who may have happened to have already perused the archi-
tectural section, must have felt completely mystified by the descriptions
of the Reform Club-house and the Corn Exchange, for they are so
strangely intermixed and shuffled together, that it is utterly impossible
to understand either as now put together by the printer, who has clapped
down the saloon of the Club-house in Mark Lane, and vice versa put
the newly modelled area of the old Coin Exchange into Mr. Barry's
building in Pall Mall — which, it seems has been improved by Mr.
Morris and decorated by Bielefeld. Perhaps this last rather startling
piece of information may excite the architectural reader's suspicion,
and satisfy him that there must be some mistake, although he may
probably not be able entirely to unravel it, — or even if he can do so,
to account for it — how by any possibility it could have occurred. In
a monthly publication such a blunder would have been of much less
consequence, because there the opportunity of rectifying it would have
soon occurred, whereas a twelvemonth must elapse before the readers
generally of the " Companion" can be satisfied that the architectural
critic was not actually muzzy when he made his remarks on the two
buildings in question.

The best way of correcting the mistakes will be to quote the jias-
sages where they occur. Speaking of the Reform Club-house he says :
" We had imagined that the two smaller divisions both in the coffee-
room and the drawing-room above it, would be separated from the
other compartments into which those rooms are divided, by screens of

columns, instead of which we now find that there are only attached

columns at the angles of the projecting piers which form the breaks on
the sides of those rooms, &c." Thus it will be seen that the latter por-
tion after the in our quotation, and the rest of the article should

be transposed from page 241! to the preceding one, and be connected
with the line ending with " screens of." Which being done, the other
blunder rectifies itself, it becoming obvious that the remainder of page
245, line 13 from bottom, belongs to the account of the Corn Exchange,
where the paragraph now rendered unintelligible would read thus :
" Tlie order is an Italian Doric, the columns of which are so disposed
as to form a parallelogram on the plan, having five intercolumns on
each side, and three at each end, but in the upper part this shape is
converted into an oblong octagon, the angles being cut off by the en-
tablature being carried from the column next the extreme one to

the corresponding column of the adjoining side. The attic and ceil-
ing follow the plan of the entablature, and the second of them consists
entirely of a very deep cove, through which the light is admitted by
means of glazed compartments. The centre, however, or what would
be the flat portion of the ceiling is neither glazed nor covered in at all,
but forms an opening of thirty feet by ten (surmounted by a cornice
and balustrade) consequently the shelter from rain is not altogether
so complete as it might be."

Having quoted enough to correct the wholesale error on the part of
the printer, by connecting the passages he had dissevered, we now
proceed to make some remarks of our own, noting as a curious cir-
cumstance the alteration which has lately been made in the old or
south area of the Corn Exchange, in order to shelter it from the
weather, at the very time that a design has been adopted for the
Royal Exchange, with an uncovered area or open cortile, surrounded
as formerly by a covered ambulatory, which though protected
from rain above, must be partially exposed to that, ami to other
inconveniences attending inclement weather — to damp, fog, and wind.
We do not mean to say that Mr. Tite's design is at all more objection-
able in that respect than were the others ; on the contrary, it is far less
so than the generalitv of them, on account of the very great depth, he
has given to the colonnades. What strikes us as singular is that the
Gresliam Committee should have settled that very important point,

1841.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

11

for themselves beforehand, instead of allowing the competitors to have
been guided as to it, by their own judgment. Had that been done the
maiority of them, we conceive, vvould have made their central area
covered in, — nnless deterred, perhaps, by the apprehension that it
would be rejected as a new-fangled idea — an impertinent attempt to
improve upon the former edifice.

The comments in the "Companion" on the Reform Club-house,
will be best understood by referring to the ground-plan of that build-
ing, given in our last number; from which it will be apparent that by
insulating the columns in the coffee-room, and placing them at some
distance from the piers to wdiich they are now attached, four colon-
nades or screens might have been formed with the same number of
columns as at present. This would certainly have been attended with
greater richness of effect, nor can we suppose that it escaped the
architect himself; but it may possibly have been objected by the
members themselves as tending to divide oft' the room too much, and
to diminish its apparent spaciousness and extent. Yet — supposing
this last notion to have been entertained, we consider it an erroneous
one ; for the appearance of extent would have been rather increased
than at all diminished, by having a vista through a succession of spaces,
one beyond the other — which would certainly have been more novel
in character than the plan now adopted.

Of the new Church at Lee, Blackheath, which forms the subject of
one of the cuts, a tolerably full account is here given, and it is spoken
of as being greatly above the average quality of modern churches.
Two circumstances are \mdoubtedly very much in its favour; one is
that it has no side galleries ; the other, that all the windows are filled
with stained glass, "whereby a very unusual degree of richness and so-
lemnity is imparted to the wliole interior, so very ditt"erent from that raw
and garish, and we might almost say, 'worldly,' every-day light which
prevails in the generality of our chuiches. These windows have been
executed by Mr. Wailes of Newcastle, an artist who has here given
proof of his study of ancient examples of the kind, particularly in the
east window or windows, whicli have none of the gaudy, theatrical
glare that is so offensive to good taste in many modern specimens of
painted glass." Another specimen of superior design, here exhibited
in an outline wood- cut, is the Catholic Chapel at Bury Lancashire, by
Mr. J. Harper of York. The west front, which is the only part shown
in the cut, displays exceedingly good taste, the design being composed
of few features, but those well treated, and made the most of, so that
there is, with much simplicity, a more than ordinary degree of rich-
ness, and boldness also. The octagon tower springing out above the
gable, may be styled a novelty, although we believe that precedent
may be found for it.

The Derby Arboretum, where Jlr. E. B. Lamb was employed as the
architect, and Mr. Loudon to lay out the grounds, is here noticed with
deserved commendation, and as an instance of beneficially applied
public spirit, on the part of its liberal founder Mr. Joseph Strutt, who
seems to have very different notions of munificence from the late Sir
John Soane. We hope that Mr. Strutt's noble example will not be
lost upon others; for we are of opinion that public gardens and pro-
menades of the kind are calculated to have a beneficial moral influence
on the population of our towns. With this remark we take our leave
of this new volume of the " Companion," which requires no farther
recommendation from us than what we have already bestowed on its
predecessors.

Schinkel : Werkeder Hiiheren Baiikiinsl. Ente Lei f trim g. Potsdam,
1840.

It is somewhat premature to express any decided oinnion as to this
new and more costly series of designs by Schinkel, as this first Leifer-
ung of the work contains only a portion of those for King Otho's
Palace at Athens, nor does it comprise any letter-press. Still we are
fain to make some remarks ad interim, both in respect to the general
character of the publication, and the subject of the plates that have
already appeared. It announces itself at first sight as an architectural
Prachtiotrk, and may therefore recommend itself all the more to some
by its expansive size ; but to many, we conceive, not only its size, but
its shape will be objectionable, the form like that of the author's
former series being an oblong folio, and this wdien opened extends to
six feet I whereas had the upright form been adopted it would have
opened only four feet. As regards the substance of the work, this is
a matter of perfect indifference, yet it is a circumstance of consider-
able importance as regards its usefulness, because volumes of such
ungainly dimensions and proportions are anything but convenient for
reference, however well they may be adapted for occasional display ;
and at all events there was no occasion to enhance the inconvenience

of size, by adopting the oblong shape, which last renders the work
almost unfit for binding.

Whether many of the subjects are such as absolutely to demand
plates of so large a size, we cannot at present tell. Probably there
may be some interiors on a very large scale, but the subjects' in the
Ld/erutig before us, might have been just as well shown in plates of
half the dimensions. For instance, the first plate exhibits a general
elevation of the design for the palace on the Acropolis at Athens, and
a section of the rock itself; but the buildings are on so small a scale that
the whole of them do not occapy a space exceeding 20 inches in length
by 4 in height, consequently a plate of half the size would have been
ample enough. Besides, as the whole consists not of one uniform com-
position but of distinct ranges of building united together, the separate
parts of the group might have been shown more advantageously on a
much larger scale in one plate, by placing them one over the other, as
is done in in the plate of the two sections. Unlike those in the ' Enl-
iDiir/e,' the elevation and the two sections are here shaded, and the
former is coloured also ; which we certainly do not think is any im-
provement upon the first work, for besides that the scale of the draw-
ings is so small that shadowing renders their details indistinct S
the elevation alluded to — which gives that of the remains of the
Parthenon as seen before a part of the palace, consists of so many
planes that pictorial effect is entirely out of the question, the wdiole
having too much the appearance of a jumble. Neither is the
colouring well executed in itself, being poor and washy, while the
shadows are almost of a violet hue. Another circumstance which
produces a more singular than agreeable effect, is that instead of
being projected at an angle of 45 degrees, the horizontal shadows
are so exceedingly broad that those of the cornices, notwithstanding
that the latter have very little [jrojection, extend to the lower facia of
tlie architraves ; which at first gives the idea of an unusually projecting
roof. Colouring should, in our opinion, have been reserved for the
perspective views and interiors. 'There is a larger outline elevation of
one portion of the design, namely, of the I'acade of the Chapel at the
south-west angle of the Palace, which enables us to judge of its style
and details. It consists of a Corinthian monoprostyle, tetrastyle, pro-
jecting from the wider and loftier body of the Chapel, which like the
portico itself is crowned by a pediment, and both pediments are en-
riched with sculpture. As there is only a lofty doorway within the
prostyle, and the parts on either side of the latter are unbroken by
windows, there is sufficient repose, and the advancing portico serves
to give play to the composition. Yet if so far we are well satisfied
with this elevation, there are other circumstances in it which are
decidedly objectionable, the principal one of which is that though it is
placed upon a lofty stylobate or platform, the ascent to the portico is
by a narrow flight of steps in front, not exceeding the width of the
centre intercolumn and the pillars forming it. Even in perspective
the effect must be rather poor, and as shown in elevation it is cpiite
disagreeable. Though their mouldings are sculptured, the cornices
of the two entablatures are meagre in their profiles, — not at all distin-
guishable from Ionic; neither are the capitals marked by much of
Corinthian luxuriance. We must confess that we are a good deal
disappointed in the design generally, as here shown ; for it does not
realize the expectations we had formed of it, from what has been said
on the subject of it by tjuast, and the reviewer of his book, in the 35th
Number of the Foreign Quarterly.

The combitition (if Coals and the prevention of Smoke chemically and

practically considered. By C. W. Williams. Part the First.

Liverpool, Thos. Bean. London, J. Weale.

The object of this treatise is to show, on chemical principles, what
errors are usually committed in the mode of burning coal in the fur-
naces of steam-boilers, and by wdiat means the combustion of that fuel
may be rendered the most perfect possible, and the formation of
smoke effectually prevented. The style of the work is far from con-
cise, yet, as the views therein set forth are based on sound principles,
and their application (if found to be practicable, as asserted by the
author) must be attended with great benefit, particularly to steam
navigation, we confidently recommend it to the notice of steam engi-
neers and others, to whom economy of fuel, and consequently the
perfect combustion of coal, on the large scale of the furnace, is an
object, being assured that the information gained will compensate for
the labour of the perusal, although we think it might, with great ad-
vantage, have been condensed into one half of its present volume, if
not less.

The author insists, with good reason, on the importance of attending
to the chemical constitution of the fuel, and to the processes ndiich
go on, and the combinations which take place in the furnace during

12

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT S JOURNAL.

[January,

the progress of its combustion. He is, liowever, unreasonably fas-
tidious witli respect to certain received expressions, and frequently
diverts the reader's attention from the immediate object of inquiry by
ill-timed repetitions and observations, which render the perusal ex-
ceedingly tedious.

The 1st section treats of the constituents of coal, and the generation
of coal-gas. In reading this, we were surprised to find that the
author, who is so strenuous an advocate for accuracy of expression,
even where it does not afl'ect the facts considered, has himself, in one
instance, made use of an inappropriate term, and that in a case where
it has a tendency to mislead as to the main fact on wliich he is dilating.
In the 22nd page he considers coal as consisting of two portions, viz.,
" the carbonaceous or solid, and the bituminous or volatile portions."
Farther on he observes :

"The first leading distinction is, that the bituminous portion is
com crtible to the purposes of heat in the gaseous slate atone; while
the carbonaceous portion, on the contrary, is combustible only in the
solid state ; " and again,

"The bitumen of the coal, by reason of the great proportion of
hydrogen which it contains, absorbs heat with great avidity, the first
result of which is its change from the state of a solid to that of a tarry,
viscous, semijluid ; and, subsequently, by further increments of heat,
to the state of gas, with its enormously expanded volume."

These quotations sufiiee to show that the gases which result from
the application of heat to coal are considered by the author to be
produced by a simple distillation of the bitumen contained in the coal,
which suffers thereby no alteration in its chemical composition;
whereas the truth is, that they result from the chemical decomposition
of the bitumen, which, by the agency of heat, is resolved into a volatile
portion, which is evolved in the gaseous form, and an excess of
carbon, which remains behind in the solid state. Or rather, the coal
should be considered as originally a homogeneous substance, which,
by the action of heat, is first fused, and afterwards, when its tempe-
rature becomes sufficiently elevated, is decomposed as above. It will
be evident, from these remarks, that the exjiressions "bitumen" and
"bituminous portion" ought to be rejected, and "gases" and "gaseous
or volatile portion" substituted in their place.

The 2nd section, which contains merely some general notions of
gaseous combinations, is very tedious, and might, without detriment
to the work, be omitted. We shall, however, just quote one specimen
of the sujierfiuous observations with which this work abounds. We
read, page 3(i,

" Although, for the purposes of the/;(n!aee, so much value is set on
the solid carbonaceous portion — the coke, we must not, on that ac-
count, undervalue the heat-giving properties of the gas. Indeed, the
extent of those powers is strikingly brought before us by the fact that,
for every ton of 2U cwt. of bituminous coal, no less than 10,000 cubic
feet of gas are obtained, for which we pay at the rate of 10s. for every
lOUO feet; the heating and lighting properties of the gaseous portions
alone of one ton of coals thus costing five pounds sterling."

Is this fact a proof of the great value of coal gas as a heat-giving
body ? Certainly not ; it is, on the contrary, rather an evidence of
the great quantity of heat expended in evolving the gas, which is no
advantage, but very much the reverse. This, however, is not the
question ; for, unless we are content to use coke from the gas-works,
we must be at the expense of separating the gas from the carbona-
ceous portion of the coal, and all that remains to be considered is,
what amount of heat is the gas, when separated, capable of evolving,
how we can utilize the greatest possible proportion of that heat, and
lastlv, whetlier the amount gained is worth any additional expense
whicli may be incurred in its attainment.

The yrd section makes us acquainted with the proportions of carbon
and hydrogen which constitute carburetted hydrogen gas, and with
the quantity of oxygen necessary for the combustion of each of its
constituents, as well as the quantity of atmospheric air which is
requisite to furnish that quantity of oxygen. It should be here ob-
served that the author has applied the term " atom" to atmospheric
air, solely for the purpose of reducing the latter to an unitbrmity with
the other gases concerned, being perfectly sensible that atmospheric
air is not a chemical combination, but a simple mixture of oxygen and
nitrogen gases, not exactly in the proportions required by the theory
of chemical equivalents, the volume of the oxygen gas being 21 in-
stead of 2U per cent, of the whole volume of air. This diflerence is
neglected for the sake of simplicity. We have also to point out an
error in page o 1, lines 0, 10, 13 and 14, where " eight atoms of air " is
put for " four atoms."

This section is followed by an explanation of two diagrams, repre-
senting the combustion of carburetted and bi-carburetted hydrogen,
■which present the volumes of gases used, and of the products of com-
bustion, certainly in a very striking form, to the imagination of the

reader, but we doubt whether a simple table of volumes would not
have answered the purpose equally well.

In tlie 4th and .")th sections the author disposes of the questions of
the qhuntity of air rtquiredfor the combustion of the carbon, after the gai
has ban generated, and of the quality of the air admitted to a furnace.
The lith section treats of the incorporation of air nilh coal gas, and the
time required for effecting the same, and the 7th of the mode of effecting
that incorporation in the furnace, preparatory to combustion, which are
very important points to be considered in the present investigation.
In the latter the author explains the principle of his patent furnace, in
which the air is introduced to the gases evolved from the coal bv
means of tubes pierced with numerous small orifices, tlie effect of
whicli arrangement is compared to that of a blow-pipe.

The Sth and last section of this Part has reference to the place or
situation where the air may be admitted into the furnace, so as to act its
part with the greatest effect ; and the conclusion arrived at is, for
reasons therein developed, that the air for the carbonized fuel on the
bars must come from the ash-pit, and that that for the gas must be
introduced beyond the bridge.

Pambour on Locomotive Engines. London; John Weale, 1840.
(Second Notice.)

In our last number we were unable, for want of time, to give more
than a very brief notice of this work, but we hope this month to make
amends by analysing it throughout with that care which its importance
deserves.

The mode of investigation adopted is briefly explained in the fol-
lowing paragraph, which we quote from the introduction of the first
edition.

"The method constantly followed consists in taking, first, the pri-
mary elements of the question from direct experiment ; then making
use of those elements to establish a calculation in conformity with
theoretical principles; and, lastly, submitting the results to fresh and
special experiments, in order to obtain their verification. For the
further elucidation of the formula, they are each time carefully sub-
mitted to particular applications; and, finally, to extend the use of
the work to persons who raav wish to find the results without calcula-
tions, the formulae are followed by practical Tables, suitable to the
cases which occur most frequently in practice."

The work is divided into IS chapters, in which the various divisions
of the subject are treated, followed by an Appendix, shewing the
Expenses of Haulage by Locomotive Engines on Railways, from the
Accounts of the Liverpool and Manchester, and the Stockton and Dar-
lington Railways.

The first chapter is merely a description of a Locomotive Engine,
and therefore needs no comment.

The second chapter, as we mentioned in our last number, is nearly
a copy of the corresponding chapter of another work by the same
author, entitled "Theory of the Steam Engine," a review of which will be
found in the 2nd volume of this Journal, page 466. The present work
contains, however, besides, in the 6th section of this chapter, a Table
of 37 of the experiments made by the author with the view of ascer-
taining whether or not the steam left the Engine in the saturated state,
that is, with the maximum pressure and density corresponding to its
temperature, which experiments were merely alluded to in the above
mentioned work. The results of these experiments are truly remark-
able, since there is no exception to the perfect coincidence of the
pressures, on the one hand, indicated immediately by the air-gau^e,
and on the other, calculated from the temperature marked by tlie
thermometer. But, surprising as this coincidence is, we would by no
means conclude therefrom, that such results were not actually obtained,
being convinced of the fact which it tends to prove, viz. that the steam,
after passing through the cylinder, leaves the engine in the saturated
state ; we would rather infer that the experiments were made with
extraordinary care and with every precaution to avoid error.

The third chapter treats of the Pressure of the Steam, and Article-
I. of the Safety-Valves in particular.

After explaining, in the 1st section, the mode of calculating the
pressure according to the levers and the spring- balance, the author
indicates, in the following section, the corrections to be made to the
weight marked by that instrument. And here we cannot but express
our dissent from the doctrine laid down with respect to the eftect pro-
duced by the rising of the safety-valve on its surface exposed to the
pressure of the steam. We read, page 90,

" ; but whenever the steam, being generated in 'greater

quantity than it is expended by the cylinders, escapes with force
through the valve, it raises considerably the disk of the valve : the
consequence then is, that, instead of acting merely on the inferiorsur-

1841.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

13

face of the valve, it evidently acts on a greater surface, and which is
still greater tlie more the valve is raised."

It is to the latter part only of this proposition that we object It is
clear that the eftective area of the valve must be augmented by its
being lifted from its seat, and, if it is only raised a very minute quan-
tity, merely suflicient to permit the escape of steam ronnd tlie edge,
the eftective area of the valve will be increased from that of its lower
to that of its upper surface; for in that case the steam, in passing
through between the valve and its seat, presses against the whole
conical surface of the former with sensibly the same pressure as exists
in the boiler ; but when the valve is raised considerably, as much for
instance as twice its thickness, the steam, in escaping round the edge
of the valve, will press on the conical surface of the latter with
diminished force in consequence of the rapid enlargement of the space
in which it is allowed to expand after having passed tlie lower surface
of the valve. This will be evident on referring to the annexed dia-

w

.X^ .^-^ V.

\a' ''^

t'l

^ cf

,4

''"" V nSL

\

gram, where efg h represents the valve -seat, and (i h c rf one-half of
the valve, in section, the rise a e being equal to twice the thickness
6 d. Now it is clear that the steam will pass upon the lower surface
cd o{ the valve a b, and on the conical surface e g of the seat with the
whole pressure in the boiler, but that, after passing the contracted
orifice e e round the valve, it will immediately expand very consider-
ably by reason of the rapid divergence of the surface a c and e/, and
will exert but a slight pressure on the conical surface a c of the valve.
But if the valve has only risen to the position a' b' c' d', (supposing
the rise a' c to be very small,) the aperture for the escape of the steam
becomes that represented by the line ek, at right angles to f if and a' c',
so that the effluent steam will exert its full pressure, not only against
the bottom siirface of the valve, but also against all its conical surface
from k I downwards. On the upper part a' k the pressure is but in-
considerable, as in the former case, so that the circle whose radius is
k I mav be looked upon as a near approximation to the effective area
of the valve : and it is obvious that this area is by so much the greater
as the rise of the valve is less, which is in direct opposition to the law-
laid down by M. de Pambour. We should express the law in general
terms thus :

When the valve rests upon its seat, its effective area is equal to
that of its inferior surface, or rather of the orifice covered by the
valve : when the valve first begins to rise, its ertective area is equal to
that of its upper surface ; and, as it rises more and more, the effective
surface o-oes on diminishing, but according to a law which remains to
be determined.

We therefore consider the calculation in pages 90 and 91 as falla-
cious.

Before cjuitting the subject we shall just offer a remark on the para-
graph which closes this article, which is the following :

"The above establishetl calculation, then, is to be depended on only
when the balance-screw can be lowered so as precisely to equilibrate
the interior pressure, as has been said above, without, however, allow-
ing the valve to rise. But the thing is not possible when the engine
produces a surplus of steam beyond what its cylinders can expand, be-
cause this steam must necessarily have an issue. In this case, then,
the pressure is to be found only by recurring afterwards to the baro-
meter-gauge, as we shall presently indicate."

It seems the most natural hypothesis, that, the blowing of the valve
is a sign that more steam is generated in the boiler than can be ex-
pended in the cylinder ifMout raising the pressure in the boiler, and
that the blowing may always be prevented by a suitable augmentation
of the weight on the valve.

The second article, which completes this chapter, contains a full
description of the four instruments employed by the author to deter-
mine the pressure of the steam, with an explanation of the mode of
using them, namely, the barometer-gauge, the air-gange, the thermo-
meter-gauge, and the spring-gauge or indicator.

The fourth chapter treats of the Resistance of the Air, and we are
sorry to find this subject not so fully elucidated as we had hoped.

The apparently anomalous result observed b\- Borda, and confirmed
by M. Thibault, namely, that large surfaces experience a greater re-
sistance from the air in proportion to their area than smaller ones,
when submitted to a circular motion round an axis situated in the

same plane as the given surface, was easy to foresee. But, as M. de
Pambour has neglected to give the explanation of it, we shall do so,
in order that those, to whom the true reason may not occur, may not
reject the proposition as absurd. The explanation will be found in
the following calculation.

Let a square surface whose side =: a revolve round an axis, situated
in the same plane as the given surface and at a distance )• from its cen-
tre. Let the velocity of the centre ^: v, and let p = the resistance of
the air against an unit of surface moving at the unit of velocity, and
R the resistance on the whole given surface. The resistance on an
element of the surface extending across its whole width, and at a dis-
tance .r from the axis of rotation will be

d.R:

a p V-

x- d. X ;

vhence we obtain by integration

and, putting for .r its maximum and minimum values, namely, c-l--
and )• — ' we have, fur the resistance on the whole given surface,

^=^"C('+0"('-0'

R:

The resistance on an unit of area will be found by dividing the total
resistance R by the area of the surface, which is a". We have there-
fore, calhng TT the mean resistance per unit of area under the above
circumstances.

^(-'+0^

-.pr-

The terra shews that the above quantity increases with the

12 ;•'-■

ratio of the area of the surface to the square of the distance of the
centre of the surface from the axis of rotation, so that, if this distance
is constant the resistance per unit of area is greater for a large surface
than for a smaller one, and that the same effect is produced by lessen-
ing the distance from the axis of rotation to the centre of the surface.

It is essential, therefore, as the author observes, that, when the cir-
cular motion is used to determine the resistance of the air, that the
surfaces employed should be of very small extent compared to the
length of the radius of rotation.

The following formula, to determine the resistance experienced by a
body moving in the air at rest, is deduced from the experiments of
Borda, Dubuat and M. Thibault.

Q = -0011S9G 6 2 V-,
in which Q is the total resistance in lbs., V the velocity of feet per
second, 2 the front surface of the body, traversing the air in a direction
normal to that surface, and c a coefficient which varies with the length
of the body.

In applying this formula we must make

for a thin surface - - - - - -e^ 1'43

for a cube - - e^l"17

for a prism of a length equal to 3 times the side of

its front surface ------ 6z:;l-10.

In the and section the author has given a table of G experiments on
the resistance of the air against trains. Five wagons of different
heights, loaded with goods, were drawn to the top of the Whiston in-
cliiied plane on the Liverpool and Manchester Railway, and were
allowed to descend by their own weight, first separately, and after-
wards all united in one train.

The comprehension of this table would have been greatly facilitated
if the author had given some fuller explauations of the manner in
which he determined the last number in the 8th column, expressing
the effective surface exposed to the shock of the air, which gives, for
the five w-agons together, a friction equal to the sum of the frictions of
the five wagons separate. We have worked out the formula given in
page 152 with different areas of effective surface, and find the friction
amount to 5-92 lb. per ton with 144 square feet, and not 130, as given
by M. de Pambour. The surface of the highest wagon, augmented by
that representing the resistance of the wheels and screened parts of
all the five wagons, is equal to 127 square feet, and as we have found

14

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[January,

the effective surface of the train to be 144 square feet, we must add
4\ square feet per wagon, with the exception of the first, so that the
effective surface will be found by adding to the area of the wagon of
greatest section six square feet for the first, and 13i for each of the
following wagons.

Assuming the value of V, or the velocity at the foot of the first
plane to be correctly given by the question in page 148, we found that
the hypothesis of any thing approaching to uniformity of motion could
not by any means be' reconciled with facts, but that by taking f V^ as
the mean for the first plane, and yV V" for the second, the resistance
of the air was correctly given by the equation we liave quoted above.
The square of the velocity at I, i and I of the length of the first plane
are found by the above mentioned formula to be respectively equal to
•32G V-, -623 V and •S64 V=.

To simplify the calculation for general purposes a mean value of e,
namely 1-05, which is suitable to a train of 15 wagons, is substituted
in the above formula, which thus becomes, when tlie the velocity is
expressed in miles per hour,

Q = -0112(587 2 >•'.

This chapter concludes with a practical table of the resistance of the
air against trains at velocities commencing at 5 miles an hour, and
increasing by 1 mile at a time up to 5U, the eflective surface of the
train increasing by 10 square feet at a time from 20 to 100. The re-
sistance is expressed in lbs. on the whole train and on the square foot
of effective surface.

Chap. V. On the friction of the icagom on Railways.

The only means of ascertaining the friction of wagons with any de-
gree of certainty is by the circumstances of their spontaneous descent
and stop upon two consecutive inclined planes. We therefore pass to
the 3rd section of this chapter, which is an analytical investigation of
these circumstances, as referring to a system of two wheels joined to-
gether by an axle-tree fixed invariably to each, and loaded with a
given weight resting on a chair on which the axle-tree may turn freely.

" The inquiry comprises three successive questions : 1st. To deter-
mine the effective accelerating force to which the centre of gravity of
the system will be subject in its motion; 2nd. To deduce from this
tire velocity acquired by the moving body at the foot of the first plane ;
and 3rd. To conclude finally the distance it will have traversed on the
second plane at the moment when the friction shall have reduced its
velocity to nothing,"

The motive forces applied to the system are first enumerated, in
which the author includes, besides the motive forces properly so called,
the passive resistances wliieh oppose the motion, and which are gene-
rated by the motion itself. Among these there is one regarding which
we thirik the author is in error, namely, the adhesion of the wheel on
the rail. " It is this force," he says, "' which produces the rotation of
the wheel, bv preventing its circumference from sliding without turn-
ing during the motion along the plane." This force is expressed by
the weight T.

If this ought to be looked upon as a force, there must also unques-
tionably be an expenditure of power without any resulting effect at the '
fulcrum of every lever, for, as the above quotation proves, it is only
in its rapacity of fulcrum that the point of contact of the circumference
of the wheel with the rail is here considered ; what is called the roll-
ing friction occupies the 6th and last place in the list.

It is a curious fact that this introduction of a false idea does not in
a)iy way influence the final result of the calculation: it serves merely
to form an unnecessary intermediate equation, between which, and the
princii)al equation when the quantity T has been eliminated, the re-
suiting equation is the same as if that quantity had never entered into
the calculation.

The two equations ia question are

P + o
Psine'-(-/)sine'-T-Q 1-== „.''''

and T R-/' Fr cos 6' -/" (P +p) cos fl' =^ k" +,

in which P is the weight of the chair with its load, resting on the
axle-tree, ;; that of the wheels aud axle-tree, 8' the inclination of the
plane to the horizon, v the velocity of motion at any moment, Q r the
resistance of the air at that velocity, g the force of gravity, <p the
effective accelerating force which produces the motion of translation
of the system, if- the effective accelerating force which produces the
rotation of a point of the wheel situated at the distance 1 from the

axle,? k' the momentum inertiae of the wheel, R the radius of the
g

wheel, r that of the axle,/' the coefficient of sliding fi-ictioD, and/"
that of rolling friction.

Now the former, or principal of the above equations ought evidently
to have been

P sin fl' +p sin 6' -/' P ^ cos fl' -/ " (P+p)l, cos 9' -?- %. ,)/- Qtj-^ =
K K g K

If).

g

Substituting p for if, and 1 for cos 8' as a suflBciently near approxi-
mation when the plane is but little inclined, and making

/'P^+/"<P+P)^^=f(P+p),

we obtain

(P+p)sine'-f(P+p)--.~, ^_Qe^ = L±Z.^.

Whence

* =

(sinfl'-/-

1 +

P+P

■V')-

P+p R-

This is precisely the equation arrived at by M. de Pambour, page
145, which is transformed, for the sake of simplicity, into the foUow-

?>—.§' (sine'-/-} tr),

the frictions represented by g' and q containing none but known quan-
tities.

V d V
The accelerating force being equally represented by — — (x being

the distance traversed on the plane when the body has acquired the
velocity u), this expression is substituted for cp, as well as h' for sin
e'— /, in the last equation, which thus becomes

„ = g'd.r,

V d V
b'—q V?

which is the equation of the motion, and gives by integration between
the limits ar = o and ;!: = Z'z=the length of the plane, calling V the
velocity acquired at the end,

2qgl'= log.

b' - q V

whence

9 V' = 6' (l- „ \ ,Y

This gives the velocity at the end of the first plane, and conse»
quently at the beginning of the second. The question now is to de-
termine at what point of the second plane the body will stop, to solve
which we have, calling 0" the inclination of this plane, all the other
circumstances of the motion being the same as before, except that, the
inclination of the plane being so much less, that the body is brought to

V d V
rest, the accelerating force , is negative.

V d 0

-^'(6"4-5c'),
— 6" being substituted for sin fl" — /.

Making, after integration, x:=.l" for the distance traversed on the
second plane, ,and ;• = o, since the body is brought to a state of rest,
putting also for q V its value found above, we have

'qg'l"
e -1

'qg;l'

Finally, restoring the values of g', b' and i"; and calling V and A"
tlie vertical heights descended on the first and second planes respec-
tively, and making

1841.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

15

Y:

I" -Iqi

1 2 (j g r

e n+ 1

« + l
e —1

we obtain definitively for the value of the frictiony,

h' + h" Y

/=

r + TY

We have been involuntarily led, by the ingenuity of this method of
eliminating the resistance of the air, into giving a complete sketch of
the calculation, but we do not think it more than sufficient to give an
adequate notion of its nature aiid perfection.

The fourth section contains an account of 12 experiments made on
tlie above prhiciple on the Whiston inclined plane on the Liverpool
and Manchester Railway, with trains consisting of different numbers
of wagons and variously loaded, the results of which are collected in a
table at page ICl.

From these experiments, the mean friction of the wagons, taken in-
dependently of the resistance of the air, amounts to -^ of their gross
weight, or to 5'7(J lb. per ton ; but to simplify the calculations, M. de
Pambour takes it at Gib. per ton, which makes -^ of the weight of
the wagons. He remarks, however, that, except in cases of extreme
velocity, the resistance of the air may be computed with regard to the
wagon of greatest section alone, according to Borda, taking the fric-
tion then at 7 lb. per ton.

Chap. VI. treats of the Gravity on Inclined Planes, and Chap. VII.
of the Pressure produced on the Piston by the action of the Blast-pipe.
This is a very important point, and requires much more experience
and careful investigation, in which the results of experiment are com-
pared with the laws of Natural Philosophy, before it can be considered
as satisfactorily settled. In comparing the last column of the Table of
Experiments, page 193, with the last but one, we find some great dis-
crepancies, although the coincidence is in some cases perfect or nearly
so. For example, we find the pressure on the piston due to the action
of the blast-pipe,

Observed.

Calculated.

Difference.

lbs.

lbs.

lbs.

in one experiment

.... 5-0

3-6

1-4

in another

.... 5-6

4-2

1-4

n

.... 5-8

4-1

1-7

u

.... 5-3

4-1

1-2

}i

.... 6-2

4-4

1-8

It

.... 2-4

3-4

1-0

}>

.... 5-6

4-5

11

u

.... 1-8

4-2

2-4

II

.... 1-0

2-7

1-7

It

.... 1-2

2-5

1-3

II

5-0

6-7

1-7

1)

.... 3-4

5-5

2-1

II

.... 4-3

4-1

G-2

II

.... 1-8

1-8

0-0

fl

.... 2-4

2-1

0-3

II

.... 2-3

31

0-2

II

.... 2-3

1-9

0-4

II

.... 2-0

2-1

0-1

II

.... 2-4

2-6

0-2

II

.... 3-8

3-4

0-4

11

.... 2-1

2-0

0-1

11

.... 6-0

5-7

0-3

Out of 38 observations given in the table, the last ten of the above
selection present the nearest accordance with the numbers calculated
by M. de Pambour's formula, while the first 12 exhibit discordances
too great to permit us to consider that formula as confirmed bv the ex-
periments alluded to. We must, however, content ourselves with
these determinations for the present, for want of more accurate data,
but we hope the invesgation will not be allowed to rest here, since the
theory of the Steam Engine is not complete without it.

This chapter concludes \s\t\ia^ pracUcal table of the pressures against
the piston, due to the action of the blast-pipe, which furnishes the means
of taking this effect into account in some degree, which is better than
neglecting it altogether.

In chapter VIII. the friction of the engines, both unloaded and loaded,
is very ably investigated, and illustrated by experiments, and in chap-
ter IX. is ascertained the definitive resistance per unit of surface of

the area of the piston resulting from the various resistances estimated
in the precedirg chapters.

In chapter X. are presented the details of 22 experiments on the
vaporization of locomotive engines, together with an inquiry into the
circumstances which influence the rate of vaporization, which tends to
prove, Istly, that this is not affected by (the load on the safety-valve)
or pressure of the steam formed, 2ndly, that it increases with the velo-
city of the engine, all other circumstances being the same. The
author even goes so far as to conclude from those experiments which
bear on this point that the vaporization of locomotive engines varies
very nearly as the fourth root of the velocity. We do not feel justi-
fied in adopting such a law on the strength of so few experiments,
which do not all concur even in establishing the general truth. That
the velocity of the motion does influence the vaporization we are not,
however, disposed to doubt; we only wish to intimate that more,
numerous experiments must be made on the subject before the law of
that influence can be deduced. 3rdly. it is shewn from the experi-
ments, three of which were made without the blast-pipe, that this
appendage to a locomotive engine increased its vaporization more than
five-fold, but that the narrowing more or less of the orifice of the
blast-pipe produced no very remarkable result. It appears, however,
that a certain area or orifice produces a maximum effect for each en-
gine, th It area being for the Star engine, according to ihe experi-
ments here reported, about 3-13 square inches.

In the 5th section of this chapter, which treats of tlie comparative
I'aporizaiion of Ihe fire-box and the tulns, and of the dejiiiite vaporization
of the engines per tmit of heating surface of their boilers, the author
asserts, page 270, that, " during the active working of engines of a
construction similar to that of the experiments, the two portions of
the boiler vaporize, per unit of surface, the same quantity of water."
This equality is ascribed to the fact of the flame being drawn, by the
force of the blast, through the whole length of the tubes, by which
means the whole of their surface is exposed to radiating caloric, but
there are probably other circumstances which tend to equalize the two
portions of the boiler as to their evaporating power, as for example,
the superior conducting power of the thin brass of the tubes over that
of the iron plate of which the fire-box is made.

In the 6th section an estimate is made of the loss of steam which
takes place by the safety-valves, during the work of locomotive engines ;
but it does not appear that there are any positive data on which to
found the assumption of the losses here assigned. The calculation is
based on the rising of the valve observed during the experiment com-
pared with the rise which is sufficient to give issue to all the steam
generated during the complete close of the regulator, without regard
to the pressure in the boiler, which must doubtless influence the loss
through the valve considerably.

In the 7th section the quantity of water drawn into the cylinders in
the liquid state is shewn to amount to a considerable proijortion of
the water appended : the average of the severe experiments in the
table at page 289 is 24 per cent., and in one case it ajjpears to have
risen to 36 per cent. But as the determination of this quantity ne-
cessarily depends upon that of the loss of steam through the safety-
valves, it must be affected by whatever errors there may be in the
latter. We think it probable that the escape of steam through the
valve is more copious than M. de Pambour calculates it to be ; in
which case the loss hy priming would be found to be less considerable.
We are, however, compelled, in this instance also, to content ourselves
for the present with the data here furnished us. Besides, as we are
possessed of the facts ascertained by experiments, we must take it for
granted, that there is no great error in the total loss both by the safety-
valve and by pruning, as the only difficulty consisted in distributing it
between these two causes.

The explanation of the manner in which a deficiency of steam-rooni
in a boiler causes it to prime is not applicable to a locomotive engine
for it does not follow, because that space is but 10 times the capacity
of the cylinder, that " at every stroke of the piston, a tenth of the
steam generated will pass into the cylinder," and that "the remaining
steam will be all at once reduced to 9-lllths of what it was before."
The truth is that there is no cessation either of the generation or sup-
ply of steam to the cylinders: the latter is at no instant more than
once and 4-lOths as rapid as at another, and is at the least nearly
8-lOths of the average supply.

In chapter XI. the subject of Fuel is treated in a very scientific
and practical manner, both with reference to the absolute quantity
which locomotives of different constructions are capable of consuming,
and also with reference to the consumption required to effect a given
vaporization.

From the experiments on this subject, of which the particulars are
given in the 1st section of this chapter, and which are grouped in a
table, page 298, according to the proportion between the heating sur-

16

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[January^

face of the fire-box and of the tubes, the author concludes in the fol-
lowing section that the most advantageous proportion is as 1 to 9, or
the total l:cating surface equal to ten times that of the fire-box; "since
for a less j)roportion there would be increase in the expenditure of
fuel, without increase of vaporization ; and for a greater proportion,
on the contrary, there would be reduction in the vaporization of the
engine per unit of surface, which would incur the necessity of a larger
boUer, and consequently of a greater weight, which it is important to
avoid."

It also results from these experiments that, "according to the pro-
portion of the fire-box to the total heating surface, the consumption of
fuel in locomotive engines varies from ',)-2 to 1 1-7 lbs. per cubic foot of
total water vaporized ; so that it may, on an average, be valued at
10-7 lbs. of coke per cubic foot of total vaporization."

It is to be observed that this total vaporization includes the loss by
priming, so that the quantity of cuke per cubic foot of water really
converted into steam would be, according to M. de Pambour's calcula-
tion, about 14 lbs.

Of the 12tli chapter, w liicli treats of the Theory of locomotive en-
gines, we shall merely observe that it is in substance the same as in
" The Theory of }he Steam Engine," to whicli work we have already
alluded, but much more instructive with regard to locomotive engines,
the peculiar circumstances of whieli are here discussed at much greater
length. The application of the the theory is rendered easy by prac-
tical formulcc and examjdes, and its correctness corroborated by ap-
plying it to the results of a considerable number of experiments, col-
lected in a table at the end of the chapter.

The tlieory is continued in chapter XIII., in the first 9 sections of
which are solved the various problems whicli occur in the construction
of locomotive engines, viz., to determine the vaporization or heating
surface, the dimensions of the cylinders, and the diameter of the wheel,
necessary for the engine to draw a given load al, a given velocity; to
determine the vaporization or heating surface, the pressure in the
boiler and the dimensions of the cylinders, necessary for an engine to
assume a given velocity or draw a given load, producing at the same
time its maximum of useful effect ; and lastly, to determine the com-
bined proportions to be given to the parts of an engine, to enable it to
fulfil divers simultaneous conditions. The utility of all these problems
is too evident to require pointing out.

In the lOthsectien, whsch is an examination of the special influence
of each of the dimensions of the engine on the effects produced, we
have to direct attention to a slight contradiction. We read, page
417,

" Moreover, it will also be recognised that, for a given vaporization,

the velocity will be by so much the greater as the factor — has less

value. It is in consequence to be concluded that, in order to augment
to the utmost the velocity of an engine with a given load, we must
either employ a cylinder of the smallest possible diameter, or make
the wheel the largest possible with reference to the stroke of the
piston."

It is a more direct inference that we must employ a cylinder of the
smallest possible capacity in proportion to the diameter of the wheel.
We read further:

"These consequences might however have been seen ii priori ; for
if we suppose a given vaporization in the boiler, it is clear that the
quantity of steam which will result from it per minute cannot issue
forth ill the same time by a cylinder of less diameter, except on the
condition of increasing its velocity during its efflux, that is, of increas-
ing the velocity of the piston. As to the ratio between the length of
the stroke of the piston and the diameter of the wheel of the engine,
as it is known that at every double stroke of the piston the engme ad-
vances one turn of the wheel, it is readily perceived that the larger
the wheel relatively to the stroke of the piston, the greater nmst be
the velocity of the engine with a given load."

In all this reasoning the author has lost sight of the circumstance
that a diminution of the capacity of the cylinders, wilh a givin load,
will necessarily demand steam of a greater pressure, and consequently
of greater density, in the cylinders; but, as the density of steam does
not increase in proportion to its elastic force, there will he a slight in-
crease of velocity with the smaller cylinders.

A little farther on, nagell9, we are told that the load which an
engine is capable of drawing ;it a given velocity "is diminished by the
valves of (^, / and U, that is, by the dimensions of the cylinder, the
stroke of the piston, and the wheel, which are proper to augment the
velocity of the engine."

We were at first puzzled for an explanation of this contradiction,
but, on examining the two equations from which the above deductions
were drawn, we perceived that the latter were not justified by them,

but that the same values of d, I and D which would increase the velo-
city with a given load would also increase the load with a given velo-
city, the fraction ^p— being positive in the denominator of one of the

fractions, and iiegalin in the numerator of the other. The error we
have pointed out runs through the rest of the section.
( To be continued.)

Sptcificaiiong for Practical Architecture, preceded by an Emay on the
Dtclim of Excellence in the Structure, and in /he Science of Modern
Engliish Bnildingn. By Alfred Bartholomew, Architect. " London:
John Williams, ls40.

We have so often made an attempt to examine this important work
w ith the attention it deseri'es, that we fear we may be considered re-
miss by our readers in not attending to it before — the fact is that it
contains so much matter intimately connected with the profession,
that it is with difficulty we can select any one part in preference to
another, a difficulty increased by the arrangement of the work. We
have already, by permission of tjie author, given large extracts, which
will he a sufficient testimony to our readers, that it is a work well de-
serving of the attention of every one connected with building, we will
not say the profession alone, for it is equally as well deserving the no-
tice of the public generally. Having said thus much, we must not be
considered as agreeing with all the sentiments and opinions of Mr.
Bartholomew, although we believe that w'hat he has written, has been
done in sincerity ; we think that he has been too much imbued with
the Wren-mania, and considers that nothing is now done equal to the
buildings and architecture of the period previous to the eighteenth
centuiy — no doubt, many of our public edifices bnilt during that ]ieriod
were executed with great judgment, but we know that many of them
possess faults, nay very great ones ; for how many of them do we
find that have lossed their spire or steeple, and in others the piers of
the main tower have given way, under the great pressure which they
are made to carry. Nor do w'e find that all the buildings of that
period were erected f re proof — we believe that very few of them have
their vaulting of stone, some we have seen which so closely resemble
stone, that they liave been taken for that material until the visitor is
told to the contrary. Although, during this period there were erected
numerous ecclesiastical buildings, possessing architectural merit of the
highest class, we should like to know how many buildings of a domes-
tic character were erected, possessing any claim to architectural pre-
tensions, in comparison with those which have been erected within
the last century— now, the whole of a man's fortune is not placed at
the mercy of the priest, for external pomp to support an intolerant
church or to prevent the soul from going to purgatory ; no, part of
that fortune is now' devoted to the erection of edifices, which form an
ornament to many parts of the united kingdom, and we hope to see
them still farther increase.

Another part of Mr. Bartholomew's bewailing is on account of the
use of Bath stone and cement ; no one will dispute that if you can ob-
tain funds sufficient, that it is far better to use Portland stone, but the
immense cost of labour on that material is a bar to its general intro-
duction, and it is on account of the cheapness and facility in the use of
cement for giving architectural character to our buildings, that it is so
largely introduced. We believe that the fault in the use of it is by
allowing the workman to have cement of an inferior quality, or in per-
mitting it to be employed by men that do not know how to mix or
apply it.

That part of the volume which treats upon Specifications, possesses
some very useful hints for those who are not well conversant with that
branch. We feel ourselves very strongly inclined to recommend that
specifications should at all times be drawn up by parties who will
make it their peculiar study ; such a person would be of as mucli ser-
vice to the architect, as the special pleader or equity draughtsman is
to a lawyer.

The information on construction w ill be found valuable to the student,
who will do well to peruse attentively the general contents of the
volume.

We think the work would have been clearer had it not been split
up so much into chapters and sections, which however convenient for
reference, are embarrassing to the reader. This is even carried out
in the specifications, so that a specification is interrupted by chapters
and sections. We must not, however quarrel with Mr. Bartholomew,
for he is too steady a reader of the Journal not to enlist our sympa-
thies ; some of our correspondents however seem, by the remarks in
his work, to give him a good deal of trouble. He devotes especial
mention to Candidus. We must now leave Mr. Bartholomew, and his
work with a heartv commendation to our readers for its usefulness.

1S41.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

17

THE ARCHITECTURE OF LIVERPOOL.

By a Stranger.

Not deeming myself bound to continue these remarks according to
any fixed n\le, I shall merely note each of the " Architecture of Liver-
pool" as comes first in my way, during my peregrinations through the
town, without regard to their proximity to each other or even their re-
lative importance. I shall, therefore, now turn my face towards the
place where the wise men of old came from, namely, the east, and
•make a few remarks on the Railway Station. This is a mere screen,
little better than a blank wall, hiding, instead of setting off, the great
works that are going on behind it. It is a long, low, fiat facade,
broken into many unmeaning parts, without end or aim, having six
and thirty engaged columns very nearly in a line, like a regiment of
soldiers leaning against a wall, set upon pedestals, and supporting an
entablature, and over the centre and side entrances having heavy
masses of stone-work. This station is a great failure. Instead of
being a grand substantial gateway, suitable to the commercial dignity
of this great town, and the incalculable importance to mercantile men
of railway transit, — instead of an entrance suitable in height and dig-
nity to so important an object, which, by its outward appearance,
should tell of the great things going on behind it, and thus serve as a
title page to its contents, here is a long, low waU, ornamented, it is
true, with columns, &c., but still giving no one any idea, by its outward
expression, of its nature or intents. Every edifice should express its
object. A church should display gravity and dignity, a theatre light-
ness and gaietv, a prison rude majesty and sturdy strength ; in short,
every edifice should, like the countenance, express the spirit. But,
in this erection, besides this want of expression for the intended ob-
ject, the thing is not good in itself. The expression of a column is
that of support to something superincumbent. But what do these
support? Why, they are themselves stuck against a wall where they
are not required, for, we naturally suppose, a wall can support itself;
and over them is an entablature, which might, also, have been sup-
ported by the said wall. Moreover, this entablature is in itself but in-
diflferent, and it is broken into petty parts, wanting that continuity of
outline so necessary in large edifices for effect and dignity; and all
this is to no useful purpose, but merely to hide the railway. How much
better would it have been to have made these now useless columns
available, and placed them at the outside of the pathway, thus form-
ing a colonnade, for shelter from sun and rain, with bold but unbroken
entablatures ; and, in the centre, made a very large and handsome
gateway, worthy of the town, somewhat similar in style to those of
Birmingham and London, albeit they are not quite faultless. But I
must, in justice, add, that the columns are well wrought and propor-
tionate, the mouldings good, and the basement and pedestals bold,
substantial, and somewhat original.

One of the most important architectural edifices in the town, as well
from its size and prominent position as from its cost, is Saint Luke's
Church, which crowns the summit of a gentle ascent, and forms a
beautiful termination to the view at the south-east end of Bold-street.
It is one of the finest and most picturesque buildings of its kind in the
county. This has been a most successful attempt at the opprobriously
termed Gothic, a name sarcastically applied to the sublime architec-
ture of the middle ages, by Sir Christopher Wren, whose own taste-
less attempts in that style show hovv little he understood the artist-
like feelings or the grand conceptions that enabled the monastic archi-
tects to raise edifices remarkable for boldness, scientific construction,
and that fascinating and almost magical effect of chequered light and
shade, which, combining, at times, the most playful effects, as in their
small oratories and chapels, and, at others, the most sublime and ele-
vating, raising the feelings of the devout, and appalling even the infi-
del, produced architectural effects that have not been equalled even in
the present day of knowledge and enlightenment. St. Luke's Church
consists of a nave, chancel, and tower. The details of the exterior of
this church are exceedingly good, and show that the architect had a
chaste appreciation of that style. The windows, battlements, but-
tresses, pinnacles, &c. are almost all unexceptionable, which, with the
admirable tone of colour in the stone, produce a very fine effect. The
chancel is a copy of the Beauchamp Chapel, at Warwick. This chan-
cel, though beautiful enough in itself, looks sadly likely an excrescence
or after-thought, tacked on to the main building, which idea is still
further kept up by the difference of style, which is of later date than
that of the nave. Why should this have been done in a modern edi-
fice ? Why, in an edifice built at the same period, combine the incon-
gruous styles of several periods? for, in the Gothic style, there are
many eras, each characterized by certain distinct features essentially
different from all the rest : and thus the antiquary may trace the date of
erection of almost any ancient building to within a very few years. It

may be replied, that there are remains of many buildings of different
styles. True. But the reason is, that they were built at different
periods, each in accordance with the style of its own date, thus creat-
ing a great jumble of styles, often picturesque, but rarely chaste or
coirect, or forming one homogenous mass. Nor can any one produce
a single ancient edifice built at the same ]ieriod but inditterent styles.
Thus we plainly see, that this mixing of stvles is neitlier in accordance
with reason nor the beautiful examples of antiquity now remaining
unto us. The tower of this church is square, with turrets at each
angle running up, and finishing with small battlements. The lower
part contains a deeply-recessed doorway, with bold shafts and mould-
ings. Above is a "perpendicular" window, which is semewhat dis-
proportionately short. The clock, in the centre of a row of paneUing,
comes next, and then the belfry-window, of &cora/erf character, being
filled with flowing tracery. The upper part of the tower is finished
with a profusion of graceful panelling, and terminated with perforated
battlements of chaste design. The whole is exquisitely beautiful and
picturesque ; nor do I know any modern tower which has so fine an
effect as this. Whether the sun shines broadly over its top, as it
stands boldly out against the clear distant blue of the sky, or clouds
chequer the face, the eft'ect is equally beautiful, combining fair pro-
portions with the chastest details. But there is, I think, one ana-
chronism that, to an antiquarian eye, mars the whole : it is like the
mole upon the fair face of some otherwise exquisitely beautiful girl.
The lower window is of about the date of 1450, that of the upper one
about 1370, and is copied, I suspect, from one in Worstead Church,
Norfolk. Therefore, even if the tower were built to imitate different
periods, which I can hardly imagine, they have placed the oldest style
upon the top of the more modern one ; so that an Irishman might
blunder upon the idea, that they had commenced building at the top,
and gradually travelled down to modern times. One has heard of
"building castles in the air-." surely the architect of this edifice in-
tended to illustrate the saying. The ground on which this edifice is
built being much higher at one end than the other, the architect, by
way of obtaining a level, has constructed a large and handsome flight
of steps, though somewhat too high, ai one end, occupying the whole
width of the edifice. This gets over the difficulty ; but, although this
may be a beauty to a Grecian temple, which was always placed upon
the uppermost of a flight of steps surrounding the building, it is incon-
sistent with this style of architecture, and but few examples remain of
such, except here and there upon the continent. Of the interior, with
much that is good, there is much that is indifterent: the details are
often excellent in design, but poor in execution, not having suflScient
boldness or projection. The cornice from which the roof springs,
especially, is much too small, the bases of the piers are miserable, the
shafts against the outer wall, supporting the aisle roof, are poor and
thin: but yet, with all these defects, in consequence of the excellence
of other parts, the absence of that great defect in Gothic architecture,
side galleries, and the expense lavished upon the whole, there is an
eft'ect produced that is highly pleasing, and renders the lout ensemble
of this edifice one of the finest of its kind in this county, if not in the
country. The entrance gates are much too small and unimportant,
and resemble the upper portions of pinnacles cut oft" and placed there,
and are, besides, much too numerous. How much better would have
been large, bold, and handsome piers, or arched gateways, than these
expensive frittered pieces of gingerbread, which must, altogether,
have cost many, many hundred pounds.

Few things more strike a stranger's notice, or give him a better idea
of the wealth of this most wealthy town, than the number and excel-
lence of the banking-houses. To orter remarks upon a very small
number would extend these papers too far, but there are two just com-
pleted that may be worthy of notice, viz., the North and South Wales
Bank and the Union Bank. The former is one of the handsomest in
the town ; but, in criticizing any architectural work, the critic should
make himself acquainted with the pecuUar circumstances under which
the architect was placed, and endeavour to discover what control they
exercised over his design. Upon a cursory examination of this bank,
it is evident the architect had to contend with difficulties of no mean
order, such as his ground being irregular in shape, and, also, the ne-
cessity of getting sufficient accommodation within a very confined
space, thus compelling him to obtain in lieight what he wanted in
superficies; and, yet, here are enormous difficulties overcome, and a
handsome edifice, in conclusion, remains. The entrance front consists
of a Corinthian portico, in antis ; the columns, which are very rich and
handsome, being just disengaged from the wall and set upon pedestals,
the whole being surmounted by a pediment, with rich cornice, &c.
There are, in the centre, a doorway and two windows, one above the
other, but the ornaments of all these are inferior to the rest of the
work. The side consists of a row of six pilasters and three tiers of

D

IS

TIIK CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[Janparv,

windows, the lowest range liaving three, circular-headed, with key-
stones, the place of the other two being occupied bv narrow doorwars.
This building is too high, the entrance too narrow, the doorways,
columns, and pediment cramped ; but, it is also evident, the architect
had no control over these: it was the stern necessity, arising from
want of spaci^. This must also excuse the narrow doorwavs of the
side, although it will nut do so the swelled frieze over it, a licentious
practice, made use of in few buildings of importance, except the Tem-
ple of Bacchus, near Rome, the Basilica of Antoniiuis, and afterwards
by Palladio, in the Uotunda of Capra, and a very few others. The
coroice of this building is remarkably fine, and, in the order of its
mouldings, n-sembles those of the Tem|)le of Jupiter Stator, in the
Campo Vaccino, the whole of w hicli is considered to be the finest spe-
cimen of the Corinthian order in the world. One regrets, that want of
means, or some other cause, prevents the least exjiosed sides of this
edifice being finished in the same style as the two principal fronts,
thus preventing that unity so essential to classic beauty.

The Union Bank, comer of Fenwick-street and Brunswick-street,
has j\ist been completed, and, although it is but a small edifice, I re-
gard it as one of the completest, of its size, in the town. The front
has two chaste Ionic cohnnns, hi an/as, upon a high plinth, surmounted
by a pediment, iu wliich are some very bold ami admirable carvings,
■whilst the frieze that surrounds the edifice is ornamented bv handsome
carvings of flowers, honeysuckles, &c. The cornice is plain and good,
and is surmounted by carved pedestals and handsome parapets. Under
the portico, also, are some very handsome illustrative carvings in high
W relief. The side is plain, but cliasle, the windows simple and original,

and all the details excellent.

After viewing these and many other buildings of the same kind, I
inquired for the edifice in which the branch portion of the business of
the Bank of Engl.ind is transacted in this town, naturally expecting an
edifice worthy of this great establishment, the profits it is reaping in
the town, and the spirit shown in the erection of so expensive a one in
London. But what was my astonishment and disappointment on being
shown a poor, little, paltry, pitiable place, in Hanover-street, where
there is neither beauty outside nor sufficient space in ; some places
dark, and all botched, inconvenient, and defective! Surelv, the levia-
than of Threadneedle-street will not be outdone by the pettiest bank-
ing-house in Liverpool.

A stranger is also justly struck by the number, size, and excellence
of the Market-places here. The Fish Market is admirably suited to
its purposes, and tlie entrance to the Fish Hall presents a very quiet,
plain portico, expressive of its object. The St. John's Market, wliich
is, I believe, the largest in this county, has no external beautv, ;is it
consists, in front, of a mere brick wall, with stone entrance archway,
■with a column on each side and entablature over them. But, upon
entering, one wlio has never been there before is much struck with the
width, height, and length, the span and construction of the open roof,
■vi'hich, by constant repetition, as the eye looks down the long perspec-
tive of distance, has a curious effect. There are fine, broad avenues,
supported and divided by numerous tall, slender pillars, to the eye all
trending to the same point in the extreme distance, affording a beauti-
ful practical illusion of perspective, whilst the admirable mode of
lighting it gives, at certain times during the day, when the sun is
brightly shining through the windows, an ai-rial effect of light and
shade, and, in the distance, a dim atmospheric effect, that have been
often admired by artists. All this, with the fair faces and rich dresses
that are to be seen there, on market mornings: the luscious display of
apricots, peaches, and other fruits; the beautiful bunches of flow'ers,
of every kind, opening their petals to the day, -and spreading around a
delightful perfume ; with the coolness and sliadyness of tlie place, and
the clean appearance of the market women, so "different from those of
Birmingham, London, or elsewhere, renders it, though but a market, a
place wliere the stranger may well spend an hour's stroll.

Eder.
( To he continued.)

ON THE STYLE OF INIGO JOXE.S.
We feel delight in reviewing the merits of a master, for as pupils
of design we are interested in whatever concerns the history of our
art : but we are more concerned in the criticism, when that master is
an Englishman, and that art our countrys. There is another interest
involved in the investigation; because "in descanting on style, we too
often pass over beauties and originalities, where the j)rev:uling senti-
ment is evidently borrowed. There is a disposition about us, to wave
that patient investigation of the detail, under which the independance
even of the borrower appe-.irs. Thus we say, in allusion to Inigo
Jones, that his style is Palladlo's. Certainly, there is the same modi,
licatiou of the orders, and the same appropriation of effect, perhaps

the same selection of the parts. Certainly hi- style is I'alladio's, if
we except tivat, upon which the very groundwork of the Italian re-
poses ; viz. the skill of assorting and applying, materials alreadv fur-
nished. But then, he extracts no more from Palladio, than the" poet
does from nature, namely the elements and the matter. Indebted to
Palladio he is. as the poet is to nature, for the picture displaved, but
indebted he is also, to his own exquisite perception, for the soid which
can encompiiss, and the hand which can pencil anew, its beauties in
fresh combinations. He does not merely either leave Palladio full of
the impressions of that master, but betrays the critic too: arrested by
the elements, as much as by the effect by the parts, as much as by the
whole. Sucli and such only, is the connection of the English master
with the Italian; and if the latter deserve the homage of tlie southern
school, so also does the former merit the praises of the northern. And
if Palladio be recognized as the fathsr of combinations, so should
Jones be seen original in his conceits; whilst both .appear like distinct
genuises of music; making the instrument of design to arrest tne
mind, solely by the exquisite beauty of their creations.

To follow hiigo Jones however in his arrangement, let us take him
in one of his grandest flights, where the combinations are most ex-
tended, and the distribution most difficult. -Suppose the front of 720
feet in the design for the Whitehall Palace. To distribute so long a
front, and to bestow upon it the necessary gradations in effect, required
several vast features in the first place: so the wings and the centre
are made distinct, in plan, profile and elevation. The centre being
tlie abode of dignity, and a focus for the eye, this is elevated above
that contiguous to it : the wings too are elevated, ;md here the variety
is first in the proportion, with the regulating principle an increase of
the parts as they distance from the eye. For had not a tower termi-
nated the facade, the eye would have fallen, and had not shadows
been cast from the wings, tameness and indistinct blending might have
resulted. Having resolved on general distinctions, Inigo Jones ap-
pears on a more intricate field, and here it is more important to follow
him, since here it is he rises above, and surpasses his imitators.

First let us approach the centre, which though varying from others
of his design, illustrates, the peculiar artifices of his style. It is not
enough, be it observed, that the rusticated base w hich extends through-
out, should here be stopped; and that pedestals and their huger
columns shoidd rise, unbroken by an inferior part to the first cornice.
There is a fresh arrangement of variety yet to be considered. The
centre betrays infinite attention and careful study. He seems here to
have so diffused his features, that considered in itself and isolated
from the main building, it would yet betray an unity in its design:
unlike many of his followers who scatter their unity throughout the
whole. Although the heighth of the centre is very little more than
its width, the eye is yet insensibly led upwards to the tympanum
which crow ns it : and this not so much from the existence of that
tympanum, as from the minutiae. Nothing flat or depressed intrudes,
the eye sweeps upon the arched entrance to the arched w indow above ;
and from the arched window to the figures which recline thereon.
The argle made by those figures would meet in the biise of the shield;
whilst from the shield you at once forsake for the statue. Anotlier
glance however and fresh contrivances appear. The side compart-
ments of the centre, in obedience to the idea of a pyramid which
seems to float in Jones's mind, must not conduct you too hastily to the
apex ; because if so the principle of pyramidal truth would vanish.
To avoid this error then, and yet still to admit of tluit gradual taper-
ing, which in a pyramid is regular and unbroken, from the base to the
suuiniit; he has contrived in the side entrances, that their arches
should conduct the eye, not to the tympanum, that would be sudden;
but to the crown of the grand central" arch : for if a line be drawn from
the springing of the lesser arches to their crown; they would intersect
iu the crown of the greater arch. Then again, as if afraid that this
were too sudden an ;iscent of line so near the base, he introduces two
square panels over the lesser arches, as a relief to restore the balance,
as it were of form. On the upper story the same idea exists, and the
intersecting line of the lesser tympanums is in the centre of the head
from which a iestoon of flowers droop. A further scrutiny might still
reveal increasing artifice in comjiosition, but enongh has been said for
the merits of the centre. It will appear evident, 1 humbly believe as
the criticism proceeds, that Jones surpasses all his imitators in that
attention to the subordinate parts of his edifice. And this, be it re-
marked, is no trivia! allowance to make, when the very elements and
basis of Palladian doctrine, is combination; and that not in mere
generalaties, but in every part where consistency will admit a feature.
Leaving the centre for the void, contiguous to it, there appears notiiing
peculiar to him from the rest of his school. The piers between the
windows arc twice the windows' width, whilst the windows are twice
their height. The effect of this part, and its sober appearance is more
to be considered in connection with the edifice as a whole, than as in-

184].]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT S JOURNAL.

19

dividually remarkable : except we notice the ornaments over each pier
on the crowning blocking course ; and which directing the eye up-
wards forms for it a kind of imaginary pyramid witli each pier, whose
ideal base is level with the top of the upper window. Advancing to-
wards the wing, a part appears, contrasted with the void, from its
heavy masonry, and then again relieved by its columns and statues.
Here' again tlie eye is courted centrally — fas if afraid that it might
grow weary and fall) by its travel along the front. Four columns only
are crowned with statues; tlie central window only have buUusters,
whilst the roof slightly rises, to assist. Whilst here too the ornament,
appears more abundant, and the superficies more enriched. The win-
dows are richer, their dressings less plain. Trusses occur, breaks ob-
trude, and a buUustrade suimounts. Once more hasten on, and the
wing salutes vou, in its similarity to the centre, vou admire the contri-
vance of Inig'o Jones to protect the unity of this vast front. There
you encoun'er a principle of optics though dirt'erently applied. Tlie
increased distance of the wing from the centre, exacts and increased
importance in its composition, and proportionate to that distance, to
recover the unity. It is made somewhat to resemble the centre, in its
miniititE, and thus the link of harmony is connected.

Looking back once more at the facade as a whole, we recognise a
hand overcoming, rather than overcome by, the materials of his art.
The perspective is also worthy of his notice, so that in whatever way
you regard the edifice, its vast proportions and its more elegant reliefs
are exposed to view. In the long and diflicult front it is, that Inigo
Jones is more marked and peculiar. That complication of parts, that
ever varying distribution of the features, are peculiarly his. I )thers
may appear on a smaller field equallv happy, and yet cannot approach
him ill the grand and more extended scale. Like true genius he
seems increasing in beauty and effect, with the increasing necessities;
and extended nature of the design. As spectator of the structure, you
are pleased as much by the intricacy unravelled as by the variety sub-
dued. Nature with liira is ever found under veil of art. But he is
the painter of its gayer effects, whilst others on the contrary, represent
its more sober appearances. If yon take a critical survey of his de-
signs vou discover first the sketch, the outline and the shadows ; and
in this only equal to his school. But as aWatteau and Ostade gather
a name from grouping the same figures, which otherwise exhibited
were poor and tame, so Inigo Jones, by a consummate skill in assorting
his, stamps his name upon the edifice. With the same cornice, archi-
trave, ballustrade, figures and pediment, as others employ, a very dif-
ferent arrangement appears. If his front be short, you see this more
particularly. He destroys the stift'ness of outline by the detail. His
decorations are sometimes sweeping and reclining in their form ; and
it was a desire to avoid the rigid line in ornament, that taught hira to
break the tympanum for the introduction of a wreath or a shield. If
the wings are raised (which with him is usual when the centre is much
depressed and the main body of the building long), he seeks to re-
lieve, by a depression of form (very frequently) in the decoration.
The architrave sometimes sweeps into width towards the base, as in
the wing of Wilton House. He seldom employs one uniform unbroken
ballustrade in the middle part, along the whole length, unless there
has been a paucity of reliefs below. In Wilton House too we see this.
If however the front be long, and the design a mansion, the various
parts assume the varied forms, and together with the detail unite their
effect ; the various points of the building in this case assume an in-
clination in form as they soar up and encounter the sky. That is,
they exhibit no harshness in their outline, or very little. He seems to
unite with Wren in opinion and taste, and to mould the figures into
spheres and sweeps as they stand against the sky. It is this which
regulates him even in the ballustrade vases and globes that crown the
cornice. It is something of this which directed a pediment on the
wings of Wilton House, for it leads the eye in breadth, as a balance to
the loftiness of the wing, and avoids the harshness of the horizontal.
It may be admitted that this disrelish for harshness often led him into
extravagance in composition, and caused him to exhibit in his smaller
studies, a richness and exuberance more iitted for an interior. It may
be admitted too that a certain want of severity in taste and coolness
in adjustment, led him to trespass beyound what his more careful rival
Burlington dared to allow. Often he may appear omitting the neces-
sary members from a cornice, omitting the frieze, and introducing
double plinths ; still that richness of the artist, snatched from Italy is
a charm entirely his own. In conclusion, it must be allowed, that
Inigo Jones, gives a finish both picturesque and lively to the building,
and brings into his design not only the orders and sentiment of Palla-
dio, but the creations of an active fancy and the richest pictures of
ideal taste.

Frederick East.
Dtctmber, 1840.

ON THE RELATION OF HORSE POWER TO TONNAGE
IN STEAM VESSELS.

Sir — It is a disputed question wdiether a large or small horse power
of engines, is best adapted for sea-going steam vessels.

Without entering into the discussion, I will lay before your readers
the tonnage and power of some of the finest ocean steam ships vet built;
which table shows some curious contrarieties.

Horse

froiiortion

Vessels name.

Tonnage.

Power.

uf tonnage
to power.

Remarks.

Tons.

"Acadiat

1200

440

Ib.p. =2.t

E.xcecrlingly fast.

"Oriental

1070

440

1 4

lOJ knots when deep.

"Great Vv'estern

1340

450

1 3

*Gr?at Liverpool

1543

464

1 3i

British Queen

2010

500

1 4

Fast when light, and light
stern breeze.

President

2366

540

1 a

Slow under any circumstances

'Liverpool (before

alterations.)

1150

404

1 2J

Slov." and crank.

In the above table I have endeavoured to place the vessels in the
order of speed — an average westerly passage across the Atlantic being
supposed to be the work performed. The " Oriental" and "Great
Western" are, I think, about equal — as also the "President" and
" Liverpool" (before alterations).

It will be observed that though the proportion is the same both in
the "Oriental" and "British Queen," yet it cannot be questioned that
on every point, and most especially when the vessels are deep, the
"Oriental" has the advantage.

It may also be mentioned that the " Liverpool" has had seven feet
more beam given her, and is now 393 tons larger than formerly ; the
proportion of power has, therefore, been dccreastd, wdiilst her speed
and vveatherly qualities have been materially increased.

Also, the four first and best vessels, and which vary least in their
speed, in bad weather, have more beam (in proportion to their length)
than the other three.

It appears to me that more depends on th form and construction of
the vessel, than on having a large engine power.

I am, &c.

E.

Manchester, Xov. 30, 1840.

TABLE OF PORTICOES.

Sill — Mr. Dyer has pointed out what certainly looks like a very
stupid blunder in the Table of Porticoes from the Penny Cyclopsedia,
and I was at first rather alarmed by his note, for he says that the por-
tico of the Victoria Rooms is therein stated to have five intercolum-
niatioDs (intercolumns), although placed in the octastyle class. But,
on turning to the table itself, I find he has misconceived what is said
in regard to that portico in the column of remarks, wdiere it is further
described as being " unequal diprostyle, recessed, five intercolumns,"
that is, recessed within for the space of five intercolumns, or corres-
ponding with five out of the seven intercolumns of the octastyle in
faont. Perhaps the sense would have been clearer had the comma
after " recessed," been omitted, or had " for " been substituted instead
of it. But brevity was indispensable; and, in fact, that portion of
the table was considerably abridged after being set up, in order to get
rid of many ^(;v(-OMrs, and reduce it almost entirely to single lines.
And thus it happened that the words "sculptured pediment," which
were in the first proof, were struck out in order to save a second line.
Other remarks underwent similar curtailment in several instances, for
else the table would have occupied an entire page of the Cyclopaedia.
So far, however, from complaining of this, [ rather feel grateful for
so much space, and so many illustiative wood-cuts, being afforded me
in that publication for such an article : because, although botli fell far
short of what I should have taken, had I been left entirely to myself,
they exceeded what I could reasonably expect.

' In these five vessels the variaiion of horses' power is only 24 : the dif-
ference of tonnage 520 1

1 The remarks on the " Acadia " equally apply to her sister vessels, the
■• Britannia," -Caledonia," and "Columbia"; and constitute a good ex-
ample, as little dilierence is found in their performances, all the four being
remarkably speedy vessels.

D 2

20

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[January,

Mr. Dyer's note has afforded me ;in opportunity of explaining these
circumstances, and accounting for, what I admit to be, undue brevity
and obscurity in the column of remarks in the table. Whether he has
seen only that portion of the article Portico in the Cyclopsedia, I
know not; neither do I know how he relishes the terms I have ven-
tured to coin. Perhaps not at all ; at least he has employed one term
in a sense which I hold to be grossly solecistical and contrary to
analogy, namely " intercobimniations" instead of " intercolumns " ;
since the former term does not admit of a plural meaning, because it
does not refer to the separate spaces or intervals between the columns,
but merely the general arrangement, accordingly as the columns are
put closer to, or further apart from each other. We therefore employ
the first word very properly, when, with reference to that circum-
stance, we speak of the intercolumniation in a portico, &c., as being
compact ('/i/C7«)8/i//e^, or straggling (arceostijk )■, but we should say
"the centre intercolumn is wider than the rest;" or "there are seven
}niercoli/miii<," and so on ; for in such cases the other term is nonsense,
and we might as well talk of a portico liaving eight or any other
number of culumniatiom instead of so many columns. .Surely architects
ought to know English well enough to feel the distinction at once; yet
as a great many of them, it seems, do not, that must be my excuse
for dwelling so long upon that little lapsus lingua'.

I remain, &c.,
L.

J. CROKER'S HINT TO THE SOCIETY OF BRITISH
ARTISTS.

(In a Letter to tee Editor.)

Sir — In noticing the Exhibitions at the Royal Academy, other |)ub«
lications besides vonr own have animadverted upon the very inade-
quate space there afforded to architectural drawings, in consequence
of which, not onlv a great many are rejected every season, but of those
admitted the majority are so hung up that they cannot possibly be
examined, or even looked at all with any degree of comfort : accord-
ingly those so placed are in danger of being altogether overlooked, let
their merit bo what it may. If the evil admits of no remedy nor miti-
gation— which, I for one, do not believe — complaint and remonstrance
are of course useless. What surprises me, however, is to find that
the Society of British Artists should not have had nous enough to take
advantage' of this circumstance, which they might easily enough con-
vert to a trump card of their own. Surely it would be far better policy
on their part, instead of entirely shutting up one of their rooms, as
they have done for the two last seasons, to devote that room — which
1 should take to be quite as large as the one at the Academy — entirely
to Architectural Drawings, and invite the profession (by public adver-
tisementj to contribute designs. They might not perhaps be able to
^11 it — to get together such a squeeze of fran)es, as we invariably find in
in the Architectural Room of the Royalists ; yet that I conceive would
be a very great recommendation rather than the contrary : and many —
not the lowest of all in talent — would, it may be presumed, prefer the
chance of a favourable situation in Suffolk-street, to the risk of being
either turned out altogether from the building in Trafalgar-square, or
else seeing their drawings hung up, where very few would be at the
trouble of looking at them at all.

Nevertheless, 1 have been informed, upon most unquestionable autho-
rity, that the plan here suggested has been actually submitted to the
council, by one of the members, and was thrown out almost ncm. con.
and without any con-sideration ! Upon what grounds it is difficult to
guess, for I believe no argument was attempted to be brought against
it, except the most perverse and negative one, that it would do them —
J. f . the ))ainters — and their exhibition, no good whatever. Was there
ever such grovelling, narrow-minded stupidity! Even granting that
it would not render their exhibition more attractive, it could not possi-
bly tend to make it less so. Those who did not care to look at such
drawings would not be compelled to enter that particular room against
their inclination. Neither would the addition of architectural draw-
ings detract from their treasury: on the contrary, it might perhaps
serve to draw a few more shillings into if. At all events the experi-
ment would cost nothing — except, perhaps t!ie printing one or two
more pages in their catalogue, — and should it turn out quite a failure,
they might then abandon the jUan for the future. But until such
proof be afforded, I will not believe that it would prove one: so far
from it that I am of opinion the public generally would learn by de-
grees to take an interest in architectural designs and drawings by fre-
quently seeing them : an opinion in which I am confirmed by a ri mark
which Heinz makes in liis notice of the architectural subjects at the
Paris exhibition this year. After observing how desirable it is tha'
the designs for all buildings of importance should be publicly exh

bited beforehand ;— that considerable interest is thereby excited, and
that critical remark and discussion are elicited, he continues thus:
" It is idle to assert, by way of objection, that the public generally do
not understand or relish architectural drawings : such argument will
not hold water, when drawings of that kind are as beautifuUv executed
as most of those in this exhibition. We had positive proof to the
contrary, for we observed many even of the lower orders examining
and ajiparently both imderstanding and gratified by them — even those
which were sections. Onh/ afford /fie public the opj/ortunity of seeing
and becoming acquainted tvilh architectural drawings, and tliey will very
soon learn to understand them."

1 make no further comment on this than to remark, that it is to be
presumed the same might be the case here, unless, indeed it should be
urged that English people are so very nuich more stupid than French
people, that the latter country is no rule w hatever for our own. — With
respect to the British Artists and their enliglitened Council, I leave
them to chew the cud on what I have said. Neither 1 nor any one
else can compel them to have common sense, if they are determined
to have nothing to do with it. There is a saying which mforms us
that ' though one man can lead a horse to water, not ten men can make
him drink :' — and so, I suppose, it must be with them ; they will not
swallow my prescription. Therefore, having sent you this epistle as
a New Year's gift, I now take my leave, remaining,
Your's, with a Thousand Et-caeteras,

John Croker.

TABLES FOR RAILWAY CURVES.

Sir — Having heard much controversy between writers of scientific
works, relative to the best mode of laying out segments of circles,
whereby the prescribed limits of almost all lines of railway, render it,
in the majority of cases, necessary to substitute curves of various radii;
and I think several of your correspondents have not given the formula
in a manner sufficiently comprehensive for general purposes. Having
had frequent opportunities of determining curves upon several public
works for some years, none yet appearstome so ably adapted, to all ca-
pacities, as the method you have set forth in the first number of your
Journal for ISIU, as to the accuracy of which I can testify, from having
repeatedly put it into practice upon ground of no ordinarj- character.

I am. Sir,

Folkestone, Your obedient servant.

ItiM Dec, 1840. William Dodd.

Suhslitute for Tinning. — We have \iitnessej several interesting experiments
calculated to test the success of an important discovery in the art of manu-
facturing cast-iron cooking vessels, by Messrs. T. and C. Clarke, the extensive
iron -founders of Wolverhampton. English manufacturers of articles tech-
nically denominated " hollow ware." have for many years been sorely puzzled
concerning an ingenious and beautiful metliod, practised in Germany, of
lining iron culinary utensils uith a smooth white enamel, resembling porce-
lain, which far surpasses, in point of cleanliness and durability, the English
system of " tinning" the interior surface. Indeed, so desirable has this art
been considered by our countrymen that, with their usual enterprise, con-
siderable sums of inoncy, and a most liberal expenditure of time and talent,
have been for many years employed in seeking to discover the process. Until
the present instance.however, every ellort proved fruitless. Several of our
manufacturers, it is true, have contrived to line the vessels with an enamel
equal or superior in appearance to that of the foreign article ; but this enamel
cracked, chipped, and would not stand the fire ; and the grand secret, which,
of course, is the production of an enamel which shall so expand and contract
with the metal as not to chip or crack, remained as much unknown as ever.
Messrs. T. and C. Clarke, however, have at length most perfectly succeeded,
and having, of course, secure 1 a patent, are now manufacturing an article in
every way superior to that of their Continental rivals. The manufacturers of
British lioUow ware have alwavs surpassed those of Germany in the lightness
and elej;auce of their castings, so th.it Messrs. Clarke are enabled to add this
advantage to that of at least equal excellence of enamel. The German
enamel is found to wear as lung as the iron vessel itself, but we believe it will
scarcely stand the severe test to which we have seen Messrs. Clarke's article
subjected— nz.. that of heating an enamelled saucepan to a white heat, and
then plunging it suddenly into cold water, until cooled, without either the
vessel cracking or the enamel being damaged or discoloured. Another ex-
periment consisted in placing one of the vessels filled with water upon a large
tire, and allowing it to remain until the water had completely boiled away,
and for some minutes afterwards, without in the slightest degree iiijuringthe
vessel or iti enamel. The great importance of the applicauon of this dis-
covery to our own manufactures is, that the hollow-ware manufactured in
this country may be purchased at less than half the price of that imported
fjom the Continent. — Staffordstiire Examiner,

1841.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

21

PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES.

INSTITUTION' OF CIVIL ENGINEERS.

" On the ylctimi of Steam as a Moving Pou'er in the Cortxish Single Pmiip-
ing Engine." By Josiah Parkcs, M. Inst. C. E.

C Continued fi-om page \ 16, Vol. HI.)

Mr. WicKSTEF.D beiiis called upon by the President, ileclineil at jiresent
giving an opinion upon tlie tlieory before the meeting. He stated, that he
was still trjing experiments npon the engine at Old Ford — that the results
up to the present time were in accordance %vith his anticipations — that, with
small screenings of Newcastle coals, the duty of the engine amounted gene-
rally to 75 millions, and sometimes to as much as 81 or 82 millions. He
thought that 7 ft. per square inch for friction and imperfect vacuum was too
large an allowance for an engine of the size of that at Old Ford, as, when the
speed was 10 or 1 1 strokes per minute, the jiower was equal to 200 horses,
and, if an allowance of 0 or 7 lb. was made, it would be equal to 100 horses'
extra power, which he felt certain could not he correct. At the same time,
he believed that in ver)' small engines the amount of friction, cic. might be
correctly estimated at 6 or 7 M>. per square inch. He had also tried some
experiments upon a Boulton and Watt low-pressure engine : by the intro-
duction of Harvey and West's patent pump valves, the duty of the engine
had been increased from about 281- to .32-1 millions. He was now trying ex-
periments on clothing the cylinder, &c., and with steam in and out of the
jacket : the result of all these experiments shoidd be laid before the Institu-
tion as soon as they were completed.

Mr. Seaward considered the paper to be very valuable, as opening a new
\iew of the action of steam, and inducing discussion and experiment ; but he
was not prepared to aUow at once the percussive action, nor could he admit
it to be the cause of the increased duty, as, if so, an augmentation of pressure
in the boiler would give a corresponding increase of duty. Engines were
worked at all pressures up to 60 ft., and even higher; but it was not per-
ceived that the highest pressure gave the best results. He attributed the
increase of duty to an improvement in the manner of using coal under the
boilers ; to the use of good non-conducting substances for clothing the cylin-
ders, steam-pipes, &c., to prevent the radiation of heat ; and to the genera!
improvement in the construction of the valves and other parts of the engines,
the proper dimensions for which were at present better defined. The expan-
sive principle did not seem to have operated so well in the rotary as in the
pumping engines. He liad not hitherto credited the statements of engines
■working with a consumption of coal of 5 lb. per horse power per houi, nor of
the great advantage of the use of steam at high pressures. Several Scotch
boats had been worked v\1th steam, at a pressure of 33 lb. on the inch, with-
out any corresponding advantage. The increase of duty, then, he attributed
to other reasons than the etfects of percussion, as, independent of other con-
siderations, the steam must always have possessed the same percussive force,
which it must have exercised without producing the effects now attributed
to it.

Mr. Wicksteed observed, that there were many reasons wliy the duty of
the double expansive engines in Cornwall was not in proportion to that of the
single pumping engines. The introduction of the former only dated from
about the year 1834 ; but few had been made ; there had not been the same
amount of experience to guide the engineer in their construction ; they were
of small size, and consequently the amount of the friction was greater in pro-
portion than in the large single pumping engines. Notwithstanding all these
disadvantages, the duty had increased from 15 or 20 milUous to 57 millions.
It had been stated that the double expansive engines constructed by Hall
and by Penn did not consume more than 5 tb. of coal per horse power per
horn- ; while the ordinary low-pressure double engines requii-ed from 8 tb. to
10 tb. of coals. He would suggest to such members as possessed the power
of verifying this fact to communicate their observations to the Institutiou.

Mr. Rendel would direct the attention of members to the main feature of
Mr. Parkes's paper, wliich was the discoveiy of the action of a percussive
force by the steam. The full investigation of this subject deeply interested
the scientitic world : and it was important that its merit should be clearly
displayed. If any power could be gained from the percussive action, the
more suddenly the steam could be admitted upon the piston, the more ad-
vantageous would be the result. It would be interesting to learn whether,
in the changes in Cornish engines, from which such improved duty had re-
sulted, any increased ai-ea had been given to the steam pipes and valves, and
to what extent as compared with the old practice. If any change of this
kind should be found to have taken place, it would be an argument in favour
of the percussive principle.

Mr. Field expressed his sense of the ohUgations wliich the Institution owed
to Mr. Parkes for having taken up this subject. It had been supposed by
many persons that, independently of the economy arising from clothing the
cylinder, jacket, and boilers, and the expansive action of the steam, some
other cause might have assisted iu producing the increase of effect in the
Cornish engine. Doubtless, much had been done to economise heat and
steam by the slow combustion of the fuel under the boders, by diminisliing
radiation, and by expansive action. Nevertheless, the question to be solved
was, Can these improvements account for the whole progressive advance in
the duty from 40 or 50 to 90 millions ? He trusted that Mr. Wioksteed

would apjjly the indicator to his engine, and ascertain the pressure on the
piston at every portion of the stroke.

Mr. Parkcs remarked, that many observing men had conceived doubts of
the sufficiency of the commonly-received theory of expansion to explain the
excessive economy of the Cornish above the unexpausive engine. Some had
recorded this opinion. Mr. llenwood found the steam's force in the Huel
Towan engine unable to sustain the water-load alone. Messrs. Lean showed
a similar deficiency of steam power in an engine at the United Mines ; and
Mr. G. H. Palmer was perfectly correct in his statement, that the absolute
force of steam as commonly appreciated was inadequate to the performances
assigned to it : hut he was wrong in asserting that these effects had not r)eeu
obtained, for they were indubitable.

.\s doubts hacl been expressed with regard to the accuracy and sufficient
duration of the experiments selected as the basis of his analysis, he would
state, that Mr. Henwood obtained the quantity of water consumed as steatn,
during a continuous observation of twenty-four hours, having previously mea-
sured the water discharged by a given number of strokes of the feed pump,
and then cotmting the entire number of strokes made to supply the boilers
during the experiment. The pump was used periodically, and its whole con-
tents injected into the boilers at each stroke, so that no material error could
arise as to the quantity of water constmied as steam. With respect to the
resistance overcome, Mr. Henwood several times measured the whole height
of the lifts in the most careful manner, not comprehending the fact of the
steam's force being unequal to sustain the load of water alone. Not content
with this, he measured the water discharged by the pumps, aiid found a near
correspondence with the calculated quantity.

Mr. Parkcs would prefer a short experiment on the consumption of water
as steam to a long one, as more likely to be accurate. He had rejected the
eight months' experiment on the United Mines engine, as being unsuitable
for the purpose of his investigation : for, during so long a period, the boilers
must have been several times emptied and cleaned, stoppages must have oc-
curred, condensation, leakage, aud other circumstances must also have taken
place, which unfitted that experiment for analysis. Long experiments were
the best for the practical determination of the duty done by coal ; but the
action of steam in performing that duty was altogether a separate considera-
tion. The consumption of water as steam for a single stroke of the engine,
if it could be obtained, would be all-^ifficient for investigating its action in
the cylinder, as the weight raised by a Cornish engine must be the same at
every stroke. If any error existed in the statement of the wated evaporated,
it was more likely to be in excess than in deficiency ; for it would he admitted
that the conversion of lOi tb. of water into steam, by 1 lb. of coal was not a
common occurrence. Yet, granting this result to have been obtained, it ap-
peared that there was not steam enough to overcome the resistance. Such
was the result of the analysis of the Huel Towan and Fowey Consols engines,
for which the evaporation was ascertained ; and if less water had been con-
verted into steam, the deficiency of power, compared with the effect, would
necessarily have been still greater. Mr. Henwood's statement of the per-
formance of the Huel Towan engine was confirmed by a previous trial of the
same engine in 1828, conducted by a committee of twenty-one competent
persons, when it appeared, after twenty-six hours' experiments, that
87,200,662 ft. had been raised one foot by a bushel of coals. Mr. Henwood's
experiment gave 8l,398,!)00 ft., so that in the analysis the lowest result was
used.

It had been urged, that if any such force as percussion belonged to steam
now, it always formed one of its properties. This was true ; but it either
may not have been well appUed, or its effect not detected. The expenditure
of power as derived from the quantity of water consumed as steam could not
be determined so long as any condensation of steam took place in the cylin-
der ; for whatever steam was there condensed had lost its power. The per-
fect clothing of the Cornish cylinders rendered the analysis of the action de-
rived from a given quantity of water as steam nearly free from error.

Mr. Wicksteed had stated, that when he kept the steam out of the jacket
of one of Boulton and Waft's engines, it required fidl steam throughout the
stroke to overcome the load ; whereas, with steam in the jacket, some expan-
sion could be used. This would show a greater expenditiure of power in one
case to produce an equal efi'ect. Such, however, could not be : an equal
power operated in both cases ; but iu the one, a portion of it was annihilated,
or had produced no useful effect.

Mr. Parkes considered it as demonstrated, that a force, independent of the
steam's simple elastic force within the cylinder, did operate in the Cornish
engines. The term percussion might be objected to when appUed to an elas-
tic fluid. Neyertheless, he conceived that the instantaneous action trans-
mitted to the piston, on the sudden and free communication efiectcd between
the cylinder and boiler, must produce an effect analogous to the percussion
of solids. He considered the proofs of such action adduced in his paper as
irresistible.

He would ask how it could be accounted for that the steam was in a state
of expansion during 19 out of 20 parts of the stroke in the Huel Towan en-
gine, as shown by the indicator diagram, though it was freely admitted during
one-fifth of the stroke, unless a velocity had been given to the piston by an
initial force exceeding that of the steam's simple elastic force ? How was it
that, at the end of the stroke, the steam's elasticity was able to sustain so
small a portion of the load in equihbrio, unless a momentum had been trans-
ferred to the mass by the impact on the piston, and aided the expanding
steam to complete the stroke, which alone it was incompetent to perform ?

1X2

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[January,

The grc.-.tcr degree ol atlcimation in which tiie steam was fomirl on llie com-
pletion of the stroke in one engine than in another, compared with the pres-
sure of the resistance, and with the amount of expansion determined by the
period of closing tlie valve, alone proved that the ordinary theory was inade-
quate to explain the action of steam in these engines.

He had for some time conjectured that a hidden and unsuspected cause in-
fluenced the performance of the Cornish cnijine : and if he had not been suc-
cessful in discovering its nature, he considered the analysis as placing the
fact beyond question, tbiit the (juaiitity of action resulting from the steam
admitted into the cylinder wns much below the force of the resistance op-
posed to it, and overcome.

June 23.^The Prksident in the Chair.

John Frederick Bateman was balloted for and elected a member.

" On the Stamping Emjines in Cornwall." l!y John Samuel Enys, A. Inst.
C. E.

The process of stamping or reducing the ores of tin in Cornwall, by means
of iron stamp-beads, which crush the ore in falling upon it. was formerly
effected in mills worked by water power. 'I'hese have been, from economical
and other reasons, for the most part superseded by the use of steam ; and
even with inferior engines, the result has been such as to enable the poorer
portions of the lode (which were frequently left in the mine) to be now ad-
vantageously worked.

The work performed by the stamjiing engines was reported with that of
the pumping engines, and showeil the duty to be from 1 6 to 25 million tb.
raised one foot liigh by one bushel of coal, as estimated from the actual
■wciglit of the stamp-heads. The engines appropriated for this purpose were
generally old double-acting engines of inferior character, and not uufrequently
in a bad state of repair. The use of expansive steam was tried with good
effect upon them, and induced Mr. James Sims to build an engine calcu-
lated more fully to develop the advantages of this principle. He accordingly,
in the year 1835, erected one at the Charlestowii mines. It was a single-
acting engine, communicating the movement direct to the cam shaft for
lifting the stampers witlioiit the intervention of wheel-work. The first
reported duty, iu December, 18.35, was 43 millions, which was two-fifths
more than bad jireviously been performed by stam))ing engines. Siil)se-
quently, Mr. Sims erected other engifles of similar constniction, and from
them may be taken the reported duty in .'Vpril, 1840 : —

Charlestoyra Mines . . 59,589,884 lb.

Carn Brae . . . 57,611,073

Wheal Ketley . . . 58,748,452

T'lis increased duty induced other engineers to turn their attention to the
subject, and they have constructed engines which equal these duties ; the
chief variation being the adoption of double action, which seems generally to
be preferred.

This paper is accompanied by four drawings of the Carn Brae stamping
engine, by Mr. Sims, junior, showing in great detail the construction of the
engine and the stamping machinery.

" On the Effects of the Worm on Kyauized Timber exposed to the action
tf Sea U'ater, and on the use of Greenheart Timber from Demerara, in the
same situations." By J. B. Hartley, M. Inst. C.E.

There are probably few ports in England where the inconvenience resulting
from the attacks of n>arine worms ( 'Teredo naralisj on the timber of tlie
(lock gates and other works exposed to their action, is more severely felt
than at Liver])Ool. The river Mersey has a vertical rise of tide of 27 feet at
spring, and 13 feet at neap tides, and the stream being densely charged with
sht, a considcr.ible deposit takes place in the open basins, and to some
extent in the docks. Tiie latter are cleansed by means of a dredging ma-
chine, but the former are usually "scuttled," for which purpose sewers con-
nected with the docks surround the liasins, having several openings furnished
with " clows," or paddles, so that the rush of water from the docks may be
applied for clearing away the mud from any particular part of the basin. The
security of these paddles is, therefore, of the greatest importance, as the
failure of one of them might, by allowing a dock to be suddenly emptied,
•cause great damage to the shipping. These paddles have been usually con-
structed of English oak or elm, and being much exposed, they suffer from the
attacks of the worms. Cast iron paddles have been tried ; liut in conse-
quence of the rapidity of the corrosive action, they soon became leaky, and
were abandoned. Kyanizcd oak timlier has been tried on the back of these
paddles, and found to l)e perforated by the worm in the same time as unpre-
pared wood. Some oak planks, two inches and a half thick, Kyanized at the
Company's yard, were used on the west entrance gates of the Clarence Half-
tide Basin, and in 14 months were completely destroyed. Several similar
instances of the non-etticiency of the Kyanized timber are given ; and the
antlior proceeds to designate the timber which resists best in such situations.
He considers that teak is less liable to injm-y than English woods, and in-
stances the inner gates of the Clarence dock, which have been built for 10
years, and at present are but slightly attacked.

The timber which he prefers for dock works is the Greenheart. It is im-
imrtcd from Demerara, in logs of 12 to 16 inches square by '_5 to 40 feet
long, and costs about seven shillings per cubic foot. Of its power to resist
the attacks of worms, he gives many proofs : o[ie of them may be cited. At
the first construction of the Brunswick Half-tide basin, several elm clows
were placed at the west entrance ; these were destroyed by the worms in two

years, and were replaced by others made of greenheart : the joints of the
jilimk being toiigued with deal, to render them completely water-tight.
These clows have now been down about seven years, and, altliough the deal
tongueing has been destroyed by the worms, the greenheart planking remains
untouched and perfectly sound.

Many methods of protecting commou timber h.ivc been tried : but the only
successful ones adduced are — 1st. the use of broad-headed m.etallic nails
driven nearly close to each other into the heads and heels of the gates, but
if driven an inch apart, the worm penetrates between them : and 2ndlv,
steeping the timber in a strong solution of sulphite of copper from the Parvs
copjier mines in .\nglcsea. Some paddles made of English elm thus pr'e-
jiared had been in use upwards of three years, anil, on an examiiiation, were
found to be very slightly injured ; while the unprepared timber about them
was quite destroyed.

The author observes, that the outer gates of the wet basins are most in-
jured by the worm, from the sills being low down, and the ciiange of water
every tide assisting the growtli of the worm. Those parts of the gates which
are alternately wet and dry arc more injured by the worm than the parts
immersed always iu the same dc))th of water. .\t the spot where a leak
occurs from a bad joint, a defect in the caulking, or other cause, the woriu
commences its attack ; so that the most incessant attention is required.
Those basins into which the sewers of the town discharge themselves are
coi;i|)arati\ely free from the worm, from whijh it would appear that sidphu-
retied hydrogen gas acts in some measure as a protection against the attacks
of the worm.

" .'tn orcount of the actual state of the Works at the Thames Tunnel (June
23, 1840;." By .M. I. Brunei, M. Inst. C. E.

In conse(|uence of local opposition, the works have not advanced much
since the month of March, 1840 ; but, as that has been overcome, and facili-
ties granted by the city, the works will be speedily resumed, ami the shaft
ou the north bank commenced.

The progress of the Timnel in the last year has been, within one foot,
equal to that made in the three preceding years. During those periods col-
lectively, the extent of the Tunnel excavated was 250 ft. 6 in., and during
the last year the excav.ition has been 249 ft. 6 in. This progress has been
made in spite of the difliculties caused by the frequent depressions of the
bed of the river. These have been so extensive, that in the course of 28
hneal feet of Tunnel, the quantity of ground thrown upon tlie bed of the
river, to make tqi for the displacement, in the deepest part of the stream, has
been ten times that of the excavation, although the space of the excavatioa
itself is completely replaced by the brick structure. On one occasion the
ground subsided, in the course of a few minutes, to the extent of 13 feet in
depth over an area of 30 feet in diameter, without causing any increased
inliux of water to the works of the Tunnel. The residts now recorded con-
firm Mr. Bnmel in his opinion of the efficiency of his original plan, which is
" to press equally against the ground all over the area of the face, whatever
may be the nature of the ground tiirough which the excavation is being
carried." The sides and top are naturally protected ; but the face depends
wholly for support upon the poling boards and screws. The displacement of
one board by the pressure of the ground might be attended with disastrous
consequences ; no deviation therefore from the safe jilan should be permitted.

The paper is accom])anied tiy a plan, showing the progress made at diffe-
rent periods. It is stated that a full and comph'te record of all the occur-
rences which have taken place during the progress has been kept, so as to
supply information to enalde others to avert many of the difficulties encoun-
tered by Mr. Brunei in this bold yet successful undertaking.

June 30. — Henrv Robinsox Palmer, V. P., in the Chair.

" Description of an Instrument for describing the Profile of Roads." By
Henry Chapman, G. Inst. C. E.

The object of the author in the invention of this instrument was to facUi-
tate the mode of making a preliminary survey for railways by a machine of
a simi)le construction, and composed of very few moving parts. It may be
thus briefly described : —

A light frasie with springs and upon four wheels carries the machinery, to
which a rotary movement is communicated from one of the wheels, which is
keyed fast upon its axle. A double-threaded screw and a series of wheels
work give motion to a cylinder, upon which a length of paper is coiled ; tbi-
cylinder revolves, and moves simultaneously in the direction of its axis. A
pencil, which moves parallel to the axis of the cyUmler, marks a line upon it,
with a velocity varjing according to the inclination of the road, and is so
arranged, that when tlie machine is passing along a level, the motion of the
pencil will equal that of the cylinder. In ascending inclitied planes, it will
be retarded, and in descending it will be accelerated. By these means a
rising or falling line will be accurately drawn. This variation in the action
of the })encil is accomplished by means of a friction-wheel working against
a cone, the different diameters of which regulate and determine the speed.
The position of the friction-w heel upon tlie cone is determined by the change
of iHisition of a jiendulum vibrating witliin a case which is filled with a dense
fluid, for the purjwse of rendering its action more uniform.

The machine will trace a section of a road iu lengths of five miles upon
each sheet of paper, to a horizontal scale of 20 chains per mile, and to a ver-
tical scale of 200 feet to an inch. That no inconvenience may be felt from
the smallness of the scale, the mstrument is furnished with scales with sliding
verniers, from which memoranda can be niivde of the distance nm, and of the

1S41.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

23

variations above or below the datum line. These memoranda are made upon
a strip of paper, which is fastened pu a table, along whirh an inde\ travels at
a velocity conesponding with that of the paper on the cylinder ; so that the
strip of paper being afterwards laid upon the section, the points marked may
be squared down \iithout using the scales.

"When the distance of live miles is passed over, a bell gives notice of the
working machinery lieing disengaged : the section is removed, a fresh sheet
of paper is introduced, and, as the pencil maintains its position, the section
ivill be carried on continuously.

This communication is accompanied by three working drawings, showing,
on a large scale, the machine in action, and all the component parts in great
detail.

" On the Efflux of Gaseous Flmdn under presmre." By Charles Hood,
F.R.A.S., &c.

The theoretical determination of the velocity with which gaseous fluids
are discharged through tubes and apertures, has frequently been investigated
by mathematicians ; and as the question is one of importance in various
branches of practical science, tlie author examines the several theorems which
have been proposed for its elucidation, and compares them with the results
obtained by experimental researches.

Dr. Papin, in 1G86, appears to have first ascertained the law of efflux to
be the same for both elastic and inelastic fluids, and the majority of the
writers on the subject since his tin],* have adopted as the fundamental data
of their calculations, the hydrodynamic law of sponting fluids, by which the
velocity of discharge is found to be proportional to the square root of the
height of the superincumbent column of homogeneous fluid.

The author investigates particularly the methods of calculation proposed
by Dr. Gregory, Mr. Da\ies Gilbert, Mr. Sylvester, Mr. Tredgold, and M.
Montgolfier. and points out the differences which exist in their several
methods. Tliat of Mr. Sylvester is the only one which differs in any con-
siderable degree from the simple law above stated ; and his calculation is
based upon the supposition that the respective columns of light and hea\-v
air represent two unequal weights suspended by a cord, hanging over a
pulley — by which mode of calculation, in the cases selected by the author
for comparison, a result is obtained of only aljout one-third the amount given
by the other methods. These calculations are compared with some experi-
ments made by Sir John Guest at the Dowlais Iron Works, and also of Mr.
Dufreuoy at the Clyde and at the Butterly Iron Works, recorded by him in
his report to the Director-General of Mines in France. The results are tabu-
lated : giving the pressm'e of the blast, the area of discharge, the velocity of
the blast, tlie quantity of air ascertained by experiment, and the quantity
shown by the several methods of calculation. From all these comparisons
the author draws the conclusion that the method of calculation proposed by
Montgolfier is the most accurate' as it is also the most simple. If the pres-
sure be ascertained in inches of mercuiy, it is only necessar.' to find the
column of air in feet equivalent to the pressure, and to multiply this number
(as in the common case of gravitating bodies) by 64 feet, and then the square
root of this product will give the velocity of discharge in feet per second.
The equivalent height of the column of air in feet is found by multiplying
the number of inches of mercury by 11,2.30 and dividing the product by 12,
mercury being 11,230 times the weight of air. .^llowiug for a small loss by
friction in the quantity found by experiment, the agreement between the
theoretical and experimental quantities is extremely near. Rules are like-
wise given for applj-ing these calculations to other gases of different specific
gravities, which are also applicable to chimney draughts and to the expansion
of air by heat.

ExD OF Session 1840.

BKITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE.
Texth Meeting. — September^ 1840.

(From the AtheTupmn.)
Section G. — Mechanical Science.

" On certain Imjirm-ements on Locomotive and other Engine Boilers." By
Mr. Hawthorn.

The object of this improvement is to prevent what is teclmically called
" priming," to heat the steam on its passage to the cylinder, and to employ
return tubes, as well as direct tubes, for heating the water. The advantages
are said to be, that no water is carried with the steam into the cyhnder, and
a saving of fuel, tlirough the arrangement of the tubes, from 30 to 40 per
cent.

Mr. Scott RusseU observed, that the plan of surcharging steam was much
used in America. They work the steam expansively. Mr. RusseU thought
the dome shape in the fire-box inferior to the ^at staged box, and was afraid
that the steam, returning from the cylinder through the boiler, would merely
abstract and not communicate heat.

** 071 the Fan-htast as applied to Furnaces" By Mr. Fairbairn.

In explaining the methods to be pursued in adapting furnaces to the fan-
blast, Mr. Fairbairn obsei-ved that it was well known that its application to
the cupola for melting pig iron was attended with the most complete success ;
and the object of the present inquiry was to determine how far the same

mode of blowing was apjilicable to furnaces on a large scaie. for the imq>ose
of smelting ores. Objections had been made to Jlr. Fairhairn's plan, on ac-
count of tlie veiT low pressure at which the air is introduced into the furnace,
and its insufticiency to force it throngh a mass of material such as is contained
in the fmnaces of this country, and which is from 30 to 40 feet in depth.
To these objections Mr. Fairbairn replied, that the same had been urged
against the introduction of the fan-blast to the cupola : that, in his opiniou,
its efticieucy was as the quantity discliarged, and not the pressure, wliich
regulated the passage of the air from tlie " twyres '' to the top of the furnace.
Tlie fan-l)last, when supplied with large apertures into the furnace, would, in
his opinion, increase the process of calcination, eflect a more equable tempe-
rature, and produce a suiierior quality of metal. It appeared, therefore, of
importance that the experiment should be made, and Mr. Fairbairn offered to
superintend its introduction, provided the pro])rietors of the numerous works
in this country agreed with him in opinion, that the process would be advan-
tageous both as regards expense, and the improved quality of the metal pro-
duced.

Mr. Smith thought the plan well worthy of being tried. It is not the
force of the blast that is necessary, but the quant itij of air introduced. In a.
cupola in which the blast is given by the fan, the iron is brought down ii»
h.Tlf the time that was necessary with the cylinder blast. Mr. Smith has no
doubt of the success of the fan-blast in smelting furnaces, the heat being;
more miiform.

" On Propelling Boats on Canals." By Mr. Smith.

Mr. Smith proposed that the steam power in the boat should drive two
large wheels, of thirty feet diameter, which should bite the ground at the
bottom of the canal. He exhibited a working model on this principle, which
succeeded on the small scale ; and he stated that he had tried it on a larger
scale with the powei' of four men, and it had also succeeded. The wheels
might be either on each side of the boat, as in the model, with a provision
for a play of three or four feet, that they might accommodate themselves to
inequalities at the bottom of the canal : or there might be one wheel in the
centre of the boat, if constructed on the twin ]>rineip!e.

Mr. Scott Russell was not sanguine as to the success of this plan. The
wheels must be made very lieavy, in order to give tlie piopelling power, and
their weight would have an injurious effect at the bottom of the canal. A
large steam boat would be necessary in order to get sufficieut power, and if
this large vessel were propelled at high velocities, the surge from the bows
would be very great, and the stent would drag in the water. — Mr. Smith said,
that he had confidence in the plan, notnithstanding the objections raised,
and intended to try it on a large scale, and would report next year to the
Association the results, whether favourable or otherwise. — Mr. Glynn re-
marked, that an attempt was made some years ago by Mr. Seaward, to propel
boats on canals by means of wheels composed of two rims, with steps be-
tween them as a ladder, running on the bottom of the canal ; but it was
abandoned.

" On a New Rain Gauge." By Mr. James Johnston, of Greenock.

Mr. Johnston described anew rain gauge, so constructed that the receiring
funnel or orifice at which the rain enters, is always kept at right angles to the
falling rain. By the action of the wind on a large vane, the whole gauge is
tiu'ned roimu on a pivot, until tiie front of the gauge faces the quarter from
whence the wind blows ; and by tlie action of the wind on another vane at-
tached to the receiving funnel, the mouth of the fminel is moved from a
horizontal towards a perpendicular position according to the strength of the
wind. The receiving funnel and vane attached to it are lialanced with coun-
terpoise weights, in such a manner that the wind, in moving them, has as
much weight to remove from a perpendicular position, in proportion to their
bulk, as it has when moving an ordinary sized drop of rain from the same
position ; by this means the mouth of the gauge is kept at right angles to the
falling rain.

Mr. Milne gave an account of a High Pressure Filter for Domestic Pur-
poses.— Mr. Thorn stated, that from experience he found it was better to
filter downwards than upwards. — Mr. Hawkins agreed with Mr. Thom, that
filtration downwards is superior to filtration upwards ; he preferred charcoal
to sand for filtering, and preferred filtering without high pressure.

Mr. Dunn explained Ponton's Electro-Magnetic Telegi'aph, which instru-
ment was exhibited in the model room.

Mr. Fairbairn described Hall's Patent lladraulic Belt for Raising Water.

M. le Comte de LiUe explained his method of laying down Wood Pave-
ment, as exemplified at Whitehall.

The Rev. Dr. Paterson gave an account of an Improved Life Boat, which
he called a Riddle Life Boat, because the bottom is like a riddle. The sides
of the boat consist each of a hollow elliptical tube, to be made of sheet -iron,
and from this it has all its buoyancy, which is unaffected by any influx of
water. This boat, he said, was light', easily propelled, and drew only a foot
or two of water : and besides being used for reaching vessels in distress, or
carrying passengers to steam boats, it might be itself carried as a ship's boat
— to be ready for use in danger, or difficidt landing.

Mr. Williams stated, that this boat seemed to be original, and that he (Mr.
WUhams) would make a trial of it on a large scale.— Mr. Vigaoles thought it
might be usefully employed for pontoons.

" On an Improved Rain Gauge." By Mr. Thom.

It consists of a cylinder two feet long, and seven inches diameter, sunk iu

24

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

January,

the i-artli till the month of its funnel (wliicli receives the rain) is on a level
with the ground surrounding it. Into this cylinder is put a float, with a
scale or graduated rod attached to it, which \\ill move up or down as the
water ri^cs or falls in the cylinder. There is a thin brass har fixed within
the funnel, about half an infli under its mouth, with an aperture in the
midille just large enough to .illow tlie scale so move easily through it. The
upper side of this cross bar is brought to a fine edge, so as to cut but not
obstruct the drops which may alight on it. There is an aperture also in the
bottom of the funnel, through which the water must pass into the cylinder,
and through which also the scale must move ; but this aperture requires to
be made no larger than just to permit the scale to move through it freely.
AVhen the gauge is firmly fixed, and the float and funnel in their places,
water is to be poured in till the zero of the scale is level with the upper edge
of the aperture.

Mr. Tliom gave an account of the water filters used at Greenock and Pais-
ley. A species of trap rock or amygdaloid, common in the neighbourhood,
is broken to the size of small peas, and mixed with fine shaq) sand. The
■water is filtered by passing directly downwards through the media, which
media are in their turn cleansed by passing the water through them upwards.
The filter does best at two feet of ])ressure and under.
" Description of a Itcroli-inij Balance." By Mr. Lothiau.
The opposing arms of this balance are curved, being formed of two spirals,
the one situated vertically over tlie other, and both bending round a common
centre of movement, which is jjlaced in the pale of the upper curve. The
spirals diverge from each other near their origin, but approach and merge to-
gether at tlieir extremes, and thus form one continuous curve, which is
grooved on its circumference. The cords or chains which suspend the re-
ceiving scale and counterpoise act against each other in this groove — the
weight of the scale, when hanging from a lengthened radiant of the upper
-piral, being in equilibrio with the greater weight of the counteq)oise when
hanging from a shorter radiant of the lower one. When this state of rest is
disturbed by loading the scale, the balance moves round, and, in the progress
of its revolution, the opposite eccentricities of the spirals combine in changing
the ratio of the leverage, and thus originate a self-adjusting power, by which
the loads of both cords arc mutually moved into equilibrium. The receiving
scale thus commences with greater, and ends w ith less mechanicel power than
the coimterpoise — a circumstance which is in harmony with the purpose of
employing an unchanging weight to measure others both less and greater
than itself ; while the principle is one which concentrates the power and
abridges the size of the machine. In order, however, that the total amount
of adjusting power thus generally obtained may be equally drawu upon and
advantageously distributed throughout the movement of the balance, a defi-
nite relation is established between the weight of the counterpoise and the
rates at which the accumulating weight of the scale and the leverage of the
lower spiral increase. The leverage of the upper spiral, being derived from
these ascertained conditions, is made to preserve a rate of decrease which
accords with the previously regulated increase in the leverage of the lower
curve ; while both spirals have their precise form determined by the additional
consideration of the direction in which the cords exert their power on the
chrcumfcrcnce of the balance. In their calculated formation, the two spirals
are thus dependent on and related to each other, while together they are
component parts of one continuous curve, in which the mutual and combined
changes of leverage are made to follow an equable, as well as a general pro-
gressive gradation ; by which means, the balance is moved through equal
angles by equal weights. In machines intended for weights of considerable
amount, the balance is made to revolve about an axis, which is itself sup-
ported, a little above its centre, on knife-edge rests, so as to combine the
movement of the revolving balance with the libration of the common one —
the coincidence of a pointer from the axis with the ordinary pointer of the
machine showing when the indication is practically unaffected by friction. In
machines for weights of still greater magnitude, the articles to be weighed
are made to act, in part, as their own counterjioise, by adopting differential
curves to diminish the descending power of the scale ; by which a compara-
tively small counterpoise is made to adjust the unsupported difference of
weights greatly exceeding itself.

" On the Combmiion of Coal and the prevention of the generation of Smoke
in Furnaces:" liy Mr. SVilliams.

Mr. Williams observed, that in treating on steam and the steam-engine,
the subject divides itself into the following heads : — 1st, The management of
fuel in the generation of heat ; 2nd, Tlie management of lieat in the genera-
tion of Kteam ; 3rd, Tlie management of steam in the generation oifuel. The
first belongs to i\\c furnace ; the second to the boiler; and the third to the
engine. The first, although exclusively in the department of chemistry, is to
be considered in the Mechanical Section, for the purpose of chowing its con-
nexion with the practical combustion of fuel in the furnace. The main con-
stituents of coal are carbon and bitumen : the former is convertible, in the
solid state, to the purpose of generating heat ; the latter, in the gaseous state
alone, and to this latter is referable all that assumes the character oi flame.
The greater part of the practicable economy in the use of coal being connect-
ed with the combustion of the gases, this division of the subject is peculiarly
important. We all know that combustible bodies cannot burn without air:
the actual part, however, which air has to act is little inquired into beyond
the laboratory ; yet on this part depends the whole of effective combustion.
Having explained the nature of combustion, Mr. Williams went on to show,

that all depended on bringing the combustible and the air into contact in the
proper quantities, of the proper qualify, and at the projjer time — the proper
place, and the proper temperature. The conditions requiring attention were,
1st, The quantity ; 2nd, The quality of the air admitted ; 3rd, The effecting
their incorporation or diffusion ; 4th, The time required for the diffusion ,
and, 5th, The place in the furnace where this should take place. Mr. WiUiams
euhibited several diagrams, representing the several processes connected with
the combustion of a single atom of coal-gas or carburetted hydrogen, and
also of bodies or masses of such gas. The essential rlifference between the
ordinary eouibustion of this gas in combination with atmospheric air, and
that resorted to by Mr. Gurney in combination with pure oxygen, in what is
called the Bude light, was then explained. By these diagrams, it was shown,
1st, What was the precise quantify of air which the combustion of gas de-
manded ; 2nd, The degree or kind of mixture which combustion required ;
and, 3rd, That the unavoidable want of time in the furnace to effect this de-
gree of diffusion was the main impediment to perfect combustion, and the
cause of the generation of smoke. From the consideration of these details,
the inference followed, that smoke once generated in the furnace cannot be
burned, — that, in fact, smoke thus once generated became a new fuel, de-
manding all the conditions of other fuels. Mr. Williams dwelt much on the
chemical error of supposing that smoke or gas can be consumed by bringing
it into contact or connexion witli a mass of incandescent fuel on the bars of
a furnace ; that, in fact, this imaginary point of incandescence, or the con-
tact with any combustible body at the temperature of incandescence, was
peculiarly to be avoided, instead of being, as hitherto, sought for ; and hence
the failure of all those efforts to prevent or consume smoke. The great evil,
then, of the present furnaces was their construction, which did not admit the
necessary extent of time (or its equivalent), time being essential to effect the
perfect diffusion of mixture of the gas, of which every chemist knew the im-
portance, and on which the experiments of Prof. Graham were so conclusive.
Mr. Williams then jirocceded to show", that unless some compensating power
or means be obtained, and practically and economically applied, we can never
arrive at full combustion, or prevent the formation of smoke. Tliis compen-
sating power was shown to be obtainable by means of surface, and was well
exemplified in the blow-pipe : the remedy then, for the want of time in the
furnaces, may be met, by introducing the air in the most effective situation,
by means of numerous small jets. Mr. Williams submitted the primary law
to be this ; viz., that no larger portions of air, that is, no greater number of
atoms of air, should he introduced info any one locality, than can he absorbed
and chemically combined with the atoms of the gas with which they respec-
tively come into contact. Again, that the effecting, by means of this ex-
tended surface, this necessary diffusion was the main condition which re-
quired attention, and not that of temperature. Jlr. Williams then exhibited
the diagram of a boiler to be constructed on the above principles, and stated
that he had an experimental boiler at work, which fully proved the accuracy
of the principle.

Sir John Robisou stated, that the Committee of Recommendations had
suggested the appointment of a Committee to make a further investigation,
and report to the Association at their next meeting. — Mr. \ ignoles observed,
that the gradual increase of the aperture for the blast of cupolas for second
meltings of metal, the areas of which were now at least fifty times larger
than formerly, proved the necessity of admitting large quantities of oxygen
in combustion, which could only be obtained in its combination with the
nitrogen, the other component part of atmospheric air.

" On the Temperature of tlie Earth in the deep Mines in the neighbourttood
of Manchester." By Mr. Eaton Hodgkinson.

Mr. Hodgkinson having, some years ago, received from Prof. PhiUips four
thermometers belonging to the Association, got, thi-ough the kindness of the
proprietors of the following pits, and other parties connected with them, ex-
periments made upon the temperature of the earth in each of them : — The
salt-rock pit, 112 yards deep, belonging to the Marston Salt Company, near
Northwich, Cheshire ; the Haydock Colliery, 201 yards deep, near to War-
rington ; the Broad Oak Coal-mine, 329 yards deep, near to Oldham. In
the latter pit, a thermometer placed in a hole three feet deep, bored in
" metal," and closed at the aperture, was examined weekly by Mr. Swain for
twelve months, the temperature varying from 57^ to 581° Fahr. — it being
lowest from the beginning of February to the middle of May, and iiighest in
September and October to the middle of November. The experiments above
mentioned were made in 1S37 and 1838, and the results mentioned at the
Birmingham meeting ; but the Broad Oak pit having been increased in depth
since that time, a thermometer was inserted in it, in a hole bored in metal,
as before. It was in a place 408 yards deep, and indicated a temperature of
6F, remaining nearly constant for twelve months. Mr. Fitzgerald being re-
cently engaged in sinking a deep coal-pit at Pendleton, two miles from Man-
chester, Mr. Hodgkinson conceived this to be a favourable opportunity for
getting additional information on the subject of subterranean tempeiature,
and, on bis ai)plication to the proprietor, the engineer (Mr. Ray) readily
made for him, during the sinking of the pit, and afterwards in the workings,
the experiments of which the results are below. At 418 yards from the sur-
face, the temperature, in a hole from three to four feet deep, bored in dry
rock, was 06" ; at 450 yards deep it was 67°; and at 480 yards it was 69°.
In the workings at 461 and 471 yards deep, it was in both cases 05". The
mean temperature of the air at Manchester, according to Dr. Ualton's experi-
ments, is 48° Fahr. ; and, as the pits above mentioned are not very far from
Manchester, the mean temperature of the earth at the surface of each of

1841.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

tliero may l)e considered as 48°. With that supposition, the distance sunk
for eacli degree of Fahrenlieit would be as below : —

In the rock pit 32 yards.

Havdock coal pit 20 ,,

Broad Oak pit S.V/l ,„ .

■ ,. . ^32-j „ =mean.

Pendleton pit (shaft). . 23-2 1

23-7 ^23-2 „ =mean.
22-8 J
Ditto (in workings) 27-1 1.,..^ „ =mean.

The mean from the whole being 27 yards for eacli degree of temperatme.

The President remarked, that Mr. Ilodgkinson's results gave the rate of
increase of temperature greater near the surface, and then decreasing, which
did not agree with the results of other observers : this, he conceived, arose
from nearly the same cause as that already remarked upon when Mr. Fox's
report was under consideration. Mr. llodgkiuson commenced to reckon his
descents or depths, not from the surface, but from the plane of invariable
temperature, which in these latitudes was not far from CO feet. — Prof Forbes
illustrated simply by a diagram how this caused the rate of increase at first
to be too high, and then to diminisli. He then alluded to the frozen soil of
Siberia, gave a description of it, and said, that it had been sunk through to a
depth of 382 feet without being penetrated — that is, without reaching a
temperature of 32°, although the temperature of the surface was not below
18°. In this case, the rate of increase was rapid.

" On the Tpiuperatui'c and Conducting Power of different Strata" Prof.
Forbes's Report.

In this report, he wished to give the results of the observations made at
Edinburgh during the year 1839, upon thermometers sinik at depths of 3, 6,
12, and 24 French feet into trap rock, pure loose sand, and sandstone. The
details for the years 1837 and 1838 were already laid l}efore the British As-
sociation at Birmingham. In order to render the report of the results for
1839 intelligible, Prof. Forlies went over nearly the same explanatory matter
as that whicli is already published in the report referred to. He then ex-
hibited the curves derived from the three years' observations, remarked upon
their wonderful agreement, and gave, in a tabular form, the results for the
three years, which were as follows :

Values of .\ (.\ being the constant in the formvda given in the report
referred to).
In trap. lu sand. In sandstone.

For 1837 1164 11 76 1076

1838 1173 1-217 1-114

1839 1-086 1-182 1-049

Values of B (the other constant).

In trap. In sand. In sandstone.

For 1837 •0543 -0440 -0310

1838 -0641 -0517 -0345

1839 -0516 -0498 -0.305

Variation reduced to 0-01° Centigrade.

In trap. In sand. In sandstone.
For 1837 58.1 feet 72-2 feet 27-3 feet.

1838 49-3 61-8 91

1839 59-2 63-5 100

Velocity of propagation for one foot of depth.

In trap. In sand. In sandstone.

For 1837 75 days 71 days 4-9

1838 6-8 .' 6-8 36

1839 7-8 7-2 46

" Obaerimtions on the Tides in the Harbour of Otasffow, and the velocity of
the Tidal Wave, in the estuary of the river Clyde, between Glasgow and Port
Glasgow." By WilUam Bald.

Mr. Bald stated that he had been for a considerable time past engaged in
making observations on the rise and fall of the tides in the harbour of Glas-
gow. The first series of observations was commenced on the 2Gtii of April
1839, and extended to the 1st of October 1 839, and contain 158 observations
of the rise and fall of the tides. The first portion of these observations were
only made during the day, and did not extend to the night tides. These 158
observations assigned the mean rise and fall of tide in the harbour of Glas-
gow, to be 6 ft. 7 in. 20d.* The number of tide observations made from the
1st of October 1839 to the 27th August, amounts to more than 1,200. These
also had been tabulated and divided into months, but such of the tides as
have been much disturbed by floods Mr. Bald had rejected. By reference to
the table exhibited for October 1839, the first Une stated from the 1st of
October to the 7th of October, number of tides 13 ; mean rise and fall of
these 13 tides was stated to he 6 feet 5 inches ; the mean low water of these
13 tides below top of South Quay wall in the harbour of Glasgow, was 15 ft.
81 in., the mean high water below top of South Quay wall, 9ft. 3 Jin. ; and
the mean half-tide level below top of South Quay wall, 12 ft. 6 in. The
table showed the number of tides for new moon, first quarter, full moon, and

• Smeaton, in his report on the River Clyde, dated the 3rd September 1755,
states the neap tides as_only being sensible at Glasgow Bridge.

last quarter ; the total number of tides for each month, the mean rise and
fall of tide per month, the mean low water below top of South Quay wall,
mean high water Ijelow top of South Quay wall, and mean half-tide level
below top of South Quay wall per month. The mean rise and fall of these
1213 tides assigns an average of 6 ft. 8 in. 98d. : and the first series of 158
tides assign a mean rise ami fall of 6 ft. 7 in. 20d. It also appeared from
other tables and observations, that the tidal wave runs from Port Glasgow to
Bowling, at a rate or velocity of 14-56 miles per hour ; from Bowling Bay to
Clyde Bank, at a rate of only (i-H2 miles per hour ; but from Clyde Bank to
Glasgow Harbour at a rate of 10-85 miles per hour. The diminished velocity
between Bowling Bay and Clyde Bank arises from the channel of the river
being more crooked in that part than any other portion, thereby showing the
great necessity of straightening and improving it.

ROYAL INSTITUTF: of BRITISH ARCHITECTS.
Monday, Dec. 7.

The first meeting of the Session was held this evening, the President Earl
De Grey, in the chair. His Lordship in taking a short view of the arrange-
ments proposed for the opening session, congratulated the members upon the
prospects before them, and upon the increasing prosperity of the Association.

-V paper was read upon some of the characteristics of the " Gothique
flamboyant," from the pen of Professor Willis, honorary member. The pe-
culiarity to which the Professor chiefly referred, was the complicated manner
in which the mouldings and members are made to cross and interpenetrate
in the French Gothic. The system is not unknown in the English perpendi-
cular style, but with us it is confined to such cases as arise simply from the
juxtaposition of the component parts of the architecture, whereas in the Go-
thique flamboyant, new members are unsparingly laid one over another with
the express object of producing the most intricate combinations. Some
curious exam|)les were exhibited from the Cathedral of Xevers, and other
continental buildings.

Dec. 21. — Charles Barry, Esq., in the Chair.

M. Duban, of Paris, and Signor Raffaele PoUti, of Girgenti, were elected
honorai-y and corresponding members. — The former of these gentlemen is the
architect of the New Ecole des Beaux .\rts, at Paris, and is greatly lUstin-
guisbed by his knowledge of the French national architecture of the sixteenth
century. — Signor Politi is the author of a work on the .\ntiquities of Agri-
gentnm, and is well known and highly respected by all English artists who
have visited the shores of Sicily in the prosecution of their studies.

A paper was read on Gothic Vaulting, by Mr. Ferrey, Fellow, exemphfied
by a description of St. Katharine's Chapel, at Ahbotshury, in Dorsetshire, a
building of the reign of Edward IV., very peculiar both in its design and con-
struction, and especially remarkable for its great solidity, which seems to have
been dictated by the elevated situation of the building, and its exposure to
violent sea storms. The roof, which is a wagon headed vault is of solid ma-
sonry, every part affording a like degree of strength, contrary to the ordinary
mode of Gothic vaulting, where the ribs alone yield support, the panels being
rebated or borne on the back of them. Upon this vaulting is laid a body of
rubble, shaped to the angle of the external roof, and upon the rubble the
outer covering, consisting of regular masonry, each stone having a level bed,
and being therefore secured in a manner totally different from stone tihng.
The details of this roof, and of several other Gothic vaults with which Mr.
Ferrey compared or contrasted it, taking occasion to introduce many general
remarks, were exhibited in numerous drawings, and an attempt to follow the
subject, independently of these illustrations, would be an injustice to an ex-
cellent practical paper.

ARCHITECTURAL SOCIETY.

Ordinary .Meeting: I7th Nov., 1840. — Michael Meredith, Esq., in
the Chair.

The Chairman expressed his regret at being obliged to inform the meeting
that Mr. PhUlips, who was to have read a paper this evening, had very unex-
pectedly been called from I^ondon, and was, in consequence, unable to fulfil
his engagement with the Society, and having apologized for Mr. Philip's
absence, stated that he had, by special request, brought up, for the inspection
of the meeting, drawings to the same scale, from actaal measurement, of
three churches built by Sir Christopher Wren, viz., St. Bennett Finck,
Threadneedle Street ; St. Bartholomew, Bartholomew Lane, Bank ; and St.
James's, Garlick Hill, Doctor's Commons. Also two sketches, being designs
for the new painted window, Bishopsgate Church.

Mr. Meredith made some observations on the system of competition, whicli
were well worthy of consideration, and in so doing introduced to the atten-
tion of the meeting the designs for the new painted window in Bishopsgate
Church, and he finished this portion of his subject by some interesting re-
marks on the design and effect of painted windows in general.

Mr. Meredith also made some observations on the great talent exhibited
by Sir Christopher Wren in the designs of the churches introduced tbit,
evening, and offered a summary comparison between the churches erected by
Sir Christopher Wren in general, and those erected by other architects in
and about London.

26

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[Januart,

Mont/ili/ Meet nil/ : Is/. Dec, 1840. — William Titi;, Esq. President, in
the Chair.

Mr. .\. W. llakcwill read a most interesting pajicr, being extracts from
the life of Mons. Pcrcier, which lie enlarged upon with some verj- ably
penned remarks of his own, founded on observations made while in pursuit of
his studies in Rome and Italy, and having reference to the classic taste dis-
played in the buildings of that countrj-, and also to the fitness of tlie design
for the puiposes intended.

MEETINGS OF SOCIETIES IN J.\NU.\RY,
At Eiijht o'clock ill the Evening.

Institution of Civil Engineers, Tuesday 12 19

Royallnstitute of British Architects, Monday 11 25

Architectural Society, Tuesday 12 2S

TEMPLE CHURCH.

(From the Times.)

Within the present century a marked, and it may be called a clas-
sical taste has in general been shown whenever repairs or additions
Lave been required to the ;incient architectural remains, the legacies
of our Anglo-Sa-xon ancestors, whether ecclesiastical or civil. The
real or art'ected distaste for what was contemptuously called Gothic
architecture, w hich may be dated from the time of the second Charles,
continued to increase till the accession of George III. The passion
for the antique in the reign of the former would appear even to have
blinded Sir Christopher Wren to the absurdity of attempting to im-
prove the wild and mysterious architecture of Saracen or Celtic origin,
by uniting it to the classic regularity of the Greek or Roman school.
The failure of the attempt appears in the towers of Westminster
Abbey, and in the altar screens of many of the cathedrals erected from
his designs. It is but in the present century that the genius of Wyatt-
■ville restored the royal seat of Windsor to that character of castellated
and palacial magnificence which the fopperies of Charles had ob-
scured. How many sacred edifices might be pointed cut, the "dim
religious light" of whose venerable walls seem as if they breathed
devotion, and which, in the most careless, are calculated to call the
mind from the thoughts of the fleeting present to the eternal future,
were they not desecrated by the "beautitications" which on all sides
they are informed have taken place, during the presidency, may be, of
the worshipful churchwardens Ebenezer Smith, or Timothy White,
the testimonials of whose patriotic parochial monstrosities are handed
down to posterity emblazoned in golden letters on gigantic tablets, and
the fruits of whose exertions appear in the loads of whitewash and
paint which lias destroyed the severity and altered the character of
the ancient structure. The time-worn banner of the founder in many
may still be seen drooping over the poetical encomiums passed on the
machinations of these utilitarian worthies, as if it "lamented the
weakness of these later times,"

These heresies of taste are, however, giving way before a better
understanding of the beautiful, as is exemplified in the repairs which
have lately taken place in the cathedrals of Norwich, Rochester, and
Peterborough, the Abbey of St. Alban's, and the borough church of St.
Saviour's, from which last the western part of the edifice must, how-
ever, be excepted.

That affectation of puritanical simplicity in the fitting up of our
churches, which to many of tliem has given rather the appearance of
a liall devoted to the meetings of a civic council than a tem])le of
divnie worship, is also fast disappearing ; a better taste has arisen,
which is shown in devoting the labours of art and the eflbrts of genius
in decorating the edifice itself, making it worthy the purpose for
which it is designed, rather than in extolling the parentage of living
raonied humanity, or applying it to the luxurious accommodation of
those who feel more disposed to hear the Gospel of truth when they
find, in the house of their creator, the luxurious accommodations of
their ovfn.

The church called the Temple, although considerable sums were,
some few yeais since, expended on it, has, on inspection, been found
in such a state of decay, that its actual existence, for any lengthened
period of time, was moro than doubtful ; in consequence of this, the
Societies of the Inner and Middle Temple have generously determined
tliat it shall be restored to its pristine state and beauty ; they have
justly considered themselves as guardians of one of the most ancient
and beautiftil ecclesiastioal monuments of our country, and one of the
vfery few w'llich the fatol fire of lOGG spared in the metropolis. In the
re])airs of t,hi» chutch, it has been determined entirely to adhere to
the ancient model, to do away with all the meretricious additions and
miscalled embellishments with which its walls have been encumbered,
to clear the interior of the wooden pens which have been planted in

it, and to offer it to the antiquarian and the ])ublic, when completed,
as the most perfect metrojiolitan specimen of the olden time.

The repairs of this church, when finished, will make it so perfect a
specimen of ecclesiastical architectural beauty and chaste magnifi-
cence, as can hardly be rivalled in the kingdom. Many of the cathe-
drals may, in portions of tlieir elevations, and in the ornamental gar-
niture, if it may so be called, of tlieir interiors, be as perfect: but as
they have, with few exceptions, been erected in different ages, their
architecture does not symmetrically harmonize together. There are
few of them in whicli the Saxon, the N'orman, tl;e Saracen, the Gothic,
or the Greek or Roman style is not blended in different portions of the
edifice, and, the eye becoming confused by diversity, the effect which
a symmetrical whole has on the imagination is lost. It may even be
a matter of doubt whether the introduction of modem monumental
sculptures, however great may be their merit as works of art, when
not in alliance with the character of the locations in which they are
placed, does not materially deduct from the effects of both.

The repairs and alterations which are taking place in this church
consist in removing all the pews which occupied and encumbered the
centre of the building; they will be replaced by a series of stalls
carved in oak coeval with the character of the edifice, which will be
placed north and south in the manner of those in a cathedral, sufficient
space is left between them and the walls to allow a passage ; in the
centre will be convenient moveable benches. By this means the mag-
nificent grouped columns will be visible from their bases to their capi-
tals ; the modern screen erected in the time of Charles II., which
separated the western from the eastern portion of the edifice, is re-
moved, as is also the organ, which was placed upon and completed
the partition ; it will be fixed on a building which has been erected
on the western side of the structure, which communicates with the
interior of the church by two of the lateral windows. By this arrange-
ment a great advantage is gained, the whole extent of the church,
with its lofty colunms, intersecting arches, and vaulted roof, strikes
the eye on entering the Roman portico of the western entrance. It
was incontestibly proved, in removing the barbarous whitewash from
the vaultings, that they had originally been painted in the most splen-
did tints; there was not enough left to show the particular design, but
it has been determined that tiiey should be restored, which has been
done with the elegance and richness which characterired ornaments
of the class. The vividness of the colours and the delicacy displayed
on this mosaic fresco, relieved by the dark sculptured divisions of the
vault, has rarely been surpassed. On removing the floor to examine
the bases of the columns, it was found that its original level was con-
siderably below its late one; it is to be so replaced that they will have
their just proportions ; the pavement will be formed, not partly of
wood and marble as before, but painted tiles and tesselated pavement,
in the manner of those of the sanctuary of Winchester. The three
windows at the eastern end of the church and others at the south side,
will be filled with stained or painted glass in the ancient manner,
composed of small pieces, the figures and ornaments of which will
harmonize with the age of the edifice ; they are in the hands of Mr.
Willement, who designed the ceiling; he has preserved in them that
minuteness of execution, that delicacy of detail, and that brilliancy of
colour united with chasteness of design, which so well assimilates with
the architecture of a Gothic edifice. The arms of the .Society will be
emblazoned in it, those of the Inner Temple, which consist of a horse
striking the earth with his hoof, or " a Pegasus luna on a field argent,"

The monuments, excepting those of the recumbent knights in the
round church, have been removed, and it is proposed to erect a clois-
ter adjoining, and communicating with the edifice, to receive them.
This wiil be a great improvement: the beautiful simplicity which the
building in its leading lines presents, a heterogeneous series of monu-
ments, tablets, and inscriptions must necssarily destroy ; the space
between the windows is too small, and never was intended for them ;
besides wliioh, it will allow of these parts having a decoration of orna-
mental painting, similar to that of the ceiling, this being necessary to
give due and complete effect to the latter. Immediately under the
windows is a marble cornice, which, wdien restored, will seem to belt
round the building and justly lead the eye, by its unbroken line, to
give full value to its extent. All the smaller columns which are at-
tached to the internal ones that support the roof, and those on the
side walls which receive the ribs of the arches, are found, the smaller
to be Purbeck marble, and the larger of Caen stone; whitewash, neg-
lect, and age had effectually concealed their beauty ; the splendid
polish of the former, which rivals a mirror in brightness, will be
restored, and their hue of ebony will stand in effective contrast with
the cream-coloured hue of the latter. The caps of those in the round
church are beautifully carved, according to the fashion of the age in
which they were constructed. The outline of all is uniform, and the
detail of each is varied ; by this a simplicity and singleness of effect

184LJ

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

27

is produced in the whole, and the minutest examination presents a
never-ending variety, by which the first impression is extended and
maintained. The whole of these architectural restorations are being
executed under the direction of Mr. Savage, of Essex Street. When
completed, this ancient edifice will become an additional ornament
to the metropolis — a perfect and unrivalled specimen of the olden
time. But the restoration of this beautiful church is not the only good
which the liberality of the Societies of the Temple will have erfected ;
they have been the means of proving what may and can be done by
the artists and artizans of England, when taste directs and liberality
remunerates. Such an example, set in such an edifice, will, in all
probability, have a powerful ertect in the progress of church decoration
in all its departments.

With these few remarks I beg to conclude, hoping that if "Sur-
veyor" should again have any desire for entering your columns, that
he will do so with a single eye to the main object of your Journal, and
not under the mere influence of selfish or vindictive passions.
I have the honour to remain, Sir,

Your very obedient servant,

B. T. C. O.
Dtcember 24, 1840.

REVIEV/S.

LAND SURVEYING— THE SCALING INSTRUMENT.

Sir — Though having had something to do with the improvement of
the new scaling instrument, now used in the Titlie Commission Office,
yet I do not teel called on striouslij to contradict the assertions of
" Survevor," which appeared in your last month's publication. Nor
would I presume to obtrude the following observations on your pages,
if the remarks that called them forth had not a tendency to contravene
the great principle upon which your very useful work is professedly
based. It appeared that your valuable iiublic;Uion was to be made the
great reservoir wherein to deposit the beneficent contributions that
freely emanate from the generous and communicative head of genius,
and from which source, those valuable contributions may be made
liberally to circulate for tlie noble ami philanthropic purpose of giving
increased facility to the praclical efforts of such persons as may not be
so largely endowed with the inventive faculty.

Some few however there are to be found so exceedingly contuma-
cious— so irresistably wedded to old prejudices — and so very vain of
their fancied perfections in their several professions, that, like the
barbarian Chinese, they reject with affected scorn every proposed im-
provement, the adoption of which would involve them in the painful
and humiliating admission, that there existed such a iiwnsfer as a
Superior !

With "Surveyor," continuous labour is professedly preferable to
ease and dispatch. If labour be the consequence of a " curse," every
inventive ability given and exercised, to remove or lessen that physi-
cal incubus, evinces a disposition somewhere to lighten the anathema:
but if the stand still or retrograde movement stupidl)' advocated by
" Surveyor," be acted on, we must be content (though human necessi-
ties daily increase) painfully to endure the miserable infliction : we
must be satisfied to spend months at the drudgery of trigonometrical,
or astronomical, or other calculations in tin. old way, ratlier than avail
ourselves of the "ready reckoner" or the log books prepared by a
Napier or a Newton — lest the month's labour should be diminished to
So many days — and that we miglit not dishonourably substitute the easy
effort of the boy, for the overstrained and painful exertions of the
man! !

But we tell "Surveyor" that there is not the slightest chance that
his intimation will have any eft'ect. And likewise, that the advocates
of all petty interests and monopolies, however they may frown and
storm in their pigmy habiliments, must bow the neck to the over-
whelming force of successful improvement and reform.

From the self-confident tone of " Surveyor," one would be led to
suppose that he would willingly .iubmit to a fair trial between his old
method and the application of the instrument ; if it were only for the
purpose of convincing other persons who have given it a trial, that he
was sincere in his rejection of it ; and that he had no sinister motive
for giving public expression to the act of "laying it on the slielf."

I now confidently assert that the same quantity of a\'erage work may
be done twice with the instrument, for once that it can be done by
"Surveyor's" method, and with a much greater degree of accuracy,
and defy him to the practical disproof upon any fair conditions he may
propose.

One can scarcely suppress the full ebulition of his risible faculties
on reading the latter part of his letter, at his puerile attempt to touch
the high reputation of a notable and eminent engineer, by his (" Sur-
veyor's") generous offer of a lesson at the chain. From such a sample
we may expect that the next unsolicited proposal of this astonishmg
preceptor will be, to instruct some of the first literary characters of
the day in the letters of the alphabet. On this point, however, it is
apparent that the very limited extent of his own acquirements has
rendered him incapable of recognizing or appreciating the full extent
and variety of, individual acquisition.

CContiiiued from patje \(s.)

A Practical Inquiry into the Lams of Excavation and Embankment
upon Rail/cays, Sfc. By a Resident Assistant Engineer. London :
Saunders and Otley, 1840.

(Second Notice.)

The remaining part of this work which we have announced our in-
tention of noticing, is devoted to the investigation of the harrowing
system, in which the author proposes to give the result of his inquiry
into the subordinate system of removing earth by means of wheel
barrows and human labour. We regret that even the small share of
praise we felt justified in bestowing on the first part of the treatise
cannot be extended to the part now before ns.

And in order that our readers may the better judge in what degree
the author is warranted in the strong contrast which he draws between
his own labours in this field of inquiry, and those of former writers, we
shall present them with an extract from his works, rather out of its
true position, namely, the concluding paragraph, in which he glances
with some contempt at the efforts of his predecessors, and turns with
infinite complacency to the superiority, in all respects, of the process
which he has himself employed.

It will also be seen, that the principles upon wliich former authors at-
tempted to develope the general laws of excavation and embankment, were
evidently adopted, without any reference to the practical working of the sys-
tem : and. that the mode of making their observations, (whenever they were
made), was much too isolated, for the purpose of affording an expanded and
comprehensive view of the various agencies — collateral and direct — which
are continually acting, one upon the other, and by which the ultimate results
are collectively infiaeuced. The error into which they have fallen, seems to
have consisted in assuming, as their constants, quantities in the abstract ; or
in observing iu detail, instead of the aggregate ; and adopting the results of
these separate observations, as if entirely independent one of the other : and
therefore it is not to be wondered at, that many matters, essential to the
tliorough sifting of the subject, were altogether excluded : and that the argu-
ments founded upon these self-hegotten phenomena, led them to a belief, in
the inverse ratio to probability, if not of possibility itself. Thus, the ante-
cedents being mdely unconnected, and, from their number, subject to fre-
quent error; the consequents derived from their combination, turned out
utterly fallacious. The method we have pursued is exactly the reverse : our
constants depend upon observations, made upon the combined efl'ects, pro-
duced by the various agencies in the aggregate ; and, by an analysis of these
we have descended, step by step, to the details ; and not advanced, from the
miuutiiE of detail to abstract generahties, which have no foundation in truth

We shall reserve till the end of our review the observations we
have to make upon the boasting presumption of the latter sentenc ■,
remarking merely, in the mean time, that a more complete delusion
never entered into the mind of man than that which seems to have
taken possession of our author, when he imagines that he has made
any thing like an analysis of the subject of wduch he is treating. His
process lias been on the contrary purely synthetical, and we fear that
rarely have such weighty and important conclusions been based upon
such a miserably scanty foundation.

The experimental part of this investigation commences with three
experiments, from which our author derives the following fact: "that
the mean time spent infilling a barrow, wheeling it four runs of twenty-
five yards each, and returning with the empty barrow, is ,5' 45". He
then gives two experiments which determine 7' 20" for the time spent
infilling one barrow, wlneling it four rims of twenty-five yards each, and
returning with the empty barrow, including also the time spent infilling
the same barrow a second time, and wheeling it forward two runs. Hence
taking the difference of these two times, the author makes
7' 20" — 5' 45''= 1' 35", the times which elapsed in filling one barrow and
wheeling it forward two runs, or which is the same thuig, 1' 35"=i the
time of filling a barrow, wheeling it one run, and returning with the
empty barrow.

E 2

28

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[January.

If is next assumed that the time of filling the barrow must be equal
to the time of wheeling over one stage, and returning with the empty

1' 35"
barrow. Hence — - — := 07" (47")the time of filling each barrow. The

whole time occupied in making the experiments from which this re-
sult has been derived is somewhat less than 32 inimites, this being the
sum of the observed times in the whole five experiments.

We need scarcely pause to notice how completely inadequate must
be a limited experience of this kind as a standard for estimating either
the expense or rate of progress in removing earth by barrows. As
well might a traveller estimate his rate of progress from the beginning
to the end of the journey, by observing his speed during some parti-
cular half hour. As well might a vessel's rate of sailing for weeks,
months, or for a whole year be infallibly prognosticated from the in-
formation afibrded by a simi)le page of tlie log book.

We challenge all the examples since the beginning of time, vvliere
grand conclusions have been drawn from insuflicient premises, to bear
comparison with the instance which our author luis here furnished.
Telford, Rennie, Mylnc, .Smeaton, and all the other great engineers
under whose guiding genius not a few great earth works have been
executed long ere railways were thouglit or heard of, how many a
laborious inquiry, and how many a painful lesson would have been
saved to you, had the experience been yours, of the half hour during
which these imi)ortant experiments were made.

It is due to our readers, however, to inform them that there are
three more experiments, " conducted," say the author, " in a different
manner." The difl'erenee consists in this, that these experiments are
made upon a number of barrows together, instead of single barrows, as
in the first set of experiments.

We relate this second series of experiments in the author's own
words, and we make no comment upon them, as our readers will per-
ceive at once that they are equally insignificant in point of extent with
the first five which we have noticed at length.

Experiment 1. — Twenty-four baiTows were filled, wheeled fonvard two
runs, and tipped, in thirty-eight minutes and forty-eight seconds ; which is
the same in effect, as if they were filled, wheeled /orwar-ils and dachcarck,
and tipped upon one nm, during the same time.

E.Tperiment 2. — Eighteen barrows were filled, wheeled forward one run,
and brought back empty again, in twenty-five minutes, and forty-two seconds.

E.rperiment 3. — Eleven barrows were filled, wlieeled forward upon two
runs, and emptied, in eighteen minutes : which is the same in effect, as if
they were filled, wheeled forward, emptied, and brought back, upon one
nuu

From these experiments it is determined that 1''37" is " the mean
time which elapsed while a single barrow can be filled, wheeled one
nm, emptied, and brought back ;" we are then told that 37 barrow-
loads can be wheeled on each road per hour. And our author, assum-
ing, we suppose, the weight of all earths to be the same, derives from
this fact the performance of each single barrow road, and upon any
number of these working together. It is obvious that this assumption
is most erroneous, as for example, the specific gravities of different
soils may be stated thus, common mould 1-4G, sand 1'52, sandy loam
1.6, clay or marl 1-712, gravelly sand 1-784, gravelly clay 1-93, com-
mon land gravel 2-017, rough water gravel 2-32, common sand stone
2*5, lime stone 2-7.

"Thus, supposing that a man can wheel of common mould 37 cube
yards in a day of 10 hours, which accords with the author's statement
of his performance, lie would only be able, with the same labour, to
wheel 23 cube yards of rough water gravel. And, without multi-
plying examples to show the fallacy of any assumed standard, such as
the author derives from his experiments, it may be observed, in gene-
ral terms, that the quantity which can be wheeled will be inversely
proportionate to the specific gravity of the stuff", and not by any means
constant for all soils.

Another error into which the author has fallen, is that of taking
25 yards as the invariable length of a run. Our own opinion is, that
this is too great a length for a level roud ; but, besides this, it is most
important to notice that, in order fairly to apportion the labour of
wheeling, the length of each man's run must vary according to its rate
of inclination. In practice this is always attended to, the workmen
usually being quite expert at fixing the position of the stages or
resting-places, according to the slope of the run.

There is yet a third error which we cannot pass over, namely that
of supposing two men always to be employed in filling, during the
time of the wheeler's absence, so that one loaded barrow may always
be ready for him each time he returns to the filling place. It is evi-
dent, and experience, moreover, has shown, that in some soils, such as
light sands, a single tiller will keep the wheeler constantly going,

whereas in others, such as stiff" clays and marls, three and even four
men are necessary for the same purpose.

Of such consequence, in an inquiry of this kind, are the particulars
which, as we have seen, the author has omitted to consider, and so
fidlacious are the general assumptions in which he has indulged, that
we cannot refrain from expressing our decided disapprobation of this
second part of the work.

We have only further to remark, that with all these faults in his
own work, it is scarcely to be bcrne that such a lofty contempt should
be evinced by the author for all that has ever been written before on
this subject. Certain we are, and we are happy to say it for the
honour of the profession, that there are not wanting many, many prac-
tical men, who, if they have never nritkn on the subject, contain in
their own heads, or perhaps in the shape of private memoranda, such
a complete acquaintance with the system of barrow work, that they
can predict accurately, on examination of the locality, everv circum-
stance of expense, time of execution, number of men and quantity of
materials required, in any particular work.

This, we presume, would indicate at least as much knowledge of
the subject, in all its bearings, as the author of this inquirj' could pos-
sibly imagine any person capable of acquiring from the perusal of his
work. But how different in value must that knowledge be which is
obtained by the practical experience of years, from that which is based
upon the experiments of a few hours' duration. The information of
the practical man consists of gross results, with all the attendant cir-
cumstances of which he is, or ought to be, acquainted ; and his method
of arriving, where necessary, at the separate details, is really ana-
lytical, and so directly opposed to the process of establishing gross
results from separate experiments in detail.

LITER.\RY NOTICES.

A \ery able work " on the Law and Practice of Letters Patent for Inven-
tions," by Thomas \Vebster, Esq., has just been published, we shall notice this
work in the next month's Journal.

Mr. W'hishaw's long expected work on the Railways of Great Britain and
Ireland has at length appeared. We received it so late in the month that it
precludes our examining it witli the attention which it deserves, we must
therefore postpone our remarks, excepting so far as saying, that it contains
several engravings of Locomotive Engines, all the rails in use, and other de-
tails connected with railways, very heautifiUly executed ; with valuable tables
showing the results of practical experiments as to the actual working of
EngUsh Railways.

The History of the London and Bu-mingham Railway, by Lieut. Leeount,
is a republication of his interesting and valuable contributions to Roscoe's
illustrated work on that subject.

The Building-ground Calculator, by E. W. Garbett, Arcliitect, contains a
series of Tables for ascertaiuing the value of Land per acre, when di\ided out
into plots of various depths from 100 to 300 feet, at prices from 5irf. to 14*.
h\d. per foot frontage, or i'lO to Jtl05 per statute acre.

NEW IN-VENTIONS AND IMPROVEMENTS.

Improvements in the constrnciion of steam boilers and engines, and of locomotive
carriages : patented hy Frank HlU's, of Depfbrd, manufacturing chemist, No-
vember 5, 1840. — These improvements are numerous and difficult to explain
without the illustrative engravings; a tolerable idea of their nature, how-
ever, wdl be conveyed tiy the following list of the ten claims ;— 1. The em-
ployment of a series of vertical tubes partly filled with water, and having
small pipes passing down their centres, forming passages for smoke or heated
air. 2. The employment of a series of vertical tutes which are closed and
unconnected at the'top, and open at the lower end. which communicates with
a chamber, or series of chambers, partly filled with water ; and which tubes
have small pipes passing up their centres, for the purimse of conveying the
steam to the boiler with which they are connected. 3. The use of flat cham-
bers connected by means of pipes, filled w ith water, the upper portion of such
chambers, forming steam chambers. 4. The employment of wooden felloes
to wheels used for locomotive and other carriages, which felloes are I'uclosed
between tw o vertical wrought iron rings, to which the spokes of the w heel are
welded. 5. The employment of hollow anns, which are open at the ends on
which the wheels revolve, and through which opening the driving shaft
passes. 6. The employment of collars or enlarged pieces running in bearings,
w liich have a groove and are connected with the brass containing oil, in order
that a rcgidar supplv may be afforded to the working parts requiring the
same. 7. The metliod of filling up the space between the arms of the (Hero's)
engine. 8. The method of reversing the motion of the engine by employing
two sets of arms, w ith other apparatus hereafter described. 9. The mode of
inserting a wooden block or other slow conductor of heat between the tube
which commuuicites the motion .ind the driving shaft. 10. The mode of
imparting motion to an engine shaft, by means of an arm or crank being

1841.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

29

fixctl on the multlle of such shaft, and driven hy one of two connecting rods
alternately, \>)iich are both driven by the piston rod and guided Ijy radius
rods. — Meclianics Magazine.^

Imprai'emcnts in wheels and locomotive engines lo lie used on laHieai/s : patented
by David Goudi, of Paddington, Engineer, Nov. 20, 1840.

These improvements consist simply in forming the outer or working sur-
face of the tire of engine and carriage wheels. <if steel, which may he made of
any required degree of hardness. The application of steeled tires to wheels
used on railways, (it is said) has hitherto been prevented by the difliculty of
forging and fixing them. The following method of surmounting this diffi-
culty is Mr. Gooch's :— A faggot of wrought iron bars are worked and liam-
mered, or rol ed into a solid piece, and afterwards drawn out in rolling, or
under the hammer upon an anvil, having a groove to form the tlanch, into
the state of rim iron. An indentation or hollow is then made, lengthwise of
the bar near the (lanch, in order to prepare it for the reception of the steel.
A faggot of steel bars is then so arranged, that when hanunereil and workeil
into its pi'oper (wedge) form, the edges of the bars shall form the broad sur-
face of the tire. The two bars of iron and steel thus prepared are then welded
together, and afterw ards formed into a rim or hoop of the form required.
The ttheel being prepared in the usual way, and its rim lunied. it is laid flat
on a true face-plate, and the tire being reguKirly and uniformly heated red
hot. is put round it. The whole is then plunged into cold water or other fri-
gorific mi.xture, which contracts the tire and hardens the steel. Holes having
been previously drilled through the steel hoop, are now continued through
the rim of the wheel, and both are rivetted together. Or, the rivets may be
advantageously dispensed with when the steel is driven well into the inden-
tation prepared for its reception. " Jlany important advantages," says this
patentee, "■ will arise from the use of steeled tires on railways ; besides the
economy immediately resulting from the greater durability, a vast reduction
will be effected in the wear and tear of the engines, the carriages and therails;
while a corresponding improvement will arise in the comfort and safety ot
travellers. The intense friction to which the wheel is subjected, occasions a
rapid wearand tear of the iron tire, productive of most injurious consequences.
An indentation is soon formed by the rails on the tire, which disturbs the
action of the wheel, and destroys smoothness of motion. The same causes
derange the action of the engine itself; every revolution of the locomotive
wheel brings an irregular strain on all the parts, which materially increases
the wear and tear to which they are liable. Great damage is also done to the
railway, on which the wheels at every revolution act like so many ponderous
hammers. It has been found advantageous to make the working surface of
the wheels conical, diminishing from the tlanch ; but the conical surface of
the iron tire is soon worn down, and the wheel made conical the reverse way,
causing a serious loss of tractive power and increase of friction on all the
parts affected. By the use of steeled tires these evils are henceforth to be
avoided, the extreme hardness of the .surface enabling them to endure without
injury the action of the rails for a considerable length of time." — The claim
is, 1. The mode described of forming and hardening steeled tires of wheels to
be used on railways. 2. The use of steel in the tires of engine and carriage
wheels for railways. — Mechanics^ Magazine.

An improvement or improvements in the mode of resisting shocks to railwatj car-
riages and trains, and also in the mode of connecting and disconnecting railwaif
carriages : also in the application of springs to carriages ,* patented by William
Henry Smith, late of the York-r6,ad, Lambeth, but now of 20, Rockingham-
row, \Vest, New Kent-road. Engineer, dated Nov. 28, 1840. — The first im-
provement consists in applying to railway carriages certain combinations of
machinery or apparatus, atfording an increased length of elastic resisting
power, with a consolidated action of the same, calculated to obviate the pre-
sent liability to danger. The second, a peculiar mode of connecting the en-
gines or carriages, w hereby they may be more readily attached to each other,
or instantly detached, thus placing them more completely under the control
of the engine-man or conductor, by whom the connect on may be broken
(without bis leaving the foot-plate) in case of the engine getting off the rails
or meeting w'ith any other accident ; or a solid connection may thus be
formed between the carriages, causing a simultaneous action of the whole
train upon one point of resistance, thereby lessening the amount of spring or
other elastic resistance re:juired, and at the same time ensuring greater safety
and efficiency of action. The third, consists in a certain application of the
vertical or side springs, by which is obtained in a greater degree an universal
action of the carriage, presenting an increased elastic resistance in the direc-
tion of the shock, whether lateral or vertical. In the first case, a series of
helical or other springs are placed in parallel rows, side by side, beneath one
of the carriages ; a single Duft'er-bar extends, by connection, through the
whole length of the train, and projects about five feet beyond the carriages
at each extremity. This buffer-bar is connected to two cross arms, which
abut against the two ends of the series of springs already mentioned. A
buffer at the end of the bar receiving any shock, it is transmitted along the
bar to the cross pieces impinging on the springs, w hich present an elastic re-
sistance to such pressure. As these springs can be acted upon from either
end, should a collision occur from one train overtaking another, both would,
if thus equipped, be found unhurt, the consolidated resistance in each being
brought simultaneously into action. Another mode of resisting sudden shocks
is by means of a male screw upon the buffer-bar running along the under
side of the carriage frame, having a quick thread " so as to fall by its own
gravity," and turn freely in a nut or collar firmly affixed to the carriage.
Any shock, it is said, ivould be transmitted through this collar in a much
less degree (proportioned to the angle of its thread). The end of the screw
is attached to a strong verge spring, which increases the resistance to the
turning of the screw as it is wound up, so as completely to overcome the
shock. The screw is acted upon by a bufifing-bar. " The main value of this

Eart of my invention," observes the patentee, " is, that the spring is affected
ut in a small degree by the amount of shock endured ; its principal portion
being received in the collar, and the resistance not increasing in the same
propor.ion against the spring as in the ordinary methods ; but by the screw's
application, I calculate, five-sixths of the effect of the concussion_would be

received by the collar (ergo : by the carri-ige), and the same proportions to
any extent." A third method of resisting shocks is by means of an hydraulic
apparatus, consisting of a large close cylinder filled with water, placed under
the carriage ; a piston works loosely in this cylinder, the piston rod passing
through a stuffing box, and forming the buffing bar; a passage under the
cylinder, which connects its two ends, is closed by a cock. On encountering
a shock, the butter-bar forces the piston along in the cylinder, the water
rushing from before it through the open cock, the contracted orifice of which
impedes its progress and checks the motion of the piston. As the piston rod
is (lushed in, a connecting rod passing from it to the cock closes the latter,
when the water can only escape by the sides of the piston, thus offering a
still greater amount of resistance. The piston is capable of working either w ay,
according to the end of the train from which the shock is received ; and owing
to the piston not fitting tightly, there will be no liability of it or the cylinder
receiving any injury. There is a reacting spring for restoring the piston to its
original position. — The mode of connecting and disconnecting railw ay car-
riages is by the following arrangement : — A connecting bar is att,ached to the
engine by a pin joint, and kept in the right position by a st.aple pendant from
the foot-plate ; at the other end of this bar there is a piece projecting up-
wards. A bell-mouthed aperture is let into the front frame of the tender or
carriage, which gulden the before-mentioned bar into the recess in case of
any variation of the relative positions of the carriages. On pushing the car-
riage, &c. up to the engine, the bar enters the aperture, pressing down a
strong spring until the projecting piece of the bar enters a slot or cavity pre-
pared to receive it. when the spring rises and foims a permanent connection.
In order to disconnect the engine, it is only necessary to press with ihe foot
upon a small rod, which, acting on the projection, forces down the spring,
and allows Hu' liar to Ije withdrawn. — The new mode of applying springs to
carriages of every description, consists in adapting four sets of helical springs,
to work oliliquely between the wheel axles and carriage frame, being inclined
at the angle of about 40° from each other towards the ends of the carriage.
The object of this arrangement is (saiil to be) to receive the jerk in whatever
way it may come, either from the wheels or the buffers, and transfer it to the
opposite spring, which together (the one by compression, the other by ex-
pansion) present an additional resistance to the action of the shock. These
springs have also a double vertical action resisting shocks either from above
or below. — Ibid.

Improvements in railway and other propulsion ; patented by John George
Shuttleworth. of Fernly-place, Glossop-road, Sheffield, gentleman. Nov. 28,
1840. — The contrivance of this gentleman bears a very close resemblance, in
many parts, to the atmospheric railways long before the public, except that
in the present instance the patentee proposes to employ a denser fluid (water)
as the motive power. A horizontal main or tube is laid along the line be-
tween the rails, having a slot or opening on its upper surface ; this aperture
is smallest at the top. and expands downward. A piston fits the interior of
this tube, and terminates in a peculiarly formed guide-neck, for taking up
and applving to the aperture in the pipes a continuous flexible valve or stuff-
ing of india rubber or other suitable material. In front of the guide-neck
there is one vertical and one horizontal wheel, to guide the pislon steadily
along the line with the smallest possible quantity of friction; while a thin
metal plate passes up through the opening, and is attached to a railway car-
riage of the ordinary constructicm. At the commencement of the line, a ver-
tical pipe conveys a column of water on to the horizontal main, througli a
valve or cock opened or shut at pleasure. The efficiency of this agent may
be produced by the pressure of an elevated reservoir, or by the application of
steam power to force it into the pipes. On turning the cock the water rushes
into the main, and drives the piston, with the carriage to which it is attached,
forward ; the flexible valve, which lies along the bottom of the main, but
passes through the guide-neok and up over the piston, is raised as the piston
travels along, and forced into the opening of the pipes, where it is kept by
the pressure of water behind the piston. — The claim is — 1st. The application
of the power of a column or body of water acting against a piston in a tube,
to which piston a railway carriage, or other <ibject to be propelled, is fastened
for the purpose of propulsion. 2nd. The improved guide-neck to the said
piston for raising and conveying to its proper place the flexible valve or stuff-
ing required to fill the slot or space left open In the upper part of the pro-
pelling tub&for the passing of the plate. — Ihid.

Improi'ements in the manufacture of certain descriptions of cement ; patented
by Richard Freen Martin, ot Derby, gentleman, Dec. 2, 1840.

The improvements which form the subject of this patent, relate more par-
ticularly to those descriptions of cement for which a former patent was ob-
tained, dated Oct. 8, 1834, but are also applicable to other cements, as set
forth hereafter. In the former patent, in order to produce certain hard ce-
ments, it was directed that gypsum, either in its natural state or as plaster
of Paris, or limestone, or chalk, or lime, in the state of powder, should be
mixed with a solution of any strong alkali neutralized by an acid, (American
pearlash and sulphuric acid being preferred) and that water should be added
to the mixture till it was in a fit state for casting or moulding into cakes, and
to be subsequently dried and burned. The patentee has since discovered that
the said processes may be facilitated and the cost of them reduced in the
following manner ; —

First, instead of employing alkaline and acid solutions, the acids and alka-
lies are to be used in the solid state, either added separately or preriously
combined together, and no more water employed than the materials them-
selves contain.

.Secondly, in certain cases the addition of the alkali, or both the acid and
the alkali ate dispensed with, and the quantities of these ingredients incor-
porated in the substances themselves are depended upon, to form the bases
ot the cements. In carrying out the first improvement, a quantity of pearl-
ash is dissolved in water, to which is added a sufficient quantity of sulphuric
acid to form a neutral compound ; this mixture being evaporated to dryness,
leaves the required compound in a solid state.

When it is desired to add the acid and alkali separately in a solid state to
the gypsum, chalk, iScc., pearl-ash is used and dissolved, or where cements of

30

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[January,

superior tiensily arc reinjireil. some of the alknline earths (Ijarytcs for in-
stance) are employed. The aciil conslilueni is obtained by usinf; sulphur or
sulphuric aciil in combination with other matters, as pyrites and mineral
sulphates, or seme solid substance containing both an acid and an alkali, as
alum. &c. In tliis case it is necessary so to rcRulale the acid and alkaline
proportions, that they shall always exactly neutralize each other. The aeiil
and alkaline matter beinp; provided in any of these ways, is to be mixed with
gypsum, or lime-stone, or chalk, in the following proportion : to anv given
<pi;intity of either of the foregoing or similar substances, ad'l ns much solid
alkali and acid as that for every part by weight of alkali fof the strength of
the best American pearlasb) there shall be about LW parts of the gypsum.
&c., or of the gypsum and lime combined in ecpial proportions. These ma-
terials are then to be ground together into a fine .-ind well-mixed powder,
which is to be first dried and afterwards calcineil in suitable revolving cy-
linders. By the second improvement, cenunt may be formed by combining
gypsum and lime with a third substance containing or producing an acid ; or
by combining gypsum and lime alone, without the .addition of any third sub-
stance either ol an arid or alkaline (juality. 1. About two parts by weight
of gypsum are to be mixed with one part of lime, and for every 100 p,arts of
lime or thereabouts, there is to be added one part of sul|)liur, or of some
substance from which acid is produced, regulating its i]ua:ility according to
its superior or inferior aeid-producing qualities. 2. To make a cement from
gypsum and lime a'one. these are to bo mixed in such proportions as that the
moi.sture given nil in the process of calcining them together by the gypsum,
shall be just suflicient to slake the lime. When the l,i)n(lon grey -stone lime
IS used, alxint two part> of gypsum are required to one part of lime. In all
c ses the materials are to be ground and calcined as before stated. The
mode of using the cements thus formed is the same as set forth in the speci-
fication of the former patent. It is found to be advantageous to use none of
such cements in a fresh state. — Ibhl.

Imporlant to Mariners. — We have lately read so much of the calamity of
shipwreck, that .any attempt to lessen its horrors, must be hailed as a rea'
ble.ssing. Few that have not heard of Captain Manby's Life-Preserver. We
have just witnessed a .successful attempt of simplifying the principle upon
which that valuable discovery is founded, so as to be availalile wherever a
common cannon and a piece of rope are at band. There is no occasion for a
mortar or a rocket, a common ship gun will answer the purpose. The ex-
periment was lately tried on the sea .shore, about a mile southward of Aber-
istwith. We had been previously inlbrme I that Mr. Page, the superin-
tendant of the Harbour Works, had, at the instance of the 1-iarbour Trustees,
directed his attention to the subject, and we are glad to state with the most
perfect success. The machinery is the simplest possible. A common twelve
pounder that belonged to the old Agenoria, was placed on the store, elevated
to 40 degrees, and loaded with a nine ounce charge of powder, with a well
fitted wadding. Before us lay a long coil of rope, i inch diameter, with a
stout piece of wood or plug, of the length of a common spade fastened to it.
This plug is intended to Ixi put in the mouth of the gun. The ploblem to be
solved, was to pnijcct this piece of wood over the breakers before us, so that
should a vessel have struck there, as we remember one to have done about 18
months since at that very spot, and the se.i should be too high for any boat
to live in the surge, a rope might be sent from the land to the ship, or from
the ship to the land. The simplicity of the whole aflair struck us extremely,
and no alchymist waited with more anxiety the moment of "projection"
than we did the firing of tht' cannon. Those that know anything of these
matters will understand us when we say that our great apprehension was,
lest the rope should snap — that being the great difficulty to be got over in
these experiments. But our apprehensions were quite needless. The gun
■was fired once, twice, thrice, and the plug and rope were hurled beyond the
breakers without a thread of the latter breaking or straining. Its length w as
160 yards: but it might be extended by increasing the charge of powder.
That peculiarity of the apparatus upon which tlie engineer mainly depends
for cotmteracling the tendency of the rope to break is. by strengthening
about two feet of that part of it which comes in contact H ith the plug ; this
is done by adding to it four others of the size of lead lines, and which are
bound together with pieces of spun yarn. an<l fastened to the plug with four
small .staples, the main rope or a bit of chain instead, being fastened to it, by
a ring and thimble. Thus strengthened, the rope is found sufTicigntly strong
to stand unharmed against the |crk with wbicli it is projected from the can-
non, and this it could not do without the lour extra supporters. Upon en-
quiring of the engineer why he preferred ' wood plug to a rocket or ball, he
S1iitc<l that in case of a man overboard, the plug would /on/ ,• and that also
in case of being filed /com a vessel, it would from its buoyancy be carried on
shore by the mere acuon of the sea. Its extreme simplicity is its great re-
commendation. There are few vessels without a cannon of some size on
board, and a hand-spike or capstan bar will answer the purpose of a plug
perfectly w ell. We should have stated that the wetness of the rope after the
first disch rge was found to be of no inconveniences but care should be had
in c<iiling it properly, so as to enable it to play out with facility.— Carmnr/Acw
Journal.

New Code of Signals on the Great Western Raitway. — The whole of the en-
Sine-driver.s, stokers, guards, conductors, and other persons employed on the
railway throughout the line were assembled at the engine-house of the Pad-
dington station last week, when a new code of signals, prepared by Mr.
Brunei, the engineer-in-ehief to the company, were fully explained to them
by that gentleman, and several of the signals were put inio practical oiiera-
tion. A special train was sent from the Paddinglon to the I'arringdon-road
station, to convey the engineers, stokers, guards, &c., at that end of the line
to town. By the adoption of the new' code, distinct and immediate intima-
tion will be given to the engine-drivers .and others of the least obstruction
along the line.

Eastern Comlies Night Signals. — The manager of this company, R.Hall,
Esq., has invented an ingenious system of night signals for the Eastern
Counties Uaihv.ay. On the back part of the chimney of the sngine is placed
a reflector, so inclined that a light pressing from the top of the train will be

re'lected down upon him. The two guards sent with every train are provided,
besides their common lights, with two signals consisting of blue and red
lights. Upon the removal of a piece of tin, a screw presses upon some ful-
minating powder, which immediately ignites the signal, and gives out a most
intense light for some time, which, falling on the engine rcflecti r, is sent
down concentrated u|>on the engine man, so that he is immediately aware of
the signal. The blue light indicates caution, and the red light ilanger. The
light is so exceedingly intense as to give a brilliant illumination all around,
and the men who have tried it declare if they were asleep it would wake
them. The present signals throw ofl several luminous balls in succession,
but Mr. Hall will in future use the light only. At the junction of the
Northern and Eastern, and other pirts of the line, the men are provided
with the.se signals. A sliding rellector is adiled to give greater power to the
liglit, but from what we have seen, we are of opinion that that is unneces-
sary, as the lights are so strong that they may, in our opinion, be seen for
10 or 15 miles oil. — Hnilnn;/ .Magazine.

Advertisement.

To tlie Directors of the Seyssel Asphalte Company, " Claridge's Patent."

Oentlemen — In reply to your application, I think it but an act of justice
to state, that wherever I have introduced your Asphalte Mastic, it has beea
perfectly successful.

I have used it very extensively not only as Paving and to resist damps, but
also at the South Metropolitan Cemetery at Norwood, in covering a very ex-
tensive range of catacombs, where it forms a terraced floor quite imperylous
to wet, and not acted upon by the weather.

I am, Gentlemen, your obedient servant,

William Tite.

17, St. Helen's Place, Dec. 22, 1840,

Note. — The reader is also requested to peruse the List of Testimonials at
the end of this Journal ; the above having been received too late to he in-
serted in the list referred to.

Seyssel Asphalte Cumpani/s Works, Stawjate, Westminster Bridge.

LAW PROCEEDINGS,

PATENT LAW— AMENDMENT OF SPECIFICATION.

IN THE MATTER OF JOHN SHARp's LETTERS P.\TENT.

In the Rolls' Court, Tuesday, Dec. 22.

Lord Langdale pronounced his decision upon the petition of Joshua Words-
worth (reported in last month's Journal, page 428,) for expunging from the
memorandum of alterations in the specification of Sharp's letters patent " for
machinery for converting rope into tow," certain portions which were alleged
to be in substance descriptive of the same machinery as was iiiveuted by the
petitioner. The petition stated that Sharp had, under the .'>th and 6th Will.
IV., c. 7.3, with the leave of the Solicitor-General, entered with the Clerk of
the Patents certain memorandums of alteration of part of his specification,
which alterations the petitioner, Wordsworth, coirplained of as a new ar-
rangement of machinery, extending Sharp's patent to what the petitioner
alleged was in substance his own invention for heckling and dressing fla,\,
&c., as described in his specification. His Lordship said he had delayed his
decision for the purpose of collecting information as to what had been done
by the Court resjiecting amendments of specifications, and it appeared it was
usual to make aincudmeuts in the enrolment in cases where there were cleri-
cal errors neijligenter per incuriam vet er lapsft echini scriptoris, and this
had been done, sometimes by reference to the M.aster of the Rolls, by the
Lord Chancellor, and iu one instance by the Lord Chancellor himself upon
an order from the Crown, sometimes by writ of Privy Seal, sometimes by
consent of the Attorney-General, and sometimes by sign manual. In all
modern instances the alterations had been merely clerical. It did not appear
that the Master of the Rolls as keeper of the records had ever exercised any
authority in matters of this kind when the error coin))laincd of was not merely
clerical. He was clearly of opinion that he had no authority to make the
alteration asked for, and he must dismiss the petition with costs.

Till' Qneen v. tlie Grand Junction Railway Company. — Mandamus. — Court of
Queen's Beiieh. November 15. — Sir F. Pollock applied for a rule, calling on the
Grand Junction Railway Company to show cause why a writ of mandamus
should not issue, commanding them to oljcy the enactments of the 19th sec-
tion of the Acts Victoria. cap."49, which was as follows :—•' And be it further
enacted, that the charges of the .said recited Acts, or either of ihem authorised
to be made for the c.irri,age of any passengers, goods, animals, or other mat-
ters or things to be conveyed by the said company, or for the use of any
steam power or carriage to be supplied by the said company, shall be at all
times charged equally and after the same rale per mile or per ton per mile,
in respect of all passengers and of all goods, animals, on carriages of a like
description conveyed or propelled by a like carriage or engine passing on the
.same portion of the line only, and under the same cireuinsianees, and no re-
duction or advance in any cliarge for conveyance by the siiid comp.any, or for
the use of anv b.romotive power to be supplied by them, .shall be made, either
directly or indirectly, in favour of or against any particular company or per-
son travelling upon "or using the same portion ot the s.aid railway, under the
same circumstances as aforesaid." He ni.ide this application at the instance

1841.1

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

31

of Messrs. Pictcford, the carriers, who would, unless the court interfered to
protect them from the company, he obliged cither to give up the carriage
business altogether, or to carry it on without deriving any profit from it. It
appeared from the affidavits, tiiat the usual method of transmitting goods
from London to Liverpool and Manilicster, was by the London and Birming-
bam Railway to Birmingham, thence by the Grand Junction Railway to
Newton, and from Newton by the Liverpool and Mancliester Railway to
those towns respectively. The Grand Junction Company had. it appeared,
granted to Messrs. Chaplin and Home the accommodation of permitting the
trucks on ivhich their goods were placed to pass at once from the London and
Birmingham line to the Grand Junction line at Birmingham, and from tlie
Grand Junction line at Newton to the Liverpool and Manchester line, with-
out any change of carriage or unloading, but since September last had re-
fused to allbril similar facilities to any other carriers ; and when applied to
by Messrs. P}cl;ford on the suljject, liad informed them that they could not
afford them the desired accommodation unless they paid something additional
for it. while it was afforded to Chaplin and Home gratuitously. The expense
of loading and unloading the trucks would be about £■'). a day additional to
Messrs. Pickford, besides the loss of time which it would occasion them. It
appeared also that the company at the Camden Town station charged 65s. a
ton for the carriage of goods to Liverpool or Manchester, but they made
Messrs. Chaplin and Home an allowance of IO5. a ton for collecting and dis-
tributing the goods in London, vihich allowance they refused to make to
Messrs. Pickford. There was a clause in every railway act empowering other
persons than the company to start locomotives and trains on the railroad,
but this was a complete dead Idler, inasmuch as the company might refuse
such persons the use of their pumps or of their coal depots, and !iau also un-
limited power in regulating the times of starting, &c., of such engines The
fact was. the company was aiminir at a ccmplete monopoly of the carrying
trade, which they would certainly acquire unless they were compelled to
obey the enactments of the clause in question. — Mr. Justice Patteson granted
a rule to show cause.

PROGRESS or RAILWAYS.

Munchester and Leeds Railwatj, — Completion of the Summit Tiiuvel. — On the
9tli ult. the last brick of this great undertaking was keyed-in by Barnard
Dickinson. Esq., the resident engineer, who was presented on the occasion
(by J. Stephenson, Esq., the contractor) w'ith a silver trowel, the gift of the
inspectors and sub-contractors on the works. Tlie tunnel was lighted by
torches, and a large company of ladies and gentlemen weie present to witness
the ceremcmy. At twelve o'clock, Mr. .Stephenson, accompanied by his
manager, Mr. G. Mould, Mr. Dickinson, and other gentlemen connected with
the company, entered the tunnel amidst the acclamations of the party as-
sembled, when Mr. Stephenson, in presenting the trowel, congratulated Mr.
Dickinson on the successful completion of a work, which, hut for the united
skill and enterprise displayed in its execution, would have been insurmount-
able. Mr. Dickinson then finished this great work, by keying-in the last
brick, amidst the cheers of the spectators ; after which he delivered an ani-
mated address, in the course of which he observed that some idea might be
formed of the amount of labour employed in the construction of the tunnel,
when he informed them, that had it oeen left to the unassisted efforts of one
man, it would have taken him as much tmie to complete it as had elapsed
between the commencement of the Christian era and the present day, namely,
one thousand eight hundred and forty years ! At the conclusion of the cere-
mony the company were invited to partake of a cold collation at the Summit
Inn, when several excellent speeches, having reference to the completion of
the work, were delivered in the course of the evening. The work-men were
also reg.aled with abundance of good cheer within the tunnel. — Midland Coun-
ties Herald.

Oldham Branch liaihiiaif. — On Saturday, the 12th ult , a number of the'
directors of the Manchester and Leeds Railway, accompanied by their prin-
cipal engineers, visited Oldham, and exammed the country between Oldham
and the mam line, for the pupose of determining the best course tor the Old-
ham Branch Railway.

Contemplated Railway throuyh Blnekhnrn. — We rejoice in being enabled to
state that the first step has at length been taken to secure to Blackburn and
the surrounding district the advantages of a railway communication with the
North Union and Manchester and Leeds lines. On Thursday last, a highly
respectable meeting was convened by circular, at the Hotel, in King-street, to
confer with Mr. Stephenson, the eminent engineer, and two other gentlemen
of the same (irufession who accompanied him, upon the subject. The meet-
ing was well attended, and b:it one feeling appeared to pervade the company,
viz., an anxious desire for the accomplishment of the object in view. The
engineers exhibited a map of the different railways, with tlie proposed line
from the North Union at Preston, through Blackburn, Accringten, and
Burnley, to the Manchester and Leeds line at Todmorden, a distance of about
twenty-six miles.— William Turner, Esq., M.P., having been called to the
chair, a long conversation took place between Mr. Stephenson, the chairman.
■William_ Feildeii, Esq.. M.P., Joseph Feilden. Esq., P. E. Towneley, Esq.,
James Neville, Esq.. and others, the result of which was the appointment of
a committee, to confer with the directors of the North Union and Manches-
ter and Leeds Companies, and also with the owners of property on the pro-
posed line ; and to ascertain what pecuniary assistance they were disposed to
render towards obtaining a survey, from Preston to Bumley, the cost of
which was estimated at £700. The ground from Todmorden to Burnley, we
believe, has already been surveyed ; and it is unrlerstood that the Manchester
and Leeds Company are disposed to extend their line to Burnley, provided
another company be formed to continue it through Blackburn to Preston.
Should this expectation be realised, and there appears no reason to doubt
that it will, it w ill do much to facilitate the proposed undertaking.— fi/ac/ctarn
Standard.

PUBLIC BUILDIXffGS, AND IMPROVEiaSNTS.

Fresco in the Neir Houses vf Parliament. — Cornelius, the celebrated Ger-
man painter, is, it is said, on his way to this country, where he is to he con-
sulted as to the frescos of the new Houses of Parliament. Certainly Cornelius
has no merits which can give him a superiority over Englishmen in the re-
presentation of English scenes. We have no illiberal prejudices against foreign
artists, and should be the first to recommend the purchase of their works for
our public collections, but we think that wheu any great national commemo-
ration is the subject, the employment of foreign artists is a desecration of the
monument. It is thus also we view the employment of Maroclietti at Glas-
gow. How difterently would Titian, Murillo, Rubens, Rembrandt or Lebruu
represent the Enghsli peo)ile in the jierfonnauce of the same action — however
great might be the skill of the artist, he would be wanting nationality. How
are we ever to become a great nation in art, when we are deprived of the
only opportunity of giving scope to the powers of our artists !

H'esleijan Chapel, Great Queen Street. — The small portico which has beea
attached to the front is completed.

British Mttseum. — A temporary couimunication has been opened through
the Long Gallery, so that the visitor is now able to proceed all round the
Museum. In the upper Egyptian room are two fine specimens of Egyptian
sculpture in intaglio rile-eato, highly deserving of attention.

Clifford. — On Monday the 23rd of November, the foundation stone of a new
chiirfb about to be erected atClifloid. in the parish of Biamtram. in the West
Riding of the county of York, was -laiil by Miss F. E. Fox, daughter of
George Lane Fox, Esq.. of Bramham Park The ceremony was attended by
many of the clergy and gentry in the neighbourhood. This church will be
endowed with £I..)00 by G. L. Fox. Esq.. and the Dean and Chapter ot Christ
Church, Oxford, give £200 further endowment when tlie church is opened.
It will be built by subscription in the neighbourhood and elsewhere, which
has been libera'ly responded to. The design is furnished by Messrs. Atkin-
son, architects of York, to whose charge the building is' intrusted. The
church is intended to contain 300 persons in free pews, and there are no gal-
leries. It is built in the form of a cr. ss, with transepts; and a tower 70 feet
high at the west end. and is of the pointed or early English style. The en-
tire building is faced with free .stone from the neighbourhood, and the cost
when complete will be about £1050.

KXSCELIiANEA.

Cornish Steam Engines. — The number of pumping engines reported tliis
month is 51. They have eonsiuned 3193 tons of coal, and lifted 30 million
tons of water 10 fathi>nis high. The average duty of the whole is. therefore,
53 million pounds lifted one foot high bv the consumption of a bushel of coal.
Ricbards's stamps at Wheal Vor works with hot condensing water. The
boilers are being changed at Trelawney's engine. Wheal Vor. and are leaky
at Tineroft; Wheal Prosprr ; Cargise ; Taylor's. AVoolf's, and Bawden s
engines, Consols ; and at Hocking's engine. United Mine. — Leayi^s Engine
Reporter, Deetmher 11.

The Lake of Haarlem. — The King of Holland has just authorized the raising
of an additional loan of three millions of florins for draining the Lake of
Haarlem.

Proposed Suspension Bridge over the Haslar Luke at Portsmouth.— T\\^ usual
calculation for the maximum load on each superficial foot of the platforms of
suspension bridges is 70 lb. : but, as in the event of a crowd of persons as-
sembling, the pressure may increase to nearly 100 lb. per foot, and by the
passage of soldiers marching in regular time the strain may be greatly aug-
mented, tile projector assumed 200 lb. per superficial foot as the amount of
load to which the platform might be subjected. The peculiar feature of this
bridge is the subsiitution of cast iron chains for the wrought iron ones gene-
rally used. This deviation from ihe usual practice is adopted as a measure
of economy, and witha-. iew of increasing their stability and durabililty,
cast iron being much less influenced by atmospheric action than wrought
iron. Cast iron beams, wdien well proportioned, will bear a very considerable
tensile strain. As these chains would be proved beyond the weight they are
intended to bear, no doubt is entertained by the author of their security.
The platform, which is formed of transverse iron girders, carrying cast iron
plates three quarters of an inch thick, with dovetails falling into holes cast
in the girders, is suspended bj' wrought iron rods \\ inch square from two
lines of chain only, as the strain is more easily brou.ght to bear on them
than on a greater number of chains. They are trussed laterally to prevent
oscillation, and the balustrade is so constructed as to prevent the undulation
so prejudicial to suspension bridges generally. To insure a perfect bearing;
each pair of links of the chains are, in manufacturing, cramped together, and
the holes bored out to receive the pins, which are turned to fit them accu-
rately ; they are of a larger size than usual, being four inches diameter, and
a less number are emploxed. The piers on which the chains pass are of cast
iron, 33 feet high above the level of the roadway.

The extreme length of the bridge is 632 ieet.

The breadth ol' the roadway 17J —

The clear waterway betw een the piers 300 —

The clear headway of the iilatform above the high water

fine r I8i -

Ditto ditto above low water line 33 —

The tension on the chains is calculated as equal to 991-4143 tons. 'I'osuitain
this tension, the section of the chains is 256 square inches, and taking seven
tons per square inch as the elastic limit of cast iron, the resistance of the
chains w ill equal 1,792 tons, leaving a surplus of 800 6 tons after the calcu-
lated strain has been deducted from the real strength of the chains.— /nvnj-
tors Advocate.,

32

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[Januahy,

STEAM NAVIGATION.

Messrs. Reiiiiie are fitting tlieir trapc/.oidal paddle-wheel to the African,
a government steamer, instead of the common paddle-wheel, which has been
heretofore used ; this will fonn an excellent criterion of the comparative
advantages of the two wheels. They are also fitting similar wliecls to a
vessel for the French government.

The Screw government have determined upon building a steamer for the
purpose of trying the .\rehimedean screw ; orders have been given to Messrs.
Seaward for a pair of engines of 200 horse power each, for working the
vessel.

A Graeesend steamer is on the stocks, which is stated will run from the
lilackwall Railway to (jravesend within the hour. Messrs. Miller & Raven-
hill have the construction of the engines in hand.

Rotary Eiujinex. — Mr. Galloway is about a)>plying a rotary engine of his
invention to a new boat, for the purpose of working the screw without the
necessity of using any intermediate wheels or gearing. The boiler is tubular,
upon the locomotive principle. Messrs. Kennic are constructing the engines,
which are now being put on hoard at their wharf at lihickfriars. — Another
boat is being fitted with Biniis' patent rotary engines, of considerable power,
and a tubular boiler, to work a wheel upon a new principle in the stern ; tlie
paddle-hoards are suspended upon their axes, and allowed to work fi-eely
upon them without any stops, so that the paddle-board is always kept in a
perpendicular position.

Launch of an Iron Steamer. — There was launched from ilr. Borrie's ship-
building yard, IJroughty Ferry, on Friday, 11th ult., an iron-built twin
steamer, named the Princess Royal. This vessel has been built for the Tay
Ferry Trustees, and is intended to ply between Dundee and Newport ; her
length on deck is 1 06 feet, by 34 feet in breadth, giving the extraordinary
area on deck of 3604 square feet ; she has been brought up to Dundee, and
Mr. liorrie has commenced erecting her engines on board, which are of 80
horse power, and one in each of the hulls. The hulls are connected by the
deck beams, and by six systems of transverse stays ; the fastenings of these
stays are placed within a few inches of the lead water line, for the more
effectually maintaining the hulls in their tnie relative position ; there is an
intermediate space between the hulls, IO4 feet in breadth, which extends the
whole length of the vessel ; there is only one paddle-wheel, and it works in
this space nearh at the centre of the vessel, and is com])letely hid from view.
When used as a ferry boat a twin steamer possesses many advantages, from
her peculiar construction, over a single vessel ; among these the most pro-
minent are the great facility with which a twin steamer can take the quays
from the absence of the paddle-wheels on the sides, great stability, easy mo-
tion in a cross-swell, great buoyancy, without having a great length and
breadth of floors, and the sectional area of displacement not greater than
what woidd obtain in a single vessel of the usual proportions. The form and
finishing of this vessel are much admired, and will not fail to bring additional
reputation to the contractor, whose eminence as an engineer is already fully
acknowledged.

I.IST OF NEVir PATENTS.

GRANTED IN ENGLAND FROM 27tH NOVEMBER TO 23rD DECEMBER, 1840.

Miles Berry, of Chancery-lane, Patent .\gent, for " certain improee-
vients in looms for weaving." — Sealed November 27 ; six months for enrol-
ment.

John Clay, of Cottingham, York, Gentlemen, and Frederick Rosen-
borg, of Sculeoates, in the same county. Gentleman, for " improvements in
arranging and setting up types for printing." November 27 ; six months.

John Condie, Manager of the IJlair Iron Works, .\yr, Scotland, for " im-
provements in applying springs to locomotive railway and ot/ier carriages." —
November 27 ; six months.

George Holsworthy P.vlmer, of Surrey-square, Civil Engineer, and
Charles Perkins, of Mark-lane, Merchant, for "improved constructions of
pistons and valves for retaining and discharging liquids, gases, and steam." —
November 28 ; six months.

George Blaxi.and, of Greenwich, Engineer, for " an improved mode of
■vropelling ships and vessels at sea and in navigable waters." — November 28 ;
(six months.

Henry Bridge Cowell, of I.ower-street, Saint Mary, Islington, Iron-
monger, for " improvements in taps to be used for or in the manner of stop-
rods, for thepurjmse of drawing off and stopping the flow of fluids." — De-
cember 2 ; six months.

James Robinson, of the Old Jevm, Manufacturer of Machinery, for " a
augar-cane mill of a nctv confttructiou, and certain improvements applicable to
sugar-cane mills generally, and certain improvements in apparatus for maJiing
sugar." — December 2 ; six months.

Alexander Horatio Simpson, of New Palace-yard, Westminster, Gen-
tleman, for " an improved machine or apparatus for working pumps." — Com-
municated from a foreigner residing abroad. December 0 ; six mouths.
." William Peirce, of George-street, .\delplii, (icntlrnian, for " improve-
ments in tlte preparation of wool, both in the raw and manufactured state,
by means of which tlie quality will he considerably improved." — December !•;
six months.

Charles Winterton Bavlis, of Birmingham, Accounting-house Clerk,
for " an improved metallic pett, to be called tlie Patent J'te.iion Pen and Im-
proved PenhoUIer." — December IG; six months.

George Wildes, of the city of London, Merchant, for " improvements in
tlie manufacture of while lead." — Communicated by a foreigner residing
abroad. December 16: six months.

James Davis, of Shoreditcli, Engineer, for •' an improved mode of apply-
ing heat to certain steam-boilers." — December 16 ; six months.

John Steward, of Wolverhampton, Esq., for "an improvement in the
construction of piano-fortes, harpsichords, and other similar stringed musical
insfrnmetits." — December 16: six months.

James Molyneux, of Preston, for " an improved mode of dressing flax
and low." — December 16 : six months.

Charles Botton, of Farringdon-streef, Gas Engineer, for " a certain im-
provement in gas meters. — December Iti; six months.

Hugh Graham, of Bridport-place, lloxton, .\rtisan, for '* a new mode of
preparing designs and dyeing the materials to be used in the weaving and
manufacture of Kidderminster carpets, and for producing patterns thereon,
in a manner not before used or applied in the process of weaving and manu-
facturing such carpels." — December 16 : six months.

Joseph BeathI, of Portland-place, Wandsworth-road, I.amheth, Engi-
neer, for " certain improvemcnls in locomotive engines, and in carriages,
chairs, and wheels, for use upon railways, and certain machinery for nse in
the construction of parts of such inventions" — December 16; six months.

.\ndrew Pross D'Olszowski, of .Vshley-crescent, Gentleman, for "a
new and improved level for ascertaining the horizon, and the several degrees
of inclination." Communicated by a foreigner residing abroad. — December
16 ; six months.

William Tidor Mablev, of Wellington-street North, Mechanical Drafts-
man, for " certain improvements in producing surfaces to be used for printing,
embossing, or impressing." — December 17; six months.

Abraham .\lexander Lindo, of Finsbury-circus, Gentleman, for "im-
provements to be applied to railways and carriages thereon, to prevent acci-
dents, and to lessen the injurious effects of accidents to passengers, goods, and
railway trains." — December 18 ; six months.

Elias Robinson Handcock, of Birmingham, JLsn., (or " certain improve-
ments in mechanism applicable to turn-tables, for changing the position of
carriages upon railroads, for furniture and other purposes." — December 18 ;
six months.

Richard Coles of Southampton, Slate Merchant, for " improvements in
machinery for manufacturing tanis ami other vessels of slate, stone, marble,
and other materials, and in Jilting and fastening such materials together." —
December 23 ; six months.

Benjamin Baillie, of Ilenn-street, Middlesex, for " improvements in
locks, and the firings and fastenings thereto belonging." — December 23 ; six
months.

John Brumwell Gregson, of Newcastle-upon-Tyne, Northumberland,
Soda-water Manufacturer, for " improvements in pigments, and in the prepa-
ration of the sulphates of iron and magnesia. December 23 : six months.

Frederick Payne Mackeleas, of Birmiugham, and J.\mes Murdoch,
of Hackney-road, Civil Engineers, for " certain improvements of or belonging
to tables, a portion of which is applicable to other articles of furniture."
Partly communicated by a foreigner residing abroad. — December 23 ; six
months.

George Thornton, of Brighton, Civil Engineer, for " certain improve-
ments applicable to railways, locomotive engines, and carriages. — December
23 ; six months.

John Dickinson, of Bedford-row, Esq., for "certain improvements in
the manufacture of paper." — December 23 ; six months.

David Walther, of .Vngel-court, Throgmorton-street, Merchant, for
*' certain improvements in the methods of purifying vegetable and animal oils,
fats, and tallows, in order to render those substances more suitable to soap-
making, orfo'- burning in lamps, or for other useful purposes, part of which
improvements are also applicable to the purifying of the mineral oil or spirit
commonly called petroleum or naphtha, or coal oil, or spirit of coal tar." —
December 23 ; six months.

John Jones, of Leeds, Brush Manufacturer, for " improvements in carding
engines for carding wool and other fibrous substances." — Communicated by
a foreigner residing abroad. December 23 : six months.

Joseph Barker, of Regent-street, .\rtist, for " improvements in gas
iHcto-s." — December 23 ; six months.

TO CORRESPONDENTS.

Till- drau'iugs of llw new lawn hall of Ashton-iindcr-Lyne will appear ni.xt
mouth.

Additional information on the Reform Clnh will be given when tlie building is
entirely Jinishea.

Conimuuk-ations arc requested to be addressed In '• The Kditor of the Civil
Kngineer ,iiid Architect s Journal,' No. W, Parliament Street, Westminster.

Bonks for review must be sent earhi in the month, communications on or before
the 20lli' ( if Willi drawings, earlier), and advertisements on or before the 25th
instant.

Vols. 1, II, and III, may be had, bound in cloth, price £.1 each Volume.

ELEVATION OF NEW TOWN HALL. ASHTON UNDER LY N E .

>OlJNG AND LEE.ARCH^'

'IR^^s^

"^

LO N G 1 T 1. D I N A L SECTION.

SCAi-E OP FEET,

?! •

JR /rt»uu :ist

1841.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

.33

NEW TOWN HALL, ASHTON-UNDER-LYNE.

Architects, Messrs. Young and Lee.
With an Engraving, Plate II.

A brief dfscription of this building appeared in the No. for hist
July. It is in the Roman style of architecture, and consists in front
of "an attached Corinthian colonnade in antis, surmounted by a balus-
trade of the same order, which forms a parapet to the centre of the
facade, and is crowned liy a group of sculpture. The wings consist of
a single interpilaster, and terminate above with a plain parapet. The
two flanks of the building are alike ; and consist simply of three win-
dows in length, each similar to those in front, with antK at the corners
only. The attic wall with its cornice is also continued round the flanks.
The internal arrangements, it will be seen, demanded that the front wall
sliould form an uninterrupted line, and be pierced with windows along
its entire length ; and it was therefore considered preferable to have
attached columns — an arrangement adopted in tlie Erectheium at
Athens. The order itself is divided into two stories, and is elevated
upon a loflv stylobate. Its proportions are chiefly taken from the
Pantheon at" Rome. A dentil cornice, instead of one with modillions,
is used to save expense.

The design although making no pretensions to originality, is in keep-
ing with the style adopted, and does credit to the architects, Messrs.
Y'oung and Lee of Manchester.

This building, erecting from designs by one of the architects en-
gaged, Mr. William Young, of Manchester, is now on the point of
being roofed in. It stands on the north side of the new market-place,
Ashton-under-lyne ; a town which, compared with its size, may be
said to be rich in public and private biuldings of importance. Many
of these are of a very tasteful character, and certainly reflect great
credit on the spirit of the inhabitants. The main portion of the edi-
fice before us, being that shown on the plan, is entirely faced with
tooled Ashlar, from the quarries of Saddleworth, in Lancashire, and
the remainder of the building faced throughout, with stone from the
neighbourhood, neatly hammer-dressed.

Ground Plan.

Scale 30 feet to an inch.

A, Area. P, Piazza, 33-0 x 8-G. E H, Entrance Hall, 33-0 x Sl'O. S,
part of Staircase. C K, Committee Rooms, 26-0 x 24-0. C 0, Collector's
Office, 13-0 X 24-0. W R, Waiting Room, 246 x 13-0.

The plan will describe the principal floor, which is IG feet Iiigh
in the clear, and comprises an entrance hall, approached by a piazza
in front, and arranged as a triple colonnade of the Ionic order. A
handsome geometrical stone staircase, •24'x21' leads from this to the
first floor of the building, whose principal feature is a large public
room extending over the entire space shown in the i)lan, s3 ft. in
length by 4U ft. in width, and 2s feet high to tlie cove. The ceiling,
as will be seen by the accompanying section, is divided longitudinally
into a centre and two side compartments, the former of which is a
segmental core with double panels or lacunars, the upper ones being
enriched with open rosettes, screening the ventilators in the roof.
To aftbrd light and give eflfect to these and the members of the ceiling
generally, a circular or wheel vv'indow of an ornamental character is
placed in eacli tympanum or plane extremity of the cove. The
cornice and fascia round the room are entirely plain, and where the
latter crosses the ceiling transversely, dividing the three compart-

ments before mentioned, ornamental brackets or cantilevers are intro-
duced, connecting the soflit with the opposite walls. The doors and
windows of the room are finished with architraves and cornices with
plain consoles. Attached to if is a suite of ante and retiring rooms.
It is intended for the use of ]iublic meetings, assemblies, N:c., as well
as for holding petty sessions; fortius latter purpose it communicates
on one side by a circular stone staircase with the police office on the
ground floor, and a range of stone lock-ups in the basement. All the
doors in the entrance hall and staircase, have architraves and cornices
in keeping with the finishings of the large room. The whole of the
timbers thi-oughout are Kyanized. This building will be erected for
less than the sum specified in the architects' estimate.

ENGINEERING HONOURS AND REWARDS.

It seems to be an admitted fact that England is, of all countries, that
in which the fewest and most trifling honorary distinctions are con-
ferred upon men of science — a proposition in which our readers are
doubtless fully prepared to express their acquiescence, as one which
they have always heard uncontroverted and deplored. For this cause
our men of science have complained, and the policy of our government
has been called in question, for certainly all history and experience
attest to us that honorary distinctions are those rewards which are
most grasped at, and most fiercely contended for. It was for a perish-
able crown of leaves from the neighbouring t. ees that kings entered
the lists at Olympia, and Grecian heroes exerted all their powers. It
is with such feeling that the man of science looks forward to a dis-
tinction which is to herald him in society, and to be perhaps the only
reward of the labours of years, and of the greatest triumphs of the
mind. — The astronomer, the geologist, the mathematician, the natu-
ralist has few golden premiums to look forward to, a scanty profes-
sorship or a death-bed pension is the limit of his hopes, and he clings
the more to a recompense which is but an acknowledgment of services,
for which he can obtain no pay. The system is good, and we do not
wonder that our countrymen strive for its extension, we are only sur-
prised that they should make invidious comparisons as to their native
land, when a little consideration would teach them that their lot is not
so much to be contemned. Napoleon gave, it is true, his counties and
his baronies, his grand crosses and his stars pretty liberally — the same
may be said of other governments — now we have to ascertain what
our own authorities have done in this respect. M. Arago complains
most truly that we did not make Watt and others peers, but both he
and most" others seem neither to have reflected upon the reason for
this omission, nor to have noticed what really has been done. Politi-
cal power is one thing, honorary distinction another, and in no country
that we are aware of, although isolated instances occur, is it a recog-
nized principle to invest scientific men with political functions, fo.-
(with exceptions of course) no class perhaps could be found less adapted
for their competent exercise. The special world of the student is not
the great world of the politician, it is a sphere brilliant, but inferior,
having its own laws, and pursuing its own revolutions. The chemist
has been educated for his laboratory, the astronomer for his watch-
tower, the naturalist for his cabinet, and so also must the politician be
educated for his duties, and accustomed to their performance. This
certainly is one reason why in England the peerage is not to be reck-
oned among scientific rewards, but there is also another, which how-
ever it may arise from prejudice, is equally authorised by precedent —
the peerage of England is a rank, which whether it be held by the
duke or the baron, in the scale of courts is received as princely, which
coequalizes with the grandeeship of Spain, and the principality of the
Roman empire — a rank similar in fact to Napoleon's dukes. Now,
however it ought to have been — we know that Monge, Cuvier, and
the other illuminati of the empire never were created dukes, but re-
ceived a lower title, and were not, except in extraordinary cases, invest-
ed with political power. The ranks which they received, in the com-
parative scale of French and English society, are very little more than
our knighthood, if so much, for although the counts and barons of the
empire were few in number, yei France so swarms with counts and
barons of other kinds that they form a very squirearchy for multitude.
The same may be said oi the Prussian barony and councillorship of
state. Admitting then that knighthood is by precedent a competent
reward, we think it will be found that England has not been behind
hand, but has rather gone farther by giving, as in the case of baronet-
cies, an honorary title of even a higher kind. If we look only at the
last half century, we shall find a multitude of distinctions given which
in our t.t,inion 'far outbalance any exertion of other nations. The law
part. ' ' -" much of a political profession that we need scarcely allude

34

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[February,

to the honours which devolve upon it, extending even to thf peerage,
in which it has founded so many great houses. Medicine is scarcely
less cared for, as in one shape or another it has scarcely less at the
present moment than a score of Sirs, many of them baronets, and since
the commencementof the present century it has numbered more nearly
lialf a handred than any lower number. The artists come next in
number, their president is always knighted, and their several depart-
ments of painting, sculpture, architecture and engraving have nothing
to complain of, having half a score knighthoods among them, six in the
Eoyal Academy. We will now skim over some of the other classes
which at different times in the last fifty years have been noticed, and
of course in such a list, we must be guilty of many omissions. We
find of astronomers and philosophers Sir Joseph Banks, Bart., G.C.B.
and Privy Councillor, Sir W. Herschel, Sir John Herschel, Bart., Sir
3ames Hall, Bart., Sir David Brewster, Sir John Robison, &c. ; of che-
mists, Sir Humphry Davy, Bart. ; of naturalists. Sir James Edward
Smith, Sir William Jackson Hooker, &c. ; of agriculturists, Sir John
Sinclair, Bart. ; of musicians. Sir George Smart, Sir John Stevenson,
&c. Antiquaries have as heralds and keepers of records political op-
portunities of promotion, and accordingly come off pretty well, they
number Sir Wm. Woods, Sir W. Betliam, .Sir Harris Nicolas, Sir
Kicolas Carlisle, Sir Henry Ellis, Sir Gardner Wilkinson, &c. Tra-
vellers and discovers also have a similar relation, and boast their Sir
Edward Parry, C.B., Sir John Franklin, C.B., Sir Jolm Ross, C.B., Sir
Alexander Bumes, Sir James Alexander, &c. Literary men have not
been so lucky. Sir Walter Scott's baronetcy being their principal.

We think we have thus run over a list which will satisfy any rea-
sonable man that affairs are not so badly offin old England, and that in
the countiy where William Cobbett rose from the impasse of the
army to share in the legislation of the greatest empire of the world,
that there is something to be looked forward to by every man who
has talents to do good and diligence to exert them.

We have thus defended our authorities from the general charge of
neglecting scientific rewards, but we cannot so easily acquit them of
indifference towards a profession which has the fairest claim upon
their attention. The military engineers come in with the rest of the
army, the naval engineers have had their Sir Robert Seppings, and Sir
Edward Symonds, but the civil engineers have received only one
knighthood, and that too conferred for what was considered an archi-
tectural labour. We think that the profession has just ground to com-
plain of this, they are rising in public estimation, possess good general
rank, have performed most important public services, and yet have
been passed over as to the most coveted reward. The Institute has
received a royal charter, engineering is a recognized educational fa-
culty, for which a regius professorship has been founded, honorary
degrees have been conferred upon its members, and the president has
received a seat in the senate of the great university of the empire, so
that certainly as far as qualification goes, there is not the least ground
for this holding back of favour. Two years ago we had to complain
ofthis, audwe are sorry to renew our murmurs now. In other pro-
fessions there are certain defined offices, the holders of which generally
receive honours, and we do not see why it should not be so with the
engineers. The Presidents of the Royal Society have had a baronetcy,
as also the President of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, the President
of the Linnsan Society, and the President of the Royal Academy
knighthood. The government lawyers, medical men, painters, sculp-
tors, architects, musicians, heralds, naval engineers, &c., both in Eng-
land and Ireland are generally knighted, so that so far from a precedent
being wanted, an omission only seems necessary to be supplied. If
we look at our triumphant progress in railways, bridges, steam navi-
gation, &c., in which we are almost without rivals, we think that there
can be no difficulty in selecting such of the authors of them as are
fully deserving of any honour the government can bestow. We think
the President of the Institute, and the government engineer both in
England and Ireland should always be knighted, and we think the same
honour should be conferred on the most distinguished railway and
marine engineers.

James Watt has had more public statues erected to him than the
Duke of Wellington. The nation has expressed its opinion, let its
representatives confirm it.

A Cornish engine has been recently erected on the New Soutbwark Water
Works, in the Battersea Fields, Ijy Mr. W. West, and nianulactured by
Messrs. Harvey & Co., of Hayle tuundry. on llic same jirincjple as (bat
erected by those gentlemen on ihe Kist Li)ndiin Water Works, at Old Ford,
and described in the Journal. Her cylinder is SI imdi diameter, lenf;tli of
stroke lOJ ft. in Ihe cylinder, and 10 ft. in the iiumi>. working a 32 incli
plunger pole, with the patent valves by Messrs. Harvey 8<. West, which are
so constiiicted, and the operation so easy, that it would be dilticult to j¥!r-
suade a common observer of the existence ot a valve therem.

CANDIDUS'S NOTE-BOOK.
FASCICULUS XXIII.

" I must have liberty
Withal, as large a charter as the winds.
To blow on whom I please."

I. Speaking of Versailles, Theodore Hook says: " as to its extent,
its galleries, its saloons and all that sort of thing, it is internally strik-
ing ; but any thing more hideously friglitful as a building — speaking
of it architecturally — never was seen. The front, as you approach it
from Paris, is indescribably mean. The garden front is bald and grace-
less— the associations connected with it, and the splendour of its in-
ternal decorations may and do give it a palatial character: but it is
an exceedingly ugly affair." This criticism is not at all too severe,
for the exterior is in fact the very maximum of littleness, — so far
miraculous as it shows that it is possible to contrive a building of
great extent and enormous cost that shall nevertheless be altogether
destitute of effect, and possess no more grandeur — that is, artistical
grandeur and dignity, than a huge barrack of the same size. So far
Versailles well deserves to be styled — as it has been before now, one
of the reondtrs of the world.

II. Among the qualifications usually insisted upon as requisite to
an architect — of some of which, by the by, the necessity is not very-
apparent — we do not find enumerated the one which of all others would
seem to be the most indispensable, that is, when we eome to something
more than mere building and construction, and consider architecture as
a fine art. The qualification thus accidentalhj overlooked, as if it
were the least important of any, — something which it is very well to
possess, but which an architect can contrive to make shift without, is
what for want of a definite term in our own language to express it, we
must call " Kunstatnn" which word implies a good deal more than our
English " Taste." It would seem that this and this alone distinguishes
the architect from the builder — taking those names not in their pro-
fessional and technical meaning, but in the sense of artist, and non-
artist, or at best artist at second hand, a mere plodder who stands in
the same degree of relationship to the other that a mechanical rhvnier,
a scribbler of Album verses does to a true poet, cut mens divintor.
Heaven knows! it is not every one who confidently writes himself
architect, that has legitimate pretensions, or indeed, any pretensions
at all to such title, if it is to be taken in its nobler meaning. Which
being the case, it is by no means very ditticult to understand why so
many of them affect to hold artistical talent in their profession so very
cheap, treating it as something of an altogether secondary consideration.
Nothing is more common than to hear such people exclaim " O ! that
is all mere matter of taste and opinion." Most true, yet it is not
every one who can distinguish between good and bad taste, — much
less who is able to display superior taste in his own productions. It
is true, taste is not absolutely indispensable on every occasion ; never-
theless it is of paramount importance in edifices laying claim to be
considered works of fine art, for in such case wanting sesthetic value,
they want what, in that character is most essential to them. So far
therefore, there is a very material difference between being a most ex-
cellent builder and an accomplished architect — and master of the art:
not that excellence in construction is no merit in itself, or one that
may be dispensed with at pleasure, but it is one which is negative as
far as the aesthetic value of an edifice is concerned. Health and
strength of body do not constitute beauty : in themselves, indeed, they
are more essential requisites, but still they are distinct qualities from
the other, although they, to a certain extent, contribute to it. In like
manner does good building — able construction contribute to the value
of an architectural production, but it cannot be received as an equiva-
lent for a;sthetic beauty, where this latter exists not, or perhaps, is
most obviously and offensively deficient. This distinction between the
Useful — the Necessary, and the Beautiful ought never to be lost sight
of; least of all in these our mechanical, engineering times, when they
are apt to be confounded together; and when it not unfrequently hap-
pens that mere utility and economy alone are considered all in all, and
all-sufficient; and taste to be something which it is as well to have as
not, provided it comes of itself, and can be had without trouble, but
whicli is not worth any study or pains to secure it.

III. Architects are somewhat unjust and inconsistent in depreciating
a class of artists whom they themselves have called into existence,
namely, those styling themselves Decorators ; for the latter would cer-
tainly not possess the control they now do, were it not that the others
have, in a manner, surrendered up to them one entire and certainly
very important province of their own art, — that one, in fact, where

1841.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

35

alone there is room for the display of aught like taste or invention in
domestic architecture generally. On this last account, it might be
thought that instead of neglecting — we might say abandoning, that
particular department of architectural design, the profession would
apply themselves to it more especially, as affording the majority of
theni almost the only opportunities they can hope for, of displaying
any ability as artists. So very far, however, is it from being the case
that, on the contrary, all relating to the interior arrangement and
decoration of private houses, seems to be quite overlooked in an archi-
tect's professional studies, and treated as if scarcely belonging to
them. Very rarely indeed is any subject whatever of the kind to be
met with at'any of the exhibitions at the Academy; while even those
who publish designs expressly purporting to be studies of domestic
architecture, and to furnish ideas for those who intend to build, are
equally shy of submitting any examples of interior fitting up and em-
bellishment, confining their attention, as far as interior is concerned,
merely to adjustment of the plan; and again in regard to this last,
satisfying themselves with doing no more than consulting ordinary
convenience, and avoiding palpable defects ; but without aiming
at any thing further — at any kind of effect, either as regards the gene-
ral distribution or the individual rooms. The consequence is that
■when the architect has completed his task, and taken his leave, the
owner finds all in the rooms in his house — with the exception perhaps
of vestibule and corridors — quite in an unfinished state — with bare,
blank walls. Of course then the decorator — who perhaps may be no
better than a mere paperhanger — must be called in, to give the finish-
ing touches to the rooms, before the upholsterer comes in his turn,
with his readyinade taste: — and it is well if between decorator and
■upholsterer, the architecture — that is, supposing there to be any at all
— is not fairly smothered. Architects — at least ninety-nine out of a
hundred, will sav that such finical matters as those of mere fitting up
and ornament, do not at all belong to them, nor have formed any part
of their studies. The consequence is that the whole department of
taste in regard to such matters, is consigned over to a class of persons
who have generally but a very poor stock of that article, and with
whom what is most expensive of its kind, and the newest in its fashion,
is always sure to be the tip-top of elegance.

ON THE STATE OF THE ARTS IN ITALY.

Brief Observations on the State of the jirts in Italy, with a short account
of Cameo-cutting, Mosaic work, Ptttra Dura, and also of some of
the Domtstic Arts and Mechanical Contrivances of the Italians, By
Charles H. Wilson, Esq., Architect, Edinburgh, A.R.S.A., and
M.S.A. Read btfore the Society of Jirts in Edinburgh, Not. 1S4U,
and printed in the Edinburgh Neiu FhilosophicalJournal, for January
1841.

I feel that I ought to apologise to the Society for bringing before it
a paper of this nature, which contains no description of any new art
or discovery, but which may rather be described as being little more
than a catalogue of arts and practices, most of which are of great anti-
quity. I hope that such a paper may be deemed admissible. As far
as my individual opinion goes, I would say that it would be very de-
sirable if several papers were read every session containing as distinct
accounts as could be obtained of the state of the arts and sciences,
with reviews of the progress made in them in different Continental
countries every year. That such papers would be useful in various
points of view appears to rae sufficiently obvious ; those who have
neither leisure nor opportunity to inquire for themselves would by this
means obtain a great deal of valuable and interesting information ; our
efforts to excel in the arts and sciences would be stimulated ; and,
above all, I think that, whilst our national vanity would be advantage-
ously chastened, feelings of respect and esteem, founded on a know-
ledge and just appreciation of the merits of other nations, would be-
yond all other iniluences lead to international amity. Feelings like
these have already been happily nourished by the amicable intercourse
of literati of different nations : the course which I advocate would tend
to the further diffusion of such sentiments amongst all classes.

I cannot, without presumption, imagine for a moment that the paper
which I now bring before you can deserve to be considered one of such
a series. I went abroad at a very early age, and my time was entirely
given ap to the study of the art to which I had devoted myself, and
which every thing around me tended to increase my love of. The
collateral studies of the youthful artist are naturally those connected
with his art, and are greatly more extensive in Italy, from many favour-
able circumstances, than in Scotland, and the brief allusion which I

have made to them and to the time of life when I lived abroad, is
meant as an apology for the meagreness of tlie details which I humbly
bring under you notice.

Any comment on the political condition of Italy would be out of
place in a paper to be read here, although a distinct apprehension of
it would be necessary previously to any inquiry into the state of her
arts and sciences, and also to enable us justly to appreciate the great
merits of Italian philosophers and literati, who, despite of adverse cir-
cumstances, so greatly distinguish themselves; but to so slight a sketch
of the arts of Italy as that I am about to offer, any lengthened observa-
tions are not so necessary. Whatever may be our opinion of Austrian
principles of government, and of Austrian influence in Italy, all who
have visited the Italian territories of that pow-er, must, I think, ac-
knowledge that Lombardy is greatly in advance of the independent
states, and in no part of Europe, Scotland excepted, are there more
numerous schools for the instruction of all classes of the people. As
the traveller advances southward, with nominal independence political
degradation increases, and the general character of the people is low-
ered. We can feel no other emotions than those of regret for the
prostration of Italy ; but if we examine into the customs of the Italians,
we shall every where find expressive indications of ancient power and
refinement, and pleasing proof that, where civilization and its attendant
sciences and arts has once held extensive sway, advantages are secured
of which it is almost impossible, or at any rate very difficult, to deprive
a people.

I shall commence with a brief notice of the art of painting in Italy:
this fine art has gradually declined, and there seems to be no indication
at present of its recovery. It is trammelled by academic system. The
Roman school is distinguished by a cold affectation of classic purity,
and a want of energy and nature in all its productions; but, whilst we
avoid the errors into which it has fallen, we should not allow these,
and the difference of its practice from our own, to blind us to its good
qualities ; many Roman artists draw exceedingly well, and they evince
this power in the large and fine cartoons which they are in the habit of
executing before commencing a picture. But if the student in this
country does not draw long enough, which I think is the case, the
Italian student, in acquiring his mastery of the crayon, seems to forget
that he is ever to use the brush ; and the Italian artists rarely prove
even tolerable colourists, whilst their prejudices as to the adoption of
many necessary processes in painting, and which were unquestionably
in use amongst their great predecessors, are invincible. This was
illustrated in an amusing manner one day in the Florence gallery. An
Italian artist was busy copying a Venetian picture, and my late friend
Mr. James Irvine, happening to look at his work, remarked to him
that he never could hope to imitate the brilliancy of the original with-
out glazing. "I know that," said the Italian, " but 1 won't glaze."

At Florence, painting is in much the same state as at Rome ; of late
some artists have endeavoured to add richness in colour to the correct-
ness of their drawing, but they have only succeeded in arranging on
their pictures in brilliant juxtaposition rainbow colours, without at-
taining that harmonious effect which marks the works of their great
predecessors. At Naples, painting is at a low ebb ; at Genoa, lower
still ; at Venice, it is little better; but at Milan it reckons amongst its
professors clever men in some departments of the art.

Fresco painting is still pursued in Italy, but with most success by
the Germans. I wish to avail myself of this occasion to do homage to
the extraordinary merits of the masters of this distinguished school;
in looking on their works, we cannot but regret that greater encour-
agement is not given to the highest department of painting in this
country ; in those which are encouraged, our artists excel ; and we
may, I think, therefore, justly conclude that ability would soon be found
to execute works of the noblest description.

Engraving may appropriately be considered after painting. You
are ail, doubtless, well acquainted with the great names which have
lately marked the progress of this art in Italy; most of these distin-
guished artists are now dead. Several of Raphael Morghen's pupils
are much esteemed, the best of whom are established at Milan ; many
very fine and important works have been lately finished or are now in
progress. Messrs. Ludwig Gruner and Rusweigh, both Italianized
Germans, promise to revive the style of Marc Antonio with success.

The Italian engravers are most successful in their works from his-
torical pictures ; but a practice which they follow is, in my opinion,
calculated to pi event their imitating with fidelity the style and feeling
of the artist whose production they copy. They engrave from highly
finished chalk drawings copied from pictures by artists who devote
themselves to this branch : however faithfully these may apparently
copy, it is certain that their drawings will, to a certain extent, exhibit
their peculiarities of mind and feeling, and, as the engraving must
likewise so far be marked by the style of its author, the process is not
favourable to the production of engravings of a faithful character.

F2

36

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[February,

It is but fair to mention that this practice is forced upon the Italian
engraver, as he can neither transport gallery pictures nor frescoes to
his study.

The landscape engravings of Italy are not successful. Frigid imi-
tators of Woollet in general, their works are far inferior to tliose of
tlmt admirable master.

Sculpture is certainly tlie art which stands highest in Italy. Canova
rescued it from the infamy into which it had sunk, and his genius at
once raised it to excellence. If I say that that immortal artist has
worthy successors amongst his countrymen, I express, as strongly as
possible, a favourable opinion of the state of tlie art. If we are to
term that the Roman school of sculpture which reckons amongst its
professors all the great sculptors of various nations who make the
Eternal City their fixed place of residence, then we must, 1 tiiink, hold
that it is the first school existing. England is worthily representeil
in that united school. 1 shall not venture upon any comparison be-
tween it and our present British school; but it is an important fact,
and to its honour, that, before Canova resuscitated sculpture in
Italy, England could boast a succession of very eminent sculptors. I
may mention the estimation in which our great Flaxman is held in
Italy. " Flaxman," said a dislinguished artist to mo on one occasion,
"was the greatest sculptor the wcnld has known since the time of the
Greeks;" and this opinion is very general in Italy. I touched shortly
on the state of painting in the different Italian capitals. I shall pursue
the same course with sculpture, but more briefly still, merely remark-
ing that, with one or two exceptions, there are no Italian sculptors of
eminence out of Rome.

In connection with the arts of painting and sculpture, we may now
consider mosaic work and cameo-cutting as practised in Rome. The
art of mosaic work has been known in Rome since the days of the re-
public. The severe rulers of that period forbade the introduction of
foreign marbles, and the re|mblican mosaics are all in black and white.
Under the empire the art was greatly improved, and not merely by
the introduction of marbles of various colours, but by the invention of
artificial stones, termed by the Italians smalti, which can be made of .
every variety of tint.

This art was never entirely lost. On the introduction of pictures
into Christian temples, they were first made of mosaic; remaining
specimens of these are rude, but profoundly interesting in a historical
point of view. When art was restored in Itidy, mosaic also was im-
proved, but it attained its greatest perfection in the last and present
century. Roman mosaic, as now practised, maybe described as being
the production of pictures by connecting together numerous minute
pieces of coloured marble or artificial stones; these are attached to a
ground of co]iper by means of a strong cement of gum mastic, and other
materials, and are afterwards ground and polished as a stone would be
to a perfectly level surface ; by this art not only are ornaments made
on a small scale, but pictures of the largest size are copied. In former
times the largest cupolas of churches, and not unfrequently the entire
walls, were encrusted with mosaic. The most remarkable modern
works are the copies which have been executed of some of the most
important works of the great masters for the altars in St. Peter's.
These are in every respect perfect imitations of the originals ; and
when the originals, in spite of every care, must change and perish,
these mosaics will still convey to distant ages a perfect idea of the
triumphs of art achieved in the fifteenth century. The government
manufactory in Rome occupies the apartments in the Vatican which
were used as offices of the Inquisition. No copies are now made, but
cases of swia//i are shown, containing, it is said, 18,000 different tints.
Twenty years were employed in making one of the copies 1 have men-
tioned. The pieces of mosaic vary in size from an eighth to a six-
teenth of an inch, and eleven men were employed lor that time on
each picture.

A great improvement was introduced into the art in 1775 by the
Signor Raffielli, who thought of preparing the small! in what may 1)0
termed fine threads. The pastes or xinaltt are manufactured at Venice
in the shape of crayons, or like sticks of sealing-wax, and are after-
wards drawn out by the workman ;it a blow-pipe, into the thickness
he requires, often almost to a liair, and now seldom thicker than the
finest grass stalk. For tables and large articles, of course, the pieces
are thicker; but the beauty of the workmanship, the soft gradation of
the tints, and the cost, depend upon the minuteness of the pieces, and
the skill dis])layed by the artist. A ruin, a group of flowers or figures,
will employ a good artist about two months when only two inches
square, and a specimen of such a description costs from 5/. to 20/.,
according to the execution ; a landscaiie, six inches bv four, woulil re-
quire eighteen months, and woald cost from forty to fifty pounds. This
will strike you as no adequate remuneration for the time bestowed.
The finest ornaments for a lady, consisting of necklace, ear-rings, and
broocbi cost forty pounds. For a picture of Paestuin, eight feet long.

and twenty inches broad, on which four men were occupied for three
years, 1,000/. sterling was asked.

I shall now notice the mosaic work of Florence, before touching on
cameo-cutting. It differs entirely from Roman mosaic, being composed
of stones inserted in comparatively large masses ; it is called work in
pielra dura. The stones used are all more or less of a rare and pre-
cious nature. In old specimens the most beautiful works are those in
which the designs are of an arabesque character. The most remark-
able specimen of this description of pietra dura is an octagonal table
in the Oubinetio di Daroccio, in the Florence Gallery. It is valued at
20,000/. sterling, and was commenceil in IG23 by Jacopo Datelli, from
designs by Ligozzi. Tv.enty-two artists worked upon it without in-
terruption till it was terminated in the year 1(J49. Attempts at land-
scapes, and the imitation of natural objects, were usually failures in
former times, — mere works of labour, which did not attain their ob-
ject; but of late works have been produced in this art, in which are
represented groups of flowers and fruit, vases, musical instruments,
and other compatible objects, with a truth and beauty which excite
the utmost admiration and surprise. These pictures in stone are,
however, enormously expensive, and can only be seen in the palaces
of the great. Two tables in the Palazzo Pitti are valued at 7,000i.,
and this price is by no means excessive. These are of modern design,
on a ground of porphyry, and ten men were employed for four years
on one of them, and a spot is pointed out, not more than three inches
square, on which a man had worked for ten months. But Florentine
mosaic, like that of Rome, is not merely used for cabinets, tables, or
other ornamental articles : the walls of the spacious chapel which is
used as the burial-place of the reigning family at Florence are lined
with pietra dura, realizing the gem-encrusted halls of the Arabian tales.
Roman mosaic, as we have seen, is of great value as an ally to art ; but
Florentine mosaic can have no such pretensions, and time and money
might be better bestowed. The effect is far from pleasing in the cha-
pel I have alluded to, and I think that the art might be advantageously
confined to the production of small ornaments, for which it is eminently
adapted.

An imitation of the pietra dura is now made to a great extent in
Derbyshire, wh.ere the Duke of Devonshire's black marble, said to be
quite equal to the famous Nero Antico, is inlaid with malachite, Der-
byshire spars, and other stones ; but the inlaying is only by veneers,
and not done in the solid as at Florence. This, with the softness of
the materials, makes the Derbyshire work much cheaper, and yet for
a table, twenty to twenty-four inches in diameter, thirty guineas is
asked. Were a little more taste in design and skill in execution shewn,
the Derbyshire work might deserve to be more valued, as the mate-
rials, especially the black marble, are beautiful.

I shall now return to cameo-cutting. This art is also of great anti-
quitv, and is pursued ^^■ith most success in Rome, where there are
several very eminent artists now living. Cameos are of two descrip-
tions, those cut in stone, ov pietia dura, and those cut in shell. Of the
first, the value depends on the stone, as well as in the excellence of
the work. The stones most prized now are the oriental onyx and the
sardonyx, the former black and white in parallel layers, the latter cor-
nelian, brown and white ; and when stones of four or five layers of dis-
tinct shades or colours can be procured, the value is |)roportionably
raised, pro\'ided always that the layers be so thin as to be manageable
in cutting the cameo so as to make the various parts harmonize. For
example, in a head of Minerva, if well wrought out of a stone of four
shades, the ground should be dark grey, the face light, the bust and
helmet black, and the crest over the helmet brownish or grey. Next
to such varieties of shades and layers, those stones are valuable in
which two layers occur of black and white of regular breadth. Except
on such oriental stones no good artist will now bestow his time ; but,
till the beginning of this centaury, less attention was bestowed on mate-
rials, so that beautiful middle-age and modern cameos may be found
on German agates, whose colours are generally only two shades of
grey, or a cream and a milk-white, and these not unfrequently cloudy.
The best artist in Rome in pitlra dura h the Signor Girometti, who
has executed eight cameos of various sizes, from lA to 3-i inches in
diameter, on picked stones of several layers, the subjects being from
the antique. These form a set of specimens, for which he asks 3,000/.
sterling. A single cameo of good brooch size, and of two colours,
costs -J'-'/. Portraits in stone by those excellent artists Diez and Saulini
may be had for 10/. These cameos are all wrought by a lathe with
pointed instruments of steel, and by means of diamond dust.

Shell cameos are cut from large shells found on the African and
Brazilian coasts, and generally show only two layers, the ground being
either a pale coffee-colour or a deep reddish-orange : the latter is most
prized. The subject is cut with little steel chisels out of the white
portion of the shell. A fine shell is worth a guinea in Rome. Copies
from the antique, original designs, and portraits, are executed in the

1S41.]

THE (^IVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

37

most Pxquisite style of finish, and perfect in contour and taste, and it
may be said tliat the Roman artists have attained perfection in this
beautiful art. Good shell cameos may be had at from 1/. to 5/. for
heads, 3/. to 1/. for the finest large brooches, a comb costs 10/., and a
complete set of necklace, ear-rings, and brooch cost 21/. A portrait
can be executed for -1/. or 5/., according to workmanship.

Having now touched upon those minor arts wliich have an intimate
connection with painting and sculpture, I shall make a few observations
on architecture, and the constructive and decorative arts which are
connected with that science, but this I must do very briefly indeed, as
otlierwise I should occupy too much of the time of the Society. •

The architects of Italy have bat little scope for a display of ability,
as the population is not on the increase, but, on the contrary, except
in parts of the Austrian States, has shrunk away from the number re-
quired to occupy the palaces, villas, and houses which already exist
both in town and country : and this is jtainfully proved by the number
of empty and dilapidated edifices. The various buildings which be-
long to Government, the churches, colleges, and hospitals, have gene-
rally been built on a scale of magnificence which has never been ex-
celled, in some instances never equalled, in other countries, but all
betoken more or less the same melancholy decline. By this observa-
tion I do not mean to convey the idea that the buildings themselves
are ruined or neglected; I allude to their emptiness, and to the ab-
sence of that state which once filled them with its splendour. To her
honour, the hospitals of Italy have long been known for their number,
extent, and order, and these are still models in many respects. Al-
though not many works, yet some of great magnitude are going on in
Italy, and in these taste in design, magnificence in material, and soli-
dity of construction, are displayed. The restoration of the Basilica of
St. Paul's at Rome is an immense undertaking : to eft'ect it, contribu-
tions have been obtained from all countries, whether in money or ma-
terials. It is said that Geurge the Fourth subscribed ; and I may
mention that the facade of another church in the Eternal City has been
built at that sovereign's expense, in a way which he must little have
anticipated. When the celebrated Gonsalvi visited England, his Ma-
jesty presented him with a magnificent snuft'-box, which the cardinal
in his will directed to be sold, an 1 the )ii-oceeds applied to put a front
on a church which had for a long time been unfinished in that respect.

The passion which all pontiti's have displayed for building still ani-
mates the less potent holders of St. Peter's chair of our day ; and
although inhabiting a palace which contains twenty-two court-yards,
twelve halls of entrance, twenty-two grand stair-cases, and thirteen
hundred of various descriptions ; two large chapels, and eleven thou-
sand rooms and galleries, in which miles may be walked without re-
turning on the steps, yet eacii succeeding pope adds or alters, or marks
repairs with his sculptured coat of arms.

Although there is not much employment for architects in Italy, there
can be uo question of the skill displayed in erecting their designs.
The masonry is excellent, and the ancient Roman brick-svork is rivalled
by that of the present generation: houses are built of brick, in which
all the exterior decorations are moulded in that material as perfectly
as if executed in stone. The skill with which the Italian workmen
build in brick may be exemplified by a notice of the Florentine prac-
tice of arching over rooms without centering of any description. Two
thin moulds of board, the shape of the intended arch, alone are used;
these are placed at each end of the apartment which it is intended to
cover in, and pieces of string are stretched from the one to the other,
guiding the workman as he advances in the formation of his arch,
which he builds, uniting the bricks by their thin edges (greatly thinner
than in those we use), and trusting entirely to the tenacity and quick
setting of the cement.

Plastering is carried to a perfection in Italy of which we have, I
believe, no idea in this country ; rooms are so exquisitely finished,
that no additional work in the shape of house-painting is required,
the polish of the plaster and its evenness of tint rivalling fine porce-
lain. At times the surface of the plaster is fluted, or various designs
are executed in intagUo upon it, in the most beautiful manner. Sca-
gliola, a very fine preparation from gypsum, is the material chiefly
used.

As an instance of the cheap rate at which this work is done, I may
mention the new ball-room in the Palazzo Pitti, grand-ducal residence
at Florence, which, including mouldings, figures, bas-reliefs, and orna-
ments, was executed at a cost of two crowns for every four feet
square.

Work in scagliola naturally follows in my notice of the arts of archi-
tectural decoration ; but this I need not decribe, as the art is now
practised in England with great success, and an artist has lately settled
in Edinburgh, whom I earnestly hope may meet with encouragement.
A most beautiful art may be mentioned here in connection with the
last, I mean that of making what are termed Venetian pavements

which might advantageously be introduced into this country. The
floors of rooms are finished with this pavement, as it is somewhat in-
congruously termed, and I shall briefly descriqe the mode of operation
in making these, but must first observe that they are usually formed
over vaults. In the first place, a foundation is laid of lime mixed with
pozzolana and small pieces of broken stone ; this is in fact a sort of
concrete, which must be well beaten and levelled. When this is per-
fectly dry, a fine paste, as it is termed by the Italians, must be made
of lime, ^^u^^o/tHm, and sand : a yellow sand is used which tinges the
mixture ; this is carefully spread to a depth of one or two inches, ac-
cording to circumstances. Over this is laid a layer of irregularly
broken minute pieces of marlile of diU'erent colours, and if it is wished,
these can be arranged in patterns. After the paste is completely
covered with pieces of marble, men proceed to beat the floor with
large and heavy tools made for the purpose ; when the whole has been
beaten into a compact mass, the paste appearing above the pieces of
marble, it is left to harden. It is then rubbed smooth with fine grained
stones, and is finally brought to a high polish with emery powder, mar-
ble-tlust, and, lastly, boiled oil rubbed on with flannel.

This makes a durable and very beautiful floor, which in this country
would be well adapted for halls, conservafories, and other buildings.
In connection with the arts which the architect summons to his aid, I
shall now notice that of ornamental sculpture ; and here again we must
acknowledge the superior skill of the Italians. The chief encourage-
ment to artistsof this description, is that given by foreigners, especiaUy
by English travellers in Italy. Copies of ancient sculptures, vases,
chimney-pieces, and other ornamental articles, are executed in the
most perfect manner, and at a very cheap rate. Such is the skill of
the Italian v/orkmen, that a native of Carrara actually cut a bird-cage
in marble, which he presented to his sovereign the Duke of Modena,
who, by the return he made, rather showed his sense of the folly of
the sculptor, than of his patient perseverance in the production of so
useless a specimen of his skill.

But whilst the sculptor displays his skill in these comparatively
trifling departments, he is equally successful in the execution of archi-
tectural details on the most gigantic scale, whether in solid marble or
in veneer. By this latter art he produces magnificent colunms plain
and fluted, the core of which is of coarse stone, but the joining of the
marble-coating is so perfect that the finished pillar seems a mass of
solid marble. The marble is attached iu a rough state to the core by
means of a cement composed of resin and marble dust, wdiich is so
tenacious that it admits of the hammering, chiselling, and polishing
necessary in finishing the work. By means of this system of veneer-
ing, the interior walls of churches and other buildings are encrusted
with rich and varied marbles, and tables and other articles of furniture
are manufactured at a very cheap rate. The art which I have just
described is, in fact, that of pietra dura on a gigantic scale.

With the sculpture uf the Italians in alabaster, you must be all ac-
quainted. This art is chiefly practised at Pisa, Florence, and Leghorn.
The material, besides being used in sculpture, is ingeniously applied
in Rome to the manufacture of i'alse pearls. The pieces of alabaster,
after being turned and filed into the proper shape, are enveloped iu a
brilliant paste, made with the scales of a very small fish found near
the shores of the Mediterranean.

To return to the subsidiary arts of architecture, I may remark that
the carpentry of the Italians, as observable in ordinary houses, displays
little skill and indifterent workmanship; but in the roofs and floors of
important buildings, they satisfactorily prove their knowledge of
scientific principles, and several of their designs are well known to
British architects.

With regard to the working of iron, in comparison with our system
the Italian is primitive indeed ; yet at times they can and do produce
very good specimens of workmanship, but at a heavy cost ; conse-
quently they are generally content with very ordinary productions. A
manufactory of wire, and of driving and screw nails, by means of ma-
chinery, now uccupks the villa of Mtcanas at Ttvolt ; the articles pro-
duced are very well made. Copper is extensively used in Italy, and
there are productive mines in the Maitmma Toscana, The work-
manship of articles made of this metal is respectable; various utensils
are made of brass in a very neat and satisfactory manner, but iu the
interior finishing of houses, if much nicety is required, articles of
foreign manufacture are used.

House-painters may be mentioned in the last place, and these dis-
play much taste and skill ; and there is a class of them who greatly
excel those in this country, liaving more the feeling and taste of
artists. Surrounded by the finest models in this art, the Italian de-
corator enjoys every advantage in its study, and he inherits besides
from the best periods of art, or rather from all antiquity, taste and a
good system of workmanship. He is not a mere machine like the-
workman in this country, who has little use for an intellect beyond

3«

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[February,

enabling him to use iiis moulds, stamps, and the various mechanical
contrivances which confine all our decorative arts within such common-
place limits.

In all our architectural draivings and engravings, we find a vigorous
artist-like style, which is reflecte<l in the works done from them. In
the architectural engravings of the present day, every thing is sacri-
ficed to a display of dexterity in the use of the burin; the spirit of the
original ornaments is never represented. How strongly tliis is illus-
trated, for example, in our engravings from Etruscan vases! Works
executed from such engravings, or from drawings like them, are natu-
rally stiff and lifeless like the models. People who possess a feeling
of taste, dissatisfied with such productions, seek to replace them with
older specimens, and amongst other things very inconvenient carved
chairs and tables, in the workmanship of which they find a pleasure in
tracing the influence of mind. But the cleverness in the workmanship
of these specimens has greatly misled the taste of the day ; and the
abominations of Elizabethan architecture, lately dignified with the name
of the Renaissance style, of which however it is a mere caricature, the
extravagances of the Louis XIV. and XV. eras, or the debonnaire bar-
barisms of Watteau, have contributed to the banishment of a healthy
taste in style. To restore a feeling for better art, the purer styles of
classic or Gothic art must again be executed in the spirit of better
times, and to grace of form must be added feeling in execution.

I shall now turn to the engineering works of Italy, a subject worthy
of much attention, but on which I regret to say I am able to say very
little indeed. The greatest works I saw going on were those at Tivoli,
and from the Ombrone to the Lake of Castiglione in the Tuscan Ma-
remma. I shall merely offer a very brief description of these works,
necessarily very imperfect, as I write entirely from memory. The
Tiber or Aniene, on reaching Tivoli, was dammed up by the architect
Bernini ; precipitating itself over the lofty barrier he raised, it disap-
peared under the rocks on which the town is built, and was seen again
in the celebrated grotto of Neptune ; rushing out of this remarkable
cavern it fell into another abyss, and again vanished into the grotto of
the Sirens, from whence it issued in the deep valley under Tivoli,
several hundred feet below its original level. The pencils of the
painters of every nation have been employed for centuries with this,

Fig- 1.

l^^^^^:^^

A/Great

:" F,

Fall. B, Neptune's Grotto. C, Fall. D.Fall. E, Grotto of Sirens.
F, New Tunnels. H, New Fall. I, Road to Villa of Mecena.

I may say, terrible scenery, this orrido bello, of the falls of Tivoli.
They may now depict the rocks, but the waters are gone for ever.
.Some years ago, Bernini's dam was carried away in a flood ; it was
rebuilt by the Pope's engineers, but if I remember aright the river got
the better of them and threw down their work ; at last they dammed
up old Tiber, and made the very ugliest waterfall that ever unfortunate
artist contemplated. It was now discovered that the river, in passing
through Neptune's grotto, had worn away the rocks in such a manner
that the town and its temple depended on a rugged pillar, the duration
of which could not be calculated upon. To prevent the town paying
a visit to the .Sirens beneath, it w:is resolved to turn the river, and it
will be acknowledged that this was a bold undertaking ; walled in by
mountains, it sought a passage under them; and to a certain extent
imitating the operations of nature, the engineers have carried the
river through two parallel tunnels, and tumbled it into the valley be-
yond the Sirens' grotto over a bank twice or perhaps three times as
high as the Caston hill. The engineers have saved Tivoli, but its
romantic beauty, as far as the river is concerned, is gone for ever.

The other engineering work which I mentioned, namely, the canal
from the Ombrone to the Lake of Castiglione, has excited much inte-
rest. The Lake of Castiglione, anciently the Lacus Prilis, falling very
low in summer, left much marshy ground uncovered, in which were
numerous stagnant pools, and quantities of putrid herbage, making the
air poisonous in hot weather, and breeding myriads of noxious insects.
To remedy these evils, Leopold the First ordered his architect
Ximenes to make a canal from the river Ombrone to the lake ; by this
means it was intended to keep the latter constantly at the same level.
This work was fijially executed by the present Grand Duke in the
year 1S30, and by means of a canal seven miles long and twenty-five
feet broad, a sufficiency of water is supplied to keep the lake at a
proper level ; so sufficient indeed w'as the supply that the whole sur-
rounding country v.as overflowed the first year, but this has been re-
medied. The air it is said has been improved; but when I visited
Castiglione in 183'2, 1 found that all who could left it in the summer
months, and all who remained had the fever. Some notice may be
expected from me of the engineering works in the Pontine marshes ;
but like other British travellers, I have only gallopeil through them,
and have merely to state that the attempts to drain them cost a million
of money.

The roads in the north of Italy are excellent, and indeed generally
throughout the Peninsula ; although a small portion comparatively of
the country is intersected by roads; and I liave travelled many miles
over turf, or by small mule tracks, both on the coast and in the moun-
tains. Towns are almostuuiversally built on emiuences ; consequently
the roads are hilly, but I think less so than would be supposed from
the nature of the country, and both in direction and in smoothness,
they greatly excel those of France.

"The system of road-making followed is nearly the same as that
adopted by the late Mr. Telford, that is to say, a pavement of stones
is first formed upon which the metal is laid ; but I do not think that
the principles advocated by our great engineer are followed out in the
formation of the pavement. Excellent roads, .however, are the result
of the system, even although gravel is used instead of broken metal.*

Various principles of paving are now exciting much attention in
London ; it is to be regretted that something like a sensible principle
is not followed in Edinburgh. In Italy various mode are adopted, in
Genoa und at Naples large flat parallelograms of lava are used, at
Florence large irregular polygons carefully jointed, and at Rome a
pavement resembling our own, except that the stones are of irregular
forms, of one size, and grouted in with lime and pozzolana.

I shall now touch very briefly on a few arts of Italy which remain to
be described, and shall then take the liberty of bringing before you one
or two contrivances which struck me as ingenious and of which I have
prepared drawings.

The goldsmiths of Italy produce ornaments which are both remark-
able for taste and workmanship, especially those of Genoa ond Venice.
I am enabled to show you some trifling specimens which our workmen
cannot equal.

After the goldsmiths I may mention the makers of bronze ornaments
and figures ; this is an art in which the Italians show much taste and
dexterity, so much dexterity indeed that they sell numbers of antique

* I have not seen the railroad which has been lately made from Naples to
Castellamare, but am welt acquainted with the line; a novel question in
engineer ng must arise in considering how it is to bi' protected from the lava
of Vesuvius. This 1 believe will not I.e very dirticuh. but it has a more in-
sidious enemy in the earthquake, and a more overw helming one in tlie showers
of scone and ashes which accomiiany an eruption.

Railways may be useful in Italy to promote her commercial prosperity, but
i puy the man who could think of travelling in such a manner through any
part of that country.

1841. J

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

39

bronzes of modern fabric yearly to soe-disant antiquaries, who, how-
ever, neither possess that extensive learning nor profound experience
and correct taste necessary to constitute such a character. It is much
the practice in Rome to take moulds from real lizards and to cast them
in bronze ; these make very pretty ornaments for the table. I regret
that I am unable to give you an idea of the value set upon these
works.

The manufacture of glass is pursued with great success in Venice :
the numerous glass ornaments for ladies which come thence are well
known, and the endless varieties of form and combinations of colour
given to glass beads for rosaries and embroidery, or vessels for domes-
tic use, are verv ingenious and beautiful. The ruby glass of the 1500
and 1600 can now be imitated so as to make imposition a famous
trade, the false being only distinguishable by weight. Glasses are also
made in which white threadlike lines of arsenic are incorporated. The
process by which they make sheet-glass differs from ours. Instead of
being formed into immense circular sheets, the Venetian workman
blows cylinders of considerable length and diameter; he then cuts off
the two ends of his cylinder, dexterously slits it down one side, and
spreads it flat on a table in an oven. By this process sheets of a sutB-
cient size are made, and there is no loss as in those fabricated in this
country.

I think that I have lately observed that the process which I have
thus briefly described is practised at some manufactory in England.

The velvets of Genoa, and the exquisitely turned ware of the same
place, the straw hats of Tuscany, the silks of Florence, the embroide-
ries of Rome, the musical instruments and musical strings, and although
last not least, the raaccaroni, of Naples, are aU samples of skill credit-
able to the Italians.

I shall now request'your attention to this lithograph of a triumphal
arch. This is a specimen of an art in which the Italians display both
taste and great ingenuity, and which seems to me deserving of notice,
for although it mav be deemed useless by some, yet it contributes
largely to their happiness. 1 allude to their preparations for festivals
ana pageants. Without entering into any description of these, I shall
content myself with exhibiting a print of a triumphal arch erected at
Tivoli on the occasion of a visit from his Holiness the Pope. Erections
of this description are put up in a day or two, being formed of a frame
■work of wood, covered with coarse canvass painted in imitation of
stone. The bas-reliefs are of stucco, and the statues are formed of
straw, arranged round wooden supports ; casts of heads, hands, and
feet are easily procured and attached. This aniina (soul), as it is
termed, is skilfully enveloped in drapery of cotton cloth, which is
tastefully arranged by an artist, ond is then lightly brushed over with
white-wash, which stiffens it. That a knowledge of the art displayed
in erecting this arch may be useful, may I think be proved, by an allu-
sion to the gallows-like erection under which his Majesty George IV.
passed when he entered Edinburgh.

In the summer of 1833 I made a journey from Leghorn to Rome
along the coast, a terra incognita to most travellers, ray object being to
trace the Via Aurelia. At Orbetello, the last town in the Tuscan
States, besides making some interesting antiquarian discoveries, I ob-
served the boats which lam about to describe. Orbetello stands upon
a peninsula, projecting into a shalluw lagoon of some extent ; the boats
which are used upon it, are flat-bottomed, rise considerably at the bow
and stern, being lowest at midships, across which part of the vessel a
beam is fastened, about four inches thick each way, and which projects
about two feet six inches over each side. On each of the ends of this
beam an oblong piece of plank is nailed, the longest sides being hori-
zental, and a stout pin rises from each of these. The oars are of con-
siderable length in proportion of the boat, and of great breadth in the
blade. The oars rest upon the pieces of board at the ends of the
cross-beam, being attached to the pin by means of a piece of cord, in
this last respect resembling a mode adopted in boats on our own coasts.
The blade of the oar slightly overbalances the portion within the ful-
crum on which it rests, the handles nearly touch each other, meeting
a-midship. By this contrivance, one man can manage a pair of very
powerful oars, and can drive a boat, which is apparently but ill adapted
from its form for speed, with surprising rapidity through the water ;
can arrest its progress, or turn it with equal rapidity and certainty,
and with very little exertion. The annexed engraving is a transverse
view of one of the boats.

Fig. 2.

My knowledge of boats and ships is indeed very trifling, but I could
not help seeing how easily the fisher of Orbetello manoeuvred his rude
boat; and therefore I have been induced to bring forward this notice
of a vessel and mode of rowing which I am not aware has been de-
scribed. Besides, it suggests ideas as to the probable mode in which
the ancients managed their triremes, well worthy the attention of the
antiquary, especially if he will combine the hint thus obtained with
the modes of rowing followed in the Bay of Naples on board the Sor-
rentine boats, which, I have been led to imagine from an examination
of pictures in Pompeii, are much the same in every respect as the
galleys which in old times navigated the same sea.

My next drawing represents (fig. 3j, by means of a section, an appa-
ratus used in Italy for warming baths. I need not describe it, but
shall merely observe generally, that it is made of copper ; the live
charcoal is put upon the grating A, which is put into the stove by-
means of the handle B, the fire is kept alive by air supplied through
the tubes C C, 7 inches diameter, and when immersed in the water of
a slipper-bath, this light and portable apparatus will heat it in a
quarter of an hour. I think it might be useful in this country.

Fig. 3.

fev-

E^

d_^^

r.fe

— V

T

^-

L .

1

•^

7

1 .

\IJZ- >

c

B

A

c

J !_■ 1

.10 ill

~^'>

z

I now close this paper with many apologies for having detained you
so long. The engineering works I have briefly described may seem
trifling as compared with those extraordinary and gigantic operations
you are accustomed to in this country ; but I would ask you to con-
sider the relative extent, power, and resources of the states, and you
must then allow that they are very creditable to the Italian Govern-
ment.

The Italians, we have seen, are still remarkable for their taste and
skill in many beautiful arts, and for nearly 3000 years they have been
thus distinguished. Various arts were successfully practised by the
Etruscans, and when they were subdued by the ruder Romans, they
did not lose their skill, but enlightened their masters.

The conquest of Greece filled Italy with artists and works of art;
and when northern hordes overwhelmed the empire, these ruthless
barbarians were gradually softened by the fine arts of the people they
had conquered. A new power arose in Italy, and by its influence
again she became pre-eminent in Europe, and we kndw to what illus-
trious perfection tlie fine arts again attained.

In our sale-rooms we see sold every winter manv cracked and dingy
daubs, and with these before him, the auctioneer rings the changes on
some half-dozen names, as if the Italian school could boast no more ;
but a host of artists attest the fertility of Italy in the production of
men of talent; and in Lanzi's dictionary, 1000 names will be found
before the reader reaches the middle of the letter D in the index.

I have imperfectly described to you some of the arts which the
Italian has inherited. I shall close this paper by observing that, what-
ever public work is undertaken in Italy — wherever improvement is
contemplated, even although it should not be extensive, it is justly-
thought that the assistance and advice of the artist, whose taste and
judgment have been cultivated, ought to be secured, and there is no
practice in its full extent more worthy of our imitation.*

* Mr. Wilson e.\hibited numerous siweimens of mosaic, pietra dura, cameos
of different ages in pietra dura, and specimens of shell cameos ; also of Geno-
ese and Venetian jewellery, Venetian glass, and ruby glass, together with
numerous prints and drawings.

40

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[February,

ON THE STYLE OF BURLINGTON AS COMPARED WITH
THAT OF PALLADIO.

Architecture and its relics betray the character of a people; an
evidence in themselves of national credit or misrule, they shed a
pleasing truth upon the record of history ; for there is a link between
the feudal castle and vassallage, between the stalely palace and in-
creasing revenue or commerce, between the more modest villa and
a privileged community. Carrying our minds, then, with this pleasing
idea, from the castle and the monastery, down to the 17th century,
when Gothic began to yield to the influences of Italian art, we observe
one architect whose talents, united to rank, justly merit our notice.
Comparing him with his great master, we may, perhaps, lessen his
claim to originality ; but as a disciple of I'alladio, he will ever appear,
for the age in which he lived, an architect of refined taste and of ele-
gant mind.

Burlington, aiming after Palladio and yet captivated by Jones, stands
distinguished from both, mingling, as he does, a little from the rich-
ness of the latter, with the more grave simplicity of the former.
Tamer in his conceptions, the elevation displays nothing of that in-
tricacy of parts, or of changing features, resolved and blended into one
harmonious whole as in Jones: — his unity is the whole, whilst his
parts are fewer. No studied appropriation of ornament compels the
eye to any particular part, no lofty feature rises to dignify. The
feeling of the artist is never led astray into any redundancy — all is
depressed, though carefully disposed. It cannot be said that he is
grand, for that excellence is destroyed by uniformity; nor can it be
said that I'.e is wean, for his variety, though scanty, is made up of
parts as much as of detail. He has his partialities, however, and
loves the colonnade, through the openings of which he permits you to
see his statues. Of statues, however, as of columns, he is very
sparing, and seldom exhibits the former prominently except on the
second story. Sufficiently alive to the sentiment of Palladio, he never
wearies but always carries you pleased to the wings of the faeade : —
but, with here and there the introduction of a balustrade, the relief of
a figure, or a special window at the wings, be is content. As an archi-
tect we must admire him more for his care than for his ingenuity,
more for his adherence to the existing rules of harmony, than for that
poetic sentiment, that brilliancy of idea, ever indulging though ever
beautiful, displaying features ever new and yet ever subordinate.

Turning now to the Italian, let us mark his excellencies, which
{being imitated by Burlington), when seen, will show how far he iden-
tified himself with the' genius of his master. To say nothing of the
talent which could change the features of his country's art, by investing
it with charms Loth new and various, we might regard him merely as
the vigorous restorer of ancient beauty. But, uniting the most sus-
picious care with the deepest enthusiasm, this master of combinations,
this genius of distribution, swelled tlie proportions and increased the
grandeur of design by a system original and true. Friendly to the
pedant whilst studying at Rome, but superior to the pedant in his con-
ceits and imaginings, Palladio allowed the same principles of rigid
adjustment that guided the ancient in his proportions to assist him in
his. But the contrast appears in the increased and enlarged concep-
tions of the latter as compared with the condensed beauties of the
former, different to Burlington who seldom starts into any thing grand,
or deals in gradations of feature. If the ancient has unity, expression
or variety, so has Palladio. If the one has a subordination of parts so
has the other: — the ditlerence is in the extent. That correct senti-
ment which assisted the depressed model of antiquity, aided the giant
structure of the middle ages, whilst a harmony of relation belongs to
the mansions of Palladio, no less than to the temples of Rome. Bur-
lington appears, but faintly to realize these ideas of relative beauty,
there is no grand feature to which others are subsidiary. In Palla-
dio's front the giant superficies displays degrees of importance amidst
its many subservient members; and it is not until the more consider-
able images have been scanned, that the lesser contrivances are seen.
The resemblance in style between Burlington and Palladio is in the
smaller auxiliaries only, where the variety is uniform, like rhymes in
poetrv, alternately, and where variety has its variety, "like the
stanza."

It must be remembered, in conclusion, that Burlington had to follow
the Italiau at a great distance, and to digest a new style at a time when
refinement and conceptions of the beautiful faintly existed. Remem-
bering this, whilst looking at the monuments of taste he has left us,
we see his ready talent, and that pleasing display of native genius,
wanting onlv a closer study from the same models, and the same at-
tention to the true elements of grandeur to have rivalled, if not to
have surpassed him.

Fkederick East.
January, 1841.

REPLY TO EDER'S REMARKS ON THE ARCHITECTURE
OF LIVERPOOL.

.Sir — Seeing that the remarks of " Eder," on the Architecture of
Liverpool have obtained a place in your Journal, and consequently an
importance which they had not when they first appeared in a paper of
this town, I will, with your permission, examine them a little.

I w ill agree with " Eder" that the Railway Station is a great failure,
but I should much like to learn from him how a front should be de-
signed, " which by its outward appearance should tell of the great
things going on behind it."

It is amusing to observe writers like "Eder" laying down dogmas
such as "Every edifice should express its object. A church should
display gravity and dignity, a theatre lightness and gaiety, a prison
rude majesty and sturdy strength, in short every edifice should like
the countenance express spirit." "In short," comes inhere very well,
for the writer could not furnish another illustration. What should a
Bank display ? a Custom House ? a Market? But '• Eder" has solved
the latter query by telling us that the Fish Hall " presents a very quiet
jilain portico expressive of its object ;" so then on seeing " a very
quiet plahi portico," we may rest assured of its being the entrance of a
fish market! A few axioms of this kind would render guides and
guide-posts unnecessary. Unfortunately, however, the proprietors do
not seem to consider the portico "expressive of its object," for they
have caused the words "Fish Hall" to be painted in large letters on
the architrave. So great is my dullness that I never yet saw a portico
which expressed its object, unless that was to keep off the rain and
sun.

Eder calls the " North and South Wales Bank one of the hand-
somest in town," it is true that the ground is "irregular in shape,"
the front being a little more than a right angle, so little however as
not to be worth mentioning ; it is also true that the architect has been
" compelled to obtain in height what he wanted in superficies, and yet
here are (normoiis difficulties overcome, and a handsome building in
conclusion remains." The "enormous dijfficully" consisted in building
a bank three stories in height. Now for its beauty. The front con-
sists of a Corinthian portico »i aiUis, being about three times its width
in height, the columns and pilasters are crowded together, between
the columns there are a door, and two tiers of windows scarcely large
enough for a third rate house ; the front is made about one foot nar-
rower than was necessary to obtain less projection in the cornice of
one flank, so that by this happy idea you have this foot in width stick-
ing on what ought to have been the return of the pilaster, and de-
corated with the rustic work, belts, &c. of the flank, which have no
connection with the front. This I confess is a " handsome" way of
getting over the " enormo\is" difficulty of reducing the ])rojection of
the cornice. The flank which is exposed to view is a strange jumble
of pilasters, paltry doors and windows of all sorts and sizes, some
Greek, some circular headed, some with swelled friezes — scarcely a
foot of plain masonry is to be seen here. The architect has rigidly
copied the columns and entablature from an ancient example, but he
has misapplied and misarranged them, and the order which charms by
its lightness and grace, the spectator in the Campo Vaecino, seems
here clumsy and heavy, and the substructure does not seem half strong
enough to carry the entablature. The ornamental parts of the order
are passably executed ; all the others both in design and execution
(no man could make those things on the principal door architrave or-
namental), are most wretched. To conclude, this building has cost an
enormous sum. I shall probably return to this subject, meanwhile

I remain, your's, &c.

Seyton.
Liverfool, January 19, lb41.

Ancient Tries of the Spanisli Chestnut. — Although certainly not a native of
this country, England produces some exceedingly remarkable specimens of
tliis valuable tree, in Betchwork Park, near Dorking, there are some Span-
ish chestnut trees of exiraorcUnary size and great age. certainly the largest
and oldest in that part of the country. There are about 80 trees, all of lar^e
dimensions. The subjoined table exhibits the circumference of some of the
largest, taken about three leet from the ground : —

No. 1
2

17 2

No. 8

20 li

9

17 10

10

17 0

11

17 2

12

18 0

13

10 2

14

18

0

21

4

18

4

19

3

20

2

18

U

25

0

No certain record, 1 believe, exists oi the age of these trees, but they are
probably coeval with the first Betchworth Castle, founded in 1377, when
"John Fitzalan, second son of Richard, Earl of Arundel, had license to em-
battle his manor-house here." — Gardeners' Chronicle.

1841.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

41

UPON THE ARCHITECTURE OF ITALY.

A Translation of the Observaliojis contaimd in the Preface to M.

Percier's work, cntiUtd "Palais et Maisons de Rome;" leith some

Additional Remarks upon that Preface.

By Arthur Wm. Hakewill.

The object of the following observations from the pen of M. Piercer
was to induce his countrymen to bestow pains upon the smiiUest, as well
as upon the most important works, and to anybody conversant with
the French modern architecture, it must appear that the architectural
productions and writings of that great architect have had tlieir effect,
France now being enlivened and beautified by numerous works upon
a small scale, carefully and picturesquely designed. M. Percier was
the very man to propagate principles with success ; to great talent he
united great amiability, and the precepts which he taught made a
liisting impression, for they found their way to the minds of his pupils
through their hearts, of wliich he had entire possession. He is now
lost to France, to which country he has bequeathed a rich legacy, in
the numerous skilful architectural productions and sage precepts which
he has left, and the name of Percier will be long cherished, not only by a
grateful country, but by all those who are sincerely devoted to the
art in which he w ho possessed that name so greatly excelled.

It being constantly a subject of remark, that works upon a small
scale in this country do not receive all that care and study so neces-
sary to give them their full effect, it would appear that the obser-
vations alluded to might be as beneficially applied to England in the
present day as they were to France formerly.

The English architect seems to think that great works alone
require great exertion ; it must be confessed that on such occasions
he seldom fails to rise to a level with his subject, and Ste. Genevieve
at Paris, compared with St. Paul's in London, either in design or con-
struction, appears a toy. But it is not an occasional building of this
kind that shows a nation fond of architecture, or which tends greatly
to the decoration of a country ; these two ends can only be compassed
by the architect fairly appreciating the scope of his art, by considering
it as an artificial landscape wliich mankind create' to themselves; and
therefore endeavouring to bestow on each production, however insig-
nificant in size, all that study, care, and attention, of which the subject
is susceptible, in order to produce a legitimate variety in his com-
positions, and to impart to each work a correct and peculiar character.
M. Percier says —

"Architects, upon their arrival at Rome, for the purpose of studying
their art, will naturally bestow their first attention upon the valuable
remains of antiquity, upon those imposing masses which, having re-
sisted the ravages of time and barbarism, announce to posterity the
grandeur and power of the Romans.

"After this first view, their admiration will be divided between such
beautiful monuments and those which either the piety of the Popes,
or the magnificence of the Roman princes, gave rise to in the fifteenth
century, at the revival of the arts.

"Drawing and engraving, by multiplying the master-pieces of ancient
architecture, have, as it were, laid Rome before the eyes of all ; from
the study of these buildings, some men of genius were enabled to de-
duce the elementary principles of architecture, they have taught us
how to view these buildings and contrast them, whilst, by their own
example, they have shown us how very possible it was to make a
successful application of those fine models, upon occasions which might
seem to offer but little scope for creating interest.

"This observation has, for a long time, escaped the attention of
architects visiting Italy : it was thought that the studies to be made
in that beautiful land, could only beuefit artists who had great build-
ings to construct, whilst every thing which did not carry with it a
certain degree of importance, was to be abandoned to the routine and
caprice of workmen.

" But there are in Italy, and particularly in Rome, a vast number of
charming habitations, which, under the most simple forms, bear the
stamp of a refined taste, and prove to the attentive architect, that
credit may be obtained in bestowing care upon the most humble pro-
duction, and this reflection should be a consolation to those who
profess an art, in which a very rare combination of fortunate circum-
stances can alone furnish the opportunity of being entrusted with the
execution of great works.

" If such men as Bramante, Vignola, Palladio, Sangallo, and Peruzzi,
have discovered in antiquity models for the buildings which they
have erected, if these successful practitioners of the art have known
how to apply, even in their slightest works, such admirable distri-
bution, so agreeable an arrangement of parts, that refinement, loo,

which constitutes the great charm of their works, why should loe not,
when similarly circumstanced, endeavour to emulate them?

" It is with the liveliest feelings of interest that we behold the great
artists whom we have just mentioned, bestowing, upon the simple
habitation of the citizen, the same degree of spirit, care, and refine-
ment of taste, which they have manifested in the erection of temples
and sumjituous edifices. They have embellished every thing, and
their pencils have thrown a charm over the modest retreat of the
philosopher, in no way inferior to that of the palace of the prince.

"Penetrated with the importance of their art, they have taught us
how to rid it of the prejudices of routine and the extravagancies of
caprice, they have taught us to take nature for our guide, and her
imitators for our models ; and have, in some measure, restored archi-
tecture, in bringing back the art to its true intent. We ever perceive
them skilfully availing themselves of the peculiarities of the site, and
fulfilling, with admirable address, the various requisites of the design.
Manifesting ingenuity even in the minutest detail, they never appear
to have worked at random ; they seem to have felt that nothing could
be considered beautiful in architecture which was not authorized by
some recognized utility ; that true genius did not consist, as some
moderns have thought, in waging war with reason to create novelties,
and produce bizarre ert'ects, but rather in the art of successfullj' apply-
ing the means which nature points out, which the site furnishes, and
which the work in hand demands.

"It is in thus fulfilling these conditions that they have succeeded in
imparting to each work its proper character, and it is thus that, ever
guided by good taste, they have been enabled to make us lose sight
even of the very difficulties they had to combat.

"Indeed, the greater part of their works bear the impress of that
rare simplicity which, like some revealed truth, always appears so
intelligible to those to whom it is disclosed.

" Their buildings are picturesque without being confused, possess
symmetry but are not monotonous, and being carefully executed, fre-
quently unite, to express ourselves in terms of art, the freedom of the
sketch with the precision of the more finished performance.

" We contemplate, with unceasing admiration, the ingenuity displayed
in the application of the various materials, such as marble, stone,
brick, wood, &c., few examples of which are to be found elsewhere.

" It must be confessed that hitherto the Italian architects have ex-
celled those of other nations. To produce the greatest effect with
the most simple means, seems to have been the object of their am-
bition ; whereas we, on the contrary, seem to take an opposite aim.
It would a|)pear, by the greater part of our modern works, our apart-
ments ingeniously circumscribed, our petty distributions, our plaster
columns, bronzed wood, and painted marbles, that we delighted in
imitation, contenting ourselves with appearances.

" We will not seek to unveil the real causes of this degradation of
the art, we cannot think that it has been brought about through
motives of economy ; for it would not be difficult to prove that such
imitations, far from being less costly, entail, on the contrary, continual
expences, both from the short time they last, as from the enormous
prices set upon such works by skilful workmen.

" We might, perhaps, with regret, pronounce it to be a proof that
architecture has never been held in great estimation among us ; for
the circumstance of a town containing a temple, a monument, a palace,
is no argument that the fine arts have made it their abode ; the ty-
ranny, pride, or caprice of a single individual, may, for the moment,
have chained them to the spot. But when, at every step, our atten-
tion is arrested by some masterpiece of magnificence, or even of sim-
plicity: when in every spot we meet with monuments erected for the
public good, the minutest detail characterized by that delicacy of taste
which proclaims a whole nation to have been cultivators of the fine
arts ; then it is that we feel we are in Italy, and that that gifted land
has long been their fixed abode.

" It is in that country alone that the most humble habitation offers to
the attentive architect beauties, not very imposing, perhaps, in point
of scale, but more immediately adapted to the wants of the community.
It is to be observed that the charm of these buildings results from the
arrangement of the plan and distribution of the masses, and not to a
vain )n'ofusion of ornament.

" We do not pretend to say that the buildings which we have cited
should be servilely copied, nor do we quote them as being entirely
free from defects ; we are also aware that our climate, materials, and
habits, often prescribe other forms. But still we may safely assert,
that by following the method which the Italian architects have pur-
sued in their compositions, in considering them relatively to the con-
ditions they had to fulfil ; in short, by studying them, an attentive
architect will know how to reaii advantage from the light which they
throw upon his art."

a

42

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[FEBRirART,

Thus far our author.

In the course of these observations there is one which it may be
allowable to remark upon, viz., the conviction tliat comes over tiie
mind of the traveller in Italy, that that favoured land has once been
the fixed abode of aichitecture. in her flight from Greece to Italy,
architecture alighted upon a congenial soil, and flourished through the
land, owing to the solicitude of the inhabitants in courting her stay
among them. The Italians soon found that architecture was their
domain, and set about studying it in that vigorous manner in which a
nation endeavours to effect any object influencing its honour; the chief
requisites for an architect being ascertained, they were early incul-
cated, and geometry and drawing were made the basis of excellence ;
indeed, most of the Italian architects ilrcw like painters; all dwell
upon the importance of that art in their writings, and manifest it by
the vigour, delicacy, and choice of detail, in their buildings; and one of
them, Scamozzi, treats of it in terms of veneration, and says "that
since, by means of drawing, that is so easily expressed which cannot
be described, even by a multi[)licity of words, we nuiy rightly say that
this art should be rather considered as a heavenly gift than as a mere
discovery of human invention" — in the original thus:

"Di modo die, per via del disegno, si esprime molto facilmente
tutto quello, che non puo far la moltiplicita delle parole expresse,
o descritte in carta, e per cio, a ragione si puo dire, che il disegno
sia piu tasto dono celeste di Dio, che cosa ritrovata dall'ingegno
humano" —

We may clearly see that it was not because architecture was prac-
tised by Italians, that the art made steady progress towards perfection,
but because the Italians, appreciating the art, studied it in a legitimate
manner, resting their claims upon the intrinsic merits of their com-
positions, and having no recourse to the blandishments of art, either
to make a parade of their beauties, or to screen their defects ; hence
it was that buildings, promising comparatively but little upon paper,
when erected became a real embellishment, creating delight and sur-
prise, answering completely the description of a French writer, who
says that a building should suit as a model to an architect, as a subject
for the painter, and as an object of attraction to the general observer.

A verv little reflection will make us feel that the course we pursue
is very different from that pursued by the Italians of the fifteenth
century, and those who once shed a lustre upon this nation during its
great periods of art.

It is ever essential that the means taken should be commensurate
with the end proposed; and as the end here is great, the means
should be so too. Architecture is a severe art, and consequently
should be severely studied. Geometry, the orders, the human form,
foliage, the countless and various objects of nature, are fit sub-
jects for the serious attention of the student of so delightful, com-
prehensive, and sublime an art as that of architecture. Doubtlessly,
there are many accomplishments which, if not pursued to the detri-
ment of more solid acquirements, add greatly to the perfection of the
architect. But may it not be asked whether we of the present day
pay not too much attention to these accomplishments, viewing them
rather as the fit materials for the foundation of our studies, than as
what they should be considered, the accessorial embellishments of the
uperstructure.

Foremost, then, among these accomplishments, is that of water
colour painting, which, from the developement given to it of late,
appears amongst us a new art ; there can be no doubt that, in the
hands of a judicious architect, this art may prove a valuable acqui-
sition; but indiscriminately pursued and applied, as it frequently is
with us, as a substitute for accuracy of form in drawing, it may act as
a serious check to the progress of architecture. It has this pernicious
quality, it easily captivates the mind of the student, and early destroys
that relish for those more severe studies which are so necessary to
his future excellence. Through the means of water colour painting,
defects in architectural composition are frequently cloaked, which,
when tlie building is in progress, appear in all their nakedness, to the
mortification and surprise of the employers, and to the lasting discom-
fiture of the architect ; and doubtlessly the forced and conventional
style of setting off" perspective views has led to the complaint so often
heard in this day, that buildings, at their completion, fail to produce
the effect they had in drawing, in short, that the drawing was a de-
ception ; we may feel assured that so fallacious a system is wholly
incompatible with the attainment of excellence in so severe an art as
that of architecture, and that if we wish to leave behind us buildings
which shall strike posterity, as those buildings which the Italians have
left do us, we must be content to submit ourselves to the same sage
and sober method of studying which those great masters pursued, and
then we shall enter the field with an advantage in our favour : for be
it remembered, that the Italian architects were obliged to glean, from
the works of their Roman ancestors, all they knew of Greek archi-

tecture ; whereas, to ns is disclosed llie mine of Greek art itself,
enabling us to go at once to the fountain head of taste, and of obeying,
to the very letter, the advice which the Roman poet gave to his
countrymen, when he told them to study the works of the Greeks by
day and by night : —

vos exemplaria Graeca

Noctuma versate manu, versate diumii." — Hor

ON THE STANDARD OF ARCHITECTURAL BEAUTY AND
SYMMETRICAL FORM.

By John Rooke, Esq., Author of " Geology as a Science.

In wliat may be called our own day, architectural forms that avow-
edly go by the name of taste, would seem to have fallen into all but
ideal conceptions. A train of discussion has however been introduced
into the Architect's Journal, based on the jmre freedom of criticism,
which is likely to uproot the inveterate conceits of the past ere long.
Heaven's laws are all founded on omniscience, directed by the infinite
wisdom of Almighty power. Were the universe divested of symme-
trical proportions, by which each part sustains its duties in an infinite
system, or bereft of the divine will. Chaos would necessarily lay pros-
trate the harmony of the heavens. But this is not so. God rules.
Mind is more mighty than passive substance. Physics place the signet
of universal truth on this comprehensive law, so conspicuously shown
in all tliat comes within our means of observation. Mind has rendered
all substance a self-acting instrument ou substance by the adoption of
such unification of purpose. We must believe in this ere we shall be
able to take in science a single step, which is not empirical. All
magnitudes of substance, which the intelligence of man is able to con-
vert into substantial forms, and in which that substance operates upon
itself, speedily fix their own limits, and would therefore break down
under the influence of excessive weight. In the hands of heaven's
laws, the extent of symmetrical harmonies is illimitable in magnitudes
and exactness of proportions, in perfect conformity to a unity in de-
sign, worked by physics, as created by a Godhead, whose Almighty
dominion nothing is either too extensive nor too small.

We may put our definitions on extent, and call this science, yet it
is nothing beyond an amusing bubble, until we apply such definitions
to the investigation of physical extent and combination in active forces.
By such means we discover the universal and varied forms in which
physics exist, and learn our own ignorance in the perfections and ex-
actness of natural laws, even in the most trivial details, worked to
their distinct ends, by that all-seeing mind which has made itself
known through the medium of organic substance, working itself into
like ends and means that are employed by man, when he embodies his
conceptions and will in works of stone, wood, iron, or other materials,
causing them to assume a self-working form for some end desired.

We so far observe two classes existing in forms of art. Those of
heaven ; and those of lowly man. In the first class, the more we study
them, the more we find the adaptation of their provisions suited to
their several uses. We find both a due quantity and quality of the
materials employed to produce the ends required, neither more nor
less, and taking the precise form held in view for attaining the object
designed. This principle is constant in each and all of the works of
the Deity, however opposite may be the magnitudes of such organic
framework. The spheres of the heavens are so exactly adjusted in
magnitudes as to retain their places truly ; and work out those com-
prehensive changes in the phenomena of our earth which geology, as
a science, based on the unity of divine wisdom, so plainly figures out
to us. 'Though the earth mayfly in its orbit at the rate of 6S,000
miles in each hour, and turn on its axis more than lOOO an hour, yet
these mighty motions, otherwise certain to disturb the waters of the
earth, and cause them to roll over the most lofty eminences, have been
efl'ectuallv bridled by a depository process, which has made a fruitful
laud, symmetrical in surface line.mients, to appear from beneath those
proud waves which have been thus stayed. By the same lofty destinies,
and by the application of similar laws, every secure haven for ships,
found on the borders of the great deeps, has its origin. We find the
sturdy oak provided with sufficient strength of timber, and durability
of q/ality to withstand the blasts of almost ten centuries. In that
slim animal the hare we find material enough to impart to her the
strength requisite for speed, without any of that unnecessary lumber,
which would retard her foot, and operate as a drag upon her course.
The greyhound may excel her in stride, and be able speedily to over-
take her; yet her adaptation for turning more readily than her pur-
suer, chiefly owing perhaps to her more supple joints and less bulk, is
suited for preservation. The ox, the horse ,the elephant, and indeed

1841.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

43

all other animals, are framed on symmetrical and mathematical rules
which serve their wants and contribute to their preservation. So that
vie detect a unity prevailing throughout, which we must accept as
constituting the only symmetry, harmony, or beauty which can exist —
because the best uses are always made of any sum of materials in
hand. All this exhibits the means by which in everv instance con-
ception and will gain an ascendancy over passive material bodies, and
impart to them unity in beauty and adaptation to their uses. Symme-
trical correspondences, which all admit to be a rule of beauty when
truly adapted to their several purposes, form by no means an ideal
taste, but a geometrical and mathematical rule rigidly observed in
every instance. Who would recommend the drawing of circles and
squares by taste ? Nobody. Even a school-boy with his compasses
and rules of art by which such figures are formed, would far outstrip
in exactness of outline, the most accomplished artist that ever lived,
had he no help except mere taste.

Coupling these observations with what has been given by the cor-
respondents of the Architect's Journal, on the geometrical and mathe-
matical harmonies of Gothic Architecture, it is plain that a fresh spirit
in architectural design has been evoked. We claim for our day the
age of science and civilization, and yet on what evidences does the
claim depend? Do we prove our assumptions by a belief in the uni-
versal harmony of physics, springing from the causation of Almighty
wisdom ; or by the self-sufficiency of an empiricism, which utterly
denies all connexion between philosophy and the laws of heaven?
Why is it not obvious that we have a philosophy distinct from every
religious consideration ; and religious impressions which disclaim all
evidences from philosophy; evils obviously existing because violent
and bewidered extremes can neither agree with true science, nor with
the purity of religion and morals. Mind is a universal power, of the
mysteries of which we know nothing, except that it always works in
pure physic according to geometrical and mathematical forms, upon
the nearness of which to our frail bodies or distance from them we are
totally unable to speculate.

Let this be accepted as the religious and philosophic belief of the
English monks in the thirteenth century, as shown by the symmetrical
harmony of their ecclesiastical edifices, and our ignorance and vanity
are at once apparent. Yet no sooner do we observe scepticism, reli-
gious indiflerence, or bigotry creep into the public mind, than we find
a decay in Gothic Architecture first appearing; and in less than two
centuries it may be said to have been wholly lost, insomuch as the
uniformity of geometric and mathematical rules were concerned. The
purity of Gothic Architecture, (what a contemptuous name '■) obviously
sprang from the religious purity of the English monks in the thirteenth
century, believing, as they must have done, that Almighty volition is
manifested in the exactness of physics, geometrically and mathemati-
cally balanced in every work of the divine will. If we collect our
proofs of this, from the day of Bede, in the eighth century, to that of
Roger Bacon, in the thirteenth century, we shall discover one of the
chief means, by which, in these five Gothic centuries, as we vainly
call them, architecture and science had risen to a state of pre-eminence,
which ought to make us blush for our own day, and acknowledge what
lessons of wisdom we yet owe to the works of the Gothic barbarity
bequeathed to us. Most unfortunately, according as papal bigotry and
superstition vitiated the religious purity of every succeeding day, an
opposite error crept in; and the world became all but divided between
a superstitious despotism, which denied all reason in philosophy, and
either a scepticism or a religious indifference, which promulgated a
philosophy, independent of every religious consideration. In three
centuries the lamp of genius, so brilliantly lit up at the fountain of
heaven's laws, as evinced in the geometrical and mathematical exact-
ness of Gothic Architecture, went out, and gave place to a race of im-
perfect copyists.* There can be no beauty but that which is symme-
trically and mathematicidly adopted to the uses and ends held in view.
Decoration, on all the rigidity of these severe rules, is displayed in
every surface lineament of our globe ; it is a scene of uses and beau-
ties combined by the modus operandi of attributes divine. Ignorance
may either oveilook or deny this ; and scepticism in the weight of its
prejudices may vainly strive to hide the lamp divine under a bushel
of follies, yet it is mildly bursting into the face of day in spite of either
dullness supreme, or wilful blindness the most obtuse.

Ere such the proud day of success arrives, a vast preparation must
be made. We must see distinctly what it is that we want. We must
forego all baseless taste ; and put a physical taste in its place. Neither
papal superstition, nor its opponent scepticism, based on the foolish
conceits of vain men, can serve us in the mighty acquisitions to be
gained. These have not promoted, but retarded a development of

" We trust the learned author will excuse us lor omitting some too flatter-
ng com;.liments to ourselves.

those noblest faculties in man, which alike raise the standard of our
religious belief, our moral qualities, and the perfections of our civil
institutions. For not a little remarkable is it, that the age, which
furnished us architectural remains so splendid, preserved if not ma-
tured our free institutions, amidst a period of turbulence and violence
disturbing Europe at large. What I humbly ask then is, that men so
well qualified as Mr. Cresy and Mr. Bartholomew, should go on and
fear nothing.

[These remarks border too mucli on transcendefitatism to be within
the usual scope of our columns, but as we know they represent faith-
fully the ideas of a large class both here and abroad, we should have
considered ourselves as neither doing justice to the subject nor the
author, had we not availed ourselves of his proffered permission to con-
sult our own taste in suppressing such portions of the paper as were
not conformable to our views. — Editor.]

ENGINEERING WORKS OF THE ANCIENTS, No. 1.

The Persians.

Engineering has its archaeology as well as architecture, the monu
ments of the Egyptians, of the Persians, of the Romans, are subjects
which interest every class of readers. To some it may appear that
the profession of a civil engineer is but of modern growth, it certainly
may be so considered as regards its recent progress, but to the atten-
tive observer a long chain of history is visible which records the
labours of engineers, not for hundreds of years merely, but for thou-
sands. On the engineering profession therefore the contemplation of
the works of their predecessors is imposed as a task, if they are at all
desirous that their successors should pay the same homage to them-
selves. The works of classic authors abound with accounts of in-
teresting works, the descriptions of some of which we mean to copy
into the Journal, as into a common-place book, trusting that it can
never be considered useless to any man to contemplate the glories of
the past. For this purpose we shall from time to time put down as
they occur to ns, extracts from the several authors, who have left ma-
terials for the subject of our enquiries.

Our present paper wiU principally be devoted to the works of the
Persians and the Babylonians, which belong to one of the first schools
of which we have authentic records. The history of this period forms
the first in the annals of engineering, as now taught in this country,
for the rudiments of the science laid down by the Persians, have, by
successive nations, been transmitted to us. Persia being, like Egypt,
a country traversed by a large river, and requiring extensive hydraulic
works, naturally led to considerable proficiency in this branch, which
would naturally be later of introduction among the continental Greeks,
to whom it was taught by the lonians in the Persian service. The
Persian monarchs, independently of their own engineers, also became
masters of the services of those of Egypt, Babylon, and Phoenicia,
each of which, as we shall see, had also peculiar opportunities of
study. From the Greeks engineering passed to the Romans, and so
through the middle ages down to the present time, affording an ex-
ample, paralleled in few professions, of rules of practice being trans-
mitted uninterruptedly for more than twenty-five centuries, and illus-
trated from the earliest period by specimens now existing.

The materials for the ensuing descriptions are principally derived
from Herodotus, who had authentic sources of information as to most
of the works which he described. They are, as before stated, chiefly
hydraulic works, and illustrate much of the antiquities of that im-
portant department of engineering.

CANAL Of MOUNT ATHOS. — CUTTING. — THE GOD OF THE ENGINEERS.

In the course of the war of the Persians against the Greeks
about the year 484 B. C, Herodotus* relates that, in order to avoid
shipwreck on the dangerous coast of Mount Athos, Xerxes determined
on cutting through the isthmus by which it is joined to the mainland,
and so making a canal for the passage of his fleet. Herodotus says
that three years were spent upon this work, the Persian fleet having
been ordered to the port of Eleus in the Chersonese, and all the forces
on board being compelled by turns to dig, and open a passage through
the mountain. In this they were assisted by the adjoining inhabitants,
and the direction of the works was confided to Bubaris, the son o
Megabyzus, and to Artacheeus, the son of ArtEEUs, both Persians.

Athos is described as a mountain of considerable magnitude, leaning
upon the sea, and well inhabited, (now, we may observe, by monks).
It terminates to the landward in the form of a peninsula, and makes
an isthmus of about twelve stades (a mile and a half) in length. The

* Polymnia 7.

44

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[February,

peninsuUi so formed consists of a plain with a mixture of liltle liills,
from the coast of Acanthus to that ofTorone. On the mountain and
other parts were the towns of Dion, 01ophyxus,Acrothoon,Tiiysus, and
Cleone, and on the isthmus stood Sana. The Persians iiaving drawn a
line Ijefore the town of Sana, divided the ground among the several
nations; and when the trench was considerably sunk, those who were
in the bottom stages contrived to dig, and delivered the earth to men
standing on ladders, who handed the same again to such ds were placed
in a higlier station, till at last others who w aited to receive the burthen
at the edge of the canal, carried it away to another ])lace. I3ut by
digging in a perpendicular manner, and making the bottom of equal
breadth with the top, all tlie workmen, exce))t the Phenicians, drew a
double labour upon themselves : because the earth, as it is natural,
fell down continually in great quantities from the upper parts. The
PhiEnicians alone, continues Herodotus, shewed that ability, on this oc-
casion of which they are so much masters at all times ; for they opened
the part which was assigned to their care twice as largo as others had
done; and sloped the ground gradually till they came to the bottom,
they then found the measure, equal with the rest. So much for the
mode of cutting pursued two thousand three hundred years ago.
We are thus enabled to ascertain the origin of the slope, and the pe-
riod at which its recognized introduction into the art took place. The
number of workmen employed, says our author, was so great that in a
meadow adjoining they had a market funiished with great abundance
of com brought even from Asia, and there was also a temporary court
of justice formed perhaps on the piepoudre system. Herodotus is by
no means disposed to approve of the necessity of the work, for he
rather ascribes it to ostentation, being of opinion that it would have
been much easier for Xerxes to have had his fleet carried over the
land. The canal was of a sufficient breadth to carry two ships sailing
in front, and at each end were deep trenches to prevent the sea from
filling it up, it was completed by the time the Persian army arrived
at Acanthus, in the neighbourhood (about 481 B. C.) — At this time
died Artachaeus, one of the engineers, who appears by all accounts to
have been one of the greatest men of the day, for he was in stature
the tallest of all the Persians, and wanted only the breadth of four
fingers to complete the full height of five regal cubits ; his voice also
was stronger than that of any other man. By descent he derived his
blood from the noble family of AchcEraenes, and was much esteemed
by Xerxes, who greatly lamented his death, and caused him to be in-
terred with great j)omp. All the army was employed in erecting a
monument to his memory ; and the Acanthians, admonished by an ora-
cle, honoured him as a hero with sacrifices and invocations. " Such,"
says Herodotus, " were the demonstration which Xerxes gave of his
concern for the loss of Artachaeus ;" and thus did the profession obtain
the patronage of a demigod from their own body, to whom if they
like they may build temples at this day. — In the meanwhile we sug-
gest to our antiquarian friends, whether the Persian engineers swore
by Artachaeus, and whether any devout modern would be justified in
using the same ancient form.

The fleet, it seems, according to orders from Xerxes, passed through
the canal of Mount Athos, and so into the bay on the other side. Our
author further adds, that the people of Acanthus, in consideration of
the great attention they paid in making the canal, were rewarded by
the king with vests of honour.

In the Babylonian district, the people were, as in Egypt, well sup-
plied with canals, principally for the purposes of irrigation, the water
being distributed from them by manual labour, or by hydraulic engines.
The largest of these canals,* continued with a south-east course from
the Euphrates to that part of the Tigris where Nineveh stands, and
was capable of receiving vessels of burthen. These canals and the
river were navigated by a peculiar kind of skin boat or coracle, to
which Herodotus devotes particular attention.

PASSAGE OF RIVERS. THE HALYS — THE GYNDES — THE EUPHRATES —

THE DANUBE — THE STRYMON.

In the course of the war of the Lydians against the Persians, Craesus
found it necessary to cross the river Halys.t when by the advice of
Thales, the Milesian it is said, that he caused the river to be divided
into two branches, as if he were going to make a bridge — the diversion
of streams being a resource well known to the ancient engineers both
of the east and the west. He sank a deep trench, which commencing
above the camp, from the river, was conducted rounil it in the form of
a semicircle, till it again met the ancient bed. It thus became easily
fordable on either side.

Cyrus in his war with the Babylonians made use of a similar expe-
dient, with regard to the river Gyndes, but from other motives. The

* Herodotus, Clio.
t Herodotus, Clio.

Gyndes is described by Herodotus CClio) ;is rising in the mountains
of Matiene, and passing through the country of the Darmeans, loses
itself in the Tigris. Whilst Cyrus was endeavouring to pass this
river, which could not be performed without boats, one of the white
consecrated horses boldly entering the stream, in his attempts to cross
it, was borne away by the rapidity of the current and totally lost.
Cyrus, exasperated by the accicient, made a vow, tliat he would render
this stream so very insignificant, that women should hereafter be able
to cross it without so much as wetting their knees. He accordinglv
put off his designs against Babylon, and divided his forces into two
parts : he then marked out with a line on each side of the river, one
hundred and eighty trenches ; these were dug according to his orders,
and so great a number of men were employed that he accomplished
his purpose, but thus wasted the whole of that summer. It is sup-
posed however that he was induced to undertake this %vork for the
purpose of averting some omen.

On his arrival at Babylon, however, he had to carry on hydraulic
works with a more important end. Finding the city strong and well
provided, and that its reduction by force or famine seemeu impracti-
cable he had to take other measures. He placed one detachment of
his forces where the river first enters the city, and another where it
leaves it, directing them to enter the channel and attack the town
wherever a passage could be effected. After this disposal of his men,
he withdrew with the less eff'ective of his men to a marshy part of the
river, near which there was a kind of reservoir, said to have been
constructed by Xitocris, Queen of Babylon, not long before. Cyrus
here pierced the bank, and introduced tlie river into the lake, by which
means the bed of the Euphrates became sufficiently shallow for the
object he had in view. The Persians in their station watched the
proper moment, and when the stream had so far drawn off as to be no
higher than their thighs, they entered Babylon without diflSculty.

Darius Hystaspes* in his expedition against the Scythians ordered
a bridge to be thrown over the Isteror Danube by the lonians. It was
placed two days passage from the sea, at that part of the river, where
it begins to branch ort', but of its mode of construction nothing is said,
although it may be inferred that it was of boats. Darius, when he ar-
rived at the Ister, passed the river with his army, he then commanded
the lonians to break down the bridge, and to follow him with all the
men of their fleet, but by the advice of Goes, a Mytilenian officer, he
allowed it to remain, leaving it under the guard of the lonians, with
orders if he did not return in sixty days to break it down. The Scy-
thians knowing this sent a deputation to the lonians to persuade them
to break down the bridge, or to maintain it only for the stipulated time,
to which latter proposition they assented. The delay of sixty days
having however expired, the lonians by the advice of Histiaeus of
Miletus, still maintained the bridge for the Persians, but to prevent the
Scythians cutting oft" the retreat, broke that portion near the Scythian
shore. Darius arriving in the night with his army, Histiaeus with the
fleet restored the bridge.

Bubaris and Artachfcus, the engineers of the Mount Athos canal,
were also charged during the campaign of Xerxes against the Greeks,
with the construction of a bridge over the river Strymon in Thrace.
For these bridges, says the author so frequently quoted,-!- Xerxes pro-
vided cordage made of the bark of the biblos, ancl of white flax. This
is all the account we have received of the bridge, except that the
army afterwards passed over.

PASSAGE OF SE.«. — BOSPHORUS — HELLESPOXT GULF OF SALAMIS.

Darius,J having determined on an expedition against the Scythians,
gave orders to throw a bridge over the Thracian Bosphorus, or as it is
now called the canal of Constantinople. Thisbridge was placed at Chal-
cedon, or as Herodotus conjectors nearly midway between Byzantium
and the temple at the entrance of the Euxine, constructed under the
direction of Mandrocles, a Saraian, who executed it so much to the
satisfaction of Darius, that he made him many valuable presents.
With the produce of these presents Mandrocles caused a representa-
tion to be made of the Bosphorus with the bridge thrown over it, and
the king seated on a throne, reviewing his troops as they passed. This
he afterwards consecrated in the temple of Juno, with an inscription
paraphrased by Beloe thus —

Thus was the fishy Bosphonis inclos'd,
When Samian Mandrocles his bridge impos'd :
\Mio there, obedient to Darius' will,
Approv'd his country's fame, and private skill.

This is perhaps one of the earliest instances of a votive offering, and
of an artistical commemoration of an engineering work.

' Herodotus — Melpomene.

t Herodotus— Polymnia.

} Herodotus, Melpomene.

1841.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

45

Xerxes the successor of Darius, in his previously montioneil cam-
paign against the Greelcs, also had occasion to pass the same sea, but
at another point.* While he was preparing to go to Abyilos, num-
bers were employed in throwing a bridge over the Hellespont from
Asia to Europe. The coast toward the sea from Abydos, between
Sestos and Madytus in the Chersonese of the Hellespont, is described
as rough and woody -. the distance from Abydos being seven stades, or
nearly a mile. The work however commenced at the side next Aby-
dos. The Phoenicians used a cordage made of linen, the Egyptians
the bark of the biblos. The bridge was no sooner coraiileteii than a
great storm arose which destroyed the whole work, which wdien
Xerxes heard, he ordered, as is well known, the Hellespont to be
flogged, and a pair of fetters to be thrown into it. The engineers got
worse oft", for they were sentenced by the king to be beheaded. Our
historian goes on to say with some naivete that abridge was then con-
structed by a -.'ifFerent set of engineers — which we should naturally
imagine, for it is difficult to conceive how men who were beheaded,
could very easily preside at works i) la Sain/ Dc7iis. The mode em-
ployed, as far as it can be made out, was to connect together ships of
different kinds, some long vessels of fifty oars, others three banked
gallies. These were arranged in a double row, one set transversely,
but the other in the direction of the current. When these vessels
were firmly connected to each other, they were secured on each side
by anchors of great length ; they left however openings in three places,
sufficient to afford a passage for light vessels, which might have occa-
sion to sail into the Euxine or from it. Having performed this, they
extended cables from the shore, stretching them upon large capstans
of wood, for which purpose they did not employ a number of separate
cables, but united two of wdiite flax with four of biblos. These were
alike in thickness, and apparently so in goodness, but those of flax
were in proportion much the more solid, weighing not less than a
talent to a cubit, an expression showing that the ancients knew how to
appreciate the qualities of cordage. When the pass was thus secured,
they sawed out rafters of wood, making their length ecpial to the space
required for the bridge ; these they laid in order across upon the ex-
tended cables, and then bound them fast together. They next brought
umvrought wood, (fascines qy.) which they placed very regularly upon
the rafters : over all they threw earth, and which they raised to a pro-
per height, and finished all by a fence on each side, that the horses
and other beasts of burden might not be terrified by looking down
upon the sea. Two ways were thus made, one on each set of boats ;
on one of these ways, namely, the northern, the infantry and cavalry
passed, and over the southern the camp followers and the baggage.
The bridge was afterwards destroyed by a storm.

At a subsequent period of the campaign Xerxes contemplating flight,
for the purpose of amusing the Athenians, he made an effort to con-
nect the island of Salaniis with the continent, joining for this purpose
the Phoenician transports together to serve both as a bridge and a wall.

BRIDOE. — EUPHR.\TES — BRICKS.

Babylon,'!' being divided by the river Euphrates into two distinct
parts, whoever wanted to go from one side to the other was obliged to
pass the water in a boat. To remedy this general inconvenience, and
mentioned by the historian as an expedient not usual, Nitocris, Queen
of Babylon, determined upon building a bridge, from which period we
may date the formation of permanent bridges as a part of engineering.
Having procured a number of large stones, she changed the course of
the river, directing it into a canal prepared for its reception, and so
into a large marsh or reservoir. The natural bed of the river being
thus made dry, the embankments on each side near the centre of the
city were lined with bricks, hardened with fire. Upon this we may
remark that the Babylonians used two kinds of bricks, the common
brick, baked in the sun, and another brick burnt in a furnace ; this
latter kind was most probably used on this occasion, as the more dura-
ble. Nitocris, then with the stones before prepared erected a number
of piers, strongly compacted with iron and lead ; on these piers a plat-
form was laid, which was removed at night to prevent communication
between the different quarters of the city. The bridge being com-
pleted, the river was allowed to return to its natural bed. This work,
according to Diodorus Siculus, was five furlongs in length.

EMBANKMENTS. — EUPHRATES — ACES — SLUICES.

Nitocris, just mentioned, is said to have been the author of several
other remarkable works, some of which are however, doubtful. Being
fearful of the ambition of the Medes, she is said, for the purpose of
preventing communication with them by the Euphrates, to have di-
verted the course of the river above Babylon, by sinking a number of

" Herodotus, Polymnia.
T Herodotus, Clio.

canals, and giving it a winding shape. To restrain the river on each
side, she raised banks, which are described as wonderful on account of
their enormous height and substance. A large lake or reservoir is
also attributed to this queen, its circumference being stated at fifty
miles, but it is more than probable that her works were confined to
reclaiming part of a natural marsh, or to securing the banks; these
she lined with stones brought thither for that purpose.

Herodotus relates in his third book an account of operations on the
river Aces, on which doubt has been thrown, but which whether true
or false, will be equally interesting as illustrating the engineering
opinions of the ancients. He says that there is in Asia a large plain
surrounded on every part by a ridge of hills, through which there are
five different apertures. It formerly belonged to the Chorasmians,
who inhabit those hills in common with the Hyrcanians, Parthians,
Sarangensians, -and Thomaneans ; but after the subjection of these na-
tions to Persia, it became the property of the great king. From these
surrounding hills there issues a large river called Aces: this formerly,
being conducted throtigh the openings of the mountain, watered the
several countries before mentioned. But when these regions came
under the power of the Persians, the apertures were closed, and gates
placed at each of them, to prevent the passage of the river, from which
expression we infer that the Persians were accjuainted with the use of
sluices. Thus on the inner side, from the waters having no issue the
plain became a sea, and the neighbouring nations, deprived of their
accustomed resource, were reduced to extreme distress from the want
of water. In winter they, in common with other nations, had the
benefit of the rains, but in summer, after sowing their millet and
sesame, they required water, but in vain. Not being assisted in their
distress, the inhabitants of both sexes hastened to Persia, and presented
themselves before the palace of the king, made loud complaints.
In consequence of this, the monarch directed the gates to be opened
towards those parts where water was most immediately wanted, or-
dering them again to be closed after the lands had been sufficiently
refreshed ; the same w'as done with respect to them all, beginning
where moisture was wanted the most. This, however, was only
granted in consideration of a large donation over and above the usual
tribute.

That the Persians were well acquainted with the operation of
damming appears also by other instances. Xerxes having examined
the Peneus, a river of Thessaly, inquired whether it could be con-
ducted to the sea by any other channel, and received from his guides,
who were well acquainted with the country, this reply ; " As Thessaly,
O King, is on every side encircled by mountains, the Peneus can have
no other communication with the sea." "The Thessalians," Xerxes
is said to h-ave answered, "are a sagacious people. They have been
careful to decline a contest for many reasons, and particularly as they
must have discerned that their country would afford an easy conquest
to an invader. All that would be necessary to deluge the whole of
Thessaly, except the mountainous parts, would be to stop up the mouth
of the river, and thus throw back its waters upon the country."

C To be coniinned.)

A SUB.STITUTE FOR CHIMNEY-POTS.

Sir — Owing to the many accidents which have occurred through
the late storm, from the falling of those ugly and useless appendages
(called chimney pots), which disgrace the noble works of architecture
in our metropolis, I am induced to trouble you with a few lines, should
you consider them worthy of insertion in your valuable publication.
It has frequently been a subject of my thoughts, how chimney pots
were first introduced, as they certainly are most useless and unsightly
articles.

Perhaps, if I draw the attention of your readers to the form of a tin
horn, such as is used by guards of mail coaches, the principle of
chimneys wiU be better and more easily understood ; if builders will
only try the experiment, I feel satisfied they will no longer continue
one of the greatest imperfections of our common system and mode of
building. If the large end of the horn be placed downward over some
ignited bituminous matter, we shall find only part of the smoke will
ascend ; but if we place the small end down,' we shall not only find the
draft greatly increased, but the smoke will ascend freely up the tube.

Hoping these observations will be of service to the public,
I remain, Sir,

Brixlon Road, Your obedient servant,

January, ISih J. R. B., C.E.

4€>

THE riVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[February,

REMARKS ON THE MORTAR USED IN ANCIENT
BUILDINGS.

WITH OBSERVATIONS AND DIRECTIONS FOR PRAPARING MORTAR IN A
MORE PERFECT MANNER THAN THAT NOW IN PRACTICE.

TuE great perfection to which the arts have attained cannot be
denied ; yet on examining the monuments of former ages, of which
many are still to be seen in this country, it does appear that the an-
cients had some manner of making and using mortar for their buildings,
of which our modem artists seem either to be ignorant, or do not
choose to put in nractice. Althougli the grand edifices raised under
the direction of tne artists of the present age, is a proof that our mo-
dem masters, by the study of the monuments left us by the ancients,
have been enabled to construct Iniildings vying with their patterns;
yet the moderns are still behind the ancients in the construction of
buildings with small or promiscuous materials, with that degree of
solidity which seems almost to set time itself at defiance.

There is no doubt little difliculty in raising lasting edifices bv build-
ing immense blocks of solid stone, one upon another — but if we say
nothing of the enormous expense of this mode of constrnction, even
where the materials are to be found in the vicinity, there is some
consideration necessary when wuiks which require durability are to be
constructed, where no large materials can be readily found. Hence
the erection of buildings which may be of the utmost importance in a
nationad point of view, as well as to individuals, has to be abandoned,
on account of the enormous expense attending the modern plan of
construction.

On a careful examination of many of the old castles in this country,
it will be seen that the materials which have been used are of the most
ordinary kind; and from the manner in which they have stood for
such a long period of time, it does most readily occur, that the mortar
\ised in these buildings, has been prepared in a different manner from
that practised by modem builders. In fact it will be found that many
of these old buildings have been put together with almost every de-
scription of stones down to the smallest pebble collected from the bed
of the brook, and where no heavy carriages or complicated machinery
have been required to construct the most extensive works.

Our ancient bridges and aqueducts all exhibit specimens of the
same kind of construction with very small stones ; depending therefore
on the superior manner of preparing the mortar by which these small
jnaterials have been cemented together.

Thus there seems to be an art lost, and in place of endeavouring to
recover this art by a series of well conducted experiments, men of
genius, and particularly our modem philosophers, seem to have prin-
cipally in view to bestow their labours in pushing into the world books
filled with abstract calculations which they understand only on paper.
These calculations are, however, by far too nice, and it i? much to be
feared that few of the writers could be found to reduce them to prac-
tice— and as practical men do not understand them, they are useless to
the world. It may be very well for the physician to write a learned
prescription intermixed with hieroglyphics, to the apothecary who
understands it; but alas! the carpenter and builder have neither time
nor inclination to enter into the abstruse analysis of the philosopher.
Bred to labour from their early youth, it is only from experience they
are accustomed to learn ; and it is therefore only from a course of well
regulated experiments, described in plain language and simple figures,
that the labouring artist's attention can be arrested.

It would therefore in almost all cases be the means of more rapidly
dift'using a knowledge of the useful arts, were our seminaries furnished
with the means of exhibiting in some degree of experiment, specimens
of the various useful arts. For without experience what is the young
engineer who is sent forth to direct the operations of a siege, to raise
fortifications, form aqueducts, or construct bridges ? It is clear he has
yet to learn from the labouring artificer, the essential parts of his busi-
ness; and thus he is sent forth only with the name, to learn from those
of inferior station, who are here found capable of giving instructions
from experience, where fine theories and abstruse analysis can be of
little avail.

' To return, however, to our ancient buildings, where it appears
neither time nor labour was lost in the execution. Many of them seem
constructed of little else than rubbish thrown together with an outer
coating of small stones, or pebbles from the brook, but built with a kind
of mortar which appears to have been thin enough to penetrate the
smallest crevices, and to form a solid, compact, nay almost an impene-
trable body. And if the ruins are considered with the smallest degree
of attention, it will convince us that all the secret of this mode of con-
struction, consists in the preparing and using the mortar which has
bid defiance to time, and to the tools of the quarrier to remove, after
the lapse of ages. Every workman who has been engaged in taking

down any of our old castles, will testify that he has alwavs been able
to remove the stone with greater facility than he could disengage the
mortar.

How differently then must this mortar have been prepared from the
very best which is now prepared by our modern builders ; for the
latter only dries to fall to dust again when broken into. Another of
the grand qualities of the ancient mortar is its being impenetrable to
water; and, in fact, the aqueducts for retaining and conveying water
which are still to be seen, exhibit no marks of clay or otlier kind of
puddle having been used for retaining the water. Therefore, it does
appear that aquatic ;is well as other works, were frequently constructed
of very small stones, by the builders of former ages, and that they
wer« in the practice of forming parts of their buildings into cases or
caissons of planking, by which means the mortar when run in amongst
the interstices of the small stones, was prevented from escaping.

It can therefore be most readily conceived how easily a building of
great magnitude may be constructed at a small expense, and that of
the most durable and lasting kind, of materials with which almost
every part of our country abounds, if we are only careful in the pre-
paration of the mortar with which these materials are to be cemented
together.

It does not appear that tlie.,apcients used any other ingredients in
their mortar than lime, sand, or. calcined earth, such as brick dust,
when proper sand could not be procured ; and therefore, ;>s already
mentioned, the whole secret seems to be the manner of preparation, of
which some explanation will now be attempted.

It is presumed the fact is well known, that in the burning of lime-
stone, the fixed air which it contains escapes, and the stone by this
means loses its weight. It has indeed long been the practice to grind
or slack the lime immediately after being burned, and by means of
mortar mills (where the extent of the works can afford them) to pre-
pare the hot mortar for immediate use for building or bedding large
materials ; but, it is a fact well known that this kind of mortar (to say
nothing of the great expense of procuring itj, would be useless in
orduiary buildings, as the weight of the substance in thiu walls com-
posed of small materials, would not prevent the burstings, cracks, and
sets, which would take place ; nor, from the consequence of blistering
which always happens when mortar prepared in this way, is used;
. rendering it unfit for plastering either to withstand the action of the
weather, or for lining water courses ; because it suddenly dries by the
evaporation of its moisture, and consequently, immediately gives way
to cracks and shrinking.

On the other hand lime-mortar after lying a considerable time in a
sowered state, imbibes again the fixed air which was discharged in the
process of burning, and when carefully examined in this state, presents
a kind of transparent, or rather icicle, appearance, which destroys in a
great measure the binding quality, and which, in oar changeable
climate, rarely or ever has the effect of cementing the building. The
latter, however, is the manner in which almost all the lime mortar is
most commonly prepared for building, both from a regard to economy
as requiring less lime, and also with regard to labour; and, it is more
than probable it was by hand labour also, that the builders of former
ages prepared their mortar. It is therefore to this principle that ob-
servations have been directed, of which the following notice is sub-
mitted, and which it is hoped, if properly attended to, will enable
those who wish to do so, to prepare and use lime-mortar not inferior
to that of the ancients.

Sower together a quantity of lime and clean sharp sand for two or
three weeks before being used ; work this well and turn it aside, and
as the proportion of the lime to the sand, will always depend on the
quality of the former, all that is necessary is, to take care (in sower-
ing), if the lime is of a rich quality, to put one-third less lime into the
heap, than it is intended to be built with ; and, if the lime is of poor
quality, say only one-fourth less. (^It may here be observed that in
general lime of the poorer quality is best for cementing building.)
When the lime which has been previously sowered, as before directed,
is to be used in the building, or otherwise, it is to be again worked
carefully over, and one-fourth of quick lime added in proportions,
taking care never to have more in preparation than can be used in a
short time ; and this quick lime should be most completely beaten and
incorporated with the sowered lime, and it will be found to have the
effect of causing the old lime to set and bind in the most complete
manner. It will become perfectly solid without the least evaporation
to occasion cracks, which can only ensue in consequence of evapora-
tion ; and this can only happen from tiie want of proper union between
the two bodies. But by mixing and beating the quick lime with the
sowered mortar, immediately before it is applied to use, the component
parts are brought so near to each other, that it is impossible either
crack or flaw can take place. In short beating has the effect of closing
the interstices of the sand, and a small quantity of lime paste is effec-

1841.J

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

47

tual in fitting and holding the grains together, so as to form a plastic
mass bv uniting the grains of sand which otherwise would not fit each
other. This system will apply to lime-mortar for all descriptions of
work, whether for l)uilding, plastering in the inside or outside of
houses, water cistenis, ground vaults, rough casting, &c. Szc.

It may not be improper to mention that whenever there is any diffi-
culty in procuring proper sand for building, clay is an excellent substi-
tute ; and all that is necessary is, to make it into balls, and burn it, and
then pound it like brick-dust, or pozzolano earth. There is no doubt,
in addition to the superior scheme of making mortar in former ages,
that, when they used only the small stone, which we see in the ruins
of their buildings, they were in the practice of using temporary casings
of boarding which they could move from place to place as the build-
ing advanced, and which would enable them to grout or fill up vfith
their quick mortar all the interstices in the successive layers of stones.
And moreover, by having the boarding of their centering for arches
and conduits quite close, they were enabled to lay on, along with their
stone, almost an impenetrable coating of plaster.

From the foregoing observations, it is hoped, it will be most clearly
seen that an easy mode of erecting substantial and durable building is
generally within our reach, and that the most inferior kind of stones
may be used, providing proper care is taken in the preparation of the
lime-mortar with which they are to be cemented together.

John Gibb,

Aberdeen, January 2, 1841. M. Inst. C. E.

ON THE CONSTANCY OF CALORIFIC ABSORPTION,

EXERCISED BY THE BLACK OF SMOKE ANT) BY METALS ; AND ON THE
EXISTEN'CE OF A DUTUSIVE POWER, WHICH BY ITS VARIATIONS
CHANGES THE VALUE OF THE ABSORBING POWER IN OTHER ATHER-
MANTIC BODIES.

( Translated from the French q/'M. MELLONi,_/br the C. E. & A. Jour.J

There were great difficulties to be overcome in the attempt to
prove that the black of smoke, subjected to the action of diflferent
kinds of radiating heat, always absorbs the same proportions of them.
The question would be immediately solved if we could_ successively
expose the blackened body to equal radiations, drawn from several
sources of caloric ; for a thermometer plunged in the interior of the
body would show by the greater or less elevation of temperature,
whether the quantities of heat absorbed vary or not with the quality
of the incident heat. When however we come to use the thermometer
or thermoscope in experiments on radiating heat, it becomes necessary,
as we shall hereafter see, to cover them with the black of smoke. On
the other hand, to compare two forces, whatever the effect which they
produce upon the measuring instrument must be estimated exactly in
proportion to their intrinsic energy. Thus we cannot compute the
relative intensity of rays of heat but by admitting the principle in
question : the experiment therefore of a thermometer plunged in the
interior of the body would be quite illusory.

The first operation is to take a disc of wood, of which one face is
white and the other black ; this is fixed vertically upon a stock move-
able upon its axis, and having successively brought the two surfaces
by a half revolution of the disc in presence of the radiation of a lamp
concentrated by a glass lens, each time is collected with a very sensible
thermometer provided with a reflector, the secondary calorific radia-
tion projection by the side on which the direct rays fall, after this ra-
diation has traversed a plate of glass interposed between the disc and
the thermometer. In the case of the black face there is no sign of
heat; but things are different with regard to the white face, from
which is obtained a very intense indication of caloric. It is well
known that white bodies can never be heated more than black bodies
under the influ>ncc of any radiation whatever, and under the circum-
stances of the experiment the black face gives nothing; therefore the
great action of the white face does not arise from the absorbed heat,
but from a true dispersion, similar to the diffusion suffered by luminary
rays and the exterior of opaque bodies. To prove the variable diffu-
sive action which a white surface exercises on calorific rays from dif-
ferent sources, and the constant absorption of the black of smoke in all
kinds of heat, a very sensible thermometer is used with a reflector,
carefully sheltered from rays direct from the source and by it are mea-
sured the true secondary anterior and posterior radiations projected
from the surface of an immoveable disc subjected to a given radiation.
The same observations are repeated for several kinds of heat by em-
ploying two discs of thin cardboard, one painted black and the other
covered with a substance more or less white The first of these discs

constantly exhibits the same relation between the rays vibrated by the
two faces, the second shows very different relations. Underneath is
shown the relative results of four species of rays arranged according
to the order of the temperature, of the sources from which they
emanate.

Black disc
White disc

-it JJi OJi 10

13 T5 TJ tS

2i> 10 10 10

TT Ti? inr n

In order to enable us to draw conclusions from tliese figures, it is for
the present to remark that the posterior face of each disc radiates in
consequence of the heat absorbed while the anterior face acts at the
same time by virtue of the radiations caused by absorption and diffu-
sion ; we therefore see 1st. That the black of smoke absorbs and dis-
perses all kinds of calorific rays with the same energy. 2nd. That the
diffusibility of caloric on the surface of the white disc increases with
the temperature of the source.

As a detail of the other experiments would require too great a space,
it will be sufficient to sum up here the general results.

1. The superficial layers of bodies cause to radiating heat a disper-
sion analogous to luminous dispersion.

2. We possess sure means of distinguishing calorific diffusion from
the radiation derived from the proper heat of the body, notwithstaud-
iag both radiations are equally composed of elementary pencils radia-
ting in every direction around the centre of action.

3. The black of smoke produces very little diffusion equal for all
kinds of radiations.

4. That other substances, and especially white bodies are very dif-
ferent, as they strongly disperse rays from incandescence, and weakly
disperse those which derive their origin from sources of temperature.

5. This special characteristic is enough to show that we must not
attribute the phenomenon of calorific difl'usion to every regular or irre-
gular reflection whatever ; for this would take place with the same
energy for all kinds of heat.

6. The dispersive action of metals is generally speaking more ij!«
tense than that of white bodies ; it especially differs by its invariability,
and on this point resembles the feeble diffusion observed in the black
of smoke.

7. By comparison between the phenomena of calorific diffusion and
those of luminous diffusion, it appears 1st. That the black of smoke is
a true black matter, both as regards radiating light and heat. 2nd,
That white bodies act with regard to radiating heat as coloured sub«
stances with regard to light. Srd. That metals act upon calorific ra-
diations as white bodies do upon luminous radiations.

S. The diffusion sends back a part of the incident rays proportion-
ate to its intrinsic energy, and thus diminishes the calorific absorption
of the whole portion of heat dispersed by the action of the surface.

THE PNEUMATIC MARINE PRESERVER.

Sir — In viewing the many interesting and scientific exhibitions at
the Polytechnic Institution in Regent Street, my attention was more
particularly arrested by the model of a ship fitted up with a new in-
vention, called the Pneumatic Marine Preserver ; indeed, I was as-
tonished to see the little vessel, though full of water and cargo, still
keep afloat, and to a casual observer's eye, without the least aid, as
the apparatus occupies so little room, and is so placed out of the way,
that ninety-nine out of a hundred would not observe the reason of its
buoyancy. While carefully examining the craft, a person who shows
it to the public, suddenly exhausted the air, and she gradually sunk
completely out of sight ; but to my surprise, by a few strokes from
the condensing air-pump, she immediately rose to the surface of the
water, and again floated about.

Being an old sailor, I thought it a duty I owe to my fellow creatures
to make it known to the public through your valuable Journal : and I
would particularly advise captains to have their boats fitted up vrith
the Patent Pneumatic Marine Preserver, as, in case of danger, they
then become perfect life-boats, far superior to any yet invented for
room, lightness, and buoyancy. If ever there was an invention of
incalculable service to sea-faring men this is the one, and deserving of
their utmost attention if they value life or property.

I remain
London, Your obedient servant,

January, 1841. An Old Sailor.

48

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT S JOURNAL.

[Februaet,

IMPROVEMENT IN MESr^RS. WHITELAW AND STIRRAT'S
WATER-WHEEL.

'J/////i/l/l/llilll!llllllimiTMinn.n , , .

In the " Mechanics' Magazine " we have a suggestion for an im-
provement in Messrs. Whitelaw and Stiriatt's Water Wheel, given in
hist month's Journal, of which the accompanying drawing shows the plan,
which, with the assistance of Mr. George Whitelaw, Mr. James White-
law has invented for keeping the new patent water-mill out of tail-
water, nn is the main-pipe, b b are the arms of the machine, and c
is the top of its shaft. The arms work inside of an air-vessel //,
wliich is fixed down to a building, and is covered on the top, but has
no bottom. The shaft passes freely through a hollow cylinder fixed
above an opening in the top of//; and there is anotlier hollow cylinder
a, fixed also on the top of //, and so large in diameter inside as to
leave room for a third cylindrical jjart e, which is fixed upon the up-
right shaft to revolve easily in the space left between the other two
cylinders. The top of//, forms a bottom to the space which is be-
tween the two cylindrical parts first named, and e is fixed (upon the
shaft in such a manner that the joining will be air-tight. An inspection
of the drawing will make the arrangement, &c., of the cylindrical parts
intelligible, g is one side of the tail-race ; s is the opening through
which the water escapes from//) into the tail-race.
. Suppose now the space into w hich the cylinder e works sufficiently
•filled with water to form an hydraulic joint of the kind very commonly
used in gas works; then, if the machine is set in motion, the air,
which will in some instances be disengaged from the water, will re-
main in the vessel//, and press down the surface of the water in it to
the level n ji, or even lower. In this way, the arms of the machine,
although on a level below that of the surface m in, of the water in the
tail-race, will work clear of the tail-water.

It may be found necessary to use a small pump to force air into //,
in order to lower the surface of the water. By running a quantity of
water from the main pipe into the air-vessel through an arrangement
of pipes similar to the water-blowing machine, air will be carried into
//. The space within which the cyhnder e works may be supplied
with water by a small pipe leading from a a.

A water-mill composed of two round plates, the one forming the
top, the other the bottom of the passages for the water, with plates
on edge and properly bent, running between them from tlie centre
outwards, so as to make the space between the round plates all into
arras, will work very well in tail-water. If a ring, projecting down-
wards is fixed to the under plates, then the bottom of the machine will
rub on a film of air, instead of on water, and thus the friction will be
diminished. This plan may be used instead of the one herein de-
scribed, in certain casos.

IMPROVED JACQUARD APPARATUS.
A machine has recently been added to the mechanical department of the
Salford Mechanics' Institution which promises for it a great increase of at-
traction. It is an invention of a gentleman of this town, and is called a
Jacquard apparatus. When appended to looms moved by power (as in the
present instance), or otherwise, it is capable of producing, either on light or
heav7 fabrics, not only a greater variety, hut also a wider and more extensive
range of pattern than any other kind of loom ; it makes a top and bottom
shed of any required depth, without the aid of weights and springs being
attached to the healds. The design is formed, and may be varied at any
moment by the apphcation of paper cards, or wooden logs and pegs. It wAl
weave with any number of shafts, from 2 to 30; and any length of pattern,
up to 5,000 picks may be produced by it. The invention is a vcr\- important
one to manufacturers. Other articles have Ukewise been added to the col-
lection within the last few days, but our Umits at present prevent us from
adverting to them. — Manchester Guardian.

BIOGRAPHICAL NOTICE OF THE LATE MR. WILLIAM

HAZLEDINE, IRON FOUNDER AND CONTRACTOR

FOR PUBLIC WORKS.

(From the Shreicsbiinj Chronicle.)

With deep and sincere son-ow we record the death of our respected
and endeared townsman, the eminent iron founder, William Hazledine,
on Sunday, (October 2l>, at his house in Dogpole, in the "Tth year of
his age.

It would be almost criminal to permit sucli a man to drop into the
grave like an ordinary human being, and tlierefore we hastilv present
a few incidents in his busy and honourable career through life.

William Hazledine was born at Shawbury, and his parents removed,
while he was very young, to a house at Sowbatch, near a Forge at
Moreton Corbet, now Moreton Mill, about seven miles from this town.
His father was certainly not wealthy ; but his ancestors were highly
respectable, their remains occupying tombs in the church-vards of
Shawburv and Moreton Corbet ; and these tombs the dece;ised, with
filial regard, caused to be repaired a few' years ago; lie also presented
two handsomely carved oak chairs for the altars of both those churches.
During sixteen or seventeen of his early years he worked around
the vicinity as an operative millwright. His uncle, under whom he
was chiefly brought up, was a man of considerable abilitv as a mill-
wright and engineer; and, discerning the steadiness and talent of his
nephew, he recommended young Hazledine, only IG or 17 years old,
to superintend the erection of machinery at Upton Forge, the property
of the Sundorue Family: this was executed most satisfactorily. He
afterwards became the tenant of this forge, and the farm belonging
to it, and so continued in after life.

After the patronage of his uncle he removed to Shrewsbury, and
entered into partnership with Mr. Webster, in Mardol, then a clock-
maker, but afterwards an ironmonger and the patentee of a washing-
machine. Their first foundry was in Cole-hall, or Knucking- street,
in this town; but the speculative and energetic mind of Hazledine
having increased the business, more space for workshops, and an in-
creased expenditure for that purpose, amounting to about 2,000/.,
were necessary : his partner being cautious and timid, a dissolution of
()artnership took place.

Mr. Hazledine purchased the ground in Coleham, where his present
foundry is situated, which has now four gables fronting the road. He
prudently first erected one worksho]), which occupied oulv one of
these gables ; but as business increased he extended liis shops, and
numerous other erections in the vicinity. He subsecpiently occupied
a foundry near Ruabon, iron works at Calcott, lime works at Llanymy-
nech, timber yards, brick yards, and coal wharfs, in various places.

About this time Billingsley iron mines, near Bridgnorth, were offered
for sale in Chancery. Hazledine attended the sale in London, and
found there was some jockeyship employed to depreciate the property,
and prevent the sale, certain parties being anxious to purchase the
works without any competition. Hazledine's sagacity saw the trick ;
he bid with spirit: at length one of the parties, who wanted to pur-
chase, came to him, and whispered —

" Do you know what you are doing? These mines and works have
not a good title, and you will liave to pay the expenses in Chancery if
you purchase them."

In an audible voice Hazledine answered —

" A bad title to the property, is it, eh '. and a Chancery suit, too, eh ?
Well, I have bought many things, and I will now try to buy a Chancery
suit.

He did purchase the property, but immediately sold it, gaining seve-
ral thousand pounds. The property finally turned out ruinous to the
speculators.

In November 1S04, at midnight, a fire took place in a room which
was the receptacle for his patterns for castings. Mr. Hazledine was
from home, but his wife (a daughter of Mr. Brayne, of Temhill), an
uncommonly strong-minded woman, heard the cry of "Fire in Hazle-
dine's foundry," whilst in bed with her infants, and immediately getting
up, gave directions for saving the books, papers, and other valuables,
which caused their rescue from the Haines, wdiilst a vast quantity of
other property w;is consumed with the building. Mr. Hazledine .vas
then the captain in a company of volunteers ; and his company,
comprising chiefly his own workmen, was merrily called " The Vul-
cans." The colonel. Sir Charles Oakely, Bart., and the whole corps,
were roused, and much property was saved. It was estimated that
the loss was 1,500/., and that about two-thirds were covered by in-
surance.

Undaunted by the calamity, he rebuilt and extended his foundry,
and carried on his various speculations, above enumerated, with great
energy. Thomas Telford, who in after life became the celebrated en-

1841.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

49

gineer, had been patronised bv Sir William Pulteney, and employed
in reconstructing some parts of' " Tlie Castle" in Shvewsbmy, became
acquainted with Hazledine, and these kindred spirits formed an niti-
macy which lasted through life.

Telford soon after was engaged in constructing the EUesmere and
Chester Canal, and Mr. Hazledine became the contractor for the Chirk
and Pontvcy?svlte Aqueducts, the latter being one of the most magni-
ficent works of the kind in Europe, which he completed so entirely to
the satisfaction of Mr. Telford and the proprietors, that he was imme-
diately engaged in all the national works in which the Government at
that time plunged. The erection of the stupendous locks on the Cale-
donian Canal was entrusted to him, and executed to the entire satis-
faction of the engineer and tlie country.

Hazledine's fame was now established, and he was employed in a
series of great works. The following is a summary : —

Pontycyssyle cast-iron Aqueduct over the river Dee, and the valley
at Llangollen, in 1S02.
A Bridge, 15U feet cast-iron, over the river Bonar, in Scotland.
A Bridge, 150 feet ditto, over the river Spey, in Scotland.
The Lock-gates on the Caledonian Canal.

The beautiful Waterloo Bridge, 105 feet span, near Bettws-y-Coed,
un the Holyhead road.

The iroii Swivel Bridges at Liverpool Docks.
The Liverpool New Market Columns.

A Bridge, 150 feet span of one arch, and two arches of 105 feet,
over the river Esk, near Carlisle.

The Menai Suspension Chain Bridge.
The Conivay Suspension Chain Bridge.

The Iron Roofs for the Dublin Custom House and Store-houses.
The Iron Roofs for Pembroke Stores, &c.
Many Swivel Bridges for Sweden.

A large quantity of three-feet Pipes for India, Demerara, &c.
A Bridge built for Earl Grosvenor, 150 feet, at Eaton Hall.
A Bridge over the Severn at Tewkesbury, I7U feet span.
A new Bridge over the Dee, 105 feet span.

A Bridge for Earl Morley, at Plymouth, comprising five arches, of
100 feet, 'M, and S 1 feet span.
A Bridge at Bath.

Holt Fleet Bridge, 1 JU feet, over 1he Severn, near Worcester.
The Swivel Bridges at the London Docks.
The Marlow Chain Bridge.
Montrose Chain Bridge.

Several small Iron Bridges in this county, and many others all over
the kingdom, besides the Lock-gates on the Ellesinere and other
Canals.

At the present moment, Hazledine's foundry is executing a very ex-
tensive work, namfely, several pairs of iron lock-gates for Newport, in
Monmouthshire, South Wales, each pair weighing 120 tons, the largest
ever executed.

In 1832, when the present Queen, then Princess Victoria, and her
august mother, the Duchess of Kent, honoured the Earl of Liverpool
with a visit at Pitchford Park, near this town, Mr. Hazledine had the
honour of receiving, through the Earl of Liverpool, the commands of
the Royal personages to wait upon them at Pitchford Park, and ex-
plain the principles and construction of the Menai Suspension Bridge
— Hazledine's greatest work. The Royal party expressed great satis-
faction at the lucid and instructive manner in which the explanations
were given, and the tact and shrewdness displayed in Mr. Hazledine's
answers. Persons who were present describe the interview as most
interesting. Mr. Hazledine received a present as a token of appro-
bation ; and we cannot avoid adding, from personal knowledge, that
her Royal Highness the Duchess of Kent, when she passed over the
Menai Bridge, examined every part of it minutely, according to Mr.
Hazledine's description, and even entered the caves in which the iron
suspension cables are fixed.

'This is a slight view of Mr. Hazledine's public works, and it gives
a portrait of him as a practical man. There are other features, which
we are unable to paint with the warmth and fidelity which they de-
serve. His strong afi'ection fur the members of his family rendered
his fireside one of the most happy round which an English family ever
gathered. He was ever devising some simple means of increasing
their enjoyments; and he attended personally to everything in which
their comforts were involved. At that trying season, when the wheel
of the "Union" coach locked into that of his gig on the Wyle Cop,
and overthrew him and shattered his arm in several places, and he was
carried home in such plight as threw his affectionate wife into such
agony as deprived her of life by a disorder arising from the grief she
suffered from his illness — even in that accumulation of sorrows his
presence of mind and affectionate care never for a moment ceased ;
and whilst his face was suffused with sweat from the extreme agony

he was suffering from the bone of his arm having to be again broken
by the surgeon — even then he took upon himself the whole prepara-
tion for the funeral of his beloved wife, down to the minutest fittings
up of the coffin and funeral clothes ; and what all his own sufferings
could not wring from him, he gave way to with the utmost bitterness
when the dead body of her he so much loved was carried into his
chamber, that he might kiss it before it was for ever removed from
his sight !

As a master he was kind and considerate to all employed under him ;
his W'orkmen, if they conducted themselves well, became grey, and
died in his service. In our obituary last month we recorded the death
of John Maybrey, sen., who had been upwards of 40 years in the em-
])loyment of Mr. Hazledine, who, indeed, reminds us of Addison's
character of Sir Roger de Coveiley : — " You see the goodness of the
master even in the house-dog, and in his grey horse, that is kept in the
stable vfith great care and tenderness, out of regard to his past ser-
vices, though he has been useless several years."

The religion of Hazledine was also somewhat characterised by Ad-
dison : — " Nothing is so glorious in the eyes of mankind, and orna-
mental to human nature — setting aside the infinite advantages which
arise from it — -as a strong, steady, masculine piety ; but Enthusiasm
and Superstition are the weaknesses of human reason — that expose us
to the scorn and derision of Infidels, and sink us even below the beasts
that perish."

A very short time before he was confined to bed by his last illness,
a nobleman, equally distinguished by his literary and legal talents, and
filling one of the highest situations which a subject can occupy, arrived
in the town, at a little before seven in the morning, and inquired at tlie
Lion if Mr. Hazledine was likely to be up ?

"Oh yes," was the replv ; " he passed here an hour and a half ago,
on his way to the foundry."

" I regret that," said his lordship, " for I wanted a few minutes' con-
versation with him, which I cannot now have; but tell him from me,

that Lord inquired after him, and is happy to hear he is so well.

My belief is," added his lordship, "that William Hazledine is the first
practical man in Europe."

PROPOSAL FOR ESTABLISHING A BRITISH ASSOCIATION
FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF THE FINE ARTS.

A knovi'ledge and consequent due appreciation of the fine arts, —
the arts which purify and ennoble, — are now observable amongst much
larger masses of persons in the metropolitan cities of the United King-
dom, than was the case twenty years ago ; and must inevitably go on
to augment in a greatly multiplied ratio, as every step gained becomes
the means of further advances. In the provinces, too, where there are
fewer "appliances and means to boot," the attention of the people to
the importance of the fine arts as civilizing agents, and as tending to
promote the general good and therefore the general happiness, has
visibly increased, and lias manifested itself in more than one good re-
sult. Still there is a wide field here open for exertion; and so un-
deniably important is the object to be attained, so vast is the good that
would result from spreading a taste for the fine arts throughout the
country, and inculcating a love of the beautiful, that no efforts could
be too great, no scheme of operations could be too extensive, which
should propose to efi'ect it.

Experience shows the advantages which have resulted from the
establishment of the "British Association for the Promotion of Science,"
not chiefly to science per se, although these have been great and mani-
fold, but to the people generally : attention has been awakened in the
minds of thousands to subjects before unthought of ; a spirit of inquiry
has been induced : and whole towns innoculated with an admiration ot
knowledge, and a determination to pursue it, to the exclusion of de-
moralizing sources of excitement, until then indulged in. Why, then,
might there not be formed an association for tlie encouragement ot
ART, which, like this, should meet annually at a different town in Eng-
land, Ireland, or Scotland, and at which meeting painting, poetry,
sculpture, architecture, &c., &c., in all their varieties, and with all
their ramifications, should form the subjects for the consideration of
the different sections. A large and important exhibition of works of
art might be collected, and an Art-Union arranged so as to secure the
sale of a certain number of them, and thus to ensure the assistance of
the most eminent artists, by lendering the society directly as well as
indirecth- advantageous to them. A small subscription (say of one
pound) would constitute a member of the association for the year, the
aggregate of which, after deducting the expenses necessarily immrred,
would probably enable the committee (which should be partly local,
partly general) to offer prizes for competition in the higher branches

H

50

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[February,

of the various arts, and vole sums for the encourngernent of any de-
sirable object, in connexion therewith ; such, for example, as for the
prosecution of experiments in the preparation of colours, the manu-
facture of stained-glass, or for the purchase of particular pictures,
worthy of national regard.

During the meeting the various local collections would be thrown
open to inspection; conversazioni would be held; and i.ther means
adopted to bring men into contact with each other, on one common
ground. One ot the first points to be achieved by the united sections
would be, to obtain an able and correct report of the progress of Art
in England, Ireland, and Scotland, for the last fifty years — a task to be
fulfilled satisfactorilv only by the joint co-operation of men in all parts
of the country. This report would afterwards be continued from year
to year, under its various heads, and could not fail to prove a work of
the highest interest and value. It is not here attempted, however, to
point o\it what could be done by a society organized on the footing
suggested : its power of effecting much good must be apparent to all,
and needs hardly to be insisted on. The writer is contented simply,
but with great earnestness and but one object, — namely, strong desire
to serve the cause the Art (the cause of morality and public good), to
state the ))roposition, in the hope that others of more ability, influence,
and leisure, may view it as it has appeared to him ; and be induced to
carry it into execution, etliciently and forthwith.

George Godwin, Jun.

Pelham Crescent, Bromplon,
January, 1841.

WOOLF'S DOUBLE CYLINDER ROTARY ENGINE.

SiR—In your number for December last, I read a very interesting
account of the communication made at the annual meeting of the Man-
chester Geological .Society, by Mr. William Fairbairn; Mr. Fairbairn
paid a just triliute of praise to the late Mr. Woolf, by acknowledging
the real services rendered by his single engine in Cornwall particularly,
and to science generally, "in consequence of the undoubted progress
made by his application of high pressure steam employed expansively.
Mr. Fanbairn's remarks were the more gratifying, inasmuch as the
exertions of Mr. Woolf appear generally to be in a state of perfect
" oubli," although there can be very little doubt, that he was the first
after Mr. Watt to give an impulse to the progress of the Cornish en-
gine, and that much more is due to him than has been generally ac-
knowledged, this circumstance reflects honourably on Mr. Fairbairn's
proceeding, to whom much praise is due for his just observations, and
for bringing before society a name that is little known, and more
honoured abroad than at home.

The principal object of my present application to you is to request,
that you will give place to "the following observations relative to Mr.
Woolf's double cylinder rotary engine, which being but little used in
England, has been hitherto very much neglected. I am of opinion
that this engine, if better known, and if patronized by engineers of
enterprising genius, and in "good repute," would very generally be
preferreil to every other known system : I speak after having had long
and solid experience, and having been in the habit of actual observa-
tion abroad, on many hundreds of engines upon different systems, I
can very confidently assert, that Woolf's engines when properly made,
■will work quite as well as any other engine, and will perform the same
duty with a consumption of coal that will not e\ceeAjirc pounds per
horse power per hour; I have seen many engines of this description
doing very satisfactory duty with less.

I have had several opportunities of conversing with manufacturers,
who having had low pressure engines, have contracted with engineers
to have their cylinders and boilers replaced for the purpose of apply-
ing Woolf's principle, and they have invariably declared that they
have cfl'ected a saving of upwards of one half of the fuel.

I will cite for example an engine on Woolf's principle erected in a
mill for rolling zinc and lead, and for drawing pipes. The dimensions
of this engine were as follows.

Area of small cylinder, 2U7'39 square inches.

Stroke of tmall piston, 1-.59 feet.

Speed of piston per minute, 176-34 feet.

Area of big cylinder, tiliu- square inches.

Stroke of big piston, G-3 feet.

Speed of piston per minute, 242' feet.

Pressure of steam in the boiler tending to escape into the external
atmosphere, 40 lb. per square inch.

The capacity of the small cylinder naturally determines the quan-
tity of steam that the boilei must supply, and allowing that the cylinder
fills with steam of an clastic power equal to that iu the boiler, and ad-

mitting that the big cylinder produces the same effect as the cylinder
of an ordinary low pressure engine, the total power of the above
engine may be computed in the following manner.

Area of each cylinder in square inches, X pressvtre of steam per
square inch, X speed of piston in feet, and (he product divided by
3;30U01b. one foot high per minute per horse power, will give the
computed power of each cylinder.

^ „ ... 207-39X4OX17G-34 ..„„„„

Small cyhnder -— — ^--- = 44-32 H. P.

Big cylinder.

330U0
660 X 10 X 242
33000 '

= 48-40ttP.

Computed power of the engine
If we deduct for friction one-third

= 92-72 H. P.
= 30-92

:61-S H.P.

The eftective power will be

I will call her a CO horse engine.

To ascertain the quantity of coal this engine will burn, it will be
requisite to determine the quantity of water that must he evaporated,
to produce a sufficient supply of steam, which can- be done as follows :

The area of the small cylinder in sq. inches X by the speed in feet

144 ~

capacity of small cylinder in cubic feet per minute.

•207-39 X 17G-34 ..., , . , , ....
;= 2o4 cubic feet, representmg the space occupied

by the action of the piston in one minute, and if we add thereto one-
tenth for the steam ways, and the space between the top and bottom
of the cylinder and the piston, we shall find that the boiler must sup-
ply per minute, 254 -1-25-4=:; 279-4, or say 280 cubic feet of steam,
under a pressure of 40 lb. per square inch, and per horse 280 X 60 =:
1G800 cubic feet of steam.

One cubic foot of water converted into steam of an elastic form
equal to 40 lb. per square inch, will occupy in the shape of steam about
520 times the original volume, consequently the ItiSOO cubic feet of

IfiftOft
steam that will be requisite per hour, will be the produce of =:

32-31 cubic feet of water per hour.

32-31 X f>2-5 = 2020 lb. avoirdupois.
-Suppose 1 lb. of coal to evaporate 8 lb. of water, and Messrs. Parkes
and Wicksteed have proved that more can be done, but allowing 8 lb.
as a fair proportion, the hourly consumption of coal would be

= 252-5 lb. of coal per hour.

8

and

2.''>2

: 4-2 lb. of coal per hour per horse power.

I am aware that nothing in the above computation has been allowed
for leakage by the piston, but with a good and true cylinder, and a well
fitted piston, very little steam will pass — and if 5 lb. of coal are allow-
ed instead of 4-2 as above, the difference will more than compensate
for any loss of this kind.

The above engine was for a considerable length of time doing only
40 horses work, and her average consumption of coal was 1 hectohter,
or 80 kilogrammes of coal of a mediuui quality per hour, or 2 kilo-
grammes ^er hour, and per horse power— 2 kilogrammes = 4-41 lb.
avoirdupois.

Should you consider these remarks to be worthy of a place in your
very useful Journal, you will nuich oblige,

Your very humble servant,

London, Jan. 14, 1S41. H. H. E.

Imporlmil lo BuihUrs and others.— U may not be generally known tliat an
Act of last Session imjiospd certain restrictions on the mode of building
chimneys, w illi ilie view of rendering climbing boys unnecessary in cleansing
flues. It is thereby enacted that after tlie passing of the Act. •' all partitions
between :iny ebimfiey or flue shall be of brick or stone, and at least eqiial to
half a brick in thickness," such partilion to lie of sound materials, " and the
joints of the work well filled in witb good mortar or cement, and rendered or
stuccoed » uliin ;" ■' that such cliimnev or (hie in any wall, not being a cir-
cular chimney or due 12 inches in diameter, shall be in every section of the
same not less than 14 inches by 9 indies," The .angle at which it is lawful
to build any chimney is also determined. Another clause enacts " that from
and aficr the first day of July, iu (lie year 1S42, any person who shall compel
or knowingly alhiw any child, or young person under the age of twenly-one
years, to ascend iir descend n chimney, or enter a flue, for the purpose of sweeii-
ing, cleansing, or coring the same, or for extinguishing fire therein, shall be
liable to a penalty, not mure than ten pounds, or less than five pounds.

1841.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

51

LIVERPOOL DOCKS.

Sir — I beg to forward the annexed extract from the " Liverpool
Standard" newspaper for insertion in your vaUiable Journal. My
reasons for so doing are :

1st. From personal respect to the talented engineer whose name it
bears.

2nd. That the very important document may be preserved, and
read by the greatest possible number of individuals at all interested
in similar matters. Such documents are very scarce, and very pro-
bably this would not have existed, but for the very cxtraonUnanj cir-
cumstances which demanded such in defence.

3rd. As a beacon to others, shewing the necessity of always being
prepared for similar attacks.

And lastly. To just drop a hint to all the eminent engineers, whether
British or Foreign, who may have examined the important works at
the Liverpool Docks — works which have been " designed and con-
structed by the energies of his (Mr. Hartley's) own mind alone, un-
aided by the designs, arrangement, or superintendance of any other
civil engineer." I say just a hint to such persons, that they may lose
no time in committing their opinion of the works in question to paper,
and forward them to you for insertion in your Journal.

When little dogs bark, it is best to walk away and heed them
not; but when great dogs bark and shew their teeth, (especially
■when they want a bone with a little flesh on it to pick,) there is great
danger of their biting; then is the time for defence.

Your insertion of the above, together with the annexed defence,
will oblige

Your obedient servant,

Warrington, A Lover of Fair Play.

litJany., 184L

"To THE Chairman and Members of the Dock Committee.

" Gentlemen, — I feel called upon, not only as a mark of respect to those
Tarious gentlemen who have composed the Dock Committee during the
sixteen years I have had the honour to fill the situation of Dock Surveyor,
but also in justification of myself, to make some remarks on the notice of a
motion given by Mr. Chapman, at the last meeting of this Committee, as well
as to the charges brought against me by him in so abundant and unqualified
a manner, both previous and subsequent to his giving notice of that motion.

" It was, I beheve, and I do not wonder at it, a sul)ject of surprise to
many, that I did not say more in my defence. It was not, however, from a
deficiency of matter, but from an overpowering feeling of astonishment at the
sudden and unqualified torrent of assertions, charging me with incompetency,
incorrect statements, &c., with which I was assailed.

" Had I only to reply to the individual member who made tliese charges,
1 might think it proper to take a ditferent course, and should probably simply
refer him to the books and resolutions of this committee ; but as his charges
reflect not only upon me, but upon this committee, upon those who composed
the committee before you, as well as upon those who elected me to the oflice
I hold, I think I am bound to rebut them, in doing which I anticipate httle
diificulty.

"In the first place, I am charged with incompetency and ignorance of my
profession, upon wliich is founded the motion, 'That a first-rate engineer be
appointed, to furnish designs for new works, and superintend then- con-
struction.'

" In answer to this charge, I will not refer you to the testimonials which
procured my appointment to this situation from amongst numerous candi-
dates, without my having had any previous knowledge of any gentleman
forming the then council ; but I will refer you to those important works
which I have constructed since I have filled the situation I hold, from my
practical knowledge as a civil engineer, and from the energies of my own
mind alone, unaided by the designs, arrangement, or superintendence of any
other civil engineer, and which, I may he allowed to say, so far from being
considered evidences of incompetency, have elicited the admiration of civil
engineers of the highest standing, both of our own and foreign nations. I
wiU also refer you to the proceedings of the Dock Committee since my ap-
pointment, and during the progress of those works, and I wiU ask the mem-
ber who lias brought forward thes? charges, whether he has found in those
proceedings (which, of course, he made himself master of before bringing
such charges) any resolutions accusing me, in the most remote manner, with
incompetency, or casting the slightest stain upon my character ? and I will
ask him furt'ier, to mention an instance in which those interested in the
working of the dift'crent designs I have furnished and executed, have made a
complaint of the inefficiency of those designs, or of their construction, to this
committee, until his becoming a member of it, and bringing forward objec-
tions against a work, the first of the kind yet executed here or elsewhere,
which had been in progress for several mouths, which had received the ap-
probation of the authority next to be consulted by me after the committee
(I allude to the Master of the Graving Docks), and in which, on the 31st
July, when partly completed, one of the large steam ships was docked,
shored, and the necessary work effected, without a complaint having been

made, or an objection offered ? — a practical proof of its not Icing unsafe for
life or property.

" With reference to the several assertions made by the member concermng
this graving dock, which have gone through the newspapers before the pub-
lic— ' That if the large steam-boats, for which this dock was expressly con-
structed, went into it, their paddle-boxes rested on the quays, and their keels
did not toucii the blocks by 14 inches,' and also, 'that the sill had been
broken up' — I would beg, in the first place, to observe, that the extreme
width of till; largest steam-ship that has yet come to this port (the Presi-
dent), is, according to the dimensions furnished me, 66 feet 8 inches from
outside to outside of paddle-boxes, — whereas the width of the graving dock,
from the edge of one quay to that of the other, is 71 feet 6 inches, which
proves that tlie paddle-boxes coidd not touch the quay by 2 feel 5 inches on
each side, and secondly, that the sill of the dock has not been altered. The
alterations alluded to by the member, which caused the taking up of the ma-
sonry, w'as an improvement in the original design, but no error, and was
totally unconnected with the sill, and partly composed of the original ma-
sonry of the former graving dock which had not previously been touched.

" From the l)lame of having neglected to procure the dimensions of the
largest steamers until the work was so far advanced, i think the chairman of
this committee can fully exculpate me. With regard to the allusions made
by the member, to the south graving docks and Cobnrg Dock, I have to
observe that those matters have been previously canvassed, — hut it may be
as well to state here, for the information of all, that what the member blames
me for, concerning the south graving docks, is Mhat was expressly contem-
plated in their construction, viz., the increased depth of their silts, to admit
of the admission of the heaviest ships coining to the port, at a lower tide
than the old graving docks would jiermit ; but if vessels are allowed to be
taken in by the carpenters at all tides, it cannot be expected, Ijy any who
have paid attention to the tides here, that a sill lying 2 feet 6 inches below
the level of the old dock sill, can be laid dry at a low neap tide, which does
not ebb within a foot of the level of that datum, unless recourse be had to
mechanical assistance. And as to my desire to put reverse gates to the pas-
sage leading into the Coburg Dock, that was an addition to, but certainly
not an alteration of, or error in, my original design ; neither did I report
' that the dock was complete, after which it was found that it required deep-
ening,' as asserted by the member, my report to the committee being as fol-
lows : — ' The Coburg Dock has been completed, excepting a portion of its
bed, ichich is not yet sufficiently deepened, hut is expected to be all finished
in September, ehiefiy with dredging machines,' and that report would have
been borne out, had it not been from the desire to afford the eai'hest accom-
modation to the large steamers which have since almost coathuially occupied
the dock, often greatly to the hindrance of the dredging machines.

" I will also beg leave to mention, that so far from my having been con-
sidered incompetent by others, I have at various times been requested to
exercise my profession in similar and other works, both here and in several
other parts of the kingdom ; and I may also remark, in noticing the second
portion of this motion, that although the terms of my appointment gave me
full liberty to exercise my profession elsewhere, yet so closely have I devoted
my time to tlie dock vvorks, as not to allow myself any leisure to accept
other engagements, excepting such as my son's assistance enabled me to do,
without requiring any lengthened absence from the duties of my situation ;
and I would wish the member to name any instance in which I have hereto-
fore been accused of non-attendance to, or neglect of those duties ; indeed,
so far has the contrary been the case, that during the last three years I have
not been in the whole more than 15 days absent on private business, and the
most of those days I have been hut partially absent. In concluding my
notice of these charges, I would beg leave to call to your remembrance the
circumstance of my having been presented with the freedom of this town
an a mark of the Council's approbation of my conduct as Dock SuiTeyor.

" The other charges made against me by the member, and the imphcation
contained in the first part of the motion given notice of, hacked as it was by
many assertions of impropriety in the expenditure of my department, need
not, I think, require any lengthened refutation. With regard to the first of
these, personal attacks of this description are easily made on any one filhng
a public situation, and however unjust they may be, cause great annoyance
to those unfortunately subjected to them. In the present case the effect
ceases there. I have been too long a pubhc servant here and elsewhere, too
long open to the scrutiny of all, to feel afraid of my character suffering from
any assertion or observation the member can or has made ; and I shall con-
tent myself with simply assuring this committee, that in all my statements to
them I have invariably adhered to what I have beUcved to be the truth.

" As respects that part of the motion, stating an increased vigilance in the
superintendence of the expenditure in my department to he necessary, taken
in the abstract, I have nothing to say against it ; on the contrary, too great
a vigilance cannot be had to please me, as it will consequently, in like pro-
portion, relieve me from care and responsibility. But taking this part of the
motion in the spirit in which it is brought forward, and coupling it with the
personal allusions made in bringing it before you, I should have considered
it the most serious part of the attack upon me, and should have felt great
anxiety to have disproved it most fully, had it been made by any gentleraau
of experience in the proceedings of the Dock Committee ; hut when I recol-
lect that it is made by a member who has but recently joined the committee,
and who has not yet given himself any opportunity of inquiring into the
manner in which the expenditure he alludes to, in my department, is made,

H 2

52

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[February,

never lia\ing yet been to my otfice to ask any explanation or infonnation as
to our accounts or method of business, I think it best to refer it to your own
judgment, what foundation he has for his assertion, ' that at least a saving of
XIO.OOO a year may be made in my department, by a different method of
cairyhiij on llie irori.' 1 feci, tlicrefore, very easy in leaving my character in
your hands, to most of whom I have been known so long, and under whom,
until now, I have fdled my situation free from all ungenerous attacks or
uncourteons treatment. In concluding, I beg leave to quote the following
extract from the ])rinted copy of the Intjuiry into the aflairs of the Cor|)0-
ration of Liverpool, before the Parliamentary Commissioners — ' Twelfth day.
Mr. Alderman Lawrence said, he was glad' to find it was not considered
necessary to put any questions to Mr. Hartley, the Dock Survevor; as an
expenditure of £1,100,1100 or .fl,.")nn,000 hail passed through that gentle-
man's hands, he deemed that circumstance highly complimentary. Mr.
Duncan said, he did not know a more deserving officer than Mr. Hartley;
the rate-payers were perfectly satisfied with him,' &c. — and to remark, tli'at
that opinion, unquahfied, uncontradicted, and expressed at such a time, is
not exactly in accordance with the member's statement, ' That you will find
you have spent as much money in rectifying my errors as the docks them-
selves have cost.'

" Finally, I take the liberty of calling your attention to a resolution of the
Dock Committee of the .31st October, 1836, come to on the reading of my
report to them of the 2.'>th of trie same month, and to that report I would
beg especially to refer the member bringing forward the motion : —

"At a meeting of the Dock Committee, 31st Oct., 1836, present, Charles
Lawrence, Esq., chairman, &c. &c., a printed copy of the Surveyor's report
having been laid upon the table, in compliance with the directions of the last
committee —

" ' Resolved, — That the committee have read with much satisfaction the
able report of the Surveyor upon the state of the works, and regret that,
from the shortness of the time since which this report has been delivered,
they are not able to enter into any minute investigation of its various details.
They feel it quite unnecessary to express any encomium upon those maguifi-
cent works which will speak for themselves, and remain a lasting memorial
of the great talents of Mr. Hartley. The major part of this committee being
about to be removed by an act of the legislatiu-e, cannot relinquish their
trust without availing themselves of their last meeting to record their high
sense of the indefatigable zeal and great ability with which that gentleman
has for more than twelve years executed the very important duties of his
office, and they beg him to accept their sincere acknowledgments and thanks.
" ' Extracted from the proceedings.

(Signed) " 'Ch.^ri.es Lawrence, Chairman.'

" Having thus disposed of such of the charges aiul assertions made by the
member as I think it necessary to notice, I feel that it would be an act of
injustice to this committee to court a stricter investigation of the various
details of my department than they have already received ; and the unim-
portance of the charges which have been made ought, I imagine, to have
been a s\itficient protection against such an attack as I have been subjected
to. If not, the further defence must rest with the committee, not with me.

" It now only remains for me most respectfully to request this committee
to do me the justice of calling upon the member to prove his assertions, so
serious in their nature, and to hope that this defence may meet with the
same pubUcity as was given to the charges against me.

"I have the honour to be, gentlemen.

Dockyard, Liver]>ool, Jesse Hartley, Dock Survevor.

lOM Dec, 1840."

RAILWAY COMMUNICATION WITH SCOTLAND.

Third Rejiort of Limtenant-Colonel Sir Frederick Smith, of the Royal En-
gineers, and Profeasor Barlow, to the Treasiiry, iji pursuance of the Ad-
dresses of the Ilonse of Commons of the Hth and 20th Anyust, 1839.

Railway Committee Office, .James-street ,
Buckinyham-gate, Hth Nov. 1840.

Sib — The report which, in obedience to the instructions of the Lords Com-
missioners of the Treasury, dated the 26th of November, 1839, we had the
honour to transmit to you on the 16th May last, respecting the competing
lines for a railway communication between I^ondon and Glasgow, contains a
distinct expression of our opinion, that of the three projects which had been
submitted to us for that portion of the distance which extends from Lancas-
ter to Carlisle, the preference was due to the project brought forward by Mr.
Larmer, for a railway up the valley of the Lune, and by Orton and Penrith.

We, however, observed that this line would not extend to the district of
Kendal the benefits of railway communication ; and being aware that this
thriving town would not only afford great support to any railway passing
near it, but at the same time derive important advantages from such a mode
of transit, we h.nd directed the attention of the surveyors to this subject, and
suggested the expediency of fresh surveys being made, in (jnler to ascertain
the practicability of imiting Mr. Larmer's project by the valley of the Lune
with that of Mr. Bintley by the valley of the Kent, so as to carry the line
within a short distance of the town of Kendal.

It appears that nearly at the period when our report on tliesc northern
lines was forwarded to you, some gentlemen coimectcd with Kendal, and who
are very desirous of carrying a railway near to that town, employed Mr

Larmer to re-survey the valleys of the Lune and Kent, and to examine the
ground which separates these rivers to the north of Kendal. The result is,
that this gentleman has considerably modified and improved that part of Mr.
Bintley's line which is to the south of Kendal ; he has also made some slight
alterations in that part of his own line lying between Orton and Low liorrow-
bridge ; and he has laid before us a plan and section for a line to be fonned
through the pass which intervenes between the Grayrig Fell and the Lambrig
Fell, and connects the valleys of the Lune and Kent.

Mr. Larmer terms this new Une the " Grayrig Junction," and, for the s.ike
of distinction, we shall give the title of the " Grayrig Line" to the whole
project on which we are now about to report, pursuant to the instructions
we had the honour to receive from you, dated the 29th May last.

The two principal points which we have kept in view in this investigation
are, to determine how the construction of the railway, according to this com-
bined ])roject, woidd affect the traveller between London and Carlisle ; and
secondly, whether it would entail an increase of expense more than commen-
surate with the advantages to be derived from the line passhig the town of
Kendal.

In our last report, we stated that the locomotive power requisite to work
the Lune line, expressed in horizontal distance, would be 78 miles and one
chain ; and we find, that by the Grayrig line it would be 78 miles and 62
chains.

This increase of 61 chains is not sufficient to form an important objection
to the Grayrig project, as regards the traveller between London and Carlisle.

In the appendix (A) we have given a copy of a comparative estimate, sub-
mitted to us by Mr. Larmer, of the probable cost of the Lune Une, and the
Grayrig line.

As we are not in possession of cross sections of the ground where the heavj-
cuttings and embankments would be formed, nor of borings where the former
would be necessary, and as we have also not been supplied with drawings of
the bridges, viaducts, &c., it is not in our power to pledge otirselves to the
positive accuracy of these estimates ; but we think the details given are suffi-
ciently correct to test the relative cost of the two projects ; and there does
not appear to be any reason for doubting Mr. Larmer's statement, that the
Grayrig project woidd not reqiure a capital of more than £126,219, 7s., be-
yond what would be necessary for that of the valley of the Lune.

In our former report on the lines between Lancaster and Carlisle, in esti-
mating the population within ten miles of each route, the population of Ken-
dal was considered as belonging both to the Une of the Kent and to that of
the Lune ; and, aeconUng to this arrangement, the former was stated to be
Ukely to afford railway accommodation to a population one-tenth larger than
would derive this advantage from the latter.

The Grayrig line would accommodate a still larger niunber of persons than
the original line of the Kent, as it would include the greater part of the po-
pulation which gave the latter, under this head of comparison, the superiority
over the original Lune Une, and in addition would include the inhabitants of
Ravenstonedale, Kirkby, Stephen, Brough and Appleby, to which the original
Kendal line had no title. Thus the Grayrig Une will have a decided superio-
rity over the line of the Lune on the score of population, and therefore the
traffic on the former, on this account alone, might reasonably be expected to
be greater than on either of the other Unes ; but when it is considered that a
Une to Kendal would bring the lake tourists to within eight miles of Winder-
mere, it may be fairly presumed that the number of passengers on this line
would be much greater than on its competitors.

Kendal, as a commercial and mauufactuiing town, is of great importance
in the county of Westmoreland, and there is no doubt that on the formation
of a railway by the Grayrig Line, the supply of coal for the Kendal district
would be almost exclusively derived from Carlisle ; indeed it has been shown
to us that a revenue of .£10,000 a year may be expected from the carriage of
coal alone.

In considering the relative merits of the three projects, we find that the
Lune Une has a small addition over the other lines in regiird to saving of dis-
tance and economy of construction, but it has the defect of depriving the
important town of Kendal of direct railway communication, and embraces a
smaller popidation.

The greet objection to Mr. Bintley's line was a sinnmit tunnel of an almost
impracticable cliaracter.

The Une now proposed possesses the principal advantages, and is free from
the chief defects of the other projects, and wc therefore recommend it in
preference to either.

We shaU now proceed to give a general description of the Une which we
thus recommend for adoption.

In our report of the 16th of May, it was stated that Mr. Bintley proposed
to form a junction with the Preston and Lancaster Railway, at a point about
two miles and 54 chains south of the terminus at the latter place, and to pass
under the town of Lancaster by a tunnel.

Mr. Larmer in commencing at the Lancaster terminus, very materially im-
proves this line, as he thereby saves two miles, and 54 chains of construction,
and avoids the inconvenience and expense of a separate station ; and by keep-
ing to the east of the Une proposed by Mr. Bintley, he is euabled to dispense
with the tunnel under the town of Lancaster, which was a great defect in
Mr. Bintley's project.

The following tiiblc exhibits the gradients on the two lines up to Kendal,
from which it will appear that the line as revised by Mr. Larmer is in that
respect superior to the original line of Mr. Bintley.

1841.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

.53

Mr. Bintley's Original Line.

Miles.

Chains.

W "^

16i

fall

1 in 133

„ O

54

1 in 221

■s =»

795

rise

1 in 585

■s '5

351

fall

1 in 263

60-3

32

54

rise
level

1 in 389

—

75

fall

1 in 201

§§£

2

17i

nse

1 in 140

2 ,„ i^

3

42

level

o^ =

40?,

fall

1 in 20G

1 S|

3

754
72

rise

1 in 181
1 in 153

S o5

22

34

«S-

Mr. Larmer's improvement of Mr. Bintley's Line.

Miles.

Chains.

60

1

35

fall

1 in 200

s s

3

62

1 in 660

<o .^

2

50

level

2

7

nse

1 in 160

4

16

level

1

76

nse

1 in 170

i:§

3

.,

1 in 160

5 «

1

23

1 in 150

ia

20

29

««

Although the gradients are in a slight degree more favourable according to
the line as altered by Mr. Larraer, yet the cost of the earthwork will be rather
greater, aud Mr. Larmer will require a more expensive bridge for the crossing
of the Lune, for its length will be about GOO yards, and its height 60 feet ;
whereas the bridge proposed by Mr. Bintley would uot be above one-fourth
of the length and one-half of the height of Mr. Larmer's.

However, this difference will be much more than compensated by the sav-
ing of the tunnel under the town of Leicester, aud by the shortening of the
line.

The deviations from Mr. Bintley's line, proposed by Mr. Larmer, are not
of sufficient importance to require to be particularly mentioned here.

The direction of the line recommended is shown on the accompanying
plan, by which it will be seen that it is intended to pass along the face of
the high ground about a mile eastward of Kendal.

Mr. Larmer's junction line commences at a hamlet to the north of Kendal,
called Scalthwaiterigg .Stocks, whence it takes a north-easterly course, twice
crossing the turnpike-road to the northward of Docker Garths and Mosedale
Hall ; it then proceeds nearly in an easterly course to the farm at Shaw-end.
This point is the summit of the junction portion of the line, and is 562 feet
above the level of the sea at low water at Lancaster, or 446 feet above the
point of connection with the Preston and Lancaster Railway, the distance
being 26J miles. Here a cutting will be requisite of two miles in length, in
gravel and rock, and of the extreme depth of 52 feet, and of the mean depth
of 35. This is the heaviest piece of work on the junction line.

From Shaw End the line tends more to the northward, and curving round
the foot of some high ground, approaches the bank of the Lune near Dillicar
Park, and converges towards Mr. Larmer's original line, which nins almost
parallel to the river, up to Low Borrow Bridge.

Althouth the direction of Mr. Larmer's original and improved lines is nearly
the same, yet such are the abrupt and precipitous forms of the hills that a
considerable difference exists in the levels and gradients.

We subjoin a table of distances and gradients of the entire Grayrig line,
and we have only further to remark, that, after an examination of the ground,
we have thought it proper to suggest to Mr. Larmer the expediency of occa-
sional breaks in his long gradients, for the purpose of easing the engine on
the ascending planes, and of diminishing the earthwork in construction.

We do not consider it necessary to give minute details of the proposed
line, as in the annexed copy of Mr. Larmer's report all the most important
features of this project are fairly shown.

The heaviest work on the whole Une is the Orton tunnel, which Mr. Lar-
mer proposes to make of the length of one mile and 22 chains ; but accord-
ing to the section, in the accuracy of which we have full confidence, it
appears that tl»ere will be heavy cuttings at both ends of the tunnel, the
greatest depth being at one end 95, and at the other 98 feet.*

Now as we doubt the expediency of making a cutting in this instance of
above 70 feet in depth, we are of opinion that it would be proper to extend
the length of the tunnel to a mile and a half.

* The Ime of the tunnel in Mr. Larmer's original project was very accu-
rately surveyed by Lieut. H. D. Fanshaue, of the 12th Foot, who reported
hat the ground was fairly delineated in Mr. Larmer's section.

Table of Gradients of Graijrhj Line

between Lancaster and Carlisle.

Names of

Inter-

Total

Feet per

Places.

mediate
distance.

distance.

mile. J

Ratio.

Lancaster

1 35

1 35

fall

26i

1 in 200

3 62

5 17

faU

8

1 in 600

2 50

7 67

level

2 7

9 74

rise

33

1 in 160

4 16

14 10

level

1 76

16 6

rise

31

1 in 170

3

19 6

rise

33

1 in 160

Kendal

7 45

26 51

rise

35

1 in 150

2 65

29 6

level

2 74

32 30

rise

13i

1 in 400

4 22

30 52

rise

35

1 in 150

Orton Tunnel ....

1 22

37 74

level

3 66

41 60

fall

35

1 in 150

1 64

43 44

level

1 47

45 11

fall

17

1 in 310

4 1

49 12

fall

264

1 in 200

1 69

51 1

faU

17

1 in 300

1 55

52 56

rise

5

1 in 1056

Penrith

1 69

54 45

nse

34

1 in 1650

2 53

57 18

fall

21

1 in 251

1 25

58 43

level

5 54

64 17

fall

25

1 in 210

CarUsle

G -

1

70 17

fall

33

1 in 160

Mr. Larmer acquaints us that, on a careful examination of the Orton Hill,
he has every reason to believe that the tunnel would pass entirely through
sandstone; and as it would only be 340 feet below the summit of the hill,
we have no doubt that this work might easily be completed iu three years
from the time of its coraraeucemeut, under the supposition that Mr. Larmer
has rightly infonned us as to the nature of the rock through which the tun-
nel is to be formed.

We have the honour to be, Sir,

Your most obedient servants,

Frederic Smith, Lieut.-Col. R.E.
Peter Barlow, F.R.S.
Henry Amsinok, Lieut. R.IS'., Sec.
Robert Gordon, Esq., M.P., &c. Ac. &c.

MEMOIRS OF SCIENTIFIC MEN.

The two following Memoirs are from the Address of the President delivefed
at tlie last Anniversary Meeting of the Royal Society.

James Prinsep, whose brilliant career of research and discoverv has
been closed by a premature death in the flower of his age, was Principal
Assay Master, first of the Jlint at Benares, and secondly of that of Calcutta,
where he succeeded Prof. Wilson in 1833; he was a young man of great
energy of character, of the most indefatigable industry, and of very extra-
ordinary accomphshments ; he was an excellent assayist and analytical
chemist, and well acquainted with almost every department of physical
science ; a draughtsman, an engraver, an architect, and an engineer ; a good
oriental scholar, and one of the most profound and learned oriental medal-
lists of his age. In 1828 he communicated to the Royal Society a paper
"On the Measurement of High Temperatures," in which he described,
amongst other ingenious contrivances for ascertaining the order, though not
the degree, of high temperatures, an air thermometer applicable for this pur-
pose, and determined by means of it, probably much more accurately than
heretofore, the temperature at which silver enters into fusion. His activity
whilst resident at Benares has more the air of romance than reality. He
designed and built a mint, and other edifices ; he repaired the minarets of
the great mosque of Aurengzelie, which threatened destruction to the neigli-
bouring houses; he drained the city, and made a statistical survey of it, and
illustrated by his own beautiful drawings and lithographs, the most remark-
able objects which the city and its neighbourhood contains ; he made a series
of experimental researches on the depression of the wet-bulb hygrometer ;
he determined, from his own experiments, the values of the principal coins
of the East, and formed tables of Indian metrology and numismatics, aud of
the chronology of the Indian systems, and of the genealogies of Indian dy-
nasties, which possess the highest authority and value. When transferred to
Calcutta, he became the projector and editor of the " Journal of the Asiatic
Society of Bengal," a very voluminous pubhcation, to which he contributed
more than one hundred articles on a vast variety of subjects, but more par-
ticularly on Indian coins and Indian paleography. He first succeeded in
deciphering the legends which appear on the reverses of the Greek Bactrian

54

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL

[J^Eii.'ll-'ARir,

coins, on the ancient coins of Surat, and on tliose of the Hindoo princes of
Lahore and tlieir Mahomcdrn successors, and formed alphabets of them, by
which llicy can now be readily perused, lie traced the varieties of the De-
vanagari alpliabet of Sanscrit on the temples and columns of Upper India to
a date antcrior^o the third century before Christ, and was enabled to read
OD the rocks of Cuttock and Gujarct the names of Antiochus and Ptolemy,
and the record of the intercourse of an Indian monarch with the neighbour-
ing princes of Persia and Egypt : he ascertained that, at the period of Alex-
ander's conquests, India was under the sway of Uoudliist sovereigns and Boud-
lust institutions, and that the earliest monarchs of India are not associated
with a IJrahminical creed or dynasty. These discoveries, which throw a
perfectly new and unexpected light upon Indian history and chronology, and
which furnish, in fact, a satisfactory outline of the history of India, from the
invasion of Alexander to that of Mohammed Chori, a period of fifteen cen-
tnries, are only second in interest and importance, and we may add likewise
in difficulty, to those of Chanipollion with respect to the succession of
dynasties in ancient Egypt. These severe and incessant labours, in the ener-
vating climate of India, though borne for many years witli little apparent
inconvenience or effect, finally undermined his constitution ; and he was at
last compelled to relinquish all his occupations, and to seek for the resto-
ration of his health in rest and a change of scene, lie arrived in England
on the 9th of January last ; but the jiDwers both of his body and his mind
seem to have been altogether worn out and exhausted ; and after lingering
for a few months, he died on the 2Jid of .\pril last, in the 41st year of his
age. The cause of literature and archaeology in the East could not have
sustained a severer loss.

Simon Denis Poisson, one of the most illustrious men of science that
Europe has produced, was born at Pithiviers on the 21st of June, 1781, of
very humble parentage, and was placed, at the age of fourteen, under the
• care of his uncle, M. L'Enfant, surgeon, at Fontainebleau, %vith a view to the
study of his profession. It was at the central school of this place that he
was introduced to the notice of M. Billy, a mathematician of some eminence,
who speedily discovered and fostered his extraordinay capacity for mathe-
matical studies. In 1793 he was elected a pupil of the Ecole Polyteehnique,
which was then at the summit of its reputation, counting amongst its pro-
fessors Laplace, Lagrange, Fourier, Monge, Prony, BerthoUet, Foureroy, Vau-
quelin, Guyton Morveau, and Chaptal. The progress which he made at this
celebrated school surpassed the most sanguine expectations of his kind patron,
M. BUly, and secured him the steady friendship and support of the most
distinguished of his teachers. In the year 1800, he presented to the Insti-
tute a memoir, " Sur le norabre d'integrales completes dont les equations
aux differences finies sont susceptibles," which cleared up a vcrj' difficult and
obscure |)oint of analysis. It was printed, on the reconmiendation of La-
place and Lagrange, in the Metnoires des Safaris EtranrjerSj an unexampled
honour to be conferred on so young a man. Stimulated by its first success,
we find him presenting a succession of memoirs to the Institute on the most
important points of analysis, and rapidly assuming the rank of one of the
first geometers of his age. lie was successively made Repetiteur ann then
Professor of the Polytechnic School, Professor at the College de France and
the Faculte des Sciences, Member of the Bm-ean des Longitudes, and finally,
in 1812, Member of the Institute. His celebrated memoir on the invari-
ability of the major axes of the planetary orbits, which received the emjihatic
approbation of Laplace, and secured him, throughout his life, the zealous
patronage of that great philosopher, was presented to the Institute iu the
year 1808. Laplace had shown that the periodicity of the changes of the
other elements, such as the eccentricity and inclination, depends on the
periodicy of the changes of the major axis — a condition, therefore, which
constitutes the true basis of the proof of the stability and permanence of the
system of the universe. Lagrange had considered this great problem in the
Berlin Memoirs for 1776, and had shown that, by neglecting certain quan-
tities which might possibly modify the result, the expression for the major
axis involved periodical inequalities only, and that they were consequently
incapable of indefinite increase or diminution. It was reserved to Poisson to
demonstrate a priori that the non-periodic terms of the order which he con-
sidered would mutually destroy each other — a most important conclusion,
which removed the ]uincipal objection that existed to the validity of the
demonstration of Lagrange. This brilliant success of Poisson in one of the
most difficult problems of physical astronomy, would a|ipear to have influ-
enced him ill devoting himself thenceforward almost exclusively to the appli-
cation of mathematics to physical science ; and the vast number of memoirs
and works (amounting to more than 300 in number) which he published
during the last thirty years of his Ufe, made this department of mathematical
science, and more particularly whatever related to the action of molecular
forces, pre-eminently his own. They comprehend the theon' of waves and
of the vibrations of elastic substances, the laws of the distribution of elec-
tricity and magnetism, the prcpagation of heat, the theory of caiiillary attrac-
tion, the attraction of spheroids, the local magnetic attraction of ships, im-
portant problems on chance, and a multitude of other subjects. His well-
known treatise on mechanics is incomiiarably superior to every similar pub-
lication in the clear and decided exposition of principles and methods, and
in the happy and luminous combination of the most general theories with
their particular and most instructive applications. Poisson was not a phi-
losopher who courted tee credit of propounding original views which did not
arise naturally out of the imincdiale subjects of bis researches ; and he was
moie disposed to extend and perfect the application of known methods of

analysis to impoi'tant phy^i'-al priiblems, than to inJuk';; in siiocula;ious oa
the invention or transformation of formula, which, however new and elegant,
appeared to give him no obvious increase of mathematical power in the pro-
secution of his inquiries. His delight was to grapjile with difficulties which
had embarrassed the greatest of his predecessors, and to bring to bear upon
them those vast resources of analysis, and those clear views of mechanical
and physical ))rinciples in their most refined and difficult applications, which
have secured him the most brilliant triumjihs in uerrly every department of
I)hysical science. The confidence which he was accustomed to feel in the
results of his analysis— the natural result of his own clear perception of the
necessary dependence of the several steps by which they were deduced — led
him sometimes to accept conclusions of a somewhat startling character: such
were his views of the constitution and finite extent of the earth's atmos-
phere, which some distinguished philosophers have ventured to defend. It
is not in mathematical reasonings only that we are sometimes disposed to
forget that the conclusions which we make general are not dependent upon
our assumed premises alone, but are modified by concurrent or collateral
causes, which neither our analysis nor our reasonings are competenr to com-
prehend. The habits of life of this great mathematician were of the most
simple and laborious kind ; though he never missed a meeting of the Institute,
or a lecture, or an examination, or any other public engagement, yet on all
other occasions, at least ih his later years, he denied access to all visitors,
and remained in his study from an early hour in the morning until sit
o'clock at night, when he joined his family at dinner, and spent the evening
in social converse, or in amusements of the lightest and least absorbing
character, carefuUy avoiding every topic which might recall the severity of
his morning occupations. The wear and tear, however, of a life devoted to
such constant study, and the total neglect of exercise and healthy recreations,
finally undermined his naturally vigorous constitution, and in the autumn of
1838 the alarming discovery was made that he was labouring under the fatal
disease of water in the chest. The efforts of his physicians contributed for
a long time to mitigate the more serious symptoms of his malady ; but every
relaxation of his sufferings led to the resumption of his labours ; and to the
earnest remonstrances of his friends, and the entreaties of his family, he was
accustomed to reply, that to him ia vie cetait le travail ; nay, he even un-
dertook to conduct the usual examinations of the Ecole Polyteehnique, which
occupied him for nearly ten hours a day for the greatest part of a month.
This last imprudent effort ended in an attack of paralysis, attended by loss
of memory and the rapid obscuration of all his faculties ; he continued to
struggle, amidst alternations of hope and despondency, for a considerable
period, and died on the 2otli of April last, in the 59th year of his age.
Poisson was eminently a deductive philosopher, and one of the most illus-
trious of his class ; his profound knowledge of the labours of his predecessors,
his perfect command of analysis, and his extraordinary sagacity and tact in
applying it, his clearness and precision in the enunciation of his problems,
and the general elegance of form which pervaded his investigations, must
long continue to give to his works that classical character, which has
hitherto been almost exclusively appropriated to the productions of Lagrange,
Laplace, and Euler. If he was inferior to Fourier or to Fresnel in the large-
ness and jiregnancy of his philosophical views, he was incomparably superior
to them in mathematical power : if some of his contemporaries rivalled or
surpassed him in particular departments of his own favourite studies, he has
left no one to equal him, either in France or in Europe at large, iu the extent,
variety, and intrinsic value of his labours. The last work on which he was
engaged was a treatise on the theory of light, with particular reference to
the recent researches of Cauehy ; nearly two hundred pages of this work are
printed, which are altogether confined to generalities, whose applications
were destined to form the subject of a second and coucludiug section : those
who are acquainted with the other works of Poisson will be best able to ap-
preciate the irreparable loss wiiieh optical science has sustained in the non-
completion of such a work from the hands of such a master. .

DEVELOPMENT OF ELECTRICITY FROM HIGH PRESSURE
STEA.M.

On Saturday, the 19th December, Mr. Condie. manager of Blair Iron
Works, AjTshire, performed this new and interesting phenomenon at the

above works, in the presenci' of Ludovic Houston, Esq., of Johnstone ;

Cunningham, Esq., of Carnhrae Iron Works ; Thonjas W'ingate, Esq., engi-
neer ; Springfield, and a number of others, who-were all highly satisfied with
the accuracy of the accounts given by the public press of similar experiments
having been made in the neighbourhood of Newcastle, ujion locomotive en-
gine boilers. The experiment made by Mr. Condie was upon the steam issu-
ing from the safety valve of two of the liigh pressme boilers of the blowing
engine, and was simply performed as follows : —

The experimenter jilaccd himself upon an insulated stool (a board resting
upon three quart bottles in absence of better,) and having in ou& hand a long
small rod of iron, with four sharjiened jioints, similar to a hghtning conduc-
tor ; this he held in the steam issuing from the safety valve. When the
points were held about one foot from the valve, electric s))arks were drawn
by the liysfandcrs' knuckles from those of the experimenter about half an
inch long; but as the pointed rod was raised to about six or eight feet above
the valve into the cloud of steam, vivid and pungent sparks .we«; then drawn
from one and a half inches long, which, in fact, were nearly as stunning upon

1841.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

iiS

tlie arm as the shocks of a small Leyden phial, producing a good deal of
merriment to the astonished workmen who were present, to see tire and feel
the shocks from steam, an article they all supposed themselves perfectly fami-
liar with.

In the evening the experiment was resumed, to see the ctTects in the dark,
when they proved the experimenter to he highly charged with electricity.
The board on which he stood, not bejng rounded, each corner had a brush of
light two or three inches long, like as many tassels, while every point of his
dress and hair became highly luminous upon the persons standing near him.
On this trial, sparks were drawn fully two inches long, which required some
little courage to engage with, from their shocking propensities.

The experiments were made upon the steam of two boilers, thirty-two feet
long by six diameter, first with steam equal to 12 ft. upon the inch, and lat-
terly at 25 ft. — the increase of pressure adding to the effect. However, the
experiment was perfectly and satisfactorily performed with the siu-plus steam
issuing from the safety-valve while the engine was going upon trial. Mr.
Condie is of opinion that, from such boilers, with a properly constructed
prime conductor, of large surface, sjjarks may be drawn from six to eight
inches long, and large jars charged in a few seconds. The wonder w.as that
the experiment succeeded at all, as the apparatus was altogether rude. The
floor where the temporary stool stood was covered mth dust, shavings, &c.,
which acted as conductors in stealing away the electricity from the experi-
menter.— Ayr Observer.

PUBLIC WORKS IN PARIS.

The Afoniteur takes a survey of the principal public buildings in Paris and
its immediate vicinity, either terminated during the past year, or the works
of which have been much advanced. We gather from it the following parti-
culars I — It appeal's that the interior of tlie new buildings added to the Lux-
emburg would have been entirely finished hut for the interruptions caused
by the political trials that have taken place before the Court of Peers. Seve-
ral alterations have been made in the gardens, and the whole may now be
expected to be speedily terminated. Statues or other decorative objects are
to be placed on the pedestals of the Pont de la Concorde, to make it har-
monize with the present highly decorated aspect of the Place de la Concorde.
Nothing but works of ornamentation now remain to be done at the Made-
leine. The paintings by Messrs. Abel de Pujol, Schnetz, and Signol have
been uncovered in the interior, and the statues that are intended for the
several altars are far advanced. The Abbey of St. Denis will still take two
years before all the repairs are completely terminated. During the last year
the great circular window in the uorth transept, and the organ-loft, have been
finished. The works in the Palace on the Quai d'Orsay are not yet termi-
nated, but the Court of Accounts is expected to move into that building dur-
ing the spring. The works for new bureaux at the office of the Minister of
the Interior, Rue de Crenelle, are rapidly advancing : as are also those at the
hotel of the Minister of Public Works, Rue St. Dominique. The archives of
the law department are to be removed from the Salute ChapeUe to the new
buildings at the Hotel de Soubise, Rue du Chaume, prejiaratory to the re-
storation of the former edifice. .\n amphitheatre for lectures has been erected
at the Observatory, and several buildings liave been made at the Veterinary
School of Alfort, for gi^ng better accommodation to the professors for their
lecture, &c. The buildings of the new Blind Hospital, Boulevard des Inva-
lides. will shortly be entirely roofed in ; and the additional erections at the
Lunatic Asylum at Charenton are going on rapidly. Numerous public budd-
ings, such as the Bibliotheque Royale, the Bibliotheque St. Genevieve, and
the Conservatoire des Arts et Metiers, are in such a dilapidated state, that
the Chambers will no doubt vote the funds requisite for repairing them, or
erecting new ones.

NEW INVENTIONS AND IMPROVEMENTS.

PAPYROGRAPHY.

This is a new invention for reproducing drawings, manuscripts, and all kinds
of designs to an unlimited extent, and by means much cheaper than at pre-
sent known. This process, which is called by M. de Manne, the inventor,
Papyrograjjhy, is very fully noticed in a late number of the Monitevr,
from which we abridge the following particulars. — The mode by which M. de
Manne produces designs, &c., on paper, is thus described. After having, by
means of his prepared metallic ink, traced the drawing on common writing
paper, he contrives, by an operation which he at present keeps secret, to
make the lines rise from the paper in relief, and become extremely hard and
durable. He fixes this matrix on a plate of metal, on which he then places
the paper that is to receive the impression. Over the paper he places apiece
of silk, and passes it under the roller of a copper-plate press ; when the
characters and lines on the manuscript or drawing are reproduced, stamped
in on the paper. These designs thus fixed on the plates are hard enough to
allow of a greater number of imprissions being taken without injury to them.
The part of the invention, which consists in obtaining plates of metal cast
from the matrix afforded by the drawing on the paper, is considered by the
committee of the Society of Arts of Mulhausen, who were appointed to ex-
amine it, as of still greater importance than any other. By this engraving

on paper, say the committee, may be obtained impressions fully equal to what
can be had from wood engravings ; by this means, therefore, v.orks which
require illustrations may ):c ;.rintrd with great cheapness. In cngravisgs on
wood, the design and the subsequent cutting are necessary, b^it by the papy-
rographic method, the design is the only expense ; and it will jiroduce with-
out end as many engraved plates and impressions .is may be recpiired, at a cost
one half of tliat of the ordinary process ; and with a precision equal to that
of the original drawing. — As M. de Manne conducted his experiments at
Rouen, where there was no skilful metal founders, he hdjoured under great
disadvantage in his attem]>ts to bring his invention to perfection, but the spe-
cimens he sent to the committee were sutticient to convince them that his
])lan was cap.able of answering all that be stated. Some of the specimens sent
to the committee presented the designs, and the printed copies from them in
relief to the height of from two to three millimetres, obtained solely from the
matrix traced on paper. The committee propose to extend the invention to
the printing of woven fabrics and |iaper. M. de Manne sent some plates pre-
pared for this object, but owing to the disadvantages under which he laboured,
the plates were not so perfectly cast as they ought to have been, to produce
the desired effect. The defect, ho\vever, he ascribes entirely to the unskilful
manner in which the Rouen founders took the cast of his matrices; for not
venturing to trust them with the paper moulds, he took easts of them in
plaster ; from which the metal plates were afterwards cast. It is to this cir-
cumstance that M. de Manne attril)utes the failure of his experiment, as it
was difficidt to take the cast in plaster from the paper so as to preserve the
sharpness of the outline. He says he is certain of the success of his process
as applied to the printing of papers and calicoes, but want of means with
him, as with many other inventors, prevents him from taking out patents, or
from carrying the invention into operation. The committee report that it
seems to them highly probable that if the inventor was placed in more fa-
vourable circumstances, be would arrive at remarkable and very useful results.
In conclusion they recommend the society to grant him a silver medal, though
the invention is not of a nature within their usual subjects for prizes. — /»i-
vciitors^ Advocate.

BRICKS AND TILES MADE BY MACHINERY.

The French Academy of Sciences lately appointed a committee to examine
a machine for making bricks, invented by M. Carville. The following is the
substance of their report. — The committee proceeded to examine the action of
the machinery in reference to its three principal functions, — of mixing the
materials, of moulding the bricks, and afterwards of extracting them from the
moulds. The mixing of the clay is performed in a vertical cyUnder, by means
of an iron axle, to which arms are fixed at different heights, which are fur-
nished with knives. A rotary motion is given to the axle, by the power of a
horse, applied to the end ot a long lever. The materials are thrown in at
the ujjper end of the cylinder, and when properly mixed, are passed into the
moulds, through au opening in the side towards the bottom. Inclined boards,
in the form of the sails of a wind-mill, are connected at the lower end of the
vertical axle. The pressure resulting from the inclination of these boards
constantly pressing against the clay during their rotatory motion, forces it
out of the opening ; a small vane, formed of iron plates, regulates and restricts
the manner in which it issues out. An endless chain, com])osed of moulds
of cast iron, joined to each other by hinges, passes under the base of the cy-
linder, and the moulds are thus filled with the prepared clay. A heavy roller,
of cast iron, begins the compression ; it is finished by drawing the loaded
moulds through a compressor, composed of two plates of iron, the surfaces of
which are not quite parallel. The removal of the bricks from the moulds
takes place immediately after the compression, by means of a rammer acting
from above. By causing the rammer, during the process, to move in the
same direction as the chain of moulds, a continuous action is obtained, by
means of very simple mechanism. The moment when the blow of the ram-
mer should be given is very ingeniously determined, by joints fastened to the
moulds. This motion, thus derived from the chain of moulds, and acting in-
variably with it, prevents the inconveniences that would result from the
lengthening of the chain, by the inevitable wearing out of the hinges. The
adhesion of the earth to the sides of the moulds, is avoided by their being
immersed, for half a revolution of the cylinder, in water, with which a vessel
placed under the machine is filled. — Two hoppers are introduced in the ma-
chinery, before and after the reservoir, where the earth is prepared. They
spread in the requisite quantities the fine sand with which they are constantly
supplied.. One of them spreads the sand before the moulds are filled, upon
plates of iron, connected together so as to form an endless chain, which serves
as the bottoms for the moulds. The other hopper sprinkles the surface of the
bricks before compression. Thus any adhesion of the substance continues to
be avoided both with the roller with which the compression begins, with the
iron work which completes it, and with the rammer which removes the clay
from the mould. For greater precaution, and in order to obtain more regular
surfaces, a slight stream of water continually moistens the pressing roller.
The bricks are received on an endless chain of iron plates, after they are taken
from the mould, by which they are conveyed to the kiln. The power of a
single horse, by turning a wheel, prepares and moulds about 1,500 bricks in
an hour. — The commissioners, on concluding their report, observed, that they'
had convinced themselves of the complete mixture of the substances forming
the bricks, by breaking and inspecting several of them. They inspected the

56

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[February,

whole process, and so far as tlic result of the manufacture was concerned,
they exj)ress themselves perfectly satisfied. As to the saving to he ctfected
by it, they had no ground on which to arrive at a satisfactory conclusion, so
as to confirm thf statement of the inventor, who affirms, that for the cost of
two francs he cau mould a thousand bricks. From their inspection of the
working of the engine, they were enabled to think that this statement is cor-
rect.— Ibiil.

NAIL, PIN, AND RIVET JIACHINERY.

William Southwood Stocker, of Birmingham, certain improvements in ma-
chinery applicable to making nails, pins, and rivets, .Ian. 2. Claim first. —
Mode of combining the forging tools in a moveable frame, and causing such
tools to approach each other ami forge a bar of iron that is properly held by
a machine, either in making the stems of nails or bolls, or in pointing their
ends. Claim second. — Mode of constructing the beading and cutting ma-
chine. Claim third. — Mode of applying moveable dies to the machine, for
heading pins and rivets. Claim fourth. — The turning over by machinery and
cutting a series of plates or strips of metal in making cut nails. A crank
axle is mounted in a strong frame connnunieating by means of pulleys to the
engine. Four iron bars are caused to slide backwards and forwards in a
frame by a rod from the crank axle. Other sliding bars are placed so as to
move in a position at right angles to these. Their ends are supplied with
anti-friction rollers, that work against an inclined plane, liy these bars the
forging tools are moved to their proper places. K tube extends along the
machine, one end of wliicli ^ery nearly approaches the forging tools. A red
hot bar of iron is passed through the tube : motion is given to the axle,
which, through the connecting rod, gives motion to the sliding bars and
rollers, causing the forging tools to close together, and their action on the
heated t)ar produces the shanks of bolts, nails, or rivets, of any shape or size.
The heading machines are constructed by a cranked axle, working the head-
ing die, which strikes the bolt as it Ues in a proper cavity, and forms the
head of the nail or rivet, .\nother machine is shown in which the working
parts are the same, only instead of a fixed cavity for holding tlie shanks pre-
vious to the heading, dies are used, one of which is moveable and the other
fixed, and are held together by a spring catch and lever. With reference to
the last part of these improvements : a pair of shears are worked by the re-
volution of a crank axle. .\t the face of these shears a series of cylinders are
placed angularly. Through the end of each a strip of metal of the required
width passes. The whole of the cylinders are connected by jiinions and a
rack, so that on the cranked axle being made to revolve, a nail is cut from
each strip of metal by a descending cutter. ,\ sliding motion is then given to
the rack, wliich causes the cylinders and pieces of metal to move round suffi-
ciently at every stroke of the cutter, to preserve the angular or taper form of
the nails or brads. — Ibid.

SUBMARINE PROPELLERS.

John Edward Carpenter, of Toft Monks, Norfolk, improvements in the ap-
pUcation of machinery for assisting vessels in performing certain evolutionr
upon the water, especially tacking, veering, [jropeUing, steering, casting or
winding, and backing astern, Dec. 12. Claim first. — The application os
adaptation of submarine propellers, as hereafter described, in whatever situa-
tion such propellers may be placed. Claim second. — The pecuhar form of
the propellers, shown in the drawings annexed to this specification. These
improvements may be divided into three parts : — First — The method in which
the propelling apparatus is fixed, for propelling vessels at the greatest possi-
ble speed attainable, with reference to submarine rotary propellers on the
quarter. Secondly — The method of applying the same apparatus, so as to
turn vessels about without the assistance of wind or rudder. Thirdly — The
methoil of appljing the apparatus to vessels, with one propeller at the stern.
The blades and screws forming the quarter propeller may be constructed
either of metal or wood, their strength and superficies depending on the size
of the vessel which they will have to propel. Spindles are constructed, which
consist of moveable axles protruding through the vessel at both quarters,
near the line of floatation, below the load-water line and above the keel, be-
tween the midship section and the stern frame. These spindles are enclosed
by metallic cylinders, or other proper packing, having a cup and socket valve
and stuffing-box at one, or both, ends, and are firmly secured to the timbers
of the vessel. That part of the spindle which is within the vessel is to he
connected to a steam-engine, or other first mover, by any convenient me-
chanical contrivance. The outer part is connected to the propelling shaft.
The regidator consists of a rod furnished with a rack and pinion, with a
pendant bearing attached to the propelling shaft at the bottom of tlie rod.
Through this bearing the propeller shaft passes, by which means the pro-
peller can be raised or lowered, as circumstances may require. The end or
stem bearing is constructed of metal and bolted firmly into the transom of
the vessel, so as to be capable of resisting the force of heavy seas against the
propeller, and also of being easily detached. With reference to the second
part of these improvements, a bevelled wheel is fitted upon the capstan, and
this communicates the motive power to the propellers ; there are two pinions

which gear with the bevelled wheel. The axle of the pinions are connected-
with the spindles as above described. The piopeller is confined in its posi-
tion by a stay and other parts of the apparatus. The shaft rotates in a bear-
ing, and can be raised or lowered by means of a topping lift. After the ap-
paratus has been connected with the capstan, it is only necessary to turn that
by power, and the head of the vessel will move round. The third part of
this invention consists in the manner in which the rudder is divided, so as to
admit the shaft of a single propeller to pass through it, and also in the form
of the blades to be applied to such shaft. The length of each blade is more
than twice its radius, and two of these blades are placed angularly upon the
shaft, which is supported by a hinged bearing at its extremity, a strong iron
connecting piece joining the rudder at its upper and lower divisions. — Ibid.

PLASTER CASTING.

Plaster of Paris is sulphate of lime, or gypsum, deprived of its water of
crystaUisation by heat. In this state it has such an affinity for water, and is
capable of taking up so much, that when the powder is mixed with water till
it becomes of the consistence of cream, it sets after a few seconds into a hard
mass. In the manufacture of plaster casts, we must jiay attention to several
little niceties, in order to get rid of all the air bubbles. These arise from two
causes, either from the adhesion of the air to the plaster, or from the plaster
carrying down air with it, when added to the water. The first is to be re-
medied by using fresh burnt plaster, which is always adopted by the cunning
stereotj'pers, for they state that if it simply stands a fortnight, the casts wiU
not be so good. The workman cannot explain this, but the rationale was
well known to Mr. Wyatt, our celebrated sculptor, who told me that he at-
tributed it to the adhesion of the air ; and that thus many dehcate casts
were injured. He places the common plaster in a saucepan over the fire, and
heats it, when it heaves from the discharge of gas, and is then ready for use.
Sufficient plaster should be placed in a basin, and water poured upon it till
it is completely covered, and all hubbies cease to rise, when it must be
thoroughly mixed by rubbing it together. The surface to which it is to be
apphed should be slightly brushed over with a very small quantity of salad
oil. A little fluid plaster may then be poured on the cast, and with a hog's
bristle painting brush thoroughly rubbed into all the fine parts, which will
prevent the adhesion of any air bubbles in the plaster wiiieh might prevent a
perfect impression, .\nother portion of plaster, sufficient to give the desired
thickness is now to be added, and time must he given for the whole to set,
when it should be removed from the mould, and gently heated to drive off
excess of moisture. — Stnee^s Elements of Electro Metullnrgy,

PRESERVATION AND STAINING OF WOOD.

M. Boucherie's process, which we have already noticed, proposes to render
wood much more durable, to preserve its elasticity, to prevent it from under-
going variations in volume, to which it is liable by dryness and humidity, to
diminish its combustibility, to increase its tenacity and hardness, and to give
it varied and durable odours and colours. The mode is, to cut the tree at
the bottom when it is growing luxuriantly and full of sap. The lower part is
then immersed in a trough containing the bquid which it is intended shall
penetrate the vessels of the tree. This will reach the liighest leaves in a few
days. It is not necessary that the tree should be supphed with all its branches
and leaves : a few leaves at the summit will suffice. It is not, however, ne-
cessary to cut the tree : a niche at the bottom will answer the same purpose,
by which the Uquid may be introduced. 1. To increase the hardness of the
wood, and to preserve it from decay, a solution of pyrolignite of uon is to be
employed, a substance readily formed by digesting iron filings in pyrohgneous
acid. 2. To diminish the combustibility, M. Boucherie introduces chloride
of lime, or the mother liquor of salt marshes ; the wood is thus rendered
more flexible. 3. The author also stains the most common natural and in-
digenous woods. With pyrohgnite of iron, a brown colour is produced ;
with tannin, an inky colour is formed ; Prussian blue and yellow tints are
alTorded by introducing these substances with prussiate of potash, acetate of
lead, and chromate of potash. This paper has been very favourably reported
on by Dumas, Arago, &c.

FIRE PROOF BUILDINGS.

Louis Leconte, of Leicester Square, gentleman, for constructing fire-proof
buildings. Jan. 9, 1841. This plan consists in the employment of iron
frames to receive concrete matters for forming the walls. The basement story
of the building is constructed according to the ordinary methods up to one
foot or more above the ground ; on the basement so constructed is to be
erected the patent wall, formed of frames entirely of cast iron, in one or more
pieces, or a combination of cast uon and wrought iron plates. These frames
are to be set one on to the other until the required lieight is obtained, the
necessary stability being obtained by means of steady pins at the corners of
one frauie fitting into holes made in the corners of the frame which is op-
posed to it. Suitable shaped frames are employed for the internal partition
walls, and for doorways, wiudow frames, &c. The flues of the cliimneys are

1S41.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

O/

formed of iron or other metal pipes, placed in the thickness of the walls.
When the required elevation is obtained, a concrete of any suitable materials
is poured into the framing, and fills up the vacant space, giving firmness and
solidity to the structure ; a concrete of gravel and lime is preferred. To give
steadiness, lead is to be introduced between the joinings of the iron work, in
the manner well understood by workers in iron. The doors and v^^ndow
frames are to he fastened to the walls by any of the usual known methods.
The main beams and cross beams of floors and roofs may be of cast iron, or
formed of iron and wood ; or tliey may be formed of one or more pieces of
plate iron, bent up into an oval form, and straightened by an iron or wooden
bar passing through tliem lengthwise, the upper edges of the metal being
turned over to increase the strength. In the interval between the beams
there are to be iron roils running in various directions, and supporting a me-
talhc wire work, which forms the foundation of the ceiling. Similar wire
work is to be employed in lieu of laths for all plaster surfaces. The claim is
— 1. The mode of constructing the walls of buildings by appljing frames of
iron filled with concrete. 2. The mode of constructing beams of bent plates
of iron. 3. The mode of fonning ceilings and other plaster surfaces by the
application of wire work in place of laths. — Mechanics' Magazine. — [The last
claim was adopted in the building of the Pantechnicon, near Belgrave-square.
— Ed. C. E. and A. Journal.]

RAILWAY CONFERENCE.
On Tuesday, 19th ult., a general meeting of railway directors and mana-
gers was held by appointment at the large room in the Queen's Hotel, Bir-
mingham, at which were present delegates from the following companies,
namely : — Birmingliam and Derby, Birmingham and Gloucester, Chester and
Birkenhead, Eastern Counties, Great Western, Hull and Selby, Lancaster and
Preston, Liverpool and Manchester, London and Croydon, London and
Greenwich, London and Birmingham, London and Brighton, London and
South-western, Manchester, Bolton, and Bury, Manchester and Leeds, Mid-
land Counties, North Midland, North Union, York and North Midland. —
George Carr Glyn, Esa., was called to the Chair, and a lengthened dis-
cussion took ])lace upon the objects of the meeting. The following is a copy
of the resolutions, which were unanimously adopted : —

1.. — That in consequence of the public an.xiety occasioned by the accidents
which have taken place on various railways, the companies here represented,
in order to profit by the combined experience of the principal lines, have
deemed it expedient that a general conference should be held, for the pur-
pose of taking into consideration the causes and circumstances of such acci-
dents, and the means that may be available of more effectually guarding
against their occurrence for the future.

2. — Tliat this meeting acknowledges the grave responsibility which at-
taches to railway directors, and the obligation under which they lie, to adopt
all judicious and practicable expedients for ensuring the general accommo-
dation, comfort, and safety of the passengers entrusted to their charge. That
under a strong impression of tliis responsibility they have assembled on this
occasion, and have pursued their deliberations at the present conference.

3. — That this meeting, while it deeply regrets the accidents which have
occurred, looks forward with confidence to the beneficial result of unremit-
ting vigilance and habitual caution steadily enforced and estabhshed, as the
great means of safety to railway conveyance, and accordingly would depre-
cate any sudden or hasty legislation on the subject ; being convinced that
the means referred to, aided by such improved arrangements and mechanical
adaptations as a more matured experience may suggest, will amply accomplish
the desired object.

4. — That the moral character and general fitness of enginemen and fire-
men, as well as of policemen and other servants, in the correct performance
of whose duties the public safety is involved, are so essential to the security
of railway travelling, tliat this meeting recommends to all railway companies
the strictest examination into these points ; and that it should be a rule more
generally adopted amongst different managements, not to employ servants
having worked on other lines, without authentic and satisfactory testimonials
from their former employers.

5. — That in case of serious neglect of duty on the part of railway servants,
it is desirable more frequently to put in force the penal provisions of Lord
Seymour's Act, in order that the strictest discipbne may be maintained ; at
the same time this meeting considers it due to men whose services are so
arduous, to encourage the requisite discipbne and obedience of orders, by
adequate remuneration, and by suitable rewards for extraordinary exertions
or long sustained good conduct.

6.— That the directors at this meeting assembled have taken into their
serious consideration the expediency of placing on the engine a tliird man as
conductor or captain, in addition to the engineman and fireman usually em-
ployed ; and they are of opinion that such a measure, by distracting atten-
tion, dividing authority, and removing or diminishing the responsibiUty of
tlie enginemen, would increase rather than lessen the risk of accidents to
the trains.

7. — That this meeting considers it desirable that there should be a uniform
system of regulations and signals recognised as applicable to all railwavs;
and they recommend tliat the following rules and regulations, with this view,
be submitted to the consideration of each railway company.
The following is the code of signals recommended :

Signals bv Night.
The while light stationary, indicates that all is right ; but if waved up and

doion, is a signal to stop ; if waved to and fro, sideways, to proceed cautiously

The red light is a signal always to stop.
By Day.

The red flag is the signal to stop.

The Hue flag is to stop second class coach trains, luggage, or picking up
trains, for tlie purpose of sending on wagons.

Tlie black flag is used by plate layers to indicate that the road is under-
going repair, and tliat trains must pass slowly.

It is to be understood that any flag or lamp, of whatever colour, violentlg
waved, is a signal to stop.

[We think it is a great pity that such a great assembly should have taken
place to produce such a trifling result. Parturiunt montes, nascitur ridiculus
mus. It does appear to us that the directors might have been better em-
ployed, or have lirought out a more efficient code. The whole affair is quite
in the British Association style. — Editor.]

ROYAL POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTION.
We promised ourselves and our readers, last month, a more extensive ac-
count of this valuable institution, which we shall now endeavour to give

although, probably, it will be a work of supererogation, as so many of cm-
readers must be either contributors to it, or visitors. The building itself we
have sufliciently described on a former occasion, when we gave a plan and
engravings of it, so that it now only remains for us to notice some of the
many attractions in the exhibition. Going into the HaU of Manufactures,
we find a four-horse power double-cyUnder condensing engine, by Humphrjs,
of Lambeth. Entering the gallery of the Great Hall, we meet with one of
the first of a series of artistical exhibitions ; here you may have your profile
taken, go to another artist, and for a trifling fee he models your likeness, this
you may have electrotyped, engraved on copper, or lithographed, all in the
same establishment. 'The assemblage of models of planets, on a scale of an
eighth of an inch to a mile, is an epitome of the wonders of creation well
calculated to suggest serious meditation ; the little globe on which we live
is dwindled to the proportions of a chUd's taw, and yet, to place these
planets in their due positions, would take a space of seven miles diameter.
Long's engine-turning on glass presents old specimens of a standard favourite.'
Close along side are some of Grace's works in papier mache. In the case
marked B are some truly valuable examples from the factory of Mr. Apsley
Pellatt, of the progress we have made in the manufacture of glass. W'e wish
we could particularize some of the well-executed ornaments from the Elo-in
marbles and other antiques. The chess table, painted on slate, in imitation
of various marbles, is a very good proof of the skill of the artist, and of the
value of the material as a ground for decoration. In ease F are some of Mr.
Reid's engines. In a side room is a great variety of vases and other works
of art, and objects of utihty, from the Royal Swedish Poqihyry Works at
Elfdal, in Sweden. There is only one objection we see to the general use of
this stone, and that is the dearness of the articles, which, although they are
of everlasting durabiUty, tells upon the pocket. A little encouragement,
however, and the proprietors will find means of reducing their prices. Here
we may mention the many fine specimens of stained glass by several artists,
and of flower painting by Madam Comolera. Now we have spoken of
painting on glass, a reviving art, we must call attention to the specimens of
wood carving exhibited, which will serve to show that we only want en-
couragement to revive this also— one by a boy of 9 (No. 438), is promising.
Sir George Cayley, with the intention, probably, of competing with Cinde-
rella's Crispin, has deposited, in case H, a pair of slippers, the uppers (we
were going to write upper-leathers) composed of glass — these were doubtless
the true Cinderella shoon. Elsewhere are some other good specimens of
glass weaving. No. 531, &c., are 72 specimens of earths taken in boring a
well 220 feet deep at Colebrook Cottage, Ishngton, showing the difference of
the strata at every foot after the first hundred, wiiicli were principally blue
clay. Osier's anemometer is an ingenious macbiue, but we should not think
works favourably in its present position, as the registering apparatus must be
interfered with by the elasticity of the floor, and the moving about of the
company. In the lower part of the Great Hall are a number of engines and
models, of which it is next to impossible, in our cramped space, to give any
account. We must say the same of those relating to marine engineerinL'.
In the North-West Sky-light Room is a splendid mosaic table ot° Swedish
porphyry, consisting of nearly 10,000 pieces, and of great weight ; the price
asked is, we believe, 3000 guineas. Goiug behind the Great Hall we get
into a labyrinth of darkened passages, from which are views of a number of
dioramic subjects, among which we must particulariy call attention to the
Typorama, or model of the Undercliff, in the Isle of Wight. In the West
Balcony Room is the porcelain Table des Marechaux, painted by Isabey ;
five thousand guineas is asked for it, and it is said to have cost twelve thou-
sand, but we fear it will be long before the raflie is filled. Anotlier gorgeous
and costly affair is the escriban or cabinet of Margaret of Parma, in the East
Balcony Room. Dispersed about are mauy fine works of art by Mr. Long-
bottom, and eminent artists.

Tlie best idea we can give of the Polytechnic Institution, is to call it a
bazaar of science ; you have a number of separate exhibitions and collections
thrown into one, you witness the exercise of several arts, you have the use of
two lecture rooms, and from the gallery a band converts tlie halls into a pro-
menade concert, and this morning and evening : — and so with this epitome
we shall leave the Polytechnic and its crowded halls to the occupation of
our readers.

5S

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[Februahv,

ENGINES ON BOARD THE "GORGON" AND "CYCLOPS" STEAM FRIGATES.

1

to

M

s

IS4I.1

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

50

DESCRIPTION OF THE ENGINES ON BOARD THE "GOR-
GON" AND "CYCLOPS" STEAM FRIGATES.

For the following description we are indebted to Mr. John Sea-
ward's pamphlet, from which we have already quoted the two excel-
lent papers "On Long and Short Stroke Engines," and "Long and
Short Connecting Rods," published in our last volume ; and for the
engravings we are indebted to the Miclianic's Magazhie.

The steam engines which have been supplied by Messrs. John and
Samuel Seaward and Capel to the British steam frigates Gorgon and
Cyclops, and to several other large Government steamers, are con-
structed upon a plan ditlering materially from those which have
hitherto been mostly nsed in steam navigation ; they have been de-
nominated "The Gorgon Engines," from the fact of a pair on this
plan having been first tried on board the steam frigate of that name.

These engines are constructed on the principle of what is called
the " direct action," that is to say, the power of the engines is com-
municated from the piston by the piston rod, direct to the crank, with-
out the intervention of those side levers or beams, cross heads, fork
lieads, and side rods, which are usually employed in the construction
of marine engines. The engravings, one being a side view, and the
other an end view, will give a tolerable idea of the arrangement of
these engines :

A is tlie cylinder; B the piston rod; C the main shaft; D the
crank ; E the connecting rod, which connects the top of the piston
rod to the pin of the crank.

The top of the piston rod is constrained to move up and down in a
perfectly straight vertical line, by tlie aid of a peculiarly constructed
parallel motion. The bar or lever F is jointed to the cap of the piston
rod at G, and it also turns or oscillates on the joint or bearing H, which
joint or bearing is supported by the rocking standard I; the bar or
lever F is retained by a pair of rods K, which are jointed at one end
L to the bar or lever F, and at the other end to the fixed centre M.

N is the air pump, which is worked by means of the pair of side
rods O, which are attached to a prolongation P of the aforesaid bar or
lever.

It will be observed that the distinctive features of these engines
are, first, the line of shafts being placed directly over the centre of
the cylinders; and, second, the power being communicated direct to
the crank without the aid of beams, cross heads, side rods, &c., as
before stated.

The line of shafts rests upon strong frames, which are supported
by wrought iron columns, standing upon the top of the cylinders; so
that the whole force of the engines is confined between the cylinders
and the supporting frames and columns, and does not act against any
part of the vessel.

It should be observed that many engines have been constructed,
previous to the Gorgon engines, upon the principle of the " direct
action," but the arrangements of all those engines have been widely
difierent.

The advantages of the present system are very considerable, and
consist of: —

1st. ^ Great Sari:ig 0/ Space. — A pair of Gorgon engines do not
occupy much more than one half the space required for a pair of beam
engines of the usual construction.

2nd. ^ Great Saving of Weight. — The weight of a pair of Gorgon
engines is "25 per cent, less than that of a pair of beam engines.

3rd. Greater Exemption from .Occident, — The simplicity of the
arrangements, and the reduced number of moving parts, necessarily
lessen the chance of accident, as also the wear and tear.

4th. Greater Security for the Engine-men who work the Engine. —
There being no side levers or beams in movement, the men can move
round the engines in every part with perfect safety ; but they cannot
do so with beam engines without much danger.

5th. The Tremor and Vibration usually experienced in Steam Vessels
are almost entirely prevented. — The chief cause of the tremor and vi-
bration observable in steam vessels, is the pumping action of the
beams or side levers, which causes a great strain and effort throughout
the whole vessel ; but there is nothing of this in the Gorgon engines.

6th. ^'i more efficient and economical .Application of the Motive Power,
—resulting from the absence of a large mass of moving matter, and of
many joints and bearings, the latter of which especially, is in ordinary
engines the cause of 7nuch loss of power.

The advantages above enumerated will, for the most part, be very
obvious, on even a slight examination, by any impartial and competent
judge ; and of the great importance of the advantages themselves, no
one will pretend to doubt for a moment. Indeed, as regards the suc-
cessful application of this system, the matter is now placed beyond all
dispute, as the trials of it, made in the Gorgon, Cyclops, and several
other vessels, during the last three years, have been most satisfactory
and conclusive.

REVIE^VS.

Pambour on Locomotive Engines. London : John Weale, 1840.

(Second Notice.) — (Continued from page 10. J

In the 11th section it is shewn that on Railways with a wide gauge,
like the Great Western, the locomotives have the advantage, at mo-
derate velocities, such as 25 miles per hour, of conveying much greater
loads, and consuming less fuel per ton per mile, than on railways with
a narrow gauge.

The subject of Adhesion is but superficially treated in the 14th
chapter. The adhesion of an engine is not correctly measured by the
load it has drawn, but by the greatest load ;/ can possibli/ dram, with-
out the driving wheels slipping on the rails, and of this we have no
determination; the author has contented himself with shewing, from
data furnished by experience, that the adhesive force, when the rails
are in good condition, is equal to at least i of the adhering weight,
and, when they are greasy and dirty by the effect of wet weather, it
is, except in very extraordinary circumstances, at least ^y of the ad-
hering weight.

The limit of the adhesion of an engine might however be deduced
from the friction which would result if the engine were dragged along
on the rails with the wheels fixed.

Chapter XV. treats of the effects of the regulator, and in the 16th
the effects of the lead of the slide are discussed at considerable
length.

In the 17th chapter the author investigates in a very clear and
scientific manner the iuHuence of inclined- planes on the velocity and
load of locomotive engines, and deduces therefrom rules which may
assist in deciding on the best line to be chosen for a railway between
two given points. It is here most satisfactorily proved that the work
done in conveying a given load from one point to another is less on a
level road than on one consisting of alternate ascents and descents, and
that the greater the inclination of the planes, the greater is the amount
of work done.

The ISth chapter, on Curves, completes the theoretical considera-
tions of locomotive engines on railways ; but it is evident that the
author has not given this subject an equal share of his attenlion, for it
is not treated with that perspicuity and just application of science,
which characterize most of his investigations. In the 2nd section,
when treating of curves of which the resistance is corrected by the
conical inclination of the tires of the wheels, he says, page 524,

"The calculation of these ert'ects evidently depends on two things:
the intensity of the centrifugal force produced by the motion of the
wagons in the curve, and the intensity of the centripetal force pro-
duced at the same time by the inequality of the wheels of the wagons."

We are assured that, if M. de Pambour had given a little more at-
tention to this point, he would have seen that the tendencv of a cone
to roll in the circumference of a circle is not due to any force, but
simply to the adhesion of its surface to the planes on which it rolls,
which prevents one part from slipping while another is rolling, on ac-
count of the friction that would ensue. This tendency does not, how-
ever, counteract the centrifugal force : it merely corrects the tendency
which wheels of equal diameter would have to roll on in a straight
line, and which would thus co-operate with the centrifugal force in
causing the carriage to run off the rails. If the eftect of the centri-
fugal force is counteracted by the conical form of the tires in traversing
a curve, without the flanches of the outer wheels coming in contact
with the rail, it must be in consequence of the centre of gravity of the
carriage being raised by its lateral displacement.

The Appendix contains a great quantity of useful information con-
cerning the expenses of haulage by locomoiive engines on railways,
with Extracts from the Report of the Directors of the Liverpool and
Manchester Railway, from the opening of the railway, on the lljth
September 1S3U, to the 3oth June 1834.

Notwithstanding the exceptions we have taken to some few por-
tions, the chief part of the work will be found highly instructive, and
abounding with valuable data; and the practical tables interspersed
throughout will be a great assistance in applying the various formula.

The Science of Vision, or Natural Perspective, containing the True
Language of the Eye, Sfc.^c. Second Edition, 24 Plates. By Arthur
Parset, M.B.A.A.S. London, 1840.

Most of our readers, we presume, have heard of that kind of dis-
covery which goes by the name of "finding a mare's nest;" and such
it appears to us is that discovery in the laws of optics and perspective

TIIK CIA TL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[February,

on which Mr. I'drsey so greatly prides himself; and of whose value
he tries to convince us at first sight, by exhibiting a practical applica-
tion of it in his own frontispiece. In one respect, indeed, that illus-
tration has no novelty, for in nearly every work on perspective we are
acquainted with, the subjects introduced as examples, are for the
greater part either the most insipid or the ugliest things imaginable,
nor does thjt piece of architecture, — which, by the by, was exhibited
a season or two back at the Royal Academy, where it met with a good
deal of quizzing, — form any exception to such general rule. It says so
little for our discoverer's knowledge of, or taste in, architecture, that he
would have acted more discreetly, had he contented himself with
Parsci/fying some, building already provided to his hand ; nor could
he, perhaps, have selected a better subject to operate upon than the
front of the Soanean Museum, that being a tolerablv whimsical speci-
men of architecture in itself, and otherwise well fitted for the purjjose,
inasmuch as its height greatly exceeds its width, conse(|ueutly it is
much better suited to show the convergence of vertical lines, than Mr.
P.'s own plump and squat structure. — At all events, as it is intended
as a model sample of the new system of Perspective, or "New Lan-
guage of the Eye," — a language soine;\hat akin to Irving's Unknown
Tongues, — it would not have been amiss had it been correctly drawn;
so far from which being the case, there are hardly above two of the
vertical lines that converge to the same point, but some of those that
are nearest to the axis of vision are much more inclined than those
which are farthest off! which produces the same effect as a drawing in
which the cornice or upper horizontal lines of a building should be
made to incline less than those of a string-course or lower cornice at
half the distance or less, above the eye. It may be that this is an
error merely of inadvertence, but then it is a most extraordinary in-
stance of carelessness indeed, because Mr. Parsey must have been
aware that his sample drawing would be likely to be rather rigourously
scrutinized, and that any blunder in it would consequently be laid hold
of as an objection to the system itself. Admitting for a moment his
doctrine of the convergence of vertical lines to be correct, his notions
of convergence must be exceedingly tcctnlric, for the upright lines of
the little stumpv turret on the building vanish much more suddenly
than any of the others, so as to give it, even when compared with the
rest, the appearance of being a truncated pyramid. We do not know
how drawings according to the rulgar and now to-be-exploded system
of perspective, appear to Mr. Parsey's eyes, but most certainly the
one he here favours us with, appears to ours a most preposterously
distorted delineation, and totally contrary to nature.

Yes, we are so hopelessly obtuse that all Mr. Parsey's eloquence is
quite thrown away upon us when he assures us "This effect of nature
lannched incessantly upon the vision of mankind, as well from per-
pendicular as from horizontal surfaces, has never been recognized
by theorists, neither is it found in works of art. it has evidently
been a sheer omission." " The necessity of adopting this principle
for the future," he goes on to say, "in the visual sciences will require
no urging so soon as this truth and its consequences shall dawn upon
the unbiassed intelligence of the world." — Which last remark is ex-
ceeding well put in, for that dawn seems to be quite as far off as ever.
Notwithstanding that so great a luminary as Parsey has risen upon the
intellectual horizon, we are as much in the dark as before, or else
obstinately shut our eyes and refuse to be enlightened by Parsey's sun-
beams.

It certainly is most unaccountable that the very class of persons who
are most interested in this notable discovery, and who must of all
others be best qualified to appreciate its value, so far from gratefully
bearing testimony to its importance — so far from availing themselves
of it, are precisely those who set their faces against it, and protest
against it with one accord, not indeed, loudly, but assuredly most sig-
nificantly by refusing, one and all, to make any use of it. When we
see one artist — one architectural painter or draftsman begin to adopt
it, — when such people as Roberts, Nash, Haghe, &c., whose drawings
are in all other respects so admirable, lay aside the old-fashioned, in-
correct, vulgar system, and becoming enlightened begin to ^orsei/yi/
their productions, then indeed our own obstinate prejudices may begin
to thaw and melt away.

No doubt we are exceedingly dull: our comfort is that we are by
no means singular in that respect; for not only have many others alto-
gether scouted the " New Language of the Eye"— which they rudely
set down as being All my Eye and Betty Martin, — but neither the
Westeni, the Marylebone, the West London and the Westminster,
Literary and .Scientific Institutions, "from all of which societies," says
Mr. P., " 1 received most satisfactory and complimentary testimonials,"
have done any thing as yet to promote and diffuse the new science.
Their testimonials may be complimentary, yet if Mr. Parsey considers
them satisfactory, all we can say is that he is the most reasonable and
most easily satisfied person we ever met with. Were the case our

own, we should set down the complimentary part of the business, as
mere matter-of-course humbug, as being of just as much value as
"Your very humble servant" at the end of a letter of refusal. If
notwithstanding their professed admiration of the author's theory
people do not care to apply it practically, their testimony in its
favour, however compliraeutarily expressed, must stand for just no-
thing at all.

With the Institute of Architects — whose testimonial in favour of his
system would have greatly outweighed those of merely literary socie-
ties— Mr. Parsey was not quite so successful, being peremptorily re-
pulsed, on offering to give " a full and gratuitous explanation" of'it to
that body. Not satisfied, however, with one repulse, he renewed his
application about two years afterwards, when he met with no better
success than on the former occasion ; as he himself relates at length
in his Introduction, where he has inserted the notes he received from
the Secretary Mr. Donaldson, and animadverts upon the prejudice and
inconsistency shown by the Institute in refusing him permission to de-
monstrate to them his theory. Yet although he evidently seems to
have no suspicion of such being the case, the refusal on the part
of the Institute, was probably prompted by kindness, — by unwillingness
to let Mr. Parsey not so much explain his principles as expose liim-
self ; because the main point of all in his theory, namely, the conver-
gence of vertical lines, must have been tolerably well known to most j
of the members, it having been made the subject of more tlian one j
article in Loudon's Architectural Magazine, where, in fact, it had '
occasioned some controversy. The Architects undoubtedly knew
enough of it, to be aware that it would not at all hold water — as the
saying is, and accordingly declined his offer; nor do we think that his j
frontispiece is likely to gain him any converts in that quarter. Mr. 1
Parsey makes no secret of the repulses he has met with from others,
for he speaks of " non-replies to letters addressed to influential
scholars," — we almost wonder he did not address himself at once
either to the Premier or the .Secretary for the Home Department; —
yet although he quotes our friend Candidus, he does not attempt to
controvert either what that writer or Kata Phusin have said, fatal as
their objections appear to be to his theory, unless they can be set j
aside ; wdiereas by allowing them to remain unanswered, Mr. Parsey I
leaves us to infer that he considers them unanswerable.

We have already given it as our opinion that the Frontispiece is
not attractive, — otherwise than by its oddity; nor do we think that, j
its new fangled doctrine apart, the volume itself is calculated for any I
practical service. On the contrary, it appears to us that Parsey's new
light serves only to mystify the subject more than ever — absolutely to
bewilder it; and his processes of delineation to be most complex and
tedious. To say the truth, there has always been a great deal move
mystery made about Perspective, than there is any occasion for, that
is, as far as practice alone is concerned, since for that merely a few
simple elementary rules are required, and were they but properly ex-
plained and elucidated, they would be all-sufficient. The great point
of all in teaching the practice of perspective is to convince the learner
at the outset, not of its difficulty, but of its easiness, to explain the
principles intelligibly, and not only intelligibly, but intelligently also,
and to show how those simple elements suffice for all combinations,
and for the most intricate subjects. But to come to Mr. Parsey's
hobby, or rather his cheral de guerre, the Convergence of Perpendicu-
lars— by which we are to understand Vertical lines, we will not be i
quite sure that Mr. Parsey clearly understands himself, or if he does
he has most certainly an unlucky, Mrs. Malaprop way of explaining
himself; for an instance clearly demonstrating the natural convergence
of perpendiculars, he refers us to the effect produced by looking up
from the bottom of a deep shaft, or doron into a well ! Good Mr. Par-
sey, this is playing upon people's credulity rather too openly, for you
might just as well have told them not to look into a well nor to walk
into one, but to go into the shaft of the Thames Tunnel, and fancy that
instead of looking straight before them in a horizontal direction they
were looking upwards. .Such effects as looking upwards, whether to
the roof of "a lofty cathedral" or a low room, cannot be represented
except on a horizontal plane over the spectator's head, as in a painted
ceiling, for it is only such prodigious artists as Billings who can show
us at once the effectoflookingup into the lantern indome of St. Paul's,
and down upon the pavement, at the same instant. Except in very
particular cases, such as those of ceiling pieces, giving effects of di solio
in su, all pictures are supposed to be vertical planes, or planes perpen-
dicular to the horizon, which'we therefore view not by looking either up
or down, but straightforward at, and in which no more can be properly
represented than can be seen under such angle as will enable the eye
to take in at one view the greatest diameter or dimension, whether it
be that of height or breadth. And until Mr. Parsey undertook to en-
lighten the world, both we and all artists, have ever fancied that all
Imes parallel to the picture continued parallel to each other in repre-

1841.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

61

sentation, no matter whether horizontal ones or vertical. Horizonta
lines, indeed, generally converge, but then it is because they are situated
obliquely to the picture ; but that vertical lines can be so situated is ut-
terly impossible, for then they would no longer be perpendicular to the
horizon — that is no longer upright lines, but sloping ones. Conse-
quently Mr. Parsey's doctrine either goes much too far, or else, does
not go far enough. He is either much too daring, or nuich too timid,
and fearful of following up his own principles consistently. He has
no objection to say A, but it goes against him to say B. Either he
must now give up in toto his new law in regard to Perpendiculars, or ex-
tend it also to Horizontal lines parallel to the picture. There is no
other alternative for him; and how so very keen-sighted a gentleman
could possibly have make such a "sheer omission" in regard to the last
is to us quite' inexplicable ; more particularly as he himself calls notice
to his own oversight — to the unlucky flaw in his doctrine, by remark-
ing that the same laws apply to and govern both Vertical and Hori-
zontal lines, on the strength of which axiom he founds his doctrine in
utter opposition to it, referring us to the visible vanishing or conver-
gence of horizontal lines inclined, or situated obliquely to the picture,
in order to convince us that lines perpendicular to the horizon, and
therefore parallel to the picture plane, ought to converge similarly!!
The fact is, Mr. Parsey has built up his fine theory on utter rottenness,
and laid the foundation of his notable theory on a mere (quicksand.

Here we were just going to lay down our pen, when the thouglit
came across us that Parseyism or the new light in perspective, may
easily be put to the test by anyone, by merely applying it — as through
"slie'er omission," we suppose, Mr. P. himself has neglected to do —
to an interior view of a building, for as the end facing the spectator
would by the rules of Parseyjicatton, alias the convergence of perpen-
dicularsj be narrower at top' than at bottom, the consequence must be
that the sides would incltjic fornard. If after this, Parsey's is not
allowed to be a complete Mare's Nest, we can only say that John Bull
is more of a John Gull than we took him for, and that he deserves
liencefortli to resign his roast beef, and diet himself upon moonMne.

A P radical Detail of the Cotton JVIanufacture of the United States of
America, and the State of the Cotton manufacture of that country
compared icilh that of Great Britain. By James Montgomery.
Glasgow : John Niven, lS-10.

Mr. Montgomery is known as the author of the Cotton Spinner's
Manual, and the 'Theory and Practice of Cotton Spinning, both w'orks
of established and deserved reputation. The present volume is not
less important either to the manufacturer, the mechanic, the economist,
or the Englishman who regards the prosperity of his country as con-
nected with its great staple article of export, hi the United States
we see the country which most threatens our supremacy — our main
producer of the raw material, our victor in many foreign markets, and
our still more dreaded rival as the introducer of factoiy slave labour.
Under such circumstances, and with the threatening future staring us
in the face, this volume before us comes with an equal interest to that
which it would ensure from its own merits. Our satisfaction in pe-
rusing it has been great, but how to communicate by any extract an
equal degree of interest to our readers has appeared to us a task of
some difficulty, for it is not easy to detach such a portion of a work so
connected as shall do justice to the subject, and at the same time it is,
of course, out of our power to give any thing like a sketch which shall
include the details of a subject so diversified. We must therefore
content ourselves with noting down such remarks as we tliink may
prove most interesting to our readers.

The plan of the Mills, says our author, is nearly tlie same in the
different districts, none exceed five stories in height, except two at
Dover (U.S.J, which are six stories on one side and five on tlie other.
The general height of the mills is three or four stories with an attic;
but the mills recently built at Lowell are five stories high with a plain
roof, from whicii he infers as probable that although the double roof
has been the plan generally adopted, that it is likely to be abandoned,
as it is the most expensive, and does not give so much room for ma-
chinery as the five stories and a plain roof. The mills are generally
strong and durable. Instead of joists for supporting the floors, there
are large beams about 14 inches by 12, extending quite across from
side to side, having each end fastened to the side wall by a bolt and
wail-plate ; these beams are about five feet apart, and supported in
the -centre by wooden pillars, with a double floor above. The under
floor consists of planks three inches thick ; the upper floor of one inch
board. Some have the planks dressed on the under side, others have
them lathed and plastered; the floor being in all four inches thick, is
very strong and lasting. The average thickness of the side walls may

be from "20 to 21 inches, and they are generally built of bricks, there
being very few stone walls, from the scarcity of freestone.

In England the factories have joists about three inches by ten; these
are laid on their edges about 20 inches apart, with one inch flooring
above, lathed and plastered beneath, or sheathed with thin boards.
The joists are also supported in the centre by a beam about 11 inches
by G, running from end to end of the building : the pillars are of cast
iron, and placed right under this beam, which does not rest on the
pillar, but on a cast iron case which passes upon each side of the
beam, and meets together above, by which means the uppermost floors
are supported on columns of cast iron from the foundation; there is
therefore no danger of sucli floors sinking in the centre. In the United
States where the cross beams rest on the top of the pillars, while the
pillars above rest again upon the beams, the floors in the upper stories
sink down in the centre, in consequence of the shrinking of the tim-
ber, and the pressure of the ends of the pillars into the b»ams. Mr.
Montgomery says, that he has seen some of these which had sunk down
four or five inches in the course of four years.

The mills in England are from six to eight stories high, Stirling and
Becktow's mill, Lower Moseley-street, Manchester, is nine stories.
The general height of those in Scotland is six stories with a plain roof.
In the United States there are few mills driven by high pressure steam
engines; four in Newport, one in Providence, Rhode Island, and three
in Newburyport, Massachusetts. The coals used whether anthracite
or bituminous, cost from seven to eight dollars per ton (30s. to 34s.)
In general the mills are moved by water ; and in constructing them the
water-wheels are necessarily put under cover, so as to be kept in an
atmosphere, considerably above the freezing point in winter, otherwise
the severity of the frost, which frequently descends to nearly 30 de-
grees below zero, would prevent them from operating a great part of
the year; hence the water-wheels are generally placed in the base-
ment story, whicli besides the wheels contains the mechanics' shop
and cloth room, or sometimes it is filled in whole or in part with ma-
chinerv. The English cotton factories generally have their picking or
scutching rooms within the mill ; but in the United States there are
separate buildings erected fur these purposes, generally standing like
guardhouses about 20 or 3U feet from the main building, with the
passages that connect them secured with iron doors, to prevent the
communication of fire to the loose cotton in the picking house.

The method of communicating motion from the first moving power
to the dirterent departments in the English factories is by means of
shafts and geared wheels ; but in America it is done by large belts
moving at a rapid speed ; these are of the breadth of 9, 12, or 1.5
inches, according to the weight they have to drive, and pass through
a space of from 2500 to 3600 feet per minute. A belt of 15 inches
broad, moving at the rate of 3000 feet per minute, is considered capa-
ble of exerting a propelling force equal to 50 horses' power. All the
most recent mills are belted, while many of the older ones have had
the shafts and gears removed, and belts substituted in their stead ;
indeed beHs are generally preferred even by those who have had suffi-
cient experience of both. A belt of ordinary size would be between
three and four hundred feet long, from twelve to fifteen inches broad,
and would require from six to seven hundred pomids of good belt
leather to make it. Such belts are always made from the centre of
the back of the hide, to that they may stretch equally at botli sides.
Mr. Montgomery further remarks that however partial American
manufacturers may be to this mode of conveying motion to the ditterent
departments, those who have been accustomed to the neat manner in
which factories are geared in England must regard the above as heavy,
clumsy, and inconvenient, as uell as more expensive. As all these
belts have to be enclosed, they occupy a considerable portion of the
rooms they pass through : which, besides interrupting the view, gives
less space for arranging the machinery. '1 hey are likewise very liable
to stretch, and when too slack, they will slip on the drums; and owing
to their breadth, it requires a considerable time to cut one joining and
sew them up again. As to whether belts have more or less power
than English gearing, Mr. Montgomery states his inability to decide
satisfactorily; diflerent opinions prevail in America, but there are two
mills at Fall River, Rhode Island, which are said to decide the ques-
tion in favuur of the belts.

With regard to the arrangement of the machinery, diversities also
prevail. In England the weaving is generally in the lower stories,
and the carding and spinning above ; but in the States, the weaving
is contained in the upper stories, with the carding and spinning be-
low.

Mr. Montgomery next goes on to describe the several classes of
machinery used in the States, and to point out the differences from
those of England, and here we shall endeavour as far as we can to fol-
low him. The first class is the Willow, in coraiection with which he
says that the American Picker is very injurious to the cotton, and

62

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[February,

likelv to be laid aside. Tl)e Willow Mr. Montgomery prefers is that
called Mason's Willow, wliicli he says is decidedly the best and occu-
pies little room. In the English factories the .Scutching and Spreading
Machines are generally Iwo separate machines, but across tlie Atlantic
they are combined into one called the lap spreader, in which they
have only one, two, or most three beaters or scutchers, wliilc in Eng-
land they have generally four or five. There are, says Mr. Montgo-
mery, three most essential processes in the cotton manufaclnre which,
in the factories of the United States are not so well attended to as in
those of England. First, the cotton is not so well mixed ; second, it
is not so well cleaned ; and third, it is not so well carded. With re-
gard to the first our author is of opinion that by far loo little room is
allowed for the picking houses in the United States. U^pon carding it
is observed that few mills in the States nse simple carding, mostly all
have breakers and finishers, even those that manufacture the coarsest
goods. The average speed of the cylinders there is about 100
to Ho revolutions per minute, there being no carding engines,
driven at so high a speed as those in England, or which make work
equal to those of the latter country. Indeed the English manufacturers
generally make superior work with single carding to what the Ameri-
cans do with double carding. The work before us says that it is the
practice with them to crowd the cotton on to the cylinder so rapidly,
that, instead of being taken away from the feeding rollers in single
filaments, it is <lragged in by the slow motion of the revolving cards in
large flikes, which are not allowed to remain long enough under the
operation of the tops, to be suflficiently teased out, the doffing cylinder
being also driven too fast in proportion to the speed of the main cylin-
der. In England the practice is directly the reverse ; the cotton is
led into and delivered from the cards by a very slow motion; that is
the motion of the feeding rollers and doffing cylinder, are comparatively
slow in proportion to the speed of the main cylinder. For example, a
main cylinder 36 inches in diameter will revolve between TO and 80
times for one of the feeding rollers ; in America their motions are as
35 of the former to one of the latter. The proportions of the revolu-
tions of the main cylinder and doffer are in England as 25 of the former
to one of the latter ; in America as 17 to 1. The mode of stripping
the cards adopted in the States is also inferior, as also that of grinding
the cards. The drawing process is stated not to be so well performed,
and to take twice the amount of labour across the Atlantic. The spin-
ning warps Throstle Spinning Frames are univei-sally used, except in
some factories where very fine goods are made. They appear to be
worked at a higher speed there, and with advantage, power being
cheaper ; Gore's Spindle which failed in Glasgow being most success-
ful in the States. In weaving by power Mr. Montgomery considers
that the Americans in every respect equal and in some things surpass
any thing he has seen either at Manchester or Glasgow, partleularlvin
common power weaving. In fancy weaving however they have not
made a beginning. The spooling machine is cited as superior to that
used in England, being much more simple, and capable of being attended
by girls of 11, instead of women of 3o. The warping machine is much
the same as here ; the dressing machines are entirelv different, said to
be more simple, more easily attended and kept in order, requiring less
power and oil. The Power Looms are generally of improved con-
struction.

We have we trust in this sketch shown enough of the merits of
this work, to give a favourable idea of it to our readers, so that we
shall conclude by congratulating Mr. Montgomerv on this interesting
contribution to the literature of a subject so important.

T/ie Raiiimys of Great Britain and Ireland. By Francis Whish.\w,
C.E. London : Simpkin and Marshall, 1S40.

As we mean to j)ay several visits to this work, we shall for the
present content ourselves with a few extracts, illustrative of the pecu-
liarities of various lines, having in the meanwhile already said enough
in our last notice to recommend it to the attention of our readers.
Taking up the Aylesbury as the first subject, we find

This railway is laiil to the English standard gauge, viz. i feet 8J inches.
Although the hind taken is wide enough for a double wav, being about 17
yards, there is at present only one pair of rails laid down from end to end.
It is one of the rare instances of a railway being constructed eutirelv without
river, road, or other bridges, which is owing to its pecidiar locality ; 'but there
are fiye level road-crossings, and three of these are highways, which are fur-
nished with folding gates, each 9 feet long, shutting both across the railwav
and roads, according as they are required.

The station at Aylesbury is conveniently laid out : a triple w ay, coimected,
at a eonyenient distance from the offices, with the main line, ruiis into a rail-
way-dock 33 feet wide at its entrance, and 12 feet at its connexion with the

terminal tura-table, the side space of which is 4 feet 10 inches j the height
of the quay, which has a curved batter of 2f inches, is 3 feet 4 inches ; the
quay on cither side is about 10 feet in width. There is a carriage-dock 10
feet 8 inches in length, and 8 feet 10 inches wide, famished at its entrance
with a jjroper turn-table, .uid abutting on the yard, conveniently situate for
the arrival of common-road vehicles ; the arrival door for passengers is at the
booking-otiicc, on the left side of the railway as you approach .-Vylesbury ; the
departure-gate is on the right side : for the whole length of the station there
is a siding for carriages when not in use.

The booking-office and general waiting-room are in one ; there is, how-
ever, a separate room for ladies. This is, upon the whole, one of the best-
arranged stations for a short line of railway that we have any where met with.

On the Ballochney,

There is a self-acting plane of 1200 yards in length on that portion of the
line next the Monkland Railway ; the lower part being a single way, the mid-
dle part double, and the upper part formed with three rails. The ascending
train consists usually of four loaded wagons, and the descending train of six
or seven empty wagons ; the time occupied in the ascent is 350 minutes ;
the rope used is about 4i inches circumfereuce ; the sheaves are of 14 inches
diameter, and are placed at intervals of 21 feet.

With regard to the Birmingham and Gloucester, Mr. Whishaw says,

The Lickey Incline of 1 in 37 extends for 2 miles 3-3o chains, and is, we
understand, to be entirely worked by locomotive engines.

If this is satisfactorily effected, it will throw a new and useful light on the
laying out of railways, and will save a vast original outlay in future works.
M"e have long considered that the present system of making the sLvteen feet
gradient the minimum, is far from desirable. The advantages in working a
railway thus graduated are not equivalent to the immense original outlay ne-
cessarily incurred by tunnels and overwhelming earthworks.

Bridges, — The whole number of bridges on this line is one hundred and
sixty-two, besides one hundred and twenty-seven culverts. They are built of
brick, of stone, of stone and iron, and some of wood. The span of arches
over the railway is 23 feet ; and the arches under the railway vary in span
from 16 feet to 48 feet. The occupation-arches imder the railway are each
of 12 feet span.

There is a particular description of lattice-work wooden bridge used on this
railway, which, we understand, was introduced from America by Mr. Hughes,
the resident engineer ; one of these we observed over a cutting near Bredon,
which is about 117 feet in span, 17i feet wide in the clear, about the same
height, and 200 feet in extreme length.

The roadway planking is supported by transverse joists about 6 feet below
the top rail ot framing. These ioists are placed about 3 feet from centre to
centre, and have a bearing on each side on the middle rail, or band, which
runs from one abutment to the other. Besides tins hand, there are two
superior and two inferior bands, running the whole length of the lattice-work.
Each end of the framing has a bearing on cross sleepers bedded in the soUd
ground in proportion to the span, aud is let into a pedestal at each end. Be-
neath the level of the roadway, the lattice-work framing on each side is con-
nected together with cross ties and braces, both of wood.

In order to give this bridge a horizontal appearance, the longitudinal tim-
bers should have a slight camber. One of these structures, on our new of
this railway, appeared to have sunk considerably in the middle.

The largest bridge is that which cairies the railway over the riyer .\vou,
near Eckington, It consists of three cast-iron segmental arches, each of 73
feet span, and supported upon two lines of iron columns resting on iron
caissons filled with masonry. The ribs and other castings of which this bridge
is composed are not so sightly as they might have been; and the iron railing
is of too studied a design for such a work. The whole length of this bridge
is about 270 feet, and the clear width 23 feet. The total cost is stated to
have been 10,000/.

It is a pecidiar feature of this line, that although the rails are not laid
throughout on longitudinal sleepers, there is an entire absence of stone blocks.
This plan is gaining ground every day ; and on some hues we have known
sleepers substituted to a great extent for stone blocks, which had been origi-
nally introduced at great cost.

Of the travelling on the Brandling Junction our author seems to be
by no means an admirer, for he says.

In consequence of opening this portion of die line at too eariy a period,
the traveUing over it was of the most extraordinary description we have ex-
perienced on any railway in the kingdom ; for. besides the snail's pace at
which the train proceeded, the motion of the carriages was precisel\' similar
to that of a boat in a somewhat troubled sea.

It is an error, which most railway Companies have fallen into, to open then-
lines, or portions, before the embankments have sufficiently subsided to allow,
if not of a safe, at any rate of an easy passage for the heavy trains made to
pass over them. Some of the consequences of such hasty proceedings are to
entail a large additional outlay on the proprietors, to bring discreilit orf the
particular railway, and to give the now happdy few enemies to the railway-
system just cause for complaint.

A foot board on the carriages of the same line is more favourably
noticed. The number_of wagons seems large enough.

1841.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

03

The second-class bodies, wliich ai-e 14 feet 7 inches long, and 6 feet 2
inches wide, have also three compartments eacli, calculated to hold ten pas-
sengers. A footboard of wood, lined vnth plate-iron, runs along the wliole
length of the carriage on each side, and is of great convenience to the guards,
who may thus safely walk along the side of the whole train when in motion.

There are nine goods-trucks, mounted each on Hawke's wheels.

There are upwards of -100 wagons at woik on this line, built chiefly by Mr.
Bm-nnp, of Newcastle ; but we were informed that the required number would
be about 1500. The net weight of each wagon is about -11 cwt., and of size
sufficient for .')3 cwt. of coal. The wheels are of cast iron, 3 feet in diameter,
and were generally furnished by Messrs. Hawkes and Co., of Gateshead. The
cost of keeping a wagon in repair is estimated in this county at about il. per
annum. The wagons are coated with tar — a practice which it would be very
advisable for other railway companies to adopt.

With these few notes vce must for the present leave Mr. Whishaw's
work, observing that it contains a store of matter, from which we hope
in our subsequent notices to extract, again impressing upon our readers
the value of the present as a work of reference.

Gandy and Baud's Windsor Caslle. Part II. London: Williams
1841.

When Messrs. Gandy and Baud devoted themselves to the illustra-
tion of this national monument, they seem to have done so with a full
determination to produce a work worthy the subject — a task which in
this and the preceding number they have successfully carried out.
The first of these fine plates presents us with a North West View of
the Norman Gateway Towers and Queen Elizabeth's Building, a por-
tion of the edifice in which two very dissimilar styles are placed in
juxtaposition. This plate wiU we have no doubt be as great a favourite
with the public as with the profession, for it unites great picturesque-
ness of effect with accuracy of delineation. Another work of the same
class is the plate representing George the Fourth's Gateway and the
York and Lancaster Towers, showing in the distance the Devil's Tower
.ind the Great Round Tower. The elevation of Henry VII. 's and Queen
Elizabeth's Gallery shows a range of building constructed under the
several reigns of Henry 7th, Queen Elizabeth, Charles 2nd, Queen Anne,
George 3rd and 4th, and William 4th, and made into one harmonious
pile under the direction of .Sir JeflVy Wyatville. Other plates in the
work present a number of the details of the building, of great value
to the student.

The promise held out by the publisher and conductors has been
satisfactorily realized, so that we can have no hesitation in performing
our duty of recommending most strongly this work to the patronage of
the connoisseur, of the architect, of the student, and the public.

Excursions Dagmrriennes. Part V. Paris.

We recommend this work to our readers. It comes out in numbers
containing well executed engravings of scenes and buildings sketched
by the Daguerreotype. In this publication the admirable capabilities
of photography for architectural delineation is fully shown, and we
have no doubt will prove extremely interesting. In this number are
the Maison Carrie at Nismes, the Trajan column at Rome, the Church
of Basil the Great at Moscow, and a view of the Mola at Naples.

A New Siipplemenl to Euclid's Ekmaits of Geometry. By the Author
of a New Introduction to the Mathematics. London : Whittaker,
1840.

This is an ingenious work, by a well known author, propoimding
some new views, which will doubtless prove interesting to our mathe-
matical readers.

Quarterly Railroad Journal, for January. Simpkin, Marshall & Co.

If no more railway bills pass, railway publications seem by no means
afflicted with a similar sterility, for here we have before us a new
contemporary. The Quarterly Journal contains several interesting
papers on railway economy, emanating from one long experienced on
the subject. Being devoted to the advocacy of the engineers against
directors, it will doubtless be acceptable to many of our readers. We
shall perhaps have occasion next month to advert to some of the views
put forward, which will afford the best proof of the interest we take
in this publication.

The han and Practice of Letten Patent for Inventions : Statutes, Prac-
tical Forms, and Digest of Reported Cases. By Thomas Webster,
Esq., of Lincoln's Inn, Special Pleader. London : Crofts and Blen-
kam, 1841.

It is probably unfortunate for the author of this work that the nature

of the subject upon which he treats is such as to prevent us from
making extracts from it, such as would enable our readers to form an
independent judgment upon it. They will perhaps however feel
equal confidence when, without such testimonials, we refer them to
Mr. Webster's book, as one which for clearness and completeness is
much to be admired, whether as regards its application to this parti-
cular subject, or considered merely by a legal standard. The arrange-
ment of the work is excellent, and the manner in which the information
is epitomized not less so. Any one by a careful perusal of it, will be
easily enabled to understand the rationale of a subject so important.

The Doctrine of Proportion clearly Developed, i;e., or the Fifth Book of
Euclid Simplified. By Oliver Byrne, &c. London: WiUiams, 1841.

" Censure on the works of others," says the author before us, " should be
avoided as much as possible, because it shows the want of knowledge ; those
who know least, censure most : to correct a copy is easier than to produce
an original ; for men acquire criticism before abiUty, and it is mostly from
those who possess no judgment that the most sweeping judgment comes."
This is immediately followed by a general attack on Newton, Legendre,
Simpson, Brewster, Professors Young and Leslie, Keith, Bonnycastle, Austin,
Da Cunha, &c.

This is a very pretty brick from the work of Mr. Byrne, his book abound-
ing with similar looseness and inconsistency. We will not quarrel with Mr.
Byrne's definition of criticism, for he evidently does not know what it is, but
at once dismiss him by observing that his book leaves the subject just where
he found it, and that had he simply announced it as an edition of the Fifth
Book with symbolical, arithmetical and aljebraical expositions, we should
have had less occasion for complaint at the nonfulfilment of his lugh sound-
ing promises.

LITERARY NOTICES.

The foiurth volume of the Papers of the Corps of Roi/al Em/ineers has been
sent to us, but we have only time now to say that it appears to excel the
character of its predecessors.

Another work published by Mr. Weale, The Reports, Specifications ani
Estimates of Public Works in the United States of America, must also be
passed over for the present. It is a work of that magnitude and value that
we should be doing injustice to it to attempt any ciursory delineation of its
contents.

ON THE COMBUSTION OF COAL.

Sir — With your permission I beg to offer some remarks on the re-
view of my treatise "on the Combustion of Coal," inserted in the last
number of your useful Miscellany. Commenting on a passage in my
work, the reviewer observes, " is this a proof of the great value of
coal as a heat -giving body? certainly not: it is the contrary; rather
an evidence of the great quantity of heat expended in evolving the
gas, which is no advantage, but very much the reverse." In my trea-
tise I have strongly insisted on this point, as put by the reviewer,
namely, the heat expended in evolving the gas, coujpariug it with the
heat expended in converting ice into water, and water into steam. I
fear however, the reviewer has overlooked the object I had in view,
which was, not to shew, " the great value of coal gas as a heat-giving
body," but as proof of the enormous quantity of it which coal contains,
and the importance of turning it to account in the furnace.

The reviewer charges me with having made use of an improper
term, and observes, that the expressions "bitumen, and bituminous
portion" ought to be rejected, and, " gases and gaseous or volatile
portion" substituted in their place. That the terms "bitumen," and
"bituminous portion" are strictly speaking, not correct, is true, be-
cause, as Dr. Ure observes, " Coal contains no ready-formed bitumen,
but merely its elements, carbon, hydrogen and oxygen." I beg how-
ever to observe, that the terms, " gases," and " gaseous portion" would
not explain my meaning, for this reason, that the portion of the coal,
which in common parlance is called "bituminous," is in a solid or fixed
state while in the coal, and to which state I was then referring;
though, subsequentlv, it is volatilizable and assumes the form of gas.
I know, indeed, no other term by which these bituminous constituents,
while in thefxed state in coal, and before they are volatilized, can be
designated.

The reviewer observes, " these quotations [taken from page 26,]
suffice to shew that the gases which result from the application of
heat to coal, are considered by the author to be produced by simple
distillation of the bitumen contained in the coal, which sutlers thereby
no alteration in its chemical composition ; whereas, the truth is, that
they result from the chemical decomposition of the bitumen, &c."

I beg to explain my meaning, by saying that I intended to convey

K 1

fi4

THE CIVIL ?:XGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[FeBRU AEY,

the idea tliat the application of he;it to coal expels the bituniinousanci
volatizable part by a distillatory process, and in corroboration of this
opinion I find Dr. Ure says, " the first operation which coal undergoes
on being heated in a common furnace, is, distillation."

I accompany the present with Dr. Ure's letter, from wliich I have
raa<le the above quotations.

And am, your obedient servant,

C. W. Williams.

Reworks by yimlreji' I're, M.D., F.It.S., on Mr. }f'illiam.i' s Treatise on the
Combvstion of Coal.

To C. W. Williams, Esa.

Having now carefully perused your treatise " On the Combustion of Coals
and the Prevention of Smoke, Chemically and Practically considered," I can-
not help congratulating you nn the profound nj-inner in which you have
studied the phenomena of a furnace — phenoniena which, like those of the
freezing and boiling of water, had been for ages exhibited to the eyes of the
philosopher and the engineer, without receiving from the one a scientitic
analysis, or leading the other to any radical improvement. You have fully
demonstrated the defectiveness and fallacy of the ideas generally entertained
concerning the operation of fuel in furnaces, anil the errors, consequently,
committed in tlicir construction. Nothing places in a clearer light the heed-
lessness of mankind to the most instructive lessons than their neglecting to
perceive the difficulty of duly intermingling air with inflammable vapours,
for the purjiose of their combustion, as exliibited in the every day occurrence
of the flame of a tallow candle, or common oil lamp ; for, though this flame
be in contact, externally, with a current of air created by itself, yet a large
portion of the tallow and oil passes oft' unconsumcd, with a great loss of the
light and heat wliich they are capable of producing. Your quotations and
remarks upon this subject must convince every unprejudiced mind of the just-
ness of your views as to the imperfect combustion of the inflammable gases
given out by coals on the furnace grate.

By experiments with Dr. Wollaston's Differential Barometer, made in
several factories, where both high and low pressure steam was employed, I
found, that the ai-rial products of combustion from the boiler furnaces tiew
off with a velocity of fully 3G feet per second ; * a rate so rapid as to pre-
clude the possibihty of the hydrogenated gases from the ignited coals be-
coming so duly blended with the atmospheric oxygen as to be burned. It is
well known, that elastic fluids of difl'erent densities, such as air and carhu-
retted hydrogen, intermingle e'Pry 4/o«'/y; but, when the air becomes con-
bonated, as it does in passing through the grate, and, consequently, heavier,
it will not incorporate at all with the lighter combustible gases above it, in
the short interval of the ai-rial transit through the furnace and flues. Thus
there can be no more combustion amidst these gases and vapours than in the
axis of a tallow candle flame.

Your atomic representations are quite correct, and will please all those
who delight in tracing the workings of nature into her formerly mysterious
and inaccessible sanctuary.

You will remember that when, about ten months ago, you laid before me
the first draught of the specification of your patent furnace, with what delight
I hailed your invention as the harbinger of a brighter day for steam navi-
gation, where economy of fuel has become the sine qvS non in regard to long
vogages. I rejoice that, with the ample means placed at your command, you
have since prosecuted the subject, through all its ambiguities, to a clear and
conclusive demonstration of tlie efficacy of your plan for calling forth from
pit-coal all its dormant fire, and ditfusing it most efficaciously over the sur-
faces of boilers and along the flues. I am more jiarticularly pleased with
your analysis of the combustion of the gases and vapours given out by hy-
drogenous coal, commonly, though incorrectly, called bituminous, for it con-
tains no ready-formed bitumen, but merely its elements, carbon, hydrogen,
and oxygen.

Having been much engaged, during the two preceduig years, in experi-
mental researches upon the calorific powers of dift'crent species of fuel, t
I became aware that the hydrogenous constituents of coal underwent a most
imperfect combustion, and fo\ind I had been misled for some time to the false
conclusion, that the caking Newcastle coals afl"ordcd less heat than the non-
hydrogenous anthracite of Wales. When 1 improved my method of burning
the gaseous products first disengaged from coals, I obtained a greater quan-
tity of heat from the so-called bituminous sjiecies ; a result qinte in accord-
ance with long estabhshed chemical data. The immortal Lavoisier and La-
place ascertained, that one pound of hydrogen, when burned in their cele-
hrated calorimeter, melieil 295-6 lb. of ice, while one pound of charcoal
melted only 9.J-6 Hi., quantities very nearly in the ratio of .■? to 1 ; Despretz
gives the ratio of 315 to 104 ; thus pronng beyond a doubt, that hydrogen
can disengage, in its combustion, three times more heat than the same weight
of charcoal. It deserves to be remarked, that this ratio is exactly the inverse
of that in which hydrogen and carbon unite with oxygen ; for 1 part of hy-

T An account of these experiments w as laid before the meeting of the Bri-
tish Association, at Birmingli;im. and printed in the Athen<nm of September
14. 1839.

• Experimental Inquiry into the Modes of M'.'irming and Ventilating Apart-
ments, in reforem-e to tlie Health of their Inmates. By Andrew Ure, M.D.,
V.R.S. Read belove the Uovnl Society, 16th June. 1836.

drogen, by weight, condjines with 8 of oxygen to form water; and 3 pails of
carbon combine with 8 of oxygen to form carbonic acid gas, which is the
product of the complete combustion of charcoal. From these and similar
researches, chemists have been led to conclude, that the heat aflfbrded by
different bodies in the act of their combustion is proportional to the (piantity
of oxygen which they consume ; a conclusion which accords, also, with the
prineijile, that the intensity of heat is proportional to the intensity of chemical
action, as measured by the proportion of oxygen which enters into com-
bination.

For the first accurate analysis of pit-coals, we arc indebted to Mr. Thomas
Richardson of Newcastle,* who pubUshed, a few years ago, in the eleventh
volume of Erdniann's Joxrnal fiir Chcmie, the results of an excellent series
of researches on coals, made in Professor Liebig's laboratory^. He used the
fused chromate of lead to oxygenate the carbon and hydrogen of the coals,
with Liebig's new apparatus ; and his results deserve entire confidence. In
the earlier analyses of coals, made by Dr. Thomson, myself, and others, the
peroxide of cop])er, which was employed to oxygenate the combustible mat-
ter, always left some of the carbon unconsumcd, and thus occasioned una-
voidable errors.

1. Rich caking coal, from Garesfield, near Newcastle, of sp. grav. 1-2S0,
was found to contain as follows :

Carbon 87-952

Hydrogen 5-239

Azote and oxygen 5-416

Ashes .' 1-393

lou-

2. Caking coal, of excellent quality, from South Hetton, in the county of
Durham, of sp. grav. 1-274, afforded.

Carbon 83274

Hydrogen 5171

Azote and oxygen 9-036

Ashes ." 2-519

100-

3. The parrot coal of Edinbmgh afl'orded.

Carbon 67-597

Hydrogen 5-405

Azote and oxvgen 1 2.432

Ashes .' 1 4-566

100-

100 parts of these several kinds of coal take for perfect combustion (sub-
tracting the oxygen contained in the coal) as follows :

1st. 266-7 parts of oxvgen: giving out heat as the number 122-56
2nd. 250-2 „ " „ „ 114-98

3rd. 217-6 „ „ „ 100-00

The quantity of heat is here presumed to be proportional to the quantity
of oxygen consimied. M. Regnault pubUshed, in Erdmann's Journal, vol.
xiii., p. 69, the following statement of his analysis of coals, which is regarded
by Professor Liiwig as very correct :*

Newcastle coal, of sp. grav. 1-280, affording a much inflated coke, (quite
akin to the Garesfield coal, if not the same,) was found to consist of carbon.
87-95 ; hydrogen, 5-24 ; azote and oxygen, 5-41.

k Lancashire coal, of sp. grav. 1-317, which afli'orded an inflated coke, was
found composed of carbon, 83-75 ; hydrogen, 5-66; azote and oxygen, 8-04.
The quantity of azote is not given separately by either Jlr. Richardson or M.
Regnault ; but it is known to be inconsiderable. The deficit to 100 in his
analyses represents the amount of ashes per cent. Mr. R. says : " With the
present means of analysis at our disposal, it is impossible to determine the
tnie amount," (of azote,) " but the coal cannot contain more than two per
cent." In the Edinburgh coal he found, by an experiment made on purpose
to determine this point, 0-38 per cent, of azote. This uncertainty introduces
a proportional ambigtuty into the calculation of the quantity of heat evolved,
from the quantity of atmospherical oxygen consumed. The less the propor-
tion of azote, in the above analysis, the greater will be that of the oxygen
directly combined with the coals, and the less atmospherical oxygen, of course,
will be consumed, which is the only source of the heat disengaged.

Since it is the proportion of hydrogen in coal that determines the propor-
tion of volatile products, a tolerable approximation upon this point is aftbrded
by the proportional loss of weight which different coals sufter from ignition
in retorts or covered crucibles. I found that 100 pirts of the Felling-main
coal used by some of the Lonilon Gas Companies, when strongly ignited in a
covered crucible, well-luted, lost 37-5 per cent., leaving 62-5 of a porous coke.
The Llangennock coals from Caermarthenshire, of sp. grav. 1-337, lose by
ignition only 15-5, and leave 84-5 of a rather dense coke, which contains 3 of
ashes. In furnaces of the common construction about London this coal
affords much heat with Uttle smoke, and is, therefore, greatly in request, and
fetches a high price. 100 parts of the Tanfield Moor coal, of sp. grav. 1-269,

* An account of these experiments has been since presented, ly Mr.

Richardson, to the Natural History .Society ol Ne»castle-upon-Tync. and is
printed in their Transactions, vol. ii., p. iOl, and in the London and Kdin-
ourgh Philos. Magazine, vul. xiii., p. 121, fi>r August, 1338.
T Chemie der Organischen Verbindungen, vol, ii., p. 88.

1S41.J

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

65

preferred by blacksmiths for their forge on account of its caloritic strength
and freedom from sulphur, give off in iguition 32-5 parts, and leave 67-5 of a
bulky, compact coke.

Every coal which contains much hydrogen, and, therefore, loses much
weight by ignition in retorts, necessarily produces nmch smoke, with a great
waste of heat in our common steam boiler furnaces, for reasons which you
have so well developed in your treatise. "MTien a carhuretteil hydrogen,"
says Liehig, " is kindled, and just as much oxygen admitted to it as will con-
sume its hydrogen, the carbon does not burn at all, hut is deposited (or
separated) in (he form of soot ; if the quantity of oxygen is not sufficient to
burn even all the hydrogen, carburets of hydrogen are produced poorer in
hydrogen than the" original carburetted hydrogen."t The above gas and
smithy coals which, from their richness in hydrogen, are capable of afTording
the greatest proportion of heat by thorough combustion, afford often a much
smaller quantity than the Llangennock, because the carburetted hydrogen
Wliich they so abundantly evolve is not supplied with a line quantity of oxy-
gen, and lience much of their carbon goes oft" in smoke, and their sub-carbu-
retted hydrogen gas in an invisible form. These results are quite accordant
with my exiieriments on these coals with my calorimeter. At first, from
certain defects in the apparatus, whereby the coals were imperfectly burned
and a good deal of smoke was disengaged, I found that the best coals imported
into London, such as Lambton's Wallsend, lletton Do. and Pole's Main,
afforded a smaller proportion of heat than the Llangennock, or even anthra-
cite ; but, when I diminished these defects, 1 obtained much more heat from
the Tanfield Moor coal than from the Llangennock, and more from this than
from the anthracite. In fact, a coal which, like the Newcastle caking coal,
contains 5-239 of hydrogen, is capable of giving out in complete combustion
as much heat as if it contained an extra lOJ percent, of carbon ; but, instead
of this additional heat, it affords in common furnaces much less heat than the
Llangennock, though this is much poorer in the most calorific constituent,
viz., the hydrogen.

It is a remarkable fact, that an inflammable constituent of pit-coal, which
is always present, and often inrisibly combined with it to the amount of 5
per cent, or more, has never been noticed in any of the ultimate analyses
hitherto published. I have examined a great variety of coals from (hfferent
parts of the world, and I have seldom found less than 2 per cent, of sulphur
lu them. Now, this is a circumstance of great consequence to many manu-
facturers, and most essentially to iron-masters. Some of my results upon
tbis subject were published in the number of the Athensinmi above quoted.
Sulphur in its calorific power ranks low, being, according to Dr. Dalton, one-
half of carbon. If we assume its consumptiou of oxygen in combustion as
the measure of its heating power, it wiU stand to carbon in the relation of 3
to 8 ; for 3 parts of carbon consume 8 of oxygen to form carbonic acid, whUe
8 of sulphm- consume 8 of oxygen when they are burned into sulphurous
acid. The blacksmith knows well what havoc a sulphurous coal makes among
his iron in the forge, rendering it entii'cly rotten. The same operation takes
place upon the rivets and plates of steam-boilers, when the sulphur of the
coals is merely volatilized, without being mingled with sufficient air to bum
it.

The first operation which coals undergo on being heaved into a common
furnace, is distillation, attended with a great absorption of heat, and may be
compared to the distillation of sulphur in the process of refining it, for which
purpose much external heat is requited. But, if the fumes of sulphur or the
coals be, after accension, intermingled with the due quantity of atmospherical
oxygen, they will, on the contrary, generate internally from the beginning
their respective calorific effects.

At the outset of ray chemical career I suffered in a painful and dangerous
v*ay from the refrigeration produced by throwing some pit-coal into a hot
furnace. I was extracting oxygen, for common class experiments, from nitre
ignited in a large iron bottle, when, having replenished the fire with coal, the
gas became condensed in the bottle so much as to occasion a regurgitation of
water into it from the gasometer basin, which water, being instantly con-
verted into high-pressure st€am, drove out a quantity of red-hot nitre upon
my shoulder and arm, so as to bum not only my clothes, but a very con-
siderable portion of my skin. In an experimental furnace, so treated, the
heat is greatly damped as long as the hydrogenated vapours and gases are
being generated ; and it becomes again effective only when the coals have
become nearly charred. Were there a contrivance like your patent invention
introduced into the furnace for diffusing atmospherical oxygen through the
said vapours and gases, no vexatious refrigeration could ensue from feeding
the fire prudently, with common pit-coal ; and the extemal orifice through
which this smoke-burning air was admitted, might be closed whenever the
fire became clear.

In the case of great steam-boiler furnaces, for which your patent is espe-
cially intended, since these are fed at short intervals, your plan of distributing
atmospheric air, in a regulated quantity, by numerous jets, through the body
of the gasiform matter, is peculiarly happy, and enable you to extract the
whole heat which the combustible is capable of affording. The method also
which you have contrived for distributing the air under the surface of the
grate will ensure due combustion of the coked coals lying there, without ad-
mitting a refrigerating blast to the fire. And, finally, your mode of supplying
atmospherical oxygen will prevent the possibility of the carbon of the coals

* Traite de C'himie Orgauique. Introduction, p. 32.

escaping in the state of carbonic oxide gas, whereby, at present, much heat is
lost in our great furnaces.

Andrew Ure.
1, Charlotte-street, Bedford-si/uare, London,
Decem/ier 26, 1840.

LECOUNT'S HISTORY OF THE LONDON AND BIRMINGH.VM
RAILWAY.

Sir — In your last number you have unintentionally done me an injury,
which I have no doubt you will redress by admitting this letter. I allude
to your stating that my liistory of the London and Birmingham Railway is a
reprint from Mr. Roscoe's. I beg to say this is not the case beyond the 32nd
page ; the remainder of my work is what it proposes to be, a history of the
railway in question, which Mr. Roscoe's is not beyond page 32 — after that
point I had nothing whatever to do with it, principally on the account that
it was professing what was not to be performed. My name being connected
with it is a perfect hoax upon the public ; I never saw a proof sheet after
page 32 ; and I may add that what I furnished for that work, although done
under a written agreement, has never got me a sight of sixpence of the pub-
hsher's money. Beyond tlie point named it may be just as correctly called
my history of the Cock Lane ghost, as my history of the Birmingham rail-
way ; I had nothing whatever to do with it except as above explained

Your obedient servant,

IVellinyton Road, Birmingham, P. Lecount.

January 7, 1841.

[We should regret extremely that any unintentional error of ours should
be the means of injuring Lieut. Lecount, for whose public services we enter-
tain great respect, perhaps his letter will be deemed a sufficient explanation.
—Ed. C. E. & A. JouRy.\L.]

IMPROVEMENTS ON ECCENTRIC RODS.

F,g. 1.

TS h

Tiij-2

[We very much regret that, through the inadvertence of our wood
engraver, several letters of reference were omitted in Mr. Pearce's
diagrams given in last month's Journal ; we have therefore thought it
our duty to re-insert them, together with the following communi-
cations.]

Sir — I beg to call your attention to my communication on Eccentrics
for working the slide valves of Locomotive Engines, which you were
pleased to insert in the last number of your widely circulated Journal.

On reading the explanation of the engravings, I find that the greater
part of the letters of reference are not inserted in the figures ; this
omission, I think you will perceive, renders the most important point
of the subject unintelligible, and I have, therefore, taken the liberty
to apprise you of the same, hoping that you will be induced to correct
the deficiency by the insertion of the figures complete in your next
number. I also beg to point out the two following typographical
omissions. In the 5th line of the 6th paragraph, instead of " Suppose
it to be, &c." it ought to have been -'Suppose the crank to be, &c.,"
and in the 1 Ith line of the last paragraph, instead of "caused to be,
&c." it ought to have been " caused not to be, &c."

I remain. Sir,

Leeds, Your obliged servant,

Jan. 13M, 1841. Joun C. Pearce.

m

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[February,

Sir — I have subscribed to your periodical from its oommeiicement,
and receivpd from it much pleasure and useful information. I have been
still more gratified of late with the increase of space devoted to my
favourite study, mechanics, and it is to a paper of tliis nature in your
January number, that I wish at present to direct your attention. A
correspondent of the name of John Charles Pearce describes, at con-
siderable length, a contrivance for reversing a steam-engine with one
eccentric as an invention of his own, althougli it has long been quite
common in this country. I may mention, as an example, a high-
pressure engine of about 20 horse power, built for some experiments
with a canal boat on the Fortli and Clyde Canal, and afterwards
altered as a pumping-engine for a dry dock at Grangemoutli, in which
the identical contrivance was applied successfully.

I am,

Gla'>gow, Your constant reader,

ilM Jan. 1841. Ax Apprentice.

Sir — If I am trespassing too mucli on your columns by thus a second time
reijuesting the favour of a jjlace therein, I heg you will suppress, curtail, or
defer, as you think best, the following remarks which I am induced to send
you after the penisal of a coinmimication fiom Mr. John Charles Pearce, in-
serted in your number for the present month.

Mr. J. C. Pearce is correct in bis observation as to the possibility of work-
ing Locomotive Engines by two fixed oocentrics, but he overlooks an objection
to this system which, with your jierniission, I will take the liberty to point
out : jirevious however to entering upon the objection, it will be proper to
explain a few conditions, which are i.ispparable from this system of two fixed
eccentrics, and in one of which, originates the above mentioned objection.

No. 1. The eccentric must precede the crank in its action, when the engine
is going forward, otherwise no lead can be given without a complication of
levers ; a slight objection was made to this, inasmuch that for going forward,
the eccentric rod must work the upper pin of the double lever of the valve
motion, and must be held in gear ,_ so that should any thing get wrong in the
hand motion, the eccentric rod would fall out of gear, and would thus reverse
the engine.

No. 2. The crank being placed in a horizontal position, so that the piston
may be at oi;e ciul of the cylinder, the eccentric must be placed exactly per-
pendicular to Mr. J. C. Pearce 's line C E, which is a straight line drawn
through the centre of the crank shaft, and the lever spindle of the valve mo-
tion.

No. 3. The amount of lead depends upon the length of the eccentric rod.
The shorter this rod is the greater will be the lead.

No. 4. The lead being determined by the length of this rod must remain
invariable imless you move the eccentric on the axle, in which case you in-
crease the amount of the lead one way, iut you diminish it for the reverse
motion.

This last circumstance has been deemed objectionable, because with vary-
ing loads and s]ieed, it is desirable to have the power of augmenting or
diminishing the amount of the lead.

Several engines are at work on the Paris and St. Germain railway fitted
each with two fixed eccentrics, upon the principle laid down by Mr. J. C.
Pearce, and for which a patent was obtained in Paris, I believe in 18.38.
They work well, hut in consequence of the above mentioned inconveniences
are being fitted with four eccentrics.

I have had several opportunities of comparing the duty done by these en-
gines with that of others having four eccentrics, and at work on the same
line, and have found very little difference in their results. I have reason to
believe that the determination to alter them, originated more than from any
other cause, in the desire of the Company to assimilate all their engines, by
adopting one uniform system of eccentric motion ; it is proper here to observe
that the eccentric rods of these engines were originally made too long, and
did not give sufficient lead to the valves, that in consequence tliereof, the
eccentrics were advanced a little on the shaft, so as to give tlie required lead
for gouig forward, and the engines were /Ah* rendered slow the lack way.

Tlic same Company fitted a p.iir of fixed eccentrics to another engine, pay-
ing proper attention to the length of the eccentric rods in order to obtain the
required lead both ways ; the eccentric rods were in tiiis instance so short, as
to work with a disagreeable motion, because the suspension pin of the hand
lever motion, which in consequence of the shortness of the eccentric rods was
attached to thcni, comparatively nearer than usual to the eccentric, occa-
sioned an up and down motion of the fork upon the pin of the lever of the
valve motion, which made it requisite to make the parallel clutch of the fork
much deeper than usual, to prevent it from fiying out of gear ; this might, it
is true, have been easily remedied, but the Company not being willing to
make any further outlay in experiments, and desirous to have their engine,
replaced the whole affair by four eccentrics.

The nmst serious objection made to the two fixed eccentrics, in my opinion,
rests on the impossibility of varying the lead of the valves both ways.

The original plan adopted of two moveable eccentrics is a verv good one,
because if any thing gets out of order with the motion, you can always work
home by hand. The main objections are, their expcnce,' and the diffi'cultv of
getting them sufficiently strong.

The four eccentrics act perfectly wfcll, but render the valve motion so very
crowded, as to be frequently inconvenient.

A very ingenious method has been proposed and executed by Messrs.
Hawthorn, brothers, of Newcastle-upon-Tyne, for replacing tlic eccentrics al-
together, by a motion taken from the body of the connecting rods; the lead
has been very cleverly determined by these gentlemen ; the same objection
however exist as t o the difBculty of varying the lead, which could only be
removed by complicating the motion. I have seen an engine of this descriij.
tion at work and giving satisfaction.

I rcn)ain, Sir, vour verv humble servant,

H. E.

London, January 16, 1841.

PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES.

ROYAL INSTITUTE OF BRITISH ARCHITECTS.

Jan. 11. — J. B. P.\pwoRTH, Esq., in the Chair.

A paper was read by Mr. E. I'.inson, Jun., Fellow, comparing the Campa-
nili of the lower ages in Italy, with those of the Norman period in England.
The matter of Mr. I'Anson's discoiu-se went to illustrate that highly interesting
subject, the spread of the Romanesque style of architecture, and the modi-
fications it undeiwent in its progress.

Jan. 25. — H. E. KEXDAf.i., Esq., in the Chair.

.\ paper was read on the Construction of the Reservoirs from which Venice
is supplied with fresh water, by C. Parker, Fellow. This city being dependant
on the clouds for a supply of this most necessarj- element, means are provided
for collecting the rain water in immense tanks, which it enters by filtration
through beds of sand, the means by which natural resen'oirs are fitted, and
their contents purified, being in fact imitated by art. The mode of con-
structing and puddUng these tanks was described in detail, and illustrated by
plans and sections.

An .\rtesian well lately constructed at the Surrey County Lunatic Asylum,
was described by Mr. S. Lapedge, Associate, and a section exhibited of the
strata through which the borer has passed, to the depth of 347 feet. The
water rises from a bed of dark sand to within 30 feet of the surface, and a
well 190 feet deep forms a reservoir, wluch constantly affords a supply suffi-
cient for the purposes of the establishment.

A drawing was presented and a discussion read of a timber bridge erected
at Hulne Park, by Mr. Barnfather, architect. It is an arch of 100 feet span
and 5 feet rise, constructed of balks of timber raised to a curve by means of
iron wedges, and remarkable for the simplicity and economy of construction.
This principle was introducted from America about 25 years ago.

The Secretary for foreign correspondence, Mr. Donaldson, read a communi-
cation from Baron Gasparin, President of the Comite Historique des Arts et
Monumens, at Paris, accoinpanj-ing a donation of the bulletins (or reports)
of the committee.

SOCIETY OF ARTS FOR SCOTLAND.
Sec. 14, 1840.— Dr. Fvfe, President, in the Chair.

Mr. Galbraith read a jiaper on Trii/onometrical l^velliiig, and on the effects
of a supposed local attraction at the Calton Hill, Edinburgh. In the first
part of the pa])cr he detailed a number of observations which be had made
for the purpose of determining the amount of atmospherical refraction, and
described a formtda for its computation considerably simpler than that in use.
In the second part of bis paper he detailed a series of observations for the
purpose of determining the latitude of the observatory of Ediidmrgb, to which
he bad been led by a known discrepancy between the latitude determined by
Professor Henderson, from observations made by the mural circle, and the
latitude found from the observations made on Kelly Law, in Fife, by help of
the Ordnance zenith sector. It having occurred to him that the rising of
the countrj' to the sotithward of the Calton Hill, and the slope northward to
the Firth of Fortli, may cause a local distiu'bance of the plumb line, he re-
solved on deducing the latitude of tlie Observatory from observations made
on Inchkeith, in the middle of the Firth, where the local attractions may be
expected to be balanced. The determination of the latitude of Inchkeith
Light-house agreed within half n second with that found by the Ordnance
surveyors, but differed by .seven seconds from that deduced by transference
from the Observatory. f)n this account the author conceived that tlic pro-
bability of the existence of a local attraction at the Calton Hill was strength-
ened. The paper was ordered to be printed.

Mr. Alexander exhibited a workim/ model of the Electric Telegraph,
having premised that the model was intended merely to illustrate elementary
principles. This instrument contained a separate wire for each distinct sig-
nal : the exhibition of it gave rise to an interesting conversation, in which
a number of the members took part. Mr. Ponton adverted to the modi-
fieation which he had exhibited two years ago to the society, in which a
suflicient number of signals were obtained by the use of three Hires oHly ; he
also mentioned that during the exhibition in the Assembly rooms, he had
openly talked of a method of reducing the number of wires to two, by intro-

1811.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

67

ducing the element thne, a simplification which has since been wrought out
and patented by Professor \Vlicatstone.

Mr. James Roliertson, late in the service of the Shah of Persia, read a
paper on the method of m/iinifae/urin;/ Bricis hi Persia ; in wliich a lucid
and very interesting description was given of those jiccnliarities in the con-
struction of the In'ick-kilns whieli are consequent on the scarcity of fuel, and
the peciUiarity of what fuel can lie obtained. Mr. Robertson was requested
to allow his paper to appear in the transactions.

Jan. 11, 1841. — The President in the Chair.

Mr. Garin Kay exhibited a model of a boat on skates, which he proposed
as an apparatus for saving the lives of persons who have fallen through the
ice. The exhiliition of this model led to an animated conversation concern-
ing the general subject, in the course of wliich Dr. Ilimtcr, Jlr. Sang, and
Jlr. Glover, expressed opinions decidedly hostile to any cumbrous apparatus ;
Mr. Sang aud Mr. Glover particularly insisteil on the propriety of having a
few men drilled to manceuvring on the frequented lochs ; and the society,
after thanking Mr. Kay for his communication, requested Mr. Glover to draw-
up a paper embodying the opinions which seemed to have prevailed, and jiar-
ticularly the lucid views which he himself had given.

Mr. Rose read a description of an instrument for indicating the amount of
iticlined disturbances ditrinij the shocks of an Earthi/uake. In introducing
the subject, Mr. Rose stated that since this communication had heen billeted,
the vcrj- same instrument had been exhibited to the Royal Society (Edin-
burgh), and that, in consequence, he had tliought of withdrawing the notice.
Having been dissuaded from this intention, be felt it necessary to otter some
explanation. Tlie explanation was to the effect that Mr. Mylne, having been
requested, along with a committee of the British Association, to devise instru-
ments for registering the disturbances caused by earthquakes, had consulted
him, and having received a description and sketch, had employed Mr. Jamie-
son, assistant to Mr. Lees, to construct one. This instrument Mr. Mylne had
exhibited along with others to the Royal Society, without taking any notice
of Mr. Rose. The instrument contained a pendulum suspended by a hall-
and-socket joint, the lower extremity of the penduhnn carrying a piece of
chalk, which might trace, upon a l>lackened spherical surface, a line to indi-
cate the amount and direction of tlie inclination. Mr. Rose explained that
some sliglit friction is needed, in order to prevent the free swinging of the
pendulum, and he added that very little information could be exjiected from
iustrumeuts of this class, since, in localities where the shocks are slight, the
indicators may be deficient in deUcacy, while, on the occasion of severe
shocks, the instrument and observers may be involved in the common ruin.
Sir John Robison pointed out a difficulty whicli miglit occur in interpreting
the readings of the instrument, and suggested a hollow but very flat cup
containing mercury ; in the sides of the cup were to be drUled a multitude
of small holes, which, in the event of any disturbance, might receive and
retain part of tlie mercury. After some conversation among the members,
thanks were voted to Mr. Rose.

Mr. Thomas Da\'idsoD exhil)ited a simple but important improvement in
the camera for taking portraits. This improvement consisted in placing a
stop between the lens and the image, so as to cut ofl' the worst portions of the
refracted light. He also descrilied a method proposed for the purpose of
taking views by reflection. His method was to employ a perfectly spherical
reflector, having a stop placed around the centre of curvature ; by this means
all parts of the image are olitained of eqnal distinctness. Sir Joliu Robison,
Dr. Hunter, and Mr. Bryson made some remarks, and Mr. Sang pointed out
that the curvature of the image in this arrangement would be a source of
great inconvenience. These communications were remitted to a committee.

MEETINGS or SOCIETIES IN' FEBRU.4.RY,
At Eight o'clock in the Evening.

Institution of Civil Engineers, Tuesday 2 9

Royal Institute of British .\rcbitects, Monday .... 8 22
Architectural Societv, Tuesdav 9 23

16 23

STEAIV: NAVIGATIOBT.

THE VOY.\GE OF THE NEMESIS.

(From the Colombo Observer, Oct. 12.J

In this splendid vessel, commanded by Captain W. H. Hall, we have the
pleasing task of welcoiuing to our shores the first iron steamer that ever
rounded the Cape of Good Hope. She is the largest of her class built, lieing
168 feet long, 29 feet beam, and 650 tons burden. The engines are 120
horse power, by Messrs. Foster and Co., of Liverpool, and, of course, upou
the best construction. Twenty days' coal can, on any emergency, be stowed
in her. She carries two medium 32 pound ])ivot guns, one after the other
forward, and 10 swivels, and is manned by 50 seamen. When launched she
drew only 2\ feet water, and may stUl be lightened, if necessary, to 41 feet.
Being nearly flat-bottomed, and fitted with iron hawse holes for cables in the
tei-n, she can be run on shore and easdy got oft" again by anchors, which
contrivances will enalde^ber, in many'cases, to land troops without the assist-
ance of boats. Though thus round-bottomed, two wooden false keels, of six
feet in depth, can be let^down through her bottom, one after another, for-

ward. These, together witli a Iee-l)oard invented by Captain Hall on the
voyage, [irevent ber, in a considerable degree, from going to leeward. The
nidder has a corresponding construction, the true rudder going to the depth
of the sternpost, and a I'alse rudder licing attaclied by a pivot to the fomier,
so tliat it can be triced uji or let down to the same depth as the false keels.
The floats are easily unsluppcd, aud under canvass, with the wind free, she
can go 9 or 10 knots an hour. The vessel is divided by water-tight divisions
into five compartments, so that though even both stem and stern were stove
in, she would still float. Her accommodations and arrangements of small
arms are splendid, aud large coal-holes being placed, both between the offi-
cers' quarters and the sailors' berths and the engine-room, the heat of the
fires is not at all felt. The Nemesis left Portsmouth with secret orders on
the 28lh of March, and reached Madeira iu seven days, where she took in
coals, then jiroceeded down the coast of Africa, steaming or sailing according
to circumstanees, but she experienced principally adverse winds and currents,
jit Prince's Island, a Portuguese settlement, she took in 70 tons of wood,
which, with the remaining coals, lasted till she came into the latitude of St.
Holena, when she proceeded under canvass, in order to make the best of her
way to Table Bay thus facing the Southern Ocean at the veiy worst season
of the year.

She arrived at Table Bay on the 1st of July. The Governor aud suite
having gone on board, she slipped from her anchorage and steamed romid
the b.vy, trying the difterent range of bcr guns. Having taken in about 200
tons of coals and water, she left Table Bay on the lltli of July, and whilst
rounding the Cape, as was to be expected at that most unfavouralde season,
experienced several gales of wind. One of these, in particular, was most
tremendous, but, to the agreeable surprise of those on board, the steamer
proved to be an admirable sea-boat, rising over the immense waves with the
greatest buoyancy, and shijiping little or no watei'. She, however, received
so much damage in these gales, that Captain Hall put into English river,
Delagoa Bay, to repair and refit. This occupied three weeks, but was done
most effectually by those on board, as she carries first-rate artificers and
mplc means at their disposal.

From Delagoa Bay the Nemesis proceeded to Mozambique, thence she con-
tinued her voyage towards India, calling at Johanna. She then went direct
through the Maldive islands to Ceylon, sighted Colombo on Monday morning,
the 7th, and reached Point de Galle the same afternoon.

Tlie Nemesis will have to wait a few days at Point de Galle until the ar-
rival of commissariat and other stores from Colombo, when it is supposed
the will proceed to Singapore, and idtimately to China.

LIST OF KE'W PATENTS.

GRANTED IN EXGL.VN'D FROM 2HtH DECEMBER, TO 28tH J.^NUARY, 1841.

Si.v Months allowed for Enrolment.

John- Buchan'n.4N, of Glasgow, Coach Builder, for "improvements in
wheel carriages for common roads or railways." — Sealed December 28.

William Bridges Adams, of Porchester Terrace, Gent., for "improve-
ments in the construction of wheel carriages, and of appendages thereto." —
December 28.

John Wells, of Vale Place, Hammersmith, Gent., for " certain improve-
ments in tlie manufacture of coke." — December 30.

William Henry Kempton, of the City Road, Gent., for " improvements
ill cylinders to be used for printing calicoes and other fabrics:"- — -Dec. 30.

Henry .\dcock, of Winstanley, Civil Engineer, for "improvements in the
means or apparatus for condensing, concentrating, and evavorating aeriform
and other fluids." — December 30.

William Heusman, of Woburn, Machinist, for " improvemetits in
//loughs." — December 31.

Joseph Parkes, of Birmingham, Button Manufacturer, for " improve-
metits in the manufacture of covered buttons." — December 31.

William Newton, of Chancery Lane, Civil Engineer, for " improvements
in the rigging of ships, and other navigable vessels." Communicated by a
foreigner.''- -December 31.

Francis Burdett Whitaker, of Royton, Lancaster, Cotton Spinner,
for " improvements in the machinery or apparatus for drawing cotton and
other fibrous substances, which improvements are also applicable to warping
and dressing yams of the same." — December 31.

Joseph Stubs, of Wanington, File Manufacturer, for "improvemetits in
the constniclion of screw wrenches and spanners, for screwing and unscrewitig
nuts and bolts." Commumcated by a foreigner.— December 31.

Thomas Robert Sewell, of Carrington, Nottingham, Lace Manufacturer ,
for " improvements in obtaining carbonic acid from certain mineral sub-
stances."—December 31.

William'Henrt Kempton, of Pentonville, Gent., for " improvements in
lamps." — December 31.

John Grylls, of Portsea, for " improvements in machinery used for
raising and lowering weights." — December 31.

Joseph Haley, of Manchester, Engineer, for " an improved lifting jack,
for raising or removing heavy bodies, which is also applicable to the packing
or compressing of woods or other substances." — December 31.

Louis HoLBECK, of Hammersmith, Gent., for " improvements in obtaining
or producing oil." Communicated by a foreigner. — December 31.

Henry Scott, of Biownlow Street, Bedford Row, Surgeon, for "improve-
ments in the manufacture of ink or writing fluids ." — December 31.

68

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[February,

Chaklks GOI.IGIITI.Y, of Gravcl Lane, Soutluvark, Gent., for "a netv ap-
paratus for uhta'minij riwlire pijtrer." — Januan- 1.

GhORGK Child, of Lower Tliames Street, Merchant, for " improremmts
in the rnanufactttre of bricks and tiles, part of which improvements are appVt-
cable to compressini/ peal and other materials." Coniuuinicated by a fo-
reigner.— January' 4.

John Swindells, of Manchester, Manufacturing Chemist, for " improve-
ments in the nianufactnre of artificial stonf, cement, stucco, and other similar
compositiotts." — January 0.

\ViLLi.\M Newton-, of Chancery Lane, Civil Engineer, for '• certain im-
provements in looms for weaving," Coniniunicated by a foreigner. — Januarv
0.

John Rock Day, of Great Queen Street, Lincoln's Inn Fiel<ls, Sadlers'
Ironmonger, for " improvements in the construction of collars for horses and
other draft animals." — January 6.

Henry Guntkr, of Culhim Street, Fenchureh Street, Merchant, for " im-
proi'ements in preserviny animal and vefjetable substances" — January 6.

IIknry liEssEMKR, of Perceval Street, Clerkenwell, for "a new mode of
checking the speed of or stopping railroad carriages under certain circum-
stances."— January fi.

William Thomi'SOn, of Upper North Place, Gray's Inn Road, Brush
Maker, for " improrements in the construction and mountinr/ of various kinds
of brushes and brooms," — January 8,

ViLi.iAM Lacey, of Birmingliam, Agent, for " certain combinations of
vilrijied and metallic substances applicable to the manufacture of ornaments,
and the decoration and improvements of articles of domestic utility and of
household furrdture, also applicable to chnrch windows and shop lights." —
January 11.

Matthew Uzielli, of King William Street, Merchant, for " improve-
ments in impregnating and preserving wood and timber for various useful
purposes." Communicated by a foreigner. — January 11.

William Newton, of Chancery Lane, Civil Engineer, for " improved
machinery for cleaning wheat and other grain or seeds from smut and other
injurious matters." Communicated by a foreigner. — January 11.

John Barwise, of Saint Martin's Lane, Chronometer Maker, and Alex-
ANDER Bain, of 35, Wigmore Street, Cavendish Square, ilachinist, for their
invention of'* improvements in the application of moving ^x^'er to clocks and
time pieces." — January 11.

Thomas Harris, of Chiffnal, Salop, for " an improved horse-shoe." —
January 11.

Joseph Hall, of Cambridge, Grocer and Draper, for " a seed and dtist
disperser, applicable to the freeing of com and other plants from insects," —
January 14.

Walter Hancock, of Stratford-le-Bow, Essex, for " an improved means
of preventing accidents on railways." — January 14.

Pierre Armand Le Comte de Fontainemoreau, of Skinner Place,
Size Lane, for " an improved machinery for carding and spinning wooh and
hairs, which he titles " Filo Finistier." Communicated by a foreigner. — Jan-
uary 14.

Melcher Gakner Todd, of the island of Saint Lucia, for " a certain im-
proved form of apparatus for the distilling and rectification of spirits." —
January 14.

John Loach, of Birmingham, Brass Founder, for "improvements in castors
applicable to cabinet furniture and other purposes." — January 14.

William King Westley, of Leeds, Flax Merchant, for " improvements
in carding, combing, straightening, cleansing, and preparing for spinning
hemp, fax and other fibrous substances." — January 14.

William Uenworthy, of Blackburn, Spinner, and James Bullovgh, of
the same place, Overlooker, for " improvements in machinery, or apparatus
for weaving." — January 14.

Charles Cameron, Esquire, of Mount Vernon, Edinburgh, for " im-
provements in engines, to be actuated hg steam and other elastic fluids,." —
January 14.

Samuel Hall, of Basford, Nottingham, Civil Engineer, for " improve-
ment in the combustion of fuel and smoke." — January 14.

Alexander Jones, of King Street, London, Engineer. for " iynprovemfnts
in the manvfacture of copper tubes and vessels." — January 14.

Edward Foard, of Queen's Head Lane, Islington, Machinist, for "an
improved method, or improved methods, of supplying fuel to the fire-places or
grates of steam-engine boilers, breivers' coppers, and other furnaces, as veil
also to the fire-places employed in domestic purposes, and generally to the
supplying fuel to furnaces or fire-places, in such a manner as to coivmme the
smoke generally produced in such furnaces or fire-places." — January 16.

John Ames, of Plymouth, Painter, for "a new and improved method of
making paint from materials not before used for that purpose." — January IG.

James Smith, of Dcauston Works, Kilmadock, Perth, Cotton Spinner, for
" certain improven.ents in the preparing, spinning, and weaving of cotton, silk,
wool, and other fibrous substances, anil in measuring and folding woven fa-
brics, and in the machines and instruments for these purposes."— isinwary 19.

Thomas Rohinson, of Wilmington Square, Middlesex, Esquire, for " im-
provements in drying woollen and other fabrics." — January 19.

Thomas Vaux, of Frederic Street, Gray's Inn Lane, M'orsted Manufac-
turer, for '* improvements in horse-shoes." — January 19.

Caleb Bedells, of Leicester, Manufacturer, Christopher Nickell, of
York Road, Lambeth, Gentleman, and Archibald Turner, Foreman to the

said Caleb Bedells, for " improvements in the manufacture of braids and
plats." Partly communicated by a foreigner. — January 19.

John Barber, of Manchester, Engraver, for " improvements in machinery,
for the purpose of tracing or etching designs or patterns on cylindrical sur-
faces."— January 19.

Frederick Steiner, of Hyndburn Cottage, Lancaster, Turkey Red Dyer,
for " improvements in looms for weaving and cutting asunder double-piled
cloths, and a machine for winding weft to be used therein." Communicated
by a foreigner. — January 19.

John Cox, of (ieorgie Mills, Edinburgh, Tanner, for "improvements in
apparatus fo' assisting or enabling peisons to swim or float, or progress in
water." — January 19.

Charles Berwick Cvrtis, of Acton, Esquire, for " methods to be used
on railways for the purpose of obviating collisions betiveen successive trains."
— January 19.

.\ngier March Perkins, of Great Coram Street, Engineer, for 'im-
provements in apparatus for heating by the Circulation of hot water, and for
the construction of pipes and tubes for such and other purposes." — Januarv
21.

John Melville, of Upper Harley Street, Esquire, for "improvements in
propelling vessels." — January 21.

M'lLLiAM Hill Darker, senior, and M'illiam Hill Darker, junior,
both of Lambeth, Engineers, and William Wood, of Wilton, Carpet Manu-
facturer, for " improvements in looms for weaving." — January 21.

John Bradford Furnival, of Street Ashton, Warwick, Farmer, for " im-
provements in the construction and application of air-vesselx." — January 21.

William Cooper, of Layhani, Sutt'olk, Iron Founder, for " an improved
inethod of constructing thrashing-machines and other agricultural instru-
ments."—JannnTy 21 ; two months.

Isham Baggs, of Cheltehham, Gentleman, for " improvements inprint-
ing." — anuary 23 ; six months.

Peter Fatrbairn, of Leeds, Engineer, and William Sithill, of New-
castle-upon-Tyne, Flax Spinner, for " improvements in drawing fiaj., hemp,
wool, silk, and other fibrous substances." — January 26.

Edward IlENSHALL,of Huddersfield, Carpet Manufacturer and Merchant,
for " improvements in making, manufacturing, or producing carpets or hearth-
rugs."— January 2G ; four months.

Nathaniel Lloyd, of Manchester, and Henry Robotham, of the same
place. Calico Printer, for " improvements in thickening and preparing colours
for printing calicoes and other substances." — January 2C ; six months.

Nathan M'audington, of Hulme, Lancaster, Engineer, for " improre-
ments in the construction of steam-boilers, and furiuices for heating the same."
— January 26.

Cornelius Alfred Jacouin, of Iluggin Lane, for " improvements in the
manufacture of covered buttons, and in preparing of metal surfaces for fuck
manufacture, and other purposes." — January 26.

John Bradford Furnival, of Street Ashton, Farmer, for " improvements
in evaporating fluids, applicable to the manufacture of salt, and to other pur-
poses ivhere evaporation of fluids is required," Communicated by a foreigner.
— January 26.

Richard Jenkyn, of Iloyle, Cornwall, Machinist, for " improvements in
valves for hydraulic-machines." — January 26.

William Gall, of Beresford Terrace, Walworth, Gentleman, for " im-
provements in the construction of locomotive engines, and of the carriages
used on railways, applicable in part to carriages used on common roads."
Commtinicated by a foreigner.- — January 28.

William Currie Harrison, ofNewland Street, Eaton Square, Pimlico,
Engineer, for "an improved turning-table for railway purposes," — January
28.

Joseph Pr^or, of Wendron, Cornwall, Builder, for " an improved thrash-
ing-machine." — January 28.

TO CORRESPONDENTS.

The drawing of a " Wood Bridge over the River Cuhhr,'*^ will appear ne.rt
yntmtli.

J. C'ui,k (/// tin- Curvature of the Arches of the Holy Trinity at Florence, will
appear in thr in:vl Joarnal.

We Ji'vl obliged to C, 11. W.for his eommunirntious ; we irill avail ourselves of
them at an early opportunity ; he u-ill perceive that we have already taken ad-
vantage of one of them.

We shall In' happy to hear again from our Dublin correspondent.

H in reply to Kder was received too late : it shall appear nc.rt month.

li'e must apologize fo several correspondents who hare written to us for infor-
mation, for not unsuering them ; if they were aware of the numerous eontniuni-
rations that are addressed to ns. ihey would not hi surprised at not hearing from
IIS. If we are in possession of the information, without the neeessity of going to
others far it, we shall at all times feel ninrh pleasure in answering their iinpiiries.

Hooks rtrrired too late for notice this mouth : — Trotter's Manual of Logarithms
and Prartiral Mathematics ; Arehiteetural Preei deuts with Speeifeations and
Wnrk'ing Drawings ; Alderson on the Steam Engine ; The Derby Arboretum.

('ommiinirations are requested to he addressed to "The Ktlitor of the Civil
KiiKincer and Architect s Juurn;d,' A'o. \\. Parliament Street. Westminster.

Books for review must he sent viirlu in the month, cotnmunieations on or before
the 20th (if with drawings, earlier), and advertisements on or before the l^th
instant. S^

Vols. 1, II, and III, may be had, bound in cloth, price £\ each Volume.

1S41.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

GO

WOOD BRIDGE OVER THE RIVER CALDER, NEAR
COOPER BRIDGE, YORKSHIRE.

For the use of the Hauling Horses on the Caldcr and HMle
Navigation. 1840.

(mtk an Engraving, Plate 3. J

William Bull, Engineer.

The span of this bridge is 150 feet, the versed sine of the arch
8 feet, and tlie width of the roadway S feet. The abutments are com-
posed of solid masses of aslilar and rubble masonry. The arch con-
sists of two ribs of fir timber with cross and diagonal framing pieces,
as shown in the plan. The roadway is formed of 3 inch deal planks,
over which is laid a coat of pitch, tar, and gravel mixed, and laid on
hot to about one inch in tliickness. The ribs are formed of two thick-
nesses of timber in pieces of about 21 feet long each, and laid on each
other so as to break joint at eacli cross brace, where they are properly
secured together by vertical and horizontal (cross) wrought iron bolts.
The cross bolts having cast iron washers of about ten inches diameter
at each end, and the vertical bolts, which are in pairs, are connected
by two short straps of flat iron at the top and bottom of the ribs, tlie
straps passing across the joints of the wooil. The scantlings of the
ribs are as follows : at the crown of the arch 2 ft. 2 in. by 9 in., at the
abutments 3 ft. by 9 in. in two equal parts of IS inches deep each,
connected by vertical struts 13 inches by G inches, having the upright
connecting bolts, one on each side of tlie struts.

The cost of the abutments, including the approaches at each side,
which are made so that the horses can pass, first under, and then over,
the bridge, so as to obviate the necessity of casting loose the hauling
lines, was about £lIOO, and of the arch about £170, making a total
costof about £1070.

The appearance of this bridge is extremely light and elegant,
while the strength and stiffness is far more than adequate to the pur-
pose for wliich it is intended.

The whole of the woodwork has gone under the Kyanizing process
after it was framed, and is, besides, either tarred or painted.

THE DERBY ARBORETUM.

Fig. 1. — One of the Pavilions forminjr the Terminations to the cross Walk.
Style of James I.

[It aftbrds us much pleasure to be able to give the following de-
scription by Mr. Loudon of the Derby Arboretum, which was opened
during last summer; it is the munificent gift of a private individual,
whose patriotic example we sincerely hope will be followed by many
other individuals. Mr. Strutt not only gave the land, but also engaged
Mr. Loudon, one of the first Landscape Architects of the day, to lay
out the grounds, and render them suitable to the purposes intended,
which Mr. Loudon has done to the admiration and satisfaction of ail
parties.]

The situation is in the outskirts of the town; the extent about 11
acres ; the form long, narrow, and irregvilar, as shown by the plan, fig.
2 ; the surface is flat, apparently level, but with a very gentle inclina-
tion from the north-east to the south-west ; and the soil is loamy, on
a gravelly or loamy subsoil. The situation is open, but not much ex-
No. 42.— Vol. IV. -March, 1811.

posed to high winds ; water is to be found at the usual ilepfh to which
wells are dug, and there is one small pond whicli is never dry at any
period of the year. Every part of the ground admits of drainage ; but
all the drains must terminate at the south-east corner, where alone the
water can escape. The soil is particularly well adapted for the growth
of trees, as is evident from the belt which surrounds great part of the
grounds, and which was planted some years ago by Mr. Strutt. The
most important feature in this piece of ground, with reference to its
adaptation for a garden of recreation, is, that there is no distant pro-
spect, or view beyond the grounds, worthy of being taken into con-
sideration in laying them out ; or at least none that may not, in a very
few years, be shut out by the buildings of the town, which are increas-
ing fast on every side.

The instructions given to me by Mr. Strutt respecting laying out
this public garden were, that it was intended to be a place of recrea-
tion for the inhabitants of Derby and the neighbourhood, and for all
other persons who chose to come and see it; that it should be open
two days in the week, and that one of these days should be Sunday,
during proper hours; and that on other days a small sum should be
required from persons entering the garden ; or yearly admissions should
be granted for certain moderate sums. That the garilens should be so
laid out and arranged as not to be expensive to keep up ; that a flower
garden and cottage, with the plantations already existing, should, if
possible, be preserved ; that a tool-house covered with ivy should also
be preserved ; that two lodges with gates, at the two extremities,
should be built; and that each lodge should have a room, to be con-
sidered as a public room, into which strangers might go and sit down,
taking their own refreshments with them, without any charge being
made by the occupant of the lodge, unless some assistance, such as hot
water, plates, knives and forks, &c , were required, in which case a
small voluntary gratuity might be given. That there should be proper
yards and conveniences at each lodge for the use of the public, apart
from those to be exclusively used by the occupant of the lodge. That
there should be open spaces in two or more parts of the garden, in
which large tents might be pitched, a band of music placed, dancing
carried on, &c. That certain vases and pedestals now in the flower-
garden, and also certain others in Mr. Strutt's garden in Derby, should
be retained or introduced ; and, finally, that some directions should be
left for the management of the garden.

REASONS FOR THE MAIN FEATURES OF THE PLAN.

In endeavouring to accommodate the design submitted to Mr. Strutt
to his instructions and to the situation, the first point determined on
was, that the whole interest of the garden should be contained within
itself. The mode of doing this was next to be considered ; when it
appeared that a general botanic garden would be too expensive, both
to create and to keep up ; that a mere composition of trees and shrubs
with turf, in the manner of a common pleasure-ground, would become
insipid after being seen two or three times; and, in short, that the
most suitable kind of public garden, for all the circumstances included
in the above data, was an arboretum, or collection of trees and shrubs,
foreign and indigenous, which would endure the open air in the climate
of Derby, with the names placed to each. Such a collection will have
all the ordinary beauties of a pleasure-ground viewed as a whole; and
yet, from no tree or shrub occurring twice in the whole collection, and
from the name of every tree and shrub being placed against it, an in-
ducement is held out" for those who walk in the garden to take an
interest in the name and history of each species, its uses in this coun-
try or in other countries, its appearance at different seasons of the year,
and the various associations connected with it.

A similar interest might, no doubt, have been created by a collection
of herbaceous plants ; but this collection, to be eftective in such a space
of ground, must have amounted to at least oOOU species ; and to form
such a collection, and keep it up, would have been much more expen-
sive than forming the most complete collection of trees and shrubs
that can at present be made in Britain. It is further to be observed
respecting a collection of herbaceous plants, that it would have pre-
sented no beauty or interest whatever during the winter season;
whereas, among trees an(i shrubs, there are all the evergreen kinds,
which are more beautiful in winter than in summer; while the de-
ciduous kinds, at that season, show an endless variety in the ramifica-
tion of their branches and spray, the colour of their bark, and the
colour and form of their buds. Add also, that trees and shrubs, and
especially evergreens, give shelter and encouragement to singing birds,
to which' herbaceous plants oft'er little or no shelter or food.

There are yet other arguments in favour of trees and shrubs for a
garden of recreation, which are worth notice. Herbaceous plants are
low, small, and to have anyefl'ect must be numerous; while, to acquire
their names, and look into their beauties, persons walking in the gar-

70

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[]\Iarch,

Fig. 2 —Plan of the Arboretum.

den must stand still, and stoop down, wliicli, when repeated several
times, would soon, instead of a recreation, become very fatiguing,
Now trees and sliriibs are large objects, and there is scarcely one of
thera the beauty of which may not be seen and enjoyed by the specta-
tor while he is walking past it, and withont standing still at all. A
herbaceous plant is chiefly interesting for its flowers, and the form of
its foliage, in which in general there is little change of colour; but, to
these two sources of interest, trees and shrubs add the opening buds
in spring, the colour of the expanded foliage immediately after it has
burst from the bud, the fine green tinged with some other colour which
the first leaves assume when they are fully expanded, and which con-
tinues more or less till the middle of June; the intensely deep green
of summer, which continues till the end of July ; the first changes of
autumn to red or yellow, which commence in August; and the dying
oft" of all the different shades of red, crimson, yellow, orange, brown,
and purple, which continues taking place till Christmas; while some
deciduous trees, such as the beech and hornbeam, the common oak in
certain soils kept moist, and the Qucrcus Taiizin in all soils and situa-
tions, retain their leaves, after they have become brown, till the fol-
lowing May. There are also, in<leciduous trees, the colour and bloom
of the young shoots of the current year ; the different colour which the
bark of these shoots in many cases assumes the year following (Salix
decipiens, for example); and the colour and texture of the older shoots,
and of the branches and trunk. In addition to these sources of interest,
there is a very great beauty in trees, which, from the improper plant-
ing of artificial plantations, is often overlooked, or rather concealed ;
and that is, the ramification of the main surface roots at the point
where they join the trunk. In general, trees are planted so deep that
this ramification never appears above the surface, and the trunk of the
tree seems fixed in the ground like a post which had been driven into
it ; an appearance as contrary to truth and nature, and also to the
health of the tree, as the shaft of a column without a base or a capital
would, if employed in a building, be to architectural taste. To pre-
vent this monstrous and unnatural appearance from occurring in the
Derby Arboretmn, I have directed all the trees to be planted on little
liills, the width of the base being three times the height of the hill, so
that the junction of the main roots with the base of the trunk will ap-
pear above ground.

Much more might be said to justify the preference which I have
given to an arboretum over every other kind of arrangement for the

Derby Garden, but I consider any farther remarks on the subject un-
necessary.

A glance at the plan, fig. 2, will show that I have provided as great
an extent of giavel walk as he space would admit of; the total length,
including the walk ro\md the flower-garden, exceeding a mile. There
is a straight broad walk in the centre, as a main feature from the prin-
cipal entrance ; an intersecting broad straight walk to form a centre
to the garden, and to constitute a point of radiation to all the other
walks: and there is a winding walk surrounding the whole. Asa
straight walk without a terminating object is felt to be deficient in
meaning, a statue on a pedestal is proposed for the radiating centre
in fig. 2 ; a pedestal, with a vase, urn, or other object, for the second
circle in the straight walk, fig. 2 ; while the pavilions, (fig. 1,) form
terminating objects to the broad cross walk.

As a terminal object gives meaning to a straight walk leading to it,
so it is only by creating artificial obstructions that meaning can be
given to a winding walk over a flat surface. The^e obstructions may
either be inequalities in the ground, or the occurrence of trees or
shrubs in the line which the walk would otherwise have taken, so as
to force it to bend out of that line. Both these resources have been
emploved in laying down the direction of the surrounding walk, though
its deviation from a straight line hus chiefly been made in conformity
with the varying position of the trees in the belt already existing.
This belt, and also the trees in the flower-garden, and in other parts
of the plan, which were there previously to commencing operations,
and which are left conformably to Mr. Strutt's instructions, are shown
in the plan fig. 2. The point of junction of one walk \\\\h another is
always noticeable in an arlistical point of view, and affords an excuse
for putting down sculptural or other ornamental objects at these points;
we have therefore placed Mr. Strutt's pedestals and vases in positions
where, if they are kept properly supplied during summer with pots
of flowers (the pot being placed in the inside of the vase so as not to
be seen), they will form very ornamental objects; and, the names of
the flowers being written conspicuously on a card, and tied round the
narrow part of each vase, and the kinds of flowers changed at least
once a week, they will be instructive as well as ornamental. The
kinds of plants should be such as have conspicuous red or orange
flowers, in order to contrast harmoniously with the masses of green
foliage and grass with which tliey are surrounded.

All the walks are drained by semicylindrical tiles laid on flat tiles in

1S4I.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

71

Fia

3. — Interior View of the mahi Entrance lo ihe Derby Arboretum.
Style Klizabetlian.

a line along the centre of the walk, and by cross drains from this line
to the edges of the walk, communicating with gratings fixed in stone
at regular distances. There is nearly a mile of drains, and there are
150 cast iron gratings. The upper coating of gravel is of a good
colonr, brownish yellow ; and, as when kept in proper order by rolling
it binds very hard and smooth, the walks will be of the most dry, com-
fortable, durable, and agreeable description.

In order to disguise the boundaries of the ground, and to conceal
the persons walking in the side walks from those in the centre walks,
I have raised undulating mounds of soil, varying in heiglit from 7 feet
to 10 feet, in the directions indicated by the shadows in fig. 2 ; and
these, even without the aid of the trees and shrubs which are planted
on them, effectually answer the ends proposed. Certam spaces on
the lawn throughout the garden are left perfectly smooth and level, on
which tents may be fixed, or parties may dance, &c. I should have
made certain hollows and winding hollow valleys, as well as the hills
and winding ridges; but the retentive nature of the soil, the difficulty,
or rather the absolute want, of drainage for such hollows, as well as
the very limited space, and the necessity of having a broad, straight,
nearly level walk down the centre, rendered this impracticable.

In moving the ground, care has been taken to preserve some of the
old surface soil to form the new surface ; and this new surface has also
been drained where necessary, and every where rendered perfectly
smooth and even, by raking and rolling, before sowing the grass seeds.

The seats have b^en designed and placed, chiefly by Mr. Strutt him-
self, reference being had to the following rules: — To make choice of
situations under the shade of trees already existing in the belts, or of
situations where some kind of view or feature is obtained ; to place
some in gravelled recesses along the sides of the walks, and others on
the turf; some open to the sun for winter use; but the most part look-
ing to the east, west, or north, for summer use. Those seats which
are placed in recesses ought to be 1 foot back from the edge of the
walk, in order that the feet of persons sitting on them may not be in
the way of passers by ; and the gravelled recess should extend 6 inches
beyond the seat behind and at each end, for the sake of distinctness,
and to prevent any difficulty in weeding the gravel or mowing the
grass. No seat should be put down, along the walks, in such a situa-
tion as to allow persons approaching it to see the back of the seat be-
fore they see the front of it ; and, hence, the seats should generally be
placed in the concavities of the turns of walks rather than in the con-
vexities of bends. No seat to be put down where there is not either
a considerable space directly in front, or at an angle of 4.i", or some
other equal and large angle on each side. No seat to be put down where
there will be any temptation to the persons sitting on it to strain the
eye looking to the extreme right or left. None to be put down where
more than one point of the boundary of the garden can be seen from
the seat. None to be put down on the tops of the mounds, by which
a person sitting would, at least before the trees and shrubs grow up,
get a panoramic view of the entire garden, and thus defeat the main
object of the mounds, and of the winding direction of the side walks.
No seat to be put down, nor any device contrived, by which both the
lodges can be seen at once from the same point of view ; or even where
one of the lodges and one of the pavilions can be seen from the same

Fig. 4 — East Lodge of the Derby .Arboretum, sh<i«ing the public Room.
Tu.lor Style, time of Henry VII.

seat. Seats which are placed on the lawn always to be backed by
some of the trees or shrubs there, so that no person may ever come
close up to a seat from behind ; or, if seats are placed in the open lawn
without trees or shrubs near them on either side, then such seats must
be made double, with a common back in the centre, or they may be
benches without backs, or single seats, such as chairs or stools. All
fixed seats, whether on the lawn or on gravel, to have foot-boards for
the sake of aged persons and invalids. Round the central circle the
seats should have stone backs, and a more architectural character than
in any other part of the garden.

The flower-garden with its covered seat, the cottage in it with its
public tea-room, and the ivied tool-house formerly attached to Mr.
Strutt's kitchen-garden, are preserved ; and also a a large weeping
ash with seats beneath, the branches of which have been trained into a
regular form by iron rings

In order to design the entrance lodges and gates, and the central
statue, I called in the aid of Mr. E. B. Lamb, M.I.B.A., whose designs
for the lodges and gates are shown in fig. 3, 4, and .'>, and the ground
plans of which are in accordance with Mr. Strutt's instructions in re-
gard to public rooms, yards, and other accommodations. It may be
added that the design of the garden will not be comj.lete without an
obelisk, or some such object, in the centre of the radiating circle in
fig. 1 ; but this part of the plan is left to be completed by the commit-
tee of management.

As my instructions were to preserve as much as possible the belt
and the trees in the interior of the ground already existing, I con-
sidered it most convenient to adopt the surrounding walk as a line of
demarcation between tlie collection or arboretum in the interior of the
grounds, and the miscellaneous assemblage in their circumference.
Had the belt not existed, I should have extended the arboretum over
the ground occupied by it, and thus have obtained room for a greater
number of species, and a larger space for each individual tree and
shrub. As things are, I have extended the belt in those places where
it was wanting, and added to its interest by evergreen undergrowths,
such as rhododendron, kalmia, laurustinus, box, holly, and mahonia;
by low trees, such as arbor vifee, red cedar, and cypress ; and by large
trees, such as cedar of Lebanon, silver fir, hemlock spruce, and ever-
green oak. I have also introduced a collection of lOU diflferent kinds
of roses, all named ; and placed the genera [/'Imus, Quercus, Populus,
and .S'alix in the new part of the belt, in order to give more room in
the interior.

All the ground not covered by trees or shrubs I have directed to be
laid down in grass to be kept closely mown ; but round each tree and
shrub fonningthe collection I have preserved a circular space, varying
from 3 feet to 5 feet in diameter, which rwith the hill in the centre,
comprising one-third of the width of the circle, and on which the
plant is placed) is not sown with grass, but is always to be kept clear
of weeds. The use of this circle and little hill is to prevent the grass
from injuring the roots of the trees while young, and to admit ot the
larger roots showing themselves above the surface, where they ramify
from the stem, as before mentioned. It has been found since the gar-
den was completed that these little hills have served as an effectual
preservative of the plants; because, notwithstanding the many thou-
sands of persons that visited the garden during tlie three days of the

L 2

72

Tin; CIVIL EXr:T\EER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

l^Iarch,

Fig. 5. — East Lo.lge of ilie Derln Ar'>orctum. showing the Entrance Gates.
Tuilur Style, lime of Henry VII.

ceremony of the opening, not a single pl;int was injured. Some few
of the shrubs wliifh require peat .soil, such as the heaths, have hail
thatsoil prepared for them; and the genera C'istiis and lielianthemum,
whicli are apt to damp otf on a wet surface, are planted on a raised
mass of dry rubbish, covered with stones. All the climbing plants have
upright iron rods, with expanded umbrella-like tops, placed beside them ;
the lower end of the iron rod being leaded into a block of stone, and the
stone set in mortar on brickwork, so tliat the upper surface of the
stone appears 1 inch higher than the surrounding surface. This ap-
pearance of the stone above the surface is not only more architectural
and artistical, but better adapted for the preservation of the iron at
the point of its junction with the stone, than if the stone were buried
in the soil.

With res))ect to the annual expense of keeping up the garden, it
will be evident to those who have seen it, or who understand this
description, that it will chiefly consist in mowing the grass in the sum-
mer season. As the extent of grassy surface to be mown will be re-
duced by the space occupied by the walks, and by the circles of earth
on which tliere is no grass (on which the trees and shrubs stand, or
which those in the belt cover entirely), to about six acres, one man will
be sufflcient to mow and sweep up this extent of lawn during (he
whole summer ; the daily space to mow being about half an acre, and
the grass mown to be distriljuted over the naked circles on which the
trees and shrubs stand. All the other work which will require to be
done in the garden during summer, such as weeding the walks, rolling
them, weeding the circles on which the trees and shrubs stand, picking
otf insects fiom the plants, watering the ground with lime water where
worm-casts appear, wiping the seats every morning so as to remove
the excrement of birds, or whatever leaves or other matters may drop
from the branches of the trees over them, &c. &c., may be accomplished
by a second labourer. The head gardener or curator may manage the
flower-garden and the vases of flowers at the junctions of the walks,
and see that the company who walk in the garden do not injure the
plants, &c.

During the winter season, or from December 1, to May 1, more than
one labourer in addition to the head gardener will be unnecessary.
The second labourer may at tliat season, therefore, be allowed to retain
his house, and seek for labour elsewhere ; and the saving thus made,
it is presumed, would be a contribution towards the purchase, from
some of the Derby nurserymen or florists, of all the flowers or other
plants that may become necessary to fill the vases from May till Octo-
ber. Unless some arrangement of this sort be made, it will be impossi-
ble to do justice to the plan of exhibiting plants in the vases; because
the flower-garden, if made a source of supply, would be injured in ap-
pearance; and to have a reserve garden, with a green-house or pit,
would involve much more expense than hiring the plants from a nur-
seryman, and would be far from attaining the object in view so effec-
tually. On the supposition that there were fifty vases, there would
then be fifty dilTerent kinds of named flowers or green-house plants in
them every day during the summer; and supposing that these kinds
were changed once a week, and the same kind not repeated more than
once in the same season, there would then have been upwards of 500
dirterent kinds of handsome plants, with their names attached, ex-
hibited to the public in the course of a single year. To give an idea
of what these plants might be, 1 shall suppose them to consist of 200
showy hardy and tender annuals, 100 dwarf dahlias, 100 choice her-
baceous plants, 100 geraniums, 100 Australian plants, 50 heaths, and
50 miscellaneous green-house plants, including fuchsias, cacti, aloes,

&c. One great use of these plants is, by their bright red, vellow,
orange, or white colours, to relieve the eye, and form a contrast to the
green of the foliage and grass with which they are surrounded on
every side. A similar contrast will be obtiiined by the colours of the
dresses and countenances of persons walking in the A boretum.

The plan of the Arboretum was made in May, 1^539; and, being
approved of by Mr. Strutt, as soon as the crop of hay was removed
from the ground, in the July following, the work was commenced by
Mr. Tomlinson, a contractor for ground work, who laid out the walks,
made the drains, and raised the general masses of the mounds. The
mounds were afterwards moulded into suitable shapes, and connected
by concave sides and lateral ridges with the surrounding surface, under
the direction of my assistant, -Mr. Rauch, who also superintended the
planting of all the trees and shrubs, and all the other details connected
with the ground, till the completion of the whole in September, lb40.
The trees and shrubs were supplied chiefly by Messrs. Whitley and
Osborn, but partly also by Mr. Masters of Canterbury ; and the mis-
cellaneous collection of roses was furnished by Mr. Rivers of Sawbridge-
worth ; the mistletoe was supplied by Mr. Godsall of Hereford ; and
some species, which could not be procured in the nurseries, were ob-
t.iined from the Horticultural Society's Garden. The lodges and pa-
vilions were designed by Mr. Lamb, as already mentioned : the north,
or main, lodge in the Elizabethan style; the east lodge in the Tudor
style, and in that variety of this style which was prevalent in the time
of Henry V^ll. ; and the pavilions in the style of James I. They were
all built by Mr. Thompson of Derby; and the gates to the north, or
principal, lodge were cast from Mr. Lamb's designs by Messrs. Mar-
shall, ijarber, and Co., of Derby.

ARCHITECTURAL COMPETITION.

Sir — The spirited manner in which you acted respecting the pro-
ceedings of the Gresham Committee in their attempt to extort the
sum of one pound from architects desirous of compeliug for the Royal
Exchange, and for whieh you received a vote of thanks from the Man-
chester Architectural Society, in which I (being a member) heartily
concurred, has induced me to forward you the enclosed advertisement,
which appeared in the Times newspaper, in compliance with which
I wrote to the Vicar for the necessary particulars, and received in
answer the accompanying note, by which it appears that the Vicar
and Churchwardens are following the notable examf,le of the Gresham
Committee. Surely if the demand of twenty shillings for the neces-
sary instructions was an extortionate act of the Gresham Committee,
how much more so is the same demand in this case, where even the
successful competitor is only to receive his commission upon £1,000,
instead of the much larger sum at stake in the case of the Royal Ex-
change.

I leave you to comment upon this subject (should you think it worth
notice in your valuable Journal), in any way you deem proper, but I
think you will agree with me that the practice of charging architects
anything, be the sum either large or small, for the instructions neces-
sary in the preparation of competition designs, is very impolitic and
reprehensible, and one that ought to be most strongly protested against
by the profession.

The loss of time and expense architects must necessarily incur one
would imagine quite sufficient for the most exacting Committee, with-
out having new burdens continually heaped upon them.

I am, Sir,

A.S OCCASIONAL COMPETITOK.

Ftbruary 8, 1841.

The following is the advertisement and letter referred to by our
correspondent: — " Architects desirous of submitting plans for the new
pewing of the church of Fordingbridge, Hants, may apply to the Vicar
and Churchwardens of Fordingbridge, until the 16tli day of January
next."

"The Vicar and Churchwardens in reply to A. B.'s letter, beg to
inform him that the plans for repewing the Church of Fordingbridge,
must be sent in by the 2(jth of February, and be in strict accordance
with the instructions of the Church Building Society, but the estimate
must not exceed £1,000.

"A lithographic ground plan is now ready to be forwarded on the
remittance of a Post-oflSce order for £ 1.

" A motto must be inscribed on the plan, and also a sealed letter
enclosing the name of the candidate."

Fordingbridge, Jan. 20, lb41.

1S41.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

73

EPISODES OF PLAN.
•' Ta^det quotidianarum harumformarum."

That there should be any thing at all novel in our manner of treat-
ing the subject we have chosen, — that the same idea should not have
presented itself toothers, and have been frequently adopted and carried
out in publications bearing upon the particular branch of arL-hitectmal
study towards which this series will, we trust be found to contribute
something fresh, — that such should be the case causes us no small sur-
prise. Yet that we have not been anticipated in our present task by
any one else, we may venture to affirm with tolerable confidence, since
in none of the architectural works, either English or Foreign, we have
seen — and our acquaintance with them is tolerably extensive— have
we ever met with any studies of the kind we here purpose bringing
forward. Nav the subject itself, as regards Plan generally, is almost
invariably passed over without the slightest remark of any kind, as if
either it were altogether unimportant in respect to design, contrivance,
and effect; or as if the merits and defects, the advantages or disad-
vantages arising out of it were so exceedingly obvious to every one
as to render it quite unnecessary to call attention to circumstances of
that kind. In regard to Plans it is thought quite sufficient to give the
mere explanatory itfertncts to them, witliout any thing farther even in
the way of descriptive remark ; much less arc they ever accompanied
by any thing like critical examination and comment. The Vitruvius
Brifannicus and similar works are so far altogether dumb books to the
student, leaving him entirely to his own discernment and application,
without even so much as putting him in the way of properly and pro-
fitably exercising them.

For this neglect of what deserves quite as much attention as almost
any thing else in architecture, the only excuse that can be alleged —
and a most unsatisfactory and provoking excuse it is — is that the plans
themselves are so exceedingly common-place and insipid as scarcely
to afford any matter at all for remark. We can learn from them the
number and dimensions of the rooms, and beyond that there is very
rarely any thing whatever in a plan that claims particular notice ; for
scarcely ever do we m»>et with a single piquant and (fftrlful Episode.
As seldom, too, do we find aught very original or particularly happy
in the general combination — in what may be called the laying out of a
building, generally. Instead of perceiving diligent study in this
respect, we far more frequently detect — or rather, are struck by de-
fects that seem to have originated in sheer negligence and inattention,
they being such as could hardly ever have been suffered to pass, had
the drawings been duly revised and reconsidered fur the purpose of
ascertaining whether they were susceptible of improvement. Laugier's
remarks as to the extreme importance and value of Plan, are so ex-
cellent that they ought to be written in letters cf gold, and hung up in
every school of architecture, — certainly to be noticed in every ele-
mentary course of the study ; and yet the advice they contain is either
unknown or disregarded, which circumstance is rather a discouraging
one to ourselves, inasmuch as it indicates what little attention is paid
to, or interest is taken in what we have here selected as our subject.

Another writer, Milizia, reproaches architects with the monotonous-
ness of their plans, and with scarcely ever deviating from the most
"quotidian forms." With here and there a solitary exception, as
he remarks, all our rooms — the most sumptuous as well as the most
ordinary ones — are rectangular both in plan and profile ; that is, are
.spaces enclosed only by four walls, and covered by a flat ceiling; con-
sequently variety is reduced to little more than that which can be ob-
tained by means of size and i>roportion, in regard to which there can
be comparatively little difference in any suite of principal apartments
in a house. For diversity of character, therefore, rooms are, in gene-
ral, made to depend solely upon fitting-up, decoration, and funiiture —
matters which, as usually managed, are hardly considered to belong
to the architect's province at all. In regard to what is strictly under-
stood by the architecture of a room, variety of design seldom extends
beyond what may be called mere pa/ler7i ; the general forms being in
every case the same, let them differ as they may in regard to detail.
We are far from denying that considerable difference of character is
attainable even according to the usual practice ; but then it is obvious
that such difference might be increased in geometrical ratio, by adopt-
ing forms that would lead to an infinity of combinations.

The system hitherto pursued in laying out — not ordinary houses, but
mansions where we might expect. to meet with all the graces of in-
terior architecture, is calculated to produce only the minimum of
effect ; and what little eft'ect it admits of is generally misplaced, being
bestowed not on the apartments themselves, but merely on the ap-
proach to them. Far more frequently than not, such parts as entrance
halls and staircases are both more spacious and more striking — both
more architectural and more picturesque than any others ; and in com-

parison with them, the rooms to which they lead, seem quite common-
place— not to say insignificant.* The consequence is, a most uufor-
tunate anti-climax. That the first coup d'oeil on entering should be a
favourable one, and impressive in itself, we readily grant ; still what is
so shown should be treated as only preparatory — as something intended
to excite currosity, and not as a magnificent promise followed by non-
performance and disappointment. There ought at least to be some-
thing of equal value kept in reserve, so as, at any rate to keep up a
balance, if no more ; whereas the contrary mode may not inaptly be
described as a sort of bathos in architectural composition, — as the re-
verse of a cnscendo effect, — as a most disagreeable and provoking,
because disappointing, hysteron-proteron.

Before proceeding further, it may be as well fairly to meet, knock
down, and put hofs de combat at once those objections which, we fore-
see, are likely to be brought against the system we ourselves advocate,
unless we can show that so far from having overlooked, we have con-
sidered, and are prepared to meet them. In the first place it may be
urged with some degree of plausibility that if the kind of monotony
and sameness which, together with Milizia, we hold to be a defect,
were really felt to be such, and on the other hand, the picturesqueness
and variety arising out of circumstances of plan and section, were
positive merits, pains would be taken to secure the latter, and avoid
the former. To this we reply; the constant repetition of the same
hackneyed, commonplace forms is looked upon as matter of course :
people in general are quite reconciled to it, because they neither look
for, nor have any idea of what may be produced by a different mode
of treatment. Besides which, the defect is rather negative than posi-
tive : a room is not faulty because it is "quotidian" in form, and there
is nothing particular in it as to design, or that distinguishes it from a
thousand others ; the fault complained of is, that by confining ourselves
to a single idea, as it were, we completely forfeit all those varied
effects of which we might avail ourselves. Nor can it be said that
the architectural picturesqueness arising out of plan, and general ar-
rangement, is not worth the study it demands, because we have ever
found that where it has been produced, it has always struck every one,
and made a far greater impression upon them, than mere decoration,
however costly. Granting that nothing whatever is gained by it in
point of convenience, coml'urt, or accommodation, — and that a room
of the most ordinary shape may be fitted up and furnished quite as
splendidly as one which is striking on account of its architectural de-
sign;— what then ? if any argument against our view of the case is to
be derived from that, it may be extended so as to be applied with
equal propriety against beauty of proportions in a room, for neither
does that conduce to convenience or comfort, nor does the want of it
prevent display being made in decoration and furniture.

It will be said, however, that such unusual — or as they will be called
very out-of-the-way forms as are some of those we intend to bring for-
ward in the course of the present Essay, would be found expensive in
execution — perhaps be attended with loss of space, and would hardly
admit of being applied without sacrificing other parts of the plan.
That they would be more expensive is not disputed : therefore where
economy is to be consulted quite as much — if not more than effect,
they are of course out of the question ; yet on that account they are
no more open to censure or cavilling, than porticoes and many other
things in architecture, which being of no positive — at least of no urgent
utility, may be dispensed with where their cost becomes a serious
consideration. It may further be frankly conceded on our part, that
to introduce into a plan such features as our Episodes, would demand
much more study and contrivance than is required when all that is to be
done is to divide it into a given number of squares or parallelograms
for the different rooms. To those who complacently satisfy them-
selves with doing that, and who consider any thing further no better
than superfluous trouble, no ideas but those of "quotidian" routine are
likely to present themselves, let the opportunity for introducing others
be as favourable as it may. Hence, we rarely meet with any novelty
— or aught striking, in regard to the plan, except in peculiar and ob-
stinate cases, where, owing to local difficulties or other circumstances,
the architect has been obliged to humour them, and has thereby been
actually compelled to deviate from the ordinary track, and adopt by
way of expedient what he would neither have done nor thought of
doing, through choice.'!' Without premeditation, and being brought

'^ We were lately consulted as to apian for a very extensive mansion about
to be erected, where, on immediately entermg the house the visitor sees he-
fore him a grand architectural vista nf about 300 feet in length, — a most im-
posing display, no doubt, but produced at the cost of all the rest, for all the
rooms w'oukl appear little better than cabinets in comparison with it. We
accordingly suggested that it wouUi be an improvement, to make a moderate
sized entrance vestibule, and reserve the other part as a grand gallery coming
at the termination of the suite nf reception and drawing rooms.

7 It may very fairly be ijuestionet whether the in'erior of Windsor Castle

M

74

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[March,

in for the twncc, unusual forms and arrangements are not at all likely
to present themselves ; — yet a single idea of the kiml once adopted
readily suggests a second and a third ; for the combinations thus to
be produced are so illimitable, that the chief perplexity is to decide
which of them deserve the preference.

Occasionally, indeed, one meets with plans intended to display
novelty and ingenuitv, but then so far from being calculated to pre-
possess in favour of their forms and arrangements, they are seldom
better than mere architectural cnpriccm, compounded of extravagant
and absuid whims,— merely oddities, in which but little regard is paid
either to effect or convenience, consequently they chiefly serve to bring
ever)- thing of the kind into discredit, and to confirm the prejudice in
favour of conimon-|)Iace routine. Novelty alone will not suffice: there
must also be something that will preserve its freshness and will con-
tinue to charm when the interest occasioned by novelty shall have
worn awav.

We are aware there are some who affect to despise any thing like
contrivance or scenic effect in architecture, as beneath the dignity of
th« art— as partaking of stage trickery— as liable to be paltry. They
insist upon simplicity, and nothing but simplicity, as if picturesqueness
and complexity were never to be admitted, but banished altogether as
faults. " Intricate forms, in works of architecture," Professor Hosking
tells us, "whether internally or externally, will be found unpleasing:"
and undoubtedly he is right, if he means no more than to censure that
degree of intricacy which becomes confusion— a perplexed architec-
tural jumble that wearies the eye by presenting no one distinct picture,
instead of presenting a series of them— all varied, yet all agreeable in
themselves and skilfully combined. Most certainly it is not easy to
draw a precise line between what is an allowable species of intricacy,
and what becomes a faulty excess of it. Yet if no positive rules can
be laid down in regard to that quality in architecture, neither can it
be done in regard to simplicity, which is apt to be carried so far that
it becomes nothing better than poverty, baldness, monotony and in-
sipidity. This is a misfortune which must be patiently submitted to;
though, for our own part, we question its being one at all ; since there
would be small merit in going right, if it were impossible to go astray ;
nor would, we apprehend, the dignity of art be consulted by reducing
art to such a system of exact rules for every possible occasion and
contingency, that it might be learnt by rote. Of mechanical rote and
routine there is by far too much in architecture already. It is true
routine must be learnt and gone through : yet that is no reason where-
fore we should confiuo ourselves to it without endeavouring to get a
step beyond it. Rules are excellent leading-strings for beginners, yet
little better than shackles to the more advanced artist.
(To he continutd.)

CAKDIDUS'S NOTE-BOOK.
FASCICULUS XXIV.

" I must have liberty
Withal, as large a charter as the « ;nus,
To blow on wliom I please."

I. The terms in which they are sometimes spoken of, might lead
those who had never seen them, to imagine that our London Squares
possessed a high degree of positive architectural beauty, or at least
were strikingly picturesque ; neither of which is by any means the
case. To a])p',y, as has been done before now, the epithet " magiiiti-
cent" to them, might almost pass for malicious, sneering irony, did
we not know that if not bestowed, out of serious conviction, it is at
least intended to be understood in earnest ; — and such prodigality of
praise, most certainly tosts the dealers in "flummeiy" description
nothing, it being just as easy to virrite the word " magnificent" as any
other. The sober truth is, our Squares are very agreeable places of
residence, and the houses in them are generally of a superior kind to
others in their neighbourhood ; they are more pleasantly situated, en-
joy more light and air, and also a comparative degree of quietness.
But as to architectural effect of any kind, that must not be looked for,
there being no more in the elevations which form such ^^Zaces than in

would have had so many picluresiine circumstances in its plan as at present,
had its architect been employed to erect an entirely new structure, instead
of altering and enlarging the old one. Wo doulit if, m that case, «e should
have had such unusual forms and combinations — such piquant Episodes of
Pla>i,ss the Library fonned out of Queen Elizabeth's Callery. the Waterloo
Chamber, and the breakfast Room at the angle of the two brancties of the
Grand Corridor.

the sides of the streets of private houses, which lead into them. Here
and there, it is true, there may be a front wdiich possesses greater pre-
tensions than its neighbours ; but the same may occur in any other
range of houses. Our Squares have an air of opulence and comfort,
that is not to be mistaken; but they are quite in architectural undress,
certainly not in gala costume, — in superfine broad-cloth, if you will,
yet as plain and homely in cut, as if it were drugget. Now we do not
say that this is wrong, — on the contrary, we hold such unpretending
plaiimess to be more respectable than tawdry vulgar finerj- : all we
wish is to call things bv the right names, and not to talk of " magnifi-
cence" where it exists" no more than in the garb of a Quaker. Let us
leave to such persons as George Robins the humbugging practice of
digni/ijhig ordinary things by superfine words, unless we choose to be
at the trouble of inventing other commendatory epithets to supersede
the present hackneyed ones ; for at present, those of " magnificent,"
"grand," "elegant," &c., are so bandied about on every paltry occa-
sion that they nave lost all force and meaning, and are in no better
repute than the term "respectable." In honest truth, if we look at
them with an architectural eye, the character of our Squares is only
insipidity. They present neither the charm of piquant variety and
contrast, nor that of unity of design. They are nothing more than four
ranges of buildings surrounding an open space with a garden in its
centre ; consequently the totalily of the design — supposing there to be
any design at all — is lost, because the correspondence existing between
those separate elevations is hardly distinguishable to the eye. Bel-
grave Square forms no exception, for even there, owing to the size of
tlie area or plact itself, the houses — which, by the by, are far from
being in the most dignified style, or very best taste — appear low by
comparison with it. The elevations produce no collective effect : —
the four make no greater architectural impression than a single one of
them w ould do in the same situation ; w hile, on the other hand, if
each is considered by itself as a single separate fa9ade, it is very un-
satisfactory, because there also we find proportion disregarded, and
all grandeur nullified by the multiplicity of small parts.

II. Except what is called the Circus in Piccadilly, and in Oxford-
street ; and what is called the Polygon in Somer's Town, we have no
instances oi places that are rotund or polygonal in their plans, — none
that are either hexagonal or octagonal, notwithstanding that those forms
are well adapted for such purpose in themselves, and would create
some variety in our street scenery. Upon a large scale the elliptic
shape would be found applicable, and in such case the street might
run through it in the direction of its transverse axis. An oval ///ace
of the exact dimensions of the Flavian Amphitheatre or Colosseum,
viz. one whose axes should be 015 and 510 feet respectively, with a
garden in the centre, of the size of the arena, would convey a better
idea of the vastness of that monument, than Lincoln's Iim Fields do of
the Great Pyramid. But to produce its full effect, no such place, be
it an ellipse, circus, crescent, or polygon of any kind, should have its
circumference broken by being pierced w ith streets running into it ;
for it ought to be entered through arches or gateways, over which the
elevation should be continued. The Circus in Oxford-street, is no
circus at all, but presents merely four segmental slices of one, separated
from each other by exceedingly wide streets.

III. It may very fairly be suspected that the new Professor of Archi-
tecture at the Royal Academy is not at all likely to gaiu much credit
by the remarks he threw out the other evening, in disparagement of
Gothic Architecture. Most assuredly they did not betoken those en-
larged and comprehensive views of ait which ought to qualify one
who fills so important and influential a post, and wnosc opinions will
of course be received with implicit deference by many, and without
further questioning or examination. On the contrary they were hardly
worthy of a village pedagogue, much less of a Professor of the art.
To adopt them, would be to retrograde instead of advancing, — to re-
turn to the now exploded prejudices against the Gothic style, which
led such writers as Evelyn to condemn it as " a monkish and gloomy"
mode of building, wherein no sort of harmony or correctness of propor-
tions is observed ! If the Professor be right, all we have been doing
for the last forty or fifty years in regard to the study of Gothic archi-
tecture, has been worse than useless — positively naught and mis» ,
chievous, seeing that the sooner we now unlearn it and retrace our
steps, the better. It is a pity the Professor was not placed in cathdra
a few years sooner, for in that ease, we shoidd probably have been
spared the mortification of seeing the style denounced by him adopted ;
for the new Houses of Parliament. It is further to be regretted that J
he did not think proper to explain himself by pointing out in detail i
the defects of the Gothic style per st, and what it is that renders it J
wholly inapplicable — at least unworthy of being applied, at the pre-
sent day. By not doing so, he has afforded ill-natured people, the ,
opportunity of saying that it was not in his power to support his opi- ,
nion by aught of argument ; consequently, that though it comes from a

1S41.J

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

75

Professor, it is no more than a bare opinion — a sweeping sentence of
bigotted taste, put forth with authority, and seeking ratlier to silence
contradiction than to convince. Fortunately such bigotry is perfectly
harmless — likelier by far to excite ridicule, and laughter at the learned
Professor's expense, than to prove mischievous by putting us out of
conceit with Gothic architecture, and reviving the exploded half-
witted prejudices against it. It is odd the Professor should not have
seen this, and felt that if he touched upon the subject at all, it became
him to do so boldly, that being the only effectual and proper course.
At present, it looks as if he was fearful of saying too much, — that is,
supposing him capable of vindicating his dogmas of taste. Vague
assertion, even though it may proceed from a Professor, is but vague
assertion after all ; nor would it matter a single straw of itself, were
it not that many receive it without further inquiry as an authorative
?/>SE rf;'j:;/, against which there is no appeal: — not however, that such
is likely to be the case in the present instance, for we believe that the
majoritv of the Professor's auditors were disposed to contradict him
point blank. Mr. Grellier, who fancies " one man's Gothic is quite as

food as another's," and one or two others may probably rejoice at
nding the taste for Gothic architecture reprobated ex cathedra at the
Royal Academy ; but should the matter come to the ears of Mr. Welby
Pugin, he will perhaps take up his cudgels again, and flourish them
so stoutly as to make the poor Professor cry out " peccavi." Now
had the Professor manfully thrown down the gauntlet to Pugin, by
formally controverting all that the latter has urged in favour of the
Gothic style, it would have been doing something— would have been
consistent and to the point. But what avails it to let off a puny little
fizgig of a squib against Gothic architecture, instead of battering down
the rampart of prejudices by wliich it is now defended ? It is like
attempting to knock down a citadel with a popgun.

IV. I frankly confess I do not at all comprehend Mr. Rooke's sub-
limities, nor can I make out what is the standard of Architecturid
Beauty to which he would refer us. However it is to be hoped that
all are not so dull as myself, and w ill therefore be able to understand
and turn to account what seems to have been dictated by the Great
Sphynx herself. AH that I can gather from his long rigmarole of
■words is, that Mr. Rooke not only admires, but actually venerates Go-
thic Architecture, and is therefore not likely to venerate such decriers
of it as the piesent Professor of Architecture, and Mr. Grellier. Let
Rooke then take the Professor to task, for it is certain that if he can
neither convince nor convert him, he will fairly bamboozle bim, — un-
less the Professor be (Edipus himself.

V. It is to be regretted that we have scarcely any documents at all
to assist in studying or forming an acquaintance with the modern
architecture of Spain and Portugal. In general, I suspect, it is but in
very indifferent taste ; nevertheless there must be something worth
notice, if only as specimens of the national style. The Spanish and
Portuguese architects, however, appear never to have published any
of their designs, nor has that task been undertaken for them by foreigners
— by any of those artists who have of late years afforded as tasteful
studies of Italian and Sicilian architecture. Without going further,
there must surely be enough at Madrid alone, to furnish materials for
such a work as Gauthier's on Genoa, or Grandjean and Famin's Archi-
tecture Toscane.

THE ARCHITECTURE OF LIVERPOOL.

Sir — Having once undertaken to reply to the criticisms of your
correspondent Eder on the above subject, I hope, since he has pro-
ceeded with his remarks, that you will again favour me with a portion
of your space for the continuation of my rejoinder. I wish it may be
understood that I pursue this system of counter-criticism from no love
of controversy, but with a view to setting the architectural merits of
the buildings noticed in their true light, so far as my poor ability may
extend. It appears to me that your correspondent often overlooks the
leading defects of the buildings he criticises, and expends his severity
on their minor, though, perhaps, to the generality of observers, more
obvious faults ; and on the other hand, sometimes withholds all praise
where much is really deserved. In speaking of the Royal Bank
Buildings, he exclaims against the extravagant use of ornament in
certain parts, but says nothing of its uniform coarseness of design, and
utter want of meaning and cliaracter. He condemns the height of the
basement and balustrade in the street front, but seems not to have ob-
served, and a most singular oversight it is for an architectural student,
that the front of the Bank itself facing the court, is composed of a
Grecian Doric, and Ionic order, one above the other, and with so
arostyle an amount of intercolumniation, that I could not forbear
laughing outright on my first encounter of its mirth-provoking visage ;

but reflecting that some £30,000 had been expended in producing all
this tawdry deformity, I acknowledged to myself that, like Bottom's
comedy, this was " very tragical mirth." The Venetian windows on
the ground floor of the street front, consist of a little bit of Grecian
Doric entablature with two columns and antae, set on a sill which, with
its burden, overhangs the wall beneath it, like that of an ordinary
brick house. But enough of this most " original " edifice. Let us
follow Eder to the Town Hall. He says it is " highly creditable for
the day when it was executed," and iu truth, nothing nearly so good
has been executed in Liverpool since ; it w'as originally designed by
Wood, of Bath, though it has received later additions, (of the past
generation,) which have in one or two respects improved it ; still the
original merit is his. When Eder condemned, with some justice, the
carvings between the capitals, which, however, by no means obtrude
themselves on the eye so as to become serious blemishes, he might, I
think, as a set-off, have noticed the graceful well-conceived figure of
Britannia by the late Charles Rossi, R.A,, surmounting a cupola,
which, though not adhering in its columnar arrangement to the strict
rules of Grecian propriety, so often quoted and expatiated on by those
who are utterly incapable of making any practical application of their
principles, has the merit — and possibly, wdth deference be it said, the
preferable one, in a structure in the Italian mode, and of its moderate
dimensions — of a varied, picturesque outline, with perhaps some in-
tricacy of form, but certainly much originality of design. It is, in fact,
one of the most pleasing and characteristic features out of many which
rear themselves above the ordinary buildings of the town. As regards
the Railway station, we shall not' materially differ, though I must ob-
serve that the capitals of the Corinthian columns are notoriously bad,
whether the fault of the design or execution I know not; and that
this ugly screen hides one of the best trussed roofs of a large span
with which I am acquainted.

I cannot, nor I imagine could most persons, accede to the opinion
that St. Luke's Church is a most successful attempt in the Gothic,
or rather, the pointed style. The exterior is certainly fine in exe-
cution, of an excellent material, and often beautiful in detail ; but as a
wdiole, I confess I cannot admire it as some others do. Firstly it .
wants a clerestory, which gives an appearance of disproportionate
height to the tower, and a want of importance and character to the
body ; and in the next place, the tower itself is far too much of a
parallelogram, in which defect I think this church shares with its
name-sake of Chelsea, arising, in both cases, from the use of octagonal
turrets in lieu of buttresses, of wdiich practice, as applied to a western
tower, I have never seen an instance in which the effect was good. I
do not extend this opinion to the central towers of cross churches, or
Lincoln Cathedral would at once refute me ; perhaps the western
towers of the same edifice may be quoted against me ; but be it re-
membered, that in this instance a screen wall extends north and south,
and gives that air of stability to these tow-ers which they would other-
wise want. I must acknowledge they were never entirely satisfactory
to me, even as they are. The fine colour of the stone and height of
the tower, make this church a fine study for effects of atrial perspec-
tive : especiallv when the pinnacles and turrets , of the body and
chancel appear in front of the more distant towe^'in hazy weatlier;
but while, in this respect, as well as a beautiful' specimen of detail,
and a fine piece of masonry, 1 admit the merits of this church to the
full, I am of opinion that Mr. Gandy, to whom the design is ascribed,
has failed to produce a striking example of the style. The want of a
clerestory mars the effect of the interior, and the ceiling of the nave
is quite out of character with those of the aisles. A rich wood roof
was, it is said, designed for this church, but misdirected economy
substituted one of lath and plaster. I can refer Eder to a modern
church tower within three miles of Liverpool, which, though on a
smaller scale and of an inferior material to tliis of St. Luke's, is equally
good in detail, and in proportion and effect much superior. I allude
to that lately added to the parish church of Walton, in which the
architect, Mr. Broadbent of this town, has proved that he feels and
has imbibed the true spirit of the style in which he worked.

Your correspondent next notices the North and South Wales Bank, in
which he says the architect has encountered and overcome " enormous
difficidties." Now really I must be permitted to say that I think the
difficulties had the best of the battle. The ground 'is contracted for
the accommodation required, and to meird the matter-, the architect
employs pilasters and columns 3 ft. 6 in. in diameter, and of a propor-
tionate projection, which, with the space required for their bases,
must reduce the ground some 2 feet and more in width ; and, except
the space allowed near the entrance for a most inconvenient winding-
stair on one side, and a similar space, but bow occupied 1 know not,
on the other, must contract it about 5 feet in length. Again, tire
building is required to be very lofty in proportion to its extent, and
we find an order withoirt an attic employed, although the longest side

M 2

76

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[March,

of the edifice presents nearly a square in elevation, and the shorter
about a square and two-thirds in height. Further, the ground is ir-
regular in form ; and a pediment being placed over the narrow side,
the obtuse angle on the one side, and tlie acute on the other, become
most painfully obvious; while the wall within the columns, being kept
at right angles to the long side, and therefore not parallel to its own
line of front, quickly calls attention to the irregularity of the plan.
The site is about yU feet by 33, and the interpilastered spaces are
two diameters or seven feet ; the order, which nearly follows the pro-
portion of the Jupiter Stator example, is raised on a plinth about four
feet in height, which latter is pierced for the basement windows ;
there are three tiers of openings in the height of the order, and the
whole exhibits the jiroportions indicated by the annexed sketches.

Fig. 1.— Front Elevation.

Fig. 2.— Side Elevation.

The effect in perspective may be conceived, and I ask whether excel-
lence of detail could atone for such an outrage on architectural pro-
yiriety and taste as a temple-form structure like this, with three stories
in an order. This is an example of the effects of modern competition;
where the successful architect, having had bis design adopted in con-
sequence, it is said, of his private interest in the committee of ma-
nagement, has not only the advantage, as was understood at the time,
of examining those of his competitors, during the six weeks which
elapsed between the decision of the committee and the return of the
designs to their respective authors, but is permitted to expend about
twice the amount to which they were, in the first instance, limited, and
this for the purpose of producing a building which is a perfect bur-
lesque on all correct proportion. The execution is creditable to the
contractor, but in consequence of having a very poor plaster cast to
work from, the capitals are not at all like those of the example pro-
fessed to be followed. The Union Bank follows its Welsh neighbour
in Kder's list. I readily admit the beauty of the Ionic columns, in
which a leafy termination has been adopted for the flutes, somewhat
in the manner of those in the columns of the monument of Lysicrates.
The capitals of the antae are also original and tasteful, and the bases

of both, in which an inverted ovolo is used in place of the upper torus,
are improvements on the common attic one ; a similar base has been
used by Mr. Foulston in the Plvmouth theatre. Beyond these details
I can discover nothing in this design at all commendable, nor bearing
the least trace of the t;>ste which seems to have dictated them. The
pediment is filled entirely by the convolutions of an immense motto
riband which Eder calls "bold;" would not impudent be a more
applicable term? The honeysuckle in the frieze is stiff and ungrace-
ful in the extreme, as are the carvings of foliage and tendrils which
occupy part of the panel within the columns. Let any one spend an
hour in looking over Stuart's Athens, or Inwood's Erechtheum, and
then, walking to this bank, say how much of Grecian character any of
these details exhibit. The ponderous truss which stops the cornice
at the end next the adjoining building, has a most cast-iron air, as have,
also the windows of both floors, and the square sham balustrade above
them. The lower vi'indows have pediments above a frieze, which is
separated from the architrave only by projecting about i of an inch
beyond it; while the architrave itself has its moulding sunk on its
inner margin, which may occasionally have a good effect in buildings
of rustic or unornate character, but seems much at variance w ith the
degree of enrichment which is affected in other parts of this building.
The dressings of the small square windows above these I consider
equally objectionable, for in them the fillet of the architrave alone is
broken into knees on every side, while the moulding itself follows the
line of the opening. This has a very paltry, poor effect. The pedes-
tals which divide the balustrades into lengths are panelled, and the
panels filled with flowers which bear a closer resemblance to tin tartlet
moulds with a knob in the middle, than anything else I can think of.
The carvings under the portico represent, I suppose, the ladies of the
three kingdoms just after the round tea-table has been removed ; with
a background exhibiting a steam-carriage in full cry along a viaduct
which appears to have no end, like the Irishman's rope, beneath
which ships are to be seen afloat in something like scale armour.
This piece of sculpture forms part of an amusing history. The panel
of which it now occupies the centre, was originally filled with foliage
and scroll work of similar character to that which now occupies its
ends; and the "illustration" of the principle of union was intrusted
to two feathered bipeds, who surmounted the pediment, and lugged,
each with one foot, at the ends of a cord which encircled what was
meant for a bundle of sticks, but bore more resemblance to part of a
reeded column. These notable fowls were said to be of the liver or
cormorant species; but were much more like, in their proportions and
plumage, to the ancient efligy of the supposed fabulous dodo. Short
was their reign in their exalted station: the Bank directors not, I sup-
pose, feeling flattered by the constant grins and broad jests of the
group of idle corn porters whom the novelty attracted to the opposite
corner, and the less obstreperous mirth of the more polished passen-
gers, deposed these eminent sea-birds, and substituted an acroterial
honeysuckle closely conforming to the metallic rigidity of character
exhibited by its brethren in the frieze, the foliage in the centre of the
pane! was cut away, the ladies above-mentioned soon made their
debut, and no doubt will enjoy a more permanent occupation than
their less fortunate predecessors. In closing my remarks on this
building, I must observe that, though the stone of which it is built is
excellent, and the execution likewise particularly good, the general
effect is far from agreeable, there being an angularity and hardness in
the details, and a general harshness of outline, which convey an im-
pression of repulsive coldness, and cause au entire want of that at-
tractive lively air which many buildings possess, without at all de-
tracting from that substantiality of expression which should charac-
terize a place of business, and most of all, a Bank. In closing my sub-
ject for the present, I can assure Eder, that as regards the Branch
Bank of England, I had rather have the credit of designing its street
front than the whole of the three joint stock banks he has noticed.

I should have observed, with regard to the Union Bank, that it lays
claim to being a complete example of Greek character. I have no
hesitation in saying, that beyond the columns and antae there is not
the least ground for such, pretensions; but on the contrary, that in
common with other buildings aft'ecting Grecian details in this town —
with the exception of the pretty little model of the temple of Jupiter
Panhellenius, which stands above what was once a most picturesque
stone quarry, but has since been spoiled into St. James's Cemetery —
it is a glaring example of the inapplicability of that style to ordinary
modern uses, showing how completely its unity and simplicity of
character are destroyed when more than one height of openings is
required, and how impossible it is, by pretending to preserve the de-
tails in mouldings, and (save the mark!) in ornament, to overcome the
difference of expression which this and other equally wide departures
from ancient practice produce in the whole. Moreover, the frequent
fractures which mar the entablatures of our Anglo-Grecian buildings

lS4i.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

77

should teach us how unfit the common building-stones of this country
are for the long bearings and great superincumbent weights which the
use of this style imposes on us, but for which the Greek marbles were
so eminently adapted. The assumption which some have endea-
voured to maintain, that the architects of Greece confined themselves
to horizontal composition on account of the superior grandeur of effect
■which could be so produced, is sufficiently refuted by our own magnifi-
cent cathedrals ; and I am myself convinced that, had the principle
of the arcb been known to them, and the almost illimitable power
■which the architect, by its means, obtains over his materials, none
■would more fully have availed themselves of its aid than these great
masters in science and art. I am aware that I am liable to the charge
of reviving truisms ; but there are architects who seek to conceal
their own dullness under an affectation of enthusiastic admiration of
the style of ancient Greece ; who abandon and pretend to despise the
use of the arch in their designs, because it was unknown to, and con-
sequently unused by, the Greeks, and thus produce buildings which
can never be otherwise than unsubstantial and insecure, because con-
structed of materials unfit for the practice of the style which they
aflfect to follow. I remarked in speaking of the Custom House, that
fractures were visible in the stone-work, which I could only attribute
to a settlement in the foundations. I have siuce been confirmed in
this opinion, by observing seven or eight similar fractures, particularly
in the south and south-westera parts of the building, some of a most
serious and threatening aspect : thus this extensive and costly pile
Tvill, probably ere long, require, like its prototype in London, a repair
almost as expensive as its first erection. But to return to the banks.
Having disposed of the principal joint stock banking-houses, Eder
attacks, without mercy, the building in vrhich the branch business of
the Bank of England is conducted. Of the interior of this bank I
know but little, and any apparent want of convenience may be perhaps
sufficiently accounted for by the fact of its having been originally a
private dwelling-house. With respect to the exterior, however, I
can assure you and your readers, Mr. Editor, that it is one of the most
pleasing street fronts which the town contains. It is of Italian charac-
ter, exhibiting a Corinthian pilastral order of five intercolumns on a
solid basement, with two stories in the height of the order, and an
attic above it. The wall between the pilasters and the attic piers, as
well as that of the basement is rusticated throughout. The ground
floor windows have no otlier decoration than their moulded cills, and
the centre opening, which till very lately was occupied by the door,
has the only pediment in the facade, supported on bold trusses. The
cills of the one pair windows are lighter and more decorative in
character than those of the ground floor, beside being supported by
trusses of varied detail and pleasing design, from which festoons of
fruit and flowers descend towards the heads of the ground floor open-
ings. The attic is perhaps too high for the order it surmounts, but
not more so than is the case in many well known buildings ; Greenwich
Hospital for example ; and the narrowness of the street, and the pro-
jection of the cornice almost neutralize this defect. The festoons are
■well designed and executed, and harmonize with the decorative cha-
racter of the Corinthian order employed, as does also, in my opinion,
the rusticated surface of the intermediate masonry. I do not know
the date of this house, nor the name of its designer, but should think
it must date some 80 years back; at all events it does credit to his
taste, and I am certain that most persons making any pretensions to
architectural taste would agree with me that it is much to be preferred
before any of the modern banks which have been noticed by Eder.
The removal of the door from its proper place in the centre, to the
meagre Roman Doric porch beyond the line of front, has injured the
unity of the composition, and the subsequent scraping of the stone-
work has given it all the rawness of a newly finished building, without
its sharpness of detail. In closing my remarks on this bank I cannot
but express my astonishment at, and pity for, the taste which could
find so much to admire in the tortured and unnatural decorations of
the Union Bank, in the misproportion and coarseness of the Welsh,
and consign the Branch Bank to such unqualified reprobation.

The markets next engage the attention of your correspondent. He
commends the fish market as well adapted to its purpose, which may
be the case now, but certainly was not until the fish-fags rose en masse,
and with sundry threats of violence to the architect, demanded and
obtained the admission of light in the side walls. St. John's market is
capable of fine effects of light certainly, in consequence of its great ex-
tent, which on plan is about the same as York Minster, but other merit I
cannot discover in it, and the construction of the roof is of the most
ordinary and journeyman-like description. In referring to St. James's
cemetery I was reminded of the circular structure in which Gibson's
beautiful statue of Huskisson is immolated. Independently of the ab-
surdity of setting an eight foot statue in a place not twice that height
in diameter, the thing is in itself most ungraceful. I am perhaps fore-

stalling Eder, but he must excuse me. Adopting the details of the
Tivoli example of the Corinthian order, the architect appears to have
aimed at a mean between the proportions of the temple to which it
belongs, and the well known monument of Lysicrates. The result is,
that the proportions are neither those of horizontal composition like
the temple of Tivoli, nor of vertical, like those of the little monument
named. Perhaps habit has given these two ancient examples almost
the authority of rule as to the proportions of circular buildings in the
classic styles. At all events the medium here attempted is a com-
plete failure, and Bramante's little temple of St. Peter in Montorio,
might have given the architect a hint that a varied outline might
be preferable to a severe one in so small a building. The terminal
which crowns the cupola is far from redeeming the other defects of
the design. The enormity of burying so fine a work of art as Gibson's
statue in a coop like this, is the more to be regretted, as another by
tlie same eminent sculptor which was intended to occupy the centre
of the long room in the Custom-house, has, with the vessel which con-
tained it, gone to the bottom of the sea, somewhere near the mouth of
the Tiber. The cemetery in which this (I really scarce know what to
call it, for it is neither a mausoleum nor a monument), statue-box
stands as one of the lions of Liverpool, and as a matter of course must
be admired by every body, but really those who do so must prefer
seeing animals in a reclaimed rather than a natural state, for it is a
very tame lion. I could say more on this subject, but shall refrain for
the present; for should Eder, like other "strangers," launch out in
admiration thereof, I should prefer giving my opinion in the form of
a reply to his.

I am, Sir,
Lii-erpool, Yours, &c.,

Jan 22}ul, 1841. H.

ON THE STYLE OF CAMPBELL AS COMPARED WITH
THAT OF INIGO JONES.

In pursuing a criticism upon the genius of the Palladian school, the
excuse rests chiefly on the influence its pupils have had upon the
growth of classic beauty, and on the exertions they have made to
rescue the treasures of antiquity from the dust : and though, in look-
ing amidst the ranks of Palladio's followers, we see art for a second
time as it were cradled, void alike of vigour or of finish, we cannot
but feel pleasure in peeping at its once infant condition, especially as
we contrast it with its more advanced state : nor can we feel other-
wise than sanguine, as we catch through this in fair perspective its
promise of hastening maturity.

Up to the Kith century architecture was less definite in outline, less
studied in symmetry ; — you were awed by the mass, or were charmed
by the intricacy of its parts;— you were arrested, it is true, but then
the whole was after all only an agreeable perplexity. It was reserved
for Jones and his followers to turn the stream of taste and to transplant
the graces of Italy. But the followers of Jones had not very much of
their master's sentiment. They seem to have followed the fashion of
the time, as much as the sentiment of Palladio. Hence we find
Hawkesmore and Vanburgh easily catching the precise feeling of
Grecian rule, to the prejudice of the Italian.

Campbell however as a follower of Jones, and as a Palladian archi-
tect, seems more deserving of attention, though whether he features
the original, or only staggers after him is a question. — In his mansions,
(so many of which grace our land) the sentiment of Palladio and the
style of Jones seem both affected. Still you are conscious at the first
glance of a stiffness in the design. You feel if an importent part is to
arrest that it becomes very often unpleasantly independent of the re-
mainder ; or if a change of features are successively to please, that
you are not led to them by approaches sufficiently easy. The eye is
not courted, it is forced.— Sudden changes too often occur from the
horizontal to the vertical, in that part where altitude is the aim; and
very often in the front a sudden depression of the sides, disuniting to
a certain extent the centre from the rest, and destroying in a measure
the harmony of relations by a want of unity. It seems as if the artist
occasionally lept into his parts ; as if notwithstanding his apparent
study of every subordinate feature in the Pallatial style, and of the
principles of Italian arrangement, the stiffness of the copy must remain,
rather than the freedom of the original. It is true that you are look-
ing at the design of a Palladian architect ; that there are dispositions
of the void and enriched, of the depressed and the elevated ; that there
are the same segmental and triangular windows in mutual relief; that
balustrades crown the void, and that turrets, cupolas, columns, figures,
&c. prevent you dwelling on the breadth : but then you see too much
of a studied arrangement. You can almost detect the labours of the
artist ; vou can almost discern the process by which the features of

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[March,

bis design are apportioned ; you see the architect as much as his edi-
fice. \\ hen he introduces ornament he makes you to revel very often
in a part where the eye should not remain, or he encloses a free figure
in some stiff panel and destroys its expression. The decoration is not
such that the part would look bare without it, or that the proportion
would become affected if it was not there. You see not as in Jones
the onwraent as identified leilh the mass, but only as a part of it. You
detect too much of the hand which placed it there, and too little of its
relation to surrounding objects.

Contrasting him with Jones whom he imitates, or with Palladio
whom he affects, we at once see tluit liis very study makes him miss
the careless beauties of the former, %vhilst liis caution prevents him
soaring into the grand simplicity and rich excellence of the latter.

Campbell thus although of the Palladian school is only of such in its
leading characteristics. That quick perception of grace and of beauty
ever necessary to relieve the huge superficies is not his. His sensibi-
lities seem dull upon the lesser auxiliaries, so useful to design. He
is not grand in his comprehension, and yet at the same time minute in
his care ; or if he does descend to minuteness, he does not change
from the greater to the less, from the grand to the inferior with the
care of a genius, but creeps into his parts with the fear of a copyisU
Finally, he seems to have wanted more quickness of apprehension,
more fertility of thought, and more liveliness of fancy, to have in any
way equalled bis originals.

Frederick East.
Ftbruanj 10, 1S41.

ST. LUKE'S CHURCH, CHEETHAM HILL.

Sir — Being a constant reader of your most valuable Journal, and
knowing the great number of communications which must be forwarded
to you for perusal, I appreciate the difficulty of the task you have to
perform in selecting those which may best serve the two professions,
the interests of which you so strenuously and successfully advocate.
By way of apology for this comramiication, the following reasons may
be deemed sufficient.

1st. 1 consider the design and execution of the edifice alluded to to
be of such high excellence, that it is only doing a bare act of justice
to the architect to whose genius we are indebted for this beautiful
work of art, and also to the admirers of modern ecclesiastical archi-
tecture, to give a greater publicity to it than it has yet received, and

2ndly. Not having observed anything more than a casual notice of
this edifice in your publication, I think a few descriptive remarks,
even from an incompetent person, if given in sincerity, and with an
eye to the advantage and improvement of the profession, would not
be misapplied.

The church under consideration is advantageously situated in the
township of Cheetham, on the main road from Manchester to Bury.
The funds were raised by subscription, some of the principal residents
in the neighbourhood being most liberal in their donations; it is
erected from the design of J. W. Atkinson, Esq., architect, who has
adopted the Gothic style most happily blending the late ornamental
with tlie early perpendicular style. It is very simple in plan, the body
of the church being divided by two rows of piers and arches into nave
and aisles; there is a steeple at the west end, and an altar recess at
the east, behind which is a large vestry. There are galleries in the
aisles and at the west end. The roof of the nave is carried much
higher than tliat of the aisles, so as to admit of clerestory windows.

The steeple consists of a tower and spire. The former has octagon
turrets with buttresses at the angles, terminated with crocketted pin-
nacles. The lower compartment has a well proportioned and deeply
recessed doorway, over which is a lofty perpendicular window, and at
the sides arc windows similar in style. The spandrils over the large
window are filled with perpendicular tracery, in the centre of which
is the clock. The belfry has two narrow windows on each side, and
is crowned with a bold cornice and perforated battlement. The spire
is crocketted at the angles, and beautifully connected with the tower
by j)erforated flying buttresses springing from the pinnacles at the
angles of the tower ; it is finished with a belt and crocketted tiiiial,
surmounted by a cross, the emblem of Christianity.

The aisles are divided by buttresses and crocketted pinnacles into
six compartments, each decorated with a lofty window ; the clerestory
has two windows to every one in the aisles, also divided by smaller
buttresses and crocketted pinnacles. The nave terminates at the
east end with octagon buttresses, and a lofty iidt window to light the
altar recess. The east end is simple but original, having iw large east
Window, but three well i)roportioned niches in its place. The ends of
the aisles are finished with windows similar to those in the side, and
buttresses at the angles.

The whole of the external detail, window dressings, cornices, &c.,
are good, plain, and effective, and it seems to have been the aim of
the architect to obtain a good outline rather than any small frittered
ornament, which is only gained at a great expense arid trouble, to be
lost sight of when viewed at a little distance.

On entering the churchyard from Manchester, the spectator has a
S.W. view of the church, the tower standing boldly forward, and the
pinnacles and flying buttresses which connect it with the spire giving
a diversity of shadow which is most beautiful. The beauty of this
view is somewhat lessened by the three large windows in the tower,
which crowd it too much, and having only the octagon buttresses at
each angle, they seem inadequate to support the weight of the belfry
and spire ; it is also a pity that the spire was not higher, as it does
not harmonize with the beautiful proportion of the tower. At the
cast end you sec the effect of the three niches, which are substituted
for the great window.

From the tower you enter a vestibule under the gallery, which is
divided from the body of the church by an ornamental glass screen.
In the centre of the vestibule and opposite to the entrance door, is a
handsome stone font, and on the right and left are doors which com-
municate with the gallery stairs as well as the body of the church.
The altar is beautifully ornamented with perpendicular panels and
niches, with richly ornamented canopies; it is lighted by side windows,
which have a good effect. It is composed of two compartments, di-
vided by a bold cornice, which runs underneath the side windows.
The lower one consists of three Gothic panels with heads of tracery,
in which are written the Creed, Commandments, and the Lord's
Prayer; on one side of the altar table is a deeply recessed doorway to
vestry, and on the other a false one to correspond. The side walls
under windows are beautifully ornamented by a series of small arches,
springing from isolated columns with foliated caps and bases, forming
a sort of triforium. The top compartment consists of a large centre
panel, which it is hoped will be fitted with some talented painting;
on each side of this are niches and rich canopies ; the plainness of the
wall above this is hid by perpendicular panelling which reaches to
the ceiling.

The pulpit, which is situated rather on one side of the altar, is
quite exquisite. The base represents a rock, on which are seated
statues of our Saviour and two Magdalens which support the pulpit, it
being the medium through which the Gospel is propagated. On the
other side of the altar is the reading desk, which is a large Gothic
chair, with a stand for the books supported by an eagle ; between it
and the pulpit is a smaller chair for the clerk.

The organ screen is very beautiful, in the ornamental style, divided
into three compartments by niches, canopies, &c., and crowned by
three crocketted spires and pinnacles. The organ is a very good one,
built by Hill of London, at an expense of about ^£600.

On entering the church from the west end, the eye is disagreeably
affected by the west gallery projecting too far into the church, and
cutting short the view of the altar piece ; this, however, ceases when
you get fairly into the church, and if viewed on a fine day, is very
chaste and elegant. Turning round on reaching the altar, you have
a view of the organ screen. It is to be regretted that it and the altar
piece do not accord better as to style, for there is decidedly a want of
unity in them when viewed as part of the same edifice.

I am happy in being able to state that the finishing .md painting of
this beautiful church was intrusted to the care of Mr. Atkinson, who
seems to have spared no pains or trouble in fulfilling the arduous task
imposed on him. The whole of the walls are tinted of a warm stone
colour, the mouldings left white, and the most prominent members of
them gilt, which gives it a most rich and mellow appearance. The
ceiling over the nave is divided by the roof principals, and moulded
ribs into square compartments, and these again painted in imitation of
oak tracery and |)anels. The pews are painted to imitate grained
oak, and lined with crimson moreen. There is accommodation for
about fifteen hundred people.

The cost of the chitfch I have not been able to ascertain. The de-
sign fii-st determined on was to have been erected for about five thou-
sand pounds, but when it was as forward as the window cills, it was
altogether altered, and continued to be so until finished, so that it is
now supposed to have cost from fourteen to fifteen thousand pounds.

Craving your indulgence for so lengthened and perhaps unprofes-
sional a description of this interesting and beautiful church, and hoping
that you may have an opportmiity of testing the truth of my remarks
by a personal view of it.

I remain, your obedient servant,

Frank T. Bellhouse, Architect.

Gronvenor-sguare, Manclieiter,
Ftbruanj 9, lb41.

1841.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

79

SS ei a
duo

« - u

B S u

o „ j:

»-* ^ -•*

<S S 2

<U »

U

■C3 §
§.^ "
§■§«

^ll

o C o
•CS "

O"* 50

• - i-S

o "S " '-

"a

^ U CO

-< 5 s g

« g g 2

g ^ j^^ii _>,

£-• 'H — t; -^ .

O - - -:; '^ •"

g ■« 2 s-

o c — ^ ^

3 rt «J .^

w ^ "S >.^

r< "= oi a J, ■
2 6:^-^ '

"si ol ■

"■s ■'S " ii =^

e-l:; >.

S3--,

S§^ =

« -3*" O _= S

5 4) *J 3

tor- •p •'

2^ ^1 * I

« o •—

2 is «

>. =

s 5 '^ ■■''

• « - y CO

3 a; S.2
a ^£--=

a 3

5= =

M 11 -S

%^

-■ejs

^<

gQlw

g-ok

£■ 11
^ a.

CJ

Mt3 -g,
■a! « n3

nils

H li
"1

o 2

'^ims'

1

1

Ffi

Usv'^SccOiMii

^

d

u

»

a

^ -< .5

Ui

i

— ^

s

«

<n

-in

5_^ •'

■s

o

"iei

X-^

1

a,

7)

a.

-O

•«

a

Hirt

-.w

-,*!

-|«

-■ei

1

tM

-;«i

1

1

o

a

Si

es

^— .

s

s

n

n

p*

n

•-I

^

^

-^1

.<>

"Jrl

+

+

1

.a

a.

s.

a.

?^

a,

a. 1

X =

^— '

CO

-^ -CI

-*' ^"^

ts

S

■^

1

1

1

^

a

Cm

■V

/^^

'•^

<s

-«

s

a

g

§•

1

1

1

1

1

1 S

s s

■«

^; -i

N

s ^

S 00

^— '

o

•n

^

w*

^

r-i

-^

rH

^

1— )

^

.s

+ S

+

"rt

OJ

QO

•b

•

"= eg

en

00

2

'"^

^— '

"■-^

S,

g

-*j

<^

eb

i>.

w

N

^

*^

-O

•^

<>

O

o

o

II II

.•

II II

*'

II

li

II

II

^

CO

"?

en

■c
irt

<

■^ '^

■s -s

»^

-«

■e

■«

«— I

1— 1

CI

^

3D

11

+

II

11

II

11

II

I!

11

11

^ ^

•«

■«

IS

■s

1^

■B

1;!

^ ;

S

V

^

OJ

,-;

TZ-

■g

X

u

a.

a.

c

C)

.5

1

1

S

Cl

1

-

!s

g

+

s

.5

1^

■^

'a,

1

■\

a. £

? s

's'

1

1

^

2 J

J

1 ^

4?

^

01

is

CO

1

J,

^

J3

^

1

^

1

^

1

J

1

^

1

1— 1

^

i 1

'3

J3

^

CO

I>.

»>3

ill

(N

O

^

%

ei

Si

%

c»

^

1

II

1

II

II

II

II

Oi

CO

!f>

M

*1<

CO

■«

^

,_

sa

II

CQ

^

rt

^*

O

,1,

CJ

Ci

CO

«

<!

"^

:%

<3 ^

B

<;

-a

o

-*

<1

I-H

o

f^

^

rs

II

11

11

11

11

1

1

1

1

1

o

-*

-c*

-Ci

•^

-C)

•« XI •« 1

a

■Ci

^

o

"3

SP a. 1

a.

1

a

£•

1

1

ei

s

1

o

■^

-?

+

1

sr-

^5

a,

^

"a.

^

^ X

s^

c

CI

CJ

+

.s

^

1

1

1

8

o

1—

(N

■«

«

§

2

s

^

r3

_l

I

J_

1

1

1

■—4

+

i2

S3

a

o
2

■5

i-H

o
»
h

M

T"

CO
CI

I-H

00

CJ

li

*t3

^

C»

CI

■a

CI

« ^ — ei

"o "« .5

bo

a;

II

s

II

li
1

II

3

II

1

II

II

s

11

II

IT

11

11

11

l-t
II

oo "« .n
(N T 9P

IN ,-1 M

11 11 11 1

o

^

^

^

^

^

g

1

_„

£

s

■§3

-*J

II

1

a

%

1 ^

s

u

g

a

o

-w

9

1

to

1.

so

3

o

Si

a

i

o

1

o

"a

^3

s

a

C

u

1

£

1)

c
o

o

>v

a
1

a

a

a

v

i

s

s

1.

to

a

QJ

O

o

1

CJ

o
>>

a

1

a

3

3

>
o

1

1

a

1a

•a ■§ .g

1 f 1

o ^ ^

^ S. '■^
■^ = 2

1 i 1

£ rt a

1 1 5

S rt es

O

Is

73

1

'2

:3

o

r3

•a

Is

3
•T3

o

3

1

'a ,2 -cJ

CJ CJ

'^ ro -a

"5)

to

3

a

03

o
^

3

o

S

■3

OJ

es

3

J

§

a

3

^

2

-2

o

to

2

'H

'C

-c

"S

o

2,

^

-s

-3

■3

1 -a -2 1

^

U

^

2
3

S

2

3

a

CO

3

a

es

a

§

a

3

II

s

1 ;

o

a

a

1

a

4>

a

o

g

B o

a

^

J3

•r^

^ ^-> -

5i

s

cj

rt

cd

V

OJ

rt

Cj

-.*

es -r::; i

e:

c

o

o

o

O

o

o

o

3

-3

T3

J3

n3

— ■

o

o

'w

'«

J=

la "C

1 1 '

"S

id

CJ

Is

"S

^

i

rt

Is

^

;-

■g

■§

i

■2

:3

1

3
/3

'3

CJ

■1

o

1

1

1

o

a

1

«3

1

QJ

f-4

■^

«

■^

ir^

o

t^

00

-

M

CO

■^

o

irt r* 00

J3

■ft

n

f

>*•

GO

t;

•a

CJ

cS

ro

7^

,a

-♦->

-♦*

■R

h;

u

o

a

**-.

>.

^

'^

W 4J

a -r;
flj .—

= to

^3

So

80

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

rM

ARCH,

CO

-a!
ta

n

o

K
O

;z

p:

(a

s

E-

Z

o

CO o

»

ca
-<:

^___

- ^_

_ _ _

1

1^

is

H

2C5 0

<

C

• " =

- g 5 1

to S'S

s,

e

u

j
i

1

r

^

<P»

c

i _

" !

A S

J5 0

w

-«i

"^^

-e» -^;CT

-c< -e«

-«»

-p*

"Qfe

t

'S

»•« "

.

o. 1

«•

s

CI ^

, M n;*

■^

1 1

1

s

1

^

«

^

■*

I&.

/-^

o>

,— V c- ^

&■

'S

(3

^

■^v f

-*k y^

■1

!!^^

■;;,

Z^

y

■»

a,
1

1:
1

1

1

V

T 1

r i

1
>

0
1

1
>

r >

1

>

+

1

1

:5

^

V

"\

\

^

1

^^

a

C^

5

+

^^

+

+

^ + n

+

c^

+

A

a. C-

a.

c-

t-

Cr-

0
1

1

1

'a'

'a^

"3

&

a.

&

a.

r: ^i
ft, ?•

a.

&

a.

&

1 ~

1

"a"

^

i •§

1 ~

1

^

1

■5

1

_=

1

^

+

5

«

5>

I

1

1— 1

1

1

1

1

r'i

1

1

1

1

1 +

>

+

Cd

■c

■Ci

-Si

<i

■c

•3

■Ci

■c

0

">

X %

*

^

>

•c

>

-51

X ■«

c

.«

<

C4

00

-o

C4

-f

ao

cr>

»o

-s;

- —

<p

^

'?'

'•?

01

= ^

e-

-.)*

^

rt

(*'«

»b

^

C^J

f-H

cc

S;

»*■*

g

>n

%

0 £ 0

Si

0

5,

^

1 "^

*.

,1^

II

■— '

N

OJ

I!

j:

n .= -o

■^

■v

-:; 0

S

.-«

•«

11 ""

1 1

"^"^^

II

jl

tl

i

I!

•tt

il

II

^ ~l

II

II

II

11

•e 1

S "C

"C

T2

"^

-^

■w

t

•e ■«

•e

-«

•B

■B

^_^

'-^

•

— ^

*».

tn

e« *"

«

-JS

"a.

1

<&.

f

'SiT

"te^ ''to. «>

'S.|=^

1

1

1

1

C

,,^

,^^

,_^

.^-^

,— ^

^■^

1

1

s

1

I

1 1

1

1 1 ; >

1 I 1

1

1

^

c

1

•a-
1

ft,

1

1

ft.

i

I
"a"

1

+

.£

•>

+

"a. +

n

a.

+

+ "a.

+

--, +
"a, -=

^
^

+

1

1

■§

^ s

-1

^

2

S
c
g

+

ft

^

^

&

1

&

0!

to*

1

S
1

0
I

+

a,
1

"^

0^

%

^

TS

^!

^

^

TS

1

r

' r

1

t*

1 ^

1— 1 M

^- CI

1

51

V

'5

■C

S

ca
II

CI

1 1

1

A.

04

1

7*

1

1

1

C>

If?

CO

1

<

w

^

g

%
J

0

s

a

1'^

IS

s
S

^

T

.« .<:

-c

"sa

■iS

-0

•«

<s

il

II

"° II II

II

II

II

II

.«

.«

.«

<5 Ma

<S

■0

-c

■0

&^

"S!

1

1 I

V

§

3

o

1

I

1

r

•SI

i!

1 =- j.

T

a.

^ Ji 1 =»
1 --1 1

1
ft.

''- J.
1 x

"> a!

1 «^

1 1

to.

1

+

m

C-l +
,--, l«

"S

1

1

1

1

1

1

+

•^

+

Tl +

)

+ r +

to.

I

+

1

+

K

&

+

&

o

a

0

I

'

n

^! '

1

»

+

1

«J

■^

^ :

-^

"C

?1

u

5: ^'

&

j^

& ^

&

^

a.

1

5

2

i

s.

t

5

1

1

"7*

-0
00

^

CI

t ^ 1
i 3

1

1 1

1

■0

1

1 1

1

*a

■V

2:

^»

[|

5

a>

00 <;

D

•-r

^

II

ep

00

II

-C 1

■a"

>

N

■>

-a

V

II

H

II

II

1!

II

It

- 1

-0

t£)

-!• 1

31

^

5

1

£

^

g

1

1

II

II

U II

II

H

ll

u

s

S

S

.§

S

2 ^

.s

^

a
g

g

,

,

,

,

,

■**

,

.

,

,

,

,

_^

,

^

B

r-

c

'3

"0

M)

a<

bi)

c<

s

s

w

u

s

V

u

c

•

si

•

V

!>

•a

\

^

a>

•

M>

"S

■g.

C.5

M)

J

V

CJ

■.»"

"Sa

V

1

C4

tab

C
—

^

>-•

i

g

.2

_5

^ 0

a

1

Si '

3

o

**

a>

1

3 0

«

1.

5 '

3

>,

L.

.::

£

1^

7

■ — >.

(-

.5

i

u

=

1

_CJ

0

V

_CJ

E

CJ

E a

_C)

0

«

a>

a*

>
o

O

'B

rH

g

CQ

0

i 1

£

>»

p

3
0

c

o

£

3

'O

1

^

£
0

1

0

0

1

s

3
1

« 5

13 U

0

tS

-a

s
s

E

13

1

1 -

c

3

3

3

1

a

Id

1

ca

1

s

"5}
.5

£ H

13

3

c

1

Q

o

c

o

5

o

«

•0

n

s

a

1 1

V 0

13

E

-3

5

•^

rS

«8

-

j^

"C

13

J3

-3

■?

es

A

— J3

—

JZ

eft

§

TT

a
u

•T3 '

S

3

1

5

"0

c:

13

0 0

J ^

0

V

«

o
O

5

3

-a

0

-a

^

rt

1

0

0

0

1; 1!

0

0

"3

0

•*A

^

O

.*>

OJ

^

^ i^

.^

*i

^

"S

<d

1m

rt

cd

"S

«

rt

10

T. 1-

rt

c3

"S

-o

xs

3

13

ts

a

-O

•r

13

0 0

Cm si*

—

?

13

V

X

>1

i-

O4

q>

0)

£

X

X

X

£* £"

X

q3

X

a*

X

S

■£

.^

b

i; d

0

t»

b

CO

S

c^

£

(/3 cn

5u

(^

w

£

«

■J c

Tf

un

•X!

t^

00

^ W

rO •*

4/3

to

t^

00

1841.J

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT S JOURNAL.

81

s

n

s

o
;s

w

b:

a

o

w
~^
oa

6-

I

4>

-*•

ifS CS

■^

t>*

o

^ CM

O

1M

_

eg

-.

(M

1^ o

f^

CO

CO

CO

-9» Ci

o

-J-

00

C5 ro

cc

-i«

li-i

»-»

O

O

o o

^^

OD

c*

'-3

!ro

CO ao

00

O

CO

W ^

rt

Ci

-H

T

Ci

O

cc *

ao

■M

"T^

«3

•^

.!< .^

^

^

^

•^ f^

>^

6

f^

^

6

pU

b 6

b

F-

i^

<5

B*

3

O

u. —

t

- to

i;

,

•

"w

■

— 3

•1

'c

O t-

cd

'g^

«

d

-?

Cn

^

d

3

5

11 "3

a;

j3

3

1 i

1

c

a*

"S
«

5

■5

t 1

o
en

5
to

o

V2

U

< <

CQ

M

u w

fa

-3

^

?%

of

V

s
g

. '€

5.2

s

:"'t^

u

II i

*5 ^

1

s 1

^

11=1

fa

"1

■-jt',/^

■«

=

_ r-

o

fl

«i •""

n

V

►*1 -w

u

S

''

■^ ^

^

-N

-♦3

■H«

%

+ £

c;

hp:

-*i

-w

-« -K

-|M

+

+

i

-<«

-1«

-H

•<> ....

£

1

^

"^

-Irt ~w

£

a «

CO

o

a

y-*N

^■-*v .'-^N

1^

■^

00

£

■^-^ £

»f5

-^

^ '*

^

X

'X>

M

-f

^

■^-^

S

•u

B ^

s =?= g •■=

-£ t*^

g

^ «

m

00

CJ

-5 'T'

-S

■-P

■2

^

■5

b "^

o

<

b

:-:

o

JS

-S w^

•S rt -C ri

1^

^

CM

■^

w

5

^-t

CM

tTi

do

•"*

M

<

11

II II

11

II

11

11

1

a
^

II

11

(1

T T

11

11

11

"i

Cq S5

&s

05

!>;

«

■s

so

to

Vi

>3 >S

^

=c

ao

II

11

*s

s»

J,

[«

s

°»

■^

-~1

'^

c

-?

?

^

's'

o

.s

^

m

p.

+

5

4-

+

=0

^

*;

3-

5

^

05 ic

M

"f

00

-i

5

%

%

%,

^1 i

CC

O-

m

OD -^

i'o

^

eg

T> t

0

o

.^

CO

O

o

...

l—t

o

^

rt t^

1— 1

(M

-< c

4

05

^b

o

op

b ^

b

CO

o

:^

II

II II

11

11

II

II

1

7

6-1

II

11

11

II

II

II

S K

2

s

5

II
8

s

2

=: -5

S

5

•■

•

J3

a

"3

"

•

"

*

Ml

a.

^

_5

£0

2

5

^

<1>

to

1

3

2

Wl

1

_s

3 "■

u
c

to

c
^

"5

.5

-S O)

P

o

o

i)

.c

4)

3

w

_CJ

o

U

a

1.

"re

>

15

t 1

3

3

ti

i>

o ^

'S

■5

-^'

^

3

V

o

1 1

>,

o

u

^

o

= rt

nj

o

r:i

cj

1.

tJ

—<

-::

a

O

«

i)

t;

■-;

•3 ~

'"3

—

3

i

5

5
5

rt

n

-tf

5
to

^

1

_aj

"i "^

3

^
rt

rt

5

5 _o

■i 5

^

3

3

1

:j

5

3.
5

O -3

5 -5

QJ

1

—

5
3

3

— —

■r

-3

y

S

3

3

o

1»

1 1

=5

5

^

rt

« _-

^

2

w

5

5

_n

3 2
y —

c
3

3

2
1

3

-^

5

1 "

3
3

3

.-3

5

5 -^

"^

~:2

^

»

5

o

•3

-3 ^

•3

^ ^

iJ

^

i^ -

i

ca

rt T-

rt

r:

S

rt

^

t^ rt

c3

C3

— 2

z>

=>

s

? -3

5

e3 r*

c..

5

u

s*

I

£

V

~^

H^ 3

S

3~

o

>^

>^ ^

X

•^.

3*

<:

>1

>;

.1:3

;<

1

[^

fa m

m

^

fcn

cn t

(4

5

E

U3

w fa

fa

W

^ '

»-*

(N CO

"T

^

-X)

!>. C

c

N

:o

■f lO

o

»^

to;

82

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[March,

^ «

tj M
V C

•« E:

■<
n

lb
o

O

PS
«

o

CO

P3
t

I ^

II

"6

7^

c^

T

■9

n

a.

s.

a.

a.
1

a,

-3
O

^

1

^

1

-S

1

.§

1

^

1

•V

w

OD

a;

^^

c^

■^

to

-^

n

^

X

o

B3

u

■a

II

a.
1

a.
1

■s"

'?

+

+

S

S

=.

s.

t

■a

bo

e

■a

e

r

o
a.

1841.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

83

The following examples will suffice to show the application of tlie for-
mulae : —

Example 1. A cast iron beam of which the transverse section is a rectangle
(fig. 1). is supported horizontally on two props placed at the distance of 30
feet apart ; what load will the beam sustain at its middle point including the
effect produced by its own weight, its depth in the direction of gravity being
22 inches, horizontal breadth 3 inches, and specific gravity 7-372, that of
water being unity ?

Tlie formula by which this example is resolved, is number 3 of the com-
partment for the strength of rectangular beams, and by substituting the nu-
merical values of b, d and /, we get

■■(,bd- 7-6x3x22

/

36

= 306-533 cwts.

If the beam were of Memel Fir of which the specific cohesion is 1-154,
that of the given material being 4-334 ; the strength would be found as fol-
lows : —

4-334 : 306-533 : : 1-154 ; 81-62 cwt. nearly; and in this way the
strength may be calculated for any other material of which the specific cohe-
sion is known.

Example 2. Let the length and depth remain as before, what must be the
breadth to sustain the calculated load of 306-533 cwts ?

In this case the formula is No. 3 of the values of b, and by substitution,
we get

, Iw 36 X 306-533 „ . ,

o = = ■- ^ = 3 inches.

r(,d-

7-6 X 22-"

Erample 3. Let the length and the breadth remain, what must be the
depth to sustain the calculated load of 30C-533 cwts ?

Here the formula is No. 3 in the values of (/, and by substitution we obtain

'=\/lTb-^\/-

36 X 306-533

7-6 X 3

= 22 inches.

And exactly in the same manner may the strength, breadth and depth be
calculated for any other case, observing alw-ays to employ the constant which
is adapted to that particidar case.

Example 4. A cast iron beam of which the transverse section is an open
rectangle (fig. 2), is supported horizontally on two props 36 feet apart ; what
load will tlie beam sustain when equally ditfused throughout its length, the
breadth being 3 inches, the whole depth 22 inches, the depth of the open
part seven-tenths of the whole depth, and the specific gravity 7-372 ?

The formula for resolving this example is No. 4 of the compartment for
open beams, where we have

_lJ-2&d-(l-y) 15-2x3x22- (l--7^) 15-2 x 3 x 484 x -65;

"'~ I ~ 36 " 36 ~

402-7848.

The breadth and depth to bear the given load, may respectively be found
as in the preceding case.

Example 5. A cast iron beam of the grooved or double flanged section (fig.
3), has its extremities fixed into solid walls which are 36 feet apart ; what
must be its depth to support a load of 928 cwts. at the middle of its leugth,
the whole breadth being 6 inches, the lesser or middle breadth three-eighths
of the whole breadth, and the depth of the middle part or that between the
flanges three-fourths of the whole depth ?

The formula for this example is No. 5 of the value of d, for the grooved or
double flanged section, from which we have, y = l — f = | = -625, and /( = -75,
and therefore it is

\\\-ib{\-qpfJ \ll-4:

36 X 928

6 (1--620 X

■rof)"

^254

and consequemly, the depth between the flanges is 25-75 x -75 = 19-3125 or
19.j% inches.

Example 6. The whole breadth of a feathered or single flanged beam is 8
inches, the lesser breadth 2 inches, the lesser depth f of the whole depth,
and the length 36 feet ; what must be the whole depth so that it may sup-
port a load of 1200 cwts. uniformly distributed over the length, supposing
both its ends to he fixed as in the last example ?

The formula for this case is No. 6 of the values of <?, for the single flanged

8 — 2
er feathered section (fig. 4), from which we have q= - = -75andjo =

f = -62 5 ; therefore by substitution we get

91-26 (1-yy
36 X 1200 (yi- -75 X -625^+ v'T--75

Jxl-o) J

'l--75x-625^+ v'l--75;- i _|_
1--75X -625^ X 1---5) J

^23-903 inches,

\ 91-26 (1--75X -625^ X 1---5)

nd consequently the lesser depth is 23-903 x -625 = 1494 inches.

From what has been done above, the mode of reducing the cases for the
other sections will become manifest, and since our limits will not permit us
to enter at large into the subject, the subsequent Uhistrations must be left
for exercise to the reader.

RAILWAY BILL.
The Boaril of Trade has opened the campaign against the engineer-
ing interests, and we fear with better success than ever. Last year
they were defeated on the Steam Navigation Bill, and obtained a par-
tial success on the Railway Act, but by the mere passing of this mea-
sure, trivial as it was in itself, they have got the point of the wedge
in, and are preparing to drive it home. Fortune has worked well for
them in the interim, a series of lamentable accidents continued almost
uninterruptedly during the recess, and the government borne on the
full tide of public alarm and interested exaggeration, sail on to com-
plete their victory. We attribute their success both last year and
this, for we fear that it is already certain, to the inefficient manner in
which the opposition was conducted, if indeed that could be called
opposition which was to a great degree suicidal assistance. It is true
the railway press thundered, but the great division aiiiong the railway
interests prevented any effective combination, while officious indivi-
duals, anxious to show their importance by any kind of meddling, had
full opportunity of deluding the ministers as to the feelings of the
companies, and of being deluded themselves. We ourselves in tliis
might have been in some degree to blame that we were satisfied with
leaving the matter in the hands of the directors, and that we did not
enforce that there were other interests also concerned, the representa-
tion of which could not fairly be trusted to a body having enough to do
to defend themselves. It was a parallel case to the steam navigation
bill, and had we clone rightly we ought at once to have seen the course
which it was our duty to have adopted. We felt that in the one case
the steam-boat owners would neglect the interests of the marine engi-
neers, and we aroused that branch of the profession to the necessity of
uniting and protecting themselves, co-operating with the steam-boat
owners in their opposition to the general principles of the bill, and
keeping a watchful eye upon whatever was calculated to affect them-
selves in particular. A similar course of proceeding it now becomes
incumbent upon us to urge in the present instance, the railway direc-
tors are absolutely insensible to the dangers which menace themselves,
so that it is worse than useless to expect that they will afford any
protection to those much more menaced — the engineers. We have
seen the disposition to interfere with the due exercise of the profes-
sion manifested in the steam navigation bill, and we see it still further
developed in the report of the railway commissioners to the Board of
Trade. In this report the engineers may find what is in store for
them.

With regard to the nature and extent of these powers, the proper distinc-
tion appears to us to be that the Government should not attempt to interfere
in questions of an experimental nature, which are still subjects of discussion,
and admit of a fair difl'erence of opmion among practical men ; nor shotild it
attempt to regulate matters of detail, so as to take the management of the
railways out of the hands of the parties immediately rebjiousible, viz., the
Directors and their officers.

On the other band, the Government shotUd have the power of enforcing,
whenever it is foimd necessary, the observance of all precautious and regula-
tions which are approved by experince, and are obviously conducive to the
public safety. For instance, upon such points as the comparative advantages
of six and four-wheeled engines, the best construction and mode of laying
down rails, the best form and construction of wheels, axles, &c., and other
points of a similar nature, upon which the practice of the best conducted
railways differs, and the opinion of the most eminent engineers is by no means
decided, it would be premature for the Government to interfere until experi-
ence has solved the questions which mav still be fairly considered as doubt-
ful.

Here we have an admission that although government do not now
interfere, they reserve the right of " doing so at a future period, and
they claim the power of introducing upon all railways, whatever has
been adopted and proved to be conducive to safetv by the practice of
those which are considered to be the best conducted." Proved! what
has been proved in these days of invention and innovation, has the
stage coach been proved i has the sailing vessel ? has timber been
proved to be the best material for ships ? What has been proved to
be perfect, or impossible to be superseded ? and the Board of Trade
would come forward and deprive the engineer of the freedom of com-
petition. Would commissioners, advocates of the fifty-six inch gauge,
have allowed the broad gauge and all the consequences attendant on
it, or would they have been satisfied with what had been adopted and
approved upon the best conducted railways ? Would turnpike road

0

84

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

M

ARCH,

commissioners have allowed an approved and adopted mode of com-
munication to be superseded? Let us recollect that invention is al-
ready at work to supersede the locomotive, that manv of these plans,
although not yet brought to bear, have shown great ingenuity, and
have been made to work ; and is competition to be dependent on the
dictum of government commissioners? If the engineers think they
w'ill work best in government harness, let them Ije submissive : if they
do not think so, let them at once step forward, and act before it is too
late. The r.iihvay engineer has had his province invaded ofteii enough
by Irish and Knglish railway commissioners to know what he has to
expect, so that he ought to want but little urging to impel him to do
his duty. The locomotive engineer will see that he has advisers
ready to dictate to him the number and form of the wheels of his en-
gines, the axles " and other points of a similar nature," whose thraldom,
unless he escape by his own exertions, he will find it difiicnit to avoid.
The marine engineers, and the other branches of the profession have
tlieir interests concerned in those of the profession generally, and they
must recollect that in lighting thi< battle they are fighting their own.
"La/arus is not dead, be only sleepeth," — steam navigation jobs, if
they have one head cut otf, bydra»like always produce more, and the
success of the railway measure will furnish a precedent by which other
and more stringent enactments may be obtained. We call therefore
on the profession generally to meet, and resist the proposed invasion
of their rights — to dismiss all personal disputes on this occasion, and
to see only their personal interests — let the younger members of the
profession not be behind hand, their career is before them, and if they
do not wish their prospects to be blighted, and themselves corverted
into a set of government sycophants, let them support their elder
brethren in maintaining the general cause. We have "noslro consilio"
Buccessfullv aided in one campiugn, we have been rewarded bv the
thanks of the interest, which we defended, and we pledge also on the
issue of the present etlbrt, the same exertions and the same regard for
the rights of our constituencv.

The cliicf stipulations which we consider that the profession should
tnake with the goveniment are,

First. Tliat as little interference as possible sliould take place upon
Eubjects connected with engineering, and that such interference should
be limited to matters rendered absolutely imperative by public safety.

Second. Tliat no regnlation sl'.ould be marie without the subject in
<)iiestion having been duly investigated, either by the Institute of Civil
Engineers, or by a commission composed of engineers belonging to the
branch to whicli the subject relates, not railway commissioners, gu-
vernnient engineers, or loyal engineers.

Third. That examinations directed by the act shall be public, ac-
cording to a regulated and uniform plan, and shall be conducted by
the Institute of Civil Engineers, or by the departments of Engineering
of the Universities of London, Glasgow or Durham.

Fourth. That in case of a ditlerence of opinion between the com-
missioners and engineers, it shall be left to the decision of arbitr,Jtors
nominated by each partv.

Fifth. That a portion of the railway commission shall be composed
of civil engineers.

ENGINE DRIVERS OX RAILWAYS.

TnK late accidents on railways, and the unfortunate loss of life which
has occurred in many cases, have naturallv directed public attention
more forcibly towards providing some efficient remedy against their
recurrence ; fur althongh it is very true that the accidents frequent bv
the former method of conveying the public bv couches were, for the
most part, attended by a much greater proportionate loss of life than
lias occurred on railways, we naturally expect that the talent and
expenditure employed in completing these undertakings would have
obviated such calamities by foresight and arrangement, and in con-
firmation (jf the justice of this opinion, it is further remarkabletli.it
accidents, till recently, have, been very iinfrequent and seldom attended
by hiss of life. Many railways w ere opened during the ])ast vear, and
their want of organization may have tended to cause irregularitv.
We may also be allowed to entertain an opinion that jireviuus success
on older railways has caused, in some degree, a relaxation of care on
the part of those entrusted with the management ol new ones, both in
the selection of proper oilicers, and in carrying out the recommen-
dations of those professionally engaged in the practical detail, so as to
effect that uniformity of action tliroughout the entire establishment
which is necessary to insure success. In the management of a rail-
Vfay, as in that of the army, it appears necessary that business should
be conducted by a head manager, deriving his authoritv and receiving
instructions iinmetliately from the board of directors, having under
him gradations of oHicers, who should be held responsible for the due

performance of the duties of themselves and their subordinates, and
have the power of appeal to the board of directors in cases of dispute,
they should also be protected from the individual interference of
receiving orders from any other than their superior ofScer in each de-
partment respectively, and these superior officers from the manager
as the official organ of the directors.

It may be argued by many, that such an arrangement as we propose
would open a door to abuse of power by the superior officers and
manager, but a determination on the part of the directors to main-
tain order and gentlemanly feeling among them, by considering witll
impartiality and minuteness every case of appeal brought undfr
their notice, and by reprimanding the delinquent, however high his
station, would effectuallv curb any such evil.

Most, if not all, railway companies have established some code of
regulations for a portion, at least, of their seriants but recent in-
quiries seem to show that they have not always been enforced with
the decision necessary to render them available in all cases, and it is
doubtful how far they may embrace and define the duties of every
servant connected with the executive, for unless their respective
responsibilities are clearly understood, it will become difficult to as-
certain which of two parties may have acted improperly, although
each be actuated by a laudab'e desire to further the safety of the pub-
lic and the prosperity of the railway ; the decision on the part of the
directors becomes doubtful, and perliaps the occasion may pass without
being legislated upon at all, or at most an order is passed which, being
observed for a time, falls into disuse from its isolated character; and
if it becomes necessary to adopt any improved local arrangement, this
is also in danger of being applied to individual cases rather than to
the general system.

The responsible duties of the engine-driver conducting each railway
train, have marked him out as the peculiar object of public inquiry
and censure, and it may be naturally assumed as unfortunate that these
men have risen in many cases from classes uneducated, so far as book,
learning is concerned. The knowledge of reading and writing, no
doubt, gives man a moral standing and feeling of confidence that can
be acquired in no other way, but we by no means admit that engine
drivers are uneducated for the duties required of them, after having
undergone a practical aiiprenticesliip for many years as assistants on
the engines thev emulate to conduct, and being intrusted with their
care after |;ro'-ing themselves sober and attentive servants.

Men educated in the theoretical knowledge of the laws of latent
heat and expansion of fluids, would, we think, be quite unable to con-
duct an engine ten miles without an accident, unless they were prac-
tically initiated in its management by serving an apprenticeship to
the more menial duties; and it is very doubtful how far he would
exercise the continued watchfulness and caution necessary, if the
sense of danger were removed by too much confidence in the effi-
ciency of an education such as has been proposed by sending them to
institutions for acquiring this knowledge.

Of the manv accidents which have lately oceun-^d on railways, we
think that there has been a prevalent want of system iu giving signals,
as well as disregard of dutv in not exhibiting them. To render sig-
nals efficient, they shoiild be conducted with the gnakst Simpiicily as
well as certainty, and where many signs are sought to be conveyed,
as proposed bv tiie Railway Conference, there i* great danger of an
improper one being used. Where a signal of danger becomes neces-
sarv, it must generally occur from irregularity or accident, and we
think the railway system will not b-^ complete until provided with a
ready means of immediately transmitting information to every part of
the line, as bv telegraph. Tills has beea adopted on a short line in
the metropolis on tiie electro-magnetic principle with eminent suc-
cess: indeed we doubt if the business could be conducted with safety
unless provided with such an instnnnent ; an efficient means of com-
munication is also required between the guards and engineer of the
train, to give inform;ition of any accident that may occur to a carriage
or otherwise.

Engine drivers are, however, placed in so important a relation to
the safety and proper conduct of railway trains, that it 1ms become a
serious necessity, felt alike by the proprietors of railways and the
public, that they should become or be chosen from a superior class of
operatives, and it is their position to wdiich we wish to call more
iiiiuiediate attention. To attain tills object it is indispensably requi-
site that their moral conduct and emulation in the skilful discharge of
their duties sliould be fostered by the due consideration of their su-
perior officers and employers, and that they should be carefully pro-
tected from interference or injustice when acting with proiiriety. As
a reward for merit we should recommend an honorary, rather than a
pecuniary consideration. A medal, we think, would prove a more
certain inducement, from its being, SM ge.wris, a certificate of good
character.

1841.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

85

By law, engine drivers of railway trains have not hitherto been
contemplated as a ilistinct bods', nor have their duties and responsi-
bilities been defined, except in general acts relating to all servants of
railway companies, and it is to this point we think the attention of
legislature may be directed with peculiar advantage ; in case of acci-
dent occurring from negligence, it is of vital importance to the com-
munity at large that at any rate the delinquent should not again be
suffered to risk the loss of life, the mere punisliment by tine or other-
wise is not enough to protect the public, and no combination of the
railway interest to denounce the man as unfit tor the trust is sufficient
to meet the case, for unless the delinquent has been condenuied by an
impartial judge, fully competent to understand the case, it remains
uncertain if he or some other have been guilty of the offence, and
opens a door to ]>ersecution which will effectually prevent men of
honourable intentions from accepting duties of so arduous a nature ; it
is therefore as necessary that they should be protected from injury
when discharging their duties with fidelity and care, as that they
should be punished when the reverse obtains, and to attain this ob-
ject we should propose that men in this occupation be governed by
laws in some measure similar to those enacted for the observance of
pilots, to whose duties as conductors and guardians of life and property
they approximate more nearly than to any other.

For this purpose it will be necessary to institute a corporation
similar to that of the Trinity House, whose duty and responsibility it
should be to examine and grant licences to proper persons for the
conduct of railway engines, and to make bve laws for tlieir regulation,
and enforce them after approval of the Privy Council, which bye laws
should be publicly exhibited for the inspection of alt persons interested
therein, for at least three months previous to being enforced. In
carrying out the intentions uf a new act of this description, it would
be necessary to allow some latitude in the granting of licences to those
who are at present engaged as engine drivers. In future, however,
those e^tru^ted with the charge of engines might be divided into
three classes, viz., 1st, engine drivers: -iid, engine drivers or stokers;
and 3rd, apprentices; the two iormer should always accompany the
engine, and perhaps the apprentice also, whose instruction should,
however, in part consist of mechanical knowledge acquired in the
workshops ; as titter each man should derive his authority to act in
either capacity by licence, stating the grade to which he belonged,
granted after due examination and certificate on oath of the examining
officer, which licence should be renewed every year. Each apprentice
should serve five years before he becomes eligible to receive a licence
as second engine driver, and each second engine driver should farther
serve three years before he is entrusted with the entire command of
an engine as first engine-man, when he should execute a bond for se-
curing obedience to the bye-laws. An annual premium should be
paid for each licence, to defray the expenses of cirrying out the act,
and the surplus be carried to a fund for superanuated and infirm
drivers, which fund should be also provided for by a per centage of
(say) sixpence per pound retained from their earnings when employ-
ed. All appointments should be registered. Licences should be re-
voked, annulled, or suspended by the engineei--in-chief, and those
suspended may appeal to the corporation.

I<o unhcensed person should take charge of any engine, under a
penalty. The description should appear on his licence, and none be
allowed to act until registered, or without producing his licence. He
should deliver up his licence when required, and be liable to penalty
for acting when suspended. He should be liable for lending his li-
cence, for drunkenness or misconduct. Drivers quitting without con-
sent should be liable to jienaltv, and a penalty should be enforced ou
railway companies for employing unlicenced engine drivers. Penal-
ties should be appropriated to a relief fund. It would not, however,
be a sufficient security to the public that the engine drivers only be
made subject to these or similar regulations, it is imperative that all
other servants connected with the transmission of trains should be
subjected to similar regulations and strict definition of respectijfe
duties.

We think it has been far too frequently the practice to allow blame
to be cast on the engine drivers, rather than silt to the bottom who
may have been the real delinquent, and it has been lost sight of by
the public, that perhaps eight out of ten of the late disastrous acci-
dents are not wholly attributable to their negligence, and that such a
groundless charge against a body of men when endeavouring to exert
their utmost abilities, is calculated to cause a bad moral influence,
and debar intelligent persons from accepting a situation where no
protection is afforded.

DRAINAGE BILL.

We have long wished that some measure should be brought forward
to provide an efficient system of architectural police, and we are pleased
to see at last some hopes of this being effected. In the hands of the
architect and the engineer to a great degree are left the health and
happiness of the population, and this is particularly the ease in large
towns. The medical man does but follow, for the responsibility lies
more on the architect than on any one else. Most of the requisites
fir health depend on the due administration of his duties, food is sup-
plied by others, but he has to provide lodging, water, drainage — nay,
it may be said, even air. If we want to appreciate how great is this
responsibility, lei us take two cases from this metropolis, we will take
the western or Kensington division, and the eastern or Whitechapel
division, in the former the annual average of deaths is •2-2 per cent., in
in the latter 3-1 or more than 50 per cent, higher, a result attributable
mainly to the want of drainage and to the bad mode of construction.
In Whitechapel there are as many as four females in a hundred who
die in a year, an average as low as that of Lisbon, while as we have
seen, in another part of the metropolis the average is little more than
one half. It is not our purpose at present to enter at any iength into
this subject, for we presume that our readers must be too well aware
by experience of the main facts — we here however state it as our de-
cided conviction that one-third of the deaths in this metropolis, caus-
ing an annual loss of Ten Thousand Lives, is mainly owing to the
inefficiency of our architectural police, and let it be reinem'iered that
London is one of the healtluest cities in the world, that even the great
partial mortality of which we have spoken is nothing to that of Dublin,
Manchester, Glasgow or Birmingh.im — still in the last ten years One
Hundred Thousand Lives have been sacrificed in this metropolis of
civilization through the ignorance of the public, and the negligence of
the legislature.

Upon the architect, we have explained, that there devolves a higli
share of responsibility, that upon the due discharge of his duties the
health of his fellow-citizens is dependent, we therefore say that it is
incumbent on ',he profession not to be supine under sucli circumstances,
but to give every aid in their power towards remedying the evils
which have sprung from a bad system. The proper fulfilment of these
onerous duties gives the architect a high claim upon the public sym-
pathy, and must tend to raise the moral and social position of the pro-
fession. The architect ceases to be an artist, whom we call in to
minister to our luxuries, or a mechanic, v^liose brick and mortar ser-
vices we can cheaplv pav, he comes before us in another ('apacitv, he
has more weighty cares, and the pub'ic will not on y give him a larger
share of their esteem, but a greater measure of power. It is to in-
structed men that the public have tu look for the erficient direction of
a proper system, and to no other hands can it be satisfactorily confided.
We therefore call on the profession in the consideration of this im-
portant question to dismiss their private interests, and to consult only
their public obligations, to look with kindness at measures calculated
to elevate the dignity ol' their pursuits, and to see defects only for the
purpose of giving every assistance to amend them.

We confess that the consideration of recommen'iations, such as those
contained in the Drainage Bill, is to a certain extent involved in diffi-
cultv, for an interference with existing modes is evidently calculated
to disturb and seriously injure many iirivate interests. By the pro-
posed enactment the landed proprietor will not be allowed to build as
he likes, he will be put to expenses which he would be anxious to
avoid, and he will not be able to make as much as he formerly could
of his property. This is the first feeling suggested on reading the
bill, but we should take but a narrow view of the question did we limit
ourselves to such a view. There are other private interests concerned
besides those of the holder of building ground, there are the interests
of all classes of the community which are affected b/ the bad working
of the present system. Let us suppose that in the midst of Pimlico or
the Regent's Park, among houses in \vhich every comfort has been
studied, a small plot should be left unbuilt, it is clearly in the power
ofthe owner at present from the demand for habitations created by
the population already established in the neighbourhood — it is clearly
in the power of the owner, we say, to establish a pernicious fever colony
in the midst of the most healthy district. In his anxiety to make the
most of his property he may, as others have done, build a nest of
houses, back to back,'with narrow alleys, no thoroughfare, and without
drainage, and without provision for the removal of tilth of any kind, or
he may do worse by letting all the refuse fi 1 one open drain. Let the
windows be small and immoveable, the rooms of the most cramped
dimension, l»t him fill these houses with those who are unfortunately
competitors for the worst accommodation, and malaria will do the rest
—fever will spring up in the devoted district, the houses ofthe poor

vSfi

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[March,

will be desolated, death will do bis work in every house, ten, twenty,
thirty cases of disease in one habitation — the leaven has worked, and
pestilence will go abroad to carry its warfare among the rich and the
beautiful, and teach its awful lesson of the common interests and common
liabilities of human nature. This is no exaggerated picture, no etfort
of the imagination, we can point out the districts, name the houses,
number the victims, — a fever map of the metropolis would be dotted
with black and livid colonies of death — here is the active volcanoe,
here is that which has had its day of ravage and now slumbers for
awhile — in that darkened alley, where there is scarcely a pathway for
the solit.iry visitor, sixty cases of fever have broken out at once — that
TOW of lodging houses forms one perpetual hospital, the surgeon is
never absent from its doors, the hearse is a punctual visitor. All the
evils, which we have depicted, may be brought about by ignorance or
negligence, and there is no remedy, except at the expense of the vic-
tims. The sewers are made from the general rates, the union officer
is sent to cure the sick, the weakened labourer, the widow and the
orphan become burthens on the poor rates, the public slumber, another
crop is prepared for the scythe, the same scene is repeated, and still
we remain inactive. It would be no exaggeration to say that the
portion of poor rates in Marvlebone immediately attributable to fever
colonies is not less than twenty per cent., a heavy penalty for private
cupidity and public negligence. It is therefore no valid interest for
which the landowner would ask protection, he has profited by a public
wrong, and on the remedy of that evil he must abide the consequences,
were they more severe than they are likely to be, while lie wiUecjually
profit by the public advantage." The results to be expected from an
efficient system of architectural hygiene are a diminished rate of mor-
tality among all classes, and a considerable reduction in the poor rates
—advantages, we presume, in the contemplation of which all private
interests must sink in the scale. The amount of poor rates for the
metropolis alone is above half a million, a sum the diminution of which
cannot fail to be a boon, while it will furnish a good set-off against
any expenditure which may be necessary under the new arrangements.
In the profession, as regards personal interests, the same compensation
will be the result, if any loss should be sustained by the builders of
low class houses, yet there is again in the increased activity given to
other departments.

Taking up the bill itself, under these circumstances, and consider-
ing that it has yet to pass through committee, we shall bear but slightly
upon its individual details, for although many of them are highly ob-
jectionable, yet as a general feeling prevails that they will be amended
in the further progress of the measure, it would be but wasting the
time of our readers. The first clause by including every borough and
market town, necessarily takes in many places of small population, in
which the proposed enactment would be unnecessary, we should
therefore suggest, that there should be a general limitation, to the word-
ing of the clause any borough, market town, town or village, having

more than thousand inhabitants. We certainly think that it is

but equitable that those ))roposing to build on any property should
provide it with proper sewers ; streets are as much for the public as
for private use, but sewers are more for private use than for that of
the public. The second clause, which is retrospective, and requires
drains to be made for unprovided houses now existing, we think bears
particularly hard upon the occupier, and we hope will receive due
modification. The third clause provides for the alteration of foun-
dations on rebuilding old houses, and though it will prove burthen-
some, is a necessary consequence of the general tenour of the bill.
The seventh clause gives a usual and necessary povver to commis-
sioners of sewers to open any private drain, and the eighth, power of
compulsory cleansing of drains, water-courses and cesspools. The
seventeenth clause provides for the inspection of all proposed build-
ings by the surveyor, who is to see that the provisions of the act are
complied w ith, fixing a maximum fee of 3?. 10(.., and a minimum of
l.'is. The nineteenlli section enacts that houses are not to be built
below the level of the ground without areas. The •2Uth clause de-
clares that no close court shall be built nor any of less width than 20
feet ; the Marquis of Northampton who has already alluded to the
subject, will probably move as an amendment that the width of alleys
and' streets be regulated by the height of the houses. By the succeed-
ing clause houses may not be built back to back. The 23rd section
says that walls shall be founded on concrete ; the 24th that the level
of" the ground floor shall be at least 18 inches above the level of the
footway or road adjoining, and air bricks shall be built in the walls 'J
inches below the level of the floor, so as to allow of the free circulation
of air beneath. The 26th section is the one, which has excited the
most attention ; it provides that no room in any house having only one
room on the ground floor, or having only four rooms in all shall be less
than eight feet in height, and that in every such house there shall be
at least one room 12 feet by 12 in the clear. The next section pro-

vides that every room containing 144 square feet of flooring shall liave
at least one window of specified si^e, which admits of being opened
freely. The restriction as to height and breadth appears to be bad,
as the object might be answered effectually by requiring a superficies
for windows of 14 square feet and a quarter. The 2rth clause de-
clares that cellars shall not be occupied as dwellings, but it seems very
difficult at present to carry such a jirovision into effect, for in Liver-
pool there are 35,000 persons living in cellars, and in Manchester
15,000, a population which it would be inconvenient suddenly to dis-
lodge.

By next month the bill will have assumed a more tangible form, and
we shall then be enabled to consider in what way the clauses will bear
on the profession, but at present, with the prospect of extensive modi-
fications, we feel that this labour would be useless.

THE HALICARNASSIAX :iIARBLES.

The attention of the learned world h;is lately been much attracted
to the precious remains of ancient art still existing in .Vsia Minor.
The researches of the Dilettanti .Society had contributed not a little
towards a knowledge of some of its architectural monuments ; and the
labours of Captain Beaufort had opened the means of acquaintance
with the southern coast. But it was not until the publication of the
travels of Mr. Fellows, in 1S3!), that the public became aware of the
extent of the treasures that exist in that must im|iortant part of the
ancient world. In consequence of the interest excited by his work,
Mr. Fellows was induced to return to that country, under the auspices
of the Geographical Society ; and we are informed that the result of
his journey has been the acquisition for the British Museum of some
sculptures of a most valuable character, from Lycia ; and the construc-
tion of a correct map of a portion of classic ground which Lieutenant-
Colonel Leake describes as " a complete blank." So little was known
of the interior of Asia Minor, that it was left for Mr. Fellows to make
the discovery of various cities of great extent, with whose very names
no previous acquaintance had existed, among which one may be par-
ticularized numbering a population of not fewer than 30,000 souls.
We trust that the result of these researches will soon be brought be-
fore the public. In the mean while it is our present purpose to solicit
attention to the fact of the existence of some highly valuable remains
of antiquity at Halicarnassus, the ancient and celebrated capital of
Carya, in order that advantage may be taken of our present favourable
position with regard to Turkey, and that, while our fleet is in the im-
mediate neighbourhood, the sculptures in question may be rescued
from the ignorance and barbarism of their present possessors.

Halicarnassus was situate on the coast of Asia Minor, near its south-
western extremity; and, upon the death of Mausolus, the King of
Carya, B.C. 330, it became remarkable as the site of that famous
monument erected to his memory by his Queen Artemisia, which gave
the name of Mausoleum to all similar structures, and which is so ela-
borately described by Fliny. The present name of this place is Bou-
droun, and it forms a part of the province of Anatolia or Anaboudl.
Boudroun appears to be, through the term Petrumi, as the Turks write
it, a corruption of Pietro, or " Castellum Sancti Petri." The best ac-
count of this spot and its antiquities, with which we have been able to
meet, is that contained in Dr. Clarke's Travds, vol. iii., pp. 25G and
20S. In a note on the latter page, he says, "We are indebted for the
information which follows, concerning Halicarnassus and Cnidus, to-
gether with the plan which accompanies it, to the observations of Mr.
Morritt, celebrated for his controversy with Mr. Bryant on the subject
of Homer's Poems and the existence of Troy. It is the more valuable,
because few" modern writers have visited these ruins; and certainly no
one better qualified for the undertaking : —

"June 14, 17'.I5. — We set out in a boat from Cos, and in a few hours
regched Boudroun, the ancient Halicarnassus, a distance of IS com-
puted Turkish milvs. This small town stands on a shallow bay, at the
eastern extremity of the large and deep port of the ancient city. Cff
this bay lies the island mentioned in Strabo by the name of Arconnesos,
ApKoffTiiTos. (Lib. xiv., p. (iSU.)

"June 15. — We tried to procure permission from the disdar, the
Turkish governor of the castle, to see the interior of that fortress ; but
after a long negotiation we were at last only permitted to walk with a
janissary round the open ramparts, his jealousy not permitting the
inner gates to be opened into the court. The castle is a work of mo-
dern ilate, but built in a great degree of ancient materials, confusedly
put together in the walls. There is a plate which gives a correct no-
tion of its general appearance in the Fuyagt PiUuresque. We found
over the door an ill-carved lion, and a mutilated bust of ancient work.
Old coats of arms, the remains probably of the Crusaders and the

1841.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

H7

kniglits of St. John of Rhodes, are mixed in the walls with many pre-
cious fragments of the finest periods of Grecian art. There are several
pieces of an ancient frieze, representing the combats of Theseus and
the Amazons, of which the design and execution are equal to those
which Lord Elgin brought over from the Parthenon. These are stuck
in the wall, some of them reversed, some edgewise, and some which
have probably been better preserved by having the carved side to-
wards the wall, and inserted in it. No entreaties nor bribes could
procure these at the time we were abroad ; but now, if they could be
procured, they would form, I think, a most valuable supplement to the
monuments already brought hither from Athens. From my recollection
cf them, I should say they were of a higher finish, rather better pre-
served, and the design of a date somewhat subsequent to those of
Phidias, the proportions less massive, and the forms of a softer, more
flowing, and less severe character. It is probable that these beautiful
marbles were taken from the celebrated Mausoleum ; of tliis, however,
no other remains are discoverable in those parts of the town we were
permitted to examine. I found an inscription this day, near a fountain
in the town, containing hexameter and pentameter lines, on the conse-
cration or dedication of some person to Apollo."

In allusion to the same subject. Captain Beaufort has remarked,
"Numerous pieces of exquisite sculpture are inserted in the walls,
representing funeral processions, and combats between clothed and
naked figures."

The Bay of ]\Iarmorice, where our squadron is now wintering, is in
the immediate neighbourhood of Boudroun; and the f.icilities arising
from this circumstance have produced much anxietytli.it the attention
of the Government should be called to the facts thus briefly adverted
to. In compliance with a memorial on the subject from the Architec-
tural Society, Lord Palmerston recently granted the honour of an in-
terview to a deputation from that body, at which the president, Mr.
W. Tite, and the secretary, Mr. Grellier, laid before his Lordship a
statement of all the authorities they had collected upon the existence
and present condition of the remains under consideration. His Lord-
ship promised that he would write to Lord Ponsonby and Admiral
Stopford on the subject ; and we have only to express our hope that
his negotiation may terminate in the acquisition of these sculptures
for our national museum, where they will form a noble link in the chain
of Grecian art, and compensate in some measure for the loss of the
Phigalean and other marbles. — Tunes.

[In addition to the foregoing extract from the Timta, it will be seen
by the correspondence which we have subjoined, that the Institute has
not been behindhand in taking up this subject. We are gratifieil with
the prospects which arise from Lord Palmerston's active and kind
interference.]

Copy of a Letter from the Royal InsTiti'te of BRixisa
Architects to Lord Palmerston.

My Lord — The Institute of British Architects, having become ac-
quainted, through some of its members who have visited Boudroun,
the ancient Halicarnassus, that there are several fine specimens of
Grecian sculpture inserted in the walls of the Castle without any re-
gard to the danger they incur in such a situation, are induced to sub-
mit to your Lordship that it is most desirable to take advantage of
the present favourable epoch for obtaining, if possible, the accession
of these valuable relics of antiquity to our national collection, for their
rescue from the degradation and destruction to which they are now-
exposed, and for the advancement of British art. In addition to the
feeling which the members of the Institute entertain in common with
others connected with the fine arts on the subject of these marbles,
they attach the greater interest to their acquisition from the circum-
stance that they originally foimed the decorations of a celebrated
structure of ancient Greece.

The Council of the Institute further presume most respectfully to
suggest to your lordship, that in the event of Her Majesty's govern-
ment applying to the Sublime Forte for these sculptures, it would be
desirable, at tiie same time, to request an authority to search for, and
remove other remains of ancient art on that site and others on the
coast of the Levant, wdiere numerous valuable relics are well known
to exist; and should this suggestion be entertained, the Institute,
through its members who have visited the localities in question, will
have much pleasure in contributing every information and assistance
in their power to promote an object so important.
We have the honour to be,

Your Lordship's most obedient and humble servants,

C. Fowler,

The Lord Palmerston.

A. POYNTEH, )

Hon, Sees.

(Reply.)

Fureign Office, Feb. 9, 1841.
Gentlemen — 1 am directed by Viscount Palmerston to acquaint
you for the information of the Members of the " Royal Institute of
British Architects" that in compliance with the lequest contained
in your letter of the i'.'th ultimo, his Lordship has instructed her
Majesty's Ambassador at Constantinople to endeavour to obtain tlie
permission of the Porte, for the removal of the ancient sculptures
at Boudroun, mentioned in your letter, ami also for the removal of the
other marbles in the neighbouring districts alluded to in vour letter.
I am. Gentlemen,

Your most obedient humble servant,

J. BacKU0U5E-

C. Fowler, Esq , and A. Poynter, Esq.

THE COMMERCIAL DOCKS AT SOUIHAMPTON.

This central port, considered in its adjacency to the ocean, is at the-
same time, the most convenient for commerce. It has the Isle of Wight
for a breakwater, with entrances on the west, by the Needles — -ou the
south, by Spithead and the Mother Bank, w-ith the Waters of the
Solent for a sheltured outer anchorage. The harbour itself is most
admirably fitted for the accommodation of trade, being ten miles in
length, four miles above, and six miles below- Southampton, with a
wide and abundantly deep channel and the best anchorage. Nature-
has likewise provided a situation peculiarly fitted for commercial
docks, at the very foot of the town of Southampton, and immediately-
contiguous to the South Western Railway, the connecting link between
this noble harbour and the river Thames -. the site of the docks, 20H
acres in extent, is accessible on three sides, bv the river Itchen ami
Southampton water — -the most protected side being the margin of the
Itchen — w-here the water is 1'2 feet, low water spring tides, and w-hicli
is being dredged to the depth of lb feet.

One of the docks now- in progress, is intended to be opened at the
expiration of six months or thereabouts, which will contain IG acres,
of w-ater, of the depth of Is feet, low water spring tides, open at all
times of tide, w ith an entrance of 150 feet in width, avoiding the ex-
pense of constructing and working entrance locks, and preventing any
occasion of delay in entering or departing. To these important con-
siderations, never before combined in any similar enterprize, is to ba
added, that the wharf ground, between the northern frontage of the
two docks to be first constructed and the town, is of a description so
ample as to admit of goods being lodged or housed in large quantities,
under sheds and in warehouses, having vaults and a ground floor only,
or of being otherwise so constructed as to require bnt little cranage.

The inducements to resort to these docks may be thus explained —
first, as to the merchant of Liverpool, — second, as to the merchant of
London.

1. As to the merchant of Liverpool.

It is well known that a given value in exports from Lancashire is
comprehended in much less bulk than the same value invested in the
produce of the countries to which the outward cargoes are exported,
and that the colonial or other produce imported in return, is of much
greater amount than is required for the market of Liverpool. The-
surplus is, in part, now consigned to London, but it must be obvious
that provided as good a market can be found at Southampton, the
merchant of Liverpool will prefer that port to London, for the follow-
ing reasons.

1. The more early arrival of the vessel at its destination.

2. The smaller expenses of the port, in pilotage, light duties an(f
other charges.

3. The nearer proximity of Liverpool, should the vessel be required
to load outwards at that port; or if not, the shorter voyage to its ulti-
mate destination, if down channel.

These reasons may be considered as conclusive, provided there be
an equally good market for the inward cargo.

With reference to that question, it may be stated, that two millions
and upwards of people are now supplied with grocery, fruits both
green and dry, and other imports, first carried past the Port of .South-
ampton, to encounter the delays, and be incumbered with the expenses
of the navigation to and at the Port of London — which delay and ex-
penses are doubled in conveying back these goods to the ports of the
English channel, between Newhaven and Falmouth. Thus are two
millions and upwards of the inhabitants of England now supplied with
articles of import, instead of this merchandize being landed at South-
ampton, to be distributed with the greatest facility, weather permitting^
to the Isle of Wight, and the numerous ports on the channel, New-

8S

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

("March.

haven, CliichpsttT, Portsmouth, Lvmington, Poole, Weymouth, Brid-
port, Lvme, Dartmouth, Exeter, Teignmouth, Plymouth and Falmouth.
That the merchant of Liverpool will be most anxious to profit bv this
opportunity of sharing, more largely, at an easy expense, in the supply
of the markets of the south-west of England, cannot be doubted, anil
that he will therefore freely use the port of Southampton, may be con-
sidered as certain.

2. As to the merchant of London.

He has also to consider how to deliver goods to the consumer with
the greatest despatch and incumbered with the least expense. Even
supposing him to determine not to deviate from the old and beaten
tracks of business, the eiTect must be, the abandonment of the markets
of the South West, to the activity and enterprize of the merchant in
the North West of England. Such a case, however, w ill not arise, nor
will tlie merchants of London be slow, although some may be unw illing,
to avail themselves of the means of despatcli, economy and other ad-
vantages attendant on the adoption of Southampton as a branch port.

Nor are the inducements to prefer the Port of Southampton confined
to the home trade. The large quantities of merchandize now brought
to the Port of London to be re-shipped for colonial and foreign mar-
kets, will find a cheajier and more convenient depot at Southampton,
and especially the extensive class of imports from Java, the Brazils,
Havannah ami other foreign states or posses^ions, destinfil for foreign
consumption, will, as matter of course, be carried to that port which
can be the soonest reached, is the least expensive and the best situate
for general distribution to the consumer, and such will be the Port of
Southampton, being, at the same time, not less adapted for tlie collec-
tion of the outward cargo, now brought into the Port of London to be
carried out again at a heavy expense.

The dock intended to be opened in September next, is to contain, as
already mentioned, IG acres. The second dock, also in progress,
which is to be a close dock, will contain 14 acres of water — the whole
of the enclosure of land and w ater, for these two docks, w ill compre-
hend about GO acres, affording an extent of accommodation capable of
yielding, if fully employed, at the rates charged by the docks of Lon-
don, a nett income of £ 1 50,000 per annum, upon an outlay of £500,000
or thereabouts, of which it is proposed, agreeably to the provisions of
the Act incorporating the Company, to borrow £150,000. There
would then remain to be enclosed 140 acres more of the dock land. It
would be premature to indicate by more than a slight sketch the pro-
bable occupation of tiiat part of the site. It rnay, however, be shown,
that there are easy, cheap and profitable means of using this ground
so soon as sufficient trade shall have been attracted to Southampton to
justify an extension cf the works already undertaken. About HO acres
of the 140, running south of the present works would furnish ample
accommod.ction for a trade in timber and coals — by being divided into
two parts — a dock for timber ships and colliers, and an enclosure for
timber ponds, where timber both afloat and iu stack, might be bonded
to a great extent. The then remaining part of the dock land would
be about 50 acres, on the western side, bounded by Southampton water,
a situation admirably calculated for a second close dock, should it ever
be required. The works of the first or tide dock are far advanced, —
it is intended to be opened to the merchant and shipowner in the
month of September next ; the second or close dock will require another
year.

The Royal Mail Steam Packet Company is under engagement to
work to and from this dock. The extensive trade now conveyed by
the Peninsular Steam Packets has already located itself at Southampton,
several ships run to the Mauritius from this Port for sugar, and it is
well known that large commercial capitals both of London and Liver-
pool employed in the East and West India trades are awaiting the
accommodation of these docks, in order to avail themselves at the
earliest moment, of the advantages of supplying the large and flourish-
ing population of the South West cf England on terms with which it
will be impossible to compete, by subjecting merchandize (in bringing
it to London) to an average delay cot to be estimated at less than one
month (including the two passages), and at the same time to the heavy
aud oppressive expenses of the Port of Loudon, and of its export from
that Poit, for distribution for domestic and foreign consumption.

HARPER'S PATENT RAILWAY CHAIRS.

/rc-ra/d'Hff 5(rain-;/oa^«.— Letters from Copenhagen of ihe 18th ult. state,
that M. C. M. !i jorih hr.s just resolved a i.roblem which, fir upwanis of ten
years, lias vainly exerciseil the sagacity o; naval engneers — and whose so-
lution has more than once been propoteii for competition, as well by the
General Administration of Vests, as by the corporation tf mercliants in the
capital. He has invcnte.i a steam-l.oat. capable of cutting its way tbrounh
(lie thickest ici'. with a speed r.early equal lo that of itstaanipelediiBvigation.
TIk General At ministration nf Posts have received a most favourabJe report
from a committee of ship-builders and mEchine-makers, to v.hom they had
sutniitted the model, and have applieil for authority to construct a vessel for
the transport of the mail Lags m winter.

Perspective vieiv of improveil chair.
CC, Checks of chair ; V.'.Oak Hflge iipot. v. hich the rail rests; SS. Sleeper.

The annexed engravings represent the patent chair which has been
introduced on one hundred yards of the Southwestern Railway, about
half a iniie below the Winchester station, in November 1S39, since
then the down trains have regularly passed over them.

The resident engineer, Edatird Dixon, Esq., has favourably reported
upon them severaftimes down to the 2bth of December lb40, the fol-
lowing are extracts from his reports.

" The principle is good in doing away with the use of spikes, and
the enormous injury arising from the splitting of sleepers by boring
and spiking. I have not paid sufficient attention to speak decidedly
as to the dirterence of noise, but the result shoidd certainly be favour-
able."

" I should like to see it laid on alarge scale, as it has several advaa«
tages over the present method."

" I do not think any of the chairs laid down broke in the fixing, and
none have broken since, I consider them less liable to breakage than
the old chairs, there being no spikes to drive in, the risk is reduced,
and in keeping the rail after the chair is fixed, there would be less
chance of breakage from a miss-blow of the keying hammer striking
the cheek of the chairs, on account of the wood which holds the chair
in its place allowing of a little elasticity."

The Directors of the above Company have assented to an applica-
tion made by Mr. Harper, and the engineer-in-chief Joseph Locke,
Esq., h;is fixed for a further trial to be made on the Gosport Branch,
near Winchester.

The saving of expense is staled by the patentee to he nearly 300?.
a mile, exclusive of any estimate for advantages derived.

CHIMNEY POTS.

Sir — A correspondent, J. R. B., in your last number, as a remedy
against the unsightly but unfortunately not altogether uselessness of
chimney pots, (although never applied as they only ought to be), calls
on builders to try the experiment of flues in the form cf a tin coach
horn, with the large end upwards. I am quite inclined to believe that
such a trial would be successful, but if applied to the whole length of
(say) a40 feet flue, as I understand him to intend, any useful dili'erence
in its diameter would, I fear, so swell the stack, as, if conveniently
practicable, would at once banish the beautiful shafts of the old English
style, and lead, in too many instances, to no very sightly sttbstitutes in
that or any other style. What if the principle were applied to the
last five or six feet merely ; even then it might perhaps letid to de-
formities too frequently ; this however is a secondary consideration,
and the genuine architect can never be at a loss to get over such a
difficulty, since it is his business to surmount difficulties, and therein
prove his superiority to mere pretenders.

J. R. B. will perhaps favour us with his experience in, and valuable
remarks on, the practicability of his suggestions.

I am, Sir, vour obedient servant,

G. W. E.

Ftbruary 16, ISil.

1841.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

S9

ENGINEERING WORKS OF THE ANCIENTS, No. 2.

Continuing our notes from Herodotus, the present paper will prin-
cipally relate to the Egyptians, whose works like those of the Baby-
lonians, have an interest for us, as giving rise also to a school on which
Greek [engineering was founded. It is one of the most ancient
of which we possess authentic monuments and records. The Egyptians
like the Babylonians principally devoted themselves to hydraulic en-
gineering, in which they made great progress ; their other works also
aftbrd convincing proofs of their attainments in other departments of
the art. The account of Egypt in Herodotus might be almost termed
a history of engineering in that country, where it was called into play
as one of the great instruments of national advancement, the exploits
of a prince consisting as much in the works he executed, as in the
victories which he obtained. This is one of the features of a system
of polity, to which Egypt was indebted for great social progress, and
an exemption! from many of the evils which afflicted surrounding na-
tions. If from moral causes Egypt never attained the intellectual
perfection of the Greeks, yet by the extent of its public works the
country was brought into a high state of cultivation and productive-
ness, so as to make it for centuries the granary of Europe. It was less
owing perhaps to the fertility of the soil, than to the facilities atibrded
as to internal communication, that the resources of Egypt were made
so extensively available.

CAUSEWAY OF CHEOPS.

Cheops, it is said by our author, degenerated into extreme profligacy
of conduct, and oppressing the Egyptians in every way, he proceeded
to make them labour servilely for himself. Some he compelled to hew
stones in the quarries of the Arabian (query) mountains, and drag them
to the banks of the Nile; others were appointed to receive them in
vessels and transport them to a mountain in Libya. For this service
a [hundred thousand men were employed, who were relieved every
three months. Ten years were consumed in the hard labour of form-
ing the road, through which these stones were to be drawn ; a work
cited by Herodotus as equal in difficidty to the pyramid itself. This
causeway was live stadia in length, forty cubits wide, and its extreme
height thirty-two cubits, the whole of polished marble, adorned with
the figures of animals. So far our author, a modern account by Po-
cocke and Norden, says that there is still a causeway running part of
the way from the canal which passes about two miles north of the
pyramids. This extends about a thousand yards in length, and twenty
feet wide, built of hewn freestone. It is strengthened on either side
with semicircular buttresses, about fourteen feet diameter, and thirty
feet apart. There are sixty-one of these buttresses, beginning from
the north. Sixty feet farther it turns to the west for a little way, then
there is a bridge of about twelve arches, twenty feet wide, built on
piers that are ten feet wide. Above one hundred yards farther there
is another bridge, beyond which the causeway continues, about one
hundred yards to the south, ending about a mile from the pyramids
where the ground is higher. The reason for building this causeway
and keeping it in repair seems to be the lowness of the country, the
water lying on it a great while.

THE GREAT PYRAMID. — THE MIDDLE PYRAMID. — THIRD PYRA.^^D. '

As we are rather giving common-place notes from the individual
authors, than complete accounts of the works, we have less compunc-
tion in copying what Herodotus says of the much-written subject of
the pyramids. Having described the causeway just mentioned, our
author goes on to say that a considerable time was consumed in making
the vaults of the hill on which the pyramids are erected. These he
intended as a place of burial for himself, and were in an island which
he formed by introducing the waters of the Nile. The pyramid itself
was a work of twenty years : it is of a square form ; every front is
eight plethra long, and as many in height ; the stones very skilfully
cemented, and none of them of less dimensions than thirty feet. The
ascent of the pyramid was regularly graduated by what some call steps
and others altars. Having finished the first flight, they elevated the
stones to the second by the aid of machines constructed of short pieces
of wood (supposed by some to be the pulley) ; from the second, by a
similar engine, they were raised to the third, and so on to the summit.
Thus there were as many machines as there were regular divisions in
the ascent of the pyramid, though in fact there might be only one,
which being easily manageable, might be removed from one range of
the building to another, as often as occasion made it necessary; both
modes have been told me, says Herodotus, and I know not which best
deserves credit. The summit of the pyramid was first of all finished
off; descending hence, they regularly completed the whole. Upon
the outside were inscribed in Egyptian characters, the various sums

of money expendetl in the progress of the work for the radishes, onions
and garlic consumed by the artificers.

The middle pyramid, attributed to the daughter of Cheops, is stated
to have an elevation on each side of one hundred and fifty feet.

Chephren, the brother of Cheops, is mentioned as the builder of the
third pyramid, which was less than his brother's. It has no subter«
raneous chambers, nor any channel for the admission of the Nile. The
ascent is entirely of Ethiopian marble of divers colours, but it is not so
high as the larger pyramid by forty feet. The pyramid stands on the
same hill as that of Cheops, which hill is near one hundred feet high.

DOCKS.

Psammitichus, as a reward for services rendered in war, conferred
on the lonians and Cariaus certain lands, which were termed the Camp,
immediately opposite to each other, and separated by the Nile. They
were the first foreigners whom the Egyptians received among them;
and " within my remembrance, in the places which they formerly occu-
pied, the docks for ships, and vestiges of their buildings, might be
seen," continues our author.

CANALS. — RED SEA. — SLUICE. — BOLBITIN'IAX. — BUCOLIC. — MEMPHIS.

AN ENGINEERING KING. — CIVIL ENGINEERS. — ENGINEERING THREE OR.
FOUR THOUSAND YEARS AGO. — SURVEYORS.

Pharaoh Necos, the son of Psammitichus, was, according to Hero-
dotus, the prince who first commenced the celebrated canal leading to
the Red Sea, which Darius, King of Persia, afterwards continued. The
account of Herodotus is this: — The length of the canal is equal to a
four days journey, and it is wide enough to admit two triremes
abreast. The water enters it from the Nile, a little above the city
Bubastis; it terminated in the Erythrean Sea, not far fi'ttm Patumos,
an Arabian town. They began to sink this canal in that part of Egypt,
which is nearest Arabia. Contiguous to it is a mountain, which
stretches towards Memphis, and contains quarries of stone. Com-
mencing at the foot of this, it extends from west to east, through a
considerable tract of country, and where a mountain opens to the south
is discharged into the Arabian gulph. From the northern to the
southern, or as it is generally called, the Erythrean Sea, the shortest
passage is over Jlount Cassius, which divides Egypt from Syria,
wdience to the Arabian gulph is exactly a thousand stadia. The way
by the canal, on account of the difierent bends, is considerably longer.
In the prosecution of this work under Necos, no less than one hundred
and twenty thousand Egyptians perished. He at length desisted from
his undertaking, being admonished by an oracle, that all his labour
would turn to tlie advantage of a barbarian. Diodorus Siculus gives
an account which brings the progress of the work down to the time of
the Greek kings; he says: — The canal reaching from the Pelusian
mouth of the Nile to tlie Arabian gulph and Red Sea was made by
hands — Necos, the son of Psammitichus, was the first that attempted
it, and after him Darius the Persian carried on the work somewhat
farther, but left it at length unfinished ; for he was informed by some,
that in thus digging through the isthmus he would cause Egypt to be
deluged, for they showed him that the Red Sea was higher than the
land of Egypt. Afterwards Ptolemy, the Second finished the canal,
and in the most proper place contrived a sluice for confining the water,
which was opened when wanted to sail through, and was immediately
closed again, the use of it answering this purpose extremely well.
The river flowing through this canal is called the Ptolomean, from the
name of its author. Where it discharges itself into the sea it has a
city named Arsiniie. So far our authors ; we may farther mention that
the site of this canal, although it could not be found by Norden, was
distinctly ascertained by the scientific commission attached to the
French array, and that plans have been proposed by Mehemet Ali for
restoring.

Of the seven mouths by which the Nile disgorges itself into the
sea, two are stated to have been produced by art, the Bolbitinian anti
the Bucolic,* a circumstance that shows the importance which the
Egyptians attached to ready access with the sea, as a means of pro-
moting their maritime commerce. This, fostered as it was by the
extent of inland navigation, was, whether in the hands of foreigners or
natives, carried on upon a large scale, embracing not only domestic
productions, but also the transit trade with India and the East, of
which Egypt was so long the channel, and the value of wdiich, as our
subsequent observations will show, was appreciated at an early period.
It is true that these two canals were also required for agricultural
purposes, but we think we do not err in attributing also another mo-
tive. The order in which the seven branches of the Nile lie from

Herodotus Euterpe.

00

THE Cn IL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

M

ARCH,

east to west, which will show the position of the artificial branches, is
tlius ; the Pelusian, the Menilesian, the Bucolic, the Sebemiilic, the
Saitir, the Bolbitine, and (he Canopic.

One of the earliest hytlraiilic operations to which we find allusion
madp, was the recovery of the site of Memphis from the water by
■which it was overtlowed. This is attributed to Menes, respecting the
date of whose reign some diversity of opinion exists, Herodotus calling
him the first sovereign of Eeypt, while by Diodorus Siculus, he is
styled the first king of A[emphis, a view which is supported by many
leading moderns. According to Herodotus the river before that time
flowed entirely along tlie sandy mountain on the side of Libya, but by
Menes its course was diverted. A hundred stadia from Memphis "a
bank was constructed, while a canal was led between the mountains,
or according to some cut through them, to receive the stream. Of
the ancient bed the site is still to be traced ; Savary observes that it
may be found west of the lakes of Natroun, extending for a consider-
able distance. Menes is also said to have sunk a lake to the north
and west of Memphis, communicating with the river, which from the
situation of the Nile, it was impossible to eft'ect tovi-ards the east. On
the spot thus rescued from the water was built the city of Memphis,
by which Thebes was afterwards supplanted. We have here an in-
stance at an early period of the diversion of a large river, and the re-
covery of a considerable space of ground, operations requiring a degree
of skill in the plan, and energy in the execution which must give
us a favourable idea of the engineer-king, who thus founded a city and
a dynasty. It might at this place be a speculation whether it was not
to the success of this work that Menes and his followers owed their
lingdom and their authority, an hypothesis which if substantiated
would be a unique addition to the claims of the profession. Culti-
rated as it has been by kings and warriors, it shares this honour with
the law, with which the establishment of tliis new fact would give
another step towards an equality of privileges — many owing their
kingdoms to their legislation, and' acquiring tlie exercise of authority
by sliowing the necessity for it. Homer mentions the practice of me-
dicine by powerful chiefs, but this art although it may have saved
crowns, never seems to have gained them. We have however another
subject of interest to the profession to lay before them — suggested
also by the works of Menes. Our author informs us that even in his
time, when Egypt was under the dominion of the Persians, the artifi-
cial channel was annually repaired, and regularly preserved ; for he
says had the river once broken its banks, the towii of Memphis would
Lave been greatly endangered. The necessity for the regular preser-
vation of these works would undoubtedly require their being placed
under the care of duly appointed oflicers", the exercise of whose func-
tions being specially devoted to one object would lead to the formation
of a particular class, essentially civil engineers. The same class of
officers w ould also be required in other parts of the countrv, and thus
we may conceive the organization at the distance of two milleniums
and a half of a regular irattr siaal. We have here a dawning of the sys-
tem of a government corps of engineers, such as exists in most coun-
tries abroad at this moment, for tnere must have been in Egypt little
cpportimity for private practice when so much depended oii the go-
vernment. Private practitioners of engineering, although employed
by governments, we shall perhaps hereafter find to have spmug up in
Greece — so much split up in petty states, many of which would have
no demand for permanent oflBcers.

A princess, whom Herodotus calls Nitocris, is said by him to have
floated to death a number of Egyptians. Having been appointed sove-
reign on the death of her brother, who had been murdered by the
Egyptians, to be revenged on them she had a large subterranean apart-
ment constructed, to which she invited a great number of those, whom
she knew to be the principal instruments of her brother's death, and
then by a private channel introduced the water of the river among
them, and so destroyed them.

To Sesostvis is attributed the execution of the general system of
canals with which Egypt is provided, the number of which still exist-
ing is estimated by Savaiy at eighty, several of which are fifty, eighty,
or a hundred miles long, and like 'rivers. On the return of Sesostris
from his foreign conquests about three thousand two hundred years
ago, he employed the captives of the different nations in collecting the
immense stones which were employed in the temple of Vulcan. They
were also, says our author, compelled to make the vast and numerous
canals, with which Egypt is intersected. In consequence of their in-
voluntary labovu-s, continues the historian, Egypt which was before
conveniently adapted to those who travelled on horseback or in car-
riages, became unfit for both ; the canals occurring so often, and in so
many winding directions, that to travel on horseback was disagreeable,
but in carriages impossible. The iuhabitauts of the inland parts how-
ever benefited by obtaining a more regular supply of water for domestic
and agricultural purposes.

In his next paragraph Herodotus informs us of the well known origin
of surveying. Sesostris made a regular distribution of the lands, and
assigned to each Egyptian a square piece of ground. Whoever was
a sufferer by the inundation of the Nile, was permitted to make the
king acquainted with his loss, and certain oflScers were appointed to
inquire into the particulars, that no man might be taxed beyond his
means. To this circumstance the historian assigns the origin of geo-
metry, and from Egjpt it was afterwards communicated to Greece.
Here we have the origin of surveying, and of distinct oflScers engaged
in its pursuit at a period according to received chronology-, about
13J0-IJI) years before Christ, now three thousand two hundred vears,
an antiquity, of which few professions are able to boast the equal, and
one of the many circumstances in the historv- of civil engineering
which show its early progress. Thebes was then the great school of
Egyptian learning, and wliere geometry and surveying are supposed
particularly to have flourished. It was perhaps to the government
surveyors that the care of the canals of Memphis and other places was
intrusted, so that then as it frequently is now, the surveyor might have
been the probationer to the civil engineer. We do not apologize for
troubling our readers with these observations, for we know that they
like ourselves must feel the same interest in remembering that out's
is no p ofession of to-day, but one which centuries ago, as now, was a
powerful contributor to the progress of civilization, and the well being
of the human race.

FOUR AND SIX-WHEELED ENGINES.

Sir — There is a subject connected with the question of four and
six-wheeled engines as to their relative advantages when traversing-
curves, which has not, I believe, been suflSeiently examined into ; will
vou allow me, therefore, through the medium of your valuable journal,
to call attention to it.

It has generally been assumed, because the distance between the
fore and hind wheels is greater in six than in four-w-heeled engines,
that there must of necessity be greater danger of the former running
off the rails when traversing curves.

If the engines moved with mathematical precision in the path laid
out for them, this would undoubtedly be the case ; but in consequence
of the irregularities and inequalities of the rails, and the play which
it is necessary to allow on this account between the wheels and the
rails, the motion of the engine is varied from its true direction. Any
person who has observed the action of a locomotive when passing
rapidly along the rails, will have noticed that its track is not straight
but partakes of a serpentine movement, tlie fore wheels going from
side to side in tolerably regular vibrations, and the greater tlie ve-
locity the greater this effect, also the less the distance between the
fore and hind wheels the greater this effect; for as the play is the
same in all cases, the -angle formed between the direction of the rails
and the engine during these vibrations, will depend on the distance of
the points of bearing ; and it is probably rn some measure attributable
to this effect that four-wheeled engines have been found to go off the
rails when travelling over straight parts, while such an accident was
never, I believe, known to occnr to a six-wheeled engine, unless from
some foreign cause.

The distance between the centres of the w heels in the one case is-
about 7 feet, and in the other about 10 feet, and the play given to the
wheels is half an inch. The greatest obliquity, therefore, that the
six-wheeled engine can take up is • J of an inch in lU feet, or 1 in "240,
while in the four-wheeled engine it is "3 of an inch in 7 feet, or 1 in
16S. It would, perhaps, be too much to assume that the engine vi-
brated to the whole of this amount, but, to be quite on the safe side,
we will take half of it, in which case the sine of the angle of obliquity
between the direction of the engine and that of the rails will be ex-
pressed by :j|-3 in the six-wheeled engine, and ^ig in the foiyr-wheeled
engine, when travelling on the straight parts; and it will be seen that
this apparently slight difference gives the advantage to the six-wheeled
engine in all curves used in ordinary practice.

The sine of the angle at which aii engine meets the rails on a curve

I
supposing the engine to be moving mathematically true, will be r — *

/ being the distance between the centres of the fore and hind wheels,
and r the radius of the curve in feet. The advantage in favour of the
four-wheeled engine in this respect, on curves of the same radius,

would therefore be as „ to :— ; but to this must be added in prac-
2 r 2 r

tice the angle of obliquity due to the vibratory motion of the engine:

1841. J

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

91

heuce, when both engines are in their most disadvantageous positions
on a curve, the sines of the angles they form with the xnih will be

iiearlv

^ 2"r +

1

336

to

10

+

— , and

480'

when these angles are

equal to each other, we have 2
1612S0X3

+

1
33G

= .^ +

480'

, or r

288

IbSO feet = 560 yards. That is to say, that supposin"

the deviation from the true position of the engine, due to the play
between the wheels and the rails to be no more than a quarter of an
inch rn its length, the six-wheeled engine meets the rails at a more
favourable angle, and is consequently less likely to run off them on all
curves in which the radius exceeds u60 yards; on curves of a less
radius the four-wheeled engine begins to have the advantage.

1 am. Sir,
Breretun, Your obedient servant,

Feb. 6M, 1841. W. H. Barlow.

IMPROVEMENT ON ECCENTRIC RODS.

Sir — Among the numerous readers of your highly esteemed Journah
perhaps there are many to whom the subject of this communication
will appear of little importance, I therefore apologize for once more
imposing it upon your pages.

In your present month's number (page 66,) I observe a communica-
tion signed H. E., in which your correspondent points out several in-
convenient conditions as inseparable from the system of two eccentrics,
in reply to which, with your permission, I beg to make the following
remarks. I will notice these conditions one by one after the same
order H. E. has pointed them out.

First. I do not clearly see how it is possible to give the lead at all
either with or without a complication of levers unless the eccentric
precedes the crank in its action. Even supposing the working the
valve, when going forward, by the upper pin of the double lever to be
inseparable from the system, it has in my opinion a peculiar advantage,
in this respect, over the four eccentrics, the rods of which are kept iu
gear partly by their own weight, for instance. Suppose some de-
rangement to take place in the reversing apparatus of an engine fitted
.with with the four eccentrics ; the two suspended eccentric rods would
fall upon the lever studs of the valve motion, and very probably cause
a most serious crash. Now with the double ended eccentric rods the
case would be rather difterent; their falling from the upper to the lower
studs of the double levers would only reverse the action of steam upon
the pistons, and as the engine-man has always the power to shut oft"
the steam, he could tmtantly prevent the reverse motion of the engine.

.'Second. The centre of the double lever shaft may be situated above
or below the line C, E, just as circumstances may require, but it is re-
quisite to fix the eccentric so that it shall be exactly perpendicular to
the centre of the shaft and crank axle, when the piston is at either
end of the cylinder. I do not see any just reason why this should be
considered as an inconvenience.

Third. I beg to state the amount of lead is not dependant upon the
length of the eccentric rod, as H. E. has stated, but it depends upon
the angle at which this rod works with the centre of the lever shaft
and crank axle.

Fourth. It is possible to construct the valve motion so as to give
the power of increasing or decreasing the amount of lead both ways,
but as this would cause an additional number of parts, and consequently
render the system more complex, I will admit of "the lead being de-
lermined must remain invariable."

With the four eccentrics, providing they are all independent of each
other, that is, fixed on the shaft separately, you certainly have the
advantage of varying the amount of lead ; but the eccentrics are not
always independtnt of each other, they are very frequently cast all
together. In this latter case the lead, for both ways, is determined in
the eccentrics, and of course remains /.rtii, therefore, you cannot in-
crease it one way w ithout diminishing it the other, this H. E. has
pointed out to be the moit serious objection to the two immoveable
eccentrics. With the four independent eccentrics the lead may be
varied correctly both ways it is true, still this is a rather particular
point, and requires considerable time to effect the alteration accurately,
consequently, 1 am informed, is very seldom resorted to. I have
hitherto been totally unaware of what H. E. has stated in his eighth
paragraph.

Another correspondent (An Apprentice in Glasgow,) remarks that
" I have described the contrivance for working an engine with one

eccentric as an invention of my own, although it has long been quite
common in that country." I certainly have described it as my own,
and I had every possible reason for doing so. I was not aware that it
had ever been applied succiss/idly, that is, exactly correct in ererif
point. But I am aware, and well aware too, that engines, for winding
purposes, have long been common in mining districts with one im-
moveable eccentric, and a double lever for reversing ; and I have been
informed that this contrivance has frequently been applied to engines
for marine purposes, but in both casts has failed in point of correct-
ness. This has been the consequence of not fixing the eccentric rods
at the proper angle, &c.

Notwithstanding all that H. E. has said, he, together with the Ap-
prentice, appears to be in favour of the two immoveable eccentrics.
I remain, Sir, your's, very respectfully,

J. C. Pearce.

Leeds, Feb. 8, 1S41.

ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF IRON BRIDGES.

When we consider the superiority of iron bridges, says M. Polon-
ceau, in his notice of the new plan of iron bridges invented by him-
self, and of which the bridge of Erdre (at Nantes) affords a good spe-
cimen, we are astonished that so few have been constructed in France,
and even in England, where it is so much the custom to make use of
iron, and where it is so plentiful. If these bridges are compared with
stone bridges, it will be found that they are constructed with much
less difficulty, and that they are considerably less expensive, and that
when they have cast-iron roadways they are not inferior, if not su-
perior, to them in durability. In fact, cast-iron is more durable and
more strong than stone ; it is better adapted to bridges with large
arches, because the weight of an arcli in iron being much less than
that of an arch in stone of the same span, the destruction of the piles
and abutments is less to be apprehended, and on this account can be
constructed at less expense.

Compared with wooden bridges, bridges of cast iron cost about a
half less than bridges of that kind which liave abutments in stone ; but
their duration is indefinite, and the keeping wooden bridges in repair
is attended with great expense, while the cost of repairing iron
bridges is a mere trifle. The difference of expense between solid iron •
bridges and that of well executed suspension bridges is not so con-
siderable as might be supposed.

In endeavouring to explain the causes which have prevented these
kind of bridges from being more generally used, continues M. Polon-
ceau, we discover three principal ones which have been unfavourable
to their general adoption.

First — The great expense of iron, and the uncertainty in the cast-
ing of the larger pieces, before the year 1830.

Second — The great expense of the only two iron bridges con-
structed in France before that time. The cost of the Pont des .Arts
amounted to ?UO,OOUf., and that of Austerlitz to two millions and a
half, not including the approaches.

Third — The accidents and repairs required by these two bridges.

Those works of art were constructed on two entirely opposite
principles. In the bridge of Austerlitz the arches, and the triangular
pieces above them which support the roadway, are composed of por-
tions of the arcs in frame-work, and are attended with all the incon-
veniences consequent on this plan ; and further, these frame-work
pieces are small, much ornamented, and are of unequal thickness, and
to this may partly be attributed the accidents which take place.

The plan of construction adopted in the Pont des Arts, which is
composed of large arches connected together by pieces of iron, is
more rational ; but the principal arches are not sufficiently strong, and
owing to the variations in the thickness of the castings, the metal con-
tracts and expands unequally. In each of these bridges durability has
been sacrificed to lightness' and elegance, which occasions frequent
fractures in the least durable parts,

Southwark Bridge, in London, one of the most remarkable of the
kind, is composed of portions of arches, like the bridge of Austerlitz,
but those are plain, and are not carved, although they are more than
two metres high, and the method on which they are arranged is much
superior to that adopted in the bridge of Austerlitz. The strength
and entire preservation of the Southwark bridge is to be attributed
entirely to the great quantity of iron used, which was procured at
enormous expense, and amounted to more than fifteen millions of
francs. It is probable that the great expense of this beautiful struc-
ture has prevented its being imitated.

The natural consequence of what has been stated is, that it is

0 2

02

THK CIVIL i:\GINEEU AND ARCHITECT'S JOIRXAL.

TM

ARCH'"

impossible to erect any more iron bridges in France, unless a new plan
could be adopted of constructing them on more durable principles
than those kind of bridges have ever been constructed, and at less
expense than the English bridges. This double problem M. Polon-
ceau has solved, by constructing, on an entirely new system of his own
invention, the Carrousel bridge at Paris.* It is on this plan of making
bridges, now well known by the name of Polonceau bridges, that the
bridge of Erdre is also constructed. — Echo du Monde Sava?!/.

RAILWAY SIGNALS AND REGULATIONS.

We last month gave a copy of tlie resolutions passed at the railway con-
ference at Birmingham ; since then a full account of their proceedings has
been imblishcd, with the code of signals and regulations proposed to be
adopted on all railways throughout the United Kingdom, a copy of which
we give in fidl.

RULES ANn REGULATIONS, I'ROPOSED TO BE OBSERVED BV EXGINEMEN,
GUARDS, POLICEME.V, A.VD OTHERS, OX ALL RAILWAYS.

Orders to Enginemen and Firemen.

I. — No locomotive steam engine. excc])t in case of some extraordinary
necessity, shall pass along the wrong line of road — that is to say, on the right
hand liiie as it moves for\vard — hut shall, in all cases, observe the same rule
of tlie way as on the turnpike roads, by proceeding along the left-hand line.
And every engineman and fireman shall keep a good look-out all the time
the engine is in motion. And no person, except the proper engineman and
fireman, shall be allowed to ride on any locomotive steam engine or tender
without the special licence of the directors, or of the engineer or manager of
the railway.

II. — Incase of accident, if any engine shall be unavoidably obliged to pass
on the wrong line of road, the engiuercan shall always send his assistant, or
some other person, back beyond the nearest stojjping place or slnint, before
the engine moves backward, to warn any engine coming in the opposite
direction; and if dark, the man who goes back in advance of a returning
engine shall take a light, and make a signal, by waving the same re and
DOWN to any coming engine to stop; and the engineman of the engine
moving on the wrong line shall make constant use of the steam-whistle, and
must not move in the wrong direction further than to the nearest shunt, and
being arrived there, shall proceed instantly to remove the engine off the
wrong line of road.

III. — All engines travelling in the same direction, shall keep half a mile
at least apart from each other; that is to say, tlic engine which follows shall
not approach within half a mile of the engine which goes before.

IV. — No engineman shall, at any time or under any circumstances, leave
his engine or train, or any part of his train, on the Une of way, without
placing a man in charge of the same, to cause the proper signals to be made
to prevent other engines from running against them.

V. — Enginemen ha\ing charge of goods or luggage trains shall always
exert themselves to keep out of the way of coacli trains, by shunting, if
necessary ; and, if doubtful of getting out of the way of a coach-train, shall
direct gaiemen and plate-layers to make signal to coach trains that a luggage
train is before them.

VI. — No engine, carriage, or wagon, or train of carriages or wagons,
whether loaded or unloaded, shall (except only in case of absolute necessity,
to prevent accident or collision) sto]) upon the line of any highway, so as to
interrupt the passing along such highway or public road, whether the same
be at or near to any of the stopping places on tlie railway or not.

VII. — No engine shall be allowed to propel before it a train of carriages
or wagons, but shall in all cases draw the same after it, except when assisting
up an incUned plane, or in case of any engine being disabled on the road,
when the succeeding engine may propel the train slowli/ as far as the next
shunt, or turn-out, at wliich place the said propelUug engine shall take the
lead.

VIII. — In the event of the road being obscured by steam or smoke, (owing
to a burst tube, or from any other cause,) any engine 'or train coming up
shall not immediately pass through the steam or smoke, l)ut the engineman
shall stop at a sutlicicut distance to prevent a collision, and shall ascertain
that the way is clear and safe before attempting to proceed.

I\. — If a coacli train he stopping to take up or set down passengers, on
the road, or for any other cause, luggage trains are not allowed to pass it,
while so stopping, on the ojiposite Une; and if the engineman of a coac/i
train sees auotlicr coach train stopping on the road, he must slacken speed
as he approaches it, and blow his whistle, to give notice to passengers be-
longing to the stopping train, that another train is about to pass them.

X. — In going down any inclined plane, every engineman having charge of
a luggage train, shall take care that he has full and competent control over
the speed of his train, by pinning down, or causing to be pinned down, his
wagon breaks, fewer or more, according to the size or weight of the train,

* So* drawings and description of this Bridge in the Journal, Vol. II. page
79.»

whether there be a luggage breaksman with the train or not. And in case
of accident for want of this proper control over the speed, the engineman
shaU be held responsible. And the policemen at the top of the inclines
shall, and are hereby charged to, assist in pinning down the breaks, when
desired so to do by the engineman of the train.

Rules to lie oltserved duriwi a Fog, or in Thick Weather.

XL — Whenever a coach train stops at any of the stations or jdaces for
taking up or setting down passengers, (during a fog, or in thick weather),
the gateraan or policeman of the station shall immediately run 400 yards
behind the train, or bo far as may be necessary to warn any coining engine,
in order to prevent its ninning against the other; and all enginemen sljall
slacken speed in foggy weather, and jiroceed at a slow pace at an ample dis-
tance from, and as they approach, each of the stations and stopping places,
in order that they may have the comjilete control of and be able to stop
their engines and trains without risk of running against any train which may
happen to be waiting at such station or stopping place. .\nd in case any
engine (whether with coaches or luggage waggons, or witliout) shall stop in
foggy or thick weather in any part of the road where there shall be no plate-
layer to render assistance, the fireman shall immediately run back 400 yards,
or so far as may be necessary, to warn and stop any other engine coming in
the same direction.

In fogg;- weather, enginemen are cautioned to make frequent use of their
steam-whistle when they approach any station ; also, whenever they are
obliged to stop on the road, or when, from any cause, they are obliged to go
slower than usual, in order to prevent accidents from trains which may be
following on the same line.

Order to Gatemen and Policemen.

XII. — .Ml jiolicemen and gatemen are required, wlieu a luggage train ap-
proaches their several stations, and before she comes uj). to go on the line
and inspect both sides of the train, to ascertain whether any of the loading
(particularly bags of cotton or wool) have slipped so as to overhang the
waggon more than when tirst loaded ; and if such be the case, to make im-
mediate signal for the train to stop, in order that the loading may be put
right and fastened on again before the train proceeds.

N.ll.^AU enginemen, firemen, guards, policemen, gatemen and others to
whom the foregoing rules may ajiply. are held responsible for their strict
execution and observance; and they shall report to the directors, or to their
immediate superintendent, any senant of the Company who shall refuse or
neglect to comply with the regidations hereby ordered to be observed.

CODE OF SIGNALS RBCOMMEXDED TO BE OBSERVED OX ALL RAILWAYS.

By Xight. — The ?/7»7e light, stationary, indicates that all is right, but if
waved nj) and doini, is a signal to stop ; if waved to and fro. sideways, to
proceed cautiously.

The red light, stationary, is a signal always to stop ; if on a moving train,
it is a caution to all following trains to keep the required distance.

/?(/ Day. — The red flag, or ball disc, is the signal always to stop.

Tlie blue flag, or ball, is to stop second class coach trains or luggage trams,
for the purposes of traffic.

The blaci flag is used by plate-layers, to indicate that the road is under-
going repair, and that trains must pass slowly.

It is to be understood, that any flag, or hat, or lamp, of whatever colour,
waved up or down, is a signal to sloji.

Regulations ax to Signals.- -\. Every train on the railway shall show a red
bull's eye, or reflector lamp, on the last caniage or wagon; and the guards
of the coach trains, the breaksman of the luggage trains, and the enginemau
of an empty engine, or, with a wagon train without a breaksman, shall see to
and be held responsible for. the execution of this order; and if a coach, or
truck, or horse-box, or wagon, be attached to or detached from a train on any
part of the road, the guard, or breaksman, or engineman shall immediately
change and replace the red bull's eye, or reflector lamp, so that the same
may still be in the i-ear of the last carriage or wagon in the train, showing
backward.

2. — Every engine tender must carry a lamp, so fixed as to admit of being
turned round, exhibiting a v/iite Ught forward, and a red light backward, in
whichever direction the engine may he moving.

3. — Every gateman or policeman shall light his gate or station lamp at
dusk, and siiall have his hand lamp constantly trimmed and burning, and
ready to give such signals .is may be required.

4. If a coming engine or train be required to stop to take up passengers,
a liliie light must be shown in the gate-lamp ; otherwise the common jrhife
light.

5. — If a train approaches when a previous train has passed through, only
a few minutes before, the gateman shall signify this circumstance to the en-
gineman by the waving of his hand-lamp to and fro, sideways, which means
that caution is required ; on which signal all enginemen are required to go
slowly and keep a good look-out.

G.J-Rut if a gateman, owing to some accident, or any extraordinary cause,
wish to stop an engine which is approaching, he must show his red light, and
must also wave his hand-lamp up and doum, up to the height of bis head,,
and then down to the ground, till the engine conies up ; and all enginemen
are required to stop at either of these signals being given; and a gateman
must make this signal to an approaching engine, if a previous engine has
passed through this gate only one or two minutes before.

1841.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

().■?

N.B. — The red flag, or ball, must be used in the day, in the same manner
as the red lamp by night.

Rockets or d!ue lights are extraordinary signals, and when an enginenian
sees them lie must immediately stop to ascertain their ca\ise.

Engine Tl'histle. — 7. M'hen one long whistle is given, it is a signal to gate
keepers, policemen, and others in front, that an engine is coming, and this
s-igual is to he used on approaching |)ublic roads, during a fog, or wheri a
first class train approaches a station where a second class train is stopping,
and generally as a caution when required, for peisons on the line to keep out
of the way.

But when an engineman wishes to make signal to the guards, or breaks-
men on the train, that they arc to ptit on their breaks and stop, he must give
a quick succession qfvhistles, making an interrupted, tremulous, or vibrating
sound ; and all guards or breaksmen, whether with coach or luggage trains,
hearing this signal, 7nust immediateli/ liold hard on the break or I)reaks under
their charge, so as to stop the train as qnioklif as possili/e.

NEW INVENTIONS AND IMPROVEMENTS.

IMPROVEMENTS IN STE.4M ENGINES.

Thomas William Parkins and Elisha Wylde, of Portland-street, Liverpool,
Engiueers, for an improved method of making and working locomotive and
other steam engines. Enrolment-otlice, Jan. 12, 1841.

This improved method relates to the slide valve and throttle valves of steam
engines, and consists in a novel mode of constructing them, so as to facilitate
the action of the valves, to place them under more perfect control, and to
afford a freer entrance to the steam cyUnder under certain circumstances.

The first arrangement is for working the slide valve without the use of
eccentrics, in order that it may open almost instantaneously at the time the
engine is passing the centre. For this purpose a lever is fixed upon the cross-
head working in a link connected to a second lever fixed on a shaft or weigh-
bar across tlie engine, whereby a rocking motion is produced. On the otlier
end of the weigh-bar a double lever is fixed, carrying two studs above and
below the centre of the said shaft or weigh-bar, for the forked rod to work
upon. One end of tliis rod is attached l)y a working joint to a fourth lever
fixed on the weigh-bar, which gives motion to the slide valve at each succeed-
ing return of the cross-head to the extremity of its stroke. The levers are so
arranged tliat the slide valve is always kept wide open at the period of the
engine passing the centre, instead of being shut, as is always the case when
an eccentric is used, and by which means the full eftect of the steam is em-
ployed up to the last moment.

Secondly, a new method of constructing the slide valve, being an improve-
ment upon the old D slide valve, is described ; the object being to get rid of
almost the whole of the immense steam pressure which always presses upon
slide valves of the present construction, and at tlie same time to give a free
passage for the escape of the waste steam throughout the whole of the stroke.
This slide valve consists of a hollow scpiare ring of metal, working between
two surface plates, the lower one being the side of the cylinder, tlie iipjier
one provided with set screws or other suitable means of adjustment. The
hollow ring beds upou the cylinder, and is furnished with a square metallic
packing upon its upper surface, whicli, abutting against the adjusting plate,
makes the slide valve perfectly steam tight. The slide valve is made long
enough for the eduction passage to remain open while the steam way is closed,
and 'oice versa.

Thirdly, the patentee describes a peculiar mode of constructing the regula-
tor or throttle valve of steam engines, especially as applied to locomotive en-
gines, so as to afl'ord a ready and convenient means of admitting steam to
either one of the cylinders only, or to both of the cylinders at the same time.
The regulator or steam passage is in this case a flat surface, with passages
through it at the distance of one end of the cylinder from the other, and so
disposed that when the regulator's liandle is inclined to the starboard, steam
is admitted into tlie cylinder on the larboard side of the engine ; on inchning
the handle over to the larboard, the steam is also admitted to the starboard
cjlinder, but on placing the regulator handle in a vertical position, the throt-
tle valve is closed, and the steam communication cut off from both cylinders.

A fourth improvement consists in certain additions to the machinery for
■working the slide valve, so as to cause the steam to work in the cyUnder ex-
pansively, in order to economise fuel; for this purpose two slots are made in
the top of the liid; in which the cross-head works, in which two bell-crank
levers work on pivots ; to the under side of the engine framing, a roller is
fixed between the two levers, lieing a fidcrum to act against when they are
alternately pressed down by tlie roller (attached to the lever on the cross-
head), w hicli works in the link passing over them ; this causes the link to
advance sufticiently to close the slide valve, or, in other words, to shut oft" the
steam at tlie determined portion of the stroke.

Finally, an arrangement is exhibited for reversing the direction of the
steam, so as to stop the engine and drag the wheels whenever circumstances
render such a procedure necessary. In order to accomplish this movement, a
handle is placed on one side of the foot plate, which is connected to a bell-
crank lever, connected by a link to the tajipet-rod. This handle is to be
secured by a spring guard, and when in a vertical position the tappet-rod will

be entirely out of gear; when it inclines forward, it will be in gear for going
either forward or Ijackward ; and when it inclines backward, tlie tappet-rod
will be lifted on to a stud on the third lever above tlie centre of the shaft
connected with the link ou tlie other side, which will stop the motion of the
engine almost immediately, as the steam will be admitted into the cyUnder
before instead of behind the piston, w'lich will drag the wheels and bring up
the engine.

The claim is to 1. The construction of the slide valve, being a hollow ring
through which the steam is either admitted or exhausted, and the means used
for keeping the said slide valve steam tight.

2. The combination of the machinery for moving the valve, especially the
construction of machinery for moving the said valve so as to work the steam
expansively.

3. The construction of the regulator or throttle valve by which steam is
admitted to either cylinder only, or to both cylinders at the same time.

4. The construction of machinery for moving tlie slide valve so as to cause
the steam to enter the cylinder before instead of behind, and make it act
against the piston. — Mechanics' Magazine.

TOOLS FOR BORING.

William Ash, of Sheffield, Manufacturer, for improvements in augers and
tools for boring. Petty Bag Office, Dec. 24, 1840.

These improvements consist in the combination of cutters and guides with
a shank or sjiindle. The cutters are rectangular pieces of steel somewhat
resembling the cutting side of a centre-bit. The guides are helical pieces on
the outside, of various sizes, the interior of which fits the shank or spindle.
The spindle has a pointed screw at the end, the size of the thread varying
according to the kind of wood to be operated upon; at some distance up, on
the side of the spindle, there is a circular stop, there is also a square opening
just above the worm, passing through the spindle. The helical guide, of the
size required, is first jiut on the siiindle, and a cutter inserted in the square
aperture below it, where it is firmly fixed by driving in a wedge. If a larger
or smaller hole is required, the wedge is struck out, when the cutter, &c.
may he easily removed, and rejilaced with guides and cutters of the size re-
quired. Another form of guide is shown, consisting of a circular plate of
metal, with a thimble in its centre, supported by two cross pieces from the
outer edge. The first, or helical guide, however, is preferred, from its being
longer, and also from its affording a channel for the ready escape of the
chips, thereby clearing the hole as the cutter advances.

The claim is for the application of moveable cutters and guides to a shant
or spindle, as described. — Hid.

MACHINERY FOR CUTTING AND WORKING WOOD.

William Mickhng Bennett, of Wharton-street, Bagnigge Wells Road, Gen-
tleman, for improved machinervfor cutting and working wood, Enrolment-
oftice, Dec. 24,1840.

The imjirovements comprehended in this patent are — Firstly, a new system
of guides for boards while passing through the wood-cutting machines. The
iron frame of the guides varies in shape in difl^erent machines ; it forms a bed'
on which the guides traverse. The guides are formed of puppet-heads in
pairs, one being fixed, the other moveable in order to hold and guide wood
of different sizes. Moveable pieces slide over the inner vertical faces of the
guides, and pressing down upon the upper surface of the wood it is thus heltf
firm and steady.

Secondly, an improved mode of elevating and depressing the upper pair ot
rollers, when the wood is carried forward by their means. The axes of the
upper rollers turn in blocks whieli slide up and dowm in grooves in the up-
right side frames of the machine. They are regulated by spur and bevel
wheels, in conjunction with spiral springs, so that while the wood is firmly
held, an elasticity is obtained by means of the springs, which allows any irre-
gularities in the surface of wood to pass through the rollers.

Thirdly, an improved mode of admitting oil to the working parts, viz., the
circular saws, shafts, spindles, &c., consisting of a cup witli a tube at the
bottom furnished with a stop cock, to be so adjusted as to allow any number
of drops per minute to fall from the nipple into the channel leading to the
bearings requiring lubrication.

Fourthly, an improved mode of sawing and dividing wood, so as to effect
tlie planing at the same time; the arrangement being also applicable to
veneer saws.

For this purpose, there are slots near the periphery of the circular saws,
approaching as near to the edge as is consistent with due strength ; in these
slots side cutters are fixed, with their edges ground and set to the same angle
as a plane iron. These cutters project slightly beyond the set of teeth of the
saw ; so that a shaving is continually taken off as the saw revolves. Or the
edges of such slots in the saw plate may be turned up and used in lieu of de-
tached cutters.

Fifthly, the application of the foregoing construction with two or more
sets of circular cutters, so as to form two or more strips of plain or orna-
mental moulding. To accomplish this, two or more circular saws are mounted
oil one spindle between which, instead of washers, blocks are fixed, holding
the cutters in the upper edges. These are circular and may be either plain
or moulded, and they project sufficienth' to perform the necessary operation
as rapidly as the circular saws can rip the scantlings or boards into strips.

Sixthly, an improved mode of forming moulding and other cutters. These
cutters may be of any required shape, and are attached to blocks, fixed ou

04

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[March,

the saw i'pindle by grooves and leathers. They are made of thin steel plates'
screwed between two metal plates, which are worked down on each siile so
as to leave the steel edge projecting about ^ of an inch.

Seventlily, a machine for preparing deals and baulks of timber for sawing.
The wood to be operated upon is laid on a metal bed moved by a rack and
pinion and slides on V pieces Cxed to t!ie floor. The apparatus for holding
the timber is firmly secured to this bed ; puppets are screwed to tlie sliding
bed, their inner faces being made perfectly true. To these faces a cast-iron
beam is attached vertically, so that it can be moved up and down, by nuts
and screws, and serves to clip the upper part of the piece of timber.

The holding parts arc capable of adjustment, so that timberi of any size
may be held on difterent sides (juite firmly, and lirought up to the cutters by
the traversing bed, for preparing a flat or square side thereto.

Eighthly, a machine for the same purpose, which may also be used for cut-
ting moiddings or cornices and skirting-boards.

The wood in tliis case is secured to a traversing table and moved forward
by a chain, rack and pinion, or other convenieut mean^. Circular cutters
are made to revolve above it, wliich strike the required pattern on the edge
of the wood as it advances.

Ninthly, another machine for the same purpose, only in this case the ma-
chinery with the cutters approaches the wood instead of the wood approach-
ing the cutters. This consists of a moveable lied traversing upon a fixed
one ; this bed carries the cutters with their driring wheels, &c. The wood
is held upon a rising and falling table, while the machinery, cutters, &c. on
the traversing bed are made to approach and perform the required operations
on its surface and edges. — Ibid.

MACHINERY FOR PRODUCING PLAIN OR MOULDED SURFACES
ON WOOD.

Jamos Hodgson, of Liverpool, Engineer, for a new mode of combining and
applying machinery for the purpose of cutting and planing wood, so as to
produce plain or moulded surfaces. Enrolment-office, Feb. .3, 1841.

This invention consists in a mode of combining and applying machinery,
whereby the i)atentee is enabled to employ a rotary spiral cutter for cutting
and planing wood, so as to produce either plain or moidded surfaces. The
machinery consists of a strong cast-iron frame, of any required dimensions,
planed perfectly true on its upper edges, the feet or standards being bolted
down to the flooring so as to give great firmness and stabiUty. A cast iron
table, also planed perfectly true, slides smoothly and equally upon the bed ;
this table is fitted witli a cover or plate of wood on its upper surface, for the
convenience of aftixing tliereto the wood to be operated upon by the machine.

Nearly in the middle of the bed tlierc rises an upright frame or slide, in
which the revolving spiral cutter is supported, and raised or lowered by a
screw. The spiral cutter consists of a twisted bar of steel, or of iron and
steel combined, the cutting edge passing from one end to the other in a spiral
direction around the .ixis of its motion. This cutter is driven at a great speed,
and revolves transversely to tlie grain of the woo<l. Such a cutter is adapted
for the production of plain stu-iaces only ; if mouldings are to be iiroduced,
the cutter must be worked out to the pattern intended to be given to the
mouiiiing. One mode of en^ecting this is stated to be by making a steel tool
of the pattern required, which is placed beneath the sjiiral cutter while in
riipid motion and gently raised as the cutter becomes indented. The edges
of the pattern thus produced, are then filled up to an angle and sharpened,
so as to make a clean ctit in the wood moulding. The motion is supplied
from a steam engine or other prime mover to a fast or loose pulley, from
whence a series of wheels and bands conmiunicate the necessary high velocity
to the sjiiral cutter. The table on which the wood is fixed to be cut slides
backward and forward upon the bed ; a rack j>laced on its imder side is acted
upon liy a ))iuion, driven by suitable traversing gear, and carried forward to
the cutter. The backward movement is accomplished by a small handle on
the axis of the pinion.

The claim is for the mode described, of combining and applying machinery
so as to employ a spiral rotory cutter for cutting and planing wood so as
to prO(kicc plain or moulded surfaces. — Ibid.

IMPROVEMENTS IN ROOFING AND SL.4TING BUILDINGS.

James Taafi^e, of Shaw-street, Didjlin, Slater and Builder, for improvements
in roofing and slating houses and other buildings. Enrolment-office, Feb. 1,
1841.

These improvements consist of a novel mode of roofing and slating houses
and other buildings, whereby much of tlie overlapping of the slates will be
avoided, and roofs will be more advantageously formed and constructed with
a much smaller quantity of timber and slates than at present used. And a
roof formed accoriUng to the tenor of this patent, wiU, it is said, be much
superior to that which could have been produced by a larger quantity of tim-
ber and slate applied as hitherto practised. In the first place, the rafters
liave a groove ploughed or otherwise made in their upper surface which is to
be lined with lead, zinc, or other suitable metal to form water channels or
courses. Two other modes of forming these water courses are shown : in the
one case the rafter is divided into two and an angular metal gutter placed
between; the other is formed l)y nailing two projecting strips of wood along
the sides of the rafter, which form the sides of the channel. The rafters
being furnished with proper water channels in some of these, or other con-
venient ways, slates are taken of such a width as to reach exactly from the
centre of one water course to the centre of the next, so that the side joinings

of each series of slate fall exactly over the centre of the water channels, by
which means any water that may pass through between theru. is c.'.rried off
Into proper gutters. The first or lowest row of slates are screwed to the
rafters by four copper screws, one in each corner, but in all the other rows,
two screws, at the upper corners, only are used. Nails may lie used iustead
of screws /or fastening the slates to the roof, but the latter are preferred.

WTicre the slates overlap each other they are held together by clamps of
this form, ::;, made of copper or zinc. A notch is cut iu the sides of the
two upper slates, and a space cleared away in the two lower ones to admit
the stem of the clamp On the under side of the slates w here they overlap,
two tliroats or grooves are cut to prevent the water from running along un-
derneath and so getting beyond the water channels. — Ibid.

COKE OVENS.

John Cox, of Ironmonger-lane, civil engineer, for improvements in the
construction of ovens for the manufacture of coke, and other purposes. Jan.
19. — The oven is constructed of any convenient form, and of suitable mate-
rials. The best Stourbridge fire-bricks, with the joints closed by the same
clay of which the fire-bricks have been made, is preferred. The roof of the
oven is to be made very thin, and a broad fiat shallow flue formed over it.
The oven is charged in the usual manner, and the door closed, and as the
gaseous products arise they are conveyed through ])roper small apertures into
the flue above, where they are supplied with a sufficient quantity of atmos-
pheric air to support combustion. They are consumed in the flue, and the
heat transmitted downwards, for the purpose of promoting the process of
coking through the roof of the oven. In some case? only part of the distilled
products is consumed for the purpose of coking, and the remainder carried
away in any convenient manner for any other purpose for which it may be
required. In other cases the atmospheric air is admitted into the chamber
with the coal, and thereby the products are consumed together with the coal.
Sometimes retorts or other small vessels to he heated are set in the flue above
the roof of the oven, and the products consumed as at first described. — The
inventor does not claim the mode of consuming the distilled products in the
same chamber as the coal ; nor the application of flues to the bottom, sides,
or ends of the oven ; but he claims — First, The creation of heat by the ad-
mission of atmospheric air to the distilled products in or after they haye left
the oven, and the consequent combustion of the said products in or after they
have left the oven. — Second, The same, whether the air be admitted at the
top, bottom, sides, or ends of the oven. — Third, The same, whether the heat
be employed for the process of coking only, or for manufacturing or other
purposes as well. — Fourth, The-promoting the process of cokmg by the ap-
plication of a flue or flues over the top of the oven ; whatever be the form or
construction thereof. — inrentors' Advocate.

PSOCSEDIIVGS OP SCIEWTinC SOCIETIES.

KING'S COLLEGE.
Mb. Hosking's Lecture.

We are glad to see that the Class of Engineering and Architecture is
being carried on under such good auspices ; our readers will see, by the fol-
lowing sketch, the course that Mr. Hosking proposes to adopt in the im-
portant department of instruction which falls under his direction. In ex-
pressing our approbation of the genera! views propounded by Mr. llosking,
we have to thank him and his colleagues at the College for their courtesy to
us on this and so many other occasions.

After some introductory observations Mr. Hosking proceeded as follows:

" The printed paper already in your hands gives a general statement of the
matters to which I shall have to direct the attention of the student, and I
believe that every man who has had to learn these things for himself will
readily admit that any instruction in them, however imperfect it may be, may
become of the greatest practical value, by supplying, as a ground work for
professional study, what has had, but too often, to be learnt in practice, and
what, oftener still, is never learnt at all.

"We cannot hope hereto make young men carpenters or masons, but we
hope to make them better qualified to compose, describe, estimate and direct
works of carpentry and masonry than they can be without such assistance as
that we offer them. In becoming proficient as a carpenter, a mason, or a
smith, a young man is apt to overlook the importance of other handicrafts ia
favour of that in which he has acquired confidence, — but a sound, and indeed
a somewhat extensive practical knowledge of the modes of operating in all
the leading crafts, of w hich the three I have mentioned, together with the
bricklayer's craft, are the most prominent, is essential to the civil engineer,
who only exists independently of the architect on the one hand, and of the
practical machinist on the other, through his presumed superior practical
skill in applying the operations of the carpenter, mason, bricklayer and smith,
in connection with those of the navigator or earthworker and miner." The
early life and experience of the late Mr. Telford are next referred to, with aa
account of his occupation in youth, and of his estimate of the value of such
occupation to the intending engineer. Mr. Hosking then remarks ;

" Such was the early education, and such were the matured opinions of the

184 1. J

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

95

man who has left hardly a corner of our island without some important work

to record his name." " But Mr. Telford goes on, from the oh-

scrvations I have already quoted, to state thereupon his opinions and practice
with regard to the education of the civil engineer : ' My readers,' he says,
' may not dissent from these observations, but few of them, unless practical
men, will feel their full force. Youths of respectability and competent edu-
cation, who contemplate civil engineering as a profession, are seldom aware
how far they ought to descend in order to found the basis of future elevation.
It has happened to me more than once, when taking opportunities of being
useful to a young man of merit, that I have experienced opposition in taking
him from his hooks and drawings, and placing a mallet and chisel, or a trowel
in his hands, till, rendercil confident by tlie solid knowledge which only ex-
perience can bestow, he was qualified to insist on the due performance of
■workmanship, and to judge of merit in the lower as well as the higher de-
partments of a profession in which no kind or degree of practical knowledge
is sujierflnous. For f/}is reason I ever congratulate ynyself upon the circum-
stances wtiictt compelled me to begin by working xritti my own hands.*

" You will find indeed that not Telford alone, but that most of the men who
responded to the demand that arose in the middle of the last century, for
professional aid in the formation and construction of that class of works now
distinguished as works of civil engineering, in default of skill and capacity on
the part of the architects of the day, were men whose early education was
that of the workshop ; — they were masons, miners, and miUwrights. Whilst
the practical knowledge of Telford and Rennie — the mason and the mill-
wright— exists in its effects upon those who bad the advantage of working
with and under those eminent hydraulic architects, the practice of civil engi-
neering as at present constituted will continue, — but those who seek to engage
in and follow it must qualify themselves by direct application to the sources
from which it sprung, and upon which alone it can rest a continued existence.
The man of science may be formed independently of the workshop — but it is
through the workshop alone that the man of science can become what the
men I have enumerated were ; he may possess liimself, in the office, and in
the service as an assistant, of the established practitioner of the routine of
business, — of the habit of using technical terms, — of repeating working and
other drawings, and of using set phrases and forms in the composition of a
specification ; — he may learn to estimate and to describe the items of an esti-
mate as they are usually described, and to attach prices to the items according
to the established usage ; — and having made these acquisitions he may con-
sider himself fitted to practice as a civil engineer. He will feel himself com-
petent to investigate any question that can arise in practice when the data
are supplied, — but he wiU find that questions continually arise upon which
no data are to be obtained ; he will readily undertake to lay out and design
any class of work within the range of engineering practice, but he will learn
from the contractors as the work proceeds, that tins cannot be done as he
may appear to have intended, — that that will not do in this particular case,
that such and such things are unnecessary, and such others essential, and
when the works are completed he will have the mortification of finding that
the variations made, and the alterations and additions effected have made his

contract a dead letter There are other cases, however, and they are already

too frequent, in which conscious incompetence determines to be on the safe
side, be the cost what it may, and works are overloaded with materials that
they may be strong enough ; — and thus again the employer is defrauded, for
fraud it is if a man undertake a duty which he is not thoroughly qualified to
perform."

Mr. Hosking then proceeded nearly as follows, giving an etymology of the
designation of engineer, which has the appearance of novelty, and entering
into details which we have not space to include in our mere abstract : —

" It may not be devoid of interest, and it may help to give a distinct percep-
tion of what the practice of civil engineering includes, if I trace the circum-
stances o'it of which it grew. Many of the works and operations now in-
cluded in the practice of the civil engineer are of late origin themselves, and
a large proportion of them were formerly within the practice of architecture,
and was known, when distinguished at all, as hydraulic arclutecture. Modern
fortifications, or fortifications having reference to ordnance, consist in a great
degree of earthworks, and through the practice of forming them the different
corps of military engineers became skilful in the disposition and working of
earth, — in draining for the exclusion, and in forming conduits and sluices for
the admission of water. As the advance of modern civilization required
operations similar to those practised by the military engineers for protecting
lands from rivers, and from the sea, by embankments, — for draining low
lands, — for supplying towns, and for feeding canals with water, the peculiar
designation of the military engineer and operator was adopted by the civil
practitioner, who thus became what is known as the civil engineer. Through-
out the continent of Europe the services of the architect had been still in
requisition in aid of the military engineer, in directing the constructions for
wliich he had occasion, and we thus find some of the finest works of many of
the Italian architects from the 13th and 14th centuries down to the present
time, on the gates of fortified places. In England, however, almost ever since
the introiluction of gunpowder, the fortification of towns and cities, fortunately,
has not been necessary, and the British architect has had therefore no prac-
tice in connection with the military engineer. Hence, the almost total de-
ficiency of architects in this country in hydraulic constructions, so that when
a demand arose for works which imposed such constructions in connectiou
with earthwork formations, the miUwrights and masons, who had built the
flood-gates and sluices with their wing and head walls, and had learnt to

direct ti.e formation of the earthworks from the Dutch embankers and
drainers, were called upon to undertake them, and thus the hydraulic archi-
tect is found in conjvmction with the formator or embanker anil drainer, who
brought to the profession thus compounded the designation of civil engineer.

" The practice of civil engineering and architecture is, therefore, strictly, the .
complete practice of architecture in its most extended sense ; that of the
former may be said to include formations and constructions influenced by, in
connection with, or affected by, that powerful agent — water, — whilst! the
separ.ite practice of architect ur« is generally restricted to constructions not
so exposed, and to constnictiotis susceptible of, and subject to decoration.
The architect wlio builds sewers and drains, — and it is within the practice of
all architects to do so, — is in so far a civil engineer, — whilst tlie engineer
who builds a bridge, or a viaduct, is in so far an architect, for altliough, ac-
cording to the general definition that I have given, the founding of piers and
abutments to a bridge over a river, or other water, would fall within the pro-
vince of the engineer, the main constructions of a bridge, especially when of
masonry, are mthin that of the architect."

" Roads as now made, and railways, are late additions to the practice of the
civil engineer. Roads brought bridges with them, and railways have brought
many other varieties of construction that can hardly be called hydraulic, for
although their frequent connection with earthwork exposes them for the
most part to the action of water, they are generally so situated as to demand
the architectural dispositions which may be classed under the head of de-
coration. To be an accomplished civil engineer a man must, therefore, be a
good architect in the ordinary acceptation of that term, as well as skilled in
the sciences and arts of construction, far above what architects commonly
are. Together with formations and hydraulic constructions the practice of
civil engineering includes the application of machinery in the aid of com.
merce and of the useful arts. Hence, and because of the name applied to
some of his productions, the manufacturer of engines and machinery, the
mere machinist has been called an engineer. .•V machinist may certainly lie-
come a civil engineer, but the power of making a locomotive engine does
not seem to form a better qualification for railway engineering, than that of car-
riage building does to constitute the builder an efficient roadmaker; — it is not
the cannon-founder who is entrusted with the construction of fortified places
and field works, but the engineer officer whose education and practice have
fitted him for this more important senice."

" In promising information and instruction that will be useful to you in
the pursuit of your professions respectively, I must beg to be understood not
to promise to qualify you here to practice as architects or as civil engineers.
We offer you information whereby you may become qualified to avail your-
selves more effectually of the practice of the engineer's or architect's office,
and thereby to become better architects , and better engineers, to your own
confidence, comfort, and advantage, and for the advantage of society to whom
your services will be hereafter offered, than you would have been without
such instructions and information as we offer. The medical student conies
here versed in pharmacy, and in the simpler surgical operations, and he finds
his field of study and practice complete between the lecture and dissecting
rooms of the college, and the wards and the operating theatre of the hospital,
but to you, who come to us unskilled in carpentry and masonry, the pharmacy'
and surgery of your professions — we have the deficiency to supply, as well as
to teach the science which those humbler arts aid you in applying, but your
hospital must be walked in mud boots, and your operating theatie found on
the stage of the carpenter, and on the scaffold of the mason and bricklayer.
The young sailor may and should learn navigation on shore, and how to rig
a ship and to reef and steer in harbour, but he must go to sea to become a
sailor, — and the young architect or engineer, may and should, in like manner,
acquire the theory, and learn, as far as may be, the practical arts of his in-
tended profession, in a preliminary education, but he must place himself with
the active practioner through whom he may have facilities for seeing works
in progress, and opportunities of assisting to forward them, together with the
means of acquiring the technicalities of practice, to become an efficient prac-
titioner of architecture and engineering himself.

But why, I may be asked, if the practice of an oflSce and the observation
of actual works is essential after you have expended time and money here,
why not go from school or college at once to a practical office .' I aiiswer,
that without such preliminary education in science and the arts as that offered
you here, the practice of an office will be in a great degree lost upon you;
you may learn by rote but you will not know the meaning of the words — you
may have opportunities of seeing works, but " seeing you will not see, and
hearing you will not understand ;" the characters maybe clear, and the mean-
ing of the words obvious, but to you they will be unknown, and therefore
unintelligible.

I would say, then, acquire superiority over the merely practical man — the
rule of thumb engineer by the attainment of sound scientific knowledge, in
addition to the mere practical skill with which he tenders his services; — but
do not depend upon scientific knowledge alone, if you propose to become civil
engineers, and hope to gain your bread by the practice of ciril engineering as
a profession, for it may be truly said, paraphrasing the beautiful language of
an inspired writer, you may have all learning and all science, but if you waut
this practical knowledge of which I speak, you wiU be but "as sounding
brass or a tinkling cymbal."

96

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[March,

SCHOOL OF DESIGN, LEICESTER SQUARE.

O.v Monday the 15th ult., a lecture on the application of perspective, being
part of a course, was delivered by Oeorgc Foggo, Esq., at tlie School of the
Society for Promoting Practical IJesigni, Saville House, Leicester Square,
before a numerous and respectable audience of members of the society,
artists, students, &c.

The lecturer commenced by urging the necessity of a knowledge of per-
spective in ornamental design ; observing that however the students in that
class might be inclined to undervalue such an acquirement, they could not
aor did not make a drawing without availing themselves of it. So accus-
tomed are we to see objects in perspective, that we are perpetually putting
objects in jierspective without being aware of it. The child newly born is
destitute of this knowledge, but we cannot pass through life without acquir-
ing it — we must perforce obtain a knowledge of the distance of objects, their
relative positions, their size, their colour. There is not a human being who
does not learn this — not an animal — we could not go through life without it.
Whether in historical composition, or whether in architectural design, we are
obliged to have recourse to perspective. The architect, after making his
design, may think he has nothing to do with this science, but if he do not
attend to it, he will soon find himself in serious difficulties. Suppose, for
instance, he has 'designed a frieze ; although it may look very well upon
paper, yet, when it comes to be placed high up, and lighted in a particular
way, he may find the effect very different from what he iutended. From
want of knowledge of this kind, lamentable errors occur ; in buildings re-
cently erected, ornaments are hghted with windows in such a way as to lose
their effects ; a delicate scroll is placed at such a distance as not to be seen,
and bold ornaments brought too near. 1 am anxious, said the lecturer, that
sin drawing ornament we should not <lraw it as if it were a mere dead inani-
mate object, but should remember that taste is required for designing pure
ornament. This may not suit those who are contented with copying, and
think that they have done enough when they have reproduced a design from
the French, or the German, or the Italian, or the Greek ; but it is the right
course — copying we always find limited, nature ever varying. We have
heard much lately about copyright of all kinds, but I think a great deal more
has been said than has been necessary ; I am by no means disposed to admit
that copyright can be derived from the mere act of copying the design of
another, whether that design be French or Greek, one year old or a thousand.
Copyright should have no right for merely copying others, but for original
adaptations of natural objects. Composition requires originality and power
of mind, without which the name is idle. The architect has irregular ma-
terials to bring into regular proportions ; the designer of artistical compo-
sitions has the opposite course, to take fixed objects, and to place them in
every allowable variety of attitude that is to be found in nature. Some
imagine that great diversity of power is required for these two objects, that it
takes very httle power to make an architectural design, and much to produce
a picture. I am not inclined, however, to allow this. Want of reference to
nature is, in my opinion, the principal defect of our architects, the result of
which is the greatest inconsistency. Tlius, if we want a church, the archi-
tect will, without regard to propriety, take a Greek temple for his model,
and so in an edifice where no sacrifice is allowed, devoted to a religion by
which it is abolished, we shall find the sacrificial ornaments of another creed,
if we are to have a theatre, the same temple is referred to, and then we get
the sacrificial emblems again. There is no thought of propriety, though a
building should be appropriate in its character to the object to which it is
devoted, and mark the circumstances which have influenced its erection.
The architect having to do principally w ith straight lines in composition, has
of necessity much difficulty to contend with, but he has other and greater
difficulties ; the want of having men of taste to judge of his productions
causes inactivity on the part of the architect, and the result is that he con-
tents himself with making a flaming copy from some antique building of
reputation, which pleases the committee because it saves them the trouble
of judging. His rival, with less knowledge of the world, labours hard to
produce a good plan and an original elevation ; his plan is never looked at,
because it is not understood, and bis elevation being placed by the side of
those of his competitors, is outstared by them, and so he is discarded. By
and bye the favoured design is carried into execution, and then, to the gene-
ral disappointment, it is quite inapplicable. (The lecturer here proceeded
to sketch the gromid plan of a building, and show the modifications which
would be required in the external effect by difl^rent arrangements of the
interior.) When an architect has got over the impediments thrown in his
way by the ground plan, he will, without a knowledge of perspective, find
himself in serious difficulties in making his elevation. There will be a want
of important parts, broken lines, intricacies in the external arrangements, so
that the eye can never repose satisfactorily. Still a good plan is a great
thing, and it is of much importance that the public should know what plans
are, for every one may now be on a committee some day, and it is very
essential that this point should be understood. The elevation may mislead,
while the plan is the first thing, and when we have provided for the useful,
we can afterwards see what sort of a fine frontage can be applied. Some of
the cabinet-makers and upholsterers studying here must very frequently be
applied to with regard to furniture, when they first send in a drawing of
what is imperatively necessary, and then do what they can to ornament it
afterwards. Sometimes, however, the contrary occurs ; a pretty drawing is
made, and when the article comes to be put up, it is found clumsy and use-

less. Nor do I hold that it requires much less talent to design furniture
properly than to design a building — and, indeed, in many of our recently
erected club-houses, the architects have themselves designed the furniture,
])late, &e. Unfortunately, however, architects have little studied this de-
partment, and if they attempt it, there is a baldness in their works far from
pleasing.

Architects have not often, more particularly in crowded cities, the choice
of sit\iation, but still it is in their own power to do something more than
they do. There was, for instance, no necessity in Pall Mall to swamp the
Travellers' Club by rearing next to it the Reform ; had this been done by
others, Barry would most probably have been offended, but people are not
so offended at their own deeds as at those of their neighbours. Here, how-
ever, the example is given, and so, perhaps, some day we may have another
larger, and the Reform Club itself overshadowed. The back of the Travel-
ler's Club is not the less admirable, and it is much to be regretted that the
architect had not combined the two buildings in one design. It is, in fact,
a duty of arcliitects to avail themselves of the position in which their build-
ing is to be placed; if, for instance, the space were next to a church, then,
by making the new buildings, though not uniform, yet in some degree, cor-
respond with those on the other side, the church might be brought into the
composition, and so a better effect produced. Regular composition in archi-
tecture requires a centre and two wings ; so if we see a bridge with four
arches, the efiect is unpleasant, though this is sometimes avoided by making
the piers more prominent, but this again leads to another impropriety. The
bridge, to be effective, must have three or five arches. The building, too,
requires good thick flanks ; this Wilkins forgot, and thus, in the National
Ciallery, we have the flanks getting thinner and thinner till they come to
almost nothing. Solidity of effect is a thing imperative — the human mind
requires bulk — it does not consider surface sufficient ; if we see a surface, we
like to know what is behind it, and particularly with regard to stone, for we
always imagine the other front must be something similar. I may be re-
minded that, in the Gothic, there are exceptions and most beautiful ones,
butjthese are exceptions only as between the uninstructed and the instructed —
the instructed will see where strength is, and so be better satisfied with the
effect produced. It is our duty to make our building as vast as possible with
the materials we possess ; if we do something great with small materials,
money is saved ; if great materials are frittered away in petty details, we
have spent a vast deal to produce a little effect. It may be thought much
better not done at all, unless the effect be produced at Uttle expense. Two
instances have been greatly extolled by our travellers ; St. Peter's, at Rome,
say they, is so vast and so beautifully proportioned, that we do not perceive
its grandeur, and it is only when we come to examine some of the parts, that
at last we are convinced. Another instance is the column in the Place Ven-
dome, at Paris, which is made after a barbarous Roman model — a column in
Grecian proportion, is covered with a thick coat of bronze, and made gouty,
just like the Duke of York's column in the Park. If the Napoleon coliunn
appears 80 feet high instead of 150, it certainly appears to me much better
to have spent half the money to have produced a column which should have
appeared 150 feet high. It is travellers only who see things of this kind, who
stand openmouthed with astonishment that much money should be tlvrown
away to produce nothing.

Architects very frequently complain of want of money, but with injus-
tice, for it is by no means the amount of money, nor the vastness of the
material at their disposal, on which the affair depends, particularly if money
be exhausted on a number of small parts. No error is greater than to divide
a thing into a number of small parts; if we want to know the effect, let us
go into a mountainous country, and we shall go on from one mountain to
another, and always find the object in the distance of the same comparative
smallness. We see the distant peak with clouds lying about the sides, di-
viding it, and some covering it, some lying in streaks across if, but it does
not appear high. We get to the top of another mountain, but a deep valley
lies between, and it stiU does not appear high ; we climb from crag to crag,
and when we have got to the top we have an unboimded view, but we do
not appreciate the immensity of the elevation, we feel rather deUght than
surprise. Had we seen a precipice, instead of 15 or 20,000, a thousand feet
high, the eftect woiJd have been different. Many instances might be mentioned,
but there is one place in the United States where the view is so terrific, that
no coiu-age can encounter it twice. Persons who wish to see this place go
provided with guides, and secured with cords, and after looking down be-
come senseless, and when asked always refuse to try it again. So different
is it to see a suiiple elevation, or to see a thing frittered away bit by bit.
This is not without its lesson in architecture ; the Gothic architects knew it
and profited by it. We see it if we look at the Gotliic spires and towers
with their tops wreathed with ornament ; such compositions show that our
ancestors understood this effect perfectly. Let us sketch a tower : we have
here a great height, but in proportion to the bulk is the apparent elevation
reduced ; to remedy this, we must do as Barry is going to do at the New
Houses of Parliament, we place simple turrets at the corners, sometimes of
unequal size to produce picturesque effect. Looking up, the eye runs along
this narrow line, and appreciates the full height of the object, at the same
time that the bulk is also felt by this combination of parts. The composition
of Gothic buildings requires great consideration, both of perspective and
composition, as well as of appropriateness of character. If we construct a
residence for a clergyman, we must make it comfortable, but at the same
time we must give it a certain clerical character ; but if we make a hotise

1841.1

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

97

for a country squire, we must not have anything clerical at all. In the
Gothic cathedral immense length was required to provide for numerous pro-
cessions with music, when the effect produced by them is overcoming. Great
elevation was also necessary. We always see, therefore, in such buildings,
one part of great length, and as the screen was not originally placed where it
now is, hut at the entrance, the view was surprising, for wliile we had figures
six feet high close to us, in the distance they were reduced to insignificance.
If we look at the means adopted to produce elevation, we shall see that,
however numerous the divisions of the columns were to provide the strength
required, the architects always took care to have some sm.all fillets, which,
being continuons from the bottom to the top, and there vanishing into
nothing, give the mind a conception of vast and unlimited height. The con-
templation of a cathedral of this kind appears, perhaps, much more elevated,
and has a greater effect in raising the imaginition than even a mountain
itself.

I know nothing in architecture which contains more composition th u
Gothic architecture — the Greek temple of vast proportions perched on an
isolated rock is simple and majestic — hut the Gothic cathedral contains an
interminable variety of applications from nature. Having said enough on
composition in architecture, I may say that it is of no trifling importance to
the historical or landscape painter — both will find excellent studies in Gothic
architecture. In the combinations of the architect and the artist there is
something more required than mere arrangement of parts, for though the
Greek architect is limited to such as are symmetrical, the Gothic is not so
strictly limited, and the historical painter is called upon for no symmetry at
all, yet composition, to have a lasting effect, must operate on the mind, as
much as on the eye. We therefore require a combination of poetical feeling
with symmetrical arrangement, for to the architect fine feeling belongs as
much as to the artist, and although an architect may not have it in his power
to make a cathedral, yet he can show nuich of the same qualifications in a
small building, in furniture and hangings, or in plaie for a dining room. Plate
is generally ordered at the silversmiths to he made after the pattern of that
of Mr. So and So, who h.Td It presented to hini for services in tlie East Indies,
but as Mrs. So and So, who has never been in India, must have her plate like
that of the other individual, it may be m.ide .is similar as possible in shape,
and yet far from it in detail, and analogous to the condition of the lady. A
case in point occurred to me, I was asked to design a monument for a person
who was of a very peculiar character, of good circumstances, had been in
trade, and led a very even samely life. The deceased having a relation who
had died at the bead of his regiment, a monument was desired for him like
his cousin's. Here was the contrast, a quiet merchant and a dashing colonel,
however 1 did what I could, and 1 do hope the thing will not he found fault
with. If we have a piece of jilate to design, we need not attend most to the
weight of the material, hut with lighter materials we may endeavour to give
an appearance of quantity, making the ornaments bold, and cutting away
metal and material in different places — although, by the by, persons do inquire
into the weight of metal. I have known this to be the case with Committees
of the House of Commons, where silver has been preferred to bronze, because
it would make a difference of 1501. in the value of the material, though the
bronze would have cost more in the end, as the cost of the chasing was
greater. There .ire severiil things stand much in the way of good composi-
tion— want of a fair protection for copyright, and want of judgment in the
public. In the many competitions which are advertised every day. the paltry
premium offered for the design maybe a hundred pounds, while the profit on
he work to be executed may perhaps be thousands. There is a third diffi-
culty, and that is want of power, in artists, from the want of fair competition,
producing dificiency of high intellect, for those who have the power know
better than to exert it on such occasions, they can trust to other ways for
making money.

ROYAL INSTITUTE OF BRITISH ARCHITECTS.
Feb. 8. — Edward Blore, V.P. in the Chair.

Messrs. G. A. Burn and J. J. Cole were elected as Associates.

Among the donations was a copy of Mr. Hay's elegant work entitled
Illustrations of Cairo, presented by Mr. Greenougb, and Mr. Scoles exhibited
an interesting drawing by the late Mr. Bondmi of the Catljedral of St.
Peter's at Rome, and St. Paul's, London.

'J'he constTHction of the stone arch, commonly called the itone beam, which
erists beticreti the tamers of Lincoln Cathedral, having been discussed at a
[irevious meeting of the Institute without any satisfactory results, from the
paucity of data which existed in regard to this curious work of science, Mr.
Nicholson. Fellow of the Institute, and resident architect at Lincoln, for-
warded the following particulars. The arch is at a height of 80 feet from
the pavement, immediately over the junction of the vaulting between the
towers and the vaulting of the nave ; its abutments are thus formed by the
eastern walls of the two towers. The arch consists of 23 stones of unequal
lengths ; the width of the extrados is barely 1 ft. 9J in., the thickness of the
■irch is uniform throughout, 11 inches. The span measured horizontally
is '27 ft. 11 in. between its apparent abutments, but the arch probably pene-
trates some more recent casing of the tower walls, so that probably the actual
horizontal span equals 30 ft. The southern abutment is 1'2J inches higher

than the northern. This arch has hitherto been considered the segment of
an arch ; but the observations of Mr. \icholson led him to the conchision,
that it is a pointed one, each half arch being stnick with radii of different
lengths, an inequality arising probably from unequal settlement. It is con-
structed of stone from the Lincoln quarries, tlie exposed surfaces being
wrought with the toothed chisel in a careless manner. The joints are ill
formed, and have a mass of mortar full half an inch thick witliin them. The
arch vibrates perceptibly, and Mr. Nicholson is of opinion that the practice
of visitors jumping upon it in order to produce this vibration, m.ay eventually
lead to very lamentalde results. Mr. Papwortli suggested that very probably
the arch was constructed by the masons at the time to serve as a fixed mark,
by wliich to test the accuracy of the vaidting of the nave, particularly in the
groining stones. But Mr. .Nicholson considered this ingenions hypothesis
hardly admissable, as the four walls themselves afforded a solid datura by
which to control the several levels of the vaultings.

Mr. Poynter read some admirable practi.'al observations on the construc-
tion of observiitories, with which we hope to furnish our readers at full length
in some early number.

Feb. 22.— J. K.w, V. P. in the Chair.

Mr. G. Godwin was admitted as Fellow, and Messrs. Wood and Clarke
were elected as Associates.

A volume of exquisite drawings by S. Burchell, Esq., of the details of Prior
Birde's chantry in Bath .Abbey, and ten guineas from T. L. Donaldson, Esq.,
secretary for foreign correspondence, were announced among the donations,
and two numbers of a very well executed German work on Gothic architec-
ture, now publishing at Nuremburg, were presented by Messrs. Black &: Arm-
strong, booksellers, of London. This publication is remarkable for the judg-
ment with which the subjects are selected, and the tasteful effect with which
they are engraved.

A letter was read from M. Vaudoyer, corresponding member, communi-
cating various particulars connected with architecture of recent occurrence at
Paris, particularly in regard to Marochetti's monument to Napoleon, which
consists of an enormous sphere on a square base, surmounted by an eques-
trian st.atue of the emperor with his frock coat and little hat. The style of
the monument, and the employment of a foreigner on such a work, has ex-
cited much displeasure among the artists of Paris. M. Vaudoyer described
a new species of competition, which took place in the time of Louis XVI.,
who was anxious to complete, in a becoming manner, the Palace of Versailles,
then unfinished. Upon the recommendation of Monsieur Le Comte d'.\ig-
uillers, five of the most celebrated architects of the period were introduced
to the King, wlio explained to them his views and wishes, and called upon
them to assist him by their talents in rendering the Palace of Versailles
worthy the nation. He assigned to each of them 12,000 francs as a compli-
mentary sum, and 3000 francs to cover expences, and gave them S months
to prepare their (ksigns. The intention was, when Messrs. Chalgrin. Heur-
tier, .'\ntoine, Peyre Jun. and Paris, the architects chosen, had completed
their designs to have them exhibited to the public, and then examined by a
jury consisting of the candidates themselves and four oti.er architects. Tliis
committee were to make individual reports on each, and a general report on
the whole, and to select the two best for recommendation to tlie King, wlio
was to he at liberty to choose any parts of the other designs, so as if expe-
dient to form a new one composed of the chief beauties in the whole num-
ber, and which was to be carried into execution by one or both of the two
selected by the jury. The designs were m.ide and paid for, but never ex-
hibited ; for the storms of the revolutionary period began to clou.] the hori-
zon of the arts, and the scheme, so admirably projected, had no positive
results. But M. Peyre pubhshed his, in his volume of designs, 1818.

Mr. Scoles, fellow, read an analysis of Col. Howard \'yse's splendid work
on the Pyramids of Egypt. The great pyr.imid covers rather more than 13
acres, each side of the square being 764 ft., and the height is 480 ft. 9 in.
It is generally supposed that the area of Lincoln's Inn Fields equals that of
the Great Pyramid. But it appears that one side of that square brtweeu the
houses, being 831 ft. and the other 625 ft. 0 in., its area is less than tliat of
the Great Pyramid by about 64,000 square feet. The lieight of St. Paul's is
365 ft. or 115 ft. 9 in. less than the Egyptian building. Mr. Stoles then
minutely described the mode of construction, the arrangement of the cham-
bers and galleries, the objects found, and the chronological history of the
erection and events connected with these huge wonders of antique art, tracing
it down to the discoveries of the gallant author, and for which we must refer
the reader to the work itself. Mr. Ferring, a civil engineer, took tlie di-
mensions of these edifices, and Mr. .Vrrundale had the management of the
volume, and the preparation of the drawings confided to him by the nninifi-
ccnt author. Mr Scoles' description, which was rendered doubly valuable
from his own personal examination of these monuments, w,is listened to with
much attention, and gave rise to some curious remarks by Jlr. Hamilton and
other members. For our part, we cannot help imagining that tliere still
remain unexplored chambers in these masses of construciion, and tli.at dis-
coveries may still repay tlie patient investigation of future enterprising tra-
vellers.

98

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[March,

ROYAL INSTITUTE Of AKCUITECTS OF IRELAND.

ADDRESS TO SIR RICHARD MORRISON.

In a recent mmiber of the Afail we noticed with pride and satisfaction the
honour so desenedly conferred ou our eminent countryman. Sir I'.ichard
Morrison, by the representati\e of our most gracious Sovereign. It is no
small addition to our pleasure to lay before our readers, in tliis day's publi-
cation, the honoural)Ie testimony of the satisfaction which that ait of royal
munificence has given to a body of gentlemen wl'.o. of all others, arc best
qualified to appreciate the value of the distinction, and to estimate the merits
of the individual who has been thus selected for the rewards of her .Majesty's
favours.

But it is not alone as a favour to Sir RIcliard Morrison that this honour is
to be considered. It is an honour conferred, in his person, on the no!)!e art
which, with such credit to himself, and benefit to the public, he has success-
fully cultivated. The honour due to Sir Richard for his individual merits,
was due also to the profession of which he is and has been a distinguished
member, and wliich lie has been mainly instrumental in raising to its proper
station of dignity and usefulness in this country, by concentiating its genius
and its energy in the association from which this address emanates. It has
ever been the policy and the practice of the illustrious house, of which her
Majesty is no degenerate descendant, to encourage tlie tine arts by such
honours on their professors as the State can confer; and, whilst we refer
with pleasure to the distinctions conveyed, in their professional capacity, on
a Reynolds and Chautrey, it gives us no less pride to find our countrymen — a
Shee and a .VIorrison — equally honoured by the distinguishing approval of the
Sovereign.

In this instance, at least, justice to the individual has been "justice to
Ireland," honour to Sir Ricliarii Morrison, an honour to his profession.

The address was presented to Sir Richanl on the oth ult., at his residence
in Mount Street, by a distinguished deputation from the body, and read by
Johu I'apworth, Esij., the honorary secretary, after the following brief, but
well conceived prefatory observations: —

" Sir Richard Morrison, the duty wliich devolves upon me this day, as
secretary to ti.e Royal Institute of the .\rchitects of Irelaud, I feel to be one
of an extremely important and interesting nature, whether we consider it
with reference ;o our own profession, or to the fine arts in Ireland. I am
highly honoured to he the medium througli which the sentiments of our
institution are to be conveyed to you, on the occasion of that honourable
distinction which has been conferred on you. I am aware my associates
around me paiticijiate in the feelings of pleasure wiiich I entertain at this
moment. It is unnecessary for me. Sir, to dwell upo:i the circumstance
which has brought us together this day, as it is fully expressed in the address
which I shall now have the honour to read." — Duiltn Mail.

SOCIETY OF ARTS FOR SCOTLAND.
January 25. — Dr. Fyfe, President, in the Chair.

Professor Fcrbes gave, at the request of the President and Council, an ex-
position of The Doc/rine of I he Polarizalwn of Heat, Ou this evening he
proposed to give an account of the instrumental measurement of temperature.
This introduction was illustrated by examples of the various instruments in
use, from the air thermometer of Sanctorius, to the dehcatethermomultipliers of
Kobili and Melloni. In the course of this historical account, he adverted to
a recent ingenious improvement of the common flint thermometer, by M.
ViUtz, and which, he believed was not yet published : this improvement con-
sists in sinking the tube to the depth of two-thirds of its diameter into the
material of tlie scale ; by which arrangement the parallax in one direction is
compensated by the refraction in another, so that, in all positions of the eye,
the degree read off is the same.

A description of J Self [nking Press was read, illustrated by drawings and
working model, by Mr. John Napier, which was remitted to a committee ;
and afterwards a short notice of tlie completion of the printing of the whole
Bible in relief for the use of the blind, by Jolin Alston, Esq., Rosemount
(Glasgow); for which he was congratulated by the Society.

February 8. — Shirrei-f L'.\my, V. P., in the Chair.

The President read an interesting account of a series of extensive experi-
ments 0)1 the Eiaporoling Power of various kinds of Coal, (including the
anthracite), as obtained by combustion in furnaces. The general result of
these experiments seemed to be that the practical heating power of all coals
is almost exactly in proportion to the quantity of fixed carbon ; there appeai--
ing to be no heat whatever procured from the volatile matter of the coal.
This circumstance Dr. Fyfe accounted for by supposing that the hydrogen and
volatilized carbon alistract, in passing to the gaseous stale, as much heat as
they develop during conibusticn.

Mr. Sang drew the attention of the Society to an erroneous deduction
drawn by the late Capt. Henry Katcr, from his experiments on thefe.rure of
bars. Capt. Kater iiad observed that the elongation of the distance between
two marks ou the surface of a bar when the bar is supported at the middle,

is hardly half of tlie co.itractioii caused by supwjrtiug the same bar at the
two cads the mere reduction on account of curvature having been allowed
for in both cases;. And he had thence concluded that the neutral plane is
not, as is usually supposed, in the middle of the thickness of the bar, but
only at one-third of that thickness from the convex side. Mr. Sang showed
that this result would imply that bodies resist distention with eight
times the energy with which they resist compression : and he pointed out that
the disparity observed by Capt. Kater is due to the difference of curvatiu-e in
the two states of the bar, and that that disp.irity agrees with the deduction
of the ordinary theory of flexure. He also pointed out some errors in Capt.
Katcr's methods of computation and experimenting which seemed to hiin to
destroy all confidence in auy of tliat philosopher's experimental results.

Royal Victoria Gallery, Manchfster. — A long discussion has taken place at
this institution upon Mr. Palmer's plan for the improvement of the Mersey
and Invell Navigation. In this discussion Mr. Radford, Mr. Hawkshaw, Mr.
Buck and other eminent engineers took part ; it is, however, reported at too
great length to .allow us to notice it this mouth. We are glad to see so
much interest taken in engineering in that part of the country, and we should
like to see Institutes at Manchester and Newcastle. The architects have
already an Institute at .Manchester, and the engineers sh.ould not be outdone.

Royal Scotch Academy. (From an Edinburgh Correspondent.) — This exhi-
bition is now open, and it is an admirable one; the progress which is being
made in art in this country is very satisfactory. There are few architectural
designs, which is not to be wondered at, as the accommodation for drawings
is miserable, every thing being s.acrificed for oil paintings, the veriest daub in
oil having a better jilace than a chef d'a!uvre in water colour. We are even
worse oft" in this respect than you are in London, inasmuch as th.e little room
given to our architecture and w.ater colours is further curtailed by the intro-
duction of the sculpture ! the sjiecimens of which, vrith the exception of the
works, by members or associates of our .\caderay. are in most instances
below criticism. Our Associations or " .\rt Unions " are reported to have
larger funds this year than last, so that S or 9000 pounds will probably be
spent in art this year. The last sum must be nearer the truth if general report
may be depended on.

EXTRAORDINARY EXPERIMENT.

An experiment was tried on Saturday, 20lh ult., of one of the
inventions to which we alluded last autumn, which a friend on whom
we have reliance had an opportunity of witnessing. The trial took
place in tlie grounds of Mr. Boyd, in the county of Essex, a few miles
from town, in tlie presence of Sir Robert Pee!, Sir George Murray, Sir
Henry Hardinge, Sir Francis Burdett, Lord Ingestrie, Colonel Gurwood,
Captain Britten, Captain Webster, and some other gentlemen, who all
appeared very much astonished at what they saw. Bv the kindness
of the inventor our informant occupied a position that enabled him to
command a view of all that took place. A boat 2-t feet long and 7
broad was placed in a large sheet of \\ater, the boat had been the day
before filled in with solid timber, four-and-a-lialf feet in depth, crossed
in every direction, and clamped together with eight inch spike nails.
This filling in was made under the inspection of Captain Britten, who
stated tlie fact to the distinguished gentlemen we have mentioned, and
also that the inventor never went near the workmen employed, that
no suspicion miglit be entertained of any combustible materials being
lodged in the hold of the vessel. Several of the gentlemen were on
Saturday rowed in a punt to the vessel, and examined fur theniselve.«,
so that every doubt might be removed as to the cause of destruction
being external, and not from tlie springing of any mine. When the
diiferent parties had taken up their positions, on a signal from the in-
ventor, the boat \v:is set in motion, and struck just abaft her starboard
bow, and instantaneously scattered into a thousand fragments. At the
moment of collision the water parted, and presented to the eye of our
informant the appearance of a huge bowl, while upon its troubled sur-
face he noticed a coruscation precisely resembling forked lightning.
A column of water was lifted up in the air like a huge fountain, from
which were projecteil upwards for many hundred feet the shattered
fragments of the vessel, wliich fell many of them several hundred yards'
distance in tlie adjacent fields. Our informant examined maiiy piece.s,
and found the huge nails snapped like carrots; the mast looked like a
tree riven by lightning, and never before, as he assures us, his he wit-
nessed so sudden and complete a destruction, thoogh he has seen shell
and rocket practice on the largest scale. Such seemed to be the un-
animous opinion of all present. How this mighty effect was produced
vvas of course not disclosed to so numerous a party, but two nival offi-
cers present were perfectly aware of the mode of operation, mid the

184].]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

99

inventor offered to go into details confidentially with one or two of the
distinguished officers present. In answer to a question from Sir Henry
Hardiage, the in%-entor stated that without a battering train he could
transport on a mule's back the means of destroying the strongest for-
tress in Europe. No doubt this is very startling, but, hearing what
we iiave, we cannot pronounce it impossible ; and as in every particu-
lar the inventor has done what he has undertaken to accomplish, it is
only fair to give him credit for the performance of more than has yet
been disclosed. The existence of these tremendous powers is placed
bevond all doubt, and the inventor asserts them to be completly under
his control, which, from what our informant has had an opportunity of
observing, he believes to be really the case. The instrument that
wrought so terrible an effect on Saturday, lifting into the air a boat
weighing two and a half tons, and filled in with five and a half tons of
solid timber, and displacing at least fourteen or fifteen tons of water
was only 18 lb. weight. Our informant has handled it and kicked it
round a room when charged with its deadly contents, so portable and
at the same time so safe is it — a point of vast importance, when we
remember the daily accidents that are occurring from the detonating
shells now used in our service. At Acre most of those employed burst
before they reached their object, and they are liable to explode when
rolling about a ship's deck, as was proved by the fatal accidents on
board Her Majesty's ship Medea, off Alexandria, and the Excellent, at
Portsmouth, and are dangerous to carry in a common ammanition cart
on a rough road. Whether Lord Melbourne will condescend to examine
into this matter, and secure these mighty powers for this country, or
permit them to pass into the hands of our enemies, is more than we
can venture to predict, but about which we cannot think England will
remain indifferent. The inventor has requested us publicly to return
his thanks to Mr. Boyd for his great krndness in permitting him the
use of his grounds not only on this but on several occasions. — Times.

IMPROVED TIRE OF A RAILWAY WHEEL.

Annexed is a small sketch of a section of the tire of a railway
wheel, showing a new mode of fixing the outer tire.

Many accidents, particularly to the machinery of locomotive en-
gines, have occurred from the bolts (which are used in general, but in
my improvement are not necessary) breaking, and allowing the tire to
work off laterally, and to come in contact with the working gear. The
improvement consists in having a groove turned out of the wheel, and
a corresponding tongue on the inside of the tire, as shown in the sketch,
which prevents the possibility of the tire coming off, but by its break-
ing, a contingency which but seldom happens.

H. W.

Manchester, Feb. it/i, 1S41. Railway Tunes.

HISTORY OF THE LONDON AND BIRMINGHAM RAILWAY
By THOMAS ROSCOE,

Assisted in the Historical Details by Peter Lecount.

Sir — In your last number a communication appears from Mr. Lecount,
animadverting on the use of his name in the above work, and also on
the publishers for not paying him for his services. Having had the
entire direction of the publication of this book, I feel it necessary to
say that these statements are grossly incorrect, and that I am ready to
prove this when called upon.

Mr. Lecount says " after page 32 I had nothing whatever to do with
it, and my name being connected with it is a perfect hoax upon the
public." So far from this being correct, I can produce scores of pages
of Mr. Lecount's manuscript which are printed in various parts of the
volume ! It is extremely impleasant to bring forward the names of gen-
tlemen, and I will here merely remark, that the manner in which his

name is printed on the title page of the volume, was agreed to by him-
self, in my presence, at the suggestion of his solicitor at Birmingham!
Indeed if it were improperly uspd, an injunction could readily be ob-
tained to restrain such an imposition on the imblic — but Mr. Lecount
finds it easier to write scurrilous remarks, than establish that which
has no foundation in truth.

By implication he charges the publishers with breach of agreement,
wilfully mis-stating facts. He says, " what I furnished for that work
although done under a written agreement, has never got me a sight of
sixpence of the publisher's money." If such were in reality the case,
Mr. Lecount would not be long in claiming his right. I deny, in un-
qualified terms, any treatment of Mr. L. otherwise than the most
honourable. For what services he rendered, he was remunerated by
having a pamphlet of about lOU pages printed, which was afterwards
" wasted," a single copy only being kept to prove the fact of its hav-
ing been printed ; and I have now before me, in Mr. Lecount's hand
writing, a memorandum of the cancelling of the original agreement
which was for a pecuniary consideration.

I am. Sir, your obedient servant,

Wareing Webb.

Casile Street, Liperpool,
February 18, 1841.

ERRORS IN SCIENTIFIC BOOKS.

Sir — It is a little surprising that a few of the most gross and palpa
ble errors as represented in some of the Plates, both in the old and
new editions of " Tredgold on the Steam Engine," should have remained
so long unnoticed, particularly in Europe, where so very many skilful
and scientific mechanics are continually poring over works in every
department of science.

The first and only error, I shall no/u draw your attention to, is on
plate No. n, where, in the figure of a steam engine pumping water
from a mine, the pump rod is connected with the piston rod ;, h, to
produce a parallel motion in both it and the pump rod, which exhibits
a profound ignorance of mechanics, on the very face of it, (as there
delineated) for though the piston rod will move parallel, the lifting
pump rod at the other end of the beam will not.

I have heard of a London waiter getting a quart of wine into a pint
decanter, but never heard of the diagonal of a square (or of a parallelo-
gram) being crammed into either diameter of it. I have heard also of
a man who affirmed that nothing rcai impossible, and that he could bite
his omi ear off; but after repeated contortions of the head and other
attempts and trials, he gave it up: observing, however, that he Icnerv
it could be done with a sudden Jerk. Perhaps a diagonal can be crammed
into the square, as represented in the figure alluded to, in Europe, but
to us ignorant folks in the Western World it looks rather "slanting-
dicular," makes us rather sceptical, and indeed seems impossible to
accomplish, even with a sudden jerk : but, like our inquisitive neigh-
bours, the Yankees, if it can be done, we are " kind a' curious" to know
how.

As books of science are generally published to instruct the unleanied
or uninitiated, it would be as well to have the figure 5, on Plate X (A)
engraved so as to be understood, because as there represented, it novy
requires a person who already understands his business, to understand
how to construct the parallel motion as there represented. The same
figure is repeated in the following plate, No. X (B).

If the insertion of this little inquiry is not inconsistent with your
sense of duty to the public, please to notice it in your useful publica-
tion, and you may perhaps hear again from.

Your very obedient servant,

Robert Rational.

British North America,
January 20, 184).

RSVIE-W^S.

Papers on Subjects connected milh the Duties if the Corps o/ Royal
Engineers. Vol. IV. London ; Weale, 1840.

We mentioned in our last our favourable impressions as to the
manner in which the character of this interesting work is maintained,
and it gives us pleasure this month also to bear further testimony
towards it.

The volume is appropriately preceded by a memoir of the pro-
fessional life of the late Thomas Drummond, from the pen of Captain

P 2

100

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[March,

Larcoii, whicli, restricted as it necessarily is, still shows enough to
enabli' us to appreciate the character of tliat amiable man.

Tie first, second, sixth and seventh papers are on subjects purely
militiry, which prevents us, on the present occasion, from making any
comment upcn them.

The third paper, by Lieut. Nelson, R.E., is on the important sub-
ject of shot furnaces, a question in the consideration of which the con-
struction of iron steam vessels should also enter. In this paper we
are glad to see an acknowledgment of the valuable suggestions of Sir
John Guest and Mr. Evans.

Lieut. Caflin's description of a new steam apparatus for drying gun-
powder, shows that he has introduced an important improvement,
which we trust will be adopted by the authorities.

The memoranda on blasting rock, by Major General .Sir J. F. Pnir-
goyne, form a work, and a most valuable one, in themselves ; we cor-
dially recommend them to the attention of our engineering readers of
every department.

Major Harry Jones's paper, the eighth, gives an account of the well
in Fort Regent, Jersey, a work of great difficulty and great success.
A[ajor Jones also gives his personal testimony to having witnessed the
successful operation of the water finders with the bagttetle divhialoire.
it is curious, but we do nc^t know what to say to it.

Captain Brandrelh's report in the Island of Ascension is valuable

and interesting, but does not fall within the scope of our observations.

The tenth paper is by Major Bolton, R. E., and is descriptive of the

dam constructed across the waste channel at Long Island, on the Ri-

deau Canal. 'i"o tliis we may afterwards have occasion to refer.

Lieutenant Nelson has contributed a series of notes which he calls
engineering details, a memoir which must be useful, both as an ex-
ample and a lesson to the younger members of his corps.

The description of the New Victualling Establishment at Devon-
port bears ample testimony to the ability of the two Kennies, under
whose direction many of the works have been executed. It will be
seen, by other examples, that the civil engineer has full attention paid
to him in this work.

Mr. Howle'tt, the chief draughtsman of the Ordnance, describes an
ingenious plan of his for connecting a locomotive engine and tender to
a passenger train, in which we only see one difficulty— how it would
work on sharp curves.

Lieut. Denison, the able editor, is author of the fourteenth paper, on
a new weigh bridge, lately erected at Woolwich Dockyard, and also
of the next, containing an account of another new work in tlie same
establishment, a single cofier-dam.

The sixteenth and seventeenth papers on injecting cemeut into
leaky joints of mas(;nry, and on the cuiploytner.tof sand for foundations,
are translations from the French.

The eighteenth paper is on the rolling bridge at Fort Regent,
Jersey.

The nineteenth paper brings us again to a contribution of the editor,
describing the mode adopted for restoring the roof of Woolwich
Dockyard Chapel, on the failure of the principals.

The twentieth pa])er is on the wharf cranes made by the Butterley
Company, coninnuiicated by Joseph Glynn, Esq., F. R.S., and the
twenty-first on Mr. Woodliouse's cast iron liridge over the River
Trent, at Sawley, on the Midland Counties Railway.

Reports, SpeciJicaUonii and Eslimates of Pitblic fFoikii of the United
Stales of jlmtrica. Edited by W. Strickland, Architect, C. E. ;
Edward H. Gim., C. E.; and H. R. Campbell, C. E. London:
John Weale, 1S41.

When the " Public Works of England " first appeared, we expressed
our approbation of the superior manner in which Mr. Weale had
brought out that valuable work, an opinion which was fully borne out
by the countenance of the public, and the satisfaction of the profession.
It is at once a proof and a result of the success of Mr. Weale's exer-
tions, that our Transatlantic brethren have entrusted to his care a
similar volume on the Public Works of America. It affords us double
pleasure to see that they have commenced so well, and that thev have
taken such an effiictive step to do justice to their works. The |)resent
is a companion to the former work, and is fully eepial to it, it shows
the same careful selection of subjects, the same fulness of details, and
the same splendour of execution. We have no doubt of its success
with the profession, for every exertion has been made to deserve it,
and it has our heartiest wishes, not less for its intrinsic merits than
for the good it is calculated to do the profession. We know nothing
better adapted to promote ])rofessional studies, and to elevate the

character of such pursuits among the public, than the productions of
works like these, which are the best monument to the old practitioner,
and the best lesson to the beginner. This, we are sure, is but part of
a series, for the success of the result we trust will embolden Mr.
Weale to give us also the Public Works of the Continent, and thus
lay the foundation of a museum of practical information, to which
every department of the profession may have recourse.

We shall now proceed to detail the contents of the first two parts
of the work before us. The first 13 plates represent the Phila-
delphia Gas Works, constructed in 1S35, under the direction of Mr.
Merrick; the following extracts will show their extent:

The works are laid out in eight distinct sections of ten " benches," or thirty
retorts each, making an aggregate of two hundred and forty retorts. Each
bench yields U]ioii an average 10,000 cubic feet of gas daily, or, when in full
action, an aggregate of 800,000 feet.

To each section is a distinct washer, purifier, condenser, and station meter.
The two retort-houses are each 200 feet long and 50 feet vride, located in the
centre of the square, having between them a passage of 40 feet, which is e.v-
cavated as a cellar and floored ovrr water-tight. This passage and the arched
cellars under the retort-houses serve as coal stores.

Each retort-house contains one stack and four sections of retort benches,
built back to back down the centre of the building on each side of the chim-
ney. The apparatus for cleansing the gas is located to the north and south
of each retort-house respectively. Two sectious of retort benches are now
completed and in action, and a third is now in the course of erection.

The retorts are the broad or York D's, 20 inches by 7^ feet in the clear,
set upon an original plan.

The gas is washed in two waters through washers of simple construction,
with valves so arranged as to use either as the first, the most pure water being
used as the seeond. The condensers are of ordinary construction, modifie<l
so as to enlarge the receptacle for the residuum at the base of the columns.
The purifiers are constructed for dry lime, with a hydraulic seal for shifting,
by which the use of valves in the purifying house is avoided.

After passing the meters, the gas from all the sections mingles in the gaso-
meters or gas-holders.

Appended to the description of the Gas Works there are some valu-
able reports upon the construction of the works, the cost of making
gas, &c.

The next plate is a drawing of a Reservoir Dam across the Swatara.
Plates 15 and Iti exhibit the construction of the Twin Locks on the
Schuylkill Canal at Plymouth (U. S.) Plates 17 & IS the bay of
Delaware and the Breakwater in progress ; the following extract from
the report describes its magnitude ; after examining into the con-
struction of the Breakwaters at Cherbourg and Plymouth, the
report recommends ;

The inward slope at 4 J', the top 30 feet in breadth, and at 5^ feet above
the highest spring-tide; the outward slope of 39 feet altitude, and of lOof
feet base ; both dimensions measured in relation to a horizontal plane passing
by a point taken at 27 feet below the lowest spring-tide. The base bears to
the altitude nearly the same ratio as similar lines in the profiles of Plymouth
and Cherbourg Breakwaters.

The jiart comprehended between the sea bottom and a horizontal plane 6
feet below tlie lowest spring-tide, the mass to be formed of stones weighing
from J to 2 tons, those of 2 tons comprising three-fourths of the mass. The
slopes of tliis part to be covered with blocks weighing from 2 to 3 tons.

For the part comprised between the latter horizontal ])lane and the lowest
spring-tide, the mass to be composed of stones weighing from ^ to 2.i tons ;
those of 11 to 25 tons forming three-fourths of the mass. The slope of this
part to be protected liy l)locks weighing 3 tons.

For the part comi)rehcnded between the lowest and higliest spring-tide, the
mass to be formed of blocks weighing from 4 to ."> tons, and laid as regularly
as practicable. The slopes of this part to be formed of the largest blocks
and to be laid headnise.

The estimate submitted by the Board was as follows : — The profile of the
work rests on a bottom of 29^ feet, on an average, below the lowest sjiring-
tide, and has a superficies of 535,472 square yards; which, being multiplied
by 1 700 yards (the whole length of the work), gives for the capacity of the
mass 910, 302^^; cubic yards.

Plates 19 to 24 exhibit the construction of the Philadelphia Water
Works, the following description will give an idea of their ex-
tent:—

It has been from the commencement determined, for the present, to erect
only three wheels and pumps, which are now completed, (there are now six),
and with them the most important part of the duty of the Committee. The
first of the wheels is 15 feet diameter and 15 feet long, working under 1 foot
head and 7 feet fall. This was put in operation on the 1st of July, 1822,
and it raises 1 ', uullion gallons of water to the reservoir in twenty-four hours,
with a stroke of the pump of 4 \ feet, a diameter of 10 inches, and the wheel
making 1 1 \ revolutions in a minute. The second wheel was put in operation
on the Uth of September. 1822, and is the same length as the first, and 16
feet diameter; it works under 1 foot head and 7.; feet fall, making 13 revo-

1841.

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

101

hitioiis ill a minute, with a <i feet strolic of tlie piuup, and raising 1^ million
gallons in twenty-fonr hours. The third wlieel, which went into operation
OD the 2-lth of December. 1822, is of the same size as the second, and works
under the same head and fall, making 13 revolutions in a minute, with a 5
feet stroke of the pump, and raising li million gallons in twenty-four hours.
It is not doubted that the second wheel can be made to raise an equal quan-
tity ; thus making the whole supply upwards of 4,000,000 gallons in twenty-
four hours.

The wheels are formed of wood, and put together with great strength. The
shafts are of iron, weighing about 5 tons each. The great size and weiglitof
the wheel give it a momentum which adds greatly to the regularity of its
motion, so necessary to preserve the pumps from injury under so heavy a
head as thev are required to work, which is a weight of 7900 lb. ; the height
92 feet.

The following statement exhibits the extent of the works, the number of
tenants supplied, the quantity of water daily distributed, and the amount of
revenue for the years 1823 (,at which time the city only was supplied with
water) and 1S37 respectively. In 1823 the three wheels and pumps were in
operation, (jA miles of iron pipes were laid, 4,844 tenants were supplied with
1,016,160 gallons of water daily, and the revenue was 26.191-0.'j dollars per
annum. In 1837 six wheels ami pumps are in operation, 98-} miles of iron
pipes are laid, 19,678 tenants are supphed with 3,122,164 gallons of water
daily, and the revenue is 100,432'37 dollars.

Plates 2.5 to 40 contain drawings of Dams and Locks, and .'\que-
ducts of various canals on the James River.

The reports and specifications, which are published in a separate
work, are drawn up with considerable care, and shovv that the profes-
sion in America are well acquainted with the practical department of
civil engineering.

RailiBay Transil ; a Letter to the President of the Board of Tradt. By
Francis RouBiLiAC CoNDER, C.E. London: Weale, 1841.

In this pamphlet Mr. Conder has gone into the consideration of
almost every detail connected with the working of a railway, illus-
trating the subject by many ingenious and practical suggestions. On
most points we agree with Mr. Conder, although we must reserve our
opinion as to some other of his suggestions. To the profession this
pamphlet will be of great interest, as it advocates their cause with
ability and justice.

A jManual of LogarUhms and Practical mathematics. Bv James

Trotter. Edinbiu'gh : Oliver & Boyd, 1S41.

This work is from the pen of one of the tutors in the Scotch Naval
and Military Academy at Edinburgh, and fully answers to its title. It
is one of the best and cheapest manuals with which we are ac-
quainted.

The Year Book of Facts in Science and ^rt for IS 40. By the late
Editor of the "Arcana of Science." London: Tilt, 1841.

We, in common with the scientific and professional press who con-
tribute to the Year Book of Facts, may almost be considered as inte-
rested wliile speaking in favour of a work to which our own columns
contribute ; we are therefore obliged to leave it to the judgment of
the public, by calling upon them to purchase and examine it for them-
selves. We cannot, liowever, refrain from saynig that it is a most
vakiable compilation, indispensable to the student and man of science.

Gandy and Baud's Windsor Castle. London; Williams.

A third part has appeared of this splendid work, which we lately
noticed. It contains a number of vahiable and interesting engravings,
so that the present subscribers have every reason to be gratified with
the exertions of the editors, which we have no doubt will be farther
successful in ensuring for it an extensive circulation.

Description of a nevj Quart and Bimliel Measure, by T. N. Parker, Esq.,
M.A., is a pa:nphlet on a new system of measures. Mr. Parker proposes that
the gallon shall contain 2d6 cubic inches, so as to give greater facilities in
calculation.

A new coloured lithograph of Menai Bridge by Mr. Gauci, has appeared —
we recommend it to the attention of our readers.

Tyas's Xationat Mop of England. — AVe have before us a proof of No. 11
cf this cheap and excellent map, which for clearness of execution, and accu-

racy, we believe to be superior to any map of its scale, extant, it shows nearly
the whole of Sussex, with a large portion of Kent and Surrey. It is so ar-
ranged that every sheet is perfect in itself, or any number of sheets may be
joined together.

A new edition will shortly ajipcar of Pecksum's Practical Treatise on Gas,
with numerous plates, corrected and adapted to the present improveil state of
the manufacture.

NEW IMPROVEMENTS IN THE DAGUERREOTYPE.

On the 4th of January, at the sitting of the Institute, M. Arago announced
that M. Daguerre had discovered the means of fixing the Daguerreotype pic-
tures in the wonderful short space of half a second, or in other words instan-
taneously. This quite unexpected result will henceforward enable the Da-
guerreotype 0]!erator to obtain the representation of living and moving ob-
jects, of all which animate a picture. Our streets, squares, bridges aiid rivers,
will not be as before, represented in the middle of the day plunged into a
deadly solitude, but they will show \is in reality all the animation which gives
interest to a picture. The admirers of the Daguerreotype, and tlicy are nu-
merous among the well educated p.-irt of the comnumity. are eagerly awaiting
the disclosure of the important improvements of M. Daguerre, and we are
sorry to hear that the ingenious inventor will not be able to bring his im-
provements before the public for a few months to come.

We understand that the improvements consist only in shortening the time
of the operation, and that the eftect i)roduced will not be better than before.
In fact we have with infinite gratification admired the specimens ohtiiined by
the original plan, which are exhibited by Messrs. Claudet and Houghton, in
their numerous and beautiful collection, and we cannot conceive how it would
be possible to improve them, except by the addition of hving or moving ob-
jects.

STSAM NAVIGATIOrj.

RENNIE'S PATENT TRAPEZIUM PADDLE WHEELS.

The object of the above patent is to do .iway with the defects of the com-
mon rectangular paddle wheel, arising out of its great width, weight, and in-
direct action, and to substitute in its place a wheel which, while it retains
the simplicity, obviates the defects of the common paddle wheel. The Tra-
pezium paddle wheel differs only from the common paddle wheel in the form
of its floats, which are trapezoidal or spear-shaped, and in the greater simpli-
city of its construction. The advantages to be derived from this form are a
wheel of one half the breadth, one half the weight, and one half of the
surface of the common recangular paddle wheel. These advantages require
no comment, jirovided that the form of wheel be equally efiicient, and this
has been proved by a series of experiments on two separate steam vessels, in
opposition to their usual wheels. From the peculiar form of tlie floats, they
enter into the water witii the pointed part of the float downwards, and thus
gradually arrive at their full horizontal action without shock or vibration,
wdule, after the stroke, they, in tlie reverse manner, quit the water without
raising any portion of it behind. Of course the advantages, arising out of the
diminished breadth of a vessel fitted with trapezium-shaped floats, will be,
less space occupied in a river, basin, or lock ; less surface resistance to a head
wind, by all the breadth of one wheel ; lighter draught of water, by the dimi-
nished weight ; less oscillation sideways, and consequently less liability to
occasion damage to the engines. The shocks and vibrations now experienced
by the striking of the edges of the rectangular paddle wheel against the sur-
face of the water, and the loss of power occasioned in consequence by the
oblique action of the wheels both in going into and out of the water will be
entirely prevented. Finally, that that the Trapezium paddle wheel will work
nearly as efficiently when deeply immersed as when immersed to the usual
depth, thus enabling the wheels to work with nearly the same facility at the
first as at the last part of a vessel's voyage. All these advantages are obtained
without the aid of wheels, eccentrics, or complicated levers of any kind, but
simply an alteration in the form of the floats ; H. M. ship .'African is now
being fitted with Trapezium paddle wheels, instead of her former rectangulaT
paddle wheels.

Norlli America. — In a week or ten days (says the Kew Vorl; Herald)
one of the most substantial and splendid steam ships in the world
will be launched in this city. This steam ship, or steam frigate rather, is
owned by Nicholas, Emperor of Russia. .She is of immense size, and has
been building since last sprinc:. Her dimensions are as folluvv: — Length of
deck 220 feel : length of keer210 feet ; breadth 36 feet ; full depth 24i feet ;
tonnage 1.500. .She is eonslructed of !ive and white oak, but mostly of the
latter Kind, weighing, »e believe, about fitty pounds to the cubic loot. She
will dra«, « hen launched, ten or elevsn feet of water and no more. l!ut
H hen her engines, and boilers, and guns, aud all her machinery and her fuel

102

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[March,

of which she can carrv about tight hundred tuns, are in. she will probaMy
draw five fi-c! mere, the model of this great «ar steamer wis drafted by
two otTuers of the Russian Navy Bnt of the steam frigate— no vessel of the
kind Ihat Ins ever crossed the Atlantic is like her. ^he is superior to the
Western. '.he Queen. »rn] \\\Q Frt^idenlf':') Her liows are sharp — her stern is
round — her bend is gradual and symmetrical — her «heel-houses are neat and
not too laree. and her whole appearance is rich, attractive, and man-fif-« ar
like. .She lias ihree masts, -.vhich. togeiher with her ri^'ging, are very light.
This will contribute, in a great degree, to her speed against head winds.
Large iinwieldly spars are decidedly Lad, when winds arc unfavourable. Her
internal arrangements will be neat, chaste, and beai tiful. Her annamcnt is
to be very formidable. She can discharge at every broadside more tli-.n four
hundred pounds of shot ! She will mount sixteen fifty-four and thirty-two
pounders on the second deck, and two ninety-six pounders hollow thot. ciUeil
by the humane, death dealers, on the upper deck, » hich is Hush fore and aft
— a clear run i>{ two hundred and twenty feet. Her engines will be about
six hundred hcrse power. They will be equal to the ship, for no e.\pense is
to be spared in having them perfect. What her speed will be. is. of course,
not yei known. We can only guess that she will go pretty fast, it not faster.
Anoiher account says — A splendid steam frigate, built at New York, .''or the
Emperor (.f Russia, was launched on the 24th November. She is to be called
the Kamtsrhatka. and is of the burden of 2.281 tons, of the length of 24C feet
6 inches. Breadth acros-s the paddle wheels. 66 feet. Her armament is to
consist of twelve 36 pounders, four 54 pounders, and two DC pounders for
throwing hollow shut.

Steam Naiipolion.—lf the French Government carry their proposition for
admitting the importatitn of foreign marine steam engines tree of duty, it
Hill give extensive employment to the engine manufacturers in this country,
aud greatly extend French steam navigation.

K'est India Mail Steam Packet Ccmpany. — This Company have in hand 14
steam vessels of 1400 tons burthen, each to be fitted with a pair of engines of
220 horse power — 6 pair are being made in the Clyde, 2 pair by Fawcctt r.nd
Co.. 2 pair by Maudslay and Field. 2 pair by Miller. Ravenhill and Co.. and
2 pair by Acraman and Morgan— the parties are under heavy engagements
to have them ready within a very short time.

New York. — We believe that we are at last enabled to announce the estab-
lishment of a New York line of steam ships between New York and Kngland.
The preliminaries are, we understand, nearly completed, and within a short
time the keels of four gig.antic vessels will be laid. They are to be about
2,000 tons, with engines of 800-horse power. — New York CcTr.mercial Adver-
tiser.

The City of Dublin Sleam-paeket Compariji — We understand that this Com-
pany have decided on laying down two new steamers immediately, to run. in
conjunction with their unrivalled vessels, the Prince and Princess, to and
from Kingstown. As the utmost speed that can be attained is determined on
witlujut regard to expense, the contracting parties are bound, under heavv
penalties, to construct them to outstrip any sea-going steamer afloat ; and
it is confidently anticipated, that the average passages will not exceed nme
hours. — Liverpool jllbion.

FROGRZSS OF RAIL^VAVS.

GRAND JUNCTION RAILWAY.

Expenditure to December 31, 1840.

Engineering, surveying, parliamentary, leg.al and general
expences ; construction of line and works, stations, land
and compensation, rails, chairs, &c. . , • .

Locimotive engines and tenders, and establishment — car-
riages, wagorTs. trucks, and horse boxes .... 228.094 16
Purchase of Warrington Si. Newton line .... 6.5,463 7

Purchase of Chester and Crewe line 192,550 0

■Expended to Dec. 31, in works, &c. on Chester & Crewe line 65,475 14
Interest on loans previously to the completion of the line . 22,270 18
Arrears of fourth call on half-shares, less received on account
of fifth call on do., and Warrington St Newton interest not
applied for 1,5S5 8 9

1,616,606 10 10

Total

Value of Stock. December 31, 1840.

Locomotive Kngine Department ....
Waggon, horse Dox. and carriage truck department
Coach-building department . . ' . .

Total value

£2.162.046 15 5

109,215 6 8

53,451 7 5

51,843 14 3

£214,510 8 4

ifancliesttr and Birmingham Railuay — The Dire cti rs of the Railway have,
by a unanimous vote, awarded to John BIyth, Esq., V.P. of the Architcclur.il
Society of London, and R. Cromwell Carpenter. Esq., F.S.A., the premium
of two hundred pounds for their designs for the Mancnester Station.

Tlie Strasburg and Basle Railway Company has just received from the
bank of France the sum of 4,200. COOf. on a warrant from tlie treasury,
being the first of the three instalments of 12,600,000f. which the French go-
vernment is authorised to lend it. The Company therefore is about to adopt
additional measures for carrying on their works.

LONDON' AND BIRMINGHAM RAILWAY.
Expenditure to December 31, 1840.

To land and compensation 721,566 14 3

To works of road and stations 4,348,269 12 5

To locomotive stock, viz. — engines, tenders, tools, and im-
plements 1.54.635 0 7

To can ying stock, viz.— coaches, trucks, wagons, cranes, S:c. 195,310 5 0
To charges, viz. —

Obtaining act of incorporation 72,868 18 10

Law charges, conveyancing, engineering, advertising, antl

firinting. direction, office exjienses. salaries, .and sundries 172.175 9 0
To interest on loans, previous to general opening. 17lh Sept.
1838, and debenture charges 127.649 8 6

Total . £5.792,475 8 7

Value of locomotive engines and carriage stock, Dec. 31,
1840 .........

£349,945 5 7

394.668 passengers travelled on this railway during the last year, each an
average distance of CSf miles.

LONDON AND GREENWICH RAILWAY.
Extracts from the last Report.

The cost of lopomotive power, per train, has been Is. 2|rf. per mile.

Relayingof the line, together with the asphalting over nearly 500 arches have
been completed, and the new rails on cross sleepers laid thereon, and. so soon
as the season of the year will permit, the remainder will be proceeded with.
— 1.566,736 passengers were safely conveyed over this line during the past
year.

In conformity with an act obtained last session, empowering the Company
to increase the width of the railway from the London station to the junction
with the Croydon Railway, so as to admit of four lines of way instead of
two. as heretofore, two contracts have been entered into for widening the
railway as above mentioned, and which extend over about 2,400 yards, leav-
ing only about 660 yards of the line and the addition to the station to be
contracted for. A list of the tenders for the first contract was given in. the
Journal for last December, and we now annex a list of tenders for the last
contract.

Messrs. Little St Sons £16.350

Messrs. Lee 17,628

Mr. Jackson 17,650

Messrs. Grissell Jc Peto 17,734

Mr. Grimsdell 17,986

Mr. Munday 17,988

Messrs M'ard 18.650

Mr. Bennett 18.764

Messrs. Baker & Son 19.340

Mr. Mac Intosh 21.283

BL.\CKM'ALL RAILWAY.

List of Tenders for the extension from the Minories to Fenchurch-street,
delivered in on the 23rd ult.

Jackson . . . £29.800

Webb . . 30,333

Baker and Son . , 31.888

Lee ... 32,333

Piper . . . 32.690

Grissell and Peto . . 33.000

Grimsdell . . . 33.120

tubitt . . . 33.940

Bridger . . . 34,900

Stockton and Hartlepool Railway.— On Tuesday the 16th ult., this new Rail-
way was opened by tne Directors, and on the following day to the public. It
connects the flourishing ports of Stockton and Hartlepool, and must prove a
convenient means of communication between the two places. The undertak-
ing altogether reflects the highest degreeof credit on the public-spirited com-
pany who are engaged therein, and also on the talented engineers and their
assistants, and the contractors who have been employed in executing the
work. Ill point of fact, we shall not overstate our feeling on this subject, if
we remark that the wav in w hich the works have been finisheil on the Stock-
ton and Hartlepool railway aflbnls a model of railroad construction. Messrs.
George Leather and Son, of Leeds, are the eng neers-in-chief, and Mr. John
Fowler, their assistant, was the resident engineer. — Leeds Mercury.

Railway to Cambridge. — In the last month there have been no less tlian
three difterent surveys between Bishops Stoitford and Cambridge, one for
extending the line ol the Northern and Eastern Railway to the latter place ;
one line by the East Anglian Railway ; and the other for the railway to
York, througli Lincoln. We certainly think it a great fault in the present
state of affairs for new companies, as in the above case, to attempt to do too
mtich. It would have been far better for the projectors of the lines from
Norwich and York, to have made an arrangement with the Northern and
Eastern Railway Company to have completed their line to Cambridge, from
which the other two lines could then have diverged, and at some future time
a line to the westward, through Bedford to Rugby, and unite with the Lon-
don and Birmingham Railway. By such a step the expense of conflicting
surveys, and perhaps of a parliamentary contest woitld DC avoided, and the
Eastern Counties really benefited.

1841.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL

103

The Shefftfid nnd Manchester Rmlwaif. — It appears tlip works In tlip
Ci-"nti'e tunnel are goins on niglit and day. the men working ''shifts.''
Bat when we finil it is three miles, or j.280 yards in length, and
there are five shafts to S'nk of the following depths, sume time must elap.se
before this great work is finished :— Shaft No 1. 180 yards deep; No. 2.
194 yards; No. 3. 189 yards: No. i. 19.3 yards. No. .5, 135 yards.

The Cmmford and High Peak Railway.— T\w applieation of the loco-
motive engine to the purposes of railway transit on this line, was maile
ahout a fortnight since, several of the proprietors accompanying the engine.
The intention is to construct, as speedily as possible, two riiorc engines to
viork the two twelve mile levels between Hop:on and Buxton, at a rate of
from ten to twelve miles per hour, so as to enable the Company to transport
goods and passengers to Wlialley Rridge in a I'ew hours, instead of two days,
which it now usually takes. — Sheffield Iris.

The Taj' I'ale Railwa:i.—lhe operations for finishing the lino are going on
with sreat vigour, particularly at the Merthyr Terminus, wher>' a great
number of men. carpenters, m'asjns, and labo'urers. are at present Ijusily
employed. The damage caused by the late sudden rise in the river, has. we
are glad to hear, been greatly overstated, as a comparatively small sum will
suffice to repair it. A w.all is' now building on the bank of the river, which
will be built so strong as to prevent the recurrence of a like calamity, and the
Toid caused by the earth having been carried awa} is now be ng filled up.—
Mtinmouth Gazette,

Great North of England Railway. — Mr. .Storey has resigned the office of
fingineer-in-chief, who has been succeeded by Mr. Robert Stephe son.

ENGINEERING 'WORKS.

Crotm Point Bridge. — Th? Commissioners of th^ Crown Point Bridge and
Roads met at the Court-house, in Leeds, on Monday the 1.5tli ult.. for the
purpose of letting the works of this bridge, when tenders were received from
many highly respectable contractors. and the competition was. we are inform-
ed, exceedingly close. The bridge is to be thrown over the river Aire, a little
above the Nether Mills \Veir. or from Chadwick's dye-houses on the south
side (part of which will have to be removed in order to make way for it), to
Medley's Oil Mill on the north side ; and when the roads to and from its site
are completed, it will open out a direct communication from Hunslet-lane and
the southern parts of the town to York-street and the northern and eastern
district of the town. The design for the iron bridge, prepared by Messrs.
George Leather and Son, theengineers. of this town, is one of the most taste-
ful and elegant ue h ve ever seen, combining in a remarkable liegree symme-
try and lightness with strength. The bridge will be of one arch, including in
its span the whole width of the river and the towi^ig path on its side. The
span will be 120 feet, (that of Victoria bridge being only 80 feet), the rise of
the arch 12 feet, but the height, from the water of ihc river to the waterside,
of the arch at the crown will be 17 feet, and to the roadway of the bridge
about 22 feet. The width within the parapets will bo 42 feet ; there being a
Macadamized carriage way of 10 yards wide, with a footpath or causeway of
two yards ^vide on each side. The arch upon which the road is to be con-
structed will be entirely of iron; the abutments and wing walls Will be of
stone. The total weight of iron is estimated at about 420 tons. The masonry
was let to Messrs. Bray and Duckett. who have executed works in a very
creditable and satisfactory manner on the North Midland Railway, and who
are also contractors for the works now in progress for the Leeds \V;iterworks
Compariy, on Woodhouse Moor. The ironwork was let to Messrs. Booth and
Co.. of Park Ironworks. Sheffield, who are also a firm of the first lespeela-
bilily. The sum at which the bridge let for was. we understand, £8,750. being
somewhat lower than the estimate of the engineers, so that the commissioners
have every reason to consider the bridge favourably let. not only as regards
the respectability of the contracting parties, but also as regards the terms on
wdiich it was taken, fhe work will be commenced forthwith, and the terms
of the contracts are such as to ensure its being carried forwa.nl with vigour ;
and t is confidently anticipated that this bridge may be opened for the use
of the public at the close of the present year. — Leeds Mercury.

Portsmouth Harboxir. — A most complete survey of the Portsmouth Harbour,
with its various lakes and approaches, has recently been made by Lieufs.
Sherringham and Otter, and their assistants, including a minute map of the
towns. The most extraordinary coincidence exists, we understand, between
the present survey, with all the improved methads, and still more improved
instruments, and the old survey of Mackenzie, made in 17.S2. and tlie still
more recent one of the late talented and industrious Mr. Park, who was then
Master Attendant here ; and, still more extraordinary, the soun.iings, all
over, have varied only in the slightest degree in the period alluded to, 60
years The bar oH the Southsea land-marks remains unaltered from its shape
and size as recorded in the oldest minutes ; and we find ii consists of no
shifting matter, but is a firm substance of flint and chalk, almost concreteJ
together with gravel ; it could be channelled with much ease, but with some
expense.

Tlie Shannon Iniprai'cnient. — Two steam dredging machines have commenced
operations on the shoals of the river near Baaagher. One of the machines It
is slated, removed 38 tons of clay intermixed with gravel in 20 minutes. Be-
sides the liredging operation, works have been contracted fjr at Killaloe,
Meeleck, Banagher, and .\thlone.

Jn Iron Bridge has been constructed at Nantes, on the same principle as
that adopted by M. Polonceau, on the Pont du Caroussel. drawings of which
and a description will be found in the 2nd \olume of the Journal. The bridge
of Nantes is of one arch, about 66 feet span, and the width of the roadway
40 feet.

miSCEl^LtA^lEA.

Artificial Stainivsr of Marble .—Tbh art was practised bv the ancien's. and
is described by Zosimus : it is now makinsr considerable advance at Verona.
The re.5ults are as follows; — A solution of nitrate of silver penetrates the
marble, and communicates a deep red colour to it. A solution of nitrafe of
gold penetrates le.ss deeply, and communicates a b autifu! purple violet
colour. Verdigrise sinks to the depth ot ;i line into the marble, and gives it
a fine areen colour. A solution of dragon's blood communicites a beautiful
red colour, and gamboge a yellow tint. To apply these two colours, it is
necessary to polish the marb'e v»lth a pumice stone, to dissolve the gum re-
sins in hot alcohol, and put them on w ith a camel-hair pencil, Th" tinct'ires
obtained fmm woods, as Brazil wood. logw«,otl. 8cc.. pene'rate deeply into
marble. Tincture of euchine.il. with the addition of a little alum, gives mar-
ble a fine scarlet colour, similai to African marb'e. Artificial oipiment pro-
duces, when dissolved in ammonia, a lively yellow colour. If ver ligrise be
boiled with white wax, and the mixture be applied to the marble, and then
removed wdien it has cooled, it will be to have penetrate 1 five lines, and to
have produced a fine emerald colour. When it is wished to apply the diife-
rent colours in succession, some precautions are necessary. The tinctures
prepared by spirit of wine and by th ' oil of turpentine are to be applied to
the marb'e' while it is hot; but the dragon's blood and gamboge are to be
used with the marb'e when cokl. For this purpose, it is necessary to dis-
solve them in alcohol, and employ the .solution of gamboge first. This,
which Is clear, soon becomes turbid, ;ind affords a yellow precipitate. Those
parts of the marble wdiich are covered with the tincture are then to be heated,
by passing over them, at the distance of half an inch, a laj-hot iron plate,
or a charcoal chaufier ; it is then a'low ed to cool, and the iron is to be again
passed over those portions where the colour has not penetr.ited. When the
yellow colour has teen imbibed, a soUition of dragon's blood is to be applied
in the same manner ; and. while the marble is hot. the other vegetable colourt
may be communicated. The last colours to be applied are those in unioQ
with the wax. These must be used with great caution, because the slightest
excess of heat causes them to penetrate deeper than is necessiiry. which ren-
ders them less adapted for delicate wor'. During the operation, cold water
should be occasionally thrown upon them. — Athenmm.

Height of (Caji.T. — The highest wave which slrmk the French ship Vmus,
during her voyage, was 7'5 metres {2^ '(^i^t) ; the longest \vave was m-t with
in the south of New Holland, and « as three times the length of the frigate,
or 150 metres (492 feef).

TIte quantity of Air veces.sary for the Healthful Respiration of the Horse. — The
Committee of the Academy of Paris, to whom this question was referred by
the Minister of M'ar, have reported, that in a building where the air is pro-
perly renewed, and that result is effected by a skilful and efficient system of
ventilation, a horse can never suffer, so long as he has from 25 to 30 cubic
metres of air.

// new method of nailing deck plank has been adopted in the upper deck of
the Driver steamer, the invention of Mr. Blake, by w hich the expense of cip-
per or composition nails in the deck mty be saved, simply by punching the
nails down one inch, and filling the hjle with a circular plug dipped in white
lead.

Reflecting Tclescop'. — Unfortunately Sir William Hersche! never made
public the means by which he suceeeded in giving such gigantic deve'ojiment
to this telescope, and the construction of a !;irge reflector is still a perilous
adventure. According, however, to a re[)ort I'y Dr. Robinson to the Irish
Academy. Lord Oxmantown his overcome the .lirticuliy. and carried to an
extent, which even Herschel himself did not venture to contemi>late, the
illuminating power of this telescope, along with a sharpness of definition
little inferior to that of the achromatic : and it is scaixely possible, he ob-
serves, to preserve the necessary sobriety of language in speaking of the
moon's appearance with this instrument, which Dr. Robinson believes to be
the most powerful ever constructed. However, any question about this op-
tical pre-eminem e is likely soon to be decided, for Lord 0-\maato,vn isa'iout
to construct a telescope of six feet aperture, and fifty feet focus, mounted in
the meridian, but with a range of about half an hour on each side o'it.

Hotel de Tremouille. — All who take an interest in Parisian antiquities, may
be glad to know, that the demolition of the Hotel de Tremouille. in the Rue
des Bounlonnais, is not to include that of the beautiful little tower which
forms the conspicuous om.amentof its principal court. The proprieti rs have
presented this fine relic of the architecture of the 13th century to the city, —
and it is about to be transported to the Museum of Historical Monuments.

Head of the Laoroon. — The following statement has appeared in the French
papers, and Is professedly contained in a letter from M. Valraore, an artist
at Brussels — ■• In the gallery of the Duke d'Aremburg there are many things
which are not known to any but the initiated. Among them is tht original
head of the Laoroon. This fine group, when first discovered in Italy, was," as
is generally known. " without the head of the father, and an arm of one of
the s::ns. The head was supplied by a celebrated artist, who copied it from
an antique bas relief. Some time afterwards, the origiual was found by some
V'enetian connoisseurs, and was ultimately sold to the grandlather oi the
Prince for about 160,000 francs, and brought to Brussels. V/hen Napoleon,
during the Consulate, had the group transported into France, he knew that
the real head was in possession of the Duke, and odered him his weight in
gold for It. This was refused; and as it was known that Napoleon was not
scupulous in gratifying his desires, the Duke il'Aremberg sent this chef-
d'ceavre to Dresden, wliere it remained concealed tor ten years, but was
briuglit back again into Brussels, w hen Belgium became tranquil. It ex-
presses, in the highest and most admirable degree, ni;jral griel mingled with
physical pain. 1 he compression oi the leeih and contraction of the lower
aw are aimost too horrifying to be ling contemplated ; and yet in this in-
ense expression of sutlering there is not the slightest grimace. The pupils of

104

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL

[Maech,

the eves .trc so extjuisiiely executed, fhat lliey .letually seem lo (lash from the
marUc (!} A cast from the head now on the statue is' placed by the side of
'.lie original, and the vast difference between the two is at once evident."

Busts of Eiinineers, Mr. C. A. Rivers, the sculpti.r, has Just completed a
Aery ; reily cabinet bust of Sme.iton. modelled in «a.\ from the portrait lately
presented to ihe Institute by Mr. Burges. He has also executed on the same
scale, busts of Watt, Telford. Perkins, the elder Brunei, .and Umldart. several
of which cur readers must have seen in the Adelaide and Polytechnic Gal-
leries.

A Society of Architects has been formed in Paris, having as its " leading
•object, to unite with a common circle those architects who present the neces-
sary guarantee, and to study questions ot art and practise, viewed principally
witn relation to public and private interest."

ConiwaU.—A new Episcopal Chapel is now erecting at Flushing, in the pa-
rish of .Mylor, The building is constructed frum the designs, and under the
superintendence of Mr. Wightwick, of Plymouth. It is in the Anglo-Norman
style, and calculated to accommodate 2.50 sitters, without reckoning the
gallery, which it is not proposed m the first instance lo erect. Lord Clinton
is the chief private subscriber, and the London Incorporated and Local Dio-
cesan i^ocieties, have afiurded also liber.al assistance.

LIST OF NEVi^ PATENTS.

GRAX1ED IX ENGLAND KROM .'SOtH JANUARY, TO 23rD FEBRUARY, 1811,

Sijt Months allowed for Enrolment.

Charlej^ Schafhautl, of Swansea, Doctor of Medicine, Edward Oliver
Maniiy, and John Manby, of Parliament Street, Civil Engineers, for " im-
provements in the construction qfpuddlinr/, balliny, and other sorts qfrever-
berntnnj fnmaees.for the purpose of enaltUng anthracite, stone coal or culm
to be used llierein as fuel." — Jan. 30.

Jame.s MacLellan, of Glasgow, Manufacturer, for " an improved com-
bination of materials for umbrella and parasol cloth."- -Jan. 30.

Ezra Jenks Coate.-;. of Bread Street, Cheapside, .Merchant, for " im-
provements in the forgin'j bolts, spites, and nails." Communicated by a
foreigner. — Jan. 30.

Henry Pape, of Great Portland Street, Piano Forte Manufacturer, for
" improvements in castors." — Feb. 1.

Charles Hood, of Earl Street, Elackfriars, Iron Merchant, for " improve-
ments in giving signals."-~Fch. 1.

William Wilkinson Tay'lor, of Barrowiield House, Essex, Gentleman,
for ^^improvements in buffing apparatus for railway purposes" — Feb, 1.

Dominic Frich Albert, of Cadishead, Manchester, L.L.D., for "an im-
proved or neiv combijiation of materials and processes in the manufacture of
fuel."—¥eh. 1.

Fra.ncis Sleddon, jun., of Preston, ^Machine Maker, for ** improvements
in mochinerg or apparatus for roving, stubbing, and spinning cotton and oilier
fibrous substances." — Feb. 2.

WiLLiA.M W.1RD Andrews, of Wolverhampton, Iron-monger, for "im-
proved methods of raising and lowering windows and window blinds, and open-
ing and shutting doors, which are also applicable to the raising and lowering
of maps, curtains, and other articles." — Feb. 2.

Thomas Young, of Queen Street, London, Merchant, for " improvements
■in furnaces or f re places for the better consuming of fuel." — Feb. 3.

Wii.LUM Hancock, jun., of King Square, Middlesex, Accountant, for " an
improved description of fabric suitable for mating friction gloves, horse-
Intshes, and other articles requiring rough surfaces." — Feb. 3.

Joseph Bunnett, of Deptford. Engineer, for " certain improvements in
locomotive engines and carriages." — Feb. 3.

John Cartwright, of Loughborough, Manufacturer of Hosiery, Henry-
Warner, of the same ]dacc. Manufacturer of Hosiery, and Joseph Hay'-
wood, of the same place, Frame, Smith, for " improvements upon machinery
commonly called stocking frames or frame work knitting machinery." — Feb.
4.

Thomas Griffiths, of Birmingham, Tin Plate Worker, for ■'improve-
ments in such dish covers as are made with iron covered with tin." — Feb. 8.

James Thoruurn, of Manchester, Mechanist, for "certain improvements
in machinery for vroducing knitting fabrics." — Feb. 8.

William Ryder, of Bolton, Lancaster, Roller and Spindle Maker, for
" improved apparatus for forging, drawing, moulding, or forming spindles,
rollers, bolts, and various other like articles in metals." — Feb. 8.

Thomas Fuller, of Salford, Machine Maker, for " improvements in mo-
chinerg or apparatus for combing or preparing 'wool or other fibrous sub-
stances." Partly communicated by a foreigner. — Feb. 8.

Elisha Oldham, of Ciicklade, Wilts, Railroad Contractor, for "improve-
ments in the construction of turning tafAes to be used on railways." — Feb. 8.

Charles Green, of Birmingham, Gold Plater, for " improvements in the
manufacture of brass and co/i/ter lubes." — Feb. 8.

William Wigston, of Salford, Engineer, for " a new apparatus, for the
purpose of conveying signals or telvyrapftic cowmunications." — Feb. 8.

Joseph Scott, of Great Bowden, near Market Ilarborough, Timbei .Mer-
chant, for " improvements in constructing railways, and in propelling carriages
thereon, which improvements are applicable to raising and lowerinii weiohts "
Feb. 8.

James Johnstone, of Willow Park, Greenock, Esquire, for " improve-
ments in motive power." — Feb. 8.

William Henry Fox Talbot, of Locock Abbey, Wilts, Esquire, for
"improvements in obtaining pictures or representations of objects." — Feb. 8.

William Edward Newton, of Chancery Lane, Mechanical Draughtsman,
for '• improvements in obtaining a concentrated extract of hops, which the in-
ventor denominates ' humuline.' " Communicated by a foreigner." — Feb. 8.

Theophilus Smith, of .\ttIeborough, Farmer, for " improvements in
ploughs."— Feb. l.'i.

James AVhitel.\w and George Whitelaw, Engineers, of Glasgow, for
" a new mode of propelling vessels through the irater, with certain improve-
ments on the steam engine when used in connerion therewith, part of which
improvements are applicable to other purposes." — Feb. 15.

Philip William Phillips, of Clarence Place, Bristol, Gentleman, and
William Bishop Beck, of Broiid Street, Bristol, Wine Merchant, for " im-
provements in four wheeled carriages." — Feb. 15.

James Ranso.me, and Charles May, of Ipswich, Machine Makers, for
" improvements in the manufacture of railmay chairs, railway or other pirts
or bolts, and in wood fastenings, and trenails." — Feb. 15.

M'lLLiAM Scamp, of Charlton Terrace, Woolwich, SnrYeyor, for " an ap-
plication of machinery to steam vessels, for the removal of sand, mud, soil,
and other matters from the sea, rivers, docks, harbours, and oilier bodies of
ivaterJ'—Veb. 1 C. '

William Samuel Henson, of .\llen Street, Lambeth, Engineer, for
" improvements in steam engines." — Feb. 10.

George Edward Noone, of Hampstead, Civil Engineer, for " improve-
ments in dry gas meters." — Feb. 18.

William Orme, of Stourbridge, Ironmaster, for " improvements in the
manufacture of coffered spades, and other coffered tools." — Feb. 18.

John Collard Drake, of Elmtree Road, Saiut John's Wood, Land Sur-
vevor, for " improvements in scales used in drawing, and laying down plans."
—Feb. 18.

.\nthony Bebnhard Von Rathen, of Ivingston-upon-HuU, Engineer,
for " improvement in fire grates, and in parts connected therewith, for fur-
naces for heating fluids." — Feb. 22. (Four months.)

William Newton, of Chancery Lane, Middlesex, Civil Engineer, for
" improvements in the process of and apparatus for purifying and disinfecting
greasy and oily substance, or matters both animal and vegetable." Communi-
cated by a foreigner. — Feb. 22.

Thomas William Booker, of Merlin, Griffiths Works, near CardilT, Iron-
master, for " improvements in the manufacture of iron." — Feb. 22.

Jon.\than Guy Dashwood, of Ryde, Isle of Wight, Plumber, for " im-
provements in pumps." — Feb. 22.

Moses Poole, of Lincoln's Inn, Gentleman, for " improvements in tanning,
and dressing, or currying skins." Communicited by a foreigner. — Feb. 22.

Charles Sneath, of Nottingham, Lace Manufacturer, for •' improvements
in machinery, for making or manufacturitig of stockings or othdr kinds of
loop work." — Feb. 2.3.

John Dean, of Dover, Chemist, for " improvements in pre/iaring skitis
and other animal substances, for obtaining gelatine, size, and glue, and in pre-
paring skins for tanning." — Feb. 23.

TO CORRESPONDENTS.

A. Q. Z. JVe cannot ^ive the description he yequires, it has already appeared in
stveral publications. "•

(». H. S. The rules he requires wc shall publish at some future opportunity, but
not at present.

Mr. Hance's communication will be noticed next month.

The tVesleyan Centenary Hall and Mission House ne.rl month.

An Old Subscriber will feel obliged if any of our readers can inform l,inj, llu
process of printing Transparent Window Blinds.

Conimiiuicaiions are requested to be addressed to " The Kditor oi the Civil
Kngineers anc Architect's Journal," Nn. 11. Parliament .street, Westminster.

Books for Review must be sent early in the month, communications on or before
the 20th (if with drawings, tarlicr). and adverti.vments on or before the 25lh
institut.

Vols. I, II, and 111. may be iiad. bound in cloth, pr c e £1 each Volume.

ERRATUM.

At page ;-:8. line four from the top of the first column, for j' In all oio-
architectural drawings," read " In all old architectural drawings."

,51.

,1

PLrt*- 1

C A K' A L

B 'AJiAy7>^i4'^t^A4vnt, &ayn^ Fig-. B .

Fir- -3.

A) o _f So O * /_ .../g..... A*

^^ ^(: if t^^ y:a yt^'c^etM/ ':,^ii€inq €t/?^^ t^a*H^-u. Tig-.

— i ^

1S4I.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL

105

NOTES RELATIVE TO TOWING PATHS AND BANKS OF

CANALS IN GREAT BRITAIN.

By M. VuiGNER, Inspector of the Paris Canals.

C Willi an Engraving, Plate II'".)

(Translated from tlie Frencli.)

M. VuiGNEK, being commissioned by the company of the Oint'q
and St. Denis canals to study the various systems of works in use
on the British canals, and particularly to examine the different
methods used in forming the foundations of the hauling or towing
patlis, and protecting the slopes of the interior banks from the ort'ects
produced by the ordinary and irregular fluctuations of the water, he
visited, for this purpose, in the course of 1837, the can.ils of that
country, which stand the first in construction, and collected consider-
able information on the subject.

In England the canals of Taunton & Bristol, those of Birmingham,
(from Liverpool to Leeds) Preston & Lancaster, in Scotland those of
Paisley or Ardrossan, the Forth and Clyde, and the Union Canals, fur-
nished him with every information that could be required. On his
return to France, the company, who wished to establish on the Ourcq
canal a set of passage boats, empowered M. Vuigner immediately to
apply the information he had acquired. He was first engaged to
macadamize the towing path of the left bank of tlie Ourcq canal
between LaVillette and Meanx, and caused part of its banks to be im-
proved, and he also applied some improvements resulting from his
observations in Great ilritain.

The present paper will contain a description relative to the metal-
ling of the towing paths, and the protecting of the Iianks on the English
and Scotch canals, as well as describing the macadamizing and facing
used on the Ourcq canal to prevent damage by the action of the
water.

Towing or Hauling Paths.

In England there is generally only one towing path, though, upon
some new lines, especially the Birmingham, there aie two paths. This
is an exception which a particular circumstance required, but which,
however, is not a deviation from the general rule. The Birmingham
has a towing path on both sides until it is divided into two branches,
one to Wolverhampton, and the other to Walsall, each having their
towing paths, one on the right side and the other on the left. On
that part where there is a towing path on each bank, the navigation
is extremely active, amounting to more than lOOU boats per week.
The navigation is facilitated, and at the same time the horses that
tow the boats coming from Wolverhampton and Walsall have not to
change their sides, nor obstruct one another. The breadth of the
towing paths is generally not more than 10 feet, which is considerably
less on some canals, and especially at Taunton, a canal of very sraail
section, navigated by boats of only 10 tons.

On the new line of the Birmingham canal, the breadth of the towing
path in cuttings is about 12 feet, and on embankments 15 feet. The
path is generally divided into three parts, one part next the canal
forms a fender or raised mound 1 ft. (i in. to 2 feet wide, which is
turfed over, the middle part forms the trackway for the horses, and is
covered with metalling or broken stone to the width of five or six feet,
and the other part is the remainder of the land unappropriated;
sometimes it contains a drain for carrying off the surface water, and is
enclosed with a hedge which determines the limit of the canal pro-
jjerty. On the opposite bank, there is, in some parts, a footpath
about 3 feet wide, but more frequently the underwood or cultivated
land reaches to the water's edge, so that no more land is taken than
what is absolutely necessary for the canal.

On the Preston, Lancaster, Paisley, Forth & Clyde, and Union Ca-
nals, where there are fast passage-boats, the width reserved for the
fender between the towing path and the interior slope of the cuial, is
on the average two feet wide at the base, and raised from (! to S inches
above the path, or from 2 ft. to 2 ft. G in. above the surface of the
water, the top, about 1 ft. to 1 ft. 4 in. wide, is generally turfed over.
The interior edge forms the continuation of the interior slope of the
canal, and the outer edge is sloped and protected with large round
pebbles placed at intervals of 2 to 3 feet, which are partly imbedded
in the earth, and project about 2 inches above the fender :' these peb-
bles are now abandoned, as they were found inconvenient for the
towing ropes when the speed was slackened. On some parts of the
canals the fender is formed of flat stones, the edge of which forms the
top of the stone facing of the bank, as shown in sections. Figs. 17, IS,
and i'.). The fenders answer the purpose for limiting the track of
the iiorse, preventing the mud being washed over the path, and a pro-
tection to the edge of the slope.

No. 43.— Vol. JV.-Apkti., IBll.

The towing path of the above canals is mostly formed of a layer of
broken or round pebbles laid to a thickness of 4 to (i inches according
to the nature of the soil, and then covered with a layer of gravel from
1 in. to li in. thick. On some parts marly clay is used to bind the
pebbles, and on other parts, especially at the stopping places, at the
bridges, and even the whole length of the Paisley canal, the pebbles
are covered with a hiyer of iron slag, which, w'hen well beaten in,
forms a path extremely hard and compact, besides, it is not slippery
in rainy weather, and is free from dust in sunmier. The broken
pebbles used are generally not larger than Ij inch at most. The best
macadamized paths are'those made of broken- limestone, and better
stiU with basalt ; these materials are found nearly every where on the
banks of canals, which renders their formation and repair very cheap.

The transverse slopes of the towing path, wliere there are fast pas-
sage boats, have an inclination of about 2 inches to the yard declining
from the canal : this inclination is found to give the best hold for the
horses' feet. The surface water is carried off on the outside of the
path, and is seldom allowed to run into the canal, excepting in such
parts where the canal is formed in cutting; it is then carried off by
under drains of dry stones, which pass under the towing path trans-
versely from longitudinal gutters or drains, formed on Vvc oatside of
the path.

Towing Paths of L' Ourcq Canal.

The towing paths of this canal, and in general on all the French
canals were formed on the natural soil, without the least metalling or
stoning of any sort ; in winter time they were quite impassable in
parts, especially in the Paris division, between La Villette and Claye.
In this state of things it was difficult to think seriously of establishing
passage boats, which the Ourcq and St, Denis canal company was de-
sirous of introducing into France ; they therefore determined upon
adopting the English system of macadamizing the towing path of the
left bank of the Ourcq canal between La Villette and Meaux. On
the Ourcq canal the ordinary boats are to.ved up by one horse; but
the passage boats, as well as the Government boats, are towed by
two horses abreast, as well going up as down, which is still the case.
The experiments which were made on the speed of passage boats,
showed that three horses, two horses abreast in front and one behind,
were necessary for towing these boats. It thus became necessary to
increase the width of the towing path. In those places where the
banks had retained their first form the breadth of the path was 13 ft,,
which was diminished to lift. 0 in., where the banks were raised

1 ft. 6 in. above the surface of the water. The towing path is now
reduced throughout to a breadth of 9 ft. (i in., consisting of a fender

2 ft. wide at the base, the trackway for the horses Ij ft. G in. wide, and
a drain 13 inches wide. In the Meaux division they have only al-
lowed a breadth of 6 feet for the towing path, but the drain has been
increased to 19 inches wide, which still gives a breadth of near S feet
upon which the horses can walk or run with ease. Tliis breadth
might be considered insuiBcient at the points of crossing, where four
horses have to pass ; but the company decided that in case that should
occur, they would cause the front horses to be harnessed one before
the other. Another important consideration which determined the
company to adhere to 9 ft. G in. was that of economy, as it would
involve an extension of the work for more than 30 miles between La
Villette and Meaux, and double that distance if extended between La
Villette aud Mareuil.

Experience has proved that the adopted width is sufficient for the
different boats, as the horses of the passage boats in general never pass
each other, excepting at the difterent stages, where the path is
widened. As regards the horses of the other boats whentliey pass, the
horses go a little on one side, or on to the exterior slopes, and if it be
found too inconvenient to act thus, it is immediately obviated by har-
nessing the horses one before the other as before observed.

The breadth being settled, it then became necessary to fix the l:eight
of the towing path above the surface ofthe water. Between La Villette
and Meaux the top of the interior slope was 8 ft. above the b;;ttom,
but between LaVillette and Claye it was only G ft. G, and from Meaux to
Claye .5 feet, so that the same height of path could not be adopted
throughout. Between La Villette and Meaux the height of the fender
was fixed at 2 ft. G in. above the sufface of the water, aud G inches
above the towing path, which made the latter 2 feet above the water,
as shown in sections. Figs, a, 7, & 14.

The paths were formed in some places with broken limestone, in
other places with clean pebbles mixed with sand or coarsa gravel, and
laid to a thickness of 4 to 5 inches, and covered with a layer of gra-
velly sand from 1 in. to Ij in. thick; the pebbles, when mixed with
coarse gravel, were used without an extra coat, and l.dd to a thickness
of d inches. As soun as the paths were finished, a roller 5 feet broad,

Q

ym

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL

[APRIi,

drawn by 3 horses, were passed over them ; tliis roller was cniistructed
on the Polonceau principle, and made of wood lined on the inside with
lead, and the outside covered with sheet iron, anil fllled with sand ;
it weighed 3 tons.

Interior Slopes. — In ordinary canals the exterior slopes are frequently
of earth turfed, and if they have stone or timber facing at any point
it is generally in those places where there are wharfs, however, on
the Birmingham Canal stone and timber facings have been sub-
stituted in the upper part for earth banks, the slopes having been
preserved below the surface of water as a counterpoise to the masonry
and timbpr work, this method shown in section fig. S, allowed the
v^harf walls to be made thinner, and the stakes or piles of the timber
facing to be reduced to a minimum length. Thus the foundation of
the masonry hardly goes down to the level of the bottom of the
canal, and the piles are not driven to a greater depth, these piles are
placed from 3 to 4 feet apart from centre to centre, and have a cap-
ping or campshed 7 inches square, which serves as a support to the
planks placed behind to keep up the ground between one pile and
another; these timber facings are very simple and very cheap, and
may be made at all seasons without forming a coffer-dam, or laying
the canal dry.

./Irdrossan or Paishy Canal.

The section of this canal is shown in fig. 9, the breadth at top is 35
feet, depth below the ordinary surface of the water 4 feet, and G feet
from the top of the banks to the bottom. The banks are faced with stone
as shown in figs. 9, 12, and 13. In section fie;. '.', the stone facing is
laid IG inches below the water surface, and 12 inches above : it is
constructed with 1 courses of rough stone laid dry and scabbled on the
face, the lower course projects forward, and small stakes are driven
every 2 feet at the base, to protect the stone work. Section tig. 12,
is constructed in a similar manner, excepting the stones are larger and
in 3 courses, and have no stakes to protect the foundation. Section
fig. 13, has 4 courses of large stones as fig. 9, but they are set like
steps. These two l;is"t sections were only tried by w'ay of experiment,
that which is now adopted is shown in fig. 9, it gives the greatest re-
sistance, and is best calculated to deaden the action of the waves, or
surge of the water, and at the same time the most economical.

Forth and Clyde Caital.

This canal has a mean breadth of GO feet at the top, and 8 feet deep
below the water surface, and 12 feet deep below the top of the bank ;
different methods of lining the banks have been adopted to prevent the
abrasion of the banks by the action of the water, occasioned by the
establishment of quick passage boats, as shown in sections figs. lU, 13,
16, 17 and is. On the towing-path bank of section fig. 10, the facing
is laid in the same manner as in fig. 9, of the Ardrossan Canal, except-
ing the courses of stone are more numerous, and there are no stakes to
protect the foundation. On the opposite bank, as those points most
likely to be affected, they are cased with rubble work. .Section fig. 1.5,
shows a broad bench at the bottom, and the stone facing laid on a slope
of 45", which is carried up to one foot above the water surface. Sec-
tion fig. 18, the stones are laid on a slope and continued up to the top
of the bank, which is capped with a fiat stone 1 foot S inches wide.
Section fig. IG, shows another method of construction, the stones are
laid to the form of the curve of degradation : the stone work does not
extend more than 12 to 15 inches below the water level, and the same
same height above. Section 17, consists of 4 courses of basalt, each
10 inches high and 1 foot 8 inches to 2 feet deep, it is carried up to
the top of the bank, the top course oversailing at the back, and forms
the fender.

These different systems of stoue facing for banks have been tried on
a scale sufficiently large to form a tolerably correct judgment as to
their expense and efficiency. The last section fig. 17, is evidently the
best, but the cost is very high, and the same may be said with regard
to section fig. IS, besides neither of these two last sections have the
advantage of deadening the effects of the wave. The section ultimately
adopted is that shown in fig. 10, its cost is 2s. id. per yard forward.

The Union Canal.

This canal has a breadth of 40 feet at the top, and a mean breadth
of 37 feet on the line of the water surface, the depth below this line is
ii ft. 3 in. and 1 ft. G in. to 2 ft. 3 in. more to the top of the banks. This
section, as will be presently described, is more favourable for passage
boats than the section of the Forth and Clyde Canal.

it is on this canal that stone facing have been adopted to the greatest
extent since the establishment of passage boatS) and on wliich circum*

stances have been most favourable for this description of traffic. The
same systems have been tried as on the Ardrossan and the Forth and
Clyde Canals, but the nature of other materials on the spot have caused
the adoption of a different system for those canals, more simple in
operation and better adapted to effect the end proposed. The section
fig. 1 1, shows the stone facing of the bank, it is nearly similar to those
of the l-'orth and Clyde Canal fig. 10. On the towing-path bank there
is however a slight batter or inclination given to the facing, and also
on the opposite bank are laid large pebbles placed irregularly to a
certain thickness, instead of rough stone.

A considerable length of bank is faced with stone as shown in sec-
tion fig. 18, of the Forth and Clyde Canal, and another system has
beeu tried similar to section fig. 19. But the facings adopted and
generally followed are those shown in sections figs. 20 and 21. In
section fig. 20, stone slabs of different lengths, from 28 to 32 inches
wide, and 2^ to 3 inches thick form the facing, they are sunk into the
clay puddle of the bank : it was found that the upper part of the facing
was not sufficiently firm, consequently another narrow slab was laid on
the top horizontally, as shown in fig. 21, which prevented the pressure
of the earth against the top of the facing, and made a base for the
turfing of the slope of the fender.

The facings of the towing-paths on the banks of the Union Canal,
between Falkirk and Edinburgh, have been made the same as the two
last methods just described, nearly throughout the whole length, and in
some cases the opposite bank also. This description of facing has an ex-
cellent effect, both as to appearance and as to its operation on the waves
of the canals. The joints being well secured, no water can get in to
injure the bank, and this plan which gives the best appearance to the
work, is in leality the most economical, the cost being only from in:. 6d.
to 3s. per yard forward, while the work in fig. II, costs from 3s. to it.
The reason ior this cheapness is the abundant supply on the spot of a
slaty stone well adapted for the purpose.

Canal de L'Ourcq.

The canal de I'Ourcq had already suffered very much from the ac-
tion of the water, on the two banks between la Villette and Claye,
when it was proposed to run passage boats upon it. It therefore be-
came necessary to repair the banks, and the expense of stone facing
on the English plan, and the want of good materials rendered a distinct
course necessary. The canal company having a large quantity of
brushwood and cuttings, wished to have a trial made to protect the
banks with fascine work, as in section fig. 5. Stakes of oak 4 inches
thick were therefore placed at every twenty inches distance, and
driven into the ground 2 ft. 3 ni. to 3 feet deep, and fascines placed
behind them. It was soon found, however, that the fascine work was
ineffective, as the water got in during the undulations, and on retiring
carried away the earth. The fascines have therefore been removed,
and oak planks laid behind the stakes, as shown in fig. 14. This plan,
there is every reason to believe, will prove cheap and work well.

On other parts of the works another plan, as shown in figs. 2 and 7,
has been adopted, like that on the Ardrossan and Forth and Clyde
Canals. The works however get on slowlv on account of the difBculfiy
of finding stones large enough.

RAILWAYS BILL.

Since our last number, Mr. Labouchere's bill has made farther pro-
gress, and such is the want of effective opposition, that it would
doubtless have passed through all its stages by this time, had not Sir
Robert Peel interfered to get it referred to a select committee. From
this committee, however, we expect little good, although Sir Frederick
Smith is said to have been sorely discomfited in his examination by
Sir Robert Peel, when his incompetency was shown so fully as to have
been convincing to the minds of unprejudiced persons. Mr. Labou-
chere felt this, and was in the greatest possible rage, so that, to cool
himself, he endeavoured to harrass several of the witnesses in such a
manner as to call down the remarks of the chairman, although he
effectively succeeded in frightening some parties.

The opposition, as it is called, which is t:ow being carried on, pro-
ceeds from a committee of the delegates of boards of directors, who
have overstepped their powers, and are disunited among themselves.
Several of the chief of the delegates are, indeed, publicly charged
with giving underhand support to the Government plan, while they
throw every obstacle in the way of those who attempt to carry on the
opposition in earnest. From such parlies no good can be expected
! under any circumstances, and we need scarcely say that they are

il841.3

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

107

totally unfitted for defending; the interests of the engineers, which, by
the Government attempts, are the most threatened. The delegates
are all from railways which have their bills, and most of them from
finished lines. Chairmen of companies of course care nothing about
how the engineers are likely to be interfered with, neither do the di-
rectors of finished railways care one straw about what measure is meted
out to the projected lines; ou the contrary, they would willingly give
every aid, as they have shown, towards casting obstacles in their way.
Narrow or broad gauge, six or four wheeled engines are nothing ito
directors, but they are great things to engineers, who are not likely to
be best pleased with the exercise of their profession, when it is to be
ruined by being placed under |the tampering knick-knackery of a rail-
way inspector, who entered on his duties ignorant of the works he
was called on to inspect, and who has distinguished himself ever since
by his disposition to foist his own crotchets, in opposition to the expe-
rience of other men. Although Sir Frederick Smith does not claim
the power of meddling with engineering details at present, he evi-
dently reserves it, and we have, in the report of the horse marine
steam'boat inspectors, a pretty good inkling of the kind of inter-
ference which they ultimately look forward to. We have seen one
difference of opinion already, and we ask what farther we have to
expect from the forbearance of the government jobbers. A pretty
pass affairs have come to in the profession, when the Stephensons,
Brunei or Locke, are to knuckle down in their own department to a
military engineer, to come like petty schoolboys and recite their tasks
to a dabbler in the art, themselves have created. The statues of
Smeatou,Watt and Telford, may tremble on their pedestals at this in-
sult to their successors. What tribunal would be called upon to decide
if men at the head of the law or medical |)rofession entertained a
doubt? Is there any tribunal? We think there is none. The go-
vernment would think otherwise ; the course they would adopt would
be to send the Lord Chancellor or Lord Denman, Sir James Clarke or Sir
Henry Halford, to some one in the lowest ranks of their professions.
We consider the interference of the government with engineering, as
a gross insult to the profession. They would not refer the fortification
of Chatham to us, why then should military engineers be sent to inter-
fere with railways ?

It is the eleventh hour, but we call again on the engineers to come
forward, and to resist these encroachments ere it be too late. Go-
vernment cares nothing for their interests, neither do railway directors,
so that the only way engineers have of protecting them, is by protect-
ing them themselves. The injury threatened by the government is
very great, no one can tell the greatness of its extent, for one success-
ful attack upon the liberties of the profession cannot fail to lead to
farther inroads. Let the engineers do as the marine engineers did
last year, and as they mean to do this, unite, and we have no doubt
that the jobbers will be defeated. If, however, they like to be under
the dominion of the one-tailed bashaw in Whitehall, they will remain
supine and allow themselves to be sacrificed. We call upon them
therefore to lose no time in organizing an opposition. The Institution
of Civil Engineers we feel are particularly called upon, and we con-
sider that they will grossly neglect the interests of the profession if
they do not immediately send a petition to both Houses of Parliament,
praying that no government interference with the profession may take
place. The engineers generally should also meet, and send similar
petitions, and a committee should be formed to oppose the bill at its
future stages.

ENGINEERING WORKS OF THE ANCIENTS, No. 3.

MINBS OF THE THASI.VNS. — SIPHNIANS. — ATHENIANS.

Continuing our extracts from Herodotus, we find that the Thasians
derived considerable wealth from their mines. From those of gold at
Scaptesyla they obtained upon an average eighty talents; Thasos
itself did not produce so much ; but they were on the whole so affluent,
that being generally exempt from taxes, the whole of their annual re-
venue was two hundred, and in the times of the greatest abundance
three hundred talents. It may be observed that many of the Greek
states derived considerable revenues from mines, which admitted of
the application of slave labour on a large scale. So with some of our
modern states mining and mining monopolies are important sources of
income. Of the Thasian mines, Herodotus remarks, that he liad seen
them, the most valuable were those discovered by the Phenicians, who
also were engaged in the Cornish tin trade, and in working the mines
of Spain. The PheDi<?ians are stated by our author to have first made
a settlement on the island under the conduct of one Thasus, and to
have Damed the isUiid ^ter him. The miaea »o discovered were be-

tween a place cidled jEnyra and Coenyra. Opposite to Samothracia
was a large mountain which by the search after mines was eff"ectually
levelled, from which it is evident that the working was surface work-
ing. The Thasians also, according to the testimony of Thucydides,
had some valuable mines on the coast of Thrace. If the mining of the
Thasians was confined to surface-working, it could scarcely be from
want of a knowledge of other modes, as we shall see by the example
of the Samians that tunnelling was carried on upon a large scale. The
Siphnians were also a mining people, their soil producing both gold
and silver in such abundance, that from a tenth part of their revenues,
they had a treasury or cash-box, as we should call it, in the general
bank of Greece at Delphi, equal in value to the richest which that
temple possessed. Their power was consequently considerable, and
they were at one time the richest of all the inhabitants of the islands,
although their territory was but small, being one of the seventeen
small islands opposite Attica, called the Cyclades. This isle is now
called Siplianto, and although it no longer has mines of gold and silver
it still has plenty of lead, which the rains discover. The Siphnians
every year made an equal distribution among themselves of the pro-
duce of their mines, as did the Athenians of that of the silver mines of
Attica. In allusion to stream-works, Herodotus says that the Inflians
obtained great abundance of gold, partly by digging, and partly from
the rivers. Of the Ethiopian gold our author speaks, but does not
say how it was obtained. Tin is mentioned as being obtained from
the Cassiterides, supposed to be the Scilly Isles, of which Herodotus
says that he has little information. — The north-west of Asia is repre-
sented as abounding with gold, but how it was obtained was not known.
This passage might refer to the mines of the Ural.

WORKS OF THE SAMIANS. — ^TUNNEL.— AQUEDUCT. — MOLE.— ENGINEERS.

The Samians were distinguished among the Greeks for their engi-
neering monuments, for which very reason Herodotus says that he was
particular in his account of those islanders. Of these works, remains
to this day exist. Through a high mountain they are said to have cut
a passage, seven stadia (about a mile) long, eight feet high, and as
many wide. By the side of this was a canal or aqueduct three feet in
breadth, and twenty cubits, according to our author, in depth, but in
this there must be some mistake.^ — In this canal pipes were laid con-
veying to the town the water of a copious spring, supposed to be that
of Metelinous. Another work is the Mole now forming the left horn
of Port Tigrani. According to Herodotus, it was two stadia or more
in length, and twenty orgyiae or cubits in height. The engineer of the
tunnel was Eupalinus, the son of Naustrophus, and an inhabitant of
Megara.

TRENCH OF THE SCYTHIANS. — WALLS — BRIDGES.

The descendants of the slave population having revolted against the
Scythians, intersected the country with a deep trench, supposed to
have separated the Crimea from the mainland. In the time of the
Emperor Constantine Porphyrogenitus this was filled up, it must how-
ever have existed for a long period. In Scythia are also mentioned
bridges and walls constructed by the Cimmerians.

POLVBIUS.

CARTHAGINIAN ENGINEERING. — BRIDGE OVER THE MACAR. — NEW
CARTHAGE CANAL. — GOD OF MINING.

From Herodotus we come to Polybius, but it is to be regretted that
the latter has rather applied himself to accounts of political intrigues
than the descriptions of the physical features of the countries on which
he writes. From him therefore we are enabled to glean but little in-
formation, and that of a most discursive character. He gives several
hints showing us the capacity of the Carthaginians for engineering,
but he has not entered into those explanations which would have come
with weight from him as an eye witness. The passage of the Alps,
by Hannibal, is sufficient to prove the skill of the Carthaginians, but
we have too vague a description of the mode of proceeding to allow
us to profit by it.

In the 1st book chapter 6, a singular account is given of a bridge
near Carthage, which was laid over the Macar, a deep and rapid river,
scarcely fordable in any part. This was the only bridge on the river
and formed one of the passes to Carthage. On it Polybius states that
a town was built by the soldiers and used as a garrison. The roads in
the neighbourhood of Carthage were mostly made by great labour.

In their military operations the Carthaginians were well accustomed
to pass rivers, instances of which we have in the course of Hannibal's
expedition. — His passage of the Rhone belongs rather to military tac-
tics, but there is one point to which we think it necessary to allude,
as it may be of inteiest to our bridge eogieeers. Having formed a

Q2

108

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[Aprii.

line of large boats across the river, he made use of them as a coffer-
dam or lireakwatcr, and iiuder the shelter of them, passed over the
troops in canoes, and swam over the horses, which were guided along-
side of l!.e vessels hy nieii stationed on hoard of them.

At Xew Carthage (Carthagena) in Spain, one of their principal
colonies, we again hnd traces of their engineering works, between the
lake and the sea they cut a narrow navigable canal, and across this
there was a bridge used by carriages and beasts of burden. In the city,
one of the hills was dedicated to Aletes, who is said to have obtained
divine honours, from having first discovered the silver mines, which
were extensively wrought by the Carthaginiixns in Spain.

'jHEJK i..\()l.\KEl!IN(j — BlilUGES — PBCENICE — PSOI'HIS.

hi Kpirus we find mention of a bridge, wliich seems to have been
after the fashion of that at Babylon, mentioned in our first article, and
to have been of a class common among the ancients. Tliis was at
Phupnice, and had piers of stone with moveable planks laid upon it.
At Psojihis in Arcadia a bridge is mentioned over the Erymanthus, a
great and rapid stream.

CAU.SKWAV — AMBRACUS.

Arobracus in Etolia is described as a fortress cf considerable strength
situated in the middle of a marsh, and secured by a wall and outworks
It was only to be approached by one narrow causeway. It was be-
sieged and taken by Philip king of Macedonia, who carried causeways
through the marsh.

sizii or i'Ofi-i'S.
Speaking of Tichos, a fortress near Patrae, Polybiiis says that it was
of no great size, being not more than a stadium and a half in circum-
ference, so that it might have sides of eighty yards in length.

ENGINEERS.

Among the supplies furnislied by the Rhodians to the Sinopeans in
their war against Mithridates,* engineers are mentioned, and military
engines.

REBUILDING OF HHODES.

On the destruction of Rhodes by an earthquake, large supplies were
sent by the allies of that city in order to enable them to rebuild it.
Among these supplies Ptolemy, king of Egvpt, sent forty thousand
cubits of square pieces of fir; a hundred architects, and three hundred
and fifty labourers. Antigonus sent them ten thousand pieces of tim-
ber, that was proper to be cut into solid blocks from eight to sixteen
cubits : five thousand planks of seven cubits ; three thousand weight of

iron. Seleucus his father sent ten thousand cubits of timber Other

parties sent in the same proportion.

Building materials seem to have been considered as of great value,
for in case of the sacking of tow ns the timber and tiles were frequently
carried otT.

EPISODES OF PLAN.

(Continued from page 7i.J

Ali ilot'Gii they may seem to betray a consciousness of the weak-
ness of our cause, upon the principle of qui excuse, dccuse, we have con-
sidered the preceding remarks necessary, in order to combat the
opposition which the system we would recommend is likely to encoun-
ter. But it would be a positive weakness on our part, were we to
assume u deprecatory and apologetic tone, as if we had misgivings of
our own, and accordingly threw ourselves entirely upon the indulgence
of our readers, for presuming to bring forward what its novelty alone
may be thought to condemn. The starting matters altogether so new
is in itself an act of presumption, if merely because it is a tacit re-
proach upon the indolence, the indifference, or ignorant carelessness of
those, who, having had the opportiuiity, have never touched upon, or
called attention to them ; consequently sinning as we do to that extent,
we mav dispense with vihat would be as troublesome to ourselves, and
:is impertinent towards our readers, as it would be useless.— namely,
any affectation of modesty.

Be it said that opportunities for applying any striking combinations
of plan, even in the way of episodical parts in a building, are of rare
occurrence, that ought to be a i-aiS07i dc plus wherefore every thing
like an opportunity should be eagerly caught at, and turned to the ut-
most account. So far from which being the case, it ajjpears to be

• PoIybiBs book 4, cliap. 5.

especially shunned. There are some hundreds of seats and residences
throughout the country, from which, putting them all together, hardly
half a dozen fresh ideas are to be obtained. That they may be " goodly
iiouses," — well built, and containing well proportioned^ expensively
and luxuriously furnished rooms, is not denied. Their plans mav be
perfectly unexceptionable as regards comfort and convenience, — ^free
from aught amounting to a fault, or even to a blemish, nevertheless as
insipid and uninteresting as possible. Look at the majority of the
plans given in Richardson's Vitruvius Britannicus, — which, it mav be
presumed, are rather above than under the average: do they offer a
single happy architectural point worth studying ? Yet in houses of
the class there shown, some merit of that kind might reasonably enough
be expected. Tlie chief lesson to be derived from them is that both
their employers and architects themselves are satisfied with the very
first ideas that come io hand — and the hand seems to have more to do
with such matters, than the mind. Exceptions, it is true, are to be
found ; Tel they are merely the rari nantes in gurgite ros/o; — which
circumstance, however, much as it is to be regretted in itself, has its
convenience, because all the examples of that kind might be collected
together within a moderate compass; and it has frequently struck us
as rather singular that no one should hitherto have brought out a pub-
lication devoted entirely to a series of studies of interior architecture,
elucidated not only by plans and sections, but perspective views also,
for the purpose of showing effects. Of course we would have only the
very cream served up, without a particle of that " thrice skimmed
sky-blue," which architectural caterers are too much in the habit of
imposing upon their customers.

Were it properly got up, some such work as what we liave just
pointed out, would be found eminently instructive, particularly if ac-
companied hy penlimenti and rurtutions of the plans (in wood-cuts),
showing the same general ideas differently modified, ft is true, some-
thing of the kind may even now be picked up out of architectural pub-
lications ; but then it is net from such as are to be met with in a mode-
rate collection, or as are likely to fall in the way of students. Neither
are such subjects satisfactorily elucidated, when they occur merely as
parts of general plans and sections, in which latter far more is some-
times left unexplained and doubtful, than is actually shown. It may
be said, and very truly so, that the want of any work of the kind has
not been felt, or else we should have had not only one, but a number
of them ere now, as in all such cases supply invariably keeps pace with
demand. Yet, if this cannot be disputed, it seems to us only an addi-
tional proof of the utter disregard paid to tlie subject itself; as if any
thing would do for interior architecture, and that nothing more is re-
quired in the way of designing than to be able to draw the doors,
chimney-piece, and cornices of the rooms in a section. An architect,
it would seem, requires no instruction for designing the interior of a
building, except what he can gather from his own observation and
practice; positive lessons and studies for the purpose, are quite unne-
cessary. There he may safely be left entirely to his own guidance ;
although, if such be the case, we do not see, wherefore so many finical
rules should be deemed necessary for even the most trivial circum-
stances in external architecture,— more es])ecially as those petty rules
are after all little better than impertinences, for those who are worthy
of the name of artists are guided by something better, while those who
are not, blunder on hv help of rules, pretty much as they would blunder
on without them. Hardlv can it be said that there is less occasion for
the student's directing his attention to interior arrangement and design,
than to exterior architecture, there being, according to the doctrine of
chances, quite as much probability that he may have at least one op-
portunity of displaying his taste and ability in planning and decorating
a moderate sized yet recherche residence, as that he will ever be called
upon to erect a |)alace, a senate-house, a cathedral, a museum, or in
short any one of those //heni.rts upon which academical students are set
to work their wits before they are capable of producing a single new
idea on a moderate scale. — To be sure there is less study required for
producing something catching on a large scale, where the "lion's-hide"
pompousness of the subject conceals the inanity and poverty of the
conception.

Probably the remarks we have just made, will be considered quite
irrelevant and impertinent; and that they are somewhat ungracious
we admit — would to Heaven! thev could be proved to be utterly un-
founded and unjust! — But of introductory observation our re.iidershave
by this time had enough — more than may be altogether palatable; it be-
hoves us therefore, now to come at once to our professed subject ;
which is, indeed, one both so new in itself, so complicated, and of such
extent, as to render the task we have undertaken rather an embarras-
sing one. We do not pretend, however, to treat it systematically,
proceeding gradually from the simplest elements of plan', to the most
varied combinations of them; but shall merely in the first instance,
enumerate some of the leading circuinitanoes by •which ditferent com-

1841.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

109

binations may be obtained, and then exhibit some detached Episodes,
and individual instances. Hitherto, Plaii — by which we mean not
only the outline of the floor, but that of profile and section likewise —
lias been allowed to exhibit scarcely any variety, etVect being almost
exclusively limited to that kind of it which arises from material,
colour, and decoration. Accordingly if it can be shown that there are
other sources of variety, it becomes evident that there is far greater
scope afforded by interior architectural composition, than where no-
velty of design consists in nothing more than substituting one order of
columns for another, or something else of that kind, without any novelty
whatever in regard to arrangement, shape, and proportions in the en-
semble.

Of course where a room is a simple square or parallelogram in its
plan, there can be no combination ; yet as soon as we proceed a step
further various combinations may be obtained. Still we choose to limit
ourselves in nearly eveiy case to the simplest and first step; for if it
be required to give rather more than ordinary architectural character
to a room, it is usually done by putting two columns towards each end,
so as to divide it into three compartments; and that being done we
seem to have fairly got att bout de noire Liitin. Let us, then, take no
more than a triple arrangement of plan, and show some of the com-
binations that may be obtained from it, distinguishing the divisions of
the plan by the terms Centre and Ends ; and it will be less troublesome
to ourselves, and more intelligible to our readers, if we give them in
the form of a mere list. First then, in regard to plan, we have the
following varieties :—

Centre and Ends all rectangular, equal in breadth, and differing only

in their relative proportions.
Centre wider than Ends.

Centre narrower than Ends, or the Ends expanded.
Centre rectangular. Ends semicircular or curvilinear.
Centre circular or polygonal, Ends rectangular.
Centre a square or parallelogram, Ends octagonal, hexagonal or other

form of polygon.
Secondly. In regard to Profile or Section : —

Centre and Ends, of uniform height and with flat ceilings.

■ ditto arched.

Centre loftier than Ends, but with flat ceiling.

and domed, or arched.

Ends loftier than Centre, and arched traversely to the latter.

— and domed.

Thirdly. In regard to arrangement of windows and mode of lighting : —
Centre and Ends all lighted from one side of the room.
Centre lighted from side, Ends from the extremities of the room.
Centre lighted from one side, and Ends from opposite one.
Centre lighted from side. Ends from above.
Centre lighted from above. Ends from side.
Centre and Ends all lighted from above.
Centre alone lighted, either from side or above.
Ends alone lighted, ditto.
Centre or Ends lighted not from ceiling but from windows at the

sides, at a distance from the floor.

Without our extending this list any further, it will be evident that
a vast number of combinations may be obtained, entirely independent
of the innumerable differences arising from columns and other decora-
tion, from dimensions and proportions, from colour and material. In
fact every one of the modes above enumerated— and they are by no
means all — affords as much or more scope for architectural design in
other respects, than there is now by the single one which is almost
invariably adhered to.

We have merely mentioned as one distinction that produced by
lighting either the whole room, or one or more of its divisions from
the ceiling ; but then, that, too, maybe effected in a variety of different
ways. The light may he admitted through glazed coffers or panels
(plain, again or coloured), through a dome, or through a lantern, which
last admits of almost infinite varietv of form and design. Lantern
lights may not only vary in their plan, — be square, oblong, circular,
octagonal, &c., but be ceiled above and have windows on their sides,
or closed at the sides, and have the light transmitted through the ceil-
ing, accordingly as either the design itself, or other circumstances may
dictate.

It may be said — and that not unreasonably — the kind of room we
have noticed, namely, one capable of being divided into compartments,
is fitted only for a gallery or library of some extent. Still there
are a variety of other combinations to be eflected in rooms of a dif-
ferent class, by merely breaking their plans, yet without exactly
dividing them into distinct cumpartraenl^. Dining-rooms certainly
admit of great architectural character being bestowed upon them, by a
sideboard alcove, by which is to be understood somethiDg more than

a mere shallow or blank recess — as it may not improperly be termed —
which where there is any thing of the kind at all, is generally the
maximum attempted, although in itself it is exceedingly little indeed.

( To lie coulinued.)

ESTABLISHMENT FOR PROCURING MOULDS FROM
MONUMENTS OF ART.

Sir — The debate which followed Mr. (iillon'a motion, cannot fail to
raise the hopes of all who have the interests of taste at heart; and I
hope that you will permit me, at this apparently auspicious time, to
bring forward in your columns a scheme, which, although, if I may
judge from the brief paragraph in a former number, does not meet
your approbation in its original shape, yet if some other mode of
o])erafion can be devised, its object will, I feel convinced, have your
earnest support. I allude to the formation of an establishment for
procuring moulds from interesting monuments of art, and for diftusing
casts from these at the cheapest possible rate, over the country.

The French have long possessed such an establishment, under the
immediate patronage of government, and moulders are constantly em-
ployed in foreign countries, as well as in different parts of France,
making moulds from monuments of art of every age, from the earliest
times down to a late period. French moulders are to be found not
only in the capital cities of Italy, but also in the ancient towns which
offer so many interesting specimens of the arts of the middle ages. A
few years ago, as 1 have already stated in a former paper, elsewhere,
14,000 dollars were spent in Florence alone, in making moulds which
were afterwards conveyed to Paris. How advantageous the results of
such a system ! In Paris artists of every description may find specimens
of sculpture from every statue and building with which they are ac-
quainted. Architects may at a very small cost, in addition to their
libraries, form museums, containing casts from portions of the build-
ings, the plans and elevations of which their books contain. Engrav-
ings however perfect, can convey but a faint idea of the graces of
execution in architectural sculpture, and I think that the consequences
of designing from these alone are sufficiently illustrated, in our cold,
spiritless, and precise ornamental details.

I wish to see some such establishment as the French one in London ;
the subject has excited much attention in Scotland, and when I first
brought it forward it was warmly taken up by many enlightened and
energetic individuals ; but objections were urged against it in London,
although I have not been able precisely to ascertain their nature or
extent. I believe that the apprehension of the creation of a monopoly,
and the consequent injury to individuals who have already invested
capital in casting was the strongest objection. I should like to know,
how much capital is really invested in this branch of trade, and how
many individuals pursue it, and how many good moulds they possess?
of this I am certain that we have repeatedly been obliged to send
abroad for casts, after vainly seeking them in London. It may be ob-
served that this is not surprising, if we demand casts from works, of
which it is most unlikely that casts should exist, but this has not been
the case, the casts required have in most cases been such as ought
easily to have been found in London. Your own Schools of Design
are furnished from Paris, for with the exception of casts from sculp-
tures in the British Museum, which are of the best quality, a few
from foreign monuments of a very indifferent quality, and some from
our national specimens of art, nothing is to be had in London.

I would here point out that there are difficulties in the way of pro-
curing moulds from important monuments, which are insuperable to
private enterprize. Government alone for instance, could procure a
new mould of the Venus de Medicis. I feel convinced that although
the Grand Duke will not hear of a mould from this statue of statues,
he would at once accord it, to the request of a nation preferred through
the proper channel, to which he owes his possession of the gem. I
have no doubt that established London sculptors would willingly give
fifty guineas for a first cast from a new mould of the Venus, I have
known twenty-five paid in Rome for a good cast of this statue ; in this
point of view it seems evident that such an establishment could not
prove a very costly one to the nation, for however liberal its Directors
ought to be to public galleries, and however cheap casts generally
should be sold to eftect the good anticipated, still first casts from rare
and precious works should be disposed of to individuals on different
terms. There are unquestionably numberless specimens of art of the
highest value and interest, casts from which, could be procured only by
government influence. I mentioned the deficiency in London of moulds
from important monuments, I should iniiigine that the chief source of
profit to your casters must proceed from their employment by living
sculptors, acd a National Casting Eiitablishment wbose object would

110

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[April,

be wholly dirlerent, and nliich would supply deficiencies which it is
impossible that thev can ever supply, could not prove so fatal to their
interest, but on the contrary, by promoting taste, and exciting a love
for such objects would prove a source of increased encouragement.

If the objections to a national casting establishment are insuperable,
could not some other plan be devised ? The object is a great one, a
coraraenccment might he made by making moulds from the finest
works in Great Britain, and then we might proceed to foreign coun-
tries : casts should be sold at as low a rate as possible, provincial gal-
leries and schools of design should be supplied free of charge. I
should hope to see every workshop a museum. The more we can
accustom our lower orders to the contemplation of beautiful forms the
better, and what better or cheaper means can be devised ? I go further,
I think it possible to erect casts in appropriate galleries of many
architectural monuments, the sizes of which do not offer any insupe-
rable ditiiculties. The student might measure, and delineate the
Choracic monument of Lysicratcs, or the arch of Titus, w itliout going
beyond London. Casts of many Gothic shrines and monuments might
be pnt up in all the splendour of their full proportions, and where the
gigantic size of any building utterly jirecluded such an idea, still casts
of entire entablatures, capitals, and portions of shafts might be erected.
What a magnificent spectacle would such a gallery oB'er, which con-
tained a series of casts from early monuments down to the architec-
ture of the last age of original invention.

I have alluded to the interest this subject has excited in Scotland,
and I may truly say in England also. Learned societies, noblemen,
members of Parliament, and other influential gentlemen, besides some
of the most talented artists now living, have approved of this idea.
1 trust, .Sir, '.hat the day is not far distant when we may hope to see
it adopted and followed out under some good working form, and I
hope that those who have studied the subject will favour all who are
interested in it with their suggestions.

I am, .Sir,

8, Northunherluiid Sheet, Your very obedient servant,

Edinburgh. Charles H. Wilson.

\3tb March, 184 L

[If such an establishment were confined to obtaining and moulding
new works, it would, as our talented correspondent saj's, be most ad-
vantageous ; but if, as the plan was originally proposed, it were to be
a general public factory, we think that it would be of no good, but, on
the contrary, productive of harm. — Edit.]

CANDIDUS'S REMARKh ON THE LECTURES OF THE
PROFESSOR OF ARCHITECTURE.

Si;'- — Will you allow me to ofler a few remarks on tbe last Fasciculus
of Candidus, in wliich be makes so free with the Professor of the Royal
Academy. I would submit that he has misunderstood him on an import-
ant point in his lectures, and given him credit for a "bigotry" of which
he is in nowise guilty. The Professor said nothing in disparagement
of "Gothic Architecture," unless indeed his remarks on the beauty of
a series of Gothic windows, on the good elfect of Gothic spires in a
level i^ountry, on the excellent construction and beautiful proportion of
Salisbury Cathedral — on the elegant fret-work and tracery of a Gothic
window, &c., may be taken in that signification. All that he said
which could be interpreted as unfavourable to the style was, tliat be
considered the revival of Gothic architecture as a fashion of the age,
and like other fashions, one that passeth away.

Now if we examine the history of any age or country we shall ob-
serve a very marked correspondence between the character of the
architecture, and the literature, habits and condition of the people,
and that these have always progressed together. For example, the
architecture of Greece clearly evinces itself to have been that of a
highly refined people, possessed of a limited extent of territory, and
whose principal wealth was in the hands rather of the state than of
individuals, and therefore lavished almost exclusively on public build-
ings;— a people ambitious of bringing every thing they attempted to
the utmost perfection. Their style v/f architecture was in all its main
features adopted by the Romans, but received from them sucli altera-
tions as were necessary to accommodate it to their peculiar circum-
stancesf, those of conquerois of the world; the extent, variety and
magnificence of their structures were increased to a degree unknown
before or since, and the exquisite delicacy of the Grecian detail in a
great measure disregarded — their endeavour being to strike every be-
holder with awe — while the Greek architects sought rather to capti-
vate the admiration of men of a refined and cultivated taste.

Taking these as examples, aud 1 feel assured that the tame reason-

ing may be applied to the architecture of all countries, it would seem
very doubtful, whether a style which has arisen naturallv from the
wants and habits of one nation, could with advantage be assumed by
another whose state of civilization and feeling are totally different ; —
and I must acknowledge that I think classical architecture harmonizes
more nearly with the habits of the present age than does the Gothic
The Greeks and Romans had reached the highest point of luxury and
refinement at the period at which thev erected those buildings, of
which the remains form models for our imitation — while on the con-
trary civilization has been regularly proceeding in countries where
Gothic architecture was practised from that time to the present. The
Romans again had communication with all parts of the known world,
in almost as great a degree comparatively as we now have, while our
ancestors oi the middle ages had but few opportunities of enlarging
the scope of their understanding, by their researches in foreign coub-
tries. The mechanical arts have since the middle ages made gigantic
strides towards perfection, insomuch that many of them which have
become necessary to our comfort, are found inapplicable to the pecu-
liarities of Gothic architecture. MuUioned windows are more suitable
for casements with small panes of glass, th.m for the large squares now
in use. The introduction of slate renders the high pitched Gothic
roof unnecessary, and every architect must have experienced the diffi-
culty, nay impossibility of introducing joinery and interior finishing
generally, of good Gothic character. Another great proof of the in-
congruity of the style with the general habits of the age, is the diffi«
culty of persuading persons to adopt it who are not possessed of aa
antiquarian taste — while the expense of producing architectural eifect,
is with the mass the only objection to the Italian or Grecian styles.

There is still another point, and perhaps the most important of all,
and that is the object of the architect where he designs in the Gothic
style, compared with his object when he employs the Grecian or Ro-
man— in the former case it is imiiaiiod that he aims at, in the latter
invention. Thus the great work of excellence in a modern Gothic
building is that it should be mistaken for an ancient one, the architect
being governed by authority in alibis details; and a departure from
this rule is the principal cause of all the bad Gothic with which the
eye is offended in every part of the country. This is not so much the
case with Grecian or Roman — from the nature of the style a greater
regularity is necessary, certain proportions have been determined oa
for the principal members, and as long as these are preserved, there is
no restriction on any novelty that may be produced in accordance with
them. This last objection applies as much to ecclesiastical as to do-
mestic architecture, which I admit is not the case with those first
stated.

If these views are correct, it is very possible to discourage, with
the Professor, the indiscriminate revival of the architecture of the
middle ages, without in the slightest degree adopting the prejudices
of Evelyn, in considering it "monkish and gloomy, aud devoid of all
harmony and proportiou," or those of Morris,* who looked upon the
"boasted piles of Salisbury and Westminster, &c., ouly as so vaxaj
monuments of wanton and tasteless expenditure ;" or those of Hatsil-
ton,t who looks upon it as the of&pring of the dark ages of Gothic
barbarism.

1 am, Sir, &c.

S. I_

March 19, 1841.

HARBOURS ON THE SOUTH EASTERN COAST.

Sir — As you have done me the f ivour to insert several commnni-
catious of mine relative to bars and other nautical matters, I take
leave to request that you will give publicity in your next Journal to
the following observations, suggested by the motion of the bon. mem-
ber for Dover, E. A. Rice, Esq., for a select committee of the Uonse
of Commons on the state of the harbours on the S. E. coast, to which
the report of the commission of 1840, on the state of the harbours on
that coast, should be referred. This motion wes negatived by a ma-
jority of G4 in a house of 14U members.

The mover and seconder of the motion re-stated what has been
often urged on the public by your Journal, i. e. that on the entire
extent of coast from the Thames to the Isle of Wight, there is not a
harbour of refuge either iis a port of rendezvous for the navy, or for
the protection of our merchant vessels in adverse winds, and stormy

* In a small work on thf proportit^ns to be observed in architecture. Bjr
K. Morris, 173a.

T Leuer to ibe Earl of Elgia on the new HoHtea af Parlianeot. By Wm.
UAmillou, «rcbitficl, ISiii.

1S4I.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

HI

weather. This, too, is on a part of the coast at a short distance from
that of France, the government of which has caused essential improve-
luents to be elfected in various ports opposite to the English shores,
and to which their steamers can resort in time of war, much to the
annoyance and injury of onr commercial marine, while our shores have
no such port or protcetion.

That part of the coast and Channel here referred to, is navigated
by a greater number of valuable ships and cargoes than any other
channel in the w orld, except the N.E. coast ; consequently the loss of
valuable property (.£;),000,000 minuallij, and the more valuable human
lives, 100,) is in the proportion to the number of vessels passing up
and down the British Channel, losses which are occasioned by the
lack of harbours of refuge, (as a committee of the House of Commons
have determined,) and yet the legislature of the greatest of all naval
and maritime commercial nations has negatived a proposition of such
vital importance to the safety of the uavy, and the protection of our
merchant vessels and their crews ; an object of primary and vital im-
portance.

The Right Honourable the Chancellor of the Exchequer was pleased
to observe, in his opposition to the motion, "as regarding the com-
mission he did not hesitate to say, that from the cliarar.ter of those
composing it, and their fitness for the task assigned to them, no com-
mittee of the House of Commons could have the same weight with
the public." But the public might have had much more coniidence
in the opinions which would have been elicited from scientific and
practical men, whom such a commitlee would examine. The right
lion, gentleman subsequently said, '-With respect to the report of the
commissioners, one part of it was somewhat doubtful ; " (a most im-
purlanl part;) "Three difterent plans were proposed, and the es-
pences were estimated at £0,000,000: now he rfoHifet? whether means
could not be adopted for effecting the purpose at a much less expense."
In a petition which I had presented to the House of Commons in
the session of 1840, I endeavoured to show that the sites selected, and
the plans recommended by the commissioners for the construction of
three refuge harbours, could not obtain the proposed advantages, i. e.,
eligible harbo\u's of refuge, with safe ingress and egress al all times ;
and, that much beneficial improvement might be effected at Dover,
and that all (hat could be obtained in that vicinity was attainable at a
cost of ^3,000,000.

The estimated cost of constructing a harbour at the Xortb Foreland,
at Dovor, and at Beachy Head, as contained in the report referred to,
emanated from the engineers who were of the commission; the accu-
racy of these estimates is doubted by the Chancellor of the Exchequer,
if those gentlemen were in error on that part of the case which im-
mediately belongs to their department, no correct information ought
to be expected from them on the nautical part of the subject, i.e. an
eligible site for construction, and the best method of forming the en-
trance and departing passages.

It is essential to remark here, that the harbours of Lowestoft,
Dovor, Hartlepool, &c., demonstrate two important facts, that the
appUcation of sluicing or scouring water is a most fallacious principle
to pursue, either in constructing or in improving harljours, and that
the impetus of the wave and the influence of the wind and tides, are
not to be controlled by mathematical calculations; harbours and bars
are affairs exclusively to be managed by men of long nautical expe-
rience, possessing local information ; but other ]iarties being consulted
give cause to the many failures in attempts to improve and construct
harbours, and the immense loss of money in such attempts: e.g.
Lowestoft, an entire failure, with the loss of an expenditure of about
.£100,000, now offered for sale by her Majesty's loan commissioners
for £17,000. Dovor, after a large expenditure — bar accumulating.
Hartlepool — sluices injurious, and therefore discontinued.

The competency of the other gentlemen of the committee is not
proved by their previous practical knowledge of the S. E. coast, for
if they have at any time navigated that part of our seas, it was, no
doubt, under the direction of pilots. The report bears testimony that
to the places and principles for constructing harbours on the S. E.
coast, as recommended by them, there is an insuperable objection.

Regretting that a subject of so much importance should have been
so long neglected and again procrastinated, a subject brought before
a committee of the House of Commons in 182G and 1827, and again
in 183G,

I remain, Sir,
23rrf Marci, 184 1 . Tour's, &c.,

Henry Barkett.

COLES'S PATENT SOCKET AXLETREE.

Mr. Coles the Inventor of the Anti-friction Wheel Carriage described
in the Journal vol. I, p. 407, has lately taken out a patent for an im-
provement in axle-trees for railway carriages, whereby one of a pair
of wheels may turn without the other. It is well known that there is
great friction between the flange of a wheel and the rails when work-
ing round curves, particularly if they be sharp ones ; to obviate this
evil, Mr. Coles has invented a socket axle-tree as described in the an-
nexed engraving, whereby it will be perceived that either wheel may
turn whilst the other is standing still, at the same time the axle pos-
sessing all the rigidity of one that is fixed to both wheels; by this
arrangement the outer or off wheel when working round a curve can
make a larger number of revolutions than the inner wheel, and wheu
running on a straight line they will both make the same number of re-
volutions.

The axle-tree is thus formed, a hollow axle is carefully turned with a
socket or tube nearly the whole length of the width of the carriage,
into which is fitted the axle of the other wheel, this axle is carefully
turned with a shoulder at each end three or four inches wide, the small
vacuity between the shoulders, and also between the outer and iimer
axle-trees is filled with oil, which lubricates the rubbing surfaces of
the axle.

Transverse section of a carriage sho-wingthe frame, axles and wheefe,
for working on common rails or roads.

A A, the frame ; B B, the ground"»hee!s.°which are anti-friction ; C C, the
large anii-friclion wheels: DD, working or friction wheels ; K. the spring;
F. top of carriage ; G.^upperrcross stay ; HH, axles!' working in fockeis ; K,
the bottom cn.ss slay.

Government Sfuseum of Economic Geology.— The arrangements for the open-
ing of this new institution are progressing but slowly, and nothing has yet
been decided as to when it will be tlirown open to tlie public. It occupies
the two corner houses, Nos. 5 :md 6 in Craig's-eourt, which have undergone
extensive alterations for the purpose. In addition to several rooms w hich « ill
fce devoted to the arrangements ot the cases and cabinets composing the mu-
seum, there is a well-stored laboratory for instruction in practical analysis
upon the ground lloor. A large and prominent part of the collection in the
museum is the extensive series of specimens of stone obtained by the commis-
sion for investigating the best material for building the now Houses of Par-
lia:nent. The depositorv f<jr mining records, forming ;another branch of the
estr.biishment, is already rich in stadstical annals and dctads connected with
the mining industry ot the kingdom. Each department will be open to the
public m three or moredaysia the week under certain restrictions.— Morning
Pott.

112

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[Aprii.,

RAILWAY STATISTICS.

[The following Tables have been compiled from Mr. Whishaw's
work on the Railways of Great Uritain.]

Table A gives the total lengths of railways, from which it appears
that of .')8 railways enumerated, 16U9i miles in length, 31 (measuring
319'J miles) are under twenty miles in length, suggesting a great waste
of capital in the management.

Table B gives the lengths of 58 railways distributed as single and
double lines of railway, by which it appears that not more than a sixth
are single lines of railway.

Table C shows the number of miles of single and double railways
laid down upon each gauge for 17o<j miles of railway, with the total
of miles of single railway laid down on each system, giving a total of
32173 miles of single railway, of which 2544 are laid down on the
common gauge, and 427 miles on the broad gauge.

Table D shows the number of miles of single and double railway,
the stated number of miles of railway, and the number of miles of single
railway laid down with each of seven principal forms of rails, accord-
ing to the classification of Mr. Whishaw.

Table E shows for 2271^ miles of single railway, the number of
miles of single and double railway, the total number of miles of rail-
way, and the number of miles of single railway, of each kind of rail,
with the total weight in tonS: It thus appears that rails of nearly 30
dittcrent weights are in use.

Table F shows for 2271i miles of single railway, the number of
miles of single railway of each description of rails, with the weight in
tons, and the proportion per cent, of each class. From this it seems
that about a quarter or 510J miles of single railway have rails under
50 lb. weight. The total weight of rails for 2271i miles of single
railway is 204,412 tons, and if we take the remaining portion of rail-
ways at the same average, we shall have a total of 309,G04 tons of
iron consumed as rails.

Tablb B.

Table or Lengths op Railway.

Single.

Miles. Double

1
MUes.

Total.

Miles.

5 miles and under

2

7} 3

8}

5

161

10

5

37i

8

58

13

95}

15

3

371

2

27

5

641

20

3

481

5

95

8

1431

25

1

24

3

66J

4

90}

30

—

—

2

55}

2

55}

35

1

321

2

71

3

1031

40

1

36

3

116}

4

152}

45

—

—

2

87

•>

87

50

—

—

2

96

2

96

60

—

—

2

110}

2

110}

70

1

61}

1

691

2

131}

80

—

—

3

225

3

225

90

—

—

—

—

—

—

100

—

—

1

971

1

971

110

—

—

—

—

120

—

—

2

230

2

230

17

285i

41 '

1414}

58

16991

Table C.
Tablb of Miles or Gauge.

4 feet 6

Single.

211

10}

2001

351
36

304}

Double.
201

963}

91
112

51

2131

Total

Miles of

Railway.

42

10}

1164}

91

112

51

351

36

2131

Total

Miles of

Rails.

621

lOf

2138

182

224

102

351

36
427

4 feet 61

4 feet 81

4 feet 8}

4 feet 9

5 feet

5 feet 6

6 feet 2

7 feet

1451}

1/56

3217}

Table A.
Table or Lengths of Railwat.

No. ,

13
13
19

7

2

58

Miles.
161
95}

208

661}

488

230

10 „

20 „

50 „

100 „

100 and upwards

16991 '

Table D.
Table of Shapes of Rails.

Single Parallel..

Parallel

Double Parallel
Shallow Parallel

Fishbcllied

Bridge Rail . . . .
Broad based T . .

Table E.
Table of Miles of Rails.

Table F.
Tablb of Miles of Rails and Weight in Tons.

Lbs. per

Miles

Miles

Miles of

Miles of

Tons

yard.

Single.

Double.

Railway.

Rails.

AVeight.

20

3

—

3

3

82

28

8

121

20J

321

242

35

321

20

52^

721

3980

40

<f

—

*i

H

298

42

42}

*i

47

51i

3366

43

3}

3

H

218

44

58J

58|

1171

8142

45

32J

26

58J

844

5966

48

294

—

291

291

2230

50

61 1

29

90J

1193

9420

S3

36

—

36

36

2974

54}

27

27

54

2580

541

—

H

6J

13i

1154

55

30^

38J

69i

107

9234

56

—

1751

1753

351

30958

57

—

38iJ

38*

771

6956

60

36i

36|

721

082S

62

1621

I62i

3254

32600

63

•■'i

47}

50l

974

9642

64

38

38

76

7660

65

31

119|

123i

2424

21686

68

4

—

4

4

428

70

—

9

9

18

1980

73

—

363

36i

734

8408

76

—

42.i

424

85

10114

77

—

57i

57i

1154

13738

84

4

4

4

528

J

Lbs. per Yard.

MUes of Rails.

T

Proportion per Cent.

20

3

82

30

324

242 i

40

77

4278

50

405£

29342 '

60

711

62684

70

763

76996

80

274

32250

90

4

528

22711

206,402

1841.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

113

REMARKS ON THE CENTRAL FORCES OF BODIES
REVOLVING ABOUT FIXED AXES.

By Joseph Martin, M.D.

(From Silliman's American Journal.)

The theory of curvilinear motion maj' justly be considered one of
the most important and interesting subjects connected with the physi-
cal sciences. It explains the motions of the heaTenly bodies, and, by
unfolding some of the grand phenomena of nature, makes them appli-
cable to the most important and useful purposes of life. It has ac-
cordingly engaged the attention of the greatest philosophers for cen-
turies, who have, by means of the most searching analyses, not only
pointed out the slightest irregularities of those bodies which compose
the great planetary system, but have discovered the causes of the
seeming aberrations, and given satisfactory explanations of them. And
yet it would seem that the most simple case of '• central forces," the
rotation of a heavy body about a fixed axis, has been in some measure
neglected, or at least, treated as a subject of too little importance,
either in a theoretical or practical point of view, to deserve more than
a passing notice.

To explain the motions of the heavenly bodies it has been found
necessary, by means of mathematical reasoning, to determine the ratio
of attraction and original impulse, or projectile force, and to show the
eftects of their separate and combined operation. In this way the part
that each of the three forces, the projectile and the central, perform
in producing and preserving the motion of a planet in its orbit, is
clearly defined ; as well as the results that would follow if either of
the last should cease to act. But the ratio of the forces which act
upon a body made to revolve about a fixed axis, and the nature and
extent of their separate or combined action, have not been distinctly
shown. In other words, it is believed that the relative proportions of
the moving power, and the forces that it produces directly 'and indi-
rectly— the manner in which the central forces are excited — and the
combined operation of all the forces upon a body whilst revolving and
when projected, have not been sitisfactorily explained.

It is not intended, however, at present to enter into an investigation
of the subject upon principles purely dynamical, but the object of these
remarks is to show by mathematical reasoning, founded upon experi-
ment and familiar examples, that the power employed to revolve a
body about a fixed axis is wholly expended in giving velocity to that
body in the direction of the circle, and that, consequently, the central
forces must be excited in obedience to a law of nature ; and, in the
second place, that the moving and excited forces act in conformity
with the principles of "the composition of forces."

Fig. 1.

If the bar of soft iron m, fig. 1, be prepared as a horse-shoe magnet
,'ind secured in a proper manner to the rod r, working horizontally on
an axle at c, it may be connected at pleasure with a galvanic battery,
by means cf its wires and the usual arrangements of cups containing
quicksilver, at the centre. The iron bar A, of a suitable size and de-
scription, moving with a given uniform velocity along the straight line
Ag, would be attracted at B by the magnet, if it were connected at
that moment with the galvanic battery, and would be made to move
in the curve Br of the circle BD, but in virtue of its inertia it would,
in the absence of friction and atmospheric resistance, continue to move
in that circle with the same uniform velocity. For the deflecting
force being independent of the projectile force, and acting at all times
in the direction of the radii of the circle, it cannot in any resfiect in-
crease nor diminish the original velocity of tl;e bar. And for the
same reasons the force with which the bar is moving in the circle can
have no influence upon the deflecting force. But a body moving in a

curve or circle is always found to be acted upon by a third force, which
is opposite and equal to the deflecting or centripetal force ; and as
there cannot be an effect without a cause, this third force must either
be derived from one of those mentioned above, or their resultant — or
from some other source. Supposing the circle BD, in which the bar
moves, to be one foot in diameter, and the velocity of the bar to be
25'14 feet per second, or at the rate of eight entire revolutions in a se-

ija 25*142
cond, its centrifugal velocity would be=: — ;= = G32 feet per

second, and its centrifugal force =:3iUb. its weight being one pound,
V representing the velocity in the circle, and r its radius; for if a be
the vfeight of the bar, g equal to 32^ feet, and x the force required,

then r : — : : a : =.r= — --r- = 3'Jlb.* But the force in the

g gr 1<J

•25- 14

circle = ■

It;

!• J5 lb. only, consequently the centrifugal force could

not have been caused by the projectile force. And it is evident that
it cannot be a part of the magnetic force, for it acts in a directly oppo-
site direction; and it is equally evident that it cannot be the resultant
of the other tivo forces, for then its direction would be to some point
within the circle. The pressure from the centre of thirty-nine pounds
must therefore have originated in some other way.

Such are the facts when the deflection from a straight line is caused
by a centripetal force directed to a fixed centre of rotation, and the
projectile or moving force is applied before the body is constrained
to move in a circle. We will now stop the revolving rod r, leaving
the bar A attached to iii, by the magnetic force. If by means of a
winch the same number of revolutions in a second be given to the bar
that it had in the first experiinent, the centripetal or magnetic force
will perform the part of cohesion, and the circumstances in every other
respect will be the same that would attend such a rotation if the bar
were welded to m. Does the moving power, applied in this manner,
directly produce the central force or immediately impart it to the
moving body? or, in other words, is centrifugal force a part of the
force employed to revolve the body ? Without attempting to prove
the negative of this question by minute mathematical investigations,
which will be avoided as much as possible on this occasion, I will show
by a reference to the familiar examples of the common sling and fly-
wheel, that in a revolving body centrifugal force, whatever be its
source, is much greater than the power necessary to give rotation to
that body, and that it cannot therefore be directly caused by the mov-
ing power, — and then explain how it may be proved by a simple ex-
periment.

It has been stated above that writers on dynamics have not clearly
defined the operation of the laws of curvilinear motion on bodies re-
volving about fixed axes. One only of the many instances in which
erroneous views are given by popular writers in noticing the subject
of central forces, will be mentioned. In the Library of Useful Know-
ledge [London edition] a viriter, after enumerating some of the won-
derful eftects producecT by accumulating force in the circum/trence of a
fly-wheel, remarks : " the same principle explains the force with which
a stone may be projected from a sling. The thong is swung several
times round by the force of the arm until a considerable portion of
force is accumulated and then it (the stone) is projected with all the
collected force.t By observing the facts we may discover how all
this accumulation of force is produced by the strength of the arm. A
stone, S, fig. 2, weighing one pound, secured to the end of a string
rather less than two feet long, may be whirled in a circle of four feet
diameter at the rate of two entire revolutions in a second. It is done
by turning the hand in a small circle AB, about a moving axis of rota-
tion. The velocity in the large circle ^r 12*57 X 2 = 25-14 feet per
second; and, as shown above, if S represent the weight of the stone,
V its velocity, ;■ the radius of the circle and x the centrifugal velocity,

then r

64

t*- j5 25*14-

S : ;;—- = :?=:-— — -^9*87 pounds. The velocity

in the circle being 25*14 its force in that direction is equal to l*58lb. ;'4I
and if we add 1*42 lb. for the weight of the stone and atmospheric re-
sistance, which is more than suSicient, we have three pounds as the
force with which it is impelled in the circle ST. To enable him to
move the stone in the circle the operator has to resist ajorce nearly
equal to ten pounds, ic/uch urgen his handjrom the centre at every instant

' Button's Mathematical Dictionary, an:l Gregory's Mechanics.
Vol. 1. p. 51, An. Mechanics.
(tv&Uo'f FbJoiopby p $&

Ill

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

I fAl'RIL,

Fig. 2.
si.

of lim(. He imist therefore exert liis strength at A in the direction of
the rcsultiint of the two forces with an effort which is equal in amount
to their mechanical equivalent. If we make A:; t>nd Ac in length pro-
portionate to the forces 3 and 10 resjiectivelv, then the diagonal Ay"
of the parallelogram AtJ'c, will show the dirtetion in which lie draws
at the string, and j/ 10- + 3- := 10-44 lb. will be the amount of force
necessary to give the required velocity; of which, as shown above,
two-thirds are expended in retaining the stone in the circle. Xow it
would be about as easy to show that a man can draw at a flexible cord
secured to a stationary object with a force equal to 10 pounds, and at
the same time press against that oh^ec\, by means of the cord, ■f;\i\\'.x
force equal to six pounds, as to prove that the centrifugal force in this
case is the immediate efl'cct of the moving power. The man moves
liis hand in a small circle and jnills at a stone, nearly in the direction
of the string to whicli it is attached, with a force equal to six times
the weight of the stone, and yet, according to the popular belief, he
not only imparts directly to it all the force with which it is projected,
but dashes it off at right angles to the thong, as if it were moved at
the end of a lever.

The thong of the sling, from what is said above, may be considered
as in the place of an inflexible rod, the hand resisting tlie pressure that
would act as a strain upon an axle at c ; and if such a rod had a handle
ut A, the same effect might be produced. But it would cause great
friction and strain npon the axle, and to obviate those difficuhies, we
will consider the circle ST as jjassing through the centre of the rim of
A fly-wheel connected by arms with the small circle AB, representing
a nave working on an axle at c. If the rim be supposed to weigh I JO
lb. it might easily be revolved at the rate of two entire revolutions in
a second by a handle at A, which is four inches from the centre, or so
considered for illustration. M'hen the winch A is moved about the
axis, the force may be considered as acting by repeated slight impulses,
as if it were applied at right angles to the radius of the circle, at each
instant of time along the side of a polygon with an infinite number of
^ides, drawn within the circle. If the sides of the polygon be one
hundred in number, they would be one fourth of an inch long, and then
one and a half inches in the larger circle ST, will be the length of each
side of a polygon along which the centre [larticles of the rim may be
supi>osed to move. As the proportion of the circle ST is to A B as
six is to unit, amoving power acting on the latter at the winch A, with
a given force, through g-, //, one fourth of an inch, will move the rim
through /, /•, equal to six times that sjiace, with one sixth of the force
applied; hai -as ilic niomevl of rolalion is tquul /u force mulliplied by
l(Vtragc,i\\Q whole amount of force upon the rim through that space
must be exactly equal to the power applied through the fourth of an
inch upon A. And so of each side of the two polygons rcspe< lively.
15ut they are considered infinitely small and ultimately become parts
of tlie two circles ; Ihe power therefore must be applied in a circle,
luid the parlicles of the rim must be propelled in circles with a force
exactly equal to thai power. Consequently, the moving power, ap-
plied to a fly-wheel or to any other revolving body, cannot be expended
in pressing tlic particles of such bodies from the centres nor in the
direction of tangents to the circles in which they revolve. And this
is evident from the fact, that such moving bodies cannot give out nor

impart, in any manner whatever, more force than is applied to revolve
them. And that force is not only (rjual to the power applied, but it is
always returned in the circle in which the body moves, a7iij in a direc-
tion contrary to thai in which it teas received. "If a wheel spinning on
its axis with a certain velocity be stopped by a hand seizing one of the
spokes, the effort whicli accomplishes this is exactly the same, as,' had
the wheel been pre\ iously at rest, would have put it in motion in the
ojiposite direction with the same velocity."* The force applied to
the winch, in the case above, was wholly expended in giving velocity
to the rim, with the slight exceptions mentioned. Consequently,
whatever other forces ra.iy have operated on the rim whilst revolving
must have originated in some other way. And yet those extraneous
forces would amount to 14bO lb., as shown by the above formula, the
rim weighing 1501b. and being revolved at the rate of two entire re-
volutions in a second. Xo part of this force could be communicated
to the arm of a man who would stop such a wheel by seizing one of
the spokes, because each partiiit of the rim is acted upon by the cen-
tral forces, which are always opposite and equal, in the direction of
the radius of the circle a/ that jjoint ; and it has just been shown that
the moment of rotation of each particle is equal to the moment of ro-
tation of the power that impels it, but " as the direction of the centra!
forces is in that of the radius, their moment of rotation is equal to uo-
thing."-'- Consequently the centrifugal force cannot act upon the hand
that stops the wheel. If, indeed, the centrifugal force were increased
to sixteen times the above amount, the result would be the same. By
giving the wheel eight revolutions in a second we would have the
central force = 14b0 X hi = 23,GsO lb. and the force in the circle

would be :=

1-2-57 X 8 X 130

= 92.jlb. Here the centrifugal force is

16

twenty times greater than the force in the circle, and yet as the cen-
tral force would act in the direction of the radii, its moment of rotation
would be =r 0. Or, what is more strictly the fact, the central force
acts by pressure, and a resultant from that pressure and the force in
the circle is the consequence, but so long as resistance from cohesion
continues, neither motion nor pressure can be imparted to another body
by the central force. These are the obvious reasons why no greater
force could be communicated by the rim than the 925 lb., which it only
possesses as a mass of matter moving in a circle.

The following experiment may be considered as a practical illustra-
tion of the theoretical views given above. A whirling table may be
made of any convenient size, we will say, for the present occasion,
rather more than four feet in diameter, to revolve horizontally on fric-
tion rollers placed near the centre ; the axle being a hollow cylinder,
through which four cords pass to the floor to be connected with a tin
tube for containing shot or some other weight. The cords are brought
over the pulleys p, p, p, p, fig- 3, at the centre, and secured to the
dishes d, d, d, d, weighing one pound each, and moving, with very

Fi3- 3.

little friction, on little wheels adapted to the strips or rails r, r, r, r.
By connecting this table with wheel-work, having bands or teeth act-
ing on the lioUow cylinder as a spindle, by means of a weight or power

*" Kater and l^ardner on Mechanics, p. 24.
Kcnwick's Matliematics. Art. C'omposiiion of Forces.

841.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

11.5

siispendefl by a rope wound round an axle, and moving dry sLoiely, a
certain number of revolutions in a minute will be given to it by tbe
power, in passing through a given space, and the four dishes will raise,
by their centrifugal force, a weight in the tube below, proportionate
to the velocity and their distance from the centre. If the moriiig
power be then rfo;(6/frf, with a slight addition to overcome the additional
friction and atmospheric resistance, it will be hunA, that in muring
through an equal space in the same time, it will give twice the former
velocity, and the dishes, at the same distance from the centre, will
raise in the tube below, in an equal time, qnaclrapte the weight first
raised. Then by loading the dishes and increasing or diminishing the
velocity, and varying the distances of the dishes from the centre, a
variety of experiments may be made, and weights may be raised, with
corresponding distances and velocities proportionate to those given
above.

By observing the manner of performing the experiments with the
magnetized bar, it will be seen that a centiifugal force is excited,

IXDEPEN'DENTLY OF THK PROJECTUX FORCE, equal tO the supposed

power of the magnet, and we have shown that the same effects would
follow without the use of the magnet. And that the impelling or
moving power performs no other part in producing the complex elfects
attendant upon rotation, than simply to move the particles of a mass
of matter in circles about a fixed axis, may be clearly shown by the
theory of curvilinear motion, which those experiments v.ere designed
to illustrate. But without attempting to prove this at present, by ab-
stract mathematical reasoning, the nature of deflection and the extent
of its operation in exciting the central forces, may be explained by a
reference to the action of electro-magnetism as shown in Fig. 1.

The bar A, when attached by the magnet, being supposed to revolve
In a circle of one foot in diameter, at the rate of eight revolutions in
a second, or iJ-H feet, to determine the amount of deflection in any
unit of time, say one fiftieth of a second, the whole space through
which it moves in a second may be divided into fifty parts, which
will give six inches for each unit of lime. If this space be measured
on the tangent from B to x, and on the circumference of the circle to
r, the deflection for the one fiftieth of a second would be equal to the
square of Br, divided by BD, or the diameter. For by dynamics, "if
a body revolve uniformly in a circle, the space through which it would
move by the action of the centripetal force alone in any unit of time,
such as a second, will be equal to the square of the arch described in
tile same unit divided by the diameter or twice the radius."* And

the deflection of the bar in the ^- of a second = :—- = — = 3

2Bc 2y

inches. That is, the deflection from the tangent Bg, during the time
that the bar would have passed over six inches in that line, is tliree
inches ; and the deflection corresponding witli the space B^, which is
equal to two feet, and through which the bar would have passed in

the jif of a second, would be

4 feet, and so of any other

space.

Now to show that the amount of this deflection or centrifugal force
depends upon the curve in which the bar is moved in a given time,
and not upon the moving power, or projectile force, vve will cause the
same bar, moving with an equal uniform velocitv, to be attracted in
a similar manner by the magnet m, attached to an arm revolving in
a circle of eight feet in diameter, and let EF be an arch of that circle,
touching the straight line Ag- at B. As the velocity of the bar and
the circumference of the circle are equal, the bar, after being attracted
by the magnet at B, would move on with the same uniform velocity
-ind perforin on^ entire revolution in a second, friction and the resist-
ance of the atmosphere being considered equal to nothing. And its

its centripetal force for jL of a

deflection from the straight line, or

second, would be equal to the square of the arch B~, which is six

inches, divided by the diameter of the circle, that is =;

•375 =:

2 of an incli, or only one eighth of the deflection caused by the smaller
wheel ; and in the same ratio for any other spaces through which the
bar would have passed whilst moving through equal spaces in the
circle. And hence it is that the central forces are inversely as the
diameters of the circles in which a body is made to move with a given
velocity. The increment of deflection for an entire second being =:

25-14- .„ .

—- — =: G32 feet per second in the smaller wheel, and in the larger

25- 1 4*

one = — - — = 79 feet per second only ; and yet the bar has pre-

Brews'.er's Neiv Edinburgh Kncyclopedia, Art. Dynamics.

cisely the same velocity, and consequently the same force in the latter
that it had in the former. Therefore, aside from friction, it would,
if welded to »i, require no more force to revolve it in the former than
in the latter case.

For the same reasons, with a given velocity for the particles of the
rims, the smaller a fly-wheel is, the greater will be the amount of cen-
trifugal force, other things being equal. This will appear obvious
upon inspecting the figure ; for it will be seen that a particle of iron
at r in the ;itn of a small wheel would be deflected from the straight
line eight times as many inches in a given unit of time as a particle
would be at the point z of the large wheel. The measure of the de-
flection from that line must therefore be the measure of the centri-
fugal force for any instant of time ; and consequently the aggregate
amount nill be proportionate to the curve in which the body moves.
This deflection takes place when a body is moved in a curved line,
and the tendency to resist it and move in a straight line is excited in
such a mass of matter in obedience to the important law of inertia,
with as much certainty as electricity would result from the action of
sulphuric acid upon two contiguous plates of zinc and copper. Centri-
fugal force may therefore with propriety be considered a physical agent,
I'chich is called into action, by an inscnttable law of nature, whenever
matter is made to move in a c«;Te;— which ought to be no more a sub-
ject of surprise, than that magnetic force should be excited in a bar of
iron by certain chemical operations, the precise nature of which is as
little understood as that of inertia.

The centrifugal principle has been employed as a projectile force
from the earliest ages. It would be interesting to notice the extent
to which it was used in ancient wars; and particularly to point out,
as might be done even with the feeble lights afforded us, how much
Archi'medes was indebted to the central forces for the destructive
elfects of his engines, which I believe to have been no fabled nor ima-
ginary productions of genius.

As I shall here come in conflict with some generally received opi-
nions, I will give a short extract from Professor Kenvvick's Elements
of Mechanics. Not that he dili'ers from other writers on this subject,
but I find that the extract will be useful in explaining what is to follow.
" The simplest case of central force is where a body connected with
a fixed point by an inflexible straight line is impelled by a projectile
force at right angles to that line. The latter force would have im-
pressed upon the body a motion with a uniform velocity. The body,
then, in consequence of its connexion with a fixed point, describes a
circle of which that point is the centre. If the connexion were to
cease at any point in the curve, the deflecting force would cease to
act, and the body would go in a straight line whose direction would
be a tangent to the cm ve. The force acting at any point in the curve
must therefore be decomposed into two, one of which is in the direc-
tion of the curve, the other in that of the radius."*

If a ball at A, Fig. 4, weighing one pound, and attached to an in-
flexible rod AC, two feet long, be impelled by a projectile force or
moving power at the rate of two entire revolutions in a second, or
'^■^TUo 'set per second, it will have a centrifugal velocity equal to
157-713 feet per second.;!; Those two velocities, then, equivalent to
the forces 1-5S Ih. and 'J-S7 115. respectively, constitute the aggregate
amount of force acting on the body at any point of the curve or circle;
the former acting in the direction of the curve, and the latter in that
of the radius — one caused by the motion of the particles of matter,
the other excited by a cause producing pressure, resisted by cohesion.
Now, according to' the fundamental principles of mechanics, " the
same cause acting upon a body will either produce motion or pressure,
according as the body is free" or restrained." And, " if two forces
act upon the same point of a body in different directions, a single force
may be assigned which, acting on that point, will produce the same
results as the united ett'ects of the other two." Here we have two
forces acting on each particle of the revolving body, but they are re-
sisted by cohesion, therefore when cohesion ceases to act, the effect
of the two forces must be, according to the theorem of the composition
of forces, to impel it in the direction of their resultant, and with an
amount of force equal to their mechanical equivalent; and experiment
shows the correctness of the theory. If an ounce ball of lead, with a
small hole drilled through it, be firmly secured by a catgut string close
to the perimeter of a fly-wheel, or any other wheel that can be rapidly
revolved, it may be discharged from "the vertical point of the circum-
ference, whilst the wheel is revolving, by interposing a sharp knife
well fixed in a slide. When the velocity necessary to project the ball
horizontally at a given short distance has been ascertained, then by
incre.ising the velocity and taking care to discharge the ball from the
same point of the circle, and at an equal distance from the centre ol
the wheel, its elevation will be found to increase with the increased

1 Page 62.

Civallo, p. 66.

R 2

116

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[April,

Fig. 4.

its centrifugal velocity would be

— -- = 39-44 feet per
4

project ile force. And tlie experiment may he varied by having a
number uf balls prepared of the same weight, and varying the velo-
cities and the distances from the centre. The effects of gravity, how-
ever, and the difficulty of representing by a straight line what may be
considered the direction of the circle, have prevented me from deter-
mining gtomelrical/ij the dinctwn of the projectile, although in prac-
tice it may easily be ascertained.

If the ball be discharged from the point A with one revolution in a
second, its velocity in tlie circle would be 12-57 feet per second, and

r= 12-5

2r

second, .ind the initial projectile velocity would be;= V 12-57'+39'44-
=41-40 feet per second, disregarding for the present atmospheric
resistance. And if, in the way of illustration, AF be considered as
the direction of the force in the circle AD, the sides Ak and A»i, of
the parallelogram Amvk, being made proportionate to the two velo-
cities \-l-:>' and 39-50 resj)ectively, the diagonal Ar of tlie parallelo-
gram will represent in direction and proportional amount the velocity
41-15 or initial projectile velocity. If a billiard-ball, moving upon a
table witli a velocity equal to I2j feet per second in the direction EF,
were to receive at A an impulse in the direction of en, which alone
would cause it to move with a velocity equal to 31)1 feet per second,
no other direction and velocity could be assigned to it, than that de-
signated by the diagonal Ar of the parallelogram. The revolving
ball is s\ipposed to move in the direction Ak with the velocity of
12-.)7 feet per second, represented by that side of the parallelogram,
and at the same time to be acted upon by a force which would cause
it to move with a velocity equal to 394 feet per second, in the di-
rection iif the side Am, which indicates that velocity, consequently no
other diixction nor amount can be as>iigntil to it, 'when projected, than the
diagonal Av o/ the parn III lugram Am i-k. If the velocity of the ball
be doubled, the centrifugal velocity increasing as the square of the
increased velocity in the circle, it wonid be =: 39-14x4:= l.)7'7G feet
per second, and the initial projectile velocity would be =V25-14'-|-lo8'-
= 100 feet per second ; and the two lirst would be represented by
the sides Ah and An, respectively, of the parallelogram Avyh, and the
diagonal Ay would indicate the direction and relative proportion of
the initial projectile velocity. With four revolutions in a second, the
initial projectile velocity would be t)35 feet per second, in the di-

rection of the line Az. At least such would be the directions for
those three velocities at the instant the ball leatea the point from which
it mai) he diaeharged. But with such low velocities a pound ball
would not indicate those directions by its path, for the reasons given
above. With I'cri/ high tncriasing velocities, however, the experimenter
will find that a small leaden ball will move in directions approaching
that of the radius, as shown in the diagram. In repeated experi-
ments made with a machine revolving veitically, and having a tube
placed in the direction of a tangent to the circle in which leaden balls
were revolved, it was found that with very high velocities they were
forced through the tube witli difficulty, and a portion of each was
removed by the friction, and the upper part of the tube, on the inside,
was worn smooth. But with much lower velocities the balls passed
through the tube without any apparent friction.

lu performing the first experiment, the bar, (A, Fig. 1,) moving with
uniform velocity in ever)- part of the circle BD, has the same centri-
fugal force at v that it would have after revolving for a minute or
more ; for the amount of that force depends upon the curvature and
the circular velocity, and consequently was excited to the amount of
thirty-nine poimds instantaneously, and if it had been discharged at
three inches from B it would have been projected with that force. If
this were not the case with bodies moving in space, supposed to be
thus deflected, they would fall to the centre of attraction. Now as this
is the fact, the tangent B.r in the diagram only serves, as every mathe-
matician knows, to show geometrically the amount of defection ir. a
unit eif time, measured at right angles to that linp, the space xr repre-
senting that through which the centripetal force alone, acting uni-
formly, would cause the body to fall in the fiftieth part of a second :
the tangent, therefore, represents the link kbom wiucn the body reoidd
he defickd in an rwitanl of time, and not that in the direction of ivhich
it itonld mo re with all its projectile force.

Again, if tlie segment of a fly-wheel disintegrated by centrifugal
force would be projected "in a straight line, whose direction is that
of the tangent," tl» pressure which produces the fracture must act
upon each particle of iron in the direction of a tangent to the circle in
which the particle is revolved, for the direction of a moving body is
always that in which a single force, or the resultant of two or more
forces, acts to cause the motion. And it is self-evident that no amount
offeree, applied in that direction upon the particles in the revolving
rim, could overcome the attraction of cohesion. And it is equally
evident that such cannot be the direction in which the pressure acts,
for whilst it is stated that the tangent is tlie direction in which the
dissevered fragment is projected, we are informed that the force which
causes the fracture acts at right angles to the tangent.

By the theory given above, however, which is founded upon obser-
vation and experiment, all the circumstances that attend this pheno-
menon are easily explained. And when we consider the immense
increase of centrifug.d force as the velocity of the rim is increased,
eind the direction in which the resultant of the two forces acts, we ought
not to be surprised to find that such masses of iron can be broken and
projected with so much destructive eHect by this powerful agent. The
ojieration of the sling may also, in this way, be explained in a few
words. For a man, with a thong three and a half feet long, has only
to give to a stone at the final effort a velocity, in a very small segment
of a circle, equal to 132 feet per second, which would be at the rate
of 360 revolutions in a minute, and he will project it with a force equal
to that given to a ball of the same weight by an ordinary charge of
gunpowder, after deducting one-third of its initial velocity for atmos-
pheric resistance. But to " accumulate" an equal force in the circle
by the strength of his arm, he would have to revolve the stone at the
rate of 6>55u revoaitions in a minute, which is impossible.

Without intending to enter into any particulars as to the probable
results of a practical application of this principle, I will close with a
few remarks designed to show the amount of force excited by the ro-
tation of heavy bodies about fixed axes, and the extent to which we
may reasonably conclude it might be employed, if it could be con-
trolled, by giving the relative proportions of the power necessary to
revolve a budy and the central force excited, considered abstractedly,
apart from friction and atmospheric resistance. " The arc which the
revolving budy describes in a given time is a mean proportional be-
tween the radius of the circle and double the space which its centri-
petal force alone, acting uniformly, would cause it to fall through in
the same time."* Consequently the diameter is to the circumference
as the circumference is to the space which the centripetal force of the
body would make it fall through in the tune of one revolution. That
space, therefore, is to the circumference as 3-141 is to unit, [3'14l
being the circumference of a circle whose diameter is unit,] and the
central velocity or force for an entire revolution in a second is equal

* Cavailo's Nai. Philos. p. (iO.

1841.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

117

to the circumference nuiltiplied by 3-141. Hence the ratio of the cen-
tral force to the force in the direction of the circle, or the moving power, is
as the product of the nnmhtr of rifolutions in a second hi/ 3-1-tl is to unit.
That is, if tiiere be two entire revohitions in a second, wliatever be
the weight of the body or its distance from the centre, the ratio of tlie
centrifugal force to the moving power would be as 3-Ulx2 is to unit,
or as six to one, nearlv ; and with eight revolutions in a second the
ratio is as 3'141 X b to unit, or as twenty five to one. And since "the
velocity of rotation is almost unlimited,"* if a fly-wheel, similar to the
one described above, were revolved at the rate of twelve hundred re-
volutions in a minute, the excited or centrifugal force in the rim would
be equal to sixty-two and a half times the amount of power employed
to give the requisite velocity, some deduction being made for friction
and atmospheric resistance.

ON THE POWER OF FLUIDS IN MOTION.

In Silliman's American Journal for January last appears the follow-
ing abstract of a paper read at the American Philosophical Society,
" On a new Principle in regard to the power of Fluids in Motion to
produce Rupture of the Vessels which contain them, and on the Dis-
tinction between Accumulative and Instantaneous Pressures ; by
Charles Bonnycastle, Professor of Mathematics in the University of
Virginia."

Mr. Bonnycastle's investigation was suggested by a paper read by
Dr. Hare, and printed in the Transactions of the Society, entitled
"On the Collapse of a Reservoir, whilst apparently subject within to
great Pressure from a Head of Water." Dr. Hare pointed out the
circumstances attendant upon this curious occurrence, and showed how
the vessel might have been momentarily relieved from the pressure
of the water within, so as to make that of the surrounding air efficient
in producing the collapse. The principal object of Mr. Bonnycastle's
paper is to investigate the precise nature and degree of the forces
brought into action in this and similar cases.

The results at which Mr. Bonnycastle arrived, are stated by him as
follows ; —

1. It is convenient to distinguish between accumulative and instan-
taneous loads, or between tliose which are gradually increased until
the deflection due to the ultimate load is obtained, and those which
commence in full efficacy from the initial position of the support.

2. Within the limits of perfect elasticity, instantaneous pressure
produces twice the effect of that which is accumulative, whether the
result be to produce deflection or fracture.

3. In regard to supports perfectly elastic in one direction, and per-
fectly flexible in the other, instantaneous action, at right angles to the
axis of elasticity, produces a deflection which is to that of accumu-
lative action as V'l to 1, whilst the tendencies to fracture are as 4 to 1.
But should any case occur when the law of elasticity follows an ex-
tremely high power of the deflection, then the singular result will
follow, that the deflections are the same, whether the force be exerted
from the initial state or the state of load, but that the tendency to
fracture will be immensely greater in the former case than in the
latter.

4. In producing the fracture of natural substances, which all depart
from the law of perfect elasticity as we approach the limit of fracture,
the ratio of the effect of instantaneous and accumulative action will
vary with the nature of the substance, never being less, for elastic
bodies, than 2 to 1, nor for flexible than 4 to 1, and more usually ap-
proaching 3 or 4 to 1 for the former case, and 5 or 0 to 1 for the
latter.

5. Let a vase or conduit be acted upon by a load which is alone
suflicient to break it, and let this load be partly balanced by a small
exterior force ; should the great interior force suddenly cease, the
small exterior action may crush the vase or conduit inward ; its energy
in such case being the sum of the interior and exterior forces.

6. Should the interior force be a vibration of the kind already ex-
plained, and should the exterior action be extremely feeble, and act
on a very great mass, this extremely feeble action may crush the vase
inward, with a power that shall exceed in any degree the enormous
action of the interior or explosive vibration. The comparison of the
interior and exterior actions is best eflTected in this case, by finding
the modulus of elasticity of a material spring that shall coincide most
nearly in effect with the interior tremor. For putting e and e' re-

pectively for the modulus of the spring and of the support, and it and
' for the deflections resulting from the tremor acting alone, and the

reaction as it does act, we have — = . / -, or, in other words, the
• Fisher's Nat. Philos.

deflection produced by the reaction, is to the deflection that would be
produced by the interior tremor alone, in the inverse proportion of the
square roots of the moduli of tremor and support.

7. Combining w hat is here said with the known laws of fluids mov-
ing in pipes, and whereby they necessarily produce hydraulic shocks,
it follows, that any vessel connected with such a train of pipes, and
plunged at some little depth in a considerable mass of water, or other
heavy fluid, will occasionally be subject to a crushing and exterior
force vastly greater than the interior strain due to the constant head
of fluid.

In illustration of the principles thus developed, Mr. Bonnycastle
details some experiments, and mentions a phenomenon which occurred
under his own notice, and is analogous to the one described by Dr.
Hare. In making experiments on the propagation of sound through
water, he had occasion to cause an explosion of gunpowder within a
hollow metallic cylinder, open at the lower end, and immersed under
the liquid; and, although the strength of the cylinder was abundantly
sufficient to bear the statical pressure of the surrounding water, he
found it crushed inward after the explosion.

ROMAN ARCHITECTURE.

[We have heretofore had occasion to speak in praise of several
articles on architecture which have appeared in the "Penny Encyclo-
pffidia," and have given several extracts; we have now much pleasure
in making some additional extracts from a very able article on " Ro-
man Architecture," which appeared in one of the recent numbers.]

With regard merely to the orders, Roman architecture presents
chiefly a corruption of the Doric and Ionic, for it may claim the Co-
rinthian as almost entirely its own, the Roman examples of that order
being not only numerous and varied, but at the same time exceedingly
different in character from the almost solitary specimen of one with
foliaged capitals which occurs in a Grecian building. But even as re-
gards the application of the orders, there is a wide difference between
the two styles ; in the Roman they are frequently employed as mere
decoration, the columns being engaged or attached to the walls, or in
some cases (as that of triumphal arches) though the columns are in-
sulated and advanced from the structure, they are in a manner de-
tached from it, inasmuch as they do not support its general entablature,
but merely projecting portions of it. Nor are these the only dift'e-
rences, for besides the frequent employment of pilasters as substitutes
for columns — that is, as constituting the order without columns — the
practice of supercolnmniation, or raising one order upon another, was
by no means uncommon ; a practice that was indeed a matter of ne-
cessity in such enormous edifices as the Colosseum, if columns were
to be employed at all. From all this it will be evident that, as regards
the orders alone, there is a very marked difference between Roman
and Grecian architecture ; yet such difterence is by no means the whole,
the two styles being almost opposites in nearly every respect. If there
were no other distinction between them, that arising from the arch,
and diverse applications of its principles to vaults and domes, would
be a very material one ; but we also meet with a variety and com-
plexity in Roman buildings which does not occur in those of Greece.
The only instance that we are acquainted with in Grecian architecture,
of anything like grouping or combination of building, is that of the
Erechtheion, or triple temple on the Acropolis of Athens. With this
exception, Greek temples were merely simple parallelograms, dirt'er-
ing from each other as to plan only in the number and disposition of
the columns around the cella ; consequently, however beautiful when
considered separately, a very great monotony prevailed in that class
of buildings, at least, in which the forms were so limited and fixed as
to preclude any fresh combinations, or anything approaching to what
is understood by composition.

By the adoption of the circular form in their plans, whether for the
whole or parts of a building, the Romans introduced an important ele-
ment of variety into architectural design ; especially when we consider
that to such shape in the ground plan is to be ascribed the origin of
the tholus, or concave dome, which harmonizes so beautifully with all
the rest, and renders the rotunda-shape at once the most picturesque
and the most complete for internal effect, — that in which both unity
and variety are thoroughly combined. 'The Pantheon alone would
suffice to convince us that the Romans were not mere copyists, and
that if as such they deteriorated the Greek orders, they also added
much to the art, and greatly extended its powers by new appliances.
As regards its exterior, the Pantheon presents what is certainly a
strikingly picturesque (and what we consider to be also a consistent
and appropriate, because a well-motived) combination, namely, of a
rectangular mass projecting from a larger circular one. In that exam
pie the body of the edifice, or rotunda itself, has no columns exter'

lis

THE CIVIL ENGIXKER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL

April,

naily: but cinuhir penstyl.ir temples, or rotumhis, whose oella was
enciosod by an external colonnade, were not uncommon. Of tins kind
is the temple of the .Sibyl, or, as it is otherwise called, that of Vesta,
at Tivoli, an edifice of singular beauty, and hiqlily interesting as a
very peculiar and unique example of the Corinthian order, the first
application of which in any modem building was made bv Soane, at
the Bank of Kngland. Kdificesof this kind were covered with hemis-
pherical ilomcs, or with smaller sections of a sphere, which conse-
quently did not show themselves much externally, as they were raised
only over the (t/lu, aud therefore the lower part was concealed bv the
colonnade pnjjecting around it. The dume of the Pantheon is hemis-
pherical within, but is of very low proportions and Hattened form
vfithout, for its spring commences at about the level of the first or
lower cornice of the exterior cylinder, and is further reducred bv the
base of the outer portion of the dome being expatided and formeti into
sepaarate cylindrical courses or gradini. If the dume liail sprung im-
mediately from the upper cornice, so as to jiresent a perfect hemis-
phere on the outside, the rotunda itself would have looked merely as
■A tambour to it, and the ell'fct would have been as preposterous as if
the cupola of .St. Paul's and tlie colonnaded rotunda on which it is
raised were placed immedialelv on the grounil, instead of being ele-
vated upon a larger pile of building.

Folygon.d forms of pl.ui wore sometimes employed, of which tlicre
is an instance in what is called the temple of Minerva Medica at Rome,
which is circular on the exterior, but internally decagonal, with nine
'•i its sides occupied by as many recesses, and the other by the door-

ly — a remarkable peculiarly, it being very unusual to enclose a poly-
gon within a cylindrical structure, aithougli not the contrary, nor to
erect a cylinder upon a square or polygonal basement. Octagon plans
were by no means uncommon: such form was frequently made use of
for the saloons of public baths; and there is an instance of an octagonal
temple, supposed to have been dedicated to Jupiter, in one of the
courts of Diocletiaii's pa'ace at Spalatro. Of hexagonal structures we
are acquainted with no example, but a court with six sides occurs in
the remains of the temple of liaalbec, not however a regular hexagon,
but of elongated figure, two of the sides being 110, and the remaining
four SS feet each. In the later periods of Roman architecture, circular
aud polygonal structuies became more frequent, and those of the first-
mentio.ied kind deviated considerably from the original simple rotun-
das and circular temples. An inner peristyle of colunms was introduced
so as to make a spacious circular or ring-shaped ambulaloiy around
the centre, which was much loftier than the colonnade being covered
by a dome raised upon a cylindrical wail over the columns. What is
now called San .Stefano Uotuuda, at Ronii^, su|)posed by some to have
been originally a tiunple dedicated first to Faunus, ami afterwards to
the emperor Claudius, and by others to have been a public market, is
a structure planned according lo the arrangement just mentioned, with
a circular Ionic colonnade of twenty columns and two piers. The
Church of Santa Costanza, traditionally reported to have been a tem-
ple of Bacchus, but now generally supposed to have been erected bj'
Constantine as a baptistery, and altervvards converted by him into a
funeral cliapel to his daughter Coustantia, is a remarkable example,
owing to the colunms being not only coupled, but unusually disposed,
and to there being arches springing from their entablature, that is,
there are twenty-four columns (with composite capitals) placed in
pairs, on the radii of the plan, or one behind the other, forming twelve
iiiter-colunms and as many arches : and as far as the mere anangement
goes, this interior is strikingly picturesque ; but it would be an im-
provement, if the dome v\ere in such case to spring immediately from
tlie imposts of the arches, and the latter to groin into it ; or at least
were it to spring from the vertex of the arches.

The circular form was a favourite one with the Romans for their
sepulchral structures of a more pretending class than ordinary. It will
be suflicitnt here merely to mention those in honour of Augustus and
Hadrian. The tomb of Cfficilia Metella is a low cylinder, the height
being only ()2 feet, while the diameter is 90; and it maybe considered
as nearly solid, the chamber or cella being no more than 19 feet in dia-
meter. This cylindrical mass is raised upon a square substructure ;
which combiuation of the two forms is productive of agreeable con-
trast; and it was accordingly frequently resorted to. The tomb of
Plautius Sylvanus near Tivoli consists also of a short cylindrical super-
structure on a square basement, but is otherwise of peculiar design,
one side of that stereobate being carried up so as to form a sort of low
screen or frontispiece, decorated witli six half-columns, and five up-
right tablets with inscriptions, between them. The tomb of Munatius
Plaucus, .it Gaeta, is a simple circular structure, of low proportions,
the height not exceeding the diameter, and therefore hardly to be
call<^d a tower, notwithstanding that it is now popularly called Roland's
or Orlando's Tower. Of quite dill'erent character and design from
any of the preceding ones, is the ancient Roman sepn'chral monument

at St. Rerai, which consists of three stages ; the first a square stereo-
bate raised on gr.adini, and entirely covered on each side with sculp-
tures in relief; the next is also square, with an attached fluted Co-
rinthian angle, and an open arch on eacli side ; and the uppermost is
a Corinthian rotunda, forming an open or mouopteral temple li. e.,
without any cella), the centre of which is occupied by two statutes.

These notices may serve to convey some idea of the variety aimed
at by the Romans in the distribution of the plans and general masses
of their edifices, independently of decoration. Their thermas, or public
baths, a class of structures remarkable for their vast extent and mag-
nificence, are most interesting studies of combinations of plan, as they
were not merely ballis, but plac'es of public resort and amusement, and
consisted of an assemblage of courts, porticos, libraries, and spacious
saloons and galleries, most of which presented some peculiarity of
form and distribution.

The Romans seem to have affected the practice of grouping build-
ings together as features in one general symmetrical plan. Their
temples and basilicas were frequently placed, as the principal arcbi-
tect\uai objects, at the extremity of a forum, or other regular area
enclosed with colonnades. The temple of Xerva stood at one end of,
and partlv projected into an enclosure (me;isnring about 3liO by liJO
feet), the entrance end of which had five open arches, and the sides
were formed by screen walls, decorated with Corinthian jjil asters, and
columns immediately before them, over which the entablature formed
breaks. Of Trajan's foram, which was surrounded not only by colon-
nades, but various stately edifices, nothing now remains except the
celebrated triumphal column that occupied its centre, and which, so
placed as a principal object, must have heightened the splendour of
the whole. Like that of Xerva, the temple of Antoninus and Faustina
was placed at one end of a court of moderate dimensions, whose sides
\vere adorned with coupled columns placed immediately against the
walls; and only the portico part of the temple fa Corinthian hexastyle,;
triprostyle) advanced into the enclosed area in front. The forum of
Caracalla was nearly a square, entirely surrounded by arcades, pre-
senting thirteen arches on each of the longer and eleven on each of the
shorter sides. In the centre was a Corinthian temple very similar in.
plan to the Pantheon, with an hexastyle, triprostyle portico in front,
and remarkable for having inner colunms behind the seiond from each
angle, so that there was a double range of them at each end, and the
central space within the portico was a perfect square e<|ual to three
intercolumns.

As our object is rather to direct attention to the modes of composi-
tion affected by the Romans and the elements of their style, than to
describe their chief architectural monuments, either historically or ac-
cording to their respective classes and destination, we proceed now to
consider some of the individual peculiarities and features belonging to
their buildings.

In the application of sculpture, particularly of statues, they were
prodigal ; but they employed the latter chiefly as architectural acces-
sories, frequently placing them over columns, or on the sunnnits of
their edifices as acroteria to pediments, by way of giving variety to
the outline of their buildings, and also of indicating at first sight their
partii-ular appropriation— a practice almost unknown to the Greeks,
there being only one instance of it. In Italian buildings, on the con-
trary, the practice has been frequently carried to a preposterous ex-
tent, rows of statues being placed on the pedestals of balustrades, so as
almost to look like pinnacles, and to produce rather a stifl' and formal
etl'ect than one of richness; whereas when tliey are introduced on the
angles and apeu of a pediment, or when there is merely one in the
latter situation, such monotony does not take place, and additional im-
portance and loftiness may be given to that portion of the edifice by
such decoration. The abundant use of statues led to th; adoption of
the niche — a feature unknown in Greek architecture— as a convenient
mode of inserting them within ths surface of walls, and thereby deco-
rating them; at the same time space was gained in interiors, where,
if otherwise placed, they would have taken up room. Xiches fre-
quently occur in Roman temples and baths ; and, as we have seen,
from the accouut given of the temple of Venus and Roma, were occa-
sionally decorated with a frontispiece of small columns, with their en-
tablatures and peiliments, but were generally left plain, and were for
the most part semicircular in plan, in which case they usually termi-
nated in an arch and semidome, after the manner of a tribune or large
recess, of which the niche was in fact a miniature copy. Xiches,
however, were very frequently rectangular in i)lan, as were also ex-
hedriE, or recesses, in which case the latter formed arches vaulted
hemicylindrically.

These various applications of curvilinear forms, both in plan and
elevation, undoubtedly furnished Roman architecture with resources
unknown to that of Greece. Nor can it be denied that the arch itself
is a very beaatiful feature, although it was employed by the Romans

1S41.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL

119

to such excess as rather to occasion monotony than to contribute to
variety of design ; for if the general character of Greek temples was
invariably uniform, presenting in the exterior merely lines of columns,
the amphitheatres and similar works of the Romans consisted only of
continuous tiers of arches, which constituted their more strongly
marked features, the columns placed against their tiers lieing merely
ornamental accessories, and coni))aratively of little effect, and even
that not of the very best kind. In either case — the Roman or the
Greek — a single compartment of an edifice, whether arcaded or colon-
naded, serves as a pattern for the whole ; and although uniformity and
continuitv conduce to grandeur, yet if precisely the same kind of uni-
formity recurs in every building of the same class, it becomes weari-
some.

We now come to consider a practice eventually adopted, by means
cf which the arch and column became amalgamated as integral parts
of the same ordinance, viz. that of supporting arches upon colunms,
making them spring either directly from their capitals or from an
entablature-shaped block over them. We are aware that this practice
is almost uniformly condemned as barbarous and absurd; yet in our
opinion somewhat too hastily, and with more of prejudice than of fair
examination. That it was introduced during the decline of the art,
and that it was an innovation subversive of former principles, is not
to be denied. Yet if it must be reprobated, it ought to be so for its
own demerits, not as an innovation ; for all invention is such. It ap-
pears a very poor argument against it, to say that columns were origi-
nally designed to support horizontal architraves ; we do not see how
that circumstance, of necessity, renders everv other application inad-
missible. At that rate we must censure as vicious a great deal of
both Roman and modern architecture, where attached columns are
employed merely as ornaments, vet, as frequently as not, in such, man-
ner as to produce a character of littleness and poverty, they being so
small in proportion to the rest as to appear insignificant, and at such
intervals from each other that all the beauty and harmony of a colum-
nar ordinance is lost. Where columns are employed to support, it
certainly cannot be alleged that they are idle unmeaning expletives :
nor that they are mutilated by being apparently partly embedded in
the wall behind them, "A pier," it has been remarked by an intelli-
gent waiter, "is but a differently sliaped and more massive column; "
w iiich being granted, what impropriety can there be in employing the
latter as a substitute for the other, provided it be done with judgment
and discretion, and where, upon the whole, it will prove an advan-
tageous mode of treatment ! It certainly is a barbarous mode to turn
small arches upon colunms, which are not more than between two and
three diameters apart, of which we have examples in the basilica of
S. Paolo, and .Santa Agnese fuor delle Mura, at Rome. The inter-
columns are such that they might easily have been closed horizontally;
indeed the openings between the columns have scarcely the appear-
ance of being arches ; but the whole looks as if the wall resting upon
the columns was scooped out into diminutive arches over the inter-
columns. In those instances, too, the arches tliemselves are quite
plain, without archivolt or mouldings of anv kind, and consequently all
keeping is destroyed : the architectural embellishment terminates with
the capitals of the colnmrs, and so far the elfect is similar to what
would be produced by placing a plain horizontal mass upon a range of
columns, instead of a moulded entablature. Although one of an oppo-
site kind, it is equally a fault to make the arches spring not imme-
diately from the capitals of the columns, but from square fragments of
entablature over them (as, for example, in the interior of St. Martin's,
Loudon) not only because such fragments are unmeaning in themselves,
and suggest the idea of the columns having been found too short for
their intended purpose, but because they remind us quite unnecessarily
of the original application of the column to the horizontal entablature.
If entablature be admissible at all, it is when the columns are coupled,
as in the church of Costanzu already noticed ; for then some kind of
architrave at least becomes requisite, in order to connect the two ca-
pitals, as it were, together. One very great advantage attending the
combination of the arch with the column as its support, is, that it
allows the openings to be considerably wider than they otherwise
could be, because such intervals as would produce a poor and strag-
gling effect in a colonnade, become well proportioned and agreeable
V. hen spanned by arches. Such columujr arcades liave frequently
been employed by the Italians with happy effect in coriili and places
cf that kind, where piers of the usual kind would obstruct the view-
too much, and where intercolumns of the same proportions, between
j'illars supporting a horizontal entablature, would have a poor and
disagreeable effect, particularly if, as is generally the case, other stories
of the building rested upon the porticoes below. In fact, ordinances
composed of arches and pillars constitute the best specimens of Italian
columniated architecture. That in the cortile of the Palazzo Piccolo-
mini at Siena, the work of Francesco di Giorgio, is singularly beauti-

ful in its distribution, remarkable for the richness of its details, and
also for the variety which it presents in perspective, as may be judged
from the view of it given in Grandjean and Famin's " Architecture
Toscane." We have already mentioned the interior of St. Martin's
as containing an example of arches upon columns, and that of St.
Bride's, London, furnishes another, but neither is a favourable one.
A more satisfactory example may be found within llie loggia of the
Strand portion of Somerset House, where, though the arches spring
from entablatures over the columns, yet as the latter are placed in
pairs, those horizontal parts are more than mere upright blocks over
the capitals. The quadrangle of the late Royal Exchange, London,
had arches springing immediately from the capitals of the columns,
but their breadth was excessive in proportion to the height of the
latter, and their elliptical form was a great defect, and certainly did
not at all contribute to beauty. All that we contend for is the principle
on which the practice is founded ; for as to the merits of the butldings
in which it is adopted, that must, like every thing else in architecture,
depend upon the taste shown in the particular application of it, which
may be exceedingly good or altogether the reverse. Hungerford
i Market affords a good example of an ordinance composed of columns
1 and arches, and also an idea of the general character of a basilica,
though of course somewhat modified, and without any sort of archi-
tectural luxury.

ARCHITECTURE OF LIVERPOOL.

KOKTH AND SOUTH WALES BANK.

In an article in thy Journal headed the Architecture of Liverpool,
signed H., occurs the following sentence. "This is an example of the
eftijits of modern com])etition, where the successful architect, having
liad his design adopted in consequence, it is said, of his private inte-
rest in the committee of management, lias not only the advantage, as
was understood at the time of examining those of bis competitors,
during the six weeks which elapsed between the decision of the com-
mittee and the return of the designs to their respective authors, but
is permitted to expend about twice the amount to which they were in
the first instance limited ;" w hich under the mean mark of, " it is said,"
hides four distinct assertions meant to reflect discredit un the commit-
tee of management and on myself, — all four are thoroughly untrue. In
the first place I, the architect, had my design chosen unanimously by the
committee, without the interference of any private interest. Secondly,
I did not either at the time of the designs being before the committee,
or any other time see, or have opportunity to see any one of them,
(excepting only the one considered second best, sent by Mr. Leigh
Hall, of Manchester, and to see which, I went to his office by his own
invitation some months afterwards.) On the contrary, the manager of the
bank carefully kept them unseen after the decision, until at various times
they were sent for by their owners' — ^considering it his duty to the un-
successful architects ; and certainly I should not have been mean enough
so to examine them, or under the shuffling cloak of the words " under-
stood at the time," to assert and publish anonymously that any other
person diil so, unless I had known it of my own knowledge. Thirdly,
The time the plans were in the directors hands was four, and not six
weeks, and during all that time I was engaged in a tour in the west of
Scotland and the north of England. And fourthly, no amount w hatever
was named to limit the architect, and the sum expended is not greater
than was anticiijated, and shown by tlie architect, except such part of
it as is due to the fact of the foundations having to be taken down 27
feet below the surface, in cousequence of the discovery of the site
being partly that of the old castle ditch of Liverpool, and which part
of the cost is w'ell invested by the building in that depth, strung and
valuable bonding vaults. I send a ground plan by which you will see
that H. contradicts himself, by stating that the obtuseness of the angle
is rendered " most painfully obvious," by my having placed the line of
wall " at right angles to the long side, and therefore not parallel to its
own line of front f it is parallel to its own line of front, and therefore
is (ii feet in 3o more obtuse than a right angle ; surely the writer must
have distorted vision who could not see the aifference between an angle
of llil degrees and a right angle, even when it was rendered "most
painfully obvious," the fact shows that the obtuseness of this angle
was a "difficulty" so "overcome," as to baffle his discernment. That
I have taken away by my, pilasters two feet in width, and by the en-
trance five feet in lengtli, is untrue ; the bases are allowed by the town's
authorities to project beyond the building line, and the space from the
front of the pilaster to the inside of the stone work of wall is just two
feet, so my judicious and veracious friend H. would leave nothing for
the thickness of the wall; this blunder arises no doubt from the com-
mon practice of making pilasters merely accessory ; in my building

120

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[April,

they are the nail, and are throughout the structure the support. The
building has been admired not only by your judicious writer " Eder,"
but by many whose opinions are at least as well worth having as that
ei the sharp- siglited H.

I am, respectfully,
King Street, Manchester, Edward Cokbett, Architect.

3TdMonth2, 1841.

RAILWAY ACCIDENTS.

Sir — As the greater number of fatal accidents which have recently
occurred on railways may be fairly fat least in my opinion) traced to
a wantof sufficient look-out ahead, it has occurred tome, that great ad-
vantage would result from having a third person as a conductor on the
engine, whose duty it should be exclusively to attend to the signals,
keep a look-out ahead when the train is in motion, and apprise the
engineer of any other train, workmen, materials, &c., being on the line
from which danger may be apprehended, as also to apprise such train,
workmen, &c. of the approach of that to which he is attached.

This person should not be associated with the engineer and stoker
on the stage behind the tire-box, but should be elevated on a seat be-
fore the cliiuiney, where he would at all times have a much better
opportunity of keeping a look-out than the engineer has, whose view
is often partially or entirely obstructed fas I have frequently observed)
by the steam escaping from the valves, or by the smoke and steam
from the chimney, besides the disadvantage the engineer always labours
under in looking along the side of the boiler. The situation of the
conductor would be particularly advantageous in the night for observ-
ing the signal lamp of a train in advance, which from its position may
be easily overlooked by the engineer, who has the light of his own fire
to distract his attention.

The situation of the conductor which, is herein advocated, I am aware
would be attended with little advantage without an adjunct. I there-
fore propose that there shonUl be two whistles on the boiler, over the
lire-box, with levers and rods attached to them, leading to the seat of
the conductor, so that by means of them he may easily communicate
with the engineer, or give warning to the train or workmen, &c., on
the line before him. One of these whistles should be used as a
warning only, and the other to convey to the engineer a peremptory
order to stop the engine in case of a sudden emergency. The engineer
should still have, as at present, the means of working the cautionary
whistle, independent of the conductor; and he might be funiished
with an apparatus to arouse the attention of the latter in case of his
being in doubt.

The responsibility and attention of the engineer would not necessarily
be diminished by the adoption of this plan, on the contrary, while he
should be required to keep as vigilant a look-out as at present, the
superior situation of the conductor would be a great additional security
to the lives and property of the public. The directors of railways
incur, as was very properly expressed by them at their late meeting
at Birmingham, a fearful responsibility, and it behoves them to take
every precaution in their power for the protection of the lives and
property intrusted to their caie.

Should this suggestion prove to be the means of lessening the danger
of the public, and the responsibility of those whose duty it is to pro-
tect them, the object I had in view by troubling you with this, will be
fully answered. Begging the favour of your giving this a corner in
your valuable Journal,

I remain, Sir, your most obedient servant,

A Civil Engineer.
Thornhilt, near U-'akeJield,
March 11, 1841.

PUBLIC SAFETY AND CONVENIENCE.

Sir — It is to be hoped that the recent accident of two houses falling
down in so public a thoroughfare as Fleet Street, which is constantly
thronged during the day time, will at least have the good effect of
exciting greater vigilance for the future. But, at present, it seems
there is no adequate authority which can interfere imperatively and
instantly in such cases ; or, if there be any authority and responsibility,
there must be most scandalous and criminal negligence somewhere or
other.

Passing the other day through that not very refined but now classical
locality of Pickwick celebrity, ycleped Goswell Street, 1 was struck
by the frightful manner in which, owing to the accumulation of earth
behind it, the churchyard wall bulges out above in such manner, that it

looks as if about to give way. Would it not, therefore, be advisable
to ascertain whether there is any real danger of its doing so, and
whether it would not be prudent to strengthen it by buttresses at
intervals ?

That far greater attention is paid to the comfort and security of
pedestrians in London than in any other capital or city, may be readily
admitted ; nevertheless there are improvements which might be
adopted, were all that relates to the care of the public streets placed
under the control of a general Board for the whole metropolis.
Though it may be thought a very trifling matter in itself, it would be
well were tl)ere some kind of authority to regulate the names of streets,
and thereby prevent the inconvenience sometimes occasioned by the
same name being borne by half a dozen or half a score different streets
in various parts of the town. Surely it would not be a matter of great
difficulty to find a distinct name for every street, even were the me-
tropolis to grow to twice its ])resent size. Therefore, although to
attempt now to correct the present nomenclature, by naming afresh
some of our numerous George Streets, King Streets, Castle Streets,
might occasion iis much confusion as it would obviate, there might
be a regulation, ordering that in future, no new street should have
a name already appropriated by some other.

Far more essential is it to the public that they should be enabled to
cross such exceedingly wide carriage ways as those in Oxford Street,
Regent Street, Charing Cross, Whitehall, Holborn opposite Furuival's
Inn, &c., with less inconvenience and danger than they now incur.
What objection there can possibly be to erecting a lamp-post here
;jnd there, with short posts around it, so as to form a secure spot
midway of the crossing where foot-passengers might stand in security,
it is difficult to conceive. It is true something of the sort has been
done already, but not effectually ; fur the crossings are still left dan-
gerously wide, as for instance, that opposite Northumberland House,
where there ought to have been two lamp-posts and resting-places
instead of a single one. Besides, why should there be none at all in
Regent Street, &c., where they are quite as much wanted ? or does it
not matter whether people be run over by carriages in those particular
places ? Another thing that might be attended to, were it made any
body's duty to do so, is the sweeping the crossings in dirty weather,
for the swept pathway is generally so narrow, that if two persons
meet, they must either jostle against each other, or one of them step
into the mud. At the time of the thaw, some weeks ago, the streets
were almost impassable for foot-passengers; which would not have
been the case had the snow been entirely cleared away from the cross-
ings, leaving there a passage of about 12 feet broad.

There ought to be some regulation for providing urinals at suitable
distances, whereas, at present, there seems to be no regulation at all
in regard to them, that being a public accommodation left entirely to
chance ; so that in many parts of the town it is difficult to meet with
any place of the kind. Yet, if no where else, one might be fixed at
the entrance to every carriage mews; and not only might they be better
contrived than they usually now are, but it should be made the duty of
the police to see that they are not scrawled over in the disgusting
manner they frequently are.

Unfortunately it is worth nobody's while to make a stir about such
matters, because they are not of the kind which the newspapers gabble
about. Xo! any one might gain greater celebrity any day by merely
standing on his head at Charing Cross.

I remain &c. &c.,

A PfiDSSTRIAN

Metallic lialirf Engraving. — As you are ever anxious to give the first tidings
lit new inventiuns, 1 doubi not the two follow inj^ embryo methods of engrav-
ing will be as interesting to yourself as to your readers: — Take a tablet of
plaster of Paris, and, having heated it, apply wax for absorption to all the
laces save that on which you intend yovr drawing to be. and to that one ap-
ply your drawing, execuied with lithograiihic ink, on lithographic transfer
paper. Let the sule ot the tablet on which is the translerred drawing, be now-
dipped in weak acid and water, and then permitted to absorb a solution of
sulpliate of copper. By electro-metallurgy a deposition of copper can be
made on all parts sained with the sulphate. Ere this coating be too thick,
let the tablet be removed from the vessel in which this last operation has been
carried on, vvaslied i-iireJuUij. dried, and a mixture of isinglass and gin be
poured on it; its redundancy be .uently blotted oft with lilotting-paper till
the surface be level {i. e. the cojiper lines and isinglass cement be oi tbe same
height) : again, let the deposition take place, and again its succeeding opera-
tion i alter which let common black lead be rubbed over the whole surface ;
and the deposition being renewed, a copper mould, from wh cli a type metal
block may be sub equently cast, is now tormed. — Another method. — Draw with
a pen dipped in warm isinglass coloured cement, and when your drawing be
dry, for an instant expose it to steam, and ihen coat it wiih leaf gold. Pro-
ceed by eleclro-metallargy, as in last method, and no cast is necessary. —
Atltenteum,

1S41.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

121

CANDIDUS'S NOTE-BOOK.
FASCICULUS XXV.

" I must have liberty
Withal, as large a charter as the wintls,
To blow on whom I please."

I. It were to be wished that some of those who profess to admire
Palladio, would be at the trouble of specifying his particular merits
and beauties by pointing out striking instances of tliem in his works.
Instead of which they deal only in vague eulogiuni, which teaches no-
thin". Surely they ilo not mean to say that it would not be worth
while to perform so good an office for their favourite, nor can we
imagine that it would be either a difficult or a disagreeable one to
themselves. On the contrary it would afibrd them the opportunity of
dwelling upon his excellences one by one, while such analysis of them
might perhaps enable them to detect, to a certain extent at least, the
secret of his peculiar art in composition. Neither would the task be
at all superflnous, because I have met with others besides myself, who
have confessed that they have not only been struck by egregious faults
and solecisms in Palladio, but have been utterly unable to perceive any
counterbalancing merits in him, — at the best no very striking beauties.
For my own part I should say there is scarcely any work of Palladio's
which does not aftbrd an instance of something or other tasteless or
faulty. By no means do I intend to deny that there are many useful
elements to be derived from them, but as exhibited in his own com-
positions, they are either valueless, or else overpowered and neutralized
by the rest.

II. It is likewise not a little remarkable that after Professor Hosk-
ing's bold attempt "to disabuse the public mind as to the merit of the
work of Vitruvius," not only the public but professional men should
continue to speak of it with implicit deference as before, and without
attempting in turn to vindicate it from the aspersions so cast upon it,
just as if the opinion put forth in such diametrical opposition to their
own, had been given to the world anonymously iu some obscure news-
paper paragraph, instead of proceeding from an autlioritative quarter,
appearing in a treatise in the Encyclopajdia Britannica, afterwards
published separately, as a manual for students, consequently likely to
prove extensively mischievous — at least in the opinion of those who
still continue to "swear by Vitruvius," looking upon him as an infalli-
ble oracle. If such persons are perfectly sincere — which is somewhat
problematical — their silence argues a great want of moral courage,
since they patiently allow their oracle to be treated with contumely
and indignity, without reproving the oft'enders; — unless indeed it be
by merely affecting to sneer "at the small fry of critics who carp at
Vitruvius." Such cool contempt may look very magnanimous, but it
is in reality little better than cowardice, and a virtual acknowledg-
ment that the less the merits of Vitruvius are inquired into, the better
for him and his admirers. It is not denied that his writings have
some interest, but then it is almost entirely in a philological point of
view. They may occasionally help to elucidate nrcheeological facts ;
but as far as the study of the art is concerned, they require to be elu-
cidated by means of the other more satisfactory and more copious
sources of information now opened to us. Perhaps it would have been
a blessing to architecture had they never been discovered, for they
have undoubtedly exercised a baleful influence on the Italian school,
since had it not been for the blind deference paid to them, it is pro-
bable that on the revival of Roman architecture, the great masters
would have freely imitated the orders of antiquity, instead of cramp-
ing the art, by establishing positive rules for each, and by endeavouring
to make them conform as nearly as possible to the recipes given by
Vitruvius ; — in contradiction to that license — if it must so be termed,
which manifests itself in actual examples — not those aftbrded by build-
ings alone, but by detached specimens and fragments, some of which
are infinitely more valuable as artistical studies. Would Vitruvius
help us to the Tivoli Corinthian, or to any of those varieties of the
Ionic capitals, ice, which we meet with inPiranesi's "llagnificenzes"?
Vitruvius and the Italians who have given us their codes of the orders,
would reduce each to a single pattern : Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian,
must each be put into its respective uniform, the precise cut of which
is established by their martinet regulations, which, like the laws of the
" J\Iaids and Parsom" as Hook calls them — are to remain unaltered.

III. In this country architecture — or at least the study of it, seems
to be just now marching at cjuick pace — backwards. While the Insti-
tute is forming a collection of the various editions of Vitruvius, the
Royal Academy Professor is instilling some very odd notions into his
audiences; — of course quite orthodox, since he himself must be looked

upon as the very centre and fountain of orthodoxy; nevertheless far
from being of the most enlightened kind, or manifesting a genuine
Catholic love of the art. Wren seems to be the god of his idolatry —
the master to whom he would refer us at the present day as the stan-
dard and compendium of architectural excellence. He claims our
admiratiou not only for St. Paul's,— which we most readily concede,
but for every other production of Wren's, although the majority of
them possess no beauty whatever, but on the contrary display utter
want of taste, and scarcely any invention.

IV. I am sometimes inclined to wonder, not that architecture should
not be cultivated as a mere study, but that it should have any volunteer
followers at all, for the silly trifling, the dulness, the pedantry, the
bigotry, the extravagant galimathias, the downright nonsense, one has
either' to imde through, or else evade by skipping over,— are enough to
disgust people with most treatises on architecture. As a mere vague,
indistinct poetical analogy, something of the kind may be fancied to
exist between architecture and music ; but to adopt such speculations
seriously as Vitruvius suggests — although he has not explained hom
we are to set about doing so, is sheer extravagance— a will-o'-the-
whisp chimera, a delirium of the intellect. A thousand other analogies
just as much to the purpose, just as substantial, and not a whit more
whimsical might be traced by any one who chooses to beat the trouble
of doing so. "For instance, I myself would engage to show the analogy
between Architecture and Cookery much more clearly and explicitly
than has?hitherto been done in regard to that fancied to exist, between
Architec'ture and Music. The fantastic opinions promulgated by some
in reo-ard to architecture, convince us that Swift's Laputa is no carica-
ture—quite the contrary, for the idea of extracting sunbeams from
cucumbers, or of applying trigonometry to tailoring, seems perfectly
rational compared with ilichael Angelo's queer crotchet— viz., that a
knowledo-e of anatomy is indispensable to the architect ; or with the
crazy metaphysical rhapsodies of Padre Georgi and his "Platonic
principles" in architecture ! what lunatic reveries!

V. Among the very queer things which have fallen from the Pro-
fessor's lips during his course of lectures, may be reckoned, his ad-
monition to students to avoid aiming at the Picturesque in architecture.
Without o-oing any further, it would be sufficient to remark that the
advice, ho'wever salutary, is perfectly superfluous, for whatever else
may be alleged against modern architecture and architects, it is quite
impossible to lay picturesqueness, or the aim at it, to their charge. On
the contrary we see building after building erected, which are remark-
able for nothing so much as the entire absence of all picturesque quality,
so that if not amenable to criticism when examined by standard rules,
they are quite spiritless and insipid. Even allowing that the advice
was intended chiefly as a caution to the junior students, to guard them
from the error of attending chiefly to such effect, and overlooking
more important considerations,— it does not seem to be of the
soundest and most wholesome kind. If the architect intends
to become more than a builder, we should say, it is highly im-
portant that he should begin to cultivate his taste, to exercise his
fancy as soon as possible. For if the imagination is to be restrained
until the judgment shall have been matured, and until proficiency
in practical knowledge shall have been attained, the probability is
that there will then exist no imagination to be brought into play.
To ex]iect that they who begin as plodders will end as artists,
is to expect the order of nature will be reversed— that after-life will
prove the season of genial inspirations and high imaginings which
never came across the mind in youth— and that after years of torpidity
and dulness, the powers of fancy will burst forth with peculiar vigour.
Methinks it would have been greatly more to the purpose had the
Professor exhorted his pupils to endeavour to secure picturesque
qualitv in the first sketches of their ideas upon paper, and then rigo-
rouslv to revise them, correcting, sobering down, maturing, until the
whole should satisfy the judgment as well as the fancy. If, indeed,
the principal or sole merit of a design consists in its being picturesque,
it will be more or less defective in more essential points; yet that
quality in itself is not a defect, unless it can be shown that every thing
else has been sacrificed in order to obtain it. I almost wonder the
Professor did not follow up his admonition by a fling at that specimen
of the picturesque in architecture which his predecessor both at the
Academv and the Bank of England, — has given us in the North-west
angle of'the last-mentioned building. And except that, there is hardly
another instance about town, where picturesque expression has been
studiously brought in, unless it be in that very strange piece of archi-
tecture iii the AssuranceOffice in the Strand, which the Professor should
have held out in ternirem to his pupils, and held up in derision to his
audience generally.

VI. Some one,' I find, has been liberal enough to say of me in a
newspaper critique on one of the late nambera of the "Civil Engineer,"
that if ! wanted a motto, I might take "Castigat Ridendo" for the

122

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[April.

purpose, and that my remarks, Uiougli "cxceeiiingly pleasant, are also
confoundedly caustic, original willial, and full of matter." This is
certainly encouraging, and holds out to me the hope that the continual
drippings of my pen may in time make imprf ssion somewhere, and
wear away some of the prejudices against which they are directed.
Inveterate errors — errors, moreover of a Ttspictabtt kind, and sanc-
tioned hy what passes with the world for paramount authority in all
such matters — are not to be exploded in a day, but are rather to be
vvoni away by constant tiling. The great thing to be accomplished, if
we would advance architecture, is to diffuse a taste for it among the
public. For this no stone should be left unturned ; nevertheless, it is
precisely the very point which is never taken into consideration at
all. And why ? because none, be they either individuals or societies,
feel their o»u immediate interests concerned in it. It is all very well
to string together a parcel of pompous words and jdirases about en-
couragement of art. But it is all moonshine — all gaumion! for it has
not even the poor merit of sincerity, being no less hollow that it is
shallow.

V'll. Professor Hosking does not hit the right nail on th<^ head,
when he lays so nnuh stress upon the importance of practical know-
ledge. Al any rate, as far as architecture is concerned, it is nut there
that our deficiency is most apparent. Not a few buildings might be
enumerated which, though perfectly irreproachable in respect to con-
struction, are altogether unsatisfactory, absolute nullities and naught, if
we consider them as productions of art — and were we not to allow
them to be such, their authors would be ready to Cardigan us. There
are people, nay, professional ones, who affect to hold all that belongs i
to taste — to the asthetical part of architecture, as matter of indifference.
Possibly they may be sincere — the greater probability is that they are
not; but if they are both sincere and consistent, with what utter scorn
must they look upon — as what arrant rubbish must they regard, nearly
all that has been written upon architecture, -.vhether by Vitruvianists
or Palladianists, by Greeks or Anti-Greeks, by Goths or Anti-Goths.
How must they in their hearts despise all the vvordy strife and conten-
tious babblings and g ibblings with which some square miles of paper
have been covered !

CHEETHAM CHURCH, &c.

Sir — It is to be hoped that the example set by your correspondent
who has furr.ished the account of the church at Cheelham will bo fol-
lowed by others ; for similar descriptions of buildings lately erected or
in progress in different parts of the country, would prove valuable
information, if only as directing inquiry to what is deserving notice.
And since architects themselves are, it seems, very backward in com-
municating intelligence of the kind, all the more desirable is it that it
should be volunteered by other parties, istill, though the description
here mentioned is sufficiently full and satisfactorv upon the whole, the
writer has omitted to state the dimensions of the building, to which
he might have helped us by some sort of calculation in round numbers,
though he might not be able to tell the precise admeasurements.
Neither would it have been amiss had he informed us at what time
the church was began and completed, for both dates and dimensions
are rather important items in all architectural descriptions, (juite as
much so as that of cost, which last, however, seems to be invariably
the uppermost consideration of all with Mister John Bull.

While I thank the writer for his communication, I must say there
is one expression which I think he had better have left out, for I can
really perceive no modesty whatever in his affecting to call himself
"an incompetent person," at the very same time tliat he adds "archi-
tect" to his name ; for unless it plainly appears to the coutrary, it
may be presumed that a professional man is tolerably competent to
draw up an architectural descriptiou.

H.'s strictures on the " Banks," &c., at Liverpool, contain so much
sound criticism, and are written with such spirit and ability, that I
sincerely hope you will be able to prevail upon him to extend his ob-
servations to other buildings in that town. If he choose to do so, he
might probably be able to make some communication relative to the
intended "Assize Courts," and "St. George's Hall," both which
almost seem to be abandoned, at least for the present. It is, there-
fore, desirable to know why so much fuss should have been made at
all, if nothing is to come of it.

Vou will think that I am going to review nearly all the articles in
your last number, still, J must be allowed to say a word en jiassaiU to
Mr. East, and without expressing my opinion on his paper generally,
jbscrve that it would have been not at all less to the purpose, had it
pecitied a few of Camjibeirs works, and instanced in them those
,«eculiarities w liich he notices. He might, too, at the same time, have

enlightened such blockheads as Candidus and mvself, by pointing out
in what buildings or designs of Palladio's we are to 'discover that
"grand simplicity and rich excellence"— mum /tnca/js .'—which he
claims for him. I have spent lialf a dav in looking over a set of his
works, yet, hang me if I can find out any' thing of the kind in anv one
of them. Mr. East will, perhaps, say that then I fairly deserve to be

hanged without benefit of clergy. I'am, therefore, resolved to hang

no, I don't mean to hang myself, but to suspend— my pen for the

present,

I remain, &c. &c.,

JoBN Croker.

ON THE CURVATURE OF THE ARCHES OF THE
BRIDGE OF THE HOLY TRINITY.

SiK — In looking over some old plans, I fell in with my solution u
the curvature of the arches of the bridge of the Holy Trinity at
Florence, as far back as January, 182G. I was induced to attempt
jhis solution in consequence of a paper published in the Quaterly
journal of Science, edited at the Royal Institution, by Samuel Ware,
£sq., April, 1S"23, Vol. 15, at the same time having a bridge to erect
ver the College River, where the situation required a bridge of
s milar construction.

" ON THE CtraVATURE OF THE ARCHES OF THE BRIDGE OF THE HOLY
TRINITY AT FLORENCE. I3V SAMUEL WARE, ESQ.

"To determine the curvature of the arches of the Most Holy
Trinity, erected over the Arno at Florence, by Baitolommeo Ammanati,
is a problem which still occupies the attention of antiquaries, mathe-
maticians and architects. Some account of the interest this question
has excited will be found in Ferroni's tract, entitled ' Delia vera curva
degli archi del Ponte a S. Trinita di Firenze ; discorso geometrico-
storico,' inserted in the 11th vol. of the 'Transactions of the Societa
Italiana delle Scienze.

" When it is observed that the curvature of these arches affords the
flattest roadway and the greatest waterway, with the smallest quantity
of material, of any stone bridge ever constructed ; and taking into
consideration that cast iron is ten times stronger than marble, and
twelve times stronger than common stone in compression, and that the
vault of this bridge is less in depth from intrados to the extrados than
any iron bridge hitherto built, with relation to the radius of cun-ature
atthe vertex, we shall not wonder that the inquiry should be con-
tinued until a satisfactory solution be obtained."

The annexed construction gives every ordinate to an extreme exact-
ness when executed with accuracy, as shown by the figures in the
annexed diagram. Also the chord of the smaller arch of 45' 16' A"

1841.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL

123

by the same construction gives 7" 3' 5" as the versed sine. Fide
Quarterly Journal of Science.

I am, Sir,
Wooler, Your very obedient servant,

2iith January. Expertus Loqui.

Geometrical Solution.
Construction. — The span or chord AA being given, subilivide it
accurately into eight equal parts. Add to each extremity of the
chord AB also an equal part, the semi-diameter of the piers. Bisect
the extreme divisions of the chord AC in D, and with DA as a radius,
and D as a centre, describe the circle AEC. Then, from the centre
of the chord F to the point D as a dimension, make the equilateral
triangle FGD, and continue the line GD to E; — E is the point of inter-
section. Next, with CA as a radius and C as a centre, describe the
circle AH ; then take AF (one half the chord) as a radius, and G as
a centre, describe the arc EH — H is also a point of intersection.
Lastly take the base line BB as a dimension, and make the equilateral
triangle BIB, and with HI as a radius and I as a centre, describe the
arc HH, which gives the required curve.

WOOLF'S DOUBLE CYLINDER ENGINE.

Sir — An estimate has been given of the power of Woolf 's double
cylinder rotary engine, at page 50, February 184 1, — on assumed con-
ditions of steam pressure, so much at variance with those which could
occur, that I conceive further observations are required to elucidate
this subject.

In regard to the Cornish engines, perhaps it would be difficult to
assign to each their relative position in the scale of merit, in the in-
troduction of the improvements by means of which so great an increase
of work has been obtained in Cornwall.l

Woolf's advocates may fairly point to the reported duty of his en-
gines, which for a long period maintained their position at the head
of the best — at present neither his engines or boiler are in use. Trevi-
thick, who was equally well known as an advocate of high steam, went
to America just at the critical period when the results of the rivalry
established among the raining engineers had began to develop itseli.
His boilers still keep their ground, and have afforded other engineers
the means of working high steam expansively in Watt's engines, with
an effect far exceeding that as yet obtained from Woolf's engines.

In the former the calculations for expansion are well known — but in
the latter the original volume of steam cut off is driven into another
cylinder during expansion — while the mean pressure of this steam re-
acts against the full pressure steam by which the smaller piston is
impelled.

■The admission however of the steam into the small cylinder may
be cut off at any portion of the stroke, and worked expansively during
the remainder, and may then be further expanded in the large cylinder,
so that the assertion that "the capacity of the smaller cylinder natu-
rally determines the quantity of steam which the boiler must supply,"
is untenable.

The only safe assertion respecting the steam pressure in the cylinder
would be that it is lower than that in the boiler, and the difference
was only considerable, especially in Woolf's practise, from his opinion
in favour of wire-drawing high steam, and the small allowance of
steam room in his boilers.

Supposing the safety-valve of a boiler loaded with 40 ft. per square
inch, it is not probable that the constant total pressure in the cylinder
would exceed 4U ft., including atmospheric — that is, \i-7i> + ■2r>-2.'> ft.,
having a volume of about (5/0 for one of water. Had the steam been
expanded at 40 -j- 14'75 := o4J ft. the volume would have been 520 for
one.

During expansion on the given conditions of the respective cylin-
ders, the mean pressure of the steam would be about 17 ft. per square
inch on the large jjiston, with a reaction of 17 ft. per square inch on
the smaller piston — against the pressure of 40 tb. full pressure steam
on the other side— hence

3 ,, ... •207-39x40— 17 X 176-34

Small cylinder — — = 2>-5 h. p.

Large cylinder

33,000
tiliO X 17 X 242
33,000

Absolute power
Friction ^: i

Effective power

82-28

107-78
35-92

71-86

Taking similar conditions of water evaporation, and cubic feet of

steam required, we should have — ^ — = 25 cubic feet of water per

0/0

hour, and at 8 ft. of water from 1 ft. of coal, the consumption would
be about 2 ft. of coal per horse power per hour.

Numerous causes might produce a consumption of ! or 4.4 ft. of coal
per hour, the difficulty wouhl be the reduction cif the coal expenditure
to the quantiti- theoretically calculated as sufficient. Instead of low
pressure engines, the proper standard for Woolf's, are Watt's engines
working high steam expansively, both using similar boilers and coal.

I am not aware of any trials under these conditions, which can be
considered conclusive in regard to their relative merits.
I remain, vour obedient servant,

March 11. " Y.

CONSUMPTION OF COKE—GLOUCESTER AND BIRMING-
HAM RAILWAY.

Sir — In Whishaw's Railways of Great Britain, page 30, there is a
statement taken from a paper by Capt. Moorsom relative to the per-
formance of a locomotive engine imported from the United States,
that in seven journeys of 5ilG miles up to Birmingham, the engine
conveyed 6S2 tons gross, and consumed 177 sacks of coke (1^ cwt.
each),' and in seven journeys of 59G miles down from Birmingham, the
same engine conveyed 629 tons gross, and also consumed 177 sscks of
coke.

Mr. Whishaw observes, " Thus the consumption of coke, according
to this statement, taking the average of the loads up and down, was
at the rate of only -007 ft. per ton per mile 1 1 "

The meaning of Capt. Moorsom's statement seems to be that the
engine passed over twice 5HiJ miles with a mean load of 93-64 tons,
and consequently her consumption would be -541 ft. of coke per ton
per mile.

It may not be difficult to account for Mr. W.'s erroneous figures ; if

682+629
2 ~

had been the mean load carried, the consumption would

have been about -07 ; and a mistake in the position of the decimal is
not uncommon. I cannot account fur the two notes of admiration so
readily, as they prove that his attention was called to extraordinary
apparent economy of the consumption of coke.

I remain. Sir,
March 11. Your obedient servant,

Y.

MONUMENT ERECTED AT LIMERICK TO THE MEMORY OF
THE LATE VERY REV. DR. HOGAN.

We were yesterday favoured witli a view of the monument ju^t erected in
the parish chapel of St. Michael, to the memory of the late very excellent
and justly esteemed pastor ; and we freely acknowledge that, in classic
chasteness of style, correct architectural proportions and superior heauty of
execution, the monument surpasses any thing ot the kind heretofore seen in
this part of the country, and probably not infeiior in these qualities to any
other specimen of modern sculpture in the Kingdom. The appearance of
this memorial to departed worth is at once imposing and elegant, and the
eye loves to rest with pleasure on its sublimity of conception, the elaborate
beauty of its detail in the various compartments, and the superior finish of
the workmanship, from the most minute object to the most prominent, which
is a figure of the Archangel Michael. Well may the subscribers be proud of
such a lasting record of the virtues of him whom it commemorates, and
happy may the highly gifted and eminent artist feel, the production of whose
tasteand ability it is. Mr. Bardwell, of London, is that gentleman, and at
present engaged in the erection of that magnificent edifice, Gleustall Castle,
in this county.

It is a mural monument, of Gothic architecture, at the period of the l.'ith
century, and the details are principally taken fi-oni the Chapel of Henry VIL,
in Westminster .Vbbey; also, from the Chapel of Magdalen College, Oxford.
The monument, which partakes somewhat of the character of a shrine, is
apparently borne aloft, or supported, by four angels, correctly copied from
the works of Waiufleet, Bishop of Winchester, and founder of Magdalen
College. One of the angels bears a shield, another a book, another a censer,
and the other a hly — this last, which is particularly beautiful and true to
nature, was a favourite emblem of Wainfleet's, ami figures in many parts of
Majdalen College. The design consists of three compartments, divided by
holdlv projecting buttresses terminating in richly crocketted finials, subdi-
vided' by rich and elaborate tracery into smaller ones. The whole design
may indeed be considered allegorical, consisting of a number of beautitid
figures, each having reference tothe spiritual duties and pious characteristics

S 2

124

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[April,

of the deceased cIerg)Tnan. For example, one of the figures represents St.
Peter as Prince of the Apostles ; another St. Patrick, ttie patron of Ireland ;
another St. Kochc, a figure emblematical of our short pilgrimage in this
world ; while the patron saint of the chapel in which it stands, and in wliicli
the deceased officiated for 20 years, occupies the centre compartment, ex-
hibiting a drapery containing the inscription.

The exquisite beauty of this figure is remarkable and is worthy of earnest
attention, the spreading pinions, the calm angelic sweetness and dignity of
the countenance, and the serpent writhing in agony beneath bis foot crushed
to the earth by his delegated power, all unite to form a combination of grace,
elegance, and skill in design and execution which cannot fail of raising in
the mind of the spectator the highest admiration. The accuracy and ability
displayed in the portraiture of the serpent, especially about the head, are
wonderful ; in the three niches at the other side are two figures of alcolltes,
one bearing wine and the other bread, and in the other the figure of a mitred
abbot in his ecclesiastical costume, to continue the allegory as to tlie station
and rank of the deceased. Over these objects, the cornices are most elabo-
rately sculptured and crowned by a rich border, with the usual finish of the
period, a strawberry leaf and ball, with the Tudor flower interspersed. The
monument, which is all of the purest white Italian marble, is projected on
a magnificent black slab, 13 feet by 1, from the Ballysinion quarry, in the
neighbourhood of this city, and its erection has been, this day, completed by
Mr. Garvcy, of Catherine Street, under the direction of the artist, Mr. Bard-
well, who has been most particular in seeing to its security and completion.
— Limerick Chronicle.

NEW INXTINTIONS AND IMPROVEMENTS.

IMPROVEMENTS IN STEAM ENGINES AND PADDLE SHAFTS.

Henry Trewhitt, of Newcastle-upon-Tyne, Esq., for improvements ia aj)-
plying the power of steam-engines to paddle-shafts used in propelling vessels.
Enrolment-office, Fcbniary 7, 1841.

These improvements consist in a new method of applying the crank-pin of
paddle-shafts, so that one or both of the paddles may be disconnected or
connected with the engine with great facility. For this purpose there is on
each of the paddle-shafts a narrow cylinder, with a groove on its periphery,
to receive a strap which is attached to the crank-pin that drives the paddle-
shaft. The other end of the crank-pin is keyed iuto the crank of the middle
shaft. In order to connect the paddle-wheel with the engine, the strap is
made to bind tightly upon the narrow cylinder, and is disconnected by being
loosened, in the following manner. A cross-head passes through slits in the
end of the strap, and is fastened to a cushion resting on the narrow cylinder,
and curved on its under surface so as exactly to fit. When the paddle-shaft
is to be connected to the engine, the cushion is made to press upon the nar-
row cylinder by a wedge-shaped bar, which enters between the back of the
cushion and the cross-head ; this causes the strap to bind tightly upon the
cylinder, and forms the connection required. On withdrawing the wedge-
shaped bar, the strap becomes loosened and the paddle-shaft is disconnected
from the engine. The claim is to the mode described of applying the crank-
pins to paddle-shafts. — Mechanics' Magaziue.

IMPROVEMENTS IN RAILWAY WHEELS, RAILS, AND CHAIRS.

Andrew Smith, of Princes-street, Leicester-square, and of Mill-wall, Pop-
lar, Engineer, for certain improvements in carriage wheels, rails, and chairs,
for railways. Enrolment-office, February 7, 1841.

The improvement in wheels consists in the application of a wrought iron
tire, having a right-angled groove turned out in the middle, corresponding to
the rail which constitutes the second part of these improvements. The depth
of this groove is to be proportionate to the size of the rail, and forms a flange
within the surface of the tire, tending to keep the wheel iu its place upon the
rail. The rails are square bars of iron, the sides of the squares being about
one-third wider than the depth of the sides of the groove in the tire of the
wheels, for the purpose of preventing the wheels from coming in contact with
the chairs and sleepers. These rails are laid in grooves cut in wooden sleepers,
and present one of the angles of the sqiiare upwards, coiTesponding with the
angular groove in the tire of the wheel. The chairs are made of wrought or
cast iron ; they clip the sides of the rails in a dove-tail form ; and are let into
and bolted down to the wooden sleepers. The rails are each 12 feet long, by
2\ inches square, and the chairs are placed in the middle and at the junctions
of each rail. The claim is, 1. The right-angled gi'ooves in the tires of the
wheels of railway carriages, instead of an external flange. — 2. The adaptation
of common square bar iron, or of iron made in a square form, let into a
wooden sleeper. — 3. The chair, for connecting, and fixing, and fastening the
rails. — Ibid.

IMPROVEMENTS IN LIME AND CEMENT.

Charles Smith of Exeter, Devon, builder, for improvements in the manu-
facture of lime and cement, or composition. Enrolment-oflice, Febraary 27.

Claim first. — The mode of calcining lime or cement, or composition, by
means of kilns, so formed, that the charge in the upper part shall be calcining,
whilst the lower part of the charge is cooling ; and in cooling, the heat there-
from passes to the upper part of the kiln.

The heat from coke ovens, furnaces, &c., is admitted iuto the kiln by flues
which enter the kiln half its height from the ground, and the heat rising up-
wards calcines the upper part of the charge ; whilst the lower part of the
charge which has been calcined, is cooling, the heat arising from it assists iu
the calcination of the upper part. The lower part of the charge as it cools
is raked out at the bottom of the kiln, and the upper part descending, fresh
lime is added at the top of the kiln.

Claim second. — The mode of calcining lime and cements in retort5 or ovens
when in connection with a closed chamber, where the matters can be cooled
before being brought into the atmosphere, and also the carrying off the gases
or vapours, so as to a])ply them to a variety of useful purposes. The lime
and cements are calcined in ovens which communicate with a closed chamber,
in which the lime and cements, after being calcined, are cooled before they
are brought into the atmosphere. The gases or vapours are carried oflf from
the ovens by pipes prorided with stop-cocks, into suitable vessels provided
for receiving them.

Claim third. — The ai>plication of the heat of lime-kilns to the purposes of
evaporating fluids in suitable boilers or pans, as herein described. The heat
arising from the kiln is a])plied by means of flues to the heating of boilers or
pans for evaporating fluids.

Claim fourth. — The mode of slacking lime in chambers with carbonic acid
as herein described. The lime is slacked in a chamber, iuto which the car-
bonic acid arising from the kiln is admitted by means of valves communicat-
ing with the flue.

I Claim fifth.- -The mode of manufacturing lime by re-calcining it after dry
slacking. The lime after being slacked as above described, is placed in the
oven and again calcined.

Claim sixth. — The mode of manufacturing lime by partially calcining lime-
stone in a kiln in order to convert it into sub-carbonate, and after cooHng
and grinding again to calcine it, whether separate, or combined with other
matters, for making cement. This claim fully describes itself.

Claim seventh. — The mode of making cement by saturating sulphate of
lime with ammoniated liquid, or other matters, as herein described. The
patentee grinds sulphate of lime, or gypsum, into a powder, and covers the
floor of the oven three inches thick with it. The oven is then closed, and
the charge remains for four hours. It is then placed in a cistern and covered
with purified liquor prepared from the ammoniated fluid formed in the manu-
facture of coal gas, commonly called gas water. When completely saturated
it is spread over the floor of the oven and dried. It is then taken out, and a
fifth part of slacked lime is added to it, after which it is ground and placed
in the oven for the same time as before. It is then fit for use.

Claim eighth. — Tlie combining lime and cements with ground calcareous
matter, or stones, in substitution, or in aid of, silex, or other matter. The
lime is mixed with ground calcareous matter, and burnt in the oven, after
which it is fit for use.

Claim ninth. — The mode of preparing lime for use by applying soap, with
or without glutinous matter, and also the method of using hot tools for
finishing and polishing cemented surfaces. Two parts of ground marble are
mixed with one part of fine slacked or ground lime, with the least quantity
of water possible. This is done two or three days previous to using the same,
but it is tempered once or twice a day with a beater or other tool. The pa-
tentee next takes one pound of soap, and dissolves it over a slow fire iu about
six quarts of water, occasionally adding two ounces of glue or other glutinous
matter to the same, by which means the cement is rendered more tenacious.
He takes the composition prepared as above, and adds to it the colour, to
form the tint required for the ground colour, and brings it to the consistence
for use by pouring into it the soapy solution, mixing it well, and applying it
in the manner that stucco is at ]>resent done. When it is done a highly bur-
nished hot metal tool is passed over the surface, which will unite the whole,
and form a good polish.

Claim tenth. — The mode of preparing cement from lime, by means of oil
and water, with or without other materials, as herein described. To any
number of gallons of clean water add as much fresh burnt lime as will when
slacked bring it to a semi-fluid consistency. When it is half slacked add as
many quarts of oil as there are gallons of water, and stir this well together
until the whole is properly mixed. Then strain it through a fine sieve, and
when cool it is fit for use. It is applied in the same manner as when plaster-
ing with stucco.

Claim eleventh. — The combining aluminous earths and ground clinkers, or
slag, or scoria, from the smelting furnaces ; and the forming and burning of
tiles thereof. Also the forming of tiles or burnt rough surfaces to be used
in substitution of laths, to receive cemented surfaces as herein described. The
tiles are made of three parts good aluminous earthy matter, mixed with one
part of ground clinkers &c., from the smelting furnaces, and when properly
tempered they are made, dried, and burnt iu the same manner as roofing
tiles. They are luade rough on one side so that the composition applied may
adhere freely in the same manner as the pricking up coat, thus serving the
double purposes of laths and the pricking up coat.

Claim twelfth. — The mode of treating articles made of lime or cement, and
calcareous stone or earth, by placing them in chambers with carbonic acid.
The articles previously wetted with lime water are placed in the chamber

1841.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

125

mentioned in the fourth claim, and exposed to the action of the carbonic acid,
by whicli they acquire great hardness. — Inventors' Advocate.

STEAM ENGINE REGULATOR.

Benjamin Hick, jun., of Bolton le Moors, Lancashire, engineer, for certain
improvements in regulators or governors, for regulating or adjusting the speed
or rotary motion of steam-engines, water-wheels, and other machinery. En-
tered at the Petty Bag-office. February 27.

This improved governor is applied to the tbrottle valve of steam engines,
in place of the ordinary pendulum governor. The ordinary iron standard or
frame of the governor, is placed as usual over the crank shaft of tlie engine,
on which is fastened a bevel wlieel that drives a pinion attached to an up-
right spindle or shaft ; by this means a rotary motion is communicated to
the spindle, whicli revolves iu suitable bearings in the frame. The upper
part of this spindle is cut into a screw, on which a bush or nut. having an
internal screw, works ; this bush, having two arms extending from it, to each
of which is attached a vane ; and the bush is connected to tlie throttle valve
of the engine by links and a swivel, and connecting rods and levers, in the
usual manner. If the crank shaft overruns or increases its ordinary velocity,
it will cause the bush to rise up the spindle, and by means of the connecting
rods and levers, partially close the tbrottle valve ; ou the contrary, if the
crank shaft decreases its ordinary velocity, the bush will descend, and so open
the throttle valve wider, in order to admit an additional quantity of steam to
the engine. The patentee does not confine himself to the above, as the parts
may be varied to suit circumstances. — Ibid.

APP.\RATUS FOR PRE\'EXTIN'G SHIPWRECK.

A few months since we gave an account of an interesting attempt made by
Mr, Page, the superintendent of our Harbour Works, for simplifjang Captain
Manby's plan for reUeving vessels in danger of shipwreck. It is with tlie
greatest pleasure that we have to state that Mr. Page has tested the value of
his efforts by saving a vessel, to all appearance, destined to inevitable de-
struction. .About one o'clock p.m., of the 13tb of February, the schooner
Leii/Jiton, Jones, master, was seen making for this port, and driving with a
heavy sea right for the north side of the harbour, where we have witnessed
many a wreck with loss of life and property. The sea being at this time so
heavy, and the boat, with the pier rope, being unable to get through, in con-
sequence of the surf, the vessel struck on the North Bank. The situation of
the vessel was now so critical, and the breakers surrounding so violent, that
no boat attempting to relieve her could live. Under these circumstances, Mr.
Page brought the twelve pounder belonging to the Harbour \\'orks to bear
upon her, and at the first discharge, succeeded in conveying a rope across the
breakers, which passed fairly over her rigging. To this rope, a hawser was
fastened by those on the pier, which, being hauled by the crew on board,
sufficiently steadied her, and the result was the vessel was saved. We feel it
our duty to give pubUcity to this circumstance, feeling perfectly confident
that were it not for the rope conveyed by the carronade, she would either
have been a wreck, or have received considerable damage. James Davies,
Esq., the owner, was present, and seemed not a little pleased at the result of
the first trial of Mr. Page's experiment. — Carmarthen Journal.

Since the appearance of the above paragi'apb, the above plan has been
again adopted with complete success, but with such variation, as to give it
additional value, by showing the versality of its apphcation. On the 23rd
ult., the schooner Nanteos, Griftitlis, from London, appeared before this port,
but the breakers were so high, that it was impossible for any boat to go out
to assist her in. On this occasion the carronade was fired from ofl^' tlie pier,
which carried i\\e plvi) beyond the breakers, — this was picked up by the boat
from the Nanteos, and a communication was immediately made with the
shore, and the vessel came in without any difficulty.

The advantage of the plug over a shot, may be seen on occasions like the
present, — had this been a shot connected with the line, it would have sunk,
but iheplug floated, and was easily picked up by the boat from the Nanteos.

PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES.

INSTITUTION OF CIVIL ENGINEERS.
Annual Report.

The Council of the lustitution of Civil Engineers, on resigning the trust
which has been confided to them during the past year, invite the attention
of the Annual General Meeting, and of all who are interested in the progress
of practical science, to the following report on the discharge of their various
duties, and on the general nature of the proceedings of the past year.

The annual report of the council of several preceding years has dwelt in
considerable detail not only on alterations in the ordinary business of the

Institution, and on the introduction of measures which might tend to the
convenience of the general body, but also on changes of a more important
character, aflfecting the constitution and permanent stability of the Institution
itself. The year which has now past has not been marked by any features
of this nature. The principal duty of the council has been to carry out and
persevere in the practice and regulations established during previous years,
which have been found to contribute so much to the rapid growth and in-
creasing value of the Institution.

But, though the jiast year may not have been marked by extensive changes
or by the introduction of new regulations, it has been characterised by events
of great interest, and the proceedings of the last session surpass in extent
those of any previous year. The extended importance of the Institution has
imposed an augmentation of duty and responsibility on your council, and
they have laboured so to direct the art'airs intnisted to them, that the dis-
cbarge of those increased duties might be attended with a corresponding ele-
vation in the character of the Institution, and that their successors in office
may realize a still further progress towards that eminence which is already
in some measure attained.

Among the various duties which devolve on your council, that of disposing
and awarding the Telford premiums is of the highest consequence, and on
the proper discharge of which much of the permanent success of the Insti-
tution will depend. The council, deeply impressed with this, have given
their most careful consideration to the subject; they would direct your
attention to tlie following notice of the premiums, and of the respective com-
munications for which they have been awarded.

In the annual report of the last session, the council stated that it would
be one of the earliest duties of their successors, to consider in what manner
the benefits conferred by your member Mr. Parkes on practical science, by
the communications tlien alluded to. could be most ajipropriately acknow-
ledged ; and the present council, concurring most fully in these sentiments,
are of opinion that as no papers have hitherto been received by the Insti-
tution, exhibiting so much originality, labour, and ingenuity, in dealing with
the facts presented to his notice, combined so essentially with practical
utility, they are warranted in conferring on Mr. Parkes the highest honour
which the Institution has in its power to bestow. They have awarded, there-
fore, the Telford Gold Medal to Mr. Parkes, for his communications on
" Steam Boilers and Steam Engines," which are now published in the first
and second parts of the third volume of the transactions. These papers and
the discussions to which they gave rise, occupying as they did the attention
of several of your meetings, together with the interest which tiiey excited,
must be fresh in the recollection of all who were present. It will, therefore,
be unnecessary to dwell particularly ou their contents ; but, inasmuch as
the highest honour of the Institution has been awarded to them, an honour
which (it must be remembered) has been but once previously conferred, the
council feel it to he a duty which they owe to the Institution, to themselves,
and to the public, no less than to the author, to point out (as has lieen par-
tially done in the report of the last year) some of the principal features in
these communications, and the peculiar benefits which are thereby conferred
on practical science.

These communications are the continuation of the labours of the author,
which commenced with the paper on the "Evaporation of Water from Steam
Boilers," published in the second volume of the transactions, and for which
a silver medal was awarded on a previous occasion. The first communication,
forming the subject of the present notice, relates especially to steam boilers,
respecting which many well-ascertained facts had been collected ; but pre-
viously to Mr. Parkes devoting his attention to this subject, no clear and
connected view had been given of the various facts, or of their relation to
each other, and to the circumstances under which they are exhibited. When
so represented, it appears that the peculiar circumstances under which steam
boilers are employed and their corresponding qualities and characteristics in
respect of construction, proportion of parts, and practical management, pre-
sent certain quantities and relations, which exert a peculiar influence over
the results connected with evaporation ; and these being clearly developed
and understood, indicate correctly the character of the boiler. Certain defi-
nite quantities, relations, or exponents, with other facts of paramount im-
portance, such as the etfecf of the element time, or the period of the deten-
tion of the heat about the boiler, and various actions independent of the
temperature of the fire, and tending to the destruction of the boiler, are here
for the first time pressed on the attention of the practical engineer. In the
second communication, the author traces the distribution and application of
steam in several classes of steam engines. In the execution of this task, he
is led into a detailed examination of various important questions : the best
practical measure of the dynamic efficiency of steam — the methods employed
to determine the power of engines — the measures of effect — the expenditure
of power — the proportions of boilers to engines — the standard measure of
duty — the constituent heat of steam — the locomotive engine — the blast and
the resistance occasioned by it — the momentum of the engine and train, as
exhibiting the whole useful eftbrt exerted by the steam — and the relative ex-
penditure of power for a given effect, by fixed and locomotive non-condensing
engines. The bare enumeration of the principal subjects which have been
carefully analysed and illustrated by the facts applicable to each respestive
case, will give some idea of the magnitude of the task here undertaken ; and
when, in addition, is considered the elaborate and extensive series of tables
exhibiting the results and analysis of tlie facts collected and used in the
course of the inquiry, the council cannot but feel that a more laborious task

126

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL

[April,

has rarely been accomplished. A peculiar feature of these communications,
anil one to which the council would particularly advert, is, that they are not
of a speculative character, but present a lietailed analysis of authenticated
facts.

This analysis consists in separating and ascertaining the various results,
and in referring tliem to particular classes, so that they may he readily appli-
cable in practice. The merit of instituting and recording a series of obser-
vations upon a scientific subject is universally acknowledged, but the reduc-
tion of such observations so .is to form a standard of reference to which the
practical engineer may appeal, is a task of far greater difficulty, and its exe-
cution of far higher merit. It is in this eminent rank thit the council would
place these communications of Mr. I'arkcs.

The description by Mr. Leslie of the Harbour and Docks of Dundee, was
also briefly ad\erted to in the last annual report, as one of those communi-
cations on which the Institution sets great value. It consists of a detiiiled
account of the progress of tlie improvements jjrojected by Smeaton, Telford,
and others, in part carried into execution by the projectors, and completed
inider the author's own superintendence since 18.''2. The illustrations of the
projected and executed improvements with the plans, elevations, sections,
and details of the works of the docks, gates, quays, craqes, and machinery
employed, occupy 30 sheets of drawings. To the copious history and de-
scription of these works is added an extensive scries of observations on the
tides. The determination of these facts for different parts of the globe, is a
question of the greatest importance in physical astronomy, and the council
would take this opportunity of jiointiii!; out the essential service which may
thus he rendered by the engineer to the cause of science by his lecording the
observations which /le has pre-eminently the opportunity of making. For
this valuable record of an executed work, the council have awarded a silver
n.eclal, and a copy of the hfe and works of Telford.

.\ silver medal and the life and works of Telford have been awarded to
your associate, Robert Mallet, for his communication on the " Corrosion of
Cast and Wrought Iron in Water." This communication presents features
of no ordinary interest to the engineer. The comparatively recent intro-
duction of cast iron for the purpose of piling, for wharfs, &c., and of wrought
iron in the construction of vessels, has rendered the subject of the action of
water upon iron of peciUiar importance; the British Association have, from
time to time, granted sums of money for making experiments on this subject,
and ,\Ir. Mallet having been engaged in conducting these experiments, has
selected from the very extensive series of results obtained by him, those con-
clusions which may be of service to the practical engineer. The most valu-
able portion of this communication consists of elaborate tables, which exhibit
ihe results of the action of clear and foul sea and fresh water at different
temperatures upon cast and wrought iron. Such being the general nature
of the experiments, the results to which they lead, or the effects produced,
present several remarkable characteristics, and it is found that the corrosive
action of water and air combined, produces, on the surface of cast or wrought
iron, a state of rust possessing one of five distinctive features, viz. uniform —
uniform with plumbago — local — local pitted — tubercular; or some two or
more of these in partial combination. The practical results which may be
deduced from these tables are of the highest value to the engineer, and point
to considerations of the greatest importance ; thus the upper and lower strata
of water, of different degrees of saltness and density, coming in contact with
the same mass of iron, a voltaic pile of one solid and two fluid elements is
formed, and under such circumstances the corrosive action is materially aug-
mented ; hence it follows as a practical conclusion, that the lower part of all
castings used in such situations, should be of increased dimensions. Similar
residts, the knowledge of which is of great importance to the practical engi-
ncer, such as the rapid decay of iron in the sewage of large cities, of the bolts
of marine engines exposed to the bilge water, and of boilers containing hot
sea water, are referred to actions due to similar physical principles. The
protection which metals receive from paint, or from the presence of various
alloys, so as to obtain a mode of electro-chemical protection, such that, while
the metal iron shall be preserved, the protector shall not be acted upon, is
also referred to >iriiil:ir principles.

The couTitil have also awarded a bronze medal and books to Mr. Charles
lloimis, for his comnuinieation on "setting out railway curves;" to Mr.
Chapman, fur his description and drawings of " a machine for describing the
profile of a road," and to Mr. Henry Kenton, for his description and drawing
of "a self-acting Waste-board on the River Ouse."'

The communication by Mr. liourns is an application of simple geometry,
leaiiing to practical results. In setting out curves recourse has been had to
various expedients, but Mr. Bourns, in the propositions contained in this
pa;ier, has shown that, by the use of the common chain, an ofl'set staff, and
faille of otl'sets, he is enabled to set out curves of any radius and flexure,
with a facility and precision not generally attained.

The description and drawings of a machine for describing the profile of a
road, is one of several communications on this subject, sent in accordance
with the notice of subjects for competition issued by the council. Many of
the arrangements proposed by the author exhibit considerable ingenuity, and
though difficulties may exist in their practical application, the council think
this attempt may be of assistance to others, who may have their attention
directed to the construction of an instrument for similar purposes.

The description and drawing of the self-acting waste-board on the river
Ouse, being an account of an executed work, is one of those communications
which the council are most anxious to encourage by every means in their

power. The drawing and description fumisbeii by Mr. Renton are highly
creditable to the talents of the author, and deserving of some si)ecial mark
of approbation.

The council have also awarded hooks to the value of five guineas to Eu-
genius Birch, for his drawing and description of the machine for sewing flat
ropes, in use at lluddart's rope manufactory. The rope macbincn. of Cap-
tain Iluddart was, some time since, one of the subjects on which the council
solicited communications ; on that occasion two valuable sets of drawings
were communicated, the one by Mr. Dempsey, the other by Mr. Birch. The
subject of the present communication was not included in either of the pre-
ceding, but Mr. Birch, desin.us of availing himself to the fullest extent of
the liberality of Mr. Cotton, the then proprietor of tlie machinery, and of
carrying out the views of the council, has devoted much time and labour to
]j|aiing in the Institution, an exact record of everything connected with this
interesting machinery.

Premiums of books have also been awarded to Mr. Maude, for his " Ac-
count of the Hepairs and .^Iterations made in the construction of the Menai
Bridge, rendered necessary by the gale of January 7, 1839," .-lud to Mr.
Andrew Bum, for his drawings of a •' Proposed Suspension Bridge over the
Haslar Lake." The council would point out these instances of the fulfilment
of the engagements entered into on election, to the attention of the other
graduates of the Institution, who have similar opportunities, but who have
not hitherto kept their promises. It is the dnsire of the council to obtain an
exact record of works that are projected or in progress, and such records are
peculiarly adapted to compete for the Telford ]iremiums ; Mr. Maude and
Mr. Burn, with iiroper permission, have availed themselves of the facilities
afforded them, and the council trust that the premiums now awarded, and
the marks of approbation here expressed, will stimulate others to avail them-
selves of like opiiortunities. The authors of such communications will thus
most materially contribute towards promoting the interests of the Institution,
and to their own qualification for future employment and advancement in the
profession.

The Institution has received during the past year, many other communi-
cations of acknowledged merit, of which no mention has yet been made. To
a few of them the council would now briefly advert, and especially to the
last paper by Mr. Parkes, " On the action of Steam in the Cornish Single
Pumping Engine," a communication of no ordinary importance and interest,
either on account of its own intrinsic merits, as viewed in connexion with
the past proceedings of this Institution, or the future pospects of this depart-
ment of practical science. This communicatioQ, though intimately connected
with those of the same author previously alluded to, growing immediately
out of them, and depending upon the facts contained in them, is of a totally
distinct character ; being an attempt to explain, on theoretical principlei,
the action of the steam on the piston, and to unfold the real causes of the
economy of the Cornish engines. This subject has occupied the attention of
the Institution during the last four years, and the discussion first assumed
a settled form during the session of 1837, on the receipt of the communi-
cation of Mr. George Itolworthy Palmer, "On the application of Steam as
a moving power, especially with reference to the reported duties of the
Cornish and other Engines." In that paper the author, reasoning on certain
data as to evaporation, and on the physical facts which involved the con-
stancy of the sum of the latent and sensible heat in steam of ail elasticities,
and of the absorption of heat by matter on dilatation, came to the conclusion
that no power could be gained by expansive working, and that, consequently,
this could not be the cause of the economy in Cornish engines. This dis-
cussion was revived in the ensuing session by the communications of Mr,
Wicksteed and Mr. Henwood, the former furnishing the first recorded expe-
riment in which the water raised was actually weighed, the latter giving an
extended series of most careful and detailed observations on the quantity of
steam employed, the mode of its distribution, the duty performed by a given
quantity of fuel, and the measurement of the water raised.

Taking for data the facts furnished by Mr. Henwood for the ViTieal Towan,
and by Sir. West for the Eowcy Consols Engines, Jlr. Parkes Las analyzed
the quantity of action obtainable from the quantity of water as steam con-
sumed, and expanded to the extent used in those engines, and lias found the
steam's force unequal to the resistance overcome, .^fter satisfying himself
from various phenomena attendant on the working of these engines, that the
amount of resistance opposed to the steam was not overrated, lie was led to
conclude that from the instantaneous and free eoniuiunication eft'ected be-
tween the cylinder and boiler of these engines, by the sudden opening of the
large steam valves, a force must be transmitted to the piston, of a kind dis-
tinct from that of the steam's simple elasticity. This force be denominates
the steam's ^erciusM'e action ; be adduces various proofs that this description
of force has operated on the piston, and that it alone was equivalent, in the
instance of the Fowey Consols Engine, to drive the piston through -j^jths of
its stroke.

The author considers the effect produced on the piston of a Cornish En-
gine, by the sudden impact of highly clastic steam, to be similar to that ob-
tained from water in the hydraulic ram. He has not iu his paper entered on
the consideration of the absolute amount of percussive force, which can be
afforded by an aeriform fluid in motion — but has cuufiued himself to the de-
termination of the quantity of action, which he conceives to have been de-
riveil from that source in the particular engines examined. He invites the
co-operation of others in instituting experiments on this subject, and the
Council hope that the ensuing Session will augment the number of facts re-

1841.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

127

quisite for the complete demonstration and development of tliis view of the
steam's action.

It is gratifying to reflect how ninch the present state of our knowledge is
due to the discussions which have taken place at the meetings of the Institu-
tion. The Council look forward with great interest to tlie revival of these
discussions, and for some valuahle communications on this suhject which are
promised liy Memhcrs who have daily opportunities of making ohservations
and experiments on an extensive scale.

Among the other communications, the Council would hrietiy advert to that
by Captain Basil Hall, on ohtaining for Lighthouses all the advantages of a
fixed light, hy means of refracting lenses in revolution. It occurred to that
distinguished' officer that hy placing a Fresnel lainii in the centre of an octa-
gonal frame, having a lens inserted in every side, and causing the frame to
revolve at a considerable velocity, a fixed or continuous light would be pro-
duced almost equal in brilliancy to the intermittent hght from the same lamp
when the frame revolved slowly.

Many curious eifects are observed ; thus, when the lenses are fijst set in
motion the effect is a series of brilliant flashes ; as the velocity increases, the
light becomes more continuous — at about 44 revolutions per minute, absolute
continuity is produced — and at 60 revolutions nearly the steadiness of a fixed
light is attained. It would appear that the sensibility of the retina is afl'ected
by the succession of bright flashes, so that, judging by its intensity when seen
through coloured glasses, the light would appear to sutler but little apparent
diminution.

Another subject rather novel in its nature, but of considerable interest to
the profession, on the " Application of Photography to the jjurposes of En-
gineering," was brought before the Institution, by your Member, Mr. Alexan-
der Gordon. The facility with which this discovery may be appUed to taking
accurate views of buildings, works, or maehineiT at rest, renders it an object
of great interest to Engineers; since by these means may be obtained the
general dimensions of works, with perfect accuracy in a very small space of
time, and by affixing a graduated scale to the objects to be copied, the pho-
tographic delineation would present the means of determining the dimensions
of every part.

The Council cannot omit this opportunity of acknowledging the obligations
which the Institution is under to Mr. Cooper and Mr. Cooper, Jun., who
illustrated the preceding communication by exhibiting and explaining the ap-
paratus requisite for the production of the delineations of photography.

The Council have to acknowledge the receipt of many valuable presents
during the past vear ; and to record the liberality and zeal thus exhibited in
the promotion of the ir.lerests of tlie Institution.

By the liberality of your President and of Mr. Burges, you are in possession
of two portraits upon which every British Engineer must look with feelings
of great pride and satisfaction. To the President you owe the beautiful por-
trait of Huddart, now suspended in your Meeting Room, and to Mr. Burges
that of Smeaton, which adorns the walls of the Library.

The Institution has to acknowledge the continuation of the liberality of
the Master-General of tlie Ordnance, of the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, and
of Colonel Colby, iu transmitting the sets of Ordnance Maps as they are pub-
lished.

The Council has also to acknowledge the receipt of some additional works
&om the library of the late Dr. Young, presented by his brother, Mr. Robert
Young, whose liberality in making the Institution the depository of a laige
number of the works of that distinguished philosopher and benefactor to
practical science, the Council of the preceding year had also to record in a
similar manner. The Institution has also received a valuable set of Cliarts
of the Coast of France, pubhslied under the direction of the French Govern-
ment, from your President ; a number of books from the Minister of Public
Works at Brussels, collected by your Secretary during a recent visit to Hol-
land and Belgium, when a communication was estabhshed between the In-
stitution and the Ministry of Pubhc Works of those countries ; the Transac-
tions of the Royal Institute of Naples from Colonel Cueiniello, through Mr.
Albann ; a valuable set of Crane Drawings from Mr. Leslie, and Drawings of
the Carn Brae Stamping Engines from Mr. Sims, through Mr. Enys; some
interesting models from Mr. Hick, a Pneumatic Mirror of bis invention from
Mr. Nasmyth, and a Radiating Stove Grate for tlie Library, from Mr. Sylves-
ter ; to these must be added the very numerous List contained m the Ap-
pendix to this Report.

The Institution has to regret the loss by death, of Mr. Francis Bramah,
Mr. Oldham, Mr. Rowles, and Mr. Rickman ; individuals distinguished for
their attainments in professional and general knowledge, and endeared to the
Institution by long association and deep attachment to its interests.

Francis Bramah was the second son of the Ute Mi-. Josejih Bramah whose
numerous inventions, perfection of workmanship, and genius in the mechani-
cal arts, have rendered his name so widely and justly celebrated. The oppor-
tunities afforded to the son were ardently embraced by a mind of no ordinary
powers, deeply imbued with llielovc of knowledge. Although his attention
was in early youth more particularly directed to branches of minute mechanical
construction, his acquaintance with the principal departments of professional
knowledge and general science was very extensive. His attachment to the
arts and to science was deep and sincere, and among many proofs of this may
be particularly mentioned the valuable and essential services which he ren-
dered to your late Honorary Meitiber, Thomas Tredgold, both in his profes-
sional pursuits and in the prosecution and verification of his theories and
calculations. Mr. Bramah being professionally engaged at Buckingham

Palace, in connexion with some other engineers, difference in opinion existed
and discussion arose, as to the true principle upon which the strength of
cast-iron beams to resist stress and flexure ought to he estimated, and with
the view of verifying the principles laid down by Tredgold, he instituted a
very extended series of experiments, on the deflection and strength of cast
iron beams. These he jiresented to the Institution, and they are published
in the second volume of your Transactions.

Several important works were executed under his direction, among which
the iron work 'of the Waterioo Gallery at Windsor Castle, the cranks, the
lock-gates, and their requisite machinery, at the St. Katherine's Docks, and
the massive gates at Constitution Hill and Buckingham Palace, may be par-
ticularly mentioned. Mr. Bramah was an early and deeply-attached member
of this Institution ; his constant attendance at the meetings, the information
which he communicated, and his unwearied zeal as a member of the council,
cannot he too highly estimated, and his loss will be deeply felt and regretted
within these walls. The variety of his attainments, his refined taste in the
arts, his amial)le character and the warmth of his affections, had secured to
him the respect and esteem of a most extensive circle of friends, by whom,
as indeed by all in any way connected with him, his loss will be most deeply
and sincerely felt.

John Oldham, the engineer of the Banks of England and Ireland, was born
in Dublin, where he served an apprenticeship to the business of an engraver,
which he practised for some time, but subsequently quitted to become a mi-
niature painter, wherein he acquired some reputation. He pursued this
branch of the arts for many years, but having a strong bias towards mechani-
cal pursuits, he devoted much of his leisure time to the acquisition of that
knowledge which was to prove the foundation of his future celebrity. In the
year 1812 he proposed to the Bank of Ireland his system of mechanical
numbering and dating the notes, and on this being accepted, he became the
chief engraver and engineer to that establishment. The period of twenty-two
years, during which he held this appointment, was marked by contimially
progressive steps of artistical and mechanical ingenuity. The various arrange-
ments which he projected and carried out attracted great attention, and con-
ferred considerable celebrity on the establishment with which he was con-
nected.

The late Governor of the Bank of England, Mr. T. A. Curtis, had his at-
tention directed to these important improvements, and under his influence
the whole system of engraving and printing, as pursued in the Bank of Ire-
land, was introduced into the national establishment of this country, under
the superintendence of its author, who continued in the seiTice of the Bank
until his death.

The ingenuity of Mr. Oldham was directed to other objects, especially to
?. system of ventilation, of which an account was given by the author during
the session of 1837. Great versatility of inventive faculty, persevering indus-
try, and social qualities of the highest order, were the prominent features in
his character, and the success which attended his exertions is one of the
many gratifying instances to be found in the history of this country, of
talents and industry, destitute of patronage attaining to eminence in the
professions to which they are devoted.

HeniT Rowles, the chairman of the Rymney Iron Works, was educated in
the office of his relative, Mr. H. Holland, the architect, on quitting which he
entered into business as a builder. He was engaged, among other extensive
undertakings, in building several of the East India Company's Warehouses,
the Royal Mint, the Excise Office, and Drury Lane Theatre. He was an
active Director in several docks, railway, and other companies, and finally
became managing director of the Rymney Iron Works, in the active discharge
of the duties of which office he continued until his death. The Institution
owes to him the drawings of the iron works made ijy Mr. Richards.

John Rickman was educated at Lincoln College, Oxford, and graduated
there ; he subsequently devoted himself to literary pursuits, to political
economy, and to practical mechanics. For some years he was conductor anri
principal contributor to the " .Agricultural and Commercial Magazine." in
1801 he removed to Dublin, as Private Secretary to the Right Hon. Cha^ie^
Abbot, then Keeper of his Majesty's Priv-y Seal iu Ireland. Upon the eiec.
tion of Mr. Abbot to the Speaker's Chair in the House of Comnmns. Mr.
Rickman continued to be his private secretary, and in 1S14 he was appointed
to the table of the House of Commons. He also acted as secretary to tlie
two commissioners ajipointed by act of parliament in 1803, ** for the making
of roads and bridges in Scotland, and for the construction of tlie Caledonian
Canal," and to the commissioners "for building Churches in the Highlands."
The ability and energy which he displayed in the discharge and conduct of
tiie duties of these laborious offices, for more than thirty years, in addition
to his constant attendance at the House of Commons, called forth the wann-
est acknowledgments of public meetings held in the Scotch counties on his
retirement, and various resolutions were passed expressive of the sense
entertained of the unremitting exertions, and uniform and disinterested assi-
duity, with which he had promoted every object connected with the improve-
ment and general jirosperity of the Highlands and Isles of Scotland. The
conduct of the affairs of the Highland Commissioners brought Mr. Rickman
into constant intercourse with their engineer, .Mr. Telford; an intimate
friendship was formed between them, and Mr. Rickman completed and pub-
lished the account of the life and works or that eminent man. which was but
partially arranged at the time of his decease.

Mr. Hickman's chief work is the Census of Great Britain, in six folio
volumes ; he is also the author of numerous papers connected nith statistics,

J 28

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

April

having bestowed great pains in collecting and arranging tlie returns connected
with education and local taxation. To this Institution he rendered very
essential services, and whenever application was made to him in its behalf,
was always zealous in endeavouring to promote its interests. The lil)rary
was enriched by him with two coiiies of the Life and Works of Telford, and
as the acting executor of Telford, he endeavoured to cany out, by every
means in his power, the intentions of that great benefactor of the Insti-
tution.

Mr. Rickman's acquirements in every department of knowledge were accu-
rate and extensive; to great (piickness of perception, and memory of no or-
dinary power, were added indefatigable industry, undeviating methotl, and
a sound critical judgment ; — qualities which caused bis acquaintance to be
highly valued by the most distinguished literary characters of the day, and
which, no less than the strict and scrupulous sense of justice and honour,
w liich particularly showed itself in his considerate kindness towards all those
with whom he was connected, will occasion his loss to be deeply regretted
by a widely extended circle.

.\ddress of the President.

Allow me to thank you for the compliment you have again paid me, by
electing me your President for this current year.

The Secretary has reminded inc. that 1 have been in the habit of address-
ing you on occasions corresponding with the present, but the very full, and I
believe I may say, satisfactory He]iort of your late Council, has left but little
for me to say on the business of the Institution. Your new Council have
eleeterl >!r. Manby for Secretary, Mr. Gibbon for Collector, and Mr. Ilankey
for Treasurer. We have the test of long experience in favour of the Collector
and Treasurer, and although our acipiaintance with your Secretaiy is shorter
in point of time, we are all convinced that his whole attention and energies
will be, as indeed they hitherto have been, devoted to the Institution.

Hitherto the increased nundjer of our Members, and the attendance at the
meetings during each year, have been commensurate with the growing im-
portance of the Institution, and I have little doubt of the success of the pre-
sent Session being still greater. We have under consideration several inter-
esting subjects, to which some of our most active Members have paid great
attention, and in which they have made important discoveries — these will
form the ground-work of interesting and instructive conversation, or even, to
use the language of a greater assembly, of ' debate,' but I trust that our dis-
cussions will continue to be conducted, as heretofore, with that good temper
which makes even debate dehghtful, when the attainment of truth is the sole
object. Truth will not bend one inch out of its right hue, to accommodate
false theory. He who tells us, that he '• lost his patience when works w ere
censured not as bad but as new," might be a very good poet, but in this
respect at least he was no philosopher. One of our Vice-Presidents has jjre-
seiited me, within a few days, with a Report on the best mode of improving
one of our great navigable rivers: this Report contains observations tending
to level with the dust much that has been said by, I believe, all other Engi-
neers, on the importance of tidal back-water. I know from experience that
many theories which have, through their novelty or otherwise, appeared start-
ling on the first view, have proved to be founded on truth, and have therefore
superseded the old-fashioned notions. No class of men can be more devoted
or bigoted to their opinions, than the Aristotehan philosophers were to their
doctrine of syllogisms and a priori theories, which, though it had the autho-
rity of ages and names, was obliged to yield to the once-despised and even
persecuted inductive philosophy of Bacon. Although, therefore, some Engi-
neers may not coincide with the views expressed by our Vice-President, we
shall do much good by examining impartially into the deductions he has
drawn, at the same time carefully avoiding all personal considerations. A
distinguished English Essayist after remarking that nothing denotes a great
mind more than the abhorrence of envy and detraction, states, that the best
poets of the same age have always lived on terms of the greatest friendship ;
and surely if tnis is the case with poets, who draw much upon imagination.
Engineers, who have to deal with science and with facts, have less apology
for excited feelings.

Without seeking in the recollections of a bygone generation for compari-
sons, we may congratulate ourselves that, although the number of Engineers
has nmch increased, we are, I trust, without exception, /W«»/.v; and I con-
sider that our intimacy has been materially assisted by this Institution, where
we have met, compared o])inions, and rubbed otF the sharp angles of profes-
sional jealousy or emulation, if any such existed.

Another valuable Member of the Council has, he conceives, discovered the
true theory of the action of steam in the Cornish Single Pumping Engines,
by which he accounts for their extraordinary economy. This theory, which
is equally novel and ingenious, is now subjected to your examination and criti-
cism, and I am sure that my friend Mr. Parkes would feel disappointed if his
<liscovery were not to be submitted to that ordeal, in common with every
similar subject of importance which is brought under the notice of the Insti-
tution.

While I congratulate the Institution on the increase of its Members, I
ought at the same time to express my opinion, that from the number of
young gentlemen who within the last ten years have studied for, or have en-
tered, the profession, the supply is likely to be at the least equal to the de-
uiand ; and to caution those who intend entering or are now studying for it.

against confining themselves to the strictly professional part of the usual
routine of education.

The Railways, both during the preliminary surveys and in their subsequent
construction and management, in addition to other works of Engineering,
have given em|>loyment to many. But the principal towns are already con-
nected by Railways, or Engineers and Surveyors arc now employed in pro-
jecting or executing lines where they are yet wanted. Is then the demand
for professional gentlemen likely to increase ? Is it not likely rather to de-
crease ? Now certainly the number of Engineers or Students for Engineering
s increasing. If we look at the number of students in the classes for Civil
Engineering at the different Universities and Academies; the Universities of
lidinburgh and of Durham ; King's College, University College, and the Col-
lege for Civil Engineers in London ; we are led to ask, will this country find
employment for all these .' I freely confess that I doubt it. My object in
what I have here said is, not to deter those who may already have resolved
and have taken measures to follow the profession, but to advise them not to
depend on this country alone, and so to direct their studies as to fit them for
other countries also, where the field is not large enough to support men who
are strictly and exclusively professional. For such, great countries only can
find employment, and other great countries are educating their own engineers.
To be fitted for going abroad to any part of the world, a man must be a trades-
man as well as an engineer; he must furnish his hands as well as his head — and
if he know more trades than one, so much the better ; for he may have to
direct in all, but one he ought to know thoroughly. Thus stored, all the
world is open to him, and witli the formation of new continents and colonies,
and the improvement in the old ones, the engineer may insure independence.
Not only in such countries, but at home also, his experience as a workman
will prove his best friend and assistant in raising him to eminence, and make
him feel that confidence in his own resomces which has enabled so many en-
gineers, whose name and fame stand high in the annals of the profession, to
raise themselves from the millwright, stone-mason, and carpenter, to the
highest grade. As a strong corroboration of the system which I recommend,
you will observe the practical education given by each of these individuals to
those of their family who are intended to succeed them. Let it not be sup-
posed that I would undervalue the importance of science or of a scientific
education, which is as essential to the Engineer as the knowledge of the
principles of navigation is to the naval officer, but that I earnestly recommend
practice also.

I hope to be excused this digression, but the great number of young gen-
tlemen who, having been bred in Engineers' offices, ajiply to me for employ-
ment, which I cannot give them, or to be admitted as apprentices when I
caimot in justice receive them, makes me feel very sensibly the importance
of these remarks, and that it is almost a duty to give this publicity to my
opinion.

To return to the Institution : I hope the attendance at the ordinary Meet-
ings will be even better than that of last Session — that the Secretary's list
which is regularly posted up, will have still a greater number of bright spots
and a smaller number of black marks opposite the names of the Council, as
well as of the Members, Graduates, and Associates generally. I do not name
this as a complaint, for the attendance has hitherto gone on improving, that
of the Council intiucncing the Members.

I have lately referred to the very great, and I fear, increasing, number of
debts due to the Institution from Members and Associates, and still more
from Graduates who were elected under a promise to send in an original com-
munication or drawing, and I hope that the present Session will show a great
reduction in the amount of these engagements. The fear of not producing
something of sufficient value ojierates proljably to overcome the desire which
every gentleman, having made a promise, must feel in redeeming it. As an
encouragement, let me refer such persons to the contributions by Graduates
during the last Session ; they will find that some of them required little in-
ventive genius, but only the ability to record correctly what they have noticed
on the public works in which they have been engaged, or which they have
visited. To some of these, the Council have awarded premiums, and they
esteem them valuable as recording details of works taken from measurements
at the time of execution, thus forming an addition to our records, and making
the Institution a deposit of " works done," which is one of its important uses ;
and I think no Engineer intrusted with pul)lic works would prevent Graduates
having the op])ortunity of doing this for their own improvement, and for the
benefit of the Institution.

The subjects for these papers, models, and drawings, are numerous, — I may
almost say, innmuerable. Of many of the great national manufactures of this
country we have as yet no records in our possession, and until we possess
them our stores will be imperfect. As an Encyclop.'odia gives a definition
and general description of art, so should oiu' Institution possess an original
history, anil drawirigs or models, as well as books, treating on every machine
and manufacture connected with our profession.

Members of the CouncU during the last Session contributed hberally in
books, and have set an example to the present Council. As a guide or spe-
cimen of the n.ature of the desired commuuicitions, the subjects for the Tel-
ford jiremiums have been varied iind enlarged, but it is not to be imderstood
that the subjects therein stated are (o occupy exclusively the attention of
Candidates, even for the Telford premiums. By Ihns enlarging the subjects
and innting i)apers, we may, I hope, look for an increased number of valuable
communications, which it may press upon the Telford Fund to do justice to ;
1 have therefore informed the Council that 1 ha\e appropriated the interest

1841.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

129

of One Tliousaiul Pountls, 3 per cent. Government securities, or Thirty Pounds
per annum, whicli I request the Institution to accept, as my Annual Donation,
to be applied as may appear best suited for the objects to which I liave re-
ferred, or for otlier purposes conducive to tlie benefit of the Institution.

ROYAL INSTITUTE OF BRITISH ARCHITECTS.
March 8. — Jos. Kav, Esq., V.P., in the Chair.

Messrs. W. A. Burn, and J. J. Cole were elected as Associates.

The resolution of the Council was read on the Essay sent in for the prizes
offered by the Institute, and it was announced that tlie medal had been
awarded to Mr. Edward Hall, (late of Birmingham), for his Essay on Iron
Roofs.

Mr. George Godwin called the attention of the Institute to the investiga-
tions in progress concerning the origin of several fires supposed to have been
caused by overheating the pijies of hot water apparatus. — A discussion took
place on tlie effects likely to be produced Ijy the temperatures to which hot
water may be raised under pressure, and Mr. Godwin was requested to ascer-
tain and report to the Institute such facts as might be developed in the course
of the inquiry to which he bad alluded.

A paper was read on the Architectural Antiquities of Wisby, in the island
of Gothland, communicated by John White, Esq.

AVisby in the lOth and 11th centuries was one of the most important com-
mercial cities in the North of Europe, and is is said to have contained eighteen
ehurches, of which there are still extensive remains. These buildings, which
display the pointed arch, claim an antiipiity greater than is generally con-
ceded to that and other characteristics of the Gothic style, especially the
church of St. Lawrence, bnilt in the year 10-16, St. Drotten in 1086, St.
Peter in the same year, and St. Nicolas in 1097. These pretensions to the
high antiquity of the pointed arch Mr. AVhite supported by numerous cita-
tions from Klingvall, Pontanus, Jonas Coldingenses, and other northern his-
torians. In the discussion which ensued, it was suggested that the original
foundation of these buildings might have been preserved in history, and that
they might have been rebuilt at a later period without any record of the fact
having survived, an argument now fully admitted in several cases, (that of
the Cathedral at Coutances for example), in which dates have been assigned in-
consistent with the character of the architecture. But although Mr. White's
paper may have been not altogether conclusive on this point, it drew forth
the warmest acknowledgments of the meeting, as a most valuable accession
of new matter to the stores of the architectural antiquary.

March 22. — Edw.vrd Blore, Esq., V.P., in the Chair.

Mr. Frederick John Francis was elected an Associate.

A letter was read from Professor Willis, Honorary Fellow, accompanying
the copy of a curious and probably unique drawing (in England) of the profile
of a door at Stephen's Church, Bristol, from a MS. of the Itinerary of WiUiam
of Woicester, in the Library of Corpus Christi College, Cambridge. This
work has furnished many of the technical terms used by the architects of the
middle ages, but the drawing, which has been overlooked until the present
time, throws new light upon several of them, especially on the term " corse,"
which has hitherto been a crux to antiquaries, and is omitted in some of our
best glossaries. — Mr. Poynter first indicated the application of this word to
the pinnacles of St. George's Chapel at Windsor, in the contract for vaulting
the choir of tliat building, and its occurrence in the drawing in question ap-
plied to the flanking pinnacles of the doorway, seems to fix its meaning. It
is probable however that the square shaft of the pinnacle only is intended,
and that perhaps with reference to a pecuUar use. — " A corse with an arch
buttant" is mentioned elsewhere by WiUiam of Worcester, and in both the
cases referred to, the shaft of the pinnacle serves as an abutment — at St.
George's to the arch buttant (or flying buttress), and at St. Stephen's to the
lofty pediment over the arch.

A paper was read on the Electrotype by Mr. G. H. Bachhoffner, Professor
of Natural Philosophy, Queen's College, Guernsey, and Lecturer at the Royal
Polytechnic Institution, who accompanied his experiments by several sug-
gestions as to the mode in which practical architecture might be benefitted
by this invention.

Mr. George Godwin in pursuance of the proceedings of the last meeting,
detailed the results of the investigation into the cause of the fires at Man-
chester, conducted by Messrs. Davies and Ryder, at the instance of the Man-
chester Assurance Company, and embodied in their printed " Report on Per-
kins's system of warming buildings by hot water." — Mr. C. J. Richardson
combated the report, and was disposed to question the accuracy both of the
facts and conclusions. Even if it were admitted that ignition had been caused
by hot water pipes, they were, according to his statement, not those of Per-
kin's apparatus, but of imperfect and bungling imitations.

The Institute then adjourned over the Easter hoUdays, the next meeting
being appointed for the 19th of April.

THE OXFORD ARCHITECTURAL SOCIETY.
Feb. 10.— The Rev. Dr. Buckland in the Chair.

Tlie following new iiiemliers were admitted : — The Earl of Dunraven,
Adare Mawr ; Rev. the AVarden of All Souls' College ; Rev. Thomas Synions,
M..\. Ensham ; Rev. Henry Richards, M.A. Horfield, near Bristol; Thomas
Stock Butterwortb, Esq., Westbuiy, near Bristol; Rev. George Dawson, Exe-
ter College ; Rev. R. Greenall, Brasennose College.

The following papers were read : —

1. On Stanton St. John's Church, near Oxford, by Mr. Simpson, of Oriel
College, illustrated by numerous sketches. The chancel of this Church is an
interesting specimen of the transition from the early English to the Decorated
styles towards the end of the thirteenth century. The east window is very
remarkable and almost unique, the tracery being carried in straight lines
through the head with foliations and good mouldings. Some of the original
stained glass is preserved in the side windows, and some painting on the
wood-work in the body of the Church.

2. On Montivilliers Church, in Normandy, by the Rev. T. W. Weare, Christ
Church. This Church affords a curious sjiecimen of the change from the
Norman to the Gothic style, which was very scientifically traced by Mr.
Weare, illustrated by several sketches, and by comparison with other build-
ings, particularly with Clirist Church Cathedral.

3. On the restoration now in progress in the Temple Church, London,
communicated by Sir Alexander Crokc, through the President of Trinity Col-
lege. This restoration appears to be conducted in the best taste, and is en-
titled to the cordial approbation and admiration of all lovers of architecture,
and is the first real restoration of a Church to its original state, with its
painted roof, stained glass windows, and ])olished marble pillars.

4. On the recent discovery, by the Rev. C. F. Watkius, at Brixwortb Church,
of the foundations of a round end to the chancel, from which it has been as-
sumed that this was a Roman Basilica; and it is proposed by Mr. Watkinsto
rebuild the chancel in its original form and on the old foundations. The
Chairman made some observations on the published account, and showed
that the conclusion that this was a Roman Basilica was somewhat hastily ar-
rived at, and scarcely borne out by the facts, since the round east end or apse
was the common form of building Churches down to the twelfth century ;
and the workmanship of this Church is of so very debased a character as to
be much more likely the rude imitation of a later age than genuine Roman
work ; nor does there appear to have been any occasion for a tower to a Basi-
lica. It was also objected that to rebuild the chancel on the old foiuid.ations
would perhaps invalidate the evidence, now so valuable, of its original form
which these circular foundations aff'ord. And a hope was expressed that
measures might be taken to preserve these foundations in such a manner as
to be accessible to the student of Architecture.

The Secretary mentioned that a local Society has been established at Bris-
tol, according to a suggestion in the rules of the Oxford Society ; and it was
agreed that a copy of each of this Society's publications should be presented
to the Bristol Societv.

REVIE'WS.

The Railttays of England. By Francis Whishaw.
(Second Notice.)

Agreeably to the promise, we continue our extracts from Mr.
Whishaw's work, the first which comes before us on this occasion re-
lates to the Birmingham and Gloucester Railway.

The Ballasting on the London and Birmingham is thus described.

The ballasting is of the width of 28 feet, and 22 inches in thickness.
There are no less than seven difl'erent descriptions of ballasting ; viz. burnt
clay, burnt marl, gravel, sandstone, cinders, rock marl, and broken stone.
The burnt clay and burnt marl cost from Is. 2rf. to 2s. 6(/. per cubic yard ;
the gravel and sandstone from 6rf. to Is. 6(7. ; the cinders from 2s. dd to 3s.;
and the rock marl and broken stone (lias and oolite) from 9(/. to 5s. 6;/. per
cubic yard. So many descriptions of ballasting, and so many dirt'erent prices,
cannot be heard of in the history of any other railway.

With regard to the Durham and Sunderland railway we find

Some of the embankments on this railway are formed chiefly of small coal,
which is, perhaps, the best material that can possibly be used for this pur-
pose ; the cost is stated to have been 9rf. per cubic yard : except, however,
in the largest coal distincts, its use is entirely precluded by the cost of
carriage.

Of the inclines on the same line a longer account is given.

To work this railway there are eight fixed engines : the first, or Sunder-
land engine, being of 70 horse power ; the second, or Seaton Bank-top, 42
horse ; the third, or Merton, 70 horse ; the fourth, or Appleton, 83 horse ;
the fifth, or Hetton, 42 horse ; the sixth, or Moorsley, .'>2 horse ; the seventh,
or Piddington, 85 horse ; and the eighth, or Sherburn, also of 85 horse

T

130

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[April,

power. Thus the united power is equal to that of 529 horses. The men
employed in tliis department are nine engine-men, at 24*. a week each ;
twelve stokers, at 18». ; and nine drummers, at 14.v. each per week.

The first plane, ascending from Sunderland to Ryliope, is worked by three
ropes; two being each 24.')0 fathoms in length, of .'ij inches circumference,
and weighing together 43,200 It).; and tlje third 4j inches circumference,
and weighing 13,210 li)., and also 2I.')0 fathoms long. The Scaton plane is
worked by one 7^ inch rope, 2,325 fathoms in length, and weighing 32,5881t>. ;
the rope is drawn out by the wagons descending by gravity. The Merton
incline has two ropes; the one a 5 inch, 1250 fathoms in lentrth, and weigh-
ing 83,33 it).; the other of 6^ inches circumference, 575 fathoms in length,
and weighing 0986 tl>. The fourth plane is worked by one rope for the as-
cenflirig, and by gravity for the dcscemhng wagons ; this rope is of OJ inches
circumference, 7 HI fathoms in length, and weighing 8990 lb. The fifth in-
cline is also worked by one rope, which is of 4i inches circumference, 1425
fathoms inlengtii, and weighs 7094 tt). The sixtli plane has two ropes; the
one being of the same length and weight as llie last ; and tlie other being
700 fathoms in length, 5} inches in circun'.ference, and weighing 5124 tt,.
The seventh and eighth planes are eacli worked by a single rope, the length
of eacli of which is 2450 fathoms ; the siz.e of the seventh being 5^ inches,
and the weight 21,000 lb. ; and of the eighth, 4 inches, and the weight
15,120 11). The whole weight of ropes, therefore, is 170,545 lb., or 7013
tons. Mr. bicnkinsopp, the engineer of this railway, estimates the cost of
these ropes at 40/. per ton, and their average duration about nine months.
In this ease, the ann\ial cost for ropes on this line would be 2283-90/., or
172-03/. per mile. At level road-crossings, the ropes run in channels pro-
perly constructed for the purpose. The rope-sheeves are of cast iron, weigh-
ing 28 ft. each, 12 inches in diameter and 7 inches \ride ; some of them
being fixed in cast-iron standards, and others in wooden boxes, at intervals
of 18 and 24 feet respectively. In curved portions of the line they are
inclined to the horizon. At night the way is lighted by large fire-lamps,
three at each bank-head.

The description of the inclines on the Dundee and Newtyle railway,
will very appropriately follow.

The planes worked by fixed engines are the Law, the Balbeuchly, and the
Hatton inclines.

The Law incline, which is 1060 yards long, the ratio of inclination being
1 in 10, is laid with three rails at top, four in the middle, and two at the
bottom. It is worked by a forty-horse high-pressure engine, having a cy-
linder of 211 inches diameter; stroke 5 feet; rope-roll, 12 feet in diameter;
the pinion on rty-wheel shaft having 32 cogs, and the spur-wheel on rope-roll
shaft 97 cogs ; the usual working pressure is 40 tti. on the square inch. The
ordinary loads are from twenty to twenty-four tons, including a ballast-wagon
of four tons, which always accompanies the train in its ascent, and is fur-
nished with a break and clutches for the purpose of stopping the train in
case of the rope breaking. The time occupied in the ascent is about six
minutes. The counterbalance is of from ten to twelve tons weight. The
cost of this engine is stated tu have been 2750/. The rope is of 75 inches
circumference, and weighs 8900 ft. The lialbeuchly incline, which has a
single way only, is about 1700 yards in length, ascends at the rate of 1 in
25, and is worked by a 20 horse condensing engine ; cylinder 26J inches,
stroke 4 ft. 6 in., usual working pressure of steam 4^ lb., the pinion on fly-
wheel shaft has 48 cogs ; rope-roll 12 feet diameter ; and the spur-wheel on
rope-roll 97 cogs. The usual load is about 16 tons; the time occupied in
the ascent being six minutes. This engine cost 1600/. The rope is of 5^
inches circumference, 900 fathoms in length, and weighs 7056 ft. The Hat-
ton incline, which is also laid with a single way, descends to Newtyle, at
the rate of 1 in 13, for a length of 1000 yards. It is worked by an engine
similar to that for the Balbeuchly incline. The pinion, however, has only
31 cogs, and the spur-wheel 94 cogs. All the above inclines are straight;
the sheeves are fixed at intervals of six yards. The consumption of fuel for
the three engines is about 85 tons per month ; the coals used are from Pres-
ton Grange, east of Edinburgh, and cost 10.«. a ton delivered on the Une.

The plan on the Edinburgh and Dalkcith/ailway, for stopping the
trains in case of the rope breaking is ingenious.

Mr. Rankine calls it a self-acting stopper. It consists of two plates of
iron, cacli having a d(iul)le claw, the points of which are 15 inches asunder.
These plates are each 13.i inches in extreme length, 9 inches along the
middle line of each, and 6 inches wide in the middle, increasing to 15 inches
at the points of the double claw. The plates are | of an inch thick, and
5^ inches apart, secured together with IjJ inches bolts. At the narrow- end
is a roller, 2 inches in diameter ; in the middle is a 2 inch axle, to which an
arm or lever is attached, this lever being connected at its upper end with the
last wagon of the train. By means of the roller the stopper runs on one of
the rails ; and the lever, by which it is connected with the wagon, keeps the
stopper at uniform distance from the train while in motion ; but in case of
the rope breaking, the train immediately runs back, raises the arm, and thus
throws the stopper over, which causes the train to run off the rails.

On the subject of the Leeds and Selby earthworks, Mr. Whishaw
approves of the mode of constructing the embankments.

Some of the embankments are of considerable height ; and instead of
lieing carried up with regular slopes, have their sides faced to a curved bat-

ter, the chord-line of which forms an angle with the base of about 67J'.
M'here stone is plentiful, this is decidedly an economical mode of construct-
ing embankments ; for not only is the quantity of earthwork verv much re-
duced, but there is also a considerable saving efliected in the area of land
required. The same observation will apply to the lower portions both of
cuttings ami embankments; for by carrying up retaining walls for about
1 .'. to 2 yards in height, the quantity of excavation is much reduced, and also
the area of lard. Where stone-fence walls are placed on the top of the em-
bankments, the whole width is 30 feet, and the clear width 27 feet.

We shall follow this by a description of the Manchester and Bir-
mingham drains executed under the direction of Mr. Buck.

Besides the open field drains, circular perforated earthen drains are used
to great extent in the cuttings. They are each 2 ft. 5 in. long, 14 inches in
extreme diameter, and 12^ in>.hc3 in the clear. They are formed as iron
water-pijies, with sjjigot aud faucet ; the clear diameter of the faucet, or
larger end, being 14| inches, and the whole depth of the neck 4 inches.

The following observation is made by our author as to the use of
bricks, while speaking of the Midland Counties railway.

The bridges almost throughout this line are built of red brick, the copings
and strings being formed ol hard-biirnt brick earth, of the particular form
required, as on the South-Eastern Railway. This ]ilan might be advan-
tageously carried out in many other districts where brick-earth is abundant.

Cowran Hill Cutting on the Newcastle and Carlisle railway here-
after described, was originally intended to have been a tunnel.

The strata intersected consist chiefly of clay, with intermixed veins of
sand. The length is about one mile, the average depth 43 feet, and the
greatest depth, 110 feet. The width of this cutting at level of rails is 26
feet. The sides are carried up with slopes of 1^ to 1, and below the slopes
is a retaining wall on cither side, built of stone, 14 feet in height, 2 feet wide
at top, and having a suflicient batter from the railway. On the top of each
retaining wall is an open drain, which receives the water from the slope;
and by means of vertical drains, which are connected with the main drains
running under, and having the same inclination as the railway, the surface-
water is entirely emptied into How Beck.

On the same line we have some interesting details as to the bridges.

There are several bridges of wood spanning the rivers. The chief one is
that at Scotswood Road, being constructed on the skew principle. It is 30
feet on the square, and 50 feet on the skew span, and 30 feet high above the
road. It is built of iron and stone, having five girders, weighing together
70 tons. The parapets arc of rubble walling, coped with masonry. The
whole presents a useful and economical piece of workmanship.

On the branch to Redheugh there is a bridge of singular construction,
which carries a coal-way over the line. This bridge, which is of wood, and
3 ft. 4 in. wide, represents, as it were, the skeleton of lock-gates, consisting
of four trussed portions, each hung folding, the meeting parts being fur-
nished with small wheels, which run on iron segments when the gates ut
opened for the purpose of allowing the locomotives to pass.

Buchanan's Practical Essays on Mill Work and other Machinery.
Re-edited by George Rennie, C.E., F.R.S., &c. Part I., 30 Plates
and Text. London: Weale, 1841.

Robert Buchanan's Essays on Millwork are well known to every
practical engineer, and still better as having been subsequently revised
by Tredgold. To bring the progress of the art up to the present day, and
to describe the modern improvements was a task yet to be attempted.
This has happily devolved upon George Reimie, and it is almost super-
fluous for us to say that no better man could have been intrusted
with them, to one who has cultivated with equal success both the
theory and the practice, who is himself the author and inventor of so
many of the innovations, which he will be called upon to describe. —
Having contributed so much to enlarge the world of science, it was the
least that we could expect of hiiu, that he should come forward to do
justice to his own works and those of his predecessors, the more par-
ticularly as he has in his own factory a museum from which to draw
ample means of illustration.

The present Part is principally confined to the elementary matter,
but the plates in it which refer to the forthcoming one give jiroinise
of most valuable matter. Among them are Bramah's Slide Latlie, his
Lathe for turning Sphere?, the Great Boring Lathe, the Wallside
Drilling Machine, the Double Pillar Drill, the Key Grooving or Slotting
Machine,Self-actingNut-cutlingMachine, machine for cutting the Teeth
of Wheels, another for cutting the Teeth of Wood on Wheel Models,
the Vertical Boring Machine for Cylinders, Planing Machine for Iron,
Nasmyth's Planing Machine, a Punching Machine, Heck's Mandrel for
expanding rings, &c.

1S41.J

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

131

Of Mr. Weale's exertions in tliis work we shall only say that both
to civil and practical engineering he seems determined to afford equal
benefit, those who remember Tredgold on the Steam Engine, will be
prepared for a work got up with equal care.

The Laws of Trade. By Chakles Ellet, C.E. Published in America.
London ; Wiley and Putmaii.

Some time ago we made long extracts from this author, explaining
his system of charging tolls for goods ; the work is now published in
a collected form, and comes before us for recommendation to our
readers. Mr. Ellet has exhibited great industry and acuteness in the
investigation of a branch, as he says, but too little cultivated by engi-
neers. The engineer who is best versed in the tecliiiicalities of his
profession, will still be uuadapted to the application of them, and the
due discharge of his duties, unless he should have studied something
else. The engineer is no bricklayer to put down a railway or canal
just where he may be told, but he is an adviser who has equally to
consult his own reputation in the stability of his works, and in the
happy position of them for traffic. Mr. Ellet has conferred a boon on
his profession, in calling attention to the laws which regulate traffic,
and the revenue to be derived from it, and we hope that he will be
imitated bv his brethren here.

Tables of the Logarithms of Numbers, 4'C- By Edwabd Riddle,
F.R.A.S., Master of the Mathematical School, Greenwich Hospital.
London: Baldwin, 1841.
This is a cheap reprint of logarithmic tables from Mr. Riddle's

work on Navigation, and as such we recommend it to our readers.

Practical Rules for the JManagement of a Locomotive Engine.
Charles Button Gregory, C.E. London: Weale, 1841.

By

Mr. Gregory is known as the Resident Engineer on the London and
Croydon Railway, and some months ago he sent to the Institution of
Civil Engineers a paper on the management of the locomotive engine,
which since, by their permission, has been republished. It is made
up in the form of a small manual, so as to go in the waistcoat pocket of
au engine driver, and is printed in a good legible type. We equally
applaud the design of the work and its execution.

«4n Experimental hiquiry into the Strength and other Properties of An -
thracile Cast Iron. By William Fairbairn.

This pamphlet contains the continuation of Mr. Fairbairn's experi-
ments on iron, and we refer our readers to it as containing some of the
most valuable information as to anthracite, and the iron made from it.

ENSINEERING 'WORKS.

THE ARTESIAN BORING AT PARIS.

M. Arago who both as a member of the municipality of Palis, and as a
" savant," has been one of the most active promoters of the Artesian Well
of Crenelle, reported to the Academic des Sciences on the 1st ultimo, several
details respecting the successful results obtained on the Friday preceding,
which we think will be read with interest. Several Artesian wells on the
right bank on the Seine at Epinay, Saint Denis and Saint Ouen, had given
rise to the expectation of a supply to the city of Paris by the same means,
■which up to that time had been found attended with but a slight expense.
The Municipal Council partaking in these hopes gave orders for the sinking
of borings in the square of the Madeleine, at Gros Caillou, and at the Jardin
des Plantes. The former was however abandoned nearly as soon as com-
menced, for reasons of a private nature, and the other did not succeed;
nevertheless at the Jardin des Plantes the water had risen to within a few
feet of the siu'face of the groimd, essentially constituting an Artesian spring,
although it held out no advantages beyond those of a common well, as in
order to raise the water to the requisite height it was still necessary to have
recourse to a pump. The fact of its not attaining a higher level at first ap-
peared remarkable, but it was soon discovered that the sheet of water which
fed the fountains of Saint Ouen and Saint Denis cropped out or came to the

light on the banks of the Seine between Chadlot and Saint Cloud. — It was
thus shown that this subterranean reservoir was subjected to a comparatively
small pressure, and could give no encoiiragemeut to the establishment of
Artesian foundations on the left bank of the Seine.

Notvvithstanding this, the municipality entertaining views in accordance
with those of a majority of geologists, did not give up the prospect of fur-
nishing Paris with a supply of subterranean water. Already aware that seve-
ral Artesian borings had been attended with immense success both at Tours
and at Elba^uf, these being sunk into a stratum separated by the entire chalk
formation from that of Saint Ouen, the council resolved in the year 18.'!2 to
make efforts to attain this second water-bearing stratum, and M. Mulot who
had already undertaken several of the Artesian wells in the neighbourhood
of Paris, entered into a contract to execute the Puits de (irenelle, which was
commenced in the bej^iuniug of 1833.

Very nearly from the commencement of the undertaking unfavourable
prospects became manifest. After perforating the tertiary sands, which at
GrencUe are 41 J metres (13G feet) thick, and nearly as soon as the rods had
reached the chalk, part of the rods detached themselves and fell to the bot-
tom of the bore-pipe witli great force. Considerable difficulties had conse-
quently to be overcome, but these were soon surmounted, and the only result
of this accident was a slight delay. In May 1837, when the boring had at-
tained a depth of 380 metres (12-40 feet 8 inches), a second and far more
serious accident occurred — the chisel with which the ground was perforated,
and a length of 80 metres (262 feet) of rods, again fell to the bottom. These
weighed together (100 quintaux) five tons, a mass which it was absolutely
necessary to raise again to the surface. It is already a seiious matter to lift
so considerable a weight when all the usual mechanical means are allowed to
be brought into play, it may therefore readily be conceived that acting at a
height above the object equal to thrice that of the towers of Notre Dame,
and in a space having only a limit of a few inches, the obstacles are incal-
culable, and success almost a miracle. However, M. Mulot attained his ob-
ject, he succeeded in tapping a screw on the head of the rods, and thus con-
necting another length to them, after 15 months of vain efforts, the chisel
was at length brought up in August 1838, and the works proceeded with —
they were, however, destined to be again interrupted before their conclusion.

The third accident occurred on the 8th April, 1840, the boring had then
attained the rock chalk. Although the instruments were used with consider-
able dexterity, they made but slow progress. Suddenly however the chisel,
the i)erforating end of which was extremely sharp, having been raised with
great force, sunk at one stroke 26 metres (85 feet 3 inches) in the chalk. It
then stuck so fast that no efforts could succeed in raising it, and had much
force lieen resorted to, a fracture would have been the consequence, which
would have led to a far more serious accident. — M. Mulot, whose inventive
powers set a resolute face against every new difficulty, preferred setting the
boring apparatus free by enlarging the hole on all sides, in which he was
completely successful. The fourth accident was of less importance than the
previous two, the chisel alone became detached, and its fall presented a new
obstacle. M. Mulot at once saw that the remedy resorted to in the case
which had occurred in May 1837 was no longer applicable, and the small size
of the instrument led him to hope that he could pass on one side of the
chisel. A cavity was formed in the side of the boring, and the instrument
was forced therein. The works were then immediately recommenced, and
no other detention occurred.

At last on Friday, 26th February, after 8^ years exertion, the rods suddenly
sunk several metres, — the workmen perceived that all resistance had ceased,
and after a few hours interval a majestic column of water 1691 feet in height
(1847 English feet), the weight ofwliich is equal to 53 atmospheres, rose
from the bosom of the earth. Our globe having a temperature which in-
creases as we descend, the water that flows from its interior assumes a warmth
proportionate to the depth whence it rises. That of the Puits de Grenelle is
at present 27°. 6 Cent. (81". 7 Fahr.) and it will increase as soon as the sides
of the boring shall have attained the temperature of the ascending water.

The difficulties which have been described are not the only ones which this
gigantic undertaking has had to overcome. The sides of the bore-hole are
apt to crumble away, in which event the fragments falling in would fill up
the hole and obstruct the working of the boring tackle. The strata which
are perforated are also full of fissures, which might offer a vent to the ascend-
ing waters and cause them to be lost. These circumstances in connection
with others which we cannot here enumerate, render it necessary to line the
Artesian wells with a metal or wooden tube. This operation, which is not
an easy one, even when a well is but some hundred yards in depth, increases
in difficulty the deeper the works are carried. To effect it a tube of a certain
diameter is first introduced, then a second one fitting into it succeeds, a third
descends through the second, and so on ; — these tubes exactly resembling
those of a telescope, it is readily conceived that as they constantly diminish
in diameter, unless they have been very nicely calculated, the aperture at last
becomes too small for the free working of the boring rods. It is then neces-
sary to lift all the tubes out and replace them by others of a larger diameter.
At Grenelle it became five times necessary to remove the whole hning of the
boring, and also each time to enlarge the bore-hole to allow of the introduc-
tion of larger tubes. — Let our readers then figure to themselves a cast iron
column eight times as high as the towers of Notre Dame, which must be lifted
out and replaced by another — they will then form a just conception of the
patience, care and intelligence necessary.

The supply of water produced by the Puits de Crenelle is equal to upwards

T 2

132

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[April,

of four millions litres (880,387 gallons) per 2 J hours, being nearly a gallon
for each individual in Paris. — The waterworks of Gros Caillou Chaillot and
the engine near the bridge of Notre Darae supply at the most, double this
quantity ; the well at Crenelle consequently, notwithstanding its first cost of
250,000 francs (.t'10,000), affords a cheap supply of water, more particularly
if we bear in mind that this kind of fountain requires no repair.

Some persons are already raising doubts as to the continuity of the supply,
resting their argument on the fact of some of the wells at Tours yiehiing loss
water at present than when first ojjened. They may, however, lay aside all
uneasiness — if some of the wells at Tours have undergone a diminution, a
greater number have increased in abundance, their supply having augmented
by nearly one-tlnrd — ami this discrepancy as it apjjcars at first sight, is easily
accounted for, by those who enter into all the facts of the case, being found
to depend upon the more or less perfect lining of the borings. In the Pro-
vince of Artois where Artesian wells which have existed upwards of .100
years arc found, no diminution of the quantity of water produi ed has ever
been observed — which by the way is (pute natural, the sheet of water which
supplies these having an almost unlimited extent — stretcliing as it does over
a space of several hundred square leagues (1 square league = 5 square miles),
the outlets to which (being these bore-holes) are almost unappreciable. This
also shows us that greater numliers of wells may be sunk into the same stra-
tum without affecting one another in the least. The outlay is however too
great ever to lead us to expect nuich competition, and the perforation of the
strata under Paris leaves us easy as to the future.

From an analysis made by ]M. Pelouze the water of the Puits de GreneUe is
of a verv good quality, and far purer than that of tlie Seine or of Arcueil,
100 litres oidy gave \i grammes of extraneous matter (100 cubical inches
gave 3i grains,) whilst a similar quantity of water from Arcueil, or from the
Seine, yielded 17 grammes in suspension, and 46 in chemical combination,
(100 cubical inches yielded 43 grs. troy mechanically suspended, and 11-6
grs. troy of chemical impurities).

.\n important question, anil one the solution of which will not be com-
pletely attained for a few months, is the height to which the water will rise- -
referring to the levels where this water first percolates into the strata, we may
hope that it will reach higher than the " Plateau " of the Pantheon — if this ex-
pectation be realized, all the vario\is districts of Paris can be attained, and
the improvements which the municipal council of Paris have long contem-
plated of supplying every habitation will be effected in a simple and economical
manner, as it will only be necessary to make two or three other wells like
that of GreneUe.

We cannot however be certain of the ascentional power of the water until
the boring rods are withdrawn from the well, and the lining completed —
some time is therefore still necessary before we know all the advantages
which the perseverance of the municipality will have procured — a courageous
perseverance which we cannot sufficiently praise, and which has had to en-
counter the lively attacks of many persons who fancied it impossible, that
flowing water could ever be obtained by the means brought into play. The
council however placed the gieatest confidence in M. M. Eymery and Marie,
the engineers charged by the " Fonts and Chaussees," with the superintendance
of the supply of water to Paris, and who had first originated the proposal of
an .\rtesian fountain — It was also supported by the opinions of MM. Elie de
Beaumont and .\rago, who never for a moment doubted of the final success
of the undertaking, their confidence being based on analogy, and on a com-
plete acquaintance with the geological conformation of the Paris basin.

We will endeavour to explain the reasons upon which they grounded their
opinion : —

Paris occupies the centre of a basin, bounded on the west by the hills of
Brittany and of La Vendee, on the south by the range which traverses the
centre of France, and on the east by the Chain of the Vosges ; this basin is
filled up by successive layers, moulded as it were upon it, and fitting one into
the other like those sets of cups we sometimes see inclosed in each other in
order to occupy less room.

It will be clearly seen that each of these layers exposes its edges or outcro|i
to the day at greater or less distances from the centre. Those filling up the
basin of Paris form three successive kinds of strata. The first or upper one
called the tertiary formation consists of gravels and sands as foimd at Fon-
tainebleau, of the gypsum which yields the plaster of Montmartre .ind St.Chau-
mond (plaster of Paris), of the limestone of Vaugirard and Montrouge, which
supplies building materials for Paris, and lastly, of the plastic clay em-
ployed in all the potteries of the capital. — This last layer contains the sheet
of water of St. Denis and St. Ouen. The second formation which immedi-
ately follows is the chalk which may be seen on the banks of the Seine from
near Paris to Havre.

I he third consists of various limestones connected with the Jura moun-
tains, and consequently called the Jura formation (in England the oolitic). —
The second water hearing stratum that of Tours and Elbouf occupies the
lower part of the chalk : it consists of a thick bed of sand inclosed in two
very considerable layers of clay. The sand forms a kind of sponge which
imbibes the water, and the beds of clay are as it were the sides of a ]iipc con-
fining it, and whence it escapes whenever a perforation occurs. This stratum
then, if it be continuous under the basin of Paris, if it exactly represent the
cups we have described, must crop out at a certain distance from Paris, and
form a kind of circle round it more or less regular in shape. This is actually
the case. M. EUe de Beaumont has ])resented to the .Vcademy a collection
of samples of the sands belonging to this bed, and obtained at Cap la lUve

near Havre, in the neighbourhood of la Fleche and Bonne Etable in the Sarther
from Chateau la Valicre in the Department of Indre et Loire, and from AUi-
champs near Vassy in the Haute Marne. .Ml these are identical, and resemble
the sand brought up with the water of the Puits de GreneUe. It is then
evidenc to every one, as it long has been to geologists, that this sand forms a
continuous basis to the Paris basin. Similar in shape to the bottom of a boat
its sides rise to the day, whilst the centre is at a great depth from the sur-
face. The waters falling on its edges or outcrop filter in and have for.nied a
subterranean sea, occupying the entire width of the basin, (jeology is thus
cstaldished by the Puits de (irenelle as a positive science in the eyes of the
whole world, and the conformation of the Paris basin made known with cer-
taintv. — Le Cottsliliitionnel, March 4.

THE MAPLIN LIGHTHOUSE.

Ix the second volume of the Journ.il, page 38, we gave a description of
the foundations of a Lighthouse to be constructed on a novel principal, by
direction of the Trinity Board, under the superintendance of Messrs. Walker
and liurges, the eminent engineers ; the spot selected was the Southerly
point of the MapUn Sands, which form the northern extremity of the Swin
Channel, at the entrance of the river Thames. The foundations, as we before
described, consisted of nine of Mitchell's patent mooring screws, with shafts of
wrought iron .5 inches in diameter and 26 feet long, one was fixed in the
sands in the centre, and the remaining 8 at the angles of au octagon 40 feet
diameter, the screws were turned into the sand to the depth of 21 ft. 6 in.,
the top being then within 4 feet of the low water mark of a spring tide.

.\fter the screws were fixed in August 1838, it was determined to leave
them for a few months; from that period to June 1839, every change in the
surface of the sand was observed, and notwithstanding that in the early part
of 1839. there were several storms of more than ordmary violence, yet
the screw piles stood firmly, and the sand at no time was lowered more
than 3 feet. .Vs a )>recautionary measure the engineers had constructed
an open platform or raft of timber in two thicknesses, crossing each other at
right angles, and bolted together at their intersections, which covered the
whole site within the piles, and also extended some distance beyond them ;
round the exterior was raised a curb 1 8 inches high ; over the platform was
laid bnishwood, and then about 200 tons of rough stone which sunk the raft
on to the sand and prevented it being displaced, between the spaces of the
platform and the brushwood the sand was allowed to work its way up, which
soon fiUed the interstices of the stone. Very shortly after the whole of the
platfonu and stone was embedded below the surface of the sand, which gave
considerable support sideways to the screw piles, and formeii a solid body for
the water to wash upon. Nothing farther was done on the spot till the
framing for the construction of the lighthouse was ready to be fixed in .\ugust
1840, when upon a careful examination it was found that the raft had com-
pletely settled down, and the piles as firm as the first day they were screwed
in — it was then determined to proceed with the erection of the super-
structure, which we shall now proceed to describe. The lower part consists
of eight cast iron pillars 18 feet long, 11 inches diameter externally, and 9
internally, they are fixed at the angles of tlie octagon, and in the centre there
is a similar pillar 22 feet long ; the lower part of the pillars forms a socket,
and is fitted over the top of the shafts of the screw piles to the extent of 4
feet, to which they are attached by adjusting screws of wrought iron ; the
U]iper part of the pillars also forms a socket 12 inches clear diameter, and 4
feet deep, into which are fixed the principal posts of the timber framing —
these pillars are fixed inclining towards the centre. The pillars are tied to-
gether at top and bottom with wrought iron horizontal bars 2 J inches dia-
meter, fitted with collars and screw bolts ; similar bars are fixed on the same
level in a raking position to the centre pillar, by the aid of which the whole
are firmly tied and braceil together — the top of the pillars stands about 4 feet
above high water mark of a spring tide. The timber framing was commenced
by first fixing the centre post 21 feet long and 14 inches square, and subse-
quently those of the angles, 30 feet long, 12 inches square at the base, and
10 inches square at the top ; they are tied together at the bottom by double
horizontal tie beauis, 12 by .'), and 27 feet long, and at the top 10 by 4, and
21 feet long ; the ends are secured to the angle posts by wrought iron nut
and screw bolts aiui iron knees. There are also raking braces from the angle
posts to the centre lOJ by 9, and \f> feet long; upon the tie beams are laid
the flooring joists 9 bv 3, the principal posts of the carcase framing are 6
by 4.

The interior accommodation consists of a li\ing room 22 feet long, and a
store-room in the ujipcr part, and store-rooms for coals and water in the
lower part. Thus far the erection was completed in October 1840, within a
period of three months.

Above the living-room is fixed the lantern with a gallery all rounil — it is a
polygon of 16 sides. 12 feet diiuueter internally, and 10 feet high from the
floor to the roof; tbr principal ])art of the framing is of cast iron — the roof,
the interior lining ami floor are covered with copper. In the centre, raised
upon a pedestal, is the beautiful apparatus of a second order of Dioptric light,
made and fitted up, together with the iron work of the lantern, by Messrs.
Wilkins and Son, of Long .\crc. The height of the hght above the mean
level of the sea is 4.") feet, and may be clearly seen from the deck of a vessel,
in fine weather, upwards of 10 miles off in all directions. The light was first
exhibited on the evening of the 10th of February last.

1841.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

133

PLYMOUTH BREAKWATER LIGHTHOUSE.
A lighthouse is in course of erection upon the western extremity of the
Breakwater, the first stone of which was laid by Admiral Warren, on tlie
22nd of Feliruary last, it was designed by Messrs. Wallver and lUirges, the
engineers of the Trinity Board, in July last, and submitted to tlic Admiralty.
Shortly after, their Lordships gave directions for its immediate construction.
It is to be erected upon an inverted arch, the foundation of wliich is laid
about 1 foot 6 inches below the level of low water spring tides, its centre at
top is at the distance of 37 feet 6 inches from the western end or head of the
Breakwater, and at the level of low water \0l) feet. The diameter of the
head of the Breakwater at the level of low water is 390 feet, and at the level
of the top of the Breakwater 75 feet. Tlie Ughthouse is to be of granite 14
feet clear diameter, the centre of the light will be 55 feet from the top of the
Breakwater. The interior will be divided into floors, forming a store room,
a dwelling-room, a bed-room, and a watch-room. The lantern 12 feet wide
and 7 feet 6 inches high, is to sliow a Dioptric fixed light of the second order,
with mirrors; the south half to show a red light, to (listinguish it from tlie
coast lights, and the north side towards the Sound, is to be white. The
stones of the lower courses are to be secured with dowels of slate, independent
of a vertical and horizontal dovetail, the dowels are 18 inches long and G
inches square at the centre, and sunk S inches into the lower course of stone,
both ends are dovetailed and secured in their places by plugs in the upper,
and by wedges in the lower stone. It is expected that tlie lighthouse will be
completed by the end of 1842.

MERSEY AND IRW ELL NAVIG.\T10N.

We preseut in the accompanying reports of Mr. Palmer and Jlr. Bateman
the groundwork of a long discussion,* which has taken place at the Royal
Victoria Gallery, Manchester. In this discussion which lasted for several
evenings, Mr. Hawkshaw, Mr. G. W. Buck, Mr. Joseph Radford, Mr. W.
Fairbairn, Mr. T. Fairbairn. Mr. Bateman, Mr. Thomas Hopkins, and other
engineers took part. The proceedings are of particular interest on account
of the important questions concerned in them, and of the public being thus
brought to take a part in a professional subject. Of a debate of such length
it would be impossible to give even an abstract, but we may mention some
of the opinions put forward. Mr. Palmer is in favour of contracting the up-
per part of the river estuary, and forming the river as a funnel ; Mr. Bateman
is in favour of contracting the upper part, but opposed to interfering with
the estuary ; Captain Denham, opposed to contracting the estuary ; Mr. W.
Fairbairn, on Mr. Batcman's side ; Mr. Buck, in favour of contracting the
upper part, thinks the estuary might be partially contracted ; Mr. Hawkshaw,
of opinion that the upper part could not be improved without the neck of
the estuary below Liverpool being contracted ; Mr. Radford, Mr. T. Fairbairn,
and Mr. Hopkins support Mr. Palmer. Thus in favour of improving the up-
per part of the river, the numbers are —

For, 7 Against, 1

With regard to the bay at Runcorn Gap,

For .Mr. Palmer, 4 ; Mr. Bateman, 2 ; against, 2.

With regard to contracting the Mersey,

For, 4 Partially, 1 .\gainst, 4.

Extracts from a " Report on the Improvement of the Riverx Mersey and Irwell
between Liverpool and Manchester^ describing the means of adapting them
for the nacigation of Sea-going I'essel-w By Henry R. Palmer, F. R. S.,
Vice-Pres. Inst. C. E."

At the time when inland navigation by means of artificial canals met with
such extraordinary eucouragement, the prevailing opinion was opposed to
the use of rivers, chiefly on account of their currents, especially during rainy
seasons. Probably this impression may have derived some of its strength,
from the well-known bold expression attributed to the late Mr. Brindley,
under whose superintendence the Bridgewater Canal was constructed. The
advantages which that celebrated work exhibited over the natural line of
navigation, at the time the former was constructed, were no doubt obvious,
and many other instances might be cited, which would equally point out the
superiority of an entirely artificial canal, over an imperfect or ill-regulaled
line of river navigation.

The actual distance, in a straight line, between the quay at Manchester,
and the Cofnpany's Dock at Liverpool, is about thirty-three miles ; while
the length of the channel, in its natural course, between the same points, is
forty-eight miles ; the circuities amounting to no less than fifteen miles.
Those circuities have, however, been reduced seven miles, leaving the present
length of the line of navigation forty-one miles.

The width of the river at Manchester is 108 feet, at Warrington 140 feet,
at Fidler's Ferry 170 feet, and at Cuerdly Point 650 feet.

From thence it rapidly widens to 3,500 feet. It is abruptly reduced to
1,200 feet at Runcorn Gap, and, within a short distance, is again widened to
4,200 feet.

* It was our original intention to have published the discussion, but it ex-
tended to such a great length that we were obliged to abandon our intentions.
— Ed.

The widths continue to vary considerably towards the river's mouth, ex
tending in one part to two and a half miles, and again diminishing to 3,300
feet at Liverpool.

The level of the highest tide, uninfluenced by a strong wind, intersects the
bed of the river at Woolston, lieing a distance by the course of the channel
of about 25J miles above Liverpool, and the bed of the river at Manchester
is 49 feet above the level referred to. The first weir in the ascending di-
rection is «t Warrington, and the distance from thence to Manchester is
divided into 10 pools.

The navigation of the river between Liverpool and the lock at Warrington
is dependant upon the tidal water, and the whole of the remaining distance
upon that derived from the uplands.

At Liverpool the spring tides rise 33 feet

At Runcorn 16J „

At Warrington 8 „

The lowest of the neap tides at Liverpool rise 231 feet, and if the wind be
strong in the adverse direction they do not extend to Runcorn. The depth
of water at Liverpool with a high spring tide is 89 feet, but the bed of the
river is rapidly elevafeil, and the depth during the same tide is diminished to
33 feet in a distance of 9^ miles.

.V 33 feet tide at Liverpool occasions a IG^ feet tide at Runcorn; thus
sliowing the bed of the river at Runcorn to be about 16^ feet above the
level of low water mark at sea, assuming the line of high water mark to be
level between the two places. This, however, is not strictly the fact, and
will he hereafter the subject of explanation.

The river is subject to considerable land floods, wliich descend with great
impetuosity, and overflow tlie banks, laying under water extensive areas of
marshes. .\ land flood implies an accumulation of the water of drainage de-
rived from a more than ordinary quantity of rain. The river channel being
jiroportioned only to an average quantity, the surface of the stream is neces-
sarily raised. But the accumulations that are so injurious, and which are
complained of, are not to be .-ittributed to any natural deficiency in the ca-
pacity of the channel, but to the permanent barriers or weirs that have been
erected, which diminish the water space nearly three fourths, without any
compensation having been provided.

The evil consequences of such circumstances are of far greater magnitude
than has been supposed. It is well known that the water in its descent over
the lands, washes down such loose soil as it is capable of removing ; the
same being conducted into the channel of the river, it is carried out to sea,
if the moving power continue to be suflicient throughout the whole distance.
The natural slope of the Mersey above the tideway is such as would occasion
a considerable velocity of the water, but by dividing it into a series of pools,
the velocity is, as it were, concentrated at the weirs, and the motion betweea
them is much inferior to that which is required for removing the soil brought
down by the rains. The cleansing of the channel is therefore exclusively
dependant upon extraordinary quantities of rain from whence an increased
velocity is obtained.

But if the weirs were altogether removed, it is obvious the river above the
tideway would cease to be navigable ; weirs of some kind are indispensable
where the slope of a river is great, but it is equally clear, that they should
be so constructed as to prevent the least hindrance to the motion of the
floods.

Seeing that the fixed weirs contribute so largely and injuriously to impede
the motion of the water, and tlierefore to elevate its height during floods, we
find that a large proportion of it is made to pass over surfaces which are in
no way benefitted, but which are damaged by it ; while its use as a scouring
power is altogether lost. While these effects cannot, perhaps, be entirely
prevented, they may be greatly diminished, by so constructing the weirs that
the impediment they cause shall have relation to the quantity of water in
the river. If the weirs were properly made self-adjustable, according to cir-
cumstances, the bed of the river would be acted upon during longer periods,
and therefore more eft'ectually cleansed.

Frotn the parallelism of the upper division, its bed is comparatively regular.
The lower division is, however, of a contrary character ; the extent of surface
covered by the tides is such as to permit an effect upon their motion caused
by the winds. The sands of which the bed is composed are therefore sub-
ject to a change of place, and hence the positions of the shoals are everMable
to variation.

From this circumstance the channel or line of deepest water varies also,
and becomes divided in various places ; so that instead of one permanent
course, having a depth which is due to the naturiil force of the descending
waters, several channels are formed, of which neither can be of the depth,
that in a single channel, would be maintained.

There can be no doubt that the condition of a river is best for the purposes
of navigation, when the deepest part is limited to one permanent and regular
track. This can be effectually obtained only by causing the flowing and ebb-
ing waters to act in the same lines ; such a condition may not be practicable
where the scale of the river is of so great a magnitude, that the motion and
action of the water is influenced by winds.

The principle, however, should be kept in view, and should be approached
as nearly as the means extend. A regularity in the outhne or borders of
the river is essential for the production of the effect required ; and while the
opposite banks of the Mersey remain as they now are, totally inconsistent
with each other, we cannot hope for the improvement so much needed, and
which is obviously within the power of art greatly to assist.

134

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[April,

But to obtain that degree of regularity or parallelism which is required,
certain excrescences in the area must be enclosed, by which it will become
reduced. It is to the consequences of such a measure that the numerous
opinions before adverted to were directed, and which liavc now to be con-
sidered.

It has been asserted that the open broad areas of the river at a considerable
distance above Liverpool, are necessary for the maintenance of deep water
towards tlic river's month ; and it is thence inferred that if the area of the
river towards the extremity of the tideway were diminished, great injur)'
would be sustained towards the outfall.

The shoals arc said to accumulate, and the depth of the channel diminish ;
and a great proportion of such effects have been attributed to the enclosures
that have been made from the river in the upper part of the tideway.

In order to investigate the subject in question fairly, it is indispensable
that the ."iottrcf frmii whence the accumulations are derived be ascertaiiied^
(i. e.) it must be known whether the materials which constitute the accumu-
lations for the most part arc derived from the sea shore, os whether they are
brought down by the rains from tlic surface of the uplands.'

That matter is brought from the interior and carried towards the sea, is
a fact too well known to require more than allusion to it. But that the
quautity so brought down and de]Jositcd in the bed of the river is scarcely
perceptible, and that it docs not produce any sensible injury, may, I think,
be demonstrated in a sati^factory manner. It must then follow, that the
accumulations comiilained of arc xvpplied from the sea. I have confidence
in being en.ihlcd to prove that the (/rent ejcpanses in the area of the upper
part lift lie river, are not only not beneficial to the outfall, but that they are
injurious to it.

If the accunuilations were derived from the uplands in any sensildc degree,
the quantities deposited from time to time might be expected to bear some
proportion to the quantities of rain fallen at different periods, because the
quautity of matter brought down and conveyed through the u])per division
of the river to the tideway, must lie regulated by the quantity of water which
conveys it. But it is a fact long ascertained and known beyond doubt, that
the accumidation of the sands in the vicinity of Kimcoru (above and below
that place) is greatest when there is least n-ater descetidiiiy from the uplands.
Such is the amount of accumulation in one dry season, that it is felt by those
■who navigate the upper part of the tideway. It is then to be observed, that
the accinnulations progressively increase until the arrival of a laud flood, on
which occasion the excess that bad become deposited is removed. The fact
therefore is, that the quantities of accumul.itions in the river are inversely in
proportion to the quantities of rain ; and hence there is less deposit upon the
bed of tlie river in the tideway when the gi'eatest quantity of silt is brought
down from tlic uplands. From this reasoning we may infer, that if there
were no descending land stream, and if the whole area of tideway were a
mere bay, the same would gradually silt up, and become dry land. Such
would he the fact, and it will be shown that however extensive the recep-
tacles for the mere tidal waters, they do not contribute to the preservation of
tlie outfall.

The cleansing of the outfall is admitted by all to be dependant upon the
force of the outward motion of the water. It must therefore follow, that the
inward motion of the same (/. e. the flowing tides) will act in a similar man-
ner, and bring with them such quantities of sand as they are capable of
moving. The question then refers to the comparison of the inward with
the outward forces. If the force of the ebbing tide do not exceed that of
the flowing tide, it is evident that no greater quantity of sand can be carried
out by the former than that which is brought in by the latter. If the ebbing
water have an excess of power over that which flows, it is certain that a
greater quantity of sand will be carried out than is brought in, and conse-
quently the depth must gradually increase. But such, however, is not the
fact, clthouyh the ebbiny tides are assisted by the waters from the uplands.

From what has now been stated, I trust it will appear manifest, that the
effect of the flowing tides in raising the bed of the river, exceeds that of the
ebbing tides, and hence we may conclude, that the depth if the channel is
entirely and exclusively dependant upon tlie water derived from the uplantU.

Although I cannot imagine a doubt upon the fact just mentioned, the sub-
ject is of so much importance, that I must beg permission to make use of
another argument.

If the deposits in the tideway were derived from the uplands, we surely
ought to detect the fact by reference to the substance of which they are com-
posed. I have obtained specimens of the bed of the river from various parts
of it, and have found that the substance in the higher part of the tideway
corresponds with that taken from below Liverpool. I have also found that
the loose matter in the bed of the river above the tideway, has a different
character. It is true that the strata of the district through which the river
passes from its source is silicious, and, therefore, the debris partakes of that
character ; but in form it difl'ers, and, as may be supposed, is mixed with
various other substances, of whicli coal dust and soot may be taken as pro-
minent ingredients. Now, the diflfercnee in colour of the general mass of
specimens taken from the higher jiart of the river, especially that near Man-
chester, and that of the specimens taken from the neighbourhood of Runcorn
and Liverpool, is such, that no doubt remains of their being derived from
different sources.

Considering the character of the district through whicli the river passes,
the immense consumption of coal on both its banks, and the prodigious
quantity of loose coloured matter that must necessarily be washed into its

stream, I certainly did expect to find some appearance of such matter in the
sands in the vicinity of Liverpool, but although I employed a very high mag-
nifying power, no such particles could be detected.

We have also abundance of examples, which prove most obviously, that
with tidal rivers the raising of their beds is produced by the flowing tides,
while the products of the land waters are not observable until the tides fiave
elevated the surface to nearly the heiyht to which they rise. The dimensions
of the particles, a descending stream is capable of carrying, depends upon the
velocity with which the water moves, and that velocity is determined by the
slope of the bed. Most rivers appear to be progressively diminishing in
depth, and hence we may safely infer, that their depths towards their outfalls
were greater in proportion to the remoteness of the periods ; their slopes
must therefore have been greater, and the masses brought down proportion-
ally so, and the debris derived from the uplands and deposited in the rivers
must increase in dimension in proportion to the depth at which is is found.
Although the common velocity of a river may be insufficient for the removal
of gross particles, (say coarse sand,) it may be sufficient for carrying matter
of a lighter description, and it is probable that all such light matter as ar-
rives in the tideway of the Mersey, during the ebb-tide, is actually carried
out to sea ; but such as may arrive during the flood-tide, wliich at higli water
does not happen to be deposited on those parts of the bed over which a cur-
rent ))asses when the tide returns, will remain where it falls. Now this can
only happen where the sands have accumulated to a considerable height from
another source before described, and it seems that the deposits from the
uplands in the process now going on in the Mersey, are for the most part of
the lightest description, and they are to be found only under the circum-
stances mentioned. All this reasoning is suificiently supported by an exami-
nation of the soil of which the upper portion of the marsh land is composed,
and may therefore be safely relied on.

The coasts of Surry, Kent, Suffolk, and a portion of Norfolk, are bordered
by beaches of shingle, which are kept in perpetual motion by the action of
the sea, and the component parts are continually seeking a place of shelter,
and hence they enter and accumulate about the mouths of all inlets which
have not the advantage of an opposing force, derived from a never-failing
stream from the uplands. The direction of their prevailing course is deter-
mined by that of the most frequent or prevailing action of the waves, or
breakers of the sea, and although a land stream be sufficiently powerful to
maintain a passage to the ocean, yet such is the action upon the loose sub-
stances which compose the shingle, that their motion cannot be prevented,
and the outfalls of the rivers become diverted into a direction parallel with
the shore, unless such an efl'ect be opposed by artificial means.

If, then, notwithstanding the existence of the constant aid of a land stream,
it be difficult to retain an unencumbered outfall, much less can it be expected
that a clear opening shall be jireserved where such assistance is not available.

Leaving the operations of nature entirely free from control, it does appear
that all inlets upon a coast invested by a shingle beach, and which are not
preserved by the discharge of a stream from the land, must gradually dimi-
nish. The accumulating process is abundantly exhibited on the coasts al-
luded to. Dovor, Folkestone, Rye, and Shoreham, afford excellent instruction
upon the subject.

Nothing is more common than to assign, as the cause of decay in harbours,
the enclosure of spaces which previously received the tidal waters, while the
ordinary processes of nature are totally unheeded. I have never yet heard
any reasoning which explains in what manner the abstraction of the tidal
space can or does produce the effects complained of. If the flowing and
ebbing forces be equal, the latter can only remove from a harbour the same
quantity of matter the foimer may have deposited.

But upon careful examination of all the actions contained in the process,
it will be seen that the flowing forces are the greatest, and hence we need
seek no further for causes that produce the effects which we obser>'e and
lament.

But an approach to parallelism in the banks, is useful in another way : the
tapering form of the opposite sides is known to contribute to the advancement
of the tides towards the extreme points of their access. The spring tides at
Runcorn do note rise to a higher level than the high water mark of the same
at Liverpool, while some neap tides, if opposed by the wind, will not reach
that place. In the latter case the tides at Liverpool return before the whole
estuary has been filled, which would not occur if the area were to be diminished
to its best proportion, and the sides properly regulated.

Vei-y remarkable and interesting evidence on this branch of the subject is
to be found in the Severn and Wye. The channel of the Severn is funnel-
shaped, and the height to which the water rises increases with the distance
reached ; thus —

At Swansea a spring tide rises 30 feet
At the mouth of the Avon . . 40 „

At the New Passage 50 „

At the mouth of the Wye . . 60 „
At Chepstow 70 „

Some portions of the rise at Cheptow may, however, be ascribed to the
quantity of water descending from the mountains. These facts I have per-
sonally ascertained.

Now although the Mersey is of a different form from the Severn, yet it
may readily be conceived that the momentum of this great body of water in
the river below Runcorn, mut, where the space is suddenly contracted, as it

1S41.J

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

135

is at Runcorn Gap, cause a swell, and it therefore flows to a greater perpen-
dicular lieight at Runcorn Docks than its natural level at Liverpool. This
effect has, as before stated, hceo limited to spring tides, the neaps being con-
trary.

Jir. Batemans Report to the Company of Ri-oprkUirs nf the Mersey and Irwell
Navigation.

Gentlemen— In my recent investigation at Runcorn, as to the best mcins
of improving the navigaiion there, I was led to the considfiation of tlie gene-
ral improvement of (he river Mersey, and particularly of that part which lies
between Runcorn and Warringion. A mode of eftecting this in a manner
•which appeared to me likely to be beneficial to every party interested, sug-
gested itself; and, in the beli.f that it is deserving your atteution and con-
sideration. I take the liberty of laying it before you.

The improvement of the river for navigable purposes is a subject of great
importance to the proprietors of the navigation — to the town of Warrington,
and to all who can participate in the advantages which may be expected to
result. It is a subject which has frequently e.^cited the most serious atten-
tion, and it appears recently to have been taken up with a spirit from which
some practical and useful result may be confidently expected.

The river possesses within itself the means of very great improvement ; and
I am convinced, that, if these resources were sufliciently investigated and de-
veloped, no great length of time would elapse before we should see vessels of
three or four times the present burden, unloading their cargoes at the quays
of Manchester.

It is becoming of daily increasing importance, when we consider the vast
impetus which must be given to the trade of Manchester and its neighbour-
hood, by the many important railroads which are now constructing — the great
increase in the carriage of merchandise which may consequently be expected
— the important benelits which the Inland Bonding Bill, if suffered to pass
into a law, will confer upon the town, and the probable increase in the car-
riage from that cause also— with the necessity of carrying the facilities of
inland navigation to the highest pitch of perfection, in order to cope with
the powerful rivalry of callateral railroads.

The river, as far as the navigation extends, may be considered as naturally
divided into three parts ; from Liverpool to Runcorn ; from Runcorn to War-
rington; and from Warrington to Manchester.

The first is a wide and open estuary or inlet from the sea, navigable at high
water of all tiiles, for vessels of considerable burden ; and being from its na-
ture susceptible of little improvement beyond the deepening and .straightening
of the channels. At high water, it is for the most part from two to three
miles in width; but. at low water, the channel is generally not more than
200 or 300 yards, lipon this portion of the river, steamers ply regularly at
every tide, between Liverpool and the various canals which enter the river
near the tow n of Runcorn, for the conveyance of goods and passengers, and
fcfr tugging vessels ; and it forms the utmost extent to which the natural na-
vigation of the river, assisted by the tides, can be regularly and certainly
made.

The second division forms the upper end of the estuary, separated from the
lower part by a uarmw strait called Runcorn Gap, where the opposite rocky
shores appro.ich to within about 400 yards of each other, projecting consider-
ably within the limits of high water, both above and below. It is nearly a
mile wide at the lower end, and terminates upwards in the ordinary channel
of the river, which is probably about a hundred yards in width. It is only
navigable at high water of spring tides, for vessels of more than 40 or 50 tons
burden, and has been found so beset with inconveniences and diffieulties, that
the navigation of it has been nearly abandoned, artificial canals having been
constructed inland, for the purpose of carrying on the communication.

The third portion lies above the reach and influence of the tides, and is
strictly an artificial river navigation, having been rendered available for that
purpose by locks and weirs, to the town of Manchester, and shortened and
straightened in various parts by artificial cuts. It is only now, however,
capable of being used !>y vessels ordinarily about 40 or ,50 tons burden, draw-
ing about four feet of water. The depths of the pools vary considerably,
being in many cases 10 or II feet, and in others not more than four or five
fcft.

The navigation of this part is cajKible of being greatly improved, and may
be adapted at a reasonable expense to the conveyance of vessels of 150 tons
burden, or probably more.

Several bridges would prevent the passage of high-masted vessels ; but all
steamers, and such vessels as could sufficiently lower their masts, mightmake
the entire navigation. This is perhaps now of less importance than it would
formerly have appeared, as, from the rapid progress steam navigation has
recently made, we may reasonably expect a very large proportion of the trade
will be carried on by that means ; while, to a considerable extent also, vessels
expressly adapted to the circumstances of the navigation, would no doubt be
constructed, A survey for the purpose of leporting the most effectual means
of accomplishing the improvement of this part of the river is now in progress,
and I have little doubt the'report will be of a very satisfactory nature.

The main difficulty in the way of a general improvement to the town of
Manchester, so as to take [vessels of the size above mentioned, appears to
exist in the inconvenient state of the navigatiim between Runcorn and War-
rington ; and it is to the improvement of that portion of the river that my
attention has been particularly drawn, and to which 1 shall confine my ob-
servations.

Whether any definite plan for the improvement of this part, or the removal
of its natural difficulties, has ever been proposed, I am not aware ; but from
the opposition with which all attempts to carry bridges over the estuary at or
above Runcorn Gap have been met with, and from the jealousy with which
any encroachment on the tideway has been watched, the general impression

seems to have been th.at it was necessary to keep it in its present state, — that
of an open unobstructed tidil river,

I rather think ihere has been generally a kind of vague idea, that some
imiiorlant jilan of improvement would sometime or other be projected, and
an apprehension that any alteration in the river might tend lo [irevent the
accnmplishnient of the anticipateil scheme; and, therefore, all parties have
been particularly anxious to keep it in its natural and originid state.

The examination 1 have made of the river w ith information obtained respect
ing it, and a careful consideration of all the circumstances connected uith it-
have led me, however, to the conclusion that so lung as the river above Run-
corn remains an open estuary, washed over by the tide, it will be impossible
to efiect (except at an enormous expense) any advantageous or permanent
improvement.

The main diRUultics under which this part of the navigations labours, are
want of siifficien' deiUh of water to carry vessels ot anv size up to Warring-
ton, except diiring high spring tides — the short period of time during which
it can even then be done — the circuitous and ever- changing channels — and
the constant alterations of the sandbanks which are operated on and shifted
both by tides and land floods.

To remove these difficulties — to secure a constant and unchanging channel
of sufficient depth to allow nearly all vessels to go up to Warrington at any
state of the tide, that can reach Runcorn Gap — to give a longer period of
time during which the navigation can be made — to du a« ay with the danger
anil annoyance ot being neaped on sand banks, 'S at present — and to do all at
a reasonable and warrantable expense, and so as not to injure the navigation
of the port of Liverpool, nor injuriously to atlect any other interest, is the
end to be desired, and the end which, 1 hope to be able to show, the plan 1
have to suggest will be sufficient to attain,

I have mentioned, that the w idth of the river at Runconi Gap is about 400
yards, and it is bounded at e.ach side by precipitous rocks. The tides here,
even when ])ressed by strong winds, never rise more than 20 or 21 feet; and
at low w ater the greatest portion of the channel is dry, there being little more
than a few feet of water in any part.

The plan I have to propose is to throw an embankment across the river at
this place, w ith proper and sufficient locks and ilood gates to admit and dis-
charge the tidal waters under certain regulations.

Were the question merely confined to the best means of improving the na-
vigation from Runcoin upwards, without reference to any effect to be pro-
duced below, a simple embankment or weir, with self-acting flood-gates to
admit and impound the high tide water, with such locks as might be necessary
for the navigation, would be all that would be required ; for by that means
you would have a pool constantly filled, deep enough to float vessels to and
from Warrington, at every hour of the day. drawing 12 or 14 fe t of water.

Rut it becomes a question as to bow far the obstruction to the flow of so
much tidal water, with its scouring effect upon the channel during ebb tide,
would affect the entrance to the port of Liverpool, or the navigation from
Liverpool lo Runcorn ; and 1 am of opinion, that, unless measures were
adopted to prevent it, an embankment only, which would constantly keep up
the water, would have an injurious tendency.

To prevent this, and for the purpose of always maintaining a deep channel
(and 1 believe in a more effectual manner than can now be dune), I would
propose the construction of sufficiently capacious flood-gates to discharge at
half-ebb of spring tides, when the most ellectual scour is going on, the wliole
Ixidy of water which is impounded, refilling the pool at the next tide.

Having thus slated generally the nature of the plan, 1 will proceed to ex-
plain it more in detail, to point out what I ci-nsider its advantages, and to
investigate the objections which, it appears to me, may be urged against it.

The average height of the tides at Liverpool over the old dock sill, is about
15 feet, — the highest being about 21 feet, and the lowest 10 feet. These mea-
sured from Ion water are respectively about 33 feet and 23 feet.

All 18 feet tide at Liverpool, being an average spring tide, and about 30
feet in ihe river, will rise about 15 feet at Runcorn, and 8 feet at Bank Quay,
near M'airington.

Such a tide will allow vessels drawing 13 feet to reach Runcorn, and such
as draw 8 feet, about 100 tons burden, to go forwards to Bank Quay, A neap
fide will scarcely bring a vessel draw ing 8 feet to Runcorn, and it will carry
nothing at all (but a flat, perhaps) to Warrington.

The average of vessels drawing the greatest depth of water which reach
Runcorn, may probably be taken at 10 feet, varying from 100 to 200 tons
burden ; and this size includes nearly all the coasters, those engaged in the
Irish provision trade, and steamers.

At present, such vessels can only get forward to Warrington, at the very
highest spring tides, perhaps two or three limes in the course of the year;
but, by the plan suggested, they will be able to do so as often as they can
reach Runcorn ; and, when once at Warrington, all steamers, and such ves-
sels as can lower their masts, may go on to Manchester, when the necessary
improvements on that portion of the river are effected.

It seems that the difference in the depth of water between Runcorn and
Bank Quay at high tide, is about 7 feet. Of this I am inclined to think 4 or
5 feet IS attributable to the natural declivity of the ground, and the remain-
ing 2 or 3 feet to the fall in the surface ol the flood tide, which. 1 apprehend,
never attains the same relative height at Bank Quay as at Runecni. If i am
right in this conjecture, the eSecl of an embankment will be as tollows : —

A tide rising 15 feet at Runcorn will (as I have showii before) give, as the
river is at present, 8 feet of water at high tide at Bank Quay ; but. suppo ing
this tide to be retained at Runcorn, and \irevented from flowing back, the
water would gradually level itself, by rising at Bank Quay, and falling at
Runcorn; and if the width of the river were the same from one end to the
other, and the ihflerence to begin with w as 3 feet, it would rise 1 foot 6 inches
at Bank Quay, making the depth of water there 9 feet 6 inches, and fall the
same amount, 1 fnot 6 inches at Runcorn, reducing that depth to 13 feet 6
inches. As the river, however, is much wider at the lower than the upper
end, the fall at Runcorn would be less than half the amount of the difference,
and the rise at Bank tjuay more than half,— making the depth there probably
10 feet. Suppose further, that the laud or river water was allowed to flow

136

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[April,

into the ]k'o', so as to raise the entire surface to the level of the original tiile.
15 feet at Kiincom, which woiilil occupy about a day and half, there would
be a depth of ]1 feet at Bank Quay ; and, supposing'tlie river is then alloMed
to flow on tlirough the pool as usual, we must add the fall or declivitv in the
surface necessary to give it the reijuisite velocity ;— this would be about 2 or
3 inches in a mile, and the distance being, say 7 miles, we should have an
additional depth of from ] foot 2 inches to 1 foot 9 inches to add. making
the total depth at Bank Quay from 12 to 13 feet, being a gain of from 4 to 5
feet ilcptli of water.

As tlus deptli is 2 or 3 feet more than is rc(|uired to float a vessel of 10
feet drauglit. it will he sufficient if we retain a tide rising 12 or 13 feet at
Runcorn, or l.") or 16 feet over the old dock sill at Liverpool. It is of im-
portance to mark this, as you will perceive Iiy observations I shall have to
make upon tlie scouring power I propose to substitute,

Laymg aside for the present any consideration of the effect which may be
produced below Kuncom. I can see no objection nhich can reasonably be
urged against it. but the (-.ossibility of the river sraduallv siltmg up. by the
deposition of material brought down by fli)ods. Th* mode I have to suggest
of scouring out the channel, will, 1 think, almost entirelv remove the possi-
bility of (his being the case, in tlie navigable channel ; but^ even without that.
I do not think it would have such an effect. The river would maintain its
course and current along the deep, depo.siling whatever it might bring down
on the sandbanks and shallows at each side, where there would be little or
no current, thereby gradually raising and preparing for agriculture purposes,
an I nprofitable waste of sands, washed over now by every high tide by which
the) are frei|uently removed and carried into the deeps. '

I know many instances of rivers maintaining a distinct course through
large lakes ; but two, which must be familiar to nearly everybody, will be
suflicient to mention. The Rhone through the Lake of (Jeneva. a distance of
37 miles, and the river Bann,for 18 miles through Lough Neagh, in Ireland ;
each river maintaining a deep and distmct channel through the entire length
of lake. The Rhone, how ever, and, I have no doubt, the Bann also, forms a
delta on first entering the lake.

I think that, generally, the channel would be improved; and if deposit
was to take jilace in the upper part of the estuary, where the river would
first enter into comparatively still water, it might easily be removed by
dredging.

The benefits to the town of Warrington, in particular, must be too obvious
to need any remark. The Sankey Canal would obtain a much better entrance
than it has now; and the Mersey and Irnell Comjiany would have so much
of their navigation permanently improved, and rendered available for a large
class of vessels, which they may then take on to Manchester.

We now come to consider the efiect which niavbe produced upon the chan-
nel below Runcorn Gap. and upon the entrance to the port of Liverpool.

It would be of little use to .suggest plans for the improvement of the upper
part of a river, if the mouth were to become so choked up that no vessels
could enter: ai.d.in the maintenance of a good entrance to the port of Liver-
pool, the Mersey and Irwell Canal Company is as \itally interested as any
other party can be.

I hope to be able to show, that, so far from the suggested works being likelv
to do injury, they will assist in scouring out and deepening the channels all
the way out to sea.

Much evidence was given, in the trial betwixt the Old Quay Company and
the corporation of Liverpool, in 1827, relative to the scour of the river ; and
from that it appears, that the most effectual in cleansing ai'd deepening the
channels is that produced by the ebb tide, when about half down, and the
land floods : tlie latter losing much of their power, however, in the lower part
of the estuary.

As this accords strictly with my own observation, and the information of
those connected w ith the river and daily navigating it, I have no hesitation in
taking it as the fact.

It appears, then, that the early part of the ebb tide is of little service in
improving the navigable channels of the river ; and indeed this must be ob-
vious, when it is considered that the water is then running with pretty nearly
equal veliicity over the whole bed of the river, and removing probably more
sand from the banks into the channels than it carries out of them.

Now. if any considerable portion of the water that is thus wasted, as it
were, could be retained until the tide was half down, and then set at liberty,
it would have the efiect of keeping up the river for some hours longer at the
most effectual scouring point, and be thus enabled to work deeper into the
channels, and carry the sand or slit removed further out to sea.

1 think 1 can make it clear, that this will be the result of the scheme pro-
posed during spring tides; and that, during neap tides, or whenever prevented
from flowing beyond the gap. the water will rise higher at Runcorn than it
can now. .and eonsequently increase the velocity of the ebb. In either rase
there « ill be a strong tendency to improve the channels both above and belo\»
Liverpool. The estuary will contain, to begin with, nearly if not quite as
much tidal water as it does now. and under regulations which will render it
of more efl'cctual service, while eventually the improvement of the deeps will
enlarge its capacity.

The Tipper part of the estuary and river, from Runcorn (iap to Ilowley
M eir. at W arriugion, containing at liigli water of spring tide (including Hal-
ton Marsh) about 1.300 acres, is about l-17th of the entire area of the estuary
above Rock I'erch. In spring tides, at high water, it contains from l-25th
to 1 -30th. and in ne.ap tides from 1 -40th to 1 -50th of the w hole body of water.

Mr. Giles, in his evidence for tlie corporation at Lancaster in the suit be-
fore referred to, calculates the contents of the river at ordinary spring tides,
from Runcorn to Warrington Bridge, at 10 1-3 million tons, or about 13,733,000
cubic yards. As a 1,5 feet tide at Runcorn falls 8 feet to half ebb, consider-
ably more than half the quantity has flowed out before that time, so that the
remainder, say six million cubic yards, is the only pDrtion that is eflectually
employed in scouring the deep. As this is six hours in ebbing out, the velo-
city becomes so trifling towards the end as to be ineffectual.

In neap tides the effect is proportionably less.

The late Mr. Kiinmo. in his evidence for the company in the same cause,
gives from actual measurement the ordinary flow of the river above Warring-
ton, .and the depth of a very heavy flood over Woulston weir, from whicli I
Iiave been able to ascertain its volume.

From Mr. Nimmo's observations, the fair average of the onlinary quantity
may be taken at 40.000 cubic feet, or 1.480 cubic yards per minute.

The flood appears to have been about .580,320 cubic feet, or 21. 493 1-3 cubic
yards per minute, or nearly one million and a half yards in a hour. — probably
nearly e^ual to the tide at half ebb. It was running at the rate of 113 yards
in a minute, or nearly four miles an hour.

It is half ebb at Kijncorn rather earlier than at Liverpnol ; and from half
ebb to the commencement of the flood tide at Liverpool, tliere is about three
hours. It is during this period that I would propose to discharge the water
wliich would be retained above our embankment.

I have stated, that a 15-feet tide at Runconi has fallen ei|;ht feet, or to
half ebb. If flood-gates were constructed in the bank. 60 yards in length, 8
feet in depth, and opened at half ebb so as to obtain an average pressure of 8
feet to the bottom of the discharge, tlie quantity discharged in the three
hours would be nearly six million cubic yards, or about the whole quantity
now contiiined in the estuary with a similar tide at half ebb, and requiring
six hours to flow out.

If the iliscliarge sluices occupied 100 yards in length instead of 60, being
then 1 -4th of the w idth of the gap, the discharge in the three hours would
l)e more tlian nine millions and a half cubic yards, bein" half as much again
as all the water now left in the estuary at half ebb, and more than 2-3rds of
the whole contents measured at high water of spring tides, and nearly equal
to the whole (juantity at half ebb added to three hours of such a flood as Mr.
N mmo mentioned. The discharge would be at a velocity of 10 feet per se-
cond, or nearly seven miles an hour, and would, after mixing with the other
water, maintain a velocity of three or four miles much greater than the mean
velocity after half ebb at present.

There cannot be a doubt, I think, that, under such regulations, the scour-
ing power would be greatly increased : and. while below the gap, the direct
force of this power would be employed |in deepening the channel and carry-
ing out the sand and silt to sea, the velocity of the current above the gap
would be so much increased and confined to a particular direction, that the
channels there would also be deepened, and any casual deposit carried out;
so that, independent of other improvements, th' channels of the whole river
would be improved from Warrington to the sea.

After these discharges the pool might be refilled at the next tide, or when-
ever the tide rose more than 13 feet at Runcorn. At the luwest spring tides,
for three or four days together, and at the highest, for seven or eight days
together, perhaps twice each day, but at any rate every alternate tide, much
less frequently than this would, I am satisfied, be (ouiul amply sufficient.

The next point is, tliat, by the tides being prevented from flowing beyond
Runcorn Gap. they would rise higher there, and. by thus attaining a greater
head or elevation, which will be another advantage besides, would produce an
increased velocity in the ebb.

The tide flows past Runcorn at the rate of five miles an hour ; and if stopped
there by an embankment, and prevented from flowing up to Warrington, and
filling that part of the estuary, the momentum, which impels it forward for
an hour after it has turned at Liverpool, would cause it to impound in front
of the embankment. From calculations I have made. I am disposed to think
that the additional rise would probably be about l-20ih of the total depth of
water, or from four to nine inclies, according to the height of the tide. This
amount, small ,as it appears, would be of service in neap tides.

I have now, I think, gone over the main points which appear to me mate-
rially to bear upon the question ; and I hope I have succeeded in explaining
them in such a maimer as to render them intelligible, and enable you to un-
derstand my views.

If I am any thing nearly right in the data I have taken, and the conclu-
sions I have drawn from the calculations I have made, the advantages in every
point of view must be considerable, nor are these advantages confined to the
navvigation only ; the adjoining landowners may reclaim a large portion of
the land above Runcorn, which is now covered at high tides ; a good road,
with draw or swivel bridges over the locks, may be formed on the top of the
embankment, and thus join the two counties of Lancaster and Chester in a
very much superior and more convenient manner than is now afforded by the
dangerous and inconvenient ferry. Even a railway viaduct, if carried at a
sufficient height, w ould then be no objection ; and many miles of railway
travelling might be saved to the London and Liverpool traffic, by crossing
here, and joining the Grand Junction at Prestonbrook.

It only remains to explain shortly the kind of works which would be re-
quired.

The width of the strait at Runcorn Gap is about 1,250 feet. The bed of
the river consists of about 35 feet of rock on the Cheshire side, dry at low
water ; about 745 feet of sand and silt in the middle of the river, e,\tending, I
believe, to a considerable depth, partially dry at low water ; and about470 teet
of rock, all above low water, on the Lancashire side. The rock extends in-
land on each side, rising considerably, particularly on the Cheshire side, above
high water level.

1 would propose to construct tw o sea locks in the rock on the Cheshire side ;
one ISO feet by 40 feet, and the other 120 feet by 30 feet, with hydraulic
gates, so that they may be self-acting, and used for the purpose of .scouring.
In the rock on the Lancashire side. 1 woulil recommend the construction of
the self-acting flood-gates, and between the limits of high and low water
there is ample space for fen, with 30-feet clear water openings in each : the
gates to be revolving on an upright axle, placed a little on one side of the
centre, so that one leaf of the gate should be rather larger than the other.
The gate, of course, must open only one way. the larger half turning up the
river: when, therefore, the ffood tide rises higher than the surface of the
water on the upper side of the gates, the pressure being greater upon the
larger leaf than the smaller, the gate opens, and the water is treely admitted.
When the tide li:is reached its greatest height, and begins to fall, the pressure

1841.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

1.37

is ther, reversed, anil the gates closes, retaining all the water that has flowed
i)ast the embankment. To open the gate, and discharge tlie water en masse.
various methods might tie adopted. The simplest, perhaps, w ouUl be to draw
up out of the larger leaf a paddle of siiiiicient ?ize to make the smaller leaf
e.xpose a greater surface to the pressure of the water, when, of course, the
j.;ates would (jpen by the down-stream j/ressure, as they would m the other
ease by the up-stream pressure. The paddles may be worked by self-acting
lialauce weights, or by a water wheel set in motion by the fall of the tide, so
as to make the whole self-acting. The water, after its discharge, may be
directed by proper jetties into the channel required.

Over the intermediate space of sand and silt, betwixt rock ,ind rock, I
would projiose an embankment composed of rock and earth in the manner
shown in the drawing ; the centre of the bank of pu:ldled earth or clay : and
the outer parts of rock faced with heavy squared pitching brought up from
low w ater in a curved manner, as shown in the drawing. In order to secure
as far as possible or necessary the water tightness of the bank, I would re-
i ommend a r>w of sheet piling perhaps 2.5 or 30 feet deep on each side of the
puddle wall in the centre of the bank, and at the foot of each slope another
row of sliorter piles, to prevent the pressure uf the hank forcing out or blow-
i.ig up the sand foundation.

A carriage road to be formed over the whole, passing over the locks by
draw or swivel bridges, and over the sUiices by stone or wooden arches.

This plan, with 15 feet of water impounded, would alTord a sectional area
of discharge of .3,970 square feet. The calculations in my report are made
upon an area of 2,400 square feet only, so that, if by that amount the scour-
ing power w'as trebled, it would, by u.sing all the means which the locks and
sluices of the plan just detailed alTord, be increased more than seven-fold.

At a ten feet tide at Runcorn, the sectional area of the stream is now about
O.fcOO square feet. The locks and sluices would afford p.i the same height
about 4,120 square feet. Although this is less than half the present sectional
area, a difference in level of considerably under a foot would so increase the
velocity through the sluices as to pass the same quantity of w iter.

WARMING BUILDINGS BY HOT WATER.

The subject of warming buildmgs by hot water having lately excited a
more than ordinary degree of interest, owing to the recent disastrous tire at
Manchester, we lay before our readers a report made to the Manchester Fire
Assurance Company, by Mr. John Davies, M. W. S., and Mr. G. V. Ryder.
(We shall continue the subject in our ne.xt.)

•• Befoie we proceed to detail the experiments which we have made, we
shall briefly describe the appearances observed, and the information obtained
at a few of the principal places which have been visited. We shall then be
enabled not only to coafirni but to extend the statements in Mr. Ryder's tirst
report.

It has been found, on inspection, that Birch Chapel has, at various times
since the occurrence alluded to in the former report, sustained much damage.
Wood, matting and cushions have, in a variety of places contiguous to tlie
hot water pipes, been charred to an alarming extent.

With respect to ilr. Barbour's warehouse, farther inquiry has fully corro-
borated the previous statements of its having been on fire, close to the pipes,
at different times and in different places.

Of the Unitarian Chapel, in Strangeways, tne dire ;tors are already in pos-
session or information from both ilr. Ryder |and Mr. Rawsthorne, and this
information seems to leave no doubt as to the injury which has residted
from the use of Mr. Perkins' hot water apparatus.

The heat in the Natural History Musciun having been repeatedly stated to
vary in different parts of the pipes, aTid to become, in some cases, the great-
est at places remote from the furnace, the fact has been confirmed by our
own observations, and by our subsequent experiments. As this circumstance
has excited much interest, and been generally questioned, we shall preseutly
endeavour to assign the cause.

Tlie apparatus, which it may be proper to notice in reference to its general
form and construction, consists simply of a long, endless iron tube, carried,
in different directions, from a furnace to which it returns, and in which about
one-sixth of the whole length is inserted and formed into a coil, so as to be
Miftieiently exposed to the action of the fire. The tube is, at the commence-
ment, filled, or nearly filled, with water, which, by the application of the
heat, soon begins to circulate, and, in that way, to impart an increase of tem-
perature to the apartments which it traverses. The diureusions of the pipes
are such, that, on the average, eleven feet in length will contain ojie pint of
v.ater. Connected with the principal pipe arc two others, wliich are opetied
by a screw, one to allow for the ultimate expansioii, and both subserrieut to
the introduction of water.

.Vs far as lay in our power, we have made such experiments aa occurred to
I. J, repeatedly, and under every variety of circumstance.

Not having any instruments which would furnish speedy and adequate
criteria for the determination of high temperatures, we have resorted to the
i.uiar.imation of combustible bodies, and the fusion of others, depemling on
tl'.c recent and high authority of Professor Graham for the degrees which
they indicated. H '--''■ ■•^.ViJ

The ordinary method liitherto resorted to for ascertaining high tempera-
tures in the pipes, is to file a small portion perfectly smooth, and observe the
progressive changes of colour which occur. We did not neglect this expe-
dient ; and we witnessed, to great advantage, the successive and beautiful
tints. As the temperature increased, we were presented first with a straw

colour, then a deep bluish purple, and, (inally, with a dark silvery hue. The
first is said to indicate 150°, and the blue 600".

In the Natural History Museum we applied our tests, but were enabled to
do so only to a very limited and unsatisfactory extent. Mr. Walker, the |)ro-
prietor of the patent right for Manchester and the neighbourhood, accom-
panied us to the establishment of Messrs. Vernon & Company, engravers,
where we had the opportunity of trying the system rather better, but still
imperfectly. Finally, Mr. Walker acceded to our request to have put up, on
his own premises, a suitable apparatus, which was to be submitted entirely
to our control. It consisted of an inm ])ipe upwards of 140 feet in length,
25 of which were coiled in the furnace ; 20, at least, being freely exposed to
the full action of the fire .

lu addition to the apparatus, as at first fitted up, we had a branch pipe
and a stop cock, whidi enabled us, by cutting off at pleasure a great portion
of the circulation, to perform oiu' experiments on a contracted scale, and
under a variety of modifications.

Mr. Walker, being from home at the time, placed his foreman entirely
under our directions, so that we had the opportunity of i)ursuing tlie investi-
gation to any extent which we might think proper. It is but justice to state,
that this person rendered, very willingly and with much practical skill, all the
assistance which was required.

The apparatus having, on Friday the 5th ult., been fitted up and found
on triiil, to be in proper condition, the experiments were commenced on the
following morning, at ten o'clock, when the apparatus had arrived at a suit-
able state.

I. First class of e.rperimcnts, viz. those made with the whole length.

1. The pipe from the furnace became very soon sufficiently hot to singe
and destroy small feathers resting upon it.

2. Speedily afterwards, the same pipe exploded gunpowder.

3. (Ju the highest pipe, within a foot of the expansion pipe, bisnuith was
readily melted, denoting a temperature exceeding 470'^. The pressure at this
Ijoint must have exceeded 35 atmospheres, or above 525ft. on the square
inch.

4. Feathers were singed instantly, aud matches lighted, at the same place.

5. Gunpowder inflamed readily in various parts of the flow pipe, and on
the expansion pipe.

6. Blocks of wood, of five different species, were charred : from the dea
^vood the turpentine issued profusely.

7. Other combustible materials were also severally much charred.

II. Class of erperiments, with the shorter circulation. By this cliange a
greater pressure was immediately observable, as tlie expansion pipe end seoera
of tlie joints emitted steam, and admitted the escape of water.

1. Cane shavings, on the pipe above the furnace, readily inflamed.

2. Lead melted at the same place ; and the temperatiu'e must, therefore,
have exceeded 61'2^. Making a rough calculation from the table of the French
Academy, which does not extend beyond 50 atmospheres, I take 612' to re-
present 75 atmospheres, or about 1,12516 pressure on the square inch.

3. Diflereut wood shavings inflamed on the upper pipe.

4. Cotton ignited freely at the same place.

5. Matting inflamed at the same place.

G. Cotton, hemp, aud flocculent matter, collected from Mr. Schunck's fus-
tian room, ignited on the returning vertical pipe.

7. The blocks of wood, tied to different parts of the tube, were much acted
upon aud charred in a very short time.

Observing the expansion pipe to be in a state of considerable agitation, and
warned of an explosion, the temperature was reduced, and the experiments
were, for the time, suspended.

The pijies having, before three o'clock, been refilled aud screwed u]), for
the express piu'pose of an explosion, the following experiments were made in
the progress of the preparation : —

1. Mungeet was readily ignited.

2. Difterent sorts of paper and pack thread were destroyed.

3. Bismuth fused instantly.

4. Cotton inflamed.

5. Sheep's wool became speedily charred, in 2" or 3" after the stop-cocfc
closed.

6. \i five o'clock the sheet lead, affixed to the upright pipe, freely melted ;
steam issued violently from the bend in one of the upper horizontal pipes,
and, in three minutes afterwards, the explosion occurred iu the furnace pipe,
at the top of the seventh coil, which presented, on subsequent examination,
a lateral aperture about two inches long and about one-sixteenth of n:>. inch
broad.

In the lapse of two or three minutes after the commencement 'f the ex-
plosion, the furnace was entirely emptied of its contents, which were pro-
pelled, iu a divergent direction, like one mass of fire, so as almost to fiU the
apartment. The force with which the ignited embers rebounded from the
opposite wall, and other obstructions, occasioned them to scatter in profusion
like a shower of fire over evei-y part of the place. The noise was so great as
to bring to the spot a multitude of people from the adjoining streets. A
number of articles in the shop — as, for example, packing clotli, paper, and
hemp — were subsequently found to be on fire in different parts of the pre-
mises.

These appearances, aud their immediate effects, seem to have been precisely
slniilar to those which are said to have been witnessed at the explosion iu the

138

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[Aprii,

warehouse of Messrs. Crafts and Stell, and would evidently have been ade-
quate, ill (lie same situation, lo produce all the consequences.

It may be here observed, that the experiments clearly prove, that the heat,
iu different parts of the iiipe, is not nuiforni. Generally it is greatest at the
highest elevation, where its superior temperature appears to be of the longest
duration under ordinary incidental changes. At the commencement of the
operation, however, and a .-.liort time after fresh fuel had been applied, the
temperature v\as highest in the flow-pipe contiguous to the furnace. Another
circumstance, likely to produce au inequaUty of heat, may be adverted to :
the tubes i.re far from being of uniform internal diameter ; the consequence
of which must be, that as the same quantity of water has lo pass, in the same
time, through every part of the ajiparatus, the liquid must move with greater
velocity at one place than at another, and thus, from obvious causes, develop
a greater quantity of caloric. The difference is sometimes so great in the
relative bores of the tubes employed, that in some which were examined, one
tube had an internal diameter of !t-16tlis, and another of Jths of an inch, that
is to say, in the ratio of three lo four ; or, taking the relative areas or sections
of the tubes, which represent the relative quantities of fluid contained in a
given length, in the proportion of nine to sixteen. Thus, taking the velocity
reciprocally as the section of the pipe, the velocity of the water at one part
of the apparatus being icpresented by sixteen feet, the velocity in another
part would be nine, or the ia|.iility of the current would be at one place nearly
double that which it was at another.

It is stated, in a work recommending the hot water system, that " the ap-
plication of heat fills " the ascending or flow-pipe " with minute bubbles of
steam which rise rapidly to the upper part of the tube, aud become there con-
densed into water again :'' now, as condensed steam, wherever it occurs,
produces about seven times as much heat as the same quantity of water at
the same temperature, we have, at once, a reason for the heat of the pipe
being generally greater at a distance from the furuace tbau contiguous to it.
This apparent anomaly, wliich has been repeatedly observed and denied, ad-
mits, therefore, of an ca.sy explanation.

The explosion may, under different circumstances, occur from various
causes.

1. As water expands in bulk about five per cent, from 40', its point of
greatest density, to 212', the boiling point, the expansion must be very con-
siderably more when raised to high temperatures. If, therefore, the pipes be
nearly filled with water, aud the expansion pipe not adequate or iu proper
condition, an explosion must be inevitable. Dr. Graham states, that, from
freezing to boiling water, the expansion is from 22.70 to 23- 7G = 100 to 104-4
nearly .

2. The conversion of the water into vapour, producing an expansion which
is in the proportion of a pint of water changed into 210 gallons of steam,
" with a mechanical force sufficient to raise a weight of 37 tons a foot high,"
must present a pressure upon the tubes sufficient to ensure their destruction.
Dr. Graham makes a cubic inch of water to expand into 1,604 cubic inches
of steam, or one pint of water to become nearly 212 gallons.

3. It has been observed, as an ordinary occurrence, by those much accus-
tomed to the apparatus, that, in some cases, a quantity of gas is generated,
and has been found to escape, in considerable quantity, when au aperture is
made in the upper part of the pipes. The only gases which could be thus
obtained are the elements of the water, oxygen and hydrogen. The former
would probably be taken up in the oxydation of (lie metal. Now the hydro-
gen gas, which would remain, has never been deprived of its elasticity, and
never made to change its state, by any compressing force hitherto applied. It
is obvious, therefore, that inevitable danger must arise from its production.
It may be worth wliile to remark, that aij-, steam, and hydrogen gas expand
in the same proportion by augmentatious of temperature. The law discovered
at the same time, and by independent methods of experiment, arose out of
the researches of Dr. Dalton and M.GayLnssac. It may be thus expressed:
Aeriform bodies expand the l-480th part" of their bulk on the addition of each
degree of temperature. Thus, taking 480 cubic inches of steam or hydrogen
gas at 32', the itass becomes, at 33% 481 cidiic inches ; at 34°, 482, cubic
inches : and so on : or, in a general fonu, a bulk a raised d^ of temperature

becomes a + .

480

4. The last source of explosion to which it is necessary to refer, ainses
from any casual impediment in the piiies ; and it freely admitted, that in frosty
weather such an impediment is likely to occur ; it has been found to residt
from other causes, as in the case of extraneous matter accidentally getting
into the pipes, an example of which was recently presented in the establish-
ment of Messrs. Wood anil Westheads.

In a very obhging letter received, in the course of the investigation, from
Sir Robert Smirke, it is stated, that, thougli he has " never seen the pipes
heated sutlicieutly to ignite wood, except on one occasion," yet, " if a tire is
incautiously made when there if a stoppage in the pipes from frost or other
accidental cause, the pipe within the furnace may be hurst or made red hot
near the furnace. 1 have known the pipe," he adds, " so heated only iu one
instance, when the red heat extended to a distance of upwards of 12 feet from
the furnace."

Sur Robert concludes his letter by suggesting a protective modification of
the apjiaratu.^. " Therefore," he observes, " to prevent the risk of tire to a
building, 1 wotild never place the furnace in a room or cellar that is not fire
proof, nor would I have the pipes iu any part of their circuit iii actuttl contact

with wood or other combustible material. Security,' he continues, " is still
more effectually attained by having a safety-valve upon the pipe near the fur-
nace, by which explosion or excess of heat wonld be prevented."

That which has hapjiened once, may, under the same circumstances, happen
again. The exclusion from actual contact with combustible materials, could
it be permanently ensured, would, when the red heat extended along the pipe
upwards of twelve feet, afford, at least, very reasonable grounds for appre-
hension.

On this system of warming buildings, therefore, danger must be produced
from either negligence in the feeding of the furnace, or any stoppage in the
pipes : the former evil may be obviated by proper precautions ; but the latter,
occurring unexpectedly, exists unobserved, and precaution and care must be
equally unavailing."

Signed, John D.wies,

George Vardon Bydkr.

^fal■c/l 10, 1841.

ON THE STYLE OF WREN.

FoLLOwixG in the train of Palladian arcliitects comes Wren, another
of the school, though exercising its sentiments in a different way. He
took from Palladio the idea of modi6cations, as also he learned from
Jones the art of distribution ; but then, he also learned a something
of the sentiment of English architecture, and so fashioned a style com-
pounded of them all. Not that he deviated from classic rule, or in-
dulged in a detail inconsistent with the whole. This Wren could not
do. But inasmuch as the broad masses of Palladio and Jones, were to
be sacrificed to the more modest limits of ecclesiastical structures, he
had to prepare his features for altitude rather than for breadth. In-
stead of the artist having to lead the eye upward, he had now to pre-
vent its too hasty ascent, and had to enchain the fancy here or there,
as if to compel the eye to wander where otherwise it would instantly
soar. In him we see the first architect of his school for beauty of
outline and simple elegance of form. Iu Jones we view the artist
more in his dispositions of efiect, more in the skilful appropriation of
the parts, than in the finished elegance of the parts themselves. In
Wren we see more justness of expression, more attention to parts,
and richness more tempered with chastity. Jones was the master,
natural and often carelessly so, Wren was tlie master, designing more
by principles, and adjusting leading objects ere the richness of orna-
ment appeared. Jones seemed to delight in masses of light and shade,
in bold contrasts, in feeling touches. Wren allowed tae' orra of a
part to display its dignity, and allowed the contrast to appear in
changing outlines. Both took their lesson from Palladio, but Wren
studied symnietiy the most. Jones took Palladio's errors and revived
them; Wren improved upon both in the outline. He took also from
the antique to improve, as he also bonowed from Michael Angelo to
surpass him.

Besides this, Wren was the first to bend Roman architecture into
the poetry of the Christian without violence to either. This idea
springing up on the decline of Roman art, and differently exhibited at
later periods and in the middle ages, was perfected by liim until classic
orders and figures tapered into every variety of elegance. But the
spirit of design in Wren was different from that in the olden times.
A departure from Roman precedent was then an innovation, iu which
the puiity of Roman detail was sacn/ced to new forms and increasing
altitude, whereas Wren on the contrary, on the restoration of the Ba-
silica, caught the poetry of the monks only to give life aud richness to
Roman grandeur. Wren's great aim was to give the eye a succession
of pyramidal objects, the moment those objects were separated from
the mass ; there is otherwise a repose and solemn dignity about the
lower parts of his edifice. To carry out this idea involved a variety
of figures and a change of ornament, which became as essential to the
line of ascent as necessary to enrich. The line of ascent is never
broken; .the eye easily advances, whilst, as it advances, a change as
consistent as various appears to meet it. In St. Paul's there is a total
contrast between the lower part and the superstructure. In St. Peter's
there is a breadth of parts about the superstructure unrelieved, [n
St. Paul's the horizontal lines growing gradually less prominent to-
wards the dome terminate into sweeping perpendiculars. In St.
Peter's the horizontal is never sacrificed for a moment. Iu St. Paul's
the objects multiply iu proportion to the height, as also parts get
smaller, that is, divisions and subdivisions of parts appear, whilst each
grows narrower and more towards a pyramid. Where Wren grew in
endless variety, the architects of St. Peter's only tamely ascended.

Wren therefore was the first who whilst he spread grandeur and
massive repose beneath, drew the eye by a thousand artificies into the
more pleasing beauties above.

If Palladio gave the same spirited outline to the basilica, Wre

1841.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

139

improved upon liim by the variety rather than by tlie number by his
contrivancies.

Thus far we see the peculiar excellencies of Wren, which whilst
they mark him as a Palladian architect, evince an original turn for
purity of style. It is to be regretted that the works of the French
architects infliieuced him so much in Winchester palace, and affected
bis designs for palaces and private buildings, for then there would be
no blemish upon his architectural fame. As an ecclesiastical architect
he ranks as tlie first, castino- by the brilliancy of his genius Palladio
and his other followers into the shade. In conclusion, he diftered from
Jones materially iu the position of lines, conceiving only two beautiful
positions of straight lines to exist, namely, perpendicular and horizontal,
whereas Jones delighted in oblique positions. He saw the great mean-
ing and beauty in these as they existed in the mansions of Palladio,
and traced them, as he did all things, to their derivation — nature.

Frederick East.

March, 1841.

PROQRSSS OF KAIL^VAYS.

Londnn ami Brightmi Railwaij — The works on this great umleitaking are
approaching completion at even a more rapid pace than the last report of the
Directors gave us reason to expect. Botli the Merstham and Balcombe tun-
nels are tinished : and a small portion only of cutting remains to be excavated
at the approaches. Mr. Rastrick, the engineer, has engaged lo convey a
party of the Directors on the line from London-bridge to flayvvard's-heath
in the course of a month. At Clayton the tunnel is nearly finished ; and the
line will be completed from Brisjhton to the Hassocks station in June, leai-'ing
onlv the small portion of llic line which extenils from the Hassocks to Hay-
ward's-heath unfinished. We are assured that the opening of the line through-
cut the entire distance will take place by August Yis\t.~BnglUmi Gcizctta.

Manchester anti Leeds Railway. — The Summit Tunnel, the only portion of
this railway which remained unopened, being completed, this line was opened
throughout on Monday. The train consisfed of two carriages; bolh being
of an entirely new construction, but somewhat diflerent from each other.
The body of one of them is about 18 feet by 7, and is (i feet 6 inches high.
There is a. compartment in the centre 7 feet square, and is built after the
fashion of a gondola. The interior of this compartment is fitted up with
sp'endid mahogany sofas, lined with crimson plush, and trimmed wnlh silk
gj-mp ; and the top part above the sofa boxes is composed of plate glass with
silk curtains. The two end compartments are open above ; but a curtain
made of waterproof fabric can be drawn down at pleasure to screen the pas-
sengers from the rain, so that in these carriages a person may enjoy all the
comforts of a fvxst-class carriage ; and at the same time, be enabled lo survey
the country through which he is passing. The other carriage, the Tnurist,
is similar i'n its general arrangements, but is fitted up differently. These
carriages, which were made by Mr. Melling, of Greenheys. are adapted for
summer travelling; there are but two of them, and they are merely for an
experiment. Tlie fiires in them will, we understood, be the same as in the
first-class carriages. The first goods train, which passed through, was drawn
by an engine called the Manchester, made by Blessrs. Sharp, Roberts and Co.,
of Manchester. — Leeds Intelligencer.

Manchester and Birmingham Railway. — In the last number of the Journal
v.e announced that the directors of this great undertaking have selected the
design of Messrs. Carpenter and Blylhe, of London, for their station, and we
think this selection is one which will have the effect of adding another fine
specimen of architecture to Manchester. The designs have fieen submitted
to public exhibition at the Victoria Gallery. The approach to the station
commences in Ducie-street, London-road, from v. Inch an inclined carriage
way leads on to the railway, which is thirty-two feet above the level of Store-
street. The internal arrangements of the station, of which we have been
favoured with a sketch, are exceedingly convenient, and appear to cumbine
all the improvements in railway engineering, with tlie addition of some novel-
ties, for which the directors are indebted to their distinguished engineer. G.
"kV. Buck, Esq. Of these the most striking arc, the situation of the engine
stable and the construction of the turn table, or apparatus lor moving the
engines and carriages from one line of rails to another. The engine stable,
which w ill contain stalls for six engines and tenders, is placed at the terminus
of the rails, instead of being at a distance from the station, the position
usually adopted, by which plan much time «ill be economised in the dispatch
of the trains. By this arrangement the engines, after bringing the trains
i:ito the station, can be detached therefrom and turned round without the
engine and tender being uncoupled, and then go into the stable to remain
there, or to receive coke ;tnd water, and return upon another line of rails to
the departure side of the station, to take out another train, or proceed to the
frincipal engine depot at Longsight. This turn table consists of a circular
plate of iron, thirty feet in diameter, to be moved by a small steam engine
proposed to be erected. The mode of turning the table is very ingenious.
Instead of the ordinary method of employing manual labour, Mr. Buck in-
tends to make a portion of the under side of the plate answer the purpose of
a puUc)', a strap or chain being passed round it, and a fixed pulley in con-
nexion with the steam engine, and by these means the ponderous machine
and its load will be moved round with the greatest ease, and the labour of at
]cast half a dozen men will thus be saved.

STEAM rjAVIGATIOW.

Tile United Sleaw Frigate Missouri. — From the New Orleans Picayune. — Tins
magnificent vessel is construcleil principally of live oak from Attakapas, ia
this state, and her entire cost is 500,000 dollars. In lier rig she w ill resemble
a handsome bark, and her builder has constructed the hull so admirably, as
to render her, as a sailing vessel, a No. 1 of the United States navy. She
wfll sail the greater part of the time, as her bunkers only carry about 800
tons of coal, or sufficient for 20 days' steaming. Her spar's, particularly the
foremost and mainmast, are as heavy as those of a first class frigate ; and she
is so constructed as to be able to ship and unship her paddle-wheels with the
greatest facility. .She is pierced for 26 guns, but will carry but 18— G aft the
wdieel-house, and 3 forward of it on each side. She is to carry two lO-inch
guns forwanl, which are to traverse the greater part of a circle on a swivel ;
these two guns will be able to carry shot nearly 100 pounds weight, as 8-incIi
guns carry 641b. shot. The other IB guns are to be 8-ineh bore. On account
of the result of various trials, the w hole of ordnance is to consist of Paixhan
guns. She will be ready fi<r sea in July next.

Tai/lor's Improvements in Steam Boats. — We have been inl'orined-^hat Capt.
Taylor, other Majesty's ship San Josef, has lately been engaged in a course
of experiinnts in Hamoaze, with a view to the prevention of collisions be-
tween steam -vessels, and steam and sailing vessels, such as those which have
of late been of so frequent occurrence, and which have been attended with
such deplorable loss of property and life. Our informant states that those
experiments promise the most satisfactory result. He says that Captain Tay-
l:;y " has discovered a plan by wdiich the steam boat will be placed completely
under the control of the persons on deck, as, immediately danger is seen, the
steamer can be stopped, or turned round upon her omi centre, and within her
own length, without stopping the engine, or calling to the engineer." We
itave been furnished with some details relative to Captain Taylor's invention,
which we withhold for the present, as we understand be contemplates taking
out a patent : but should his discovery, when further tested, be found prac-
ticable, and sl'.otdd it have the effect of preventing, in future, such melancholy
consequences as those wbicli resulted from the late collision between the Not-
tingham arid Governor Fenner, this able and meritorious officer w ill have
rendered a most important service to the interests of humanity. — Times.

British Q teen wid President Steam Ships.— It was whispered in the more
select commercial circles on Monday, that Ibe British and American Steam
Navigation Company had sold their nuigni.ficcnt ships, the British Queen and
Pre-ii'ent, to the Belgian Government. The President is now on her voyage
from .\merica. and will, it is added, have to be surveyed before the contract
can I e considered definitively concluded ; but, if our information be correct,
of which we have n i doubt, the British Queen has already been •' proved,"
and is. in fact, the property of the Belgian Government. The future desti-
nation of the two vessels is scarcely less certain. The Belgians are anxious
to push their commerce in every possible way, and we believe it will turn out
that the. British Queen and President have been purchased with the view of
forming a regular steam communication between Antwerp and New York.
— Morning Post

The General Sieam Naeigatiou Company.— The half-yearly meeting of the
proprietors was held on'Tuesdtiy, the 23rd ult., at the office in Lombard -
street. From the report of the directors it was collected that the operations
of the past year had been attended with success, and that the affairs generally
were in a course of prosperous advancement. Full explanations w-ere entered
into upon various points interesting to the proprietors, and appeared to afford
much satisfaction. It was resolved, that a considerable sum should be appro
priated toward the cost of tw o large steam ships of 650 and 900 tons, now
building by Messrs. Green, Wigram, and Green, and the customary dividend
and bouus were declared.

raiSCSLLAI^JEA.

Artesian Well at Vienna.— For some time past these works had been going
on in the vicinity of the barracks iu the Corn Market, when, after digging
96 Austrian fathoms, the undertaking was crowned with complete success, in
the first week of tlie present month. The water rushes up in such abundance,
that it has been estimated to exceed 12,418 gallons per day, and when it first
made its appearance, it was with some difficulty that several shops in the
neighbourhood were preserved from inundation.

Artesian Jl'ells in the Oai^is of Thebes.— IhtsOa.sis is twenty -three leagues
in length, and from two to four in breadth, and is studded with Artesian
wells, which have been noticed by Arago. The ancient inhabitants used to
dig square wells through the superficial vegetable soil, clay, marl, and marly
clay, down to the limestone, from twenty to twenty-five metres in depth.
The last rock contains the water which supplies the wells, and is called by
the Arabs Agar el moi/a. In '.be rock, holes were bored from four to eight
inches in diameter. These holes were fitted with a block ol sandstone sup-
plied with an iron ring, in order to stop the supply, when there w as danger
of inundating the country.

Croicland Abbeii.—A new galleiy is in course of erection iu this sacred edi-
fice capable of accommodating 150 sitters, which, with other improvements
made, and in contemplation, will add greatly to Uie beauty of this truly
" majestic pile of Gothic grandeur."

New Pier at Chelsea.— hoti Cadogan has given instructions for a splendid
pier to be erected in Cheyne-walk, Clielsea, opposite the pUce where tiie
Bishop of Winchester's palace formerly stood, and Mi-. Lewis Cubitt has taken

140

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[Aprii,,

the lanil to open a lu w itret't from the water up into the King's-roal. The
iron steam boats, alter Gooil Friday, will commence running to Battevsea,
AVandsworlh, and Putney.

Aiphallf Covr;-hi<i.—'Vhe Directors of tlie Seyssel Asphaltc Company, (C'la-
ridgc.s Patent), have made a contract with the {jreenHicli Railway Company,
to cover the arches of iheir .lunclion line, to tlie extent of 240,000 superficial
feet. It is alFO understood that the floors of the several cells of the model
prison will be laid with this material.

New Lichllwiise iil Pli/inoiilli. — The ceremony of laying the foundation stone
of the lighthouse intemled to be bullion the « est end of the Plymouth break-
water, took place, llie weather was delightfully serene, which a Ided much
to the interest of the occasion. Tlie stone having been prepared it was
lowered into its i)lace, an.! Hear .\dmiral W.arren. Admiral .Superintendent
of the dockyard, liavin.; plumbed it, spread the mortar, and several coins of
tlie realm were deposited beneath the stone.

Enp'meerivfi lfoiioiir.i. — M'e have much plea.s'.ire to announce that Isainbard
r>runcl, the engineer-in-chief of the Thames Tunnel, has been knighted by
lier Majesty ; we hope that this is but a commencement of bestowing a few
honours on the engineering profession, whicli we have advocate.I.

JL.IST or- WEW PATENTS.

GR.^NTED IX F.NGL.\NU KROM 23rD KKBRIAR^ , TO 2.')TH MARCH, 1841.

Si,v Months allowed frir Enrolment.

Georbe England, of Westburv, Wiltshire, clothier, for " impruecments
ill mackinefy for tieucbuj woollen and other fabrics, and for twisting, spool-
in;/, and warping woollens, also for improvements in tlie manufacture of woollen
doeskins." — March 2.

John Wii.kie, Nassau-street, Mar\-le-bone, upholsterer, and John
Chari.es Scheviess, of George-street, Saint Paiicras, musical instrument
maker, for " improvements in nonstrnctiny elastic seats or surfaces of furni-
ture."— March 2.

Henry Newson Brewer, of Jamaica Row, Bermondsey, mast and block
maker, for '' an improvement or improvements in wooden blocks for ships,
riyying, tackles and other purposes, where pullies are used." — March 3.

John K.-lnd, of How land-street, gentleman, for " certain improvements in
machinery for the manufacture of frame vori knitting or hosiery." —
March C.

Thomas Spencer, of Liverpool, carver and gilder, for " an improvement,
or improvements in the manufacture of picture and other frames, and cornices
applicable also to other useful and decorative purposes." — March S.

John Varley, of Bayswater Terrace, Bayswater, artist, for " an improve-
ment in carriayes." — March 8.

John William Neale, of William-street, Kennington, engineer, and
Jacque Edopard Duyck, of Swan-street, Old Kent-road, commission agent,
for " certain improvements in the manufacture of vinegar, and in the appa-
ratus employed therein." — March 8.

Benjamin Smith, of Stoke Prior, near Bromsgrove, butcher, for " an
improved apparatus for makiiuj salt from brine." — March 8.

John Walker, of Crooked-lane, King William-street, for " an improved
hydraulic apparatus." — March 8.

Richard Lawrence Sturtevant, of Church-street, Bethnal Green, soap
manufacturer, for " certain improvements in the manufacture of soap." —
March 8.

Thomas Joseph Ditchblrn, of Orchard House, Blackwall, shipbuilder,
for " certain improvements in ship building, some, or all of which, are appli-
cable to steam boats, and boats, and vessels of all descriptions." — March 8.

Anthony- Todd Thomson, of Hind-street, Manchester-square, doctor of
medicine, for '■ an improved method of mamfacturiny calomel and corrosive
sublimate." — March 8.

Stephen Goldner, of West-street, Finsbury Circus, merchant, for •' im-
provemenls in preserviny animal and veyetuble substances and liquids." —
March 8.

John Wertheimer, of West-street, Finsbury Cu-cus, printer, for " im-
provements in preserviny animal and vegetable substances and liquids." (A
communication ) — .March 8.

Tho-mas (lark, professor of chemistr}-, in Marischal College, Aberdeen,
for "n new mode of rendering certain waters (the ivater of the Thames being
amony the number, J less impure and less hard for the supply and use of manu-
factories, villayes, towns, and cities." — March 8.

John Baptist Frieu Wilhklm Heimann, of Ludgate Hill, merchant,
for "improvements in the manufacture of ropes and cables." (.\. communi-
cation.)— March 8.

Joh.v Uockrke, of Galway-street, Saint Luke's, gas titter, for " oil im-
provement, or improvements ou gas burners." — March l.'i ; two months.

RiCH.vun Laming, of (ionei-street, Bedford-square, surgeon, for " improve-
ments in the production of carlionalc of ammonia." — March 15.

William Newton, of Clianceiy-lanc, civil engineer, for " certain improve-
ments in machinery or apparatus for picking and cleaniny cotton and wool."
(.V communication.) — March l.>.

Robert Warington, of South Lambeth, Surrey, gentleman, for " im-
provements in the operations of tanning." — March 16.

Joseph Maimislay, of Lambeth, Surrey, engineer, for " an improvement
in the arrangement and combination of certain parts of steam engines, to be
■used for steam navigation." — March 16.

William Newton, of Cliancery-lane, civil engineer, for " improvements
in spinning and twisting cotton, and other materials capable of being spun and
twisted." (A communication.) — March IC.

George Lowe, of Finsbury Circus, engineer to the chartered gas company,
for " improved methods of snpplyiny yas under certain circumstances, and of
improving its puri'g and illuminatiny power." — March 16.

Ch.^rles Bunt Dyer, of Paiy's Mine, Anglesea, mine agent, for " mi
improved method of obtaininy paints or pigments bg the combination of mineral
solutions and other substances." — March 16.

Laurence Kortright, of Oak llall, East Ham, Essex, Esq., for " certaiit
improvements in treating and preparing the substance commonly called' White
Bone,' and the fins aitd such like other parts of whales, and rendering the
same fit for various commercial and useful purposes." (.\ communication.)
— March 17.

William Thompson Clough, of Saint Helens, Lancaster, alkali manu-
facturer, for "improvements in the mnnufacture of tlie carbonates of soda
and potash." (.V coiumunication,) — March \1.

Henry At gustus Wells, of Regent-street, gentleman, for '• i.nprove-
ments in machinery for driving piles." (A comnuuiication.) — March 17.

JosiifA Field, of Lambeth, engineer, for " an improved mode of effecting
the operation of connecting, and disconnecting, front steam engines, the paddle
wheels, used for steam navli/ation." — March 22.

Richard Barnes, of Wigan, Lancaster, engineer, for " certain improve-
ments in machinery, or apparatus for raising or drawing wafer or other
fiuids."— March 22.

.Vnthony Theophills Merry-, of Birmingham, refiner of metals, for
"an improved process, or processes fo^ obtaining zinc and lead from their
respective ores, and for the calcination of other metallic bodies." — March 22,

Robert Walter WiNFiELD,of Birmingham, merchant and manufacturer,
for " certain improvements in, or belonying to metallic bedsteads, o portion of
which mag be applied to other articles of metallic furniture." — March 22.

Robert Goodacre, of CUcsthorpe, Leicestershire, for "an improved mode
of weighing bodies raised by cranes or otiier elevating machines." — March 22.

Day-id N.ypieb, of Mill Wall, engineer, for " improvements in propelling
vessels." — March 22.

AcHiLLE Elie Joseph Sovitas, of George Yard, Lombard-street, mer-
chant, for *' improvements in apparatus for regulating tliefioiv ofttuids." (A.
communication.) — March 22.

William Bucknell, of Westminster, gentleman, for " improvements in
applying heat for the purpose of halching eggs, which improvements are also
applicable to other useful purposes where heat is required." — March 22.

Morris West Rpthven, of Rotherham, engineer, for " a new mode of
increasing the power of certain media, when acted upon by rotary fans or
other similar apparatus." — March 22.

Robert Cook and .Andrew Cunningham, of Johnstone, near Glasgow,
engineer, for •' improvements in the manifacture of bricks." — March 22.

Moses Poole, of Lincoln's Inn, gentleman, for " improvements in stretc/t-
ing cloths." (A communication.) — March 22.

Joseph ^^'RIGHT, of Carisbrook, Isle of Wight, mechanic, for " improve-
ments in apparatus used for dragging or skidding wheels of wheeled carriages."
—March 22.

Thomas Wright, of Church Lane, Chelsea, Lieutenant in Her Majesty's
Navv, for " certain improvements applicable to railway aiul other carriayes."
— M'arch 22.

Edw ARD Finch, of Liverpool, ironmaster, for " improvements inpropeUing
vessels." — March 2.'>.

Goldsworthy G irney', of Bude, Cornwall, Esq., for "improvements in
the production and diffusion of light." — March 25.

ERRATA IN LAST MONTHS JOURNAL.

Page 75, col. I, two lines from bottom, for " wrostyle "' read " aioeos'.yle.''
Page 77, col. 2, line 21, lor " as one of" read " is one of. '

TO CORRESPONDENTS.

If'e shall feel obliged if O of Dublin ivill favour us with any information re-
spi'ctinfr the progress of architecture or engineering works in Ireland.

Jf'r must firrliuc inserting any farther cotnmunieation respecting Mr. LecounCs
History of the London S; Birmingham Railway, as it will involve us in law pro-
ceedings.

Upon consideration we vinst decline inserting H's communication respecting tlie
retiewtr's observations on Parsey^s new work on Perspective ; it is a di^cnlt mat-
ter for reviewers to please all parties.

iVc shall be glad to receive from A .Suliscriber at O.rford, the pmrecdings of
the O.ifurd .ircliiteetural Society, and of the Camden Society.

Cummunictitions ore requested Jo be addressed to *' The Kditor oi the Civil
Kngineer. and Aichilecl's Journal," A''o. 11, Parliament Street, Westminster.

Book.'ifor Jteviciv must be sent early in the month, communications on or before
the 20th (if with drawings, earlier), and advertisements on or before the 25tlt
instant.

Vols. I, 11, and III, may be had. bound in cloth, price £1 each Volume.

>jo. 47.— GROTEsacE Mask
Vase.

]9iiii.

No. 62. — Gothic Vase.

No. 108.— Enriched
Etruscan Urn.

No. 59. — Oriental Lotus
Vase.

No. 119.— From the British

Museum.

The same 2 ft. S in.
Also without Top, 17 in.

No. 43.— AsTiauE Festoon
Vase.

No. 46. — Convolvulus
Wreath Vase.

No. 103.— Greek Urn.
The same with Three Handles.

No. 53.— Maltese Vase.

Also one 17 in. high, and
15 in. diam.

No. 101.— Plain Greek Urn.

No. 32. — Bouquet and Mask
Vase. (Italian.)

Vase for Ornamental
Chimne! Pot.

No. 106.— Plain Etruscan
Urk.

No. 51.— Maltese Vase.

No. 33.— Bouquet and Festoon Vase.
(Italian.)

1ft. 8 in

^

Mj^li^ilf:^.

^^

^ ,

i^^mI*^

^'A'K'pMi

.sfcSrf

\^

^J^^i>

f

c

"1

No. 110.— Draperied Urn.

No. 102.— Guilochi Vase. No. 56.- Oriental Lotus No. 115.— The Bayswateb

Vase. Vase.

No. 112.— Enriched Urn, with
Cupids and Lions.

AUSTIN AND SEELEy's ARTIFICIAL STONE ORNAMENTS.

The Prices of the following I'ases range from Ten Shillings to Thirty Guineas, Packing extra.

m^^m^^mmi

KK

15,

i£

liiJ

J ^

M^

m.

iMi.

1 1

No. 9. — BoRGiiKsF. Vase.

Xo. 40. — French Foliage Vase
WITH Wreaths.

The same without "Wreaths.

Xo. II. — Grecian Vase.

lit

No. 70.— The Bishop's
Vase.

Also the same quite
plain.

No. 99.— Cup AND
Saucbr.

2 ft. 15 in,

No. 193.- Egham Tazza, and

672.— Small Flvted Column
Pedestal.
(For Creeping PlnnU.)

No. 30.— A Reservoir Vase.
(Maltese.)

2ft.3in

No. 65. — Isle of Wight
Vase.

Also the same with Wreath
of Ivy Leaves.

And another, plain,
15 in. diam.

No. 96.— Tulip Vasb.
Also one l7in. high.

Tlie rim mcaaurinpS ft. lOin. diam.

SP^'

fr"-^— ' — -^
Tv" ^

No. 29. — Figures Grecian-
Vase.

No. 38.— The Warvtick Vasb.
AUSTIN AND SEELEy's ARTIFICIAL STONE ORNAMENTS.

No. 14. — Grecian Vase on
Plain Pedestal.

No. 35.— The Tamwobth Vasz.
Also a CompanioD.

The Dog of ALniaiADES.
(Size of the original.)

Also the reverse, and one 16 in. high.

3 ft 8in

The Old English Mastiff.
Also several other Dogs.

Also an Elephant, and other small
Models of Animals.

The Florence Boar. (Full life size.)
Also the reverse.

6ft. sin

Modelled from Nero.

4''^;.

Also another Model, 7 ft. 7 in.
Ditto. 5 ft.
A Pair of Lion and Lioness sleeping. 3 ft. each.

Also a lai^ Spread Eagle, 6 ft. 7 in. wide.

'^rN^^m-

^M.

''Ml: ■ ■ i A

Also another Model, with closed

wings, 14 in. high.

A Set of Four Pigeons in
different postuies and other
Birds, life size.

AUSTIN AND SEELEY S ARTIFICIAL STONE ORNAMENTS.

=■ 2 H

=■ re <^

" ^ c

o - -3

3 :i 2.
11?

O

o
c
z

H
>

^1.^

m

\j

3 S

- O

J

AUSTIN AND SEELEY S ARTIFICIAL STONE ORNAMENTS.

h \'-

, H

AUSTIN AND SEELEY's ARTIFICIAL STONE ORS'AMENTS.

The following are selected from nearly one hundred varieties of Chimneys.

1

No. 4.

r^

No. JO.

O

Ko. :

Ko. 6.

7=VQ

^, i N

Ml

i

No. S. No. 9.

No. 14. No. 27

m

r\\

z:

Y

)

No. IC. No. 17.

No. 18. No. 19. No. 20.

No. 21. No. 22.

No. 24. No. 25.

ll'STIN AND SEELEl's AUTIFRIAL STONE ORNAMENTS.

Fo7its made to any Design,

No. 552. — Font, with Wreath op

Ivy Leaves.
No. 553.— The same, without Wreath.

No. 55!). — Gothic Font,
With large Top, for immersion.

No. 556. — Plain Octagom
Font.

No. 557.— Gothic Font, with
Perforated Shaft.

The same, with solid shaft.

No. 547. — Rich Gothic Font
Designed from Henry VII. 's Chapel.

No. 363. — Early English Font.

^/. and S. have many other Fonts, slightly varied from the above.

AUSTIN AND SEELEY S ARTIFICIAL STONE ORNAMENTS.

AUSTIN AND SEELEV'S ARTIFTCIAr. STONE ORNAMENTS.

No. 54S.

No. 539.
Also Five other Crosses.

^^

li

Also a Gothic Figure

Hexagon Gothic Font.

, 1 ft. 3 in.
{Drawn to inob acole.)

Verge Board.

Also several other Finials.

^

Nearly One Hundred Corbels and Brackets.

4ft.7m

CoMMtmiON Table (the ends plain).
Also the same size, with plain quatrefoil.

Also other Pinnacles. 3 ft. ? in.
2ft. 1 in.; I ft. 2 in.

841.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

141

NEW AND USEFUL INVENTIONS, No. 3.

By Philotechxicos.

( With. 8 pages of Wood Engravings.)

Having been prevented from continuing the series of papers which
I hari commenced in some of the earl)- numbers of the Journal, and
having been advised by some of my friends that notices of this kind
were not only of value to the profession, as pointing out many things
highly useful to them, and well deserving of encouragement, but also
to the student and inventor by keeping a record of the attempts of
others, I have been induced to resume my peripatetic exertions. My
object being to bring before the worlil not only present scientific
novelties, but many valuable inventions, which either lie dormant or
are comparatively unknown, from their merits not liaving been suffi-
ciently brought befcre the public ; it is my intention to continue my
visit to the studio, the workshop, and the manufactory, to search out
and bring to light what 1 consider deserving of the patronage of the
profession, at the same time that I rely upon their assistance to enable
ine satisfactorily to carry out my inquiries. Any communication there-
fore on tliese subjects, forwarded through the Editor of this Journal,
I shall be hap|)y to receive, so as to make this series of papers an in-
teresting ami valuable record of the meritorious exertions of ingenious
individuals. From my present notes, I have contributed this paper,
in which, if I have only been able to do justice to the labours of one,
it must be remembered that it is not subjects which are wanting, but
space.

AUSTIN AND SEELEV'S ARTIFICIAL sTONE-WORKS, NEW ROAD,
regent's PARK.

The excellence of the composition, the symmetrical forms of the many
elegant vases and tazzas, the well modelled and numerous architectural
ornaments at this establishment claim particular attention. Those
two noble vases the Borghese and Medici have been restored from the
originals to their full size, and while without serious alteration they
have been so managed as to pair together. The noted Warwick vase
reduced to half the original size, and several others from the antique,
are good specimens of the material and workmanship of this manutac-
tory, in which may be found vases of all sizes and design, from the
chaste Greek to the overwrought Maltese, many of which from their
moderate cost mav often be introduced with advantage.

The several fountains exhibited display, great taste and ingenuity;
combinations of tazzas, dolphins, shells, and foliage, are cleverly con-
trived, with many bpautiful devices for jets d'eau, which by their in-
troduction will give great interest to the garden or conservatory, and
tend much to enliven the scenery. Tazzas in gardens may be used
for gold and silver fish, and serve as reservoirs for watering the garden.
Much labour might be avoided if water were laid on to pedestals placed
in several parts of the garden, and furnished with stop-cocks and
flexible tubes concealed in them ; the tube may be furnished with jets
and roses for watering the plants with greater facility, and for the
sake of ornament, a vase or tigure should surmount the pedestal, and
render it a pleasing object. Where a fountain is desired and water

No. 44.— Vol. IV.— May, 1841.

scarce, it may be so constructed as to use the same water over and
over again, by raising it up into a vase or reservoir by a force pump
hidden in the pedestal, or should there be a running stream in the
neighbourhood, a small water-wheel or hydraulic ram might be applied
by which the water can be raised to almost anv height. The hydraulic
ram is frequently used to force a portion of the waste water back again
to the reservoir, which it will do by self-action. Most of these con-
trivances may be seen in action, Mr. Austin having well studied this
interesting branch of his business, and expended great time in perfect-
ing it.

The architectural ornaments consist of a variety of Gothic finials,
pinnacles, crosses, panels, fonts, traceries, parapets, co])ings, and other
decorations. The coinnussioners for building new churches might with
advantage pay a visit here, and be convinced that ornament and econo-
my may be combined, when they see that by the introduction of arti-
ficial stone, they would be enabled to enrich their buildings and avoid
that barn-like appearance of many of the modern churches. To eccle-
siastical buildings where repetition of ornament is so frequent, Austin
and Seeley's artificial stone is well adapted, and has been applied with
great success ; its appearance, although only half the cost, is nearly
equal to stone, and in point of durability far surpasses the softer kinds,
aud it is only equalled by the best Portland. All the dressings might
be of this material, wiiile by the building being faced with patent
pressed malms in lieu of the frigid looking white bricks, now fre-
quently used, a more cheerful appearance might be obtained and some
architectural character.

There are manv other ornaments suitable for building purposes, such
as balustrades, columns, gate piers, porticos, brackets, trusses, &c., in
all styles. The chimney-shafts are of great variety, and I would here
beseech the architect to turn his particular attention to this subject,
and to use his utmost exertion to reform Ihose miserable looking spe-
cimens of ugliness, chimney pots, that now too frequently figure on the
tops of houses, being usually of a most common place form, and as
much disconnected from the style of the building as the figure of Nel-
son would be from a Corinthian column. They ought to be designed
for what they really are — terminations to the building — and conse-
quently finished as a sort of capping to the chimney shaft, and have
some decided connection therewith. Such the Italians generally
considered them, and thus has Mr. Barry very judiciously intro-
duced them at the Reform Club House, where the chimney shafts
are surmounted bv a projecting cornice supported by trusses, and form
truly ornamental objects, adding to the effect of the building rather
than detracting from it, as in too many cases chimney shafts and pots
usually do. Thus utility is reconciled with ornament, without any at-
tempt to disguise what all the world knows to be connected with the
greatest comfort in the house.

The flat roofs, floors and steps exhibited at these works deserve
inspection; the front yards have been excavated, and workshops
formed below the surface of the ground, and covered with this mate-
rial, the lightness and strength of which is astonishing. The terrace
roofing is laid with plain tiles in three courses, and rendered on the
top, to the thickness in all of about four inches, carried over by arches
slightly cambered springing from small brick piers, and tied by light
iron rdds, which form their chord line. These flats have an immense
weight upon them, and are each, as it were, in one piece, having no
perceptible joint, by which they are made completely water tight, at
the same time that they can be easily cleaned. It may be well to re-
mark that many flats have been formed of cement and tiles, and after-
wards condemned as not being impervious to wet, this is, however, for
the most part, a mistaken notion— it is true wet frequently makes its
appearance, and is often seen dripping from the ceiling, but tins
almost invariably is caused by condensation— particularly over stables
where the vapour, arising from the horses put m warm, ascends to the
imniediately condensed and faUs in large drops. 1 his may be

ceili

avoided by firring out the ceiling, or laying the flat upon joists, and
lathine and plastering the underside.

Tombs and monuments, with a variety of einereal urns, are among the
other objects of art, Jlr. Austin being seemingly as desirous to provide
for his dead customers as for his living ones. Many ol these memo-
rials of the dead are well adapted to produce an etlect in those ex-
cellent establishments, the cemeteries, which are now being t«""ed 'n
all parts of the neighbourliood of London. I hope the day ■? not tar
distant when that disgusting and unnatural custom «f '^"'•>'',"S , " '°;^"'
will be entirely dispensed with, as many of tl>« !^ '">■•=' Y;"/h 'Ceause
proved to emit a vapour destructive to animal life, -"'I /.^^'^^^t/f ""^^!
of much disease in densely peopled "^ >§ ''^""'^'^""'l^: ''"> "^ '^
over most distasteful in their appearance, having he., m°"/ "^"^^^"^
head and foot stones jumbled up together in heedless confu on. An
English church-yard which ought to be the pride of the F^l^'^P^' "
culf.rlv of the clergy, is mostly a jumble of broken stones, stift giaceless

142

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[May,

ledgers, aii'l heaps of dirt, tlie whole in a niiseral)ly ragged conditioni
disgraceful to a civilised nation.

Tliere are several other oubjetts, figures from the antique, among
■which may be found a large assembly of gods and godilessi'.s, animals,
from tlie colossal lion to the petty lap dog — the famous dog of Alci-
biades and the Florentine boar, standing most conspicnously — also
many 3pl)iii:<es and animals after Egyptian and (ireek authorities;
sun-dials and pedestals — the globe sun-dial is particularly interesting.
But for space and time many more articles might be enumerated, f
must now conclude, having been somewhat lengthy in my notice of
this compc'silion, with a view of furwaiding its general introdnction
in place of stone, where economy is desirable, as it is capable of great
variety of form and use.

For the purpose of illustrating this paper, I have through the kind-
ness of Messrs. Austin and Seelev, selected several wood engravings
from their book of designs, all of which are from specimens already
executed.

[\Vc hail with jileasure the renewal of our old correspondent's in-
teresting papers, and will gladlv second him in his laudable endeavour
to st-rve the meritorious class he so warmly advocates.] — Editor.

line from it to the front entrance, each being visible from the other at
a distance of more than a hundred feet. Rooms for other officers are
provided directly over these, and are approached by the circular
staircase before mentioned. Spacious offices for the transaction of
the greater part of the business, are provided on each side of the
outer hall, while those functionaries w ho require greater quiet, are
provided for at the back part of the building. The flight of steps
first mentioned, with the return flights leading to the Committee Room
and the Library on the one pair (jf the front, occupy the lower (jurt of
a large covered area, from which light is obtained for the several
apartments around. The workmen were still employed in the old
Ball room when we were there, but, we understood, oiily hi repairing
and cleaning it, a.s it is to undergo no alterations, but to be fitted up
with a platform and benches, and to be called "The Centenai'v Hall."

"WESLEYAN CENTEXARY HALL AND mSSIOX-HOUSE."

Letteks of no mean si>;e, affixed to the largo, and, since its recent
luodificntions, handsome building, which has attracted so much of the
attention of the frequenters of Bishopsgate Street, thus announce to
tlic public the new approj)riation of the heretofore well-known City
of Londiai Tavern. The street front is of course the part most em-
bellished, and with this perhaps the best has been done that it ad-
mitted of, and certainly a noble eti'ect is produced, notwithstanding
many disadvautages; for the old front hi ing left standing, and the
new being only an eucaseuient of it, but little room for invention was
afforded. The design is a Corinthian order, of four columns and two
aide pilasters, on a rather high basement; the four columns being sur-
mounted by a well-proportioned pediment. The colunuis, which, of
course, form the chief feature, are both bold and eleg-.mt, and have a
very graceful outline : some persons might prefer them without the
fluting, but we are inclined to think, that plain attached shafts at that
height. Would look heavier and less ellective. The caps are about the
best we reineinber to have seen, the volutes have a v;>iy graceful con-
lour, and the leaves are bold and well relieved, and the whole of the
sculpture, of which there is a good proportion, is executed with skill
and decision. We are glad to see, from this instance amongst
others, that enriched mouldings are again coming into use. The ar-
chitect, w hether from necessity or choice, has preserved all the original
openings, and tliose in the ground floor, having been arched, are so
still. Tliis, though it gives the basement a character not quite in
accordance with the Greek order above, yet produces a playfulness-
of line that, in our luinii, greatly mitigates the delect, which, to the
sticklers for antique jirccedenl, will no doubt be serious; whilst, to
another class, in which we may include ourselves, the adoption of the
Cireek, instead of the Roman or Italian style, will be a still greater
offence. For we doubt if the delicacy of Grecian architecture can
ever be made to accord with our climate and materials. The columns
are somewhat close for their si/.e, and the window dressings are con--
sequentlv cramped ; but tliis is rather the fault of the old building
than of the new, and to the same cause it may be attributed that the
parts are in better proportion than.the whole. The breadth of eflect
would have been greatly increased by substituting cohiuins fur the two
pilasters at the sides, but we presume they would have projected too
fer beyoi:d tlie adjoining houses ; a ditiiculty that must always occur
in the ^treets of London, where houses jostle each other like persons
in a crowd. With allowance for these defects, we should not do jus-
tice to the author ('dr. I'ocock, architect,! if we did not state our
lionest '-'pinion, that without atteinpt-ng novelties, he has dene the
most his circumstances and style admitted.

j4 Tliu ceiling of the loggia is panelled, and siijiported by four Doric
columns fluted two thirds down. The rest of th.e interior, though
handsome and substantial, is as plain in its architecture as at all ac-
cerds with the magnitude of the structure and the elegance of the
facade.

The general idea of the plan is perhaps the best part of the whole.
Directly o])posile the entrance gates of the loggia iire the doors of
the vestibule, and opposite these the doors of the hall, where a h;uid-
some flight of stone steps, with ornamental iron balusters, conduct to
the corridor running straight forward, by the foot of an elegant circular
staircase, to th.e auteioom of the secretary's oftice, so that the door of
tliis anteroom is at th.e end of an avenue which continues in a straight

EPISODES OF PLAN.

fConliwiod from parfc lOO.J

Whetrer intended for sideboard alcove, or other specific purpcse,
Recesses may be diviiled into Simple and Compomid; and even those
belonging to the first chiss admit of very great variety, exclusively of
that which arises from embellishment. In their jdmi, for instance,
they may be rectangular, or curved fand if curved either segmental or
semicircular), or polygonal. In their t/tra/fOH, towards the room, they
may be arched or otherwise, w ith or without columns, &c. In sec/ion,
they may be of the same height as the room itself; or chprc^Hd (that
is lower) ; or raistd (loftier) ; and if arched, in elevation, and curved
or polygonal in plan may be covered by a foHc/( or semidome. Neither
is this all, since even this class may be subdivided into Blind nnd Light
recesses. In the latter case various jiicturesque effects may be ob-
tained according to the mode in which the light is admitted, which,
lioweTer, should be so managed that the windows themselves are not
visible, or else the recess assumes a different character, and becomes
only a bay-window of the usual description, except it be that the win-
dow itself would not occupy the whole of it-
No instances occur to our recollection to which we can here refer at
once as exemplifying some few at least of the forms and arrangements
just pointed out ; yet if this be so far inconvenient and unfortunate, it
is also a tolerable proof that scarcely any thing at all has hitherto
been done or even aimed at, as regards such features in internal
phui; consequently that there is novelty of interior design in store for
us, if we do but choose to adopt it, and to escape from that monoto-
nous routine, and those qtioficiiav forms to which architects now confine
themselves.

Possibly there may be instances both in regard to recesses and other
features of plan th;it might suit our purpose, and which may deserve
to be brought forward by us as examples, were we but acquainted
with them. Yet if they exist at all 'they are not generally known :
there are no engravings of them in any |iubUcations, nor are any
descriptive notices of them to be met with. To siiy the truth, pecu-
liarities in design, of the kind here alluded to, are almost the very last
which those who give us descriptions of buildings think of speaking of
at all. Which, however, is the less to be wondered at, because archi-
tects themselves are, far more frequently than not, apt to pass them
over in silence, even tliough such I'.arts m;iy happen to Inive cost them
more thought and contrivance than all the rest of a design. In ftict
as regards interior domestic architecture, it very seldom happens that
any thing more than two extreme points are taken into consideration:
while nothing is aimed at in the geuer.d liiyiiig uul of the plan, beyond
what comfoit, convenience, and fiicility of communication require, — •
nor is tliere alwiiys so much bestowed upon these as there might be ;
so also notliing amounting to architectural design is introduced into
the se|)iirate romns. Provided these last posses- the negative merit
of being satisfactory as to their dimensious ;u.d proportions, little be-
sides is looked to for them, on the part of the architect. For all that
gives them life and interest they are indebted to the decorator and
upholsterer, or to the works of art which they may contain. lu by
very far the greater number of cases no attempt is made to obtain
aught of ilecided architectural character, or of that kind of expression
and ctlecl, which nmy exist before such things as hangiigs and dra-
peries, furniture and pictures are added. \\'e ai'e very fax from
despising or undervaluing such matters as these last ; yet we certainly
regret thiit attention should be too exclusively confined to them, whei>
they are of subordinate imjiurtanee, inasmuch as they admit of change
ami iiHprovemeut :it any time, whereas if iu-chitectiu'al effect has
been ilisregarded in the first instance, it is not ahvivys easy — some-
times scarcely possible to supjily it afterwards, without considerably

1841. J

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

H3

altering the building itself, and breaking up the original plan. On
this account therefore it is highly important that the design should be
carefully considered and strictly scrutinized in order to ascertain
■whether besides being satisfactory as regards convenience, and the
required accomuiodation, it also provides a good deal of architectural
effect throughout the various parts of it. Undoubtedly the present
system has its conveniences : it spares a great deal of trouble— that is,
of study and thought to the architect; but then it also cuts off the
opportunity of displaying talent and invention upon a class of subjects,
where, if allowed to be exercised, they would have free scope.

One obvious source of variety in plan, is to break the sameness of
the quadrangular forms of rooms, by some kind of alcove or deep re-
cess, constituting a distinct compartment, and further conveying the
idea of extension, so much space being apparently added to what would
else be the limits of the room, even although it should in fact be pur-
posely taken from it in making the plan. Independently of all other
effect such parts are almost sure to produce a good deal of pictorial
expression in the ensemble of an apartment, by the effect of light and
shade attending^ them. They may also be made to contribute very
much to the air of habitableness and comfort; as many articles of
furniture, or for mere ornament, may be arranged within such embayed
compartments without at all crowding up or interfering w ith the rest
of a room. Cabinets, stands for bijouterie, book-cases, ottomans,
flower-stands, and other things of that kind, may there be tastefully
disposed, so as to be at hand, and so as to form a striking and pleasing
group of objects, and produce a certain degree of contrast ;is it w'ere :
not that contrast is indispensable, or indeed, in every ease, adviseable.
How far it is so, or the contrary, must depend upon the circumstances
of the individual design, which cannot be prejudged according to any
general rules, or directions.

Much may be made of an alcove or deeply embayed recess in a
room, let the style of architecture adopted be what it may; and in any
application of the Gothic something of the kind becomes requisite, in
order to give character, particularly in a mere four-sided room, with-
out either bav-wiiidow or any breaks in the walls;* In a room of the
kind already built, or where the plan itself will not admit of a recess
being formed, without interfering with some other room, or else occa-
sioning some other difficulty, the appearance at least may be obtained
by sinking a shallow arch-headed compartment on one of the sides,
and decorating it with paneUing and tracery filled in witli pieces of
mirror, so as to resemble an open-work screen. There is another
point as regards Alcoves and Recesses, not yet mentioned, but which
deserves to be considered, although it is one that does not admit of
any positive instructions respecting it being laid down. We mean
the relative size of the alcove in comparison with that of the room it-
self, and also the size of the opening which unites them. Indepen-
dently of every thing else, here alone almost endless diversity may
take place. Much also will depend upon the situation of such a re-
cess, and whether there be only a single one, or more in the same
apartment.

For want of positive examples, much of what we have hitherto said,
may have been thought vague and obscure, and so far — if not other-
wise— unsatisfactory. We now proceed, therefore, to give, as one of
cur Episodes, a plan for a Dining Room, having a rather spacious siile-
board-alcove, communicating with which is a staircase exclusively for
the attendants, and for serving up dinner ;— the convenience of which
is so obvious, that it is unnecessary to point it out.

* In such case the only thing that can bo done is to produce as much
effect as possible by means of the tittings-ap and Jurniture, into which tli
spirit of the style must be care'ully infused : or if not it is better to get ri

at once of every indication of the style in such a room, concealing the upiier
part ot the windows, as much as possible by draperies, should there be arched
compartments of any kind in the heads of those apertures.

It will be evident at first sight that we do not offer this as one of
the simplest arrangements of the kind, because it may in some respect
be termed rather complex, and is, besides, very remarkable — some
will, doubtless, say exceedingly capricious — for the form given to the
ends of the room, those elevations being not only curved, but convex
in plan. Should it be asked of us why we have chosen to bring for-
ward so very unusual a circumstance, such question ought to suggest
its own answer. Whether such novelty in the plan be judicious, —
whether concave instead of convex ends would not be greatly better,
is w hat the reader must determine for himself. But as it was our in-
tention to give an instance of an alcove curved convexly towards the
room, it is pretty evident that by making it otherwise than it is, we
should have defeated our purpose.

Of the effect attending such pecidiarity in the design, most of oar
readers, we presume, will have no difficulty — in judging from the plan,
— that is as far as plan alone is concerneti, independently of the mode
in which it may be filled up. We ourselves are persuaded the effect
would be pleasing, as well as strikingly novel. Owing to its colonnade
being curved convexly, both that and the Alcove, A, itself, are brought
forward more conspicuously. The opposite end of the room is similar
in its gener.d elevation, except that the middle iutercolumn is tilled up
by a pier containing the fire-place, whereby the space E, or entrance
alcove, serves as a kind of lobby (though not an enclosed one) to the
room, and the chimney pier as a screen before the door, facing which
last, there might be a blank door filled with a mirror, so as to give the
effect of greater space on first entering. lu this case the Dining-room
is supposed to connnunicate immediately with the vestibule, conse-
quently some kind of screen, (where one can be obtained, that shall
rather aid than at all prejudice the architecture of the apartment) is
desirable. But should the Dining-room be preceded bv an Ante-room,
it then becomes a question whether it would not be adviseable to alter
that part of the plan, placing the chimney-piece opposite the window,
and making the colonnade at E precisely similar to that at A. Owing to
their bowing out towards the room, those colonnades or end elevations,
certainly abridge it in some degree, yet not at all more than the plan
will very well bear. While the space itself is in some measure reduced,
the appearance of spaciousness is kept up. It is true such loss of space
as is here occasioned at the angles of the room, can very seldom be
afibrded ; but then, neither do we recommend a plan of the kind where
it woidd be quite out of character with the rest of the house.

With respect to the alcove A, we have little to remaidi, except that
the doors are so placed that when opened by the servants nothing can
be seen of the staircase S. Should the sideboard s be insufficient,
there might also be lesser ones in the two recesses n ii, which if not
required for that purpose, might have candelabra placed in them.
Without at all altering the lower part or floor plan, an entirely diffe-
rent idea might be adopted for the upper portion at about the height
of seven or eight feet, breaking through the wall above the sideboard s,
so as to admit a view into the circular space over S, which would then be-
come a small rotunda or upper recess, seen beyond the other. In such
case there would of course be a ceiling between it and the staircase
beneath. This recess would be domed, and have an eye or skylight,
which should be filled with warm-tinted glass, so as to diffuse a sunny
glow both over that upper recess and the alcove itself, and thereby
greatly enhance the effect of the wdiole of that compartment as seen
through the columns. The same effect might be preserved of an even-
ing (before which a dining-room, if reserved exclusively for the pur-
pose of one, is seldom used) by lighting it with gas on the outside of
the skylight. We will further suppose this recess to be occupied by
a statue (a mere cast) placed in the centre, and elevated upon a pedes-
tal of such height that the wdiole of the figure would be visible from
the middle of the room, if not nearer. An elevated recess of this de-
scription, might be made to answer the purpose of a music gallery,
when one is required. We need not enter into further explanation or
remark, as we have said enough to show what variations this plan
admits of, accordingly as the section raised upon it is treated.

By no means do we pretend to say that the above Episode can be
introduced into every or any plan; most certainly not. It seems best
adapted for the rear of a house, in continuation of the grouml floor;
and supposing it so situated, and to have no other room above it, the
apartment could be lighted by a lantern : that however must depend
upon circumstances of locality, and whether sufficient light cou.!d be
obtained from aside window according to the plan.

( To be continued. J

W 2

144

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[May,

ON THE ARCHITECTURF. OF WISBY IN THE ISLAND

OF GOTHLAND, IN THE RALTIC SEA.

By John Whitk, Esq., Architect.

Read al the Royal Instilnle of Ilritish Archittcts ; March S, lil 1.

The perusal of the passages in Mr. Laing's Tour in Sweden ^vhicli
relate to tlie arcliitecture of the city of Wisby,* have induced me to
make the following oliservations as to the origin of that incjdc of the
constructimi of edifices conniionly called Gothic, and to consider the
existing remains of that city, for which purpose 1 have availed mvself
of some nortliorn connexions in obtaining some further infornialion
beyond what is already before the British Institute, and feeling tliat
Mr. Laing has ninrh advanced th.e knowledge of architectural antiquity
by having recommended to the attention of the public, these very
early, if not the earliest, exanqdes of (tolhic construction, I submit the
following remarks.

The well known observation of Sir Christopher Wren fParentalia,
page 3(lii,) " that what we now vulgarly call the Gothic, ought pro-
perly and truly to be named the Saracenic architecture velined by the
Christians, which first of all began in the East after the fall of the
Greek empire, by the prodigious success of those people that adhered
to Mahomcl's doctrine, who out of zeal to their religion, built mosques,
caravansar;is and sepulchres wherever they came," is to be opposed
by examining the structures of the Hlh century in those parts of Eu-
rope, especially the northern, where the Saracens never came, and
this I trust will be manifest, independently of other proofs, from the
examination of the arcliitecture of the remains of tliose churches of
Wisby so referred to by Mr. Laing, which are herewifli communicated
so far as the drawings of them are published.

The biilh of Mahomet was in the year jti'.t, and the conquests of
the Saracens followed witli rapidity the commencement of the 7th
century, when the Saxon style of building is supposed to have been, in
the northern portion of Europe at least, the prevailing form ; of this,
however, in England, we liave few examples; Stukeley Church, in
Buckingljanishire, lias been quoted by most writers as the most an-
cient and perfect example of the pure Saxon; it has certainly nothing
Saracenic about it, excepting that all the arches are of a circular
character, in common witli the Roman and Saracenic, whereas what is
denominated the gothic arch is universally of two or more centres
describing portions of circles meeting at a point.

It may, perhaps, assist the inquiry to refer to the periods of the
northern irruptions and conquests, \vhich are as follow :

Their jio

ver in

Italy

England,

&c.

Began A.D.

Ended .\.D.

Goths of Stii
1 Saxons . . .

nflinaN

ia .

230
3G6

40n

■4ri2

570

787

inlG

382
not ended
568
711
771
lOGt

Osiro Gollis
Visi Gotlis ,
Lombards . .
Danes . . . .

Normans . .

1

The buildings at Wisby are adadtted to la\e been constructed at
the following periods:

11 111 Centir'i. j 12th C'e.xtcrv.

CuuRCHi;... A.D. I Chvbchi;s. A.D.

AllSaiiits lO.'iO ; St. Hans 113(1

Holy Ghost 104ti I St. Catherine 1160

St. Lawrence 1046 St. Gertrude 1167

St. Diottcn 1086 1 St. Maria 1190

St. Peter 1086 j

St. Michael 1090 I

St. Nicholi.s 1097 I

Of the CLiislian religion the following orders were fcjunded :

A.D.

Knights Hospitalers IICO

Augustine Canons 1 105

Cistertians 1128

Knights Templars 1146

The followirg extracts from Grose's Antiquities may further eluci-
date the subject. See preface, page liH.
(Stowe's words on the Cathedral of London.)

" Payis .SOL J.C. printed by Unigman and Co.. 1S3'>.

"In tlie year 10S7 the church of Saint Paul's (in London) was burnt
with fire, and therewitli most part of the city, Mauricius, then Bishop,
began therefore the new foundations of a new church of St. Paul, a
work that men of that time judged would never have been finished, it
was then so wonderfid for length and breadth, as also the same were
budded upon arches, or vaults of stone, for defence of fire, which was
a manner of work before that time unknown to the people of this
nation, and then brought from France, and tlie stone was fetched from
Caen, in Normandy, S:c.

This, doubtless, is tliat new kind of architecture the continuer of
Bede (whose words Malmsbury hath taken up) intends, when, speaking
of the Norman income, he saitli, " Vou may observe every where, in
villages, churches, and in cities and villages, monasteries, erected with
a new kind of arcliitecture."

And again, speaking doubtfully of the age of the eastern part of the
choir of Canterbury, In; adds, " I dare constantly and confidentiv denv
it to be elder than the Norman conquest, because of the buihling it
upon arches, a form of architecture, though in use with and among
the Romans long before, yet, after their departure, not used here in
England, till the Normans brought it over with tliem from France.
(Somner's Antiquities of Canterburv.)"

Grose further observes, page Ilj, (on Saxon architecture) :

"This was the style of building practised all over Europe ; and it
continued to be used by tlic Xonnans after their arrival here, till the
introduction of what is called Gothic, which was not till about the end
of the reign of Henry the First, so that there seems little or no grounds
for the distinction between the Saxon and Norman architecture. In-
deed, it is said, th.it buildings of the latter were of larger dimensions,
both in height and area, and they were constructed with a stone brought
from Caen in Normandy, of which the workmen were particularly
fond ; but this was simply an alteration in the scale and materials, and
not in the manner of tlie building. The ancient pait of our cathedrals
are of this early Norman work."

That building was carried on in northern com tries. Jonas Ramus
states, in Norwegia Antiqua et Etbnica, pages SO and '.'O :

That Drontliiem was built by Olave Tryggo, who became king of
Norway, A.D. 9'.)G, and Bergen was built by Olave Harald Kyrre, wdio
completed the Cathedral of Drontliiem began by Magnus the Good
and his father. Olave Harald Kvrre was buried at Dronthiem, A.D.
1093. Magnus the Good died lU 17.

Roger de Montgomery built Ludlow Castle after the Norman Con-
quest. In the enceiut there existed a circular entrance to a chapel now
destroyed; this circular entrance has considerable resemblance to that
of the Temple Church in l.uudoii. The drawings of Ludlow Castle
made in 1771, show this building, and I have ni.ide a drawing of the
plan of the Wisby Churches to the same scale as that of the Temple
Church, in order that their dimensions may be compared.

The period of the introduction of arches described with more than
one centre, is the matter_of doubt; but it can hardly be conceived that
a general appellation should be used without any foundation. The
Gothic monarchy in Spain was destroyed in the beginning of the Sth
century by the Saracens, and of the many buildings erected by them,
the arches are all of a circular character, not concentric, but of more
than a semi-circular form in the void.

The Cathedral of Barcelona was began in 1299.

That of Tarragona about - • 1200.

The monastery of Poblet, which in the interior much resembles the
Wisby churches, in 1149.

It is nut impossible that at the time tlie city of Wisby flourished, it
had overland communication with India, as the troubles of the Eastern
Roman Empire rendered the Mediterranean and its territories unsafe
for merchandise, and as there exist in India many buildings constructed
with arches even of four centres, it is possible that the Gothic arch
may thence be derived, yet the Indian arches reseinlile more the vault-
ings of the Tudor style, and the must perfect of them are as late in
the reign of Schah Abbas, who died in lli29.

Bishop Warbnrton, as (pioted by Grose, says, our Norman works
had a very ditierent original from Saxon builders, wlio took their ideas
from the buildings of the Holv Land, for when the Goths conquered
Spain, they struck out a new sjiecies of architecture nnknown to Greece
or Rome, upon original principles, and ideas much nobler than what
had given birth even to classic i'. magnifieeuce.

it is dillicult to reconcile the style of our finest cathedrals as to their
internal ranges of coupled columns with the groves of northern coun-
tries, because the lir seldom assumes, though the planted elm does,
the general character of ribbed arches, but there is a natural progres-
siciu of form proceeding from a repetition of the squares or round
column to the octagonal, and afterwards to the coupled column, and
the ribbed arches springing from the octagonal exist in the beautiful
remains of St. Catherine's cliurch at Wisbv.

1841.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

145

In the bridge of Marlorell in Spniii, there are arches both of the
semicircular and the pointed form. From the drawing in De hi Borde's
work it appears tliat the gothic arcli (which is of 133 Frenc-h feet
span) is an enhirgenient of tlie water way, for tlie stones of two circuhir
arches where it exists, are reinainini;, and exluliit (lie ancient work
which was probably Roman. The arch is from the highest part of the
soffit to the water TO French feet. De la Borde does not say wdien
this arch was constrncted, but its magnitude renders the time of its
being built a matter of interest in a ijueslion as to the origin of its
form, for it would be wonderful if the .Saracens had employed this
mode of building, de novo, when an arch of less elevation would liave
better answered the purpose of a public way, and their Arabian or
even Moorish origin was not likely to lead them to construct bridges
of great span and height over the water w'ay, there being little neces-
sity for such edifices iu their own country.

The first crusade was subsequent to the Council of Clermont in 1095,
and it was at this council that the banner of the cross was assumed,
from this assumption of the form of the Latin cross, it is probable that
the plan of most of our catliedrals was adopted. None of the churches
of Wisby have this shape, although there exist the repeated ])illars,
arches, an 1 groins. The most ancient churches, viz. the church of
Stukelev, that at Cambridge, and those of Northampton and the Tem-
ple, with the chapel at Ludlow, are totally diflferent.

When the slender pillars were used it became necessary to employ
the buttress, Mr. Samuel Ware* has successfully shown their import-
ance, there is little appearance of their employment in the buildings
of Wisby, where the pillars are of greater bulk and better calculated
to support stone vaulted roofs. Stone groins certainly existed in this
country at an early period, but they are confined to the crypts, and
particular parts of buildings. The church of Stukelev does not ex-
hibit any appearance of a stone arch in the main part c.f the building
which has a wooden roof, and the Temple church has a wooden roof
both over the circular part and the body, both which roofs are ex-
tremely ancient, anil verging into great decay, though of the finest
oak.

It may be deserving of inquiry as to where the largest and most
perfect groin exists, domes are of greater antiquity, perhaps the groin
of Julian's palace at Paris is that best known in this part of Europe.

I w ill conclude these observations by referring to the correspondence
which has taken place relative to the ruins of Wisby with Major Gerss
of Stockholm, by w liich it will appear that for the sura of SO/, numerous
dravvings can be supplied. The printed documents which were pro-
cared by ray sun at Stockholm, accompany this paper, together with a
transhition of a short history of Gothland and Wisby, the general map
of the country will exhibit the situation of the island and the city, and
the appendices afford various authorities of its antiquity and destruction.
The lithograph plan of the city of Wisby will show the situations of
the various churches and Wisby Klingwalls. Parts 1 and 2 will exhibit
the buildings which have formed the subject of an intended work, but
which has not gone beyond these two portions of it. It is to be hoped
that it will be continued and improved upon.
January 30, 1S4 1.

A FEW OBSERVATIONS ON PALLADIO.

.\DDRESiEl) TO MR. CROKER, &C. &t.

I had hopeil to have pursued a train of thought upon Palladio and
his school, without startling one critic into life. Like a young and
cautious mariner, I ventured not far into the open sea, because I knew
critics were afloat, and because I knew them armed with every classic
weapon of attack. These gentlemen, like pirates grown old in their
ugly warfare, are ever to be found on the ocean of taste, whilst, with
weapons sharpened upon some old ruin, and with prejudice for a war
cry, they hunt for every modest searcher after the beauties of Italian
art. It was for this reason, perhaps, that a partiality for Palladio
seldom tempted me to an invidious comparison; I merely admired a
man of original daring, and left a crowd of copyists and purloiners
from Athens and Rome to interpret at their pleasure.

A sail, however, is astern, bearing up the gallant Mr. Croker, who,
with spy-glass in hand, finds my rigging defective or my vessel weak.
His frown is on me for my late remarks u;ion Campbell and Palladio.
He thinks, however, because I cited no examples to support mv fan-
cies, that the guns of defence are few, and so his face changes into
smiles, and his laughing caution to surrounding friends is "risuni tene-
atisl" Now this amusing merriment in the critic amuses me, and

Sre his « oik. " A Treatise on the Projiprlies of Arches and their Abut-
it Pieri.'' By Samiel 'Ware. Architect : Ix)ndon, 1809.

were it not for the singular attitude of his pen at the conclusion of
his letter, I should have passed from his comment with a smile. Mr.
Croker's pen is made to sus|)end itself in threatening shape over me,
to alarm and intimidate my o;vn. Perhaps, however, it mav be that
the awkw-ard little feather which Mr. Croker handles, is conscious of
its intended misappropriation, and very properly shocked at the injurv
it is likely to inflict upon the fame of Palladio, forsakes his hand.
But why does the conscious sensitive thing hang over me ! Perhaps
to warn me of a future attack. Mr. Croker evidently imagines his
quill an object of terror, and so makes no small effort to direct rae to
it; but upon close inspection I perceive the little creature too harm-
less to disturb, and too innocent to vex.

I do admire Palladio, and if my partiality is a passion, it is a passion
more like sentiment than the passion of a childish instinct. I admire
Palladio for his daring and originality, for his starting up in the midst
of error, when art began to grow fanciful and trifling, for his care in
shunning the evils of his time, and borrowing from the beauties of the
past. To test Palladio too severely by the models of antiquity, is
unfair and impossible, because the modification and change necessary
to the structure destroy the parallel. To test, too, Palladio by the
mean experiment of subordinate variations, is ungenerous, because
Roman architecture itself, imposed with its parts, much more than it
charmed i)y its minutiic. Palladio's great achievement, too, was the
adaptation of the orders to domestic habitations, in which antiquity
became subservient, and in which the whole array of detail was sub-
sidiary. One great reason why many condemn Palladio is, because he
leads them occasionally into error, and too loosely scatters his deco-
ration. Tell them of a palace or a church designed by him, and thev
will tell you of an incorrect member or a broken tympanum ; or speak
to them of originality, and they will shout for a precedent. The
source of beauty, however, may have been misunderstood, and the
elements of grandeur may have been mistaken. Beauty belongs to no
particular form, but to the harmony of relations blending in that form;
and the same principles which adjusted the lovely outlines of antiquity,
may enter into the composition of larger and grander objects. Nature
supplies such innumerable varieties of beautv, such apposite chanfes,
that I wonder iomc cannot perceive the lesson she would teach. These
few remarks, arising out of Mr. Croker's observations, are all I wish
at present to oft'er. I have not gone coolly into a digest upon Palladio,
because at present I have been alluded to merely in the language of
general disagreement. My reflections are therefore mere generalities,
but capable, 1 hope, of assuming a more connected form, should the
objections of a critic assume a sober shape and demand it. I do not,
however, allude to Mr. Croker so nuich, for his reflections are gene-
rally sound and liberal ; I rather fancy before me, as 1 write, the ene-
mies of Palladio's style to whom he addresses his " risum teneatis,"
and in whose judgment nothing but the antique can please.
Jpiil 13, 1S41.

Fkedisrick East.

ENGINEERING WORKS OF THE ANCIENTS, No. 4.

The last author from whom we took was Polybius, who lived B.C.
124, the one from whom we now select, Xenophon, preceded him in
time, living 100 B.C.

Persian Exgixeerixg.

canals — tigris — inundation" — irrigation.

It is in those works which treat of I'ersia and Egypt that we find the
most information as to engineering, for the Greeks, as we have before ex-
plained, from geographical position, having no considerable rivers,
were not called upon to execute those long canals and large bridges
which were of vital necessity to their eastern and southern neighbours.
It is therefore in Asia and Africa that we must look for the schools of
engineering, of which the practice has been transmitted to us through
the Greeks and the Romans. When quoting from Herodotus we before
mentioned the Persian canals, and we now take from Xenophon, com-i>
mander of the Greek army, what he says on the subject in his work
called the Expedition of Cyrus, or Retreat of the Ten Thousand : it
being our purpose not to collect what has been said on each individual
subject, but to abstract from each author seriatim his separate testi-
mony, so as to form in these essays a kind of diplomatic collection or
chartulary, from which the student may derive his own materials. Of
the plain' of Babylon, our author says,* that in it are four canals de-
rived from the viver Tigris; being each one hundred feet in breadth,

■ Bcok 1st.

146

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[May,

and deep enough for barges laden with corn to sail therein ; they fall
into the Euphrates, and are distant from one another one parasang,
having bridges over them. With regard to the origin of these canals,
Arriaii differs from our author, as he says that the canals which ruu
from one to the other are derived from the Euphrates and fall into the
Tigris. — Strabo and I'liny oonlirm this, assigning as a reason for the
construction of the canals, that they are cut to receive and distribute
the increase of water arising from the melting of the spring snows.

Clearchusi' whilst in tlie same district on his retreat was nnich em-
barrassed by meeting with canals and ditches full of water. Clearchus
suspected that as this was not the season to water the country, that
the king had ordered the waters to be let out to impede tlie Greeks
on their march.

About a day's march from Babylon the Greeks made in two days a
march from Baljylon, eight parasangs and passed two canals, one u;>on
a bridge, the other upon seven pontoons. — Xenophon again says that
these canals were derived from the Tigris, .ind that from them ditches
were cut that ran into the country, the lirst broad, then narrower,
which at last ended in small water courses, such as were used in
Greece to water a kind of grain called panic.

To the history of these canals we shall be able to derive many con-
tributions when we come to the works of .Strabo, riiny, and Ammianus
Marcellinus. The boats of the Babylonians, as described by Herodotus,
■were peculiarly adapted fur the navigation of these canals. At pre-
sent the canals are choked up.

BRIPCtES. — PASSAGE OF RIVERS AND CANAL=

-PHTSCU3.

lu the course of the expedition and the retreat, the Greeks came to
manv broad rivers, which in general they passed by fording, or by
crossing on rafts: near Uabylon they were able to avail themselves of
the bridges of which they mention several. On one occasion coming
to the Tigris'.;: thev found the river \ery deep, when a Rhodian pro-
posed the following plan. "I shall want," said he, " two thousand
leather bags — I see here great numbers of sheep, goats, oxen, and
asses; if these are flayed, and their skins Wown, we may easily pass
the river with them. — 1 shall also \v»nt the girths belonging to the
sumpter horses : with these I will fasten the bags to one another, and
hanging stones to them, let them down into the water instead of an-
chors, then tie up the bags at both ends, and when they arc ujion the
water, lav fascines upon them, anil cover them with earth. Every
bag will bear up two men, anil the fascines and earth will prevent thera
from slipping." The generals considered this proposition ingenious,
but were afterwards enabled to get out of their dilliculties another way.

In the First Book bridges are mentioned over four canals near Baby-
lon, each a hundred feet long; in the Second Book we have a reference
to another; and in the same book we find it stated that over the river
Physcus, one hundred feet broad, a bridge was placed communicating
with a large and populous city called (Jpis. When Clearchus came
among the flooded canals, he passed them by temporary bridges made
of palm trees.

WALL OF MEDIA.

In the Second Book we have mention of the Wall of Media, which
was built with burned bricks laid in bitumen: being twenty feet in
thickness, one hundred feet in height, and as it was s.iid twenty para-
sangs in length, and not far from Babylon.

CITIES AND FORTS. — ^WALI-S, — LARISsA. — .MESPILA.

Larissa or Resen is described in the Third Book as a large unin-
habited city near the Tigris, anciently inhabited by the Medes, the
■walls of which were five-and-twenly feet in breadth, one hundred in
beigiit, and two parasangs in circuit ; all built w ith brick, except the
plinth, which was of stone, and twenty feet high. One day's march
fi-om thence the (ireeks came to a large uninhabited castle near a
town, called Mespila, formerlv inhabited also by the Medes. The
plinth of the wall was built of polished stone fuU of shells, being fifty
leet in breadth, and as many in height. Upon this stood a brick wall
fifty feet also in breadth, one hundred in height, and six parasangs in
circuit.

PYRAMID OF LARISSA.

Close to the city of Larissa, says Xenophon, stands a pyramid of
stone, one hundred foet square, and two hundred high, which seems to
have been hollow.

GREEKS.

The observations of Xenophon as to Greek engineering we extract
from his history of the affairs of Greece. In his Expedition of Cyrus

however he alludes to the mole of the harbour of Bvzantium, and to
his forcing the Ionian Greeks to repair the roads through their cities
preparatory to the march of his army.

(iUAREIES OF IH£ PIRiElTS.

The quarries of the Piraeus ("Book 1st,") were in Xenophon's time
wrought by Synicusan prisoners, who were confined there, and who
made their escape by digging themselves a passage through the rock.

CAPTIRE OF MAVriNEA.

Ill the course of the Peloponnesian war (Book 5th) Maiitinea was
captured by tlie .Spartans under Agesipolis. Besides the usual works
of digging a trench, and constructing a wall, he dammed up the river,
which was a large one, running through the city. The channel being
thus dammed up, the water swelled above the foundations of the houses
and of the (rity vialls. The lower brickwork (being probably of raw
bricks) was soon rotted by the wet, and shrank under the upper build-
ings, by whiidi means the city walls cracked, and afterwards were
ready to tumble. For some time they underpropped them with tim-
ber, and made use of al! their art to keep them from falling. The
Mantiuians ultimately consented to demolish their walls.

ERID&E or SELLA SIA.

A bridge is mentioned in the Sixth Book, at Sellasia leading to
Sparta, but no description is given of it.

DOCKS OF GYTHEUM.

The docks of the Spartans (Book Gtb,) were at Gytheuni.

PUBLIC INXS AT ATHENS — SHOPS, &C.

In his pamphlet on the revenue of Athens, Xenophon alludes to the
l)ublic inns for the use of strangers, he also recommends the builduog
of greater numbers of shops, warehouses and exchanges for common
retailers, relying upon it as a good means of revenue.

REPAIRIXG riBUC BUILDINGS BY CONTRACT.

Xenophon also in this pamphlet slightly alludes to the custom which
the (jreeks had of letting out the building and repair of their temples
to private undertakers also mentioned br^ Atheneeus and Herodotu=,
B. :., C. (i-2.

I L'O'jk 2nil.

Book 3rd.

DOCBLi: OFFSET PLOTTING SC.VLE.

T/ie SHrfr Medal was pivsented liji the Society of Arts to Mr. James G.
J'tslin, 30, Grafton Street, Gower Street, for his Offset Plotting Scale for

the use of Civil Engineers and Surreijors.

The Double Offset Plotting Scale consists of two perfectly parallel gradu-
ated scales, whose distance is equal to the length of the oft'set scale which
runs on rollers between them. The parallel scales and the offset scale are
graduated to suit t!ie views of the user. Tlie pieces connecting the ends of
the double scale are hollowed out to receive weights, armed with points to
enter the paper, which hold the instrument in its place, and prevent its bebig
shifted while in use ; and from the centre of each of these connecting pieces
jirojects an index ; the points of these indices and the zero of the offset scale
being always in the same straight line, which is, of course, the line from
which the offsets arc to be measured.

BRIDGE OF THE HOLY TPaNITY.

I\- coiislnicling the curve of the arches of the bridge of the Holy TrinitA',
according to the geometrical solution given in the last ninuherof the Joarual,
1 found the arcs Ell, HII, make an angle at II, in consetpiencc of the centres
CI not being in a right line with the point of intersection II. This fault
must have been overlooked by the author of the paper, and I take the liberty
of thus troubling thee in order that the error may he corrected. May I also
.ask what advantage an arch upon this construction woidd have over a semi-
elliptical one of the same versed sine (besides the simpUcity of striking ont
the curve) ?

I am, respectfully,

Ine.\j'ertvs LottrrsDi.

^'.atli, ith month, I2lh day, 1841.

1843.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

147

IRON STEAM VE.S.SELS,
BeiLT BY MessBS. Wm. Fairbairs, a>;d Co., of Millwall, Lon-oon.

Date.

Name.

No.

Tonnage.

Horse
Power.

Length
on Deck.

Beam.

Depth
of Hold.

Remarks.

I

ft. in.

ft. in.

ft. in.

1830

Lord Dundas,
Twin boat.

1

41

18

68 0

11 6

4 0

An experimental boat, built for the Forth and Clyde Canal Company,
with an engine on the locomotive principle, and light draught of water.

1331

2d Lord D\uidas

2

44

20

63 0

12 0

6 6

This is the first iron boat that ever went to sea, as she made the voyage

from Liverpool to Glasgow. She was built for the Forth and Clyde Canal

Company with paddle-wheels on the tpiarters, and was employed as a
coasting trader to Grangemouth, and the adjoining ports.

1831-2

Manchester

3

70

30

70 0

15 0

8 0

This was the second vessel that made a sea voyage ; she was out in a
severe gale in the month of February-, 1832, and behaved to the admiration
of all on board.

1832

Canal Boat

4

101

—

60 fr

6 0

4 0

1833

La Reine de
Beige

5

04

24

73 0

14 0

6 B

Built for a company at Bruges, and made the voyage from Liverpool to
Obtend, and is now employed on the Scheldt.

1833

Minerva

6

108

40

93 0

15 6

7 0

Built in sections for the Lake of Zorich in Switicrland, sent in parts
from Manchc-ter to Hull, and there reconstructed, and made the voyage
from Yarmouth to Rotterdam in 33 hours ; steamed up the Rhine to the
falls, and then taken to pieces, and cariied overland j and again recon-
structed on the banks of the Lake.

183-t

Railway

7

164

50

110 0

13 0

3 0

Two jiacket boats from Selhy to Hull, each drawing about 3ft. Sin.

1835

L'llirondelle

8

171

60

115 0

18 0

8 0

water. These boats liave been i>lving with great success for the last 5
years upon the Ilumber: are still perfect, and quite free from oxidation.

1836

Ludwig

9

176|f

40

120 0

17 0

3 0

Built for the Lake of Constance, and sent out in sections. She lias
proved a good and fast boat. This vessel was the first built at the new
premises at MiUwall.

1336

Little Dread-
nought

10

14

Built after the model of an East Indiaman's long boat, and has been ia
constarit service on the river, carrying iron and other goods, and heavy
castings, for 4 years, without having required the slightest repairs. On
one occasion she was between two heary ships in a tier when it broke
from its moorings, and the whole of the vessels swung across the river.
She was exposed without thwarts to the whole of the pressure consequent
on such an accident, but was not in the shghtcst degree injured.

1837

Sirius

11

am

70

175 0

17 1

7 10

Built for the Khone. The engines were high pressure, v^ith locomotive
tubular boilers. Her speed was 12 miles an hour, and sb.e drew, when
light, 2ft. 6in. She was very stable, and made the passage to Marseilles
partly under canvass. She was out in a very heavy gale in the Eay of
Biscay, and behaved well, and on her arrival at Marseilles, was as dry as
when she left the river Thames, not haling made the least water, or h-av-
ing sprung in the least degree.

1838

Ladoga

12

215U

SO

140 0

18 0

9 0

Swift and strong boat, used as a messenger packet by the Russian
Government. Draught of water 3ft. 8rn.

1838

Nevka

13

23114

70

150 3

18 0

9 G

Private yacht fur the imperial family of Russia. Fast, strong, and sub-
stantial, and fitted with very handsome and massive cabin fuinishings,
schooner-rigged, and remarkably fast under canvass. She proved herself
a good sea boat on hei passage across the North Sea, where she encoun-
tered some seveie gales, drawing 3ft. lOin. of water. For pai1icu!ars see
Weale's Appendix to Tredgohl, parts A and B, where all the details are
published.

1838

Prussian Eagle

14

lOOli

50

1

118 6

14 0

6 6

Built for the Upper Elbe, for the Royal Maritime Society of Berlin,
with a draught of water of 23 inches. In her passage across the North
Sea. she was carght in the gales of this year, and after laving Been out
for three days she was pooped, and was ultimately lost off the coast of
Ameland, having a lishing-smack iii corapany.

183»

Concordia

15

llSfi

36

112 3

15 0

8 3

Bnilt for the Upper Rhine, and sent out in sectious. She lias proved a
fast and good hoiit ; draught of WLterSft. Gin.

1339

T%vo steamers

16

334

80

125 0

24 0

9 0

BniU for the Honv East India Company for Bombay, and sent out in

and
1840

Foui' steamers

17

18 to.

334

80

125 0

24 0

9 Oand
5 0

sections.

Built for tlie Hon. East ludia Companv, and sent hi sectjojis to Cal-

21

cutta.

Four accommo-

22, to

dation, boats.

25

334

—

125 0

24 0

5 0

Built for the Hon. East India Company, and sent aa above.

1839

The SheU

26

111^4

30

102 6

15 3

4 0

Steam barge for the Thames up to Oxford, passing through the locks.
She has two paddle-wheels on the quarters, and goes fast with a cargo of
50 tons ou a draught of 3ft. Sin.

1839

Worouzow
Pradpriatie

271
28/

91iV

40

81 0

16 0

8 0

Built for the '■ Russian Government " for the Black Sea,for the purpose

-'^

of towiugi lightcis at the mouth of the rivers, ajid confined ia draught of

,

'

1

water to 3tt. 4iai. They proved themselves ou the passage out to he per-
fectly safe as sea boats.'though unable to beat to windward, and in the
Black Sea, they encountered tlifi vtrj- severe gales of November and De-
cember of this' vear. One of them was on shore, but was lightened, and
afterwards got off uninjured and proceeded, and on arriving at Sevastopol

1

got up steam, and towed a large Russian steamer into the harbour.

]18

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[May,

T, , ,- X- ' T Horse Length

Date. Naqie. No. Tonnage. „„„,.,„„ b

Power.; on Deck.

Beam.

Depth
of Hold.

Remarks.

1839

1840

1840

Dolphin

Ck)quette

Iron Duke

ft. in.
29 106^ 50 114 6

1840 Telegraph

1840 I Steamer
1840 Rose
Thistle

1840 i Steam dreilge

1840 i Steam ferry boat 37

30

163M 1 50

1840

1840
1841

1841

1841

Canal boat

Steam barge
Yarra Yarra

Juno

Barge

1841 Steamer

32

■2om

33
34-1
36/

38M
305ai

35

54

37-

25M

38

im

39
40

31H
93^

41

135|S

42

esM

43

254^

45

14
100

12

30

48 men

80

150 0
104 6

13G 0

81 0
153 6

65 0

66 6

65 0

"8 9
96 0

82 3
60 0

150 3

ft. in.
14 0

15 0

15 0

18 0

10 0
20 6

14 0

9 0

6 0

9 0
14 6

19 6

16 0

19 0

ft. in.
7 6

8 0

7 9

8 3

' 6 and

4 6

11 6

4 0

7 0 and

4 6

3 2

5 0

7 10

12 0

4 0

10 0

Ituilt for the " Royal Maritime Society " of Berlin for the Ipper Elbe,
Havel and Spree to lierlin. The dimensions were regulated bv some
locks and bridges. She is of a very full model to save draught of water,
which was limited to 2ft. 2in. She is partly used as a tug boat for tow-
ing the lighters of the country.

Fast and strong built. She is very stable, and her speed is fully equal
to 13 miles an hour. Her great length gives great accommodation for
tonnage, and if speed and accommodation are considered conjointly, the
residts are perhaps the best yet obtained by any vessel.

For the river at Deraerara, as a steam-barge to carry 40 hogsheads of
sugar, stowed in the holds, on a draught of 3ft. .'Jin. She carried this
cargo at a speed of 7 miles an hour, and made the passage across the At-
lantic in safety on this draught of water, being litted with lee-boards like
the Yorkshire billy buoys.

IJuilt for the Weser and adjoining coasts, and gives good results, being
a strong and substantial boat. The draught of water was confined to
2ft. Sin. She made the passage from Oravesend to Bremenhafen in 46
hours.

Built for one of the lakes in the north of Italy, and sent out in sections.

Built for Sydney in every respect as sea-going steamers of the first class.
They are built of a very fine model and are very fast. Their speed in the
river when light was proved to he 13 miles an hour. They earn- GO tons
of cargo on a draught of 7 feet of water.

Built for clearing out the Fossdyke Navigation with bucket frames to
work on either side, and deepen the sides of the canal. The draught of
water is 2ft. 3in., and she was towed round the coast of Lincolnshire, by
a steamer without injury in the month of January.

Built for Calcutta for the Hoogly, and sent out in sections, with oscil-
lating engines. The draught of water will not exceed 18 inches when
light.

Adapted for swift canal navigation by horses, at a speed of 1 0 miles an
hour.

Built for an experiineutal barge.

Built for Port Phillip, New South \VaIes, and sent out in sections all
complete.

Building for tlie trade between London and Hull. To he rigged as a
schooner.

Building for a floating fire-engine, and fitted with a pair of paddle-
wheels. The engines are worked by cranked handles by 48 men, and
anangement is made by which they can be thrown out of gear, and the
paddle-wheels can be connected and set in motion, that the barge maybe
easily removed to wherever it may be required.

Building for the Royal Danish Board of Admiralty, and intended cliiefly
for a private yacht for the Royal family of Denmark.

The extensive use of iron steam vessels makes any information upon the subject most valuable, and vpe tlierefore feel highly indebted to
Messrs. Fairbairn for their liberality in furnishing us with the preceding notes. Being engaged in this manufacture to such an extent, the
results of Messrs. Fairbairn's experience are valuable, and we trust tliat their example will enable us to obtain from otlier distinguished engineers
such materials as will form an important record of the progress of this branch of engineering and marine architecture.

THE BOARD OF TRADE AND THE RAILWAYS BILL.

DtRiXG the last month a good deal of time has been lost with the
Easter recess, so that the committee to wliom at Sir Robert Peel's
wish was referred the consideration of the powers as to railways to
be given to the Board of Trade was only able to meet in the beginning
of tne month, when for several days they were employed in hearing
witnesses for and against the plans of the Board of Trade. The evi-
dence of Mr. Brunei against tlie proposed interference is said to have
had great influence upon the committee, and seriously to have annoyed
Mr. Labouchere, but we regret to have heard it reported that a rail-
way engineer of great eminence had taken a very different course, and
had given his support in favour of the views of the Board of Trade,
and against the iirofession. We sincerely hope that there may have
been some mis-statement with regard to this latter circumstance! as we
think that such a course at (he present moment is likely to be of serious
prejudice to the welfare of the profession. On the motion of Lord
Granville Somerset a number of reports ami returns relative to rail-
ways have been published, which are quite confirraatorv of the worst
surmises as to the conduct and intention of the Boardi and its Com-
missioners. It is very true that much of the arrogance of the govern-
ment functionaries is directed against the companies and directors, but
it must not be supposed that they are the only parties threatened. On
the contrary, the military engineers (for suchWe regret to say all the
inspectors have been) give arbitrary opinions as to the use of blocks
or chairs, the form and weight of rails and chairs, the construction of
locomotives and carriages, the manufacture of axles and wheels, gra-
dients, embankments, mode of working, and whatever else they can

possibly interfere with. Nor is this all, for one of the party, with the
accustomed hankering for meddling with private property, proposes
to excise the locomotive engineers, as Major Pringle and his colleague
did the marine engineers. It is suggested that to ensure the manu-
facture of axles of proper materials, the engineers and the assistants
should at all times have access to every part of tlie works, and it needs
scarcelv to be presumed that this suggestion will be carried by the
same power being claimed for the government officers, powers which
it is known are useless as a protection, and useful only as an annoyance,
for if there be a disposition to act wrongly no inspection of this kind
avails, instances having occurred of fraudulent lails having been made
under the very eyes of engineers. In the same spirit recommenda-
tions were made that stations shoidd be shut up, and that locomotive
engines should be licensed, a recommendation, which though to short-
sighted men it may appear to the advantage of engineers is clearly
the reverse, for it is sure to follow that under such restrictions the
supply must be reduced.

The bill itself we have described, this appendix to if is a rich com-
mentary on its spirit, dictated by ignorance, it is pregnant with quack-
ery and oppression, and while its recommendations wouhi be inopera-
tive for any useful purpose, they would be abundantly ellective for
mischief, a delusion on the public'and an injury to the profession. In
the course of the last month all the railway companies have petitioned
against it, not one engineer. We have done our duty, we have called
— we call on the profession to petition and oppose, and we urge them
to lose no time. Let them read Colonel Thomson's report, and imagine
such a man as he excising their ollices and their workshops, and then
if they are not aroused, we do not imagine they ever will be.

1841.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT S JOURNAL.

149

CANDIDUS'S NOTE-BOOK.
FASCICULUS XXVI.

" I must have liberty
Withal, as large a charter as the winds,
To blow on whom I please."

I. It is consolatory to learn from the Licensers' imprimatur, that the
" Fabbriche e Disegni di Andrea Palladio" do not contain any thing
contrary to la Satila Fede Caltolica ! — they might as well have assured
us that Palladio was not the heathen divinity Pallas. Yet if the collec-
tion contain nothing against the holy Catholic faith, it contains much that
is calculated to stagger any reasonable man's faith in criticism, and to
shock his taste mortally, if he has any taste to be shocked at all. The
very best of Palladio's designs are but very mediocre indeed, and some
of them absolutely barbarous. His "PaUice of Reason" — as Mrs.
Cresy somewhat unreasonably calls it — is just execrable ; his Teatro
Olimpico, just damnable. And should it be said that this is mere
sweeping condemnation, amounting to nothing, I reply that it is quite
as good criticism as that in which the admirers of their incomparable
Andrea deal in. The onus prubaiidi lies with them; and if they are
utterly unable to point out any of those beauties, graces, and excellences
which they place so largely to the credit of their favourite, they have
centainly no right to censure their opponents for being not more ex-
plicit. Should it further be thought by some of my readers that I am
continually "harping upon" Palladio, "my excuse is that I feel it ne-
cessary to do so, as long as others continue to babble their praises of
him. When they choose to desist from their tedious iterations, I may
give over mine ; but I do not see why I should fling up the game, while
they continue it.

II. Though few will give me credit for blushing at any time, I fre-
quently do blush at the drivelling silliness one meets with in architec-
tural writers — the more than anile twaddling to which they are ad-
dicted, for even the most twaddling old woman would hardly utter such
stuff', unless, she happened to be disguised — in liquour. — -'Facendosi
addictro di sicolo in secolo," says one, " tracing back the art from age
to age, we discover it to be almost contemporaneous with the origin
of the human race." Wonderful discovery, truly ! But still the tailors
have in point of antiquity, superiority over architects, for Breeches-
making is indisputably the oldest art upon record. Surely those who
write such egregious balderdash must trust largely to the stultification
of their readers. Writers on the art culinary are by far a more sensi-
ble race, abstaining from such asinine absurdities in which architectural
ones are apt to indulge, and for which they ought to be made to bear
a fool's cap as their crest.

m. It certainly is amusing enough to observe how excessively lax
and licentious are some of those grave twaddling architectural puri-
tans who lay so much stress upon proportions, as if they were abso-
lutely articles of faith. People of that sort are absolutely scandalized
at the idea of any alteration in the shape of a base or capital, or of
making an entablature at all deeper or the contrary than usual ; yet
they are not the least shocked at seeing an entire ordinance thrown
out of proportion by disproportionably wide iutercohimns ; nor have
they any notion of regulating the entablature according to the distance
between column and column, notwithstanding that it is obvious that if
those intervals be unusually wide the entablature ought to be of lighter
proportions than is else given to the order; and vice versa. For this
reason, if for no other, the portico of the National Gallery ought to
have had a bolder and richer cornice, the intercolumniation being
pycnostyle, and consequently the supports numerous and the openings
between them narrow. For the same reason, the pediment might
very properly have been made deeper. Unfortunately, however, Wil-
kins was one of those people, who suffer themselves to be duped — or
rather, who dupe themselves by words and names. His building was
to be Greek — that was with him a sine qua non, to which other con-
siderations were to give way. A Roman entablature or cornice was
out of the question, not because it would not have harmonized with
the columns, but because it might have been called Roman, and there
might have been a sort of discord, not visible indeed, but nominal — of
course a most offensive one, for it is well known that people in general
judge of architecture as they do of pictures and of wines. Tell them
that a picture is by Raphael or Corregio, and though it be ever so
mediocre, they fall into raptures with it, at that word of command.
Call gooseberry wine by its proper name, and people turn up their
noses at it, yet dignify it by the style of champagne, and it becomes
delicious. Under the sanction of Inigo Jones or any other celebrated
body's name, the dullest design imaginable passes for a very fine thing,

where one a thousand times better by some nobody, would hardly be
looked at. — I was once equally anuised and enlightened at the expense
of an unfortunate critic who was a professed admirer — -I might say
venerator of Palladio. We were turning over a portfolio of loose
architectural prints and drawings, among which there happened to be
one or two to which I called his attention more particularly, at the
same time instancing several egregious sins in them against good
taste. After assenting to all my objections, he exclaimed " they are in-
deed very trumpery specimens of the Italian style: they have nothing
of the Sana architeclura — of the gracefulness and happy non so die of
the divine Palladio." — "The deuce they haven't! — why is it possible
that you do not recognize them as the production of your divine Palla-
dio himself?" — He looked — what shall I say, aghast? — no he looked
as if he was actually going to jump down his own throat." The next

time I saw him I said — " and the divine Palladio ," on which he

cut me short by crying out, with no lack of emphasis — "Palladio be
damned 1"

IV. For graphic power — for consummate mastery in the art of de-
picting to the eye by means of the pen alone the loveliest scenery,
and conjuring up the most enchanting prospects — the most fascinating
visions, — I hold George Robins to be the greatest genius this or any
country has ever produced. Some of his advertisements are perfect
cabinet pictures, finished up with unrivalled delicacy and grace, and
replete with such felicity of imagination that every object — no matter
what it may be in itself, is transmuted into beauty by the potent
alchemy of his pen. As viewed through the medium of his poetic
imagination, a snug suburban tenement with an acre of domain attached
to it, becomes — I will not say "un pezzo di cielo," nor an absolute
paradise, nor a lot frour the Elysian Fields, — but certainly a fragment
of Arcadia, a pastoral landscape fit for a scene in an opera — a fairy-
land encompassed by the hedge that fences it out from ordinary, every-
day nature — from the mere fields, the green grass and green trees, that
may be seen anywhere else. From my soul I pity the dull creatures
who can see nothing more in the great G. R.'s effusions than a mere
auctioneer's advertisement; and I also pity those who toss from them
the half sheet of the Times, exclaiming i n a tone of disappointment,
it is nothing but advertisements, when advertisements are in fact the
very essence of a newspaper, and the rest but mere flummery and fill-
ing-up stuff', a farrago of twaddle political, fashionable, &c., dressed up
in blustering phrases.

V. " I have seen Abbotsford," says T. H. C, the clever author of
"A Descriptive Tour in Scotland,"— " and I hardly know whether I
do not regret that I have done so. It is not the Abbotsford of my
imagination, nor of the author's description. Where is the 'romance
in lime and stone'? — Dwindled to a mere story. In the exterior of
the dwelling there is no congruity, no massive nobleness. In the in-
terior there is no space for ghosts to play at hide-and-seek. If there
be a few odd holes and corners, they appear rather like small remnants
of a scanty cloth that has been cut into a thrifty garment, than the
' ample room and verge enough' of true antiquity. Nothing is on a
great scale. Ichabod — the glory is departed. In this as in other in-
stances, exaggerating describers have much to answer for." — Mark you
that, my dear George Robins ! — " At their hands one demands an ac-
count of one's demolished hopes and scattered visions." If so, a good,
many dealers in description will have an awfully long and heavy score
to settle with their readers. The best way for them to do so, would
be to bring in a. per contra account for so many manufactured visions
of grandeur and beauty — not a trace of which is to be discovered in
the objects themselves.

VI. A most outrageous sort of delicacy is aft'ected by writers upon
architecture who generally evade speaking of contemporary buildings,
under the pretence of its being invidious to make any comments on the
works of living architects. Such excuse is most flimsy: or if there
be any thing in it at all, gross indeed must be the indelicacy of literary
critics and reviewers who make the publications and writers of the
day the subject of their comments, without the slightest sort of scruple
or ceremony, and frequently w-ith the greatest imaginable freedom.
The excuse itself moreover, is not particularly complimentary to the
living, inasmuch as it almost amounts to the declaration that silence
on the part of criticism can alone save them and their works from the
censures that honestly expressed opinion would inflict upon them. In
itself, however, such silence is, I have no doubt, exceedingly convenient,
for I suspect that those who avail themselves of it, have seldom any
opinion of their own to express, but generally serve up to their readers
second-hand criticism, got out of books.

150

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[Mat,

A KEW SIGNAL LIGHT FOR RAILWAYS.

By Alan Steveksox, LL.B., Civil Engineer, Edinburgh.

(Riadht/ure ih Socit/ij vf Aits for Scotland, ■22vd Ftiniaii/, 1&4J.J

The numerous accidents, attended with fatal consequences, which
have lately occurred on railways, have excited much alarm in the
public mind, iind the prevention of these casualties is unquestionably
a matter of great importance. The object of this communication is,
to point out one source of danger to which several of the late acci-
dents may be attributed, and to suggest the means of its removal ;
and from the personal inter<»st which all must have in the improve-
ment of railway travelling, both as regards its speed, and, what is of
much greater importance, its safety, 1 venture to hope that the follow-
ing observations, although limited to one part of the subject, will not
be found to have been unsuitably addressed to a society whose pro-
vince it is to improve the useful arts.

One of the most imperfect parts of the railway system is undoubt-
edly the uncertainty of the night signals, and to tliis it is well known
many of the most fatal of the accidents which have occurred must be
traced. The great object of these signal lights is, to announce that
the train has reached a certain \>umt of its course, and to forewarn the
engineman of his approach to a station, or the junction of a branch
railway, so that the sjieed of the engine may be checked in proper
time tc prevent collision. The lights used for this purpose are gene-
rally exhibited at the jjlace the a|j|iroach to which they are intended
to announce : but the distance at which light projected horizontally,
may be seen by a person approaching in the line of its transmission is
very variable according to the state of the atmosphere, which in our
climate is subject to great and sudden changes, in regard to clearness
and fog. These variations in the visibility of lights of extensive
range are by no means confined within narrow limits, as experience
too amply demonstrates in the case of lighthouses, whose range has
been known to vary with the state of the atmosphere, from sixty miles
down to two or three miles ; and this evil is unhappily one of those
which, in the present state of chemical and optical science, must, we
fear, be pronounced irremediable. This defect, great as it is in regard
to lighthouses, is, in the case of railways, materially aggravated by
the excessive velocity of railway travelling. Any variation in the
distance at which a signal light is first seen, must lead to great mis-
conceptions as to the time of reaching a station, and all such miscon-
ceptions arc fraught vvitb the worst consequences, owing to the nume-
rous sources of danger from the crossings of branch lines, the meeting
of carriages on the rails, or the occurrence of other accidents, which
may render a railway impassable. It is therefore obviously indis-
pensable to safety that the signal-lights should be so constructed, that
in all states of the weather they shall be constantly visible at the same
point, and that this point shall be sufficiently distant from the station,
the approach to which the signal is intended to announce, so as to
allow ample time for checking the engine's speed before coming up
to it ; and upon no other grounds can the confidence of the public as
to their security be reasonably based.

In the month of December last, it occurred to me in the course of
conversation with my friend Mr. Errington, civil engineer, that although
the variation in the visibility of lights of distant range must, according
to our present knowledge, be regarded as an evil without remedy, it
might still be possible, by means of some arrangement of the lights,
to render signals for railicaijs cvjinlanlhj risible at the same 2joint during
tvtry state oj the atmosphere. For this juirpose, all that seems to be
necessary is, to limit the range of the lights, and at the same time to
increase their intensity in such a manner that the combination of a
short range with great power may not merely render them capable of
penetrating any tog however dense, but of producing, at a certain
point, an eli'ect so brilliant and striking as forcibly to arrest the en-
gineman's attention. After considering the matter in various points
of view, I came to the conclusion that the object could be best attained
by placing the light considerably in advance of the station, the approach
to which it is intended to announce, and by giving the beam such an
inclination to the horizon, that its greatest power may fall upon the
esgineman's face, at so short a distance from the light itself, that it
could not fail to be always visible at that point, even in the thickest
fog.

According to the present practice, a comparatively feeble light is
exhibited at the station whose position it is intended to point out, and
this light, which is permitted to pierce the gloom until its power is
greatly diluted by tlie united etVects of its own divergence, and the
length of its jiassage through a foggy medium, must necessarily be
subject to constant variation of visibility with every change of the
atmosphere. The change which I have to suggest, is to place a light

of great power about a mile in advance of the station, and at the same
time to limit its range by the depression of the resultant beam within
such a distance as to ensure its being visible at all times.

The arrangement I would propose for the attainment of this object
is remarkably simple, and consists in placing one of Fresnel's annular
lenses, illuminated by a gas or oil burner, as may be most convenient,
in a small chamber, glazed in front, and supported on a stage of car-
pentry of sufficient size to span the rails, and permit the train to pass
under it : but the purpose might perhaps be equally well served by
placing the stage at the side of the railway, and inclining the beam
obliquely to the line. In order to limit the range of the lens to a short
distance, and thereby to ensure the light being visible in all states of
the weather at the same point, I would incline the instrument, so that
the length of the trajectory from the lens to the oljserver's eye should
not exceed about 7uo feet, which f dis far short of the distance at
which the light of the lens would be obscured even in the thickest fog.
I may remark that the inclination of the lens is too small to require
any correction in the position of the flame; but this could be easily
accomplished if necessary, more especially when gas is employed.
In curved lines of raihvay the same effect might in certain cases be
produced by placing the lens on a level with the observer's eye, and
directing the refracted beam so ixs to cut the railway obliquely. In
this case the limitation of range would be produced without the ne-
cessity of inclining the lens ; but the principle of rendering the signal
at all times effective, by combining a short range and a powerful light,
is the same in both arrangements.

The advantage of this arrangement I conceive to be great, for not
only would the light be at all times visible to the engineman on his
arrival at the same point which, as already mentioned, is really the
great object of signal lights; but it is obvious that his attention would
be most etfectually awakened by the contrast of suddenly passing from
darkness to receive the full effect of a powerful light viewed from a
short distance. One other advantage of the proposed signal light, I
must observe, lies in its being peculiarly susceptible of any modi-
fication of colour, whether of a temporary or permanent kind, which
the numerous and growing wants of an extended railway system may
require. The alphabet of nocturnal telegraphy, wherever a distant
range is required, is unhappily extremely scanty ; for the practice of
all Europe seems to have shown that, so far as colour is concerned,
red and lohtle are its aljjha and omega ; green and blue have been
frequently tried; but cautious inquirers have all agreed in pronouncing
them so equivocal when viewed from a distance, that they have been
almost universally abandoned. These colours, however, and even
much less marked varieties, although useless as distinctions for lights
of distant range, are perfectly effective when viewed from short dis-
tances, as the brilliant display of an apothecary's window sufficiently
proves.

I shall no%v add a very few words regarding what appears to me
to be the chief arrangements which may, in practice, be found neces-
sary for signal-lights on these principles; but I would not be under-
stood as attempting to fix any thing permanently, for I am well aware
that various modifications may be suggested by experiment, which I
do not at present foresee in their full extent; in particular, it seems
probable that the range of visibility which I have adopted in the fol-
lowing view of the details, falls short of what will be found quite suffi-
cient in practice even during the thickest fog.s, when a light so power-
ful as that which may be derived from Fresnel's lens is brought into
play ; and should this expectation be realized, the duration of the
effect of the light, which depends on the range, might be increased
beyond what I have ventured to state.

Referring to the above sketch, I would propose that the lens at L
should be elevated 24 feet above the rails R R, or about 15 feet above

1841.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

151

as is consistent with a full RtTect from a flame placed in its principal
focus. A more remote observer would receive the rays diluted by
distance; while a nearer approach of the eye to the lens would render
it necessary to adopt an ex-focal arrangement, so as to cause conver-
gence of the rays. By the latter arrangement their divergence would
be decreased, and the space covered by the light would be lessened
not only in proportion to tlie decrease of divergence, but also to that
of the cosine of the beam's inclination to the horizon. Both these
circumstances would therefore combine to curtail the duration of the
impression on the eye.

It may naturally be expected that I should say something regarding
the duration of the impulse of the light on the eye; and upon this
topic I shall, in absence of actual experiment, content myself with
stating briefly the result of my calculations. If we suppose that an
effective divergence of only 2° were to be obtained (and this is just
one third of what is obtained from Fresnel's lens with the great lamp),
I find that the light would spread itself along the horizon of the ob-
server's eye between B and C to the distance of about IDOO yards,
which, at the speed of 40 miles an hour, would be passed over in about
50 seconds, but at the ordinary railway speed of 25 miles an hour,
about 80 seconds or li minute, would be required. Such a flash of
light falling upon the polished parts of the engine, and upon the ob-
server's face, would undoubtedly act as a most effective signal. If,
however, it should be thought advisable to increase the duration of
the impression by spreading it over a greater length of the line, this
effect could be easily produced by a slight alteration of the inclination
of the lens, so as to cause the line of railway to cut the refracted beam
more obliquely; but I by no means expect thut any such modification
would be found necessary in practice. The nearness of the eye to the
lens, and the brilliancy of the flash, would, I am inclined to think, more
than compensate for the shortness of the impression.

I must add a few words regarding the expense of these signals,
which would be made up of the cost of erecting the scaffold of car-
pentry, the price of the lens, and the maintenance of the light. The
price of the stage I shall pass over as a matter which may vary ac-
cording to the circumstances of the situation and the taste of indi-
viduals; but the cost of the great annular lens does not exceed 40/. ;
and if a smaller sized lens, which I think would be found quite suflS-
cient for the purpose, were employed, the expense would not be more
than \0L The annual maintenance would consist of little more than
the supply of a gas or an oil burner. The consideration of the ex-
pense, therefore, of maintaining such a system of signals at the neces-
sary intervals on railways, is not for a moment to be set against the
most remote risk of the least of all the numerous accidents, the records
of which fill the public prints.

OBSERVATIONS ON THE MOTIONS OF SfflNGLE BEACHES.

By Henry R. Palmer, Esq., F.R.S.*

From the Philosophical Trajisactions of the Royal Society .• — read
Aprtl 10, 1634.

The extraordinary prevalence of tempestuous weather during the
last autumn having occasioned numerous disasters on our coast, the
public attention was directed in an unusual degree to the imperfections
of many of the harbours, and more particularly to those which are
encumbered with accumulations of shingle. The access to harbours
thus circumstanced is generally uncertain, and in tempestuous weather
is frequently dangerous, or even impossible.

The action of tlie sea, which gives motion to the shingles and pro-
duces the evils complained of, has long been a subject of speculation ;
but I have not found that it has been systematically investigated.
Indeed, the contrariety of opinions advanced upon the subject, suffi-
ciently indicates an entire absence of that satisfactory mode of inquiry
which is essential to the foundation of a safe and practical deduction.

Very little has been written upon the subject; and such facts as
have been mentioned have only been referred to incidentally, or with
a view to geological science. My present object is exclusively prac-
tical in its nature, and my observatioixs have been limited to such facts
as would assist in establishing certain and fixed rules for controlling
the motions of the beach, so far as to enable us to preserve a clear
channel through it in all seasons, and in every variety of weather; and
to accumulate and preserve the shingles, where it is needful to do so.

The subject at first sight appears greatly complicated; and were it

' The construction of harbours, piers, and break-Haters is likely to become
ol considerable importance to tlie engineering prolession ; we therelbre pro-
pose to collect for puUication in the Journal, iuch papers as have been
wriltenjon the subject.

adheres; and therefore the following observations must be considered
as restricted only to certain general principles, subject to a variety of
modifications.

The principles which I propose to illustrate vfill (under similar cir-
cumstances) at all times exhibit the same phenomena, but for the sake
of perspicuity I shall now only refer to the coasts of Kent and Sussex.

Sectio.v 1.

That the pebbles which compose the shingle beaches on these
coasts are kept in continual motion by the action of the sea, and that
their ultimate progress is in an easterly direction, are facts long known
and commonly observed. The following observations are chiefly di-
rected to the particular manner in which the motions are produced.

From a general view of the effects that I have noticed, it appears
that the actions of the sea upon the loose pebbles are of three kinds:
the first heaps up, or accumulates the pebbles against the shore ; the
second disturbs, or breaks down the accumulations previously made ;
and the third removes, or carries forward the pebbles in a horizontal
direction.

For convenience I propose to distinguish these by the following
terms, viz. the first, the accumulative action ; the second, the destruc-
tive action ; the third, the progressive action.

All the consequences resulting from these various actions are ex-
clusively referable to two causes. The one is to the current, or the
motion of the general body of the water in the ebbing and flowing of
the tides; the other to the waves, or that undulating motion given to
the water by the action of the winds upon it ; and it is of considerable
importance to the present inquiry that the effects resulting from each
specific cause be separately considered.

The motion of the shingles along the shore is commonly attributed
to the currents, the action of the waves being considered only as a
disturbing force. That such a notion is erroneous will, I apprehend,
presently appear; although I have to regret that I have not had the
opportunity of obtaining such satisfactory information relating to the
velocities of the currents in the channel, as would have enabled me to
include every form of argument upon the subject. The absence of
such information has also prevented me from deciding satisfactorily
as to the sources from whence the whole body of shingle is derived,
which, although not necessary for the practical purposes I have in
view, would have given more interest to the subject, and would have
rendered the elucidation more complete. I must, therefore, for the
present, be content to pursue the motions of the beach after it is found
lying along or near the shore; observing only that the materials of
which it is composed are those of the various strata in the vicinity of
the coasts, together with the ordinary sea sand, and such small parti-
cles as may hare been brought to the shore by the floods of the various
rivers.

That the current is not the force which moves the pebbles along the
coast, will appear from the following reasons:

1st. If it were so, the direction of the motion of the pebbles would
be determined by that of the currents; but while the direction of the
currents will vary with the changes of the tides, we find that the di-
rection of the pebbles may remain unaltered; and also that the motion
of the pebbles is continued where no current exists.

2nd. Although the velocities of the currents may not have been
ascertained with precision, yet it is known that the velocities generally
along this coast, which can possibly act on the shingles, are not suffi-
cient to give motipn to pebbles of every dimension, which are in fact
carried forward.

3rd. The motion of a current will not produce that order in which
the pebbles are found to lie, which order (as will be hereafter shown)
may easily be distinguished as the effect of the motion of the waves
only.

The direction of the waves is determined principally by the wind,
the prevailing direction of which on the coasts referred to is from the
westward. Every breaker is seen to drive before it the loose materials
which it meets ; these are thrown up the inclined plane on which they
rest, and in a direction corresponding generally with that of the
breaker. In all cases we observe that the finer particles descend the
whole distance with the returning breaker, unless accidentally de-
posited in some interstices ; but we perceive that the larger pebbles
return only a part of the distance ; and upon further inspection we
find that the distance to which each pebble returns bears some relation
to its dimensions. This process is an indication of the accumulative
action.

But under some circumstances, depending on the wind, it is found
the level of the engineman's eyes ; and that the point where the cen-
tre of the beam would intersect the horizon, A C, of his vision at E,
should be about 700 feet from the lens. The impulse of the light
would be most advantageously received at some point as near the lens

X 2

152

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[May^

necessary to discuss minutely all the itioditications arising from the
variety of forms and local circumstances, it would perhaps be too
much so for general description. I have, however, limited my inves-
tigation to those simple and unvarying laws to which nature alwavs
that pebbles of every dimension return with the breakers that forced
them up the plane, and that these are accompanied also by others,
which had been previously deposited, but wliicfi are in such cases dis-
turbed by the waves; and by a continued repetition of the breakers
acting in this manner, the whole of the shingle previously accumulated
is immersed below the surface of the water. This process is an indi-
cation of the destructive action.

The particulars of the accumulative action, combined Kith thai of
progression, are explained aa follows. (Fig. 1.)

Fig. 1.

•*

LetABCDbean inclined plane, representing that on which the
loose pebbles move. Suppose the wind to blow in such a direction
as to cause a wave to strike a pebble at A, in the direction of A a,
and to the distance (a) up the plane, that point being the extent to
which the force can reach. Now here the wave breaks partly into
spray, and is dispersed in all directions : is partly absorbed, and de-
scends in a shallow form, which rapidly diminishes in its depth, so
that the pebble is soon left exposed, and therefore does not return the
whole distance with the water, but is left at rest at {a'), being at a
higher level than that from whence its motion commenced.

With the rise of the tide the striking force is also elevated ; and
by the repetition of the operation described through the different
heights in succession, the further motion of the pebble will be repre-
sented by a' b' b' b', &c., the distance in each step of its descent being
something less than in that of its ascent, until it has reached the sum-
mit (■/) determined by the height of the tide. Now if we suppose a
pebble of less dimensions than the former to be struck from the same
point, we shall find it raised as before ; but because its surface is
greater in proportion to its weight, and because from its less bulk it
remains longer immersed in the declining wave, it will descend further,
and follow tlie line (a g, &c.), and will not be left at rest till it has
reached (o).

If, then, we suppose a pebble whose dimensions are less than either
of the former, it will be evident that the point at which that will arrive
on the highest level will be more distant still ; hence it follows that
the distance travelled horizontally by the pebbles during a tide will be
in some proportion to their bulk, the specific gravities being the
same.

(The pebbles do not in reality move in straight lines, but in a suc-
cession of curves; the straight lines are assumed here, and in other
parts of this paper, to simplify the description.)

I trust it is only necessary to remark, that if the wind continue to
blow in the same direction during the ebbing of the tide as through
the flowing of it, the direction in which the waves will strike the
shore will be nearly the same, and the progress of the pebbles will be
urged by a similar action, and therefore their direction will also be the
same.

In this action we observe a constant tendency to heap up and accu-
mulate the shingles: and it is an interesting fact, that when the action
has continued equally through a tide, the jiebbles are left in regular
order, according '.o Iheir dimensions, the largest being uppermost, and
the smallest at the bottom of the plane. I do not mean to state that
all the largest are at the top, or that all the smallest are at the bottom,
for it is evident that some of every size will be found at every level ;
but that if an equal measure (say half a peck) be taken from the diffe-
rent levels, the average of each specimen will exhibit in regular order
the various dimensions.

The order in which the pebbles are thus found is,then, that by

which the effect of the waves is distinguished from that of a current,
the effect of the latter consisting only in its influence on the direction
of the impinging and recoiling motions of the waves, by which the
motion of the beach may in a small degree be accelerated or retarded.
Section 2.

In the illustration of that action of the sea which breaks down and
removes an accumulation, f propose referring to my observations in
the order in which they were made. My attention was first directed
to this part of the subject in the neighbourhood of Sandgate in Octo-
ber last.

The accumulative action had been continued for a considerable time.
The numerous groins erected near Folkstone to impede the progress
of the beach, for the protection of the cliffs, had collected a bank of
pebbles, which in some parts was five feet in height. The wind had
so much abated as to be scarcely perceptible, but the sea had a motion
denominated a ground sivell.

The waves approached the shore nearly at right angles with it; but
although in rapid succession, their forces were very moderate. These
circumstances continued through five tides, by which time nearly the
whole of the loose shingle had disappeared, including all that had been
collected by the groins at Folkstone. The water being particularly
clear, I was enabled to perceive distinctly the action upon the pebbles,
and their motion downwards. I observed, that although everj' wave
became broken and dispersed as usual, yet they followed in such rapid
succession, that each wave rode over its predecessor while on its re-
turn, and thus produced a continual downward current, which carried
with it the pebbles that were disturbed. That the pebbles were not
removed far from the line of low water, would appear from the fact,
that on the subsiding of the swell, it being succeeded by a light breeze
of wind from the westward, the accumulation immediately commenced,
and was restored to its former quantity by the action of four tides. I
have subsequently had some favourable opportunities for making other
observations on the effects produced by different rates of succession of
the waves, and particularly at Dover, during the late gales, where the
same actions were noticed. There I watched for an opportunity of
witnessing that rate of succession which exhibited the destructive and
accumulative actions in their smallest degrees ; and I observed, that
when ten breakers arrived in one minute, the destructive action was
but just evinced ; and that when only eight breakers arrived in the
same period, the pebbles began to accumulate ; which facts harmonized
with my observations made at Sandgate and Folkstone, \'\z. that the
difftfcnce between the two actions was determined by the rapidity in sue-
cession of the waves upon the shores.

In the description of the accumulative action, I have assumed the
forces to be directed obliquely with the line of coast, and have there-
fore necessarily included the progressive motion : but it remains to be
explained in what manner the shingles are carried forward while the
destructive action is going on.

It is known that the action and re-action of the waves give to the
whole body of the water, within a certain distance from the shore, an
undulating motion. The direction of this motion, when approaching
the shore, will, to a certain degree, correspond with that of the waves
upon the surface, and the direction of the recoil will also be affected
in like manner; therefore the pebbles that have been carried down by
the destructive action are moved forward through an angular course
beneath the water, until, by the excess of the impinging forces over
those of the recoil, they are again raised by the action of the water,
and deposited where the destructive action has ceased, or where, from
local circumstances, it cannot occur. The circumstances which are
most unfavourable to the destructive action are those which least ad-
rait of the constant downward vmder-current, — an inlet, or narrow arm
of the sea, for example. If we suppose a wave rolling through the
mouth of an inlet, carrying with it a charge of shingles, it does not
break as upon an inclined plane, but is dispersed in the general body
of the water, which is comparatively quiescent ; and there being no
returning force, the shingle becomes deposited, and a bank is formed :
and although the destructive process would act upon that bank if it
could attain a certain height, yet the attainment of that height is pre-
vented by the waves passing "over it, and carrying with them, in suc-
cession, the shingles with which they are charged.

Section 3.
In fig. 2 is represented a section of the beach formed along the out-
side of Folkstone Harbour.' This section was taken with great accu-
racy, after the ground swell before referred to had removed most of
the' loose pebbles from it; so that the section may be considered as
representing the plane upon which the progressive motion of the peb-
bles is carried on. Its slope is in the proportion of 1 to 9, nearly, and
(with the exception of that part near the summit where there remained

1841.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL

15 3

Fia. 2.

T

30 30 '0 SO

a bank of pebbles beyond the reach of the previous tules,) the surface
of the pUine corresponds very nearly with a straight line, which, con-
sidering that it is a natural formation, is a fact worthy of notice.

I think this plane may be considered as representing the average
dimensions and inclinations of the surfaces over which the beach tra-
vels along this coast, and I have therefore generally assumed such an
one for the present purposes. Upon such an inclination, the loose
pebbles are in contact with each other; and although their depth upon
the plane is constantly varying, yet, for the sake of conveying a gene-
ral idea, we may assume tlie average to be about six inches, extending
between hich and low-wafer mark*. Wlien, however, the plane is
less inclined, the same quantity of beach is spread over a larger surface,
and its depth is diminished ; and the pebbles are in some places so far
separated as to exhibit the appearance of a diminished quantity. In
fig. 3, this is illustrated geometrically:

Fis. S.

Let A B represent a plane on which all the pebbles are in contact,
C B a plane considerably more inclined. If, from the centre of each
pebble on the plane A B, a horizontal line be drawn to the plane C B,
the position of the pebbles on the latter will be respectively at the
various points of intersection.

Section -1.

There are numerous points on the coast at which the line of beach
is apparently intercepted and its continuity destroyed, and the rock
washed bare. Having sufficient evidence that the motion of the beach
was continuous, I thought it important to ascertain in what manner the
pebbles escaped past those places, and was happy in finding, upon in-
vestigation, that a valuable deduction could be made.

In the description of the accumulative action, it was remarked that
the waves having struck the pebbles upwards, became dispersed, and
were incapable of returning them to the level from which they were
forced. But I now observed, that the surface of the rock, being very
irregular, constituted numerous channels ; so that the waves, instead
of returning in a dispersed and weakened form, moved back in columns,
which were of sufficient power to return every pebble that liad been
thrown up ; and as these channels offered no impediment to the angular
progressive motion of the pebbles, it was more rapid than on the ordi-
nary plane surface. Here, then, was pointed out hy nature a principle
on which the shingles might be hastened forward, and their accumula-
tion about any particular place prevented ; and by simply reversing
that principle, a method of accumulating or retaining the shingles,
where they are wanted, is also suggested, viz. by the reduction of the
descending force of the breakers.

The etFect of confining the retiring breakers to a column is also ex-
emplified in another manner, when the waves are driven directly upon
the beach by a moderate wind, or such as would produce the accumu-
lative action. A succession of waves, acting over the same lines of
the beach, soon forms a slight depression, which continues increasing
until it becomes a definite channel. The whole line of beach being
thus acted upon, it assumes the form of a series of banks parallel with
each other. The waves do not then recoil in a dispersed form, but,
having broken, are again collected and returned through the channels,
and remove all loose matter from them. While in this state, the
beach has no progressive motion, but continues (to use a military termj
"marking time," until, from the change of wind, an oblique direction
is given to the motion of the waves.

Section 5.

The progressive motion of the beach may be easily traced along
the coast as far as the bay called Sandwich Flats. The general
character of the motion during its progress is that which is most fa-
vourable, under everv circumstance, to the chances of becoming securely
deposited. Every part of the coast is attempted by every variety of
motion in its turn, until a place of final security is discovered.

The locality of Romney Marsh appears to liave afforded the sought-
for shelter, and now exhibits an extraordinary example of the accumu-
lation, which, having been combined with sand, silt, and vegetable soil
derived from other sources, has long been considered an acquisition to
our surface of considerable value.

Although this tract has continued increasing to the present day, yet
a great quantity of the beach travels past it, and we do not find any
other accumulation of much extent between that and Sandwich Flats,
beyond which there is no further trace of the shingle which we have
so far followed, the pebbles to the northward of these flats being evi-
dently those derived from the cliff's near about them.

On the approach of the shingle to the Sandwich Flats, it becomes
gradually dispersed, owing to the increasing inclination of the plane,
until it seems to disappear. A considerable extent of these flats has
attained a height very little inferior to that of the high-water mark
of spring tides; and it is so nearly horizontal, that the water does not
partake of that undulating motion upon it which has before been ad-
verted to.

On the Sandwich Flats there is a continual deposit of soil and silt,
bro\ight there from the interior of the country by the river Stour, and
which, after its exposure to salt water, is particularly suitable for per-
manently uniting all the coarser or larger fragments with which it may
become intermixed. So much of the materials which have composed
the beach as may be conveyed to the higher parts of tti3se flats are
not likely to be again disturbed, because many days may intervene
before another tide may reach them ; and they thus become united to
the surface on which they rest, and gradually contribute to its height.

The greatest motion of the pebbles being where they are exposed
to the action of the greatest number of waves, we must look to the
lower levels of these flats to trace the further course of the greater
portion of the shingle. But even the slope of the surface of the lower
levels is so very gradual, that the undulating motion of the water is
]3roportionally diminished ; the action of the water then becomes greatest
in the direction of the land. While, then, we bear in mind the nature
of the soil over which it acts, we find an almost insurmountable im-
pediment to the further progress of the shingle, and are enabled to
account for the rapid extension of the Sandwich Flats towards the sea,
which, in fact, is only the continuation of that process which has been
for ages in operation, and which has formed a large portion of those
extensive marshes between the Isle of Thanet and the main land of
Kent.

Sectijx 6.

Having described those chief principles which regulate the motion
of the shingles on this coast, and having traced their progress to a
final destiny, I shall now proceed with some further general remarks
referring to the application of the foregoing observations.

So much effect has been attributed to the motion of the tidal cur-
rents, that vast sums have been expended in attempts to divert the
motion of the shingles to a distance from the general line of the shore,
from whence, by the increased depth and velocity of the current, it
has been expected they would be carried past a particular spot, through
which a permanently open channel has been required. Such attempts
liave been made at various periods during upwards of two centuries
at Dover, and more recently at Folkstoue in the same neighbourhood.
It is hardly necessary to observe, that such attempts have not been
successful, and from the principles which I have laid down, their failure
may be easily accounted for.

if a wall or pier be extended from the shore into the sea, it is evi-
dent that such erection w-ill in the first instance impede and prevent
the progressive motion. It is also evident, that the progressive is not
necessarily combined with the accumulative action, but, on the con-
trary, where the former is impeded the latter is assisted. The accu-
mulative action, therefore, continues until the angle formed by the pier
and the line of the shore is occupied, and the pier being no longer an
impediment to the progressive motion, that motion is again restored,,
and the general mass proceeds as if no impediment had existed.

The most perspicuous evidence of these results is exemplified at
the harbour of Folkstone. Previously to the commencement of this
exclusively artificial work, the beach travelled along the line of clift"
in the ordinary way.

By extending the walls a sufficient distance into the sea, it was ex-
pected that a commodious harbour would be formed, and the shingles
diverted so far into deep water, that they could not again appear
above the surface until they were removed beyond the harbour's
mouth.

The accumulation, however, immediately commenced, and continued
as the work advanced until it became apparent that no other eftect was
produced upon it than a comparatively slight change of direction.

154

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[May,

The entrance of ttie harbour being much encumbered with shingle, an
additional )>ier or jetty was erected, and extended about two hundred
feet further into the sea without having approached the effect intend-
ed. It is true that some advantage was derived from the extended
pier, by incre;ising the distance between the most violent action of the
breakers and the still water of the harbour. The shingles, therefore,
pass the mouth in a more dispersed form than they originally did, and
hence they do not so readily form a barrier, neither does its perpendi-
cular height become so great.

Much valuable information on this part of the subject is recorded in
Lyon's History of Dover, which, as it may at any time be consulted,
is not repeated here. I shall only remark, that from the succession
of experiments made at that place, the general result has been in a
considerable acquisition of new land, which, although valuable in it-
self, is not the object intended to be obtained.

If, then, it be admitted that projecting piers will not prevent the
encumbrance about the mouth of a harbour, situated as those referred
to in the tract of the restless beach, it remains to be seen how far such
works may be otherwise injurious.

While the accumulative action is going on, every abrupt projection
from the coast i^ an im|)e(linient to the progressive motion of the
beach until its angle is tilled np. Such abrupt projections offer no
protection against the destructive ac'ion; when, therefore, by the in-
crease of wind, the action of the st-a becomes violent, an accumulation
previously caused by a projecting jier is rapidly removed, and again
is rapidiv deposited where it is not resisted. And there is perhaps
no combination of circumstances less capable of resisting, or more
favourable to the deposition of, the shingle, than is found in artificial
harbours, shielded by an ahrupl weather pier in a line of beach.

With a long continuance of violent winds from the same quarter,
every accumulation of loose shingle is broken down, and is hurried
forward, while it unremittingly appears to seek protection. During
the recent gales every inlet within the tract of the beach was seriously
encumbered with it ; commenced with the heap accumulated by the
very pier that was inteiided to prevent such an effect (where such ex-
istedj, and increased by the successive arrivals of those more remote,
together with that quantity commonly passing along the sloping plane,
but BOW brought down by the. destructive action and forced along with
accelerated motion. « »

Manv very interesting facts might be mentioned concerning the
effects produced by the continued gales at various places on the coast,
but I find that the description of them in sufficient detail to make them
useful would extend this paper much beyond the limits assigned : I,
however, trust that the reference to two of the most remarkable cases
will be found sufficient to illustrate the principles attempted to be ex-
plained.

Section 7.

The only natural power by which the channels through the beach
are retained, is the returning force of the water, which on this coast
is generally scanty. And it is obvious, that however judiciously that
force may be employed, it is but remidial in principle, and necessarily
implies a previous evil. So long, therefore, as the cause continues to
act, the remedy is prevented, and the harbour becomes inaccessible
when protection is most required.

If on inspection of the great bank recently thrown up at Dover,
we imagine it to be dispersed over several miles of the sloping
plane, and assume the whole to be in continued and equable motion,
it will immediately be inferred, that the quantity that would be
passing a civen spot at one time would be comparatively insignifi-
eant; and hence, since we have no reason to suppose that there will
be a limit to the quantity, and since it has been shown that its
motion cannot be prevented, it follows that the great objects in view
must be attained, first, by securing permanently such accumulations as
are necessary for the protection of land from the action of the sea, or
xiseful by their addition to its surface; and secondly, by facilitating
and inciting the progressive motion of that superfluous quantity from
whence the evils complained of are derived: and therefore the unin-
terrupted and permanent welfare of the numerous harbours which
communicate with the sea, through the extensive tract of the shingle
beach, is dependent more on a system 0/ management along l/ie coast,
than upon particular devices adapted exclusively to each separate

Engraving upon Metals. — M. Mellon! lias announced to tlic Kiencli Academy
llint M. Cirelli, of Naples, has been able to obtain plates upon metals by gal-
vanoplaslic methods. His discovery is to form imnieiliately the plale com-
pletely engraved after a simple design. M. Melloni lias submitted some of
the plates to ' be inspeciion of the Academy. Tlic process is not detailed, as
Cirelli !S preparing to secure a patent for it.

PREVENTION OF EXPLOSION IN .STEAM ENGINE
BOILERS.

The Gold lait Medal was presented by the Society of jdrli to Mr. Robert
M'Enen, Glasgon;,/or his Double Mercurial Safety-P'alre for Steam
Engine Boilers.

There are two evils against which it is especially necessarv to pro-
vide in the construction of an apparatus for preventing explosion in
boilers, viz. the possibility of the steam passage being intentionally
closed, for the purpose of obtaining extraordinary pressure ; and the
failure of the self-action of the apparatus through the accidental de-
rangement of its parts.

Mr. M'Ewen's apparatus consists of a pair of open tubes, the ends
of which are immersed in mercury contained in cups connected with
the boiler by a pipe. At the junction of this pipe with its branches
for the two cups, is a three-way cock, the ports of which are so pro-
portioned to the openings of the branch liipes, that the steam can
neither be opened on, nor cut off from, both cups at the same time.
The mercury tubes are proportioned in length to the greatest pressure
which the boiler will bear with safety ; the mercury will therefore be
blown out of the acting tube into the dome at the top, whenever the
pressure exceeds this limit, and will fall down through the other tube
into the empty cup, while the steam blows out through a pipe at the
top of the dome.* When the pressure is sufficiently reduced, the cock
may be turned, and the cup which was last filled becomes the acting
side of the apparatus.

On the 'th of April, a committee of the Society inspected the action
of Mr. M'Ewen's mercurial valve, the apparatus having been attached
to the boiler at the works of Messrs. Fairbairn and Murray of Mill
Wall. The steam was opened on the mercury at a pressure of five
pounds to the square inch, and as soon as it attained the pressure cor-
responding to the length of the tubes, viz. seven pounds, the mercury
was blown, without any loss, into the dome and fell into the empty
cup, while the steam blew out through the pipe at the top of the
dome, and was condensed in a vessel placed to receive it for the pur-
pose of experiment. On examination of the water in this vessel, not
a particle of mercury was found in it. This result sufficiently proved
the efficiency of the pipe, which is produced to some distance down-
wards within the dome, as represented in the section fig. 1, for the
purpose of preventing the mercury from splashing out with the rush
of steam.

As the action of this apparatus depends simply on a. physical princi-
ple, viz. the opposition of the elastic force of steam to the static pres-
sure of mercury, w ithout the intervention of a mechanical obstruction
of any kind, it cannot fail of acting, so soon as the pressure of steam
exceeds the limit corresponding to the length of the tubes. The no-
velty of the invention is in the employment of a mercurial tube as a
safe vent for the steam, these tubes having hitherto been used only as
indicators of steam pressure, being long enough to allow the steam to
attain a dangerous pressure without relieving it or giving any other
notice of the fact than what may be observed by the eye.

REF£RE^•CE TO THE FIGUUES.

Figure 1 represents the whole apparatus in section. .\ the pipe
connected with the steam boiler, B the hollow plug of a cock with a
side opening at c, through which the steam passes into the area D,
and pressing on the mercury causes it to rise in the tube E till its
weight counterbalances the force of the steam; the tube E opens into
the chamber and dome F, to which there is free access for the atmo-
sphere through the neck u ; if, therefore, the steam should at any time
exceed the due pressure which is limited by the length of the tube E,
it will drive all the mercury before it up this tube into the chamber F,
and will escape thiough the neck t, ; in the meantime the mercury will
enter the opposite tube H through the small hole i, and flow down into
the other vessel J, where it will be ready again to act as a safety-valve
as soon as the attendant has turned round the plug B by its handle K,
thus cutting off the communication of the steam with the vessel d, and
opening it into the vessel j. The construction of both sides of the
apparatus being exactly alike, the tube E having an aperture at l to
receive the mercury from the chamber F, this operation may be re-
peated .as often as the escape of the steam gives notice of its being
necessary. The bottom of the chamber F, though straight from L to I,
is curved like a trough in the cross diameter, as shown by the curve
under f, to conduct all the mercury through the hole i or l, whichever
may be opposite the acting tube.

• Mr. Il-Ewen intends that an alarm-whistle le placed in this opening,
and also that the apparatus serve as a gauge for indicating the variation of
pressure, by means of graduated float-rods in the mercury lul»s.

1841.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

1.5.5

Fig. 2.

Fif?. 1.

For the sake o ^perspicuity, only one side opening from the plug B
has been adverted to. But the plug is always made with three open-
ings, as shown in fig. "2, at c, m, and N ; by which it will be seen that
it is impossi6/e to shut more than one of the chambers, D or J, at the
same time. The engineer, therefore, has not the power of completely
shutting off the steam by means of the cock, nor could a successful at-
tempt be made to effect thi« by plugging the pipe in the dome, the
material of the /atter not being of sufficient strength to bear as high a
pressure as the boiler. — Trans. Soc. Arts.

S. L. AND THE PROFESSOR OF ARCHITECTURE.

Sir. — The freedom of some of the comments in my last Fasciculus
must, no doubt, have startled your correspondent S. L,, and also con-
vinced him that I fully act, /. (. write, up to my motto, which is very
much more than can be affirmed of every one who bears a motto. It
is evident he considers me as having made much too "free with the
Professor of architecture at the Royal Academy;" just as if the
Professor was a schoolmaster — some village Solomon whose sceptre is
his birch, and whose subjects are bound to listen with awe to whatever
he utters. What indecorum there can be in animadverting upon
opinions enounced by the Professor in his public capacity, I cannot
possibly conceive. Similar freedoms are taken every day with per-
sons and personages who are quite as important — at least people fancy
them so — as Professors of architecture : a truth well known to Lord
Melbourne, and Lord John Russell, and to a great many others before
them.

It is, I believe, generally understood that the freedom of remark
which would be indelicate and reprehensible towards private indi-
viduals, is perfectly allowable towards public men, and those who hold
public situations which give an influential authority to their opinions.
On the last account it is, that opinions promulgated ex cathedni should
be narrowly watched and scrutinized ; and if they will not bear a little
rough handling when examined, they are fit only to be bandboxed in
lavender, and brought out, not in the lecture room, but in the drawing
room.

For my part, I hold the squeamishuess and affected delicacy which
usually pervades architectural criticism to be not only exceedingly
silly, but exceedingly mischievous into the bargain ; for they tend in
fact often to stifle criticism itself just at the very time when it might
be applied with success; and grant impunity to some of the greatesj

delinquents, and to the abominations perpetrated by them, under the
paltry (iretence of its being a delicate and invidious task to speak of
men and matters belonging immediately to our own dav. This ex-
cessive caution — not to call it time-serving obsequiousness and coward-
ice— is almost peculiar to those who write on architecture : most cer-
tainly we find very little of it in literary criticism ; where the merits
of living writers, let them stand ever so high, are often discusssed with
a freedom that is almost startling, or at the best very unceremonious.

However, all that 1 have just been saying will be thought little better
than evasive remarks, under cover of which I am fain to sneak off and
screen myself from the allegation made by S. L., and therefore now ,
say in reply to it, that erroneous or not, the impression left u|)on mv-
self, and a good many other persons also, I believe, was that the Pro-
fessor's views were so far unfavourable to Gothic architecture as to
discourage it most decidedly at the present day. To be sure he ex-
pressed a decent "for-good-manners'-sake" admiration of it, just of
that sort and no more which may be professed for any other bv-gone
and worn-out style of the art — for Egyptian or Byzantine curiosities in
it. An enthusiastic devotee in his rapturous reverence for the sublime
Sir Christopher Wren, — who, by the bye, produced Temple Bar and
sundry other pieces of veritable architectural bathos — the Professor is
evidently ill-disposed towards the practical application or adoption of
Gothic at the jiresent day. So likewise is S. L. ; and therefore both
of them may probably object to the style selected for the new Houses
of Parliament, and may also greatly prefer Buckingham Palace to
Windsor Castle — perhaps regret that Mela Britannica's advice was not
taken in regard to the latter structure; had which been done every
vestige of it would have disappeared, and a low moderate-sized Gre-
cian edifice, a mere parallelogram in plan, would have been substi-
tuted for it, as worthier to grace the acropolis of Windsor I

It would seem that mullioned windows do not accord very well with
plate glass, but " are more suitable for casements with small panes of
glass than for the large squares now in use." Now it mav fairlv be
admitted that small panes do not at all disfigure Gothic windows — do
not produce the same mean and palty effect they would in others;
but it does not therefore exactly follow that they are indispensable to
propriety of character, because, if well designed in other respects, the
windows lose nothing by each compartment being filled with single
plates of glass. On the contrary, the use of glass of such dimensions
removes in a great measure the objection apt to be entertained against
mullions of suitable proportions, as obstructing light; because, owing to
the greater size and transparency of the glass, as much light is trans-
mitted through the same space interrupted only by bold mullions, as
where the mullions are very scanty, and the general surface con>ists
of a meshwork of lead in which the glass is fixed. The chief diffe-
rence between a window with small panes and oue without divisions
of the glass, is that in the latter case, if the entire aperture loses
somewhat of the character of a glazed Gothic window, it will still
resemble what is equally beautiful in the same style, namely an open
screen with unglazed compartments.

But if Gothic is inapplicable because of so slight a difference as that
arising from the windows being glazed withlarge pieces of glass in-
stead of diminutive panes, how is it possible for us to reconcile our-
selves to the infinitely greater departure from the genius of Grecian
architecture, by introducing, as we most freely do, into that style,
features not only unknown to, but absolutely at variance with it, not
only windows, chimneys, balustrades, attics, &c. ; but successive tiers
of windows and windows throughout, windows within porticos, &c. ?
Again, small panes set in lead are to the full quite as unsuitable for
windows in Girecian or Roman architecture, as they are siiitabie in
the Gothic style, which being the case, have we not a right, according
to S. L.'s notions of consistency and propriety, to be very mucii
shocked at the semi-Gothic or Gothicly glazed windows of St. Paul's
cathedral ?

S. L. talks of the " difficulty of persuading persons to adopt Gothic,
who are not possessed of antiquarian taste." How happens it, then,
that we have so many soi-disant Gothic churches and Got!:ic man-
sions which are in utter defiance of antiquarian taste or any other ?
why are we doomed to behold so much hole-in-the-wall Gothic — so
many castellated fancies a /a i^!(gor ? For no other reason than Ije-
cause there is a bigotted and fashionable prejudice for the mere name of
the style among persons who have not the slightest notion whatever of
the style itself. The difficulty is not to persuade people to adopt, but to
dissuade them from thinking of at all adopting a style which they will
not allow to be properly treated.

Again, S. L. assures us that when modern architects design in the
Gothic style, their object is imitation, but that when they employ
Grecian or Roman, their aim is invention" .' I Now no man would
have ventured upon so very bold an assertion unless he had previously
fortified himself and screwed up his courage to that pitch by an extra

156

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[May,

dose of claret or champagne, it being most palpable and notorious that
all our Anglo-Grecian architecture betrays utter want of invention.
Invention forsooth I tlien invention must' consist in making fac-similes
of Grecian column?, and poking plenty of sash windows between them ;
or in showing ugly chimneys, garret windows, and skylights over Gre-
cian entablatures more faithfully than tastefully copied for the nonce, or
if invention be occasionally shown, it is done after the fashion of Xash
and Smirke, the former of whom has given us a Grecian Doric order
in a palace, without triglyphs or even any division of frieze and archi-
trave in its entablature, while the other has introduced doors not at
all better than those of a stable or coach-house into the classical por-
tico of Covent Garden theatre, xaid to be copied from that of the
Parthenon, and whose columns some unlucky gin-and-water critic has
described as Ionic !

If S. L. can now explain away some of his own very awkward and
untoward remarks, all well and good. To do so would at least display
some ingenuity. All that I am afraid of is, that he will not make the
attempt, but that he will henceforth be cautious of getting into a
scrape by taking the part of the Professor of architecture, and leave
the latter either to defend himself, or to submit to the incorrigible
sauciness of

Caxdidus.

THE ROYAL EXCHANGE.

Sir — If I am rightly informed the design for the New Royal Ex-
change has undergone considerable changes and modifications, espe-
cially as regards the interior court, in respect to which, if no other
part, there certainly was great room for improvement, therefore as far
as architectural character is concerned, I am willing to believe that
improvement has been made. But why is the Exchange itself to be
an open court at all? others besides myself have asked tlie same
question — at least have animadverted upon the absurdity of making
the area in which the merchants are to assemble an uncovered one,
with no other shelter from the weather than what will be afforded by
the ambulatories around it. The inconveniences attending such a
plan are obvious enough ; what countervailing advantages are expected
it is difficult to guess, but it may be presumed that they are suthciently
important ones ; consequently it would be but proper that they should
be stated, if only in order to exonerate those who have control over
the building from the charge of being guided as to so very important
a point solely by obstinate caprice, and adopting what will be a serious
inconvenience for no better reason at all than because it existed in the
former structure — when, by the by, it was at one time contemplated
to obviate it by covering in the open area. It would seem that noiv
it is known that the building is to be erected by Mr. Tite, all interest
in regard to it has entirely subsided. This ought not to be; nor ought
such matters to go to sleep, and be treated as if utterly indifferent,
because no one has now any thing farther to expect from any change
that may take place. If reasons or any thing like reasons can be
alleged for leaving the body of the Exchange entirely exposed to the
weather, let them be stated and then we shall know on what grounds
it has been determined to adhere in the new building, to what many
considered an inconvenience in the former one.

There is, I find, an article on the Royal Exchange in the Penny
Cyclopopdia,in the course of which objection is made to the merchant's
area bein^ left uncovered in the new structure. What is there said,
however, is not likely to attract attention — at all events not immedi-
ately, or so mucli as a few lines in your Journal.

I remain, &c.,

Civis.

London, April 14, 1S41.

MR. MUSHET'S PAPERS ON IRON AND STEEL.

Sir — I lately had for the first time an opportunity of looking into
Dr. Ure's very elaborate dictionary, and on referring' to the article on
Iron I was a good deal surprised to find that a table of the proportions of
charcoal used in the fusion of bar or malleable iron to produce the
various qualities of steel and cast iron, and published by me in the
Philosophical Magazine nearly 40 years ago, had been subjected to
severe and unmerited censure on the part of Dr. Ure for its want of
accuracy.*

As this table (along with many papers principally on the subject of
iron) has lately been republished at a very considerable expense, I

■■ See Mushet's papers on iron and steel, published last year by Mr. Weale.

consider it behoves me to protect the property so created, and to take
care that where the work is free from error, it shall not suffer any de-
terioration by my silence in respect of the criticisms of others, in what-
ever spirit they may be expressed.

Tlie criticism to which I allude ("page 71G of tlie second edition of
Dr. Ure's Dictionary), is evidently borrowed from Karsten, but as the
matter does not stand in the Dictionary in inverted commas, I am en-
titled to assume that it contains Dr. Ure's opinion on the subject, and
shall deal with it accordingly. It is as follows.

"According to Karsten, Musliet's table of the quantities of carbon
contained in different steels and cast irons is altogether erroneous. It
gives no explanation why, with ecpial portions of charcoal, cast iron at
one time constitutes a gray soft granular metal, and at another a white
hard brittle metal in lamellar facets. The incorrectness of Mushet's
statement becomes most manifest when we see the white lamellar cast
iron melted in a crucible lined with charcoal take no increase of weight,
while the gray cast iron becomes considerably heavier."

In this extract two facts are alleged, namely, first, that the product
obtained at different times by the fusion of the same quantities of the
same iron with similar proportions of charcoal is irregular; and se-
condly, that gray cast iron acquires weight by its fusion with charcoal,
while white iron does not. I deny both these allegations, — but sup-
posing they were true, what has my table of proportions to do with
them ?

It is assumed by Dr. Ure that the table gives the atomic proportions
of carbon united unth, and existing in, the various qualities of steel and
cast iron, whereas it only professes to give the proportions of charcoal
required to be presented to bar iron in the crucible to afford the various
qualities of the metal before alluded to, and this it does with a degree
of accuracy which I challenge Dr. Ure and Karsten to disprove.

The experiments show in the clearest manner that charcoal is ab-
sorbed by iron ; that gray iron absorbs a greater quantity than white,
and that steel requires for its production a less proportion than white.

To guard against the inference which has been so inconsiderately
drawn by Dr. Ure, the following passage was inserted in my work.*

" Although this is the quantity of charcoal necessary to form these
various qualities of metal by this mode of syntheses, yet we are by no
means authorised to conclude that this is the proportion of real car-
bonaceous matter taken up by the iron, seeing that in experiments
Nos. 1 to G inclusive, the weight gained by the iron was upon the
average equal only to 1-21-jij part, whereas the charcoal which disap-
peared in the different fusions amounted to GIJ per cent, of the original
quantity introduced along with the iron."

Having in this paragraph taken the precaution to guard against
misrepresentation, I am at a loss to account for the conclusions at
which Dr. Ure has arrived.

It is quite evident that both he and Dr. Karsten are puzzled with
some results for which they have not been able to account. They can-
not, it would seem, explain why " cast iron (query, white, gray or
motled) with the same proportion of charcoal sometimes makes white
iron, and sometimes gray." Having had some experience in the treat-
ment of iron, it is barely possible that I may be able satisfactorily to
solve the difticulty, the weight of which they have flung upon my
table of proportions.

I must in the first instance be allowed to deny the alleged fact,
namely, that the same iron and charcoal are so capricious as at one
time by their fusion to produce white cast iron, and at another time
gray. The same substances which have once made gray iron will, if
the operation be similarly conducted, do so on every occasion, and the
same remark holds good in respect to the other varieties of the metal.

In order 'to understand this curious and not unimportant subject, it
must be laid down as a maxim that the aflinity between iron and car-
bon depends upon the degree of temperature which the iron will with-
stand before it enters into fusion: the higher the temperature short of
fusion, the more rapid and extensive will be the combination: and the
converse is equally true.

Hence the unerring certainty with which malleable iron and steel
unite with carbon in the crucible, and become with an increase of
weight rich carburets of iron. The same remark is applicable in de-
gree to refined metal, which when of the purest and whitest fracture,
will with its appropriate dose of charcoal also pass into the state of
the most perfect gray iron. But the case is most materially altered
when the experiment is performed with common white pig-iron or
with gray : the greater fusibility of both these states of the metal does
not leave time for the action of affinity to take place between the iron
and charcoal, so that even with a higher proportion of charcoal the
results come from the crucible to all appearance unchauged as to
quality.

' I'age 526, to.varils the bot om.

1841.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

157

This diSerence in tlie fusibility of the various states of iron affords
a clue to the mystery which seems to have puzzled Drs. Ure and
Karsten, who may perhaps have still to learn that charcoal never com-
bines with iron after it has become fluid, and that the union is always
effected by a process of cementation.

Suppose then that an experimentalist were in the first instance to
fuse refined metal (which is the whitest of white iron), with a certain
portion of charcoal, and to obtain a soft gray granular metal, this re-
sult would be uniformly obtained so long as the same substances were
used, but were be to substitute for the refined metal, white cast
iron, (which, to an unpractised eye, is not easily distinguishable from
the other), and fuse it with the same, or with a greater quantity of
charcoal, the result would not in this case be gray, but white cast iron,
of the same appearance as when introduced into the crucible.

But it by no means follows that white pig, or cast iron, cannot be
converted into gray iron in the crucible, for however great its fusibility,
yet if a portion of those earths whose affinities for carbon are deve-
loped at page 553 of my work, be introduced into the crucible and
fused along with white cast iron, and even a minimum doze of carbon,
the result will be gray iron of the best quality. In short the same iron
which when fused with half its weight of charcoal alone, comes out of
the cruc'ble white, will by the introduction of the earths be converted
into rich gray iron with an increase of weight, and this result will be
obtained with only 5*5 or ^ of its weight of charcoal.

Your's, &c.,
D. MUSUET.

(To be continued.)

THE LARGE WATER WHEEL AT COLEBROOK DALE.

Sir- — Thinking a short description of a water-wheel of no ordinary
dimensions may be worth your notice, I send a slight sketch and a few
of the principal dimensions of one erected in Colebrook Dale, Shrop-
shire, it works an oil and colour mill, but as the speed and the supply
of water vary considerably, no correct estimate of the power can be
obtained, but it probably does not exceed 3 or 4 horses' power. The
speed is generally about one revolution in three minutes, or 1-39 feet
per second ; part of the water comes on to the wheel at the top and
part about "25 feet lower down.

Fig. 1.

The principal dimensions are as follows: — diameter out to out, SO
feet, 28 arms B, S inches by 3 inches ; side stays C, two to each arm,
4 inches by 3 inches ; the arms and stays are braced together by two
circles D D, 4 inches by 3 inches ; and by cross stretchers E, of the

FiK. 4.

Fig. 5.

I'-ig. 6.
p-iSl

-f

Scale of enlarged parts figs. 3, 4. 3, 6— quarter inch equal to a foot.

same dimensions. The buckets, of which there are 280, are 9 in.
wide at the top, 5 in. at the bottom, 15 in. in breadth, and 10^ in.
deep. The shaft A is of cast iron hollow, 14 ft. y in. long between
the bearings, 26 in. diameter, with mortice holes cast in to receive
the arms and side stays. The arms are of pitch pine, all the other
parts are oak. The spur wheel F is 15 feet diameter. The breadth
of the lines in the drawing are as near as may be the dimensions of the
different parts.

Fig. 1 is an elevation of the wheel ; fig. 2 a section ; fig. 3 an en-
larged section of the shaft A taken longitudinally, showing the man-
ner in which the arms B B, and stays C, C, C, C, are fixed, and the
spur wheel E, E ; fig. 4 a transverse section of the shaft from a to b,
showing the arms ; fig. 5 is a section ; and fig. 6, front view of the
buckets.

I remain, &c.

H. C.

Railway Works in France. — The Havre Journal, in noticing the arrivals of
wagons and workmen for the Paris and Rouen Railroad in that port, says
that the wagons have been hired from the London and Southampton Com-
pany at a much loHer price than they could possibly have been in France,
and that the Borknien Mho have been sent over, are all chosen from the most
sober and laborious of their class that could le found in England. This
journal takes the opportunity of pointing out the activity and energy shown
l)y the English engineers, and the Paris and Rouen Company, and holds up
their example to the notice of all engaged in France on similar works.

loS

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[May,

CAPTAIN CARPENTER'S PATENT QUARTER PROPELLERS.

In the Journal for February last, page 5G, we gave an abstract of
the above patent, we are now enabled through the kindness of the
Editor of the Mechanics' Magazine, to give the annexed engravings,
which better explain the action of the Propellers, together with an
account of some experiments communicated by Captain Carpenter.

to
'A

" The first experiments (on any thing like a large scale) were on
board the jlirnlite, a vessel (J9 feet long, and 9 feet beam. They were
intended only to ascertain how far the apparatus was adapted to sail-
ing vessels, for the purpose of moving them about in calms, or as an
auxiliary to the wind and sails. The powerful effect produced by the
rotation of these 'quarter propellers,' even by manual power, was
enough to establish the fact, that any vessel, however large, may be
moved in an opposite direction to that line in which the force is ap-
plied, quicker or slower, according to the extent of the motive power.
"The next experiments were made with a model of a steam-boat,
which is now exhibited at the Polytechnic Institution. This model is
sup|)lied with the means of applying a great variation of power to the
propellers, and it admits also of great variation in the shape of
them, by which means I have had an opportunity of judging upon
the merits of screws, sections of screws, and planes ; and of testing
the angle of incidence, the shape of the vane or blade, and the relative
proportions they should bear one to the other, according to the power
applied. Although a screw is decidedly a powerful instrument in the
water, I must nevertheless give the preference to the plane and to the
figure shown in the accompanying drawing, because it produces the
greatest speed with the least sacrifice of power, more especially when
the vanes are set at the angle of 30^ or 35° to the axis of the shaft.
And here I would remark, and hope without presumption, that if any
merit may be attached to this part of my invention, it consists in the
discovery by careful experiment, that a plane having the proportions
of my propeller, as represented in the drawing, will, when set at the
above angles, and revolving in the water, impel a vessel by means of
a locomotive power, and the resistance ofl'erod by the fluid, with a
greater effect than any other instrument yet adopted in navigation,
which may be proved by mathematical demonstration.

" The next experiment was made in a boat 21 feet long, and 4 feet
8 inches wide. It is necessary here to remark, that only one pro-
peller was used, and that was placed in the stern. The object of
which was, to test the shape of the triangular propeller against the
screw, and other propellers with the same power, the same position,
and the same machinery ; but it is so difficult to make everything bear
in an equal proportion, that I doubt whether the experiments can be
considered conclusive. I do not apprehend there would be so great a
diiferei:ce as 3 to 6 between Mr. Rennie's propeller, Mr. Smith's screw,
and my triangular propeller, as stated in your journal, if the experi-
ments could be made equal in every respect, but that is impossible.
Mr. Rennie's experiments, I believe, were made in a heavier boat than
the one I used ; and although there may not be much difference in the
area of the midship section, still as there might have been a difference
in the strength of the men and other circumstances, I do not think a
comparison could be established ; I therefore only presume to give
you for data this fact, that with the very same propeller as I now send
you, the boat was propelled with two men turning the winch, SS mea-
sured yards in 33 seconds, and sometimes in timing it, it appeared to
be 30 seconds — the propeller making 119-5 revolutions in that time."
"A screw propeller placed in the dead-wood of the ./^rcAimerfts
Yacht, has, it would appear from the public papers, fully established
equality of speed with the common paddle-wheel. This propeller
differs \nform and position from the 'quarter' propellers to which this
paper immediately appertains, but the principle is the same; and on
the ocean it establishes that main that principal fact, which the small
model in the Polytechnic Institution under all its disadvantages also
fully bears out — 'equality of speed,' even in these early and imperfect
essays. In the 'quarter' propellers applied to this model will be found,
a more direct and faithful adherence to nature's prototype, and in their
rapid rotatory action in the water, under the most favourable angle of
incidence the blades display, the combined powers of wedge and screw.
No back-water ruffles their silent course. A gentle undulatory ripple
marks the tract described by each propeller, similar almost to that
which follows the action of the tail of a fish when swimming rapidly
near the water's surface. The same obedience to the helm with equal
facility of backing astern may also be observed, and in ease of accident
to the rudder, the power of steering is practicable by their alternate
and combined actions."

EttstcrJi CoutilU's Railivay. — On Wednesday the "ih ullimo, the first stone
of the New Bridge over llie river C'helmer, in tlie parish of Sjiringfield, about
to be erected to connect the embankment of the tiastern Counties line, which
has been some time in the course of lormation, and wliich is now traversed
by means of a wooden viiducl. was laid by Mrs. Braithwaite, the lady of
John Braithwaite, Ksq , the engineer-in-cliief to the comiany. The design
for the bridge is distinguished by that neatness which characterizes those
already erected upon the line, and w ill consist of three arches, each of 45 feel
span. It will be 43 feet in height from the surface of the water to the coping.
— Kc7it and Essex Mi'rcury.

1841.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

159

MESSRS. HANCOCK AND PETTIT'S PATENT RAILWAY TRAIN CONTROLLER.

(From the Railway Times.)

Fig. 3.

I

Fig. 4.

The invention* is described as consisting in " certain mechanical
contrivances and arrangements, by means of which common railway
trains running upon railways of the ordinary construction, may be
always brought to a stand without the agency and independently of the
will of the engine-driver, guard, or other person or persons thereon, or
travelling therewith, and at any given distance from a station or at
any part of a line where it may be deemed advisable to have such in-
dependent means of stoppage provided."

The "mechanical contrivances and arrangements" divide them-
selves into two branches, the first including tliose which relate to the
engines and carriages, and the second those which relate to the road-
way.

I. The additions proposed to be made to locomotive engines for
carrying this plan into effect are represented in the accompanying en-
gravings, figs. J, 2, 3, and 4.

Fig. 1 is an end elevation of a locomotive engine with the apparatus
attached, and fig. 2 is side view thereof; fig. 3 is a plan of one of the
rails and apparatus attached on the ground, fig. 4 is a side view thereof.
A is the handle of the steam regulator, and B is the handle of the
steam whistle. These handles are each fitted with loose collars, but
so as not to interfere with the common mode of using them by hand ;
each collar has a projection to which the ends of the chains D and E
are attached respectively, F is a horizontal lever fixed upon the spindle
G, carrying the pins a and b, and to the two loose collars on these, the
other ends of the chams are connected in like manner. The vertical
spindle G is secured near the top by the bearing c fixed on the pro-
jecting rail ; from this it descends through the eye d, attached to the
guide plate of the axle on which it is supported by a collar, and H is
a crank lever fixed on the lower extremity.

"When the engine is running, and the whistle shut, the several
parts described are in the exact position shown in the drawing, viz. both

" The patent is in the name of Mr. Petti t, but Mr. Hancock and Mr. Pettit
are joint proprietors of the patent riijht.

1(J0

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[Mat,

tlie chains D anil E strained tight, and the crank lever H standing out
at a right angle to the side of tiie engine.

"Now, it is obvious that by fixing any apparatus on the roadway
outside of the rails, by means of which the lever H may be pressed
acrainst, as the engine passes, to the extent of turning it about one
quarter of a revolution, which will cause the two chains D and E to
move with it, the steam will be shut off from both the cylinders, and
simultaneously turned through the whistle.

" It may be proper, however, here to i)oint out, that although the
steam regulator, and whistle handles A and B, are connected to the
lever F by chains, yet those handles can be worked by hand indepen-
dently, either for tlie purpose of shutting off or putting on the steam
to the engines, or blowing the whistle in the usual manner, leaving the
crank lever standing in the position of fig. 1.

"Rods sliding in tubes on the principle of the telescope, admitting
of the requisite contraction and expansion of the intervening distance,
may sometimes be found convenient substitutes, for the chain D and E
or any other suitable contrivance may be employed. A vertical in-
steadof a horizontal action may be given to the lever by fixing it on a
short horizontal axis, connected to the top of the spindle G by a small
pair of mitre wheels, and supporting it by bearings fixed upon the
most convenient part of the engine or carriage, or by any other me-
chanical means as circumstances may require."

II. The apparatus proposed to be affixed to the roadway to act on
the combination of levers which has been just described, is also repre-
sented in figs. 1, -2, and 3, and in further detail in figs. 5, 0, 7, and 8.

Fis.

l'"iK- «•

Fig. 7.

Fig 8.

Fig. 9.

"There are four sleepers of sufficient length to extend from under the
line of rails to receive the apparatus fixed upon them in the manner
shown in the fig. 3. Upon the two outside ones are bolted the blocks
T T, of which figs. 5 and (i, represent an end and side elevation. The
two middle sleepers are connected together about a foot asunder by
the cross piece, and they ferni beds fortified with plates for the car-
riage N to slide upon ; figs. 7 and S, represent an end and side eleva-
tion of this carriage, showing two ribs cast upon the bottom to drop
between the beds for the purpose of keeping the carriage in a proper
position, during its backward and forward travelling motion. LL, are
two pieces of strong angle iron, though any suitable material and form
raav be employed, which move on entire pins, fixed in the top of the
blocks T T, while their other ends rest upon the end of the sliding
carriage N, to which they are coupled by links O O, moving on centre
pins fixed in the back end of the carriage N. One end of the rod P
is received by tlie jaws cast on the carriage N, in which it moves
freelv upon a pin, and the other end is forked, and forms a movable
joint' with a piece or tongue projecting from the edge of the lever R
(see fig. 1), and the fulcrum of that lever is fixed to the cross timber
morticed into the sleepers, fig. .3. By joining the connecting rod P to
a piece projecting from the edge of the lever R, the lever and rod,
when the lever is put down will form a line occupying the position
marked by the dotted lines in fig. 3.

" 111 the position in which the apparatus is shown in fig. 3, the pieces
L L, or the slants as they may be termed, are parallel to the rail S ;
and, of course, stand clear of the crank lever H, which is carried by the
engine (see fig. 1), but when it is necessary to act upon the lever H, in
order to stop the train, the lever R must be depressed, which operating
on the sliding carriage X, through the intervention of the rod P, ad-
vances or thrusts it forward togeuier with the centre ends of the slants
L L, towards the rail S to the extent of the dotted lines (see fig. 3j,
which are then in the position to act upon the crank lever H, when
brought into contact by the advance of the engine.

" The break lever K, figs. 1 and "2, moves inside of, and is suspended
when out of action on, a projecting stud, inserted in the vertical spindle
G. W is a weight to increase its power, or a spring to press upon
the lever may be employed for the same purpose : this lever is fixed
upon a short spindle passing horizontally through, and having its bear-
ii)fs in two plates, K, bolted to the engine frame, one within and the
other without; of these, the outside one only, A", is visible in fig. 2,
and upon the inside end of the spindle is fixed a short cross lever, the
jjosition and form of which is shown by tigs. 8 and 0. The ends of
this lever, K, bear upon the breaks // h, when the lever K is down, but
eacii end has two cross pins under the straps / 1, secured and screwed
on the breaks for lifting them olV the wheels on raising the lever K.

These breaks are brought into action by lowering the lever K, occa-
sioned by the removal of the supporting stud on the vertical spindle
G, which is effected when that spindle is turned by the crank lever H,
coming into contact with the slants L L in the manner before describ-
ed."

The machinery last described is stated to be as applicable to the
breaks, attached to the different carriages in a train, as to the locomo-
tive engine; "especially upon such breaks by means of a spindle
similar to the vertical spindle G, in the manner before described."

The lever R that brings the stationary apparatus into use may be
worked by hand by any of the policemen stationed on the line, or other
person appointed for the purpose.

The claim of the patentee is as follows : — " I declare that though I
ba%'e specified under this head those contrivances and arrangements by
which I think the objects in view may be best accomplished, and men-
tioned also certain contrivances which may be substituted for some of
those so preferred by me, I declare that I do not confine myself to the
precise arrangement and construction of the parts shown, as they may
be varied under different circumstances without departing from the
nature of my invention, but I claim a right to all variations and modi-
fications of the same, and to all substitutions of equivalent means,
either in whole or in part, by wliich the like effects may in the same
general way be produced. And I declare, that what I claim generally
is the addition to railway engines and carriages of such a combination
or system of levers connected with the steam cylinders, alarums, and
breaks, that being acted on in the direction of the line of motion, they
shall simultaneously, or nearly so, shut off the steam, sound the alarums,
and bring the breaks down on the wheels, and also the fixing to or
placing on railways of an apparatus such as that before described in
such a position that it can be made to act on the said levers in the
direction of the line of motion, (by some projected part or parts thereof^
w ithout the agency, and independently of, the will of the engine-driver,
guard, or other person or persons on the engine or train required to
be stopped. And I claim both of the mechanical means, or system of
means, last herein generally claimed, whether used together or used
separately, that is to say, whether both are used together as I have
described, or one of them only in combination with some other and
wholly different means, or system of means, from that which I have
specificed."

THE PLATE-LAYER'S SCREW.

Sir — If the above rough sketch of an iiistrurnent fur lifting the rails,
&c. on a railway, for the jiurpuse of repairs, be thought of any service
to you or others, fur whose assistance it was contrived, (the plate-
layer), you are at liberty to use it in any way that you may consider
it deserves. The instrument is now generally used among the plate-
layers on the "Great North of England Railway," near York, and is
found to answer the purpose exceeuingly well. The bottom A, is in-
serted sufficiently below the bottom of tlie rail until the claw B, can be
applied under the rail, when the instrument is screwed up by the
handle C C, lifting the rail and blocks at the same time, when high
enough, the plate-layer or repairer commences beating the under side
of the block solid. The female screw is in the base of the cross lever
at D.

Y'our's, &c. M. (^.

York, April S>, 184 L

1841.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

161

THE ARCHITECTURE OF LIVERPOOL.

Sir — lu the outset of my remarks on this subject I avowed my in-
teution of preserving, to the best of ray ability, a spirit of ciindoiu- and
impartiality ; and I should feel that I was very far from acting up to
this pledge did f not endeavour to make the best amends in my power
for any injury or injustice which, however unintentionally, may have
been done to the vtorks noticed, or their authors. Overlooking under
the circumstances, the acrimony of expression employed by Mr. Cor-
bett, in his letter published in your last number, and giving, as I feel
bound to do, the fullest credit to his disclaimer of having taken any
unfair advantage in carrying out his design for the North and South
Wales Bank, by examining those of his competitors, I claim from him
credit for equal sincerity, when I declare that no idea was ever farther
from my mind than that of sheltering myself under a saving clause, for
the purpose of asserting any thing of which I doubted the truth. I
further assure him that it gives me unfeigned pleasure to find him so
entirely denying the charge, and that I sincerely regret having given
publicity to such an imputation, which however, I must in justice to
myself be permitted to say, would never have been the case had not
the report obtained such general credence among those interested in
the matter, as left me, as I then thought, no ground for doubting its
truth. As regards the committee, the case is by no means so clear ;
and without intending in any way to connect Mr. Corbett's name with
proceedings of which he professes entire ignorance, T maintain that
judging from his building as executed, and from the designs he sub-
mitted in two later competitions in this town, as compared with the
known ability of several of the competing architects, it is difficult to
conceive how, except by the exercise of some private influence, the
decision of the committee should have been unanimous in his favour.
Competition committees, however, are in their movements among the
most eccentric and inexplicable ofbwdies, and it is vain to attempt
arguing on their sources of action by the rules commonly applicable to
organized matter. — Witli respect to the limits of cost, and the time
the plans were in the hands of the committee, I spoke to the best of
my knowledge and recollection ; and still think that part of the designs
at least were six weeks in their possession, and that the sum of 5UU0/.
was named as the proposed amount of expenditure, but I suppose from"
Mr. C.'s plain assertion, not so advertised. — My mistake as to the
position of the back wall of the portico, arose from the view obtained
through the open doorway, of the wall of the vestibule next the bank ;
and such is the confusion of lines, arising from the number of features
which are crowded into this narrow space, when seen in passing close
to the front, as was the case with myself, that the most unequivocal
impression remained on my mind that the case was as I stated it ; and
I was not singular in this idea. The door is now I see in its place,
and this deception is corrected ; but the pediment, which, as Mr.
Corbett will perceive on reference, I mentioned as principally marking
the obliquity of plan, remains unalterable, and its effect in this respect
is most undeniable, as any one may prove by trial with a block model.
I hold my first opinion as to the waste of valuable space caused by the
use of columns and pilasters ; and though the privilege of advancing
the bases a few inches over the footway had at the time slipped my
memory, the fact is certain that room is iacrijictd, and the public
thoroughfare contracted, for the purpose of employing a mode of de-
coration most unsuitable for a building of such proportions, and by this
means cutting it up into a series of narrow stiips, into which the ne-
cessary openings must be crammed as they best may. — If Mr. Corbett
acknowledges, as by his silence on that point he in substance does, that
the sketches sent you are fair representations of the proportions of his
building, I may safely leave the question of its merit in point of de-
sign to the judgment of your readers; and trusting that the "judicious
Eder," and the "many" admirers mentioned by Mr. C. may long re-
main the sole advocates of such a style as the Bank exemplifies.
I remain. Sir, your's obediently.

Liverpool, April 12, 184 1.

H.

ON THE EMPLOYMENT OF MILITARY ENGINEERS.

Sir — The perusal of the article in your last number on the subject
of the employment of military engineers in positions to dictate to the
civil professional practitioners, has called into expression my own long
dormant feelings upon a very similar subject.

It has been my lot to have had the means of observing, rather inti-
mately, the working of the civil engineering and architectural opera-

tions of the Ordnance and Admiralty departments of the public service,
upon which subject I beg permission to ofter a few remarks.

It is well known that a set of young gentlemen dignified with all
the notions of embryo-officers, are drilled through what is called a
"course of civil architecture," under the auspices of a. colonel At the
Royal Military College at Woolwich. When lectured through this
educational course, under the instruction of their Military Commandant,
and made very clever in copying drawings, they obtain their Lieute-
nant's commission, and become at once, and as a matter of course, en-
dowed with the necessary qualifications for designing and executing
all the details of the civil engineer and architect's profession. They
are stationed at an out-post under a staff of colonels and captains, and
are expected to make drawings, measure artificers work, abstract,
price, and enter into all the minutiie of a civilians practice. They
pretend to great efficiency and usefulness, and are very apt in signing
at full length their names and designations to the designs, &c. of which
they are supposed to be the authors. But it happens that to every
station there is attached an humble ill-paid individual usually emanat-
ing from the carpenter's bench, and rising through the grade of Fore-
man, to what is called the Clerk of Works. He and he alone is really
the designer, the estimator, and measurer, the every thing but the
signer. He, though generally himself most incompetent to perform
the lowest duties of the architect's profession, is yet sufficiently in ad-
vance of his military masters to do all the work for which they get
the credit. With all the innate idleness of military men, added to a
professional pride which raises them above the indignities of actual
practice — with no inducement to, and no necessity for, that incessant
application to details which can alone inrpart information and lay the
ground work of professional acquirement, they saunter through the
subordinate ranks, till at once getting the rank of colonel of engineers,
they are fit for any thing!

Barristers of 20 years standing, whether they ever held a brief or
not, are duly qualified for most things, but a colonel of engineers beats
them hollow, their very rank endows them with that excellency of
skill, that pre-eminence of knovfledge, that loftiness of science which
marks them as the cUxss by which not only the public departments
connected with civil engineering and architecture are to be controlled,
but from which commissionerships of all sorts are to be formed to dis-
cipline— to dictate to — and to degrade — men, whose individual ener-
gies have done more to elevate their country in the scale of nations,
and whose eftbrts have been more successful in developing its resources,
and in promoting the industriel happiness of its people, than those of
any other body, of whatever class, or of whatever pursuit.

At this moment we have a captain of engineers at the head of the
architectural and civil engineering departments of the Admiralty, a
man who alone and unassisted is incompetent to execute with decency
the most ordinary architectural performance — a man who has only the
most general smattering of architectural knowledge, who, if he had to
pass an examination, with an attentive pupil of four years standing,
would be disgraced; and yet this man is at the head of a department
in which hundreds of thousands of the public money are annually ex-
pended.

But perhaps it will be said he is only the director-general, in whom
a tact in the management of business, and a soundness of judgment up-
on ordinary subjects, is more important than the knowledge of profes-
sional detail. He who knows most of his profession most highly,
values this description of knowledge — but be this as it may, let us see
who are the working men. At nearly every dockyard there is sta-
tioned a resident lieutenant or captain of engineers, one of the class
before alluded to, who lords it over a few foremen, and perhaps a
clerk of the works. These men have no practical acquaintance with
the value of materials or the cost of labour, their knowledge is con-
fined to the experience of government work, and they are under the
necessity of confiding in persons whose direct interest it is to abuse
their confidence, and to make the most advantageous bargains for them-
selves. If competition be had recourse to, it is well known that con-
tractors who have to deal with men ignorant of the usages of private
business, and from that ignorance open to abuse, have a thousand ways
of taking advantages which the experienced practitioner would readily
detect.

Wliy should not these military architects and engineers be called
upon to submit to public examination before their appointment? I
know of one of these functionaries who, when first appointed to con-
duct works amounting to from 12 to 20,000/. a year, was nnacquainted
with the commonest professional terms. The candidates for country
engineers in Ireland have to pass a severe examination. The candi-
dates for private employment are constantly subject to the test of
severe competition, and'why is the same course not adopted with
respect to these mighty men ? Does their rank oppose so insufferable
an indignity ? or does it not signify whether they be qualified or not?

162

THE Cn^IL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

:may,

since if they fail, if they squander the public money, its only the public
who sutler, and nobody feels it.

It may be asked what is the practical evil of all this ? Some of the
evils which I have obser\'ed are, that the director of works puts him-
self under obligations to the more experienced builder for the inform-
ation which lie lacks; deplorably ignorant himself, he draws from him
Lis ideas, and gets into the habit of depending upon tlie very man whom
Le should be in a position to dinct. One result of this is,' that money
is wasted in useless strength, or in the adoption of expensive methods
and expensive materials. The self-styled engineer feeling no confi-
dence in his own knowledge, and desirous above all things to avoid
the onus of a failure from want of strength, is induced to lavish ex-
penditure in the attainment of security beyond all necessity, and even
beyond all decency. And so our government works instead of deriv-
ing all the benefit of the experience of private undertakings, are
usually conducted in a manner altogether in arrear of the knowledge
©f the times.

Instead of employing persons competent to design public works, and
■well acquainted with the most advantageous mode of getting them
executed. If any matter demanding superior skill be required, such
for instance as a swivel bridge (as was recently the case in the Ply-
mouth Dockyard), a manufacturer is invited to submit his design and
tender, and the work costs 4U per cent, more than it would if compe-
tition tenders had been called for upon a specific design. But who is to
make that design? how is it to be had if the persons employed in the
engineering department, whether chief or subordinates, are incompe-
tent to its production? and if incompetent to such a work, how fit are
they for the olBce which they hold ?

How does it happen that these things are so? That the most com-
petent man that can be found as the Surveyor of the Navy, whose oflice
it is to construct ships, and to make drawings, and enter upon all the
elaborate calculations required in such an important work, is not a
profound mathematician, who having great mechanical skill, and hav-
ing directed his entire education to that pursuit, is well informed upon
all its manifold mysteries — not a practical ship buildep who, having a
scientific mind, and gifted with intelligence beyond his fellows, has
attained tlie theoretical and mathematical knowledge which forms the
necessary qualifications of an accomplished naval architect — not either
of these, but a Captain in the Nary, a man who knows as well how to
build a ship, as a prince does a palace, or an archbishop a cathedral.
Many gentlemen who have always lived in good houses, and noted
their conveniences or defects, fancy themselves very skilful in ar-
ranging the apartments of a mansion, and sufficiently knowing for all
the measure of taste that they think necessary for its embellishment;
they build after their own designs, and under their own management,
and whether they find it out or cot, all their friends discover that their
deep solicitude for some darling "bijouterie" has spoiled their house,
that they have sacrificed their comfort and their purse to their con-
ceited notions: and yet the Captain in the navy has lived in a ship
from his boyhood, has noted all its good or bad points, and is not he
the man to build a ship ? he may build and he may alter, and he may
be very successful in attaining some one point of excellence, but at
what cost? let the naval expenditure tell, and it could tell some very
deplorable tales upon this subject; it could tell at what cost the coun-
try has progressed with the education of our Captain-Surveyor, what
has been paid for his experience, and how dearly we ought to prize
it. This, Sir, is jiart of a system which is overrunning all the depart-
ments of the public service, we are becoming a military-ridden people
in matters essentially civil. Naval and military men hold together
and assist each other to the degradation of all the" branches of the civil
service. Their rank is a passjiort every where, and gives them a
position which is not readily yielded to civilians, of whatever merit:
existing upon patronage, they nurse it and cherish it as their best
friend, and whatever of it they have to disperse, they take good care
that it shall How into the jirescribed channel of their'own order.
_ I do not expect that writing upon this subject will be of much prac-
tical utility, and I hate agitation, but it is high time that some notice
of so wide-spreading an evil against the profession which your Journal
so ably upholds, should find a place in its columns. It is the more im-
portant that it should do so now, that we are told by the President of
the Institution of Civil Engineers, that too many young men are crowd-
ing into the profession, which is overstocked with professors, while
the field of their employment is diminishing. It may well indeed
diminish, while the government departments overlooking the claims of
men whose professional education has costtlum seldom less than lOOOl.
are put aside by military pretenders, who after a few months dabbling
in drawing, under the masters of the Royal College, are turned out
finished, and fit for the best of every thing.

Verily I wish there were a tribunal at which these belted aspirants
could take a tilt with tcorking men. I would have them set alone, not

even should the despised clerk of works lend his wonted and bashful
glance— he should not only sign the design, but he should make it,
and a very pretty business he would make of it.

Having brought my military professors into this predicament I am
quite content to leave them there, and subscribe myself,

A Civilian.

RIVER SEVERN.

Report oil the Proposed Improvement of the River Severn, between Gloucester

ami Stourport.

By William Cobitt, Civil Engineer.

The object of this report is to set forth the projmsed plan and probable
cost of the intended improvement in the navigation of the river Severn, from
Gloucester to Stourport, agreeably to jilans and sections lodged with the
respective Clerks of the Peace, preparatory to au application to Parliament
in the ensuing session for that purpose.

In its present state the river Severn abounds with shoals, which very much
impede the navigation, so as to render it impossible for the vessels which
narigate it to proceed with full cargoes, or in a long continued drought to
proceed along the river at all. to the manifest disadvantage of all that por-
tion of the public which has any interest in or dependence upon the navi-
gation of the river Severn.

The object of the proposed plan is to obviate these difficulties, and to ob-
tain a minimum depth at any time of not less than six feet of water in all
parts of the iia\-igation between the entrance lock of the Gloucester and
Berkeley Canal, at Gloucester, to the entrance lock of the StatTbrdsliire and
Worcestershire Canal, at Stourport, and upon such principle as will in uo
wise interfere with the due and projjcr drainage of the a(!joining lands, or
the dischai'ge of the flood \vater of the river as at present, except insomuch
as both may be improved and facilitated by the measiu-e.

The means by which this inijirovenieut is to be carried into effect, is by
what are technically termed weirs and locks, of which there will be five of
each between Gloucester and Stourport.

The effect of the weirs or dams in the river is to divide the whole fall of
the low summer water between Stourport and Gloucester, into five steps or
falls, and by a side cut or short canal (with a lock therein) round or past the
jide of the weir, the navigation is carried on in the same manner as in an
artificial canal, whilst the river passes off over the weir at a depth or thick-
ness jiroportioned to the quantity of water coming down, and the weir is so
contrived as to height, length, and position, that whilst it will never let out
the water of the river below the fixed navigable depth in time of short water,
it will nevertheless afford a gieater capacity for the escape of flood water than
at present obtained in the same place ; and as all the shoals in the river be-
tween the weirs are to be dredged out to make a uniform navigable channel,
it must be evident that the capacity of the river for the discharge of floods
must be increased and improved, whilst through the same means the. low
summer water will he prevented from running off below its present level at
the foot of each weir ; and from the low water channel being deepened at
the shoals, the exit of the drainage water will be improved also, whilst the
navigation will be at all times available whether it be drought or flood.

The total fall of the river at suicmer water, from Stourport to the entrance
of the Gloucester and Berkeley Canal, is thirty-two feet in a total distance
of forty-two miles, of which the lower portion from Gloucester to Upton
Ham, (the site of the first weir), being a distance of eighteen and a half
miles, the fall is only four feet, a quantity but httle more than suflicient to
carry off the water in the ordinary state of the river, the whole of wliich dis-
tance being subject to the influence of the tides, no weir or locks will be re-
quired within these limits, (that is, from the Upton weir downwards), and no
other operations than dredging and regulating the breadth of the low water
channel, to obtain the requisite navigable depth, will be necessarj' ; and it
may be further observed, that no dredging or deepening of the channel will
be done on the Gloucester branch of the river below the entrance of the
Gloucester and Berkeley Canal, or on the JIaisemore branch lower down
than the entrance lock to the Herefordshire Canal, and to no greater depth
than the sill of that lock, and of suflicient breadth to admit the boats which
navigate it to pass to and from that canal and the river at the Upper Parting
respectively ; by which means, and leaving untouched the remaining portion
of both branches below the entrance to the Berkeley and the Hereford
Canals respectively, it must be evident that no alteration will be made in the
height or level of the surface water of the river up to the first weir in a
distance of eighteen and a half miles above Gloucester ; nor is it intended or
required by the present proposition for obtaining a sLx feet navigation to
erect any weirs or locks, or to do any works that may affect the height or
level of the river below the weir at Upton Ham, or in any way to affect, alter,
or interfere with the adjoining lands in relation to the river as at present
existing.

Proceeding upwards, the next weir and lock are at M'orcester, just below
the entrance lock at the Birmingham and \A'orcester Canal, at Dighs, a point
tweut)--nine miles up the river from Gloucester; the thurd weir and lock will
be Bevere Islands, four miles above \Vorcester, at a place where the river has
two channels, in one of which will be placed the weir, and in the other the
lock, bv which the necessitvfor an artificial canal or side cut will be avoided.

1841.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

163

the fourth weir and lock nill be just above Holt Bridge, three miles and three
quarters above No. 3 ; and the fifth and last, at Lincomb Hill, four miles and
a quarter above No. i, or just forty-one miles from the entrance to the Glou-
cester and Berkeley Canal at Gloucester, and one mile and a quarter below
Stourport Bridge, making a total distance of forty-two miles and a quarter
for the improvement of the river, and making a minimnni navigable rteptli of
six feet over the lock sills, without raising the usual summer height of the
water in the river at the tails of any of the locks and weirs, or causing any
obstruction to the passage of flood waters.

Such is the mode by which it is proposed to improve the navigation of the
river Severn, and which may be more fully understood by a perusal of the
plans and sections as deposited with the Clerks of the Peace, in which the
details of the measure, as required by the standing orders of Parliament, are
clearly and correctly laid down.

Adverting, however, to a meeting of the land proprietors along the Lower
Severn, (viz. from Worcester downwards) held at Tewkesbury, on the IGth
December, and a meeting of the parties interested in the navigation of the
■ river Severn, held at Gloucester, in the evening of the same day, at both of
which I had the honour of attending, and giving such verbal explanations of
this measure as were then and there required ; and with reference also to
certain resolutions which were passed at those meetings, and at a sntisequent
meeting of the committee of landowners, to the purport generally of requir-
ing more definite information in writing from the promoters of this measure,
as to the nature and extent of the proposed works, and every particular con-
nected witli the undertaking, as regards not only the nature of the works,
but also the constitution of the Association for carrjing them into effect, and
the amount of tolls to be levied for defraying the cost, and maintaining the
undertaking, &e., it may be observed, that there are Some points, perhaps,
out of my province to answer.

In addition, therefore, to what has been explained already with regard to
the nature of the works, it may be satisfactory to the parties making inquiries
at the meetings above stated to state,

Istly. That there is no intention of taking land without consent of owners,
along or on either side of the river, except at those parts shown on the plan
as the situations of the locks and weirs.

2dly. That the weirs will be solid weirs, placed very obhquely across the
river, and of such length that (with the requisite widening of the river at the
spot) there will be a greater water way on any cross section of the river at
the weir after its erection than before.

3dly. That the height of the weirs, as shown on the sections, will not raise
the water in short-water seasons above the present summer level at the site
of each weir next above respectively ; and the depth of water to be maintained
by dredging, is a clear six feet below a horizontal line extending up the river
from the top of each weir respectively.

4thly. The locks are proposed to be not less than one hundred feet clear
length within the chambers, nor more than twenty feet in clear width, with
six feet water over the sills in low summer water.

5thly, The estimated cost of the works from Gloucester to Stourport is
X150,000, of which, as nearly as may be, one moiety will be expended be-
tween Gloucester and Worcester, on a distance of between twenty-nine and
thirty miles, and the other moiety between Worcester and Stourport, a dis-
tance of thirteen miles, or thereabouts.

6thly. As regards the toUs to be imposed, to meet the above expenditure,
maintain the woiks, defray the current charges of management, and (as
should be contemplated) raise a fund to pay off the original cost in course of
time, — that is probably a question more suited to the committee of manage-
ment than the engineer ; the question, however, is in very narrow limits, and
assuming the minimum annual amount necessary to be raised for the above
purposes, of interest, management, and maintenance, to be £10,000, and
which, in my judgment, would be but just sufficient without paying off any
capital, it follows that the amount of tolls per ton must depend upon the
quantity conveyed along the river both ways, between the three principal
points (Gloucester, Stourport, and Worcester) respectively. Taking, there-
fore, the charge per ton from Stourport to Gloucester to be double that from
Worcester to Gloucester, and assuming the minimum charge for the long
length to be sixpence per ton for the whole distance, it will require 270,000
tons between Stourport and Gloucester, at sixpence per ton, and 260,000 tons
between Worcester and the other two points respectively, at threepence per
ton, to raise £10,000. But as various contingencies may arise tending to
increase the annual cost, or to diminish the amount of tonnage ; and as a
liquidation of the first cost ought never to be lost sight of, 1 strongly recom-
mend that powers should be taken to fix a higher toll than sixpence and
threepence per ton for the whole and half distances respectively, and am of
opinion that one shilling per ton for the whole distance, and sixpence per
ton for the Worcester half either way, should be fixed as a maximum, beyond
which the commissioners should not have the power to charge, and that six-
pence and threepence should be the minimum below which the tolls should
not be reduced till such time as the first cost of the works be either funded
or paid off; and if provision were made that an additional sum were funded
before the tolls be reduced, the interest of which would serve for wear, tear,
and management, the river in its improved state might be looked forward to
as becoming in time a free navigation.

"thly. Touching the constitution of the managing body, all I can offer on
that head is an opinion many times urged on other parties when attempting
to form a company for improving the navigation of the Severn, viz. that the

improvement of this navigation should be carried into effect by coramis'
sioners under an act of ParUament, as a pubhc rather than a private measure,
and in sueli manner that the profit or emolument to be derived from the
measure, sliould eventually go towards tlie reduction of tolls, and rendering
the navigation free instead of being made private gain or individual specu-
lation.

W. CUBITT.

London,

Jannari/ 5, 1841.

Report to the Committee nf Management of tlie Gloucester and Berkeleij Canal,
by W. Ciegram, Engineer.

Gentlemen — In compliance with your instructions, I have carefully ex-
amined the plans no v proposed for improving the navigation of the River
Severn, from Gloucester to Stourport: and with the explanations which I
have received from Mr. Cubitt, the Engineer, by whom tlie works are pro-
jected, 1 am enabled to report my opinion upon the subject.

It is most certain that the interests of the Gloucester and Berkeley Canal
Company are deeply involved in the measure — few have more to gain, or
m(n'e to lose, from llie success or failure of it, than the Canal Company ; and
instead of confining my attention simply to the engineering department, I
have endeavoured to take a general view" uf the whole subject, in order to
ascertain what are likely to be its effects upon the welfare of the canal.

To come to a right understanding of the matter, it should be known, what
are the existing inconveniences in the navigation of the river, and what would
be a sufficient remedy.

The obstructions to {he free navigation of th.' Severn, arise from two causes,
viz. : from too great a quantity of water in time of floods, and from too small
a quantity in the summer se son. The firmer is without a remedy. Audit
is to supply the deficiency of the latter that the plans of the " Severn Navi-
gation Improvement Association," are proposed as a remedy. This deficiency
of water is felt on an average, during three months in the year ; and it is the
opinion of nearly all the traders on the river, that, if a depth of four feet, or
four feet six inches of water could be maintained throughout this period of
the year, it would fully meet the wants of the trade.

To remedy these impediments, and meet these reiiuirements of the trade,
the "Severn Navigation Improvement Association" propose to obtain a
depth of water in the river, throughout the dry summer weather, of from
seven feet, to seven feet six inches between Gloucester and Worcester, and a
depth of seven feet between Worcfster and Stourport, by plans so nearly
similar to those last proposed, and described in my report of the 12th Decem-
ber, 1837, that I need not here recapitulate the particulars, but merely state,
that, it is to be eftec'ed by dredging away the shoals in the river between
Gloucester and the first dam, w liich is situated just below Upton-upon-Severn,
about eighteen miles and a half above Gloucester. This dam will carry the
proposed depth to Worcester ; and between Worcester and Stourport there
are to be four other dams to give the deptli of water to Stourport. The dams
are to be passeil by side cuts and locks. The locks are tu be 100 feet long,
20 feet wide, and with six feet of water over their sills. The dams are to be
solid, entirely across the river ; but placed so obliquely across the stream as
to offer the least possible obstruction to the passage of the flood waters. The
entire cost is estimated at 150,000/. Tlie maximum toll is proposed to be 6rf.
per ton from Gloucester to Worcester, and 6rf. per ton from Worcester to
Stourport; or Is. per ton for the whole distance; to be equally levied upon
the goods conveyed by all classes and description of vessels throughout the
whole year. And the works, in execution and subsequent management, are
to be placed under the control of Public Commissioners.

This is the plan proposed ; and I cannot say that the opinion I have formerly
expressed on the engineering defects of a former and similar plan is in the
least degree altered with respect to this — for I consider it, as I did the other,
inapplicable to any river similarly constituted with the Severn. Fur from
the mountainous rise of the river — its rapidand precipitous course throughout
a considerable portion of its length— from the accumulated waters of several
rivers being poured into it, and thus being the drain of a very large extent
of country. — its waters are not only highly charged with silt held in suspen-
sion in them, but vast quantities of gravel and heavy materials are brought
down, and rolled over the bed of the river in a continuous stream. Any in-
terference therefore (as would be the case by the plan proposed) with the bed
of the river, that would destroy its natural powers of cleansing itself, must
necessarily entail a heavy and constant expense to provide artificial means to
get rid of the accumulations— for with the tidal deposits on the one hand,
and the land flood deposits on the other, the accumulations will be very great.
I have not documents by me to refer to, but I belie\ e the late celebrated Mr.
Telford, when employed about the year 1824 or 1825 to offer some plan for
the improvement of the navigation of the Severn, gave a similar opinion to
my own. I know that he recommended the formation of a canal between
Gloucester and Worcester, at a cost of 200,000/. which he was not likely to
have done, had he considered the river capable of economical and permanent
improvement.

But setting aside these engineering difficulties, there can be no doubt that
the proposed works are on a much larger scale than is needed. The depth
of water over the outer sill of the Gloucester and Berkeley Canal Lock at
Gloucester, during the low summer water, beingfrom i feet, to 4 feet Ginches
only, is quite the index of what the liepth should be in the river; tor it is
clear, that vessels loading in the canal for the river, would not be loaded to
a greater depth than that of the water over the sill of the lock through w hich
they must pass ; nor would vessels coming down the river at this season
(however great the depth of water that might be obtained in the river) be
loaded to a greater depth, and thus be subjected to the delay and incon-
venience of the transhipment of a part of their cargoes before they could en-
ter the canal. As a proof that the trade requires no greater depth than this,
I may mention, that it is indeed a rare case for even the largest trows to he

Z 2

164

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL

[May^

loaded, at any spason of the year, to a creator ilepth than 4 feet, or 4 feet G
inches, for navigating the river alx)ve Gloucester ; and if it be said that this
arises from the want of water. 1 would reply, that if it were more convenient
or economical to sail these craft at a greater depth, it would surely le done
during the nine montlis of the year when the depth of water is ample for it.
I feel satisfied that if a depth of 5 feet, or fy feet 6 inches at the most, of water,
could be obtained, and maintained during these three months of the year, it
would, for the con.siderations above set forth, be found fully sufficient. In
this case, the whole of the works, the dredging, the dams, tlie locks, tlie cuts,
the equalization of the area of the channel, all might be proportionately
dimini.shed, and jierfomicd at a considerably less cost. In dredging alone,
about 150,(JU0 cubic yards might be saved, (being upwards of one-half the
whole quantity at the 7 foot 6 inches depth,) and the annual cost of manage-
ment and maintenance would be much lessentd ; and I think it probable, tliat
this diminished plan might be doiie and upheld at a cost that would not re-
quire the imposition of more than an equivalent toll for the benefit conferred
upon the trade. The toll necessary to pay the interest on the money to be
expended in carrying out the larger plans of the " Severn Navigation Im-
privemeHt Association.'' and in upholding the works, I should fear would
press very heavily upon the trade, esi>ecially as it would be levied throughout
the year upon all classes of vessels, the greater part of which, from their
light draft of water, would derive a comparatively small advantage from the
measure.

These are weiglity considerations for the Canal Company ; .and if it be. as
I have frequently heard it advocated at your board when any suggi stion has
been made to raise tlie tonnages of the canal, that the smallest additional
imposition of toll on those articles which form the bulk of the trade upon the
canal would be ruinous to it, the same effect would result from the imposition
of any toll for navigating Ihe river, if it exceeded the limit of the loss sus-
tained by the trade from the impediments existing in the navigation of the
river.

The only other points that I have to allude to are — 1st, that the notices of
the intended application to Parliament are for power to improve the river
from the Lower Parting upwards, whereas the deposited section shows an in-
terference with the river only as low down as the lock of the Gloucester and
Berkeley Canal in one branch, and the lock of the Hereford and Gloucester
Canal in the other branch of the river. At the meeting « ith the promoters
of the measure on the I6th of December last, an e::pIanation of this discre-
pancy was asked, and it was replied that there was no intention to touch the
river below the points above named, neither «ould they obtain power in their
Act to do so. Secondly, the removal of the Maisemore shoal, in the Over
branch of the river, to the depth shown in the section. This shoal, it was
pledged, should oidy be removed to the depth and width necessary to accom-
modate the vessels navigating the Hereford and Gloucester Canal. It ismost
important to the interests of your canal that the parties should be kept to this ;
for any interference with the shoals between your luck and the Lower Part-
ing, and with the shoals in the other branch of the river, would .seriously
diminish the depth of w ater in the Gloucester branch of the river, and conse-
quently over the sill of your lock, and ultmiately render it necessary to place
(he sill at a lower level, which, if ever needed, will be a work of considerable
difficulty and expense.

For the reasons above stated. I can neither approve the modv by which it is
proposed to improve Ihe navigation, nor the extent to which that improvement
is proposed to be carried ; believing the mode inapplicable to the character of
the river, and the extent more than is required by the trade.

W. Clege.im.

Saul Lodge, 5th January, 1841.

Report addrcsatd to tite Committee of the Gloucester and Berkeley Canal Company,
on a Bill now in Pariianievt for the Iviprovement of the River Severn, Bif
James Walker, LL.D., F.R.S., L. 8; E., Civil Engineer.

Gentlemen — Since I received your resolutions and the communications
from Mr. Brickwood, I have given my attention to the plans and sections
which accompany the application to Parliament for the improvement of the
river Severn, with Mr. Cubitt's report in explanation of the scheme and lis
advantages, and also Mr. Clegram s report to you, with other documents and
papers on the subject.

In December. 1836, Mr. Rhodes, the engineer to the then proposed Severn
Improvement Company, accompanied Mr. Cubitt and me on a view of the
river. There had been a high (lood ten days before, and at the time of our
view the water w as from eight to ten feet above the summer level. Ever
since I received such recent instructions as I felt justified to act upon, the
floods have been still higher, so that 1 have not had the opportunity of seeing
the river in its short-water or summer stale which would have been desirable ;
and my report must be taken, with allowances for this disadvantage, as to
knowledge of facts and otherwise.

Atr. Ciihitl's I'lnii.—Mr. Cubitt's plan is well described in his report. It
diders from that of Mr. Rhodes in his plan first deposited, when a ship com-
munication to AVorcester was intended, in leaving out the weir and works
Mr. Rhodes proposed near Gloucester ; in placing the first w eir, that near
Upton, about a mile higher up the river than Mr. Rhodes at one t'me pro-
posed, and about three miles lower tli.an Mr. Rhodcs's last proposal, as I un-
derstood it from himself;' in placing a lock and weir below Worcester, and
below the entrance of the Birmingham and Worcester Canal, instead of above
that entrance ; in placing the uppermost lock, that nearest Stourport, in Ihe
river, and the weir in the new cut, the reverse of Mr. Rhodes's plan ; in in-
creasing the length of all locks above Worcester from !)0 to 100 feet, and
diminishing Ihe width from 24 to 20 feet. I observe also that the works are
now to be executed, not by a Company, but an Association, and if this word
be, as respects the objects, synonymous with Tnist or Commission, I think

" I extract this from a note made at the time, but I am informed that Mr.
Rhodes's plan (previously deposited) shows the weir in the lower situation.

the change of character a decided improvement, for the idea of locking up
the Severn in the hands of a joint stock company always appeared tome
very objectionable.

Trade of the River Severn. — The River Severn, from its position in reference to
the Bristol Channel, from the very great length for which it is navigable,
from the numerous canals that connect with it, and which supply the wants,
and take oft' the natural products and manufactures of several of the most
densely inhabited and richest counties, and from the great extent of country
of w hich it is the great drain, is in point of importance inferior to scarcely
any river in the kingdom. Below Gloucester the river suddenly spreads out
to a great width, and partakes more of tlie character of an estuary, consist-
ing of sandbanks and shallow, shifting, tortuous channels, and a lift of tide
that is scarcely perceptible at neaps.

IJence, in its natural state, the Severn was not, w ithout great danger and
delay, navigable for many miles below Gloucester, but for the smallest de-
scription of vessels ; Bristol was, in fact, the port of Gloucester. The Glou-
cester and Berkeley Ship Canal, which was begun by individual subscriptions
in 1794, and which, through want of funds, might, but for the liberal loans
from the Commissioners fi.r the Loan of Kxchequer fJills for Public M'orks,
have been a ruin at this time, was opened in 1827, and has removed the above •
evil as high as Gloucester. Ships of very heavy burthen, say 500 to 600 tons
register tonnage, are now docked close to the city, and an impetus has been
given to the trade of the town and of this portion of the kingdom. In this
dock by far the gre.iter part of the ascending and descending inland trade is
transhipped into or from canal boats and barges — the remainder is conveyed
in Trows, which load chielly at Bristol, pass through the Gloucester Canal,
and go up to Worcester, thirty miles, or to Stourport, which is twelve miles
higher.

Proposed Improviments. — It is upon the portion of the river between Glou-
cester and Stourport, that the improvements are now proposed, and notwith-
standing my limited -know ledge, I feel justified in saying, that whether as
respects navigation or drainage, this river has been most greviously neglected,
that it is capable of improvements, and that it ought to be improved. At
present we nave a river of the importance I have named, upon portions of
which the track-path (if it deserve the name) is covered with water, .so as to
be impassable whenever there is any flood. In short-water time, again, the
shoals are such, in many jilaces. some even below Worcester, that a canal
boat of 24 tons burthen, and drawing under four feet, the great trade of the
river, cannot make certain of getting over them, but is liable to considerable
delay. These shoals are local, and appear to consist of material w hich might
be removed, and being removed, and tlie width regulated, would not be likely
to retuin, as is proved by the deeper water, above and below the shoals ; but
even this dies not appear to have been attempted.

E.rpeJieney of Improviny. — On the expediency of some improvement there
ought not, therefore, as 1 think, to be any difterence of opinion. The ques-
tions are, to what extent, in what manner, and how the trade is to be taxed
to secure the repayment of the cost of the necessary works V for without good
security, either the funds will not be obtained to do what is required, or the
terms w ill be unfavourable, for w hich the trade will, in the end have to pay.
The idea of paying any thing upon a hitherto tree river may not be more agree-
able tlian the payment of tolls ipon turnpike roads ; but if the expenditure
be judicious, and the toll equitable, the traveller who pays has the greatest
benefit.

Proposed Depth.— "Mr. Clegram thinks the depth proposed by Mr. Cubitt
greater than the vessels that now use the river require : and his observations
on the particular nature i f the trade are entitled to great attention. But if
is also to be remembered, that the size and draught of a portion, at least, of
the \essels, those that load in the river, are limited by the capability of the
river; that half the number of Trows go up with half cargoes, caused, I pre-
sume, in part at least, through want of water ; and that greater capability
would probably give rise to vessels of greater burthen, which at present it
would be impnident to construct. Again, the facility of navigating vessels of
less draught than the greatest depth, even canal boats, is increased by having
a good depth of water. The floods also go off more rapidly; and thus both
navigation and drainage are improved. It is to be remarlved, also, that in
fixing the level of the lock and weir, which cannot afterwards be increased,
Mr. Cubitt is obliged ai once to calculate on his ultimate minimum stimmer
depth. Therefore', allliough the depth proposed by Mr. Cubitt may be too
much to execute at first, 1 think that nothing particularly below Worcester,
ought to be done which will prevent the ileplh he proposes, when there ap-
pear occasion and IiukIs for it. The argument, that the upper lock of the
Gloucester and Berkeley Canal has only four feet to four feet six inches in
times of drought, is good to an extent only, and is a question of inconvenience
against expense. A lock of greater size might, 1 presume, be made, should
the trade justify such an e.xpenditure.

Stourport to Worcester, Effect of Weirs. — I also think that, from the in-
clination of the river, and the nature of the channel, there is probably no
bptler way of improving the navigation between .Stourport and Worcester
than by means of lock.s and dams. In saying this, I claim allowance for the
limited extent of my information : and certainly, to dispense with the dams
altogether, or even partially, would, if practicable, be desirable. Mr. Cleg-
ram's idea is that a canal from Worcester to Stourport is practicable, and
would be prefeiableto dams.

Objection to Solid Jl'eirs. — Thus far, and it is a great part of the way, I
agree wiih Mr. Cubitt ; but I cannot at all see how, if the dams or weirs are
to be .solid, as described, without flood-gates or even waste-boards, neither
of which are named, they are not to prejudice the drainage, in place of im-
proving it. If made very oblique across the stream, as proposed, their length
will no doubt be increased; and with the same depth over the dams, the
quantity passed over will be proportioned to the length. But the principal
ellect of lengthening the weirs will be to decrease the height of the water
running over them, and not so much to increase the cubic quantity ; for the
quantity that reaches the weirs, or the depth at the w eirs, is dependent on
tlie direct cross-section (the width and depth) and Ihe velocity above the
weirs (that is, higher up the river), than where they are pkaced' ; and there

1841.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL

165

's, I think, no doubt that placing solid dams at intervals across the stream,
whether directly or obliquely, and from five to e'even feet above the present
bottom of the river will diminish the velocity of thcit portion of the water
which is below the level of the weirs, and near them, and of the whole de-
scer.ciing column for a very considerable way up the liver ; and that in this
length so interfered with, particularly near tire weirs, first the water Hill be
kept back, then a deposit will take place, which will diminish the depth, and
therefore raise the surface of the water and increase the floods. Tlic bed of
the river will, in fact, be raised, unless kept down liy constant dredging. But,
even with dredging, the height of the surface of lire water will be raised, in-
dependenll} of the bottom. \Vhen Mr. Cubitt says, " there « ill be a greater
water-way on any cross-section at the weir after its erection than before,"
he either refers to length only, or to some particular depth over the weir at
the time of some very extraordinary flood, because the sectional water-way
can only be measured from the top of the weir, all under that part being, by
the erection of the weir, taken from the area of the water-way. M'ithout, I
am sure the most remote intention, the position here stated is apt to mislead ;
and, independently of the above, I do not calculate on much good from the
obliquity of the dams, unless the river be enlarged for a great length above
them, so that tlie stream of the water may come at right .angles nearly to the
dam. Besides this, there can be no doubt that these permanent weirs will
increase the difliculty. to say the least of any great future improvement to
the drainage of the country above them. 1 do not mean to say that the
dredging and deepening of other parts of the river will not diminish theeff'ect
of the obstruction, but the dams are so much higher than the shoals to be
dredged, thai 1 do not think they will by any means counteract the injurious
effect, while the dredging without the solid dams would do as much good to
drainage as to navigation.

Shropshire Nangatioii. — To the Shropshire navigation, also, from Ironbridge,
the solid dams would be a great obstruction. The statement is, that these
boats remain aground at IronLridge during droughts, and until there is a
fresh in the river, when they come down in lieets of twenty to thirty in num-
ber, making the passage of seventy miles to Gloucester in from eleven to si.\-
teen hours ; that there they unload their cargoes wilh the greatest dispatch,
th: t they may get up again before the water has gone down. 1 cannot see
how, to this description of trade very serious delay by solid weirs is to be
prevented, when each boat is to be locked down and up through five locks,"
independently of the risk of being carried over the weir when the velocity is
considerable.

Can, then, the present delay during droughts be remedied, and yet these
evils prevented? I think they can, even presuming dan>s to be necessary,
by forming them not as solid weirs, but as opening gates, to he shut in limes
of drought only, but to remain open to the bottom of the river in times of
flood, ami whensoever there is abundance of water for navigation, so that
both the flood waters and the trade may pass through the gates without in-
terruption or delay by lockage. These gates need not be the whole width of
the river, but the sides only, the space between the banks and the gates,
should be furnished with sluice or draw-doors, to open so as to pass the floods,
and to this tliere could not, as it appears to me, be any reasonable objection,
unless the expense be such as to e-^ceed the benefit, which when the importance
of the navigation is considered, would not. I apprehend, be the case : but if
it should be so. I still think that much good might be done by dredging the
shoals, and contracting the width, where the too great width is the cause of
the formation of the shoals, which, unless where the material is hard, will
probably be found to be the case. In most cases, as appears upon the sec-
tions, the material of the shoals is too hard to be acted upon by the floods,
and then the shoals, once dredged away, will not be likely to form again.
Should not the experiment be made ? it would be useful, even if dams were
constructed afterwards. Undoubtedly the floods of the Severn, if more con-
fined within their channel, would keep a large water-way open.

Worcester to Gloucester. — What 1 have yet said as to dams is confined to
the part of the river above Worcester. Below that city the river assumes a
diflerent rharacter, the depth is greater, and the quantity of low land which
is liable to be flooded more extended. The entrance of the Birmingham and
M'orcester t'anal is below M'orcester : and I have been informed that two-
thirds of the tonnage that goes above Gloucester does not go higher than
Worcester. Hence, therefore, both as respects drainage and trade, an open
unobstructed river between Gloucester and Worcester becomes much more
important than above Worcester ; the expense of a dam also, such as I have
described, much greater, and I hope, and indeed think, it may be dispensed
with. Mr. Rhodes designed his ship lock and weir at Saxon's Lode, 17J miles
above Gloucester, or one mile below Upton Ham, wdiere Mr. Cubitt now pro-
poses it ; but, in consideration of interi^ring wilh the drainage of the district,
he was induced, in his subsequent plan, as 1 understood him to say, to remove
it uptoCleve's Lode, 23i miles above Gloucester, or 5 miles above Mr. Cubitt's
present site. Now, Worcester is only C miles above Cleve's Lode, or 11 miles
above Upton Ham. In this length there is more than six feet in depth, ex-
cepting at the shoals, which do not appear more numerous than lower down
the river, w here the depth is proposed to be obtained by dredging. The aver-
age fall in the river, from Upton Ham to ^Vorcester, being only 4i inches per
mile, 1 think there is little reason to apprehend a want of depth at the upper
end, after such a deepening and regulating as will be required. If the exca-
vated material were applied to raise the banks, the land would be less liable
to be flooded, and the scour being confined in the channel of the river, would
increase the depth. It will be understood that my objection as respects floods
is confined to tlie space above the first weir — all below the weir will be im-
proved by Mr. Cubitt's plan.

Thus, also, the objection made, reasonably as I think, to the inadequacy of
one lock to pass the trade, would be obviated, as so large a proportion would
stop at Worcester, short ot the lirst lock.

Clyde. — The Severn here is in some respects different from the Clyde, but
there is a similarity, and the good eSects of not adopting Smeaton's plan of
damming the river so as to secure a promised depth of 4 ft. H in. at Glasgow,
at high-water neap tides, even after an act had been obtained for it. but of
deepening and regulating, by which there is now 13 feet, has made that cit j-

what it now is, and has much increased the value of the low lands, which
were more liable to be flooded than they now are. One would expect the
Worcester, of all parties concerned, to be least the advocates for dams and
locks between Gloucester, and their city, to limit the capability of their trade
in the size and number of vessels ; until, at least, it be proved that they can-
not be dispensed with ; and, whenever this is the case, the importance of
having the gates constnieted as I have described, to be shut in short-water
times only, is greater here, on account of the extent of flooded land, than
above ^\'orcester. Wiiether referring to the extent of the trade, to the delay
wliich will be consequent upon passing every thing through a lock, or to the
drainage of the country. I tliiuk solid weirs objectionable ; and if this be the
case now, it will be much more so after the river is improved, if an increase
of trade, with the introduction of steam-tugs, be the consequence, as is pro-
bable. A tug would take a whole fleet of boats or barges behind lier. The
Severn is at present far behind in the power applied to track the boats, being
partly horse and partly human labour ; and 1 decidedly think the solid weir
w ill tend to perpetuate the slow system. Until steam be general, the towing
paths ought to be raised and improved. They appear to lie in the hands of
two joint stock companies, and the bill does not attempt to interfere uitli
them, excepting at the proposed new cuts; but perhaps a great reform has
taken place in their condition since 1836. The lowing paths on the Clyde
are entirely abandoned, every thing being done by steam-boats or steam-tugs.

Works above Worcester. — The dams above Worcester, as I propose them,
would be mere expensive than Mr. Cubitt's. I think it probable, supposing
dams to be indispensable, that a smaller number might sufl^ice, for the follow-
ing reasons . — The average present summer inclination in the surf.ace of the
river above Worcester is 21J inches per mi!e. Mr. Cubitt appears to suppose
that, after the construction of the weirs this will be reduced to little more
than one inch per mile, which I think very much under the mark, and there-
fore that the pen of the weirs will reach very much higher than he supposes,
thus allowing sufficient depth for a greater length between the locks, which will
be desirable. And here I may say, that I do not agree with Mr. Cubitt, w lien
he states that. " if all below tlie entrance of the Gloucester and Berkeley Canal
be left untouched, it is evident that no alteration will be made in the height
of the water up to the first weir." On the contrary, every obstruction or
shoal that is dredged in the whole length, tends to lower the water in the
part of the river above it. Tiie section ot the stream being increased by the
removal of the shoal, a less velocity, and therefore less slope in the surface
of the water, is required fr passing the descending water, and hence a sink-
ing of the surface increasing upwards. This must be compensated for by
greater dredging toward the upper end, to give the required depth. There
ought not to be a difterence of opinion on this point, and therefore either the
expression does not convey Mr. Cubitt's meaning, or I have misunderstood
it. * *■ *

James Walker.

23. Great George Street, Westmhister,
March, 1811.

THE TOMB OF THE GREAT CAPTAIN.

(From Dr. James Macauley Foreign Secretary of the Botanical Society,
Edinburgfi.J

Of the many historical monuments which are met with in the ancient city
of Granada, one of the most interesting is the tomb of Gonsalvo of Cordova,
the Great Captain. This tomb would in any other place have been a cele-
brated point of classic pilgrimage ; but in a city containing the Alhambra and
so many glorious remains of the Moslem empire in Europe, other objects of
historic interest have been almost wholly overlooked by travellers. My at-
tention was called to it by a note in my copy of Don Quixote, where it is said
that " Gonsalvo toward the close of his life founded a monastery in the neigh-
bourhood of Granada, and was buried in its church. His epitaph, which still
remains there, is simple and grand; Gonsalvus Ferdinandus a Cordoba,
Dux Magnus Hispaniarum, Gallorum et Tdrcorum Terror." On
making inquiry, I found that the tomb was not in the mouasteiy he had
founded, whicli was that of Cartiija, but in the chapel of the convent of San
Gerouimo. Of tlus magnificent edifice, the Nuncio Aldobrandini, while con-
versing in the Alhambra with Philip V., said that " he had seen nothing in
Italy more great in architecture." Separating from this what may be due to
the'flatteiing courtesy of a foreigner, there is yet in the remark a good eulo-
gium of the work, and a high testimony to the merit of the architect, the
famous Diego de Siltie. He it was who also built the cathedral of Granada,
which in magnificence and taste exceeds all the cathedrals of Spain, and may
be ranked with the finest edifices in Europe. He spent thirty years in the
construction of the convent of San Geronimo ; a truly noble piece of archi-
tecture, whether we regard the grandeur of the design or the beauty of the
details, and a work worthy of the high name which Diego de Siloe bears in
the history of art in Spain. The place is at present used as a barrack for
soldiers. The remains of Gonsalvo are in a vault in front of the altar in the
chapel. This part of the building is in a most desolate and dismantled state,
every vestige of decor.ition and ornament baring been destroyed, and the very
woodwork of the chapel having been torn down for firewood, ^^'hat a con-
trast from the former condition of the place, when historians relate that the
shrine was famous for its riches and splendour, and the walls were covered
with trophies taken from the enemies of Spain, among which were two hun-
dred banners and two roval standards taken by the Great Captam ! The

166

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

M

AY,

short epitapli formerly referred to, I was unable to find ; but upon one of the
flat stones on the floor near the altar I observed the following inscription : —
Gonzali Fernandez de Cordoba,
qui propria virtute
Magni Ducis nomen
propriuni sibi fecit,
Ossa,
perpetua." tandem hici restituenda,
huic interea loculo condita sunt,
Gloria minime consepulta.
The epitaph appeared to mc to be happily expressed, and reminded me of
the brief and fine eulogiuni of Cervantes, introduced at the place where the
innkeeper brings to the curate and barber his library of three books, two of
which were condemned to the flames, but the third was worthy of immortal
honour, being the history of Oonzalvo Ferdinand, " el qual por sus muchas y
grandes hazanas merecio ser llamadode todo cl nuindoGran Capitan, renom-
brc famoso y claro, y del solo merecido." 'While our party were in the chapel,
a number of the soldiers from the convent had followed us from curiosity,
and wondered what we found to interest us in its bare and desolate aspect.
In passing through Spain, the traveller at every step meets traces of its former
glory and splendour, and cannot help contrasting these with the present de-
graded state of the country anil people. The contrast came vrith new force
to me while in the chapel of San Geronimo; recalling the brave veterans of
the wars of Naples and Flanders, then the finest soldiers in Europe, and com-
paring them with the wretched troops of modern Spain, specimens of which
were now gaping and jesting over the remains of the Great Captain.

PORTER AND GO'S PATENT ANCHORS.

One of the most interesting experiments, and one which cannot fail to
prove of immense advantage to the" navy, and the merchant service, took
place on Monday in the presence of Captain Phipps Hornby, C.B., superin-
tendent of Her ilajesty's Dockyard, Woolwich, and a number of nautical
gentlemen. One of Porter and Co.'s patent anchors having been previously
placed on the testing frame, an immense power was applied by an hydraulic
machine invented by Bramah and Son, and the anchor weighing 5 cwt. 2 qrs.
24 lb., which would have been considered safe according to the adopted test
of 8| tons, actually sustained additional strains until it reached 20J tons be-
fore it gave way under the application of that immense power — nearly 2^
times greater than would ever be required under ordinary circumstances. .\
second anchor, weighing 5 cwt., was afterwards placed on the testing frame,
and the power having been appHed, it sustained a strain of 21 J tons, given
by jerks, before it gave way, although it would have been considered perfectly
safe if it had stood 8} tons. There was another anchor by the same patentee
on the spot, of still larger dimensions, but the experiments with the other
two were so satisfactory that it was not found necessary to prove its
capabilities. It appears strange, and yet it is evidently the fact, that the
more simple the construction of any article is, there is the greater certainty
of its success. The principal dift'erence betwixt this anchor of Porter and
Co., and those at present in use, is a projection on the outside of the fluke,
which enables it to catch hold of the most difficult ground, and ensures its
obtaining a firm hold and double power by the upper fluke descending on the
shank, and acting as a fulcrum in the most effectual manner. By the kind-
ness of Captain Denham, of the MariBC Surveyor's department, we have been
enabled to give the following details of the advantages of this anchor. — " It
is almost impossible to foul it. It bites quickly into the most stubborn
ground. It holds on the shortest stay peak. It cannot well lodge on its
stock-end, It presents no upper fluke to injure the vessel herself or others
in shoal water. It cannot injure vessels' bows when hanging cock-bill, as
merchant vessels find a convenient practice. It is not so likely to break off
an arm or part in the shank as anchors with fixed flukes do, because the con-
struction of these arms can be of continuous rod-iron, and the leverage is so
much nearer the ring, owing to the pea of the upper ring closing upon the
shank. It is a most convenient anchor for stowing on board, on a voyage,
as the flukes can be easily separated, and passed into the hold ; it can as
easily be transported by two boats, when one would be distressed with the
whole weight. Several of the officers who witnessed the experiments stated
their intention of applying to the Admiralty for anchors on this construction,
as they were so satisfied of tlieu- advantages." — Times.

PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES.

INSTITUTION OF CIVIL ENGINEERS.

Jan. 12. — JosHu.\ Field, V. P., in the Chair.

" Remarks on the comparative advantages of lontj and short Conttectim
Rods, and low/ and short stroke Engines." By John Seaward, M. Inst. C. E.

The author commences the c'omraunication with a description of the engines
first placed on board the Steam Frigate, " The Gorgon."

The engines are constructed on the principle of " direct action." that is, the
power is communicated directly from the piston to the crank, without the
intervention of side levers, and the other parts usually employed in the con-
struction of marine engines ; this is one leading feature. Another is, that
the main shafts are placed directly over the centre of the cylinder ; and as
these shafts are carried by strong frames and wrought iron columns standing
upon the cylinders, the force of the engines is confined between the cylinders
and the frame, and thus isolated from the sides of the vessel. Other advan-
tages accruing from this construction are, in the author's opinion, a saving of
space and weight, the al)sence of the Wbration resulting from the action of
the side levers, and a more efficient application of motive power, arising from
the simplicity of the construction and diminution of friction.

Two main objections have been urged against this system — 1st, that the
shortness of the connecting rod causes a loss of effect ; and 2nd, that the
shortness of the stroke is a disadvantageous application of the power of
steam.

The arguments in support of these objections are combated at considerable
length. With reference to the alleged loss of power by the use of the short
connecting rod, it is argued, that as no arrangement of long or short rods or
levers could create power ; so no arrangement of similar parts could be pro-
ductive of loss of power. A geometrical investigation of the force actually
exerted on the crank by long and short connecting rods is then given, and
the result deduced is, that by adding together the whole of the force exerted
by the two kinds of connecting rods respectively, during one entire rotation,
they both give the same actual amount ; thus proving, that no loss arises
from tlie use of the short connecting rod.

It is admitted, that there is some increase of friction on the journals of
the connecting rod joints, but this occurs only at tne extreme angles ; some
allowance is also to be made for the increased angular motion about the
lower joints of the rod, but they are not collectively of sufficient importance
to be considered as any objection in practice.

The calculations given are under the approval of Professor Airy, who thus
•expresses himself: — " The greatest force of the ' Gorgon' engines (when both
cranks are below the horizontal line) is greater than the greatest force with
common engines, but the least force is not less than the least force with com-
mon engines."

The whole power, in a complete revolution of the crank, is the same in
both.

That a long stroke engine, under certain circumstances, may be more ad-
vantageously employed than a short one, is admitted ; but considering the
steam engine per se, it is argued, that the latter possesses no advantage over
the former.

In two engines of equal power, equally well constructed, the length of the
stroke being respectively eight feet and four feet, the cylinder of the latter
having double the area of that of the former, making the same number of
revolutions per minute, and having the steam passages and valves of the same
area, it is clear, that the mechanical action of the steam must be identical,
because the same volume of steam will produce an equal mechanical effect,
whether it be introduced into a long narrow cylinder, or into a short wide
one ; setting aside the effect of working expansively, which, however, is not
at all affected by the shortening of the cyhnder : (or it is just as practicable
to shut oflf the steam at one-half, one-third, or one-fourth of the stroke of a
short cylinder as of a long one.

The most essential differences between these two engines must be in the
relative amount of friction, and of radiation of heat from the cyUnders and
passages.

In a well made engine four-fifths of the friction is due to the packings of
the piston, air-pump bucket, and stuffing boxes, and about one-fifth to the
gudgeons, crank pin, and other moving parts. The friction of the piston
packing is as the circumference multipUed into the space through which the
piston travels, and into the depth of the packing ; therefore in a cylinder 30
inches diameter, 8 feet long, the friction of the packing will be as 24. while
in a cylinder of 42-4 inches in diameter, 4 feet long, it will be only as 17.

The same train of reasoning is extended to the other moving parts, and
shows that if the total friction in the short stroke be 100, that of the long
stroke engine will be 123.

The radiation of heat from the cylinders will be as the relative areas of
surface, which is less in the short stroke than in the long.

An examination of the comparative friction of the moving parts of steam
engines is entered into ; rules for computing, and tabular results are given ;
and the author concludes by observing, that although the relative dimensions
selected as examples are uncommon in England, they are not so in America,
where pistons of marine engines frequently travel at the rate of three hundred
to four hundred feet per muiute. It is contended that the speed of the piston is
immaterial, provided the engine be well proportioned to the speed ; at the
same time bearing in mind that a slow speed will he more favourable for the
easy and pleasant working of the engine, and for durability. The paramount
objects to be aimed at in the construction of marine engines are, the greatest
saving of fuel, space, and weight, and the durability of the machine ; and as
the question is not whether the stroke should be eight feet or four feet, but
relates to a diminution from the present length of seven feet to probably six
feet, it is contended that the form of the " Gorgon "engines oflfers consider-
able advantages in the points treated of, independently of the positive dimi-
nution of weight and space, which forms no part of the immediate inquiry.

.\ drawing of the " Gorgon" engines accompanied the commiuiication.

1841.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

167

" Description of a Thirty-Ton Crane, erected on the Quay of Earl Grey's
Dock, Dundee Harbour." By James Leslie, M. last. C.E.

The Crane is placed on a stone platform sixteen feet square, raised six feet
above the level of the Quay, with its centre seven feet back from the Dock
face i and as the sweep or radius is thirty-five feet to the perpendicular of the
jib-sheave, the load is suspended twenty-eight or twenty-nine feet over the
Dock (as the double or single purchase sheave is used). The height of the
sheave above the level of the Qnay is forty feet.

Instead of the framing revolving about a fixed post, as in the usual mode
of construction, the post itself is connected with the framing, and turns with
it, so that the strain may be always in the direction of the greatest strength.

To avoid the extra dimensions of the castings for the post, if it bad been
composed entirely of cast iron, and for facility in the construction, the parts
of cast and wrought iron are so combined that the "push" is thrown upon
the cast-iron abutting piece which is placed in front, wliile the back part,
consisting of wrought-U-on tension bars, bears the " pull." Tlie two ring.s on
the post are turned on the face and edges, and being bolted together form a
fair surface for the friction rollers, while the back forms a rest for the tension
bars.

These back tension bai'S are three inches wide by two and a half inches
thick, each, forming an aggregate section of forty-five inches. They were all
proved in the bent form in which they are used, by making fast the ends of
each bar to cross heads held apart by two logs, and suspending a load of
twenty-four tons from the elbow formed by the bend in the bar ; this was
calculated to be equivalent to a longitudinal strain of ninety tons. There are
also two side tension bars, two inches square each, firmly sunk in the cast-
iron block, and bolted to the top of the framing.

The post revolves within a cast-iron cylinder twenty-seven feet deep, five
feet three inches diameter, with turned and bored water-tight joints. The
whole is surrounded with masonry, bound together by strong iron hoops and
diagonal tie bars passing through the fixed ring.

The jib is of oak two feet diameter in the middle, and twenty-one inches
at the ends ; the two wronght-iron jib stays are each three and a half inches
diameter; the chain is of 1 J inch iron. Eight men easily lift a weight of
thirty tons, and by means of the horizontal wheel-work one man can turn it
round.

The total weight of the castings, wrought-iron bars, chain, and brasses, is
about fifty-nine tons.

The crane was made and erected by Mr. Borrie, of Dundee, from the de-
signs and under the direction of the author.

The communication is accompanied by two elaborate working drawings,
on a large scale, with details of the mode of construction.

" A Refrigerator, or Machine for cooling Breioer's Wort." By Robert
Davison, M. Inst. C.E.

The macliine described in this paper was constructed for the purpose of
ascertaining the most expeditious process for cooling wort, without deteriorat-
ing the quality of the liquor.

Two kinds of preliminary experiments were made, viz. —

1st. As to the rate of cooling Ijy simple exposme to the atmosphere in the
ordinan- shallow vessel, having a superficial area of 420 square inches, the
liquor being 1 J inch deep.

2nd. As to the rate of cooling, under similar circumstances, with the as-
sistance of air mechanically driven over the surface of the liquor at difierent
velocities.

In both cases the loss by evaporation was noted.

The numerous experiments are detailed in a tabular form, whence may be
selected three series, which will give the average relative results.

M'ort cooled.

Naturally
under
Atmos-
pheric
Tempera-
ture, 75'.

1.

By Blast
at the rate
of32miles
per hour.
Temp. 65'

2.

Blast at
the rate of

47 miles
per hour.
Temp. 65'

3.

Blast at
the rate of
57 miles
per hour.
Temp. 65'

1

4. !

Blast at (
the rate of
84 J miles
per hour. 1
Temp. 65° ,

From 160' to 150'
From 130' to 120'
From 100' to 90'

1

min. sec.

3 33

1 8 30

22 5

1

min. sec.
2 ..
1 10
6 30

min. sec.

1 30

2 4

3 41

miu. sec

.. 41

1 6

3 18

min. sec.
.. 25

1 7

2 3

A higher velocity than 84^ miles per hour was found prejudicial, as a por-
tion of the wort was driven over the side of the vessel.
The relative loss by evaporation was

By natural cooling 1'40

By blast, at 32 miles per hour 1-45

Ditto at 57 miles 1'4"

Hence it would appear, that the evaporation effected was about the same
in all the experiments ; and the rate of refrigeration nearly in the direct ratio
of the velocity of blast.

These results induced the author to try other applications of the blast, by

causing the wort to flow down over a series of slightly inclined planes, being
exposed at the same time to a powerful ascending current of air from a fan
blower. The introduction of air directly into the wort was, however, found
to raise a froth or " fob," which would aft"ect the soundness of the beer.
Several other methods were tried, and at length the machine now described
was constructed.

Tlie wort is pumped u]) at a slow and regulated speed into a recipient at
the top of the machine, divides into a series of thin films or streams, and
trickles down the inside of a number of thin metallic tubes, set vertically,
with their upper extremities quite level. Up these tubes is forced a current
of air at any required velocity, which, meeting the descending wort, cools it
inside, whilst a constant change of cold water takes place around the exterior
of the tulies. The wort, on leaving the vertical tubes, is received into a
second refrigerator, containing a number of horizontal pipes through which
cold water flows. By this process the wort is cooled without producing any
prejudicial efiect upon its quality, and with a rapidity (as shown by tlie table)
wliicb would be extremely advantageous under certain circumstances.

Tliis communication was accompanied by two drawings of the Refrigerator,
and illustrated by a working model with which the experiments had been
made.

" An Account of the Repairs and Alterations made in the Structure of the
Menai Bridge, in consequence of the damage it received during the gale of
January 7, 1839." By T. J. Maude, Grad. Inst. C.E.

The roadway of the iVIenai Bridge having beeu seriously injured by the
storm of January 7, 1839, it was deemed expedient to renew entirely the
suspended platform : and at the same time to carr\- into effect certain altera-
tions in the construction, suggested by constant observation of the working
of the Bridge during thirteen years, as well as its condition after the storm.

■ In the original structure, each long roadway bar was fixed at three points
to the vertical suspending rods. Motion being chiefly communicated to the
roadway by the vibration of the windward chain, one end of the long bar sus-
pended from it was lifted up, whilst the other two points of suspension re-
mained nearly stationary. The bar thus became a lever with its fulcrum at
the middle point of attachment, and at that weakest part it invarialily broke.
In order to remedy this defect, an augmented depth of half an inch has been
given to the new roadway bars, with an additional enlargement round the
eyes for attachment to the suspension rods, and each bar is hnng from two
points only, permitting it to play when the Bridge is subjected to motion.

The same vibratory action occasioned frequent fracture of the suspending
rods close to the surface of the platform ; to s\ich an extent, that during the
storm a great portion of the platform was entirely torn from its fastenings
on one side, and hung down flapping in the gale supported merely by one
Une of rods. To remedy tliis, a joint has been introduced in each rod just
above the surface of the platform, so as to allow the suspension rods free ac-
tion, and ])ermit a motion in either of the carriage-ways or the footpath in-
dependently of each other. The dimensions of the short suspension rods
have been increased to one inch and a quarter square, whilst the remainder
of the rods are only one inch square. The effects of the lateral and undulat-
ing motions are provided against by the direction of the working of the joints,
one of them being in the line of the roadway bar, and the other at right
angles to it.

Additional rigidity has been given to the platform by applying a course of
three-inch planking laid transversely throughout its entire length, and bolted
through each plank at intervals of two feet six inches apart, the oak beams
originally placed beneath the platform having been entirely removed.

For the purpose of checking longitudinal undulation, two lines of beams,
formed of two pieces of Baltic fir, each 40 feet long, 13 inches deep, and 4J-
inches thick, are framed to the trussed bearers, and bolted up beneath each
carriage-way the entire length of the platform : at the same time an increased
depth has been given to the wheel guides, which are also bolted through to
to the planking. The total depth given by these strengthening beams and
guides, is three feet four inches, while in the original structure it was one
foot four inches.

The weight of the additional timber and iron-work introduced into the
bridge, is about 130 tons. The whole of the timber has been Kyanized, and
each coat of planking covered with Archangel tar ; the felt has been discard-
ed, as it does not appear to have answered its intended objects in the original
structure.

In these alterations (which were designed by Mr. Provis, M. Inst. C.E.)
one main object, which was never lost sight of, was to preserve that simpU-
city of construction which is so striking a feature in the original design; and
should any future derangements occur, any part can be repaired or replaced
without disturbing the rest of the stmctiure.

This communication was illustrated by a drawing of the original platform,
and of the alterations described in the Paper.

February 2. — The President in the Chair.
" On a Method of setting out involute Teeth of Wheels, so that any two
wheels of the same or of different diameters will wort truly together, whether
the teeth bottom or only just touch each other." By Edward Cowper.

The rule is briefly this : —

Point off the teeth on the pitch circle in the usual manner ; then take the
smallest wheel of the set, and having decided upon the depth of the proposed
tooth, describe a circle (caUed the Evolute) touching the bottom of the tooth.

168

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[May,

On all the otlier wlieels describe evoliite circles, bearing the same proportion
to their respective pitch circles, which the evolutc circle of the smallest wheel
bears to Us pitch circle — thus, if in the smallest wheel the evolute circle is
^th less than the pitch circle, let .ill the other evoliites be -Jjth less than
Iheir pitch circles. From these evolntc circles as bases, describe the involute
curves of the teeth, making the curves pass through the points set out for the
teeth, upon the pitch line.

" An Account of some Experiments to determine the force necessary to
punch holes throuijh plates of vrowjht iron and copper." By Joseph Col-
thiirst.

These experiments were performed with a cast-iron lever, 11 feet long,
multiplying the strain ten times, with a screw adjustment at the head, and a
counterpoise.

The sheets of iron and copper which were experimented upon were placed
between two perforated steel plates, and the punch, the nipple of which was
perfectly llat on the face, being inserted into a hole in the upper plate, was
driven through by the pressure of the lever.

The average results of the several experiments (which are given in a de-
tailed tabular form) show that

The power required

Inch diam.

Through an

Inch thick.

1

to force a punch

0-50

iron plate

0-08

is 6025 ft.

Ditto

0-50

Ditto

0-17

is 11,950 ft.

Ditto

0-50

Ditto
Through a

0-2^

is 17,100 ft.

Ditto

0-50

cop))er plate

0-08

is 3983 ft.

Ditto

0-50

Ditto

017

is 7883 ft.

Hence it is evident, that the force necessary to ])unch holes of different
diameters through metal of various thicknesses, is directly as the diameter of
the holes and the thickness of the metal.

A simple rule for determining the force required for punching, maybe thus
deduced.

Taking one inch diameter, and one inch in thickness, as the units of cal-
culation, it is shown that 150,000 is the constant number for wrought-iron
plates, and 96,000 for copper plates.

Multiply the constant number by the given diameter in inches, and by the
thickness in inches ; the product is the pressure in pounds, which will be
required to punch a hole of a given diameter, through a plate of a given
thickness.

It was observed, that duration of pressure lessened considerably the ulti-
mate force necessary to punch through metal, and that the use of oil on the
punch reduced the pressure about eight per cent.

A drawing of the experimental lever and apparatus accompanied the com-
munication.

" Geological Sections of Railway Cuttings." By Mr. Sopwith.

Mr. Sopwith called the attention of the meeting to the valuable Geological
Sections presented by the railway cuttings, and other engineering works now
in progress ; this was particularly the case on the North Midland Railway,
where the crops of the various seams of coal, with the interposing strata,
were displayed in the clearest manner, developing the geological structure of
the countiy which the railway traverses. Numerous similar instances induced
the British Association to devote a sum of 200/. (which it was bcUeved would
be increased from other sources), for obtaining authentic records of such
sections, before the action of the atmosphere or the progress of vegetation
should have obhterated the instructive pages of geology, which the engineer
had opened to view.

The Committee of the British Association, especially charged with this sub-
ject, were desirous of bringing it before the Institution of Civil Engineers, for
the double purpose of receiving from its Members those suggestions which
they are so competent to give, and of obtaining from them that powerful aid
and co-operation which the practical nature of their engagements so essen-
tially enabled them to afford ; it was accordingly suggested, that the Council
should receive from Graduates, descriptive papers and measured deUneations
of sections, as their communications previously to their Election. Much
assistance might thus be rendered, and the contributions, after having been
read at the Institution, might be added to the general series preserved in the
Museum of Economic Geology, which under its present able direction is be-
coming daily more interesting both to the engineer and the geologist.

Mr. Sopwith exhibited a specimen of a blank chart, prepared by Mr.
rhillips, of York, for the committee. It consisted of a sheet engraved in
squares, on a scale of 40 feet to an inch, containing a space equivalent to 800
feet in length, and COO feet in height, upon which it was proposed to delineate
the sections in their true vertical and horizontal proportions ; the base line
representing either the level of the sea at half tide, or the datum line of the
railway, as might be most convenient. There would remain in every case a
large portion of the sheet unoccupied by the section, and upon this it was
proposed to exhibit, on a magnified scale, the details of the section ; the fos-
sils and other organic remains might also be shown, as the divisions of the
squares would enable the sketches to be made of any dimensions in correct
proportions. .\n example of these charts had been prepared bv Mr. Phillips,

giving a section of a ilee|i cutting on a railway, the enlarged portion exliibit-
ing the details of the strata at two particularly interesting points, as also of
the specimens of sigillaria, stigmaria, &c. in that formation.*

Geological Models. — Mr. Sopwith also laid before the meeting a set of
models, which were intended as hand specimens for the purpose of familiarly
explaining faults, slips, or dislocations of the strata, and other geological
phenomena, which could not be clearly demonstrated without such assistance.
One of these models represented the horizontal deposition of stratified rocks,
and the svibsequent removal or degradation of such rocks, forming valleys of
denudation. Another, by the displacement of the lower rocks, exhibited the
formation of a slip dyke, or fault, which was the "lode or vein" of the
mineral miner, and the "fault" or "trouble" of the collier, as these inter-
ruptions of the continuity of the bed of coal were generally termed, .\nother
model showed a succession of slip dykes disturbing the stratification, so as to
present the appearance of a great abundance of coal at the surface by the
" cropping out" or "bassetting" of a number of seams or beds of coal, whereas
in reality there was only a repetition of the same beds. By examining the
base of the model, and also by opening it on an oblique plane nearly parallel
with, and at a short distance below, the surface, it would be found that there
was no coal at all. A fourth model exhibited the conditions under which
some of the largest collieries in the kingdom are wotked, namely, that the
seams of coal do not ajjpear on the surface, but on opening the model a ver-
tical section is exhibited, and the several beds are shown, disturbed as in the
former case by faults or dislocations, but which have not the effect of bring-
ing the coal to the surface.

It has always been difficult to demonstrate w ithout the aid of models the
apparent form of strata, as effected by the contour of the country ; sometimes
the rocks form a V, pointing up the valley, and sometimes in the opposite
direction. General observers and even practical miners were apt to conclude,
that this different direction of the point of the V, indicated a different direc-
tion of the strata, but the models showed that in both cases the direction of
the strata was the same ; that in both cases the rocks were inclined in the
same direction as the valley, the only difference being that in one case the
rocks form a greater, and in the other a less, angle with the horizon than the
bottom of the valley. The other models exhibited the " up-cast "and " down-
cast" which occur in coal mining, and intersections of veins of different ages,
&c. Most of the specimens shown presented details of the carboniferous
formation, but models of this description were of course applicable to every
formation and to every kind of geological structure. Mr. Sopwith brought
forward this subject in hopes that eventually a close union and active co-
operation might be estabhshed between the leading scientific institutions of
this country, and more especially that the Geological Society and the Insti-
tution of Civil Engineers would unite in promotingthe progress and improve-
ment of geology and engineering.

February 9. — The President in the Chair.
The following were balloted for and elected : Sir Charles Baird, as a Mem-
ber : Samuel Beazley, William Gossage, John Hughes, John Howkins, and
Charles Schafaeutl, M.D., as Associates.

" Upon the Application and Use of Aiuriliary Steam Power, for the pur-
pose of shortening the time occupied by Sailing Ships upon distant voyages."
By Samuel Seaward, M. Inst. C.E.

But few years have elapsed since the possibility of propelling vessels by the
power of steam was treated as a chimera ; and although the practicability of
its application for short voyages has been successfully demonstrated by the
numerous vessels plying between this country and the Continent, it is but of
very recent date that its employment for long sea voyages has been adopted.
The weight of the powerful machinery and the fuel, and the consequent loss
of space for cargo, together with many other circumstances attendant on the
present construction of steam vessels, induced the author (who received the
education of a seaman, and has since had extensive practice as an engineer)
to believe that a more efficient mode of employing steam power for long sea
voyages might be adopted.

Notwithstanding the great improvements which have taken place in the
construction of steam vessels, and their machinery, it would appear that the
duration of the voyage ought not to exceed twenty days, after which time a
fresh sui)]ily of fuel becomes necessary ; hence, steam has rarely been adopted
for very long voyages. The reason of this limit to the duration of the voyage
of a steam vessel, as at present equipped, is that an increase of power does
not produce a corresponding increase of speed, while the weight of the ma-
chinery increases in proportion to the power employed, and in some cases
exceeds it ; for instance, small engines, with the water in the boilers, gene-
rally w eigb about one ton per horse power, while in some large engines the
ratio is nearly twenty-five cwt. per horse power.

.\ quadruple increase of power will not produce double the original velocity
in a steam ship, although, in theory, such is assumed to be the case ; for as
the weight is more than doubled, the immersed sectional area becomes greater,
and a still further increase of power is necessary. It has been shown by ex-
perience, that if a vessel with a given power is propelled through the water

Specimens of the prepared sections ai.d blank charts may be obtained
from Mr. Delabeche or Mr. Jordan, at the Museum of Economic Geology,
Craig's Court, Charing Cross, or from the Secretary of the Institulion of Civil
Kngineers.

1841.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

I6f)

at the rate of eight miles pci- hour, her speed cannot he doiililefl, even though
the power he mnltiplied twelve times, and the entire hold of the vessel occu-
pied as an engine room.

The weight" of fuel is also in direct proportion to the size of the engines;
so that taking, for example, two vessels of two hundred and of four hundred
horses power respectively — that of the higher power will have to carry nearly
double the weight both' of fuel and of engines, and it is still questionable
whether the increased force will propel the one ship more than 1} mile per
horn' faster than the other.

The space occupied by the engines and fuel in the most valuable part of
the ship, is also an important consideration: neither the " President" nor
"British Queen" steamer, although of two thousand tons measurement, is
capable of earning more than live hundred tons of cargo when the fuel is on
board.

The author then examines the question of employing too much power in a
steam vessel, and refers to the " Liverpool," as an instance that such may be
the fact. It ajipears that with the original dimensions of thirty feet ten
inches beam, and engine power of four hundred and fifty horses, being a pro-
portion of power to tonnage of about 1 to 2}, the vessel was immersed four
feet beyond the calculated water line, and a decided failure was the natural
consequence ; but when the breadth of beam was increased to thirty-seven
feet, augmenting the capacity four hundred tons, and giving the proportion
of one horse power to .3J tons burthen, the performance of the engine and
the speed of tlie vessel were both materially improved.

The " Gem," Gravesend steamer, one hundred and forty-five feet long, by
nineteen feet beam, had two engines of fifty horses power e.ich; the speed
was insufficient, being only twelve and a half miles through the water ; but
Tvhen the same engines were placed in the " Ruby," which was one hundred
and fifty feet long, and nineteen feet nine inches Ijeam, the velocity of the
latter vessel was thirteen and a half miles per hour. A pair of engines, of
forty-five horses power each, were then placed in the " Gem," without alter-
ing the vessel, and in consequence of the diminished weight and draught of
water, lier speed then nearly etinalled that of the " Ruby."

The author does not condemn the application of considerable power for
vessels, provided it can be employed without materially increasing the weight
and the area of the immersed midship section. It appears that tifie length of
a steam voyage, to be profitable, is at present limited to twenty days for the
largest class of steamers ; that we have about thirty others which can approach
twelve days, while the majority cunnot em|doy steam beyond eight days suc-
cessively, without a fresli supply of fuel. It is evident, tliercfore, that more
efficient means must be adopted for the general wants of commerce in our
extended intercourse with the East and West Indies, the Pacific, Mexico,
Brazil, Australia, and all the distant colonies, wliich now demand rapid com-
munication with England.

Tlie author refers to a ]iamph!et, published by him in 1827, entitled, " Ob-
servations on the possibility of successfully employing Steam Power in navi-
gating Ships between this country and the East liidies by the Cape of Good
Hope." He therein proposed that large sq\iare-tigged ships, of fifteen hun-
dred to eighteen hundred tons measurement, should be fully equipped and
constructed, so as to sail ten or eleven miles per hour with a fair winil ; that
they should cariT engines of small power, to assist the sails in light winds,
propel them at a moderate speed during calms, work into and out of harbour,
&c., and thus shorten those portions of the voyage wherein so much time was
usually lost.

To all well-built good-sailing vessels, of four hundred tons and upwards,
*' auxiliary steam" is applicable. A steani engine of the necessary power can
without inconvenience be placed in such vessels, either on or between decks,
so as propel a ship at the rate of four to five nautical miles per hour in a calm,
and for this speed a proportion of one horse power to twenty-five tons is am-
ply sufiicient. The practicability of applying this system to East Indiamen
and other similar vessels is then examined at length, and it is shown that the
ordinary speed of these ships under sail is, before the wiiul, eleven to twelve
miles per hour, and in a gale thirteen to fourteen miles per hour, which is
greater by two or three miles per hour than that of any ordinary steam vessel
when under sail, on account of the latter bi-ing impeded by tlie wheels trail-
ing in the water, and the sUghtness of their masts, spars, and rigging. The
auxiliary steam power might, therefore, be cfliciently applied, either by using
it alone, or in conjunction with the sails, so as to keep up a uniform speed,
by which a great saving of time could be effected in a long voyage.

The conditions of sailing and steaming voyages to India, with the influence
of the trade-winds, are then examined, and the author proceeds to detail the
experiments made by him, on board the " Vernon" Indiaman, which was the
first scaling vessel that actually made a voyage out and home with " auxiliary
steam."

The "Vernon," built in 1839, by the owner, Mr. Green, was one thousand
tons burthen ; the sailing speed was about twelve to thirteen miles per hour
in a fresh gale, and being from her frigate build well calculated for tlie ex-
perimeut, it was determined to equip her with a condensing engine of thirty
horses power, placed midshi)is on the main deck, between the fore and main
hatchways ; the space occupied being twenty-four feet long by ten w ide. The
weight of the machinery was twenty-five tons, and it was so an'anged that
the motion was communicated direct from the piston cross-head by two side
rods to the crank on the paddle shaft, placed immediately behind the lower
end of the steam cylinder, which was horizontal. The wheels were fourteen
feet diameter, projecting five feet, and were so constructed that e float boards

could be raised to suit the draught of water of the ship; or they could be
taken entirely away, if necessary, leaving the shafts projecting only eighteen
inches beyond the sides. Under ordinary circumstances they were discon-
nected from the engine by a simple contrivance, consisting of a moveable
head, attached to the crank on the paddle shaft, by turning wliich, one quar-
ter of a circle, the crank pin was liberated, and the wheels turned freely round.
The " Vernon," thus equipped, having on board nine hundred tons of cargo,
and sixty tons of coal, drew seventeen feet of water. In the first trial the
speed of the vessel, under steam alone, was five and three-quarters nautical
miles per hour, demonstrating how small a power is necessary for a moderate
speed. She then started for Calcutta, and though the piston rod broke three
times during the voyage, owing to a defect in one of the paddle shaft beai--
iugs, the passage was satisfactoiy. Tlie details are given minutely, as are
also those of those homeward voyage, which was performed from Calcutta to
London in eighty-eight days, to which must be added seven days for neces-
sary delay at the Cape, making a total of ninety-five days, which is the shortest
passage on record. Great credit is given to Captain Denny for the judgment
with which he used the auxiliary steam pow-er, aiid the course taken by him,
by which he was enabled to overcome the difficulties incidental to a first trial
of so important a system. The success of the " Vernon," induced the imme-
diate application of engine power to the " Earl Ilardwicke" Indiaman, and
both these vessels arc uow on their voyage out to Calcutta.

This communication was accompanied by drawings of the " Vernoa" and
the " Earl Ilardwicke," and by a chart, on which was laid down the proposed
daily course of a steam ship, on a voyage to and from Calcutta, showing where
sails only are necessary, then where steam alone, and also when the joint
agency of steam and wind would be required. Also, the daily progress of the
" Jlarquis of Huutly " Indiaman, of fourteen hundred tons burthen, on a voy-
age to India and China, and home, from tlie author's own observation, in the
year 1816.

For the purpose of demonstrating the ratio of power to velocity, a Table
was also given showing the velocities of ships of different tmniage, having
steam power of various ratios, deduced from upwards of one hundred experi-
ments on large steam vessels. The mode of disengaging the cranks was illns-
trated by models showing the gradation, from the complication of the first
idea, to the beautiful sim]jlicity of the present plan, which is now employed
on board of the Government war steamers.

ROY.iL INSTITUTE OF BRITISH .ARCHITECTS.
April 19.

The Institute met for the first time after the Easter recess. Jos. Kay
Esq., V. P., in the Chair.

Beriah Botfield, Esq., M. P., was unanimously elected au Honorary Fellow.

The Secretary anuounced the subjects for the prizes for the ensuing Ses-
sion, viz. a restoration of Crosby Place, Bishopsgate Street, with the addition
to the medal of ten guineas liberally oftered by Miss Hacket, to whom the
puldic are so sreatly indebted for the ])reservatioii of what remains of that
fine specimen of the Palatial .irchitecture of the IJth century; an essay on
the properties of light, shade and reflection in architecture, and another on
the eiTects which may resiUt to architectural desiga, fi-om the general use of
cast iron in construction.

A paper was read by Mr. Poynter, Fellow, on the state of M'indsor Castle,
previously to the erection of the existing domm rcgk by Edward HI, in the
nth century. It is unnecessary to enter into any analysis of this paper, as
the materials were drawn from a prefatory essay to Sir Jeft'ry Wyatville's
iliustralions of Windsor Castle, which will immediately lie in the hands of
the public ; but that portion of it which was laid before the Institute, was
made illustrative of a ground plan, in which the condition of the Castle, as
it was left after the extensive alterations of Henry IH. v\as laid down upon
the authority of original documents, the greater part of which have now been
brought to light for the first time.

A communication was it ad from John AMiitc, Esq., in pursuance of the
subject brought before the Institute at a former meeting, the remains of
ecclesiastical architecture in the pointed style, at Wisby, in Gothland. Mr.
AVhite's supplementary paper went to support, by the authority of Torfceus,
and other historians, his theory on the date of those buildings, by adducing
evidence on the advanced state of the arts in Seajidinavia, as early as tlie
tenth centuiT,

The meeting adjourned to the refreshment of tea and coffee in the Library.

On Monday evening of the 2Gtb ult., the President Earl de Grey, opened
bis house for the reception of the Members of the Society. The Council
had the honour of dining with his Lordship, and the conversazione which
followed was attended by a numerous party of noblemen and gentlemen emi-
nent in art, science and literature. The Marquis of Lansdowne, Lord Prud-
hoe, Mr. Baron Parke, Mr. Rogers, Sir Edward Cust, Sir Henry Ilalford,
Sir Henrv Ellis, Sir Richard Westmacott, Sir Francis Chantrey, Sir Frede-
rick Madden, Sir Gardner Wilkinson, Sir John Rennie, Sir Isambard Brunei.
Professor WiUis, the President of the Institute of Civil Engineers. Mr. Allan
gnnningham, Mr. Copley Fielding, Mr. Ross, Mr. Harding, Mr. Haghe,
and Mrl Joseph Nash were among the guests. A small party of ladies were
also present, including the Dudiess of Northumberland, the Marchioness o£
Lansdowne, &c. The tables were covered with works of art, among wliioli
Mr. Nash's splendid drawings of old English mansions were conspicuous.

2 A

170

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[May,

RANDC M NOTES ON STEAM NAVIGATION.

"A VERY cursory survey of the various nations into wliicli in tlie
designs of Providence this eartli of ours is portioned, c;innot fail to
oxcite our wonder and admiration of His master-workings for tliis our
favoured hahitation. While the British Isles appear a mere speck,
as it were, upon the surface of the ocean, and are gifted with none of
what are usually described as the more precious productions of nature,
and while Golconda with her diamonds, and Peru with her gold, have
■ scarce yet emerged from the obscurity of barbarism, we are naturally
led to the enquiry as to hon- our little nation has surmounted the diffi-
culties that might have daunted her energies and baflled h'T progress,
and marched triumphantly forward until the clarion other renown and
the majesty of her sceptre have awed the very outskirts of the world.
With a soil requiring laborious tillage for its culture, but with that
al)undautly productive of the necessaries and even the luxuries of life,
with mines rich in the baser ores, yet prompting the researches of the
chemist, the metallurgist, and the 'manufacturer, to administer to their
profitable appropriation, and with such vast resources in her coal fields
as have abundantlv sufficed for the efficient development of her other
subterraneous resources, her native energies have been kindled through
difficulties. Scorning the limits of indigenous productions, the world
luis been ransacked for the gratification of her insatiable enterprizers.
Nation after nation has bowed to her triumphant sway, while at home
she has devi ted herself to such subtle ingenuities as have, at length,
evented in her careering through space with the velocity of the eagle,
or tramjjling over the ocean as the mighty leviathan."*

A review of the progress and extension of the art of steam navi-
gation would be the highest testimonial of its intrinsic and consum-
mate importance Twenty years have scarce elapsed since, amid
incredulitv and ridicule, Fulton committed his little steam pinnace to
the bosom' of the Hudson ; and long posterior to that event, the idea
of traversing the ocean by the agency of steam was regarded as vi-
sionary and unattainable. Yet, within a few years, have we witnessed
not merely the realization of this idea, but the extension of steam
navigation to every part of the habitable globe. Every sea has be-
come the scene of its triumphs— every land the recipient of its at-
tendant Ijenoficence. The frigid barriers of the pole have been con-
strained to attest its power— the dreary wastes of the Atlantic have
been compellixl to acknowledge its sovereignty. Art has usurped the
dominion of Nature, and subjected even the elements to its sway. It
would be difficult to form any adequate estimate ol the effects on the
moral and jdivsical condition of mankind which may be expected to
arise from the operation of this wonder-working agent. Every line
of rapid and commodious communication between nation and nation
is a channel through which knowledge, civilization and benignity will
flow ; and these main streams, by their subdivision into numerous
minute ramifications, will transmit to the most obscure regions a por-
tion of their invigorating influence, like the generous river of Egypt,
which distributes its waters through innumerable channels to revive
and fertilize the thirsty soil. Amid the general enlightenment re-
sulting from these influences, national antipathies will be extinguished,
and superstition and intolerance will cease to exist, and the irresis-
tible progress of knowledge, the stately march of liberty, the happy
approach of that period \vhen the gorgeous East shall cease to shower
on her kings tmrbaric pearls and gold, may be referrible to the achieve-
ments of modern ingenuity in the completion of this its most stupen-
dous monument.

it would be irrelevant to our present purpose to pursue these con-
siderations. We therefore proceed at once to announce our intention
to embody, in a series of articles, the essential part of whatever infor-
mation respecting steam navigation we ourselves possess, to explain
tliose scientific principles which are essential to an intimate knowledge
of the marine steam engine, and to communicate such practical details
and precepts as extensive opportunity of investigation and consider-
able experience have enabled us to collect.

It is a circumstance which has frequently excited surprise and
regret, that notwithstanding the important position which steam navi-
gation has now universally assumed, there is yet no practically useful
treatise devoted to its consideration. Dr. Lardner's elegant treatise
on the steam engine is only adapted to the unin'ofessional reader, and
the able treatise of Mr. Farey does not, in the only volume that has
yet been published, embrace the subject of steam navigation. The
recent edition of Tredgold contains much valuable information on the
subject of steam navigation in the form of an appendix; but having
been communicated by different individuals, it wants unity and some-
times consistency. Useful facts and valuable deductions are mixed

* Xho igl ts on Stea n Leo iioLin, \Ven!e, 1840.

up with inexact information and irrelevant narrative. To make a ju-
dicious selection from such a heterogeneous compilation to appropriate
what is important and authentic, and reject what is valueless or inac-
curate, |)re-supposes the possession of that knowledge which it is the
object of the student to obtain.

The production of a useful practical treatise upon the subject of
steam machiiiery requires the agency of an able practical engineer,
and there are few skilful engineers who cannot more bene fici.dly occupy
their time than in suljjecting themselves to the unrequited labours of
authorship. Among the makers of steam engines there are some who
possess the requisite knowledge for the production of an able and
valuable treatise upon the machinery of steam vessels, but indepen-
dently of the importance of their time, there exists the strongest dis-
inclination to reveal the mysteries of their profession, or to furnish
any information relative to the qualities or nature of particular modes
of construction. Each maker considers that he possesses some superior
contrivance, arrangement or adjustment, the secret of which he desires
to retain for his individual benefit, and the nature of which he endea-
vours to keep unknown even to his own workmen. Some regard the
setting of the valves as .their forte— others the proportion of their
boilers, and others the peculiar mode of finishing or fastening certain
parts of the machinery. The acquisition of a competent knowledge
of the business of an engineer is in consequence an achievement of the
utmost difficulty — information has often to be clandestinely obtained,
and of the few who by dint of assiduity and good fortune, succeed in
forcing their way into the sacred penetralia, appeared desirous to
avenge himself for the labour, by excluding as many as possible of his
neighbours.

We cannot but regard the secrecy which has been attempted to be
preserved upon these subjects, as a reproach to the present liberal
and enlightened age. It is a remnant of the ancient policy which
nearly a century ago governed Boulton and Watt's establishment, and
which, though at that time circumstances might perhaps have rendered
it prudent and advisable, is at the present day inexcuseable and ridi-
culous. What secrets are they which the makers of steam engines
have it in their ))ower to conceal? Their works go abroad to the
world, are cast in the course of events into the hands of other engi-
neers, by whom they are dissected and criticised, when every pecu-
liarity they possess is at once recognized and made public. Is it then
expedient to reveal the existence of an illiberal spirit where it is im-
practicable to exercise an illiberal policy? Is it wise to proclaim to
the v\orld that we would desire to repress the interchanges of know-
ledge, and restore the ancient dominion of ignorance and empiricism?
Have we the hardihood or the indiscretion to confess that with us
impotency is the only limitation to restriction ? " The whole tendency
of eni|)irical art is to bury itself in technicalities, and to place its pride
in particular short cuts and mysteries known only to adepts ; to sur-
prise and astonish by results, but to conceal processes. The character
of science is the direct contrary. It delights to lay itself open to in-
quiry, and is not satisfied with its conclusion till it can make the road
to them broad and beaten: and in its applications it preserves the
same character; its whole aim being to strip away all technical mys-
tery, to illuminate every dark recess, and to gain free access to all
processes, with a view to improve them upon rational principles.*"
But it would be vain to expect that engineers will become converts to
these enlightened views so long as their supposed interests lie in
another direction — so long as they imagine the exercise of a craft to
be more profitable than the practice of a i]rofessioii, and that it is
practicable to conceal, and yet employ the secrets of which they ima-
gine themselves to be possessed. The constitution of human nature is
opposed to such a consuinm ition ; and it would be too much to expect
that our mechanical engineers should be an exception to the general
disinclination to sacrifice accredited private interest to the cause of
philantlirophy or of public duty.

The extinction of this spirit would be productive not merely of
benefit to the community, but would enliance the reputation and pro-
mote the interests of our leading engineers themselves — we shall ac-
complish an object which we conceive ought to be generally acceptable,
if we contribute to the obliteration of this, the only blot with which
their fdr fame is sullied.

It will be manifest from the title we have chosen, that in the obser-
vations we have to offer, we do not bind ourselves to an adherence to
systematic arrangement —nevertheless we shall endeavour to thread
all our memorandums upon the same string, and that too with some
apj.roximation to order. For the sake of continuity it will often be
necessary to repeat what may have been said before: indeed we ad-
vance no pretensions to originality, although we are sensible it maybe

• Sir J. Ilcrschcll.

1841.1

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

171

found that much of the information we may furnish is not to be found
in anv other publication.

The heads under which our observations will be given, are —

1st. Heat.

2nd. Steam.

3rd. Investigation of the reciprocal proportions of marine engines.

4th. Investigation of the requisite strength of the parts of ditto.

5th. Boilers.

Gth. Practical details.

Critical and illustrative annotations by Mr. Farey, Dr. Lardner and
others, will he appended, which, for the sake of distinction, will be
marked with Iheir respective initials.

Beth.

WESTMINSTER BRIDGE.

In the preceding volumes of our Journal we gave several notices of
the repairs and improvements in progress at Westminster Bridge, and
have now great pleasure in fulfilling our promise of continuing them.

The second coffer dam has been closed within the last five months,
and a more successful result from work of this description we have
never witnessed ; indeed it appears to be one of the greatest triumphs
of hydraulic engineering, to find a dam, (erected in a tidal river with
a rise and fall of Is feet of water, and exposed to every trial that one
of the severest winters on record could subject it to,) so completely
resist the efforts of its most insidious adversary, that after the wear
and tear of five months, there is scarcely sufficient water from leakage
to supply the ordinary demand of the works, and this too, on ground
that was declared unsuited for the purpose, by the engineer who con-
structed the bridge, and by all who succeeded him up to the time when
the present works were commenced, if we may judge from the way
in which they carried on the repairs, ard from the schemes for restor-
ing it as exhibited in their reports.

The present dam encloses the IG feet and 15 feet piers. Of the
former we have only to observe, that the foundations were found
similar to those in the first dam, the caisson resting on abed of gravel,
underneath which was the blue clay ; they have since been secured in
the manner already described in a former notice (vol. ii. p. 203j, and
the masons are proceeding with the new facing, of Bramley-fall stone,
above the lowest low water mark, and also with the extension of the
pier on the upper side, whereby the roadway may at any future time be
widened 12 feet, without again having recourse to the expensive pre-
paration of coffre dams.

The 15 feet pier is the one memorable in-the history of the bridge,
as having, by its sinking, delayed the opening to the public for three
years, and given an apology to the party opposed to Labelye, (the
engineer), to assail him with every slander that malice could invent,
and by tampering with the commisioners, to nearly prevent the com-
pletion of the bridge according to his original design. How severely
this treatment affected Labelye, we may see from a work published by
him afterwards, in which he repels their attacks with great spirit, and
with a bitterness that must have arisen from feeling himself deeply
injured. We will here give a few extracts from this work, detailing
the extent of damage done to the bridge by the accident, and the
means he adopted to remedy it.

"On the 14th November 1746, the bridge and the roads and streets
on both sides were completely finished, and the whole was performed
in seven years nine months and sixteen days. The commissioners in-
tended soon after to have opened the bridge for the service of the
public, but were prevented by an accident entirely unforeseen, and not
easily accounted for. In the months of May and June, 1747, the wes-
tern fifteen foot pier was perceived to settle, very gently at first, but
so much faster towards the end of July, that it was thought ab-
solutely necessary to take off the balustrades, &c., by the continuation
of the settling, the adjoining arches lost their semicircular figure, and
considerable openings in the joints showed them in danger, some of
their stones both in itieir fronts and soffits were split and broken, and
one of them actually fell out of the least arch into the river."

The first steps taken weie to carry up the two external piers of the
two arches that were damaged quite solid, in rubble stone and mortar, to
the level of the top of the arches, and to load them sufficiently, in
order to preserve the other arches and piers of the bridge ; centers
were then put up to carry the two arches, and they commenced loading
the damaged pier. The account of the last proceeding Labelye thus
describes; "the whole weight of load placed on the said pier was so far
magnified by writers of daily news and monthly magazines, as to be
called 12,000 tons, while it never did exceed 700 tons, which was about
a third of what I intended to load it with." What prevented this, was
the influence of the party opposed to him, who persuaded the com-

missioners that further loading would be dangerous, and prevailed on
them to give him orders to unload the pier, and take down the damaged
arches." "This order," says he, "was the first and only one I ever
received from the commissioners contrary to my judgment or opinion,
and which I obeyed, but I oion nut wil/wiil some concern."

We may here remark that the execution of this order, (as will be
seen in the latter part of our notice,) has allowed the pier to remain in
an unstable condition ever since, and had it not been for the successful
repair lately effected, must finally have occasioned the destruction of a
portion of the bridge.

His next proceeding was to inclose the foundation with 12 in. piles,
and to rebuild the arches ; "the dove-tailed piles were driven all round,
close to the bed of timber on which the pier is built, and so deep as
to reach about 15 feet under it all round, and afterwards were all sawn
off" low enough below low water mark, as never to be any obstruction to
the navigation of any boat or vessel. Then the two damaged arches
were rebuilt the very same in appearance, but with uuicli less material
in the inside."

After the preceding extracts, an account of the state in which
the pier was found when the water was excluded from the dam, and
of the works executed since then to secure its stability, cannot fail to
be interesting to our readers.

On the removal of the ground about the pier, the joints of the dove-
tailed piling, described above, were found any thing but close, and to
make the matter worse, several of the piles had broken in the driving.
As no dependence could be placed in this work, new sheet piling, of the
same description as that used for the IG feet pier, was driven all round,
enclosing the foundation, thus at once preventing the escape of the
finest particles of sand from under the pier. The old piles were after-
wards sawn off at a low level, in preference to drawing them, as it was
thought their removal might disturb the ground.

During the progress of driving the piles, considerable movement
took place in the adjoining arches, showing evident symptoms of further
sinking in the pier, and to prevent any injurious eHect upon the ma-
sonry, strong shoring of whole timbers was fixed from the coffre dam
to the sofiit of the 64 feet arch, a precaution that has been attended
with considerable advantage, as the arch stones have remained nearly
uninjured, although several of the mortar joints were broken.

On the removal of the ground within the sheet piling, the project-
ing part of the timber bottom of the caisson was found to be broken
and separated from that part underneath the pier, this had arisen from
the space intended for the caisson not having been dredged sufticiently
large to receive it, so that it was resting on the slope of the excava-
tion, the centre part being hollow, until the weight of the masonry-
broke away the sides and allowed the pier to settle on the loose sand
and gravel which had run in ; the level of the blue clay being nearer
the surface at this pier than the adjoining one, the excavation was
principally in that material, and its intense stiffness will account for
the dislocation that took place in the timber work.

The critical position of this part of the work recjuired much cau-
tion, and in applying a remedy to so uncommon a case, we are glad to
bear testimony to the most perfect success 6f the plan adopted; we
have no doubt that this pier is now as trustworthy as any of the others
that have been taken in hand.

The whole of the disturbed foundation timbers were removed, as
also all the loose and muddy ground to the solid clay — the depth in
some parts being as much as two feet, — under the foundations a body
of concrete was filled in, level with the underside of the caisson, and
to increase the bearing of the pier, timbers were laid parallel to the
sides of the caisson, crossed by others placed IS inches apart, and in-
serted to the length of 2 feet G inches under the masonry, — -to insure
their perfect bearing each timber was cut wedge form, and driven tight
into the space it was intended to occupy. This operation was con-
tinued all round the pier, thus increasing its bearing surface about
three feet on each side.

Fioni that level a mass of brickwork was built, backed with con-
crete to receive the stone work of the pier, which in this case is to
form a projecting footing of masonry, and the space within the sheet
piling is to be finished with a capping similar to the other piers.

The masons are now employed Ujion this part of the work, aud in
extending the pier for widening the roadway, and if we may judge
from the number of men employed, aud vast store of materials pro-
vided, no very long time will elapse before the use of that magnificent
temporary work, the dam, may be dispensed with.

We are happy in having had this opportunity of removing the un-
certainty and error that has hitherto prevailed about the settling of
this jiier,— it has always been attributed to the ballast-men lifting
gravel too near the foundations, and the late Mr. Telford and others in
their plans for securing the piers, had only one object in view, that of
preventing any farther scour from the river — in the present instance

172

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[May,

we find tliat there was another and more serious danger to guard
against, and that without the assistance of the coffre dam, the sunken
pier could /itctr have been made secure— on tlie contrary, that any at-
tempt by driving piles or otherwise, if access could not have been had
to the interior might liave proved fatal to the adjoining arches.

We hope soon to have it in our power to announce, that the com-
niissioners sec that the time has arrived when they may confer a great
and lasting benefit on the public, by widening the roadway of the
bridge, "a consummation devoutly to be wished," by every one
who has occassion to pass over it in its present narrow and crowded
state.

ON THE POWER OF THE SCREW.

Sir — Permit me to offer you the following article which i hope you
vill deem worthy of publication in your Journal.

I am your most obedient servant,

Bfuff, ' i- R- CuisEX.

March 30, 1840.

I liave been often consulted as to the application of the screw as a
mechanical power, and frequently found theory at variance with prac-
tice, this le<l me to an investigation of the rule generally used, for
calculating its power, to practical trials of its power, and to an eluci-
dation of a rule diflerent from all those I know to be in use, which I
trust will be found correct.

The Rev. Mr. Bridges in his work on Mechanics, p. 25.1, states, that
P : W : : rf : cirf. of cylinder, d being in his words the distance
between two threads of the spiral, in p. •l'^', he says that^ : W : :
d : cirf.of cyUnder,andP ; p : : cirf.cylinder : cirf. of circle f.r<f5«o

2;jaP
P : W : : d : cirf. of circle • "' —

.w

d

a z= length of lever, but

the

tlie nut, the tlireads of the nut pass over the same space ou the threads
of the screw, and both (/. c. the threads of the nut and the threads of
the screw) sustain equal parts of the weight or pressure.

The power gained by the Rev. Mr. Bridge's formula by taking cre-
dit for the circumference of the lever, and dividing by but half the
elevation of the inclined plane, is more than lost by omitting the ad-
vantage gained by the inclined plane in laige screws, and the power
of small diameter screws is overrated.

I am convinced that the true basis for calculating the power of the
screw is P ; W :: d : circumference of cylinder, (i being the height
of the inclined plane or the elevation or depression obtained by each
revolution of the cylinder, then this advantage multiplied by the power
applied, and the product divided by the height of the inclined plane,
that is.

As the elevation obtained at each revolution, or as the height of the

inclined plane,
: circumference of the cylinder,

; ; the power applied
; the weight or pressure,

P X circumference of cylinder , - ,
or W =; T- '— ; the formula most generally

wanting in use.

.Suppose three screws, each of i inch thread, worked by a lever 90
inches long, the lever moved by a windlass of one ton power, the screws
to be of 3, '', and 9 inches diameter, we have the weight raised or
pressure produced, by the

lie makes ;; = 3-1415, and also ;j= the power acting on the surface of
the cylinder, thus making p in the same equation variable and invaria-
ble, 'in his application of the above formula he uses/y = 3-141.i, but
emits ;^= power acting on the surface of the cylinder, he adds in a
note (6) that P : W : : rf : cirf. of the circle. Whatever he the
thirhita-i of the cylinder on which the seven' is cut. He then gives this
rule. The power necessary to sustain the weight or produce the
pressure will ahvavs bear to that weight or pressure, the ratio of the
distance between any two spirals of the screw to the circumference

(2;; <iP\
W = — - — I

■weight to be raised or pressure produced is equal to twice the radius
of the lever X 3-1415 X the power applied, and this product divided
bv the distance between the threads.
' The first objection that struck me was why d should represent the
distance between the spirals, and not the elevation of the inclined
jilane, or the elevation or depression obtained by each revolution of
the cylinder, this is generally the distance between two threads + the
thickness of the thread, or twice the distance between two threads;
it is obvious that if the thread be i inch, and the distance between the
threads i inch, that the elevation of the inclined plane, or the eleva-
tion or depression obtained at each revolution of the cylinder will be
one inch.

The second objection was to the deduced conclusion that the diame-
ter of the cvlii.der was of no importance, or that a screw of 2 inches
diameter was as powerful as one of 12 inches or 100 inches. Suppose
that no lever is used, and that the thread is tlie same in eicb, say k
inch, and that the advantage obtained by the inclined plane be calcu-
lated we have for the 2 inch diameter screw 1 : (>2S3 : I P : M',
and fur the 12 inch diameter 1 : 37'G;iS : : P : W, that is, the 12
inch diameter considering it merely as an inclined plane will sustain
in equilibrio sis times the weight with the same power that the 2 inch
diameter screw will sustain.

That this power or advantage could be lost by the application of
the same lever is absurd.

The third objection was to multipl\ ing by the circumference of the
circle formed by the extremity of the lever, instead of by the radius of
the lever, as well may the circumference described by every lever be
calculated, the error in calculating the power of the wheel and axle by
the circumference would be apparent; in fact a screw is but a re-
volving inclined plane. Motion and power being communicated to it
by a lever ; moreover this inclined plane is properly speaking a fox-
wedge, that is, two inclined planes of equal height acting on each
Other, for whatever space the threads of the screw pass over that of

tons.
90X1 : 848-205
;>Oxl : 1696-41
90X1 : 2546-15

3 inch diameter screw thus 1 : 9-4-245
by the l5 ditto 1 : 18-849

by the 9 ditto 1 : 28-2735

By the Rev. Mr. Bridge's formula we liave for the three but one

2^aP . „, 2x3-1415x 90X1 ,,„r,„,.
"^ ' ' >^' — . — - — = 1130-94 tons.

2

power, W

, i. e. W

It is to be remembered that one-tliirdof the calculated power of the
screw is lost by friction.

It is my opinion that the screw could be made to supersede the
capstan in patent slips and dockyards, and that it could be used to the
greatest advantage in submarine operations and excavations: its prac-
tical application to these objects will form the subject of another
article.

COMPETITION.

Sir — A very suspicious looking advertisement haviug appeared iu the
Times of the 12th instant, offering a premium of 20/. lor deigns, estimates
and specifications for a clnnch to hold SOO or 1000 persons, to be built at
Turnham Green, 1 applied according to the directions giveu iu tLe advertise,
meiit, for informatiou upon two or three points of some importance, viz. how
nmcli money it is proposed to exjiend — what means the advertisers would
take to ascertain th.it the accejiteil design could be executed for the estimate
which accompanied it — and whether the successful candidate would be em-
ployed in case he proved to be an architect of good reputation and experi-
ence. In answer to which queries I am informed,
" That the site is level and the soil gravel —

Tliat the expenditure is not to exceed J£3,500— '

That one-third of the sittings are to be free —

That no vaults are required —

And tliat these are the only additional particulars the Secretary to tiie
Conmnttec can furnish."

Perhaps you can tied room to publish this informatiou for the benefit of
the profession.

I am, Sir, vour obedient senaat,

H. T.

Jpril 19, 1841.

Inclosed is my name and address.

Sh-iim Navigation Iv tlif Weil /flrfiVs.— Tlie first of the splendid line of steam
packets intended to carry the mails betwixt this country and ihe West Indies,
has been launcluil from tho building-yacd of Messrs. Duncan and Company,
at Greenock. This vessel, which is IfjOO tons hurlhen, has been named TIte.
Cli/fit: and is described as having a most perfect model. Her ensines, made
by Messrs. Caird and Co., are ni readiness, and will he put in witliout delny.
lliere are at present six of this line of packets, all of die same tonnage, build-
ing on the Cly<!e ; four at Greenock, one at Port-Glasgow, and one at Dum-
barton ; and there is also one at Leilh. — Glasgoiv Argus.

1S41.J

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

173

BEVIE-WS.

The Competition for the Kelson Monument critically examined. By
John' Goldici'tt.

Thoughts on the ^/3 buses of lie Present System of Competition in Archi-
tecture, with em outline of a Plan for their Remedy; in a letter to
Earl de Grey. By Harry Austin.

Perhaps no instance that has evei' occurred, has shown the utter
worthlessness of competition, under the present system, in so strong
a light as that for the Nelson monument. The usual cases of fraud
and imposition got up hy parish officers and attorneys to extract de-
signs from arcliitects witliout undergoing the ceremony of paying for
them, carry each its own stigma ; but here is a competition establislied
by a committee of men of unimpeachable integrity, with a sincere
desire to elicit a design worthy of the nation, and what is the result ?
According to the opinion of an honourable and influential member of
the committee. Lord Colborne, " there was not a single model or de-
sign that came up to what might have been reasonably anticipated, or
which would justify the committee in selecting it as a fit and proper
monument for so great a man as the hero whose achievements they
were anxious to celebrate." Rotten must be the system which could
produce such a result under such circumstances, if this judgment were
true, or which conld permit it, if untrue, to pass without general re-
probation : and be it remembered, that the censure includes the design
chosen, and now in progress of execution.

It is impossible to deuy that the exhibition of the hundred designs
and upwards submitted to the committee, was any thing but credit-
able to the state of British art, and such will be the character of all
such exhibitions, as long as a system, or a want of system, is pursued
vhich tends lo keep every man who respects himself out of the field.
It is certain that a very small proportion indeed of the artists who
entered into the Nelson competition were of that class which the
committee intended to encourage, and who might have been success-
fully encouraged with very little trouble ; and of those few there is not
perhaps one who has not sighed over the loss of his time and labour,
which he might have assured himself before-hand vpould be thrown
away. Here is Jlr. Goldicutt, for exam]ile, who gives us a Jeremiad
on the injustice of the Nelson comi.ietition. The cjuestion is obvious,
nrhy had he any thing to do with it, and what did he expect ? Did he
shut his eyes, his ears, and his understanding to all that was going
forward long before the designs were received? Did nothing strike
him as deficient or coutrhJictory in the conditions and instructions put
forth by the committee, which might have led him to suspect they did
not quite understand their own meaning or know their own intentions:
or to doubt their competency for what they had undertaken ; or did it
BOt occur to him that they bad neglected' the most ordinary precau-
tions to assist their judgment and to secure fair play to the candidates ?
and did he make no inquiries to satisfy himself on these points? If
he did not, others did, who found their remonstrances and suggestions
rejected with the most self-suflicient obstinacy, tempered, it is but
just to add, by the utmost courtesy to all appficants on the part of
Mr. Scott. And then, why, in the name of common justice, were the
competitors encouraged to exercise their invention through every con-
ceivable modification of public memorial, from a simple statue to a full
grown terajjle of Victory, when it was as notorious as the sun at noon
day that nothing but a column had the remotest chance of acceptance.
Enough had been said at public meetings by the most iniluential pro-
moters of the scheme, to satisfy any one possessing an average share
of observation, that the current set" in that direction too strongly to be
turned. Why, therefore, did Mr. Goldicutt take the trouble to deliver
liiraself of what he might be very sure would be strangled for a mon-
ster in the Foundling Hospital to which it was to be consigned ? Upon
the taste or wisdom displayed by the committee in decidino- upon a
column in general, or on Mr. Railton's colunm in particular, or ou any
design at all if they were all so bad as Lord Colborne would persuade
us, there is no occasion to give an opinion. Whether we consider a
column the best of all possible monuments, and Mr. Railton's the best
of all possible columns, or maintain the very reverse, in no way affects
the conclusion— that gross mismanagement produced a result which
seems to have astonished the committee, though it could produce no
other, and that a great injustice was committed in not ascertaining
beforehand, what was perfectly notorious, that the accepted desi-'u
would be a column and nothing else, and issuing instructions accord-
ingly. Those who play so recklessly with the labours of architects
ought to consider that life is short and drawing paper dear.

For the mischiefs which arise to the profession and the public from
the disgrac eful state of competition, Mr. Austin steps forth with a

string of remedies, every one more futile and inefficient than another,
the grand nostrum being that the whole conduct of competitions should
be placed under the management of the Institute of British Architects
— a proposal very complimentary to the Institute, and one which they
would only be doing their duty aud carrying out their professions by
taking into consideration. But setting aside several objections which
occur, it is only necessary to mention one which Mr. Austin seems to
have overlooked, viz. that the plenary authority of the Institute must
be first recognized by all concerned, or likely to be concerned, and un-
luckily the parties most dipped in competition (may they speedily
have it all to themselves,) are precisely those wdio are most interested
in maintaining the status in quu. Besides, suppose the most satis-
factory arrangements to be established, no one %vould be bound to
abide by them, as Mr. Austin may see by reference to the Journal for
October last, when he will find Mr. Serjeant Talfourd's opinion on the
flagrant Bury St. Edmund's case. Nor is Mr. Austin more fortunate
in his proposal that the author of a successful design shall, in erery
case, be intrusted with the superintendence of the building. What is
to be done if a committee, acting horai Jide, should pitch upon the de-
sign of an apprentice, an amateur, or a drawing clerk, or of one of tliat
class of the profession (for, like the law, it is sorely infested with ver-
minjl who traffic in showy drawings and fraudulent estimates. And
the fact is, that the designs of these classes of competitors (we beg to
apologize to the three first for naming them with the last,) are pre-
cisely those best calculated to catch committees as they are for the
most part constituted. Mr. Austin, indeed, goes in the very teeth of
his own opinion in this proposal. "It is needless to say," he observes
in another place, '• that those who send in designs honourably exe-
cuted, alike fair to their brother competitors and to the committee,
which they conscientiously believe can be built for the amount stated,
are doomed to experience nothing but vexation and disappointment,
and that if they could catch a glimpse of the committee in the very
first hour of their sitting, they would most probably see them already
sorting tlieir modest designs from the showy and impossible draughts,
and laying them aside w ith the flattering epithet of ' rubbish ! ' "
This is perfectly true, and it is no less so that "the best chance of suc-
cess under the present system rests with these who, knowing full well
the utter ignorance of the men who are to decide ou the real merits of
the works laid before them, make this their stronghold and anchor of
hope. They prepare designs on a scale of great magnificence, which,
to carry out in their pristine grandeur, would cost twenty times the
stipulated amount. They will be at considerable pains to render pro-
minent the most striking portions of their designs, and to throw a veil
over their various defects. They will eniplov skilful artists to pre-
pare coloured showy elevations, and false perspective views of their
principal features, to catch the Committee's unpractised eye; and
knowing too well that these designs conld not possibly be executed
for any thing like the stated estimates, modestly assert, in their ac-
comp^inying remarks, that much of what they show, (though all iu all
to their designs, such as they are,.) might be omitted without the
slightest injury to them. And the committee believe it, because they
know no better."

" Is it not wonderful," we still use the words of Mr. Austin, "that
so many should be found to engage in contests wliich experience
teaches them are certain to be unsatisfactory and unjustlv conducted."
It is quite as wonderful that with so just an appreciation of the real
state of competition, Mr. Austin should have gone so far wide of the
mark in devising remedies.

Did the members of the profession never read the fable of Hercules
and the carman ? They are just now very much in the case of that
same carman, shouting for help with all their might, but with less wit
than the boor, for they do not know to whom they are shouting. We
are nevertheless competent to give thein the same advice that was de-
livered by the god — that each one should put his own shoulder to the
wheel. Very deep they are in the slough, it is true, aud a very filthy
slough it is — so filthy that from mere communication the whole pro-
fession smells of it. Let every one who has not a taste for abiding in
the dirt extricate his individual self, and keep cleaner ways for the
future. To drop the metaphor, let every member of the profession
who respects himself, resolve to enter into no more competitions, un-
less he is perfectly satisfied, after a strict examination, both with the
conditions, and the integrity and competency of those who propose
them, and let no one lose an opportunity of exposing in print every
case of fraud and falsehood which m.iy come to their knowledge. The
example has been set in the pages of this Journal — let it be followed —
and when the respectable classes of the profession are shamed out of
promiscuous competition, and the public are awakened to the cons«-
qnences, something mavbe eft'ected to place the system, which nobody
will deny to be thoroughly sound in its original principle, upon a satis-
lactory footing, — The fol'owing notice of a late trial will show how

174

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL

[May,

competition designs are often gut up, but it is greatly to be lamented
that committees are not often so competent and resolute in dealing
with tlicm : —

Norwich Assizes. — April 7, 1841.

Jlrown V. Laiu/shaw, Clerk .

Karly in Die year 18:i7, the pari.sh church of St. Andrew the Great, Cam-
bridge, was found to he in a ruinous condition, and a subscrij)tion was raised
and a committee appointed for tlie purpose of rebuilding it. The committee
applied to several architects for designs, and live were laid before them,
among which that of -Mr. Brown of Norwich, was conspicuous for its elegance
and ornamental character — so much so, that the committee were not only
greatly surprised at tlie high talent shown by Mr. Brown, in producing
a design so suiierior to those of his rivals, and to any thing whicli had
ever been imagined practicable for so small a sum as four thousand
pounds, (the limit set to the expenditure in the conditions accepted by the
architects,) but some of them also doubted the possibility of a mislake in >lr.
Brown's estimate, an accident which docs sometimes happen in affairs of this
kind. As the architect professed himself to be perfectly clear on this point,
liis design was accepted and offered for contract. Several respectable builders
of Cambridge having declined to compete, two tenders only were obtained,
the lowest of which, instead of falling within four thousand pounds, amounted
to something lilic six ! — a dilemma which the architect was (piite prepared to
meet by altering his design so as to bring it within the jircscribed limits.
The majority of the committee (whicIi was not composed exclusively of parisli
oflieers), being however troubled with a prejudice that such a course of pro-
ceeding might not be altogether just to the other parties who had expended
tlieir time and labour upon the faith of the conditions under which they were
invited to compete, came to a resolution to dismiss Mr. Brown, who there-
upon brought an action against the chairman, the Rev. Mr. Langshaw, to
recover the smn of .1'300 and upwards, for preparing his designs. After
keeping this action banging over the heads of the committee for nearly four
years, it has at length been tried as aforesaid, and upon the facts proved by
the plaintiff's own evidence, the learned judge stopped the case, and a verdict
was found for the defendant.

Obsen-a/ions on Railway iloitoj/olies ami Remedial Measures. By Alex.^xder

GoRPON, M. Inst. C.E. London: Weale, 1841.

Mr. Gordon is particularly known to the public for bis great exertions for
the introduction of the steam carriage on the common road, it is not perhaps
so well known that he labours under a railway phobia, which is the cause of
the production of the present pamphlet. This like all Mr. Gordon's works
abounds with much that is valuable, but it is so tinctured with the expression
of his prejudice against the railway system, that much of the weight of his
remarks is counteracted. His zeal for the welfare of his profession is a pro-
minent feature in his character.

Peckstoii on Gas-Lighting. Third Edition. London: Weale, 1841.

Mr. Peckston has been before the p\iblic for the last twenty years as a
writer on tliis subject, so that we may fairly conclude that bis merits must
be pretty well known without any commentary of ours. We have now another
edition of liis work, embodying all the recent improvements, and abounding
with all that extent of illustrations, which makes Mr. Weale's merits as a pub-
lisher of engineering works conspicuous. We do not recommend our readers
to buy Mr. Peckston's book, because we know that if they want to acquire
any information as to gas-lighting they must refer to him.

On Harbours. By W. A. Brooks. London.

Mr. Brooks's work contains much that is new and valuable, it requires
however more consideration on our jiart before we can adequately discuss the
views put forward. In the meanwhile the engineering student may with ad-
vantage refer to this volume, which has evidently been written by a man of
research and ability. It contains some good information as to the views en-
tertained liy French and Italian engineers.

A Neio Treatise on Mechanics. By the Author of a " New Introduction
to the Mathematics." London: Whittaker & Co., 1841.

This is one of those laudable attempts to simplify a subject too often
mystified, which is well deserving encouragement. The pubhc are sure to
gain by attempts of this nature, for though new errors may sometimes be in-
troduced, more is gainc<l by the removal of old ones.

Map and Section of the Brighton Railmoy. By J. R. Jobbixs. London :
Grattan and Gilbert, 1841.

This map the scale of three miles (o an inch, includes the whole of the
Greenwich, Croydon, lirigbton, Blackwall, West Loudon and Thames Haven
lines, the South Eastern to beyond Tunbridge, the Eastern Counties to
Chelmsford, the Northern and Eastern to Broxbourne, the Birmingham to
Tring, the Great Western to Maidenhead, and the South Western to Woking,
witli the country 25 miles north of London, 45 miles south, and 30 miles

east and west, including the course of the Tliames and the country between
Windsor and Chatham. It seems to be executed with great accuracy, and
for cheapness and extent of information is highly valuable, being equally use-
ful either as a railway or general map. Appended to it are sections of the
Croydon and Brighton lines, bhowing also by a novel plan the surrounding
country.

Davies's Map of London and its Environs.

Mr. Davnes's map includes all the recent improvements in the neighbour-
hood of London, giving the cemeteries, railway stations, and other matters.
It includes the boundaries of the metropolitan borough, and much other use-
ful information, so as to serve e<pially as a map of London and of the sur-
rounding country.

MOTIVE POWER FOR I.MPELLING :^I.4CHINERY.

Henry Pinkus, Esq., late of Panton-square, Coventry-street, but now of
No. 36, -Madilox-street, Regent-street, Middlesex, for improvements in the
methods of applying motive power to impelling macliinery, applicable, amongst
other things, to impelling carriages and vessels, and in the methods of con-
structing the roads on which carriages niav be impelled, enrolled March 24,
1841.

One of the improvements to which the i)atentee lays claim is what be terms
the differential railway. It consists of a double Une of railway, on which, at
certain distances, is affixed a gas-explosive apparatus, described in the speci-
fication of a former patent obtained by him, provided with two large horizon-
tal wheels, one above the other, round each of which an endless metal band
passes; and between each apjjaratus thus described is an intermediate appa-
ratus, provided also with a pair of wheels. The band proceeding from one
of the horizontal wheels passes round one of the wlieels of an intermediate
ajiparatns placed in one direction, whilst the baud from the other horizontal
wheel passes round one of the wheels of an intermediate apparatus placed in
the opposite direction.

The bauds pass over wheels placed in the centre of each line of rails, and
put those wheels in motion, which motion is communicated to the train of
carriages by means of bars extending from the bottom of the same, and which
are kept in contact with the wheels.

Another of tlie patentee's improvements is for a mode of propelling boats
on canals by " gaso-pneumatic " powar. Along the whole length of a canal,
on one or both banks, a suspension rail is constructed, and along the canal,
in a line with the rail, is laid down a gas main. On the rail is suspended an
impelling machine, which consists of a frame running on wheels, and provided
with two horizontal pulleys, round one of whicU an endless band passes from
a pulley in the boat to be imjjelled, and in which is placed the gaso-pneuma-
tic explosive engine. This engine actuates the pulley in the boat, which by
means of the endless band communicates its motion to the horizontal pulleys,
and they in turn communicate it to the running wheels, and cause the im-
pelling machine to move onward and impel the vessel, .\nother mode of ap-
plying power on canals consists in using a steam engine in place of the gaso-
pneumatic engine, to give motion to the impelling machine : and in order
that boats may travel in opposite directions with only one line of rails, the
impelling machines are made to move over one another when they meet, and
so proceed on their respective courses.

"The following is n mode of constructing roads or ways, also included in
this specification : — la a given area of land a station is erected in a central
situation, in which is placed an electric batteiyor batteries; or wells or tanks
are constnicted in any part of the said area. From tlie station, or from any
of the tanks, a system of mains or pipes is laid down, and all along these,
at intervals of from one to two hundred yards, are erected short vertical
branches, terminating in a box with a moveable lid. In the mains are laid
continuous metallic wires, and these wires are so arranged that when their
ends at the station or tanks are brought into contact with the positive and
negative poles of a battery, they constitute metalbc circuits.

In order to put implements into action by means of this power, the paten-
tee uses a locomotive engine similar to tliat described in the former specifi-
cation, except that the cylinders, piston-rods, and their appurtenances are
dispensed with, and the dram may be of smaller dimensions. Round this
drum is coiled a pair of wires, and these are attached to a similar pair in one
of the boxes before mentioned. To the locomotive engine an electro-magne-
tic engine is applied, and, in order to set the former in motion, chemical ac-
tion is induced in tlie batteries at the station or tanks, and electrical influence
is thus generated, the force of which, acting through the metallic circuit, will
put the impelling engine in motion.

The patentee uses the electric power to prevent the coUision of trains on
railways, by causing it to put the breaks of carriages into action ; he also at-
taches an electric battery to the locomotive engine, so that when trains are
approaching each other, the battery being brought into action will, by means
of connecting wires, apply the breaks, pull the lever of the whistle, and shut
off the steam.

Tlic patentee also shows a mode of constructing engines, and of actuating
them by means of electric power.

The electric power is also tised for lighting railways, tunnels, roads, &c.

1841.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL

175

An electric glow or " brush " is effected at the place required to be lighted,
and being placed in the focus of reflectors, yields rays of light, which may be
made revolving liglits for night signals, cite.

la addition to tlie numerous improvements iucluded in this specification,
already noticed, tliere is one for a fire-engine to be worked liy the " gaso-pneu-
matic power," to lie drawn from the gas mains in the streets where the fire
occurs, in the same manner as the water. [This specification occujiies fifteen
sheets of parcliment, and there is also a corresponding number of drawings.]
—^l7iveiifo7'^s Advocate.

STEAWS. NA VI CATION.

THE NIGER EXPEDITION.

The expedition about to leave this country, to explore the River Niger,
and wliich has excited such intense interest, cousists of three iron steam
Tessels under the command of Captain Trotter, an intelligent and experienced
officer of Her Majesty's navy. The two larger ones, the "Albert" and the
" Wilberforce," are each of 440 tons burtlien and 70 horses' power ; and the
smaller one, the " Soudan," (intended to act as a pilot vessel,) admeasures
250 tons, and has an engine of 35 horses' power. 'The two first are schooner
rigged, and are remarkably fiue-looking vessels, with lofty spars, and will
display a large spread of canvass to the favouring breeze. Tlicy are fitted
with Captain George Smith's method of stowing boats to form part of the
paddle boxes, in addition to the usual complement of boats. They are
heavily armed, and will each carry a number of Kroomen (a class of men ac-
customed to the cbmate, and found to be of eminent service), besides an efli-
cient man-of-war's crew ; and altogether, will prove formidable opponents
should the natives venture to molest them, as they did the last expedition,
under Messrs. Laird & Oldfield.

The interiors of tlie steamers are replete with every convenience, and even
luxury, which can be desired. Tliey are furnished with Dr. Eeid's ingenious
system of ventilating tubes (a kind of air filter) for the purpose of supplying
fresh air in the 'tween decks ; and whicli contrivance, it is confidently ex-
pected, will prove of great utiUty in protecting the crews from the debili-
tating effects of the noxious vapours whicli infest the vicinity of the River
Niger, and which have hitherto rendered that climate so dreadfully fatal to
Europeans. From tlieir light draft of water they will be enabled to ascend
a considerable way up the river, should they be so fortunate as to escape
nmning hard aground, as from their great size it would be a difficult matter
to get them off, especially should the crews suffer from the climate. Tlie
last expedition incurred great delays from the vessels continually getting
aground ; yet tliey were much easier got off than these would be from their
being of smaller dimensions.

In conclusion we wish them every success, and must say that an expedition
better calculated to fulfil its purpose never left the shores of this, or, indeed,
any other country.

A comparison of the dimensions and draft of water of the steamers com-
prising the last and present expeditions, may afford an idea of the advanced
state of steam naval architecture since the year 1832.

Last E.xpedition.

Present

Expedition.

Albert and

Quorra.

Alburkah.

Wilberforce.

Soudan.

Length ..112 ft.

70 feet

130 feet

110 feet

lireadth.. 16

13

27

22

Depth .. 8

6h

10

8i

Horses power 40

10

70

35

Draftofvvater6 ft

45

5}

4

Built of timber.

.... Iron.

.... Iron.

.... Irou.

The vessels of the present expedition were built by Mr. John Laird, of
North Birkenhead, Liverpool, and the engines by George Forrester & Co.,
of Liverpool.

Ainiliary Sleam Pouvr. — M'e liave to announce the departure for India,
during the last month, of the " Isabella Blyth," a ship of 500 tons burden,
fitted with a pair of small engines and paddle-wheels, to be used during
calms and light «inds, vihich, it has been ascertained on statistical data,
prevail, on an average passage to or from India, during full one third of the
time occupied by the whole voyage. To overcome this very serious ilifficully.
and ensure regular and rapid passages, the splendid class of vessels which
now conslitulc our mercantile navy, appear to require nothing more than the
successful application ol steam power as an auxiliary. In order to prevent
the great loss of power and increased liabi'ity to derangement resulting from
one paddle wheel being immersed too deeply in the water u hen the ship is
listed over, (whi'e the other would consequently be entirely cut of the water.)
and also to elevate and depress the paddle wheels to suit the immersion of
the vessel, which will, of course, vary not only with difierent descriptions of
cargo, but a'so by the consumption of fuel, water. Sec, during a voyage ; the
paddle wheels are fitted in such a manner that either wheel may, by the
power of one man, be raised or lowered as occasion may require without stop-
ping the engine'. The greatest advantage w ill thus be taken of every breeze
of wind, without any sacrifice of the auxiliary power. We feel assured that

the ordinary paddle wheels which h ive, up to the present time, proved su-
perior to every other propeller, only required this adaptation (o render their
application to sailing vessels perfect, and we therefore anticipate a very
favourable result.
_This vessel left the London Docks the latter part c,f last month, drawing
17ft. Bin, water, and after encountering more than the usual obstructions of
tlie Pool, and proving in all her movements to be completely under tlie con-
trol of the steam power, the paddle wheels were adjusteil to the proper
depth of immersion, and the distance to Gravesend was performed in about
four hours and a half. With the exception of a topsail being set during
about tw enty minutes, no ailvantage was taken of the sails.

Bistiiigiiislihig Signal/or Steam Boats. — We have been gratified, in common
with a considerable number of steam-boat owners, captains, and others inte-
rested in steam navigation, by being shown a signal which will most admi-
rably eftfct an object most desiderated, that of distinguishing sleam vessels
from sailing vessels at sea. and go far to prevent unhappy collisions and the
destruction of human life. The inventor is Mr. Francis Melville, Buchanan
Street, who. from a praisew orthy desire to promote the general safety, has
devoted much of his time to the subject. Mr. Melville's plan is to place in
front of the funnel of the steamer a lamp, with a clear light, and a strong
reflector, having an external sliding cover attached to its face, so fitted as
CI mpletely to oDscure the light within, but to be made to move up and down
the w hole length of the lanthern, by means of a rod affixed to a small lever
power connected with the engine, so that the motion or alternations of the
slider w ould be at the rate of twenty in a minute. At the bottom is to be
added a flat sole, made so as to carry the rays of light completely over the
side of the vessel, in order that the reflection from any object on deck may
nut interfere with the pilot. By means of this simple apparatus, a signal will
be produced perfectly distinct from any other known in navigation, and by
means of it a steamer will, at the first sight, be known from any other vessel.
Though the exhibition which we had the opportunity of observing was neces-
sarily imperfect (being displayed from a window), enough was, nevertheless,
witnessed to show at once the perfect practicability and adaptation of the
signal to the purpose intended. — Glasgow Argus.

.Sixteen tvar-steamcrs are ordered to be built, six of tlie first class and ten of
the second ; all to be armed with guns of 10 inch calibre. Several of these
w ill be laid dow n immediately, and the frames of the w bole converted with-
out delay, so as to he ready against the engines are prepared. — Naval and
Militari/ Gazette.

The Royal West India Steain Xavigation Conipani/ have resolved to build six
additional steamers. From the high recommendation given to the Clyde
ship-buililers by the Government inspectors, who have inspected the steamers
now on the stocks, we understand that a few. if not the whole, of the addi-
tionil steamers will be constructed on the banks of the Clyde. Three addi-
tional steamers are about to be contracted for by the Cunard Atlantic Steam
Company. — Glasgoiv Vlironiele.

y/ie .1/ammo/A, building by the Great Western Ship Company, at Bristol,
will exceed 3, GOO tons (about 6U0 more than any otlier ship in existence).
The saving of room by her being built of iron will admit of her carrying coals
for both the outward and home voyages, a matter of mueli importance from
the interior quality of American coal. Her engines are of 1.000 horse power.
She will be enabled to c.Trry an unusual quantity of canvass, and is expected
to make the passage of the Atlantic in ten days. — Liverpool Advertiser.

niISCEI.I>ANEA.

The Duke of Wellington's St.4tue. — This colossal equestrian figure
is rapidly progressing under the hands of Mr. Wyatt. When completed, it
is expected to weigh about 50 tons, and to stand about 32 feet from the
pedestal. If possible, it is to be formed entirely of the cannon taken by his
Grace. The model of the horse, which is about half finished, is very fine.
The gigantic animal, with eyes extended and nostrils inflated, is breathing
with animation and vigour. The head and boots of the Duke are already
cast. The face is an admirable likeness, as is well known to all who had an
opportunity of seeing the model of it last year. These parts of the figure,
which are all at present completed, have taken the metal of a single cannon.
The lower extremities of the figure will be of solid bronze, the thickness gra-
pually diminishing in the upper parts. It is said that the committee have
appointed two years as the period in which the work should be completed,
11 months of which have already transpired, but it seems almost premature
to fix a time for the finishing so elaborate and gigantic a work, especially
when the process of casting is attended with so many risks that may cause a
temporary impediment to its progiess. During his labours Mr. Wyatt has
acquired much valuable experience calculated to advance the art of casting
in met.al, among which are a method for testing the tubes which supply the
metal to ascertain that they are perfectly clear, and a plan with the air tubes
that causes them not only to expel the air, but also to operate as suction
tubes to the metal, and promote its distribution. Another ingenious contri-
vance is a set of instrumeuts, invented by Mr. Wyatt, for clearing off the
metal with infinitely less labour than a common hand-instrument. This M'el-
lington statue, when finished, will, it is supposed, be the largest hitherto
known.

Primrose Hill, Regent's Park.— The Commissioners of Woods and Forests
have, we understand, concluded an arrangement with Eton College, by which
Primrose-hill will be preserved from being built upi n. This place of health-
ful resort will therefore remain to the inhabitants of the metropolis, as one
of the " lungs of London."

170

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[May,

.frlisian Il'cl! at Soutliamptoa.—'the works on this important and sjiirite'l
HDilcrtakinij have Ijcc-n resumed ; but after working one of the engines
about ten hours, an accident occurred hy the breaking of the (ly-uheel shaft
<if the north engine— the cause of which it appe.irs is not eis yet accounted
for. It seems ihal by the jiresent arrangements immense quantities of water
can be raised from tlie shaft to thi» surface, as. with only one engine and
one pump at work, ai.d those working only at one half the speed to Hhich
the engine is efpial. tlie quantity of water delivered from the jnimp nozzle
exceeded 12.000 gallons per hour; and this, loo, »hen the water to be raised
was upwards of 150 feet lV(jin the surface level. The present ilepih of the
shaft is 3()0 feet, the excavation fur a large portion of which is lipwards of
16 ieet diameter. M'c have reason to believe tluit for the jaupose of obtain-
ing a supply of water, there has been no other shaft c. nstructcd of so large
a diameter, or with such durable material, ior so great a depth. Thedifti-
rul!ies encountered in sinking the shaft thus far have been of no ordinaiy
kind, notwithstanding which, no one engaged in the undertaking appears to
Ije discouraged. On the contrary, each mL-ifortiiue appears to e.xciie fresh
exertions. The commissioners and contractors have decided to sink theshatt
to a much greater depth, which, in our upiniuu, is far prderable to the |.lau
of boring to so great a depth as was originally intended. Me liearuly wisii
the undertaking every success, but whatever the result may he, the inhabi-
tants of Southampton will, by this work, s.lve the imj-ortant problem,
whether or not a cop ous supply of gooil water can be obtained liy sinking a
capacious shaft in a basin geologically situated as is their increaaini; t(<wn.
and as is also similarly sitnaled, the great metropolis «i:h its suburbs. —
JJampshin Indepemlait.

UST OP TTEW PATEWTS.
t

GRANTED IN ENGL.4ND FROM 29th M.4KCH, TO 27tH -M'KII., 1841.

Six Months allmeedfor Enrolment.

James TiLni;si.EY, of Willenhall, Statford, Factor; and Josnrn Sandkrs
of Wolverhampton, Lock Maiuifacturer, for '• improcements in lodiR." —
March 29.

GiiORGE Ev.^NS, of Dorset Place, Marylebone, for " an imjirovcment or
iinproremenix upon trnsnestfur the relief of hern'O. — March 29.

Alexander P.\RKES, of Birmingham, Artist, for *^ certain improvements
in the production of tvorks of art in metals, hij electric depositio:is." —
March 29.

John- Lindsay, of Lewisham, Esquire, for " improvemenls in covers for
wnter-clcsets, niyht-stoots, and bed-pans." — March 29.

J.\MEs FuRNivAL, of WarriugtOD, Canicr, for "an expeditious mode of
UtJioiring. masteriiujj and tunninij variom descripiiwis of /tides and skins.'' —
March 29. (Four months.)

Thomas Gore, of Manchester, Machine Maker, for " improreinents in
machinery or apparatus for roriny, spimnnr/, and donlilinr/ cotton, silt, wool,
and other Jibrons materials." — March .'10.

John' Oram, of Chard, Somerset, Machinist, for " improved machinery or
apparatus for matciny or manifactitriny netted fabrics." — March 31,

WiiLiAM jExiiiNSON, of Salford, Machine Maker, for " improvements in
machinert^ for preparing and spinning fax, silk, and other fbrous substances'*
—March "31.

Jo>-EPH Gairy, of Watling Street, Warehouseman, for " a parachute to
preserve all sorts of carriages vsiny a.rlctrees from falliny or injury, cpon the
breaking of their axle-trees." A comnninicatioii. — March 31.

John (iEOKGK Boomeb, of Manchester, Engineer, for "improvements in
the coustrvction of screwing stocks, taps, and dies, and certain other tools or
apparatus or machinery for cutting and working in metals." — April 3.

Jame.s OGnKX, of M.inchcster, Cotton Spinner, and Joseph Grundy
Wooi.LAM, of Manche.>itcr, aforesaid. Commission .\geut, for " improvements
in looms for veavi/i//." — .\pri! 3.

William EnwABn Newton, of Chancery Lane, Civil Engineer, for " (>«-
provements in the prore^'t, mode, or method of making or manufacturing lime,
cement, artificial stone, and such other composition.^, more particularly appli~
cable for working under water, and in constructiny buildings and oilier works
whicli are exposed to damp." (A connnunication.) — .\pril 3.

Zachauia Dryant, of the town of Nottingham, Machiiust, for " an im-
proved method of manufacturing cloth and ot her fabrics from woollen, cotton,
fax, silk, and other substances." — April 3.

James Andi.rson, of Newcastle-upon-Tyne, Engineer, for " improvements
ill wiiuUasses." — .Vpid .">.

■William James Barsham of Bow, Gentleman, for "improvements in
fastening buttons and other articles on to wearing apparel, and other descrip-
tions of goods or manufactures." — .\pril .^.

Henry M'Evoy, of Graham Sired, Birmingham, Hook and Eye Maker,
for " improvements in fastenings for bands, straps, and parts of wearing ap-
parel."— .\pril 5.

Jonathan Beilky, of York, Brewer, for "improvements in brewing." —
April ."j.

William ITiitchinson, of Sutton and Trent, Nottingham, Seed Crusher
and Oil Cake Manufacturer, for " improvements in tlie manufacture of oil-
cake or seed-cake." — April 5.

William Littxll Tiz \rd, of Birmingham, Brewer, for " improvements
in apparatus for brewing." — April 5.

Joseph Wilson Buttall, of Belper, Draper, and Henry Holder, of
the same place, Tailor, for " imprond apparatus to be attached to t'-owxers,
commonly called trowser-strap^." — .\pril 5.

Joseph .\psev, of Cornwall Road, Engineer, for " improvements in the
construction of fines for steam-boilers and other furnaces." — April 6.

Christopher Edward Dampier, of Ware, Gentleman, for "improve-
tnents in weiyhing-macliines." — .-Vpril 15.

Frank Hills and Geor(.k Hills, of Deptford, Manufacturing Chemists,
for " improvements in tlie manufacture of sulphuric acid and carbonate of
soda." — April 15.

Henry Augustus Wells, of Saint John's Wood, Gentleman, for " im-
provements in the manufacture of woollen clot/is." — ,\pril 1 7.

Peter Kendall, of Gilford's Hall, Suffolk, Esquire, for " an improved
method or methods of connerthig and disconnecting locomotive engines and
railway carriages." — April 1 7.

Joseph Harker, of Regent Street, Laiuheth, Artist, for " improvementi
in measuring leriforni or fluid substances." — April 20.

Joseph Bextham, of Bradford, Meaver, for " improvements in weaving."
—April 22.

Henry Brown, of Codnor Park Iron Vv'orks, Derby, Iron Manufactnrer,
for ** improcements in tlie manufacture of steel." — .\pril 22.

TitOMAs Harris, of Hales Owen, Binninghani, Horn Button Manufac-
turer, for *' improvements in the manufacture of tvhat is colled horn bntton-^i
and in the dies to be used in the mactiinery of such descriptions of buttons."
(Partly a communication.) — April 22.

Humphrey Jefferies, of Birmingham, Button Maker, for " improve-
ments in the manufacture of buttons." — April 22.

Jons' Rostron, of Edenfield, Lancaster, Manufacturer, and Thomas
M'elch, of Manchester, Manufacturer, for " improvements in looms for
weaving."— kfrW 22.

Floride Hei.vdryckx, of Fenchurch Street, Engineer, for " improvemoits
in the construction and arrangement of fire-places and furnaces, applicable to
carious useful purposes." — April 24.

L.vncelot Powell, of Clydach Works, Brecon, Ironmaster, and Robert
Ellis, of Clydach, aforesaid, .'\gent, for " improvements in the manufacture
of iron." — .\pril 24.

Thomas Robi.nson, of M'ilmington Square, Gentleman, for "improcements
in drying wool, cotton, and other fibrous materiah in the mmiufactured and
unmanufactured state." — April 27.

William Petrie, of Croydon, Gentleman, for '• n new mode of obtaining
motive power by voltaic electricity, applicable to engines and other cases ivltere
a motive potrer is required." — .April 27.

Alexander Southwood Stocker and Clement Heelet, both of Bir-
mingham, Manufacturers, for " improvements in patten and clog ties, and
other articles or fastenings of dress." — .4pril 27.

Benjamin Rankin, of College Street, Islington, Gentleman, for " a new
form and combination of, and mode of manufacturing blocks for pavement-"
—April 27.

Osborne Reynolds, of Belfast, Ireland, Clerk, for " improvements in
paring streets, roads, and ways." — April 27.

.\ndre Dbonot de Charlien, of Coleman Street Buildings, Gentleman,
io\- " improvements in preparing matters, to be consumed in obtaining light,
and in the construction of burners for burning the same." A communication.
— AprU 27.

TO COKRSSPONEEKTS.

.Vaplin Lislilhouse appeared in llic last inonlh's Journal,
iiteam Jingiucs in .America will appear nc.vt month.

We are compelled to postpone several papers until ne.rt month ; we must carmsilg
request tf our numerous correspondents to favour us with tlicit cominunivations as
early in the month as they pos.srhhf can, so as to ensure insertion.

Warming Buildings with Warm Water. — IVe have received a communication
from Mr. Richardson, and also on answer by Mr. Perkins to ilfo.vrs. Dalies and
Ryder's Rrpiirt, ^iven in last month's Journal, we very much regret that we
are compelled to pvstpune both of them. He do not lliiuk it cractly correct to at-
tack the report, until the experiments promised by Mr. Perkins are tried, we sliail
fell much pleasure in attending such experimenis, and giving a fuilliful report of
them, as we consider it a question rf such great importance that it ought to be de-
cided bfj facts and not by arguments.

Communications arc requested to he addressed to "The Editor of the Civil
Engineer, and Architect's Journal,'' Xo. 11, Parliament Street, IVestminster.

Rool.sfor Review must he sent early in the month, communications on or before
the 20lh (if with drawings, earlier), and adccrtistmenls on or before the 2otb
instant.

Vols. J, II, and III, may be had, bound in cloth, price £1 each 'Volame.

s

N

'■.v

I

t^'l

!

:

}l

1^

^

^s

^

1841.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

177

THE KURSAAL GEBAUDE AT BRUCKEKAU.

(JFith tico Engravings, Plates V. and VI.)

Plan of Principal Floor.

i?-^ --t ^-^%

LV

Scale of feet.

a, steps ; b, loggia : c, entrance hall ; d, dining hall ; e, intermediate hall ;
y, ball room ; g, staircases ; li. cloak and audience room.

It will not diminish the interest of the subject to our readers to
know that, in his "Spas of Germany," Dr. Granville speaks of the
Kursaal at Briickenau, in the following highly complimentary terras.
" This is another of the great architectural works of whicli Bavaria
may well be proud, and the idea and design of which were suggested
by the King himself. It is the handsomest building of the kind I have
seen in my general excursions in the Spas of Germany, and its various
decorations are equal to any of the most exquisite productions of the
Bavarian artists. On the right a grand flight of stairs leads to the
king's gallerv. The pavement is tessellated, and the plafond richly
painted in stucco. From it depend five gigantic lustres which are
said to give to the interior, on gala nighls, the splendour of svmshine,
lighting up every part of a building which for loftiness, daring propor-
tions, and dimensions is such as an English people seldom witness in
their public edifices. It is the production of Gutensohn,* a native of

' Jobann Gottfried Gutensohn was born at Liudenau, on the Lake of Con-
stance, in 1792. In conjunction with Knapp, he published a work on " Basi-
licas," 1822-6 ; and afterwards with Thiumer. another on the Italian archi-
tectural decoration of the loth century. In 1832 he proceeded to Greece, as
architect to King Oiho.

Kg. 45.— Vol. IV.— June, 1841.

Lindenau in Switzerland, who having shown when very young, and at
Munich, a considerable taste for architectural drawing, the King of
Bavaria sent him at his own expense to Italy and Greece, to complete
his studies. He is now residing at Wurzburg, and is employed in
public works on account of the crown. I did not ascertain what such
■ a public building might have cost in Bavaria, but it would be easy to
calculate what sum would have come out of the Exchequer in this
country, were such a one to be attempted."

So far the Doctor, — wlio at the time he wrote his description, had
no idea that it would be tested by being confronted with any drawings
of the edifice itself, or he would probably have expressed himself
rather more cautiously, for as far as mere design is concerned, there
certainly is nothing remarkably striking in the exterior of the build-
ino-; it is in a good though simple style, and possesses a certain pro-
priety of character ; besides which it has the advantage of being in-
sulated, and of strict consistency being kept up in every one of its
elevations. It should also be borne in mind that much of the effect
attending the building itself— of the play of perspective and of light
and shade produced by the open arcades enclosing the whole of the
lower part above the "basement, — is necessarily lost when the design
is exhibited only in separate geometrical drawings. On the other
hand, we are of opinion that consistency and uniformity have been
pushed somewhat farther towards monotony, than there was any occa-
sion for; and that the design would have been improved by having a
little more variety thrown into it. Neither is the building at all re-
markable for its size, the extreme dimensions being only 112 by 165
feet English.

In fact we must presume that Dr. Granville's admiration was excited
chiefly by the interior and the style of its decoration, but we think that
he has there also a little magnified some circumstances, — for instance
when lie tells us of a grand flight of stairs leading to the king's gallery ;
because the plan shows that staircase (g) to be a very confined space.
Still there is undoubtedly much architectural grandeur and considerable
scenic effect in the Saa'l or saloon itself, which rises the entire height
of the building, and which may be said to occupy nearly the whole of
the ground floor, the Tanzsa'al or ball-room being in continuation of
the other, though less lofty, and divided from it only by an interme-
diate compartment (e) having three open arches towards either of the
other rooms. The decorations of the larger saloon, which is used as
a dining or banqueting room, and of which a large perspective view is
now Iving before us, exhibits a tasteful application of the Renaissance
style," or rather that of the Loggie of the Vatican. The deep and
spacious royal tribune or loggia which is seen through three open
arches in the upper part of the saloon, must have a strikingly splendid
and scenic effect. As regards this portion of the interior, generally,
we are of opinion that it contains much which would be exceedingly
appropriate and applicable for the interior of an Exchange, with a
covered area, lighted from above through a series of lunettes or semi-
circular windows (which might be left unglazed) just below the ceiling.

To quit these remarks of our own— which ought perhaps rather to
have followed than preceded explanatory description, we return now to
the latter. The building, begun in 1827, and completed within four
years, stands upon a gentle declivity, in a beautiful valley, at no very
great distance from the mineral spring, and from the baths and lodgings
for visitors at the Spa. The edifice is raised upon a stylobate or low
rusticated basement, containing the kitchens, cellars, and other offices,
with the requisite accommodation for the domestic part of the estab-
lishment: which rooms are about 12 feet high, the floor being about
four or five feet lower than the ground level. A flight of steps (a) at each
end or front of the building leads up to the open loggia which forms
a covered terrace quite around it, where the visitors can promenade,
and enjoy the surrounding scenery. This loggia (6 6) consists exter-
nally of 40 arches— viz. 14 on each of the longer, and 9 on each of the
shorter sides or fronts,— and internally of 42 square compartments
covered by as many small segmental domes. The larger Saloon or
Dining Hail {d) is 54 feet (English) square, and 44 high; and its ceiling
which is flat, has a cove intersected or divided into spandrils by the
lunettes or arched spaces over the upper windows groining into it.
Both the ceiling itself and those sjrandrils are richly decorated, as are
likewise the panelled pilasters between the windows and upper arches,
and also the podium upon which they rest. In its lower part or floor-
plan, this Hall is greatly extended by the recesses or additional compart-
ments, with which it is connected by three open arches on each side,
and including which the dimensions become 'OS feet Englisli in tlie
longitudinal, and 82 in the transverse direction of the plan, lae
Talzsaal or Ball-room (/) measures 5Gi by 30 feet, or incluaing the
recesses at its ends, the total length is SOi feet. This room is very
differently proportioned from, and by no means so lofty as the othel^
(which approiches to a cube), the height here being 2b feet, or 18
less than that of the other. ^

178

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[June,

The exterior of the building is entirely of wrouEjlit stone, of a fiuartz-
like spocies, and of an exceedingly hard kind. Taken therefore alto-
gether,— considering the solidity of its construction, the regularity of
its design, and (he richness of its internal decorations, this edifice is a
very superior one of its class, and although of no very great extent,
fairlv deserves to be considered as a "monumental" production of the
art. '

CANDIDUS'S NOTE-BOOK.
FASCICULUS XXVII.

'• I must have Mberiy
Miihal, as lariie a charier as the wimis.
To blow en whom I please."

I. Seeing what Jlr. Barry has done in the two Clubhouses designed bv
him in Pall Mall, methinks people might by this time perceive how much
more might be accomiilished by carrying on to a greater extent the same
mode of treatment, and making the dressings to the windows not only
finishings to those apertures, and proportioned to them, but so to be
in a manner proportioned to the wliole design, and to become import-
ant decorations of it. At present, though their mouldings may occa-
■iionallv he richer tlian usual, there is little variety in the design of
windows — little at least, in comparison with what there might be, — as
regards composition and general character, such dressings consisting
of no more than an architrave around the aperture, surmounted by frieze
and cornice — either with or without the addition of pediment ; or if
something more than this be required, it is obtained by either small
columns and pilasters. Vet wherefore should we confine ourselves to
that as the very maximum of decoration allowable for such features,
when window-dressings may be treated arbitrarily, that is, with artis-
tical freedom instead of beirg invariably only the tchois of the parts
belonging to a large order? Of course, one objection will be that
they cannot be at all exaggerated without producing heaviness ; ano-
ther that the doctrine of arbitrary treatment, is nothing more than
that of universal license — which would soon be universal architectural
licentiousness. But according to the first objection, the cornicione of
the Reform Clubhouse, ought to be offensively heavy, for it certainly
may be characterized as being exaggerated. And with regard to the
second, it would be better to run the risk of being scandalized by a little
licentiousness in design now and then, out of fear of it — than to doom
ourselves to what, if not exactly monotonous insipidity, excludes a
great deal that would be good though of a different kind of merit.
Most assuredly there is no danger whatever of our Anglo-Atheuian
school falling into any excesses as regard the decoration of windows
or any thing else. Xo need to caution them against giving the
reins to their imagination, and indulging in architectural frenzies.
Their buildings may be chaste — for as the man said of his Aunt De-
borah, they are so confoundedly prim and ugly that their chastity is
proof against all suspicion.

II. Theodore Hook seems to entertain about the same kind and de-
gree of affection and admiration for Railways, as I myself do for Palla-
dio, or caro mto Bartholomew does for architectural competition.
Whenever he can. Hook is sure to have a slap at the unfortunate Rail-
ways: witness among other instances the following comparison : — "it
must as inevitably auuihilate their hopes as the ini:icltntal tumble of a
train off the railway settles the fate of the infatuated ])assengers of the
iron hearses invented for the purpose of cheatery and monopoly, to
supersede good old English horses and carriages, and the best roads
jbr travelling in the world " ! Most undoubtedly travelling by those
'iron-hearses' is not quite so aristocratic, dignified and luxurious as
posting a journey in a chaise and four, preceded by a courier ; still for
the million the newer system has doubtless its advantages — vulgar
ones though they be — or it would never have been encouraged to the
extent it now is. When people can afford it, it is all very well for
them to give themselves as many consequential ami impertinent would-
be-fine airs as they please; but is not Hook himself the driver or con-
ducteur of a literary omnibus, started professedly ;;ro bono publico, and
always ready to take in and to be taken ia by as many readers as it
can obtain — the more the merrier?

III. S. L. has my hearty leave to inveigh against the application of
Gothic to modern domestic buildings, if by Gothic he understands
such frightful absurdities as was the so-called (iotliic Dining-room at
Carlton House, which had a (lat ceiling — painted to imitate sky and
clouds — just over one's head, and ugly Orackets for lamps attached to
it! It is said that that more astonishing than admirable specimen of

taste was concocted by the united genius of George IV. and Messrs.
Nash and Soane. Wfiat a triumvirate of talent !— worthy of Bartlemy
Fair. Xever was man more innocent of any feeling for grandeur in
architecture than was that his ' Most Gracious Majesty.' There cer-
tainly is no royal road to taste ; but then if he happens to have none
himself, a prince should know where it is to be purchased ready-made,
and take care that he be not imposed upon by Brummagem counter-
feits,— and poor John Nash's taste was Brumiiiagem to a degree it is

now most mortifying to reflect upon. The time-^so we are assured

will come when Brummagem alias Buckingham Palace, will have
justice done to iU merits; which time will arrive when it is pulled
down, and not a day before. There is indeed one purpose to which
it might properly enough be converted, viz. to that of a Royal
Nursery, because in such a case the babyishness of its architecture
would be in character.

IV. By no means is it uncommon to hear sneering remarks on the
folly of those who build beyond their means, yet for one man of fortune
who so dips his property, there are fifty who impoverish or embarrass
themselves by other extravagances of various kinds, which escape cen-
sure either because they are more like the follies of other people, or
because instead of showing themselves to the world as a single corpui
delicti, they are a legion— inconsiderable when taken separately, al-
though collectively most formidable. After all there may be a great
deal of what the world calls extravagance, combined with true economy,
and lice versa. Our own times afford a splendid instance of what may
be accomplished by magnificent economy. See what Louis of Bavaria
has done for Munich, and for every branch of the fine arts in that petty
capital ! In this country had it been proposed to do but half as much,
people would have cried out. Impossible! Had John Bull been asked
to furnish two millions for a royal palace that would have been an
honour to the nation, John would have turned confoundedly sulky, and
buttoned up his breeches pocket in a huff. However John is liberal
in his way, and also likes a bargain, therefore does not grudge half
that sum to erect what is a disgrace to the country; flattering himself
all the while, poor dupe ! — that whatever be said of his taste, he is most
certainly a pattern of economy. 'Two millions,' it must be confessed,
has a most awful and startling sound upon such an occasion, but of the
plurality of millions which leak out by perpetual droppings and drip-
pings no account is taken. Could we but see the sum total of what
has been squandered away at different times on paltry knick-nacks
and ephemeral gewgaws, — on Kew Palaces and Carltoii Houses, — on
files, fireworks and other solemn tomfooleries, we should stand both
aghast and abashed. But even were it doubled, that tremendous sum
would not have been expended in vain, if it had purchased us a know-
ledge of true economy and wisdom for the future. Unfortunately, we
seem to have very wrong-headed notions of economy, generally con-
triving to be at once shabbily penurious and recklessly extravagant in
our public undertakings. As regards private economy we are not
always very much wiser. However I will not go into that subject,further
than to illustrate ray text by the following short dialogue between two
young men whose allowances were nearly the same. ' I cannot for the
life of me, understand,' said one, ' how you possibly contrive to buy so
many splendid publications, prints and pictures, I'm sure I can find
money for nothing of the kind.' — ' So I suppose,' replied the other,
' but then, my dear fellow, you have the satisfaction of knowing that
you spend quite as much or more, on cambric handkerchiefs and kid
gloves.' — Ah Johnny Bull, Johnny Bull, it is the cambric handkerchiefs
and kid gloves, — the expensive fripperies of the day and the hour,
that run away with vour cash, and leave you none to patronize and
advance art. Wastefully profuse in trifles, you generally show your-
self exceedingly stingv where extravagance would be rather a virtue
than a fault; or else you suffer yourself to be egregiously taken in un-
der the ideaof getting 'acapital bargain!' And it is fortunate if your
bargains do not make you the laughing-stock of all Europe. — I declare
I am growing quite patriotic I

V. Continuing the subject, it may be observed that our merchants
do not emulate tliose of Florence and other Italian cities during their
palmy state, in the encouragement of architecture and its sister arts.
Is it because they cannot afford to erect noble palazzi and stately man-
sions ? — And yet there are many among them to whom the price of
such an edifice as the Reform Clubhouse would be a mere bagatelle.
Some of them may be exiravagant enough, but there is nothing mag-
nificent in their extravagance. The money goes, perhaps, fast enough,
but it goes vulgarly, — in eating and drinking, — in giving expensive
entertainments to people who will condescend to be seen at them,
pinching their pride for the sake of filling their bellies with the
luxuries of a citizen's table. Or else the money does not go at all,
except that it is let to go on accumulating until some ' beau matin,' as
the French say, the newspapers inform us that Mr. Snobbs or some
other indefatigable money-grubber, like the Shoemaker of Bishopsgate

1841.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

170

Street, is just dead, and has left property to the value of nearly one mil-
lion sterlirg: Sic tmmit gloria mimdi. — I declare that I am getting quite
edifying.

THE PALLADIAN SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTS.

Associated with the Palladian architects, is a name deservingly
worthy of mention, for it is that of Kent. The taste of this ingenious
artist,' found, as it is, in the English mansion and in the palaces of the
great, charms us at first by its luxuriance, and then leads us to closer
inspection, from a certain correctness of feeling aptly displayed. His
claim to this fellowship with the Palladian school rests upon the felici-
tous manner in which he caught its sentiment, and the ricli and varied
assistance he threw into the Palladian structure. Confining his etibrts
more to fancy than to skill, subduing his proportions more for the eye
than for utility, he comes before us as the artist rather than as the
architect, lavishing his exuberant ideas upon an interior, and unfet-
tered by the many annoyances to taste which the calculating architect
feels. There is an air of poetry in his conceptions admirably adapted
to soften and to please; forms of carelessness ami ease crowd around
to soothe the wealthy inmate ; there are the gleanings from nature
appreciated by all, and there classic forms and allusions appear to en-
chant the refined.

Kent was one of a class who are lovers of antiquity, and over whose
minds its wonderful creations act like a charm, and in whose hearts
its beauties feed a passion. We find such painting the sky and
peopling it with angels; throwing upon the walls figures of elegance,
quaintness or dignity ; carrying the whole harmony of a design into
the saloon or gallerv, and scattering it amidst an assemblage of forms
without perplexing any : making the design to appear conspicuous
and happy, even when associated with the noble, free, and graceful
outlines of the sculpture.

I have placed Kent thus soon in the list of the artists of his school,
from the necessity there appears to be to introduce to the notice of
the influential, men of his particular stamp of genius. Not so much
to criticise the excellencies of design, as to hint at the talents of many,
gifted as he was, who are forgotten or despised, in the rusli after
foreigners. It would be well for the sapient, spectacled virtuosi (who
sni If talent from the south long before the genius of their choice is
born), if they would take their cold, starch, accommodating fancy into
some of the mansions graced by his free yet careful hana. Why do
the fraternity hesitate to patronize native genius ? Why do these
gentlemen, whose very fancy comes, like mushrooms, out of impurity,
turn their squeamish patronage elsewhere? There must be some
miserable prejudice afloat in the world of art, arising out of pedantry,
and inflated eflbrts after imitation, to account for this. It must be
that certain cold natures turn southward, or abroad, conscious of their
own frigidity and death-like fancy ; but it is not that there is no genius,
native to all that is beautiful and fair, that these ghost-like Mecsenases
hurry about, like unquiet spirits, for their favourite.

oil, when shall this age of precedent form a school of its own?
when shall architecture and her sister arts be found linked in the em-
brace of nature, when shall Englishmen incite their countrymen to zeal,
and art glow with the colouring of health and truth? It is no mean
and trivial thing to design an interior. The very consciousness of
entire freedom, leads a poor artist into profuseness, and if he seeks a
relief by subduing a part, the meagre and shallow forms that appear
attest his poverty of mind. The aim in the interior is opposed in
every sense to the exterior, at which the passer by is to be arrested,
and from which he is to judge of the pomp or dignity of the inmate.
In the interior, the pleasure of the inmate has to be sought, and the
artist has to borrow from the treasury of his fancy, every device which
can divert and tranquilize. Through the contemplation of these the
mind must unbend and relax into tranquil pleasure. How rich, then,
and varied in its conceits, how sensitive in its structure, how refined
and delicate, how acute in its parts, must be that mind which can con-
ceive and execute a design so potent in its effects. It is not mere
imagination, it is more ; it is the imagination cooled and schooled,
training its active and perpetual creations according to principle and
rule, until it form a picture faithful and real, the original materials of
■which are in nature. It is not mere fancy either which admires the
production, it is rather the fancy compelled by a skilful adaptation
from nature of proportion, harmony, and grace, and which is, in truth,
the mind affected under a familiar not an artijicial influence.

Hence those artists who sport with flowers, and who fling, with a
seemingly careless hand, into design the lighter beauties of their art,
deserve attention, and deserve too, the same protection, assistance,

and name, as Kent received ; but whose talents must droop and wither
so long as art holds in her body those worms that gnaw awav her
sicklv vitals.

May 10.

FuEDERiCK East.

ARCHITECTURAL ROOM, ROYAL ACADEMY.

We will dispense with further animadversions on the accommoda-
tion afforded to, or rather, withheld from, this department of the
Academy's annual exhibitions ; not because the slightest improvement
in that respect has taken place — not because there is no longer any
occasion for the oljservations we have already made at different times,
but because they may be repeated 'till farther notice,' as the playbills
say, — that is, to the end of the chapter, and until the Royal Academy,
painters, architects, and all shall have become Faimits Troe'. — And
trulv, if architects themselves generally, and the Professor of Archi-
tecture in particular, can patiently tolerate a system which produces
to them an annual insult, we do not see why we should allow ourselves
to be at all ruffled and put out of temper by it. Patience and long
suffering are no doubt virtues, and accordingly, as far as the Academy
is concerned, architects show themselves the most virtuous of the
human race ; — not but that there are bounds even to patience, and if
pushed beyond them, the illnatured world are apt to call it sheer dull-
ness and stupidity.

In regard to the actual contents of the Architectural Room this sea-
son, we regret to find so very few designs for buildings of any promise
or importance, among those either in actual progress, or definitively
determined upon. We see many competition drawings, but then they
are for the most part only rejected ones, while those which are adopted
are kept back. For the Assize Courts at Lis-erpool, there are no fewer
than ten different designs — some of them rather indifferent ones — in-
cluding the successful one by Mr. Elmes, jun. But all of them are now,
it seems, set aside, it being now intended to comprise the Courts and
the St. George's Hall in one building. We will, however, first pay our
respects to the Professor of Architecture, who modestly contents him-
self with exhibiting a single drawing, and that of a rejected design, —
viz. Xo. 993, described in the catalogue as " A Study for a Front of a
Public Building," which turns out to be neither more nor less than his
design for the \Vest Front of the Royal Exchange, engravings of which
were published some few months ago in the Westminster Review. It
certainly is not deficient in richness, and has the merit of avoiding
that now common-place feature, a portico treated without any kind of
originality, and brought in for the nonce, whether there be any thing
else to agree with it or not. Still, it appears to us, keeping has not
been sufficiently attended to, there being a disproportion between the
large parasite columns and the rest, for not only do they overpower
some of the other parts, but actually squeeze them up and encumber
the facade unnecessarily and unmeaningly. It further strikes us as
singular that Mr. Cockerell should not have exhibited his model for
the same building also, as, besides that it would have been a striking
object in the room, and would have explained the_ whole design, we
have heard it sooken of as abounding with many effective parts. Still
even if he chose to withhold that, we think he might very well have
permitted us to see the designs of some other buildings either in pro-
gress or about to be begun by him, for instance the New Libraries at
Cambridge, the Sun Fire Office at the corner of Bartholomew Lane,
and the Taylor and Randolph Institute, at Oxford. Not having chosen
to do so, he has no right to be very much astonished should some per-
sons draw unfavourable inferences from it, and impute it to something
like a consciousness on his part that none of those designs are calcu-
lated to raise his professional reputation.

Like Cockerell, Mr. Barry exhibits only one design, yet that one is
altogether new as to subject, and of considerable importance. We were
aware that Mr. B. liad been commissioned by Lord Francis Egertori to
prepare a design for Bridgevvater House, but hardly expected to be
gratified with sight of it so early. With regard to the subject itself,
it will not detract from his high reputation ; at the same tune we
question whether it will add to, or we should say, will raise it very
much, since an edifice of such a character and upon such a scale must
of course extend its author's celebrity. Grandeur and stateliness it
certainly possesses ; — and that is something, or rather a very great
deal, considering how very rarely we obtain those qualities or any
thing like them in structures where we might reasonably expect to
find them, and from which they certainly have not been excluded by
severe economy,— for instance, the unfortunate and deplorable a la
Regent Street Buckingham Palace. Bridgewater House is noble
and princely in asoect, which is what cannot possibly be affirmed of
those two ducal m'ansions, Stafford House, and Wellington or Apsley

2 B 2

180

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

rjuNE,

House, which last is sm iiMiiarkaUe for nothing as for its sir.ngness and
spruceness, for its utter want of dignity, and clownright insignificance
of manner. Still though there is a fine architectural feeling pervading
the whole of Mr. Barry's design, we cannot say that it is marked by
originality, notwithstanding that a mansion of such a character will in
itself be quite a novelty in the metropolis. It will be a large, oblong
and insulated pile of building, two sides of which afe shown in the
drawing (No. 9S1), viz., the South and West, tlie latter facing the
Green Park. Judging from what we see, we presume that the same
architectural character will be kept up throughout the whole of the
exterior, and that the North side will be the principal entrance front,
there being there a square tower carried up a story higher than the
rest of the edifice, from which we conjecture that tlie lower part of it
will form a carriage porch. The summit of this tower shows itself
picturesquely in the view above the general mass of the mansion, and
is, no doubt, intended to serve as a sort of belvedere, — an appendage
certainly micoismon, but in this instance justified by the locality, in the
immediate vicinity of the Parks. We may describe the design gene-
rally— at least what is here shown of it, by saying that it consists, of a
rusticated basement or ground floor, with a continuous Corinthian order,
comprising a principal floor and mezzanine; the whole surmounted by
a balustrade and vases of globular form. Botli the elevations which
are shown are perfectly similar in design, except that the South front,
which has fifteen intercolumns, consequently so many windows on each
floor, has pilasters, while the West front or end towards the park,
has three-quarter columns, and six intercolumns less, or only nine
■windows on a floor. In both elevations, all the windows of the prin-
cipal floor have triangular pediments, and the mezzanine ones key-
stones to their architraves. The angles of the building are strength-
ened by coupled pilasters, so that two adjoining ones exhibit a group of
three of them. It should further be remarked that the superstructure
is in some degree rusticated as well as the basement, the jointings of
the stone being shown on the surface of the walls between the columns,
&c. This must suffice in the way of description, — which however
exact, can merely enumerate the several items of a design, without
exhibiting their aggregate etTect ; and the particulars we have noticed
will serve as an outline of this composition of Mr. Barry's. The size
of the building may be tolerably well guessed at, for the Park front
may be taken as very nearly the same as that of the Reform Club-
house, each having nine windows in breadth, and the proportions of the
openings and spaces between them appearing nearly the same in each
case. At any rate the difference cannot be much either way, conse-
quently the South front of Bridgewater House, will be to that of the
Reform Club as 15 to 9; or we may compute its extent at 190 feet,
more or less.

It will be said — we have, in fact, said as much already ourselves,
that there is nothing very striking either in the individual" portions of
this design, or in their combination : — it is nothing more than an ex-
cellent application of a good Italian style — absolutely nothing more.
But then there is this difference, and a most prodigious one it is, be-
tween Mr. Barry's imitations and those of many others — see for instance
a lately built facade in Regent Street, — that he generally refines and
ennobles the style, and gives us its true sentiment, while they, more
frequently than not, absolutely vulgarize it, and render it poor and in-
sipid. If Mr. Barry's principle of composition is no secret to them,
why do they abstain from making use of it themselves? It is true,
not every one has the same opportunities afforded him, but even those
who have favourable opportunities do not turn them to the best ac-
count— often throw them quite away, giving us the crassest architec-
tural crudities. We own that Barry has here had a most noble oppor-
tunity put in his way ; and should the design be strictly followed
out — at any rate not impaired by being pand down, we may safely
predict that it viill prove a splendiil addition to our metropolitan
architecture; and we further trust will be an example forming an
epoch in it, by stimulating others of the nobility to imitate such pre-
cedent;— whereas hitherto there has been some sort of excuse for their
choosing to keep their houses as plain and as homespun in appear-
ance as possible, lest while seeking gala suits for them, they should
be imposed upon by such rascally Monmouth-street finery as that in
which the Regent Park terraces, and other similar accumulations of
architectural Brummagen, tawdriness and vulgarity, are bedizened
out, till they almost look like so many regiments of ginshops.

We must pull up and rein in our Pegasus, for we are now got we
know not where, — among Charles Barry's antipodes, — the ultra-cock-
neyfications of people who build by wholesale, — how unlucky that they
do not also build for exportation only 1 — Cjuiet ! Pegasus, quiet 1 dont
kick. We notice some monstrosities of the kind on the walls of the
Academy — as when do we not. Nevertheless we will not notice them
further at present ; therefore give them a chance of escape.

Instead of proceeding methodically, according to the order of the

catalogue, we plunge in mclim hh, and turn to No. louij, Mr. H. L.
Elmes' Design for St. George's Hall, Liverpool, which certainly satis-
fies us much better than did any of the drawings for the same subject,
exhibited last year. To say the truth, it is much superior to the
general run of our Anglo-Grecian architecture, in which there is no-
thing Grecian except the columns alone, while here there is some taste,
and some study shown as to the other parts. The solid, but ornamental
stylobate, enriched with a narrow panel with figures in relief, is good
and effective, and some play is jiroduced by the entrances being made
separate compositions at the extremity of this stylobate; but we do
not understand why instead of being continued throughout, the panel
should be divided into two by a blank space forming a break in the centre
of the stylobate. The order is a fluted Ionic, forming an advanced colon-
nade of thirteen intercolumns, containing as many windows, which be-
sides exhibiting considerable novelty as to the pattern of their glazing,
are more than usually decorated, and have cornices of peculiar design,
crowned by a central ornament — a novelty that deserves to be en-
couraged, though the form itself might be improved upon. The cor-
nice of the order is also better, because less meagre and insipid than
usual, and possessing some degree of embellishment. Thus far we
can conscientiously commend — and though it may stand for nothing,
our commendation means something; but we must also qualify our
praise by some objections, one of which is that the colonnade appears
so shallow, as to be little more than an ornamental range of columns
placed before the building, nor does there seem to be any entrance to
it from the interior. Neither do we at all approve of a colonnade of
this kind being made prostyle or jutting out from the building, as if it
were a portico forming the approach to it; because it looks too much
like a mere useless addition to it, nor is that eftect of shadow obtained
which is produced by recessing the space behind the columns within
the building. However from a perspective elevation alone it is im-
possible for us to judge very accurately in regard to such circumstances.
His other design, for the Law Courts, turns out much better than we
expected, for when we first heard that its chief feature was a Grecian
Doric portico, we were apprehensive that it would prove merely one
of those ultra-Grecian aflairs concocted according to recipe a la Stuart,
in short some such regularly classical piece of design as the New
Liverpool Custom-house. We were therefore agreeably surprised at
finding it so very much better, and with more than usual taste as to
composition, and study as to detail, in which last respect there is one
rather happy novelty in the mode — not easy to be plainly described —
in which the podium and its mouldings follows the curve of the
columns, and form what may be considered either continuations of
their shafts, or distinct pedestals, by the podium itself being omitted
in the intercolumns beneath the pediment. The general design may-
be described as consisting of five compartments, viz., a narrow one at
each end between antce, and three others making altogether seventeen
open intercolumns, five of which form the slightly advanced central
division beneath the pediment; consequently the arrangement of the
whole facade bears so far considerable resemblance to that of the
Fitzwilliam Museum, at Cambridge. The whole is raised on a low
stylobate, and the ascent to the portico is tastefully managed. The
pediment is filled with bas-relief.*

Good as the preceding design is, there is far more of originality,
both as to conception and treatment, in No. 09S, (E. B. Lamb,) for the
same building, described in the catalogue as being in an Italo-Grecian
style, to which designation it answers sufficiently correctly, being for
the most part Grecian in its physiognomy, — in the regularity and rich-
ness of its colunmiation, — but relieved from Grecian monotony by
some judicious modifications, and by some application of Italian fea-
tures. Leaving others to settle whether such style would best be
turned Grecian Italianized, or Italian Grecianized, we will examine
the merits of the design itself. The order which is Ionic, is raised
upon a somewhat lofty stylobate, or rather, basement floor, and is carried
uninterruptedly throughout the whole facade, so as to form an open
colonnade of 15 intercolumns, and a closed compartment at each ex-
tremity between bold coupled antcD. This last circumstance gives
additional value to the rest, — for those parts contribute materially to
breadth and repose, while they are far more important in themselves
than had there been merely two antae and the space of an intercolumn
between them. At the same time that greater contrast is thus ob-
tained, a pleasing degree of uniformity has also been kept up, and this
has been accomplished in a manner as effective and tasteful as it is
novel, viz., by recessing the upper part of the wall between the ant£B, so

AVe have been informed that this design is almost iJenlically the same
w id) that by Barry for the Law Courts, proposed to Ije erected in Lincoln s
Jnn Fields. We greatly doubt, however, if .'ucli l,e the case, except, as far as
the fj'eneral arrangement goes ; for if the peculiarity above pointed out. with
regaril to die coUVmns. be the same in bolli instances, it would be a very re-
markable coinci'Ience indeed.

1841.1

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

181

as to admit of a large statue being there placed at each end,aud which
of course becomes strongly relieved by the mass of shadow surround-
ing it. This may so far not be Grecian, because there is no direct
authority for it, but then it is on that account all the more meritorious,
because it is most certainly, both Grecian and classical, in sentiment.
Similar in character to the parts just described, but with some varia-
tions, owing to their being more extended, are the elevations of the
ends of the building, so that the wdiole is in keeping throughout ; which
we are sorry to observe is a much greater and rarer merit than it ought
to be, — certainly one that has been utterly disregarded by the classical
architect of the Post Office. Among other points tliat particularly
recommend this design of Mr. L.'s, is that he has kept up or rather
enhanced the dignity of the colonnade, in the first place by introducing
inner columns in the part serving as a vestibule between the two courts,
and in the next by avoiding windows, and making the two doors seen
behind the columns very conspicuous and highly ornamental features.
There is also much that is equally good and new in the details of the
order itself, — in the capitals especially, and likewise in the cornice.

(To he continued.)

ENGINEERING WORKS OF THE ANCIENTS, No. 5.

Thucydides, who wrote about the year 400 B.C., is the next whom
we shaU take in our discursive course ; his history however presents
few gleanings.

WALLS OF ATHENS.

About 481 B.C., the Athenians restored their dismantled walls, and
also enclosed the Piraeus.* From political circumstances the works
were very much hurried, the foundations were laid with stones of all
sorts and sizes, some unwrought, and just as they were brought up by
the servers. Many pillars too from sepulchral monuments, and other
wrought stones were worked up in the building ; for the boundary wall
of the city was now far greater, being in every direction carried out ;
and for this reason it was that they urged on the work, employing
alike whatever came to hand. It was Themistocles, too, who per-
suaded them to build the remaining walls of the Pirsus (for this had
been begun by him during the year of the archonship which he filled
at Athens), thinking the place highly favourable, as having three na-
tural ports, and that as they had become a nautical people, it would
mucli contribute to their obtaining naval power. Indeed he first ven-
tured to tell them they should apply to the sea, and then immediately
assisted them in acquiring the empire of it. By his counsel it was
that they built the wall of that thickness about Pirsus : for two wains
brought stone, passing by each other upon it, and going contrary ways.
Within, there was neither rubble nor clay, but the stones were large
and hewn square, fitted together in building; and those on the outside
bound together with stone and lead. The height however was only
finished to about the half what was designed, for his intention was to
eflfectually repel all hostile attacks, both by the thickness and the lofti-
ness of the walls, and he thought that thus a few, and those the least
effective persons, would be sufficient to man it, and that the rest might
embark on board the fleet: for he chiefly devoted bis attention lo the
shipping, perceiving, it seems, that there was a readier access for the
king's (Persia's) forces against them by sea than by land. For he
judged that the Piraus would be more serviceable than the upper city,
and often counselled the Athenians that if ever they should be foiled
by land, they should descend thereto, and with the navy make head
against all opponents.

Frequent mention is made in other places of walls of defence and
offence, but these do not present sufficient general interest to call for
particular notice.

The Athenians, as we shall hereafter have occasion to mention were
distinguished as engineers, and particularly skilful in constructions of
this kind. On account of the peculiar mode of building, workmen
were employed who were skilled in this iron cramping.'!' Thus we find
that to the seige of Nisaea were sent iron and stone-masons.

MINES.

Although Thucydides was himself a proprietor of mines, we find
very few and short notices in his work. In the First Book chapter
100, allusion is made to a mine in Thrace, of which mention is made
by no other author. In the Second Book, chapter 55, our author re-
counts that the Peloponnesians, having devastated the champaign
country of Athens, passed into what is called the territory of Paralus,

' Eouk I, ch. 93.

T Beck 4, cli. C9.

as far as Laurium, where were the Athenian silver mines, to which
however they appear to have done no injury. The gold mines near
Thrace were possessed by Thucydides,* and are supposed by the com-
mentators to have been situated at Mount Pangaus, and to have been
the same from which Philip, King of Macedon, derived the funds
which enabled him to conquer Greece.

ATHENLVN ENGINEERS.

The reputation of the Athenians as engineers is attested by Thucy-
dides in the following passage.'!' The Lacedemonians as their war
against the rebels in Ithome ran out into a length of time, demanded
the assistance of the allies, and amongst others of the Athenians. No
small number of these were sent to their aid under the command of
Cymon. The demand of assistance from them was principally owing
to the reputation they then were in for their superior skill in the
methods of approaching and attacking walls.

VALUE OF WROUGHT MATERIALS.

Another of those circumstances which attest the value of manual
labour among the Greeks, we find in the Second Book, in the account
of the preparations made by the Athenians for sustaining a siege dur-
ing the Peloponnesian war, when they removed into the city not only
their moveable property, but even much of the woodwork of their
houses.

CONDUIT AT ATHENS.

Thucydides (Book Second), mentions at Athens a conduit called the
Enneakrounos or Kine Pipe, from the manner in which it was em-
bellished by the tyrants, formerly called Callirhoe.

SIEGES.

The sieges described in this history do not well come within our
sphere, but those who are desirous of ascertaining the resources of
Greek military engineering, will do well to refer to them, particularly
to the siege ofPlatea. Here we find mining, countermining, raising
mounds, walls of circumvallation, &c.

BRIDGE OVER THE STRYMON.

In the Eighth Book we find the bridge over the Strymon, mentioned
by other authors referred to.

Persians.

diverting rivers.

We find in Thucydides one solitary mention of the Persians, and
that with regard to the art in which they excelled, hydraulic engineer-
ing. Megabyzus, the son of Zepynis, commanding the Persian forces
in Egypt, having driven the Greeks out of Memphis, drove them into
the isle of Prosopis, where he shut them up. Here he kept them
blocked up for a year and six months ; till having drained the chaimel,
by turning the water into a different course ; he stranded all their
ships, antl rendered the island almost continent. He then marched his
troops across, and took the place by a land assault.

Diodorus the Sicilian, was the author of a general history called the
Historical Library ; he flourished in the first century before the Chris-
tian era. The first of our gleanings from the translation of his work
by Booth, relates to the Egyptians, who are treated of in the First
Book.

Egyptians.

honours paid to engineering.

All writers in Egypt attest the honour in which the Egyptians held
the construction of public works, many of tlieir oldest monuments being
attributed to the gods. The god Osiris, by some is named as the
founder of Thebes, and he made an expedition through the world for
the purpose of introducing civilization, during which he built several
stately cities, particularly'in Ethiopia and India. In enumerating the
merits of the kings, our author says, " And besides all this, were con-
querors of many nations, and grew exceeding rich, and their provinces
were beautified w ith manv stately magnificent works, and their cities
adorned with many rich gifts of all sorts."

embankment of the NILE. — HERCULES AND OSIRIS ENGINEERS.

In the time of Osiris, the Nile is reported to have broken its banks,
and overflowed the greater part of Egypt. On this occasion the old
or Egyptian Hercules, who, says our author, was always for old and
difficult enterprises, and ever of a stout spirit, presently made up the
breaches, turned the river into its channel, and kept it within its ancient
banks ; and therefore some of the Greek poets, from this fact, forged
a fable, that Hercules killed the eagle that fed upon the heart of

' Hook 4, ch. 106.

Book 1, ch. 11.

182

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL

[June,

Proriietlicus. The most ancient n;ime of the river was Oceames, which
in the Greek pronunciation was Oceanus, afterwards called Eagle,
■upon the violent eruption which covered a great part of tlie province
governed by Prometheus, in consequence of which he died of grief.

What Hercules did for the low^er part of tiie Nile, Osiris did for
the upper part of the same river, for having come to the borders of
Ethiopia, he raised high banks on either side of the river, lest in the
time of its inundation it should overflow the cuimtry more than was
convenient, and make it marsh and boggy; and made floodgates to let
in the water by degrees as was necessary.

Uchoreus, whom Diodorus calls the builder of Memphis, thus
managed the site he had chosen. The Nile flowing round the city,
and at the time of the inundation covering all round on the south side,
he cast up a mighty rampart of earth, both for a defence to the city
against the raging of the river, and as a bulwark against an enemy by
land ; on every side likewise he dug a broad and deej) trench, which
received the violent surges of the river, anil filled every place round
the rampart with water, which fortiiied the city to admiration.

We here find Osiris, the chief god of the Egyptians, and Hercules
enrolled among the patrons of engineering, so that when the profession
is driven to a pinch for an emblem, here is the dtua ex machin/i.
Hercules destroying the eagle preying on the vitals of Prometlieus,
■will make a pretty device either on a medal or on a service of plate
presented to a member of the profession.

EMBANKMENTS OF SESOSTRIS.

' _ Sesostris on his return from his warlike expeditions applied himself
like his predecessors to the adornment of his country. Among his
other labours are mentioned that he raised many mounds and banks of
earth, to which he removed all the cities that lay low and in the plain.

CANAL OF THE RED SEA.

The following is the account which our author gives of the famous
canal of the Red Sea. From Pelusiacum as far as to the Arabian
Gulf, and the Red Sea is a canal cut out. Necos, the son of Psameti-
cus, was the first who began this work, and after him Darius the Per-
sian cariied it on, but left it unfinished, being told by some that if he
cut it through the isthmus all Egypt would be drowned, for that the
Red Sea lay higher than Egypt. The last attempt was made by
Ptolemy the Second, who cut a sluice across the isthmus in a
more convenient jdace, which he opened, when he had a mind to sail
down that way, and then presently after shut up again; which contri-
vance proved very useful and serviceable. The river which runs
through this cut is called Ptolemy, after the name of its maker.
Where it falls into the sea, there is a city built called Arsinoe.

_ According to Diodorus, Nile, King of Egypt, called the river after
his own name. For being that he cut many canals and dikes in con-
venient places, and used his utmost endeavour to make the river more
useful and serviceable, it was therefore called Nile.

Sesostris also cut a great many deep dykes, or canals from the river,
all along as far from Memphis to the sea", for the ready and quick con-
veying of corn and other provision and merchandise, by short cuts
thither, for the support of trade and commerce, and maintenance of
peace and plenty all over the country: These canals served also as
defences.

COCHLIA.
Our authors say that the land was watered from the canals by means
of a certain engine, invented by Archimedes the Syracusan, and which
received its name from its resemblance to a snail's shell.

LAKE OF MERIS AND THE LABYRINTH.

So much distrust has been thrown on the account of the Lake of
Meris, that we tliink it better to refer those of our readers, who are
desirous of obtaining information respecting it to the original, rather
than give it here. — The same remark we must make with regard to
the Labyrinth.

WALL OF SESOSTRIS.

Sesostris is recorded as having built a wall for the defence of the
east side of Egypt, against the irruptions of the Syrians and Arabians.
This wall is stated to have extended from Pelusium through the de-
serts as far as Heliopolis, and to have been fifteen hundred furlongs,
or about two hundred miles in length.

PYRAMIDS.

The Pyramids and Obelisks are works certainly belonging to engi-
neering, but as it is our object rather to show the bearing which
ancient history has upon the practice of the art in modern times, than
to elucidate subjects, which more properly belong to the province of
the antiquarian, we content ourselves with reminding our readers, that

in the author before us they will find much information with regard to
these splendid works of art.

GEOMETRY.

Tlie priests were the instructors of youth, and the learning taught
by them was called sacred. In arithmetic and geometry, even in the
time of our author, they kept the students a long time.

CTo be continued,)

ON THE ACTION OF CENTRAL FORCES.

" Happy is the man who can discover the causes of things."

Sir — In the number for April last, there is inserted a paper on cen^
tral forces, in which the writer endeavours to prove the existence of
"an inscrutable lavf of nature," according to which centrifugal force
is excited by the curvilinear motion of a heavy bodv.

Before offering remarks on that paper, let us first inquire into the
distinct action of the forces that retain a heavy body in a circular
path.

Taking the usual diagram, let A C D
be a circle of revolution, A C any very
small part of it, AO I) the diameter at
the point A, and B JI the rectangle on
the diagonal AC. Then AM is the
effect of central attraction on the body
at A, and AB its projectile motion.
The motion in A M is accelerative,
being originated from nothing by central
pressure. The motion in A B is uni-
form, being the result of an impetus
previously communicated. Now the
ratio of A M to A B may be diminished
to anv extent, by diminishing A C. For
AB'=AM. MD, and therefore AB : M D : : A M : AB. Now,
in reducing AC we reduce AB also, and the less we make AB, the
less is its ratio to M D or A D, and the less also is the ratio of A M to
AB; and this ratio may thus be diminished to any extent. Thus,
also, the circular motion may be considered ultimately, when A B be-
comes indefinitely small, to be composed of projectile motion and in-
cessant central pressure. Again, AC-^^AD. AM, and AB-=DM.
A M, therefore A C-'— A B==A M. (A D— D M) = A M-. But it appears
that this difference may ultimately be neglected; therefore AB^AC
ultimately. But AC will be the momentary projectile motion of the
body when arrived at C, and therefore, as the other circumstances of
motion are the same as at point A the new resultant and consequently,
also the new projectile motion ^ A C — A B. This proof holds good
at every other point, and therefore the motion in the circle must be
uniform, and equal to the original projectile motion.

To proceed ; the writer begins with a familiar example of rotatory
motion in the operation of electro-magnetic attraction upon a projected
bar of iron. He says that its motion in the circle is uniform, because
the deflecting and projectile forces do not influence one another, being
independent of each other, and acting at right angles. Now, certainly
thev are independent as to origin, for the bar would adhere to the
magnet, though it moved not at all. But the deflecting force is de-
pendent in respect of ^((t/^Wi/ upon the other. We cannot certainly
say that the wdiole power of attraction is deflecting force, though the
writer says so expressly in another part of his paper, page 115. On
this supposition we might make the deflecting force as strong as we
please, other circumstances being identical ; which is absurd, and
would, if true, overturn entirely our mathematical demonstrations on
the subject, including propositions of which he himself makes use.
In fact, magnetic attraction may be much greater than is necessary for
that purpose. The deflecting force, then, strictly so called, is just so
much of the attractive force as is necessary for deflection, the over-
plus being superfluous pressure. Respecting their action at right
angles, I liave already shown, that the lieflecting force greatly in-
fluences the projectile. In fact it perpetually combines with it, and
produces resultants equal to one another, and to the projectile motion.
This is the reason of the constancy of circular motion.*

Mystifying the origin of centrifugal force, he says that as it is equal
and opposite to the centripetal force, it cannot arise from the magnetic

* He says again, the centrilugal force cannot be ihe resultant of the other
two forces, for it h oul.l then point within the circle This contradicts the
very ilcfinilion of circular motion, which is that t"
nor w ithout. but in the circle."

: the resultant is neither within

1841.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

183

action. Certainly not from the overplus action, but undoubteiUy from
the deflecting magnetic action, for it is evidently just a case of the
third law of motion ; that action and reaction are equal and contrary :
a very satisfactory explanation, yet what an effort is made to obscure
the subject!*

The writer now drives the apparatus with a winch, and supposes
the magnetic attraction to perform the business of cohesion, and then
asks if his hand imparts the centrifugal force. This requires no
answer from me, and he has thought fit not to do so either.

His illustration in the case of a sling, I confess I luiderstand not. It
involves the absurdity of expressing velocity in terms of weight; al-
though, as I understand it, it ought to be told in terms of space and
time.

The instance of the fly-wheel has little new, except the manifesta-
tion of another misconception of the writer's. " The central (centri-
fugal) force, says he, acts by pressure, and a resultant from that pres-
sure and tlie force in the circle is the consequence, but so long as
resistance from cohesion continues, neither motion nor pressure can,
be imparted to another body by the central force." The writer here
exchanges cause and effect, for he would fain attribute a self-exciting
property to the centrifugal force, and insinuates accordingly that the
resistance of cohesion is the covuqiiaii centripetal force. Whereas
the reverse is the case; the cohesion is exerted, because it perpetually
winds the direction of projectile motion; and the centrifugal force is
plainly the inertktic (forgive the innovation) tendency of the body to
rectilinear motion. There is also something said of moment of rota-
tion, irrelevant to the subject.

The experiment of the whirling table simply confirms what was

proved long ago, that, using the writer's symbols, .r =^ — .

After recapitulation, he concludes the first part of the subject with
the notable inference, that centrifugal force is a physical agent, excited
by an inscrutable law of nature when matter moves curvilinearly. I
need not say how unnecessarily this law has been brought forward. It
really would be more surprising than the formation of magnets by
electric operations. For electricity and magnetism are identical, and
therefore naturally enough such a result should take place. Though
we may not know the absolute nature of physical principles, we may
accurately know their relative nature. Therefore the writer is un-
fortunate in his allusion, as we are dealing in relatives, not in absolutes.

Proceed we to the second part of the subject: the composition of
the projectile and centrifugal forces. And here an absurdity at once
presents itself. We are told that a ball weighing 1 !tj. moving in a
circle of 2 feet radius, at the rate of two revolutions per second, has a
projectile velocity of ■25-14 per second, and a centrifugal velocity of
157"76 per second. This number has evidently been the result of the

formula — , which expresses the proposition quoted from Brewster's

25-14=
Encyclopedia. For — - — =: 1 57-76 feet. Now, it is a misnomer to

call this the velocity per second. It is the space passed through in a
second by the body, with a motion accelerated from nothing. We

might as well say that

157-7G

: 78'SS feet would be the space passed

through per half second. But what would the rule give us ? The
projectile velocity per half second being 12-57, we woidd have by

V- 12-572
the rule ^ =; — - — = 39-44 feet per half second : ludicrously incon-
sistent. The writer places the two forces on the same footing, whereas
the one is impulse, the other pressure; which renders tlie succeeding
reasoning a baseless fabric. I have shown at the commencement of
this paper, which I fear is too long, that the shorter the time supposed
for action, the less is the ratio of the effects of the projectile and cen-
tripetal forces, and therefore in any moment of time, the effect of the
latter is unassignably less than that of the former. If he will turn also
to Cavallo, whom he has so often quoted, he will find the same con-
clusion come to in his third proposition on curvilinear motion.

The experiment with the tube and balls, though it has the appear-
ance of accuracy, is undoubtedly pointless. The apparatus must have
been exceedingly clumsy to require "very high increasing velocities"
to manifest the action of this wonderful power.

' The idea of the perpendicularity of Iheir dircclions preventing their
annual action is very absurd. What is parabolic motion ?

"As to the probable results of a practical application of this princi-
ple," they will be exactly nothing at all, as the experiment with the
tube and balls well nigh proves.

I am, Sir, your obedient servant,

Daniel Clark.
Phcenix Iron JVurks,
Glasgow, May 10, 1S41.

ON THE EMPLOYMENT OF MILITARY ENGINEERS.

Sir — In your last month's Journal, under the above head, I find an
attack made on military engineers and military engineering, as un-
called for and unprovoked, as it is narrow-minded, illiberal, and un-
gentlemanly, and I am sure that from a sense of justice you will insert
these few remarks in reply to the anonymous libeller who signs him-
self " Civilian." '

The purport of the writer is an evident desire of venting his petty
spleen on a body of talented, high-minded, and honourable men, and
wdiilst I much regret that your columns have been made use of for the
purpose of libelling a "Captain of engineers at the head of the archi-
tectural and engineering departments of the Admiralty," viz. Captain
Brandreth — a gentleman whose talents, urbanity and kindness have
endeared him and made him respected by all who have been connected
with him in his professional capacity — I'Lim sure that no civil engineer
laying the slightest claim to station," to gentlemanly feeling, or to re-
spectability, would ever descend to such low personalities, nor will
" Civilian " ever obtain the sanction or countenance of such men to his
vituperations.

If "Civilian" had the benefit and the interest of the civil engineer
at heart, he would never for a moment wish to weaken the union
which is now daily increasing between the civil and the military engi-
neer, for their mutual as well as for the public good. The spheres of
action of the two professions lie in almost every case so widely apart
that they may be said never to clash; while the foreign services of
the military engineer open to him a vast field of inquiry and infor-
mation, which those who practice in this country as civilians are un-
able to obtain. His varied information, his experience, strength of
mind, and coolness for calculation, fully entitle him to such offices as
the country is able to give; and in justly awarding the few she does
to him, she but acts for her own interest.

With respect to young gentlemen who are educated at the military
colleges — is "Civilian" aware of the rigid examination these gentle-
men have to pass through before they are entered into the corps of
engineers? and that but a very small number are admitted into Ihal
corps every year ? Is he also aware of the number of young gentle-
men who are annually sent out of engineers' offices, after spending,
as "Civilian" boasts, "nearly £1000," is he awaie that ihey are sent
out without a7ty ixaminalion, and in most cases with a meagre know-
ledge picked up in the best way they are able, and not " drilled under
the auspices of their colonel" — would they had been I And why, I
would ask, are men of talent, of exertion, of experience, not to prac-
tice in the varied callings of their profession, if they so please, if they
are competent, and if the public will employ them?

I am a civil engineer myself, which fact I doubt of " Civilian," in-
deed I would not, for the credit and the respectability of the profes-
sion, believe he ranked himself as one, as no man holding any station
in it, much less having any respect for himself, would be the author of
such a production.

I am, Sir,

Your obedient servant,

Bristol. Veritas.

SLATE CHIMNIES.

Sir— Having lately adopted a plan, by means of which slate slabs
may be made use of, in the construction of chimneys or flues, in con-
nexion with an open fire grate, and in situations where the common
brick chimneys could not be built, I take the liberty of submitting the
plan to your consideration.

Having not long ago taken possession of a house, attached to which
was a room built at the side, and not having fire place and chimney I
adopted the following plan : — I fixed to one of the walls of the room,
at a proper height from the floor, a common open fire-basket or grate,
having a strong iron back, not let into the w'ull, but fixed in front of it.
I then had four long narrow slate slabs put together, so as to form a
square hollow pillar open at top and bottom, and the pillar so formed
I had erected against the -.vail immediately over the fire-grate, and

184

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

rji.NE>

carried the pillar out through the ceiling and roof of the room. The
fire-grate and flue thus enclosed, had a chimney-piece of slate set to
correspond. The slate, not being so good a conductor of heat as iron,
does not give out any thing like the same quantity of heat an iron
pillar or pipe would have done; at the same time tlie lieated air,

Eassing U|) through the slate pillar imparts to it such a degree of
eat, as adds very perceptibly, and I may add very pleasantly, to the
warmth of the room. The Welch slate, as is well known, will crack*
on being exposed to a very slight degree of heat, but my slabs were
made ol Valencia slate (from quarries in Ireland), which do stand heat
very well, if cautiously applied in the first instance.

The superficial quantity of slate used was very small, the slabs
being veiy narrow, consequently the expense was very trifling. The
economy of heat I consider to be no small advantage in ray plan. In
the case of a common brick chimney let into the wall, the heated air
passes up it, imparting no heat to the room, but in the case of this
slate pillar, erected mithin the room, the heated air passing up through
it, is conducted by means of the slate into the room. Indeed it was
found that the warmth of the room was fully maintained with a very
small consumption of fuel.

Should you deem this little plan worthy of being brought to the
notice of your architectural friends through the medium of your
valuable Journal, it will much oblige. Sir,

Your obedient humble servant,
London, May 6. A Lover of the Fireside.

ALARUM WHISTLE FOR STEAM BOILERS.

Sir— The enclosed sketch represents, in section, a simplified form
of alarum whistle for steam boilers which has occurred to me. Should
you deem it worthy of insertion, you will perhaps give it a place in
your valuable pages.

a, i, k, h, is a float, which consists of an inverted vessel of sheet iron
or other metal, through the centre of which passes a spindle a c, having
a collar at a, upon which the float is screwed down by a nut outside.
At the upper end e is fixed a cap of brass with a joint ground steam-
tight to the bottom of the whistle y"; dcd is a stay Uirough which
the spindle a c passes, having sufficient clearance in the hole at c.
This stay may be either double, as shown, or single. At i is a cotter
which prevents the spindle dropping farther than the distance from
the bottom of the cotter to the stay at c; gh is the surface of the
water.

When the steam is down, the cotter in the spindle rests upon the
stay, through which the spindle passes leaving the passage at e open.
As soon as the steam rises, the vessel iakb hlls with steam and rises
to the position shown in the sketch. When the water falls the float
also falls, leaving the passage to the whistle open, and is stopped in
its descent, as above described, by the cotter 6 resting on the stay.
There are holes at the sides of the cup e as well as a passage through
the top to prevent the lodgment of dirt, &c.

The advantage which I think this apparatus possesses above any I
have yet seen, is the absence of any working joints, there being only

" .Some qualities w ill stand the fire remarkably w ell.— Ed.

two points of contact required, at e and c, and those leaving clearance.
The whistle will also act as a vacuum valve when the steam goes
down; for it is evident that when the steam is below the pressure of
the atmosphere, it will be condensed in the float vessel, which will
consequently fall by its own gravity.

I am, Sir,

Your's obediently.
Liverpool, May 15. G. J. Horner.

KORTH OF ENGLAND RAILWAY CHAIR.

^~e.>j:..- .., '^^

A, section from 1 to 2. — B. plan of chair. — C, section from 5 to 6. — D.
ditto, locking cheek in its place. — E, ditto, rail. — F, ditto, from 3 to 4.— G
and H, side and end of locking cheek. — K, malleable iron key or wedge. — L.
stone blocks, or wood sleepers.

Sir — I beg to hand you a sketch of a joint chair with some expla-
nation, &c., and a section of the rail used on the Great North of
England Railway, which are at your service. The chair is considered
to be well adapted to the rail, and simple in its principle. The middle
chair, as well as the cheek chairs, are on the same construction, but
vary in the weight :

Joint chair 40 iti.

Middle do 41

Cheek do 30

Rail per yard lineal 60

The railway has now been opened since the beginning of last April,
and keeps in a good working condition, there are very few slips or
subsidence in any of the embankments or cuttings. From the easy
gradients, solidity of execution, and other favourable features con-
nected with the Great North of England Railway, it readily may be
inferred that the line will be worked at less cost than any other line
of the same extent.

I am. Sir,

Your obedient servant,
York, May 12. M. Q.

GREEWVICU RAILWAY.

List of tenders of the third contract for mdeniug the railway between
the London terminus and the Croydon Junction, delivered iu on the ?7th
April last.

Mr. Jackson fll.GOS

Messrs. Ward 11,892

Mr. GrimsdeU 11,947

Messrs. Grissell and Peto 12.275

Mr. Bennett 12,350

Messrs. Baker 12,380

Messrs. Little 12,100

Messrs. Lee 13,333

Mr. Mundy 13,528

Messrs. Piper 13,050

184].]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

18.-

NEW AND USEFUL INVENTIONS.-
By Philotechmcos.

-No. 4.

PIMLICO SLATE W0RK5, UPPER BELGRAVE PLACE.

These works have been lately erected for the purpose of sawing,
planing, moulding, and tiu'ning' slate by machinery worked by steam
power, for the manufacture of a great variety of useful and ornamental
articles. The slabs are distinguished by their ebon-like appearance
and freedom from green spots or stain?. They are produced from the
proprietor's own quarries in North Wales, where they have extensive
machinery worked by water power, and from whence the slabs are
forwarded, roughly planed ; they are here finished in various ways ;
the roughly planed are used for paving, wine binns, cisterns, covering,
and common purposes, the smoothly planed for sinks, mangers, and
shelves for larders and dairies. The snaked or finely rubbed for bet-
termost purposes of the same description, chimney pieces, hearths,
baths, skirting and sideboards, and when oiled have the appearance of
black marble. The next and most beautiful state in which the slate
slab is used is when japanned ; by this process it is subjected to great
heat, which leaves on its surface a permanent polish, and is used for
decorative purposes as a general substitute for marble or scagliola,
and a most excellent substitute it is, being of a hard close texture it
bears a sharp arris and brilliant polish, and one of its greatest ad-
vantages is cheapness.

Chimney pieces are made to any design, and their manufacture at
this establishment forms one of the most useful applications of slate
for building purposes; the imitations of conglomerate marbles are
matchless, and the correctness with which machinery performs its duty
is strikingly exemplified in every part of the work. I sincerely hope
this invention will induce architects to introduce marbled slate chimney
pieces in every place where the common-looking Portland is now
used, to which material it is so superior that there is no compai'ison
with regard to appearance, and is but little more in cost.

Sideboards, tables, chefToniers, and other articles of furniture are
likewise manufactured with the japanned and marbled slate, in the
panels of which are occasionally introduced beautifully executed
paintings, similar in appearance to those on papier mache. A
billiard table has been constructed at this manufactory, the whole
of which, frame, bed and legs, is of slate ; the legs are massive, and
show the capability of slate for purposes of support.

For culinary purposes slate is particularly applicable from its clean-
liness, the closeness of its texture preventing the possibility of im-
bibing any thing offensive, and requires only to be occasionally cleaned
with soap and flannel to remove any impurities; it is consequently
well adapted for sinks, shelves for larders, meat safes, and dairies,
paste or butter slabs, salting vats, and many other purposes where a
cool and clean material is required.

In the laundry it is useful for ironing tables, clothes presses, and
mangles, the smooth and hard surface of the slate rendering the
clothes subjected to its pressure nearly equal in appearance to their
having been calendered.

Shops may be elegantly ornamented with slate, both internally and
externally. In the shop front a brilliant effect might be produced by
its introduction, with the advantage over marble of its retaining the
polish after exposure to the weather; for counter tops and fronts and
show tables a novel and pleasing effect may be produced, particularly
in confectioners' and chemists' shops, taverns, railway refreshment
rooms, and other places of public resort.

Stables fitted up with slate will have the advantage of superior
cleanliness to any other material, its non-absorbent qualities preventing
infection, and its hardness being an antidote to crib biting; the man-
gers, stalls, linings, and capping can be made of slate, as well as the
corn-binn, which latter, being made with a sliding cover, and wholly
composed of slate, is most useful, as being cool, cleanly, and proof
against vermin.

Fire-proof buildings may be constructed with the greatest facility
by the introduction of slate for the floors, skirtings, stairs, doors, and
window frames. The drying-rooms, or, as they may be almost termed,
the ovens, at this establishment, are composed principally of slate ;
the floors, shelves, and sliding folding doors, running with rollers upon
a railway, and roof, are of slate, and subjected to a high degree of
temperature.

I must confess my surprise at often seeing buiidings erected for the
purpose of warehousing inflammable or other goods with timbered
and boarded floors ; it is an unpardonable oversight not to take ad-
vantage of the various kind of materials suitable to this purpose,
adapting the material to its use, and the many calamitous fires that
have lately occurred, prove too truly the want of this discrimination.

I do not know any thing better than slate to serve this end ; light iron
joists covered with slate slabs will form an excellent floor or flat,
sliding doors can be constructed on rollers, and the stairs made entirely
of slate — here then will be a building perfectly fire-proof at but com-
paratively small cost, and yet how little slate is used for this purpose.
I am most anxious to draw the attention of architects and engineers to
this particular point, as it is one of their imperative duties, as far as it
is compatible, to render any portion of the building they can, fire-
proof, substituting slate for wood in every case where such can be
done with advantage.

Balcony bottoms, steps, and such works as require lightness and
strength, can be constructed of slate, as it is calculated to be five
times stronger than stone, and is, when only self-faced, comparatively
smooth, or can be moulded and rendered perfectly smooth by ma-
chinery where a high finish is required.

Having enumerated several of the many uses to which slate is ap-
plicable, I shall conclude with a strong recommendation to the pro-
fession to encourage its manufacture as a material entirely of home
production, and one capable of much diversity.

[We have received the foliow'ing communication, showing the
strength of the above slate. — Editor.]

Sir — The following trial of the strength of slate in its capacity to
resist pressure, may not be altogether uninteresting.

Having occasion to cover a subway of considerable length under a
carriage road, and being desirous to use slate on account of its non-
porositv, it became necessary to test its strength, and I procured a
piece from the Pimlico slate-works about 5 ft. 6 in. long, 5A in. wide,
and nearly 2i in. thick, planed fair on both sides. Messrs. Bramah
and Wool, of the Grosvenor Iron Works, kindly made the required
experiment for me.

The ends of the slip of slate having been placed on supports 5 feet
apart, it was loaded in a pyramidal form with ballast iron, the centre
loading being about 3 ft. 0 in. high, and the sides from about one foot.
When weighted with 1 ton 5 cwt. 3 qrs., the slip broke. I fancied
that I could detect a very slight deflection when the last cwt. was
added, but although I had a line stretched along the bottom edge of
the slip, the deflection was hardly perceptible when it gave way.

Mr. Magnus, the proprietor of the works, thinks this hardly a fair
test of what the slate would bear, its strength being much reduced by
the planing, which intersects the natural laminae of the slate.

Torringlon Square, Your's, &c.,

May 19. Henry Robert Abraham.

BENEVOLENT INSTITUTION FOR MECHANICAL
ENGINEERS.

We have long regretted in the great advance of the profession, that
while it possesses so many excellent scientific institutions it possesses
none of a benevolent character. We are well aware that attempts
have been made to supply this want, and that the principal cause why
such efforts have not succeeded is that the want of benevolent assistance
has not been sufficiently felt. It would be a libel indeed on the pro-
fession to suppose that while its members are so liberal in encouraging
the spread of science, and in educating successors and rivals to them-
selves, that they should from pecuniary motives be neglectful of the ma-
terial interests of their fellows, that while providing for the mind they
should be neglectful of the body. The cause and the only cause has
been the one which we have assigned, but we think that it now be-
comes a matter of grave consideration, whether the same circumstances
should still be allowed to have weight. We have reason to believe
that as regards the higher branches of the profession, notwithstanding
the hundred and fifty candidates the other day for the Chief Engineer-
ship of New Zealand, no serious pressure exists, but with the growth
of the profession, and on its assuming a settled form we think it is in-
cumbent on us to provide for the future. Further our pride is at
stake, for our's is the only profession which is without institutions for
the relief of its members, and while we have our universities, our col-
leges, and our institutes, we have no benevolent society. It may be
a matter of gratification that we do not yet want it, but we must not
be sure that this will long be the case, or that the dura pauptriei will
be long before it subjects us also to its h.irsh rule. It mast also be
borne in mind that if the higher branches do not imperatively require
to unite for such a purpose on their own account, there are other classes
connected with them the promotion of whose welfare is not less im-
perative. The workshops are crowded with hundreds of men, who
although enjoying high wages, are too frequently from defective edu-
cation, wasteful and improvident, and here we must pause for a minute

2 G

J 86

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[Junk'

to remind our friends of another duty, which they too often neglect —
the education of his worlimen is a duly, which the engineer thinks he
has nothing to do with, he pays the man his wages, and there is an end
of the matter, the master may go on in neglect, and the workman in
vice, and few take the trouble to consider whether it really is of im-
portance to them or no, whether tiie workman becomes an intelligent
being or a besotted brute. Let those however who think so read the
evidence of Mr. William Fairbairn, given last year before the Parlia-
mentary Committee on the state of the working classes, and he will
see that by following liis worthy example that much is to be done that
will bring its own reward. The educated workman may not become a
more skilled mechanic, but he becomes a better servant, he knows his
own interests better aud those of his master, he is steadier, less given
to combination and to strikes, and in the words of the Quaker cotton
spinner, h:is a positive money superiority. The untaught man, how-
ever skilful, is too often the source of annoyance to himself and others,
looking with ignorant jealousy on his employers, he is ever watchful
against any fancied infringement of his rights, ready on any sudden
turn to fali into the snare of combining to increase his wages, and how-
ever large these may be too often spending both his money and his
time in sensual and debasing gratifications, without making any pro-
vision for the time when his strength and his youth no longer avail
hira. It is this latter circumstance which should direct our attention
to do what we can for the improvement of the workman's understand-
ing and his morals, and at the same time we should endeavour to re-
trieve the errors of the past by giving every assistance for the relief
of the unfortunate. Urged by these motives many of the most eminent
of the mechanical engineers have come to the determination of form-
ing an institution for elFecting the desired results by their own aid,
and by the contributions of the workman, so that the operative will
at last be enabled to make a provision for himself, his widow or his
orphan. The workmen of Messrs. Maudslays have already held a
meeting for this purpose. At the late anniversary of the Committee
of Marine Engineers, it was proposed that some general measure should
be adopted for extending the plan to all parties connected with me-
chanical engineering. A specific plan has not yet been adopted, but
the following among others have given their sanction to the general
principle, and have agreed to carry it out — Bryan Donkin, Esq., V.P.,
Inst. C.E., Messrs. Maudslay, Sons and Field, Messrs. Miller, Raven-
hill and Co., Messrs. John Penn and Son, Messrs. John and Samuel
Seaward, and Capel, Messrs. Fairbairn, Murray, and Hetherington,
Messrs. John and Alfred Blyth, John Hague, Esq., James Simpson, Esq.,
and W. .Simpson, Esq., &:c. Under such auspices we trust that the pro-
posed institution will be established, and as immediate steps are to be
taken to carry it out, we anticipate soon to witness its beneficial effects.
Having given this information to the profession, vve shall make no ap-
plication to them for supjiort, as we are sure that they want no asking
to use every exertion for so laudable a purpose, hi the course of next
month we hope the Society will be organized, and in the meanwhile
we shall be happy to be the medium of any communications addressed
to it through our office.

ARCHITECTURAL COMPETITION.
Brown r. Langshaw.

Sir — In consequence of the erroneous reports of this case in the
Cambridge papers and elsewhere, and particularly the attack upon mv
professional character contained in a review in the last No. of " The
Civil Engineer and Architect's Journal," it has become necessary in
self-defence to publish a plain statement of the facts connected with
the whole matter. Wrong conclusions ignorantly or designedly drawn
from correct statements, may be safely left to tlie judgment and com-
mon sense of the public, but when injurious imputations and charges
aft'ecting one's reputation are founded on error or perversion, a man
must set but little value on his character were he to sutler them to go
forth uncontradicted and unrepelled. Such is my position, and I con-
fess it is one in which 1 did not expect to be placed, through at least
resp ctablc organs, and after the acknowledgment openly made in
court by his Lordship and the defendant's counsel, that my character
was in no way impeached in the transaction. I will not occupy your
valuable space, as I had intended, by specifically replying to the errors
and falsehoods contained in the report given in your last month's
Journal, but will at once proceed to sketch the principal facts of the
case, in order that the public may see its merits and judge whether,
instead of my having deceived and misled the committee, I have not
been most harshly and unjustly treated throughout the matter, and
greatly wronged by the incalculuble result of the late action.

I forbear also esi>ressly replying to the imputations and assertions

founded upon the mis-statements to which I have alluded, as I con-
sider it sufficient to disprove the premises on which they are based,
and rely on that amends which those wh.o have been led to circulate
them will, as honourable men, I am sure, award me.

It was in February, 1837, that I received a letter from the Rev.
George Langshaw (see letter A,) as chairman of the committee, in-
vitmg me to compete with Mr. Rickman, Mr. Poynter, Mr. Sharpe,
and Mr. Walter of Cambridge, in furnishing plans for the intended
new church there. Taking the cue from this letter, in which the
defendant writes " we are anxious to accomplish something as worthy
as possible of the exam|)le of former days, more esjiecially as our
church will stand in the middle of Cambridge, opposite Christ's Col-
lege," and fr(.nn his criticism, "1 will candidly tell you that your new
church at Stamford has pleased many here, though the hisidt has been
thought not equal to the outside," I prepared a design in which the
interior was rendered exceedingly rich and ell'ective, and the exterior
considerably more ornamental than the Stamford churcli.

The latter structure, built on a design somewhat similar, and so
furnishing practical data to a considerable extent for my estimate was
executed for .t'3,.')00. The amount of expenditure fixed upon for the
Cambridge church was £40(10 (i7(c/ £.300 (the value of the materials
of the old churcli), but towards the completion of my drawings I had
some misgivings as to the possibility of executing the building for this
amount, and upon making my estimate, these misgivings were con-
firmed.

In laying my drawings before the committee, therefore, I distinctly
declined to undertake to carry the design into execution, as it then
stood, for the £1,500, but explained that certain portions of the orna-
mental work could be omitted, without in the slightest degree affect-
ing the integrity or general design of the buildings, so r.s to bring it
within tliat sum. (See letter B.)*

What other course, let me ask, would any man, even of the most
fastidious sense of honour and integrity, have had me pursue ? the
more especially when it was known that my drawings were not com-
pleted even until the day they were sent off to Cambridge.

In October following I received a letter from the defendant, inform-
ing me that my plans were preferred, and I shortly afterwards at-
tended a meeting of the committee, and received instructions to make
certain alterations in the ground and gallery plans, and to prepare two
new perspective drawings of the exterior and interior denuded of the
expensive ornamental work, and exhibiting the building in the state
described in my letter.

The plans thus altered and those unaltered were then again sub-
mitted to the committee, and the whole were formally approved by
receiving the defendant's signature.

At the preceding meeting, however, certain conditions had been
drawn up by the committee in the shape of resolutions, the effect of
which was that they might decline my plans altogether, if the tenders
should exceed the amount of £4,500, and that in that event they
should not be bound to make me any remuneration for my drawings
and trouble, beyond what would be made to the unsuccessful competi-
tors. To these conditions it was required that I should give my un-
qualified assent before my p'ans could be finally adopted ; but to this
I had strong objections, considering them, by their stringency, calcu-
lated to embarrass and prejudice me, but proposed to qualify the con-
dition as to the rejection of ray plans, by adding the words "if the
excess of the tenders should not be sufficiently accounted for."

Whilst this was being debated, the committee instructed me to
prepare drawings and estimates of transepts, school-room, crypt, ^c,
and make many other alterations.

I did so, and at last, upon being pressed for an assent to the con-
ditions, and assured privately by the defendant that these terms were
only imposed as a matter of business, and with no intention of taking
any undue advantage of me, 1 was induced at last to give it. My
plans were thereupon formally adopted, and I received instructions to
prepare the working or contract ilrawings; this was in December,
1&37. Bearing in mind the observations in Mr. Langshaw's first letter
before alluded to, and moreover perceiving that on the part of the
committee generally there was still an earnest desire to obtain a build-
ing of as ornate a character as po.ssible, I was induced, in preparing
the working drawings, to assimilate them very nearly to the more
ornamental features of the original design, relying upon being able to
obtain the consent of the committee to the condition that in case the
tenders were in excess, I should then be allowed to reduce the work-
ing drawings of such ornamental work as would make them agree
with the plans considered as adopted. The jiarish would thus have
the chance of getting the church so built for the £4,500. I accordingly
proceeded with and completed the working drawings pursuant to this

' We have not received ibis letter."— Kpitok.

1S41.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL

187

arrangement, and not, it will be perceived, under the resolutions which
embraced only the plans as adopted. I afterwards attended a meeting
called for the express purpose of inspecting them, where they were
inspected, explained, and Kaiictwned, so that there was here a formal
assent given to them, and I was allowed to go for tenders upon them.
For whose benefit was all this done ? For my own it could not be ;
my commission would not have been increased, whilst it was likely
my labour would be.

In November, 1833, four tenders were sent in. I wonder there were
so many, considering the committee insisted, against my protest, and
compelled me to advertize, that they "did not pledge themselves to
accept the lowest tender," and that one of the members officiously in-
formed several of the builders applying to inspect the working draw-
ings, that "they need not tender unless they were prepared to build
the church for £4,000," or to that effect. All the tenders were in
excess, a probability which the very arrangement I made necessarily
contemplated ; and what then was the course this honourable com-
mittee adopted? Why this (one more notable for its brevity than its
equity) ; the chairman called me before them, and read me a paper
stating that the tenders were in excess, and that my plans were de-
clined pursuant to the resolutions. Surprised at this laconic address
and summarv dismissal, after nearly two years' labour, with more than
£200 out of pocket, and in the teeth of a special understanding, I
appealed to the agreement, and offered to perform my undertaking;
but the only answer vouchsafed me was, "we decline your plans," and
this although I afterwards proferred to enter into a bond to find an
unexceptionable builder to build the church for the £4,500. Thus I
vpas shamefully shuffled off, and not even afforded the opportunity of
making that adjustment between my plans and the tenders, for which
I had expressly stipulated (although imfortunately not in wnlhig).
Had not this arrangement been previously sanctioned, I should not, of
course, have ventured the plans for competition, except strictly in
accordance with the resolutions.

This is ray case, and although the law has enabled my opponents to
triumph over me, yet I must contend that equity and justice are still
on my side. How far the statements made in the article which has
been chiefly instrumental in calling forth this, are consistent with truth,
1 must leave your readers to decide. 1 will but remark that my state-
ment flatly contradicts almost every assertion advanced ; 1st. that by
which I am made to have professed myself "perfectly clear," that my
design could be executed for £1,000 or even £4,500, sufficiently dis-
proved by my first letter to the committee. 2ndly, the statements as
to the proposed amount of expenditure, which was £4,500 instead of
£4,000. 3rdly, the gratuitous assertion that the committee were
"troubled vtith a prejudice," &c., when the fact was, that the "con-
ditions" were imposed subsequently to the competition, and after my
design had been preferred and accepted, notwithstanding the contents
of the letter accompanying the drawings, by which I so fully explained
how the matter stood. 4thly, as to the time I kept the action hanging
over the heads of the committee, it was not " nearly four years," but
only about two, and this through unavoidable circumstances. I will not
swell a long letter with the detail of ray offers to meet the committee,
and enter into explanations of any possible misunderstanding, or to
refer the matter to some disinterested party for arrangement, made
first by myself and then through my attorneys, nor dwell upon the
inference to be drawn of the committee's fearing to meet the truth,
by their pertinacious refusal either to see or liear rae, or listen in the
slightest degree to any amicable proposition. It was thus, with the
greatest reluctance and compelled by obstinate injustice, that I at last
engaged in litigation ; I must otherwise have quietly sat down under
a gross injury, which neither suited my interest nor comported with
my duty. Besides, in going to trial, I had a further object in view
beyond gaining a verdict, and that was to bring as much of the merits
of the case before the public as I could, in order that even had the
jury found against me, the true cause of my dismissal might be clearly
known, and the prejudice which that fact has produced be removed.
But in this, also, I have been foiled by the judge's intention, who did
not look beyond the resolutions, although the main points of all I have
here stated were actually given in evidence ; his lordship, as well as
the defendant's counsel, nevertheless, doing rae the justice in stating
that my character was in no way impeached, even in their view of
the case. My counsel's cross-examination of the defendant's wit-
nesses, and right to comment on the whole case, and extricate it from
the mystifications of my opponents, was thus stopt, the jury deprived
of the power of giving t/ittr verdict, and my case prevented from
having a trial. The only course left me was, therefore, to elect to be
non-suited, reserving to myself the power of enforcing my right in
such manner as may be most expedient.

Normicti, May 21. I am, Sir, your obedient servant,

John Brown.

Letter A.

To — Brown, Esq., .Vrcliitect, Norwich.

St. John's Colleffe, Camt/ridge.
February i2nd, 1837.

Sir— .\s vicar of the parish of St. Andrew the Great in this town, I am
requested to inform you that it is the wisli of the committee (appointed to
carry into effect the re-building of the parish clmrch) to adopt the method
of a limited competition in the choice of an architect, and that the persons
fixed upon are yourself, Mr. Rickman, Mr. Poynter, Mr. Sharpe (lately tra-
velling Bachelor in tlie University), and Mr. Walter of Cambridge. \Ve are
anxious to accomplish something as worthy as possible of the example of
former days, more especially as our church will stand in the middle of Cam-
bridge, opposite to Christ's College. The sum we have raised is £3,300, we
hope to realize £4,000 at least. I will candidly tell you that your new church
at Stamford has pleased many here, though the inside has been tliought not
equal to the outside. Would you give us your opinion as to tiie probable
expence of the hke church at Cambridge — the freightage of stone I have
heard put at £500 or £600. It is possible that something might be saved
in our case by retaining and refacing the first story of tlie present tower, and
the arches inside the church. But I shall he glad to supply you with any
further particulars when assured of your readiness to send in a jdan. 1 fear
we cannot begin this year.

Your's, &c.,
(Signed) " Geo. Langshaw."

IMPROVEMENTS ON ECCENTRIC RODS.

.Sir — ^I happened not to have seen any of your excellent numbers for
this year till a few days ago ; I see that there are several commu-
nications from Mr. Pearce, respecting an improved method of revers-
ing engines with one fixed eccentric, which he has invented. I do not
doubt that Mr. Pearce has the merit of making the discovery, but I
merely write to state that about 18 months ago, when engaged in a
large engineering establishment near Manchester, I made the same
discovery, and made a model in wood ndiich acted so as to give the
lead with perfect accuracy both ways, and on the same principle, viz.,
by establishing a proper proportion between the length of the eccentric
rod and the length of the double arms of the valve rocking-shaft. I
am aware that engines have been reversed time out of mind, by means
of a double lever on the rocking-shaft for working the valve, particu-
larly coal-pit engines, and at one time Messrs. Sharp and Roberts
of Manchester made the reversing gear of their locomotives on a simi-
lar plan, but so far as I know, no one has hitherto given the lead cor-
rectly both ways, by making the eccentric traverse a certain deter-
minate angle in being shifted from one end of the lever to the ctlier,
and it is this which constitutes the merit of Mr. Pearce's invention.

Portland Street, Glasgow,
30th April, 1841.

I am, Sir,

Your obedient servant,

D.T.

PAPER ON HARBOURS AND RIVERS.

On the ineans of improving the Navigation of the River Lime tip to
the Port of Lancaster.

By John Rooke, Esq.*

Tlie nautical survey of the river Lune up to the port of Lancaster,
by Messrs. Stevenson, is illustrated by facts such as pure science re-
quires in the framing of correct plans. Their report, however, is so
brief, that scientific exactness could scarcely be expected, and indeed
was not needed. Deepening the channel, on certain lines delineated
on the plan of their survey, by the application of the dredging machine,
until a specified depth and viidth of water is obtained, appears to be
the main feature of tlieir report.

But with some of their statements (and these concern the objects
for which the report is drawn up most intimately) I am at issue; and
in support of the objections here taken, all the exactness of details
embodied in the survey and plan would seem to be called for. It is
fortunate, therefore, that their proceedings have embraced so much
exactness of information in detail. From Glasson to Heaton the dimi-
nution of fall in the channel of the Lune is about two feet and three-
tenths per mile ; and from Heaton to Lancaster, one foot and seven-
tenths per mile. Messrs. Stevenson state in their report that " the

' This paper originally appeared in the Lancaster Guardian.

2 C 2

188

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[JUN]

great object to be kept in view in carrying into effect the improve-
ment of the navigation of tlie Liine, is the free admission of the great-
est possible quantity of water from the sea." Conformably to this
decisive conclusion, "The reporters beg leave particularly to point
out the necessity of using much caution in encroacliing on the tide-
covered banks of the river, and the shutting out large portions of the
tide Wilier, and impeding tlie effect of that powerful, constant, and
therefore most efficient of all agents in preserving the depth of navi-
gable channels."

Directly opposed to this imperative conclusion, I should think that
reliance ought to be chiefly placed upon the scuur which the fresh
water and tidal wave combined occasion in a fixed and compressed
channel, because their united action and force is concentrated and con-
stant; whereas, in a widely spread estuary, their action is trivial on
any given line of channel, liable to cliange and to obstruct navigation.
Hence a perfectly even, a compressed, and a securely fixed channel is
that by which the navigation of tlie Lune may be the most effectually
improve<l ; and not by placing reliance on the scour effected by the
tide cliiefly, as Messrs. .Stevenson would appear to intimate.

Agreeably to my view of the effect produced by the combined scour
of tidal and fresh water in a compressed channel, is not silt frequently
deposited along the quay of Lancaster by the tides in summer, winch
autumnal and winter floods of fresh water scour off again ? This is so
far an undeniable fact, and utterly at variance with the absolute theory
put forth by Messrs. Stevenson. Let the fresh water stream be alto-
gether withdrawn from the channel of the Lune, and in a very few
years that channel might be confidently expected to become superior
marsh land. Because the tidal force at its greatest power, according
to the elaborate survey of Messrs. Stevenson themselves, during the
flux of spring tides in the Lune, exceeds that of the reflux tides more
than two fold ; and hence more silt is driven upwards by such tides
(" the most efficient of all agents in preserving the depth of navigable
channels," as Messrs. Stevenson assert,) than the power of their reflux
is adequate to carry back to the sea again. In so far all the facts col-
lected by these engineers themselves, are utterly at variance with a
theory on tidal agency, they have expressed in the most unqualified
terms.

When they reported in such a manner on the navigable channel of
the Lune, did they forgot that of the Clyde for fifteen miles below
Glasgow ? or have they witnessed the channel of the Tyne from New-
castle to Tynemouth ? or that of the Avon from Bristol to King's
Road ? And are they unacquainted with the fact that the channel of
the Thames, fixed in a compressed course by the strong ground of
Tilbury on the north and Gravesend on the south, is navigable for
steam boats, at all times of the tide, for seventy miles from the sea?
These undeniable instances of compressed channels of navigation, may
well be left to stand in evidence of themselves. Nor can I believe
that a navigable funnel so perfectly true throughout, and splendid in
outline as tlie Thames is, can have been otherwise formed than by the
unerring science of a day gone by.

What have we on the opposite side of the account? The wide-
spread estuary of Morecambe Bay, where there is water enough from
the sea, combined with fresh water streams of great power. Then the
Duddon claims our notice ; and the Ribble also; — not to mention the
Lune itself. The wash of Lincolnshire is another instance ; and so is
the Solway Firth. Now all these navigations are confessedly bad ;
and unimproveable except by compression. Then they might some of
them riral the navigation of the Thames, the Tyne, the Avon, or the
Clyde. In Kirkbrule Loch, the channel of the Wampool, in five miles
from the Solway Firth, loses about 15 feet of fall ; it then assumes an
exceedingly comjiressed form, and though but a trivial stream, it then
maintains a dead level for three miles inland, along which high spring
tides flow. .Such a mass of strong evidence needs no comment.

Indeed, with a body of evidence before us so conclusive, why does
the channel of the Lune undergo a diminution in depth of water from
Heaton to Lancaster at all ? The facts collected by Messrs. Stevenson
answer this question satisfactorily. For a short distance below the
quay of Lancaster the bed of the channel is found to be composed of
three feet of hard gravel, resting upon fluviatile clay, or more properly
speaking — compressed si!t deposited by the flux tides of the sea. It
is obvious that the crust of gravel which now forms the bed of the
channel, has been brought down the course of the Lune by a succession
of floods from the uplaTi<l>, and deposited on those levels, which the
combineil reflux of tides and fresh water floods have not had power
enough to scour out to sea. Yet on even these unequal terms, the loss
of fall from Lancaster to Heaton is about 2G per cent, loss per mile
than from Heaton to Glasson. Had the tidal scour, therefore, on that
portion of the channel where the admission of water from the sea is
the greatest, and r.otv.ithslanding an accumulation of gravel from the
Uplands, been equal to what it is where the tideway is the most com-

pressed, the actual depth of water at Lancaster quay must have been
three feet more than it is at present. With a Ittidy of facts and inci-
dents so plainly in the possession of Messrs. Sicvenson, for what rea-
sons, or on what authority they adopted the theory of — "The free ad-
mission of the greatest possible quantity of water from the sea," I
shall leave to their candid explanation ; and I think myself abundantly
justified in tearing away the entire foundation of a theory so fallacious
and opposed to the improvement of navigable channels in general.

When all the evidences under which the port of Lancaster may be
placed are brought into a distinct sum, the whole matter for considera-
tion is plainly brought before the commissioners of the port, and awaits
their decision. Shall the accumulation of gravel from the Uplands be
allowed to continue until Lancaster ceases to be a port? Certainly
not. The value of the quay and warehouses alone, not to say the
prosperity of the town, and the traffic of its railway, demand the most
spirited and well considered exertion, though the task left for their
execution may be an arduous one.

Foremost in importance is the removal of gravel and silt from the
channel of the Lune between the old bridge and Oxcliffe. Under skil-
ful modes of carrying on the work, I should think that it might be
accomplished for lid. per cubic yard, as most of it could be stowed
away at an easy distance. Dredging, including every expense, as
estimated by Messrs. Stevenson, and taking into account penetrating
an extended bed of hard gravel, may be fairly taken at Is. Sd. per
cubic yard. This so far decides in favour of the barrow, the pickaxe,
and spade. Suppose then a removal of 240,OOU cubic yards, at Grf.
per yard, this head of expenditure would be G,OUOi. In addition to
this, a portion of dredging would be called for on ground where the
working of the machinery was less hazardous and severe than upon
hard beds of gravel. Admitting, therefore, that &U,OUU cubic yards
could be removed by contract at Is. per cubic yard, the charge thereon
would be 4,00U/. ; thus giving a total charge of 10,UU0/. In addition
to these operations, were every facility given for the reclamation of
land by silting it over within the channel of the Lune, 4,U00 acres so
reclaimed, at a deposition of 10,0U0 cubic yards per acre, would ab-
sorb 40,0U0,000 cubic yards on the whole, fix a secure channel, and
give a depth of water at Lancaster quay surpassing the highest ex-
pectations, thus giving an impulse to the commercial activity of the
town, and tlie prosperity of its manufactures.

jSkehiod, IVigton, Cumherland,
Ftbruary 6, 1830.

Sir — Yesterday a gentleman placed in my hands Mr. Brooks' work
on Rivers, Harbours, &c., and directed my particular attention to his
" New Tlieorv of the existence of Bars," among quotations of opinion
on this most important subject, there appears one from a letter of
mine which appeared some time back in the " Nautical Magazine,"
and which Mr. Brooks states are "the words of one who has devoted
much time to the promulgation of his theory," c. g. "that egress
sluicing, or scouring water is the sole cause of a bar ;" that he is quite
correct in this remark, your own columns bear testimony, and the re-
cords of parliament will also convey to posterity the fact that I first
published to the world this novel thesis, and the equally novel princi-
ple of forming Harbours of Refuge with double entrances, without the
use of back-water, a principle which is now recommended by the
Commissioners in their Report of a Survey of the Harbours on the
South East Coast, and for the same object, and in the same words, that
I have used in reference to this aft'air, viz. "to afford to vessels a free
ingress and egress, under all circumstances of the wind and weather."

Taking a deep interest in a matter of so much importance to this
great naval and nautical nation, and numbering as I do among converts
to my thesis, some of the most eminent scientific and practical meu of
the day, I beg you will be pleased to reserve forme in your next num-
ber, a space for the insertion of some observations on Mr. Brooks'
Theory of Bars, as developed in the panq)hlet referred to, in which
obseivations I shall repeat my oft assertion "that bars are the ettects
of general, and not of partial laws, and that the bar at the entrance of
Bow-creek, in the river Thames, results from the same cause as do the
bars at the disemboguing of rivers in the Torres Straits, and on every
other coast in the world." I state this from observations of more than
20 years made on harbours and bars in various parts of Europe, and in
Africa.

I remain, your's, &;c.

HiiXRY Barrett.

London, May 25, 1841.

1841.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

189

REVIEVJ^S.

Treatise on the Tmproremertt of the Navigation of Rivers:, mith a New
Theory of the Cause of the Existence of Bars. By William Alex-
ander Brooks, M. Inst. C.E. London: Weale, 1841.

This work is the result of much reading and much research, deriv-
ing its materials not only from the engineering literature of England,
but also from the best and latest continental writers. Although the
volume is small, the labour and attention which have been bestowed
are considerable, and none can peruse it without recognizing the spirit
of inquiry which animates the writer. One only remark we have to
make, which is, that our author does not seem to have done full justice
to the contributers to this Journal, and other English writers, in omit-
ting to mention the names of many of the parties, to whose theories lie
alludes.

In his introductory chapter Mr. Brooks detines several of the theories,
proposed for explaining the formation of bars. First, Major Rennel's,
which is that they are caused by the current losing its strength at a
certain distance in the sea, and so depositing the substances carried
with it. — 2. Mr. Delabeche attributes it to the ocean piling up detritus
on the shore — 3. Mr. Rookc attributes bars to the strength of the current
of the flood tide not running in the same channel with that of the ebb;
or to the embouchure of the river not being freely open to the course
of the tidal current. — 4. Mr. Barrett's theory, as our readers know, is,
that they are caused by the conflicting action of effluent currents pass-
ing into the ocean at right angles to the shore. — 5. Another, and the
most favourite theory is an imagined insufficiency of backwater. — Ij.
An opinion entertained abroad is that bars arise from the streams in
their approach to the sea spreading in surface and diminishing in
depth, so as to deposit the sands. — 7. Colonel Emy, an eminent French
engineer quoted by our author, attributes these obstacles to the ground
waves, or fots de fond. — 8. We now come to the theory put forward
by Mr. Brooks, which we shall let him give in his own words.

An accurate examination of the state of a bar river will exhibit a great
irregularity of its surface at low water ; in lieu of the river presenting at that
period a longitudinal section of a succession of inclined planes, described in
tlie preceding description of rivers free from bars, as becoming more anil
more gentle in proportion to their proximity to the ocean, it will be often
found that the declination or slope of some of the upper reaches is less than
those nearer the ocean ; and the fall at low water in the lower reaches of the
river is always so great, as to produce a striking difference in the vertical rise
of tide, even at a short distance from the sea ; and attendant upon this de-
fective state of the section presented by the surface of tlie river at low water,
is a great extension of the duration of the ebb, beyond that of the upward
current of the flood tide.

The river being in this irregular state, the process by which the Ijar is
formed may be thus described.

During the period of the first quarter flood, the cuirent, in lieu of being
able to take its natural upward course, as in rivers where no bar exists, is
opposed, or effectually checked, by the effluent backwater; the declination
of the stream in the lower division of the river presenting a head which in-
sures a strong downward current, long after the tide would have been able
to maintain an upward course, provided the backwater had had a free dis-
charge. At tills period the flood tide, by reason of its greater specific gravity,
occupies the lower stratum of the tide-way, and like a wedge endeavours to
force its course up the channel, which it is unable to effect, but merely ele-
vates the lighter effluent water, the lower strata of which, being checked by
the opposition of the tid.l water, yields to the latter the sand or other ma-
terials, which it was capable of holding in suspension, previously to its en-
countering the conflicting action of the flood-tide ; and where this takes place
the bar is formed.

To the theory of Majoi Rennel (No. 1,) Mr. Brooks objects that it is
insufficient because the operations described as producing bars take
place in all rivers, even in such as having their waters most abundantly
laden with sand or mud, are yet free from bars. On Mr. Delabeche's
(No. 2), Mr. Brooks says that the action of the waves cannot be the
cause, as bars are found in the most sheltered situations, while other
rivers abuunding with silt are nevertheless free from deposits in the
most furious seas. To Mr. Rooke and Mr. Barrett (Nos. 3 and 4), the
objection of our author is that in rivers subject to great variation at
their entrance, the bar is always found to exist independently of the
direction of the discharge into the sea. The backwater theory (No.
5j, is confessedly insufficient, the mightiest rivers of the globe pre-
senting staggering e.^ceptions. To the titli, it is opposed that in
the Mediterranean no current is ever opposed to any stream, and
that consequently the repose supposed to take place at the meet-
ing of the currents cannot exist. Further, that in the ocean one of the
two currents overcomes the other. Mr. Brooks objects to the ground
waves or ^ots defend actmg on sudden elevations of the bed of the sea

in the manner assumed by Colonel Emy, opposing to it the received
opinion that breakers are formed immediately on any portion of the
wave meeting violently the vertical face of the obstruction. In sup-
port of this view an appeal is made to the geological formation of the
north coast of Yorkshire, where nothicg is found to corroborate the
Colonel's hypothesis. The case of the Adour quoted by Colonel Emy
is well shown by Mr. Brooks to be an influence of local causes.

With regard to rivers being free from bars, Mr. Brooks supports
Mr. Rooke's views, giving a good definition that whenever a navigable
river approaches to the form of a simple inlet for the reception of the
tide so far as regards the longitudinal section, presented by its surface
at low water, it will either have no bar, or be but lightly obstructed
by one. The same, he observes, may be said of those seaports or pier
harbours, which though free from bars in their natural state, are well
known to become encumbered by them immediately on the introduc-
tion of an artificial scouring power. The views' of the previous
writers, Mr. Brooks has carried out still further, and we are prepared
to concur in much that he says. He remarks that

Resuming the investigation into the state of a rivf, w!ic?o c:!trance is free
from a bar, we shall find that, from its junction with the ocean, a long Une
of navigable course exists with an extremely gentle fall, or slope of its sur-
face, at low water ; the river is in this case in a proper train, its longitudinal
section presenting a succession of inclined planes, becoming more and more
gentle, as they approach the ocean ; and the lower course of the river, from
the slightness of its fall, approximates to the condition of a frith, or deep
inlet, of the coast, or to that of one of those large natural or artificial har-
bours, which, being mere tidal receptacles, wherein the influx and efflux take
place in equal times, are necessarily free from bars.

The river being in this perfect state, as regards the slope of its surface at
low water, a consequent attendant upon the latter will he an equal duration,
or nearly so, of the period taken up by the flow of the flood tide, with that
of the ebb, iu the lower reach of the river ; by the term flow being under-
stood, the direct upward course of the current of the flood tide, immediately
after the true time of low water.

Our author having propounded his theory, goes on to propose his
remedies for the cases in which bars exist'. His first remedy is to
make the bed of the river of more regular inclination.

By this natural elongation of the course of rivers by the deposit of alluvial
matter, a gradual amelioration of the navigation must take place, inasmuch
as that elongation is necessarily attended with a more gradual junction with
the waters of the sea, or the diminutiou of the velocity of the current at the
point of discharge ; we have therefore only to assist the operations of nature
by directing the course of the current, and thereby the position of the deposit
of the alluvions, to insure that the latter shall act beneficially and not pre-
judicially to the navigation.

He then goes on to provide for other cases.

In a tidal i iver, where a bar exists, and the reduction of the declination of
the low water surface cannot be effected, by reason of a long length of rocky
bed, too costly to remove, the only means available for its improvement is
an artificial elongation of its course, by piers or other works, to bring the
raouth of the river within the influence of a stronger current.

Where the declination of a river is great iu its lower reaches, the result of
any cut near the embouchure of the river, which is not attended by a simul-
taneous reduction of that declination, must be the increase of the bar. It is
however to be observed, that the natural attendant effect of the shortening
the course of the current, is the more free discharge of the water and abase-
ment of the level of the surface of the current ; and wherever this latter cir-
cumstance does not take place, it is solely due to the presence of some geo-
logical feature, such as rock or marl, which the current, when unassisted by
art, is unable to act upon.

Upon the use of artificial scouring power, where used with the view
of increasing the effect produced by the natural backwater of rivers,
we find it observed.

Assuming, therefore, that the volume of the natural backwater is so small
as to be inadequate to maintain a sufficient depth in the harbour for the
maritime wants of the port, and that the aid of an artificial scouring power
be requisite, still the h-.tter should not be made use of, except during that
period of the eljb when its effect is to remove seaward the matter held in
sus])ension by the effluent water.

If, therefore, any portion of the artificial backwater be discharged during
still water, or during any period of the flood tide, we may anticipate a rapid
deposit, or accumulation on the bar.

In order to secure the utmost useful effect from an artificial scouring power,
it is essential that its action be prolonged to a position which is within the
range of a strong tidal current, or within the reach of the effect of the pre-
vailing onward impulse by the surf, during on-shore gales.

Where the scouring power terminates negatively, if 1 may use the expres-
sion advanced by Major Rennel, or where the effect of the scorning power is
unable to extend into a true tidal shore current, it is unreasonable to expect
its utmost useful available residt.

Thus, supposing the bar prodnced by a scouring power be situated in a

190

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[June,

slieUcred situation iii a hay, there can remain no hope for its improvement
until the place of deposit he removed into the true run of the ebh tide.

With regard to the ttieory of Mr. Brooks, in our opinion it is as far
as that of any of his rivals from being of universal application ; in fact
we doubt vcrv much whether any such theory will ever be found as
one which shall provi<le for all cases. We must, however, say un-
hesilatinglv, that Mr. Brooks has by developing this theory made an
important contribution, not merely to the progress of the investigation,
but to the resources of engineering, for this theory will admit of a more
general application than any other. We do not like Mr. Brooks
condemning all the other theories propounded, for we certainly are of
opinion that both the theory and the practice are highly in favour of
some of them, as regards theirapplication to such cases as come within
their sphere.

The chapter on the causes of the existence of shoals in the beds of
rivers, is a highly atnusing chapter of controversy on most of the cases
which now disturb the engineering world, such as the Clyde, the
Wear, the Thames, the Tyne, the Lune,the Dee and the Mersey; the
mere mention of which subjects, by the bye, is sufficient to show how
much the attention of the profession, and the interests of the public,
are engaged in investigations of this nature. The chapter on the
causes of the bore, egre, rollers, pororoca, bar or mascaret, is a good
contribution to an important investigation; we must, however, call our
author's attention to the Solway, and several other English cases which
he lias not mentioned. Having thus called the attention of our readers
to many points, to which we cannot refer at greater lerglh, we must
also inform them, that they must not infer from our notice that Mr.
Brooks' work is one of theory only, for they will find it of great value
on numerous practical points of harbour engineering.

We do not treat Mr. Brooks' work as a complete treatise on the
improvement of rivers, and if we did so we should perhaps do him
injustice, as he seems principally to have had in view the statement
of his own theories, but we cannot leave it without pointing it to our
readers as one of the best works on the subject, which has yet been
written, and one which they w ill find calculated to give them much
pleasure and much instruction.

On the Subject JSlatter of Letters Patent for Inventions. By Thomas
Webster, Esq., of Lincoln's Inn, Barrister at Law. London : Crofts
and Blenkarn, 1S41.

There have been few subjects more debated than that of the opera-
tion of the Patent Laws, from which serious difficulties have been felt
by all classes of inventors. This has caused a strong demand for Re-
form in the Patent Laws, an outcry in which we are little disposed to
join, as we are more inclined to think that the evils have arisen from
the mystifications and misconception of the law, than from any defect
in the law itself. No one has exerted himself more than Mr. Webster
has done to clear up this subject, particularly in his former work,
" the Law and Practice of Letters Patent for Inventions," and he has
continued his exertions to the same laudable end in the small volume
now before us. Here he shows us what is tlie subject matter of Let-
ters Patent, supporting the general doctrines by adducing a great
number of cases decided. For the sake of simplification he classifies
the proper subjects for a patent under three distinct heads.

I. An arrangement, combination, or composition of matter ; the particular
arrangement, combination, or composition, being the essence and substance
of the invention.

II. An anangcnient, combination, or composition of matter, with the view
of carrying out into practice certain truths, laws, or principles, the particular
arrangement, combination, or composition, not being of the essence or sub-
stance of the invention, except as in connexion with and subsidiary to the
truths, laws, or principles, which are to be so carried out into practice.

HI. An application and adaptation of natural or known agents, and of
known substances or things.

Mr. Webster next proceeds to describe what constitutes an inven-
tion.

The subject-matter of letters patent must possess the incident of novelty,
or the principles of the common law and the words of the statute mill not tie
complied with ; and further, the result to which it leads must be a new
manufacture. IJut every novelty is nut an invention which may be the sub-
ject-matter of letters patent; the change must be such as may have resulted
from t)ie exercise of or given scope for thought, design, and skilful ingenuity.
It is not necessary that either thought, design, skill, or ingenuity, should
have been exercised — the invention or discovery may have resulted from
guess or accident ; and in a great number of cases the whole invention is but
the conception of the idea ; and whatever may have been the thought or
labour before the idea was conceived, or the result attained in practice, yet

inasmuch as the result itself gives no evidence of thought or labour, neither
may have been exercised. This is pccuHarly the case with many of the in-
ventions which are applications of known agents and things, and described
above under the third class. In most of these cases the practical application
of the idea is easy and simple, and will suggest itself as soon as the idea ; in
fact, the whole invention is realized as soon as the idea is conceived. In
these cases then it is only necessary that tlie possibility of thought, design,
and skilful ingenuity, having been exercised, should not be excluded. The
simple substitution of one material for another, as brass for copper, in any
constniction, may or may not be an invention or discovery which could be
the subject-matter of letters patent. Suppose a machine for making iron
nails in a particular manner — the application of that machine to making cop-
per nails, there being no adaptation, no change in any part of the manufac-
ture but the substituting of copper for iron, the machine being worked pre-
cisely as before, could not he the subject-matter of letters patent. Cases of
this kind must be determined by other considerations, as the utility of the
change.

This definition Mr. Webster supports by several cases in which the
same doctrine has been laid down by the law authorities, and tlien
proceeds in a similar manner to define what is novelty, non-use, and
utility in a patent, concluding with a review of practical proceedings.

The various matters treated of in the preceding pages, may be illustrated
and contirmed by a review of the practice of obtaining letters patent. The
party soliciting the letters patent represents to the crown that he is in pos-
session of an invention, which, as he believes, is new, and will be of great
public utility. Thus the conditions of novelty and of utility are at once in-
troduced as material and essential ; the failure of either of them would be a
ground for avoiding the letters patent, as having been obtained on false sug-
gestion. Upon this representation, and on the consideration that it is en-
tirely at the party's own hazard, whether the invention is new, or will have
the desired success, and that it is reasonable for the crown to encourage all
arts and inventions which may be for the public good, the law officer of the
crown recommends the grant, with a proviso requiring the inventor within a
certain time to cause a particular description of the nature of his invention,
and in what manner it is to be performed, to be enrolled in the court of
Chancer}'. This proviso gives rise to the specification, upon which instru-
ment so much depends, for if it does not satisfy the terms of this proviso,
and, further, is not a full and fair disclosure of all the inventor knows, the
letters patent will be void.

We are very glad to find that Mr. Webster's well known scientific
attainments have induced him, to turn his attention to the study of so
important a branch as that of the Law of Patent Invention, and we
have no doubt that he will find himself amply repaid by the results for
the labour and talent he has devoted to these researches, while to the
patentee it will be a great advantage to find that they have a barrister,
who is so well acquainted with every department of the subject, one
who unites to the acumen of the barrister, a practical knowledge of
mechanics and science.

The Mechanics of Engineering, intended for use in Universities and in
Colleges of Engineers. By William Whewell, B.D., Professor of
Moral Philosophy in the University of Cambridge. London : Parker,
1S41.

If we wanted any proof of the high estimation in which engineering
now stands as a profession, we shall find it in the present work, where
a man of Professor Whewell's attainments feels himself called upon to
contribute towards its elementary instruction. The motives which
have urged him to this work are so laudable, and they are expressed
in a manner so well calculated to give sound counsel to the profession,
that we think we cannot do better than insert the following extract.

Various circumstances at the present time make it desirable that the sub-
ject of engineering should be treated in such a mode that it may be made a
satisfactory part of a liberal education. I refer not only to the attempts now
so laiuialily making in various quarters to improve the professional education
of engineers, but also to the desire which is more and more felt in the coun-
try, that what our students Icarn of mathematics in their university career
should have some meaning in real life. In the science of mechanics it has
especially happened that the mathematical study of the subject has been pur-
sued with very little regard to its practical application. The consequence of
this is, not only that our theoretical teachiny is of little value in preparing a
person for any part of 'J if business of engineering, but also, that it is of little
value as intellectual discipline. For the student has not been taught to seek
and to tind, in the mechanism which he sees about him, the exemplification
of his theoretical principles ; and hence he never learns to think steadily
upon the subject, and when his days of pupilage are past, ceases to think
upon it at all. This could hardly happen if his education made him familiar
with principles readily applicable to every machine and every stnicture which
came in his way; for in that case he would he constantly stimulated to un-
derstand what he saw ; and clear views of mechanical relations would become

1S4I.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

101

part of the habits of his mind. The relations of space once learnt in geo-
metry do not fade away from our thoughts, because throughout our lives we
continue familiar with exemplifications of them in geography, astronomy,
and other common pursuits. If the common problems of engineering were
to form part of our general teaching in mechanics, this science also might
become a permanent possession of liberally educated minds. Every roof,
frame, bridge, oblique arch, machine, steam-engine, locomotive carriage,
might be looked upon as a case to which every well-educated man ought to
be able to apiily definite and certain principles in order to judge of its struc-
ture and working. And tliis would, I conceive, be an improvement, not only
in professional, but in general education.

Motives, expressed in this modest manner, deprive us of any ob-
servations on a work in which Mr. Whewell has shown himself anxious
to consult his own reputation and the wants of the public. There are
too many vfho think that a mathematician or a calculator is an engi-
neer, and are too ready to despise practical attainments in the pursuit
of abstract studies, so that we feel much indebted to Mr. Whewell,
himself a mathematician, for giving so necessary a caution to those
who might be led away by the study of a book so delightful as his,
into realms so remote from engineering. Mathematics and engineer-
ing are roads which for a certain distance are mutual, but we feel ob-
liged to give a hint that there is a point of divergence when the way-
farer has the choice of two separate and far distant paths.

Plans for the Formation of Harbours of Refuge, Improvement of Rivers,
and Suggestiojis for Ameliorating the Condition of Seamen, Prevent-
ing Shipwreck, and Miscellaneous Matter. Illustrated with Plates
and Charts. By Capt. J. N. Taylor, R.N., C.B. Plymouth,
1840.

Capt. Taylor's plan for the formation of harbours of refuge is by the
use cf a floating breakwater, this he proposes to secure by moorings
of logs of timber shackled together, so as to avoid the inconvenience
of chain moorings. The work before us is more accurately described
by the title prefaxed to the first page. Series of Papers, Sec, being a
collection of memoranda on naval engineering, and naval officers gene-
rally. It includes descriptions of several of Captain Taylor's inven-
tions.

Gas Lighting.

1. A Practical Treatise on Gas Lighting, rvith Tiventy-two Plates. By
Thomas S. Peckston, R.N., C.E. London: Hebert, 1841. (Third
Edition).

2. A Practical Treatise on the Manufacture and Distribution of Coal
Gas, illustrated by Engravings from Working Drawings. By
Samuel Clegg, jun., C.E. London: John Weale, 1S41.

We have no doubt that our readers who look at these works will
do as we have done, pair them together. The names of Clegg and
Peckston are extensively known as connected with the subject of gas
lighting, so that works emanating from either of them must be hailed
by the student and professional man ;is useful additions to the engi-
neering librarv. "Arcades ambo" as they are it is difficult for us to
decide upon their claims, so that we must earnestly recommend to our
readers to purchase both works, and see if they can more readily bring
the matter to an issue. Mr. Peckston has long written on gas lighting,
and Clegg has been intimately connected with the imjirovement of the
system almost from its very invention, having been one of the first to
carry it out on a large scale — what he has done since all the world
knows. The work of Mr. Peckston is in its third edition, a circum-
stance which renders it unnecessary for us to urge claims on which
the public has already pronounced, and which will excuse us for any
apparent neglect in devoting more of our attention upon this occasion
to the first effort of the younger candidate. To say that the profession
have looked forward to young Mr. Clegg's work with interest, is to
say no more than the bare trutn, for the list of subscribers shows the
names of all the first gas engineers in the country, who thus have
already expressed their confidence as to his competency for the task
he has assumed. They could not weh doubt this, for he comes to the
subject armed not only witli his own knowledge and experience, but
with those of his father, to whose valuable memoranda he has had
ready access.

The distribution of both works is much the same, the introductory
chapters giving a short history of the progress of the art, a sketch of
chemistry as applied to this manufacture, and an account of coal.
From the statements of Mr. Peckston and Mr. Clegg, it appears that
the late talented Mr. Murdoch was the first person who introduced
gas lighting for practical purposes. He first lighted his own house at

Redruth, in Cornwall, in 1792; afterwards in 1798 he erected an ap-
paratus for a similar purpose at the manufactory of Messrs. Boulton
and Watt, at Soho — a pleasing reflection to find that tlie grcal im-
provers of the steam engine should also be the first to patronize the
introduction of lighting by gas against all the prejudices and supersti-
tious feeling of the day — the next place lighted, by Mr. Murdoch, upon
a large scale, was a cotton manufactory at Manchester in the year
1S05, the apparatus for which was made at the works of Messrs.
Boulton and Watt. A paper by Mr. Murdoch describing the appara-
tus was read before the Royal Society, February 25, ISU.J, from which
paper we collect that the number of burners emploved in the manu-
factory amounted to 271 argands and 633 cockspurs, each of the former
giving a light equal to four candles, and the latter a light equal to 21.
It appears, that at the same time Mr. Murdoch was engaged in fitting
up the gas apparatus at the above manufactory, that Mr. Clegg (the
father of the author), was engaged in a similar manner for lighting a
cotton mill near Halifax, which Mr. Clegg states was lighted a fort-
night before the cotton mill at Manchester, a circumstance however
which does not militate against the claims of Mr. Murdoch as being
the first who introduced gas lighting for practical purposes. The next
place lighted was the Catholic College at Stonyhurst, Lancashire, (in
1807, 1^08), when Mr. Clegg had an opportunity of making several
experiments for purifying the gas, using for that purpose lime water
in a separate vessel, which was to render the gas pure. We now
come to the time when gas was attempted to be introduced upon a
large scale for lighting the public streets, when we find ourselves in-
debted to Mr. Winsor for his indefatigable zeal, in exerting himself
(even as early as 1803-4,) by lecturing and other means, to overcome the
prejudices of the pubhc ; through his exertions a company was formed
in 1809, called " The London and Westminster Chartered Gas Light
and Coke Company," in that year application was made to Parliament
for incorporating the company, but from the obstinacy and prejudices
of several parties, as is too frequently the case in new undertakingSi
the Bill was opposed, and it was not until 1810 that an Act was ob-
tained. During this time Pall Mall was lighted up, but so far from
prejudices being allayed, the project was treated with derision by
many of the scientific men of that day. Mr. Clegg next proceeds to
detail the difficulties the Company had to overcome in the erection of
their works, and introducing the gas for public purposes, and it was
not until 31st December, lbl3, that the Company were able to light
any public place, when they lighted Westminster Bridge. Thus we
see that a period of 21 years was lost from the date of the first intro-
duction by Mr. Murdoch, before gas was generally adopted.

Tlie early pait of Mr. Clegg's volume is occupied with a disserta-
tion on "Chemistry as applied to the Manufacture of Coal Gas," fol-
lowed by a chapter on "Coal," which affords much valuable informa-
tion.

The kinds, or rather the different names, of coal used at the London Gas-
works are. South Pelaw, Ellison's Main, Felling Main, or East Garesfield
Main, Dean's Primrose and Pearitb's Wall's-end. Most of the Companies
have the facUities of water-carriage, and purchase their coals at the pit for
about 7s. dd. per ton, and charter a vessel from 8s. to lis. per ton, according
to the time of the year. If the gas-works are far from the water-side, and
they purchase their coals at the market, the above would fetch from 1 Is. 6rf.
to iSs. dd. per ton ; and to a large consumer, for cash, 5s. would be charged
for cartage, making a total of 22s. 6(/. to 23s. Crf. If the gas-works are at
the water side, the charges would be as follows : —

s. d.
Cost of coal at the pit mouth, say ... 7 6

Freight and loading ...... 8 0

Lighterage from ship to wharf . . , . 0 10
Gang of men carrying from barge to works, per ton,

according to distance ..... 1 0

Duty Is. Inf., and weighing llrf. ... 1 2^

18 05-
At Birmingham and in the neighbourhood the price for Stafl!brdshire coal

is about 8s. dd. per ton, including all espences.

In Scotland the prices, per ton, paitl lor the different kinds of Parrot coal

at the places where they are shipped, are as follows :

Lesmahajo .

Monkiand

Torry Burn

Wemyss

The price of coke in Loudon varies according to the demand; to. retailers
who fetch the coke it is now about 16s. per chaldron, to private persons 18».,
and if delivered, from 21s. according to the distance. At \Vcst Bromwich
coke is considered on an average to be wortii 4;/. per bushel.

Under the head of "Advantages of Gas," Mr. Clegg has afforded
us some sound practical observations and calculations, which cannot

s.

d.

s.

(/.

i;

0

Marquis of Lothian

17

6

10

0

Capledsea

14

0

12

0

Ualbeath

12

0

13

ti

Lochgelly

10

0

192

JHE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[Junk,

fail to be biglily appreciated by the engineer; the following calcula-
tion of the cost, outlay and income of a small gas work is useful, as it
shows at what a comparatively trifling expense villages might be
lighted.

If tlie number of lamps required is known, the materials necessary for the
production of the gas to supply those lamps are known also. The profit and
loss of such establishments in actual operation may as surely be relied upon
as that given upon paper.

Upon a well-regulated system the cost of producing every 1000 cubic feet
of gas with the sanie coal will not vary one penny the whole year round ; the
quantity of gas made will be adequate to the demand, and no more. The
^ear and tear of the machinery will be exactly that which was anticipated,
and therefore the annual outlay will be known ; the sale of the products of
the establishment may be depended upon with equal certainty, and the in-
come known ; the profit arising from the difference is thus ascertained. I
will give as an example the results of a small gas estabhshment erected in
the country.

Apparatus for the supply of 70 pubhc and 7j private
lamps cost .....

Retort-house and chinmey ....
400 yards of -1 -inch pipe . . . .

740 do. 3-inch do. .

266 do. do. ....

500 0 0

130 0 0

101 13 4

129 0 0

39 13 0

£900 G 4

Outlay in-

Coal carbonized

Do. as fuel

240 bushels of lime

One man by day and one by night

Carried forward

1838

204 17 11

54 15 0

6 0 0

62 8 0

X328 0 11

1839.

204 19

54 14

6 0

62 8

Brought forward

328

0 11

328

1

2

Lamplighter

31

0 0

31

0

0

Repairs in the streets

15

0 0

IG

3

0

Repairs in the works, including

wear and tear of retorts, meter

and clock

GO

0 0

58

16

0

Rent of ground

20

0 0

20

0

0

Taxes ....

20

0 0

20

0

0

OflSce expenses

10

0 0

10

0

0

£484

0 11

£484

0

2

Income in 1838

1839

72 private lamps at 3/. =216 0

0

75 at 3/.

= 225

0

0

64 public do. at 4/. = 256 0

0

64 at 4/.

= 256

0

0

200 gallons of tar at Id. = 0 16

8

Coke, 24 7 chaldrons, at 1 6s. = 1 9 7 12

0

243atl6j.

= 194

8

0

£670 8

8

.C675

8

0

£328 1 2

Leaving a Profit of £136 7 9 £191 7 10

The equal results of these two years is not peculiar to this estabhshment ;
there are many of much greater extent that can compare with it.

The chapter on "Retorts," describes the different plans that have
been adopted, their faults and advantages, their mode of setting, con-
struction and cost, and is illustrated with some beautiful engravings
and wood cuts. The annexed engraving shows the construction of a
retort, and the manner in which it is set, when a small quantity of gas
is required.

In country towns, where the quantity of gas made during the winter sea-
sons does not exceed 10,000 cubic feet in twenty-four hours, the retorts must
be set singly, as represented in Figs. 1 & 2., the flue passing beneath and over
the retort, which rests upon a half-brick arch, cut flat at the top to receive
it ; the end is guarded by a thick fire-tile.

Mr. Croll, the superintendent of the Chartered Gas Company's works,
(Brick Lane station), has introduced a system of using the coke as fuel while
red-hot. The charge from the retorts is drawn into a wrought-iron carriage,
and immediately taken to those furnaces which require feeding. He informs
me, that the saving efl"ected by this simple process is equal to 10 or 12 per
cent. ; 1 should conceive it to be fully that. The reason is evident ; because
when a qiiantity of black coke is thrown on the previously heated mass of
fuel, the flues will to a certain extent become cool, since the heated air is
absorbed. When hot coke is thrown on, no absorption takes place, and the
flues are kept up at a uniform temperature.

Mr. Clegg speaks very highly of Mr. Grafton's fire clay retort.

In England and Scotland the fire-clay retort has superseded the use of
metal in no less than forty towns ; in some instances it has lasted for the ex-
traordinary period of twelve years ; while, during this time, at all other
works where the invention is not yet used, it may be asserted that iron re-
torts have been renewed as many times. The oven or D-shajied retorts are
found to be the most advantageous, being made with a capacity to carbonize
one cwt. of coal every hour. They can be constructed either to be heated by
coke ovens, or coke furnaces, or by the burning of tar : with coke ovens they
are more durable. It appears that clay retorts, when constructed upon such

a scale as that given in the plate, have great power to retain their heat when
brought to the proper temperati:re for decomposing the coal, viz. 27° of
Wedgewood.

This power of retaining heat is proved by constant practice to produce
1000 cubic feet of gas per ton from the same coal more than the average of
the London produce, and the consumption of fuel is not more than 22 or
23 lb. of coke to carbonize 100 lb. of Newcastle coal, taking the average of
six months' working ; it is even less with the Staffordshire or Lancashire
coal.

We have now shown bv our extracts the value of this excellent
work, and in the next nuniber we shall proceed to notice the remain-
ing part of Mr. Clegg's book ; in the mean time we hope that both the
volumes will be in the hands of all those who are desirous of obtaining
information on the subject of gas works.

Before we close the present notice, we must oft'er a just tribute of
praise to Mr. Gladwin the engraver, for the very clear manner in which
he has executed the plates in Mr, Clegg's work, which are so beauti-
fully delineated, that they cannot fail to convey, even to the non-pro-
fessional observer, an accurate knowledge of the construction of the
apparatus which they delineate.

1841.J

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

193

XENOPHON ON THE ATHENIAN MINES.

Extracted from the Translation hy Walter Moyle, Esq., of the
Pamphlet on the Improvement of the Revenue of jithens.

Our silver mines alone, if rightly inaiiiiged, besides all the other
branches of our revenue, would be an inestimable treasure to the pub-
lic. But for the benefit of those wlio are unskilled in inquiries of
this nature, I design to premise some general considerations upon the
true state and value of our silver mines, that the public, upon a right
information, may proceed to the taking of such measures and counsel
as may improve them to the best advantage.

No one ever pretended from tradition, or the earliest accounts of
time, to determine when the mines were first begun to be wrought,
which is a proof of their antiquity; and yet, ancient as they are, the
heaps of rubbish which have been dug out of them and lie above
ground, bear no proportion to the vast quantities which still remain
below, nor does there appear any sensible decay or diminution in our
mines ; but as we dig on, we still discover fresh veins of silver ore in
all parts, and Vihen we had most labourers at work in the mines, we
foimd that we had still business for more hands than were employed.
Nor do I find that the adventurers in the mines retrench the numbers
of their workmen, but purchase as many new slaves as they can get ;
for their gains are greater or less, in proportion to the nnraber of
hands they employ. And this is the only profession I know of where
the undertakers are never envied, be their stock or profits ever so
extraordinary, because their gains never interfere with those of their
fellow traders.

Every husbandman knows how many yoke of oxen and servants are
necessary to cultivate liis fanu, and if he employs more than he has
occasion for, reckons himself a loser ; but no dealer in the silver mines
ever thought he had hands enough to set to work.

For there is this difference between this and all other professions ;
that whereas in other callings, for instance, braziers and blacksmiths,
when their trades are overstocked, they are undone, because the price
of their commodities is lowered of course, by the multitude of sellers ;
and likewise a good year of corn, and a plentiful vintage, for the same
reason do hurt to the farmers, and force them to quit their employ-
ment, and set up public houses, or turn merchants or bankers. But
here the case is quite otherwise, for the more ore is found, and the
more silver is wrought and made, the more adventurers come in, and
the more hands are employed in our mines. A master of a family in-
deed, when he is well provided with furniture and household goods,
buys no more, but no man was ever so overstocked with silver, as not
to desire a farther increase ; if there are any who have laore than
their occasions require, they hoard up the rest with as much pleasure
as if they actually made use of it. And when a nation is in flourishing
circumstances no one is at a loss how to employ his money ; the men
lay it out in fine armour, in horses, and in maguificent houses and
buildings; women lay it out in great equipages, costly habits and rich
clothes. And in accidents of war, when our lauds lie fallow and un-
cultivated, or in a public dearth and scarcity, what reserve have we
left to apply to but silver, to purchase necessaries for our subsistence,
or hire auxiliaries for our defence? If it be objected that gold is as
useful as silver, I will not dispute it; but of this I am sure that plenty
of gold always lowered its value, and advanced the price of silver.

I have insisted the longer upon these general reflections to encour-
age adventurers of all kinds, to employ as manv hands as possible in a
trade so advantageous, from these plain considerations that the mines
can never be exhausted, nor can silver ever lose its value.

That the public has known this long before is evident from our laws,
which allow foreigners to work our mines upon the same terms* and
conditions as our own citizens enjoy.

But to draw this discourse more immediatelv to the subject of my
present consideration, which is the mainteuance of our citizens, I will
begin to propose those ways and means by which the silver mines may
be improved to the highest benefit and advantage to the public. Nor
do I set up for the vanity of being admired for an author of new dis-
coveries ; for that part of my following discourse, which relates to the
examples of the present age, lies obvious to all the world ; as for what
is past it is matter of fact, and every man who would be at the pains
of inquiring might inform himself.

It is very striuige that after so many precedents of private citizens
of Athens, who have made their fortunes by the mines, the public
should never tliink of following their example ; for we who have heard
that Nicias, the son of Niceratus, had a thousand slaves employed in
the mines, whom he let out to Sosias the Thracian, upon condition to

' This was a irlhute of a Iwentj' -fourth part of thf silver found, according
to Suidas.

receive an obolus a day, clear of all charges for every head, and that
the same complement of workmen should be always kept on foot. In
like manner Hipponicus had six hundred slav.'s let out at the same
rate, which yielded him a revenue of a mina a day, and Philemonides
three hundred, who brought him in half a mina a day, and many others
made the same advantage, in pro;iortion to the number of slaves they
possessed. But what need have we to appeal to precedents of an
older date, when at this day we have so many instances before our
eves of the same nature ?

' In the proposals which I offer, there is only one thing new, namely,
that as private men have a constant revenue coming in from the slave*
whom they let out to work in the mines; so the public, in imitation of
their example, should purchase as many slaves to be employed in the
same manner, as will treble the number of their own citizens.
(Xenophon then goes to argue on the advantages of this plan.)
To demonstrate that the mines would take up a greater proportion
of slaves to work them, I appeal to the authority of all the living wit-
nesses who remember, what numbers of workmen were employed in
them before the faking of Deceleat by the Lacedemonians. And our
silver mines that have been wrought for so many ages, with such num-
bers of hands, and continue still so far from being drained or exhausted,
that we can discover no visible difference in their present state from
the accounts our ancestors have delivered down to us, are undeniable
proofs of my assertion. And their present condition is a good argu-
ment that there never can be more hands at work in the mines than
there is employment for ; for we dig on still without finding any bottom
or end of our mines, or decay of our silver ore. And at this day we
may open now mines as well as in former ages, and no one can deter-
mine whether the new mines may not prove richer than the old ones.
If any one demands why our miners are not so forward in pursuit of
new discoveries, as formerly; I answer, it is not long since that the
mines have begun to be wrought afresh, and the present adventurers
are not rich enough to run the risk of such an undertaking. For if
they discover a rich mine, their fortunes are made ; but if thoy fail,
they lose all the charges they have been at; and this consideration
chiefly has discouraged the adventurers from trying an experiment so
dangerous.

(Xenophon here urges upon the state to take measures for discover-
ing new mines.)

Companies of private adventurers may carry on the same trade in a
jointstock, nor is there any danger that they and the national company
will interfere with one another ; but as confederates are strengthened
by their mutual assistance to each other, so the more adventnrers of
all kinds are employed in the mines, so much larger will be the g.iins
and advantages to all.

(Our author again dwells upon the advantages of his plan, and in
allusion to the probable effects of a foreign war he says)

And I have reason to believe that it is possible to work our mines
in the conjuncture of a foreign war, for they are covered on the south
by a strong citadel in Anaphlystus, and on the north sea by another in
Thoricus, and these two fortresses lie at the distance of but GO fur-
longs from one another. But if a third fort were built upon the top
of a mountain, in the middle of the two former, the three works would
meet together, and other silver mines would be inclosed in a circle,
and guarded on all sides, and the workmen at the first notice of an in-
vasion might retire to a place of safety. But if we are invaded by
more numerous armies, our enemies may make themselves masters of
our corn, wine, and cattle that lie without the works, but if they possess
themselves of our silver mines, what can they find to carry off more
than a heap of stones and rubbish ? But how is it possible for our
enemies to make an inroad upon our mines? for the city of Megara,
which lies nearest is above 600 furlongs from them ; and Thebes
which is nearer them than any but Megara, is more than tiOO furlongs
distant from them.

(We here again omit what Xenophon says about the advantages of
his plan.)

The revenue arising from our slaves would not only make a con-
siderable article in the charge of maintaining our citizens, but by the
vast concourse of people from all parts, the customs of the fairs ;md
markets at the mines, and the rent of our public buildings and melting
houses, and many other heads, would produce a mighty income to the
state. The state, upon such an establishment, would be peopled with
a prodigious number of inhabitants, and the value of lands at the mines
would be as high as those that lie near Athens.

When 20,000 Athenian slares deserted.

2 D

194

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL

[Junk,

ON BURNING GAS FOR HEAT OR ILLUMINATION.

By Sii! Jou.v RoiiisoN, K.H., Sec. R.S.E., M.S.A.

Tht two followivg papers win read, March 1839, before the Society
of Arts for Scotland.

On the best means of Buhninc Gas kor supplyi.vg Heat.

" Vir ea nostra voco,"
When carburetted hydrogen eas is employed in producing heat, it
is seldom required that it should, at the same time, give out light;
the combustion may, therefore, be managed in any way which may be
convenient without seeking to preserve the illuminating power.' It
appears to have occurred about the same i)eriod to the late Dr. Dun-
can and to myself, that, by passing a current of gas, mixed with atmo-
spheric air, through a wide vertical tube, having its upper end covered
by a diaphragm of wire gauze, and by kindling the mixture as it
escaped through the interstices of the wire cloth, a convenient stove
might be formed for culinary purposes. Dr. Duncan applied some
small apparatus on this principle to pharmaceutical operations in his
class-room, and I had ray kitchen furnished with a range of large
stoves, which were intended to supersede the use of French charcoal
stoves in various culinary processes. In both cases the success has
been perfect, and the same principle has since been adopted with ad-
vantage in a variety of processes in tlie useful arts, where this neat
and cleanly method of applying heat has rendered it a valuable acqui-
sition to tlie work-shop.

The form of the apparatus may be varied in any way to suit tlie
particular process to which it is to be applied; as all that is essential
is, that a current of tlie mixed gas and air shall rise through wire-
clotli, and that the proportion of gas to atmospheric air shall never be
so great as to allow of the flame becoming yellow, as, with this pre-
caution, the combustion of the carburetted hydrogen will be complete,
and no deposit of soot will take place on cold bodies when set over
the flames ; the proper quantity of gas in the mixture is easily de-
termiued by the stop-cock belonging to each stove.

For ordinary culinary purposes, the cylinders may be thirty inches
long, and three to four inches diameter, and the wire-cloth for the
tops should have about thirty wires to the inch. That which is manu-
factured for safety-lamps answers well for this purpose.

Whenever, from accidental injury or decay, a hole takes place in a
diaphragm, it is no longer possible to use it : as, when lighted, the
flame passes through tlie fracture, and communicates with the jet at
the bottom of the cylinder, which then burns like an ordinarv gas-light,
and, like it, would blacken the surface of any cold body presented to
it. The wire-cloths, if not broken through by violence, will last for
montlis although in daily use ; and, if covered by a layer of coarse
sand or poundad limestone, vvill continue serviceable for an unlimited
period.

When more intense heat is required than is attainable by the un-
aided combustion of the mixed gases, recourse may be had to various
forms of blow-pipes; and when a large volume of such flame is to be
employed, the current of atmosplieric air may be urged by double bel-
lows. A very efiicient apparatus on this principle is to be seen in the
laboratory of Dr. D. B. Reid.

It is to be regretted, that such applications of gas are not more
generally known and introduced into work-sliops, as there are nume-
rous i)rocesses in the arts in which they would afford facilities to the
workman which he can scarcely command by any other means. For
example, in the hardening of steel tools, it is well known that a piece
of bright steel, when heated to redness in a forge or muffle, is subject
to oxidation, and that a black scale remains after hardening, wliicli it
is diflicult to remove without some injury to the work, as iii the case
of a screw tap; whereas, if the same piece of steel be heated in a
flame of the mixed gases, where there is no free oxygen to attack its
surface, it may be made and kept red hot without anv injury to its
finest edge; it will be discoloured, but without losing much of its
polish. The artist has also the advantage of a distinct view of the
article while it is being heated, and the power of withdrawing it from
the flame the moment it has acquired the proper colour, which, in the
hardening of cast steel cutting tools, is of great importance.

Many attempts have been made to apply carburetted hydrogen and
pure hydrogen gases to the purposes of warming buildings, and various
jorms of stoves have been proposed, on the understanding, it would
appear, that, by applying the flame of the gas to metallic bodies, an
increased degree of heat would be communicated by them to the
atmosphere around. A little consideration will show,' that however
the diistribiition of heat may be modified by such contrivances, there
can be no increase of the heating power; and that when a certain
measure of gas is fairly burned, the heat evolved into the apartment

will be the same whether the flame be disposed as a light, or made to
play against metallic plates or other combinations of apparatus. In
all cases where the products of the combustion are allowed to mix
with the atmosphere of the apartment, without provision being made
for carrying them off' by ventilation, the erti'cts of such processes must
be more or less deleterious to health, according to the proportion
these products bear to the mass of air they mix in. On the whole, it
may be assumed, that this mode of heating apartments is the most ex-
pensive, the least efiicient, and, excepting that by Joyce's charcoal
stove, the most insalubrious that can be resorted to',

0.\ THE BEST .METHOD OF BUHNING GaS FOR THE PUIU'OSE OF

Ilia'mination.

The tUeoretical principles on which carburetted hydrogen gas may
be used with the best advantage, for the purpose of domestic illumi-
nation, have been so well laid down by the late Dr. Turner, and by
Dr. Christison, as well as by other chemists, that it would be super-
fluous to enter at all on this part of the subject in a paper, the object
of which is to give such practical directions for the proper construc-
tion and management of gas-fittings, as may lead workmen to give the
requisite forms and proportions to the parts, and mav enable the con-
sumers to obtain the quantity of light they require, from the smallest
practicable expenditure of gas, and with the least possible incon-
venience from the products of its combustion.

It is very generally believed, by workmen and others, that the more
freely the current of air is admitted to an argand burner, the better
will be the light ; and hence the burners and glass chimneys in ordi-
nary use are made in such a way as to favour this view. No practice,
however, can be more incorrect, or can lead to less economical results.
An attentive observation of what takes place will show, that there ?»•
only a certain proportion uf air requindfor the faronrahle combustion of
a dtfnite nxasiire of gas. If more air than this due proportion be
allowed to pass up the chimney, the size of the flame will be reduced,
and the quantity of ligiit diminished ; if, on the other hand, less than
the due proportion be admitted, the surface of the flame will be in-
creased by elongation, but it will become obscure, and the quantity of
light will decrease, owing to the escape of particles of unconsumed
carbon. A simple experiment will exemplify this. If the flame of an
ordinary argand burner be reduced, by partially shutting the cock, to
about half an inch high, the light will be pale and blue, because the
supply of air is too great for the small quantity of gas which is issuing.
If partial obstruction be given to the access of air, by applying a hand-
kerchief under the burner and chimney, it will be found that the size
of the flame and the quantity of light emitted will increase until it
arrive at a maximum, when, by farther obstruction, the admission of
air will be reduced below the proportion required for the burning of
the carbon, and the light will diminish.

It appears, therefore, that the proportionate size and shape of the
burners, and the diameter and height of the glass chimneys, are by no
means indifferent matters, but that much advantage may be gained or
lost by giving them such forms and proportions as may msnre ttie
derelopmtnt if tlie maximum degree of light which (he gas is capable of
affording.

As a general rule, it may be considered that in all burners, whether
well or ill made, the greatest quantity of light, in proportion to tlie ga^
e.rpendtd, will always be obtained when the flame has been raised as
high as it will go without smoking. In proof of this, the following
experiment may be made. In any situation where there are three or
four burners of the same size, and with similar chimney-glasses, and
receiving their gas through a meter (by which the expenditure may
be measured), if one of these burners have its flame elevated as high
as it can be made to burn without smoking, and if its expenditure per
hour be accurately noted on the meter, if the other two or three burn-
ers be then lighted, and their flames be so regulated that their united
lighting power shall be just equal to the large flame of the first burner,
it will then be found, on noting the expenditure, that it is much
greater than in the case of the equal light from the single burner, and
that the first burner, which gives light equal to two others, consumes
but two-thirds of the gas which they do, or, if it be compared with
three others giving together an equal degree of light, its consumption
will be little more than half of theirs. It follows from this, that when
a certain degree of light is required, such a burner should be employed
as is capable of giving l/its light and no more, and that it is bad economy
to use a more powerful burner with a flame of less than its due height.
This rule holds good w itli any number of burners, and is equally true
whether they be well or ill made.

The same rule will apply to the individual jets of an argand burner,
as holds in regard to their united effect, and ii, in any burner, the jets
be of unequal heights, in consequence of bad drilling of the apertures,
or neglect of keeping them free of dirt, the consequence will be, that

1841.1

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

195

■when the fliime is raised until the jet from the widest hole reaches the
most advantageous height, those from the obstructed holes will be
consuming the gas at a disadvantage, which n'M be greater or less
according to circumstances, but will always be of greater amount than
is generally supposed.

The experiments made by Drs. Turner and Christison serve to
show, that much smaller chimneys than those usually employed are
required to burn the gas to the best advantage. Unfortunately, how-
ever, the dimensions most favourable to economy in one respect, are
beyond the limits of economy in another; and when the glasses are
made small enough in diameter to obtain the maximum of illuminating
effect, they are liable to be softened by the heat; or to be cracked, i/
■not accurattlij centered. A compromise between the two evils must
therefore be made, and if this be judiciously done, a gnat improve-
ment on the usual routine practice ma;/ he effected, a more beautiful and
steady light he obldined at a less cost, and our domestic comfort he in-
creased, by the diminution of the heat and (Jjlurta of the gan.

For practical purposes, therefore, the following directions may be
observed.

Whatever diameter is given to the burner, the glass chimney should
Eot exceed it by more than half an inch at the utmost. If the burner
be less than three fourths of an inch in diameter, the chimney glass
should not exceed Ij inch in internal diameter, hi any case, its
height should be no more than four inches above the mouth of the
burner from which the jets spring.

The smallness of the interval which is in this way allowed between
the flame and the glass, renders it necessary that the workmanship of
the supporting gallery be accurate, in order that the chimnty may be
held perpendicular, and truly concentric nuik the fame. Gas-fitters
rarely give sufficient attention to this important point, and a large
share of the expense from broken glasses is ow ing to defects in this
particular.

In the ordinary mountings, the gallery is put on the burner, which
it seldom fits accurately, the glass likewise rarely fits tight into the
socket of the gallery, and from these two causes, it is often so much
off the centre, or so f^ar from being upright, that the fiame cannot be
raised to a jiroper height without risk of breaking it. This risk may
be greatly diminished by a little change in the disposition of the
burner and gallery. Instead of hanging the gallery on the burner, it
should be placed beneath it, and fixed by screwing down the burner
on it. In this case, it is necessary to give the gallery an increased
diameter, as the air, both for the inside and the outside of the flame,
must enter through its ribs. The burners should also be made conical
instead of cylindrical ; but this is not so important as drilling them
with numerous holes — at least double the number usually allowed, as
the closer they are the better, the expenditure being regulated by the
stopcock, and not by the number of holes.

In making the galleries, great attention should be paid to having
the rim and seat for the glass truly concentric with the hole through
which the nozzle-screw, on which the burner is fixed, passes ; the
workmen should have a solid wooden chuck of the size of the bells of
the chimney-glasses, and should chuck the galleries on it, in order to
drill the aperture through which the nozzle-screw is to pass. The
outside and inside faces of this hole should at the same time be turned
true, as, if this be done with the proper care, the glass, the burner,
and the gallery, will all be true to the same axis, when they are put
together and screwed up. The hole through the gallery should not
be tapped, as the burner is sufficient fixture for it when screwed down
over it. If this part of the work be well executed, even an indiffe-
rently made burner will perform well, and if it be ill done, the best
burner will appear defective, and be liable to break the glasses.

The arrangement of burner and gallery here recommended is not
incompatible with the use of plain cylindric glasses, but it will be
found better to use what is sometimes called the French-shaped chim-
neys, that is, those which are used with the common argand oil-lamps.
The wideness of their mouths gives them a firm seat in the gallery,
and if the length of the bell, or wide portion of the glass, be such that
the neck or choke shall be on the level of the lip of the burner, and
the upper )nirt of the glass be four inches to four inches and a half
long, then a favourable result will be obtained. It is expedient to
obscure the lower part or bell of the glass, as the burner is thereby
concealed, and the flame appears to rise out of a thick wax-candle.
No moon-shades should ever be used, as, besides intercepting a con-
siderable portion of the light, they prevent the consumers from ob-
serving whether the burners and glasses be in good order, and per-
forming properly.

It is pretty generally imagined that the smoking of ceilings is
occasioned by impurity in the gas, whereas in this case there is no
connection between the deposition of soot and the quality of the gas.
The evil arises either from the flame being raised so high that some

of its forked points give out smoke, or more frequently from a careless
mode of lighting. If, when lighting lamps, the stopcock be opened
suddenly, and a burst of gas be permitted to escape btfore the match
be applied to light it, then a strong ])uff follows the lighting of each
burner, and a cloud of black smoke rises to the ceiling. This, in many
houses and shops, is repeated daily, and the inevitable consequence is
a blackened ceiling. In some well-regulated houses, tlie glasses are
taken off and wiped every day, and before they are put on again, the
mutch is applied to the lip of the burner, and the stopcock cautiously
opened, so that no more gas escapes than is sufficient to make a ring of
blue fame ; the glasses being then put on quite straight, the stopcocks
are gently turned, until the flames stand at three int-lies high, When
this is done, few chimney-glasses will be broken, and the ceilings will
not be blackened for years.

Gas-fitters and lamp-makers generally put the stopcocks in situ-
ations where it is diflScut to get al them, and they make their heads
so small that, if they be in the least degree stiff, it is not easy to turn
them gradually: hence, when a little force is applied, they move by
starts, and the flame is sometimes raised too high, or, instead of being
a little lowered, is altogether extinguished. The remedy for this
inconvenience is to make the cocks easily accessible to a person stand-
ing on the floor, and to make their levers so long that their movements
may be easily graduated. The cocks and levers may easily be de-
signed so as to form part of the ornamental work of the lamps.

The argand burner being the most perfect and economical which
can be used, unless where small portions of light are required, it is
unnecessary to say any thing of the bat-wings and other fancy burners,
especially as the only precaution to be taken with them, is to take
c.ire not to raise them so high as to smoke, and never to use two or
more low flames, when the same degree of light can he got from one
flame burning at its most effective height.

A mode of supplving argand burners with a current of heated air
lias been lately proposed in Paris, and much praised in London. This
is effected by having an outer glass of a diameter a little larger than
the inner one. This out r glass reaches farther down than the bottom
of the burner, and is closed below by a metal plate ; the air for the
supply of the flame is made to pass down between the outer and inner
glasses, where it gets heated; it then enters the inner glass and the
centre aperture of the burner, and passing upwards, supports the com-
bustion of the gas in the usual way. There is no doubt that, by this
arrangement, a considerable impro^ ement may be made in cases where
ill-made b\u-ners, with wide and tall chimney-glasses are employed ;
but if the experiment be tried with b\n-ners and glasses proportioned
in the way recommended above, it will be found that no advantage is
gained, and that the maximum effect has been attained by a simpler
apparatus.

Before quitting the subject of burners, it may be right to advert to
a frequent cause of disappointment in their performance. The per-
fection of an argand burner is, that the fame arising from it should
appear in a continuous cylindric sheet, with a smooth upper edge, and
without forking points. This is sometimes very difficult of attainment,
however carefully the jet-holes may be gauged by the pricker. There
are two causes for this irregularity; one is, that, if the drill which is
used be blunt, a little blaze is pushed aside by it when it is forced
through the plate in which the jet holes are pierced; this blaze ad-
heres to the edges of the hole, and interferes with the passage of the
gas, and being unequal in its effects, renders the flame forked. The
other cause is, that the insitle of the burner is seldom turned true, and
that the shoulder in which the pierced disk rests, is not of equal
width all round, and sometimes may be so thick in some places, that
the drill, when it gets through the disk, strikes against the shoulder;
this likewise interferes with the issue of the gas. To avoid these
causes of irregularity, the following precautions are essential. When
the seat for the disk is turned out, the inside space between the inner
and outer walls of the burner should be turned true for a quarter of
an inch inwards, and no more shoulder should be left than just enough
to su|)port the disk in its place. The disk should then be put into its
seat, but not finally fixed. The requisite number of holes should then
be drilled in it, and slightly counter-sunk to take off the barb. The
disk should then be reversed (that is to say, the counter-sunk face
should be put inwards), and finally fixed in its place. The blaze which
may have been pushed through with the drill will now be on the out-
side, and may be easily removed by the file, or by a slight counter-
sinking, which is the preferable manner, as the smooth-edged holes
will keep longer clean than those with a sharp arras, the application
of an old tooth-brush being sufficient to keep them in good order.

The above observations apply chiefly to the illumination of the in-
teriors of buildings, and it may be proper to notice the circumstances
which require to be attended to in lights which, being placed exter-
nally, are in some degree exposed to the weather. The most im-

196

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[JUNJE,

poilant of liw^p arc the street lamps. These m:iy either be arranged
at considerable distances, and l)e titled with powerful burners, or the
intervals between them may be smaller, and only a single jet be al-
lowed fur each. Various local considerations must determine this, as
well as some other jioints: but it should be kept in uii- d, that the
best small light is either the single jet of three inches and a half or
four inches high, or the iish-lail jet of three inches high, and that for
more powerful lights l!ic argand is preferable to all ctJurs. The large
bat-wing, so much used in large public lamps, is wasteful, smokes the
lantern, and does not give light in proportion to its expenditure.

In most towns, framed square lanterns are used for street lamps, as
it is said that globes are apt to be obscured in cold weather by the
deposition of the water generated by the combustion of the gas. It is
no doubt true, that if proper precautions be not taken, this inconve-
nience would be felt, and the water which would trickle from the
aperture in the bottom of the globe would be liable to freeze in severe
weather, and so to close up the access fur air, that the lamp would
smoke or go out. In all other respects, globes have undeniable ad-
vantages over framed lanterns, as they protect the flames better in
high winds, and they are ke|it up at much less expense.

Some years ago I pointed out to the commissioners of police of this
city, that advantage might be taken of the acknowledged good pro-
perties of the globes for lighting the streets, and the alleged defect be
obviated bv constructing the tin tops with chimneys which should
reach '!own to the points of the flames, and by their current carry off"
the water while still in a state of vapour, and so prevent it from being
condensed on the sides of the globes. This plan was immediately
tried, and having been found successful, was adopted in all the lamps
erected subsequently. It occasionally happens, that from the jet
being deranged, the gas is directed past the tin chimney instead of
into it, and if the weather be cold, it is immediately observed that a
deposition of water takes place inside the globe, and its sides become
dim. The adjustment of the burner restores the proper action, and
the globe remains bright. This plan having now stood the test of
many years experience, may safely be recommended for adoption
wherever new street lamps are erected.

ON SETTING OUT RAILWAYS ON SIDELONG GROUND.

Fig. 1— Sidelong Ground.

Balance Line.
30.0 >

C, centre line. G, surfece of ground.

Fig. 2.

R for the rate of inclination of slopes to a 15 feet length, H for height
of balance line below or above surface at centre stake, h for difference
of level between ground at centre peg, and at 1,5 feet on either side
horizontal distance, and .c for the actual height above or below balance
line, at which the slopes run out to the surface.

We have ^ x -\-n -{-h — xoT(li + h)R — Rz — rxoTthe lieight

above the balance line, at which the slope cuts out on the higher side.

Halance Line.

Sir — Should the following formulae for setting out widths of railway
land OB sidelong ground be new, and in your opinion worth insertion,
please to give them a place in your next number.

Suppose the centre line of way staked out and pegs driven into the
ground at every chain's length, an<i further that levels have been taken
at each of these lengths, both at the pegs and (in the case of a 30 feet
base) at l.") feet horizontal distance on each side.

Then putting r for the rate of inclination of ground to a 1.5 feet length,

R

.r-t-A-l-3:=rHorHR — iR = r3--l-Rr, orthe height above

the balance line, at which the slope cuts out on the lower side. — 2.

For example, in the case of a 2U feet cutting with base 30 feet,
slopes IJ to 1, and the surface of the ground varying in level from
3-9 feet above the centre peg,- at 15 feet on one side to 3-9 feet be-
low at the same distance on the other side.

By formula 1, (20 -f 3-9) 10= 10 a: — 3-9 .r.
239-0= t;-l.r.
39-2 =r X at li 1 = r.'^S, + 15 := 73-8.

73-S horizontal distance to be set off' from centre stake on higher
side.

Again, by No.

-3-9X 10= 3-9 .r+ 10 .r.
= 13-9 X.

= X.
horizontal distance

to be set oB

20X10-

un-

11-5

At LHo 1 = 17-2 + 1.5 = 32-2.5
from centre stake on lower side.

It is here understood that these calculations are made in the evening
after return from levelling, the depths of cuttings or embankments ob-
tained by reference to a section run before hand over the centre line of
way, and that the results of widths are pegged out on the following
rooming.

Another example is here added, in which the ground is shown as
very irregular, although few instances occur to such an extent unless
perhaps in Cornwall, &:c. The depth of cutting and slopes with base
same as before ; levels supposed to he taken at A B C D on one side,
and at E and F on the other. The extent of levels necessary roust be
left to the judgment of the party acting.

B 2-7 E= 8-

C4- F=15-

■ D 5-5

12-2 levels above A. 23- levels below A.

It is clear that in order to eq\ialize the inclination of the surface, we
roust obtain a figure forming an arithmetical progression, in three
terms to the amount of the higher side levels, but in two terms only to
that of the lower.

Take 12-2 as before, of which 2-04 is the number required for the
higher side inclination, and 23 of which 7-7 is the figure for the lower.
Then according to our previous formula —
1. (20 -i- 2-04.) 10 = 10 a: — 2-04 jr.
220-4 = 7-9t; X.
27-69 = .r at U to 1 — 41-53 -f 15= 50--.53.
56-!53 to be set off" as the horizontal distance from centre peg op
higher side, correct -9 of a foot.

Again No. 2. 'iOx 10 — 7-7 x 10 = 7-7 :;: -f 10 x.
123- = 17-7 X.

(;-93 =jrat li to 1= lu-42, + 15.

=r 25-42 to be set off' as the horizontal distance from centre peg for
lower side.

I remain, your obedient servant,

Geo. B. W. Jackson.
Raddifft Terrace, Gosrreli Roeid,
April 27, 1S41.

* The centre peg in Ibis case supposed to be level with ground.

Slon,' Cutting Mnch inc. —The .Alsace (.Strazburg) stales Ui.il a iialive of that
town, named Mullcr, has invented a simple and ilie.ap machine, set in motion
by the force of a single dog, turning like a horse in a mill, whereby a stone
in its roughest state is in five minutes cut into a rep-ular shape fit lor build-
ing, and its faces have an unusnal smoolline.ss. This machine is capable of
working twelve stones in an hour, or 144 in a day of twelve hours, being
c(iual to the labour of forty men employed for the same lime. Muller (adds
the journal) possesses several quarriesof stone, boih hard and soft, and works
his mill daily in the presence of numerous spectators.

1841.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL

197

IMPROVEMENTS IN RAILWAYS AND THE WHEELS OF
LOCOMOTIVE ENGINES AND CARRIAGE?*.

In the first place, the leading and trailing wheels of locomotive en-
gines either with four or six wheels would work better were each
wheel to be keyed upon a separate shaft, so as to revolve independent-
ly.* This may easily be done in the following manner: let the wheels
be keyed upon their respective shafts in the usual way, with either
outside or inside bearings, which ever may be the most convenient,
and let the shafts have middle bearings to meet in the regulating line
common to all. If the wheels and axles are made in this way, the
wheels on the outside rail would revolve quicker than those on the in-
side, and would allow the engine to find its own bearings. This would
be particularly evident in going round curves, and would be the means
of preventing many accidents from engines being very liable to be
thrown oft' the rails on those parts according to the present system. In
the second place, it is proposed that each of the leading and trailing
wheels shall be keyed upon a hollow shaft, in the usual way ; these
shafts to have no external bearings, but to be bushed with brass bored
to fit the solid shaft, or spindles which will be required to work into
them. The solid shafts to have a bearing at each end, and one in the
middle if required. This plan will allow the outside and inside wheels
to revolve indejjendently on the curves or otherwise, and will also pre-
vent them wearing irregularly- Should any obstacle be thrown in the
way of tlie engine, the wheels revolving separately would prevent it
from coming oft' the rails, as the wheels would act as a check to each
other, or as a complete check or guard rail on any part of the line as
hereafter explained.

Thirdly. The wheels to be made of either wrought or cast iron, (the
latter would be preferable,) and to have a flange on each side, by
which plan they would not be required so strong as those now in use,
because they would take the lateral concussions or side jolts more
equally than tlie present kind. Should the engine be thrown to one
side, both wheels would take an equal share of the strain or jolt,
whereas in the present system the wheels on one side take the whole
strain. This properly adjusted, the conical wheels may be dispensed
with, as well as the check or guide rails upon the whole line, which
latter checks are a great nuisance. In the plan thus proposed the rails
would be laid level or horizontally across and not at an angle as at
present, and the wheels would have to be the segment of a circlei- upon
the face, in place of being conical. Each wheel would tlius act as a
check rail for the other during the whole of the journey. Should the
rails be out of gauge so as to cause the wheels on one side of the en-
gine to moimt upon their flanges, and throw the train oft' the rails, as
is very often the case with the present system, the double flanges
■would' obviate this evil and keep the engine in its proper course, until
the wheels again found their places. The switches will remain with-
out alteration, but the points may be altogether dispensed with. By
this method of working, there will be a great saving in the wear and
tear of the engines and rails, it will reduce the cost of keeping the
engines and road in repair, and lessen the friction, as well as the
quantity of fuel with all other expenses in like proportion. In con-
structing the permanent way much time might be saved, as no atten-
tion will be required in laying the rails to an angle, as they would then
be horizontal where the road itself is straight. Giving to the outside
rails the proper rise in tlie curves, the angle of the two rails will in-
cline both one way, and not reverse to each other as at piesent. This
will artbrd the engine another mechanical advantage on the curves,
giving gravity a much greater opportunity of acting against the mo-
mentum of the machine. The engine will also he kept in its proper
course in the curves much more forcibly than is aftbrded by the present
method of laying railroads by the present system, as the angles of the
two rails are acting against each other, the outsides of both being
higher than the insides, and causing a great friction upon the axles,
brasses, wheels, and rails ; this the proposed alteration will entirely
obviate. All the conical wheels now in use, through concussions and
constant rolling upon the rails, squeeze out on one side. No conical
wheels retain their proper form much longer than two months if daily
at work ; each wheel causes the flange of the opposite wheel to act
with great force on the inside of the rail, and vice versa. The large
hollow fillet that is left in the angle of the flanges of the wheels crushes
down the inside angle or corner of the rails ; which the proposed wheels
would obviate — the weight of the vehicle would be also much better
distributed over the surface of the rails. This alone is a great induce-

" Our corrcspcnclent will find that Mr. Coles has anticipated him, if he re-
fers 10 ihc Journal for A^ril last, where he will see described a method of
making the wheels revolve ii dependently of each other. — Ed.

^ Wheels wilh concave rims were used on the Penryhn Iron Railway. See
Repertory of Arts, kc.. for 1803, page 285. — Ed.

ment to the introduction of double flanged wheels on loose axles, as
the rails would last double the length of time.

In the fourth place, the doub'e flanges would prevent the wheels
squeezing out, as they seldom squeeze out on the side next the flange,
and being all made from cast iron, there would be no spreading. The
longitudinal shake or clearance that is generally given to the axles in
their brasses will not be required, as the action of each being entirely
in itself, and inclosed in brass, will retain the oil much longer and not
require that attention which the present do. Were the engines and
carriages made according to this arrangement the loss of power in the
curves would not exceed from S to 10 per cent, above that used on a
straight line, always of course depending on the radius of the curves.

In the fifth place, the whole of the engine and tender wheels should
be furnished with double flanges, the latter to be of different diameters ;
causing thus difTerent depths from the face of the wheel to the tops
of those flanges. The reason of this will be easily explained.

Railways at present are nothing but a series of complication of
curves, all dift'ering in intensity. To carry engines round those con-
tinually changing curves without trailing and great friction, would
require wheels of greater and less diameters, and this difficulty I pro-
pose to surmount bv means of those flanges, which will become bona
fide for the time the wheels of the machine.

To enable me to make use of the above arrangements, [ propose to
have radiated plates or segments put down on each side-of the main
rail, at such a depth from the face of th;> rail, as to cause the wheels
to be lifted from the rail, and allow the fidnges to act on those seg-
ments ; the machine rolling at one time on the large flange, at another
time on the small, and from thence on the face of the wheel, those alter-
nations of course depending on the nature and radius of the curve.
The length and position of those segments would be found by a calcu-
lation depending on the intensity of the curves.

Were engines, carriages, &c., provided with such wheels, and the
railways vpiui segments to suit, it would be next to impossible for the
train to leave the line of road ; for, even supposing the whole of the
tires on one side were to come olF, the train would be kept in its
course by the double flanges of the wheels on the opposite side. At
present if a single tire comes off, the engine is precipitated from the
rails, and if without any more serious result, the train is detained till
the arrival of another engine, train, or^ther means of locomotion.

I may in addition mention that the fatal accidents arising from
furious driving which is more or less practised on all lines, and is a
terror to all travellers who have not the iron nerves of his Grace the
Duke, wotdd be altogether prevented; for not even the velocity of
lUO miles per hour could force the engine or carriages oft' the line, so
firmly would the wheels be bound to the rails, and so sweetly would
they glide round the curves if made on the above construction.^

With many apologies for intruding my ideas on your acquaintance,
I am, your obedient servant,

WiLHAM Andrews.
Paddington, March 26, 1^41.

P.S. Were the wheels and segments calculated for each other, the
parting or cutting of the shafts could be dispensed with, and they
might remain just as thev are at present.

•* ' W. A.

MR. MUSHET'S PAPERS ON IRON AND STEEL.— No. 2.

Sir — It is my intention in this letter to make a few remarks on
the latter part of the paragraph in Dr. Ure's dictionary (alluded to in
my former letter) in which he says "the incorrectness of Mushet's
statement becomes most manifest when we see the white lamellar
cast iron melted in a crucible lined with charcoal take no increase of
weight, while the gray cast iron, treated in the same manner, becomes
considerably heavier."

This remark is as inapplicable to my table of proportions as the
remark made in the former part of the paragraph. My experiments
were confined solely to the changes produced in the character of iron
by the fusion, not of cast iron, but of bar or malleable iron in contact
w'ith certain quantities of charcoal.

I have no where professed to account for the a/fcgei fact that while
white cast iron when fused alone with charcoal does not increase in
weight, gray cast iron does, nor have I any where either asserted or
denied that the fact is as stated by Dr. Ure, and I cannot help think-
ing that it is unfair in that gentleman, to raise up objections which
have no foundation except in his own imagination, in order to throw
them at what he calls my statement.

In my former letter the difficulty of obtaining an increase of weight
in fusing cast iron alone with charcoal, is accounted for by the great

2 E

108

THE CIVIL EXGINKKR AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

^Jt

NE,

fusibilitv of tliat kind of iron whicli, before the liigli temperature ne-
cessary for the exertion of the greatest force of allinity, can be raised
upon it as a solid, occasions it to pass into the fluid state, in which no
union can take place between it and the carbon.

The table of proportions, as has been already observed, is a simple
recapitulation of the results of the fusion of bar iron with given quan-
tities of charcoal to exhibit the various states and qualities of cast
iron and cast steel. By these results it appears that less charcoal is
required to form white cast iron than to constitute gray cast iron, and,
after forty years' observation and experience this is still my decided
opinion. "Dr. Ure on the contrary thinks that common white pig iron
contains a maximum dose of carbon and that the grayest ])ig iron of
the blast furnace contains less. Hence it may be inferred (according
to the reasoning of Dr. Ure,^ that white cast iron when fused with
charcoal, does not increase in weight, because it is already so saturated
vpith carbon as to be unable to take up any more, and that gray cast
iron, when fused in the same way, dms increase in weiglit, because it
contains a comparatively small q"uantity of carbon, and can therefore
absorb an extra dose in Us fusion with' charcoal; but in what quantity
this absorption takes place, or to what extent, the reader is left to
guess.

Dr. Ure, following Karsten, says that white ])ig iron contains from
4A to 5j per cent, of carbon, and gray iron from Sj to 4 per cent., but
the gray iron may, according to Dr. Ure, be considerably increased in
weight by its fusion with charcoal. If we suppose this increase of
weight to be from 2 to 2j per cent, (from experiment I know it may
be more), then we shall have, for the quantity of carbon in gray cast
iron, the original quantity, from 3^ to 4 per cent., and the experi-
mental quantity from :i to "h per cent., making from ■'ii to Qh per cent,
a proportion exceeding the maximum quantity assigned by Dr. Ure to
white cast iron.

The following remarks will throw a little light upon the subject,
and enable us to explain the phenomena without having recourse
either to the theory of Drs. Ure and Karsten, or to the expedient of
impugning the accuracy of the table of projiortions.

Were white pig iron of a definite character, manufactured under the
same cinder and circumstances in the blast furnace, and found to con-
tain at all times the same quantity of carbon, it might be possible to
arrive at some certain conclusion as to the results to be obtained by its
fusion with charcoal. But if we consider that the white cast iron,
particularly of this country, is generally made accompanied by a black
or blackish brown cinder, containing portions of unreduced iron, it will
be obvious that we have to deal with an impure and imperfect state
of the metal, varying in quality as the proportions of carbon, oxide of
iron, cr earthy matter be absent or predominant. Hence the great
difficulty of stating any thing definite on the subject, or of arriving at
any satisfactory result, as we may use many different sorts of white
pig iron, more or less pure, and containing more or less carbon to deal
with.

By those who, like myself, have entered largely into this field of
investifi;ation, white cast iron has been estimated to contain from lA
to 2 pel- cent, of carbon, (and not from 4A to 5i per cent., as Dr. Ure
has it,J together with a fraction of the unreduced ore and its accom-
panying earthy parts in combination with the iron, even when its
fracture appears to be the most dense. The existence of these im-
purities is made most obvious in fusing white and gray cast iron in
crucibles, and observing their molten surfaces respectively. The
white iron, according to the degree of its impurity, presents upon its
surface a quantity of slaggy matter, varying from i to 2 per cent, on
the weight of the iron, w hil'e, under similar circumstances as to fusion,
the gray cast iron exhibits a pure convex surface without a trace of
slag.

Again in the cementation of white cast iron by heating it in contact
with charcoal, with a view to convert it into gray iron, should the pro-
cess be interrupted after a few hours' exposure, the surface of the
iron will be found covered with minute hemispheres of slag of various
diameters (but none of them exceeding half a tenth of an inch), opaque,
contuining iron, and easily displaced. At a more advanced stage of
the cementation, the hemispheres of slag will be found to have parted
with their iron, to have become more brittle and transparent, and to
cover small globules of iron which (as evidence of the reduction of
the metallic oxide united to the iron before alluded to) have inserted
themselves on the surface of the liar. When white cast iron with a
polished surface is used in a similar experiment, the hemispheres of
slag and globules of iron do not make their appearance, but oozings
take i)lace which form themselves into highly magnetic matters with
a specular surface, adhering partly to the iron and partly found in the
charcoal, from whence they are easily withdrawn by means of a
magnet.

It seems obvious from these facts, that a portion of weight may be

thus lost (namely the oxygen of the oxide and the glass which has
been disentangled from the metal by a process of incessant reduction),
sufficient to account for white or lamellar pig iron, or some sorts of it
not increasing in weight when fused in contact with charcoal, in as
much as the sum by weight of the oxygen, an unreduced but separated
oxide and earth, may equal, or amount to more than, the carbon ab-
sorbed during the operation, and make it appear not onlv that no in-
crease takes place, but that actual loss is sustained without calling into
question the disposition which white cast iron may have to absorb or
repel carbon in its fusion with charcoal.

Were it possible to obtain white cast iron as free from oxide and
earthy matter as gray iron, and were it to be found on experiment
that such iron gains no weight by its fusion with charcoal, while gray
iron does, I should be inclined in some measure to account for this
(as in my former letter) by the early fusibility of the metal, and from
its being a more rapid conductor of heat than gray iron, which causes
it to enter into fusion before an absorbing affinity can be instituted
between it and the charcoal, while the latter, being a worse conductor,
remains longer as a solid in a high temperature to absorb the carbon.
.Some sorts of white cast iron pass into gray iron in the crucible with
facility, but not with any material augmentation of weight, the oxygen,
oxide, and earthy matters lost being equivalent to the carbon gained.
In other white pig iron I have experienced a decided increase of
weight, while its fracture remained apparently unaltered, but more
frequently when the white iron was changed to ^av.

Tlie same anomalies attach to the scale of manufacture. Different
ores tend, according to their constituent parts to produce various
qualities of iron as to their degree of carbonization, and some, when
smelted alone, uniformly produce white iron.

These various shades of quality all vanish in the crucible through
the application and medium of lime, to which is to be added as much
argillaceous schist only as will convert the lime into a pure porcelain
slag. Fusion under these circumstances, and with -r^^ the weight of
iron of charcoal, will convert the most imperfect white cast iron into
the most beautiful carburet, equal in point of saturation of carbon to
any thing that can be produced in the reduction of iron ores in the
crucible, and superior to any thing that is produced from the blast
furnace. Under the most favourable circumstances, the increase of
weight in these cases seldom exceeds i per cent., while the same
experiment made with gray iron would acquire an additional weight
of from 2 to 2 J per cent., clearly indicating the loss which is sustained
in the fusion of white iron from the causes before mentioned.

Your's, &c.,

D. MU3HET.

Colt/ord, April -ll, 1S41.

QUERIES.

Sir — I should feel obliged if you, or any of your numerous correspomlents
could afford me any information on the subject of the iustruments aud ma-
chinery, which have been at various times invented for the purpose of assist-
ing and facilitating draughtsmen in the correct delineation of existing build-
ings, under different titles, as the Camera Lucida, Perspective Machine, &c. ;
many improvements have of late years been made in this department, and it
is of these that I wish to obtain information. And I cannot help thinking
that it is far from being an unimportant subject to the profession, as it tends
greatly to facilitate one great object of travel to the architect, s\z., the ob-
taining of strictly correct deUneations of the different structures which may
fall under his notice, with the least possible waste of time. In conclusion,
I hope that gentlemen may be induced to furuisli the names, &c. of any in-
struments of this description they may have seen, iu order that their relative
value may be known, as it has often happened in this profession as in others,
that inferior and inadecpiatc instruments have Ijeen employed merely through
ignorance of the existence of better. Hoping that you will pardon my
troubUng you.

I am, Su', your humble servant,

Archt. Angl.

Sir — If any of your readers could give me information ou the following
subject, I should be obliged to them.

How is the permanent way laid on the Greenwich arches ? what is the
cost of keeping it in repair :" what thickness is there of ballasting between
the rail and the extrados of the arch at the crown : aud what is the cause
of the feehng cf rigiditv, and of the jolting complained of on that line '■

How are these points arranged on tlie .Alanchester and Birmingham, and
other lines, where a railway is carried for a considerable distance on arches .'

The comparative advantages of these methods, with an\ suggestions re-
specting them, will oblige

Your obedient servant,

iVff.vS, 18-11. A. B.

184 1.

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

199

STEAM NAVIGATION IN AMERICA.

Written by Fra.vcis Anthony Chevalier de Gerstner, iluring his
sojourn in the United States, in 1839.

[From the Journal of the Franklin Imtilute.']

1. History and extent of Steam Naviijation.

FuLTox, the North American inventor of steam navigation, constructed, in
the year 1807, tlie first steam boat upon the Hudson river, to make regular
trips between New York and Albany. The voyage of 145 miles was then
performed in 33 hours. The success of this enterprise laid the foundation of
steam navigation in the United States.

Up to that time the barks upon the Ohio and Mississipi were propelled
partly by sails, partly by oars and poles ; from Cincinnati to New Orleans
(1600 miles), such a bark came down in live weeks, and went up in 80 to 90
days ; for its management nine men were required down, and 2-1 to 32 up
stream. In March, 1811, the first steam boat built by Fulton, in Pittsbvirgh,
called the Nexn Orleann, was launched on the Ohio, and commenced in De-
cember of the same year, to make regular trips between Natchez and New
Orleans. The time required to make the trip of 300 miles between the two
places was three days down stream, and seven to eight days up. The boat
performed in a year only 13 trips up and down, or 7S00 miles. A passenger
paid IS dollars for a passage down, and 25 dollars for one up stream.

Fulton constructed several other steam boats in the United States. He
afterwards went to Europe, to bring into execution there, his important in-
vention; but he found no encouragement in England, and when he proposed
in Paris the introduction of steam navigation, lie was derided by the French,
and Napoleon declared him an adventurer. Five years elapsed, before Bell,
in 1812, constructed the first steam boat at Glasgow, in Scotland. Steam
navigation now came more and more into practice in Europe, but has as yet
not attained such an extent there as in the United States, (except England.)

On the 6th of May, 181", the first steam boat, the Eiiterjiri:e, weut up the
ilississippi and Ohio, from New Orleans to Louisville, and arrived there on
the 30th of May, or in 25 days. As the barks at that time required nearly
three months for the same journey, the inhabitants of Louisville were in such
an eestaey, that they conducted the Captain Shrive, around in triumph, and
gave him a public dihuer. The steam boats upon the western and south-
western waters were now constantly increasing iu number, and in 1834. tliey
counted already 234 ; in the year 1838, their number rose to 400. In 1831,
there passed through the Louisville and Portland canal, iu the State of Ken-
tucky, 406 steam boats, and 421 flat boats, with a tonnage together of 76,323 ;
in the year 1837, passed through the same canal, 1501 steam boats, and only
165 flat boats, with a tonnage together of 242,374.

In the year 1818, the first steam boat was launched on the great north-
western lakes ; in 1835, they were navigated by 25 steam boats, and in 1838,
the number of steam boats was 70. In the year 1834, 88 new steam boats
were built in the United States ; in 1837, or three years after, 134 new steam
boats were launched. The largest ship-yards for building steam-boats, are at
New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore ; at Louisville, New Albany, Cincinnati,
Pittsburgh, and St. Louis.

In total, there were in the summer of 1838, about 800 steam boats in
operation in the United States ; the greatest number, in any one State, be-
longing to New Y'ork, viz., 140.

The travel in steam boats along the sea-shore has, as I observed in my
former letters, been mostly superseded by railroads, located in a more or less
parallel direction to the sea coast ; and will, probably, when the whole rail-
road system is completed, entirely cease ; but the steam navigation upon the
navigable rivers is getting more into practice ; its increase in the last two or
three years, has contributed much to diminish the navigation with sailing
vessels or barks; not only all kinds of merchandise without exception, but
also provisions, as grain, flour, meat, &:c., are carried in steam boats as well
up as down stream, and while the freightage is almost the same as upon the
barks and sailing vessels, the goods arrive much sooner at the place of their
destination if carried iu steam boats, and are, therefore, less liable to be
damaged. But still more has been done. Upon the Ohio river, stone coals
are now brought by steam boats, 250 miles, down to Cincinnati, or rather
the flat boats, loaded with coal, are taken in tow and brought down the river
by steam boats, and the empty barks taken back in the same way, because
the cost of transportation is found to be less in this manner. It is true, the
extremely high wages of the boatmen and all other labourers, contribute
much to this extraordinary result ; but, as I shall have occasion to show,
hereafter, the crew of a steam boat is also very well paid, and it is to be
ascribed entirely to the perfection in the construction of vessels and the en-
gines used in them, and in the application of steam, as also to the improved
arrangements in the steam boats generally, that they have produced in America
the results which have been arrived at neither in England nor in any other
part of Europe.

The .\mericans boast of a system of navigable streams in the southern and
south-western states not to be met with in any other country of the globe ;
they maintain that the length of the Mississippi, with the Ohio and all other
tributar)' streams, comprises an extent of 100,000 miles of water navigable
by steam boats. I would not answer for the correctness of this number, but
the ilississippi alone is navigated by steam boats from New Orleans, under
the thirtieth degree, to the Falls of St. Anthony, under the 45th degree of
north latitude, a distance not less than 2000 miles, and the number of navi-

gable tributary streams of the Mississippi is indeed so large, that an European,
who is accustomed to our short travels by steam boats, can only, by being an
eye witness, conceive the magnitude of the system of steam navigation in this
country. There are daily, at least four or live steam boats starting from
New Orleans for Pittsburgh, in the business season, and as many arrive daily ;
the distance is 2000 miles, or two-thirds of that from England "to New Y'ork
across the Atlantic, and nevertheless the voyage is regarded as nothing extra-
ordinary, and is undertaken after a few hours preparation.

2. ConslmctioH of Steam Boats and the Engines used therein.

The steam boats in America, with the steam engines used in the same, are
of three entirely difierent plans of construction. Those upon the eastern
waters, comprising the sea along the coast of Boston to Charleston, S. C, and
all rivers emptying into the same, have condensing engines with large upright
cylinders, and long strokes, the larger boats draw from five to seven feet
water, and go with a speed of from ten to fifteen miles per hour. Upon the
Hudson river, the distance from New York to Albany, of 145 miles, is per-
formed in eleven to tw'elve hours up stream, and in nine to ten hours down
stream, including the stoppages at fifteen or twenty landing places, where
passengers come on board or leave the boat. I took a passage in the steam
boat, Xorl/i America, on the 23rd of Nuveinucr, iSio, from New York for
Albany ; as the river was already nearly half frozen over, a great deal of
floating ice was coming down ; the boat left New Y'ork at five o'clocli in the
evening, and arrived at .Ylbany the following morning at seven o'clock ; we
made, therefore, including all stoppages, over ten miles per hour up stream.
The length of the vessel is 200 feet, greatest width 26 feet; she has two
decks, the lower of which, where the engines are. is about three feet above
the level of the water ; she has two separate cabins, the gentlemen's cabin,
which is, at the same time, the dining room, and the ladies' cabin. We had
320 passengers on boanl, each of whom slept in a berth, and as sufficient
room appeared still to remain, one may imagine how colossal this floating
palace must be. Two steam engines with 52 inch cylinders, move the paddle
wheels of 22 feet in diameter. The pressure of the steam of this, as of most
of the steam boats upon the eastern waters, is about fifteen pounds per square
inch, and the stroke eight to ten feet ; the steam is generally cut oft" at one-
third or one-half of the stroke, and operates by expansion. For a voyage
of 145 miles, 25 to 30 cords (of 128 cubic feet) of soft wood are required.
The Xorth America draws, when loaded, six feet; but there are passenger
boats upon other rivers in the east which draw, when loaded, only 24 to 30
inches of water, and move against strong currents.

The steam boats in the west, or upon the "western waters," are, through-
out, very flat, and go, when loaded, generally five feet deep, some, however,
only thirty to thirty-six inches. When the watei in a river is only thirty
inches deep, the steam-boat contains only the engine and fuel, and the cabins
for the men, and flat boats loaded with goods are taken in tow. The pas-
senger boats have two decks, the upper one is for the cabin passengers. The
elegant boats contain a large splendidly furnished and ornamental saloon,
used as the dining-room, and an adjoining saloon for ladies. The saloons
are surrounded by small apartments, (state rooms), each of which contains
two berths, and round the state rooms is an open gallery, to wliich a door
opens from each state room. Such a vessel oft'ers to an European an im-
posing and entirely novel aspect. All steam-boats upon the western waters
have high pressure e.igines, the pressure of steam being from 60 to 100
pounds per square inch. Often two engines are used in a boat, and then
each engine propels one of the paddle-wheels. The cylinders are horizontal,
the stroke is eight to ten feet, and the steam is generally cut ofT at five-eighths
of the stroke, and then operates by expansion. The escaping steam is applied
to heat the water pumped from the river, before it gets into the boiler.

The third kind of steam-boats is to be found upon the lakes in the north
and north-west of the Union, they generally go much deeper than the former,
are more strongly built, and are propelled partly by condensing and partly by
high pressure steam-engines.

3. Progress of Steam Nav'gation since its introduction in the United States

The perfection attained in steam navigation may be estimated after a com-
parison of the former and present performances of steam-boats, and of the
former and present rates of charges for transportation of passengers and mer-
chandise.

In the year 1818, a cabin passenger paid for a passage in a steam-boat
from New Orleans to Louisville, a distance of 1450 miles, 120 dollars, and
for returning, 70 dollars, the jiassages up took twenty days, and down, ten
days ; at present, cabin passengers pay, in the most elegant steam-boats, 50
dollars for a passage up, ami 40 dollars for one down stream ; v\lule they go
up in six, and down in four days. These charges include boarding, which,
considering the abuudance and choice of the victuals, Sec, ought to be esti-
mated at two dollars per passenger per day. The fare is, therefore, now, for
the passage alone, taking the average between a trip up and down, (excluding
board), 2-41 cents per mile. Less elegant boats take cabin passengers up iu
eight days, for 30 dollars, and for 25 dollars down in five days, which, after
deducting one and a half dollars per day for board, gives only 1-22 per mile,
at an average between a trip up and down.

Upon the lower deck of these steam-boats, which is a few feet above the
surface of the water, are the deck passengers, who provide their own meals,
and pay for the same passage of 1450 miles, only eight dollars ; if they assist

2 £ 2

200

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[June,

tlie crew in c.irmng wooil iipou the boat, they pay only five dollars. In the
former case they pay, therefore, per mile, Ojj cents.

Worclmndize was earrieil, before the introduction of steam navigation, in
sailing vessels, which took a load of l.iO tons; iu the year 1817, the charge
for freight per pouml, from New Orleans to Louisville, was seven to eight
cents; in 1819, the steam-boats commenced carrying freight, and imme-
diately reduced the charge to fonr cents per pound, .it present, tlie charges
per one hundredweight, from New Orleans to Louisville, are according to the
quality of the goods and the season, at least 33 cents, and at the most, one
and a half dollars ; at an average they may be taken at 62 i cents for the
distance of 1450 miles. This makes 0'8G cents per ton per mde.

Between Cincinnati and Louisville, the first steam-boat, Gmeral Pike, was
put in operation in 1819, and made, weekly, a voyage down to Louisville,
150 miles, in eighteen hours, and up again to Cincinnati in forty hours. A
cabin passenger paid at tliat time twelve dollars for a passage. At present,
the steani-ljoats have so much increased in number, tliat at least six boats
are daily starting from and arriving at Cincinnati or Louisville. Upon the
finest boats, as, for instance, the Pike and Franklin, the fare is four dollars,
and the time occupied in going up is, including all stoppages, fifteen hours,
and iu going down only eleven hours ; but these boats have frequently made
a passage up in twelve, and a passage down the river in seven and a (piarter
hours ; in the latter case the speed was therefore over twenty miles per liour.
If one dollar I)e deiluc'ed for board, there remain three dollars for the
passage, which is at the rate of two cents per mile. The deck passengers
who assist in taking in wood, pay only one dollar, or two thirds of a cent per
mile and find their own victuals. For merchandize, the charges are fifteen
cents per cwt., or two cents per ton per mile.

from Cincinnati to St. Louis, the voyage is 538 iniles down the Ohio, and
192 miles up the Mississipi river, making together 730 miles. The passage
to St. Louis, or from there back, is performed in four days. A cabin
passenger pays twelve dollars, of which we ought to deduct at least four
dollars aiul seventy cents for board, this leaves only one cent per mile for the
passage only. The deck jiassengers pay four dollars without board, which
makes nearly one lialf cent ])er mile. Goods pay, at an average, 50 cents per
one hundred weight, 1'37 cents per ton per mile.

Upon the Hudson river, the passage fare is, in the most elegant boats,
three dollars for the distance of 145 miles between New York and Albany,
which gives two cents per passenger per mile ; for meals au extra charge is
made. In less elegant steam boats, passengers are carried the same distance
for one dollar, and at this moment even for 50 cents, which gives only one-
third of a cent per mile.

From the above data we may infer that, at an average, cabin passengers
upon the .American rivers pay according to the elegance of the steam boats,
from two and a half cents down to one cent per mile (board not included),
and deck passengers only about one half cent per mile ; both travel, taking
the average between up and down stream, with a speed of 12 miles per hour.
Goods upon the same steam boats are carried, at an average, for one and one-
third cents per ton per mile.

These striking results, which arc attained nowhere else, are chiefly derived
from the improvements constantly made in the construction of the boats and
their engines. Of the 800 steam boats at present navigating the .Vmerican
■waters, hardly two will he found of an entirely similar construction ; the
steam engines, though subject to the same principles of steam power, differ
from the English in nearly all their parts. Hut three years ago, eight days
were reqiiircd for a trip from New Orleans to Louisville, which is now regu-
larly performed in six. The most remarkable result is, that a boat of 400
tons required, 20 years ago, for this voyage of 1430 miles, 300 cords of wood,
while r.t present, for a six days passage only, the same quantity of wood is
required.

4. Rise of Wages, and of the Prices of all Requisites for Steam Boats during
the last year.

What appears most striking, is, that while the charges for transportation
have been constantly reduced during 20 years, wages and the prices of all
commodities rose from year to year. The captain of a steam boat received
20 years ago, a salary of 1000 dollars per year, now he gets, upon the better
boats, 2000 dollars. Every steam boat has two pilots, who change every
four hours; each of them received, in 1822, only 60 dollars a month, but
einee that time their salary has risen, and was, in 1833, 300 dollars, which
is still now vaid to the pilots of the best boats ; there are also two engineers
lll)on each steam boat, their salary was, in 1822, only 40 dollars per month,
and rose iu consequence of the great demand for engineers, to 100 and 150
dollars. The firemen and common labourers received, 20 years ago, only 14
dollars per month, and get now 30 to 40 dollars. The whole crew, besides,
have free board upon tlie steam boats.

The provisions necessary for the nourishment of the passengers upon the
steam boats, have risen in price during the last five years, 33 per cent.

The steau) boats upon the western waters use, almost exclusively, wood as
fuel for the engines, which, 20 years ago, was quite valueless ; in 1834, it
sold on the Ohio and Mississippi, for IJ to 2 doUais per cord, and costs at
present 2} to 3.5 dollars ; the price has therefore increased in the last five
years, about 50 per cent.

5. Cost of Steam Boats.

The steam boats upon the western waters, whose plan of construction
might be adopted to great advantage upon our riveis in Europe, are, as I ob-

served already, principally constructed in Louisville, Cincinnati, and Pitts-
burgh. Generally, the hull of the vessel is built by ship carpenters, the
steam engine delivered from a manufactory, and put on the boat, after which
the joiners build the cabin.i and finish the whole. Three tiifferent classes of
mechanics are therefore required, with whom separate contracts are made ;
there are, liowcver, individuals who undertake the building and furnishing of
a whole steamer by contract. As the prices differ much according to the
solidity and eleg.incc of the vessels, I herewith state the cost of some of the
steam boats, which are among the best.

Between Cincinnati and Louisville, the two steam boats, the Piie and
Franklin, make regular trips, carrying the United States mail ; one of the
two goes daily up, the other down, the river. The Franklin is 183 feet in
length at her deck, and the extreme width is 25 feet, the depth of hold, or
the distance from the keel to lower deck, is GJ feet. The tonnage 200 tons.
Upon the upper deck are 42 state rooms, each with two berths, making, iu
all, 84 berths ; but mattrasses are laid upon the floor of the dining room,
when requirerl, and 150 cabin passengers may sleep upon the boat. The boat
is propelled by two engines, the pressiu-e of steam is eight y poundr pr square
inch, the diameter of the cylinders, which are in a horizontal position, is 25i
inches, the stroke seven feet. The steam is cut off at | of the stroke, and
acts through the remaining J by expansion. The diameter of the paddle
wheels is 22 feet, their width 11 feet, the dip is 22 inches, the paddle wheels
generally make 28 revolutions in a minute. The length of the connecting
rod is 23 feet. There are six boilers of wrought iron on board the boat, each
23 feet iu length, and CO inches in diameter, each boiler has two flues of 15
inches diameter.

At an average, the steam boat carries 125 passengers, one half in the cabins,
and the other half on deck, and besides 25 tons of goods. With this load
she draws six feet water. The boat was constructed in the year 1836, and
the cost was : —

Dollars.
For the hull, at twenty-five dollars per ton 5,000

— two steam engines 12,000

— joiners' v.ork for cabins 4,000

— draperies, mirrors, bedding, and other furni-

ture iu the state rooms, saloons and kitchen 9,000

Total 30,000

This boat is, as observed, one of the most solid and elegant ; other steam
boats of the same dimensions have cost 5600 dollars less.

Amongst the steam boats of the largest class, which run only between New
Orleans and Louisville, the Sultana and the Ambassador, are now much
favoured by the public ; the Ambassador has 215 feet length of deck, and 35
feet extreme breadth. Her tonnage is 450. On the upper deck are 44 state
rooms, each with two berths, but as many beds may be arranged upon the
floors of the saloons. Of the two steara engines, eat-li lias a hoiizor.tal cylin-
der of 25 inches diameter and eight feet stroke ; the steam acts with a pres-
sure of ninety pounds per square inch, and is cut off at g of the stroke. The
diameter of the paddle wheels is 22 feet, their width 12 feet. The boat
generally carries 200 tons of goods up, and 300 tons down stream, besides
100 cabin and 150 deck passengers; she draws, empty, five feet, and when
loaded, seven feet water. The hull of this boat has cost 12,000 dollars, the
engines 17,000, the joiners' work, and the whole inner arrangement of this
highly elegant structure, amounted to 31,000 dollars, making the cost of the
whole boat 60,000 dollars. It must, however, be observed that great and
costly alterations were made during the construction, so that her cost would
actually not exceed 55,000 dollars.

Mcli instructed individuals, who are very much interested iu the subject
of steam navigation, estimate the everage cost of a steam boat upon the
eastern waters, at 45,000 to 50,000 dollars, upon the western waters, after a
special calculation, at 23,500 dollars, and upon the lakes, the average lietween
the two, or at 35,000 dollars. Consequently all the steam boats, which were
in operation in 1838, have cost as follows, viz.,

dollars.

351 boats upon the eastern waters, at 47,500 16,672,500

385 ditto ■ western 23,500 9.047,500

64 ditto lakes 35,000 2,240,000

800 steam boats, each at an average cost of 31,950 27,900.000

Now, as since the introduction of steam navigation. 1,300 steam boats
were built in the United States ; the whole capital invested by the .\mericans
in steaju boats, amounts to 45,435,000 dollars, the greater portion of which
has been expended in the last five years.

( To be continued.)

New Molire Power for River Kaiigation.—A Brussels paper announces the
;irrival in that city of Dr. B?ck, the inventor of the plan for navifiiiing the
most rapid rivers against the stream by means of a motive power that is re-
presenlcd to be vvithi,ul limits in its operation, and in which he uses neither
steam nor wind power, nor hauling from the banks. It is stated that SI.
■\Vagnor. of Franckfort, the inventor of the application of electro-magnetic
power to navierate boats, &;c.. Dr. B<Ettger, president of the Physical Society
of FranckfortT M. Pauli. the first royal engineer of Bavaria, and many other
distinguished scientific men, have proved byexp:rinieDt the great advantar;es
of this important invention.

1841.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

301

ON WARMING BUILDINGS WITH HOT WATER.

4n Answer to Afessrs. J. Davies and G. V. Ryder's Report on Perkins' System

of Warming Buildings by Hot Water. (See tlie Journal for April last,

page 137.) By A. M. Perkins.

The excitement that has been occasioned by the destruction of Messrs-
Craft and Stell's premises in Manchester, by fire, arising from tlie bursting of
the furnace-coil of a hot water apparatus, on " Perkins' system of warming
buildings by means of hot watei'," and tlie measures taken in consequence by
the Manchester Assurance Company, have cieated an alarm as to the general
safety of his plan, which the patentee feels it incumbent ujjon him to show
is unfounded, and to prove that whenever accident has occurred, it may in
every case be traced, either to the improper construction of the apparatus
in the first instance, or to carelessness and mismanagement in the use of it.
It appears by a report which has been extensively circulated by tlie ilan-
chestcr Assurance Company, that a committee of the Directors of that com-
pany was appointed " to inquire into the nature of the accidents which have
recently occurred from the use of hot water apparatuses, and to report
thereon ; " in pursuance of which resolution Mr. John Davies and Mr. George
Vardon Ryder were directed " to institute a person.al investigation into some
of the cases referred to, and to make such experiments as might tend to
satisfy their minds as to the causes of the accidents which had occurred."

In the report presented by these gentlemen to the directors, they commence
by describing "the appearances observed" at some of the places which they
visited. These appearances consisted of " wood, matting, and cushions, in
a variety of places contiguous to the hot water pipes, having l)eeu charred to
an alarming extent," and that Mr. Barbour's warehouse had " been on lire,
close to the pipes, at ditferent times and in diifeient places." The Unitarian
Chapel in Strangeways, also showed marked " appearances," the floor being
charred black, and at the Natural History Museum in Peter Street, the mat-
ting on the floor had been charred, and the floor itself appears to have been
scorched. The whole of these appearances were produced by one and the
same cause — the overheating of the pipes ; and this was doubtless occasioned
by the disproportion of the furnace-grate and draught to the furnace-coil,
like that erected upon Mr. Walker's own premises, for the purpose of Messrs.
Davies and Ryder's experiments. Mr. Rawthorne's communication respecting
the Strangeways Chapel affords suflicient evidence of an ill-proportion and
ill-constructed api)aratus, the deficiency of heat, great consumption of fuel,
offensive scent, and charred wood, are convincing proofs that the quantity of
tubing laid down in the chapel was insufficient to afford a proper supply of
warmth ; and the endeavoui' to jjrocure more heat by extra firing sufficiently
accounts for the great consumption of fuel, and the offensive scent given out
by the pipes when thus overheated. In au apparatus justly proportioned,
the water circulating in the jiipes can receive but a given quantity of heat,
and =ny fv.c! added bcycr.d that pciiit wo\il;l n:t cause thoni to bcccrnc over-
heated. It is necessary here to describe what " Peikins' system of warming"
really is ; for the patentee utterly disclaims the apparatus experimented upon
by Messrs. Uavies and Ryder as his, any further than that the pipes were
closed in all i)arts.

Perkins' apparatus, then, consists of a continuous or endless tube, closed
in all parts, a portion of wliich is coiled and placed within a duly proportioned
furnace ; from this coil the rest of the apparatus receives its heat by the cir-
culation of the hot water flowing from its upper part, and which, cooling in
its progress tlu'ough the building, returns into the lowest part of the coil to
be reheated. The expansion of the water, when heated, is ftdly provided for
by the expansion tube, wdiich is of three inches diameter, and of sufficient
length to afford an expansion space of from fifteen to twenty per cent ; this,
long practice has proved, is ample for the greatest heat which can be attained
by the water, as it expands only five per cent, from 40', its point of greatest
density, to 212", the boiling point. This tube is placed at the highest part
of the apparatus, and is empty when the water is cold ; the furnace is pro-
vided with a damper, by which the fire may be regulated at pleasm-e. In a
well managed apparatus tins damper is in general nearly closed after the fire
has become well ignited, and the draught is so regulated that little more
than a slumbering fire is kept up, which at once economises fuel and prevents
the possibility of the pipes being overlieated. Tlie degree to which the
damper should be closed depends entirely upon the goodness of the draught ;
and a very few days' — even a few hours' experience will show the person in
charge of the apparatus the point at which it is desirable to keep it. To
most of the apparatuses recently erected by the patentee, a self-regulating
damper has been attached, acting from the expansion and contraction of the
pipe ; when this becomes heated beyond any given point to which the
damjjer has been previously regulated, the elongation of the pipe by the
excess of heat acting upon the handle of the damper, partially closes it ; the
draught is thus checked and the fire lowered ; the pipe consequently cools,
and, in cooling, contracts ; the contraction again opens the damper and the
fii'c is revived. By this action of the self-regulating damper any degree of
heat from the pipes may be maintained within a few degrees ; if the damper
be so fixed as to work tlie apparatus at 250", it will be found that the heat
of the pipes will range between 255° and 245°, whatever quantity of fuel may
be thrown upon the fire ; thus again the overheating of the pipes is effectually
prevented, and an equal temperature at the same time obtained.

In the arrangement and fixing of any apparatus, regard ought always to be
had (as has been already stated) to the due proportions of grate surface,

heating surface, conducting and radiating surface, and draught ; and where
these have been duly oljserved, accident becomes impossible, even if the
damper should be left wide open. It is not deemed necessary here to state
the proportions the above surfaces should bear to each other, but their ne-
cessity is sufficiently obvious ; au unlimited sujiply of heat arising from an
excess of fire or Iieating surface and draught, witli a limited means of carry-
ing off that heat, must cause overheating somewhere, as is ])roved by the high
temperature of the apparatuses at Uirch Chapel, Air. Barbour's Warehouse,
the Strangeways Chapel, and the Natural History .Museum; while, on the
other hand, the due observance of these proportions renders an apiiaratus
upon this system perfectly safe. Nor can it be considered that, in claiming
attention to the foregoing points in constructing an apparatus, the patentee
demands too much ; it is the duty of every tradesman who undertakes to
erect these apparatuses to understand them ; and to such an one what has
been said presents no difficulties ; and surely common care and the usual
degree of prudence required from evei-y person attending upon fires may
reasonably be asked for in the management of a hot water apparatus.

After this brief description of what a hot water apparatus erected upon
Perkins' system ought to be, it is necessary now to examine whether the
ap))aratus erected in Mr. Walker's premises, and experimented upon by
Messrs. Davies and Ryder, is to be considered as an apparatus upon Perkins'
system, and what degree of weight ought to be attached to experiments con-
ducted as they were, and upon such an apparatus. It appears from the
report of those gentlemen, that it consisted of 140 feet of tubing, of which
26 feet were coiled in the furnace. With these proportions of tubing no
fault is found ; but it seems from the diagram annexed to the report, that
only 15 inches of expansion tube was attached to it (at least only tiiat quan-
tify was left unfilled with water), which, sujjposing it to be of three inches
diameter, the largest size used, is six inches less than the apparatus required.
This, in so small an apparatus, is a serious difference when worked at a very
high temperature ; still, however, under ordinary circumstances, the a])paratus
would have worked. The damper is not once mentioned in the report, nor
does it appear that it was ever made the slightest use of during the experi-
ments, so that the full force of the draught was admitted to the furnace at
all times unchecked, even when it was loaded with fuel to repletion. This
might suit the purpose of tlnse who erected this apparatus with the express
view of making it as dangerous as air, fire, and water, recklessly employed,
could make it ; but what tradesman would introduce one so constructed into
his employer's premises ? But more could yet be done to increase the dan-
gerous tendency of this apparatus; and, accordingly, in the absence of Mr.
Walker, a stop-cock was introduced, which, cutting olf the greater part of
the circulation, left on\y forty feet of t/ic tnling out of the furnace, to carry
ofi"all the heat that could be communicated from tiventy-si.r feet loithin it,
with a fire out of all proportion to those surfaces, and a draught totally un-
checked. With the apparatus in this state — a state in which no man in his
senses ever before tlioizg'.it of working or.;, and which., it may be safely
asserted, had never before occurred since the introduction of warming by hot
water — preparations were made for au exjilosion. The process of "igniting,"
" destroying," " fusing," " inflaming," and " charring," various substances,
went on most prosperously, and, at length, the desired explosion took place,
the fire was thrown violently out of the furnace, and the ignited enibers were
scattered in profusion over every part of the place. Some gray calicos spread
around the furnace were alone wanting to complete the scene, and put the
finishing touch to this exquisite specimen of " Perkins' Hot-w,ater Apparatus."

But can it be seriously intended that an apparatus thus erected, and thus
worked, is to prove the danger, and caution the public against the use of
Perkins' system of warming by means of hot water ? Is the abuse of a thing
to be used as an argument for discontinuing the use of it ? To what inven-
tion will not such reasoning apply } Steam-engines, railways, all must vanish
before it, since, if great skill and care are not employed in their construction,
and ranch caution and prudence in their application, they become imminently
dangerous.

Messrs. Craft and Stell's premises were burnt down; the fire was caused
by the bursting of the furnace coil of the hot-water apparatus, which threw
the ignited embers among combustible materials, and set them on fire. But
was common precaution used in placing the furnace in such an apartment
(the very walls of which were boards), and in surrounding it with grey goods ?
Would not a vault or a cellar have been a more appropriate place .> and had
the furnace been so situated, would the premises have been destroyed by the
explosion which took jilace .' This explosion was caused by a stoppage in
the pipes ; the water in them was frozen. It appears the warehouse was
closed on Saturday evening, and not opened again before Monday morning ; the
frost being intense during the two intervening nights. A fire lighted in the
furnace on Sunday morning was an obvious means of preventing such an oc-
currence ; and it might have been supposed would have naturally suggested
itself Weather of such extreme severity is not very frequent in England,
and the short time required for such a purpose (the necessity of it being evi-
dent) could scarcely be considered a desecration of the day. .\ni even after
the pipes were frozen up, common attention on the part of the fireman would
have shown him the circumstance in a few minutes after the fire was lighted :
the want of any circulation in the pipes being always indicated by their great
heat near the furnace and their coldness in every other part. Had the fire
then been raked out and the most exposed part of the pipes been thawed by
the application of heat to them externally, the circulation might have been
restored, and all would have been well. No precautions, however, of any

202

THE CIVIL l-XGIXEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[June,

kiiKl appear to have been taken, and the endeavour to force a circidation in
the state the pipes were then in, produced the disastrous event that ensued.
It is not the object of the patentee to throw l)lame upon others, he only
wislies to show that his apparatus may be used with perfect safety, if the
same care and attention be bestowed upon it, as is required by every other
mode of warming.

There are some palpable errors in the report of .Messrs. Davies and Ryder
in their remarks upon the inequality of the Iicat given out by the pipes in the
Natural History Museum, and the manner in wliicb they attempt to account
for it. They observe, that the heat in those pipes had been repeatedly stated
to l)Ccome the greatest at places remote from the furnace, and that the fact
was confimed by their own observations and subsequent experiments ; and in
another part of the Report they account for it by stating, that the minute
bubbles of steam which rise rapidly to the upper ]iart of the flow-pipe become
there condensed into water again. From this acknowledged fact they deduce
the inference that, •' as condensed steam wherever it occurs produces about
seven times as much heat as the same quantity of water at the same tem-
perature, we h.ive at once a reason for tlie heat of the pipe being generally
greater at a distance from the furnace than contiguous to it." This is a mani-
fest absurdity, for it is impossible that increase of beat can be produced by
the condensation or cooling of steam. There cannot, therefore, be the slightest
doubt that the statement of those gentlemen, that the heat is generally greater
at points distant from the furnace than contiguous to it, is founded altogether
in misconception and error. Another observation from which erroneous con-
clusions are drawn is, that the temperature of the pipes is influenced by the
variation of their internal diameter, this is not the case; the amount of heat
conducted ofl^ depends upon the surface exposed to the atmosphere, and not
upon the internal diameter. Equal surfaces exposed to the atmosphere give
off equal heat, whatever variation there may be in the velocity of the current
of the water within the tubes.

The objection No. 1, relative to the possibility of an explosion from the
inadequacy of the expansion tube, has been already met in the description of
the apparatus in the former part of this paper ; and overfilling the apparatus
is impossible while the filling-pipe is made the only medium of supplying it,
and the serew-plug of the expansion tube is at tlie time of tilling taken off.

In objection No. 2, it is inferred that, because a pint of water may be con-
verted into steam capable of exerting a powerful mechanical force, and pre-
sent a pressure upon the tubes " sufhcient to ensure their destruction," that
such must inevitably be the case. Ten years' experience has, however, proved
the contrary ; any quantity of steam w hich can be formed in an apparatus
properly put up, the tubes are perfectly able to resist.

Objection No. 3 supposes the presence of hydrogen gas in the apparatus
to be a common occurrence, instead of a very rare one ; and where it has
occurred it has invariably arisen either from a faulty construction of the ap-
paratus, or great neglect in its management. Admitting, however, that hy-
drogen gas has been formed witliin the ]>ipes, no explosion can be produced
by its expansion, as its expansive power is far less than that of water; neither
can it explode within the pipes by ignition, as it requires an admixture of
atmospheric air to render it explosive.

The remaining objection urged against the use of the apparatus is, the dan-
ger of explosion from stoppage in the pipes. This is a very unusual occur-
rence, and rarely happens except in seasons of very severe frost, when it may
always be prevented Ijy keejjing a slumbering fire. Tlie addition of three
per cent, of salt to the water will also prevent it from freezing, even during
such severe weather as was experienced last winter. The objection of stop-
pages by extraneous substances getting into the pipes, is scarcely worth no-
tice ; the last operation of the workmen in erecting a new apparatus is always
to scour the pipes well through by means of a forcing pump, and then to
close thera up. How then can any substances get into pipes thus closed in
every part, except by design .'

It seems that previously to putting up the apparatus at Mr. Walker's, those
at the Natural History Museum, and Messrs. Vernon and Company's, had
been tried and found " unsatisfactory :" that is to say, they could not be
sufficiently overheated. The patentee can show Messrs. Davies and Ryder
some hundreds of apparatuses that woidd prove still more " nnsatisfuctory "
to them than those just named. Since the foregoing remarks were written,
Mr. Perkins has received a letter from Sir Robert Smirke, in which that gen-
tleman says, " I am sorry to know that you think the partial use of my
answers to tlie questions sent to me from Manchester (as printed in the Re-
port there) has been in any degree prejudicial. If it has been so, I think
you ought in the reply you are about to publish, to counteract that effect,
especially as it was one not at all intended. They should, at least, have
directed equal attention to my remark tliat complete seciu'ity, under every
contingency, might be obtained from the adoption of your safety-valves."

Comment upon this is unnecessary ; it only strengthens the feeling which
the perusal of Messrs. Davies and Ryder's Report has very generally produced,
viz. that it is very unjust, and that the absurd experiments detailed in it were
conducted with any view rather than that of candid investigation.

If those who possess the means of obtaining the information would make
known the causes of all the fires that have come under their cognizance with-
in the last eight or ten years, as far as they can be ascertained, the patentee
is confident that such a statement would speak more in favour of his appara-
tus than the most laboured arguments. There are not wanting, however,
many persons even in Manchester itself, who, placing more confidence in
their own knowledge of the apparatus, foundetl on several years' experience,

than in the Report, have unhesitatingly expressed their determination to con-
tinue the use of it as heretofore.

The safety-valves, alluded to by Sir Robert Smirke, have been but recently
applied ; and cfl'ectually provide for any casualty which can arise from a
stoppage in the jiipes.

In conclusion, the Patentee begs that the Directors of Assurance Companies,
and the public gcner.illy, will not hastily form their opinion of Perkins' hot-
water apparatus from tlie very erroneous reports which liave been circulated
respecting it, as it is his intention to request a committee of competent gen-
tlemen connected with insurance offices to inspect an apparatiK properly con-
structed, and which he wishes to have subjected to any test to which such
committee may think proper to submit it.

G, Francis Street, Regent Square,
.■IprilWth, 1841.

LOCOMOTIVE ENGINES IN A.MERICA.

AVe have received a copy of the -Annual Report of the Canal Commissioners
of Pennsylvania. Among the documents thereto appended, is the report of
the superintendent of motive power on the Philadelphia and Columbia rail-
road, in which an engine built by Mr. Ross Winans, of this city, is spoken of
in the most flattering terms, which applies not only to the particular engine,
but to the class of engines built by Mr. Winans. We extract the following
from the report : — " In addition to the difl'erent engines of the ordinary con-
struction purchased by the undersigned, is one built by Ross \Vinans, of Bal-
timore, which, as well as others, was contracted for by a resolution of the
Board, previous to the date of my last report. The general principle upou
which this engine is constructed is similar to the one which, by the order of
ray predecessor, had been placed on the road near a year before my appoint-
ment. It is, however, entirely different in its proportions.

" This engine was constructed by special orders, as an experiment in the
use of anthracite coal as a fuel to generate steam ; and, on trial, has met all
my anticipations. It is very large and heavy, with more than double the
power of any other machine on the road. It burns anthracite coal exclusively,
and from the additional space of fire-box, obtained by its increased size, has
advantages in the use of that article, which is not, and which cannot be pos-
sessed by any other plan of engine. It is intended exclusively for the
transportation of heavy trains of burthen cars. It will haul double the ordi-
nary train, Imt owing to its great weight, must he run very slowly over the
road."

We have understood that this engine rests its entire weight on/o!(r/)ro-
pelliiKj wheels, each wheel supporting about the same weight as each one of
the two propelliny wheels of the largest class six wheel engines on the Phila-
delphia and Columbia road. Tl>e engine last built by Mr. Winans, and which
we have before noticed, is still more powerful than the one spoken of in the
report ; but having overcome the difficulty that has heretofore been deemed
insurmountable, of placing eight wheels under his engine, and couuecting the
motive power with all of them, so as to get the adhesion of the entire weight,
without having a weight on any one wheel which is oppressive to the road.
The engine now furnished weighs 19'33 tons, when in running condition, and
is mounted on eight propelling wheels, which divide the weight equally
among them, ])utting 2-42 on each wheel. The passenger engines of Norris'
construction, in such extensive use, weigh about 10 tons when in running
condition ; but as they have only two propelling wheels, the greatest adhe-
sion which they can render available, is that resulting from G'TO tons resting
on the driving wheels, which is but little more than one-third the adliesion
obtained !)y Mr. Winans' eight wheel engine, while the weight on eacli driv-
ing wheel of the Norris is 3-35 tons, nearly a ton more than the weight on
each wheel of the eight wheel engine. The power of every locomotive en-
gine is limited by the greatest adhesion of its wheels on the rails ; the .idhe-
sion is directly as the weight resting on the propelling wheels collectively.
The greater the weight bearing on any one wheel the more destructive to the
road. The greatest economy in transportation results from the use of the
most powerful engines that can be employed consistent with the strength and
character of the road on which they are to run ; hence the advantage of in-
creasing the number of propelling wheels.

An account was published a few days since, in a Philadelphia paper, of a
gross load of 481V tons being drawn over the Philadelphia and Reading Rail-
road, by an engine built by Messrs. Baldwin, Vail and Ihifty, the weight of
wliich is stated to be 11'92 tons, and the weight on the drinng wheels 6-30
tons. .\s this is less than one-third the weight on the driving wheels of Mr.
Winans' eight wheel engine, which has been shown to work to the full extent
of its adhesion, it follows that it woidd be capable of taking over the Read-
ing road three times the amount of the load above-named. — Baltimore
Clipper.

Till' Railway Guard's Uliistle.—Vfon one of the London and Birmingham
trains an apparatus is fitted up, consisting of rods attached to every carriage,
and under the control of the guard, communicating witli a whistle on the
engine, called the " guard's whistle," quite distinct from the one sounded
by the driver, and used only to give warning to him, to increase or decrease
his speed, to stop, ^c, according to signals previously a ranged and under-
ood. — Yorksltire Gazette.

1841.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

203

PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES.

INSTITUTION OF CIVIL ENGINEERS.

February 9. — The President in the Chair.

Mr. S. Seaward explained the Table of Velocities of steam ships, which
accompanied his paper. (See Journal for last month, page 168.)

Tlie top line of tigures represents the number of horses power, ranging
from thirty to three hundred. The side line gives the tonnage of the steam
ships, rising progressively from one hundred to twelve hundred tons. The
intermediate si)aces show the number of knots or nautical miles, which a ship
of given tonnage, with a certain power, will travel through still water per
hour.

The tonnage is calculated by the old rule (13 George III. cap. 74) : " From
the lengtli substract fths of the breadth, multiply that sum by the extreme
breadth in the widest part, and again by i the l)readth, divide the product
by 94, and the quotient will be the true tonnage."

The Table is constructed upon the principle, that each vessel of a good
modern form will carry, at a proper draught, a weight equal to her measure-
ment tonnage, and is presumed to be loaded equal to her tonnage, either by
the weight of her engines, fuel or cargo, and it tenuinates at thirteen knots,
at which speed the engines alone become the full load of the ship. The
mode of constructing and of using the table was fully described, and e.xam-'
pies were given.

It was shown, that an engine of thirty horses power would propel a ship
of twelve hundred tons burtlien, at the rate of 4 knots per hour, while three
hundred horses power would only propel the same ship at the rate of 10|
knots i)er hour. Hence, ten times the power would only produce about two
and a lialf times the speed.

The principal points in the paper were more fully dwelt upon, and in an-
swer to questions from some of the members, Mr. Seaward remarked, that no
steamer in England had ever been propelled at more than fifteen geographi-
cal miles per hour, through still water.

lu some of the Government mail packets, the engines and coals were the
full cargo of the vessel. The table did not apply to vessels overladen with
power, for as the weight increased in the ratio of the power, so the immersed
sectional area was augmented, and the lines of the vessel which might be
well calculated for speed when at a proper draught, became lines of retarda-
tion, and the engines did not work up to their proper speed, owing to the
deptli to which the paddle floats were immersed. For instance : — Tlie wheels
of the "British Queen" have been plunged between six and seven feet, in-
stead of four feet, which was the calculated dip; the engines at the same
time diminishing their speed so much as to reduce the efl'ective power from
five hundi-ed horses to nearly three hundred horses.

The only advantageous way in which great power could be applied, would
be by contriving to prevent the increase in the weight of tlie machinery and
fuel, and those engineers, would be most successful who could so apply the
materials of constraction, as to ensure strength without the usual correspond-
ing increase of weight.

Mr. George Mills, from his experience as a ship-builder, at Glasgow", was
enabled to confirm all that Mr. Seaward had advanced. On the Clyde, the
employment of an excess of power in steam vessels bad been carried to the
greatest extent, without producing corresponding advantages, either for speed,
or in a commercial point of view. It would appear that the same error had
to a certain degree been committed on the Thames, l)ut less than on the
Clyde ; for on the latter river there were vessels with nearly double the
power, in proportion to size, as compared with any vessel on the former river.
He believed that on the Thames no vessels bad so much as one horse power
for each register ton, whereas on the Clyde, there were steamers of seventy
to eighty tons register, having single engines, with cylinders of fifty-four
inches diameter, which was more than one hundred horses ))ower. It would
appear that this application of extra power had only obtained a very moderate
speed, while the great first outlay, with the commensurate cm'rent expenses,
had reduced the conmiercial profit to the lowest point, — of this the proprie-
tors alone could give any account ; but as to the speed attained, he had seen
three steamers of identical tonnage leave the Broomielaw at the same time,
their engines being respectively of one hundred and ten, eighty, and sixty
horses power ; yet their speed was in the inverse ratio of their power ; the
vessel with the smallest engine arrived at Greenock first, the greater power
second, and the greatest last. Tliese remarks were only applicable to river
boats. \\'ith regard to sea-going vessels, the system had not been carried to
so serious an extent, yet with them tlie average proportion was about one
horse power to two register tons, and some few reached as high as one horse
to one and one-eighth of a ton.

As an example of an augmentation of power producing an opposite result
from that which was intended, Mr. Mills mentioned two vessels called the
" Torfar" and the " Rover," built by him and his (then) partner, Jlr. Charles
Wood. They were each of about two hundred and twenty tons register,
built from the same draught, and in every respect as similar as possible — ex-
cept that the engines, which were by the same maker, were respectively of
one hundred and seventy, and one hundred and thirty horses power ; yet
whene\ er they worked together, the one with the smaller power proved her-
self the faster vessel, either in a calm, with the wind, or even against it. The

" Achilles," Liverpool steamer, which lately had an addition of thirty feet to
her length, and eighteen inches to her breadth, augmenting the tonnage about
one-fifth, had improved her speed upwards of one mile per hour, although
she carried a much heavier cargo than before.

He had built a vessel of five hundred and sixty tons register, vrith engines
of one hundred and thirty horses power on board — a proportion of power to
tonnage of one to four ; the stowage for cargo was ample ; the accommoda-
tions for passengers excellent. She drew little water, and her speed was
much greater than vessels of double her power. Yet in spite of all this, the
vessel could not find a purchaser, because the power was not nominally large.

It would be asked — why, witli these and so many similar instances,'such a
system was continued 1 It was not likely that the engineers would complain
of having orders for large engines ; and there were certain dimensions pre-
scribed for the vessel, to which the ship-builder was under the necessity of
conforming.

The chief cause of mischief, however, was the fiat of the pubUc. It was
believed that a great power would remedy want of speed and all other evils,
and it was found indispensable for ensuring the confidence of travellers.
Hence, the shipowners, who depend upon the pubUe for support, were ob-
liged, against the conviction of their experience, to keep up the errors occa-
sioned by ignorance.

The President observed, that the condemnation of large power should not
be carried too far. as experience alone had produced the increase of weight,
strength, and power, of the present engines, compared with those of the early
steamers which were built, instancing ihe Halifaj: Packets (Cunard's), which,
with their great power in proportion to tonnage, had performed their duties
satisfactorily.

Mr. Mills explained that the Halifax Packets were built for the especial
purpose of carrying the mails only, to perform the voyage in a given time, —
about twelve days. The engines were built by Mr. Robert Napier, after the
model of those of the •' Great Western," which used their steam expansively ;
similar provisions had been made in the Halifax Packets, but the expansion
valves were seldom used.

Mr. Field agreed with the princijial part of Mr. Seaward's paper, but he
would prevent an erroneous conception of the term overpowering a steamer.
A vessel could not have too much power, provided that power could be ad-
vantageously applied, without causing too deep an immersion. A good result
could be produced only by keeping a proper proportion between the machinery,
the vessel, and the paddle wheels, and immersing the hull of the steamer only
as deep as the true lines of draught.

Mr. Vignoles observed, that in this country the reputation of engineers de-
pended upon the commercial success of the works they engaged in. An er-
roneous public opinion might have influence at present ; but if the engineer
and ship-builder would determine to break these trammels, and produce such
vessels as should force conviction upon the public mind by the speed attained,
and show the proprietors the consequent commercial advantage, the present
system would soon be abandoned.

Mr. Parkes eulogized Mr. Seaward's candour in describing the errors in the
first construction of the engine on board the Vernon ; more was frequently
to be learned from failures than from successful efforts, and no communica-
tions to the Institution would be so useful as those which gave accounts of
defective design or construction, with the details of the methods adopted for
remedying the defects. He directed attention to the performances of the
" Great Western " steam ship, wliich at least equalled those of the Halifax
Packets, without the disadvantages of being unable to cany cargo, or of ship-
ping so much sea, when the weather was foul. The important featuie of
economy of fuel on board the " Great Western" might be in part attributed
to the use of steam expansively. It was very desirable that the Institution
shoiUd possess very full drawings and a description of the " Great Western,"
so as to be enabled to compare them with those of the Halifax Packets,
which had been promised Ijy Mr. George Mills. He would impress upon
manufacturers of marine engines tlie necessity of adopting a correct and uni-
form nomenclature of the power placed on board steam vessels. The nomi-
nal sailing power did not accord with any calculation.

Mr. Field believed the Table of A'elocities calculated by Mr. Seaward to be
very nearly accurate. The speed of the " Great Western," when loaded to
her proper draught, has been as high as 13^th miles through still water.
There was an error in the alleged speed of Cunard's vessels ; they reached
HaUfax in ten days, Boston in three days more, and then had still one day's
voyage to New York. The average duration of the voyages of the " Great
Western," was about fourteen days and a half. If two hundred tons were
deducted from the tonnage of the " Great Western" for cargo and the ac-
commodation for the passengers, she would then be similar to the Hahfax
Packets. The engines of the •' Great Western" were nominally estimated at
four huncked horses power, and the average consumption of fuel was twenty-
six tons every twenty-four hours.

During the discussion, Mr. Cubitt had calculated the following Table,
showing the rates of velocity which would be attained by substituting engine
power, with its consequent weight of one ton per liorse power, for cargo, so
as to preserve the draught of water the same in all cases.

Mr. Seaward remarked, that his Table of power and velocities was corro-
borated bv Mr. Cubitt's— the practical results verified both. The great dif-
ference between the " Great Western" and the Halifax Packets consisted in
the better adaptation of weight and power to tonnage, and the more econo-
mical consumption of fuel of the former over the latter— the one carrying

204

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[June,

<?argo and passengers, the other only the engines and fuel, yet the " Great
Western" travelled farther with the same quantity of fuel.

Table showing tlic power rc(iuired to obtain various rates of speed in a
steam vessel, where the total weight of cargo and engines remains in all cases
the same, and in which, with a power of 30 horses, a speed of a miles per
hour is obtained; the total weight carried being in all cases 1000 tons, and
the engines weighing 1 ton per horse power.

j

Weight and

Weight of

Power in Tons

Kelative speed.

Speed in miles

Cargo.

and
Horse Power, i

per hour.

070

30

oV^l

5'

940

60

5^=2

0-299

910

90

5V'3

7-211

880

120

5v'=4

7-937

850

150

5y»5

8-549

820

180

5y»6

9-085

790

210

5V=7

9-504

760

240

5V=8

10-

730

270

5V»9

10-4

700

300

5^=10

10-772

070

330

5V''H

11-119

640

360

5V^12

11-487

610

390

bvns

11-756

580

420

5V"14

12-050

550

450

5v/=13

12-331

520

480

5yn6

12-599

490

510

5^/=17

12-856

400

540

5,/318

13-103

430

570

5V=19

13-34

400

600

5V=20

13-572

370

630

5V-'21

13-794

340

660

5^/322

14-01

310

690

5^=23

14-219

280

720

5 ^/=24

14-422

250

750

3V=25

14-62

220

780

5^=26

14-812

190

810

5^/»27

15-

160

840

5V^28

15-182

130

870

5V^29

15-3615

100

900

5V^30

15-535

70

930

5 a/331

15-706

40

900

5^/^32

15-854

10

990

5^333

16-037

In answer to a question relative to American steam boats, he believed that
the build of the river steamers was very peculiar : some of them had engines
of 600 horses power on board, yet they drew only four feet of watei-, whereas
a sea-going steamer with that power would dr^.w at least 16 feet. As far as
he could ascertain, the actual well-authenticated speed did not exceed 14J
geographical miles per hour through still water. The fuel consumed could
not 1)0 ascertained, as it was chiefly wood, taken on board at the places of
stoppage ; there was a great consumption of steam at a very bigli pressure.
Their machinery was not lieavy. and was specially adapted to the vessels.
Daily improvements were making in the form of vessels in England, and
when high pressure steam and light engines were applied to vessels of a dif-
ferent form from those at present constructed, the speed must be increased.
Some vessels w-ere now building on the Thames of an extremely light con-
struction, with tubular boilers, and the weiglit of the machinery would be
only eleven ewt. per horse power.

February 16. — The President in the Chair.

The following were balloted for and elected: William Eadford, Henry
Alexander. John Gandell, William Bagnall, Thomas Bagnall, and James Bag-
nail, as .\ssociates.

" Pra-.tical Observations on the management of a Locomolvoe Engine." By
Charles Hutton Gregory, Grad. Inst. C.E.

The working of a railway involves a number of practical details with which
it is of great importance that the yomig engineer should make himself
thoroughly acquainted. Of these, one of the most important is the manage-
ment of a locomotive engine.

The communication consists of practical remarks on this subject from the
author's individual experience; it is divided into three sections :— 1st. The
management of an engine in the Station. 2nd. On the Road. 3rd. In cases
of accident.

Section 1st— contains instructions as to the state in which an engine should
be kept in the station, and a detailed account of the examination to which it
should be subjected previously to its starting with a train. The principal
working parts are mentioned, with the particular attention due to each ; and

the jiroper supplies of oil, coke, and water, enumerated. The section con-
cUules with a list of the articles necessary to be carried on the tender.

Section 2nd — enters fully into the leading points of engine driving. After
attending to the precautions to be taken in starting, the aotbor points out
the proper position of the engineman, and the attention which he should give
to the state of the rails, the safety of the train, and the working of the engine.
Instructions arc then given for the production and maintenance of a sufB-
ciency of steam, by the judicious management of vater and/«e/. The proper
heielit of the water in the boiler is described both under general and parti-
cular circumstances, and the times at which it should be supplied: with ob-
servations on priming, on the action of the pumps, and their irregularities.

This is followed by remarks on the proper manner of supplying coke, the
extent and periods of that supply, the proper height of the coke in the fire
box, &c.

Instructions are given for economizing and rendering the steam most effi-
cient ; the mode of treatment to be adojjted in case of extraordinary deficiency
or excess ; rules for stopping and starting at the stations; general hints in
case of the wheels slipping, and of the heating of the axles ; precautionary
measures to be adopted on curves, steep inclines, dangerous parts of the road,
&c. ; the care necessary for an engine at the end of each journey, and when
finishing its work for the day.

Section 3rd — describes those accidents to which engines are most liable
when running, and the steps to be taken under the circumstances : viz. — The
bursting of a tube, the lagging of the boiler catcliing fire, the failing of the
feed pumps, the breaking of an axle, of a spring, or of the connecting rod,
the disconnexion of the piston, of the eccentrics, or any of the slide valve
gear, the fracture of the strap of the slide valve, and the engine running off
the rails.

" Observations on the effect of wind on the g>isj)ension bridge over the ilenai
Strait, more espccial/g with reference to the injuries which its roadways sus-
tained during the storm of January 1839." By W. A. Provis, M. Inst. C.E.

In the month of December 1825, when the original construction of the
bridge was nearly completed, several severe gales occurred, and considerable
motion was observed, both in the main chains and in the platform of the
carriage ways. It appeared that the chains were not acted upon simultan-
eously, nor with equal iutensity ; it was believed, therefore, that if they were
attached to each other, and retained in parallel plains, the total amount of
movement would be diminished.

On the 30th of January, and on the Gth of February, 1826, some heavy
gales again caused considerable motion of the chains and roadway, breaking
several of the vertical suspending rods, and of the iron bearers of the plat-
form.

These bearers were constructed of wrought iron bars, overlapping each
other, and bolted together, with the ends of the suspending rods between
them, for the purpose of giving stitfness to the structure. Tlie flooring planks
were bo'.tcd to the bearers, .-.nd notched to fit closely round the suspending
rods, which were thereby held almost immoveably in the platform.

It was observed, that the character of the motion of the platform was not
that of simiile undulation, as had been anticipated, but the movement of the
undulatory wave was oblique, both with respect to the lines of the bearers,
and to the general direction of the bridge. It appeared, that when the sum-
mit of the wave was at a given point on the windward side, it was not colla-
teral with it on the leeward side, but, in relation to the flow of the wave,
considerably behind it, and forming a diagonal line of wave across the plat-
form .

The tendency of this undulation was, therefore, to bend the bearers into a
form produced by the oblique intersection of a vertical plane with the surface
of the moving wave. The bearers were not calculated to resist a strain of
this nature : they therefore were fractured generally through the eyes on each
side of the centre foot-path, at the point of junction with the suspending
rods, which being bent backward and foi-wards where they were held fast at
the surface of the roadway, were in many instances wrenched asunder also.

The means adopted for repairing these injuries, and for preventing the re-
cnrrence of tbeni, were, placing a stirrup, with a broad sole, beneath each of
the fractured hearers, attaching it by an eye to the suspending rod, cutting
away the planking for an inch around the rods, and at the same time bolting,
transversely, to the underside of the roadway, an oak plank, fifteen feet long,
between each two bearers, for the jjurpose of giving to the platform a greater
degree of stiffness, comliined with elasticity, tlian it previously possessed.
The four lines of main chains were also connected by wrought iron holts
passing through the joint plates, and traversing hollow cast iron distance
pieces, placed horizontally between the chains.

The effects of these alterations were so beneficial, that little or no injn y
occurred for nearly ten years. On the 23rd of January, 1836, a more t'lan
usually severe gale caused violent undulation of the platform, and broke
several rods. There can be little doubt that ten years' constant friction,
comljined with the shrinking of the timber, had relaxed the stift'iicss of the
platform, and permitted an increased degree of undulation. The gate-keeper
described the extreme amount of rise and fall of the roadway in a heavy gale
to be not less than sixteen feet ; the greatest amount of motion liciiig about
half way between the pyramids and the centre of the bridge.

In consequence of the injuries sustained during this gale, the author and
Mr. Rhodes were instnicted to give in a report upon the state of the bridge,
and on any repairs or additions which might appear desirable.

1841.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

205

The result of the examination was satisfactory ; the whole of the masonry,
the main chains, their attachments to the rock, the rollers and iron work
upon the pyramids, and all the principal parts of the bridge, were as perfect
as when first constructed ; it was, however, recommended, that " a greater
degree of rigidity should be given to the roadways, so that they should not
bend so easily under vertical pressure."

The bridge remained in the same state until the hnrricaM of the 6th and
7th of January, 1839 ; during the night of the 6th, all approach to the bridge
was impractic'.ible ; the bridge-keeper, however, ascertained that the road-
ways were partially destroyed ; and he in consequence traversed the strait in
a boat iu time to prevent the down mail from London driving on to the
bridge.

\Vlien the day broke, it was found that the centre foot-path alone remained
entire, while both the carriage ways were fractured in several places. The
suspending rods appeared to have suffered the greatest amount of injury ; out
of the total number of 444, rather more than one-third were torn asunder ;
one piece, 175 feet long, of the N.E. carriage way, was hanging down and
flapping in the wind ; much of the parapet railing was broken away ; the ties
and distance pieces between the main chains were destroyed ; the chains had
resisted well in spite of the violent oscillation they had been subjected to, to
such an extent, as to beat them together and strike the heads oiT bolts of
three inches diameter.

Means were immediately adopted for restoring the roadways ; and so rapidly
was this effected, that in live days carriages and horses passed over, while foot
passengers were not at any time prevented from crossing.

The account of the restoration of the bridge, communicated by Mr. Maude
to the Institutiou, is then alluded to.

The substance of the report of the author to the Commissiouers of Her
Majesty's \Voods is then given, and a review of the proposals made by Mr.
Corams, Colonel Pasley, and others, relative to the restoration.

The opinion of Colonel Pasley, "that all the injuries which have occurred
to the roadways of Suspension Bridges must have been caused by the violent
action of the wind from below," is then examined, and reasons given for the
author's dissent from that opinion.

The action of the wind upon the Conway and Hammersmith Bridges, is
next examined ; and from the amount of oscillation observed in all suspen-
sion bridges, the conclusion is arrived at, that winds act strongly and preju-
dicially on the fronts as well as on the horizontal surfaces of the platforms of
suspension bridges, and that the effect of winds is modified and varied by the
nature of the country, and the local circumstances connected with each indi-
vidual bridge. Although differing in opinion with Colonel Pasley as to the
general cause of injui7 to suspension bridges, the author agrees with him in
the propriety of giving increased longitudinal rigidity to their platforms, to
prevent or to restrict undulation. He advised its adoption in 1836, and ap-
plied his plan of stiffening by beams, in 1839. He preferred beams to trussed
framing, on account of the facility with which the former could be increased
in number, to obtain any requisite degree of stiffness, and because he feared
that trussed frames could not always be kept firmly in their true vertical
positions.

A drawing showing the injuries sustained by the platform during the hurri-
cane of 1839, accompanied the communication.

Mr. Cowper was of opinion, that the real cause of injury to suspension
bridges was the vibration of the chains and roadway. The whole suspended
part, when acted upon by the wind, became in some measure a pendulum,
and if the gusts of wind were to recur at measured intervals, according either
with the vibration of the pendulum, or with any multiplies of it, such an
amount of oscillation woidd ensue as must destroy the structure. He illus-
trated this proposition by a model with chains of different curves, and at the
same time pointed out the efficiency of slight brace chains in checking the
vibration.

Mr. Brunei agreed with Mr. Cowper in his opinion of the cause of injnn-
to bridges, and with the propriety of applying brace chains, for preventing
the vibration. He then alluded to the introduction of lateral braces in the
bridge designed by Mr. Brunei, senior, for the Isle of Bourbon. He had
been at the Menai 13ridge during a severe storm, and had particularly noticed
the vibration of the chains with the accompanying undulation of the plat-
foitn. The force of the wind was not apparently from beneath ; it appeared
to act altogether laterally. The chains were too high above the roadway ;
their vibration commenced before the platform moved ; the unequal lengths
of the suspension rods then caused the undulating motion. His attention
had latterly been much given to the subject on account of the CUfton Sus-
pension Bridge, now erecting under his direction. The span would be seven
hundred feet, and the height above the water about two hundred feet. He
intended to apply the system of brace chains at a small angle to check vibra-
tion. To two fixed points in the face of one pyramid would be attached two
chains, each describing a curve horizontally beneath the platform, touching
respectively the opposite sides of the centre of the bridge, and thence ex-
tending to similar points on the other pyramid : there they were attached to
two levers, the ends of which were connected with a counter balance of about
four tons weight appended to each ; these weights would hold the chains
sufficiently extended to enable them to resist the lateral action of the strongest
winds without their being so rigid as to endanger any part of the structure.
By this contrivance the platform would be kept firm, .which was the chief
point to be attained.

In all suspension bridges the roadways had been made too flexible, and the

slightest force was sufficient to cause vibration and undulation. The platform
of the Clifton Bridge would have beneath it a complete system of trough-
shaped triangular bracing, which would render it quite stiff. Ho was an ad-
vocate for bringing the main chains down to the platform, as at the Ham-
mersmith Bridge, and for attachiug the bearings to the chains at two points
only ; when they were suspended by four rods, it not unfrequently happened
that the whole weight of a passing load was thrown upon the centre suspen-
sion rods, and the extremities of the bearers were lifted up and relieved from
all pressure. The extent of the expansion and contraction of the chains was
a point of importance. In the Menai Bridge the main chains on a summer
day would be as much as sixteen inches longer than iu a winter's night. At
the Clifton Bridge the difference under similar circumstances would be about
twenty inches. The whole expansion of the back chain beyond the pyramids
must be thrown into the suspended part, lie would prefer having only one
chain on each side of the liridge, and that chain much stronger than is usually
adopted, but in deference to public opinion he had put two; he believed that
they rarely expanded equally, and hence an unequal distribution of the weight
of the roadways upon the suspension rods occurred. A rigid platform would
in some degree prevent this, but he had endeavoured to lessen the effects o£
unequal expansion by arranging a stirrup at the top of each suspending rod,
so as to hold equally at all times upon both the chains, and thus cause each
to sustain its proportion of the load.

Mr. Seaward had never seen the force of wind exerted at regular intervals,
as Mr. Cowper had supposed ; if the gusts were repeated at such intervals,
no suspension bridge, nor any elevated sliaft or chimney in masonry, could
resist them.

Mr. Rendel believed that the errors committed in the construction of sus-
pension bridges had principally arisen fron engineers theorizing too much on
the properties of the catenary curve, without attencUng sufficiently to the
practical effects of wind in the peculiar localities in which the bridges were
placed. He could not agree with Mr. Cowper in his view of the intermittent
action of the wind, or the vibrating of the chains. Observation had led him
to conclude that, in the positions in which suspension bridges were usually
placed, the action of the wind was not uniform ; for instance, it would act at
the same moment on the upper side of one end of the roadway, and on the
lower side at the other end. In this case, unless the platform possessed a
certain degree gf rigidity, undulation was induced and oscillation ensued.
Braces and stays would not counteract this — nothing but a construction of
platform, which made it in itself rigid by some mode of trussing, could with-
stand this kind of action. He agreed with Mr. Brunei iu his idea of reducing
the number of the suspending chains. At the Montrose Bridge, which was
432 feet span, he had endeavoured to avoid all complexity of contrivances by
adopting a complete system of vertical diagonal trussing, which was ten feet
deep — five feet above, and five feet below the platform — so as to insure
rigidity, and to produce that solidity which was essential for preventing un-
dulation and oscillation.

Mr. Cowper reverted to the motion which he had found to be so easily
produced by repeatedly exerting a small force at measured intervals against
the main chains of tlie Hammersmith Bridge. He conceived that if the chain
oscillated, the roadway must oscillate also.

Mr. Rendel contended that the motion produced by the impulses communi-
cated by Mr. Cowper to the chain resolved itself into undulation, and not
oscillation. He could' not understand the advantages of the trussing adopted
at the Hammersmith Bridge ; it appeared to him that its tendency was, on
the passage of a heavy weight, to relieve four out of five of the suspending
rods from their due proportion of the load, and to throw it upon the fifth rod.
His object in the construction of the framing of such platforms had always
been to spread the load quite equally, and rendering it rigid by means of ver-
tical trussed framing, to prevent the undulation which was the primary cause
of oscillation. He would distinguish clearly between the two motions, and
say, that undulation was a motion in the direct line of the platform, and that
oscillation was a motion at right angles with it. Vibration was identical with
undulatory action.

Mr. Donkin conceived that a good system of trussed framing could alone
prevent undulation or oscillation ; if the framing were placed vertically, its
tendency would be to prevent undulation ; if placed horizontally, to prevent
oscillation : now, as Mr. Rendel had given it as his opinion, that the latter
action resulted from the former, the system of trussing adopted by him at
the Montrose Bridge would appear calculated to obtain the desired end. A
slight exertion of force would produce a perceptible undulation, and a certain
degree of vibration would result from the natural elasticity of the materials,

Mr. Seaward remarked, tliat the degree of osciUation would appear to de-
pend iu some measure upon the distance at which the platform was suspended
beneath the chains, and upon the distance between the points of suspension
of the main chains ; if tlie platform were rigidly held at the extremities, the
motion would be vibratory, and not amounting to undulation.

The railwmi tickets on the Manchester and Leeds line, invented by Mr.
Edmondson,'are printed by a machine which gives each a progressive num-
ber, and arranges them in order. Two boys lately printed 10,000 tickets in
four liours.

2 F

206

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL

[Junk,

THE PRESIDENT'S CONVERSAZIONE.

The general conversazione of Mr. Walker, the President of the Institution
of Civil Engineers, took place on M'edncsday evening, 12tli ult., and was
distinguished by the same features of interest which always render this one
of the most remarkable reunions of the season. The suite of rooms was em-
bellished by works of art of almost eveiy class, extending from the produc-
tion of the golden age of art, down to those of the aspirants of the present
day. Amongst other objects of this description, which were scattered in pro-
fusion through the spacious though crowded area, we particularly noticed
several admirable busts by Park, Belines, and Smith, together with one of
the host himself, modelled in clay by Mr. J. li. Jones, an amateur whose
talents, if be had not already chosen a profession in life, would certainly en-
title him to shine in this department of art. The portfolios of drawings by
Varley, Hering, Tomkins, Fripp, and Kendrick, and the paintings by Scanlan
and John AVood, excited great attention, and elicited corresponding praise.
A new etching by Thomas Landseer, the first proof of his brother Edwin's
picture of Count d'Orsay's dog " laying down the law," was displayed amongst
these objects of art. Nor ought the unrivalled vases and bronze figures, the
work of the eccentric Florentine artist of the 15th century, of Clodion and
others of later date, to be passed over in silence. There were also some of
Goddard's fine Daguerreotypes, some electrotypes, as also some specimens of
Cheverton's beautiful mechanical sculpture. The most striking of the useful
novelties were samples of coloured glass from Mr. Apsley Pellatt's manu-
factory, some ornamented slabs, &c., of slate from Magnus's Pimlico works.
Atkinson's patent ornamental wood mouldings, which are equal to carved
work ; Pole's new hygrometer. The principal feature, however, of Mr.
Walker's soiree was the exhibition of models of machines, &c., which were,
throughout the evening, the chief focus of attraction. It is impossible, within
the limits of an ordinary notice, to aftbrd any thing like an adequate epitome
of the various ingenious and highly useful, as well as valuable, novelties which
attracted the attention of the guests on all sides. The model of the light-
house erected on the Maplin sands at the mouth of the Thames, by Mr.
Walker himself, obtained very great attention, a description of which ap-
peared in the last number of the Journal. Mr. Kicks' radial drilling ma-
chine, his compound hydraulic press, aud new governor, &c. Messrs. Sea-
wards' beautiful models of marine steam-engines, the slide-Talves, the dis-
connecting apparatus for paddle-wheels, and the brine detector, Barnes' pad-
dle-wheel, and the model of the Castor steamer. Mr. Dent's electric and
central percussive clocks, Mr. Gossagc's disc steam engine, Messrs. MTiit-
worth's (of Manchester) street cleansing machine, cutting tools, &c., Messrs.
Ransome & May's railway chairs. Dr. Schaffhaeutl's new universal photometer,
a sectional drawing of the Thames Tunnel by Sir Isambart Bnmel, and a
vast assemblage of other beautiful adaptations of the chemical, electrical, and
mechanical branches of science to the purposes of utility and ornament,
excited the admiration and occupied the untired attention of the stream of
visitors for several successive hours. The conversazione was attended by
most of the distinguished amateurs and professors of science and art, and
notwithstanding the eventful debate in the House of Commons, which was
proceeding at the same time, and which occupied all the peers and members
of Parliament, and the Literary Fund dinner, which detained many of the
usual visitors, the numbers who availed themselves of this opportunity of
testifying their love of science and esteem for the distinguished President,
was very great.

Araoug the company we noticed, besides the council and a large number
of the members of the Institution, the chief members of almost all the scien-
tific societies of the metropolis ; — The Marquis of Chandos, Lord Henneker,
Admiral Adam, Barons Schleinitz and Bulow, Colonels Pasley, Maclean, Lieut.
Colonels Blanshard, R.E., Hutchinson, Major Anderson, Sirs J. J. Guest,
M.P., Frederick Pollock, M.P., Wm. Synions, John M'Neil, Isambart Brunei,
George Murray, Walter Riddell, Henry Parnell, M.P. Edward KnatchbuU,
M.P., Chas. I'rice, Harry Verney, M.P., John Scott Lillie, Chevaber Benk-
hausen. Captains Laird, Ivanetskey, Locke, Willis, Scanlan, Pringle, R. Well-
bank, L. Price, Kincaid, Smith, G. Smith, R.N., Evans, R.N., R. Drew, Drs.
Paris, Scbaffhaeutl, Elliot, Field, PoUock, Arnott, AValker, Billing, Roget,
Bowring, Rigbey, Reid, Professor Willis, Messrs. E. R. Rice, M.P., Pryme, M.P.
F. Hodgson, M.'P., Ormsby Gore, M.P., G. F. Young, M.P., Emerson Ten-
nent, M.P., Mr. Justice Haggerman, of Canada, Messrs. T. Landseer, F. P.
Stepbanoff, Behnes, Tomkins, J. Varley, E. II. Bailey, F. Stone, G. Rennie,
Fripp, Rivers, Jun., Hakewell, R. Scanlan, Sargey, A. Cunningham, Oliver,
Page, S. Howell, W, Boxall, C. Landseer, Macready, Barry, Sydney Smirke,
Tite, Donaldson, Hopper, and Poynter.

ROYAL INSTITUTE OF BRITISH ARCHITECTS.
Monday, May 3.

The annual general meeting of the Institute was held for the purpose of
electing the council and officers for the ensuing year. Earl de Grey in the
chair.

The report of the council and the annual balance were presented, and ex-
hibited a highly favourable view of the progress of the Society.

Monday, May 17.

A paper was read by Mr. G. F. Richardson, of the British Museum, on the
subject of geology as connected with architecture, .\fter a prefatory sketch
of the general stratification of rocks, Mr. Richardson adverted more especially
to the stratum and quality of those in most general use as building materials.
The lecture was illustrated by the exhibition of various objects connected
with the subject in the oxy-hydrogen microscope.

Messrs. Pontifex and Co. exhibited a new construction of a self-acting
water closet.

ROME AT THE SURREY ZOOLOGICAL GARDENS.

The mimic volcanic flames of Ilecla, Etna, and Vesuvius, are now ex-
tinct at the Surrey Zoological Gardens, and we have another giant wonder
from the burning climes of the South. When we heard that Rome was to
be portrayed to the gaze of the successor of its greatness, we were naturally
anxious to ascertain whether it had a fitting representative ; Mr. Cross has
succeeded very well in housing lions and tigers and elephants, but where he
was to pitch down the Eternal City we could not readily conceive. He has,
however, by placing it near the lake found means to appropriate to it a space
of five acres, a space large enough to hold a modern town, and to do justice
to the object of this representation. We have here a pictorial model, cover-
ing a surface of more than a quarter of a million of square feet, and present-
ing, as has been well stated, " a stupendous panoramic view, and the largest
picture or model ever produced." The lake now stands for the Tiber, and
across it we have the bridge of St. Angelo, with its statues of angels on the
walls. Beyond are seen on the left the Tordinona Theatre, the Palazzo Tor-
tonia, and other well known edifices. On the right the Mole of Hadrian,
now the Castle of St. Angelo, raising its giant bulk. Farther behind, rising
over every thing, is St. Peter's, upwards of a hundred feet in height, and
appearing as magnificently as its great original. ; The facades of the Vatican, the
Papal Palace, the Ospitale di Spirito Santo, and many other stmctures well
known to fame are strikingly represented. To be properly appreciated this
exhibition must be seen ; the apparent solidity and verisimility of the struc-
tures, the extreme range of distant view, are features which tend to impress
us with a sense of the reality of the objects before us. The painting is good,
free from glare and exaggeration, and subdued so as to give that sobriety and
real life, wliich augments the impression on the spectator ; we think however
that the cflfeet might have been increased by a few figures of men and animals
being appropriately introduced. Tlie artist is Mr. Danson, and in naming
him we do quite enough to show that full justice has been done to the sub-
ject, for his reputation in this department of art is a guarantee of the extent
of his exertions. We may indeed assure our friends that those among them
well acquainted with the Eternal City will be gratified in renewing their re-
collections of it, and those who haTC the pilgrimage yet to make, cannot have
a better introduction than by a visit to this, its prototype.

NEW INVENTIONS AND IMPROVEMENTS.

IMPROVEMENTS IN STEAM ENGINES.

George Henry Fourdrinier and Edward Newman Fourdrinier, of Hanley,
Staft'ord, paper makers, for certain improvements in steam engines for actuat-
ing macbinen.', and in apparatus for propelling ships and other vessels on
water. — Rolls Chapel Office, March 1", 1841. — These improvements are, as
the title explains, divided into two parts ; the improvements in steam engines
consist in applying and working two pistons in one cylinder, which are simiU-
taneously actuated by the expansive force of the same volume of steam. A
long cylinder is supported vertically on pivots, in the middle of which it
vibrates ; two pistons are attached to piston rods wliich pass out through
stuffing boxes at either end of the cylinder. On steam being admitted through
suitable slide valves to the middle of the cylinder, the two pistons are forced
apart towards the opposite ends of the cylinder, the valves are then shifted,
and the steam admitted at the two ends of the cylinder, which drives the
piston back again to the centre, the spent steam passing oft' to a condenser or
into the atmosphere, and so on continually. The lower piston rod is attached
to a crank in the middle of the shaft, while the upper piston rod carries a
cross head from which connecting rods pass down to two cranks placed on
the same shaft, but opposite to the former, so that as the one is descending
the other is ascending, in conformity with the opposite motion of the pistons.
In another arrangement, the. cylinder is divided into two parts by a partition
in the middle, and the pistons do not expand simultaneously as in the former
case, but the one piston begins to move when the other is at the quarter
stroke, the valves being so adjusted as to effect this movement ; for the pur-
pose of overcoming the dead points, when one piston is at the dead point the
other is exerting its full force. The apparatus for propelling ships and other
vessels consists of certain arrangements of mechanism by which a volume of
air may be forced against the water at the bottom of the vessel, in the direc-

1841.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

207

tion of its stern, for the purpose of impelling the vessel in an opposite direc-
tion. The air being compressed by an air pump, " to the same density as the
water under the ship's bottom,"' is admitted through a valve into a tube,
down which it flows into the water. The bottom of the vessel has two guards
of wood or other material, parallel to its keel ; as the air enters the water
beneath the vessel it is guided by the guards, which prevent it from escaping
at the sides, and by its pressure against the water, in the direction of the
stern, impels the vessel head foremost. The direction of the air, backward
or forward, is regulated by a turabhng valve, worked by a quadrant rack or
sector, and an endless screw ; by altering the position of this valve the direc-
tion of the air, and, consequently of the vessel, may be reversed at pleasure.
WTien the vessel rolls about in a heavy sea, it is considered desirable to force
the air under the most depressed side of the vessel only ; to effect which the
air plugs are connected to a pendulum which opens the valves on the one
side or the other, according to the position of the vessel. In another arrange-
ment for reversing the motion of the vessel, two sets of shding tubes descend
from the air chambers, opening fore and aft ; if tlie vessel is to be propelled
head first, the two hinder tubes are depressed and the air passes off towards
the stern ; but if the vessel is to be backed astern, the foremost tubes are
depressed and the air projected towards the head of the vessel. The claim
is — 1. To the application of two pistons working in one cylinder, as shown. —
2. For propelling vessels, by forcing a volume of air against the water beneath
the bottom of the vessel, in the manner shown and described. — Mechanics'
Magazine.

MOVEABLE OBSERVATORY .AND SCAFFOLD.

Alexander Horatio Simpson, of New Palace-yard, Westminster, Middlesex,
gentleman, for a machine or apparatus to be used as a moveable observatory
or telegraph, and as a moveable platform in erecting, repairing, painting, or
cleaning the interior or exterior of buildings, and also as a fire escape. En-
rolled May 5. — Claim first. The use of a shaft or spar as herein described,
with a gallery or platform suspended or attached so as to be capable of being
raised or lowered on the shaft by a power, either manual or otherwise, ex-
erted within the platform.

This machine consists of a shaft or spar, mounted in a step, in which it is
capable of turning (the step being fixed to a foot or pediment), and supported
laterally by stays, jointed at their upper ends to a collar, which slides on the
shaft, but is retained in any required position by a pin. The lower ends of
the stays fit into holes in the foot or pediment, so as to admit of the stays
altering their position or angle, in relation to the shaft, and thereby support-
ing it in different positions. The shaft is constructed of wrought, iron plates,
rivetted together, and one side of it is formed by a rack sunk flush with the
surface of the shaft, which rack may be of cast iron ; but one of the lantern
form is preferable, the teeth of which is formed by long bolts or rivets, run-
ning across in the same position as the teeth of the cast iron rack. On the
shaft is a sliding frame, to which is attached a gallery for the reception of
workmen, tools, &c., and this sliding frame is fitted with a pinion, wheh
working in the rack of the shaft raises or lowers the gallery or platform, ac-
cording to the direction in which it is turned.

This machine may be used as a telegraph, by having the usual apparatus
attached to the top of the shaft, or it may be used as a moveable observa-
tory.

Claim second. — The use of a horizontal suspension rail, supported by shafts
or spars, with a platform or gallery suspended therefrom, capable of receiving
motion from within the gallery.

Claim third. — The giWng motion to the gallery or platform, by the appli-
cation of a power, either manual or otherwise, from a point not within the
gallery or platform.

This part of the invention is an improved construction of scaflblding, and
consists of two shafts, placed one on each side of the front of the building,
similar to that before described, but without the rack and platform with its
appendages. On the top of these shafts is fitted a cross raU, on which is
mounted a carriage running on flanged wheels, and to these wheels are fixed
two " gaUows," suspending a light ladder by a pin or bolt. On the centre of
this bolt is a roller or pulley, over which a rope passes, one end of it being
fastened to a gallery similar to that before mentioned, and sliding on tlie
ladder, and the other end to a counterpoise weight. On the foot of the lad-
der there is another roller, that runs on a cross bar, similar to the bar at the
top, but which roller supports none of the weight of the ladder, as it rolls
nearly horizontally and against the side of the bar, being provided for the
purpose of permitting the ladder to travel easily to and fro.

In order to bring the gallery to bear on any portion of the surface of the
building that the workman may require, four ropes are provided ; two of these
are fastened to the bottom of the shafts, and passing over two live pulleys at
the foot of the ladder, proceed up to the gallery ; the other two are fastened
to the top of the shafts, and pass over two live pulleys, on the same axletrees
as the wheels of the carriage before mentioned, into the gallery.

Now if the person in the gallery pulls the two top ropes, he raises the gal-
lery, or if he pulls the two bottom ropes, he lowers it ; if he pulls either of
the two side ropes, namely, those attached to the same shaft, leaving the
other two side ropes loose, the gallery and ladder will move horizontally in a
lateral direction. — Ibid.

DRIVING BELTS AND STRAPS.

James Ileywood Whitehead, of the Royal George Mills, near Saddleworth,
Yorkshire, manufacturer, for improvements in the manufacture of woollen
belts, bands, and driving straps. Enrolled May 2. — This invention consists
in applying a composition to a woollen belt to give it firmness and adhesive-
ness, as a substitute for leather for driving machinery.

The composition consists of linseed oil and resin mixed together, in the
proportion of three pounds of linseed oil to two pounds of resin ; but these
proportions may be varied a little to suit circumstances. The oil is first boiled,
and the resin in fine powder added to it while it is in the boiling state, being
well stirred till they are thoroughly mixed together.

The belt or strap is passed through the mixture and between two rollers,
which are weighted sufficiently to make the composition even, so that it will
not run out of the cloth when hung up. The cloth is then well stretched in
length and dried, after which it is ready for use. — Inventors' Advocate.

RAILWAY CARRIAGE.

James Boydell, jun., of Cheltenham, ironmaster, for improvements in work-
ing railway and other carriages, in order to stop them, and also to prevent
their running off the rails. Enrolled May 2. — Claim first. The mode of ap-
plying apparatus acting by lever pressiure on rails, as a means of stopping
carriages, as herein described.

Beneath the lower part of the railway carriages a projection is affixed,
carrying the axis of a lever, the lower end of which lever is enlarged and
embraces the rail, the part which comes against the rail being lined with
wood, to enable it to offer greater friction. This part of the lever is, by
means of another lever, and connecting links, brought in contact with the
rail, whenever it is desired to stop the train.

Claim second. — The mode of applying bars to prevent carriages running
off the rails of railways.

Beneath each carriage are two bars, which extend across from opposite
corners of the framing of the same, crossing each other beneath the centre
of the framing, and from which centre they are suspended by means of a pin
passing through a slot formed in the centre of each bar. The ends of the
bars are connected by pins to the ends of the bars of the carriages before and
behind them, thus forming a continuous bar, which will in most cases prevent
the carriages from getting off the rails, and in case one of the carriages
should run off the rails will prevent it from running at any considerable angle
to the same. The slots in the bars have sufficient play to permit the train
to move over curves easily. — Ibid.

MR. GR.\.NT'S PATENT FUEL FOR STEAM BOATS.

We learn with great satisfaction, that this important invention is at last to
be brought into general use. The Admiralty, after a long series of experi-
ments made under their durections, by Mr. Grant, and followed up by frequent
trials of his fuel in her Majesty's steam vessels, instructed him some time ago
to take out a patent, chiefly, we suppose, to secure themselves and the public
against the interference of any pretenders to the invention. — This point being
settled, it became the wish, as it was the obvious duty of government, to ex-
tend the benefits of Mr. Grant's labours to the country at large.

Numerous applications having been made to Mr. Grant, by the various
steam vessel companies, for permission to make use of his patent, the Ad-
miralty, in a spirit of enlarged policy, have, as we understand, du-ectcd that
gentleman to refer all persons to them who desire licenses to manufacture his
fuel — and we have no doubt that their Lordships sanction will be given ac-
cordingly. But, we trust, the terms will be so moderate as to render it the
interest of those extensive companies, whose vessels now cover so many seas,
to employ this new agent for the production of their steam power.

A word or two on the nature and properties, as well as the practical ad-
vantages of Mr. Grant's fuel, will probably not be unacceptable to our readers
generally, and may prove useful to such persons as are engaged in steam boat
enterprises on the large scale.

It is not our purpose, nor would it be proper, to describe minutely Mr.
Grant's process — it will he enough to say, that his fuel is made of coal-dust
and other ingredients, mixed together, in certain definite proportions, and
then fashioned, by a peculiar process, into the shape and size of common
bricks. The advantages of Mr. Grant's patent fuel over even the best coal
mav be stated to consist— first, in its superior efiicacy in generatmg steam,
which may be stated in this way— 200 tons of this fuel, wdl perform the
same work as 300 tons of coal, such as is generally used ;— secondly, it occu-
pies less space, that is to sav, 500 tons of it may he stowed in an area which
will contain only 400 tons' of coal ;— thirdly, it is used with much greater
ease bv the stokers or firemen than coal is, and it creates little or no dirt,
and no dust— considerations of some importance when the delicate machinery
of a steam engine is considered ;— fourthly, it produces a very small propor-
tion of clinkers, and tlius is far less liable to choke and destroy the furnace

2 F 2

20ft

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[JCNH,

barb ami boilers, than coal is ;— fiftlily, the ignition is so complete, tliat com-
parativelv little smoke, and only a small quantity of aslies arc produced by
it;— sixtidy, the cost of the quantity of Mr. Grant's fuel required to generate
in'a given time a given amount of steam, is so much less than that of the
quantity of coal which would be consumed in effecting the same purpose,
that, even if the advantages of stowage, cleanliness, and facility of handling,
■were not to be taken into the account, the patent fuel would still recommend
itself to the attention of all steam boat proprietors.— //am/«/iife relegraph.

[The first part of this statement appears to us rather extraordinary that
the Lords of the Admiraltv should interfere with the working of a patent in
any kind of wav, and that parties requiring licenses are to be referred to
them ; surely tliere must be some mistake in the statement. — Editor C. E.
and A. Journal.]

APPLICATION OF ELECTRO-MAGNETISM TO MACHINERY.
(From the Leipsic Allgemeine Zeiiung.J

Leipsic, .\pril 1 7.
The meeting of our Polytechnic Society was rendered peculiariy interesting
by a lecture given bv Hcrr Stiirer on his experiments in the application of
electro-magnetism as a motive power. Ilerr StBrer commenced his experi-
ments several years ago, befoie M'agncr's invention, and has proceeded inde-
pendent of it. By merelv following up and carrying out the ideas of Jaoobi,
to whom the first merit 'of the discoveiT is due, he has succeeded in con-
stnicting a small machine, the power of which is as yet limited to the raising
of only a moderate weight and putting a turning lathe in motion, but which
is nevertheless sufficient to render perfectly evident the whole mechanism of
the important invention, and which, as the constructor observed, needs only
to be enlarged to produce more practical effects.

The principle of electro-galvanic movement has its source, as is well known
in the law of reciprocal attraction and repulsion of two iron bars, surrounded
by a galvanic current, alternating with positive and negative elctricity, and
thereby magnetized. Herr Storcr's machine consists at present of only two
concentric circles of spiral iron bars, surrounded by conducting wires for the
reception of the electric current. Each circle contains 12 single bars, placed
at the distance of from 2 J to 3 inches from each other, the bars of the outer
circle being about half an inch separated from those of the inner. The outer
circle is fixed ; the inner forms the periphery of a moveable disc, swinging
■wheel, or pinion. This mechanism is brought into connexion by two con-
ducting wires with a galvanic battery, in such a manner that in the first place
the bars of the one circle with positive electricity surround those of the other
■with negative electricity ; then suddenly, by an arrangement in the conduct-
ing apparatus, the current is changed, and thereby electricity of the like name
is produced in both circles. The consequence of this is, that the opposite
bars, in consequence of the different magnetic power communicated to them,
first attract each other, then instantly becoming, by the inversion of their poles,
similar magnets with equal force, repel each other. By this rcgxdarly repeated
alternation of attraction and repulsion, each bar of the internal moveable
circle is in succession drawn towards all the bars of the external fixed circle,
and then driven as it were back on the next, whereby the whole disc is brought
into a state of uniform motion.

The inventor makes a very moderate estimate of the cost of the machine.
The expense consists chiefly in the wear of the zinc in the galvanic battery,
by the action of the acid ; but as to the outlay for this article, it will be al-
most entirely counterbalanced by the precipitate which in consequence of
the operation is formed in the acid, and which yields a somewhat valuable
chemical product. With regard to the power of the machine, and the possi-
bility of reinforcing it so as to produce greater practical effects, Herr Storer
subiiiits the following considerations :— The present machine, though only
double the size of the one he first constnicted, which had only six pair of bars,
acts with a sixfold increase of force. Each galvanic element consists of a
copper cylinder, a zinc cylinder within it, and a chemical mixture by which
they arc 'connected. Now, as respects the effect of the number of elements
employed, Herr Storer makes the following observations, the accuracy of
which he has proved by experiments :— " In the connexion with a single ele-
ment the machine raises, with moderate velocity, 3 lb. ; witli two elements,
13 lb. ; with three, 25 ft. ; with four, 40 ft. This is approximatively an as-
cending gradation of power in the ratio of 1, I, 8, 12, whence it certainly
would appear that the force might not be found to augment exactly in the
relation of a progressive increase of the elements." According to Herr Storer's
calculations, the connexion of a battery of 50 elements, with a machine in
cubical contents 20 times greater than the one exhibited, would produce an
effect equivalent to 50 horse power.

Still, however, after all these data and calculations, there remain several
doubts as to the practicabiUty of the application of this invention to ma-
chinery on an extensive scale. On the other band, the results obtained by
the experiments hitherto made arc of sufficient importance to encourage a
spirited prosecution of the discovery, which is in itself so ingenious, that it
ought to be joyfully hailed by all who take an interest in the progress of
civilization, as a new triumph of the human mind over inanimate matter. At
all events, we Germans have just reason to be prnud of an invention the first
idea of which came from a German, and all the improvements yet made in
■which are the offspring of German intellect and German perseverance.

CONTINKNTAL MODE OF EORIXG, BY APPLICATION OF THE

KOPE.

When 1 was lately residing on the Continent, I occasionally observed
notices in the foreign papers of this mode of boring, with flattering accounts
of its advantages. I was anxious to obtain information about It, but I did
not succeed in doing so until I perused (he official report of M. Jobard o i the
Paris exhibition of 1840 His account is, indeed, in some degree, defective,
as it does not furnish diagrams of the instruments ; nevcrthe'ess, it gives a
general view of the method, nliich seems to be attended with the surprising
benefit, that the expense of the bore per fathom does not increaje m any
considerable degree with the depth of the bore. Having both observed and
experienced the cost, danger, and tardiness of the bore with boring rods,
when a great depth is reached, I have found M. Jobard's report interesting
and instructive; and. therefiore, as the subject may be new to .some of your
readers, I venture to send v< u the substance of it, in case you think it worth
insertion in your vahnble Hournal.

There are in all three inslruments, or tools, used in the niethod alluded to
—the vwuton. emporle piece, and akzoir. The mouton is a cylinder of cast-iron,
of about eight inches in diameter and thirty-nine inches in height — weight
from one to three cwt This cylinder has exterior flutings,4-10ihs of an inch
in depth and 6-.5ths of an inch in liread'h; the upper part contains an empty
cone, whose base is reversed, '.vhich gives it the form nf a bucket with thick
sides There are tn o handles to the cvlirwler, one above the other— if the
first should break, the second retains the rope. The lower part of the tool
is prepared to receive a number of steel chisels, which are fixed by a trans-
versal key. The tool should be composed of as few pieces as possible, for,
however well they are fixed, the percussion tends to detach them, and to
leave them at the bottom of the hole. The best way of procuring good mou-
tons of p°rcussion. for hard stratu is to make them all of one p ece of case-
hardened cast iron, with handles of malleable iron hooked into the cast iron.
These handles should be high up, in order to facilitate the extraction of the
powdered stone, which accumulates in the empty part ot the mouton. The
head or top, of the tool should exhibit a number of pyramidal points, pro-
iectiti" about an inch, diamond-pointed, the better to cut into the stone.
The case-hardening gives them the hardness of tempered steel, .am makes
them last a long time. A mouton of three cwt. costs only yOl. (2/.) -.when
it is worn, the old metal serves for the casting of others. The rock is cut
(hilv to the depth of at least 39 inches. The rope is worked by a long plank
placed obliquely, the upper end being about 12 or 15 feet above the ha e.
The mouton is suspended about 15 or 20 inches from the bottom of the hole.
Motion is given to this plank bv the hands or the feet, or by several men
pulling together bv r.pes attached to the plank. There are also several
other w.ays of working the main rope. . , , , ,u

In boring with boring rods, four or five hours are required to draw them
and lower ?hem again ; but all this is done (when the bore by means of the
■one is used) in eieht or ten minutes. In this latter, then, the progress of
e work fs always nearly the same-al 3000 as at 100 leet. The same num-
ber of men! to, is suflicient to work it,let the depth be what it may. What
takes place, is as follows. -The mouton, falling 2a or 30 limes a minute,
from a height of two or three feet, readily breaks and pounds the rock The
dust or powd(-r which results from this would soon deaden the blow, if there
V ere no water in the bore hole, but there is almost always son.e— if not, it
should be thrown in. The water and the dust form a magma— a mortar or

lud. which spouts up by the flu;ii,ss carved around the mouton. his mud
Is back necessarily on the head of the mo- ton and, as tins is hollow, the
mud enters a little at e'.cvy blow. This powdered stone heaps up in the in-
terior of the cone, by the work, to such a degree, that force is often necessary

0 -et out the stony sugar-loaf which is there concreted after some hours
^trikin- The contents of the instrument are known; it is sufficient, th n,

are in suspension at the bottom of the bore hole, to deposit themselves n the
bucket-but not longer, for so it might get it incrusted

The mouton alone suffices to the Chinese to bore to the depth of 1800 feet.
The rs rata are hard and solid enough not to require tubing, but U would
not do for clay, sand, or pebbles-in that case the emporU- pwcc is requisi e.
it s a cylin eV, which has at its base two valves, tuniing on a hinge in the
dl-^meler intho form of the wings of a butterfly. This cylinder is lowered
?o he b t om of the bole, and is c°aused to Ponotrate the strata by. the inter-
mediate percussion of a mouton_. of the weight of 6o lbs., which is madeon
purpose for theem|

n^l'ce " Wli°ehTllc'^niouton''is'''raise'd, it gets as far as a boll, which stops it ;
t then falls on the emporte pi^ce, which latter sinks ;it every blow, and its
valves open to let the mud pass, ^en it is tliousht the instrument has
sunk far enough, it is drawn up, and it arrives with a cake of mud, ^-^^ - ^ '
care should be taken not lo allow it to sink loo far into plastic f l=»y-' '"'S"
then be difficult to draw it out. For strata which reqmre tubing, tlierc is,
besides, the akzoh. The f.-llowing is the simple artifice employ ed > o enlarge
the bore hole when it is tubed (or, to resolve the problem, to form^»'f\jn

mediate neicussion oi n inwui^ri,. ". ...^ .....p... ^. -- - --■ ,

ournose for the emporte piece. The mouton, having an aperture in the cen-
f«^s hies fo. some feet along a metallic rod, which is fixed to the emporte

t le tiore iioie wnen u i» luuru (u., >u .>.ov,.. , ,,„,„„„, ,i,.,„ ,\,p

instrument, which is obliged to pass through a lube, a ''»'='"="''';'" Z
exterior of this tube) :-The tube is.supported by straps, at about «o ^ngl^s

of the mouton from the bottom o the hole. ^''^ ™°"\"" "^" '" ^ "^^1
has a square, and not a round, handle at its upper part. It is easily (.on'-e''.ed
t ;tt if the rqie is fastened to the middle point of the handle, which corres-
pords to the centre of gravity and to the cenlre of figure, he m™'"" »°^^'l
llrikc straight, and would only ;orm a hole equal to the dmmeter of the n-
srumento? the interior diameter of tl>^'"'f = ^' '^ '>'' l™"V,Un 'of the
rope is fastened is borne away one or two inches Irom hf ""'l;^!; 1»'"' °' 'Z
han.lle.the centre of gravity becoines displaced, and the '»»/', I^^,'nba„d
mouton inclines to the right or left-a position which causes it to rub and

1841.J

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

209

wear away the sides of the hole with its crown, at the same time that it at-
tacks the bottom with its steel teeth. When this instrument, which is slightly
conical, is drawn up. it sets itself straight again, and rises up in the tube,
exercising a feeble friction on the sides of the tube. This ni.uton, like that
for the strata, which require no tubing, has a receptacle for ihc mud. In
using cither mouton, a movement of torsion must be impressed nn the rope.
This is eflccted by fixing the rope into the extremity of a wooden bar, of
about two feet long, which gives a workman sufficient leverage to turn or
twist the cord a little at every blo«-. or to regulate its untwisting. In this
way the hole cannot fail to be circular and quite perpendicular. By this
means, at the well of the Military School, they have got down a single tube
of iron plates, rivetted,of 11 inches diameter, to the depth of G50 feet. The
tube moves freely— one man can turn it round. The wire rope would answer
well for this mod'e of boring. The moutons are not diflicult to make ; a vil-
lage blacksmith may construct or repair Ihem ; he should fasten the steel
chisels in such a way that they can be occasionally taken out to be sharpened.
The method of boring by means of the rope is much used in Saxony — Mining
Journal.

BUILDERS' BENEVOLENT INSTITUTION.

In another part of the Journal, it will be seen that we have requested the
attention of our engineering readers to the merits of an institution for the
reUef of engineering workmen, and now we have to make a similar request
of our architectural readers. They will see that a meeting has been held for
the purpose of establishing a Builder's Benevolent Institution, and we hope
that they will readily lend their aid for the promotion of an object so laud-
able. We need scarcely say that it has our very best wishes for its success.
The meeting to establish an asylum and pension fund, and for the gene-
ral relief of the decayed and suffering members of the builders' trade, was
held on the 24th ult. at the Crown and Anchor, Strand ; Mr. Burnard, sur-
veyor, in the chair. The advertisement convening the meeting having been
read by Jlr. Barber, the secretary, the chairman, in a brief but neat speech,
detailed the objects of the institution, remarking that there were no less than
20 trades connected with the building business — as architects, surveyors,
painters, engineers, bricklayers, slaters, sawyers, &c. ; yet the builders had
neither an institution like that which they were assembled to estabUsb, nor
an asylum, nor any benefit society to apply to in poverty or old age. The
objects for which the institution was about to be formed were highly praise-
worthy and beneficial, and he was glad to say, that the committee had been
promised support in all cases in which they had applied, and he hoped soon
to see the builder's asylum rise second to none even in this great metropolis.
The secretary then read letters from the Marquis of Westminster, the Earl of
Cadogan, Sir R. Peel, Mr. Barry, the architect, Mr. Philip Hardwicke, Mr.
D. Burton, Mr. Thomas Cubitt, Alderman John Johnson, and many other
gentlemen of stai.ding and respectabiUfy, all concurring in the objects of the
meeting. The report of the committee was then read. It contained a well-
written narrative of the steps the committee had taken, the reception they
had met with from those to whom applications had been made to assist them
in their praiseworthy endeavours to found the Builders' .'\sylum, and con-
cluded with a very flattering account of the success that had attended their
efforts. The report being adopted, a series of resolutions was put and
passed in the usual manner. A subscription was entered into before the
members left the room, for carrying out the purposes of the institution, and
was liberally responded to.

pelled to do so by the direct interposition of this court. It had been argued
upon the part of the defendants, that as the injury consequent upon their
neglect to repair the bank was of a public nature, and one for which they
were liable to an indictment, that particular proceeding ought to be adopted,
and there was therefore no necessity and no ground for a mandamus. The
court, however, dissented from this position, and declared that where a com-
pany were obliged to do a i)artic\ilar work, and where the consequence of
their not doing it was to produce a pulilic nuisance, that circumstance, al-
though it rendered them liable to an indictment, did not release them from
the necessity of a specific performance of their duty upon the subject, in obe-
dience to the mandate of this court. In this case, therefore, a peremptory
viandamus would be awarded.

REPAIRING AND MAINTAINING OF PUBLIC WORKS.

The following important judgment in the case of The Queen v. The Bristol
Dock Company, was delivered in the Court of Queen's Bench, Westminster"
May 25, at the sittings in Bau-o. The defendants in this case have been
incorporated under the 43rd George III., c. 140, for the purpose of making,
completing, and maintaining a new watercourse in connexion with the river
Avon, and this purpose they had effected. Some part of the works of the
new watercourse, however, became subsequently out of repair ; and upon a
former occasion a rule had been obtained calling upon them to show cause
why a mandamus should not issue commanding them to repair that portion
of the banks of the new watercourse which had become dilapidated, and
which, in its present condition, caused an obstruction to the navigation. The
rule was made absolute, and the writ having issued, the defendants returned
that they were not bound, according to the general law of the land, or to the
provisions of the particular act above mentioned, to repair the portions of
the watercourse which formed the subject of the discussion.

Lord Denman now delivered the judgment of the court upon the case,
which was, that in the circumstances of the transaction the defendants were
bound to make the repairs which the writ commanded them to make. His
lordship laid it down in the course of the judgment, that where parties ob-
tained an act of parliament for the construction and maintenance of great
public works, they were bound in law to fulfil all the incidental duties of
which the performance was necessary for the discharge of their duties in
respect to the principal subject. His lordship also stated, that if public
bodies omitted the performance of such incidental duties, they would be com-

S. L. IN REPLY TO CANDIDUS.

Sir — I am surprised that Candidus should have thought it necessary to
combat an imaginary assertion by such very trite observations. But he is
eridently affected with the usual mania of critics, viz., that of putting an
arbitrary interpretation on the object of their criticism, and then attacking
the author for entertaining an idea which is but the fruit of their own fertile
imagination. For instance, where Candidus can find that I have said any
thing to discourage the roughest handling of public men, if kept within the
bounds of truth and reason, I cannot possibly conceive; nor can I find any
thing which can justify his supposition, that 1 may probably greatly prefer
Buckingham Palace to Windsor Castle, &c.

With regard to niullioned windows, I confess I cannot see the propriety
of substituting any thing which would have the effect of an open screen, for
a glazed window ; and though we may make infinitely greater departure from
the genius of Grecian architecture. Candidus may remember that pure
Grecian was not the style advocated ; the architect must go to Rome and
Pompeii for his materials, as well as to -Vthens.

When I spoke of the difficulty of persuading persons to adopt Gothic, who
are not possessed of antiquarian taste, I said nothing about " soi-disant " or
" hole-in-the-wall " Gothic ; every one is aware of the great facility afforded
for the adoption of that style — I mean by Gothic such as would do credit to
an architect ; but most persons find this to interfere too much with their
comfort for them to " allow it to be properly treated."

With respect to what Candidus is pleased to call my very bold assertion,
I would beg him to observe that I stated that the object of the architect,
when he employed the Grecian or Roman style, was invention, not that ori-
ginality was always the result of his efforts. I shall, however, be glad if he
will refer me to a modern Gothic building possessing half as much originality
as St. Stephens, Walbrook, or the spire of Bow church.

I quite agree with Candidus tliat it is well to avoid " squeamishness and
affected delicacy in architectural criticism," but it woidd also be well if he
would pay some respect to decency in the choice of his expressions, and not
make use of those of which a gentleman would be ashamed, and which di-
minish, rather than increase, the force of his observations.

I remain, &c.,

S. L.

STEAIHC NAVIGATION.

THE MONGIBELLO STEAM SHIP.

This fine vessel belonging to the Neapolitan Steam Navigation Company
at Naples, is fitted with a pair of Messrs. Mandslay, Sons and Field's patent
double cylinder engines, of the nominal power of 200 horses ; their general
principle is described in the last volume of the Journal, page 73.

The improvements realized in this description of engine axe first, that the
power is applied more directly to the cranks than in any other construction,
having only two working joints through which the power is conveyed, viz.
the lower and upper ends of the connecting rod, the stroke being of the usual
length, and the connecting rod of the usual proportions; the force of the
engine is also so completely confined within its own framing, that no strain
is thrown upon the vessel. The second advantage is that the space occupied
by the engine, is not greater than in an engine of half the power, on the side
beam construction, and when combined with their improved boilers, (as is
the case on board the Mongibello), the total length occupied by the machinery
is reduced to 40 feet, whereas the ordinary construction requires 60 feet, thus
effecting a saving of one-third, on this most important head. The third ad-
vantage arises from the reduction in weight, which in the Mongibello, and
including water in the boilers, was 130 tons, being 13J cwt. per horse power,
instead of one ton per horse power, which is the weight in beam engines,
and even this is often much exceeded.

These advantages, which bear so strictly upon the profitable employment
of steam vessels, are fullv realized in the' one in question, which is of 500
tons burthen, being 156 feet long, and 26 feet beam ; besides the saving in
space referred to above, the machinery of the Mongibello is about 70 ton
lighter than ordinary beam engines, and in addition to the increased tonnags

210

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[June,

derived from tlie saving in space. She thus possesses 70 tons additional
buoyancy for cargo, or coal, for a more extended voyage. Another consider-
ation, which ouglit not to he overlooked, is that in huilding a vessel to carry
a certain nuniher of passengers, or quantity of cargo, the first cost of the
vessel may be much reduced; the same space for passengers and tonnage for
goods, may be obtained by a vessel of 70 tons less measurement, and the saving
under this head cannot be estimated at less than 1400/. in a vessel of the size
of the Mongibello, and it would be greater as the size increased.

These engines work with great steadiness anfl effect, making 2.') strokes
per minute, and performing from I li to r2 miles per hour. They are fitted
with expansion gear, briue pumps, &c. In short the vessel is replete with
every requisite for a sea-going ship.

RENNIE'S TRAPEZIUM PADDLE WHEEL.

In our number for March last, we enumerated some of the advantages
which were likely to be derived from the adoption of the above invention in
steam navigation ; we have noiv the satisfaction to lay before our readers
the results of a series of experiments which have been made on the efficacy
of the Trapezium Paddle M heels, in comparison with the common Rectangu-
lar Paddle AVIiccIs. The Lords of the Admiralty having decided that the
trial should be made upon a vesscd of known qualities, fixpd upon the African.
an old gun brig which had been converted into a steamer, by two engines of
45 horse power p\it into her. as best calculated to give a comparative result.
Accordingly the old paddles were removed, and a pair of trapezium wheels
fixed in on the same siiatf, whicli formerly served for the old wheels, so that
with the exception of a slight alteration in the paddle boxes, no further ad-
ditions were required. On the 14th of April last the whole being ready, the
engines were set to work, and the vessel proceeded down the river to the
measured mile in Long Reach.

The dimensions of the African are — length, 109 ft. 10 in. midship section;
breadth, 24- ft. 10 in. semi-elliptical, bluflat the bows ; depth, 12 feet full at
the quarters. She is a good sea boat, but not calculated for high velocities, as
compared with steam vessels of modern times.

The power of tlie engines is two of 45 horse power each, the number of
strokes 29 to 30.

The velocity of the vessel at a load draught of 9 ft. 5 in. is nine miles per
hour thriiugh still water.

According to a sezies of experiments made with the African by Mr. King-
ston. Admiralty engineer, the diameter of the old wheel was 14 ft. 7 in., the
width 7 feet, the area of the floats immersed was about 62 feet super., the
mean draught of the vessel was 9 ft. 4J in., and w ith the barometer at 26^
inches, and the engines making from 29 to 30 strokes per minute, the maxi-
mum mean velocity opposite the measured mile was 9'174 miles per hour.

miles per hour.

On the 14th of April last, the engines making from 22 to 23J

strokes ....... 829 to 8-75

On the 26th April, 23 strokes . . . . . 84 to 86

E On the 1st of May, 25 to 28i strokes . . .88 to 9032

On the 8th of May, 25 strokes . . . . 8'6 to 88

On the 12th of May, 26 to 27* 85 to 9-136

5 The last results were obtained with from 2| strokes of the engines less
than formerly, and with a reduced diameter of wheel of 22 inches, and an
immersed surface of 30 square feet. The action of the float in the water was
entirely free from shocks or vibration ; thus establishing on a greater scale
than hitherto, the properties of the trapezium wheel as promulgated in the
prospectus, namely, that it combines all the advantages of the common pad-
ale wheel, and does away with all its defects, arising as before stated, from
the great weight, width, and indirect action of the former, and combining
all and even greater simphcity of the latter.

The Steam Frigate " Styx." — On the 6th of May an experimental trip was
made with this vessel down the river as far as Gravesend. There was present
a numerous party of naval and scientific gentlemen, among whom were Lord
Prudhoc, Admiral Sir Philip Durham, Sir W. .Symonds. Chevalier Benkhau-
sen, the Russian Consul General. Mr. Roulh, &c. She is what is termed a
second class government steam frigate, and the third vessel of that class fitted
within the last six months. Altogether there will be five vessels, viz.. The
" Driver." " Vixen." " Styx," " Growler," and " Geiser," the two latter are
not yet finished ; they are all built to one mould, under the direction of Sir
William Symonds, and to be fitted with engines by Messrs. J. & S. Seaward
& C'apel. The dimensions of the " Styx'" are. length 210 feet over all, or
185 feet^between perpendiculars. 36 feet breadth of beam, and 21 feet depth
of hold ; she draws 13 feet aft and 12 feet forward, and when laden with her
full complement of guns, stores, kc. 15 feet aft and 1 i ft. 6 in. forward. She
is to carry four 8 inch Runs, for 64 lb. hollow shot, and two 10 inch guns on
swivels and slide beds for 96 lb. hollow shot. The two engines are of the
collective power of 560 horse power ; the cylinders are 62 inches diameter,
and 5 ft. 3 in. stroke, performing 17 strokes per minute ; the paddle-wheel is
26 feet external diameter, breadth of float boards 8 ft 3 in, divided into two,
each being 11 inches wide. Ihe engines are upon Messrs. Seaward's patent
princiiile. the action being applied direct from the pistim rod to the crank of
the paddle shaft, as adopted on board the " Cyclops.' Drawings and a
description of these engines w ill be found in the Journal for February last.
Mr. Samuel Seaward has also applied his patent for disconnecting the paddle
wheels, which is extremely simple and efficacious ; it only required 3 minutes

to disconnect one of the wheels, and 4 minutes to reconnect it. ami we have
no doubt if the men had had a little more exiwrience, they could have been
connected and disconnected in half that time. The engines worked very
beautifully, and free from the slightest vibration ; the speed through still
water w as at the rate of about lOt miles per hour. During the excursi n the
company were entertained with a sumptuous collation.

HlacUwalt Steamers. — The Blaekwall Railway Company have had three iron
steamers built by Messrs. Ditchburn and Mai r, to run from the Brunswick
Pier to Gravesend, viz. the " Brunswick." " Railway," and '• Blaekwall," all
of rinc mould. Their length is 146 feet and 19 ft. beam. The mould is beau-
tiful, tlie bows being remarkably sharp, and throwing bit little, if any, wave
in front ; the cabins are tastefully finished, and do credit to the builders.
Each vessel is fitted with engines of 90 horse power collectively, and all have
tubular boilers. The Jirunswkl; has a pair of oscillating engines by Messrs.
J. & S. Seaward it. C'apel. and the same description of engines are on board
the Railway fitted by Messis. John Penn & .Son. We were present at an ex-
perimental trip of this boat on Saturday the 8th ult.. when her speed ex-
ceeded that of any other boat on the river; indeed her average is about 16
miles per hour. Her jjcrformance gave great satisfaction to the Directors of
the Railway who were on board, and to the company generally. The whole
of the machinery incUuling the boilers is only 45J tons in weight, very little
more than one half the usual weight of engines of so large a power. The
other vessel, the " Blaekwall," has a single steeple engine of 90 liorse power
fitted with tubular boilers by Messrs. Miller, Ravenhill & Co. We under-
stand that the speed of this vessel is nearly equal to that of the " Railwaij."

The Elbcrfelt. — This splendid vessel built of iron by Messrs. Ditchburn and
Mair, for navigating the Rhine, performed an experiment trip on the Thames
on the 8th instant. Her dimensions are, length 176 feet, beam 21 feet, depth
11 ft. 6 in., and draws only 2 ft. 8 in. of water, her cabins are fitted up
with great taste, particularly the ladies cabin, and thcs,aloon « hich isdecorated
with views on the Thames,— throughout the vessel every attention has been
paid to the comforts of the traveller. She is propelled by a pair of oscillating
engines of 55 horse power each, by Messrs. Miller, Ravenhill and Co., her
speed in still water is calculated at 13 miles per hour ; the boilers are tubular,
of Mr. Spiller's patent.

Steam Frigates. — The town of Greenock exhibits at present a scene of no
common interest. Six large steam frigates are now being constructed in the
town or its vicinity, each of these of atjout 1,500 tons capacity, and carrying
enginesof 500 horse power, being part of the fleet of 14 armed frigates destined
in time of peace to carry out and distribute the mails among our West Indian
colonies. Four of these are to be supplied by a single firm in Greenock, who
deliver the ships, engines, and equipments complete, and ready for sea. We
announced a short time ago the successful launch of the first of these four,
the Clyde, which was constructed by the late Mr. Duncan. The second of
these ships, the Tweed, was launched from the yard of Messrs. Thompson
and .Spiers on .Saturday last, and we hope soon to announce the completion
of the series of these four sister ships, in the launch of the Tay and tlie Te-
viot. which are rapidly progressing on the stocks. In general appearance
and construction this ship resembles closely her precursor, the Clyde, being
slightly fuller forward, and finer abaft. To the eye she also seems larger
than the Clyde, but this may arise from the latter being a foot or two deeper
in the water, having already her whole engines and boilers fitted upon board,
although it is only about two months since her launch. The dimensions of
the Tweed are as follow : — Length, over all, 240 feet ; keel and forerake, 215 ;
beam, 37 : depth, ZO.— Greenock paper.

Thames Steamers. — The competition among the steamers has become so
great, and their numbers have so much increased of late, tliat 17 vessels are
daily engaged in conveying passengers between Gravesend and London.
.Some of them charge 2s. in the after cabin, and Is. 6rf. in the fore part of the
steamer, for each passenger ; others Is. 6rf. and Is., and a few Is. only all
over the vessel ; while the steamers from Blackw all to Gravesend convey pas-
sengers for 8rf. each. Fourteen steam vessels are engaged in carrying pas-
sengers between London and Greenwich, and a majority of them have lately
reduced their fares to 6rf. each ; but the pier dues swallow up one-third of
the fare, and it is doubtful whether the steam boat companies will be able to
continue the reduced fares for any length of time. Eight steamers are con-
stantly running to and from M'oolwich, and they will receive a great acces-
sion in a few days by the fast and elegant boats of the M'atermens' Steam-
packet Company. There are 16 small vessels belonging to different companies
steaming away from morn till night above bridge, and on Sunday last they
carried upwards of 55,000 passengers, at 4rf. per head, between the numerous
piers from London -bridge to Chelsea. — Times.

Improvement in the Construction of Steam Ships.- — A Correspondent of the
Times suggests that safety bulkhead's, by which a vessel is divided into three
or four water-tight compartments, should be introduced into ocean steamers
in future. The suggestion is an excellent one, but it ought to be enforced by
legi-slative authority, and applied to all steamers. Many lives and much
valuable properly would have been saved if such a regulation had been in
force since steam navigation h,as been so largely extended. The loss of the
Pha'nix, which was struck before the paddle-box by another large steamer
at sea, affords one instance ; and the Albion, on her voyage from Dublin to
Bnstol, touched a sunken rock on the Welch coast, and immediately went
dow n in comparatively smooth water, and on a beautiful day, in consequence
of the leak produced in her bow. The distressing loss of the Killarney, on
the coast of^ Cork, would, no doubt, have been averteil, had not the fires in
the engine-room been extinguished by a leak, which it was impossible to
keep down. Many other cases miuht be cited ; and we shall place in juxta-
position with the preceding an accident which happened to the Royal William
a celebrated steamer belonging to the City of Dublin Company, on one of her
voyages from London to Dublin. This vessel, we must iiremise, like several
others beloniiing to the same spirited company, is divided into water-tight
compartments by bulkheads. One dark stormy night, when oft' the Isle of
Wight, she suddenly came into violent collision with a three-masted ship,

1841.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

211

which exhibited no lights ; and a large hole was made in lier hnw, which
must, had she been built like ordinary steamers, liave involved her almost
instantly in the same fate as the Albion. The bulkhead, however, near her
bow, prevented the leak from spreading— nay. so httle inconvenience did this
alarming collision occasion, that she proceeded on her voyage to Plymouth,
scarcely depressed in the slightest degree, to use nautical language. " by the
head." This is a striking anecdote ; and we only wonder that steam-boat
proprietors have not long ago seen the importance, even for their own inte-
rest, of adopting the mode of construction which saved the Royal "William.
We repeat that that they ought to be compelled to do so ; and we trust that
some member of Parliament will bring the subject forward without delay. We
are not able to say whether some such safeguard might or might not be
adopted in ships ; blit the recent frightful loss of life occasioned by the sink-
ing of the Governor Fenner, owing to a collision with a steamer, ought at all
events tu draw attention to the subject. In the Thames 1,000 or 1,200 per-
sons often trust themselves in a single steamer of comparatively slight con-
struction.— Glocestershire ChroriicU'.

Launch of a Steam Frigate. — The West India Royal Mail Steam-packet
Company's magnificent and powerful steam ship the Forth was launched
from the building-yard of Messrs. Robert Menzies and Sons, Leuh, on .Sa-
turday last. She glided into the Forth, the estuary after v\hich she has been
called, in a most majestic manner, and in presence.it is reported, of not fewer
than 80,000 spectators. So gay a scene had not been witnessed in Leith
since the visit of his late Majesty George IV., in August, 1822. The follow-
ing are the dimensions of the Forth ; — Length of keel, 21, t feet : on the spar
deck, 229 feet ; over all, 245 feet ; breadth over paddle-boxes, 60 feet ; depth
of hold, 30 feet 3 inches ; tonnage. 1.940. She is to be propelled by two
engines now fitting at Liverpool by Mr. Bury, of 220 horse-pon er each. The
Forth is the third steam frigate already launched for the West India Royal
Mail Steam-packet Company. The two first were built on the banks of the
Clyde.

Steam-shiji Building in Den;/. — In Mr. Coppin's yard there has been laid
the keel of a vessel intended for foreign trade, which, in point ot dimensions,
will come very little short of the largest steamers ever built, the proprietors
of her being partly Englishmen. She is to be'impelled by the Archimedean
screw, to have a horse-power of between 500 and 600, and to be of 1,500
tons register. Her keel is 221 feet, only a few feet inferior to that of the
greatest steamer launched, and her length over all will be 230 feet. — Derri/
Journal.

iaiSCEI.I.ANEA.

Westminster Bridge is again opened to traffic, after having, during the short
period of four weeks, been subjected to extensive repairs The well-known
hollow arch lins been removed, and spandrel walls with longitudinal arches
in brickwork have been substituted. so as not only to strengthen the pier, but to
remove a serious cause of danger, threatened by the pressure of the hollow-
arch on the haunches of the adjoining main arches. A rather unusual cir-
cumstance has been the removal and restoration of a whole course of stone
throughout one arch. Great satisfaction has been given by the prompt and
energetic manner in which the alterations have been effected by Mr. Cubitt,
under the directions of the engineers, Messrs, Walker & Burgess.

Preston and JVijre Railwny, Harbour and Dock Company, — -Extract from
a report to the directors by Captain Denham, at the last half-yearly meeting
of the proprietors. — " The new channel through the 'Knot-spit,' and over
the * Little Ford,' has been so deepened as now- to aflord 13 feet of water at
half tide through the straight course thus produced upon the hne of lights
direct from sea into the harbour. The present period is occupied in dredging
up the shelving bottom between the landing wharf and ' Canshe-hole' an-
chorage, so as to produce a continuous depth of 12 feet at low water spring
tides, an object we hope to attain by June next, during which the upper layer
of shelving shore now interrupting the north or early approach to the wharf,
will be excavated, leaving the under or lower shelf to be dredged down to 12
feet over the whole space across to ' Canshe-hole.' The dredge's service this
year will thus be wholly dedicated to the wharf frontage and approaches.
The new Channel to Sea will, however, be improved by excavating and carry-
ing away at low water the remainder of the ' Knot-spit,' and trimming down
the surface and marginal projections of the new cut or channel, the marl
arising from which will be appropriated to the ' neckings ' half tide w ier about
to be constructed on the opposite side of the channel. This latter work will
also he prosecuted this year, and additional pontoons and stone flats are pre-
paring for it. This tide wier will have the effect of concentrating the whole
volume of bark water, the scouring force of which has already been so essen-
tially increased by the completion of the ' Knot-gulph' embankment."

Florence and Leghorn Railway. — A supplement to the Florence Gazette of
the 27th April, contains the decree of II. 1. and R. Highness, the Grand
Duke of Tuscany, granting for the term of 100 years (to be reckoned from
the time when it will be completed and opened to the public), the railway
from Florence to Leghorn, to the Company announced by the Manifest of
Fenzi and Senn of the 24th April, 1838, to be executed according to the re-
port of the celebrated English engineer. Robert Siephenson, Esq. His Im-
perial and Royal Highness graciously allows said railway to bear his royal
name of" Leopold," and grants numerous advantages and privileges, among
others the importation duty free, of all the iron worl.i, machinery, locomotives,
and every othe? article required for its constrnction, and completely placing it in
active operation The exemption from the register stamp due on all the deeds
of the company during the construction of the railway, the option of con-
verting into perpetual leaseholds the amount of such lands as will be occu-
pied bv the company, and which may belong to the state, or to religious cor-
porations, and which from its nature should be subject to re-investment.
The right of expropriation fixed on a liberal basis, with the right of imme-
diate occupation, and a low tariff for the transport of persons and goods.

Copper Mine. — The copper mine recently discovered in Jamaica is situate
in Mount Vernon, a huge mountain six miles to the East of Kingston. The
lodes run from east to west, with a dip to the north. The veins of ore are
found in the neighbourhood of Lucky Valley estate, in the parish of Port
Royal, and at the base of the mountain. The richest ore is a sulphurte,
yielding 40 per cent, of metal. This ore is obtained in immense quantities
from a shaft which opens on a small stream sufficient to carry away the
debris. . Several hundredweights have been sent to London and Swansea for
smelting, great difficulty having been experienced in performing this opera-
tion perfectly in Jamaica, from the want of reverberatory furnaces. There is
also a carbonate wliich yields II per cent, of metal by the humid process.
This is a very beautiful ore, and occurs in what is called abon rock. The
matrix consists principally of lime-stone, argillaceous sand-stone, slate, schist,
and a fine black sand-stone. The black sulphuret, which is abundant, is ob-
tained in masses resembling wet and rotten coals, soft when extracted from
the mine, but hardens in the snn, and is full of pjTites. When dry it is per-
fectly friable. The situation of the mine is convenient, being only three
miles and a half from the sea, and the road is a gradual descent to the har-
bour. Bull Bay, where there is good anchorage for vessels. It may be added
that the mine is in full operation, a company having been formed, and all the
shares bought up. When the packet left Jamaica, Senor Don Rennaldo, the
captain of the Cuban mines, had been applied to for assistance and advice,
and was daily expected there.

Consumption of Smoke. — AVe have great pleasure in directing public atten-
tion to the efficacy of Hall's apparatus for the consumption of smoke from
steam engine chimnies. Mr. Hall has just completed one at the manufactory
of Messrs. Boden and Morley, in Castle-street, in this Borough, which from
its efficacy, if generally adopted, will leave no cause of complaint from what
has hitherto been a source of annoyance to the inhabitants of the borough.
The furnace is supplied by a current of air heated by the furnace itself, which,
when in full operation, completely cunsumes the volume of dense smoke,
which is frequently sent forth from the chimney of a steam-engine. Of
course this cannot be done till the fire is got up in the morning, and when-
ever the furnace door is opened for feeding, the apparatus ceases to act ; but
half a minute suffices to clear the chimney, when the furnace door is shut,
and then, however thick and dark the smoke was previously, the quantity is
immediately greatly reduced and its density gives place to a silvery hue. We
believe the apparatus saves something considerable in fuel, and we are sure
its adoption will be hailed with general approbation by the inhabitants of
this borough. — Derby Reporter. — A short time ago, our columns contained a
notice of the perfect consumption of smoke by apjiaratus applied to the steam
engine of Messrs. Benjamin Cort and Co.. of this town ; it has also been used
with equal success as applied to other steam engines, both here and at Derby.
We are highly gratified at being informed that this invention answers equally
well with locomotive engines. A trial was made of it, as attached to the
'• Wizard," a few days ago, on the Midland Counties Railway, in the pre-
sence of some of the directors of the company, and of several other gentle-
men ; of the former were William Hannay, Esq., and Henry Youle, Esq.. and
of the latter were Francis Wright, Esq., of Lenton Hall, H. B. Campbell,
Esq., &c., who all expressed their high approbation of its satisfactory opera-
tion. The above apparatus for which a patent was taken out in January last,
is the invention of Mr. Samuel Hall, the inventor of the condensers (known
under his name), for supplying pure distilled water instead of salt or other-
wise impure water to the boilers of marine and other steam engines, as well
as the inventor of the reefing paddle wheel for steam vessels. The importance
to railw.ay companies of being able to use coal instead of the costly article of
coke to locomotive engines, can scarcely be estimated, so greatly must it re-
duce the expense of the transit of passengers and goods, and consequently
increase the profits of the shareholders. — Nottingham Riview.

Dorsetshire — The body of the church of St. Mary's, Warehani, Dorset, is
n iw being pulled down for the purpose of being rebuilt. This part has evi--
dently been already once before pulled down and rebuilt, the nave being
divided from the side aisles by square massive piers of rough rubble con-
struction, with impost and archivolt mouldings of a Roman character. This
alteration was possibly done towards the latter end of the 17th, or beginning
of the I81I1 century. The workmen have found in the walls some fragments
of stone with curious carvings and inscriptions. There i.? a fine tower and
spacious chancel of decorated Gothic which will not be touched, and attached
is a small sepulchral chapel with tombs of cross legged knights in chain ar-
mour. The new church provides accommodation for 1000 persons. The con-
tract has been taken by Messrs. Cornick and Son. of Bridport, Dorset, and
the works are to be completed by Michaelmas 1842, under the superintendence
of Mr. T. L. Donaldson, architect, by whom also a new Scotch Church is to
be erected at Woolwich, in the Norman style, with accommodation for 1000
persons, half of whom will be soldiers of the garrison. The plot of ground
for the church and .schools, which are to be erected in connexion, has been
given by the Government, in consideration of the sittings, which will be pro-
vided for the troops of the Kirk communion.

Mr. Stephenson'.; Lime Il'grks at Amber Gate. — Mr. Stephenson has now-
commenced burning lime at these works, and is sending it to the difleient
places adjacent to the North Midland Railway. In the course of a short
time it will be conveyed to most of the principal towns in England. The
kilns are built in a handsome and substantial form, standing from 30 to 40
feet above the surface of the ground. The limestone is procured from the
village of Crich, about two or three miles distant from the kilns, on a tram-
way formed for that purpose. A short distance from Crich, the tramway
passes through a tunnel between 50 and 00 yards in length ; a httle further
on is an inclined plane, worked by a wheel, which lets down six wagons full
of limestone, and draws up the same number of empty wagons. Nearly ad-
joining this is another inclined plane, which is uncommonly steep, rising at
the rapid rate of one yard in three and a half, and is worked by a large drum,
ound which passes a wire-rope; a lever is attached to the drum, by which

212

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[Junk,

one man alone is able to regulate the speed of the wagons at pleasure, or
stop thtm altogether. Two full wagons are let down and t»o empty ones are
drawn up at tlie same time. The full wagons pass over the Cromiord canal
by a wooden bridge (elevated several feet above the surface of the « ater) to
the top of the kilns. These stupendous works, when finished. «ill lie of the
most extensive clnracler ni Khk'^'kI. <"■ wo m»y say in the whole world.
They will, when complete, be able to turn out upwards of 200 tons oflimcjier
day' — Sheffield Patriot.

Victoria Park liilt. — The Bill authorising the Woods and Forest to form a
Park in the eastern part of the metropolis, has already past the House of
Commons.

T)te bronze statue of Ruhcns is at length completed, and has been sent
from Liege to Antwerp, the place of its destination.

Parisian Bitumen. — The terraces at the .Slough station of the Great Wes-
tern Railway are being lined uith this material, its use has of late been con-
siderably on the increa.se ; it has been intro'liircJ in several parts of the me-
tropolis.

LITER.\RY NOTICES.

Mr. Dollman has given the public two faithful representations of the re-
storations of the Vicar's Close at Wells, the details of which are given in Mr.
Walker's book. The chimneys wc think fehcitous, but the sentry-box porches
might, we conceive, without injury have been omitted by the architect;
fidelity of this kind savours too mtich of the ingenuousness of the Chinese
tailor, who treated the patches in the pattern coat as an essential part of the
workmanship.

Mr. E. Clifl'ord, a teacher of mathematics, has brought out a small treatise
styled Arithmetic Corviiderations on Mnrr/noi's Parallel Scales, and the Pro-
tractor, which contains a number of useful calculations and directions.

LIST OF NE'W PATENTS.

GRANTED IN ENGL.\ND FRO.M 29rH APRIL, TO 27tH M.^Y, 1841.

Six Months allowed for Enrolment.

James Sims, of Redruth, Cornwall, civil engineer, for " certain improve-
ments in steam engines." — April 29.

Alfred Jeffery, of Prospect-place, New Hampton, Middlesex, gentleman,
for ''anew method of defendiru) the sheathing of ships and of protecting
their sides and bottoms." — -\pril 29.

George Townshend, of Sorpcote-fields, Leicester, Esquire, for " improve-
ments in machinery or apparatus for cutting certain vegetable substances." —
April 29.

Joseph Gibbs, of Kennington, civil engineer, for " a new combinaiion of
materials for making bricks, tiles, pottery, and other useful articles, and a
machine or machinery for making the same, and also a nciv mode or process
of burning the same, which machine or machinery and mode or process of
burning are also applicable to the tnaking and burning of other descriptions
of bricks, tiles, and pottery." — Apr'il 29.

Miles Berry, of Cbancerj'-lane, for " certain improvements in machinery
or apparatus for making or manufacturing nails and brads." (A communi-
cation.)— May 4.

Francis Joseph Massey, of Chadwell-street, Middleton-square, watch
manufacturer, for " improvements in the method of winding up watches and
other time keepers." — Alay 4.

Edward Newton, of Leicester, manufacturer, and Thomas Archbold,
of the same place, machinist, for "improvements in producing ornamental or
tambour work in the manufacture of gloves." — May 4.

Charles Thomas Holcombe. of Bankside, Southwark, iron merchant,
for *' certain lubricating or preserving matters for wheels and axles, applica-
ble also to the bearings, journals, or other parts of machinery." — May 4.

Hugh Graham, of Bridport-place, Hoxton, artisan, for " an improved
manufacture of that kind of carpeting, usually denominated Kidderminster
carpetting." — May G.

Moses Poole, of Lincoln's Inn, Esquire, for "improvements in the mann-
facture of fabrics by felting." (A communication.) — May 6.

Philemon Aigcstine AIorley, of Birmingham, manufacturer, for " cer-
tain improvements in the manufacture of sugar moulds, dish covers, and other
articles of similar manufacture."- — May C.

James Hancock, of Sidney-square, Mile End, civil engineer, for " certain
improvements in the manufacture of locks, keys, latches, and other fastenings,
oart of which improvements arc applicable to taps and cocks for drawing off
ytuids." — May G.

John Paley, jun., of Preston, Lancashire, manufacturer, for " certain im-
provements in looms for weaving." — May 1 0.

Hooton De^t.rill, of Nottingham, lace manufacturer, for " certain im-

provements in machinery for making and omamenfing lace, commonly called
bobbin net lace," — May 1 0.

Andrew Mc Nab, of Paisley, North Britain, engineer, for " certain im-
provements in the manufacture of bricks." — ilay 11.

Edmund Taylor, of King William-street, gentleman, for " certain im.
provements in the construction of carriages used on railroads." (A com-
munication.)— May 11.

Henry Pinkus, of Maddox-street, Hanover-square, for "an improved
method or methods of applying electrical currents or electricity, either frac-
tional, atmosplieric, voltaic, or electro magnetic." — May 14.

James Gregory, coal master, and William Green, turner, both of West
Bromwich, Stafford, for " certain improvements in the manufacture of iron
and steel." — May 14.

Pierre Journet, of Dean-street, Soho, engineer, for "improvements in
fire-escapes, which improvements are applicable to other useful purposes."—
May 19.

John Carr, junior, of Paddington, engineer, for " improvements in appa-
ratus for retarding and stopping railway-carriages." — May 20.

Charles Phillips, of Chipping Norton, Oxford, engineer, for " improve-
ments in reaping and cutting vegetable substances as food for cattle." — May
20.

Joseph Woods, of Lawn-place, Lambeth, Surrey, civil engineer, for " cer-
tain improvements in locomotive engines, and also for certain imvrovementt
in the machinery for the production of rotatory motion for obtaining mechani-
cal power, which improvements in machinery are also api>licable for raising
or impelling fiuids." — May 22.

William Gall, of Beresford-terrace, Surrey, for " certain improvements
in the construction of inkstands." (A communication.) — May 22.

John Ainslie, farmer, Redheugh, North Britain, for "a new and im-
proved mode of making or moulding tiles, bricks, retorts, and such like work
from clay, and other plastic snbstances." — May 22 ; four months.

Christopher Dumont, of Mark-lane, London, for " improvements in the
manufacture of metallic letters, figures, and other devices." {X communica-
tion.)—May 22.

John Wintebborn, of Clarence-place, Hackney-road, surgeon, for "im-
provements in machinery to facilitate the removal of persons and property
from premises, in cases of fire ; which improvements are applicable to raising
and lowering weights generally, to assist servants cleaning windows, and as a
substitute for scaffolding." — May 22.

William Lewis Rham, of Winkfield, Berks, clerk, for " certain improve-
ments in machinery O' apparatus for preparing land, and sowing or depositing
grain, seeds, and manure." — May 22.

John Whitehouse, of Deptford, engineer, for " an improved method of
making boilers, to be used in marine steam engines." — May 22.

William Joest, of Ludgate-hill, merchant, for "improvements inpro-
pelling vessels." (.\ communication.) — May 2G.

George Hulme, of Saint John-street, Smitbfield, cock founder, for " im-
provements in water closets." — May 27.

Joseph Bettridge, of Birmingham, wood turner, for " an improved me-
thod of manufacturing papier mache, pearl, china, ivory, horn, wood, and
composition, into pillars and stands fur table and other lamps, and other arti-
cles of domestic furniture." — May 27.

James Shanks, of Saint Helen's, Lancashire, chemist, for " improvements
in t/ie manufacture of carbonate of soda." — May 27.

TO CORRESPONDENTS.

Communications from M.R., Daniel Clark, S,'c., received too late will appear
next montii.

We have received a proposition far forming " An Association of Architectural
and Engineering Draughtsmen," which wc have deferred for consideration until
next month.

Communications are requested to be addressed to "The Editor of the Civil
Engineer, and Architect's Journal," No. 11, Parliament Street, Westminster.

Books for Ih'view must be sent early in the month, communications on or btfure
the 20th (if with drawings, earlier ), and advertistments on or before the loth
instant.

Vols. I, II, and III, may be had, bound in cloth, price £1 each Volume.

ERRATA.

In last month's Journal, p. 173, for Harry Austin read Henry Austin.

P. 129, for Mr. Edward Hall (late oi Birmingham) read lale oi Manchester.

The type of pages 151 and 152, after it was made up, got disarranged ; we
have consequently reprinted them, which are given with the present number.
We have to request our readers to cancel those pages, and substitute those
given herewith.

1841.1

THE CIVIL ENGINEEU AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

151

the level of the enginemau's eyes; and that the point where the cen-
tre of the beam would intersect the horizon, A C, of his vision at E,
should be about 700 feet from the lens. The impulse of the light
would be most advantageously received at surae point as near the lens
as is consistent with a full effect from a flame placed in its principal
focus. A more remote observer would receive the rays diluted by
distance : while a nearer approach of the eye to the lens would render
it necessary to adopt an ex-focal arrangement, so as to cause conver-
gence of the rays. By the latter iu-rangement their divergence would
be decreased, and the space covered by the light would be lessened
not only in proportion to the decrease of divergence, but also to that
of the cosine of the beam's inclination to the horizon. Both these
circumstances would therefore combine to curtail tlic duration of the
impression on the eye.

It may naturally be expected that I should say something regarding
the duration of the impu'se of the light on the eye; and upon this
topic I shall, in absence of actual experiment, content myself with
Stating briefly the result of my calculations. If we suppose that an
effective divergence of only "2" were to be obtained (and this is just
one thiid of what is obtained from Fresnel's lens with the great lamp),
! find that the light would spread itself along the horizon of the ob-
server's eye between B and C to the distance of about lOUO yards,
which, at the speed of 40 miles an hour, would be passed over in about
50 seconds, but at the ordinary railway speed of 25 miles an hour,
about SO seconds or I3 minute would be required. Such a flash of
light falling upon the polished parts of the engine, and upon the ob-
server's face, would undoubtedly act as a most effective signal. If,
however, it should be thought advisable to increase the duration of
the impression by spreading it over a greater length of the Hue, this
effect could be easily produced by a slight alteration of the inclination
of the lens, so as to cause the line of railway to cut the refracted beam
more obliquely ; but I by no means expect that any such modification
would be found necessary in practice. The nearness of the eye to the
lens, and the brilliancy of the flash, would, I am inclined to think, more
than comjiensate for the shortness of the impression.

I must add a few words regarding the expense of these siguals,
which would be made up of the cost of erecting the scaffold of car-
pentry, the price of the lens, and the maintenance of the light. The
price of the stage I shall pass over as a matter which may vary ac-
cording to the circumstances of the situation and the taste of indi-
viduals ; but the cost of the gieat annular lens does not exceed 40/.;
and if a smaller sized lens, which I think would be found quite suffi-
cient for the purpose, were employed, the expense would not be more
than 10/. The annual maintenance would consist of little more than
the supply of a gas or an oil burner. The consideration of the ex-
pense, therefore, of maintaining such a system of signals at the ne-
cessary intervals on railways, is not for a moment to be set against the
most remote risk of the least of all the numerous accidents, the records
of which fill the public prints.

OBSERVATIONS (3N THE MOTIOX.S OF SHINGLE BEACHES.

By Hejjrs- R. Palmer, EsvJ., F.R.S.*

Fiotii llie Philosophica! Tfansactions o/the Royal Society: — read
April 10, 1834.

The extraordinary prevalence of tempestuous weather during the
last autumn having occasioned numerous disasters on our coast, the
public attention was directed in an unusual degree to the imperfections
of many of the harbours, and more particularly to those which are
encumbered with accumulations of shingle. The access to harbours
thus circumstanced is generally uncertain, and in tempestuous weather
is frequently dangerous, or even impossible.

The action of the sea, which gives motion to the shingles and pro-
duces the evils complained of, has long been a subject of speculation ;
but I have not found that it has been systematically investigated.
Indeed, the contrariety of opinions advanced upon the subject, suffi-
ciently indicates an entire absence of that satisfactory mode of inquiry
which is essential to the foundation of a safe and practical deduction.

Very little has been written upon the subject ; and such facts as
have been mentioned have only been referred to incidentally, or with
a view to geological science. My present object is exclusively prac-
tical in its nature, and my observations have been limited to such facts
as would assist in establishing certain and fixed rules for controlling

' The cunstruciion of harbours, piers, and breakwaters is like'y :o become
of considerable iniix)rtance to the engintering proU'ssion ; we therefore pro-
pose lo collict for publication in the Journal, such papers as have been
wrillen on tli» subject.

the motions of the beacli, so far as to enable us to preserve a clear
channel through it in all seasons, and in every variety of weather; and
to accumulate and preserve the shingles, where it is needful to do so.

The subject at first sight appears greatly complicated ; and were it
necessary to discuss minutely all the modifications arising from the
variety of forms and local circumstances, it would perhaps be too
much so for general description. I have, however, limited my inves-
tig atin to those simple and unvarying laws to which natur.- always
adheres; and therefore the following observations must be considered
as restricted only to certain general principles, subject to a variety of
modifications.

The principles which I propose to illustrate will (under similar cir-
cumstances) at all times exhibit the same phenomena, but for the sake
of perspicuity I shall now only refer to the coasts of Kent and Sussex.

Section 1.

That the pebbles which compose the shingle beaches on these
coasts are kept in continual motion bv the action of the sea, and that
their ultimate progress is in an easterly direction, are facts long known
and commonly observed. The following observations are chiefly di-
rected to the particular manner in which the motions are produced.

From a general view of the effects that I have noticed, it appears
that the actions of the sea upon the loose pebbles are of three kinds:
the first heaps up, or accumulates the pebbles against the shore ; the
second disturbs, or breaks down the accumulations previously made ;
and the third removes, or carries forward the pebbles in a horizontal
direction.

For convenience I propose to distinguish these by the following
terms, viz. the fir^t, the accumulative action; the second, the destruc-
tive action; the third, the progressive action.

All the consequences resulting from these various actions are ex-
clusively referrible to two causes. The one is to the current, or the
motion of the general body of the water in the ebbing and flowing of
the tides; the other to the waves, or that undidating motion given to
the water by the action of the winds upon it ; and it is of considerable
importance to the present inquiry that the effects resulting from each
specific cause be separately considered.

The motion of the shingles along the shore is commonly attributed
to the currents, the action of the waves being considered only as a
disturbing foace. That such a notion is erroneous will, I apprehend,
presently appear; although I have to regret that I have not had the
opportunity of obtaining such satisfactory information relating to the
velocities of the currents in the cliannci, as would have enabled me to
include every form of argument upon the subject. The absence of
such information has also prevented me from deciding satisfactorily
as to the sources from whence the whole body of shingle is derived,
which, although not necessary for the practical purposes I have ia
view, would have given more interest to tbe subject, and would hive
rendered the elucidation more comjjlete. I must, therefore, for the
present, be content to pursue the motions of the beach after it is found
lying along or near the shore ; observing only that the materials of
which it is composed are those of the various strata in the vicinity of
the coasts, together with the ordinary sea sand, and such small parti-
cles as may have been brought to the shore by the floods of the various
rivers.

That the current is not the force which moves the pebbles idong the
coast, will appear from the following reasons ;

1st. If it were so, the direction of the motion of the pebbles would
be deterniined by th it of the currents ; but while the direction of the
currents will vary with the changes of the tides, we find that the di-
rection of the pebbles may remain unaltered ; and also that the motion
of the pebbles is continued where no current exists.

•2nd. Although the velocities of the currents may not have been
ascertained with precision, yet it is known that the velocities generally
along this coast, which can possibly act on the shingles, are not suffi-
cient to give motion to pebbles of every dimension, which are in fact
carried forward.

3rd. The motion of a current will not produce that order in which
the pebbles are found to lie, which order (as will be hereafter shown)
may easily be distinguished as the effect of the motion of the waves
only.

Irhe direction of the waves is determined principally by the wind,
the prevailing direction of w hich on the coasts referred to is from the
w eslward. E\ery breaker is seen to drive before it the loose materials
which it meets; "these are thrown up the inclined plane on which they
rest, and in a direction corresponding generally with that of the
breaker. In all cases we observe that the finer particles descend the
whole distance with the returning breaker, unless accidentally de-
posited in some interstices ; but we perceive that the larger pebbles
return only a part of the distance ; and upon further inspection we

X 2

t2

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[May,

rind that the distance to which each pebble returns bears some relation
to its dimensions. This process is an indication of the accumulative
action.

But under some circumstances, depending on the wind, it is found
that pebbles of every dimension return with the breakers that forced
them np the plane, and that these are accompanied also by others,
which had been previously deposited, but which are in such case? dis-
turbed by the waves ; and by a continual repetition of the breakers
acting in this manner, the whole of the shingle previously accumulated
is immersed below the surface of the water. This process is an indi-
cation of the destructive action.

The particulars of the accumulative action, combined with that of
progression, are explained as follows. (Fig. 1.)

Fig. 1.

■■'%

Let AB CD be an inclined plane, representing that on which the
loose pebbles move. Suppose the wind to blow in such a direction
as to cause a wave to strike a pebble at A, in the direction of Aa,
and to the distance a up the plane, that point being the extent to
which the force can reach. Now here the wave breaks partly into
spray, and is dispersed in all directions; is partly absorbed, and de-
scends in a shallow form, which rapidly diminishes in its depth, so
that the pebble is soon left exposed, and therefore does not return the
whole distance with the water, but is left at rest at a' being at a
higher level than that from whence its motion commenced.

With the rise of the tide the striking force is also elevated ; and
by the repetition of the operation described through the different
heights in succession, the further motion of the pebble will be repre-
sented by a' h' h' b', &:c., the distance in each step of its descent being
something less than in that of its ascent, until it has reached the sum-
mit/, determined by the height of the tide. Now if we suppose a
pebble of less dimensions than the former to be struck from the same
point, we shall find it raised as before ; but because its surface is
greater in proportion to its weight, and because from its less bulk it
remains longer immersed in the declining wave, it will descend further,
and follow tlie line a g, Sec, and will not be left at rest till it has
reached o.

If, then, we suppose a pebble whose dimensions are less than either
of the former, it will be evident that the point at which that will arrive
on the highest level will be more distant still; hence it follows that
the distance travelled horizontally by the pebbles during a tide will be
in some proportion to their bulk, the specific gravities being the
same.

(The pebbles do not in reality move in straight lines, but in a suc-
cession of curves; the straight lines are assumed here, and in other
parts of this paper, to simplify the description.)

I trust it is only necessary to remark, that if the wind continue
to blow in the same direction during the ebbing of the tide as through
the flowing of it, the direction in which the waves will strike the
shore will be nearly the same, and the progress of the pebbles will be
urged by a similar action, and therefore their direction will also be the
same.

In this action we observe a constant tendency to heap up and accu-
mulate the shingles ; and it is an interesting fact, that when the action
has continued equally through a tide, the pebbles are left in regular
order, according to their dimensions, the largest being uppermost, and
the smallest at the bottom of the plane. I do not mean to state that
all the largest are at the top, or that all the smallest are at the bottom,
for it is evident that some of every size will be found at every level;
but that if an equal measure (say half a peck) be taken from the diffe-
rent levels, the average of each specimen will exhibit in regular order
the various dimensions.

The order in which the pebbles are thus found is, then, that by

which the effect of the waves is distinguished from that of a current,
the effect of the latter consisting only in its influence on the direction
of the imjjinging and recoiling motions of the waves, bv which the
motion of the beach may in a small degree be accelerated or retarded.

Section 2.

In the illustration of that action of the sea which breaks down and
removes an accumulation, I propose referring to my observations in
the order in which they were made. My attention was first directed
to this part of the subject in the neighbourhood of Sandgate in Octo-
ber last.

The accumulative action had been continued for a considerable time.
The numerous groins erected near Folkstone to impede the progress
of the beach, for the protection of the cliffs, had collected a bank of
pebbles, which in some parts was five feet in height. The wind had
so much abated as to be scarcely perceptible, but the sea had a motioa
denominated a ground swell.

The waves approached the shore nearly at right angles with it; but
although in rapid succession, their forces were very moderate. These
circumstances continued through five tides, by which time nearly the
whole of the loose shingle had disappeared, including all that had been
collected by the groins at Folkstone. The water being particularly
clear, I was enabled to perceive distinctly the action upon the pebbles,
and their motion downwards. I observed, that although every wave
became broken and dispersed as usual, yet they followed in such rapid
succession, that each wave rode over its predecessor while on its re-
turn, and thus produced a continual downward current, which carried
with it the pebbles that were disturbed. That the pebbles were not
removed far from the line of low water, would appear from the fact,
that on the subsiding of the swell, it being succeeded by a light breeze
of wind from the westward, the accumulation immediately commenced,
and was restored to its former quantity by the action of four tides. I
have subsequently had some favourable opportunities for making other
observations on the effects produced by different rates of succession of
the waves, and particularly at Dover, during the late gales, where the
same actions were noticed. There I watched for an opportunity of
witnessing that rate of succession which exhibited the destructive and
accumulative actions in their smallest degrees; and I observed, that
when ten breakers arrived in one minute, the destructive action was
but just evinced ; and that when only eight breakers arrived in the
same period, the pebbles began to accumulate ; w hich facts harmonized
with my observations made at Sandgate and Folkstone, viz. that the
difference beliteen the tno actions nas difermined by the rapidity in suc-
cession of the naves upon the shores.

In the description of the accumulative action, 1 have assumed the
forces to be directed obliquely with the line of coast, and have there-
fore necessarily included the progressive motion ; but it remains to be
explained in what manner the shingles are carried forward while the
destructive action is going on.

It is known that the action and re-action of the waves give to the
whole body of the water, within a certain distance from the shore, an
undulating motion. The direction of this motion, when approaching
the shore, will, to a certain degree, correspond with that of the waves
upon the surface, and the direction of the recoil will also be affected
in like manner ; therefore the pebbles that have been carried down by
the destructive action are moved forward through an angular course
beneath the mater, until, by the excess of the impinging forces over
those of the recoil, they are again raised by the action of the water,
and deposited where the destructive action has ceased, or where, from
local circumstances, it cannot occur. The circumstances which are
most unfavourable to the destructive action are those which least ad-
mit of the constant downward under-current— an inlet, or narrow arm
of the sea, for example. If we suppose a wave rolling through the
mouth of an inlet, carrying with it a charge of shingles, it does not
break as upon an inclined plane, but is dispersed in the general body
of the water, which is comparatively quiescent ; and there being no
returning force, the shingle becomes deposited, and a bank is formed:
and although the destructive process would act upon that bank if it
could attain a certain height, yet the attainment of that height is pre-
vented by the waves passing over it, and carrying with them, in suc-
cession, the shingles with wnich they are charged.

Section 3.
In Fig. 2 is represented a section of the beach formed along the out-
side of Folkstone Harbour. This section was taken with great accu-
racy, after the ground swell before referred to had removed most of
the loose pebbles from it ; so that the section may be considered as
representing the plane upon which the progressive motion of the peb-
bles is carried on. Its slope is in the proportion of 1 to '.1, nearly, and
(with the exception of that part near the summit where there remained

PROFOSIEIJ TE.'^SJOIS' BRIBGE, ISOPeet clear Spun

BKRAKINtV WKKillT i;o TONS IS CK^TKK.

SSCTIO:* THllO'

I Lu/iB )«n>ii-4

1S41.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

213

NEW FORM OF VIADUCT.

(With an Engraving, Plate VII.)

The accompanying drawings show a new species of viaduct that has
been made use of as a general design, in the parliamentary estimate
of a recently surveyed Hailwuy.

Fli?. 4— Side view of the Clutch Box D.

The principle in its simple form, i"! not new to the engineering
■world, having been put into execution in the " Foot bridge over the
Whitadder, at Abbey St. Bathans," (see Theory, Practice, and Archi-
tecture of Bridges, part four,) and being commonly used in temporary
erections, scattblding, &c., and frequently applied in strengthening
various kinds of vehicles. The novelty consists in carrying out the
idea to the magnitude of the present rage.i

Fig. 5— End view of the Clutch Box C

^,--^-ijpi

It will be seen that the system is ap-
plicable on a great scale, in those cases
only where there is a large amount of
headway tospare,as the efficiency of the
arrangement is so completely dependant
on the inclination of the tension bars.
The estimation of the strength in the
original furm, is a matter of great ease,
involving only a simple case of resolu-
tion of forces.

This design is made for a single line
of rails only, but it would appear that
it might be much more advantageously
and economically applied to a double
line.

A reference to the drawing will pre-
clude the necessity of any detailed
description, and it will be necessary

merely to draw attention to the more important points. It will be
seen that the application of the tension bars is not confined to the re-
Fig, 6— Section of the Clutch Box C.

-No .46.— Vol.. IV.— JoLY, 1841.

sistance to vertical deflection, but that it is made use of in given
lateral strength to the main supports, (inverted tressels would perhaps
be the most descriptive term), their bending being prevented in one
direction by the transverse studs and tie-bolts, and in the other by the
tension of tiie iron rods.

A weight entering upon the bridge will be pcvcoived to immediately
distribute its effects over the whole structure, by means of the ascend-
ing intermediate bars ; these bars will effectually prevent anv partial
deflection that might be expected to occur upon an unequal distribu-
tion of the load.

It will be observed that rods are dotted in, and noted as being carried
to the sides of the ])iers, to prevent any lateral oscillation; little fear
of this however ne^d be entert.iined, as the surface exposed to the
wind would be so slight; nevertheless if there were any apprehension
of such an effect, it might be further guarded against, by a divergence,
of the sides of the supports, as shown by the doited lint-s at D', D', on
the transverse section ; and this would be done with very little diminu-
tion of strength. In a double line there would be no need of such
precaution.

The estimated cost, including scafTulding, &c., and exclusive of
piers, is U/. per lineal foot; the quantities I took out myself, and can
bear testimony to their fulness ; the prices were given by another, and
were high in consequence of the difficulty of the localities ; in short I
believe that the above price is rather more than would be the cost in
average cases. With regard to the strength, I think it will be found
by any one who will be at the trouble to calculate it, that it is if any
thing greater than what is stated.

To those with whom appearance is the main point in railway works,
the design will probably afford some amusement; but every one will
I think perceive that elegance of effect is not attempted, an economi-
cal and durable structure being the only object in view.

Heruebt Spencer.

Derby, Ma;/ 11, 1S41.

Referctjce to Drawings.

Fig. 1, Plate VII. is a side view of the bridge, part of the span is omitted
in Older that the remainder might be kept to as large a scale as the size of
the Journal uouUl admit. Fig. 2. is a transverse s.ection of up.e of* the sus-
pensions or tbe cross trusses ; and fig. 3. a transverse section of ilie centre
suspension or cross truss. Fig. 4, enlarged view of the clutch box D, secured
to tne piers. Fig. j, end view of the clutcli box C ; and tig. 6, a section of
the same. The three last figures are drawn to a scale of j of an inch to a
foot.

CONDUCT OF THE GOVERNMENT TOWARD.S THE
ENGINEERING INTERESTS.

We have, on more than one occasion, thought it our duty to call
the attention of our readers to the conduct which has long been pur-
sued by the government and the leghslature, as lo all measures bearing
upon tile interests of the engineering profession. We are well aware
that many of these measures, although weighing most strongly upon
the engineers were directed against other interests, and cannot there-
fore be considered as purposely levelled against the profession; but,
nevertheless, when we observe the tendency of measures inoi^ direct,
and the uniform tenor of tliese proceedings, we are obliged to admit
that either the policy or the inclination of the governing body is con-
stantly directed to our injury. Im whatever way we examine the mea-
sures affecting us we are impressed with this feeling, and now that we
are enabled to look back and class together isolated events, we find an
accumulation of evil in tbe highest degree threatening the profession.
On the one hand our employment is proposed to be taken from us, and
on the other we are to be placed under the government direction and
control; so thit both our moral and physical interests are equally con-
cerned. It is perhaps fortunate that circumstances have intervened to
preventevery attempt from being effi^ctive, but still a sufficient amount
of mischief has been perpetrated to call for the serious attention of
every one to the position in which he is placed. It might have been
well at a former period for the civil engineer to say, that afi'ects the
marine engineer or the capitalist and not me, or for the practical engi-
neer to say that has nothing to do with me, but now when we come to
review the whole of these proceedings we find something which affects
each individual branch, while there no longer remains a doubt that the
whole body is in danger. What engineer when he considers the seve-
ral government measures of the last four years can now flatter himself
that he is safe, and that the attack on his neiglibour is imminent of no
danger to himself ? Let him look at the Ten Per Cent. Deposit Clause,
the Irish Railway Scheme, the Steam Navigation Bill and the Rail-
ways Bill; let him read the speeches of ministers, the reports of con)-
niittees and commissioners, and the suggestions of commissioners, let

2 G

2l4

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[Juir,

him reflect on what lias been attempted and then say if he dare to
assign any limit to their future aggressions. We feel that tlie period
has now arisen when it becomes tln^ profession in a collective capacity
to do in all its power for resisting present attempts, preventing future
invasions, and remedying past evils, and unless these things U" done
and he done quickly too, we very much fear that an amount of distress
and in.^onvenience will be inflicted on every individual, such as to make
him bitterly regret his inactivity.

The Standing Order of the House of Commons requiring the pay-
ment of a deposit into the Bank of England of ten per cent, on the
])roposcd capital of all public works, is a regulation the evils of which
we have long deprecated. Many have shut their eyes under the de-
lusion that either the order would be repealed from a conviction of its
inefficiency, or such a change would take place in the money market
as would enable it to be complied with. We were never so insane,
for we considered that the same ignorance, which could lead to such
an enactment in the teeth of reason and ex])erience, would blind its
partisans to any defect in its operations, and that whether the money
market were either in a sound or unsound st.ite, the impediment would
be equally serious. The evils which have arisen to the profession
from the stagnation of afl'airs luive been quite enough without any
aggravation, but now whatever may be the means or disposition of the
monied interest, three years have passed over without a single act
having passed for any public work of importance. After the i)resent
year we really cannot see where employment for a large part of the
profession is to be obtained, for there will be neither railways, canals,
docks, harbours, bridges, gas nor water works to be constructed, and
no prospect, with jneans however abundant, ofobtainingactsof parlia-
ment, except after the long period required by the standing orders.
M'e foresaw what the result would be, and we gave warning of it, if
therefore every one has remained lukewarm it has been from no de-
fault or neglect on our part, and those who will suffer will have them-
selves to blame for the event. The engineers must petition and obtain
petitions from other parties for tlic redress of the grievances caused
by the Ten Per Cent. Clause, for they may readily see that unless they
put their shoulders to the wheel and sturdily toe, no relief will they
obtain. When an honourable member rose the last session to move for
a reduction in the amount of the deposit, how was he supported, and
Tvhat was the language of the President of the Board of Trade, the
mouthpiece of that department in which all our evils have originated ?
He actually declared that no diminution in the number of acts had
taken place, that no mischief was caused by the .Standing Order, and
finished by referring triumphantly to the number of notices then before
the House of application for acts. Had he but enquired how many of
these applicaticns were rejected for uon-compliance with this very
regulation, and if he had enquired at the end of the session how many
acts had |)assed, he would find that the account was merely a blank.

The Irish Railway Report, and the new Irish Railway scheme, are
further developments of the same system; the progress of railways in
Ireland has been checked, and the management of such as may be
made is proposed to be entrusted to the government, the most ineffi-
cient body for the purpose which could possibly be selected, and which
has already filled Ireland with monuments of jobbery and mismanage-
ment. This new scheme must also be opposed as an emanation from
the same stock, and as calculated by acting as a precedent to be pro-
ductive of more immediate evil. The .Steam Navigation bill exhi-
bited, in all its deformity, the grasping ambition of the Board of
Trade; the genius of our engineers was to be controlled, their plans
revised, and their workshops taken from under their own manage-
ment, and placed under the inquisitorial power of the government.
The marine engineers were aroused, and the evil was warded off, but
it must not be thought that an end is put to the existence of this
monster, 'the snake is not killed but scotched,' and tie spirit which
animates it is too visible in the Railways Bill to allow us to doubt of its
re^^^al. These Railways Bills are too serious warnings of the danger
of allowing the least tampering with our interests, to let us pass them
by without calling the attention of our readers to the evils which are
threatened by them. Discretionary powers are asked for, the future
0])eration of which we arc loo well able to trace in those "shadows of
coming events," the "Reports and Papers relating to Railways," pre-
sented to Parliament. Here we see military ignoramuses interfering
with every part of the construction of railways and locomotives, put-
ting the designs of the engineers under supervision, and suggesting
that the workshop of the manufacturer of locomotives should be sub-
jected to .in inquisition. In fact, if our space permitted us, we might,
on this subject alone, draw a fearful picture of the mischief which is
threatened to every branch of the profession. Enougli has now been
said to call for an interference, and we have only to say further, that
experience has shown that even the slightest opposition has been
sufficient to check the Board of Trade in its mid-career, and if a

sturdy opposition be organized, we are not without hopes of having
all the grievances redressed. We again recommend the engineers to
lose no time, or the profession will be stripped of its independence,
and their offices of all appearance of business.

Neither are the evils confined to the engineers, but equally threaten
other and more numerous classes. It is acknowledged that it is to
the railways and other public works that we, in a great degree, owe
the employment of the working classes, and diminution of the poor
rates, and any sudden cessation of employment must be productive of
the most disastrous consequences. The contractors, also and sub-
contractors employed, and the several classes of tradesmen and la-
bourers connected with them, are exposed to consequences equally
ruinous; not only will they be put out of work, but their plant, tools
and materiel becoming useless, must be sold at ruinous prices. A
large amount of capital, also, which was directly employed in pro-
moting the progress of the nation, has been, during the suspension,
diverted, being either hoarded or rendered comparativelv idle. Con-
sidered, indeed, in every possible way, whether on the broadest
grounds or the narrowest, the measures of the government equally
refuse the test, the interests of the nation being sacrificed through
narrow-mindedness, or a love of jobbery.

PLAN FOR A NEW ASSOCIATION OF ARCHITECTURAL
AND ENGINEERING DRAUGHTSMEN.

Among the various means which may be adopted in order to attain
ar.y desirable object, the association of numerous individuals who have
a common interest in if, is one which has often proved successful ia
cases where isolated energy would have been unavailing. This may
be observed in various instances, whether in pursuits of public utility,
of pleasure, of charity, or of a private advantage.

It is now intended to suggest to the consideration of those concerned,
whether this principle of association, so largely applied at the present
day to objects of great public concern, might not be made useful to
those engaged in one department of the arts of design with which it
has hitherto had perhaps but little connection.

That class of artists is here alluded to, who are employed in a sub-
ordinate capacity in prepciring the necessary drawings required pre-
viously to the execution of any great work either of architecture or
engineering, to furnish the necessary illustration for the artificers who
are to carry it into practice, and for the proprietor who is to possess
it when completed.

it may be true that the different societies already formed both of
architects and engineers, may have the eftect of adding to the general
stock of information, of increasing the means of knowledge, and main-
taining the character of each profession with the public ; but the union
now advocated, is intended to be of a more humble kind of utility,
less exalted in its objects, less interesting to the imagination, but it is
conceived, not less adapted to meet the wishes and supply the wants
of a considerable number of individuals.

However it may be that the young student of architecture (by which
perhaps he merely means the drawing of architectural decoration),
flatters himself that he is pursuing a " fine art," including all the grand
and elevating, and beautiful attributes that may be connected with the
term, he will probably find sooner or later, (circumstanced as the ;irt
is in these utilitarian days), that he cannot pursue it profession., Uy
without making it a different sort of business ; a pursuit in which the
physical qualities of objects shall be more considered than the aejlhe-
tical, in which the combination of the various talents of others shall
be preferred to the concentration of a single isolated niiud upon a
single visionary object, in which the useful shall triumph over the
beautiful, and the matter of fact over the imaginative.

These observations are put forward as prefatory to the inai?i object
of this paper, which is to suggest the formation of an Association of
Architectural and Engineering Draughtsmen, for the purpose of
enabling them more readily to communicate with each other, and with
those at whose hands they expect employment ; and of affording to the
latter class, the means of readily obtaining that assistance of which
they may stand in need, on terms the most equitable to both parties.

To obtain these ends, the means now proposed are, the collecting
together at a given place for public exhibition, a number of specimens
of the abilities of members of the associated body, whether applied in
the different ways which are fuund practically useful in business, or
exerted to produce results more attractive to the eye at first sight.
For there should not merely be a display of the heaven-ward aspira-
ions of unfettered fancy, exerted upon castles in the air, bridges over
chaos, temples for which even if already erected it would be difficult
o contrive any useful destination, and palaces adapted to pursuits of

1841. J

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

215

pleasure, unsuitable to our tastes, our habits, and to the climate of the
country we inhabit ; but places should also be assigned to those work-
ing drawings of common houses, and modern economical churches,
those practical details of machinery, and surveys of parishes, and plans
of estates, which would perhaps attract still more scrutiny from some
of the frequenters of the proposed exhibition.

In reducing this plan to practice, several reasons might be alleged
■why the draughtsmen themselves ought to be the managers. They
might make it one of their rules to be allowed respectively space for
their drawings proportionable to the sums thev subscribe to defray
the necessary expenses. On the other hand contributions might also
be levied from those whose curiosity led them to visit the collection,
by the sale of catalogues, the possession of which might give a right
of admission for a certain period.

The writer of these observations would be glad if they should have
any effect in inducing others of the parties interested to join and carry
his proposal into effect. Of course he would not be backward in lend-
ing his share of assistance so far as was within his limited means,
and he should expect to be joined in doing so by some other of the
younger members of the profession, who have expressed their concur-
rence in the views here expressed.

G. M.

ENGINEERING WORKS OF THE ANCIENTS, No. 0.

In our last we gave an account from Xenophon of the Atbenian
silver mines, which, by some inadvertence, was detached from this
series of papers, and now we proceed to give what Diodorus Siculus
says as to the gold mines of Ethiopia (Book 3.)

EGYPTIAN OR ETHIOPIAN GOLD MINES.

In the confines of Egypt and the neighbouring countries of Arabia
and Ethiopia there is a place full of rich gold mines, out of which with
much cost and pains of many labourers, gold is dug. The soil here
uaturally is blaek, but in the body of the earth, run many white veins,
shining with white marble, (query quartz), and glistering with all sorts
of other briglit metals ; out of which, laborious miners, those appointed
overseers, cause the gold to be dug up by the labour of a vast multi-
tude of people. For the kings of Egypt condemn to these mines
notorious criminals, captives taken in war, persons sometimes falsely
accused, or such against whom the king is incensed; and that not only
they themselves, but sometimes all their kindred, and relations with
them, are sent to work here, both to punish them, and by their labour
to advance the profit and gain of the king. There are infinite num-
bers upon these accounts thrust down into these mines, all bound in
fetters, where they work continually, without being perniitjpd any rest
day or night, and so strictly guarded, that there is no possibility or
way left to make an escape. For they set over them barbarians,
soldiers of various and strange languages, so that it is not possible to
corrupt any of the guard, by discoursing one with anotiier, or by gain-
ing opportunities ot familiar converse.

The earth which is hardest and full of gold, they soften by putting
fire under it, and then work it out with their hands ; the rocks thus
softened, and made more pliant and yielding, several thousands of
profligate wretches break it in pieces with hammers and pickaxes.
There is one workman who is the overseer of the whole work, who
marks out the stone, and shows the labourers the way and manner
how he would have it done. Those that are the strongest amongst
them, that are appointed to this slavery, provided with sharp iron
pickaxes, cleave the marble shining rock by mere force and strength,
and not by art of sleight of hand. They undermine not the rock in a
direct line, but follow the bright shining vein of the mine. They
carry lamps fastened to their foreheads to give them light, being other-
wise in perfect darkness in the various windings and turnings wrought
in the mine ; and having their bodies appearing sometimes of one
colour and sometimes of another (according to the nature of the mine
where they work). They throw the lumps and pieces of the stone
cut out of the rock upon the floor. And thus thev are employed con-
timially without intermission, at the very nod of the overseer or task-
master, who lashes them severely besides. And there are little boys
that attend upon the labourers in the mines, and with great labour and
toil gather up the lumps and pieces hewn out of the rock as they are
cast upon the ground, and carry them forth and lay them upon the
bank. Those that are about thirty years of age take a piece of the
rock of such a certain quantity, and pound it in a stone mortar with
iron pestles till it be as small as a pea, then those little stones so
pounded are taken from them by the women and older men who cast
them into mills that stand together near at hand there in a long row,
and two or three of them being employed at one mill, they grind it so

long till it be as small as fine meal, according to the pattern given
them. No care at all is taken of the bodies of these poor creatures,
so that they have not a rag so much as to cover their nakedness, and
no man that sees them can choose but irmst commiserate their sad and
deplorable condition. For though they are sick, maimed or lamed, no
rest nor intermission in tlie least is allowed them, neither the weak-
ness of old age nor the infirmities of women are any plea to excuse
them ; but all are driven to their work with blows and cudgelling, till
at length overborne with the intolerable weight of their misery, they
drop down dead in the midst of their insufferable labours; so that
these miserable crea'ures always expect worse to come than that
which they at present endure, and therefore long for death as far more
desirable than life.

At length the masters of the work take stone thus ground to powder,
and carry it away in order to the perfecting of it. They spread the
mineral so ground upon a broad board somewhat hollow and lying
shelving, and pouring water upon it, rub it and cleanse it, and so aU
the earthy and drossy parts being separated from the rest by the water,
it runs off the board, and the gold by reason of its weight remains be-
hind. Then washing it several times again, they first rub it lightly
with their hands, afterwards they draw up the earthy and drossy mat-
ter with slender sponges gently applied to the powdered dust, till it
be clean pure gold. At last other workmen take it away by weight
and measure, and they put it into earthen urns, and according to the
quantity of the gold in every urn, they mix it with some lead, grains
of salt, a little tin, and barley bran; then covering the pot close, and
carefully daubing them with clay, they put them in a furnace where
they abide five days and niglits together ; then after a convenient time
that they have stood to cool, nothing of the other matter is to be found
in the pots, but only pure refined gold, some little diminished in the
weight.

And thus is gold prepared in the borders of Egypt, and perfected
and completed with so many and so great toils and vexations. And
therefore I cannot but conclude that nature itself teaches us, that as
gold is got with labo\ir and toil, so it is kept with difficulty, creates
everywhere the greatest cares, and the use of it is mixed both with
pleasure and sorrow. Yet the invention of those metals is very an-
cient, being found out, and made use of by the ancient kingS:

Assyrian Engineem.vg.

Keeping Diodorus Siculus as our guide, we now come to such notes
as he has left of Assyrian engineering. (Book Second.)

WALLS OF NINEVEH.

Ninus (1950 B. C.) is styled the builder of Nineveh, having pro-
vided money and treasure and other things necessary for the purpose,
he built a city near the river Euphrates, very famous for its walls and
fortifications, of a long form ; for on both sides it ran out in length
above a hundred and fifty furlongs ; but the two lesser angles were
only ninety furlongs a piece; so that the circumference of the whole
was four hundred and fourscore furlongs. And the founder was not
herein deceived, for none ever built the like, either as to the largeness
of its circumference, or the stateliness of its walls; for the wall was a
hundred feet in height, and so broad that three chariots might be
driven together upon it abreast. There were fifteen hundred turrets
upon the walls each of them two hundred feet high.

BABYLON.

Semiramis, the wife of Ninus, was the founder of Babylon. To this
end having provided architects, artists, and all other necessaries for
the work, she got together two millions of men out of all parts of the
empire to be employed in the building of the city. It was so built
that the river Euphrates ran through the middle of it, and she com-
passed it round with a wall of three hundred and sixty furlongs ia
circuit, and adorned with many stately turrets; and such was the state
and grandeur of the work, that the walls were of that breadth that six
chariots abreast might be driven together upon them. Their height
was such as exceeded all men's belief that heard of it (as Ctesias
Cnidius relates). But Clitarchus, and those who afterwards went over
with Alexander into Asia, have written that the walls were in circuit
three hundred and sixty-five furlongs; the queen making them ol that
compass, to the end that the furlongs should be as many in number as
the days of the year. The walls were of brick cemented with asphalte;
in height, as Ctesias says, fifty fathoms ; but as some of the later
writers report, but fifty cubits oiily, and that the breadth was but little
more than what would allow two- chariots to be driven afront. There
were two hundred and fifty turrets in height and thickness proportion-
able to the largeness of the wall. It is not to be wondered at that
there were so few towers upon a wall of so great circuit, seeing th-at
in many places round the city, there were deep morasses; so that it

' 2 G 2

510

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[July,

■was jii'lccd to no purpose to riiise (urrcts in fihiccs so nafuiiilly forti-
fied. ISptween tlif wall and the booses there was a space left round
the c\(y of two Inindred feet. That tlie work might be th^r more
speedily dispalcdied, to each of her friends was allotted a furlong, with
an allowance of all exprnscs necessary for their several parts, and
commanded all should be finished in a year's time; which being dili-
gently perfected to the queen's approbation, she then made a bridge
over the narrowest part of the river five furlongs in length, laying the
sup])orts and pillars of the arches with great art and skill in the bot-
tom of the water twelve feet distance from each other. That the
stones might be the more firmly joined, they were bound together with
hooks of iron, and the joints filled up with molten lead. And before
the pillars she made defences (sterlings) with sharp pointed angles,
to receive the water before it beat upon the flat sides of the pillars,
which caused the course of the water to run round by degrees
gently an{l moderately as far as to the broad sides of the pillars, so
that the sharp points of the angles cut the stream, and gave a check to
its violence, and the roundness of them by little and little giving way,
abated the force of the current. This bridge was floored with great
joists and planks of cedar, cypress and palm trees, and was thirty feet
in breadth, and for art and cuiiosity yielded to none of the works of
Semirami^. On either side of the river she raised a bank, as broad as
the wall, and with great cost drew it out in length a hundred furlongs.
Semiramis built likewise two palaces at each end of the bridge, upon
the bank of the river, whence she might have a prospect over the
•whole city, and make her passage as by keys to the most convenient places
in it as she had occasion. And whereas Euiihiates runs through the
middle of Babylon, making its course to the south, the palaces lie the
one on the east, and the other on the west side of the river, both built
at exceeding cost and expense. For that on the west had a high and
stately wall, made of burnt brick, sixty furlongs in compass ; within
this was drawn another of a round form, upon wliich were pourtrayed
in the bricks, before they were burned, all sorts of living creatures, as
if it were to the life, laid with great art in curious colours. Our
author goes on further to describe the ornaments of the palaces, which
as less connected with our object we omit. He also describes the
formation of a vaulted passage between the two palaces under the
Euphrates, made by diverting the river. He says that the walls of
this vault were twer.ty bricks in thickness, and twelve feet high, be-
side and above the arches ; and the breadth was fifteen feet. The
arches were of firm and strong brick, and plastered all over on both
sides with bitumen four cubits thick. This piece of work being
finished in two hundred and sixty days, the river was turned into its
ancient channel again.

SEMIRAMIS'S WAT.

In a march towards Ecbatana, Semiramis arrived at the mountain
Larcheum, which being many furlongs in extent, and full of steep pre-
cipices imd craggy rocks, there was no ])assing but by long and tedious
windings and turnings. To leave therefore behind her an eternal
monument of her name, and to make a short Cut for her passage, she
caused the rocks to be hewn down, and the valleys to be tilled up
with earth, and so in a short time at a vast expense laid the way open
and plain, w hich to this day is called Semiramis's way.

AQUEDUCT AT ECBATANA.

Besides this road, when she came to Ecbatana, which is situated in
a low and even plain, she built there a stately palace, and bestowed
more of her care and pains than she had done at any other place. For
the city wanting w-ater, (there being no spring near) she plentifully
supplied it with good and wholesome water, brought thither with a
great deal of toil and expense after this manner. Tliere is a mountain
called Orontes, twelve furlongs distant from the city, exceedingly high
and steep for the space of five and twenty furlongs (query) up 'to the
top; on the other side of this mountain there is a great lake which
empties itself into the river. At the foot of this mountain she dug a
canal fifteen feet in breadth and forty in depth, through which she
conveyed water in great abundance into the city.

BRIDGE OF BOATS.

In her expedition into India, Diodorus relates that to cross the river,
she carried with her boats, and made a bridge of boats by which she
crossed.

SEMIRAMIS DEinED.

After her death or disappearance, Semiramis was adored by the
Assyrians in the form of a dove, it being believed that she" was
enthroned amocg the gods.

MEMNON'S CAUSEWAY.

Of this work Diodorus gives the following account. Memnoo, the

son of Tithon, governor of Persia, was in the flower of his age, strong
and courageous, and had built a palace in the citadel of Susa, which
retained the name of Memnonia to the time of the Persian empire.
He pa\ed also there a common highway, which is called Memnon's
way to this day ; but the Ethiopians of Egypt question this, and say
that MemnoD was their countryman, and show several ancient palaces,
which (they say) retain his name to this day, being called Memnon's
palaces.

We shall now cull from the Fifth Book of Diodorus a number of de-
sultory notes on different subjects, and first as to the

IRON MINES OF ETHALIA.

This island (Elba) abounds with iron stone, which they dig and cut
out of the ground to melt, in order for the making of iron; much of
wdiich met il is in this sort of stone. The workmen employed first,
cut the stones in pieces, and then melt them in furnaces, built and pre-
pared for the purpose. In these furnaces, the stones by the violent
heat of the fire, are melted into several pieces, in form like to great
sponges, which the merchants buy by truck and exchange of other
wares, and transport them to Dicearchia, and other mart towns.

TIN MINES OF BRITAIN.

Now'we shall speak something of the tin which is dug and gotten
here. They who inhabit the British promontory of Bolerium, by rea-
son of their converse with merchants, are more civilized and courteous
to strangers than the rest are. These are the people that make the
tin, wliii h with a great deal of care and labour they dig out of the
ground : and that being rocky, the metal is mixetl w ith some veins of
earth, out of which they melt the metal, and then refine it. Then
they beat it into four square pieces like to a die, and carry it to a
British Isle near at hand, called Ictis (Wight).*

GOLD MINES OF GAUL — ARMS.

In Gaul there are no silver mines, but much gold, with which the
nature of the place supplies the inhabitants, without the labour or toil
of digging in the mines. For the winding course of the river washing
with its streams the foot of the mountain, carries away great pieces
of golden earth ; and when it is so done, they cleanse them from the
gross earthy part, by washing them in water, and then melt them in a
furnace; and thus get together a vast heap of gold, with which not
only the women, but the men deck and adorn themselves.

As the arms used by the Gauls are calculated to show the progress
made by them in the working of other metals, we copy the following
descriptions. Some carry on their shields the shapes of beasts in
brass, artificially wrought, as well for defence as ornament. Upon
their heads they wear helmets of brass, with large pieces of work
raised upon them for ostentation sake, to be admirecl by the beholders ;
for they have either horns of the same metal joined to them, or the
shape of birds and beasts carved upon them. Some of them wear
iron breastplates, and hooked ; but others, content with what arms na-
ture affords them, fight naked. For swords they use a long and broad
weapon called s/jaMa, which they hang across their right thigh by iron
or brazen chains. Some gird themselves over their coats, with belts,
ornamented with gold or silver. For darts they cast those they call
lances, the iron shafts of which are a cubit or more in length, and
almost two hands in breadth.

CELTIBERIAN MODE OF PREPARING IRON.

They carry two edged swords exactly tempered with steel, and
have daggers beside of a span long, which they make use of in close
fights. They make weapons and darts in an admirable manner, for
they bury plates of iron so long under ground, till the rust hath con-
sumed the greater part, and so the lest becomes more strong and firm :
of this they make their swords and other warlike weapons, and with
these arms thus tempered, they so cut through every thing in their
way, that neither shield, helmet, nor bone can withstand them.

SILVER MNES OF SPAIN.

Having related what concerns the Iberians, we conceive it not im-
pertinent to say something of their silver mines; for almost all this
country is full of such mines, whence is dug very good and pure silver;
from which those who deal in that metal gain exceeding great profit.
The Pyrencan mountains are the highest and greatest of all others,
and being full of woods, and thick of trees, it is reported that in an-
cient time this mountainous tract was set on fire by some shepherds,
and continuing burning for many days together, (whence the mountains
were called Pyrenean or fiery), the parched superficies of the earth
sweated abundance of silver, and the ore being melted, the metal
flowed down in streams of pure silver, like a river; the use whereof

* V'.ilso, Spain.

1841.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

217

being unknown to the inhabifcmis, the Phenician merchants bought it
for trifles given for it in exchange, and by transporting it into Greece,
Asia and all other countries, greatly enriched thfuiselves ; and snch
was their covetousness, that vvhen'they had fully laden their ships,
and had much more silver to bring aboard, they cut off the lead from
their anchors, and made use of silver instead of the other. The Phe-
nicians for a long time using this trade, and so growing more and more
■jvealthy, sent many colonies into Sicily and the neighbouring islands,
and at length into Africa and Sardinia; but a long time after the
Iberians coming to understand the nature of the metal, sank many
large mines, whence they dug an infinite quantity of pure silver, (as
never was the like almost in any other place of the world), whereby
they gained exceeding great wealth and revenues. The maimer of
working in these mines, and ordering^ the metal among the Iberian^
is thus; there being extraordinary ricli mines in this country of gold,
as well as of silver and brass, the labourers in the brass take a fourth
part of the pure brass dug up, to their own use, and the common
labourers in silver have aEuboick talent for their labour in three days
time: for the whole soil is full of solid and shining ore, so that both
the nature of the ground, and the industry of the workmen is admirable.
At the iirst every common person might dig for this metal, and in re-
gard that the silver ore was easily got, ordinary men grew very
rich ; but after Iberia came into the hands of the Romans, the
mines were managed by a throng of Italians, wdiose covetousuess loaded
them with abundance' of riches, for they bought a great number of
slaves, and delivered them to the task masters and overseers of the
mines. These slaves open the mouths of the mine in many places,
where digging deep into the ground, are found massy clods of earth,
full of gold and silver; and in sinking both in length and depth, they
carry on their works in undermining the earth many furlongs distance,
the workmen everv w'ay here and there making galleries under ground,
and bringing up all the massy pieces of ore, (wlience the profit and
gain is to he had), even out of the lowest bowels of the earth. There
is a great difference between these mines and tlmse in Attica ; for
besides the laljour, they that search there are at great cost and charge ;
and besides are ol^ten frustrated of their hopes, and sometimes lose
what they had found, so that theyssem to be unfortunate to a proverb.
But those in Iberia who deal in mines, according to their expectations,
are greatly enriched by their labours ; for they succeed at the very
first sinking, and afterwards by reason of the extraordinary richness of
he soil, they find more and more resplendent veins of ore, full of gold
and silver; for the whole soil round about is interlaced on every
hand with these metals. Sometimes at a great depth they meet with
rivers under ground, but by art give a check to the violence of their
current; for by cutting of trenches under ground, they divert the
stream ; and being sure to gain what they aim at, when they have be-
gun, they never leave till they have finished it ; and to admiration they
pump out those floods of water with those instruments called Egyptian
pumps, invented by Archimedes the Syracusan, when he was in Egypt.
By these with constant pumping by turns they throw up the water to
the mouth of the pit, and by this means drain the mine dry, and make
the place fit for their work. For this engine is so ingeniously con-
trived, that a vast quantity of water is strangely with little labour cast
out, and the whole flux is thrown up from the very bottom to the sur-
face of tlie eartli. The ingenuily of the artist is justly to be admired,
not only in ihese pumps, but in many other far greater things, for
which he is famous all the world over, of which we shall distinctly
give an exact enumeration, when we come to the time wherein he
lived. Now though these slaves that continue as so many prisoners
in these mines, incredibly enrich their masters by their labour, yet
toiling night and day in these golden prisons, many of them by being
over wrought, die under ground ; for they have no rest or intermission
from their labours ; but the taskmasters by stripes force them to in-
tolerable hardships, so that at length they die most miserably. Some
that through the strength of their bodies, and vigour of their spirits
are able to endure it, continue a long time in those miseiies, whose
calamities are such, that death to them is far more eligible than life.
Since these mines aftbrded such wonderful riches, it may be greatly
admired that none appear to have been sunk of later times ; but in
answer thereunto the covetousness of the Carthaginians, when they
were masters of Spain, opened all.

In many places of Spain there is also found tin ; but not upon the
surface of the ground as some historiaus report, but they dig it up, and
melt it down as they do gold and silver. Above Lusitania there is
much of this tin metal that is in the islands lying in the ocean over
against Iberia, which are therefore called Cassiterides; and much of
it is likewise franported out of Britain into Gaul, the opposite con-
tinent.

( To be conlirtjied.)

HISTORICAL SKETCH ON THE USE OF BRONZE IN
WORKS OF ART.

By Cesar Daly, Architect.

(Tramlakd for the Civil Engineer and Archileci's Journal from the
Revue Generate de I'Archilecliire.)

Some years ago, many, otherwise remarkable for their learning,
would ask in wdiat. degree modern civilization differed from that of
ancient Greece or Rome r and even in the present day there are some
who will ask the same question, even in England, in the heart of
London, or of Manchester, or of Piirmingham, with a thick cloud of
coal smoke from a hundred factories rolling in volumes over their
heads. To these a feature so extraordinary, unknown to the ancients,
tells no tale, though it is one which marks most strongly the character
of modern times, superior in its power over physical nature, and the
great development it has given to the eftbrts of mechanical invention.
So generally, indeed, is the industrial character of modern times un-
noticed, that we have scarcely any accounts of the various branches
of manufactures, or of the subject generally, ahhough this practical
history is one which has the greatest interest in relation to the human
race. ' This history in all its ramifications, whether as to the tools
employed or the materials upon which they are exercised, would open
a wide field of research, capable of ample gratification, notwithstand-
ing the manner in which the records are dispersed. Among the
metals and their alloys known at an early 'period, none has been de-
voted to such important uses as bronze, to which we shall devote the
present essay.

Had the art of metallurgy been better known in distant periods, and
the use of iron and steel more prevalent at a former epoch, or even
had copper been more extensively used, we should have remained
ignorant of much of the material history of antiquity, for both of the
former metals disappear under the influence of rust, and copper is
also a sufferer from the action of damp. Thus, while in the Portici
Museum the bronze articles are well preserved, those of copper have
been more or less affected, and those of iron are scarcely recognizable.

Copper was known in the earliest times, and is mentioned by Moses;
but the difficulty of working it with the hammer, and the higii degree
of heal requisite to melt it, greatly limited its use. It was fortunately
not long before the properties of a mixture of copper and liu were
discovered, a mixture with greater tenacity and risistance tliun cop-
per alone, fusible at a lower temperature, and denser than the mean
of its components. By this mixture was obtained a metal which
readily flowed into every part of the mould, so as to take a correct
impress of the pattern, while it was hard enough to wear \yell, was
not britt'e, and so far from being injured by oxidation, which only
affected it slightly, it was preserved by it from the action of the at-
mosphere, taking the beautiful colour which is so much admired.
The proviileutial discovery of these properties doubtless gave a great
impulse to the infant civilization of the early stages of society, afford-
ing at the same time a greater facility fur manufacture united with
greater durability. Thus it came to be employed for arms and edge
tools by all the nations of antiquity, whether Indians, Chinese, Egyp-
tians and Hebrews, Greeks, Etruscans, Romans or Celts. In con-
nexion with them, indeed, it might be well said that for many long
ages bronze was the iron of the ancients. The fine arts were not long
in making use of it, and we finil it ministering to the decoration^ of
many of the most ancient monuments of Egypt. In Scripture we find
that the Philistines, after the capture of Sampson, loaded him with
chains of brass, and Josephus relate.s that Solomon employed Hiram of
Tyre to make two columns of bronze richly decorated, eighteen cubits
high, twelve cubits in circumference, and four inches in thickness, or
four times as thick as that on the Column of July. The columns were
placed at the entrance of the porch of the Temple at Jerusalem.
From these works we may judge that working in copper and brass
was already of old date at this distant period.

We are quite in the dark as to the processes of melting and form*
of the furnaces used by the ancients ; liut we can readily judge, from
the interest, in these days of the progress of science, still attached to
the casting of bronze on a large scale, of the difficulties to wliich
workmen must have been subjected in the rude state of chemistry and
metallurgy. In Greece the use of bronze was very common ; the
CbalcicBcos, at Lacedemon, was a temple of bronze, dedicated to Mi«
nerva, and executed about 750 years before the Christian era by the
celebrated Gitiadas, poet, sculptor, and architect. Every part of this
building, from the top to the bases of the columns, was entirely
covered with plates of bronze decorated with mythological sculptures.
Pausanias (B. 10, ch. 5,) relates that when the temple of Apollo at
Delphi was rebuilt for the third time, it was constructed of copper,
which is not surprising, adds he, as Acrisius had a bronze room made

218

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[July,

for bis (laiiglilpr, and as there is still to be seen at Sparta the temple
of Minerva Cbalciaecos. lie goes on further to say, "at Rome, the
place ill which justice is admii.istered excites surprise by its grandeur
and inagiiifiecnce : but what is most admired is a bronze ceiling, wliicli
extends from one side to the other. The same author, who attributes
to Theodosius and Racos of .Samos the discovery of founding statues
in bronze,* informs us that it was alwut the year COU before our era
that this art was first practised. This, like all the other arts, made
great progress in the time of Pericles, but did not reach its full
height until the age of Alexander, v/hrn each of the prineipal cities
of Greece possessed several thousand ligures of bron^^e, among which
were some enormous colossi. This is what Pliny siiys in liis 24th
book, sec. IS, "There arc numberless instances of boldness in this art,
for we sec that enormous colossal masses have been executed as large
as towers. Such is the Apollo of the Capitol, brought from Apollonia,
a city of Pontiis, by M. Lucullus ; this is thirty cubits high, and cost
fifty talents. Such is the Jupiter of the Campus Martins, consecrated
bv the Emperor Claudius, and called Pompeian, because it is near
Pompey's Theatre ; such is that of Tarentum, executed by Lysippus,
and which is forty cubits in height. What is most remarkable as to
this figure is, that it is so well balanced that it may be moved by the
hand, although it could not be upset by a whirlwind. The mcst ad-
mired of these colossi was that of the .Sun at Rhodes, made by Chares
of Lindus, a pupil of Lysippus. This figure was seventy cubits high,
was overturned JG years after its completion by an earthcpiake ; but
cast down as it is, it still excites admiration. Very few men can put
their arms round the thumb, the fingers are bigger than most statues,
and tlie hollows in the broken limbs are like tlie yawning mouths of
caves ; inside are seen stones of large size, which were used to settle
it on its base. It is said to have been finished in twelve years, and to
have cost three hundred talents, a sum produced by the warlike en-
gines of King Demetrius, when he raised the siege of Rhodes. In the
city are a hundred other smaller colossi, each of which would be
worthy of bestowing distinction on the town in which it might be
placed ; besides these are five colossi of gods by Biyaxis. Italy has
also produced colossi, for we see in the library of the temple of Au-
gustus, the Tuscan Apollo, which is fifty feet higli from the toe, and
in wliicii it is diilicult to tell which to admire most, the bronze or the
beauty of the workmanship. Spurius Carvilius had a Jupiter made
for the Capitol out of the helmets, cuirasses and greaves of the con-

?[uered Sanmites. The size of this statue is such that it may be seen
rom the place in which is the Latial Jupiter. But in our times,
Zenodorus has surpassed all the figures of this kind in height, in the
Mercury which he made for a city of the Gauls in Auvergne. This
was ten years in execution, and cost four hundred thousand sisterces."
It is ))rubab!e that these colossi were formed of a number of pieces
secured with nails, like so much brazier's work, for it is thus that the
ancients made their metal -statues before they had acquired the art of
founding. At Lillebonne in Normandy, a few years ago, in the course
of the excavations for uncovering tlie Roman theatre, a bronze Mer-
cury was found made in this manner. In reading the travels of Pau-
sanias in Greece, we cannot but feel surprised at the immense number
of bronze works in sculpture which lie meets with at e-. ery step, par-
ticularly when we recollect that this country has been in tlie possession
of the Romans for three centuries, and that they liad already, on seve-
ral occasions, carried away thousands of bronze figures. Of 33colossi
described by the tourist, 3U were of bronze, the three others of wood ;
he also describes 32 equestrian statues of bronze and 24 chariots, at
least of natural size, sometimes with two, and oftener with four horses,
and lioldingone or two figures. Some were accompanied by runners
or grouped with men on font who led them ; in fine, he mentions more
than 4i> animals of considerable size, also of bronze. And yet Pau-
sanias only visited a part of Greece. It was of bronze that the Athe-
nians, after the death of Pisistratus, formed the first quadriga, in
memory of their fellow countrymen who died while lighting for their
native land Of bronze also is constructed, in cur days, the Monument
of July. Bronze is, in truth, the symbol of strength, "and it is interest-
ing to observe how the same metal has been chosen, at two perioils so
remote, to consecrate the remembrance of facts having so much re-
semblance.

The Romans, as we iiave seen from extracts before given, made
frequent use of bronze, and like the Greeks, employed it in the form
of candelabra, lamps, furniture, triclinia, altars, tripods, tools, fasten-
ings, letters for monumental inscriptions, window fastenings, &c. The
doors were sometimes plated witli bronze, secured with nails of the
same inctal ; such as tliose of the Pantheon. Pliny (B. 34, ^ 7,) says
that the ancients were accustomed to make the threshold and gates of
temples of bronze. Ancient gates entirely formed of bronze are still

■ \i.Je B. 8, ch. 14 ; li. "j ; B. 10, also Pliny B. 24. ch. t.

to be seen in the church of St. Cosmo and St. Dimiua in the Forum at
Rome, formerly the temple of Romulus and Remus, and this hixiuy
was not exclusively confined to temples, for, 3S0 years before our era,
the ornaments were of bronze on the doors of the house of Camillus.
By means of cramps large masses of bronze ornaments and carvings
were fastened on monuments by way of decoration. On bronze tablets
were engraved laws, treaties of peace, and public acts intended to be
made known to posterity, Three tiiousand of these tablets were
destroyed in the tire of the Capitol, in the time of Vespasian. Capi-
tals were also made of bronze, which were secured on cores of stone.
Pliny relates that "C. CJctavius, who conquered Perseus in a naval
action, erectf d, in honour of his triumph, a double portico, which was
called Corinthian because the capitals of the columns were of bronze;
this portico was near the Plamiuian Circus; the capitals of the Pan-
theon, placed there by Agrippa, are of the same metal." The Ro-
mans further applied bronze in the execution of works on alarge scale;
the framing of the Pantheon was constructed of bronze, and, according
to Serlio, who had examined it in its place, the. different pieces were
hollow; they were put together in the same way as woodwork. The
caissons of the vault of this monument were also of bronze, and the
circle which frames the opening by which the Rotunda is lighted still
remains. In the baths of Caracalla the ceiling of the immense hall
known as the Cella Soleai is was formed of a network of bronze ; a
fact of which ^I. Blouet did not seem to be aware when he published
his restoration of that monument. The ancients also constructed
roofing of bronze, for at Rome, 212 years before the Christian era, the
temple of Vesta, at-Rome, was covered with tiles of bronze, and so,
at a later period, was the Pantheon. As to bronze statues, there was
at Rome a number truly prodigious, brought from all the great cities
of Etruria, Greece, Sicily, and Asia Minor. Scaurus having erected a
temporary theatre at Rome, towards the end of the republic, decorated
it with three thousand of these statues.

The art of the founder naturally underwent all the vicissitudes of
the other arts ; in the time of Nero the decadence had already com-
menced, it not being possible to cast the colossal statue of that em-
peror, modelled by Zenodorus, and which was to have been lit) .feet
high,* although a century afterwards the beautiful equestrian statue
of Marcus Aurelius was cast. Falconnet, in comparing these two
facts, endeavours to make out a case for an attack on Pliny ; but it
seems to us that the circumstances may be reconciled by supposing
that casting in bronze had been momentarily neglected before the
time of Zenodorus, '.uid that they had been more suecessfuily culti-
vated in the time of Marcus Aurelius, for a similar circumstance hap-
pened in our own days. The brothers Keller, under Louis XIV.,
carried the art of casting in bronze to a high degree of perfection ; but
under Louis XV. the founders were not so good ; and in the early
part of the empire, great difliculties were met with in executing works
of this kind, whilst now tlie art of casting in bronze has made greater
progress than ever. Besides, it may be said that whenever a process
is not carried on scientifically, while the reason of the dirt'erent phe-
nomena has not been discovered, and the artist consequently is reduced
to take the bare results of experience for his guide, the neglect of the
art for some time is enough to cause tlie facts to be forgotten, and
the guides are consequently lost. This, however, cannot happen when
the theory of an art is firmly based on scientific principles, and the
reason of the phenomena is consequently understood ; drawing our
conclusions, from which we may say that the art of casting in bronze
will henceforward never be lost, even should it be neglected for cen-
turies ; a few trials would be enough to bring it b.ick to the point at
which it had been left.

In the Middle Ages.

During the Lower Empire, nothing remarkable was executed ex-
cept some bronze gates, ami the process of casting seems to have been
quite lost at Constantinople. The gates of the Basilica of St. Paul,
at Rome, were cast in the 1 1th century by Staurachios Tychitos of the
isle of Chios. In the 1 1th century were cast those of the basilica of
St. Zeno, at Verona, on which are represented passages of the Old
Testament and the miracles of the saint. The bronze gates of St.
Mark, at Venice, were also brought from Constantinople in the I3th
century.

Germany possesses some bronze gates of the 1 1th century, such as
those of Mentz and Augsburg. In 1330, Andrea Ugolino executed
two panels for gates in bronze, from the designs of Giotto, for the
Baptistry of Florence. Ghiberti finished his chef d'a'uvre in 1424.
In the 15th and IGth centuries several gates of bronze were cast at
Venice, Padua, Bologna, Florence, Pisa, Loretto, &c,; but these works
were not sufficient to prevent the art of casting in bronze from falling

' Pliny, E. 34, § 7. Suetonius says 120 feet.

1841.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL

219

into complete oblivion, and during almost the whole of the middle
ages this avt was wlioUy limited to casting bells.

I:; Modern Times.

At the Revival appeared several bronze works of art, in which
Italian artists, and particularly those of the famous school of Florence,
In the beginning of the lljth century, distinguished themselves most,-
and contributed most etiicaciously in ditfusing a taste for it in difierent
European countries. The sculptor Torrigiani ));\ssed several years in
England, where Henrv VIII. gave him several commissions for bronze
works. I'rimaticcio also executed, at Fontainebleau, several bronze
.statues from antique models which he liad hruuglit from Uome. At
this time there were several French artists who were employed in
brass founding ; but their modes of proceeding seem to have been very
imperfect, for Benvenuto Cellino relates in liis memoirs that during
bis stav in France, he vi-ished to cast a bronze statue of Jupiter about
six feet high, which had been ordered of him by Francis I. ; "but never
having been engaged in this kind of work," said he, '• I consulted
some of the old masters of Paris, and explained to them how we
managed in Italy. They replied that their manner was dilferent, and
that if I would leave it to them, they were sure to make my model in
bronze such as it was in clay. I made my bargain with them ; 1 pro-
mised them the price tliey asked, and even something over. I put
my hand to work, but 1 could see well enough that they were not try-
ing the right way. I wanted also to try myself upon a head of Julius
Csesar, larger than life, made after the model of a small head designed
from a beautiful antique which I had brought from Rome. I added
to it a head of the same size which I modelled from that of a beautiful
girl in my service, and whom I called Fontainebleau, from the name
of His Majesty's favourite palace. When I saw my furnaces finished,
and our models baked, I said to my master founders, I fear that the
Jupiter will not come out well, because you have not left draught
enough for the air ; but they replied that, if tliey did not succeed,
they would give me my money back again, and that I should tind less
chance of success in the Italian method. This took place before some
gentlemen whom the king often sent to see how I was getting on.
Before casting the melted metal for the Jupiter, the founders wanted
also to place my two heads to cast them at the same time, feeling
persuaded that their mode would not succeed, and that it would be a
pity to lose such 6ne works; but the king, who learnt it, sent to them
to tell them that they must think of learning from their master, and
not of teaching him. Then, smiling, they put their Jupiter in the pit,
and I also arranged my two heads at the sides, and when the metal
was ready, we left a free passage for it. Our moulds were quite
filled, and we were all happy, I, with having succeeded in my way,
and they in theirs. They asked me for something to drink, and I
gave them plenty of refreshments ; they then asked me to pay the
sum I had promised them. You smile, said I to them, then, but I
very much fear that you will cry soon; for I saw that more metal ran
into the Jupiter than was wanted, and that is the reason that I shall
not pay you until it is all right. These poor men felt that I was in the
right, and went away without saying anytliing. They returned the
next day very quietly to empty their pit, and began with the two
heads, which were perfect; they then came to the Jupiter, which
caused them to cry out, as I thought, for joy, and which made me run,
but I found their faces like those of the soldiers who watched the.
tomb of Christ. You see, said I, what has happened to you from not
believing me ; you would have reaped more profit and I more honour.
Learn, then, to work, and not to laugh at what is said to you. They
acknowledged their error, but they regretted their time and expenses,
on account of their families, whom tliey had to keep, and for which
they should be obliged to run into debt. Never mind that, said i, I
■will' pay you as soon as the treasurer pays me ; for I pitied them, be-
cause they had worked with a good heart." Further on, telling the
story about his statue of Perseus, which was also cast in bronze, he
says, " The model of the Medusa, made of clay, and well-secured with
iron, had already passed through the fire; I had already covered it
with was, and the bronze only was wanting. I had my furnace built
directly ; I took such good care, and the figure came out so clean, that
my friends thought it was all done, like the French and German
founders, who never finish their bronzes after they come out of the fire,
being doubtless ignorant of the practice of the ancients, and many of
the moderns, who finish off with a hammer and chisel." This remark
of Benvenuto would lead us into the belief that the French and Ger-
man bronzes contained a good deal of tin ; for when the bronze con-
tains a good deal of copper, its fusion requires a very high tempe-
rature, which vitrifies part of the sand of the mould, which, becoming
attached to the figure in cooling, requires to be removed; on tlie other
band, a larger proportion of tin making the metal more fusible, this

result was less to be feared. Benvpuuto, not contented with having
executed so many admirable works, left also a treatise on casting in
bronze, which was long the best manual on the subject.

(To be contiimed.)

ON THE POWER OF THE SCREW.

SiK — There is an article by Mr. Cussen on the above subject in your
number for May, on which allow me to make the following remarks.

His first objection to Mr. ijridge's formula seems to arise from a
want of acquaintance with the .»tyle of mechanical language. Surelv
Mr. H. just meant by d, the pitcli, or distance between the centres of
the threads, or, in general, the distance between the threads, just as
we talk of the length of an engine beam, when we mean its length be-
tween the end centres. Why did we not get an example from Bridges,
to test his meaning of the ambiguous rf?

As to his second objection, he denies that the diameter of the cylin-
der is of no importance. One of 12 inches diameter, he says, will sustain
six times tlie weight with the same power t!iat one uf 2 inches will
do. Now this is not the point at issue. We are not talking about
mere pressure, but of moving power. Let him consider that when the
machine is set io motion, the velocity of the weight up tlie inclined
plane increases as the diameter of the cylinder. Thus his advantage
is neutralized by necessitating a greater velocity. But again, it is
evident that with the same power at the same leverage, whatever he
the diameter of cylinder, the weight that can be raised through the
same height in one revolution must be the same. It is an established law
that the momenta of power and weight are equal; therefore the mo-
mentum of the power, (viz. the product of its intensity by its velocity)
Being constant, that of the weight must also be constant ; 1. 1. since the
velocity of the weight is constant, (as it is raised througli the same
height each revolution,) therefore the intensity of the weight also is
constant, and this inference is quite independent of the size of cylin-
der.

His third objection demonstrates that he has not thought three times
on what he says. He confounds the moment of power with its mome7i-
turn; a vital error. The moment of power is its intensity into its
leverage, but its momentum is its intensity into its velocity. Now
the relative velocities of the power and weight are the spaces ])assed
through by each in one revolution ; therefore the velocity of the latter
is the pitch of the screw, and that of the former just the circumference
of the circle described by its leverage. Therefore this element is
chosen correctly in Bridge's formula.

ON LONG AND SHORT CONNECTING RODS.

Observing that there exists a controve(Vsy respecting long and short
connecting rods, allow me to present the following demonstration of

Fig. 1. Fig. 2.

the justness of the action of all connecting rods, long or sliort.

Let /re fig. 1, be the crank endof a side lever of a marine engine, eb
the connecting rod, and ab the crank moving as per arrow in the circle
6 /. The resistance at 6 acts always in the line of the connecting rod ;
let ec represent it in direction and intensity, just when the slightest
overplus of power would set the engine in motion. The power acts
always in the liae §• erf perpendicular to ke; complete the parallel-

220

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ArX'IHTECTS JOURNAL.

[July,

ograiM d m, tlieii e d and rfc are equivalent to e c, and these three forces
are in c(|uilibiium. Thrrefore, cc being the resistance, de is the
power, ami dc or c ;«, the pressnre on the centre k, whicli, as it never
has intilion, is of no consequence. Taking any point/in be produced,
drawy"^' perpendicular to it, meeting eg in gi jyand eg will express
the relative virtual velocities of the resistance and po\Ver respectively,
andy"^, the ))assivc lateral motion of the line of resistance, — jiassive,
I say, for its direction is at right angles to thi^, and it is therefore of
no consequence. Hut the triangles /e^, rfcc, are similar, therefore
de '. ec '. '. /e : eg, and de- egz=fe- ec, that is, the momenta of
the power aid resistance are equal. The same conclusion is due at
every olhcr point in the circle b I, An addition to the power will set
the engine in motion, which would be uniformly accelerated were it
not that the resistance ircreascs with the velocity. However great,
then, the power maybe, there will ultimately obtain a uniform motion,
when the power and resistance will be in equilibrium, their momenta
being equal, as before. Therefore in connecting rod motion, force for
force is given and received, and there is no loss essential to that mo-
tion.

The point e of ke moves alternately in a circle. The greater limit
of this ang\ilar vibration is a semicircle, in which case ke 7^ ab. The
smaller limit is a straight line > an indefinitely small portion'of a circle,
its radius A' (, being indefinitely long. This limit is practically exem-
plified in engines in which the piston rod is at once jointed to the
connecting rod, as in the annexed sketch, fig. 2, of this motion, in
• which a 6, and 6 e are the same as in last figure ; e /■ the cross head,
bearing perpendicularly on the slide surface I m, parallel to the piston
rod A(, evidently in the same way as if bearing round a centre k, in-
finitely distant.

Upon the whole, then, short and long connecting rods on the same
length of crank must be equally effective, whatever peculiarities there
be.

I am, Sir, your obedient servant,

Daniel Clark.
Phexnix Iron Works, Glasgow,
JujieS, 1841.

SLOPES IN SIDELONG GROUND.

Sir — The following formula for "setting out slopes in sidelong
ground," requiring the distances to be measured along the ground,
and not horizontally, has, for that reason (particularly where the ground
is very steep), an advantage over the formula in your last number;
should you agree with me in this opinion, you will perhaps find a
place for it in your next Journal.

Let 2 >» = width of the railway =: AB.

0=2/. of the slopes.

e= Z of the natural ground.

h = depth of cutting = C G.
Then (w tan (3 + F Z ) = C F.

sin C F D

C D = (w tan 0 -\- l>) '.„r-v^ = ('' t^" P + J>)

cos $

C E = (ro tan /3 + A) \

sinC EF
sin C F D

= {m tan $ + h)

sin (/3 -f e)
cos 0

sin C D F ^ ■" " ' ■■' sin (6 — e)
The slopes remaining constant then rs tan 0 will be constant, and

therefore the angle CDF will also be constant.

I am, Sir, your's most obediently,

Manchester, June 8, 1841.

W. R.

THE NELSON COLUMN.

Sir — As the Nelson column rises to view, we become sensible of
wli;it appears to be a great mistake in the position of it, and which
ought to have been in a line drawn from the centre of the portico of
the National Gallery through the Statue of Charles I., which appears
as it ought to do in the centre of Whitehall ; whereas the column seen
from the same spot, will appear considerably to the right of the statue,
and will be engaged with Drummond's Bank, the Admiralty, &c., in-
stead of appearing to rise in the centre of the street, and thus pro-
ducing a most awkward effect, whether as seen from the centre of the
portico, or in approaching it as you come from Whitehall. This might
easily have been avoided by placing the column in a line with the
statue, which line, though not q.iite perpendicular to the plane of the
portico, would have deviated from it in so very slight a degree as not
to be jierceptible to the eye, while the present position will produce
an elfect so glaringly awkward as at once to strike every beholder. —
The mistake of the architect consists in having thought it necessary
to place the column in a line perpendicular to the plane of the portico,
whereas his object should have been to make the column appear to
rise in the centre of the street, as seen from the portico which could
have been done by the very slight and imperceptible deviation from
the perpendicular above mentioned.

I am. Sir, your's,

^STHETICUS.

ON THE THEORY OF BARS.

" Lorsque I'homme s'ecarte de la vraie cause d'un objet quelconque,
il doit se considerer dans les tenebres, et il est force de chercher des
arguments absurdes, dans lesquels il se perd, ce qui fait que les
sciences deviennent ridicules dans I'opinion du vulgaire." — Cuvier on
marine deposits.

Sir — Pursuant to the notice I gave in the last number of your valuable
Journal, I take leave to send you for insertion the following observa-
tions on a "New Theory of Bars, &c., by Mr. Brooks."

The importance of the subject to this great naval and nautical na-
tion, and to the maritime commerce of the world, should admonish us
to pursue the investigation of this matter with the most cautious and
serious consideration, for as it is well observed in the quotation at the
head of Mr. Brooks' treatise, "our errors in this matter are of more
importance than in mere objects of taste, luxury, or pleasure, because
they will ever result in injury, or in the loss of some previous advan-
tage." Let us also bear in mind Cuvier's reproof quoted above.

It does not appear requisite that I should refer to the many theories
quoted by Mr. B., the controversy so prevalent at present, and in past
times, in the scientific world on the subject of bars, demonstrates that
it has not received that attention and examination which can lead to a
right conclusion as to their cause, and what are the most eligible means
to obviate the many evils incident to their existence ; but I do pre-
sume that my subsequent remarks, based on facts and practical obser-
vations, will prove, that if the desideratum has not previously been
developed, Mr, B. has not reflected any new light on a subject hitherto
by many supposed to be enveloped in darkness.

It appears apposite to notice that Major Rennel, quoted by Mr. B.,
p. 1 and 2, states, " that mud and sand suspended in the waters," (i.e.
the egress waters) "during their motion are deposited when that mo-
tion ceases, or rather they are gradually deposited as the current
slackens, according to the gravity of the substance suspended ;" and
the late Mr. Telford gave a similar exposition. I did not expect in
this age of the world, any one would reject such an evident and irre-
futable fact, a principle ever in operation during the discharge of the
egress tides, or currents ; but Mr. B. p. 4, says, "1 venture to submit, that
it is insufficient," (/. e. the Major's thesis) "to account for the forma-
tion of bars, because the operation described (the deposit), as produc-
ing the latter (the bar), takes place in all rivers, in a greater or lesser
degree, and in those which although their waters are abundantly loaded
with sand or mud, are nevertheless free from bar." Mr. B. therefore
disputes the accuracy of the Major's deduction, because it is the result
of a partial, and not of a general law ; why, Mr. B. has endeavoured to
rest his entire case on local and partial data, and neglected to observe
general principles.

That all rivers, harbours, bays, estuaries, &c., where the waters pass
with a velocity sufficient to hold matter in suspension, have bedn of
sand, &c., is quite correct; but where the receding waters do not re-
turn or run out into the ocean with a force adequate to disturb the
deposit that occurred during the qniescent state of the waters, as
described by Major Rennel, there cer» •inly «o bar or exterior accumula-

1841.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL

221

tion can take place ; for matter does not move without an impetus.
Mr. B. then de facto, leaves the Major's thesis (with which I agree),
vrhere he found it, based on the solid and immoveable foundation of
truth.

It is quite obvious that the Major has adopted the thesis that I
have, viz.

1st. That wherever rivers, sluicing, or backwaters disembogue into
the ocean, either under a natural or artificial impetus, and run with
sufficient velocity to hold matter in suspension, and cause a conflicting
action with the waters into which they pass, there a bar is formed.

2nd. That wherever there is an absence of egress waters, currents,
tides or sluicing power, and where no conflicting action ensues, there
no bar exists.

3rd. That to these rules there are no exceptions throughout the
world, for wherever nature is placed under similar circumstances, she
is immutable in her results.

" Here then we fix the universal cause,
God acts by general, not by partial laws."

These primordial, universal, and indisputable facts are deduced from
an extensive field of observation of many years, and on various har-
bours, rivers, &c., during which time I have visited the Baltic, Gulf
of Finland and Bothnia, Russia, Prussia, Denmark, Sweden, Norway,
Jutland, Friesland, Holland, Belgium, France, Spain, Portugal, the
Mediterranean, Afiica's shores, and many harbours of the united king-
dom,— but all this devotion has been dealt with by Mr. Brooks in a
most summary way. and to refute my theory he has used the following
words, page 5, chap. (5, viz. : — "That the casual direction of the lower
reach, or the position of the mouth of the river cannot truly be as-
signed as the cause of the existence of a bar, is easily proved by ob-
servation on rivers s\ibject to great variations at the entrance, the bar
being always found to exist independent of the direction of the dis-
charge into the sea, this fact at once refutes the third and fourth
theories." — In this extract there seems to be two distinct facts, ;. e.
the casual direction of the lower reach, and the independence of a
bar, in the direction of the discharged waters, that is, he means that
the deposit or bar, does not occur in the direction or course of the
egress waters. With respect to Mr. B.'s assertion of the inde-
pendence of the bar, of the egress waters, I have much to say, if he
be correct, he has indeed " at once refuted my theory," and would
prove it to be a mere visionary and hypothetical deduction ; but I will
proceed to show the converse, and that he has committed, as in other
parts of his book, an egregious error. If the reader will turn to the
author's theoiy, subsequently here inserted, where he uses the icedgi to
aid his illustration, and where the battle with the elements occurs at
the first quarter flood, he will find it stated, "that in the conflict the
sand, or other materials, which it was ((. t. the effluent waters), capable
of holding in suspension previously to its encountering the conflicting
action of the flood tide, yields it to the latter, and when this takes
place the bar is/ormtd;" now observe, Mr. B. tells us that the material
which drops and forms the bar, is brought down into the ocean by the
egress or effluent waters, that as it advances onwards, (in its own
direction of course), it encounters the flood tide, and where it meets
that tide there the bar is formed ; so that Mr. B. himself destroys
the premises which he had the boldness to adopt for the annihi-
lation of my thesis. The positive and irresistable fact is, that all bars
are formed in the direction of the effluent waters, the latter are the
impetus to the matter held in suspension, and that matter m\ist fall in
the direction of the impelling power, as a shot from a gun, the ball from
the foot, or the deposit from the stream of the milldam.

Passing on towards Mr. B.'s theory, I notice in chap. 2, page 19,
"pier harbours which though free from bar in their natural state, are well
knovin to become encumbered by them, on the introduction of the
scouring power," here I suspect he cast his eye southward on Lowestoft
Piers. Scouring power no doubt (this is my principle), causes a bar,
no matter whatever way or manner it is conducted to the sea, naturally
or artificially, whether there be piers or no piers.

The commencement of chapter 11 is a mere repetition of my second
proposition, "That whenever a river or harbour approximates to
the condition of a simple inlet for the reception of the tide it would
have no bar." I endeavoured some time ago, in a conversation with
Mr. B., to illustrate this truism by a reference to various harbours
where the water did not pass into the sea, with a sufficient velocity to
disturb the bed, there no exterior deposit could take place; no matter
whether such a harbour be naturally or artificially constructed. Nor-
way,'Scotland, Ireland, Scilly Islands, Minorca, and Malta harbours, are
of the first kind ; Ramsgate, Margate, Scarboro', Cronstadt, Elsinore,
&c., the latter.

In page 13, Mr. B. in noticing the geological features of the York-
shire coast, says, "That a residence of some years on its shores, and a

close observation enables him to state, that those seas that break on
the outward platform, (the outer flat) are much heavier than those
which break nearer the shore." I bear testimony to the accuracy of
this fact, taught me in my boyish days by the boatmen, sailors and
fishermen, that on all flat shores, or in different elevated platforms (if
they must be so designated), the sea loses its force, where it is first
intercepted by the shore, and as it advances and rolls up the inclined
plane, so the concave dimension diminishes, till at last it finishes
in a mere ripple, or tiny billovr.

I have now arrived at our author's theory, and it is multitin in parw.
"During the period of the first quarter flood, the current, in lieu of
being able to take its natural upward course, as in rivers where no
bar exists, is opposed, or effectually checked, by the effluent back-
waters; the declination of the stream in the lowest division of the
river presenting a head which ensures a strong downward current,
long after the tide would have been able to maintain an upward course,
provided the backwater had a free discharge ; at this period the
flood tide, by reason of its greater specific gravity, occupies the lower
stratum of the tide-way, and like a wedge endeavours to force its
course up the channel, which it is unable to eftect, but merely elevates
the lighter effluent water, the lower strata of which, being checked
by tlie opposition of the tidal waters, yields to the latter the sand or
other materials which it was capable of holding in suspension, pre-
viously to its encountering the conflicting action of the flood tide;
where this takes place the bar is formed."

Having shown that Mr. B. has attempted to refute my thesis by the
aid of a fallacious assertion, I now proceed to prove that he has based
his own on a sandy foundation. He commences this part of his work
by stating that the current, in the first quarter flood, is not able to
take its natural course upwards, as in rivers where no bar exists —
that is, where a bar does exist it is not able — and that this inability is
occasioned by the conflicting action of the waters (and which conflict-
ing action only exists where a bar is already formed,) and where this
fakes place (the conflicting action), there the bar is formed. So that,
in order to sustain his " novel theory" on the cause of bars, he first
must have a bar to produce the cause of a bar, and thus the eftect pro-
duces the cause, and with this mode of reasoning, illogical as it is, he
has attempted "at once," and with one fell swoop, nolens rokns, to
throw me overboard, and include in his general sweep, all who have at-
tempted by principle or practice, ancient and modern, a develop-
ment of the cause of bars. Mr. Brooks requires a backwater fall-
ing out of a sloping river, and that water to be opposed by a first
quarter flood, and a bar itself to produce a bar ; he appears not to be
aware that in various parts of the world bars have accumulated where
there is an entire absence of his causes, and not only at places " which
approximate to the condition of a simple inlet," but where the only
existing cause, amongst those which he assigns for a bar, is the egress
or scouring waters; examples of which we have in the Baltic, the
Black, and other seas.

In my examination before a Committee of the House of Commons
in 1S26-1S27, on the proposed Lowestoft Harbour, I then stated "that
so soon as the scouring water should be applied as then proposed, a
bar would accumulate where no deposit or bar previously existed,
and if the sluicing were continued the harbour would be so blocked up
that small vessels only could enter at high tide." He need only refer,
to prove the accuracy of his prescience, to the present state of the
bar at that harbour, and the fact that about £15u,(jyj have been ex-
pended thereon, the entire of which has been recently oftered for
sale by the Loan Commissioners for £17,000, it being completely lost
as a harbour of refuge for which it was intended."

It is an incontrovertible fact, that the greater the quantity of egress,
or sluicing waters, and the more rapid their course, the greater is the
exterior deposit. The Mississippi and other large rivers demonstrate
this fact — the entrance to that queen of rivers is most difficult in
the spring of the year, when the melting of the snow on the mountains
increases the quantity and rapidity of the egress waters, so as to carry
with them trees, earth, and other matter, all of which are deposited
on the extensive bar, at its outlet, and it does not again decrease until
after a long continuous dry season, when the quantity of egress water
is reduced.

Mr. B. follows his "new theory" by stating, "that he might easily
extend his illustrations," and adds that the " direct tendency of the
whole period of the ebb, when unobstructed by the tidal currents,
must be to reduce the bar." This is really hypothetical. That the
ebb or outgoing waters have a direct tendency, and are the real cause
of all exterior deposits or bars,&c., I have asserted for the last 20 years,
the accuracy of which I will now attempt to prove. At the Neva,
Gulf of Finland, the Narva, Dantzic, the Danube, the Nile, and
many other places, the current, without intermission (there being no
food tide), is perpetually running out at the rate of six, seven, or eight

2 H

ooo

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

rJuLY,

knots ]>CT hour, and yet the old entrances to those rivers have been
blockp'-l up hy impassable bars, and either new passages have been cut
into the ocean, or the egress waters have forced a passage out in a
new direction; here we have an absence of quarter flood, sloping,
and of the ditlerence in tlie gravity of the two waters, no salt water
being in the vicinity of the disemboguing site of the above rivers.

I must now take leave to make an observation on Jlr. B.'s pro-
position to take away the shoals or deposits in the Thames, at Wool-
wich by scouring, and not by dredging, the result of such an operation
f if it were accomplished) would be, tliat the matter moved could only
i)e impelled onward while the impetus was retained, but so soon as
that ceased, a re-deposit would occur which would occupy the same
extent of the bed of the river, which it had previously done — he seems
not to be informed of the eftisct produced on Barking Shelf, removed
by dredging although an immense accumulation of sand and shingle,
the base of which appeared at low water — but I will not further in-
terfere with the interior part of his subject, that is all plain sailing, no
insurmountable difficulty occurs in attempts to improve inland navi-
gation, there we have no impinging billow, or any material effect pro-
duced by the winds or tides.

Before I conclude, allow rae to give some farther proofs of the ac-
curacy of my two first propositions — New Zealand, " The entrance to
the bay at Wangarver is 1! miles broad, perfectly safe, and without a
bar ; the bay is studded w iih rocks, (so are the harbours I have pre-
viously referred to as being free from bar). The water is deep close
to the shore. The bays of Plenby and Port Nicholson are similarly
formed and are free of bar, although no back waters^ The harbour of
Hokianga with an extensive interior river, where the waters run out
at every ebb tide, there a bar exists. In the West Indies, at St. Lucia
-.ind the Havannah, both splendid harbours, but have neither rivers,
back waters, nor bars.

I remain, Sir, j'our obedient servant,

Henry Barrett.

CANDIDUS'S NOTE-BOOK.

FASCICULUS xxvm.

" I must have liberty
Vitlial, as large a charter as the winds,
To blovi- on whom I please."

I. The absurd trifling, the stupid pedantry, the puerile discussions
that at one time engaged the attention of architects, almost surpass
belief, and are to be paralleled only by the quibblings of the school-
men and divines of the dark ages, when theology was reduced to idle
disputation, and religion to the practice of the grossest superstition.
Were it not so authentically recorded, that it is impossible to doubt
the fact, hardly would it be now believed that the problem proiposed
by Sansovino as to the mode of obtaining the exact hal/ of a metope
at the angle of a Doric entablature — the semimetopia of Vitruvius' —
made a noise throughout Italy, and excited the attention of aU the
architectural geniusses of the time I Had Sansovino and his contem-
poraries been equally scrupulous and precise in all other matters, we
might excuse their ovemiceness in regard to such di{Jiciks migie; in-
stead of which they were most latitudinarian, even shamefully so in
many respects. Like those people who make no difficulty of jumping
over mountains, yet break their shins against straws, who can swallow-
millstones whole, yet are choked by a pound of butter, they were not
at all shocked at some of the grossest violations of architectural pro-
priety. In some of Sanmicheli's plans, for instance, the rooms are so
frightfully out of square, that no two sides are parallel to each other.
Symmetry, too, in respect to the position of doors and windows within
buildings, is totally disregarded, as if it were perfectly indifferent
whether it were attended to or not. The designs of II Divino Palla-
dio, as he has sometimes been called, abound with scandalous defects
of this kind. I suspect that his "divinity" must have been somewhat
of a piece with that of II Divino Aretino, a monster who ought to have
been hanged, drawn, and quartered. Such "divinities" as the last
must be inquired for in the infernal regions.

II. Nothing can be more opposed to every legitimate principle of
art and esthetics, than the attempt to reduce the different orders to so
many express and immutably fixed types. The consistency so aimed at
is attended with almost the worst species of inconsistency, because
it totally excludes such modification as may be most suitable for the
particular case. It is time for us to get rid of all the mechanical
quackery to which we have so long submitted, and which has reduced

architecture, as generally practised, to little better than a mere handi-
craft trade — to copying certain individual parts met with in former
styles of the art, without auy regard either to the genius of the styles
themselves, or to the circumstances of the building required. What
puerile trifling it is to alVect scrupulous nicely as to the express shape
and proportion of every little detail belonging to columns which are
to be stuck up by way of portico before a dowdy house or other
building, which is thureby only rendered a grotesque absurdity I In
most other matters people think of attending a little to consistencj-
and common sense ; or should they fail to do so, they must submit to
the derision of their neighbours. But in architecture, the most
ridiculous incongruities and o'/s//ar<ifes are tolerated — tolerated 1 thev
are even applauded ; and hitmcs that would hardly be endured iu the
preparations for a temporary fete, may be perpetrated with impunity
in buildings intended to be permanent.

III. "Geniality" is net an English word, — hardly can it be said to
be as yet adopted by us; and what is more io be regretted, there is, I
apprehend, very little of the thing itself among the artists of this
country. At all events very little evidence of it is to be discerned in
our architecture. Looking at the majority of the buildings which
have been erected of late years — and they certainly have not been
few in number, they must be allowed to confirm such opinion, dis-
agreeable and unflattering as it is in itself. If we find the styles
respectively aimed at, copied with passable fidelity, without any par-
ticularly gross violation of their principles, it is nearly the utmost that
can be said in their favour ; and as matters stand, such poor negative
merit must be received as a positive one. How very far, however,
it stops short of geniality, hardly needs to be said, it being sufficient
to remark that the latter draws out, concentrates, and heightens all
the good qualities of a style, and at the same time imparts to thera
some fresh charm, some additional unborrowed value ; and that, even
though the subject should be an unpromising or inconsiderable one in
itself. If he cannot always create favourable opportunities, a man of
real talent will, at least, do the very utmost that circumstances will
permit — will convince us that he has not satisfied himself with merely
turning out a decent, workman-like job, but has applied himself to
his task as to a labour of love, with the feeling of an artist, not of a
builder— not of a tradesman. Were we to believe some of those who,
albeit without aught of the artist in their constitution, style them-
selves architects, their genius would blaze forth upon the world, were
but sufficient opportunities afforded them. The man who cannot put
together two ideas — except detestable ones — for a moderate-sized
house, or church, would be able, nevertheless — if we choose to believe
him — to erect the most splendid palatial and ecclesiastical edifices.
John Nash was an architect of this stamp, and as it most unfortunately
happened, opportunities, both many and of no ordinar}' kind, were
thrown in his way. How he acquitted himself of them is but too well
known. It is to no purpose that Theodore Hook affects to consider
him the victim of harsh and illiberal criticism ; or that Professor
Brown, as he facetiously designates himself, tells us, tx callitdr<'i, I
sujipOse, that John was " a man possessing great taste for the grand
and the picturesque." For the Grand ! Surely the learned Pro-
fessor must be speaking sneeringly and ironically, for never did Nash,
on any one occasion, even approximate to the grand or the dignified
in architecture. Never did he get nearer to it than ITO degrees
E. or W. longitude of it. Still, incredible as it may appear, the
enlightened Professor is not joking, but intends it to be taken as his
serious opinion; for he elsewhere speaks of "the magnificent houses
along the Strand, King William Street, and the splendid houses in the
Bayswater Road !1 " adding, "but when •ne behold the more mag-
nificent columnar edifices on the east side of the Regent's Park, and
the crescent on the west, where the houses are crowned with octago-
nal domes, we stand astonished with admiration ! '. " Most undoubtedly
we do so, Mr. Professor Brown, for we stand absolutely " putrified"
with astonishment that such masses of ugliness and vulgarity should
ever have been erected. However, perhaps the Professor judges of
Nash by his own quantum and calibre of talent and taste, in which
case he has undoubtedly sufficient cause to look upon Nash as a very
great man, he himself being but a mere dwarf and pigmy by the side
of him, as his own designs abundantly testify. When we look upon
those architectural abominations and atrocities, we do indeed stand
astonished, but it is with the astonishment of unmitigated horror and
disgust. Oh, Professor Brown, Professor Brown, unlucky was the
day and iiour when .you dubbed yourself with that ambitious title.
Could 3'ou get rid of it again — but no, that is impossible; it will stick
to you for ever ; it will render you the laughing-stock and the by-
word of the profession. You cannot ini-Pro/issor yourself now, or
divorce yourself from the ill-sorted companion to which you have
married your name. Doctors' Commons won't help you. Dr. Lardner
will uot rim away with that "better-half" of you. Professor Brown

1841.J

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

223

yon have made yourself, and Professor Brown volt must now continue
to be in spite of yourself. You cannot metamorphose back again into
plain Dick Brown. I pity you, I compassionate you, I condole with
you — yet infinitely more do I pity and comparssionate those unfortu-
nate devils who shall imbibe their architectural taste from the designs
of Professor Brown !

ARCHITECTURAL ROOJI, ROYAL ACADEMY^
CConcludcd Ji-om jmr/e 18 T.J

H.iViNG matie a month's pause, we will avail oucselves of it, before
we resume our own comments, to express our astonishment at an
opinion we have in the inteival met with, in regard to the architectural
portion of the Exhibition. Either we, or the writer in the Mirror, is
egregiously mistaken, for he tells his readers that the designs for new
churches and other public buildings are "very numer^ous and in good
taste;" whereas we think that tliere are rather fewer of the kind
than usual, and those for the most part of very mediocre quality. In
fact, it is only by referring to the catalogue and our own notes, that
we can recollect above one or two, so little is there at all striking in
them — except, indeed, it be by making an unfavourable impression.
Such, certainly, is the case with respect to one, which is singled out
by the writer in the JliiTor, viz. lOJit, "The Estate building at Hack-
ney for J. B. Nichols, Esq." by J. A. Taylor, which consists only of a
crowd of ugly houses detached from each other, but all dittos, instead
of being varied as to design, — no doubt a laudable idea enough, be-
cause it saves the architect a great deal of trouble, without, perhaps,
at all diminishing his per centage. Such architecture may do very
well for the latitude of Hackney, but it is not fit to be paraded upon
the walls of a Rcyal Academy. Or if such things must be exhibited,
they must also take their chance of being somewhat cavalierly treated,
since it is not every one who is so com])laisant as the critic in the
jlirror — a mirror, by the bye, which flatters most confoundedly.

Some may think that the MiiTor's opinions are scarcely worth
noticing at all, since^ instead of being put into positive and tangible
shape, its criticism amounts to little more than quoting from the cata-
logue the titles of such designs as it would recommend, and have us
understand to be meritorious, without our being so unreasonable as to
ask for reasons. The Art-Union — from which something better might
be expected — deals in nearly the same sort of criticism, being ex-
ceedingly laconic and oracular, or, we might say, that one had need
consult an oracle in order to understand upon what grounds it mentions
for approbation some of the things it does — for instance, "No. 10 i!?.
Design for an Opera House, by J. C. Tinckler." We confess that that
subject struck ourselves, but certainly not with admiration, the taste dis-
played in it, seeming to us in some respects absolutely barbarous, and
what was not positively barbarous, to be no more than barely endu-
rable. Far more readily do we agree with the Art-Union when it
says, "the churches now being erected through the country, such as
that at Nuneaton by Jlr. T. L. Walker, seem, thanks to the Church
Commissioners, to be designed by the dozen, with no better recom-
mendation than cheapness, and no other better point about them than
the certainty that they cannot last many years." As to the quality of
the design thus referred to, we ourselves cannot pretend to offer an
opinion, because that and about half a dozen others of the earlier
-.uimbers in the architectural section of the catalogue, are put out of
sight, perhaps very deservedly so, for there certainly is nothing at all
prepossessing in what can now be distinguished of them — nothing to
make us particularly anxious to become more intimately acquainted
with them. That a Royal Academy, not bearing the title, of an Hi-
bernian one, should persist, year after year, and in spite of repeated
remonstrances, in adhering to the blundering practice of exhibiting
drawings by hanging them where so many frames and blank paper
would cover the walls — if covered they must be — quite as well, is
nothing short of marvellous. If no remedy can be devised, it would
at all events be but becoming and proper that the highest and tip top
places should be assigned to the works of the Professor and other
Academician architects ; let them be exalted, and there is no doubt
that they would instantly perceive and correct what they now cannot
discern, viz. the gross absurdity of admitting more drawings than can
be properly seen when hung up. We certainly meet with a good
many whose absence would have been no loss to the exhibition ; and
the very first upon the list, viz. No. 9o6, " View of Hyde Park Gar-
dens, Paddington," is among them, it being a subject we are sorry to
see either in reality or representation — a heavy mass of bloated insig-
nificance. No. 9S0, "Lonsdale Square, Islington," R. C. Carpenter,
is another "flare-u'i" concern of !he same kind. The houses that; are

shown may be passable enough as dwelling-houses, but as architecture
they have no pretensions, nor has a drawing of this cla?s much claim
to be admitted into an academical exhibition. There are one or two
designs for the Taylor and Randolph Buildings at Oxford, and we
may mention that by Messrs. Mair and Browaie (No. O'oti), as being
entitled to considerable praise — as much better, in fact, than any of
tliose for the same edifice which were exhibited last year; and it is
stated to have been one of the five selected in the first instance by the
committee. We should have examined it more attentively than
we did at the time, had we then known as miich as we now do of the
design which has been adopted. We need not inform our readers
that this Last is by Mr. Cockerel!, the Professor of architecture ; but
we may assure them it is by several degrees more fantastical and
outre than his design for the Royal Exchange, and in some respects
perfectly nondescript as to style. How the Professor — who seeras
ambitious of obtaining for himself the title of the English Borromini —
can reconcile the extravaganzas he has there shown, with the precepts
he delivers ex cathedra, cautioning the students against aiming at mere
showy eft'ricts, rather than architectural propriety, it puzzles us to
guess; — and it would, no doubt, puzzle him still more to explain.

Messrs. Gough and Roumieu's design for " St. Pancras' National
Schools," (No. 970) is a small but pleasing composition, in the Tudor
style, with a rather unusual degree of decoration, therefore should the
building itself turn out to be as satisfactorj' as the drawing represents
it, — which, however, is not invariably the case, it will be nearly the
best thing of its kind in the metropolis. No. J096, "Interior of the
new Library at Roehampton Priory," by the same arcliitecls, is also
sufficiently creditable to them ; but they must excuse us for not ad-
miring that for "St. James' Dormitory Chambers, as proposed to be
erected" (No. 1080) — yet, we hope, as never will be erected. Were
it not too late, we should enter a similar protest against No. 977, " An
Elizabethan Villa, now building at Hammersmith, from the designs of
Mr. S. Gomme," for it is a mostGommy or 'gummy' affair, as a iriend
of ours would call it, — a specimen of all that is most hideous and bar-
barous in that style, without any of its redeeming qualities; and it
would seem that the architect's aim had been rather to exaggerate
than to mitigate any of its deformities. It may be excusable enougli
in the possessor of a genuine relique of Elizabethan architecture to be
somewhat jealously proud of it — for its antiquity if for nothing else ;
but that at the present day any one should tlunk of building for his
own habitation ;i ' bran new' absurdity of the kind we here behold, is
to us most marvellous.

No. 98'2, "New Park near Devizes, showing the principal front,
with alterations and new carriage entrance," does not impress us vvith
any very high idea of the taste or ability of Messrs. Finden and Green.
How far they have doctored up the house, we know not : for aught
we can tell they may have improved it, but if they have it must have
been deplorably bad indeed before, since it is bad enough — we should
say, intolerably bad even now.

Though we wish there were a far greater proportion of interior
views than we ever meet with among the architectural drawings, we
could very well have spared one of those which Mr. T. L. Walker has
sent, of the " Governor's Dining Room at the new Hospital, Bedwortlv
Warwickshire," viz. Nos. 1014 and 1088, they being nearly duplicates,
showing opposite ends of the same apartments, which although verjr
fair as to design, is not so remarkable as to call for such an unusual
degree of illustration; and we almost wonder that two drawings of
the same subject should have been admitted, when others were turned
away for want of room ; or that, as both were received, they were not
hung up together as companions. It appears, moreover, to us that
either the perspective is very faulty, or else the windows themselves
poor in character, owing to the excessive bieadth between the mullions,
according to the drawing.

No. 1027, " View of the London and Brighton Railway Terminus,
now erecting at Brighton, from the designs of" D. Mocatta, is ex-
ceexiijigly poor both as a drawing and a design ; and we are afraid he can-
not shelter himself under the excuse that the subject was an unfavour-
able one in itself, or that he was cramped in his resources ; because there
is certainly enough of it as to extent, and the same de^gree of decoration
might have been far more effectively applied. The extended colon-
nade below is in itself appropriate and convenient enough, but as it is
made to project from the loftier mass behind it, it seems rather to en-
cumber than to ornament it ; neither is it by any means unexception-
able in regard to design. We are very far from oljjecting ' upon
principle,' to arches being turned upon columns: on the contrary, we
consider some of the instances of such combination to be among the
happiest effects of Italian architecture. What we complain of is, not
that such mode is here adopted, but that it is treated most insipidly,
and that want of artistical feeling pervades the whole design.

At first sight we mistook No. 105G, for a view of the Parthenon or

2 H 2

224

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[July,

some other Grecian Doric temple, but on referring to the catalogue
discovered it to be " A project of a Curesal or Pump-room to be erected
on St. Ann's Clitf, Euxton, with plans, elevations, and sections," by
\V. L. Granville; and there certainly are some initiiature drawings on
the margin, which may be the plans, &c., but which it is utterly im-
possible to make out at such a height above the eye ; consequently all
we can say is that, however ingeniously Mr. G. may have contrived
the interior of his building lie has not shown much invention, or parti-
cular ])ro|)riety of character in the exterior of it. — We begin to get
altogether sick of Grecian temples.

Tlie " Facade of the Wesleyan Centenary Hall," Xo. 105S, is now-
exhibited as executed, the Lysicratcs Monument, stuck upon it last
year, being lopped off from it ; which being the case we think that the
frame might have been reduced also, for at present the drawing occu-
pies twice the space the subject itself requires, and every square inch
is or ought to be of value in this room.

No. 1UG5, "The Library, Northwood House," G. Mair, is a small
interior subject that appears to deserve a more favourable situation
than it has obtained. No. lo7], "Entrance Lodge to be built at Deane
Park, the seat of the Earl of Cardigan," J. Crake — a name new to us —
is also a clever design, in the Gothic style. We cannot say quite so
much for No. 1 1 10, " Design for a Gothic Roof in (iuildhall, London,"
E. Woodthorpe, for though the drawing itself is a showy and elaborate
interior, the new timber roof here proposed, is a poor and meagre
aftair. If, too, it is intended to make any alterations at all in that
edifice, we think tliat the one most required, is to give it an entirely
new exterior, the present one being so atrociously ugly that we wonder
how even the corporation of London can stomach it. Taste they have,
— at least have the reputation of possessing it, but it does not lie in
architecture. — No. IIOS, "Entrance front of a design for a Mansion to
be erected at South Elkington, Lincolnshire," E. B. Lamb, is a good
composition in what may be called the irregular or picturesque Italian
villa style, — with a carriage porch and tower over it. While the
offices are kept subordinate to the house itself, they are made to aid
the general character very much, being treated consistently with it,
and so as to give importance to the principal mass, and at the same
time be of sufficient architectural importance in themselves. Both
picturesque expression and propriety have been consulted, by intro-
ducing only a single ground floor window on this side of the body of
the house : not only is great privacy thus secured, and the noise and
bustle of horses and carriages shut out from the sitting rooms, but a
degree of piquancy is imparted to the whole ; the internal arrange-
ment cannot be understood until we actually enter the house, which
is not the case wjiere there is a range of windows on each side of the
entrance. And here we will bring our strictures to a conclusion, lest
by continuing them we should be compelled to change our tone again,
and have to speak not quite so favourably. Towards some our silence
may be unbecoming, but there are a great many who have reason to
congratulate themselves that we lay down our pen before we give
them a touch of it. Very possibly we have passed over several draw-
ings that we should have been able to notice with approbation, had
they been hung where they could be seen ; so long as the present sys-
tem is persisted in, such is likely enough to be the case. That it is
persisted in is no fault of ours : on the contrary, did it depend upon
ourselves, we would correct it instanter,— if no other way, by cutting
the formidable Gordian knot, and reducing the Five tiers of frames
containing architectural drawings, now hung up, to Two. Three of
them might very well be spared, for the quality of the Exhibition
would be rather improved than not by their absence.

ON THE INJURIES TO HEALTH OCCASIONED BY
BREATHING IMPURE AIR IN CLOSE APARTMENTS.

Notwithstanding the various inventions and improvements which
distinguish the age we live in, it is lamentable to observe what little
attention has been paid to the ventilation of apartments in which we
are destined to pass the greater portion of our lives, and in which a
constant and well-regulateil supply of the element we breathe, is so
essential to bodily health and mental enjoyment.

This inattention can only be accounted for either by the want of
education in the major part of that class of persons who call them-
selves builders, or an apprehension on the part of those who aspire to
the more elevated designation of architects, that the introduction of
any thing new would expose them to the charge of a want of taste, or
of that acquaintance with the style of the ancients to which it is the
fashion so strictly to adhere (imitation being, in their opinions, more
deserving of commendation than originality of design, or a desire to

meet the improvements of the age, and fashion of more importance
than health). If they construct our doors and windows in so superior
a manner as to exclude every possible particle of air, they flatter
themselves with having attained an advantage to which the' inhabi-
tants of ancient Greece and Rome did not aspire. They should, how-
ever recollect, in their apparent anxiety for imitation, that the ancient
architects of warmer climates did not overlook the necessity of a free
admission of air, and also that a constant supply and free circulation
of this element, is as necessary for sustaining life as a given quantity
for the combustion of the fuel we require to warm our apartments ;
our builders, nevertheless, only provide for the latter, as if the former,
although the more im|)ortant, was of minor consideration, or that they
conceived the chimney draft sutficient for both purposes, when, in
reality, it does not answer that for which it is principally intended —
as by far the greater portion of the heat generated in our open fire-
places is carried up the chimney, by sharp currents of air from occa-
sional openings of doors, or such crevices as it may force its way
through, being moreover, frequently productive of serious bodily in-
juries, particularly to those of delicate frames, while it cannot be
sufficient for the purposes of wholesome ventilation; this air being
colder than that already in the room, is consequently of greater specific
gravity, and must form a lower stratum, not unfrequently felt by those
placed round the fire, suffering from an undue proportion of heat at
one side and of cold at the other.

It should also be borne in mind, that the openings of our fire-places
being seldom more than three or four feet from the floor, the upper
stratum of air is neither removed or purified by this under current,
and must, from being breathed over and over again, be productive of
most prejudicial effects, and that the contamination of this atmosphere
is considerably augmented at night by the combustion of lights, the
quantity of air breathed by an ordinary sized person being calculated
to be about 20UU cubic feet per hour, and that two mould candles con-
sume as much of the oxygen of this air as a human being, and that the
nitrogen and carbonic acid gas which remain are peculiarly inimical
to animal life, and that when carried up by the currents occasioned
by combustion and respiration they form an upper stratum, where
they remain, and must be repeatedly inspired before they make their
escape into the chimney — the only ventilating flue with which our
houses are provided.

It should also be observed, that the heat thus generated is in pro-
portion to the quantity of oxygen abstracted from the atmosphere,
which enters into combination with the carbnretted hydrogen of the
flame of candles, coal gas, oil or other inflammable matter, from which
light is produced, that every cubic foot of carburetted hydrogen con-
sumed unites on an average with two cubic feet of oxygen, that por-
tion of the atmosphere required to support animal life, and that the
product of this combustion is about 2i inches of water, and one of
carbonic acid gas, which, when inhaled in its pure state, proves in-
stantly fatal, and the greater the proportion we inhale in addition to
the animal vapours evolved from the lungs and skin, the more per-
nicious the effect.

Supposing for example that the perfect lighting of an ordinary
sized apartment requires 15 cubic feet of carburetted hydrogen per
hour, this would form about a pint and a half of water and 1 J cubic
feet of carbonic acid gas, for whenever carburetted hydrogen gas is
burned with oxygen, or atmospheric air, these are the products of the
combustion, whether the carburetted hydrogen is obtained from wax,
tallow, oil, or coal. If, therefore, this lighting continue in an unven-
tilated apartment for seven hours, one gallon of water is produced,
the greater part of which must be deposited on the walls, windows,
furniture, polished metal, or other cold surfaces with which it comes
in contact, and to some articles of this nature it is known to prove
highly prejudicial, in addition to the injury to health occasioned by
an increased quantity of moisture mixed with the air we breathe — as
one of the principal functions performed by this air for the preserva-
tion of health, is to carry oft' with it a considerable quantity of vapour
in order to prevent its undue accumulation on the lungs ; it is there-
fore evident, that after it has been already so loaded, it cannot pro-
perly perform these functions, and that consumption and other com-
plaints are thus frequently induced.

The prejudicial eft'ects of carbonic acid gas (which is the same as
the choke damp of mines) as well as of the nitrogen of the air, which
is set free by the abstraction of the oxygen, (and amounts in quantity
to four times that of the ox)'gen,) are well known, and ought by all
possible means to be provided against. This has been attended to
within the last few years in our public hospitals, and the mortality, in
consequence, considerably decreased, and likewise in several of our
manufactories and public establishments, where the diseases generated,
by the numbers of persons congregated in such establishments, have
been proportionably diminished. In the House of Commons, also

1841.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

225

where hundreds of members with hundreds of candles burning at night
tended so much to vitiate the atmosphere, important improvements
in lighting as well as ventilation have been recently made, but in our
domestic establishments little or no attention has been paid to this
important subject, and the foundation of a variety of diseases must be
the result, particularly from the foul air breathed at balls or other
crowded assemblies.

The confinement of air in our churches and places of public wor-
ship, must also be highly prejudicial, as we are frequently exposed on
entering one of these edifices in the summer months to an atmosphere
10° or lo"^ below that of the external air, independent of the stagnant
state in which it has been allowed to remain during a whole week —
often vitiated in a greater degree by the gaseous matter evolved from
human remains, and even in private houses much inconvenience is
experienced from the stagnant state of the atmosphere in close and
gloomy weather, an evil which has been considerably augmented by
close stoves, when made of iron and heated to a certain temperature.
But if stoves were constructed of masonry throughout, as in many
other countries, or of fire tiles, or porcelain plates, embedded in mor-
tar with well-regulated flues, they would be far preferable to open fire
places, this substitution of imperfect conductors of heat being not only
consistent with the soundest principles of economy in the preservation
of heat, and its more uniform distribution through apartments, but
more salubrious than the methods usually resorted to in this country
of warming air by contact with iron stoves or pipes.

The healthy appearance of those who pass the greater part of their
time in the open air sutBciently indicates its advantages; armies are
also well known to have far greater numbers on the sick list when well
housed, than when exposed in a campaign to the vicissitudes of the
season, for weeks and months without any other covering than the
canopy of heaven, cr occasionally of a tent or hut, or the shade of a
tree. These facts ought to satisfy us that we should admit the air as
freely as possible into our apartments at all seasons of the year, as the
temporary and often imaginary inconvenience of a little cold, when
compared with the decided disadvantages of breathing impure air, is
by far the lesser evil.

When ventilation in large establishments or public buildings can
only be obtained by artificial means, it is produced by pumping air in,
or drawing it out by a fan worked by steam or other adequate power,
and atibrding it the means of free circulation either cooled, heated, or
in its natural state, through well-regulated apertures in the floors,
walls, or ceilings, and in coal mines by flues or shafts in which constant
currents of air are maintained by the combustion of fuel or coal gas ;
this system might also be easily introduced into houses already biiilt,
by means of the existing chimneys ; but with still greater facility if
our architects and builders were to direct their attention to those
points when erecting new ones.

The importance of this subject has been frequently pointed out by
scientific men of considerable eminence, without attracting that atten-
tion which would have been the means of rescuing uiany persons from
being imperceptibly hurried to an untimely end. It is, therefore, to
be hoped that the powerful engine of the press will continue to lend
its aid in exposing these evils, until it impresses upon the public
mind, and more particularly upon our architects and builders, the
urgent necessity of providing against them. Is it not possible, by
some simple contrivance, to make the beat produced in the lighting
of apartments available for their perfect ventilation ? if any of these
gentlemen succeed in so doing, they will be entitled to greater grati-
tude for this achievement in the purification of an element so essential
to the preservation of our lives, than any claimed by those heroes
whose victories have contributed so much to the miseries of the human
race, and the destruction of the human species.

But we ought not, perhaps, to be so much surprised at the slow
march of intellect in this respect, when we find so many centuries to
have elapsed before it was so generally admitted, as at present, that
pure water, another element bountifully supplied by nature, is prefer-
able to any other beverage for insuring the health and happiness of
mankind, and when we have so many temperance societies and other
advocates for impressing upon the minds of our fellow subjects the
necessity of becoming converts to the imbibing of this element in its
pure state, ought we not, with still greater reason, to endeavour to
make a similar impression as to the advantages of inhaling, with equal
purity, the lighter fluid, of which we stand so much more in need, and
which we so much more frequently require ?

A gasometer of sheet iron formed of 269 pieces, and of an immense capacity,
arrived at Antiverp on the 5th instant, by the Soho steamer from England,
intended for the gas works in that town.

REPORT FROM THE SELECT COMMITTEE ON RAILWAYS.

Our readers are aware that the 11th clause of the Railways Bill,
which was for the purpose of giving discretionary powers to the
Board of Trade as to the regulation of railwavs, excited the greatest
alarm on the part of the railway boards. Sir Robert Peel was conse-
quently induced to move for a special committee to receive evidence
as to the tendency of the proposed clause. This committee has now
concluded its labours, and after a lengthened investigation has made
its report. The committee after stating the arguments used on both
sides, sum up by recommending that the Board of Trade should not at
present have the discretionary power contemplated in the 11th clause
of the Bill above quoted, and prefer that the supervision of that de-
partment should be exercised in the way of suggestion rather than in
that of positive regulation. Tliis, as it will be seen wards off the blow
for another year, and we hope that the railway interest will be so far
instructed by this attempt, as to take better measures to oppose any
future aggression of the Board of Trade.

'Ihe evidence attached to the report contains much matter of inte-
rest to which we shall be obliged to refer in a discursive manner, but
before we refer to this we feel it our duty to express the obligations
which the profession owes to Brunei for the able and candid way in
which he gave his evidence, throwing aside all personal considerations
and feelings of partiality, uninfluenced by the blandishments of the
Board of Trade, and not to be deceived by its sophistries, he boldly
and unscrupulously stripped the railway department of its pretensions,
and exposed the incompetency and ambition of its officers. We wish
that it were in our power to give equal praise to the elder Stephenson,
but with the exception of the noble tribute he gave to the merits of
the Great Western railway, he presented a lamentable contrast to
Brunei. — Mr. Labouchere exhibited an ability in the management of
his cause, which we cannot but recognize, but we must at the same
time regret that it was not exerted in a better cause.

From Mr. Laing's evidence and from the documents annexed we
learn some particulars as to the constitution of the Railway Depart-
ment of the Board of Trade, which as it is of some importance we
have thought it desirable to notice. The Department is placed like
the Statistical Department in charge of Mr. Porter, and for which he
receives 2110/. per annum extra, but it does not appear that he takes
any very active part. — Lieutenant-Colonel Sir Frederic Smith is In-
spector General of Railways, with a salary of 900/. per annum and
travelling expenses while engaged out of London, but without retiring
allowance. The Board of Trade observes that, "the provision of the
act which excludes the appointment of any one connected with rail-
ways, and the high rate of remuneration, which would be requisite to
secure the undivided services of any eminent civil engineer, are of
themselves sufficient to direct and almost to restrict their Lordship's
choice to some officer of the Royal Engineer corps, who has a compe-
tent practical knowledge of railways." Mr. Laing transacts the official
business of the Department, and is the Law and Corresponding Clerk
with a salary of 500/. per annum. — Mr. Porter and Mr. Laing are
authorized to sign all notices, documents, &c., in the name of the
Board of Trade. — Mr. Oswald acts as a junior clerk. The total ex-
pense of the establishment is estimated at 1400/, per annum. The
engineer officers employed in the first ijistance to assist Sir Frederic
Smith, were paid two guineas a-day and expenses. The Department
is put under the superintendence of the [^resident of the Board of
Trade, as consulting member of the Board. It is in contemplation
that the establishment must be slightly increased.

In the evidence of the several parties who were present at the
celebrated Birmingham Conference for devising the means of prevent-
ing accidents, we learn for the first time the reason that the results
were so very trifling. It seems that on discussion, the difficulties that
stared them in the face as to forming any general system were so great
that the attempt was given up in despair, and the parties present
silently acquiesced in the resolutions, which had been prepaied, at the
same time recommending the regulations of the Liverpool and Man-
chester Railway for consideration and not for adoption. Frightened
as they had been by newspaper clamour — into the endeavour to
adopt some measure, they were confimed in their original views, that
as the accidents had not arisen from neglect on the part of the com-
panies, neither yet had they sufficient experience to devise any effec-
tive remedies.

We find also some clue to the mode of proceedingof the well known
committee of three, whose activity and inactivity were the cause
of so much alarm in the early part of the agitation. It appears
that when the railway body, dissatisfied with tbeir conduct, found it
necessary to take the matter into their own hands, the committee
thought proper to disclaim having in any degree wished to bind the

2-20

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[July,

companies, a salutary step which seems to liave hail the best effect. —
Mr. Labcjucliere was thus deprived of the support of this committee,
whose neglect of their duties had excited so much indignation, and in
place of this pliant body, he bad to conteral with the great railway in-
terest, representing fifty uiillions of capital.

Brunei's evidence was the mainstay of the opposition, and abounds
in practical information, which we wish that it was in our power to
transcribe, but the liuiited nature of our space forbids. What he says
as to engine drivers is of direct importance to the profession, and is
so totally opposed to the vulgar opinion on die subject tliat we are
compelled to insert it liere.

There is another regulation suggested, and whidi therefore I presume is to
be acted upon ; it is that an engine driver shall be able to read his instruc-
tions. Now I dare say that appears to a great many gcntlemeu a very essen-
tial thing ; but not only do I maintain that it is not essential, but 1 maiatuiu
that the mere laying down that rule as a rule, is a proof that the party sug.
gesting it is not acquainted with the class of men we are dealing with, and
that we must deal with, as engine drivers. I should have thought too, that
Sir Frederic Smitli's knowledge of the world and of militan- life, of privates,
would have told him that the class of men who must be employed as work-
men, are not a class of men who learn tlieir instnictions by reading, even if
they can read ; their knowledge is obtained entirely orally. A man of that
class has not obtained, as we have, the power of reading and remembering
what he reads. Those sort of men will read and derive a little amusement
from what they read, but they have not obtaijied the power of learning things
by reading, they learn orally entirely. As to the instructions, it is tnie we
print them, and it is true we make them read them, and we make them sign
them, partly to ensure their havhig an opportunity to see them, but very
much to satisfy the public mind « hen an accident has occurred ; but 1 do not
believe the men obtain the slightest knowledge of their instnictions by read-
ing ; they may read them through and get up with the printed letters in their
eyes, but as to obtaining information from it, they do not ; they obtain their
information orally ; and whether a man can read his instructions or not, docs
not at all affect the question of his being a good engineer or not. Our very
best man on the Great Western Railway, the verv- best engine driver we ever
had ; a very superior man. who is now foreman of our engineers at Reading,
a man whom I trust better than anybody I have got on the line, can neither
read nor write, and yet he issues inst.-Tictions, and he has a clerk who writes
wTitten orders ; and it would be a serious mischief if any regulation of the
Legislature should deprive us of him, and of a number of others that we have.
I am not one to sneer at education, but I would not give sixpence in huing
an engine man, because of his knowing how to rend or write. 1 believe that of
the two, the non-reading man is the best, and for tliis reason : I defy Sir
Trederic Smith, or any person who has general information, and is in the
habit of reading, to drive an engine. If you are going five or six nules with-
out anything to attract attention, depend upon it you will begin thinking of
something else. It is impossible that a man that indulges in reading, should
make a good engine driver; it requires a species of machine, an intelligent
man, an honest man, a sober man, a steady man; but I would much rather
not have a thinking man. I never dare drive an engine, although I always
go upon the engine ; because if I go ui)on a bit of the line without anything
to attract my attention, I begin thinking of something else. The duty of the
engine man is the simplest possible thing; he must first of .ill have a good
constitution, and he able to stand rough weather ; in fa"t, a gentleman can-
not he an engine driver, or any man who can earn a liveUhood in any quiet,
comfortable way ; he must know something of machinery, to a very small
extent ; of course he must know the parts of a locomotive engine, and he
must be something of a workman, although the fine workmen rarely make
good engine drivers ; such a very low class of knowledge of the machinery,
that I can hardly call it knowledge ; a mechanic learns that in a fortnight or
three weeks, lie must be a sober man, and have all thase qualities which
are included in the general term of " steady ;" I hardly know how to define
them ; hut he must be accustomed to follow orders, not desirous of infringing
them ; not reckless, and be what is commonly understood by " a steady
man.''

Sir Frederic Smith was the first witnesg examined, being in support
of the government recommendations — what were the arguments which
he used we think it unnecessary to repeat, the public being sufficiently
conversant with tliem. He bore testimony to the harmonv with which
the companies and their engineers had co-operated witli him, and ex-
pressed his regret at its being disturbed by the difterence which had
arisen on the discretionary clause — an ill omen we shordd say as to the
result which would be likely to be realized if the clause liad become
the law of the land. Sir Frederic was obliged to admit that most of
his proposed regulations were inapplicable as general rules, and that
the greatest injustice would be the effect of their stringent execution.
It must be observed that the intended legislation would have authorized
the Board of Trade to interfere with the traffic in many annoving ways,
as for instance on the Manchester and Leeds railway, suppressing the
mixed train, disturbing the arrangements of lines generally by pre-
scribing an interval between the trains, regulating the speevl and the
load, crushing small companies by overbuthening them with expenses,

increasing the police, braaksmen, number of bre.vks, buffer springs,
preventing assistant engines from pushing bebinA, carrying luggage
with passengers, obliging to work by time tables.

Mr. Booth of the Liverpool and Manchester Railway exhibited his
usual acquaintance with tlie subject, and expressed in the strongest
terms his objections to the powers proposed to be given to the Board
of Trade. He unequivocally stated that he did not consider any cen-
tral authority or Board competent, in the present state of knowledge
as referrible to railways, to take on itself the issuing of regulations.
Mr. Booth, as well as the other witnesses who followed on the same
side, forcibly dwelt on the melancholy consequences which must ensne
from divided responsibility, and showed the injustice of allowing the
Bo.trd of Trade to make rules, and then punishing the companies for
the bad working of them. For a central authority to attempt to re-
gulate the traffic on the Liverpool and Manchester would be productive
of the greatest confusion and injustice, on account of the fluctuating
nature of the traffic, requiring that arrangements should be made at
the moment to conform to it. In appealing against the recommenda-
tions already made by the Board of Trade authorities, Mr. Bootli
forcibly urged that they were such as to show that they had not that
experience which is necessary to make them capable of issuing regu-
lations, and that he could not have confiilence as to their general dis-
cretion in issuing regulations. The proposed fifteen minutes interval
between the trains, be showed to be equal on his line to a distance of
seven miles. Mr. Booth attributed in some measure the success of
the Liverpool and Manchester Railway in escaping accidents to the
very great traffic, which obliged every engine driver to be constantly
on the alert. Very few accidents, observed he, occur in crossing
Cheapside for example ; every body is obliged to be on tl»e alert, and,
to look about him. — The proposed regulation as to ballast trains he
showed would be absolutely impracticable, and time tables equally
useless and mischievoas. The propriety of leaving the responsibility
with the companies, was supported by their witnesses on the ground
that they had a stronger pecuniary interest in[the safety of passengers',
and prevention of accidents than any other parties, and were of course
urged to adopt every possible precaution. One compimy was men-
tioned as having lost illU.OUU by a single accident.

Brunei, whose examin.ation occupied two days, followed in support
of Mr. Booth. To the spirit which characterized his examination we
have already referred. He expressed more strongly even than Mr.
Booth liis want of confidence in the ofliceis of the Board of Trade
generally and iudividaally, and throughout his examination kept Mr.
Laboucliere's vigilance fully on the aleit, frequently discomfiting him
in his attempts to entrap him into a toleration of the interference of
the Board, to which Brunei objected in toto. Upon the causes of
accidents, the remarks of this engineer fully bear out the views which
we maintained both on this and the steam vessel question, and are
well worthy of perusal.

I think the officers of the Board of Trade .ire under a completely erroneous
impression both of the circumstances which really lead to those accidents,
and of the best mode of remedying them, and that they are without, and
must always be without, any suflieient knowledge of the practical working of
the system with which they jjropose to interfere ; and I think that the acci-
dents and the suggestions arising from those accidents themselves, prove what
I assert. They certainly prove it to the minds of those who are familiar with
the practical working of railways. I dare say it will be difficult to prove that
satisfactorily to the Committee, from the very circumstance 1 have just men-
tioned, that they are not acquainted with the practical detail of the working;
but still, if the Committee will allow me, I will attempt it. I think that the
mere circumstance of which the officers who have been appointed have tliem-
selves given very strong evidence, namely, that notwithstanding the tremen-
dous speed at which railway travelling is carried on, notwithstanding the
appearance of almost trusting to Providence as we run along the lines, and
the apparently great risks that are run, that notwithstanding all this, it is a
notorious fact, and one which is admitted by the officers who have inspected
railways, that it is a safer mode of travelling than any other adopted up to
the present time ; and that, notwithstanding all those apparent dangers,
really there is very little danger comparatively : 1 think that ought to have
led them to consider, that, in all probability, the dangers that still exist, do
not arise from any glaring pronunent defects in the system, which of course
those who have brought it to this state of perfection must long since have
seen, and that it would hardly be left to those officers to whom the thing
must be new, to ihscover suddenly that we have passed over some of the most
prominent and easily removed causes of danger; and I think that, as they
become more intimate with the practical working of railways, they will ses
that the real cause of danger, small as it now is, consists of a multitude of
small operating causes, which occasionally and accidentally are all brought to
bear, .and all operate to produce risk. Bnt the real source of the danger, and
the only one which there is any hope of removing, is in a complication of
imperfections in a great number of the mechanical parts of the system. We
I have gradually discovered, that the wheels had better be a little wider in
' gauge than we made them at first ; that they had better i o; be quhe so nar-

1841.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

'2-27

row iu the external gauge ; tliat they sliouUl be about half an inch wider on
the tire ; that the guard-rails had better not touch thcra : that increased care
should be given to the gauge of the rail ; and that the tail-lamps must be
put in a position in which they shall be less likely to be obscured. A nnmber
of small things of that sort are gradually discovered, generally speaking,
without any serious accident; they are gradually discovered and removed;
and thus the original chances of risk are diminished, till, in fact, they do not
occur. All those who are familiar with the working of a railway, or with the
manufacture of any article, or with the progress of any complicated system
of that sort, well know that it is iu vain to attempt to make workmen more
perfect; it is in vain to attempt to trust to any regulations iu such a manner
as to expect, that when a new accident occurs, they shall all apply; and that
it is still more vain to exppot, (hat they will be all obeyed. It is l)y gradual
and progressive improvements, in all the little details, that the risk of accident
is diminished ; and it is by that alone that the risk of danger will be removed.
This is familiar to us, and to the persons working the railways ; but I am
sure it cannot have struck the gentlemen who haw been sent to inspect the
railways ; because, first of all, no looking on occasionally -win make them
acquainted with that -which we only learn by seeing it, and feeling it, and
feeling the inconvenience of it every oiay. They also cannot learn it, because
■we keep progressing so fast, that the knowledge of one day will not apply to
the next ; and although their own suggestions which they have made after
those accidents, and although tl)e reiports which have been made by several
of them show very great investigation, and a very acute perception of the
circumstances, which they happened to be able to lay hold of on the ground
after tlie accidents had occurred, .still those suggestions show that they are
aiming simply at that which we know cannot be attained, namely, at perfec-
tion in the regulations and in the character of the men that we have to em-
ploy, and that it is by attention to the multitude of little detaihj alone, thr.t
approximation to perfection can be attained ; that that is their view, is evi-
dent also, from the suggestions which they have all thrown out after seeing
those accidents.

Mr. Brunei remarks on tlie application of two engines in conjunc-
tion.

All chances of collision of course are got rid of between those trains, and
the average power of the whole is better obtained ; although there again the
necessity of understanding exactly the practical operation of the thing is
ettdent, because it is not the case that two engines, when coupled together
and drawing a load, will do twice as much as one engine. It is rather a
curious circumstance, but I mean to say that the average power of the engines
is best obtained by putting them together, if we take into consideration the
chances of one engine running a little dry, or of any circumstance occuning
to lessen the power of one engine, we do then get the average power of two
or three better by sending them together than by sending them separately ;
and I have no hesitation iu saying, that the general rule ought rather to be
(though I think it would be bad to have any rule either way) to send them
altogether than to send them in trains, each consisting of a single engine.

We are restricted by the space devoted to otlier objects from giving
any greater length to tlie discussion of this report, and we must
leave it congratulating engineers on this partial triumph, obtained
at the last hour. We do sincerely trust that it will be a warning
to make every exertion on the other questions that are likely to
be agitated. Let a stand of this kind be made against the Ten Per
Cent. Deposit Clause, let a committee be got on this question, and a
relief much wanted will we hope be obtained. In concluding these
remarks, we should be guilty of injustice if we did not notice tlie
ability of Mr. Sannder's evidence, and express the great obligations
the railways must entertain to Sir Robert Peel for his timely inter-
ference. The fairness shown by this statesman on this occasion will
TPe hope prove an encouragement for obtaining a repeal of the ob-
noxious Ten Per Cent. Clause, as it affords a promise of our obtaining
aid, if we do but show a fair case.

NEW AND USEFUL INVENTIONS.— No. 5.
By Philotechnicos.

■Patent DECORATm: Carving and Sculpture Works, 'Ratjelagh
Road, Th.«ies Bank, Pimlico.

This invention presents one of those great strides of machinery with
which the present day abounds, for superseding manual labour in works
of art as well as science. What would our forefathers have said at
hearing that carving w as to be done by machinery ; the idea would
liave been considered preposterous, and the inventor, at least, a mad-
man; but now it is almost received as a rnatter of course, and nothing
is thought impossible ; it is, moreover, most remarkable, that some of
these valuable inventions are mere improvements upon simple inven-
tions and schemes of ancient date, antl familiar to nearly every one.
Who would have thought that tlie common marking iron, used for
stamping or burning thejnitial or name of the owner on implements

of trade, should give the idea of a similar |)rGcess for a more elaborate
puriJose— that of carving (if the term can be used) in wood ? but so it
is— or at least such is my anticipation from its proximity, which the
reader may judge of from the description of the method" adopted for
tlie patent carving. An iron mould is first cast from a plaster or wood
model. The iron mould is heated to a red heat, and applied to a
piece of wood, previously damped, with great force, and repeated,
until the wood is burnt to the required form. The char is then cleaned
oft", and any undercutting that may be required done bv hand ; when
the operation is finished it lias tlie appearance of old oak. The
surface may be brought ;Umost to a polisli, when it assumes a liio-lily
finished appearance, neai-ly equal to the original, though of a first-jat'e
master, from which it was copied. By tlw great pressure to which the
wood is subjected, it is rendered much harder, and is consequently more
secure against the action of the atmosphere or insects. The immense
uses to which the patent carving can be applied must be obvious to all,
and needs but little description; and will afford another opporttmitv
— which I am always glad to give the hint of — to the "Commissioners
for Building New Churches," to enliv^jn their " interiors," which now
present nothingbutnaked roofs, plain paneliiigSj and any thing butgothic
finishings. How does my imagination brighten at the prospect ! seats,
"as of old," with their beautifully carved finial standards — pulpits,
paneled and moulded to richness — gallery fronts with elaboratelv
carved tablets from scripturJ subjects — the altar-piece beautifuUV
ornamented with canopies, crockets, and finials — the roof with rich
tracery, bosses, queer-looking heads, cherubim and pendants — the )>ew
enclosures (if any, as I hope, ere long, to see the present kind, entirely
abandoned, as in that neat little chapel of St. Katherine in the Regent's
Park, where the body of the cliurch contains none of those pen-like
objects,) I should desire to see enlivened by the beauties of gothic
carving— the communion table, chairs and enclosure, oil, what beau-
tiful objects I elaborate to a degree : carved legs, carved backs, carved
balusters — the organ, a gem, a specimen of Gibbons, with that fine,
dark, brilliant polish sometimes seen in churches of the olden time.
But where does my imagination lead me ? were it of use to prophecy,
to write, to agitate, I would do so with abundant pleasure ; but I fear
all the labour would be lost, all my advice thrown away, and all mv
time and research only wasted upon the desert air, ere they, the said
Commissioners, will take the hint upon such a subject ; but if they
will not, surely the profession have some little influence, and will do
their best to enhance the interest of our modern churches; 'tis to
them I appeal, and earnestly solicit their support, in the introduction
of such ornament as will display their taste and judgment, and give
good scope for ingenuity. The patent carving bids fair to accomplish
this, as the price — the iron ruler of all architecture — is so cousiderablv
less than that of real carving — about one third, and, in many cases,
one fifth of its cost.

This invention is admirably adapted to the Styles now so much in
vogue, the Renaissance, Elizabethan, and Italian, the enrichments of
which being so frequently repeated, make the cost of the original
mould comparatively small ; for upon repetition mainly depends the
saving of expense. Articles of furniture are famous subjects upon
which these magical operations may be performed ; those old fash-
ioned, comfortable-lookingi high-backed, walnut tree chairs, with their
crimson plushed seats and grotesque-looking ornaicents, may be imi-
tated to correctness. Cabinets — ^the pride of former days, with all
their twistings and turnings, can be done with facility, and the work
of years performed in as many days. It is needless to enumerate the
very many purposes to which the patent process can be applied;
sufhce it to say, that any work carved in wood or moulded in plaster
can be executed by its pyrotechnic influence, save and except the
undercutting, which must be, as before stated, finished by liand. A
tablet in which figures appear of cupids in high relief, is exliibitad at
the works, and proves full well the triumphal power of the process ;
and a medallion portrait of the Duke of Wehiugton, presented to me
a£ a. specimen, shows its use in that department.

Patent Anti-Corrosive Iron Tube Works, Brunswick Street,
Blackfriars Road.
These tubes are of wrought iron tinned inside and outside, and are
used for gas, steam, or water. The process renders them almost im-
penetrable to corrosion, and causes them to resist the action of gas or
acids, for a much.longer period than the common tubes; they are use-
ful to brewers, distillers, operativ£ chemists, and other manufacturers;
and for the water companies they would be excellent, on account of
the purity of tlie tin with which they are coated, — they are well
adapted for service pipes, being less liable to burst by. frost than their
softer -rivals.

228

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[July,

ON THE HISTORY OF ANTIQUITIES.

Sir — The subject of llie antiquities of those nations which occupied
an early period of history, has frequently attracted the attention of men
of learning, who have examined with the greatest care every record
which could throw light on the subject of their inquiry.

These inquiries, however, have been always entered into in detached
portions for the purpose of studying the history and antiquities of a
single nation, and for that reason though tliey have been made by
persons well qualified for the task, their efTort's have been to a great
extent fruitless, and it yet remains to collect into one focus the result
of tbeir separate labours, and by affording the opportunity for com-
parison to increase their value tenfohl. Since the principal records
of the periods to which I allude, consist in remains of the useful or
liberal arts, sucli a comparison alone can at all exhibit the influence
one nation has had on another in the progress of civilization, and
enable us to connect many hitherto detached passages in the history of
the arts.

No one has, perhaps, carefully compared the remains of ancient
art to be found in Egypt, India, Etruria and Peru, yet we have some
grounds for supposing that tliere has been a connection more or less
close between the inhabitants of all those countries : in fact to go
deeply into all these histories, by a personal examination of the prin-
cipal remains, would be too arduous a task for any one individual.
Besides the nations before mentioned, an attempt of this kind would
embrace the history of the Chaldees, the early history of the Tartars,
the Scandinavian tribes, the originators of Stonehenge, and the various
constructions called Cyclopean, with the remains of now unknown
origin in America, which have lately attracted the attention of the
antiquaries of that continent.

Another branch of the same subject intimately connected with the
former, and of which the importance is too obvious to require ex-
planation, is that of inscriptions; and I have great reason to think
that in this especially, our present ignorance arises rather from the
■want of a skilful combination of acquired materials, than from a defi-
ciency in those materials themselves.

On these accounts I am ready to believe that any one entering upon
this subject and fully carrying it out, (and its comprehensiveness would
be its excellence), would confer an important benefit on art and litera-
ture.

I remain, &c.

E. L.

ON CONTRACTS.

Sir — I shall feel particularly obliged if you will be pleased to give
your opinion, in your next publication, on the question given below,
as it will be of great service in guiding me upon the business.
1 remain, your most obliged,

Cardiff, May, M. R.

(Case.)
I have been employed in making designs for a Rectory House, and after-
wards a specification of the several works, and a very full detailed estimate
of every item of expense of building the same, to accompany the speci-
fication. Among other things contained in the specification was the
sinking of a well (that a well should be sunk to a sufficient depth to obtain
water), and in the detailed estimate was an item for sinking the well of
3^. 10s., as being informed by the Incumbent that the springs were very near
the surface (which they are in the adjoining fields), and in the specification
in the general condition is the following clause, that all extras, additions, or
deductions made to the building shall be nieas(u-ed and valued according to
the detailed estimate iccompanying the sjiecification. Now the site of the
house is an eminence on the limestone stratum, and I have sunk a well
to the depth of 78 feet below the surface, without any chance or sign of
obtaining water, at an additional expense of 20/. over the 3/. 10s. allowed in
the detailed estimate, (which sum I have not made a claim for). Through
there being no water the Incumbent will not certify that the contract is ful-
filled. — Please to state your opinion on the above.

' [We are of opinion that from the wording of the specification alone, that
the contractor has not strictly fulfilled the conditions of his contract in the
eye of the law ; it is one of those foolish unlimited stipulations we see too
often inserted in specifications. The specification should have stated not
exceeding a certain depth. However, if it can be clearly proved that the In-
cumbent held out to the parties tendering, that water could he procured near
the surface, with a \new that .such parties should imagine it to be the case,
and put down a price accordingly ; we are then of opinion that the contractor
would be reheved in equity, particularly if he proved that he had sunk the
well to a reasonable depth, to show that he had used his best endeavours
to procure water — which in the present case we are of opinion the contractor
has done.] — Editor.

REVIE^VS.

^ Summer's Day at TVindsor, and a Viiit to Eton. By Edward Jesse.
London, 1841. Murray.

As a guide-book or manual for the information of those who visit
Windsor Castle and its immediate vicinity, this may fairly be styled
a superior volume of the kind, it being tastefully got up, and contain-
ing several well-executed wood-cuts. That the subjects of the latter
are well chosen, and thereby enhance the interest of the book, is more
than we can add ; for, with the exception of the frontispiece, which
is a very useful situation's-plan of the castle, the print showing, in
elevation, two bays of the exterior of St. George's chapel, another
showing three ditto of the Tomb House, and one or two other cuts,
the rest of the illustrations illustrate nothing. Sure we are, that had
they not been given, no one would ever have missed such things as
portraits of trees, facsimiles of prisoner's hand-writings, the ladies and
gentlemen on horseback intended to represent Her Majesty with Mel-
bourne & Co., or the very queer old-fashioned set-out of George III.
at the Eton Montem. Of the castle itself — which it may be presumed
is, after all, the principal of the lions at Windsor, nothing is shown
beyond the Norman gateway — which conveys no idea whatever of the
exterior generally — and St. George's Hall, and the Guard Chamber,
which last is executed in a most disagreeably hard manner. Surely
one or two more interiors might have been introduced ; we do not say
that such subjects can be furnished as cheaply as representations of
stumps of old trees, &c. ; we would gladly give every one of the latter
for a single illustration of the other kind. While Mr. Jesse affects to
entertain the highest respect for Sir JelTry Wyatville, it is certainly
no very great compliment towards that architect to keep him and his
work as much in the background as possible — or, rather, to keep them
quite out of sight. As regards the Castle in its present state, the
letterpress is as unsatisfactory as the illustrations, there being very
little indeed on the subject of the building, nothing amounting to
opinion, while the description is excessively meagre ; we have met
with very much more from time to time in periodicals and newspapers.
But the Imndred and fifty pages must, of course, be filled with some-
thing, and so, indeed, they are, namely, with what has been given a
hundred times before in various publications — a history of the Castle,
interlarded with anecdotes as trivial as they are stale. In fact, the
whole is a mere "cram," — such a production as could have been exe-
cuted by any journeyman bookseller. It is one of those things which
are made to sell, for the same reason that other guide-books sell, and
that court calendars find customers. But as the title-page bears a
name, we naturally — and, as it now turns out, foolishly — expected to
meet with something above the ordinary run of such performances.
What Mr. Jesse may be as a naturalist we know not; but here he ex-
hibits himself as a bookmaker, one of those w hom Carlyle very un-
ceremoniously calls "respectable literary thieves and paupers."

The Decorator and Artist's Assistant. Edited by J. Page, Author of
the Acanthus.

The appearance of this periodical work is, we trust, a proof of in-
creasing taste for design, and viewed in such a light, it meets with
our best wishes. Published in weekly numbers at sixpence, and
monthly parts at two shillings, it contains a variety of designs for
architectural ornaments, furniture, jewellery, &c., and w ill no doubt be
extensively patronized by the artisans to whom it is addressed. We
wish that Mr. Page would in every instance give the authorities of
the designs which he inserts, by which their value would be much
enhanced. There is a want of boldness in the outlines, but as that is
attributable to the etching, we cannot object to it.

The .icanttius.

As a homage to the architectural profession we present to their notice >lr.
Page's Plate of the Acanthus, designed, drawn and engraved by hiirself. Mr.
Page is, we believe, a self-taught artist, and we know him to be meritorious
and hardworking ; we hope therefore these will be claims to the patronage
of the profession for which be has shown so much respect. As an object of
study the luxuriant plant depicted in this engraving will well repay the
student who lays out his half-crown upon it. It is a cheap and elegant orna-
ment for the portfolio. \Ve are informed that the drawing obtained a gold
medal at the Society of Arts.

We have been obliged to defer our farther notice of Mr. Clegg's " Practical
Treatise on the Manufacture and Distribution of Coal Gas," until next month.

1841.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL

PAPERS ON HARBOURS AND RIVERS.

Reporl on tie. tiavigalion of the Forth. Dij Robert Stevenson Sf Sons,
Civil Engineers.

Prefatory A'oto— Having been called upon, by the magistrates of
Stirling, to revise, with a view to its being printed, the following
Report, which was made as far back as 1828, we have done so with
much care. It affords us great satisfaction to be enabled to state, that
the views contained in the Report have derived additional confirma-
tion from our past experience, more especially in the case of the
River Tay, whose navigation was formerly obstructed by obstacles
\\-hich, although composed of different materials, closely resemble, in
their position and extent, those which at present hinder the advance-
ment of the tiade of the Forth. By the partial removal of the various
fords, the depth of water in the Tay, at spring tides, has been increased
from 11 feet 9 inches to 10 feet; and the works, which are not yet
completed, have occupied little more than two years. The hardness
of the materials which compose the Fords of the Forth may render
their removal more tedious; but it ought not to be forgotten, that it,
at the same time, ensures greater permanency in the form of the ex-
cavated channel. It is therefore with increased confidence that we
repeat the recommendations of the Report of 1828.

Robert Stevenson & Sons.

Edinburgh, Dec. 10, ]_&3S.

The Firth and River Forth are navigable for the largest class of
mercbSnt vessels, as high as the port of Alloa; and in spring tides,
vessels drawing 9 feet water may proceed to Stirling, lying lui miles
above Alloa, while those drawing 7k feet water, may reach the mills
of Craigforth, 5 miles above Stirling. The improvement of the navi-
gation between Alloa and Stirling, has long been regarded as a desir-
able object, and was brought under the notice of the Reporter by the
magistrates of Stirling, in the month of November, 182.5, when it was
proposed to petition Parliament for leave to bring in a bill for this
measure. * * *

Above Alloa the river becomes very circuitous. By the navigation
the distance from thence to Stirling is 10^- miles, while in a direct
line it measures only 5 miles. It has been proposed to render the
navigation of this part of the river more direct, by cutting through
the links, or peninsular necks of land, for which the track of this river
is so remarkable. This would shorten the navigable track ; but it
would have a direct tendency to deteriorate the navigation below, as
a great volume of the tidal water, wdiich at present passes over and
scours the lower banks four times in the twenty-four hours, would be
cut off and diverted from its course. The cutting of the links and
straightening the river would also, in a material degree, interfere with
the vested rights of the proprietors of the banks, by depriving some
of the benefit of a water communication, and destroying the valuable
salmon fisheries of others. This plan, therefore, though worthy of
consideration, is, upon the whole, judged inexpedient in the existing
state of things. The Reporter proposes to improve the present chan-
nel of the river by deepening it, and removing part of the numerous
obstructions called Fords, and he therefore now proceeds to describe
in detail each of these obstructions, and the works which are con-
sidered necessary for their removal.

Between Alloa and Stirling there are seven principal fords, or
shallow parts of the river, which form so many obstructions to the
navigation. It is not believed that incumbrances of a similar geo-
logical structure are to be met with in almost any other river in the
kingdom. The Firths of Tay, Moray, Clyde, Solway, and the Rivers
Alersey, Severn, Thames, and Humber, have their peculiar tides and
difficulties, both in the form of rocks and sand banks, but none of these
channels are impeded by successive chains of imbedded stones and
rocks, appearing at low water, like those called the Fords of Stirling.
Various hypotheses have been started to account for the existence of
these fords. Some have supposed them to be artificial, arising from
stones having been thrown into the shallowest parts of the river at an
early period, to render it fordable for cattle. But from the minute
examination which the progress of this survey has enabled the reporter
to make, he has no hesitation in stating, that they are natural barriers
of rock traversing the valley of the Forth, and are what geologists
term whi7i-di/kes, which, from the continued scouring of the bed of the
river, have assumed the irregular appearance now presented by them
at low water. Similar formations of whin or gieenstone rock occur
on the southern face of the Abbey Craig, and also on the northern side
of Stirling Castle. The fords, like the cliffs at these places, consist of
stones, varying in size from a cubic foot to a cubic yard, imbedded in
a matrix of friable rock. The joint effect of the crooked channel of
the river, and the obstructions caused by the fords, produces a great

retardation in the velocity of the flood, which, in the upper parts of
the river, is very sensibly less than that of the flood in the Firth, and
travels at the rate of only one mile in five minutes. Although this
retardation may be considered to be in part due to the operation of
the river current, yet it is obvious, from its languor, that this cannot
be the principal cause, and it is therefore to be sought for chiefly in
the obstructions offered by the fords. On the days of new and full
moon, it is high water at Alloa Pier at four hours and forty minutes ;
at Tullibody Pier at five hours and ten minutes; at Povvis Hole at five
hours and ten minutes; and at five hours and ten minutes at Stirling
Shore or Quay. The consequence is, that the tide does not attain its
maximum height at these three last places, until it has been ebb tide
for half an hour at Alloa. It appears further, from this train of obser-
vation, that the perpendicular rise of spring tides at Alloa, is about
19 ft. 4 in.; at Tullibody, llU feet; at Powis Hole, 12 feet; and at
Stirling, 7 ft. 8 in. ; while the corresponding rise of neap tides at these
stations is respectively Hi feet, llA feet, 7 feet, and 3 feet. There
being, therefore, a rise of 19 ft. 4 in. in spring tides at Alloa, and only
7 ft. S in. at Stirling, the available depth at that place is less than it
would have been had there been no rise on the bed of the river, by 11
ft. 8 in. Before leaving the subject of the tides, it may be proper to
remark, that the maxinuun point of high water at Alloa Pier is 4
inches above the level of the high water at Tullibody Pier, wliile it is
2 inches lower at Powis Hole, and 3i inches higher at Stirling Shore.
The great object, tlierefore to which the reporter would direct the
exertions of the Magistrates of Stirling, as Conservators of the Navi-
gation of the Forth, is to the removal of the Fords, which are the chief
obstructions to the free passage of the tide waters. The advantage of
deepening the bottom in the upper reaches of the river is obvious, as
the natural effect of such a change is to permit the tide to flow over
the lowered ridges at an earlier period of the tide, and thus to allow
high water to take place sooner, before the tide below may have fallen
to any considerable extent; while, at the same time, an increased
depth is obtained. Vessels may then start from AUoa earlier in the
flood-tide, and reach the shallowest parts of the river, near Stirling, at
the top of high water. In this view of the method of improving this
part of the navigation, it is very satisfactory to know, that a navigable
track through the whole of these obstructions may be formed at a
comparatively small expense, by the common and simple process of
blasting with gunpowder, and the use of flats or lighters fitted with
cranes and other apparatus. The Reporter will now describe, in de-
tail, the extent of the operations he considers necessary at the different
fords.

On the reach between Alloa and Throsk, he proposes that a buoy,
provided with suitable moorings, should be laid down at the seaward
extremity of the bank, on the eastern side of Alloa Island, about a
quarter of a mile above Alloa Pier. This buoy will be useful as a
direction for avoiding an extensive spit of sand, on either side of that
island. On its western side a perch or beacon is to be erected as a
further guide for that channel.

The commencement of Throsk Ford is about a mile and a quarter
above Alloa Pier. The channel on this ford is very shallow, and when
the river is in its state of summer water, it dries nearly all the way
across ; but as this part of the river has the advantage of a perpendi-
cular rise of about 18 feet in spring tides, and 134 feet in neap tides,
the navigation is comparatively little impeded.' On referring to the
plan and longitudinal section of the river, it will be seen, by the parts
coloured red, that little excavation is proposed here. A buoy, liow-
ever, is intended to be moored in a central position to show the deepest
water, and, as a farther direction, a perch is to be erected on the star-
board hand. This perch will also serve to point out the proper chan-
nel for passing Tullibody Island.

Cambus Ford is about a mile and a quarter above Throsk. The
bottom of the channel towards the lower end of this ford consists of
large stones and roots of trees, and in its upper part, large boulder
stones appear above the surface at low water. The rise of tide at
this ford is 164 feet in spring tides, and llA feet in neap tides. The
navigable channel to be cleared measures about 500 yards in length,
and 30 yards in breadth at the bottom. An average cutting of one
foot in depth will give about 20 feet at high water of spring tides at
this place. A perch is to be erected on the larboard hand, opposite
Tullibody Yare or Pier, and another on the starboard hand, to the
westward of the Mouth of the Devon. By this means vessels will be
enabled to avoid the foul ground at the bank on the opposite side of
the river. The track of Cambiis Ford is so obvious, that it is not
considered necessary to moor a buoy to point out the deepest channel.
Badneath Ford is about three quarters of a mile above Cambus. Its
bottom consists of two irregular lines of boulder stones, crossing the
bed of the river with numerous detached masses of the same descrip-
tion. From the winding direction of the channel at this place, the

2 I

230

THK CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

Jl'LY,

navisralioii is rendered more dilTleult than at either of the fords below;
and, in clearing it, considerable works of excavation will be required.
In sj'ring tides the rise of the \v :t •;• at the lower end of this ford is IG
ft. It in., and at the upper end !'( ft. 4 in.: there is therefore a fall of
3 ft. 2 in., on a length of about 1150 yards, which occasions a rapid
at low water, when the river is in its summer state. In neap tides,
the ri?e is about 11 ft. 2 in. at the lower end, and S feet at tlie upper
end. The length of the channel intended to be excavated at this ford
is about liG i yards, and its breadth will, as already proposed, be 30
yards at the bottom. An average depth of cutting over its whole ex-
tent of about one foot u ill be required in order to give a depth of IS
feet at high water of spring tides. A perch is to be placed on the
larboard hand at the lower end of this ford, and a buoy at the upper
end. A perch must also be placed at Fallin Toint on the larboard
hand. In passing Polmaise and Scobliie's Pow, no difficulty occurs;
near Bannockburn, liowever, there is a bank where a perch will be re-
quired as a direction for the deepest-channel.

Manor Ford, about two miles and a quarter above Bandeath, has an
irregidar and stoney bottom. At the lower end of this ford, the rise
in spring tides is 13 ft. >> in., and at the upper end 12 ft. G in. ; and in
neap tides about 8 feet and G ft. 10 in. respectively ; there is conse-
quently a fall at low water of 14 inches which occurs on a length of
GG6 yards, and produces a considerable rapid at this place. The ex-
tent of ford proposed to be cleared measures about G6G yards in length,
and the breadth and depth of tlie channel to be formed will be the
sane as that already specified. This will require an average cutting
of IS inches in depth. From the curved form of this channel, a perch
will require to be laid down on the larboard side, for each end of the
ford, and a buoy must be moored in a central position on the starboard
hand.

The .Sow Ford is about three quarters of a mile above the Manor
Ford, the bottom is stoney and irregular, and its direction also forms a
curved line, but as the bottom presents fewer obstructions to the cur-
rent than the two fords immediately below, there is no visible rapid
at this place. Spring fides here give a rise of 11 ft. 9 in., and neap
tides (i ft. 9 in. It will be seen, on referring to the plan and section
that the works of excavation at the Sow Ford are not extensive. In-
stead of mooring buoys to point out the direction of the deepest water,
it is proposed to erect two perches, the one on the starboard and the
other upon the larboard hand. Wherever perches can hn introduced
they are considered preferable to buoys, vi'hich are more expensive
both in their first cost and future maintenance.

The Abbey Ford is situate about a mile above the Sow Ford, and
has already been excavated to a limited extent with a view to its im-
provement; but the excavation wants extension, both in breadth and
in depth, fo render it useful. The current here is still so much ob-
structed that it causes a considerable rapid when the river is in its
summer state ; the fall being no less than 2 ft. G in., on an extent of
about .'iOU yards. Spring tines rise, at the lower end of this ford, 11
ft. 6 in., and at the upper end only 9 feet; and neap fides rise G ft. 9
in. at the bottom, and 4 ft. 3 in. at the top. The length of the exca-
Tation will be about 565 yards, with a breadth of 30 yards, similar to
that of the other fords. The average depth of excavation, in order to
obtain 13 feet at high water of spring tides, will be about 2 feet.
Connected w ith this ford, two buoys are proposed to be moored on the
larboard hand, the one at the lower, and the other at the upper ex-
tremity of the ford ; and a perch must also be erected on the star-
board hand.

The Town's Ford is situate about 500 yards above the Abbey Ford.
The foul ground at this place extends about 1000 yards in length, and
the works of excavation, in obtaining a navigable track, similar to that
of the other fords, will be jiroporfionally more extensive. Spring
tides rise only 7 ft. S in. at the Town's Ford, and neap tides about 3
feet. Its bottom is very irregular and rocky, forming a great obstruc-
tion to the trade of the town, and the navigation of the upper parts of
the river. The average depth of cutting at this ford will be 2 feet.
For pointing out the deepest water of the new channel which it is in-
tended to excavate, three buoys upon the larboard hand are considered
necessary.

The results of the operations which the Reporter has described will
be to deejien the river at those points where the obstructions occur ;
and the depths which are intended to be obtained at high wafer of
spring tides are as follows at the various fords, viz.: — Turosk Ford,
22 feet; Cambus Ford, 20 feet ; Bandeath Ford, IS feet; Manor Ford,
IGfeet: Sow Ford, 15 feet; Abbev Ford, 13 feet; Town's Ford, 13
feet.

By thus proportioning the depths at high water on each ford to its
distance from Stirling, it is expected that vessels drawing 13 feet will
have sufficient wafer over the lower fords at any period of Hood, and
will thus be enabled to reach Stirling at the very top of high water.

and get the full advantage of the most favourable lime of tide in the
shallowest parts of the river.

The shore, or quay of Stirling, extends 20o feet or thereby along
the right bank of the river, and consists of a breast-wall built iii a rude
manner with boulder stones, without the usual and necessary provision
of defenders or wooden stretchers to prevent vessels from receiving
injury while lying at their moorings. Vessels must consequently lie
off in the stream to the great inconvenience of the mariner and trader.
In any improvement, therefore, upon the navigation of the river, the
unserviceable state of the quay-wall at Stirling should not be forgotten ;
but measures should be taken fur rebuilding it, at least to some extent.
The accommodation on this wharf is also very circumscribed and de-
fective, but it may easily be extended and improved, as proposed to
the Magistrates by the Reporter some years since. The road from
the shore should also be formed on a more easy line of draught. It
would likewise ]>rove a great convenience to the southern parts of the
town and the lower districts of the county, if an additional wharf, and
a road from thence, were formed about the central part of the Town's
Ford ; as also proposed in the report above alluded to. In conclusion,
the. Reporter has to state as the general result of his inquiry, that it
appears, from the annexed estimate, that by an expenditure of about
£10,V26 4s. the fords of the Forth might be cleared, so as in spring
fides to admit the passage up to .Siirling of the ordinary class of mer-
chant vessels drawing about 13 feet water; and he cannot but think
the importance of sucli an improvement far outweighs the capital re-
quired for its attainment. The position and rising importance of
Stirling is too obvious to be longer neglected. It is the natitfal em-
porium of the Western Highlands, and lies in front of an extensive and
fertile district, containing many valuable waterfalls and other facilities
for the establishment of large manufactories.

Robert Stevenson*.

Abstract estimate of the probable expense of the works of excava-
tion, mooring buoys, and erecting perches or beacons in the several
fords and reaches, on the river Forth, between Alloa and Stirling,
agreeably fo the foregoing report.

For the expense of works of excavation and removal of stuff, and
for mooring a buoy and erecting a perch connected with the reach
between Alloa and Throsk, - - - £ 72 1 0

For works of excavation, &c., at Cambus Ford - 618 18 0

For ditto ditto Bandeath Ford - 654 13 0

For ditto ditto Manor Ford - 918 7 0

For ditto ditto Sow Ford - 439 10 0

For ditto ditto Abbev Ford - irsr IG 0

For ditto ditto Town's Ford - 2747 5 0

For works of masonry and for re-building and ex-
tending Stirling Quay .... I2u0 0 0

£8438 10 0
Incidents on the above sum of £3438 10s., at 20 per

cent. ...... 1687 14 0

£10,126 4 0

"0\ THE IMPROVEMENT OF RIVERS, &c."

Sir — In your review last month of my Treatise on the Improvement
of the Navigation of Rivers, you have given an entirely erroneous
version of my views, by an unfortunate mal -arrangement of your quota-
tions. This has possibly arisen in the press, nevertheless every scienti-
fic or practical man must feel bound, after merely reading your review,
to pronounce the work quite undeserving of the approbation with
which you and other literary characters have been pleased to honour
it.

In chapter 2, is my definition of the regimen, or state of those rivers
which are free from bars, and the plain inference to be drawn from
this chapter alone must be, inasmuch as " like causes produce like
effects," that we can only ensure the improvement of defective, or bar
rivers, by approximating their condition to that of those n hich are in
the required state.

In chapter 3, I give a representation of those features of the regi-
men, or state of bar rivers, which mark the difference between them
and those which are free from bars.

In chapter 7, " on the course to be adopted for the improvement of tie
dtplh on the bars of n'Ktvs, and in their chaniie/s," I state, " the reason-
ing in the preceding pages on the causes of the formation of bars,
suggests the course to be adopted for their amelioration, by the re-
moval of all those inner banks, or shoals, stretching like dams across

1S4I.J

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL

231

the river, which have the effect of preventing the rapid discharge of
the backwater during the proper tidal duration of the ebb.''

Again, " seeing tliat tlie existence of bars is to be attributed to the
too great declivity of the bed of the river, or to that of its low water
surface, the impropriety of forming dams across a tidal river, with the
view of converting it iiito a line of navigation by the means of locks,
ouMit to strike every reflecting mind as a measure whicli should never
belidopted when there exists any possibility of obtaining the requisite
depth of water by deepening the bed of the river."

In lieu of giving the above, you have merely quoted as my means
of improvement, a case or exception, in which 1 have supposed the
existence of impediments to carrying the preceding views into execu-
tion, such as the great expense of lowering a long lengtli of rocky bed,
■which expense the trade of the port might not be able to bear.

Considering the error into which you have been misled, by forming
your opinion upon the excepted case, in lieu of the general rule which
i have advanced, I am not surprised that your views of the utility of
my theory do not coincide with the favourable opinions it has elicited
from other scientific quarters.

In my account of the former theories on the cause of the formation
of bars, I have given the names of every author who to my knowledge
has advanced upon the subject any thing beyond the opinions generally
held. I did not give the name of the author of the fourth theory, be-
cause my quotation is only from a paper signed Nauticus, in the Nau-
tical Magazine for 1S37, page 4S7 ; a work much used for the diffusion
of information connected with hydraulic engineering.

I perceive in your May number that Mr. Henry Barrett avows him-
self the author of the paper signed Nauticus.

Mr. Barrett also takes credit to himself as the originator of the
suggestion of the "formation of harbours with double entrances," a
principle which he says, "is now recommended by the commissioners
in their report of a survey of the harbours on the south east coast."
But there is no piracy of Mr. Barrett's conceptions in this, inasmuch
as harbours with double entrances have been in existence for many
centuries ; neither is there any resemblance between the Loml Jide
harbours of refuge proposed by the Government Conunissioners to be
constructed in five fathoms at low water, upon the principle of the
Plymouth or Cherbourg breakwaters, and the harbours proposed by
Mr. Barrett to be constructed at Dungeness, or Lowestoffe Ness ; the
latter being mere inland excavations, with channels of approach to
them to be cut through the drifting shingle beach ; but which channels
and excavations are to remain for ever afterwards clear of deposit ac-
cording to the theory of their projector Mr. Barrett. In ray humble
opinion they would speedily fill up again and become terra firma, not-
withstanding the double entrances. Any scientific or practical man on
examining Mr. Barrett's plans for harbours, will immediately perceive
the error which has been made in believing that there would be any
current through the harbour, as this could only take place if the course
from one entrance to the other, through the harbour, were shorter than
by the coast line.

In the Nautical Magazine for 1838, page 97, is a full description of
Mr. Barrett's harbours of refuge, and a reply to his theories on bars.
"Lowestoffe Ness is a flat point of sand and shingle, which has been
slowly but continually increasing and extending further into the sea;
towards the centre of this Ness it is proposed to excavate a basin of
some three acres, and it is intended to open a channel north and south
into the sea on either side of the Ness. These entrances being pro-
tected with short piers, and once opened to a depth of fifteen feet at
low water, (no very easy job,) are thenceforth, and for ever after, so
to remain at the simple ipse dixit of the engineer. I doubt it ; I will
ask any unprejudiced person acquainted with this part of the coast,
the flow of tide, and the harbours in the neighbourhood, whether it is
not much more likely that it will not only be barred up, but " blocked
up and lost?" But Nauticus (Mr. Barrett) says, " The sole cause of
bars at the mouths of harbours is the conflicting action of effluent cur-
rents passing into the ocean at right angles with the shore," and in
reference to this theory of Mr. Barrett, and his subsequent statement
that "there is no exception to this rule to be found on the whole sur-
face of the globe," Investigator quietly observes, "assertion is not
argument, nor a reference to the maps of the world, demonstration on
such a point." Investigator also ca'ls upon Nauticus (Mr. Barrett)
for the names of the scientific men who he states are converts to his
-theories. In Mr. Barrett's letter of the 2.5th ult., to give weight to
his statements he also adds, " numbering as I do among converts to my
thesis, some of the most eminent scientific and practical men of the
day ;" and again, in reference to his theory, "I state this from obser-
vation of more than twenty years made on harbours and bars on various
parts of Eurojje and in Africa." Now, Mr. Editor, I repeat with In-
vestigator, that it would be far more satisfactory to be able to reason
upon facts produced by Mr. Barrett, in lieu of loose statements, and

the shadows of opponents. Without troubling Mr. Barrett to give us
an account of the rivers on the coast of Africa, (thougli by the bye I
have lately seen (hat an attempt has been made to get rid of the bar
of the Kowie River, by giving the latter a direction at right angles
into the sea, in lieu of its old oblique course, which by Mr. Barrett's
tlieory ought not to have been attended with a bar), I will merely
ask if my information be correct as to the statement, that the river Yare
(with which Mr. Barrett is locally well acquainted) is now made to dis-
charge its waters at right angles into the sea, and that the depth on
its bar is much greater than at any known former period ; or when it
discharged its waters into the sea with an acute angle with the shore,
when the navigation was nearly lost, and the inhabitants had to cut a
direct channel through the dunes into the sea.

I am your obedient servant,

W. A. Brooks.
Stockton-on-Ttei, June 18'11.

KENT, THE ARCHITECT,

Sir — While I quite agree with Mr. East in regard to Kent's merits
as an architect, I cannot help regretting that he should have slurred
them over — at least, have passed over them so lightly without at all
dwelling upon them, or even mentioning by name, a single building by
him. I am rather surprised too, that while speaking of Kent, Mr. E.
should not have taken Mr. Allan C\u)ningham to task, for the super-
cilious and even contemptous tone in which he has expressed himself
of one who deservedly ranked so high in his day both as an architect
and landscape gardener, in which last capacity he may be considered
the father of the so-called English style of laying out pleasure grounds.
A just tribute to his memory, in that character, has been paid to him
by the writer of a paper on the subject of ornamental gardening in the
Foreign Quarterly ; of Kent's abilities as a painter, perhaps, the less
that is said the better, but Holkham alone, would suffice for his archi-
tectural reputation, for though susceptible of improvement in some
respects, it is incontestably one of the most complete residences in the
kingdom, — a perfect model in regard to internal arrangement and con-
venience, and likewise elegance of style, and variety of effect. Every
part of the plan is carefully studied, and every apartment is beauti-
fully finished. Though by no means aiming at architectural decora-
tion, the statue gallery is one of the most charming rooms I ever be-
held,— of a beauty actually fascinating, and the \\tv! from the octagon
tribune at either end affords a most striking scenic eftect. Never have I
seen a single plan of Palladio's which at all approaches that of Holkham,
or I may say, which is not more or less disfigured by glaring blemishes
and defects. Nevertheless, Cunningham makes no scruple of saying:
"little interest attaches to a controversy about such a design: it is
heavy and monotonous, and stamped with all the faults, which were
many ; and all the beauties which were few, of him who proudly wrote
himself 'Painter, Sculptor, and Architect.' " — No doubt this is a neatly
turned, antithetically pointed sentence ; yet it is ungenerous and unjust;
particularly when it is considered what an immense stride forward
Kent took, from the clumsy and monotonous arrangements which had
till then prevailed in the mode of laying out houses of that descrip-
tion.

Such being the case, I am surprised that Mr. East should not have
instanced Holkham, as being the noblest work of its class and period
in our architecture of the last century. That he is not sparing of ad-
miration towards Kent is evident enough ; but at the same time he has
expressed himself in such general — or rather such exceedingly vague
terms, that it is hardly possible to make out any definite meaning.
Nay, he almost seems to deny Kent one of his chief merits, when he
talks of his being an artist rather than an architect, since the princely
residence above-mentioned is one pre-eminently marked by excellence
of plan, and other strictly architectural qualities. Or shall I say that
Holkham did not occur to Mr. E.'s recollection when he was writing
his more florid than perspicuous eulogium ? If unacquainted with what
Arthur Young saysof Holkham, he will doubtless thank me for pointing
out to him that writer, whose 'Tours, though professedly agricultural,
contain a very great deal also of interesting matter, relative to the
mansions and seats he visited in different parts of tlie country, — far
more indeed than is to be obtained from others who have confined their
attention to buildings and collections of pictures. I may also here
mention a paper exclusively on the subject of Holkham, in the fifth
volume of Elmes' Annals of the Fine Arts, which may be recommended
as an able piece of architectural criticism.

I remain, &e.

Z.

2 12

233

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[July,

CANDIDUS versus S. L.

When S. L. spoke of my making so free with the Professor of
Architecture, it certainly looked very much as if he thought it rather
a piece of presumption on my part to make any animadversions at all
on opinions delivered from such an authoritative quarter. Nevertheless
he now professes to wonder where I find any expression of his that
seems to discountenance discussion of the opinions of public men, — in
which light, I presume, the Professor of Architecture at the Royal
Academy may fairly be considered, in regard to his own art, although
he is not a public character in the political world. Wlictlier it be with
regard to these last alone that S. L. is ready to allow " the roughest
handling," I know not ; but he might perhaps have spared himself the
qualifying proviso, viz., " if it be kept within the bounds of truth and
reason," because it would be exceedingly difticult indeed to ascertain
and lay down those bounds in a clear and satisfactory manner. I my-
self, for instance, should say that I did not in the slightest degree
transgress them. Or, "by keeping within the bounds of truth and
reason," are we to understand that we are at liberty to say only just
as much and no more than will be approved of, and allowed to be per-
fectly reasonable, by the party animadverted upon, or by those who
take just the same side of the question ? In such case, I most assuredly
Lave on many occasions shown myself to be an outrageously unreason-
able sort of person; — I hope I ever shall continue to (do so.

To come to something more tangible, — S. L. says he cannot see the
propriety of adopting the mode suggested for Gothic windows; yet
to most other persons I think it must be obvious enough, because all
the objections — and 1 will add reasonable ones — against glazing with
small quarrels or panes set in lead, are removed at once, and still the
beauty and character of the style, as regards moulded muUions, and
tracery, fully preserved. Such windovr may very properly be com-
pared to an open screen, — and wherever placed, a screen of that
kind may, I conceived, be described as open, in contradistinction from
one with solid panels — though filled in with glass.

When he talks of Gothic being objected to by most persons on the
score of its interfering too much with comfort, if it is to be properly
treated, I must confess I do not understand him ; because if "properly"
treated, that style may be made to conduce quite as much to comfort
and even to luxurious refinement, as any other; that is provided it be
treated not only " properly" in regard to the elements and details of
the style, but ably and intelligently, so as at the same time to secure
all those improvements in domestic architecture we are now familiar
with. — As for fac-similes of old halls and manor houses, I would leave
them to such fac-simile people as would relish a Gothic dinner oft' the
wooden trenchers of the good old times. Most assuredly, George IV.,
who was supposed to be as studious of personal comfort and conve-
nience as any gentleman need be, was not one of the persons alluded
to by S. L. ; otherwise he would have had modem sash windows put
into all the private apartments of Windsor Castle.

S. L. still insists that invintion is the object of the architect when he
employs either the Grecian or Roman style, though he allows — per-
haps upon downright compulsion, that originality is not always the
result. Nevertheless it would certainly appear that direct imitation is
not generally aimed at; or shall we say that the numerous modern copies
of ancient porticos we have beheld of late years, are so many proofs of
invention though unluckily no originality has ensued from it? As for
the originality of St. Stephen's, Walbrook— I am S. L.'s most humble
servant, but he really must excuse my admiring it. I am aware that
to extol it, is perfectly orthodox; yet it never was my doxy, nor was
it that of Dr. Anderson, who has given it the "roughest handling" ima-
ginable in his Essay. With regard again to the spire of Bow Church,
1 admit it to be original enough— as unlike any thing in classical archi-
tecture as possible ; still it is no favourite of mine ; nor is it worthy
of being put into competition with that of St. George's, Bloomsbury,
which last I will boldly assert to be by far the finest composition of
tlie kind in the metropolis— I might say in England ; nor am I alto-
gether solitary in this opinion, having heard nearly the same opinion
of it expressed by several jjrofessional men. I am asked, however, if
I can point out any modern Gothic building possessing as much ori-
ginality as the two examples quoted for my edification by S. L., I
therefore say that the design for the New Houses of Parliament,
displays quite as much originality, and of a far better kind, and
would also refer to Cossey Hall, and Harlaxton as being highly satis-
jactory specimens of modern buildings, in which the Gothic has been
treated with originality cun amon. The hardest charge of all against
me remains to be answered : I am quite regardless, it seems, of decency
in the choice of my expressions — I believe I was once so indecorous
as to write at full length, the naughty word "breeches-pocket," and
I may possibly on some other occasions, have expressed myself with

rather more energy than decorum ; but I am not conscious of hav-
ing ever made use of any expressions of which a gentleman would
be ashamed, although of many that would shock those demure, hypo-
critical persons who are choice indeed as to their words, and seldom,
further than mere words. However, if S. L. can show up ray indecen-
cies and indecorums, be is perfectly at liberty to do so ; and then I shall
understand better than I now do, in what they consist. For my own
|)art I have no great fancy for the milk-and-water style of writing, nor
do I think it at all calculated to operate efficaciously. Did I consider
architects to be infants, I should jirepare and administer my doses ac-
cordingly ; whereas there are many it would require a Sixty-Candidus
power in order to make any impression upon them. Dainty drawing-
room phrases are therefore quite out of the question : to use them —
pshaw I it would be like trying to tickle a rhinoceros with a rose-leaf.

Candidos.

DESIGNS WANTED.

Sir — In the Times newspaper of to-day (June 4th) is an advertise-
ment inviting architects to send in designs for a Corn-Exchange to be
erected at Sudbury, in Suffolk, the drawings for which are to be sent
in on the 10th ; so that barely three days altogether are allowed for
making them, and not even that, unless a person chooses to go entirely
by guess, without writing to the secretary (at Sudburv) for further
particulars, or rather, for particulars, no other information being sup-
plied by the advertisement than that there will be an area of "S by
5U feet, yet whether that is the extent of the whole site, or merely of
the part of the building appropriated to the Exchange itself, does not
very clearly appear.

Surely the people who insert such advertisements must suppose
that architects keep a stock of ready-made designs by them, suited
for every occasion ; or perhaps they may imagine that architectural
designs can now be manufactured by steam, and perhaps we shall next
be told that the required drawings are expected to be sent down by
return of coach or train.

Uudoubtedly, if an architect be pricked on with a golden spur, he
will be stimulated to extra exertion. But on this occasion, the golden
spur has been hammered so very thin, that it is as light as a feather.
Hardly, perhaps, will you believe me when I say, that the two pre-
miums amount together to the extraordinary sum, as it may very pro-
perly be called, of Eight GmNE.vs! viz. Five for the first, and Three
for the second ! The man who would nibble at such a bait, would
nibble the cheese put as a bait upon a mouse-trap. Leaving the pre-
posterous shortness of time allowed out of the question, no professional
man, I conceive, would pay attention to such an invitation, stamped as
it is with excessive paltriness on the very face of it. Therefore, if
responded to at all, it is likely to be so only by junior clerks and office
assistaats. It might be imagined that so gross a practical blunder as
that of affording no time whatever for at all considering the subject —
hardly sufficient, indeed, for putting down the first rough ideas upon
paper — would not be committed by even the most ignorant. Never-
theless, such we find to be frequently the case, and what is more, that
the profession itself makes no effort to put an end to it. One way
would be to show up and make an example of every case of the kind.
And I would further suggest, that the Institute ought to keep an exact
register of all competitions advertised in the public papers, and of
their respective particulars and conditions. But, unfortunate' y, the
Institute does not seem disposed to bestir itself in earnest or to the
purpose on any one occasion. It seems to bo not only without the
power, but without the slightest inclination, to effect any good, either
for the art itself, or for those who follow it.

I remain, &c.,
Anti-Humbug.

New Sleamt'r at Brighton. — We learn from Brighton that a new steamer
built at North Sliielils for a company at Brighten, and fitted with Mr. Smith's
patent screw propeller, on the plan of the Archimedes, arrived at the Chain
Pier, on Tuesday morning, from the river Tyne, after the remarkable quick
passage of 481 hours. This vessel is intended to ply from Brighton to the
adjacent ports, and to be occasionally used as a tug in tow ing vessels in and
out of Shoreham Harbour. She is aboui 110 tons, with engines of 45-horsi
power.

Steam Communication between Dresden and Prague. — The first steam boat
tluatever m.ide the pas.sage between Dresden ami Prague arrived from the
latter cily on the 30th uU. She is called the Bohemia, and was built ex-
pressly for that service, being flat-bottomed, having 121 feet in length, and
13 ft. 6 in. in breadth. Her engine is ol 40-horse power, and she is capable
ol carrying 40 passengers, and a considerable quantity of merchandise. When
laden with a full freight she draws only 16J inches of water, and makes the
pa.ssage in about 16 hours. She is to travel to and from the two cities every
three days.

1841.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

233

NEW INVENTIONS AND IMPRO\'EMENTS.

STEAM ENGINE FURNACES.

ESPERIRSENTS ON THE ECONOMICAL EFFECTS OF FURNACES OF DIFFERENT
CONSTRUCTION, AND ON DIFFERENT KINDS OF FUEL.

These experiments have been made by a committee appointed by the
Society of Industn' of the Grand Duchy of Hesse, and their object lias been,

1st.' To ascertain tlie useful and economical results of furnaces for boilers
constructed on differeut principles.

2nd. To establish the relative value of the combustibles most gencrally
used in the country.

We do not consider it necessary to enter into the details of the experi-
ment ; we will only mention the results.

In order to decide the first question, a common boiler was set over a fur-
nace of brickwork provided with a chimney, and this apparatus for heating
was submitted to various modifications, as regarded the form and structure
of the hearth as well as the disposition of the flues.

In order to resolve the second question, experimental trial was made of
good dry wood chopped from the beech tree ; of good coal from Roer, called
Fettschrot ; and of square pieces of turf from Greishcimer, perfectly dried,
and of the heaviest kind.

The different modifications used in the construction of the furnace were
the following :

I. Furnaces without flues or draught chimneys, the boiler being suspended
freely above the fire.

II. \ simple flue passing round the boiler, the bottom part of which only
was immediately exposed to contact with the fire burning in the grate.

III. A double flue, that is, a flue going twice round the boiler in the same
direction.

IV. A stove arched in the shape of a cupola, and having an opening in
the middle of the arch, which became gradually wider towards the top, and
by which the heat ascended, and was communicated to the bottom of the
boiler, to be afterwards conveyed by three holes, placed at regular distances,
into a circidar passage which surrounded the boiler; to issue thence through
three similar apertures difterently arranged, and which communicated with
a second passage placed higher, whence the draught was at length conducted
into the chimney.

V. Two half flues, that is, each of which did not extend beyond half the
circumference of the division of the boiler. The fore part of the flame (on
the side next the door) ascended from the stove, and was distributed half
into the flue on the right, half into the flue on the left, and was finally con-
ducted into the chimney at the point where they met.

VI. Four half flues, or two on each side the boiler (from right to left) ;
the flame issuing from the side opposite the door entered into the lower flue,
then passed half the circumference of the partition of the boiler, and entered
into the upper flue, whence it was finally conducted into the chimney.

The relative effects of these difterent arrangements have been ascertained,
both with respect to the quantitj- of water evaporated in the boiler, as well
as that of the combustible employed ; particular care being taken to keep up
the same level in the boiler after each experiment.

In the following table, which contains results of the experiments, the nu-
merals indicate the different methods of construction of the furnaces in the
order in which they have been described above ; the figures placed imder-
neath indicate the relative qualities of the combustibles employed to obtain
a similar result ; consequently the greater amounts indicate the worst methods
of employing combustibles : —

„ , 1 VI V III II IV I

°°" J 63 68-8 68-69 72-19 72-23 100

,p^ -I VI III IV V II I

^™^ J 53 66 71 72 76 100

P„ , \ III IV II V IV I

^°^ J 73 76 83 85 91 100

The following are the conclusions to be deduced from the foregoing table •

1. The fire over which the boiler was placed without flues was attended
with a less advantageous use of combustible than those with flues.

2. The utility of flues is much more perceptible in fires of wood or turf
than in coal fires, because the result is a saving in fuel of about one-fourth to
one-third mth wood, and almost of one-fourth to one-half with turf, and
only of one-tenth to one-fourth with coal, by the addition of flues.

3. The mode of construction with four half flues (No. VI.) may be con-
sidered to be generally the most advantageous. Next to this the construc-
tion with a double flue (No. Ill), which in its mode of action bears the near-
est resemblance to it. With respect to the arrangements Nos. II., IV., V.,
the effects they produce are nearly similar.

4. The double flue (No. Ill), which surrounds the whole boiler, is at-
tended with better results than the single flue (No. II) ; according to the
same principle, four half flues (No. VI) are attended with better results than
two half flues (Xo. V).

5. With the fire of wood and of turf, two half flues (No. V) have more
efifect than a whole flue (No. II), and four half flues (No. VI) more than two

whole flues (No. Ill) ; in short, flues which encircle only half the boiler are
in this case more effectual ; while with a coal fire it is precisely the contrar)'.
The cause of the difference is doubtless this, that in such combustibles as
wood or turf, which blaze brightly, a retardation of the heated air, which
in these half flues produces a sudden change in the direction of its motion,
is more advantageous than with coal.

With respect to the calorific power of the diflferent fuels, there results from
equal weiglits of turf, 96, and of coal, 250, when that of wood is considered
equal to 100.

The great difl'erence that is found in combustibles, with respect to their
natural quality and their composition, as well as in their degrees of dryness,
can scarcely admit of forming points of comparison between these latter re-
sults and any other given case. It is well known that there are turfs which
from an equal weight throw out more heat than wood ; but the results with
respect to the different methods of constructing furnaces are more to be de-
pended on ; because in these are remarked a degree of regularity in their
effects, and it is easy to account for the causes on which the differences de-
pend.— Moiiifeur Indiistriel. — Itwenfor's Advocate.

LOCOMOTIVE EXCAVATOR.

This French machine is stated to be the invention of M. Gervais, of Caen.
The trial of the apparatus was made in the presence of a committee of the
Society of Emulation at Rouen, and of many of the distinguished residents of
the tov.'D, and the result is said lo have left no doubt of the possibility of
making excavations by tlie j)ower of steam. It is said to be particularly
applicable in digging canals, and makir.g the excavations for railways. The
apparatus is placed on a large heavy kind of carriage, in the fore ])art of
which there is a steam-engine of six horse power, witli oscillating cylinders
and a tubplar boiler, which works the machine, and also turns the two fore
wheels very slowly, so that the whole is gradually moved forward as the
work progresses, lai'ge pieces of wood being laid down to form temporary
rails over which the machine is propelled. Towards the back of the machine
there are two machines similar to dragging machines, which raise the earth
that has been dug out, and deposit it in a horizontal endless chain of I-uckets.
which carry the excavated earth beyond the limits of the trench, and there
deposit it, forming an even and regular bank on each side. The excavating
apparatus is placed about the middle of the carriage. It consists of four
iron shafts parallel to each other and equi-distant, the whole four liaving
their axes in the same plane, and forming an angle of fifty degrees to the
horizon, the incline being towards the back of the machine. Each shaft has
attached to it five double arms, equi-distant from the bottom to the top, and
each arm is furnished with a spade-shaped tool. These shafts, therefore,
present forty spades working at difterent heights, which dig a ditch nearly
three metres in width and upwards of one metre in depth. Each of these
excavating tools when in action strikes against the earth ten times in a mi-
nute. These revolving excavating shafts are put in motion by the steam-
engine, and the action of the engine is so regulated that the whole nirchine
progresses at the rate of about twelve metres an hour. The whole of the
machinery, including the carriage, weighs about 24,000 kilogrammes, or 15
tons. When, owing to the nature of the soil or the presence of large stones,
the action of the tools is resisted, the locomotion is stopped, and the whole
apparatus is made to back, so as to enable men to remove the obstruction.
The trenches dug by this machine are vei-y exact, the sides are perpendicular
and smooth, and the earth thrown out forms on each side a regular em'iank-
menl. A machine of this kind was some time since shown by M. Gervais to
the French Academy of Sciences, on wliich they reported very favourably,
but it was not provided with the means of locomotion, nor was it on so large
a scale as the machine at Rouen. Ibid.

C.^LOTYPE.

It has been known for some time, that Mr. Fox Talbot, in the progress of
his experiments to render more perfect the art of photogenic drawing, had
discovered a means by which paper could be made far more sensitive to light
than heretofore. The impressions, however, so quickly obtained by this new
method, are in the first instance invisible, but by a process similar to the
first, they are made to appear with even greater power than in ordinary
photogenic drawing. On Thursday evening, June 10, Mr. Talbot read a
paper at the Royal Society, in wliich he described the new process, called,
for distinction's sake, Calbtype ; and as the subject is one of general interest,
we shall here briefly describe it : — The paper is covered with iodide of silver,
by washing it successively with nitrate of silver and iodide of potassium.
Aiterwards it is washed over with gallo-nitrate of silver, the greater part of
which is removed by immersion in water, but enough adheres to render the
paper exceedingly sensitive to light. The paper is then dried, and placed in
the camera obscura, and the image of a building, or other object, is generally
obtained in less than a minute. This image, however, is usually quite in-
visible ; and the mode of rendering it visible (which is the most curious part
of the Calolype process,) consists in washing it again with gallo-nitrate of
silver and then gently warming it, which generally causes the appearance of
the picture with great force and vivacity in the space of a minute or less.
The gallo-nitrate of silver is formed simply by mixing solutions of nitrate of

234

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[July,

silver and gallic acid. The operation requires to be executed with great care
and precision, but is not difficult in other respects. The theory of the pro-
cess remains, at present, unexplained. — .Ithc-nitwm.

IMPROVEMENTS IN FURNACES .•VND BOILERS.

Charles Wye Williams, of Liverpool, gentleman, for certain improvements
.in the construction of furnaces and boilers. Enrolled at the Petty Bag
Office;, .May 17. Claim first. — The use and application of metallic pins as
conductors for transmitting heat. This part of the invention consists iu in-
serting metal pins in the plates of which boilers, evaporating pans, &c., and
pipes, Ac, attached to the same, are composed ; part of each pin extending
through the bottom of the vessel into the liquid to be heated or evaporated,
and the other part projecting outside of the vessel into the (ire beneath it,
by which arrangement a greater quantity of heat is transmitted to the liquid
than there would be by the usual method.

Claim second. — The mode of giving the longitudinal and vertical move-
ments to the fire-bars of a furnace ; also the extension of the fire-bars outside
of the furnace, so as to receive fuel from a hopper, and spread it evenly over
the fire-grate.

The fire-bars are serrated (the elevated parts being wedge-shaped, and the
-depressions (piite smooth), and incUne dowuwards from the fire-door towards
the bridge of tlie furnace, their lower ends resting ou a bar, on which they
are capable of moving verticallly up and down as on a centre ; the other ends
terminate beneath a hopper outside of the fire-place, but within the fire-door ;
they are supported at this end by eccentrics placed ou a horizontal shaft,
which, being turned by hand, or by gearing from the steam-engine, com-
municates the up-and-down movements to the fire-bars, and the fuel being
received from the hopper on to the outer ends of the fire-bars, is urged with
a gradually diminishing force towards their inner ends, and spread evenly
over the surface of the fire-grate. By the continued movements of the fire-
bars the generation of clinkers is prevented. — Invento-s' Adoocate.

IMPROVED APPAR.\TUS FOR CUTTING .4.ND SHAPING MET.VLS.

Joseph Whitworth, of Manchester, engineer, and John Spear, of the same
■place, gentleman, for certain improvements in machinery, tools, or apparatus
for cutting and shaping metals, and other substances. Enrolled at the Petty
Bag Office, May 17.

The first part of this invention consists of an improved die for cutting screws.
The principle upon which this die is formed may be described as effecting
xhe following object, viz. to cut a screw-thread at any required depth with
"dies, which have themselves been cut by a master-tap, double the depth of
the thread, larger in diameter than the shaft on which the thread is to be
cut. The improved die is formed from the common die, by dividing the
same either into two equal parts (the plane of section being parallel to the
sides of the die), or into three unequal jiarts, in which latter case the two
planes of section are parallel with each other, but at an inclination to the
sides of the die. In working this die, its plane of direction, instead of pass-
ing from the axis of the shaft on which the thread is to be cut to the centre
line of the die, as in ordinary dies, passes outside of the said line. The
patentee shows an improved stock, of a very simple coustruction, to be used
with the die.

The second part of this invention is an improved mode of actuating the
planing machine, described in the specification of a patent obtained by Mr.
Joseph Whitworth, in 1839.

The third part of this invention consists of improvements in slotting ma-
chines, the chief feature of which is the compound moving table. This table
consists of three parts, the lower part shding along the bed of the machine ;
the middle part moving at right angles to the lower one ; and the top one
having a rotary movement communicated to it.

The fourth part is an improvement in the slotting bar. An angular groove
is cut down the back of the bar to receive a strip of metal tapped for small
set screws, by which the positions of the cutters are adjusted, and in the
front of the bar recesses are scooped out round the cutters, to afford room
for the cuttings.

The fifth part is an improvement in the slide lathe, and consists in at-
taching an apparatus to the headstoek or mandril frame of the lathe, for the
purpose of forming, together with the change-wheels, a more perfect com-
munication between the mandril and guide-screw.

The last part consists of an apparatus for " truing up " the wheels of car-
riages and engines on railways. The apparatus is applied to a jiair of wheels
in the following manner ; — one end of a connecting rod is attached by a stud
to the outside bearing of each wheel below the axle, and the other ends of
these rods arc fastened to a horizontal bar parallel to the axle ; on this bar
a sliding bar comi)Osed of two parts moves, each of its outer ends being pro-
vided with a grinder or cutter, placed opposite to ami in contact with the
outer rim or tire of each wheel ; the inner ends of this sliding bar are joined
together by an eccentric pin passing through them, fastened on a horizontal
wheel, which has its bearings on the under jiart of the horizontal bar; this
wheel is turned by an endless band, from a small pulley on the axle of tlie

running wheels. Motion being communicated to the horizontal wheel, it
will, by means of the eccentric pin, cause the two parts of the shding bar to
move alternately a short space backwards and forwards, by which means the
grinders on their outer ends will be caused to traverse from side to side of
the tire of the wheels as they revolve, and thereby grind down any inequali-
ties of the same. — Ibid.

UNIVERS.\L CHUCK FOR TURNING .\ND BORING.

.\lexander Stivens, of Manchester, engineer, for certain improvements in
machinery or apparatus to be used as a universal chuck for turning and boring
purposes. Enrolled at the Petty Bag OlEce, May 19. The patentee claims
the peculiar and novel arrangement of apparatus constituting a universal
chuck, without confining himself to the number, size, or dimensions of the
levers working on the central boss.

The chuck is formed of two plates, viz., a front plate and a hack plate, in
the former of which are formed three radial mortices ; the three holding
nogs or dies are attached by screws to dove-taU slide-pieces, which slide
backwards and forwards iu the mortices. In one of these pieces a nut is
formed, in which a screw works, its outer end being supported in a bearing
on the edge of the front plate, so that on turning the screw round by means
of a key applied to its outer end, the slide-piece will be made to traverse to
and fro in its mortice. To each shde-piece is attached one end of a straight
lever, the other ends of which levers are attached to an equilateral triangular
lever, working loosely on the centre boss of the chuck ; by this means, on
the screw being turned, the sUde-pieces will advance or recede simultaneously
within their mortices. — Ibid.

IMPROVEMENTS IN DETACHING LOCOMOTIVE AND OTHER
C.\RRI.\GES.

Francis Pope, of Wolverhampton, Engineer, for improvements in detaching
locomotive and other carriages. Enrollment Office, May 24. This invention
consists of an ingenious piece of mechanism by which a horse can be instantly
detached from the vehicle to wliich he is attached, or one carriage can be sepa-
rated from another on railways. When applied to horse carriages, each shaft
terminates iu two iron side plates carrying a pin which form the axis of the
shafts, and is the means by which they are attached to the carriage. There
are also two side plates attached to the carriage, carrying a pin which forms
the axis of motion to a bent lever or tongue ; this tongue when turned back
embraces the pin on the end of the shafts, and holds it securely in the recess
formed for it. The tongue is held down by a peculiarly formed spring catch,
to which a lever is affixed. So long as the tongue is held down by tliis
catch, the shafts are securely held to the carriage, but on pulling the lever
the catch is disengaged, the tongue fUes over and the shafts and horse are
released. When applied to railway carriages three of these attachments are
employed, the centre one being a bar corresponding to the end of the shafts
in the former case, and the two outer ones being chains. The three catches
are simultaneously acted upon by an apparatus terminating in a handle which
nms up to the seat of the guard. The claim is to the mode of constnicting
and applying apparatus as described. — Mechanics' Magazine.

CASE-HARDENING IRON.

Robert Roberts, of Bradford, Lancashire, Blacksmith, for a new method or
process of case-hardening iron. Enrolled at the Petty Bag Office, May 25.
This method consists in heating the iron and plunging it into cast iron in a
state of fusion and turning it about, when it will become cased to any re-
quired thickness from .j% to 4 an inch, when it is to be plunged into cold
water, and will then be found to be effectually case hardened. The claim
is to the method or process of case-hardening iron, by coating, covering,
or combining wrought iron with c:!St iron. — Ibid.

IMPROVEMENT IN r.UJDLE-WHEELS.

Henrry Charles Daubeny. Esq., Boulogne-sur-mer, France, for a certain
invention or improvement in the making and forming of paddle-wheels, for
the use of vessels propelled in the water by steam or other power, and appli-
cable to propel vessels and mills. Enrollment Office, May 25. The floats are
mounted on spindles or axes, one end of which work in a box or centre, the
others in the circimiference of the paddle-wheel. Near the ends of the spindles
which works in the box, there are short levers which work against a traverse, so
as to expose their broad surface to the water, while they enter and quit it
edgeways. By this feathering operation, all the inconveniences arising from
back water are obviated. In order to reUeve the paddles from the effects of
heavy seas, they are provided with an escapement consisting of two or more
cogs let into the box of the wheel, and traversing round with it in a groove
provided for that purpose in the flanch or carrier, fixed on the end of the
main shaft ; in this groove there are bridges wliich cause the cogs in passing

1841.]

THE CIA IL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

23.5

them to throw up tlieii- frout ends, and thus present their hind ends opposite
to abutments formed in tlie face of the carrier, which, coming in contact
with the hinder ends of the cogs, turn the paddle-wheel round. In the event
of this wheel being struck by a heavj- sea, the blow causes it to revolve faster
than the carrier, and thereby relieves it from the injurious effects of the con-
cussion. When the force of the sea is expended, the abutments again come
in contact with the cogs, and the wheel is driven round by the effects of the
engine. A mode of placing paddle-wheels in an incUned position is shown,
by wliich means external projecting paddle-boxes are dispensed with. — Ibid.

IMPROVEMENTS IN STOPCOCKS.

Henry Bridge Cowell, of Lower-street, St. Mary's, Islington, Middlesex,
ironmonger, for improvements in taps, to be used for or in the manner of
stopcocks, for the purpose of drawing off and stopping the tlow of fluids.
Enrolled June 2, at the Roll's Chapel Office.

The first part of this invention consists in applying a moveable stopper to
the spout of a tap, such stopper being suspended at the lower ends of two
upright connecting links, one at each side of the spout, which link pass down
through holes or sockets in the metal of the head of the tap. The upper
ends of these links are connected to a piece of metal or collar, situated above
the head, and fitted around a screw that turns in the same, so that on the
screw being turned it will either rise or fall, and consequently raise or lower
the stopper, thereby opening or shutting the spout of the tap. The fluid
which escapes round the sides of the orifice of the spout on the stopper being
lowered will be collected in the hollow mouth of the tap, so as to run out in
a compact stream from the lower orifice.

Tlie second part of this invention consists in applying to a ball-cock (similar
in its parts to the tap just described) a second ball and lever, provided with
a click or detent, having a tooth, which catches into a notch or notches cut
in the circumference of an enlarged head on the end of the screw before
mentioned. The click is mounted on a centre pin fixed in the collar of the
screw, so that whenever the other ball descends the tooth catches into one
of the notches, and turns back the screw, thereby opening the passage through
the cock for the wafer. The usual ball is kepc submerged during the flowing
in of the water into the cistern, by means of the click preventing the screw
to wiiich it is attached from being turned ; but when (he surface of the water
reaches the second ball, and raises the same upwards, the click will be lifted
up about its centre of motion, so as to disengage its tooth from the notch in
the head of the screw, whereupon the other ball will immediately rise to the
fop of the water by its power of floatation, and close the passage of the cock.

The third part of this invention consists of another kind of tap, similar in
some respects to the one first described. — The moveable stopper is fitted in
the manner of a piston into the cylindrical hollow of the head of the tap, so
as to move up and dowu therein Ijy the action of a screw working in a cap
that surmounts the head of the tap ; by turning this screw round, the stopper
is pressed dowu on the upper orifice of the water-passage of the spout, and
at the same time over the annular orifice of a circular channel formed within
the head of the tap, and passing round the water-passage, tlirough which
channel the water is conveyed to the passage. Thus ou depressing the stopper
the flow of water will be stopped, but on raising the same the water will be
permitted to flow again. — Inventors' Advocate.

FROCESDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES.

INSTITUTION OF CIVIL ENGINEERS.

February 23. — M'illiam Cubitt, V.P. in the Chair.

The fallowing were balloted for and elected : Colonel Sir Frederick Smith,
R.E., William Chadwick, John Bazley White, jun., Charles Lorimer Hensman,
Joseph Whitworth, and Evan Hopkins, as Associates.

" Description of a new mode of Steering, as applied to boats of light draught
of water, navigating shallow and rapid rivers.'' By Captain Henderson,
Assoc. Inst. C.E.

The ordinaiT method of steering with a single rudder, fixed in the usual
manner, will bring a vessel round in about four times its length, upon an axis
at the point of union between the dead wood of the vessel and the nidder.
It was found desirable for the particular service on the Ganges and Burham-
pooter, for which the vessel in question was designed by the Assam Company,
that great facility should be given for coming round rapidly ; to accomplish
this, the stem and stern of the vessel are alike provided with rudders, of a
form adapted to the curvature of the craft. The stern rudder is considerably
larger than the other, and occupies the space usually allotted to the dead
wood, which is cut away ; a more immediate influence is thus exerted upon
the boat. The rudders are raised or lowered according to the draught of
water, by means of capstans fixed upon the projecting ends of the shaft of a
pinion, which is geared into a tootlied racked of peculiar constnicfion, on the
back of each rudder post. The effect of this arrangement is, that the centre
of revolution is transferred to a point nearer the centre of the vessel, and de-

viating from the true centre, in proportion to the relative dimensions, posi-
tion and figure of the two rudders, and of the lines forward and abaft the
vessel, which is thus brought round in little more than its own length.

The vessel, of which a model accompanied the paper, is fitted with con-
densing engines working expansively, with a pressure of steam of 20 ft. in
the boiler ; the cylinders are placed at an angle towards the paddle shafts,
and act directly upon the cranks without the inteiTention of side levers.

'* Description of a Coffre Dam used in excavating Rock from the navigable^
Channel of the river Ribble." By David Stevenson.

The navigation of the river Ribble being much impeded by natural bars or
weirs of sandstone rock, compact gravel, or loose sand, several ineffectual at-
tempts were made to remove these hindrances, and eventually a joint stock
company, called the Ribble Navigation Company, was formed for that pur-
pose. Messrs. Robert Stevenson and Sons (of Edinburgh) were consulted,
and under their directions the present works were commenced : their plaa
was to cut a channel in the rock wherever it was necessary, and to remove
the gravel and sand by steam dredging, forming at the same time a low ndi-
ble wall upwards of a mile in length, for the purpose of directing the course
of the river so as to obtain a permanent and straight navigable track for the
shipping. The first of these operations is alone treated of in the communi-
cation.

About half a mile below Preston, a bed of sandstone rock, upwards of 300
yards in length, stretches quite across the river ; some portions are entirely
free from any deposit of sand or mud, and the higher parts are frequently left
dry during the summer months. This natural weir exerts such an influence
upon the flow of the tides, that neap fides which at 12 miles distance rise \t
feet, are not at all perceived at the quay at Preston.

It was proposed to cut a channel through this bar, 100 feet in breadth,
affording an average navigable depth of 20 feet at high water of spring tides.
In some places, therefore, the excavation woidd be 13 ft. 6 in. deep. After
much consideration it was determined to make use of a series of coffre dams,
as the most effectual and economical mode of proceeding. Their constnic-
fion may be thus briefly described : —

A. double row of wrought-iron bars, 2V inches diameter, with ji'Kin/;ec points
worked upon them, were inserted vertically into the rock at regular intervals^
of 3 feet apart laterally, the second row being placed 3 feet behind the front
row. When a suflicient number of bars were fixed, a tier of planking, 3 inches
thick, with clasps to enable the planks to be fixed to the rods, was placed
withinside. The lower edges of the planks were cut out roughly to the in-
equalities of the rock ; they were then lowered, and by means of an iron rod,
with a crooked end, those parts which did not touch the bottom were ascer-
tained, and a change in the form made, until the plank rested its whole length,
on the rock : the lower edge was then bevelled off, and being finally lowered
to its place, the plank was beaten down by the force of a heavy mallet, upon,
an upright piece of wood resting upon the upper edge of the planks ; the
lower bevelled edge yielding to the blows, sunk into the irregularities of the
rock, and thus ultimately, in connexion with the puddle behind it, formed a
perfectly water-tight joint. The lower planks being fixed, the upper ones
were placed upon them ; transverse tie bars were inserted at intervals ; ancE
the clay puddle was formed in the usual manner. In order that the naviga-
tion of the river should not be impeded, the diagonal stays were all placed
inside the dams. These stays had joints at the <ipper ends, and being slipped
over the tops of the iron rods, and kept in their places by cotters, their lower
ends could be moved either horizontally or vertically, as the irregularity of
the rock required : — as the excavation proceeded, longer stays were easily
substituted, by merely removing the cotter, sliding up the short stay, and re-
placing it by another suited to the increased depth. The sides of the dani
were kept together by bars of iron connected to two horizontal wale pieces,
10 inches by 6 inches, placed on the outside of the vertical iron rods. When
the dam was thus constructed, the water was pumped out by a steam engine
of 10 horses power, with two pumps of 12 inches diameter.

The whole of the excavation, which was 300 yards in length, and 100 feet
in width, was to be completed with three lengths of coffre dams, so contrived
as to include within the second stretch the lower side of the first dam, in
order to excavate the rock in which that row of piles was fixed. The first
and second lengths have been most successfully executed; the third is now
in progress, and the excavation is proceeding ven' rapidly. The sandstone
rock does not require gunpowder. The total quantity to be excavated is
estimated at 31,000 cubic yards; all the stone which is raised is used in the
construction of the wall for directing the course of the lower part of the
river.

Some doubt e.xisf ed in the mind of the engineer as to the security of the
fastening of the iron rod piles by merely jumping them from 15 to IS inches
info the rock ; they have, however, proved to be perfectly firm during heavy
floods, when the whole dam has been submerged, and the velocity of the
current which was nishing over it was not less than five miles per hour.

This paper was accompanied by two drawings, showing the general arrange-
ment of the work, as well as the details of the construction of the coffre
dam.

March 2. — The Presidext in the Chair.

The following were balloted for and elected : Peter Hogg, Henry Oliver
Robinson, Thomas Oldham, Edward Jones Biven, and Robert Ransome, as
.Associates.

236

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[July,

" On a nm-funn of RaHnay Chairs and imjiroved Fai/enini/s." By Charles
May, Assoc. Inst. C.E.

At tlie suggestion of Mr. Cubitt, V.P., a series of experiments was insti-
tuted at the works of Messrs. J. R. & A. Ransome, of Ipswich, for the pur-
pose of determining the most advantageous form of tlie chairs, and most
secure mode of fastening them upon tlie sleepers of the South Eastern Rail-
way. The result of these experiments has been to produce the cast iron
chairs, and wooden treenails as fastenings, which were exhibited at the meet-
ing, and described by the author.

In the event of a chair breaking, it is desirable that the fracture should
occur in such a manner as to |)revent any of the loose pieces being thrown
into situations where they would interfere with the passing trains ; to ensure
this, the weakest part of these chairs is across the seat — they are, however,
stronger in that part than any other chair now in use. In order to ascertain
the proper relative proportion between the strength of the jaw and that of
the seat, many experiments were made by varying the forms, and wedging
the chairs, until they broke, sometimes in one and at other times in the other
part ; it was then easy to add so much strength to the jaw as would, without
waste of metal, cause the fracture to take place invariably across the seat.

For the purpose of ensuring perfect accuracy of form, with a smooth inter-
nal surface, so that wedges of a uniform shape and size might be used, the
chairs arc cast upon metal cores ; the joint-chair has an upper piece, over-
lapping the wedge, to keep the rail in a perpendicular position, and to pre-
vent the end of it from being thrown up or forced away laterally, if the wedge
should accidentally be removed. This form of chair was originally planned
by Mr. John Harris, the engineer of the Stockton and Darlington railway,
where it has been in use above twelve months, giving perfect satisfaction.
The rail is so placed in the intermediate chairs, that when it receives the
pressure of the wedge, it is held firmly down on the seat, against the lower
part of the jaw, and at the upper part against a slightly projecting rib, which
bears against the neck of the rail.

The holes for the fastenings are so arranged as not to be in the same line ;
a large portion of the current expense of the maintenance of way on railroads
arising from replacing the sleepers which have been split by the spikes being
driven in the same line in the grain of the wood.

The mode of fastening adopted in this case is, to use treenails of dry Eng-
lish oak, compressed into two-thirds of 1 heir original bulk, by being forced
under a fly press, into metal tubes, in which they are placed in a chamber
heated to about 180'', where they remain 16 hours : the pressure upon the
body of the treenail (the head not being compressed) is sufficient to mate-
rially increase the specific gravity without injuring the fibre, or diminishing
the strength of the wood, and it retains the form thus given until it has been
driven into a damp sleeper, when the expansion is sufficient to fix it firmly.

The ordinary mode of fastening chairs with iron spikes has been found dis-
advantageous, because one blow too many causes a reaction, and frequently
loosens them, whilst treenails may be driven to any depth, and the heads
subsequently split with smaU wedges if necessary.

Rails should be ' keyed-up' so tightly as to ensure security, still leaving a
large rimnunt of stirplus strength in the chair to resist any shock to which
they may be exposed : — with wedges of varying dimensions, the chairs, wliich
are frequently of unequal quality, and carelessly cast, are liable to be brought
nearly to tlie breaking point, and to give way as soon as they arf subjected to
any additional strain. This has been avoided in the chairs and wedges under
consideration, by giving them exact uniformity of dimensions.

The wedges adopted are of English oak, cut out of square timber, so formed
as to drive equally well with cither side to the rail, and compressed into five-
SLXths of their bulk, by the same process as is used for the treenails.

Many advantages will result from this form of cliair and wedge, with the
treenails for fastening; the time occupied in laying the rails is diminished ;
the holes for the fastenings may be bored in the sleepers by machinery, at a
diminished cost, and greater accuracy of gauge obtaiued at the same time;
the required inclination of the rail being given in the chair, no cutting away
of the sleeper is necessary ; the sole of the chair is fixed horizontally upon
the surface of the sleeper, and all of them may be placed accurately in the
same plane, thus bringing to hear upon the hitherto roughly executed details
of railway engineering, those mechanical contrivances by wliich the cost is
diminished, whilst the dependance upon the skill and attention of the work-
men is avoided ; at the same time insuring the accuracy of the line, upon
which so large a portion of the economy of working a railway depends.

Specimens of the chairs, wedges, and treenails, accompanied this commimi-
tion.

Mr. Cubitt observed, that two modes of preparing treenails had been
hitherto adopted : one was, by forcing the wood through a steel die, in which
case neither the form nor the diminished bulk was preserved, as on leaving
the die it swelled nearly to its original size. The other was by passing the
wood between rollers : this latter process had been found to cause permaueut
injuiy to the fibre of the wood, by crushing the capillary tubes, and conse-
quently depriving it of much of its strength. To the mode of preparing the
treenails under consideration, neither of these objections existed. He antici-
pated many advantages from the use of this form of chair, wedge, and fas-
tening. They would certainly be cheaper even in the first cost than the
ordinary chairs, fastened down by iron spikes. The usual calcul.ition for a
double liriC of rail was 880/. per mile for the chairs, wedges, and spikes. The
cost of these chairs, with the compressed wedges and treenails, would be
786/. per mile. The price of the compressed treenails for railway purposes

would be J/. 10*. per thousand ; that of iron spikes was 6/. J*. per iliousand.
The wedges 2^ inches square, cost 21. per tliousand for each inch of their
length, so that those for the joint-chairs, which are 8 inches long, average
16/., and those for the intermediate chairs, of 6 inches long, cost about 12/.
per thousand. Each joint-chair, with wedge and treenails, costs 2s. lOrf. ;
and the intermediate ones, with their appendages, 2s. Id. eacli.

One great cause of expense on railways was the fracture of the chairs dur-
ing the laying. lie knew an instance where in a length of 20 miles of rail-
way 180 tons of chairs had been broken, either by wedging or in driving
down the spikes. This was in the ratio of one chaur in ten. In the ordinary
mode the oak wedges are driven home by a 14 tb. sledge hammer, whereas
with the new cliair the compressed wedges and trenails are driven by a light
wooden mallet.

Mr. Pim remarked that the wood fastenings used for the chairs on the
Dublin and Kingston Railway had been compressed by rolling. He con-
sidered the present plan much superior.

Mr. Viguoles corroborated the statement of the cost of chairs of the ordi^
nary construction. On the railways of the north of England oak treenails
had been used as fastenings for a considerable period. The plan now pro-
posed presented many advantages, not only in the construction of the chairs,
which appeared well designed and excellently cast, but in the form and mode
of preparation of both the wedges and the treenails.

In answer to a question from the President, whether the compressed tree-
nails could be applied with advantage in sliip building^Mr. Mills was of
opinion they could be so employed, provided the fibre was not injured by the
process. He believed that sound wooden treenails were better fastenings for
ships than iron bolts, and quite as good as copper, whilst by their use the
expense was materially reduced. Turned treenails of locust wood were at
present preferred to all other kinds.

Mr. S. Seaward understood that, at the Royal Dockyards, treenails which
were crooked as much as three times their own diameter were preferred to
straight ones. He believed that the late Mr. H. Maudslay had constructed
some machinery expressly for turning them crooked.

Mr. Hawkins remarked that the treenails were frequently crooked, because
the rending caused them to follow the direction of the grain of the timber.
Twenty-two years since, Mr. Annesley took out a patent for budding ships
without ribs. He used for fastenings, treenails compressed by being forced
through steel dies, just before driving them into the jilanks, so that their ex-
pansion fixed them firmly in the planking. He buUt a vessel of very light
construction, the sides of which were formed of five thicknesses of J-inch
boards, held together by compressed treenails, without any ribs. It had
proved very stiff and durable.

In reply to a question from Mr. Yignoles, whether the swelUng of the
compressed treenails in the ribs would not have the effect of preventing the
possibihty of the "butt end" of a plank starting — Mr. Mills believed that
such an event was of rare occurrence ; treenails were subjected more to a
lateral strain ; they were frequently " backed out" after the planks had been
fitted into their places ; when the latter were properly bent they retained their
shape, and had no tendency to spring out.

Mr. S. Seaward, in support of the opinion that leaks did occur from planks
starting, instanced the " Marquis of Huntly," East Indiaman, which was in-
jured in the JJowns, by a collision with another vessel ; she proceeded on her
way to China, but during the whole voyage out and home forty extra men
were employed at the pumps. On being taken into dock, it was found that
the " butt end " of one of the bow planks had started for 9 or 9 feet in length,
and nothing but constant labour and attention had kept the ship afloat, at an
expense of 7,000/. to the owners.

March 9. — The President in the Chair.

The following were balloted for and duly elected : Joel SpUler, as a Mem-
ber ; John Pope, as a Graduate ; Thomas Routledge and Frederick Taylor,
as Associates.

" Description of a Bridge for a Haibcay crossing alove a Turnpike Road,
where the depth between the soffit of the Bridge and the surface of the Rails
is limited, to twenty-one inches." By John Pope, Grad. Inst. C.E.

This bridge was designed by Mr. W. Cubitt, V.P., to meet the conditions
of a clause in a Railway Bill, which required that there should be a clear
width of opening for headway through the bridge in every part, 30 feet wide
by 20 feet high, whilst at the same time the height of the embankment limited
the space between the under side of the bridge and the surface of the rails to
21 inches.

The railway is carried on three cast iron girders, each 3 feet deep at the
centre, diminishing to 6 inches at each end, with a bearing of 2 feet on cast
iron wall-plates, supported by brickwork abutments. The flanches of the
girders are 8 inches wide, and the metal every where 2 inches thick. Balks
of Memel timber, 12 inches square, are laid transversely, close jointed, their
ends bearing upon the flanches of the girders : on these timbers the chairs are
fixed, and the rails are laid. The whole depth employed is —

The flanch of the gurder - - 2 inches

Thickness of timber balks - - 12 „

Depth of the rail and chair - 6^ „

20J

1S41.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

237

One of the girders on each side supports the parapet wall in which it is
completely encased, and being faced with cut stone, assumes the appearance
of a flat camber arch, 3 feet in depth.

A detailed drawing, showing minutely the construction, accompanied this
communication.

ARCHITECTURAL SOCIETY.

Conversazione held Tuesday evening, the 1st of June, 1841, William Tite,
Esq., President in the Chair.

After the report of the proceedings of the Society during tlie session was
read, the President delivered a very interesting lecture, " On the researches
made in Egypt, at the erperise and under the authority of the Tuscan Go-
tiernment." By SiGNOR Rosillini. The lecture was illustrated by a variety
of drawings, models, and valuable engravings, which very considerably en-
hanced its interest.

At the completion of the lecture the President announced the agreeable
duty which he had to perform, in the distribution of the prizes which had
been awarded by the Society for competition during the past session ; at the
same time he expressed his regret that the students had not been more active
in the other classes of competition, and stated that although prizes had been
otfered by the Society for competition in the class of original design, in the '^
class of measured drawings from a public building, and also for the best fairly
transcribed notes of the Professor's lectures, yet it became his painful duty
to state that no competition whatever had been attempted in either of these
classes ; neither was there any competition for the prize otfered for the best
drawing of the human figure from a plaster cast in the possession of the So-
ciety. Having made these observations, the President proceeded to the dis-
tribution of the two prizes which had been awarded, viz., to Mr. Arthur
Johnson, for the greatest number of the most approved sketches from sub-
jects given by the Architectural Society during the session 1840 and 1841 ;
and to Mr. Frederick Johnstone, for having produced the best drawing from
a plaster cast in the possession of the Architectural Society, session 1840 and
1841. The President called the attention of the meeting to some specimens
of a patent which had been obtained for uniting lead and other metals with-
out solder, which he was of opinion was worth the consideration of persons
connected with building. He then announced that the business of the meet-
ing, and of the session was concluded, and in so doing directed the attention
of the visitors and other gentlemen present to the various specimens of art
contributed for the evening's entertainment ; among which was a very beau-
tiful drawing, being a representation of the shield to be presented to Lord
Eglinton, in commemoration of the late tournament held under his superin-
tendance, both the design and drawing were by Mr. Henry Nixon. Also a
newly invented ball-cock patented by Mr. Henry Abraham, the architect ;
likewise a cast in bronze of an elaborately chased Roman vase, together with
sundry specimens Of Roman tesselated pavement.

There was also exhibited a very beautiful model in plaster of Mr. Tite's
(the President) portico of the New Royal Exchange, as approved and decided
by the Gresham Committee, to be erected — it elicited considerable praise
and attraction. There was another model of the New Church now erecting
at Muswell Hill, under the direction of William Barnes, Esq. Also sundry
models by Mr. Samuel Nixon, as well as numerous drawings by Henry
Nixon, Clayton, G. B. Moore, Punnett, Meredith, William Barnes, G.
Mair, WiUiam Grellier, William Nunn, &c. &c. The meeting was numerously
attended, and was favoured by the presence of many of the leading and most
■cientific men of the day.

ROYAL INSTITUTE OF BRITISH ARCHITECTS.

June 7. — A paper was read by the Rev. R. Burgess, Hon. Member, on the
Roman temples. Mr. Burgess traced, in a most interesting and entertaining
narrative, the history of the temples of antiquity, from the rays encircling
the heads of the heathen deities, originally applied as a protection to the
heads of their statues, and the niches in which they wire subsequently en-
sconced, down to the gorgeous edifices of the Roman empire.

June 21. — Mr. T. L. Donaldson, Fellow, read a description of the column
erected at Petersburg in honour of the late Emperor Alexander. The con-
struction of this monument rivals that of the best ages of antiquity. The
shaft is monolithic, of polished granite, 84 feet in length. The pedestal is
also a single block of the same material, and so carefully has the durability
of the work been considered, that two vast masses were successively rejected
after they had been extricated from the quarry as not being sufficiently per-
fect. Possessed as we are in Great Britain of granite quarries capable of
supplying stones of almost unlimited dimensions, it is to be regretted that
such an example should be lost upon the directors of our public works. Un-
fortunately the example is likely to excite nothing but feehngs of horror and
contempt for so outrageous a dereliction of the principles of economy !

A paper was afterwards read on the open roofs of the middle ages, by T.
Morris, Esq., — many examples were exhibited and described. It appeared
to be the general opinion of the meeting, that the scientific skill displayed in
these beautiful and picturesque combinations of timber work has been greatly
over-rated. Some have signally failed, as at Eltham, while in others, as at
Westminster Hall, the principle resolves itself, on examination, into the
simplest elements of roofing. The durability of these structures seems rather
due to the mechanical construction of the carpentry, in which they are worthy
of the greatest admiration.

MESSRS. COOKE AND WHEATSTONE'S ELECTRIC

TELEGRAPH.

(From the Railway Times.)

We have given many occasional notices of this admirable invention
— of its adoption on the Great Western and Blackwall Railways, and
its surprising; performances in both instances — but it still remains to
us to lay before our readers such a detailed account of the apparatus
as may enable them to comprehend fully the mode of its operation,
and to estimate duly its great practical efficiency. We cannot help
thinking that it must be owing in a great measure to a prevailing
paucity of information on the subject of the invention, that it is not
making its way more rapidly into use, and believe we shall render
good service to the railway interest by doing our best to make its
value more clearly, distinctly and generally known. For the following
descriptive details, and the numerous engravings by which they are
illustrated, we are indebted partly to the evidence given by Professor
Wheatstone before the .Select Committee of the House of Commons
on Railways, and partly to a set of drawings with explanatory letter-
press recently published by the Professor's managing partner in the
invention, Mr. Cooke. Some doubts it will be recollected were raised
respecting the proportions in which Messrs. Wheatstone and Cooke
divided between them the merit of the invention; but these doubts
have been for ever removed by the statement on the subject which
we published three or four weeks ago, drawn up at the mutual re-
quest, and (we believe) to the satisfaction, of these gentlemen, by their
friends Sir I. Brunei and Professor Daniell.

Professor Wheatstone having been requested by the Committee of
the House of Commons to explain to them the mode in which he pro-
posed to communicate intelligence between two distant points, made
the following answer : —

I have here a copy of the drawing of the specification to the first
patent taken out by myself and Mr. Cooke ; in all essential particulars,
the instrument here represented resembles the one at the Great Wes-
tern Railway. Here is what may be called a dial (see Fig. 1,) with,
five vertical magnetic needles. Upon this dial 20 letters of the alpha-
bet are marked, and the various letters are indicated by the mutual
convergence of two needles when they are caused to move; if the
first needle turns to the right and the second to the left, H is indicated.
If the first needle deviate to the right, and the fourth to the left, then
B is indicated ; if the same needles converge downwards, then V is
pointed to. These magnetic needles are acted upon by electrical
currents, passing through coi'.s of wire placed immediately behind
them ; here is the representation of one of those coils, with the po-
sition of the magnetic needle with respect to it (Fig. 6). Each of the
coils furms a portion of a communicating wire, which may extend to
any distance whatever; these wires, at their termination, are con-
nected with an apparatus, which may be called a communicator,
(Fig. 1,) because by means of it the signals are communicated ; it con-
sists of five longitudinal and two transverse metal bars, fixed in a
wooden frame ; the latter are united to the two poles of a voltaic bat-
tery, and, in the ordinary condition of the instrument, have no metallic
communication with the" longitudinal bars, which are each immediately
connected with a different wire of the line; on each of these longi-
tudinal bars two stops are placed, forming together two p.irallel rows.
When a stop of the upper row is pressed down, the bar upon which
it is placed forms a metallic communication with the transverse bar
below it, which is connected with one of the poles of the battery ; and
when one of the stops of the lower row is touched, another of the
longitudinal bars forms a metallic communication with the other pole
of the voltaic batterv, and the current flows through the two wires
connected with the longitudinal bars, to whatever distance they may
be extended, passing up one and down the other, provided they be
connected together at their opposite extremities, and affecting mag-
netic needles placed before the coils which are interposed in the
circuit, there must be a similar complete apparatus at every different
station.

"There is another very essential part of the apparatus I wish to
mention, which is, the means we have of ringing a bell before the
communication begins, in order to call the attention of the observer.
The general principle of the alarum is this; to the detent of an
alarum, on tlie ordinary construction of a clock alarum, a piece of soft
iron is fixed, and opposite to it there is a bar of soft iron bent to the
form of a horse-shoe ; round this bent bar, wire, covered with silk, is
w(.und, forming numerous coils ; it is a property o( soft iron to become
powerfully magnetic when an electric current passes through a coil
thus surrounding it. When the horse-shoe bar thus becomes magnetic,
it therefore attracts the detent, and the bell immediately rings; when
tlie current ceases the magnetic power ceases also, and the bell

2 K

23S

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[July

Fig. 1.— Original Eicctric Te\egr,iph.

Fig. 2, Perspective view of a Tunnel.

1 i 1

discontinues to ring. There are several other contri-
vances made to effect this purpose. Some other
arrangements there are to which Mr. Cooke has
particularly directed his attention, relating to the
means of establishing communications at interme-
diate parts of the line where no fixed stations exist.
To effect this, posts are placed at every quarter of
a mile along the line, for the purpose of establish-
ing a temporary communication with either of the
adjacent stations; the guard of a train may thus
carry with him a portable instrument, by means of
which he can send up a message to a station either
way, whenever it may be required. The w ires are
kept insulated from each other by a mixture of
cotton and india rubber, which is a very good insu-
lating material ; then these prepared wires are all
passed, with certain precautions, through an iron
tube, which in some parts of the line is buried be-
neath the ground, and in other parts of the line is
raised above it."

Lord Granville Somerset put this case : — " Sup-
pose the Great Western Railway were completed
between London and Bristol, do you contemplate
the possibility of carrying your telegraph through
the whole way, so as to signify from London to
Bristol any thing you wish to communicate, and vice
versa from Bristol to London?" — Professor Wheat-
stone replied, "The experiment has not been tried,
but I have every reason to believe that it can be
done. One very important circumstance I have
ascertained is the little power requisite to produce
this effect ; it was formerly thought, that to send a
current to any considerable extent very strong bat-
teries must be employed, but in fact a very weak
battery is sufficient, provided only it consist of a
number of elements proportionate to the distance.
So far as my experiments have gone, I think I
should be able to effect a telegraphic communication
between Bristol and London. Possibly several sta-
tions might be required, but, at any rate, the sta-
tions may be at far greater distances from each
other than would be required for any ordinary sys-
tem of telegraphs ; my opinion is, that the inter-
mediate stations will not be required."

Mr. Loch asked whether there was any appre-
ciable loss of time in making a communication from
the Paddington station to the extremity of the line
to which the telegraph is now carried ? Professor
Wheatstone: "From some experiments I made
some years ago, published in the Philosophical
Transactions, when I first turned my attention to
the possibility of effecting telegraphic communica-
tions, I ascertained that electricity travelled through
a copper wire at the rate of about 200,UU0 miles in
a second ; consequently there is no appreciable
time lost in the communication of the electrical
effect ; the only time that would be lost would be at
relay stations, if they were necessary."

Chairman: "Could you communicate from Dover
to Calais in that way ? — I think it perfectly prac-
ticable."

Professor W. added the following observations:

" An electrical telegraph offers a great many ad-
vantages over an ordinary telegraph ; it will work
day and night, but an ordinary telegraph will act
only during day; it will also work in all states of
weather, an ordinary telegraph can only work in
fine weather. There are a great number of days
in the year in which no communication can be
given bv an ordinary telegraph, and besides, a great
many communications are stopped before they can
be finished, on account of changes in the state of
the atmosphere. No inconveniences of this kind
would attend the electrical telegraph. Another
advantage is, that the expense of the separate sta-
tions is by no means comparable to that of the or-
dinary telegraph ; no look-out men are required,
and the apparatus may be worked in any room
where there are persons to attend to it. There is
another advantage the electric possesses over the

1841.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

239

ordinary telegraph, viz. the rapidity with which the sig-
nals may be made to follow each other. Thirty signals
may be conveniently made in a minute ; that number
cannot be made by the ordinary telegraph. There is one
thing I will take the opportunity to mention— I have
been confining the attention of the Committee to the
telegraph now working on the Great Western Railway,
but having lately occupied myself in carrying into ellect
numerous improvements which have suggested them-
selves to rae, I have, conjointly with Mr. Cooke, who has
turned his attention greatly to the same subject, obtained
a new patent for a telegraphic arrangement, which I
think will present very great advantages over that which
at present exists. It can be applied without entailing
any additional expense of consequence to the line now
laid down, it will only be necessary to substitute the new
for the former instruments. This new apparatus requires
only a single pair of wires to effect all which the present
one does with five, so that three independent telegraphs
may be immediately placed on the line of the Great
Western ; it presents in the same place all the letters of
the alphabet according to any order of succession, and
the apparatus is so extremely simple, that any person,

Fig. 3, Longitudinal view of a Tunnel.

Interior.

^// ^ // / /
Entrance.

Fig. 4.— Application of the Telegraph to Crossings, &c.
1 A 2A

-' — • — ,-.-,-.-,-,^^Hpirap

•> K

without any previous acquaintance with it, can send a communication and read the
answer."

The drawings and letter-press description to which we have referred as recently
published by Mr. Cooke, furnish (we presume) the further improvements referred
to by Professor Wheatstone in the preceding evidence.

The annexed engravings (Figs. 2 to 11, inclusive,) are reduced copies of the
drawings, and subjoined is Mr. Cooke's explanation.

-Telegraphs for giving Two Signals.
D

Figs. 2 and 3 show the application of the electric telegraph to tunnels.
1 A, 2 A. Telegraphs fixed in policemen's boxes near the entrances of
tunnels.

B. Intermediate telegraph near a shaft within a tunnel, always ready to
work with 1 A, 2 A, in case of need.

C. Protecting tube for conducting wires.

C E, C E. Tube leading to engiue-warner ; vide Figs. 4 and 5 with ex-
planation.

Fig. 4. Application of the electric telegraph to level crossings, approaches
to stations, and switches, &c.

1 A, 2 A, 3 A. Telegraphs fi.ted in policemen's boxes, one or two miles
from a level crossing or station.

C. Protecting tulie for the conducting of telegraph wires, cither carried on
posts with a railing over it or under ground.

D. Telegraphs at stations or level crossings, corresponding with 1A,2A,3A.
1 E, 2 E, 3 E. " Engine-warners," (for details vide Figs. 5, 6, 7 and 8,)

by which an engine gives notice of its approach, at the distance of one or
two miles, both to A and D, Fig. 5. If the station or crossing be clear, D
replies to the policeman at A to allow the train to " Go on," or else to " Stop,"
according to circumstances ; the engine-man never venturing to pass A till
the policeman has given tlie signal to " Go on." This will ensure the watch-
fulness of the policeman ; but even in case of his absence, the conductor

would inquire by the telegraph A for permission from D to proceed. In the
figure, the policemen at 1 A, 2 A, Fig. 4, have received permission from D
(as is indicated by the pointing of the handles of the telegraphs at D, corres-
ponding with the indications on the telegraph both at D and I A, 2 A,) to
allow their respective trains to proceed. The pohceraan notifies in the usual
manner, by the white flag, or signal that the line is clear. The train 3 e had
been stopped by the policeman at 3 .\, in obedience to a signal from the
station D, in reply to the " warning" given by the engine of its approach
from 3 E.

N.B. — The signal given from the " engine-warner " E, at A and D, is
" Stop," accompanied by the ringing of an alarum. This signal remains till
answered from D.

Fig. 5. — Telegraphs for giving two signals, as represented above at A, B,
and D, each having an alarum (a), which sounds when a signal is given either
from E, D, A, or B. . .

Thirty-one telegraphs, giving two such signals, are working from eight m
the morning till ten at night, on the Blackwall Railway, between the stations
and the termini, to direct the working of the fixed^engines.

E represents the details of the " engine-warner."

An upright bolt passes through one rail of the ■' approaching hne of road,
the upper end rising slightlv above the rail, so as to be depressed by an en-
gine-wheel, or other very heavy body passing over it. The lower end of the

240

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[July,

rig. 6

Terminal Telegr.-pli.

Kig. 7.

lLl:^

2.F

.y't

Fig, 8, An [ntermeiliatc and Toririble Telcgiaph.

Section of Rail» ay.

Ki^. 10, The Electric Delcclor, for detecting injury caused to the «ircs, i-c.

m^^

Fig. 9, Telegraph of a simple form.

r

I

I !

CLEAR. STOP

Tij.i.

bolt rests upon the arm of a lever supported by a spring ca-
palde of offering a resistance equal to at least half the pressure
of one wheel of a carriage.

Upon a train passing, one arm of the lever is depressed,
which, raising the other arm, breaks the electric circuit at e,
and causes the alarum to be sounded and the warning signal
to be given at A and D ; the other wheels of the train produce
no further etfert till the warning has been replied to from D,
which at the same time restores the electric circuit of the
" warner " for another signal. Though the " warner " might
be let off by mischievous persons with a crowbar, no incon-
venience would be occasioned beyond arousing the expectation
of the policeman for the time occupied by a train in passing
the space between E and A, when the fact would be dis-
covered, and reported by a signal to D. The object of the
" v>arner " may obviously be attained by a variety of simple
mechanical means.

Figs. 6 and 7. — Terminal telegraphs, for more extensive
communications than those already described, giving 30 or 60
signals by the pointing of a revolving index-hand at letters on
a fixed dial, as in a common clock ; the person giving the sig-
nal turns the concentric hand t, till its pointer stands opposite
the signal to be given, as shown in Fig. 6, when instantaneously,
the index hand g in all the corresponding telegraphs in the
circuit, viz. Figs. 0, 7, 3, &c. point at the same signal. Fig. 8
is an intermediate and portable telegraph, to be carried with
each train, and applied, in case of need, to convenient arrange-
ments at each mile-post or bridge along the Kne. The section
of a railway below Fig. 8 illustrates this subject. An iron
cap to the mile-post being unlocked and taken off, the port-
able telegraph is place<l within a ledge fitted to receive it,
making thereby the necessary connexions with the conducting
wires, when it is at once fit for working with the " terminal
telegraphs." This form of telegraph can be worked by any
person at first sight, and requires no battery to be carried
with it. It is fitted up with a water-proof cover and lantern,
for rainy weather and niglit use.

N.B. — All forms of this electric telegraph are " reciprocal "
in tlieir action i. e. they give the same signals, in the working
as in the recipient apparatus, and work equally from either
end or from intermediate points.

Fig. 9 represents a very simple form of telegraph, on ex-
actly the same principles as Figs. 5, 6, and 7, but combining
the powers of both ; the arrow giving two signals, for the pur-
poses explained when applied to tunnels, level crossings, &c.,
and the small index K being adapted for a more extensive
communication, when circumstances require it.

1841.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

247

am prepared to support Mr. Cubitt's opinion of the effect of tlie weirs. I do
not give any opinion of the proper mode of dealing nith the peculiarities of
the river Severn. 1 form my opinion on general scientific principles — that
the eficcts described, by Mr. Ciibitt will take place. I am now constructing
sea walls where there will be a weir, but I have never constructed one across
a river. The present weirs are of great length. I have heard of the mode in
which It is proposed to construct them. I see no use for a foot frame in the
present case. I think it will stand, as the stones are to be dropped in. I do
not think the water will have any eH'ect upon the stone so deposited. The
pressure is removed to a great extent by the sheet piling. The water will go
over' the top of the sheet piUng, and find its way through the stone works. It
will perforate in a gentle manner, and not disturb tlie stone work. In flood
there will be no fall at all because it will be the same height above as below.
I don't think I ever saw a large weir of this kind ; I have seen small ones in
canals, and I can apply theefiect produced in ether places to the present case,
Many weirs in this country and others are formed simply by loose rubble
stone. The finest I e\er saw, which is on tlie Boyne, is so constructed. A
weir of this description is made wafer-tight by the sheet piling above it. If
it should slip I should pack it again witli fresh stone ; It would be little ex-
pense. I am getting packing done now at 6il. per yard for labour. The
former stone would be available. I am aware of the object of putting the
weirs across the river; it is for the purpose of getting a higher level above.
It is placed obliquely, to afford greater facility for ilie passage of flood water.
I am of opinion that it would. I have myself proposed it. It is now being
done in the river Shannon. 1 am not engaged there, but I have made many
experiments on the subject. When the weir is placed right across the river
it diminishes the water way by the whole superficial area of the we'r. It is
the same whan it is placed obliquely, until the water flows over. As soon as
the water rises over the weir the circumstances are altered, and there wouU
be less obstruction, in proportion to the length of the weir, when it is placed
at light angles. The summer water would be at the same level, above and
below, in either case. In time of Hoods the water comes down at all points
of the weir at equal depth. It would always do so with an oblique, but not
with a right angled one. I don't see any reason why, in an oblique weir,
the water should make to the lower angle ; it would pass down parallel with
the axis of the river, or to the banks, if the banks are parallel. That is my
deliberate opinion. This principle may be applied in all cases of flood. The
water will not fall in the same mar.ner, but will take the shortest line. If
the water is rapid it \\ill form an acute angle at the crown of the weir. I
don't think water a foot deep will fall in this way. If you want to double
the capacity of the weir you should more than double its length. If you did
so with a weir directly across, you must widen the river.

Mr. Cubitt explained, that w herever he proposed to put a weir, if the river
was not wider at that part than above and below, he proposed to w iden the
river at that part for the whole extent of the weir, to an extent at least equal
to the cross section of the weir; the consequence of which would be, if they
took the cross sections, the channel would amount to the sectional area, at
least, to the section of the river above and below.

Mr. Mc'Ncil's examination, resumed. — I have made experiments as to
carrying a double quantity of water over a weir. I simply speak of the quan-
tity passing over, not of its approach. Not knowing the river, I can say no-
thing about the dredging.

By Serjeant AVranghaui.— I do not know how much it is intended by the
Upton weir to pen up the water at the tail of the weir alxive. Whatever
height of water is penned back above the present summer level at half a mile
above Upton weir, will be so much abstracted from the water-way of the
river. When the current passes over the weir, it n ill pass at a higher level
th.in before the weir was there, by very nearly the depth of the water penned
back by it, added to the depth of the column of water passing over the weir.
In cases of flood the section of water-way for carrying off the flood will not
be diminished to the extent of the water penned back, because the dam below
is at the same time increasing in height, until it comes to the same level,
when the weir becomes no weir at all. Supposing the water to be penned
back within a few feet of the top of the bank, the river above being con-
tracted, all the water that can pass will pass over the weir.

Re-examined by Mr. Serjeant Merewethcr. — The question just put to
me relates solely to the capacity to retain, and not to obstructions and the
facilities of avoiding them. The discharge of water over the w eir will be
in proportion to the length of the weir. I have heard of this principle
for seven or eight years. The construction of the Breakwater in the Ply-
mouth .Sounds is the same as it is proposed to construct these weirs. I con-
sider it to be the best mode of constructing weirs. — I have been professionally
employed on many rivers. The weir on the Boyne stands very well. If the
force of a river be five miles per hour, it would strike a weir directly across
at the same force, but if the weir is oblique, the force which strikes against
it is represented by a line drawn at right angles, and if the hypothenuse is
five, the force that would strike that side would be nearly three. If a weir
pens up five feet of water for a mile the water becomes stagnant, while it fills
up to the weir; but if a fresh should come it would not produce any impedi-
ment to its passing over an oblique weir.

(To be conthmid.)

laiSCEIiIiANEA.

Daguerreotype Portraits. — A new discovery was communicated at the last
sittings of both the Royal Society of London and the Institute of France in
Paris, which is one of the most important improvements made in the Da-
guerreotype process, particidarly when applied to the art of taking portraits.
Mr, A. Claudet is the inventor of this discoverj', which consists in the com-
bination of chlorine, with the usual preparation. It is suflicient to expose
the plate for cue or two seconds to the vapours of that gas, to render it so

sensitive to the etTect of light, that the tiiue of cx))0sure in the camera obscura
is shortened from 4 or 5 minutes to 10 or 15 seconds. This result must be
of the greatest importance in taking likenesses, as the great difficulty in
getting a person to sit immoveable for so long a period as was formerly re-
quired, always acted as a serious obstacle, Mr. A. Claudet is entitled to the
warmest acknowledgments for his invaluable discovery, and for having been
liberal enough to communicate it to the public. We understand that the
inventor is carrjiug on his process at the Adelaide Galleiy, and that Ids
Ukenesses are exquisitely executed.

The Priricess Royal Steam Pleasure Boat. — On Wednesday June 9th, this
newlr-built pleasure boat, propelled by the Archimedes screw, made her first
pleasure trip from Brighton to Arundel and back. She was very recently
built on the Tyne (under the direction of Messrs. Bass, W. Catt, jun., and
Collins, the committee of the owners) fi-om which port she arrived on the
8th June, in the short space of 48i hours, the distance being upwards of -400
miles. She is of the following dimensions : length of keel 81 feet, breadth
of beam 17i feet, depth of hold 10 feet, of immersion 6i feet, tonnage 101
tons register. There are two engines each of 23 horse power, the screw is
5 feet diameter, G feet pitch, and 34 strokes of the engine making 170 evolu-
tions is the regulated speed. The velocity of the boat is about 8 knots an
hour (equal to about 9} miles.)

Horsham. — The new church of St. Mark's (the first stone of which was
laid in April 1840), was consecrated on the 3rd instant. It is in the early
English style. The new school-room adjacent is also completed. Now the
work is finished it is due to the architect, Mr. Mosely, and the builder, Mr.
Darby, to say that both design and execution are highly creditable. Still,
the continuation of the parapets the whole length of the bnilding, and the
adoption of stone in lieu of slate for the roof would have been decided im-
provements. Doubtless the funds influenced these matters. The church
contains 900 sittings, and the cost, including gas fittings, boundary wall, and
a few other extras, is less than £3500. It must, how ever, be stated that the
ground was a gift, as was also the use of a stone quarry.

Faculty of Engiiieer'mg in the University of Dublin. — The authorities of
Dublin University seem to be anxious to aid in the present movement for ex-
tending instruction in the practical sciences, and have given notice of their
intention to form a facidty of engineering in Trinity College. The faculties
now are London, Durham, Glasgow and DubUn, and the schools Woolwich,
Chatham, Sandhurst, Addiscombe, King's College, University College, Museum
of Economic Geology, Putney, Durham College, Edinburgh Academy, Glas-
gow College, Dubhii College, aud the Mining School of the Royal Dublin
Society.

Societe des Architectes. — A Society of Architects is in progress of forma-
tion at Paris, on the model of the Institute here, which we hope it will
worthily emulate.

Pouvrs of Locomotive Steam.— K steam coach running at a moderate rate,
which is about 21 miles per hour, would run over a distance of 500 miles per
day of 24 hours, and at that speed would reach British India from I^ondoii
in about 8i days— or Pekiii in China in 11 days— or from Gibraltar to the
Cape of Good Hope in 10 days — or from Quebec to Cape Horn in 17 days —
or once round the globe in 51 days— or 7 times round the globe in one year
— or a distai;ce equal from the earth to the moon in about 16 months, or from
the earth to the sun in 500 years. — Greenock paper.

Pompeii. — A search among the mins of Pompeii, which took place lately,
led to the discovery of a marble statue, a silver vase, and a quantity of gold,
silver, and bronze medals, in a good state of preservation.

Locomotire for Common Roads. — A gentleman residing at Southwell, Dr.
Calvert, has constructed a machine, « hich he purposes to call " The Altenmic,"
because he rides or walks in turn according to the ascending or descending
inclination of the road he travels. By merely rising from his seat, and
throwing part of the weight of the body upon the hands placed on a guiding
bar, he n-alls with less fitigue than he could do without the machine, espe-
cially where the ascent is not very steep. On descending he sits down and
rides s.i his easewiih considerable speed. The propelling action (the most
powerful that can be exerted, and one of the most lasting is that of rowing.
Nottingham Journal.

Paper from Asparagus. — We have plea.sure in hearing that one of the most
famous paper manufacturers, M. Dierecks, of Ghent, has collected all the
stalks of asparagus that come from the tables d'hoic and great houses of tlie
town, in order to convert them into paper. Every evening two or three loads
of these fibrous stalks are carried to the rolling mill, and tlience to the stamp-
ing machine, which triturates them in the course of a few hours. The kind
of paste which is thus produced does not require bleaching. It is put into a
tub, and taken to the paper-making machine, from which it issues converted
into excellent white paper, the expense of which is not half that of paper
made from rags. We have no doubt that when this secret is once known, it
will be eagerly appropriated by all large manufacturers. Asparagus mixed
with the pulp of beet-root produces a kind of paper, which is even super.or.
— La Fanal.

A Steam Organ. — M. Lax, jun., has just invented a steam organ, which can
be heard through the extent of a whole province. This instrument, consisting
of vibrating plates of metal, is so reguluted that it is acted on by steam of
four or five atmospheres of pressure. These plates are merely very large steel
bars, which can only be made to vibrate by very high pressure steam. This
monster organ is fitted for popular solemnities and inaugurations of railroads.
It may be placed upon a wagon in front of the engine, which will supply it
with the same steam that moves the piston in the cylinders. The sound of
this stupendous Instrament would over[)Ower the noise of the issuing steam,,
the worKing of the wheels, and the roaring of thunder.— le Fanal.

248

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[July,

Rope-itiaking in America. — Mr. Buckingham gives th • following descripii'.n
of the rope manufactory at Boston. •• The ropewalk of tlie navy-yaril is one
of the finest I ever remember to have seen. It is nearly half a mile in length,
IMO stories in height; it is huilt entirely of the same bcautiCiil granite as
that used in the construction of the dry dock, and is roofed «ith iron and
slate. The window shutters are all ca.^ed with ir.in.and the «hote is rendered
fire-proof. Some very recent and e.xcellenl improvements have been intro-
duced into the maclilnery here, by a native American engineer, Mr. Tread-
well, by which a steam engine at one end of the building is madi' to furnish
the requisite power for ])erforming all the operations for rope-making, «ilh
very little aid from the labour of men, from the first combing of the hemp,
and spinning it into threads, to the tarring and twisting the yarn, and the
winding of the whole into the hawser or the c.ible rerjiiireil. 1 liad .seen some
of the best ropewalks in England, both in the royal dock-yards, and in the
private est;ibtishments of London, and other pans, but 1 remember nothing
equal to this of Boston, either in the beauty and perfection of the building
and the machinery, or the admirable uniformity of strain in every strand and
every fibre in the rope produced ; or the finished roundness, smoothness and
flexibility of the hawsers and cables, of which several were submitted to our
examination, both in progress and completed."

Steam Narieation on the Meuse. — One of the new steam-boats intended for
the Liegeian Company of Navigation, was last week launched in the Meuse.
it was towed as far as the railway to Val-Benoit, in order to put in the boiler.
Without the boiler, and with the engine alone, the draught of water of the
boat was 21 centimetres (8 inches); with the boiler it is 25 centimetres (10
inches). The engine, which is a low-pressure one, and .nccording to the Jack-
son plan, weighs only 2,400 kilogrammes. It was constructed in the manu-
factory cf \fessrs. Derosne, Call, and Co.. at Cliarenlon, near Paris. Kx-
cepting in Kugland and on the Ixiire, there are not yet any engines like it.
The engines of the steam-boats which were in operation last year on the
Meuse, were considerably heavier. Tiie vessel which has just been launched
is 3 metres and 50 centimetres (11 feet) in depth, and 3fi metres and .50 centi-
metres (1 18 feet) long. Every thing on deck is nearly finished, audit will
soon be able to commence working. Great progress is mhde in the construc-
tion of the second vessel, and it will be ready for service in a short time after
the first. It is estimated that the draught of ihese boats, with their load of
fuel, will not exceed 35 centimetres ( 14 inches), while that of the former boats
amounted to nearly CO centimetres (24 inches) ; we are, therefore, induced to
hope that steam navigation, unless when the waters are excessively low, may
henceforth be generally adopted on the Meuse. — Another steam-bo;it of iron is
now constructing in the manufactory of M. Petry, an engineer, at Grevegnee-
les-Liege. Persons experienced in the art of boat-building, who have had
opi ortunities of seeing this fine vessel, consider that the country has not
produced any equal to it.

LIST OP NE'W PATENTS.

GRANTED IN ENGLAND FROM 27tH MAY, TO 25tH JUNE, 18-11.

Six Mont/is allowed for Enrolment.

George Bent Ollivant and Adam Howard, of Manchester, mill-
Wrights, for " certain improvements in cylindrical printing machineri/ for
jjrinliny calicoes and other fabrics, and in the apparatus connected theretcith,
which is also applicable to other usefid purposes." — Sealed June 5.

John Mee, of Leicester, framesinith, for " improoements in the manufac-
ture of looped fabrics." — June 5.

William Hannis Taylor, of Lambeth, Esq., for " certain improvement.'^
'in propelling machinery." — June 5.

Joseph Gibbs, of the Oval, Kennington, civil engineer, for " certain im-
provements in roads and railways, and in the means of propelling carriages
thereon." — June 5.

_ Miles Berry, of Chancery-lane, patent agent, for " certain improvements
in machinery or apparatus for ruling paper." (A communication. — June 5.

James Colley March, of Barnstaple, surgeon, for " certain improved
means of producing heat from the combustion of certain kinds of fuel." —
June 8.

Henry Richardson Fanshaw, the younger, of Hatfield-street, Surrey,
chemist, for " improoements in curing hides and siins, and in tanning, ica.<ih-
ing, and cleaning hides, siins, and other matters." — June 10.

John George Bod.mer, of Manchester, engineer, for " certain improve.
ments in machinery for propelling vessels on water, parts of which improve-
ments apply also to steam engines to be employed on land." — June 10.

Edward Hammond Bentall, of Heybridge, Essex, iron-founder, for
"certain improvements in ploughs." — June 10.

Robert Oram, of Salford, Lancaster, engineer, for " certain improve-
ments in hydraulic presses." — June 12.

James Wills Wayte, of the " Morning Advertiser" office. Fleet-street,
engineer, for " certain improvements in machinery or apparatus for letter-
press printing." — June 12.

John Anthony Tielens, of Fenchurch-street, merchant, for " improve-
ments in machinery or apparatus for knitting." (A communication.)— June

George CLAUDirs .\sh, of Broad-street, Golden-square, dentist, for " im-
provements in apparattts for fastening candles in candlesticks." June 12.

Edward Palmer, of Newgate-street, gentleman, for "improvements in
producing printing surfaces, and in the printing china, pottery, ware, music,
maps, and portraits." — June 12.

EzEKiEL Jones, of Stockport, mechanic, for " certain improvements in
machinery for prepairing stubbing, roving, spinning, and doubling cotton, silk,
wool, worsted, Jla,r, and other fibrous substances." — June 12.

Alexander Horatio Simpson, of New Palace-yard, Westminster, gen-
tleman, Peter Hu.nter Irvin, and Thomas Eigenk Irvin, both of
Charles-street, llatton-garden, philosophical instrument makers, for "an im-
proved mode of producing light, and of manufacturing apparatus for the dif-
fusion of light." — June 17.

Thomas Walker, of North Shields, engineer, for " improvements in steam
engines." — June 18.

William Petrie, of Croydon, gentleman, for " improvements in obtaining
mechanical power, which are also applicable for obtaining rapid motion." —
June 19.

John Haughton, of Liverpool, clerk, master of arts, for "improvements
iti the method of affixing certain labels." — June 19.

James Henry- Shaw, of Charlotte-street, Blackfriars, jeweller, for " im-
provements in setting wheat and other seeds." — June 19.

Sir Samuel Brown, knight, of Nctherbyers-house, Aj-ton, Berwick, for
" improvements in the means of drawing or moving carriages and other ma-
chines along inclined planes, railways, and other roads, and for drawing or
propelling vessels in canals, rivers, and other navigable waters." — June 19.

John George Triscott Campbell, of Lambeth-hill, Upper Tliames-
street, grocer, for '* improvements in propelling vessels." — June 19.

Joseph Gauci, of North-crescent, Bedford-square, artist, and Alexander
Bain, of Wigmore-street, Cavendish-square, mechanist, for " improvements
in inkstands and inkholders." — June 21.

Miles Berry, of Chancery-lane, patent agent, for " a new or improved
engine, machine, or apparatus for producing or obtaining motive poorer by
means of gases or vapours produced by combustion." — June 23.

William Walker, the elder, of Standish-street, Liverpool, watch-finisher,
for " an improvement or improvements in the manufacture of the detached
lever watch." — June 23.

George Thomas Day*, of Upper Belgrave-place, Pimlico, gentleman, for
" an itnproved apparatus for creating draft applicable to chimneys and other
purposes." — June 23.

John Henry Le Keux, of Southampton-street, Pentonville, for "an im-
provement in line engraving, and in producing impressions therefrom." — June
23 ; two months.

John Goodwin, of Cumberland-street, Hackney-road, piano-forte maker,
for " an improved construction of piano-fortes of certain descriptions." —
June 23 ; two months.

James Sidebottom, of Waterside, Derby, manufacturer, for " certain im-
provements in ynachinery for apparatus." — June 23.

William Chesterman, of Burford, Oxford, gentleman, for " improve-
ments in filtering liquids." — June 23.

Robert Stephenson, of Great George-street, Westminster, civil engineer,
for " certain improvements in the arrangement and combination of the parts
of steam engines of the sort commonly called locomotive engines." — June 23.

John Lee Stevens, of King Edward-street, Southwark, general agent,
and John King, of College Hill, printer, for " certain improvements in candle-
sticks and other candle holders." — June 25.

TO CORRESPONDENTS.

Mr. Mu.thet^s papi is : and .Mr. Ijnrit's and Mr. Ryder's reply to Mr. Perkins*
answer, that appeared in last month^s Journal, were not received until the latter
part of the month, they tvill appear in the ne.rt Journal.

M. Q.'s communication will appear next month — tracings will be returned when
required.

" The Mammoth *' is to be worked by the Screw, nnltss new orders have been
latehj ^iven to the contrary.

IVe must bfi^ of our .American correspondents not to forward Pamphlets by Post,
wi' have had several demands upon us for 5s. and 6s. postage for each.

A It-ngthcned abstract of Mr. Hood's c.icelhnt paper " on the Properties and
Chemical Constitution of Coal,'' has already been given in the Journal, and the
paper besides has appeared in another periodical.

Works received and will be noticed neat month — Mr. Ranken's Patent Wood
Pavrmtnt, Report on " the Improvement of the Navigation of the Forth betwi-tt
Stirling and Alloa. " Irislt Railways, ' Mr. Sopwilh's description of Geological
Models, and .Mr. Williams's leork on the Combustion of Coal, '2nd edition.

Communications are requested to be addressed to "The Editor of the Civil
Engineer, and Architect's Journal," jVo. 11, Parliament Street, Westminster.

Books for Review must be sent early in the month, communications on or before
the 20th (if with drawings, earlierj, and advertisements on or before the 2oth
instant.

Vols. I, II, and III, may be had, bound in cloth, pr ce £1 each Volume.

ERRATA.

In Mr. Clark's communication "On the Action of Central Forces," in the
last montli's Journal, page 182, 2nd column, 31st line from bottom, for

A[C—AB,Tea.ii.AC=AB. And page 183, column cne, line 29, for.r=T

• >^
read, .v = — .

1841.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

24.5

the lateral cut is sliorter here than the others, it is ahout 14 or l.T chains or
350 yards, the lift is 7 ft. 6 in. the ilimensions are the same as the others the
length of the weir is 350 feet, the height from the hed of the river is about
11 ft 6 in the width of the river is from 100 to 130 lect. This talces us up
to Red Stone Rock, and Cloth House, and to Stourport ; the weir is to be in
the cut there and the lock in the river, because the towing path is on the
eastern side of the river, and we should have to pass over it ne put a lock in
the cut ; I can't give the height of this weir. We dredge between Gloucester
and Upton because the shoals fall so inucb less in this district and are of a
dillerent character ; they are shoals ot deposit formed by the inequality of
the sectional area of the channel. The shoals above Upton are hard beds ot
"ravel and marl, which pen the water over in the summer season. The etiect
of drednin" from Upton to 'Worcester would be to increase the liability of lie
banks to tumble in, and would also be inconvenient to the trader from the
increased height of the banks, which are already too high ; the same ettect
would be produced in a greater degree by dredging Upton shoal, unless there
was something above. Compared with the present plan, dredging would be
much more expensive, supposing it formed part of a continuous plan up to
Stourport. If you removed the lock from I pton and put it at Digits, you
must have a double lift there, which would be inconvenient to the trade, as
in point of fact it would be two locks. The extent nf dredging in such a case
must be to the extent of from 7 to 10 feet, which would be a serious matter,
and would make cataracts from the locks. By the system of weirs we sliall
have 6 teet of water at all times from Stourport to Gloucester, which 1 be-
lieve wouid be sufficient for all purposes of trade on the Severn ; I do not
think it would be more than necessary for tlie canal boats. Tha build ot ves-
sels would alter if the water were deeper. In my opinion the trade of the
river will be increased if these improvements are carried into efl'ect. In my
opinion if the maximum toll is imposed, these advantages will counterbalance
it to the trade ; I found that opinion upon the excessive delays, cost of light-
erin" pi!fera"e wear and tear, the increased power required to draw vessels
up, uie limited number of voyages and the light cargoes, which exist at pre-
sent The trade of Gloucester has sutTered much m consequence, and has
gone to other ports ; to mv knowledge many cargoes which, but for this,
would have gone to Gloucester, have gone to Liverpool ; this has been espe-
cially the case lately. I believe also that railways liave increased the preju-
dice'to the Severn. The cost of these improvements I estimate at iloO.OOU,
which will be sufficient, and more than suffice, and include contingencies,
which I have estimated at 10 per cent. I am prepared to state m detail how-
it will be expended.
Cross-examined by Mr. Austin. , ^, , , , , ^. ,

The original plan was made by Mr. Rhodes. I have been acting under
Mr Cubitt since Nov. 1825. I consider the merit or dement ol' the present
Ian belon<'s to him. Mr. Cubitt was employed as consulting engineer and
ivir Rhodel as acting engineer. I was employed by the committee ot the
late Severn Navigation Company This is not the same plan as theirs, but
the same with some alterations. Their p an was first made in 1838. Ihere
was a plan and sections. The original plan is at the Guildhall at \V orcester.
I have a reduced copy of it as altered. 1 took part in the formation of the
ori<nnal plan. It was adopted and altered by Mr. Cubitt. I said the deposit
of .slioals would depend on the drifts of the river. The river is divided in
?he plan into districts. The area of the hrst is .at Upton 3480 f\-et. That
supposes a line drawn at the top of the bank and the bed of the river. Ihe
wikth is 104 feet, the average depth 11 teet The ne.Mt district is ha a mde
lower down, and has the same area; width 101 feet, average depth 10 t.
6in The third is, area 3120 ft. width 98 ft. depth 11 ft. The fouHh is.
area 3401 ft. width 104 ft. depth 10 ft. 9 in. The fifth is area 3o29 ft.
width 107 ft depth 12 ft. The first section is lialf a mile below the Barley
House the secokd a mile ditto, the third a mile and half ditto, the fourtli
two miles ditto, and the fifth two miles and half ditto. That gives an ave-
rage of 100 feet width and 10 feet depth, which is plenty of water for the
necessities of the trade. There are no shoals there. Whett the water rises
it expands also. The fall from Upton to Gloucester is about 7 inches, or
2-8 inches per mile. We propose to alter the whole river from Lnton to
Gloucester; to assimilate it at this part, and to maintain an uniform depth of
6 feet The width of the river varies from 150 feet to 1/0 feet, 1 am not
•ive the Committee the detail of the cost of the works. Mr.

SJ

had not a ueLciucii conini^vv ....... - ■--- — ,,{"' . , , u

that it is determined to lay down a quantity ol rubble stone to be used be-
tween Upton and Glouce-.ter. The depth of the water at the Upton weir
immediately above is 7 feet, and below, 3 ft. 7 in. We propose to use the
stuff dredged up in equalizing the width. Mr. Provis took the price ot the
stone from me. It was from 3s. to 3s. 6d. per yard, delivered not at the spot,
but on the Severn. Part of it comes from between Worcester and stourport,
and the other part from Malvern. I can't tell the cost ot the stone and
timber between Worcester and Upton. We propose to coffer-dam at Bevere
Island The soundings for the shoals were under my direction. Ihe borings
were in many instances from 8 feet to 10 feet. Maisemore shoal was not
bored, it being out of the direct line. We bored all the other shoals. W e
took 26 borings in the Worcester shoal. .., <■ i

By Mr Serjeant Wrangham.-I do not know the quantity ot work
to be done for the purpose of improving the navigation It wi I be a work
of considerable amount to get a depth of five feet at Deerhuist shoa with a
width of from forty to sixty teet. The dredge below Uoton Lock will be on
an average of from 4 to 5 feet for the same width for the length of a mile.
I believe these excavations will not depress the level of water because they
are shoals of deposit and not natural formations, and there is no tall from
them By dredging to Worcester you would be making the river a succession
of rapids: if we deepened to a sufficient extent in low summer w ater vye
should get rid of the rapids, but we should lower the ponds above ; it w^oukl

do 30 ev

,-en wi'th'th'e''s3me"secrixi'nar area. By narrowing the banks and in-

creasing the depth the stream would flow faster ; the shcals do not pen the
water back except where it acts as a natural dim. From Diglis lock to Lp-
ton weir the total depth is 4 ft. 6 in. : this space contains a great nuiiiber ot
rapids ; the fall is 4i inches per mile, wilh a soft bottom, but with a shoal ot
hard gravel and marl. I think that dredging up to Upton would not ret.-un
the level • there would be a diminution at Diglis lock of 3 ft. 9 in_ by dredg-
iu" if the water was not penned back by our lock ; that would leave a tall
of 9 inches from Diglis lock to Upton. The river is not so broad frorn Uig is
to Upton as below Upton ; and being so, the fall .above is greater than tlie
fall below, but it must not be naturally so ; it depends upon the inchn.ation
of the bed of the river, and the quantity of water carried. M.any rivers, par-
ticularly the Thames and the Kennett, have had their navigation improved
by artificial means. The current of the Thames is miich faster than in the
.Severn The velocity of the Hood of the Severn is from 2k to 3 miles per
hour Mr. Provis can give you a more satisfactory answer than I, as to the
force with whichthat would strike our weirs. 1 have seen a portion of the
surface of the weirs in the Thames washed off by the water, ihey are made
in a very simple way-by piles, filled up. Our weirs will be much stronger
than the Thames. During the six years I have been engaged on the .•,ev_e m
my attention has been particulariy directed to these subjects, arid the infoi-
mation I have given to the committee is the result of that investigation. Mr.
Provis was call?d in about two months since. I have made a calcu at on of
the time at which the river may become free again : and .taking all things
into consideration, I think it may become a free river again m foity years,
with the exception simply of a toll for keeping the works in repair My es-
timate apidies itself to tlie cost of tonnage. I am sure I lurmshed Ml Cubitt
and Mr. Provis with sufficient information to give an opinion on he subject.
The time now lost in consequence of the shoals is much greater than will Ije
lost in going through the locks. The impediments to the navigation of the
river no°w a?e mucirgreater than can possibly exist under the ;">proveir.en
1 have passed vessel! through the locks on the Thames in 3J mm ites; about
5 minutes is a fair average. Supposing a boat to s art to Glouces er in a
fresh, which, before the Alteration, could get back in the same fresh, t would
have greater facility for doing so in consequence ot the improvement of the
river, notwithstanding the locks. , „ . , ,, ., i i,,„„ „„„

Mr. Provis. Engineer, examined by Mr. Serjeant Merewethert-I have exe-
cuted works for lApr. Cubitt. and other engineers. The Mena, Bridge wa one
of those works. The Birmingham Jtinction C:mal was another and I am
now employed on works to the amount of £b0.000 or f 0-0"0' .f/^.^-/; If'
in to give an estimate for the proposed works on the Jevern, and Mr. W il-
liamsfnd I went down the river from Gloucester to Stourport and made
my own observations in addition to the information given me by Mi. \\ il-
liams. 1 have an estimate of the whole cost of the works, including 10 pei
cent, upon the cost of the works f..r contingencies, but «-«'"^'™ °f/he land
to be taken, which I do not pretend to value The amount of that estimate
is £133.108 12s. 3rf.. being £121,007 16s. 7-/. for the total cost of the woiks.
and £12,100 1.3s. yd. for contingencies. 1 have made such a calculation tha^,
if the work were offered to me, I should have no objection o midcrlake it at
that contract, providing the supervision was such as 1 liked Were 1 em-
ployed as an engineer to examine that estimate. I should sav that it is a tai
sum to give to any man to do the required work. Jhe ciUting remired at
Upton will cost '£4656 17s. 6rf. ; the lock at Upton (including the tut. dm
the gates, and every thing necessary to complete i ,) ±6321 4s. 2rf_, the »m
at Upton, (including all that is necessary, rubble s one, 8j.c.) ±3887. L" was
here understood that the odd shillings and pence should be e out to sim-
plify the statement.] This would make the total expense at Lp_ton £l'l;«f';>;
Worcester . cutting £4210. lock £6251. weir £2848 ; total ±13.3/9. Bevere
cutting £1082. lock and coffer dam (which I think will ^^JW'';^^ '''^.^^^
£10.76^8. weir £1569 ■. total £13,421. Holt Fleet : '■""'"g.,^.^^'!^' '°^^/f ^?:
weir £1058 ; total £10,869. Lincombe llill •. cutting £ol2b locks and dams
(not coft'er-dams but embankments) £8072, weir f 2016 ; total £lo,214^ Total
of the five totals £67,750. The five lock-houses will cost ±1250 This in-
cludes all the work except the equalisation and works below Upton the
total dredging will cost £18.141. Protecting the sides »•. ''''l"'""',f p/^'X
These two items make £52.007. The three totals make £121,000 ^^ 'th the
best judgment 1 can form, I think this is sufficient for the work. 1 have made
estimates to the amount of millions. _ , j„ i i „„f'oo,.

Cross-examined by Mr. Auslin.-The quantity to be 'V'^^g?'! 'f '" ^ "
Upton and Gloucester, including both branches of the river, is 311.000 >arUs,
wl'iich I estimate at Is. per yard. I believe that to be the tidl ?>■'«, and I
include the taking away and depositing the soil, the whole of which is pro-
posed to be used in narrow ing the river. Ihere is no intention to take any
away, except, perhaps, throwing a little into some of the deep holes and pu-
ling some of tfie best gravel on the towing paths, whicli are very bad Ihis
work, will come to £15,500. which is a very large proportion ot the totaUost
of dredging, leaving only £3000 more to be e.xpended on dredging between
Upton and Stourpon. It is proposed to face the channe with rubble stone,
at an inclination of 3 to 1, extending from the bottom of the dredged channel
to the height marked in the section to represent the spring-tide level, tueie
will be 193,520 square yards of rubble stone facing between Upton at'^ *,•'""-
cester, or about 132,000 cubic yards, at 3s. 6r/. per square yard, or as- d^i- Per
cubic yard. The stone can be procured at the Red stone Kock, at -Uncomre
Hill, and at Holt Fleet. The mode in which the facing is o •^e,™"''' .f, " ""
to set the dredging machine at work, and then to throw '.h-^ ^^'f^^, 1 ;""=■-
cuously into the channel, marks being set up tor the S">dance of the men
who discharge the cargoes of stone. The rubble stone facing w as rn.v sug,es
tion. and Mr. Cubitt has adopted it. I cannot tell how ""' ^ san'^, °' i""*
much gravel will have to be dredged above Uuton, as the ^''^^^''^ ^/^^.^^^^ 1°
is so very small that I did not consider it wortli while to exam i e ve^y rni.mte^>
It would be a little harder to dredge stones than grave , but not mutt., be
cause i. the stones were large we should remove the ''"^kets from the niadut^e
and replace them with claw^s, which would take up ''f f^ed stones I est -
mate the excavation at 10,/. per yard, which includes «'>«^f .""^f H?.; TJT
placing it behind the stone walls, and sloping it from the top. W e shall be

240

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[JULT»

driven lo tlie plan of ilrupping in the stones for the weir till Ihey rise to the
surface, when they will be plated by hand, except ubere ve make a cut, and
then all tlie stones will be laid by hand. At the foot of the weirs it
is proposed to have nibble stone, sloping at an angle of 3 to 1. We propose
to make our weirs water-tight by luiving the sheet-piling joinied ami grooved,
and, as it will be driven comparatively dry, the swelling of ihe wood when it
comes in contact uitli 'the water will be quite enough to make every joint
water-tight. We do not resort lo puddling. I have not made any estimate
of the cost of the land w hich will be taken, nor for any compensation in case
the drainage is aflected. I have only estimated the cost of facing one side of
the river at any place. Iliis esfimate has been in progress two months. I
have not made any alleralion in it from the first, saving to correct some httle
.nriistake respecting the quantities.

Re-examined by .Serjeant Mercwether.— The reason why I use stone instead of
•Iwarf piling is because it is more durable than timber, and more proper to be
used ; but if it became a question, and it was deemed desirable to use timber
in any particular part, then 1 should adopt timber. There are localities near
the river where we can get stone very easily- Tbe price I have stated is quite
sufficient to cover any dilVerencc in the nature of the soil to be dredged. In
constructing a weir we lirst put in piling. 1 Ii.ive no reason to apprehend
that the stone will be carried a-.vay, because there will be a great mass of it,
placed at a considerable slope ; 1 think the weirs w ill be quite strong enough
to resist all pressure. I liave not made any of these weirs myself, but I have
taken drawings of some which have well answered the purpose for which
they were designed. The walls are of the same description as those adopifd
by me in the river Dee, which is a rapid river. My cross-examination does
not shake my conviction in the least, as lo the strength of the wail.

Mr. Ciibitt examined by Mr, Serjeant Merewethcr. llie following are the
•■principal items of his evidence :— Our nlan will not aflect the drainage below
Upton at all, and will be the best with reference to expense. The dredging
at Maisemore will be so small that the effect of it upon the Gloucester channel
will be inappreciable. AVe shall dredge in the deep water channel. The plan
proposed aoove AVorcester has been adopted because in that district our ob-
ject can be better and cheaper attained by it and with less injury to the sur-
rounding lands. As an explanation of this, six inehe;; of water going over a
i»eir 600 feet long would take all the summer water in the Severn ; 23 inches
over a v.eir so constructed would make a good navigation and effect a good
drainage of the land, and before injury could ensue the weir would become
cbsoleie. We seek a channel of 45 feet from Upton lo Diglis, with a rise at
three inches per mile. The amount of dredging here would be upwards of
300,000 cubic yards, at Is, per yard, which would be £1.'5,000, which is the
price of all the works at Upton, 'ITie lift between Worcester and Upton
Bridge must be the sum of two lifts. If the two falls be brought to Worces-
ter there must be two locks at the double fill, which would be more expense,
in addition to the cost of £15,000 for dredging, 1 therefore think this is a
sufficient reason wliy the weirs and locks should begin at Worcester. I ap-
prehend there will be no difficulty whatever in the works ansHering their
purpose when made. In putting the weirs across the river quite stjunre it
liecomes a dead stop in proportion to the height and width of the weir to a
portion of the section of the river, and backs up the w ater ; but the quantity
of water that falls over the weir is never of a longer sheet Uian the breadili
of the weir, so tliat were the banks full there must be an obstruction. An
oblique weir is the simplest, cheapest, and most efficient to dam up the river
without injury. [To e'ucidate this, Mr. Cubilt produced a mcdel of the pro-
posed works and explained them in detail to the Committee, and also the
scientific principles on which they were adopte<l.] I have considered the
point of the sluices in the weir. I think them inexpedient. The flood gates
would have no perceptible effect in such a case ; and flood gales, as such, in
llie weirs would cost more than the weirs themselves. The ueir is quite as
capable of penning off the water without flood gates as wiih them.— If any
works are tiut to improve Lord Sandys' drain it would not impede the navi-
gaiion. My object has been to raise all the works, towing paths, &c., above
the floods. — I do not intend to dredge away the quantity Mr, Provis slated
at Maisemore shoal, or to do more to it than will be necessary lo let the
Maisemore boat pass. There is more in the Parliamentary sections than is
jiec£E--ary to be (lone, and so far there is a greater degree uf safety. — I was
fir# employed to mike observations on this river by Mr. Lea. the Chairman
of the Association at Worcester. J made my report to Lord Mathertou, the
Chairman of the Committee of the Severn Association, I had met Mr. Willi.ams
professionally before. I was engaged with Mr. Rhodes in the plan of 1836 ;
that was a plan involving the erection of weirs above and below Gloucester ;
the weir below Gloucester would have been in a portion ol' the river now
avoided by Ihe Gloucester and Berkeley Canal. The plaus of the present day
are the same amended ; I approved of them in general, hut not in all things.
I have no doubt that we might get six feet of water by dredging up lo Wor-
cester, but it w ould be mucji more expensive. It is proposed to place a wall
where we dredge. I have estimated for eight miles of walling and dredging ;
that will answer the douhle purpose of narrowing the river and securing the
banks.

Mr. Cubitt cross-examined by Mr. Wortlcy.— Mi-. Williams correctly de-
scribed the mode of laying down the rubble stone. At one time I proposed
to use dwarf piling in some places; and I still intend lo do so, where I think
it will be as clieap and efficient. In some respects it is preferable to stone,
in others it is not so. 1 can't mention any part of the river in which I think
it will be preferable. I do not propose to make the slopes of the banks per-
fect in all p'aces, as Mr. Provis did, because I think there will not be stuff
enough to do it, 'Ihc channel of tlie Dcerhurst shoal is rather straight ; the
deepest water is towards the left b.ink going down. It is not absolutely ne-
cessary to stone up to the high-wuter mark. The length of ihe dredging on
the river between Upton and Ciloucesler upon my s heme, as markedon the
sections, is between eight and nine miles. I should remark, that it is marked
deeper than will be necessary for the navigation. I do not eonteraplale any
works below tlie Gloucester and Berkeley Canal, nor below the entrance to
the (iloucester and Hereford Canal. Tiie continuous length of diedging in

the sections, from Upton lo Diglis is ninemiies. We propose lo start from
Upton at a depth of 7 ft. 6 in. ; and we do so because I d.iu"l think 6 feet suffi-
cient. Hy the C feet spoken of as the depth we seek. I mean 6 feet above the
lock sills. J save all the dredging there by {lenning the banks. Were we to
dredge from Gloucester to Worcester to a width of 45 feet at (he bnttom, to
the level of the lock sill of the (Gloucester and Berkeley Canal. 5 feet indepth,
with a slope of two to one. and rising 3 inches per niile, the quantity to be
dredged would Ije 323,133 cubic yards. [Witness then answered a series of
questions as to the volume of water that would flow in channels of diflcrent
widths.] We shall scarcely affect tlie fall below Upton. We propose at Upton
to form a close jointed walerproof weir, tlan'i- g, 600 feel long, wilh timber
pilings drawn into the river, 10 feet apart ; behind this we propose to drop
stones into the river, without masonry. The expense of having the lock at
Diglis. instead of Upton, would be very much increased on account of the
additional fall. In some places where we construct our weirs we widen the
river, in w hich cases the cress sections would be as great or greater than at
present. 1 measured that section across ihe river at right angles to the
stream. The height of tlie water above the weir is 6 inches. 1 know by
principle, and partly by practice, that w hen the water is 2 feet above the weir
ihe boats w ill go over, Tlie water, in coming to the weir, does not diminish
its velocity, and no more water would pass over the weir in consequence of
its being oblique than if it were right angled. I do not make a pond, and
therefore I do not cause a deposit. If you do any thing to diminish the ve-
locity of the water coming through the weir it w'ill tend to form a deix)8it;
but if it be so constructed that the water coming through can keep moving on
with the same velocity, it will have no more tendency to form a deposit than
before the weir was put in. If I were to carry out the works at once I <Jo
not intend to make any alteration in the length of the weir ; and if 1 did so
at all, it would be to meet the views of others rather than my own convic-
tions. If the river be increased beyond its natural width it will be more liable
to deposits. The expenses of general maintenance of the works can never
cease while the works exist. The expense of the navigation of the Ayr and
Caldwell is very considerable. We do not alter the natural surface of the
water at Diglis locks to any extent ; if the weir were placed above the en-
trance to the canal, vessels would have the same depth of water- The reason
I have for not placing it higher up the stream is that it would lengthen ihe
cut very much, take more laud, and much reduce the water to what I may
call the harbour of Worcester. The length to the harbour is 1000 yards ; it
would increase the length of the cut about nine chains. There would be great
passing of vessels from all places at the point, and therefore I think there
should be a good harbour. If the vessels coming at the same time had to
wait for the lockage, it would be the best place to wait in, but there would be
little or no waiting, as they would pass the lock in three or four minutes. At
Revere Island I propose to put the weir Ijelow the mouth of the Salwar]);
Mr. Rhodes in his last plan has placed it in the same place. By putting a
weir in a shallow stream we raise the water ; but the instant it gets so much
above the weir as to lose a fall, from that instant the weir is no obstruction.
I have had but little experience in salmon rivers; I undei'stand there are
good salmon in the Severn, and I should be very sorry to do anything to
destroy them ; I have nothing o do with how far these works will affect the
rights of piscary ; I have considered how to form the weirs so as not to ob-
struct the salmon in passing up tlie river ; the weirs will not afford any faci-
lity for taking the fish. The average yield of the river at low summer water
is from 40 to 60.000 cubic feet per minute above the Avon ; the quantity of
course difiers below the Avon,

By Mr. Lowndes.— I have not personally taken the levels of the drains
on the river Severn ; I received information from Mr, M'illiams, and a
great deal from Mr. Rhodes ; I don't know that Mr. Rhodes personally took
the levels. I received the greatest information on this point from the docu-
ments. I examined the drain on Lord Sandys' property myself ; if you proved
there was an under-drain there it would not matter on atom. I consider the
sole oi^eration of a drain to be to lake the water off' the surface of the land;
the effect of an under-drain is to lake off' that which gets below the surface
of the land. If there is an under-ground drain it does not follow that the
level must be the same as that of the open drain, I do not know whether
there is an under-ground drain at this place, but I believe all the drains on
Lord .Sandys' property come into the Severn below the weir. — When a fresh
comes down the river the surface of the river will remain nearly the same as
before tlie weir was put in. The works will raise the water on tlie river at
.Salwarp perhaps four feet. The value of ibe land to be taken will be proved
hereafter by other witnesses. If it shouhl be proved that 2000 acres for in-
stance would be injured in their drainage by the bill, there has been no esti-
mate made of the amount of compensation for that. I can't give any opinion
as to the permanency of any damage that might ensue. I admit that the
consequences of imperfect drainage would be to effect the atmosphere of the
district. The state of the towing paths is not good; they give way on both
sides of the river. AVhen they have given way. it is generally the case that
the land is encroached upon for a fresh one, which they are entitled to do.
If they are entitled by their Act to take 10 feet on the side of the river, and
that falls in, I am of opinion tliey can take 10 feet more; notwithstanding
this, 1 do not think it is imprudent in us to undertake their management,

Mr. Mc'Xeil examined by Mr. .Serjeant Merewethcr, — I am a civil engineer,
and liave been engaged in many extensive w orks for a period ol 20 years, I
have been present during the last few days of this enquiry. I have been en-
gaged in works of a similar description to the present. Having heard the
plan, I think it would effect the desired object. I think it would be best to
dredge up to Ujiton. I think, also, that the weirs will effect Mr. Cubitt's ob-
ject. With reference to expense, I think it is the best mode that could be
adopted, I think the explanation given by Mr, Cubitt has been so clear, that
nothing remains to be added to it.

Cross-examined by Mr. Austin. — I was called in on this business on Mon-
day week, 1 had not made a previous examination of the river Severn, I
never did so. I have been across it at Chepstow, but never practically ex-
amined it. I do not know anj other river of a similar natural character. I

1841.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

24.3

under what circumstances, so a^vful a catastrophe would have occurred, of
course not even those hest acquainted with the subject could pretend to
describe. Mr. Cottingham has caused about 150 wagon-loads of rubbish to
be removed from the tower in order fully to ascertain its state, and there can
be no doubt that the measures he intends to adopt will give full seearity.
One great advantage, too, of his plans will Ijc to expose the 52 stone columns
of the tower (a remarkably fine piece of masonry) to the view of persons in
the church. In the mean time, so imminent does he consider the danger,
that he will not suffer the bells to be rung, and all attention to the other
parts of the works is suspended until satisfactory reparation has been made.
The restoration will now be effected at a comparatively trifling expense; had
the discovery not thus timely taken i)lace, the cost would have been enormous.
It is worthy' of remark that so httle were these subjects understood only a
comparatively short period ago, that the western front was declared to be
secured for hundreds of years, and yet in six weeks only from the time of
that declaration it was a mass of ruins. — Hereford Journal,

LIVERPOOL DOCKS.

It will be recollected that In the last February number of the Journal, we
gave a letter of Mr. Hartley's, the Dock Suneyor, addressed to the Liver-
pool Dock Committee, in consequence of certain charges being brought
against liim by a Member of the Committee, whereupon a Sub-Committee was
appointed to inquire into the charges. This Committee have lately made their
report which is now before us, we are happy to announce, what we feel assured
the whole of the profession were prepared for, that it completely vindicates
Mr. Hartley from the charges. The report is too long for insertion in our
Journal, but the following announcement we are sure will be all that is ne-
cessary for us to give.

" The sub-committee, having personally examined the accounts at the Dock-
yard, and the system of checks on labour and expenditure of stores, are unani-
mously of opinion, after a very strict investigation of the stock accounts, and
careful examination of the books, which show in detail the expenses incurred
in every department of work, and making allowance for the expense of the
establishment and maintenance of a large stock, that the various works hav.;
been executed on very reasonable terms, and at lower rates than they could
have been in any other way. The interests ef the Dock Trust, in the conduct
and management of the mechanical departments of the Surveyor's establish-
ment, have been materially promoted by the system which has been pursued ;
and, as long as that system is kept up in the same orderly, vigorous, and
efficient manner, no better system can be demised for the general benefit of
the trust, the establishment being liighly creditable to the Dock Surveyor,
whose indefatigable zeal, honour, and industry cannot ie too hi(jhhj com-
mended."

Remov-vl of Son'derlaxd Light House. — At a late meeting of the
Commissioners of the river Wear, the taking down of the Light House being
discussed, as part of the plan of building the new North pier at the mo\ith of
the harbour, Mr. Murray, the engineer, suggested the removal of the Light
House, in its present entire state, to the eastern extremity of the new Pier,
a distance of about 420 feet, so as to make it serve the double purpose of a
stationary and a tide-light. Mr. Murray exhibited a model of the building,
and after explaining how he proposed to effect this undertaking, the Board
decided that he should proceed foithwith to remove it. This Light House
was erected about 40 yeai's ago, by the late Mr. Pickernell, then engijieer to
the Harbour Commissioners. It is wholly composed of stone ; its form is
octagonal, 15 feet in breadth across its base. G2 feet in height from the sur-
face of the pier to the top of the cornice, where it is 9 feet in breadth across,
and the top of the dome is 16 feet above the cornice, making a total height
of 78 feet ; and its calculated weight is 250 tons. Mr. Murray intends to
cut through the masonry near its foundation, and insert whole timbers, one
after another, through the buildhig, and extending 7 feet beyond it. Above
and at right angles to them, another tier of timbers is to be inserted in hke
manner, so as to make the cradle or base a square of 29 feet ; and this cradle
is to be supported upon bearers, with about 250 wheels of G inches diametei-,
intended to traverse ou 6 lines of railway to be laid on the new Pier for that
purpose. The shaft of the Light House is to be tied together with bands,
and its eight sides are to be supported with timber braces from the cradle
upwards to the cornice. The cradle is to be drawn and pushed forward by
powerful screws, along the railway above mentioned, on the principle of
ilorton's patent slip for the repairing of vessels. However surprising the
removal of such a building may appear to many, yet in Xew York, for some
years past, large houses have been removed from their original situation to a
considerable distance, without sustaining any injiuy. The immense block of
granite, serving as the pedestal of the equestrian statue of Peter the Great, at
St. Petersburgh, was conveyed four miles by land, and tliirtecn by water.
Several ObeUsks have Ukewise been transported at different times from Egypt
to E\u-ope ; and lately, one was conveyed from Thebes, and erected by the
French at Paris. But the fact that the Light House on our Nortli Pier is
composed of stones of comparatively small dimension, its great heiglit, and
small base, make the operation of removing it much more difficult than any
thing of the sort ever attempted. We heartily wish the enterprising engineer
every success in his bold and novel undertaking, which is to be carried into
execution in the course erf a few weeks from this date. — Sunderland Herald.

COMPETITION FOR THE MARSEILLES EXCHANGE.

The following conchtions of competition for designing an Exchange at
Marseilles, we have translated from Revue Generate de V Architecture.

1st. Tlie situation will be chosen in uperimetre commencing at the "Rue
de la Prison," and proceeding up to the " Place de Justice," the Grand Rue
as far as the Courts.

2nd. The competition designs must contain, not only the Exchange strictly
so called, hut also the Chamber and Tribunal of Commerce, the syndicat of
the money-changers, the royal brokers, the merchant counsel, and all the
necessary appendages to these, such as peristyle porticos, vestibules, vestries
secretary's office, registry office, bureaux, counting houses, &c. &c. Also a
dwelling place for the porter, a guard-house for a detachment, and a place to
deposit cloaks, rmibrellas, and walking sticks.

3rd. The great hall of the Exchange, including the interior porticos must
contain at least 3000 persons, and consequently have a superficies of not less
than 1000 square metres.

4th. The drawings must be done with care, the sections to be in a pale
colour, tlie horizontal sections in Indian ink, and carmine for the vertical
sections, yellow for the wood, Pussian blue for the ii-ou, grey for the metallic
roofs, and brick red for the tile roofs.

5th. Each design must be composed of the following separate pieces.

1. An explanatory and justifiable report.

2. A general plan of the whole.

3. A plan of the ground floors at one or two metres above the level of
the great hall, and tlie same of the first floor.

4. Longitudinal and a transverse section through the interior of the edi-
fice.

5. Front and back elevations.

6. Profiles and details of execution (this need not he paid so much at-
tention to).

7. A descriptive device containing a scale of the works, and the cost
after the current price of the country ; the whole exactly and summarily
expressed.

6th. As to the order of architecture, the best in whatever order it may-
happen to be chosen, and even the several orders may be blended, but keep-
ing at the same time a tone of convenience, soHdity,' elegance, good taste, a
noble simplicity, and a wise economy.

"th. The scale of the general plan to be, 2 millimetres to a metre, that of
the sections and separate plans a centimetre to a metre, and that of the de-
tails of execution 5 centimetres to a metre.

8th. The competition is fixed at six months date from the 1st April. Dur-
ing the following fortnight the competitors to deposit their designs at the
secretary's office, at the Chamber of Commerce, where they will receive a
certain number according to the order of presentation, the names and address
of the competitors must be enclosed in an envelope carefully closed, to which
the same number will he affixed. Each competitor to have a receipt stating
the formal deposition, the number of plans, and the particular number given
them, but without indicating name or person.

9th. When the term for the preparation of the plans has expired, the de-
signs will be submitted to the judgment of a committee chosen from the
members of the Chamber of Commerce, and an equal number of artists.
The decision will not be definitive until the sanction of competent authorities
he given, and then the names only of the authors of the three best designs
will be announced.

10th. The first design will receive the prize of 3000 francs (120/.), and
then, without further remuneration or honours, will remain the property of
the Chamber, who will have the right to alter it at their will, and to confide
the execution to whom they please. The names of the other two authors of
the second and third best designs will be honourably mentioned.

11th. Every design (No. 1 excepted), will be restored (o their authors, as
well as the sealed envelopes containing their names, Oa t'.e production of the
previously delivered receipts.

Marseilles, March 30, 1841.

CANAL STEAMER FITTED WITH MR. P. TAYLOR'S REVOLVING

SCREW PROPELLERS.

Ox Wednesday the 5th of May, we had the pleasure of inspecting a new
steam boat on the river Irwell, fitted by Messrs. Peter Taylor and Co., of
Uolhnwood, near Manchester, with steam engines and propellers of an en-
tirely new construction, both inventions of Mr. Peter Taylor, and for whicli
he has obtained patents. The vessel is 75 feet long and 10 feet wide, and
built (with the exception of the gunwale and paddle-box.) entirely of iron.
She appeared to perform very satisfactorily; at a speed varying according to
the depth of water firom about eight to nine miles per hour, which upon a
confined water we believe has never been attained by any steam vessel. In
noticing a trial some months ago of another vessel belonging to Messrs. Tay-
lor and Co., which had then been newly fitted with similar propellers, we
gave a description of the apparatus, which consists of a number of continuous
curved vanes or segments of screws, or \i'ings on two axes. In the instance
now under notice five pairs are affixed upon one axis, and five pairs upon the
other; the number being regulated by, and varied according to, the power of

2 L 2

248

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[July,

Hope-making in Ai>icricit.—"S\r. Buckinf»liam gives th ■ following tlescripti'jn
of tlip rope manufactory at Boston. " The ropew alk of the navy-yaril is one
of the finest I ever remember to have seen. It is nearly half a mile in lentith,
two stories in height ; it is built entirely of the same beautiful granite as
that used in the construction of the ilry tlock, and is roofed with iron and
slate. The window shutters are all ca^ed with inn, and the whole is rendered
fire-proof. Some very recent and e.vccllent improvements have been intro-
duced into the machinery here, by a native American engineer, Mr. Tread-
well, by w hich a steam engine at one end of the building is madr to furnish
the rec|uisite power for performing all the operations for rope-making, with
very little aid from the labour of men, from the first combing of the hemp,
and spinning it into threads, to the tarring and twisting the yarn, and the
winding of the whole into the hawser ftr the cable required. 1 had teen some
of the best rojiewalks in England, both in the royal dock-yards, and in llie
private establishments of Ijondon, and other parts, but 1 remember nothing
equal to this of Boston, cither in the beauty and perfection of the building
ami the machinery, or the admirable uniformity of strain in every strand and
every fibre in the rope produced ; or the finished rouridness, smoothness and
flexibility of the hawsers and cables, of w hich several were submitted to our
e.xamination, both in progress and completed."

Steam Navigation on the Meitse. — One of tlie new steam-boats intended for
the Liegeian Company of Navigation, was last week launched in the Meuse.
It was towed as far as ilie railway to Val-Benuit, in order to put in the boiler.
AVithout the boiler, and with tlie engine ahmc, the draught of water of the
boat was 21 centimetres (8 inclies); with the boiler it is 25 centimetres flO
inches). The engine, w hich is a low-pressure one, and according to the Jack-
son plan, weighs only 2,400 kilogrammes. It was constructed in the manu-
factory of Messrs. Derosne, Call, and Co., at Charenton, near Paris. K.x-
cepting in Kugland and on the Ijoire, there are not yet any engines like it.
The engines of the steam-boats which were in operation last year on the
Meuse, were considerably heavier. The vessel w hich has just been launched
is 3 metres and 50 centimelres(ll feet) in depth, and 3fi metres and 50 centi-
metres (116 feet) long. Every thing on deck is nearly finished, and it will
soon be able to commence working. Great progress is mide in the construc-
tion of the second vessel, and it w ill be ready for service in a short time after
the first. It is estimated that the draught of ihrse boats, with their load of
fuel, will not exceed 35 centimetres (14 inches), while that of the former boats
amounted to nearly GO centimetres (24 inches); we are. therefore, induced to
hope that steam navigation, unless when the waters are e.Ncessively low, may
henceforth be generally adopted on the Meuse. — Another steam-boat of iron is
now constructing in the manufactory of M. Petry, an engineer, at Grevegnee-
!es-Liege. Persons experienced in the art of boat-building, who have had
opiortunities of seeing this fine vessel, consider that the country has not
produced any equal to it.

LIST OP NEIV PATENTS.

GRANTED IM ENGLAND FROM 27tH MAY, TO 25TH JUNE, 1841.

Si,v Months allowed for Enrolment.

George Bent Ollivant and Adam Howard, of Manchester, mill-
wrights, for " certain improvements in cylindrical printing machinery for
printing calicoes and other fabrics, and in the apparatus connected thereivith,
which is also applicable to other useful purposes." — Scaled June 5.

John Mee, of Leicester, framesmith, for " improvements in the manufac-
ture of looped fabrics." — June 5.

"William Hannis Tavlor, of Lambeth, Esq., for " certain improvements
in propelling machinery" — June 5.

Joseph Gibbs, of the Oval, Kennington, civil engineer, for " certain im-
provements in roads and railways, and in the means of propelling carriages
thereon." — June 5.

_ Miles Berry, of Chancery-lane, patent agent, for " certain improvements
in machinery or apparatus for ruling paper." (A communication. — June .5.

James Colley March, of Barnstaple, surgeon, for " certain improved
means of producing heat from the combustion of certain kinds of fuel." —
June 8.

Henry Richardson Fanshaw, the younger, of Hatfield-street, Surrey,
chemist, for " improvements in curing hides and skins, and in tanning, wash-
ing, and cleaning hides, skins, and other matters." — June 10.

John George Boomer, of Manchester, engineer, for "certain improve-
ments in machinery for propelling vessels on water, parts of which improve-
ments apply also to steam engines to be employed on land." — June 10.

Edward Hammond Bentall, of lleybiidge, Essex, iron-founder, for
"certain improvements in ploughs." — June 10.

Robert Oram, of Salford, Lancaster, engineer, for " certain improve-
7nentsin hydraulic presses." — June 12.

James Wills Wayte, of the " Morning Advertiser" office, Fleet-street,
engineer, for " certain improvements in machinery or apparatus for letter-
press printing." — June 12.

John Anthony Tielens, of Fenchurch-street, merchant, for " improve-
ments in machinery or apparatus for knitting." (A communication.)— June

George Claudius Ash, of Broad-street, Golden-square, dentist, for " (>«-
provements in apparatus for fastening candles in candlesticks." June 12.

Edward Palmer, of Newgate-street, gentleman, for '• improvements in
producing printing surfaces, and in the printing china, pottery, ware, music,
maps, and portraits." — Juue 12.

EzEKtEL Jones, of Stockport, mechanic, for " certain improvements in
machinery for prepairing stubbing, roving, spinning, and doubling cotton, silkf
wool, worsted, far, and other fibrous substattces." — June 12.

Alexander lloR.vrio Simpson, of New Palace-yard, Westminster, gen-
tleman, Peter Hunter Irvin, and Thomas Eugene Irvi.n, both of
Charles-street, Hatton-garden, philosophical instrument makers, for "an im-
proved mode of producing light, and of manufacturing apparatus for the dif.
fusion pf light." — June 17.

Thomas Walker, of North Shields, engineer, for " improvements in steam
engines." — June 18.

Willia.m Petrie, of Croydon, gentleman, for " improvements in obtaining
mechanical power, which are also ajiplicahlc for obtaining rapid motion." —
June 19.

John Hacguton, of Liverpool, clerk, master of arts, for "improvements
in the method of affixing certain labels." — June 19.

James Henry Shaw, of Charlotte-street, Blaekfriars, jeweller, for "im-
provements in setting wheat and other seeds." — June 19.

Sir Samuel Brow.n, knight, of Netherbyers-house, Ayton, Berwick, for
" improvements in the means of drawing or moving carriages and other ma-
chines along inclined planes, railways, and other roads, and for drawing or
propelling vessels in canali, rivers, and other navigable waters." — June 19.

John George Truscott Campbell, of Lambeth-hill, Upper Thames-
street, grocer, for " improvements in propelling vessels." — June 19.

Joseph Gauci, of North-crescent, Bedford-square, artist, and Alexander
Bain, of Wigmore-street, Cavendish-square, mechanist, for " improvements
in inkstands and inkholders." — June 21.

Miles Berry, of Chancerj'-lane, patent agent, for " a new or improved
engine, machine, or apparatus for producing or obtaining jnotive jiower by
means of gases or vapours produced by combustion." — June 23.

William Walker, the elder, of Standish-street, Liverpool, watch-finisher,
for " an improvement or improvements in the manufacture of the detached
lever watch." — June 23.

George Tho.mas Day, of Upper Belgrave-place, Pimlico, gentleman, for
" an improved apparatus for creating draft applicable to chimneys and other
purposes." — June 23.

John Henry Le Keux, of Southampton-street, Pentonville, for "an im-
provement in line engraving, and in producing impressions therefrom." — June
23 ; two months.

John Goodwin, of Cumberland-street, Hackney-road, piano-forte maker,
for *' an improved construction of piano-fortes of certaiti descriptions." —
June 23 ; two months.

James Sidebottom, of AVaterside, Derby, manufacturer, for " certain im-
provements in machinery for apparatus." — June 23.

William Chesterman, of Burford, Oxford, gentleman, for " improve-
meuts 171 filtering Ixjuids." — .lune 23.

Robert Stephenson, of Great George-street, Westminster, civil engineer,
for " certain improvejnents in the arrangement and combination of tlie parts
of steam engines of the sort comnionlg called locomotive engines." — June 23.

John Lee Stevens, of Iving Edward-street, Southwark, general agent,
and John King, of College llill, printer, for " certain improvements in candle-
sticks and other candle holders." — June 25.

TO CORRESPONDENTS.

Mr. Mu.ihet*s pap* rs ; and Mr. Dttrics and Mr. Ryder's reply to Mr. Perkins*
answer, that appeared in last niontli's Journal, were not received until the latter
part of the month, they will appear in the ne.rt Journal.

M. Q.'s communication will appear next month — tracings will be returned when
required.

" The Mammoth "' is to be worked by the Screw, unltss new orders have been
lately given to the contrary.

Wc muxt beg of our American correspondents not to forward Pamphlets by Post,
zee hare had several demands upon us for 5s. and Gs. postage for each.

J lengthened ahsfraef of Mr. Hood's e.xrelltnt paper " on the Properties and
Chemical Constitution of Coal,'' has already been given in the Journal, and the
paper besides has appeared in another periodical.

Works received and will he noticed ne.vt month — Mr. Rankeii's Patent Wood
Piivenu nt. Report on " the Improvement of the Navigation of the Forth belwi.rt
Stirling and Alloa" "Irish liailwui/s.'' Mr. Soptvith's description of Geological
Models, and Mr. Williams's u'ork on the Combustion (f Coal, 2nd edition.

Communications are requested to be addressed to " The Editor of the Civil
Engineer, and Architect's Journal," No. II, Parliament Street, Westminster.

Books for Review must be sent early in the month, communications on or before
the 20th (if with drawings, earlier), and advertisements on or before the 15th
instant.

Vols. I, II, and 111, m.ay be had, bound in cloth, pr.ce £1 each Volume.

ERRATA.

In Mr. Clark's communication "On the Action of Central Forces," in the
last month's Journal, page 182, 2nd column, 31st line from bottom, for

A\,C~A R, re^i A C = A B. And page 183, column one, line 29, for .r =^
read, .v = — .

1841.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

245

the lateral cut is sliorler liere than the others, it is about 14 or 15 chains or
350 yards, tlie lift is 7 ft. 6 in. the diniensions are the same as the others, the
length of the weir is ojO feet, the height from the bed of the river is about
11 ft. 6 in., the width of the river is from 100 to 1.30 feet Tliis takes us up
to Red Stone Rock, and Cloth House, and to .Stourport ; the weir is to be in
the cut there and the lock in the river, because the towing path is on the
eastern side of the river, and we should have to pass over if we put a lock in
tlie cut ; I can't give the height of tliis weir. M"c dredge between fJloucesler
and Upton, because the shoals fall so much less in this district and are of a
different character ; they are shoals of deposit formed by the inequality of
the sectional area of the channel. The shoals above Upton are hard beds of
gravel and marl, which pen the water over in the summer season. The elfect
of dredging from Upton to ^Vorcester would be to increase the liability of the
banks to tumble in, and would also he inconvenient to the trader from the
increased height of the banks, which are already too high ; the same efi'ect
would be produced in a greater degree by dredging Upton shoal, unle.ss there
was something above. Compared with the present plan, dredging would be
much more expensive, supposing it formed part of a continuous plan up to
Stourport. If you removed the lock from I pton and put it at Diglis, you
must have a double lift there, which would be inconvenient to the trade, as
in point of fact it would be two locks. The extent nf dredging in such a case
must be to the extent o' from 7 to 10 feet, which would be a serious matter,
and would make cataracts from the locks. By the system of weirs we shall
have 6 teet of water at all times from Stourport to Gloucester, which I be-
lieve would be sufficient for all purposes of trade on the Severn ; I do not
think it would be more than necessary for the canal boats. Ths build of ves-
sels would alter if the water were deeper. In my opinion the tr.ade of the
river will be increased if these improvements are carried into effect. In my
opinion if the maximum toll is imposed, these advantages will counterbalance
it to the trade •, I found that opinion upon the excessive delays, cost of light-
ering, pilferage, wear and tear, the increased power required to draw vessels
up, the limited number of voyages and the light cargoes, which exist at pre-
sent. The trade of Gloucester has suffered much in consequence, and has
gone to other ports ; to my knowledge many cargoes which, but for this,
would have gone to Gloucester, have gone to Liverpool ; this has been espe-
cially the case lately. I believe also that railways have increased the preju-
dice to the Severn. The cost of these improvements I estimate at £150,000,
which will be sufficient, and more than suffice, and include contingencies,
which I have estimated at 10 per cent. I am prepared to state in detail how
it will be expended.

Cross-examined by Mr. Austin.

The original plan was made by Mr. Rhodes. I have been acting under
Mr. Cubitt since Nov. 1825. I consider the merit or demerit ol" the present
plan belongs to him. Mr. Cubitt was employed as consulting engineer, and
Sir. Rhodes as acting engineer. I was employed by the committee of the
late Severn Navigation Company. This is not the same plan as theirs, but
the same with some alterations. Their jilan was first made in 1838. There
was a plan and sections. The original plan is at the Guildhall at Worcester.
I have a reduced copy of it as altered. I took part in the formation of the
original plan. It was adopted and altered by Mr. Cubitt. I said the deposit
of shoals would depend on the drifts of the river. The river is divided in
the plan into districts. The area of the first is at Upton, 3480 feet. That
supposes a line drawn at the top of the bank and the bed of the river. The
width is 104 feet, the average depth 11 feet. The next district is half a mile
lower down, and has the siime area; width 101 feet, average depth 10 ft.
6 in. The third is, area 3120 ft. width 98 ft. depth 11 ft. The fouHh is.
area 3401 ft. width 104 ft. depth 10 ft. 9 in. The fifth is, area 3,529 ft.
width 107 ft. depth 12 ft. The first section is half a mile below the Barley
House, the second a mile ditto, the third a mile and half ditto, the fourth
two miles ditto, and the fifth two miles and half ditto. That gives an ave-
rage iif 100 feet width ami 10 feet depth, which is plenty of water for the
necessities of the trade. There are no shoals there. When the water rises
it expands also. The fall from Upton to Gloucester is about 7 inches, or
2'8 inches per mile. We propose to alter the whole river from Upton to
Gloucester, to assimilate it at this part, and to maintain an uniform depth of
6 feet. The width of the river varies from 150 feet to 170 feet, I am not
now prepared to give the Committee the detail of the cost of the works. Mr.
Provis made the original calculation of the expense. The average dredging
of the whole line will be less than 5 feet. The general estimate of the present
plan was made by Mr. Cubitt at Worcester, in the autumn of last year. We
had not a detailed estimate until within the last two months. I do not know
that it is determined to lay down a quantity of rubble stone to be used be-
tween Upton and Gloucester. The depth of the water at the Upton weir
immediately above is 7 feet, and below, 3 ft. 7 in. We propose to use the
stuff dredged up in equalizing the width. Mr. Provis took the price of the
stone from me. It was from 3s. to 3s. fid. per yard, delivered not at the spot,
but on the Severn. Part of it comes from between Worcester and Stourport,
and the other part from MalveiTi. I can't tell the cost ol the stone and
timljer between Worcester and Upton. We propose to coffer-dam at Bevere
Island. Tlie soundings for the shoals were under my direction. The borings
were in many instances from 8 feet to 10 feet. Maisemore shoal was not
bored, it being out of the direct line. We bored all the other shoals. We
took 26 borings in the Worcester shoal. '

By Mr. Serjeant M^rangham.— I do not know the quantity of work
to be done for the purpose of improving the navigation. It will be a work
of considerable amount to get a depth of five feet at Deerliurst shoal with a
width of from forty to sixty feet. The dredge below Upton Lock will be on
an average of from 4 to 5 feet for the same width for tiie length of a mile.
I believe these excavations will not depress the level of water because they
are shoals of deposit and not natural formations, and there is no fall from
them. By dredging to Worcester you would be making the river a succession
of rapids: if we deepened to a sufficient extent in low summer water we
should get rid of the rapids, but we should lower the ponds above : it would
do so even with the same sectional area. By narrowing the banks and in-

creasing the depth the stream would flow faster ; the shcals do not pen the
water back except where it acts as a natural d.im. From Diglis lock to Up-
ton weir the total depth is 4 ft. 6 in. ; this space contains a great number of
rapids ; the fall is 45 inches per mile, with a .soft bottom, but with a shoal of
hard gravel and marl, I think that dredging up to U)iton would not retain
the level ; there would be a diminution at Diglis lock of 3 ft. 9 in. by dredg-
ing, if the w'ater was not penned back by our lock ; that would leave a fall
of 9 inches from Diglis lock to Upton. The river is not so broad from Diglis
to Upton as below Upton ; and being so, the fall .above is greater than the
fall below, but it must not be naturally so ; it depends upon the inclination
of the bed of the river, and the quantity of water carried. Many rivers, par-
ticularly the Thames and the Kennett, have had their navigation improved
by artificial means. The current of the Thames is much faster than in the
■Severn. The velocity of the Hood of the Severn is from 2i to 3 miles per
hour. Mr. Provis can give you a more satisfactdry answer than I, as to the
force witli which that would strike our weirs. 1 have seen a portion of tlie
surface of ihe weirs in the Thames washed olf by the water. 'They are made
in a very simple way— by piles, filled up. Our weirs will be much stronger
than the Thames. During the six vears I have been engaged on the Severn
my attention has been particularly directed to these subjects, and the infor-
mation I have given to the committee is the result of that investigation. Mr.
Provis was called in about two months since. I have made a calculation of
the time at which the river may become free again; and taking all things
into consideration, I think it may become a free river again in forty years,
with the exception simply of a toU for keeping the works in rep.air. My es-
timate applies itself to the cost of tonnage. I am sure I furnished Mr. Cubitt
and Mr. Provis with sufficient information to give an opinion on the subject.
The time now lost in consequence of the shoals is much greater than will be
lost in going through the locks. The impediments to the navigation of the
river now are much greater than can possibly exist under the improvements.
I have passed vessels through the locks on the Thames in 3* minutes ; about
.5 minutes is a fair average. Supposing a boat to start to Gloucester in a
fresh, which, before the alteration, could get back in the same fresh, it would
have greater facility for doing so in consequence of the improvement of the
river, notwithstanding the locks.

Mr. Provis, Engineer, examined by Mr. Serjeant Merewether :— I have exe-
cuted works for Mr. Cubitt. and other engineers. The Menai Bridge was one
of those works. The Birmingham Junction Canal was another, and I am
now employed on works to the amount of £tiO.000 or £70,000, I was called
in to give an estimate for the proposed works on the Severn, and Mr. Wil-
liams and I went down the river from Gloucester to Stourport, and I made
my own observations in addition to the information given me by Mr. Wil-
liams. I have an estimate of the whole cost of the works, including 10 per
cent, upon the cost of the works for contingencies, but exclusive of the land
to be taken, which 1 do not pretend to value. The amount of that estimate
is £133,108 12s. 3rf., Ijeing £121.007 lbs. lil. for the total cost of the works,
and £12,100 1.5s. Id. for contingencies. 1 have made such a calculation that,
if the work were offered to me, I should have no objection to undertake it at
that contract, providing the supervision was such as 1 liked. M'ere I em-
ployed as an engineer to examine that estimate. I should say that it is a fair
sum to give to any man to do the required work. 'The cutting required at
Upton will cost £4656 17s. firf. ; the lock at Upton (including the building,
the gates, and every thing necessary to compleie it,) £6321 4s. 2d. ; the weir
at Upton, (including all that is necessary, rubble stone, &c.) £3887. [It was
here understood that the odd shillings and pence should be left out to sim-
plify the statement.] This would make the total expense at Upton £14,865.
Worcester . cutting £4210. lock £62il. weir £2848 ; total £13.379. Bevere :
cutting £1082, lock and coffer dam (which I think will be required there)
£I0,7U8, weir £1569 ; total £13,421. Holt Fleet -. cutting £3347, lock £5863,
weir £1658; total £10,869. Lincombe Hill; cutting £5126, locks and dams
(not coffer-dams but embankments) £8072, weir £2016 ; total £15.214. Total
of the five totals £67,750, The five lock-houses « ill cost £1250. This in-
cludes all the work except the equalisation and works below Upton. The
total dredging will cost £18,141. Protecting the sides of the river, £33,806,
These two items make £52.007. The three totals make £121,000. With the
best judgment I can form, I think this is sufficient for the w-ork. I have made
estimates to the amount of millions. ^

Cross-examined by Mr. Austin.— The quantity to be dredged between
Upton and Gloucester, including both branches of the river, is 311,000 yards,
which I estimate at Is. per yard. 1 believe that to be the full price, and I
include the taking aw ay anil depositing the soil, the whole of which is pro-
posed to be used in narrowing the river. 'There is no intention to take any
away, except, perhaps, throwing a little into some of the deep holes, and put-
ting some of the best gravel on the towing paths, which are very bad. This
work, will come to £15,500. which is a very large proportion of the total cost
of dredging, leaving only £3000 more to be expended on dredging between
Upton and Stourport. It is proposed to face the ch.innel with rubble stone,
at an inclination of 3 to 1, extending from the bottom of the dredged ch.innel
to the height marked in the section to represent the spring-tide level, 'fbere
will be 193,520 square yards of rubble stone facing between Upton and Glou-
cester, or about 132,000 cubic yards, at 3s. 6rf. per square yard, or 5s. M. per
cubic yard. The stone can be procured at the Red Stone Kock, at Lincombe
Hill, and at Holt Fleet. The mode in which the facing is to be done, is first
to set the dredging machine at work, and then to throw the stone promis-
cuously into the channel, marks being set up for the guidance of the men
who discharge the cargoes of stone. The rubble stone facing was my sugges-
tion, and .Mr. Cubitt has adopted it. I cannot tell how much sand or how
much gravel will have to be dredged .above Upton, as the quantity of dredging
is so very small that I did not consider it worth while to examine very minutely.
It would be a little harder to dredge stones than gravel, but not much, be-
cause it the stones were large we sh;iuld remove the buckets from the machine
and replace them with claws, which would take up detached stones. I esti-
mate the excavation at 10(/. per yard, which includes the removal of the soil,
placing it behind the stone walls, and sloping it from the top, M'e shall be

240

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT S JOURNAL.

[JULT»

dr]%en to the plan of ilropping in the stones for the weir till they rise to the
surface, when ihey will be placed by hand, except u here we make a cut, and
then all the stones will be laid by hand. At the foot of the weirs it
Js proposed to have rubble stone, sloping at an angle of 3 to 1. We propose
to make our weirs water-tight by liaving the sheet-piling joinied and grooved,
and, as it will be driven comparatively dry. the su-cUing of the wood wlicn it
comes in contact with -the water wil! be quite enougli to make every joint
water-tight. We do not resort to puddling. 1 have not made aiiy estimate
of the cost of the land w hich will be taken, nor for any torapensalion in case
the drainage is affected. I have only estimated ilie cost of lacing one .side uf
the river at anyplace. This esfimate has been in |<rogre.ss two months. I
have not made any alteration in it from the first, saving to corrcrt some little
mistake respecting the quantities.

Re-cxamined by Serjeant Mere« ether.— The reason why I use stone instead of
<lwarf piling is because it is more durable than timber, and more proper to be
used ; but il it became a question, and it was deemed desirable to use timber
in any particular part, then I should adopt timber. There are localities near
the river wliere we can get stone very easily- The price I have stated is quite
sufficient to cover any diflorence in the nature of the soil to be dredged. In
constructing a weir we lirst put in piling. I li.ive no reason to apprehend
that the stone will Ije carried a'.vay, because there will be a great mass of it,
placed at a considerable slope ; I think the weirs w ill be quite strong enough
to resist all pressure. 1 have not made any of these weirs myselt, but I have
taken drawings of some which have well answered the jmrpose for which
they were designed. The walls are of the same description as those adopted
by me in the river Dee. which is a rapid river. My cross-examination does
not shake my conviction in the least, as to the strength of the w all.

Mr. Cubilt examined by Mr. .Serjeant Merewethcr. ITie following are the
principal items of his evidence :— Our plan will not affect the drainage below
Upton at all, and «iU be the best with reference to expense. The dredging
.it Maisemore will be so small that theelTcct of it upon the Gloucester channel
will be inappreciable. We shall dredge in the deepwater channel. The plan
proposed above Worcester has been adopted because in that district our ob-
ject can be better and cheaper attained by it and with less injury to the sur-
rounding lands. As an explanation of this, six inch'-s of water going over a
weir 600 leet long would take all the summer water in the Severn ; 25 inches
over a v.eir so constructed would make a good navig.ition and effect a good
drainage of the land, and before injury could ensue the weir would become
obsolete. We seek a channel of 45 feet from Upton to Diglis, with a rise at
three inches per mile. The amount of dredging here would be upwards of
300,000 cubic yards, at Is. per yard, which would be £15,000, which is the
price of all the works at Upton. 'Ihe lift between M'orcester and Upton
Bridge must be the sum of two lifts. If the two falls be brought to Worces-
ter tbeie must be two locks at the double f.dl, which would be more expense,
,n .iddition to the cost of £10,000 for dredging. 1 therefore think this is a
sufficient reason wliy the weirs and locks should begin at Worcester. I ap-
prehend there will be no difficulty whatever in the works answering their
Eurpose when made. In putting the weirs across the river quite square it
ecomes a dead slop in proportion to the height and w idth of the weir to a
jiortion of the section of the river, and backs up the water ; but the quantity
of water that falls over tlie weir is never of a longer sheet llian the breadih
of the weir, so that were the banks full there must be an obstruction. An
oblique »eir is the simplest, cheapest, and most efficient to dam up the river
without injury. [To e:ucidate this, Mr. C'ubitt produced a model of the pro-
posed works and explained them in detail to tlie Committee, and also the
scientific principles on which they were adopted.] I have considered the
point of the sluices in the weir. I think them inexpedient. The flood gates
would have no perceptible effect in such a case ; and flood gales, as such, in
the weirs wnuki cost more than the weirs themselves. The ncir is quite as
capable of penning off the water without flood gates as with them. — If any
works arc put to improve Lord .Sandys' iliain it would not impede the navi-
gaiion. My object lias Ijeen to raise all the works, towing paths. Sec., above
the floods. — I do not intend to dredge away the quantity Sir. Provis stated
at Maisemore shoal, or to do mure to it than will be necessary to let the
Maisemore boat pass. There is more in the Parliamentary sections than is
■jnece£--ary to be done, and so far there is a greater degree of safety. — I v, as
firwemployed to mike observations on this river by Mr. Lea. the Chairman
of the Association at Worcester. I made my report to Lord llatherton, the
Chairman of the Committee of the Severn Association. I bad met Mr. Williams
professionally before. I was engaged with Mr. Rhodes in the plan of 1836 ;
that was a plan invidving the erection of w eirs above ami below Gloucester ;
the weir bclou Gloucester would have been in a portion of Ihe river now
avoided by the Gloucester and Berkeley Canal. The plans of the present day
are the same amended ; 1 approve, 1 of them in general, but not in all things.
I have ro doubt that we miglil get six feet of water by dredging up to M'or-
cester,'but it would be mucli more expensive, It is proposeJ to place a wall
where we dredge. I have estimated for eight miles of walling and dredging ;
that w ill ans« er the double purpose of narrow ing the river and securing the
btmks.

Mr. C'ubitt cross-examined by Mr. Wortlcy. — Mr. Williams correctly de-
scribed the mode of laying down the rubble stone. At one time I proposed
to use dwarf piling in some places; and I still intend to do so, wliere I think
it will be as clieap and efficient. In some respects it is preferable to stone,
in others it is not so. I can't mention any pari of the river in which 1 think
it will be preferable. I do not propose to make the slopes of the banks per-
fect in all p'aces, as Mr. Provis did, because I think there will not he stuff
enough to do it. The channel of Uie Dcerhurst shi.al is rather straight ; the
tlcepest water is towards the left bank going down. It is not absolutely ne-
cessary to stone up to the high-water mark. The length of the dredging on
the river between Upton and Gloucester upon my s heme, as marked on the
sections, is between eight and nine miles. 1 should remark, that it is marked
deeper than will be necessary for the n.-a'igation. 1 do not contemplate any
worKs below the Glouccsler and Berkeley Canal, nor below the entrance to
the Gloucester and Hereford Canal. Tlie continuous length of dredging in

the sections, from Upton to Diglis is nine miles. We propose to start from
Lpton at a depth of 7 ft. G in. ; and we do so because I duut think 6 feet suffi-
cient. 15y the C feet spoken of as the depth we .seek. I mean 6 feet above the
lock sills. 1 save all the dredging there by penning the banks. Were we to
dredge from Gloucester to Worcester to a width of 45 feet at the buttom, to
the level of the lock sill of the Gloucester and Berkeley Canal. 5 feetindeplb,
with a slope of two to one. and rising 3 inches per mile, tlie quantity to be
dreilged would lie 323,133 cubic yards. [Witness then answered a series of
que.stions as to the volume of water that would flow in channels of different
widllis.] 'We shall scarcely affect tlic fall below Upton. Vi'q propose at Uptoa
to form a close jointed waterproof weir, tianti' g. 600 feel long, with timber
pilings drawn into the river, 10 feet apart ; behind this we propose to drop
stones into the river, without masonry. The expense of having the lock at
Diglis. instead of Upton, would be very much increased on account of the
additional fall. In some places where we construct our weirs we widen the
river, in which cases the cross sections would be as great or greater than at
present. 1 measured that section across the river at r)ght angles to the
stream. The height of tlie water above the weir is 0 inches. 1 know by
principle, and partly by practice, that » hen the water is 2 feet above the weir
the boats w ill go over. The water, in coming lo the weir, docs not diminish
its velocity, and no more water would pass over the weir in consequence of
its fjeing oblique than if it were right angled. 1 do not make a pond, and
therefore I do not cause a deposit. If you do any thing to diminish the ve-
locity of the water coming through the weir it will tend to form a deixislt;
but if it be so constructed that the water coming through can keep moving on
with the same velocity, it will have no more tendency to form a deposit thaa
before the weir was put in. If I were to carry out the works at once I do
not intend to make any alteration in the length of the weir ; and if I did so
at all, it would be to meet the views of others rather than my own convic-
tions. If the river be increased beyond its natural w idth it will be more liable
to deposits. The expenses of general maintenance of the works can never
cease while the works exist. The expense of the navigation of the -V and
Caldwell is very considerable. We do not alter the natural surface of the
water at Diglis locks to any extent ; if the weir were placed above the en»
trance to the canal, vessels would have the same dep'.li of water The reason
I have for not placing it higher up the stream is that it would lengthen the
cut very much, take more land, and much reduce the water to what I may
call the harbour of Worcester. The length to the harbour is 1000 yards ; it
would increase the length of the cut about nine chains. There « ould be great
passing of vessels from all places at the point, and therefore I think there
should be a good harbour. If the vessels coming at the same lime had to
wait for the lockage, it would be the best place to wait in, but there would be
little or no waiting, as thev would pass the lock in three or four minutes. At
Bevere Island I propose to put the weir t.)elow the mouth of the.Salwarp;
Mr. Rhodes in his last plan has placed it in the same place. By putting a.
weir in a shallow stream we raise the water ; but the instunt it gets so much
above the weir as to lose a fall, from that instant the weir is no obstruction.
I have had but little experience in salmon rivers ; 1 understand there are
good salmon in the Severn, and 1 should be very sorry lo do anything to
destroy them ; I have nothing o do with how far tliese works will affect the
rights of piscary ; I have considered how to form the weirs so as not to ob-
struct the salmon in passing up the river ; Ihe weirs will not afford any faci-
lity for taking the fish. The average yield of the river at low summer water
is from 40 to 60.000 cubic feet per minute above the Avon ; the quantity of
course diflers below the Avon.

Uy Mr. Lowndes.— I have not personally Liken the levels of the drains
on the river Severn ; 1 received information from Mr. Williams, and a
great deal from Mr. Rliodes ; I don't know that Mr. Rhodes personally took
the levels. I received the greatest information on this point from the docu-
ments. 1 examined the drain on Lord Sandys' property myself ; if you proved
there was an under-drain there it would not matter on atom. I consider the
sole operation of a drain to be to lake the water off the surface of the land;
tlie effect of an under-drain is to take off that which gets below the surface
of the land. If there is an under-ground drain it does not follow that the
level must be the same as that of the open drain. I do not know whether
there is an under-ground drain at this place, but I believe all the drains on
Lord Sandys' property come into the Severn below the weir.— M hen a Iresli
comes down the river the surface of the river will remain nearly the same as
before the weir was put in. The works will raise the water on Uie river at
Salwarp perhaps four feet. The value of the land to be taken will be proved
hereafter by other witnesses. If it should be proved that 2000 acres for in-
stance woulil be injured in their drainage by the bill, there has been no esti-
mate made of the amount of compensation for that. I can't give any opinion
as to the permanency of any damage that might ensue. I admit that the
conse'jucnees of imperfect drainage would be to effect the atmosphere of the
disirict. The state of the towing paths is not good; they give way on both
sides of the river. When they have given way. it is generally the case that
the land is encroached upon for a fresh one, which they are entitled to do.
If they are entitled by their Act to take 10 feet on the side of the river, and
that falls in. I am of opinion they can take 10 feet more; notwithstanding
this, I do not think it is imprudent in us lo undertake their management.

Mr. Mc'Ncil examined by Mr. Serjeant Merewetber.— I am a civil engineer,
and have been engaged in many extensive works for a period of 20 years. 1
have been present during the last few days of this enquiry. I have been en-
gaged in works of a similar description to the present. Having heard the
plan, I think it would effect the desired object. 1 flunk it w^ou,d be best to
dredge up to Uiiton. 1 ihink, also, that the weirs will ellect Mr. C ubitt s ob-
ject. With reference to expense, I think it is the best mode that could be
adopted. I think the explanation given by Mr. Cubitt has been so clear, that
nothing remains to be added to it. , ,• . ,r

Cross-examined by Mr. Austin.— I was called in on this business on Mon-
day week. 1 had not made a previous examination of the river Severn. L
never did so. I have been across it at Chepstow, but never praciicaliy ex-
amined it, 1 do not know anj other river of a similar natural character. I

18-11.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

24.3

under what circuinstauces, so awful a catastrophe would liavo occurred, of
course not even those best acquainted with the subject could pretend to
describe. Mr. Cottingham has caused about 150 wagon-loads of rubbish to
be removed from the tower in order fully to ascertaiu its state, and there can
be no doubt that the measures he intends to adopt will give full security.
One great advantage, too, of bis plans will be to expose the 52 stone columns
of the tower (a rernarkably fine piece of masonry) to the view of persons in
the church. In the mean time, so imminent does he consider the danger,
that he will not suffer the bells to be rung, and all attention to the otlier
parts of the works is suspended until satisfactory reparation has been made.
The restoration will now be effected at a comparatively trifling expense ; had
the discovery not thus timely taken place, the cost would have been enonnous.
It is worthy' of remark that so little were these subjects understood only a
comparatively short period ago, that the western front was declared to be
secured for hundreds of years, and yet in six weeks only from the time of
that declaration it was a mass of ruins. — Hereford Journal.

LIVERPOOL DOCKS.

It will be recollected that in the last February number of the Journal, we
gave a letter of Mr. Hartley's, the Dock Surveyor, addressed to the Liver-
pool Dock Committee, in consequence of certain charges being brought
against him by a Member of the Committee, whereupon a Sub-Committee was
appointed to inquire into the charges. This Committee have lately made their
report which is now before us, we are happy to announce, what we feel assured
the whole of the profession were prepared for, that it completely vindicates
Mr. Hartley from the charges. The report is too long for insertion in our
Journal, but the following announcement we are sure will be all that is ne-
cessary for us to give.

" The sub-committee, having personally examined the accounts at the Dock-
yard, and the system of checks on labour and expenditure of stores, are unani-
mously of opinion, after a very strict investigation of the stock accounts, and
careful examination of the books, which show in detaS the expenses incurred
in every department of work, and making allowance for the expense of the
establishment and maintenance of a large stock, that the various works have
been executed on very reasonable terms, and at lower rates than they could
have been in any other way. The interests of the Dock Trust, in the conduct
and management of the mechanical departments of the Surveyor's establish-
ment, have been materially promoted by the system which has been pursued ;
and, as long as that system is kept up in the same orderly, vigorous, and
efficient manner, no better system can be devised for the general benefit of
the trust, the establishment bein£ lughly creditable to tlie Dock Surveyor,
whose indefatigable zeal, honour, and imlustry cannot be too liir/hly com-
mended"

Remov.^l of Sunderl.vnd Light House. — At a late meeting of the
Commissioners of the river Wear, the taking down of the Light House being
discussed, as part of the plan of building the new North pier at tbe mouth of
the harbour, Mr. Murray, the engineer, suggested the removal of the Ijglit
House, in its present entire state, to the eastern extremity of the new Pier,
a distance of about 420 feet, so as to make it serve the double purpose of a
stationar)' and a tide-light. Mr. Murray exhibited a model of the building,
and after explaining how he proposed to effect this undertaking, the Board
decided that he should proceed forthwith to remove it. This Light House
was erected about 40 years ago, by the late Mr. Pickerncll, then engineer to
the Harbour Commissioners. It is wholly composed of stone ; its form is
octagonal, 15 feet in breadth across its base. G2 feet in height from the sur-
face of the pier to the top of the cornice, where it is 9 feet in breadth across,
and the top of the dome is 16 feet above the cornice, making a total height
of 78 feet ; and its calculated weight is 250 tons. Mr. Murray intends to
cut through the masonry near its foundation, and insert whole timbers, one
after another, through the building, and extending 7 feet beyond it. Above
and at right angles to them, another tier of timbers is to be inserted in like
manner, so as to make the cradle or base a square of 29 feet ; and this cradle
is to be supported upon bearers, with about 250 wheels of G iucbes diameter,
intended to traverse on 6 hues of railway to be laid on the new Pier for that
purpose. The shaft of the Light House is to be tied together with Iwnds,
and its eight sides are to be supported with timber braces from the cradle
upwards to the cornice. The cradle is to be drawn and pushed forward by
powerful screws, along the railway above mentioned, on the principle of
Morton's patent slip for the repairing of vessels. However surprising the
removal of such a building may appear to many, yet in \ew York, for some
years past, large houses have been removed from their original situation to a
considerable distance, without sustaining any injuiy. The immense block of
granite, serving as tbe pedestal of the equestrian statue of Peter the Great, at
St. Petersburgh, was conveyed four miles by land, and thirteen by water.
Several ObeUsks have likewise been transported at different times from Egypt
to Europe ; and lately, one was conveyed from Thebes, and erected by the
French at Paris. But the fact that the Light House on our North Pier is
composed of stones of comparatively small dimension, its great height, and
small base, make the operation of removing it much more dilKcult than any
thing of the sort ever attempted. y\e heartily wish the enterprising engineer
every success in his bold and novel undertaking, which is to be carried into
execution in the course of a few weeks from this date. — Smxderland Herald.

COMPETITION FOR THE MARSEILLES EXCHANGE.

The following conditions of competition for designing an Exchange at
Marseilles, we have translated from Revue Generate de L' Architecture.

1st. Tlie situation will be chosen in a.j)erimelrc commencing at the "Rue
de la Prison," and proceeding up to the " Place de Justice," the Grand Rue
as far as the Courts.

2nd. The competition designs must contain, not only the Exchange strictly
so called, but also the Chamber and Tribunal of Commerce, the syndicat of
the money-ch.ingers, the royal brokers, the merchant counsel, and all the
necessary appendages to these, such as peristyle porticos, vestibules, vestries
secretary's office, registry oftice, bureaux, counting houses, &:c. &c. Also a
dwelling place for the porter, a guard-house for a detachment, and a place to
deposit cloaks, undjrellas, and walking sticks.

3rd. The great hall of the Exchange, including the interior porticos must
contain at least 3000 persons, and consequently have a superficies of not less
than 1000 square metres.

4th. The drawings must be done with care, the sections to be in a pale
colour, the horizontal sections in Indian ink, and carmine for the vertical
sections, yellow for the wood, Pussian blue for the ii'on, grey for the metallic
roofs, and brick red for tbe tile roofs.

5th. Each design must be coi\iposed of the following separate pieces.

1. An explanatoiy and justifiable report.

2. A general plan of the whole.

3. A plan of the ground floors at one or two metres above the level of
the great hall, and the same of the fust floor.

4. Longitudinal and a transverse section through the interior of the edi-
fice.

5. Front and back elevations.

6. Profiles and details of execution (this need not be paid so much at-
tention to).

7. A descriptive device containing a scale of the works, and the cost
after the current price of the country ; the whole exactly and summarily
expressed.

6tb. As to the order of architecture, the best in whatever order it may
happen to be chosen, and even the several orders may be blended, but keep-
ing at the same time a tone of convenience, soUdity, elegance, good taste, a.
noble simplicity, and a wise economy.

7th. The scale of the general plan to be, 2 millimetres to a metre, that of
the sections and separate plans a centimetre to a metre, and that of the de-
tails of execution 5 centimetres to a metre.

8th. The competition is fixed at six mouths date from the 1st April. Dur-
ing the following fortnight the competitors to deposit their designs at the
secretary's oftice, at the Chamber of Commerce, where they will receive a
certain number according to the order of presentation, the names and address
of the competitors must be enclosed in an envelope carefully closed, to which
the same number will be aflixed. Each competitor to have a receipt stating;
the formal deposition, the number of plans, and the particular number given
them, but without indicating name or person.

9th. M'hen the term for the preparation of the plans has expired, the de-
signs will be submitted to the judgment of a committee chosen from the
members of the Chamber of Commerce, and an equal number of artists.
The decision will not be definitive untU the sanction of competent authorities
be given, and then the names only of the authors of the three best designs
will be announced.

10th. The first design will receive the prize of 3000 francs (120/.), and
then, without further remuneration or honours, will remain the property of
the Chamber, who will have the right to alter it at their will, and to confide
the execution to whom they please. The names of the other two authors of
the second and third best designs will be honourably mentioned.

11th. Every design (No. 1 excepted), will be restored (o their authors, as
well as the sealed envelopes containing their names, Oa t'..e production of the
previously deUvered receipts.

Marseilles, March 30, 1841.

CANAL STEAMER FITTED MITH MR. P. TATLOH'S REVOLVING

SCREW PROPELLERS.

Ox Wednesday the 5th of May, we had the pleasure of inspecting a new-
steam boat on the river Irwell, fitted by .Messrs. Peter Taylor and Co., of
HolUnwood, near Manchester, with steam engines and propellers of an en-
tirely new construction, both inventions of Mr. Peter Taylor, and for which
he has obtained patents. The vessel is 75 feet long and 10 feet wide, and
built (with the exception of the gunwale and paddle-box,) entirely of iron.
She appeared to perform very satisfactorily ; at a speed varying according to
the depth of water from about eight to nine miles per hour, which upon a
confined water we believe has never been attained by any steam vessel. In
noticing a trial some months ago of auother vessel belonging to Messrs. Tay-
lor and Co., which had then been newly fitted with similar jiropellcrs, we
gave a description of the apparatus, which consists of a number of continuous
curved vanes or segments of screws, or wings on two axes. In tbe instance
now under notice five pairs are aflixed upon one axis, and five pairs upon the
other J the number being regulated by, and varied according to, the power of

2 L 2

244

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[July,

the steam engines ami the extent of surface of the vanes or hlades, whicli
have tlic appearance of small windmill sails, and have heen very approjiriately
named rerolviny screw scullers : each set consisting of five pairs are six feet
in diameter. The vanes of one set work betwixt the vanes of the other in
the same manner as the teeth of cog wheels j by this arrangement the two
sets, although six feet in diameter, are together contained in a paddle-box
(there being only one) : it is !l ft. 8 in. in width, and iilaccd at the stern of
the vessel ; the smalliiess of the space occupied offering great convenience for
passing locks. — The scullers are well ])rotected from the hanks or sides and
bottom of the canal, with which it is almost impossible they can ever come
in contact. The paddle-box occupies seven feet in length, and has the effect
of extending the boat so much. The width or breadth is regulated by the
width or breadth of the boat, which in the present instance is 1 0 feet outside.
The two shafts or axes are placed at an equal distance from each other, as
well as at equal distance from the sides of the boat or box containing them,
and with which they run ])arallel; and as we have before observed, the shafts
or axes are so arranged in respect to each otlier, that the vanes or oblique
surfaces of the one can enter between the vanes of the other shaft or axis ;
thus obtaining a great extent of propelling surface within a very confined
space. The axes are placed considerably above the water line, and the curved
oblique vanes or scullers are affixed upon the shafts or axes in opposite direc-
tions, that is, they are affixed upon one shaft or axis in such a manner that
they may be said to form parts of a right-handed screw, and upon the other
shaft or axis, so tliat they may be said to form parts of a left-banded screw.
This novel propelling apparatus is worked by a pair of SCTHi-ro/a^ry s^ram
enijines, also Mr. Taylor's invention. The steam boiler is of the same descrip-
tion as those used upon the railways. It is placed towards the stem of the
vessel, and the steam engines close up to it. To one axis of the propelling
apparatus is coupled a shaft, which runs lengthwise to the steam engines.
The starting, reversing, and slopping apparatus is connected with the regula-
tor of the steam engine, and affixed at the stern of the boat, within reach of
the steerer, who manages the wiiole when uecessary. This is a most simple
and beautiful arrangement, the helmsman being altogether independent of
the engineer. He can start, stop, or reverse the engines at bis pleasure. The
helm or rudder is placed in the usual position, and is immediately behind the
propellers.

The vessel has been engaged during the last month on the Bridgewater
Canal towing boats ; at one time she towed six boats, their united cargo
being equal to nearly 600 tons, at the rate of three miles per hour, and at
another time she towed four fly boats equal to 60 tons, a distance of six uiiles
in one hour 16 minutes. — Manc/ies/er Times.

BENEVOLENT INSTITUTIONS OF THE ENGINEERS.

Since the notice which we gave in our last, the promoters of the plans for
giving relief to the members of the profession and workmen employed by
them, have succeeded in organizing an institution for each of their respective
objects. That for the relief of distressed engineers has received the coun-
tenance of the Institute of Civil Engineers, and the Society for the workmen
goes on, receiving increased support from the mechanical engineers, who we
trust will give every support to an object so well deserving ; a subscription
list is now open, it has been, we are happy to say, liberally signed bv the
masters.

KING'S COLLEGE.

We are glad to learn that the department in King's College hitherto de-
voted to engineering, and to the mechanical and manufacturing arts is about
to be extended, so as to embrace also the principles and practice of architec-
ture. The existing provision in King's College for the education of the
engineer having also drawn thither students in architecture in search of in-
struction adapted to their pursuits, the desirableness of the proposed exten-
sion became evident. King's College is then likely to be the first collegiate
establishment to undertake the preliminary education of the architect as such,
as well as in literature and science generally, and we cannot doubt of its suc-
cess in so doing, nor of the good that will be thereby eflected both to the
profession and to the public.

Monument in IVestpJialia. — A remarkable monumental structure is at pre-
sent raising, or about to be raised, in that part of Westphalia where Arminius
overthrew the Itoman legions, commanded by Varus, to commemorate that
event. The monument is to consist of a statue of the German hero, similar
to the many images which may still be seen under the name of " Ermin
Soeulen," in various parts of Germany, and wliich became, in the early periods
of the Christiau era, objects of idolatrous worship. The statue is to be of
copper, 42 feet high, and to the point of the uplifted sword 75 feet ! It is
to he placed on a circular temple 90 feet in height, on the tO]) of the liill
Teut, in the Teutoburger forest. The monument promises to do honour to
German art, and the idea of erecting such a work is a proof of the patriotic
feeUng of the Germans. The expenses are to be defrayed by subscription,
and all the sovereigns of Germany have contributed.

SEVEKX NAVIGATION IMPROVEMENT.

Abstract of the Engineering evidence/or improving the River Severn, given before
the Committee of the House of Commons, on the Bill, May 5, 6, 7. fo 11, & 12.

1841.

Mr. K. L. WUiams, Engineer, was examined and stated that the fall in the
Sfivern is slight compared with Ihc Thames. The fall in the Th imes from
Abinidon to Henley is 2 feet per mile. The fall in the Severn in this district
is .about 9 inches per mile. On the Thames also there were the conflicting
interests of millers and others who had private rights connected with the
water which was not the case with the Severn. The operations on the
Thames h.ave been to the benefit of the navigation. The course of the Severn
is comparatively straight, and its width comparatively uniform, which cir-
cumstances are favourable for our operations. I attribute the shoals of de-
posit to variations of width. There is little tide abo.e Gloucester, and
this will not afiect ns. Our first weir is below L'pton. M'e propose there to
make a lateral cut, with a lock in it with a lilt of five or six feet Between
Upton and (iloucester below the lock we propose to equalize the area, or
water-way of the river, by contracting it by embankments in certain parts
and widening It in others. The effect of coutracting it will be to preseiTC
clear what we liave dredged. AVe shall contract the area by decreasing the
width and lining the banks with stone. I have experience of the natural
way in w Inch the water-way is preserved. The finest channel in the river is
from Sandy Point to the M'vthe Bridge near Tewkesbury, which preserves
the water-way throughout from the quality of the sectional area. I infer
that if we form the same results we shall produce the same eflect. The ave-
rage depth there at low summer water is from 10 to 12 feet throughout. I
anticipate that the artificial banks will be principally confined to the district
between the Mytbe anJ the Haw Bridges. This snace includes the Deerhurst
and other shoals which we propose to drp<lffe. I nave liere the sections of
what we propose to do. The first shoal of importance we propose to dredge
IS at Gloucester, in tlic eastern channel alongside the Quay at Gloucester,
extending from tlie lock of the Gloucester auj Berkeley Canal to the other
bridge. In fact we propose to dredge to a trifling exent from the 'SVestgate
Bridge fo Sandhurst, a distance of two miles. In the western channel we
propose to dredge sufficiently to allow canal boats to enter the Gloucester and
Hereford Canal. M"e then come to AVainlode Hill ; there is not much dredg-
ing to be done there. \l"e then come to the Haw. which is laid down for
dredging to a certain extent, but not requiring the shoal to be taken out.
There is a section laid down for the other channel, and there is sufficient
water for the purposes of navigation under one arch of Haw Bridge. W e
then come to Deerhurst, nbere the area is to be equalized and the channel
dredged. At Slieplock we do the same thing ; also at Lower Lode up to
Cumberland, where similar operations are required. \Ve then come to Bush-
ley Reach and Saxon's Lode, w here we dredge and equalize the area. Then
we come to Upton, where we make our first lateral cut. There « ill be no
interrupliou to the navigation while the cut is being made, and when the
weir is being made the lock will be open. The lock will be '20 feet wide.
100 feet long, with 5 ft. 6 in. lift. We then place our weir obliquely to the
current, about midway between the upper and lower entrance. The length
of the weir is 600 feet. It will be constructed with sheet piling and rubble
stonework. The height of the weir above the surfice of the present bed of
the river will be seven feet. The effect of this weir will not prejudicially
affect the drainage of the surrounding district. I have surveyed the falls of
the lowest drains in the district, and find the lowest will be above our per-
manent water line. This answer will apply to all the drains throughout our
operations. I have taken the greatest pains to satisfy myself on these points.
AVe do not raise the water there in any way ; and 1 believe the eff'ect of the
works will be to expedite the passage of flood water and not to detain it, be-
cause we clean out the channel. Above Upton we do raise the level ot the
water in some places, but in all cases it will be below the drains. I have
made a section of Lord Sandv's drain. I find there is a fall of 9 feet in the
first 100 yards of the land drain. The drain itself is below the weir, and
consequently cannot be affected by it. We then come to the shoal at Ryal
Watering, and take a little off' the top of it by dredging. At llanley we do
not dredge, as we shall get sufficient water from the pound to pass over.
Dredging with simultaneously pounding back the water would produce a bad
eff'ect. At the Rhydd we take the top of the shoal off'. At Clevelode, Pix-
ham, and Kempsey, we do the same. These are the shoals mentioned as
affected by dredning. We then come to the Ketch shoal, which is to be
dredged. The .Silver Ford shoal is to be dredged slightly. We then come
to lock No. 2, which will be similar to the previous one, a cut with a lock iu
it, each of the same dimensions as the other, with a lift of 7 ft. 6 in. and a
weir. The water is penned back sufficiently at Upton Bridge by the shoal ;
the height of the weir will be 11 ft. 6 in. from the bed of the river, the length
400 feet ; it will also be placed at a sharp angle, and constructed in the same
manner as the other ; the piles are elm. oak, and fir. After the water has
passed over the dam of sheet piling, it will fall on a dam of stone work, and
we thus prevent a pool there ; this «ill remove the obstructions immediately
above. \Ve have now passed M'orcester and are come to Bevere Islanil,
where is our third lock ; the river there divides itself into two branches,
which supersedes the necessity of an artificial cut. and we deal with it as
such, placing a lock of the same dimensions in one branch and a weir in the
other.; the lift is 4 ft. 6 in., the length of the weir is 400 feet ; it will be placed
obliqt'icly as the others ; with some trifling dredging this is sufficient up to
Holt, where we have another lock, No. 4. The length of the proposed cut is
about a quarter of a mile on the Ombersley side, on Lord Sandys property.
I know of no damage that the estate can suffer by our taking that bit of
ground. Our works w ill not be in sight of Ombersley House, which is a nvle
and a half to the left ; the length and construction will be the same, the lift
4 ft. 6 in. ; the locks will be built of brickwork : the length of the weir there
will be 3.50 feet, the height 7 feet from the bed of the river ; the obliquity is
to give facility to the passing of the w ater, this will operate to prevent dredg-
ing except very slightly up to Lincombe Hill, where is our fifth and last cut :

1841.1

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

241

Fig. 10, M is the Electric Detector, for detecting injury caused to the wires,
either by contact with the pipe or with eacli other, fracture, or water.

)«, is a small battery ; 1 m, 2 m, are " feelers," in connection with the
battery auci detector. Whenever tliese feelers touch each other, an electric
current passes from the battery and influences the index of the detector M,
by turning it on its axis. J J are iron boxes which occur at short intervals
along the line, each fitted with a screw Ud, and so connected as to render
them continuous with the tube C. The terminations of each length of wire
rope one introduced into the box and each wire screwed with its fellow to a
piece of wood (itted to the bottom of the box, so that the wire marked 1 is
continuous throughout its length and always connected by the screw 1, by
which it can be recognized at every box along the Une. The openings by
which the wires enter the box are hermetically scaled with composition ; but
a small tube passing through the box admits of a free communication of air
from a distant reservoir. Suppose wire 1 to have become in partial contact
with the tube, either by the metals touching or the presence of water : upon
opening the box at which the wire is to be proved, tlie screw I must be taken
out, and the feeler 1 m brought in contact with one end of the separated
wires, the other feeler being kept in contact with the pipe. If this portion
of the conducting wire is sound, the detector needle remains stationary ; but
upon removing the feeler, 1 m, to the other liberated end of wire, the detector
index moves on its a.\is, and indicates on the graduated scale the degree of

Fig. 11.

contact existing between that portion of the wire and the tube. Supposing
the experiment to he tried again at the next box, and the contact proved to
lie between the two boxes, the intervening faulty portion of wire is exchanged
for the sound wire marked 0, (which is a spare wire introduced by such re-
pairs) by this means the wire 1 is again restored to soundness ; it is obvious
that dirterent portions of the spare wire, 0, may thus be employed to repair
a damaged wire, at numerous short intervals along the line, without render-
ing it necessary to disturl) the line generally ; tlie minutest changes in the
insulation of the wires from dampness, &c., can be detected by this valuable
instrument, and corrected by blowing through the pipe a draught of drj' air
from the reservoir.

When a length of wire-rope has to be removed, in consequence of acci-
dental injury, tlie connecting screws in the boxes at each end of the length
are taken out, and one end of the wires to he removed is bound to the eud
of a fresh length of wire-rope conveniently wound upon a drum. The further
end of the faulty length is then drawn out of the tube and wound upon an
empty drum, as the new rope gradually takes its place. The screws again
unite the ends of the wires, and the line is restored. The faulty length of
wire, after undergoing examination and repair, is again fitted for use.

Each wire is separately covered with cotton and India-rubber solution, and
the set of wires made into a rope, which is passed through a hot resinous
vainish before being introduced into the tubes.

Fig. 11. Air-pressure apparatus, employed for excluding
water from the tube, when carried underground ; and for
giving notice of defects in the tubing.

H is an air-pressure apparatus, or air reservoir, of convenient
size, charged witli dry air to any pressure. 1 A is a pressure
balance, in tlie form of a lever ; 2 A a valve communicating, by
a minute opening, between the reservoir H and the protecting
tube C. Suppose it to be found desirable to keep the interior
of the tube under a pressure of two or three pounds (that lieing
calculated as sufficient to exclude the greatest pressure of water
to which the tuljc is Uable), the balance 1 h must then be
loaded to that amount ; on any escape of air taking place from
the tube, the lever arm, 1 h, would descend and open the valve
1 //, till the high-pressure reservoir had increased the pressure
of the tube, which by raising the pressure-balance 1 A, would
close the valve 2 //. A barometer, L, may indicate the change
of pressure either in the reservoir or tube. The reservoir is
supplied by an air-pump, when nearly exhausted by any leak-
age, which, under the light pressure of two or three povmds,
should be very trifling. Should the barometer, however, indi-
cate a sudden escape of air, attention must immediately be di-
rected to the proving-boxes J, which occur at short intervals
along the line.

In or nc^r the box, conveniently connected with the tube,
is a three-way stop-cock, to the pipe of which a portable ba-
rometer or detector, L, can immediately be applied. When
the tube is faulty, upon turning the cock in one direction, the
pressure on the barometer will remain steady, but in the other
direction it will rapidly diminish, from the escape of the air.
By proceeding with a similar experiment at other proving-
boxes, the two boxes will be readily ascertained between which
the escape of the air takes place ; when the tube lying between
the last proved points must be carefully examined to discover
the faulty part.

THE .4.RTESIAN BORLN'G AT PARIS.

In the Journal for April last, we gave an account of the successful ope-
rations in sinking the Artesian well at Crenelle ; we are now enabled to
furnish some farther detail of the geological formation through which the
boring passed, from the observations of M. Mulot given in the Revue Gene,
rale, together with some additional information as to the size of the bore,
and the geological character of the circumjacent country.

Table of the depths of the strata measured from the surface in metres and
reduced to English feet.
Metres. Feet.

10 33 Alluvial formation, the former bed of the Seine.

41 134 Plastic clay and quartzose sand.

White chalk with black flints.
Gray chalk and flint.

Gray chalk, very hard, with layers of micaceous clay.
Blue clay, green clay, micaceous black clay, with fossils

and iron pyrites.
.\rgilIaceous green sand.
Beyond here the sand continues and has not as yet been quite explored, it
is in this stratum that the water is obtained.

The boring was commenced at a diameter of 0-51 metres (20 inches) and
diminished by degrees as the tubes descended, the first four columns of tub-
ing diminishing as just observed, to the depth of 145 metres (576 feet) ; at
this point the diameter was 0-31 centira. (12 inches).

140

459

165

541

506

1660

546

irgi

547

1794

A 5th column of tubing goes down to 350 metres (1148 feet), with a dia-
meter of 0-26 (10 inches.)

A 6th to 410 metres (1345 feet) diameter 0-21 (8} inches.)

A 7th to 540 metres (1771 feet) diameter, 0'17 (6} inches).

The last 7 metres (23 feet) are not tubed.

The fixing of the ascensional tube is always an operation very important
and delicate, and will on this occasion in particular present serious difficul-
ties. Indeed one would suppose that it was almost impossible to lower per-
pendicularly a tube 547 metres (1794 feet) high into the earth, but from M.
Mulot's skill, of which he has given so many proofs during the work, we are
completely assured of its final success.

The quality and kind of metal which composes the ascensional tube have
been studied by persons interested in the construction of the well ; for
many tubes of this kind have been constructed of wrouglit iron, and have not
answered the expectations of the parties interested. A remarkable instance
may be cited which happened at Saint Cyr, near Tours, at Dr. Bretonncau's
artesian well. The water there rises from the sand beneath the chalk, and
was tubed with iron, yet every successive year the quantity of water was
sensibly diminished, and at last gave only an insignificant supply. M. Bre-
tonneau caused the tubing to be drawn up, and although it had at least a
thickness of 8 millim. (^ of an inch) and was well preserved, yet at the joints
of each pipe there was one, and sometimes several circular holes two and
even three centim. diameter, (about an inch diameter,) of which the edges
were perfectly sharp, as though they had been cut out by a pah- of
nippers. This phenomena was probably due to an electro-chemical action,

2 L

242

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[JULT,

and it shows that iron ought to be entirely rejected in the construction of
ascensional tubes. Tubes of oak or chn arc certainly those to which pre-
fcrtnce is always given ; but the thickness which is indispensable for tlieiu,
ivoiild diminish the interior diameter too much in the Crenelle well. Copper
lubes of a thickness of two or three niiUiui. (about -^ of an inch), not only
possess a suthcient resistance, but also the property of being indestructible.
It is with these latter, therefore, tliat the Grenellc well is to be tubed.

Independently of the importance of M. Mulot's undertaking for the useful
purposes to which it may be ajiplied, it is also of great interest for the geolo-
gical study of the strata tlirough which it traverses with regard to the central
heat of the globe. Taking as our starting point the constant temperature of
the cellars of the Observatory, which are 28 metres (91 feet) deep, the tem-
perature would present a unijform increase of a degree centigrade for every j2
metres (105 feet) in depth. The temperature of the water of this well has
leen calculated at about 27'C Cent. (8-17 I'ahr.)

The cretaceous formation, passed through by the well of Crenelle, has liecn
deposited in successive layers in an immense basin, formed by the forma-
tions anterior to this part, of the secondary formation ; the borders of the
inferior strata of the chalk formation, crop out in many places, some on the
edges of the basin and others a little below the sod; they not only receive
the infdtrations of the rain water, but also those of rivers that flow over the
exposed strata. A complete identity has been found to exist between speci-
mens of lirown free stone ami green sand ol)tained in very different places, and
very far one from another, and specimens from M. Midot's boring. At Lisieux
in isorniandy, the inferior part of the cretaceous formation reposes on the Jura
formation ; — the limit of w liicb fonnation extends towards Mans and La Flechc,
and receives in this part considerable infiltratious from the Loire, which flows
direct upon it X. E. of Angers. The Loire ought also to furnish water to
the lower part of the formation near Saumur ; the boundary then passes
south of Paris liy Louduu, Chi'itellerault, to the north of Bovjrges, and then
to Sancerre. In all these difierent localities it receives the waters of the
Vienne, Creuse, Indre, Clier and Loire ; at Sancerre this limit takes a north-
east duection passing near .\iixerre, Joiguy, and Troves, and receiving the
waters of the Yonne, Seine, Aube, and a great many other rivers of less
importance. Near Troyes,* at Lusigny, and at the Abbey of Monster-Rancey,
at four leagues south-east of Troyes, the brown free stone and the green
sand crop out. In its northern direction through Sainte-Menebould this
boundary receives the waters of the Aisne very considerably. Lastly, this
formatioii. forms the bottom of the tertiary formation of Belgium, where it
receives other infdtrations that feed the Artesian wells of Picardv and Artois,
&c.

All these waters filter freely enough through the sand of the cretaceous
formations, and from thence pass and accumulate at the bottom of the basin,
continuing to be in direct communication with the points of infiltration. As
these points are so much elevated above Paris, the waters rise, and will rise
still more in the Crenelle well when it is completely tubed, to a height which
will be a measure of the amount of pressure exercised ou the layer which
forms as it were the roof of the bottom of the basin.

ON THE GIVING WAY OF EMBANKMENTS.

The following remarks on the giving way of embankments, by M. Colin,
principal engineer of the bridges and embankments of one of the largest
canals in France, are the results of many years practical acquaintance with
the subject.

The first appearance presented by a slope that has given way is that of an
alteration more or less complete of its primitive form, whether natural or
artificial. On examining the facts wluch strike the eye of the observer it
nmst be at once admitted that the cause of the fall of a mass of moving earth
must have operated either at a certain depth, or near the surface of the slope ;
therefore it is requisite, in all cases, to distinguish the superficial sUps of
cartli from those that have a deeper origin.

When a mass of homogeneous earth is composed of argillaceous matter,
which is liable to give way, the strata may be more or less inclined to the
liorizon. Mhen the slip occurs on a pre-existing surface, the following con-
siderations will not be applicable ; the slips of this kind are very rare, and are
only accidental occurrences, which we should be careful not to confound with
the general facts examined by M. Colin.

The mass of fallen earth whether natural or artificial, could not have been
in a state of equilibrium in relatiou to the cohesion of its particles, which on
the one hand tended to hold it together — and to gravity, which, on the other
hand, tends to destroy the cohesive attraction. When this equilibrium is
destroyed it must happen that the slope, or a part of it, will experience a
spontaneous fall.

When by the action of the fall the moving mass is detached at such a depth
that it ])reserves its central cohesion notwithstanding the fracture, which has
destroyed the cohesion only on the surface of the slip, and notwithstanding
that relative alteration in the angle of the striita which compose that mass, —
in such case the cause of the slip must be pronounced to have proceeded from

' The specimens from Lusigtiy were presented by M. A\)lfardric, who ob-
serves ihni the height of the well aboye the level of the sea is 130 metres,
whilst thai at Paris is ouly 31 metres.

below, in contradistinction to that fall which occurs when the moving mass
is detached nearer the surface, and when the cohesion of the mass is more or
less destroyed by the action of external agents. It often happens, however,
that both tlicse kinds of slip occur at tlie same time.

nds characteristic difl'erence depends on the chemical nature of the soil,
so tliat the same kind of slope may in one case experience a falling away
from the surface alone, wlu;n iu another case the cause of the slip may be
more deeply seated.

There is .loother important difl'erence between slips of earth proceeding
from the surface and from below, which is, that the extent of the former is
immediately known, wliile that of the latter may go ou gradually increasing,
according to the influence of rain, frost, and tliaw. In every ease, however,
it is the action of gravity which causes the disturbance of the equilibrium ;
for the destruction of cohesion by the external agents is only an action emi-
nently statical ; the force of gravity alone causes tlie movement. It is there-
fore natural to infer, that as the princi])al cause of tlie destruction of the
eqnilibrinm is the same in all cases, the dynamical results nmst also be the
same. Consequently the surfaces of shps, whether they proceed from below
or from the superficies, ought, tlieoretically speaking, to be of the same kind,
and to present, as regaids their material points, a striking resemblance.

On examining with great care the general facts concerning these two kinds
of spontaneous slips of earth, the angle of inclination of the failing earth, and
that of the surface on which it falls, and comparing them with a great num-
ber of facts collected in various places, with different kinds of soU, and under
different circumstances, by other engineers, as well as by M. Colin himself,
he thinks he has established as a principle the following proposition : —

" When masses of earth nearly homogeneous, whether natural or artificial,
are composed of such materials that the action of gravitation may, under the
influence of certain physical circumstances, overcome the cohesion of their
molecules, the results are spontaneous movements, which are called slips.
These movements are independent of the height of the slopes on which tliey
occur ; they always present, nearly in the same degree, tlie character which
appertains to them ; lastly, and above all, the natural surface of separation,
or the surface of the slip, has no pre-cxistence, and possesses a constant and
regular form, which approaches more or less exactly, according to different
circumstances, to a surface of a cycloidal shape, which brings the causes of
its formation essentially v\ithin the domain of mechanical science." — Inven-
tors' Advocate.

HEREFORD CATHEDRAL.

The public are already aware that very extensive improvements have for
some time been going on in this beautiful edifice imder the superintendence
of Mr. Cottingham, the celebrated architect. M'e have already described the
various restorations in the choir. Lady Chapel, kc, but all the interest ia
these (and it has been veiy great) is altogether lost in the discovery by the
architect that the tower of the cathedral, with its immense superincumbent
weight, is in imminent danger of falling, and crushing the mighty fabric in
one general ruin. Before entering into a somewhat technical description
(which may perhaps be understood only by a few) of the appearances tliat
lead to this conclusion, we may observe, that we have examined the present
state of the tower most minutely, and the fissures in the masonry at the
angles of the Norman arches of the transepts arc truly frightful. In some
places the workmen may insert a piece of wood or any implement to the depth
of two feet; and we particidarly noticed that one of the stones forming the
masonry had given way, not at the joining, but in the solid part itself, being
literally s])lit in two. It appears that some cracks in the chief wall of the
tower led Mr. Cottingham to examine into the cause. He accordingly pro-
ceeded first to ascertain the state of the main piers below in the body of the
church, and these he found to be all soUd. He next explored the masonry
of the unsightly piers tmder the Norman arches of the north and south trau-
septs, and ascertained that the arch was quite independent of this enormous
body of masonry; that is, that the Norman arch had " stuck firmly to its
work," and that, as has long been suspected, tlie piers were no support what-
ever. Mr. Cottingham next examined the string course round the bell cham-
ber, which supports the 52 solid stone columns above that chamber, and he
found that this course (or wall, as we should call it) was rounded in the cen-
tre, and dipping down at the angles of the tower. This proved that the
ancient Norman arches were still in their original position, and that the frac-
tures which now exhibited themselves in every direction were occasioned by
some defect in tlie main piers of the tower. On taking up the bell-ringers'
floor, Mr. Cottingham found the stone groining (which was put up about the
time of Edward IV.) also pressing upon the four angles of the tower. It is
singular that the " jiockets," or angtilar spaces of this groining, were filled up
to the level of the floor with solid rubbish. On removing this, a most extra-
ordinary failure in the masonry fully developed itself. At each end of the
four angles was a hollow chamber running diagonally through the main wall,
which, from the pressure of the enormous stone piers above alluded to, was
crushing in in every direction. All the bond of the interior ashlering was
ascertained to be broken, and the stones fractured into innumerable pieces;
indeed, the failure is awful to contemplate, and we may congratulate the
public that the discovery was made previously to any further pressure, which
mu?t have occasioned the total destruction of this magnificent tower, together
with the choir, the transepts, and the eastern portion of the nave. When, ot

18^1.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL

249

IRON ROOF OVER THE RAILWAY STATION OF THE VERSAILLES RAILWAY AT PARIS.

Fig. 1. — Section of upper part of Roof.

I.

Fig. 3.— View of Railing supporting Skylight.

Fig. 2.— Section of the lower
I art of Roof.

-ftS*

^^HS

No. 47.— Vol. LV.— August, 1S41.

Fig. 5.— Plan of Rafters.

< ■ — )^.

\

/

bo
E

^

«

3

£

M 2

250

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCIIITECT-.S JOURNAL.

[August,

FiK. 6.

RAILWAY STATIONS.

The Revue Generate contains a description of spveral Railway Sta-
tions both in England and on the Continent, illustrated with details of
their construction, from which we extract the following information
relative to the Paris Station of the Lift Bank VtnaUlts Railmatj,
situated near the barrier of Maine.

The terminus of the railway is on an embankment 23 feet high,
which offers serious impediments to the construction of buildings, turn
tables, and other works requiring solidity. The terminus consists of
three ways witli a platform on each side for the passengers on their
arrival and departure. The whole of this was covered over with a
semicircular roof of iron, which fell down soon after its constrnctiun,
during a hurricane on the IGth of September last. The semicircular
form without any stays forming direct angles is at all times a bad mode
of constructing buildings, where they are subject to the powerful action
of the wind, as its force impinging upon any part is transmitted through
the whole, and when successive gusts of w ind are continued, this trans-
mission of the force becoming more and more formidable like a wave
in a tempest, most in the end lead to the destruction of any building
that is built of such slender materials as the one now before us. The
roof possesses considerable ingenuity in its construction, for its light-
ness and elegance of its form, we shall therefore notwithstanding its
failure, proceed to give some account of its construction.

Fig, 5. The roof is of a simi-

circular form 1G4 feet
long, and consists of 13
main ribs or arches
placed 12 ft. 6 in. apart
in the clear, 10 of which
were 57 feet span, and
three at the extreme
end of the station 70
feet span. A section of
the roof is represented
in figs. 1 and -2, with four of the taigential curvilinear stays omitted.
The main ribs spring from an upright cast iron base (fig. 2,) standing
~ on the timber piles which carry the pas-

sengers promenade platforms, these piles
are tied across the railway transversely at
about 4 feet below the top of piles, or 3
feet below the surface of the rails by
strong wrought iron ties, to prevent them
spreading. The ribs are composed of o
bars of wrought iron up to the top of the
column, fig. "2, the two external bars y
inch by incii, the two next 4 by H "leh,
and the centre li by 2 inches, all bolted
together; above the column and up to
about two-thirds the height they have
only 4 bars, omitting the centre, and the
remainder have only the 2 external bars.
These ribs are strengthened by tan-
gential curvilinear stays, consisting of
wrought iron bars \ inch square placed
diagonally and secured in the centre by
the ornamental coupling n, fig. 5, and at
each end by the pendant .r, shown more
in detail in fig. (5, and secured to the
main rib. There are also similar tan-
gential curvilinear stays springing from
the same pendants at right angles to
carry the purlin bars as shown in the
lower part of fig. 3, for the support of the rafters and
covering, the lower tangential stays abut upon the
top of the wrought iron column \h inch diameter (fig.
2). The pendants (fig. G,) consist of a cast iron ba-
luster, the 2 bars of the main rib passing through the
head (a), and also at right angles the purlin bar.
The 4 ends of the tangentialbars are secured in the holes
at the 4 angles of the base c, which is hungup to the bars of the rib by
a nut and screw bolt passing through the centre of the pendant ; the
d an c' shows the position of these holes, that in the centre receiving the
bolt just described, and those at the 4 angles the tangential stays; the
drop e, with the collar d, is fastened on to the top of the pendant and
conceals the bolts, the bottom part of the baluster fits in with the
conical shaped end {b) into the embrasure (e).

Fj^'. 7. The purlin bar and the curvilinear

stays were secured by the coupling g,
fig. 7, and fig. 8 shows the coupling of
the purlin and the rafter //, which were
of wrought bars 3 by ^ inch placed 18
inches apart, as shown in fig. 4. The
covering was of galvanized sheet iron
laid with a folded seam similar to zinc.
The upper [lart of the roof was covered
entirely by a skylight, laid to an angle
of 25", the lower part was supported
by the light ornamental ironwork siiown
in fig. 3, supported by the tangential
stay bars.
We here give the weights of the principal parts.

Base of the column - - - 5 lb.

Capital 91 lb.

Pendants of cast iron - - 261b.

Great S shaped guard of the lantern - 3Gi lb.

The parts m 10 J lb.

n 7? lb.

0 (cast iron) - - - 7i lb.

p 3|lb.

h i lb.

The total weight of the casting of the roof was 5 tons G cwt.
That oi' the other iron work 13 tons 5 cwt.

The total cost including painting and glazing was 25,000 francs,
(lOUO/.), and as there were about 1000 square yards of surface, that
gives 1/. per square yard covered, undoubtedly an exceedingly low
price.

It will be seen from the preceding description what a great number
of cast iron pendants and couplings compose this roofing, but at the
same time that the different shapes are not numerous, and that the
models are few. In wrought iron in order to obtain this variety of
shape, it would have been requisite to have forged each piece sepa-
rately, and to have had much manual labour. It will be further per-
ceived that all the pieces are simply cut in lengths, without being re-
forged or filed. The iron on coining from the forge, is bent cold
according to the form required, and then fixed in the cast iron pendants
by means of bolts, so that it is not necessary to employ iron of superior
quality that can be worked hot : it is only necessary that it should not
be cold short. It is this arrangement to which we principally wish to
call attention, as it is the reason which has induced us to publish the pre-
ceding description, as an instance of an iron roof easily put together
and composed of a minimum weight of cast and wrought iron. It will
be seen that such work can be made at a distance and tlien put up on
the spot. It is only necessary to send the pendants and couplings, and
the bars of rough iron, which are to form the roof, and which can be
cut up on the spot, and bent according to circumstances. As the coup-
ling pieces are of cast iron, ornaments can be introduced in the casting,
and an elegant appearance given without much expense. With these
advantages had M. Fauconnier designed it w ith lines so as to have
formed geometrical figures of fixed position, we have no hesitation in
saying that it would have been a most remarkable work.

At the same station for the purpose of communicating between the
main rails and the carriage house, which is parallel to them, a siding
is carried from the main line to the front of the carriage house, as
shown in fig. 9. The latter contains four lines of ways running from

Fig. 9.

?

o

cr;
5'

s

I I

Rails for Truck.

1841.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

251

from front to rear, and outside of it are five more lines of way for the
luggage trucks. Along the front of the carriage house^, and at right
angles with the rails is a pair of rails laid to a gauge of 7 ft. 4 in., and
9 inches below the lines, of way, upon which runs a carriage, shown in
figs. 10 and 11. On the top of this carriage, and on a level with the

Fig. 10, Plan of Truck.

\

r 1

4^ 1

1 \

) ^

-y

0;

n

^

n '

^

TJ

Fig. U, Section of Truck.

^

'^^^:!^^^^M^^^^^m^^m

rails of the main line are corresponding rails supported on timber
framing, which is suspended to the axles of six cast iron wheels, 20
inches diameter. These wheels run on the 7 ft. 4 in. gauge for the
purpose of removing the carriage or truck which is put upon the frame
to any pair of the reserve rails in the carriage-house. This saves the
trouble and expense attendant upon turn tables opposite to each pair
of rdils.

The engine house is
a polygonal building
containing twelve lines
of way, in the middle
of which is a turn table
communicating with
the whole. The con-
struction of the points
is shown in the an-
nexed figure 1"2.

Glass Cloth Weaving.— A most ingenious artist, a Mr. Barker, from Ossett-
street-side, is nuw e.\liil<iting the process uf this novel species of manufactere,
in a room in the Philosoi'hical Hall, Halifax. He has lately forwarded a
most splendid apron, and a pair of shppers, to her Majesty the Queen, which
have been most graciously received, nith the strongest approbation. We
have seen some very beamii'ul specimens o' the ingenious inventor's skill, and
consider them as spJendi 1 novelties. We particularly noticed a piece of
waistcoating, two and three ijuarters yards long, and half a yard in width,
which he states to be the fi.st of the kind he has been able to bring to any
degree of perfection, and has been woven in Hiiddersfield. It is beautifully
figured like damask or fancy work. One remarkable circumstance in glass
cloth is that it will stand washing. We were shown a piece of pure i\hite.
which has six times undergone that process. We hope the ingenious and
persevering man wdio has already spent two years and a halt in bringing his
invention io a state fit to meet the pubfic eye, will reap his reward for his
invention. — Halifaj: Guardian.

ON THE ECONOMY OF FUEL IN LOCOMOTIVES CONSE

QUENT TO EXPANSION AS PRODUCED BY THE

COVER OF THE SLIDE VALVE.

Sir — With a view to economy of fuel, locomotives are now generallr
constructed so that the slide valve shall have what engineers call
"cover on the steam side," the effect of which
is, that steam is admitted to the cylinder during
only a part of the stroke of the piston, and during
a part of the remainder that steam by expanding
to occupy a greater volume propels the piston ;
■^~"i "■^-ij which expanding increases the work performed
by a given quantity of steam to an extentdepend-
ing on the ratio of that part of the stroke, during
which the steam is adtnitted to the cylinder, and
y^^ 11 that part of it during which the steam is expaiid-

'^!'TTnffjTf(.700 ing; and as the consumption of fuel is dependent
on the work performed by a given quantity of
steam, an analytic investigation of the cover of
the slide valve is the object of the following.

In the figure* let F' G, represent the connecting
rod, F' E the engine crank, E A' the eccentric
crank, F E the engine crank when the piston com-
mences its stroke, and E A the corresponding
position of the eccentric crank, B C, D C valve
levers. Put E A' = a, E F' ^ rf, cover of valve =:
c, lead of valve =;, B C = D C. To diminish
complication neglect the radiation of the eccen-
tric rod and connecting rod, which may be done
wdtliout sensible error, since their length is great
in proportion to the lengths of the cranks.

Diavv L E perpendicular to E B, and any angle
LEA has its sine proportional to the distance
that the valve is from its position when L E A =:: o.
When the piston is commencing its stroke the
valve is open, the quantity (0, and therefore it
has travelled the quantity (I -\- c) from its position
when L E A =: 0 ; hence a X sin. L E A := i -|- tf

' + c

. • . sin. L E A = , and cos. L E A ^

a

l\

\.:

Again, if the engine crank travels owr any
^ angle (<p) from its position, F E the descent or

progress (y) of the piston is equal to rf X ver-

sin-p, .-. cos. ,.= l-|,andsin,), = ^A/('-^-|sY The tr.ivel

(x) of the valve corresponding to the travel (y) of the piston, is equal

to (asin. (LEA + <p) — asin. LEA), .-. ^ = sin. LEA cos. 9+ cos.

LEA sin. <p — sin. L E A, and by substituting for the functions of th e
angles their values found above, and reducing we get

2y

m equation expressing the relation of (x) and (y) in terms of known
quantities.

When the piston begins its stroke the valve is a little open, and
steam continues to enter until the valve in its retrograde motion shuts
the passage; expansion then cotnmences and continues until the educ-
tion pa.ssage is opened. When the eduction passage is opened on
one side of the piston it is sliut on the other, wdiich gives rise to the
compression of steam on the educted side of the piston, and this cimi-
pression continues until the valve opens for the lead of the next stroke.
In figure let ABC D' be a steam cylinder,
stroke = A D= -2 rf,a' = distance from com-
mencement of stroke to commencemfiit of ex-
pansion, 6= distance from commencement of
stroke to end of expansion ; c'= distance from
commencement of stroke to position of [dston
when the valve opens for the lead of next
stroke. To find by the above equ.ition the
travel of the valve corresponding to the travel
(a') of the piston substitute x= — /, for the
travel corresponding to (b) x= — {l+ c), and

the line should be draun iioui /' Lo<

2 M 2

* The figure is not quite correct
and not from/' to a'.

252

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[AuGtST,

for the same in relation to (c') a: = — (l-{-2 c). And we have

.-_,.„,,.^„.-<l«^'-lc-c') + d^(a^-lc-c'y-a^P

rf(l

— lc — c')+dy./\^(\ — lc — c')—r-j. Whena = I
«=-(/ + 2c) y=c' =

(f(l + c/ + c') + rfi/ f (l + c/ + a=— (/ + 2e)2J

Having now found the values of (a' b and c'), we must next find the
effect gained by the expansion of the steam from (a' to 6), and the
effect lost by the compression of the steam from (6 to c')- But ex-
pansion may take place in two ways, the operations of which are quite
distinct, first, the cylinder may remain of the same volume and the
steam be increased in pressure before entering them ; or, the cylinders
may be enlarged and the pressure of the steam be constant, which is
the plan virtually adopted in locomotives; for those of them that do
not work by expansion when properly constructed, are so made that
their cylinders are not capable of consuming a greater volume of steam
than the boiler can furnish of the greatest safe pressure.

The eduction passage being shut by the time that the piston arrives
at the end of (6), saves, or at least prevents from flying to the atmo-
sphere a quantity of steam of a pressure {t), that fills {id— b) of the

cylinders, which at a pressure (;;) would fill ^Mz^ of the cylinders

hence when the steam is cut off' at (a'), there is only admitted so much

fresh steam as fills {a' — ^'- — ^— ) and since the quantity of fresh

steam admitted must (whatever the expansion is) be constant, we have

. K-^') -2. X 1. .-. -^:;f^, (.) being the

area of the piston.

Again in figure let (x) be any portion of the stroke greater than (a),
and less than (4), and letj»' be the pressure into which the steam has

ap

expanded at the end of (j-) then x \ a' \ : p ; p', .'. p' =
effective working pressure =: — — /.

•' differential of work performed = d efficiency = s { - — t) d x,
.'. efficiency in part (6) of the stroke = s a/) (log - + 1) — 8/6.

Agaiir; for the effect of compression caused by the shutting of the
eduction passage let (x) (measuring from DCj be anv portion of the
stroke between (6 and c), and (;/; the piessuie, to which the confined
steam has been compressed, then x : 'Id — b : : t : p' .'. p' —

(2d — b)t (id — b)!
, . • . effective workmg pressure = ^^ 1 . • . d effi-

/{2d — b)l \ ,
ciency = I 1 \ » d x,

il(2d-b) flog. ^^^^_lj +sC2d-c)(p + l.)

By deducting tlie effect of compression from the efficiency of the
part (b) of the stroke, we have whole work performed =

»a'p(\og.~ + l\-~stb-st{2d-b) {log. ~^-^^_l\

— 8 (2 d— c) (p + 0- Pi't 2 rf= 1, < = 1 and (p) is then expressed
in multiples of (/). . • . whole work performed =

s a' p( log. ,+ 1 — s b — s(l — 6) ( log. — i ■ J

— Ml-c)(jB+l).

whole effect of compression =

But gnr

a' p — 1 + 6

Whole work performed =;

a'^+i— 1

multiplied into

'ya' p\og. -—Q-b)\og.]^—-J^a' p — 2b—p+pc + c.^

An expression for the work performed by a unit of volume of steam,
formed of known quantities, or rather of quantities which become
known when (/) the lead, and (c) the cover of the valve are given.

Let the safety valve be so loaded that (p) is equal to (a), and let
the lead (/) of the slide valve be nothing, and the cover (c) be nothing.
Then a'^ 1, 6i= 1, c' = 0, .-.whole work performed =rp — 1=^4,
which is exactly what another mode of proceeding gives for when the
valve has no cover and no lead, the work performed is evidently =
2d (p — I) s. But 2rf= ], t = 1, and when the valve gives no expan-
sion s ^ 1, therefore work performed ^p — 1 = 4.

Again, let the lead (/) be equal to ^ of the breadth of the port, and
the cover (c) equal to i of the breadth of the port. And then

a' = 0-88S h z= 0-9545 c' = 0-992 . • . whole work

performed = 4-2378.
Again, let / = ^ breadth of port, c =r i breadth of port, and then
a' — 0-G5G b = 0-873 c' = 0-99 . - . whole work

performed = 4-8960.
Again, let /^^ breadth of port, c = I breadth of port, and then
a' = 0-2884 6 = 0-7 c' — 0-975 . • . whole work

performed = 7-).
Again, I = -^ breadth of port, c = 5 breadth of port, and then
a' = 0-43 6 = 0-825 c' = 0-999 . • . whole work

performed = 4-97.
Hence the following conclusions: — In a locomotive in which the
stroke of the cylinder is 18 inches, and breadth of port H inches, if
the work it performs with a ton of coke when the valve has no cover
be called 1 ; then by giving the valve i of an inch of lead, and i of an
inch of cover, the steam will be cutoflTat 15-98 inches from commence-
ment of stroke, and the work performed by a ton of coke will be 1-0591.
Again, by giving the valve i of an inch of lead, and J of an inch of
cover, the steam will be cut off' at 11-8 inches from commencement of
stroke, and the work performed by a ton of coke will be 1-2241.

Again, by giving the valve I of an inch of lead and U inches of
cover, the steam will be cut off' at 5-2 inches from commencement of
stroke, and the work perf;irn;ed bv a ton of coke will be 1-7.).

Again, by giving the valve Yrni of t'le breadth of the port of lead,
and 14 inches of cover, the steam will be cut off" at 71 inches from
commencement of stroke, and the work performed by a ton of coke
will be 1-242.

In the two last examples the cover of the valve is the same, but in
the latter the lead is much less than in the former, which has diminished
the efficiency of a ton of coke from 1-75 to 1-242, or nearly in the ratio
of 3 to 2 ; and if the lead was still a little less the advantage gained
by the cover would be altogether neutralized. Hence it appears that
the lead is an important feature in the construction of the slide valve,
and might be a good subject of enquiry as to what relation it ought to
bear to the cover so as not to interfere with the operation of expansion.
I am. Sir, your obedient servant,

J. G. Lawrie.
Carlsdyke Foundry, Greenock,
Jam: 27, lb41.

N.B. — Should you consider this letter worthy of insertion in your
Journal, I shall probably request insertion of another in continuation of
the same subject, in which the lead will come under consideration.

J. G L.

REMARKS ON MR. DREDGE'S SUSPENSION BRIDGE.
Sir- — Feeling some interest in the subject of suspension bridges, I
wasgratifii'd to find in a recent number of vuur instructive publication,
a description of Mr. Dredge's newly invented suspension bridge, re-
jiresented as off'ering such superior advantages, in all the essential
particulars of strength, durabilitv, and economy of construction. At
the same time, however, 1 was somewhat disappointed when, having
perused the article in question, I found that noattHMi|it had been made
to demonstrate the possession of such dosiral)le ipi.dities, by a reference
to those well known principles and laws which govern the forces to
which a suspension bridge is subject, and not having subsequently seen
in the Journal or other publications, any such investigation of the sub-
ject, I am induced to forward to you the few rem irks which follow, in

1S4I.1

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

253

the hope that you may think them deserving of a place in your forth-
coming number.

The two characteristic features of Mr. Dredge's bridge appear to
be the unequal thickness of the chains which taper from the middle
1 oint of the curve to its extremities, and the inclined position of the
suspension rods.

A chain whose thickness is equal throughout being suspended from
its extremities, assumes the form of a curve which has received the
name of the Catenarian curve ; the tension to which the chain is sub-
ject by its own weight, varies as the secant of the angle made by the
tangent on any point, with a horizontal line, or, which is the same
thing, as the secant of the angle contained by (lie tangent and ordinate.
It is obvious, therefore, that the tension will be least at the lowest
point of the curve, and increase towards the points of attachment,
where it will be a maximum. In a chain of equal thickness its strength
cannot therefore be proportionate to the stress to which it is subject,
and it therefore naturally occurs that the chain should not be of equal
thickness throughout, but be increased in sectional area from the lowest
point of the curve to the highest. By mathematical analysis, the form
of chain has been determined whose sectional area is always propor-
tional to the tension ; and a chain constructed upon this principle has,
I believe, been actually adopted for the large suspension bridge erect-
ing over the Avon by Mr. Brunei.

The idea of a chain of varying thickness is not therefore new, and
as regards Mr. Dredge's bridge, the utility of the form of chain he has
adopted appears to depend upon whether the sectional area varies as
the tension at each jioint. Considering the chain in the first instance,
as simply affected by its own weight, this point would be determined
by comparing its form with that in which it is known the sectional
area varies us the tension. I have not at this moment with me the
means of making the comparison, but it is evident that if the two forms
are identical, there is no novtlty in this part of the invention, and if
they are not, Mr. Dredge has proposed a form which is inferior to one
that would always be employed when rendered proper from attendant
circumstances. Except in large bridges it has not, however, been
considered desirable to vary the thickne.~s of the chain according to
the tension, as the ditference of thic;kness at ditterent points is found
too inconsiderable to merit attention. It seems, therefore, extremely
probable that Mr. Dredge by varying the thickness of his chain in a
very rapid ratio has far exceeded the increased thickness required by
the tension.

Abstracting now for the sake
of argument, the effect pro-
duced by the weight of the
chain itself, and regarding only
that occasioned by the tensions
of the rods, it will be observed
that these tensions are much
increased by the inclined p<isi-
tions which the rods are made
to assume. This is illustrated
in the tigure. A B C is the
chain, X Y the horizontal plat-
form, and a b, a' b, &c. the
suspension bars. Let us sup-
pose that the tension of the bars has been adjusted so as to be equal
for all, and that the weight of the platform is known. If it be homo-
geneous in its structure, the centre of gravity will be at 6, and the
weight maybe conceived as a force B D, acting in a vertical direction
through this point. Each of the pairs of forces acting along the rods
a b, a' b, &c., will have a resultant acting in the direction D B, oppo-
site to that in which gravity acts. These resultants Vidll also be equal
to one another, and, supposing the platform suspended from two chains,
their sum will be a force equal in magnitude (though opposite in direc-
tion) to half the force B D, the weight of the platform. Hence if this
weight be given, we obtain the resultant of each pair of forces acting
along oppositely inclined rods, by dividing half this weight by half the
number of rods attached to one chain. Let the angle made by the
rods with the vertical be e, w half the weight of the platform, and u

the number of rods, then the resultant of each pair of forces^ t—'

4 n

Hence

And b the tension of each rod is i X

5 n COS. e n cos. 9

6 Ct Ct sec. 9, and is consequently least when sec. S is least, j. e.

COS. 8

when sec. 9=: 1, or the rods are vertical. This arrangement, then,
appears disadvantageous, since it not only requires that the rods

should be made of increased size to resist the increased tension to
which they are exposed, but subjects also the chain to increased pres-
sure from the rods in the ratio of sec. 9 ; 1.

Although the forces acting upon the two halves of the chain are in-
clined in opposite direction, it will be observed that the two halves
are precisely similar, for if we imagine one-half to revolve round the
axis B D, till the plane in which it is situated, coincides with the
plane of the other half, the suspension rods of the two halves will ex-
actly coincide, and consequently as the forces produced by them are
equal, coincident in direction, and have similar points of application,
the curves produced will be identical in all respects. Being produced
by equal and parallel forces uniformly distributed along the curve, they
belong to aCat'mary whose ordinate is at right angles to the directions
of the rods. Hence the tension caused by the action of the rods varies
according to the law already stated, and if it be required to equalize
the sectional area and tension of the chain, it must be constructed of
the form already determined for the Catenarian Curve. Whether,
then, we consider the effect of the weight of the chain itself, or the
pressures produced by the suspension rods, the chain should be con-
structed upon precisely the same principles as in the onlinary suspen-
sion bridges. For these reasons I cannot but regard the plan proposed
by Mr. Dredge as inferior to the ordinary method of construction, and
I have accordingly, a contrary opinion having been maintained in your
pages, ventured to offer these remarks to the consideration of your
readers.

I am, Sir, your's obedientlv,

G. F. F.

Sandon Bury, July 1-1, 1841.

MR. PARKES' NEW THEORY OF THE PERCUSSIVE
ACTION OF STEAM.

In this highly enlightened age, when long established theories
crumble to dust under the all-searching glance of modern science, and
the discoveries of our fathers, eclipsed by the surpassing splendour of
the productions of modern genius, hide their diminished heads, it
would perhaps be a mark of weakness of intellect to express astonish-
ment at any new doctrine, however contrary it may be to our precon-
ceived notions, or apparently so to the fundamental laws of nature.
If, then, we were not surprised, at least our interest was excited in a
high degree by the perusal of Mr. Josiah Parkes' Paper " on the Ac-
tion of Steam in Cornish Single Pumping Engines," published in the
Transactions of the Institution of Civil Engineers, Vol. 3, Part 4,
wherein he developes, or rather announces a new principle of Action
of Steam in Cornish Engines, which seemed at the first glance to point
out a means of increasing almost indefinitely the dynamic effect of
steam in steam engines ; though why he considers it to operate in these
engines only we know not — we are of opinion, that, if it obtains in
them, it should obtain a fortiori in Locomotives, where the density and
velocity of the steam entering the cylinder are so much greater. This
new Principle is denominated by its discoverer the Percussive Action
of Steam, and is announced in the following words, page 268 :

" Steam, in its action on the piston of an engine, has hitherto been
consiilered as simply exerting elastic force."

" Steam, however, possesses another important property, equally
inherent in its nature with pressure and expansibility. This property
is the velocity and consequent momentum due to steam of high elasti-
city ; a force which comes into play under the peculiar conditions of a
Cornish engine. The velocity of steam, in passing from a dense into
a rarer medium, is immense ; and the momentum of this steam must
be very considerable. On the sudden and free communication effected
between the cvlinder and boiler of a Cornish engine, the steam in the
cylinder receives an instantaneous action, proportionate, in amount, to
the velocity of the entering steam, and this action, by the property of
fluids, is transmitted to the surf.ice of the piston. This action, thus
transmitted to the piston, and due to the communication suddenly
established between the highly elastic steam in the boiler, and the
steam in the cylinder, may be likened, I conceive with great propriety,
to the force of percussion ; by which term I propose to distinguish it
from the action of the steam's simple elastic force."

This force is illustrated in a note at the foot of the page by a com-
parison with the Pile-driving Machine and Hydraulic Ram; we think
the following illustration much more appropriate.

Let d ef g in the annexed diagram represent the section of a cylin-
der, in which the piston;; can move air-tight, let the latter be con-
nected by a link a to one end of the vibrating beam b, a mass M being

254

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[Al'GUST'

suspentlcd nt the other end; further, let /; A- represent an inflexible
circular phite fitting air-light into the cylinder, liut supposed to huve
no weight, and let there be a space c between this plate and the piston
;; filled with air of a given density.

The piston p being near the top of the cylinder, the circumstances
are analogous to these of the Cornish single-acting engine jnst before
the conunencement of the working stroke, the air in the space c above
the piston representing the cusbion of steam against which the piston
is brought to rest at the end of the return stroke, the beam h the
balanced portion of the moving parts of tlie machinery, and the mass
M the unbalanced portion.

In order to form an idea of the manner in which the momentum of
the steam, admitted suddenly above the piston at the beginning of the
stroke, is transferred to the latter, and thus increases I be effect above
wliat is due to the simple elastic force of the sleam, let a mass S (say
equal to the mass of steam admitted in the stroke) im|)inge against
the plate h k with a given velocity. The result of this impact is, ob-
viously, that the mass S loses a portion of its velocity, and consc'
quentiy of its momentum, which is transferred to the air contained in
the space c, which in its turn, comnuniicates the chief part of this
momentum to the piston y;, the beam b and the suspended mass M. If
the mass S be supposed to strike the ])late h k with a velocity equal to
that of the steam at its entrance into the cylinder of the Cornish en-
gine, its percussive effect may be assumed to be the same as that of
the latter, though it will in reality be greater on account of the mmul-
tantoua action of the whole mass, whereas the mi'ss of steam airives
in the cylinder gradually. The inter|)osition of the air e is essential
to the perfect conformity of the two cases, for the entering steam no
sooner passes the contracted orifice of the throttle-valve, where it im-
pinges, as it were, against the steam already in the cylinder, than it
expands and loses the greater part of its velocity, at the same time
compressing the steam with which it mingles.

The necessity of adopting this theory (of the Percussive Action of
Steam) was forced upon i\lr. Farkes liy his inability to discover, in the
simple elastic force of the steam employed, an amount of power ade-
quate to accomplish the actual duty ascertained to have been performed
bv several of ihe Pumjiing Engines in Cornwall, the facts observed
admitting of no question. This is, in our ofiinion, the only valid
argument brouglit forward by the autlior in its favour, though lie has
adduced several others in corroboration, which, however, re(]uire the
co-existence of the former to give them weight, and even so they are
but of a negative character, amounting in suljstance to this: since the
amount of power due to the steam's elasticity alone is less than tlie
amount of work done, an additional (piantitv of power must be derived
from other source ; and whence can it be derived but from the instan-
taneous action transmitted to the [liston, on effecting the sudden com-
munication between Ihe steam in the cylinder and tiiat in the boiler.

Assuming the data furnished by exi)erinient to be correct, (and we
have no reason a prion to doubt their accuracy), the above reasoning
appears to be conclusive, at least in so far as the additional power re-
quired to realize the observed dynamic effect must be sought in some
property of steam distinct from its elastic force ; and its Alomentum,
or rather Inertia, is the only property which suggests itself as capable
of supplying any additional amount of power.

Admitting, therefore, the inadequacy of the simple elastic force of
the steam to accomplish the work actually performed, and assuming
the ileliciency of power to be supplied by the Steam's Percussive
Action, the next step naturally, is to examine into the causes and
effects of this action.

The cause is obvious, and is almost sufficiently explained in the
illustration which we have given above. A mass of dense steam passes
through the throttle valve at a great velocity, the chief part of which
it loses by the time it comes to act by its ehistic force upon the surface
of the piston. This mass of steam must, therefore, in losing its velo-
citv, impart its momentum to some other body or bodies, through the
medium of which it may afterwards be utilized in increasing the dyna-
mic effect of the steam. The body which receives the shock of the
entering steam, and transmits its momentum to the moving parts of the
engine, is the steam cushion represented in the illustration by the air
c, and tlie entering steam by the mass S. It is this imiiarting of its
momentum which is called the Percussive Action of the steam.

In investigating the elects of this action, our object is to ascertain
the amount of momentum transmitted thereby to the piston and other
pieces of machinerv connected with it, and we looked in vain to Mr.
Parkes' work for assistance in this inquiry ; there is, indeed, an article
(page 209), headed: Dclcrmi nation of the quantity of Ptrcuimite Ac-
tion, which commences with the statement that " the dynamic effect,
or quantity of action, due to percussion, is discoverable, and assignable
for each example : but the only method employed by the author for
its determination is that of elimination, that is, by deducting from the
total dynamic effect of the steam found in the quantity of work done,
the amount due to its elastic force, including expansion, the remainder,
which is the deficiency of power accoriling to the ordinary theory,
being attributed to the percussive action. In a note at the foot of the
same page Mr. Parkes says : "It forms no part of my task to investi-
gate tlie abstract question of the quantity of this species of force to oe
obtained from steam ; my present purpose is confined to the determi-
nation of the eff(?ct attributable to it in the three engines subjected to
analysis." It is a pity he did not make it part of his task to investi-
gate, not tht abstract question of the qiiaiititi/ if this spcctts of force to be
ohtatutdfrom steam, but the practical question of thecpiantity which the
steam would afford in the three cases under consideration. This in-
quiry would, doubtless, have been full of difficulties, should the result
not turn out to be equal to o, wdiich »ve much suspect would be the
case if the investigation were based on the laws of percussion as laid
down in tlie treatises on Mechanics ; and if the new principle is to be
established in opposition to these laws, it is necessary first to demon-
strate their fallacv; but that this is not the view of the case taken by
the author is evident by his merely comparing the ])ercussive action
of the steam to the shock of a solid body, without intimating in any
wav that the laws laid down for solid bodies do not obtain equally
with regard to steam. He overlooks, however, the important con-
sideration that the shock of the entering steam is not received imme-
diatelv by tlie piston, but by the steam previously occupying the space
above it, and likewise that the reaction is necessarily equal to the
force of impact.

By reason of this latter condition the entering steam can only part
with its momentum as fast as the steam in the cyliniler is capable, by
its Simj,li tliistic force, to oppose a resistance, or reaction, equal to the
force of percussion. The latter is therefore always strictly measured
bv the elasticity of the steam in the cylinder, the dynamic effect of
which thus includes that due to the Percussive Action. If, then, the
indicator diagram exhibits a faithful representation of the elastic force
of the steam as it varios from the commencement to the termination
of the stroke of the ]>iston, it must necessarily furnish us with the
means of determining the whole amount of dynamic etl'ect which can
be obtained therclVom. It may also be observed that the effect of the
Percussion is transmitted, " by the properly of fluids," to the Indicator
piston as well as to the woiking piston, so that, even if there were a
Percussive force which acted on the latter in addition to the elastic
force of the steam, its iiiHuence, being felt by the former also, would
be indicated in the diagram by an additional elevation of the
pencil.

The above discussion convinced us, as it may also some of our readers,
and [lerhaps Mr. Parkes himself among others, th.it the difference ob-
served between the amount of power due to the elactic force of the
steam and the duty actually performed by the engines subjected to
analysis cannot be attributed to the Percussive Action of the steam;
and, as there appears to be no other source of power to which it can
be ascribed, we are compelled to conclude that the supposed difference
does not exist in fact, and consequently that either tlie experimental
data, or the calculations based upon them, are erroneous.

We have said above that we had no reason i) priori to doubt the
accuracy of the observations, and we will therefore now examine into
the details of Mr. Parkes' calculations relating to the Uuel Towan en-
gine, with the view of discovering whether the discrepancy ob-
served between the power <leveloped by the simple elastic force of
the steam and the actual work done be not attributable, either wholly

1S41.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

•w

or in part, to some error in his deductions from the data furnished by
observation.

Mr. Parkes snys Cpage 261') : "The absolute resistance consists of
the weight wliioh performs the return stroke, plus the value of engine
and pitwork friction, and of the elasticity of the uncondensed steam."
To this shoulil be added, for each f ircing pump, the weight of a
column of water whose base is equal to the sectional area of the
plunger and altitude to the mean height of the bottom of the plunger
above the level of the water in the cistern whence it is drawn, and for
each lifting pump, the weight of the whole column lifted, from the
level of the water in the cistern; and we should deduct the amount of
assistance, though small, given by the atmospheric pressure on the top
of the piston rod.

We are not informed of the value of any of these quantities, except
the last, from direct experiment, but we know that the weight which
performs the return stroke is necessarily slightly in excess of that of
the average column of water raised, augmented hv the friction of the
water and machinery, and the dili'erence between the atmospheric
pressure and that of the steam, during the return stroke, on the area
of the piston rod ; and the excess fwhich is ni'cessarv to set the engine
in motion with its load of water) is cnunlerbAlanced at the end of the
stroke by the cushion of steam which brings the engine to rest.

Mr. Parkes substitutes for this weight, in his calculations, the water
load, which, he says, can alone be termed a positively ascertained
quantity; but in computing this load he commits two errors, which,
however, compensate each other. He calls the mean diameter of the
pumps 14-G2.T inches, instead of 14-9GS, which renders it necessary to
assume a cubic foot of water to weigh 65*47 f(j., instead of 62-5 lb., in
order to make the water load equal to ()SGGii44 tt).. in which he agrees
with Mr. Henwood, by whom the experiment was made. It is per-
mitted, in calculating the effective resistance on the piston, to use the
total height of the column of water, since it is equal to the sum of the
average heights mentioned above ; so that the absolute resistance will
be equal to the weight of the total column of water raised, j»/«s the
friction of the water in the pipes, twice the friction of the machinery,
and the elasticity of the uncondensed steam, minus the difference be-
tween the pressure of the steam during the return stroke, and that of
the uncondensed steam during the working stroke, on the area of the
piston rod. The diameter of the piston being SO inches, and that of the
piston rod 7 inches, the area of the former minus that of the latter, or the
effective area of the piston, is equal to 49S8"0S square inches, and tlie
resistance on the piston due to the water load is consequently 11"01 ttj.
per square inch. (Mr. Henwood by some mistake made it only 10"2
lb. per square inch, which he also called the whole resistance of the
engines). The elasticity of the uncondensed steam is estimated at
1-2 j lb. per square inch, and that of the steam in the cylinder during
the return stroke appears, by Mr. Kenwood's indicator diagram, to
have been about 0-4 lb. The difference between these two last quan-
tities, reduced in the ratio of the area of the piston rod to the effective
area of the piston, becomes 0*04; and we find the whole resistance
per square inch of the piston (assuming with Mr. Parkes that the fric-
tions, the actual amount of whi
cause a pressure of 5'75 lb. per square inch) equal to

11-01 + 5-75 + 1-25 — 0-04= 17-871b.
We think, with Mr. Parkes, that this amount is by no means exag-
gerated, but more likely the reverse, particularly in the evaluation of
the frictions, and must therefore conclude that the error, if any, must
be in the calculation of the power from the indicator diagram. Now
we have satisfied ourselves that the mean elasticity indicated by the
diagram would not produce sufficient power, so that we have no alter-
native left but to prove the diagram false or to confess ourselves un-
able to account for the facts observed by Mr. Henwood.

If we admit the pressures to have been as shown in the diagram,
and that the equilibrium value was closed when the piston was 9
inches from the end of the return stroke, we must either suppose the
unreasonably large space of GS-0 i9 cubic feet to have existed below
tlie piston at the bottom of its stroke, or, (if we allow thirty cubic
feet,) we must assume a waste of 7-4 per cent, of the water expended.
On the latter hypothesis, the volume of steam of 6-4 lb. pressure
discharged from the cylinder every stroke was 352'SSG cubic feet,
which is the capacity of the space below the piston when the equi-
librium valve is closed, and the volume remaining above the piston
was 25"979-|-c, calling c the capacity of the space above the piston
when at the top of its stroke, or the volume of the steam-cushion.
The whole quantity of steam in the cylinder of this elasticity is there-
fore equal to 37S.8G5-|-c, and its relative volume 3GG8. The space
it occupied before the equilibrium valve was opened was 34G-393+C,
its elasticity was 7 Itj. per square inch, and its relative volume 3377,
so that we can find the value of c from the following proportion,

I we have no means of ascertaining,

32-472 : 291 : : 34G-393-I-C : 3377,
whence

e=30'438 cub. ft.

The absolute volume of the steam which formed the cushion was,
before compression, r)li-417, and its relative volume 3GG8; after com-
pression its absolute volume was 30-438, which makes its relative
volume 1979, and its elastic force 12-48 tb. instead of lU-7, as shown
by the diagram. Mr. Parkes gives 9-I7G cubic feet as the value of c,
vihich would evidently increase the difference between the calculated
and the observed pressure of the steam-cushion.

The volume of steam of 7 16. pressure in the cylinder just before
opening the equilibrium valve is 37G-831 cubic feet, and the volume
occupied by the same steam when the piston had described one fourth
of its stroke, and the admission valve was quite shut, was 117*030
cub. ft., so tliat the relative volume of the steam was then 3377x

Q'T" Qi ^ 1049, and its elasticity 24-87 rt. per square inch ; accord-

o/o-oo 1

ing to the indicator diagram it was only 20-4 R.

We have no mean<^ of testing the correctness of the pressures
marked by the indicator during the period when the admission vahe
was open, but the above calculation suffices to prove that the diagram
is far from furnishing an exact measure of the steam's elastic force
at least in the instance quoted, and that if the whole, or nearly the
whole, of the water expended passed through the engine in the form
of sleam, it was sufficient to produce, by its simple elastic force, a
dynamic effect equal to the work actually performed, particularly if
the volume of the steam-cushion was only 9-176 cubic feet as stated
by Mr. Parkes, and which accords with Mr. Kenwood's datum of the
volume of sleam used per stroke.

Mr. Parkes has rendered some part of his paper rather difficult to
understand by an ambiguity of expression relating to the expansion of
the steam, accompanied in one place by an apparent contradiction in
the facts. He says (page 264), " it is evident that the effect of a
given weight of water as steam, consumed during a stroke, will be the
same, whether that steam be regarded as having been all enclosed
betW'Cen the piston and cylinder cover, before the piston were per-
mitted to move, when it would expand nearly uniformly from the
beginning to the end of the stroke ; or, whether it be considered as
lia'ving been admitted during a portion of the stroke, at some pressure
greater than the resistance, and then expanded through the remainder
of the stroke."

What the author meant by this we cannot guess; taken literally, it
is obviously fdse, and that it was not intended to be understood so,
apppars by the calculation of the effective power in the sequel. He
continues:

" But, the value of expansion consists, virtually, in the quantity of
action derived from the steam, after it forms an equilibrium nith the

resistance By tracing it, first, through the space of the cylinder,

where it would barely balance the resistance ; and secondly, through
the space during which it suffered expansion below that pressure, a true
measure of the respective and total quantities of action developed by
it, expansively and unexpansively, will be obtained."

The expressions in italics imply that the expansive is separated
from the unexpansive part of the stroke at the point where the pres-
sure of the steam is equal to that of the resistance; but the numbers
quoted in the next page prove that such was not the author's meaning,
for he says, " w hen the ])iston of the Kuel Towan engine had passed
through '50-7 out of 120 inches, which vvas its total length of stroke,
the steam's elastic force and the resistance counterpoised each other."
Now we are informed that the resistance was 18-01 ft. on the square
inch, and the indicator diagram shows a pressure between 13 and
14 tb. at the point mentioned; but in the diagram of the steam's
action at page 294, a pressure of 18 ft. is marked at that point, and
the steam and resistance are said to be in equilibrio. We are unable
to account for this discrepancy.

A series of well-conducted experiments with Cornish single-acting
engines would not only be very interesting with regard to the working
of these engines, concerning which so much doubt is still entertained,
but would doubtless throw a great deal of light on the general theory
of the steam-engine, since they afford facilities for making obser-
vations which double-acting engines do not admit of.

J New Line of Atlantic Steamers.— The St. John's N. B., Herald informs us
that the English Govi rnment is about conlracling for an additional line ot
steamers to theNordi American colonies, vibich will give a weekly commu-
nication with England. The new line will be likely to run direct to St.
John's, such being Sir William Colebrook's wish, while the present line will
continue to run to Halifax. We presume the new line will be extended from
St. John's to this jjoit.— New Yorti Evenmg Post.

•2r,c>

THE Cn^L ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

Fig. 1.— Elevation of Gate.

BRONZE GATES.

FAuGt'ST,

yig.4,— Seclion.

Fig. 3 — Elevation.

The " Revw Gincrak " intends to give a series of designs of bronze
gates selected from tlic best examples to be found in France, some of
which we propose occasionally to give in the Journal. The annexed
engravings represent the celebrated bronze gates of the Cathedral of
8t. Mark, at Venice.

Fig. 1 is a double panel of one of the gates; two styles and two cross
rails, ornaiTicnted with projecting nailheails and torus mouldings en-
close the principal panel, which is divided into two open compartments
by a horizontal rail ; the lower part is an exact copy of ancient cross-
barred work, and the upper presents an imitaticni of the imbrications
often made use of by the ancients; the hollow formed by each of the
semicircles is occupied with a kind of fleur-de-lis, such as is gene-
rally depicted during the middle ages. The ensemble of this com-
position is original, and perfectly answers the object proposed.

A horizontal section (tig. 2) shows the ariang'ement of tlie different
parts of this gate, the thickness of the panels, and the projection of
the mouldings and r.iils which ornament it.

Fig. 3, is a fragment of another panel of the same church, which also
exhibits Roman imbrications ; in the upper row the artist has intro-
duced some detached flower ornaments, which have a good eftect.
Fig. 4 is a vertical section of this fragment.

Numerous lion's heads, formerly gilt, are placed in the imbrications
which decorate this gate, one is represented in fig. 5. The style of
sculpture would serve to point out the age of the gates, were we not
aware that they were cast in the Uth century, when St. Mark's was
finished.

The annexed designs may be arranged in a variety of ways, so as
to form some excellent examples for iron gates, railings, &c., either
by repeating tlie same panel, or taking two panels of one design and
one panel of the other, or vice rersa. Likewise by omitting any part
of the ornaments, or all, or introducing others, and the same frame-
work may be applied either vertically or horizontally.

1841.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

2.57

CANDIDUS'S NOTE-BOOK.
FASCICULUS XXIX.

'• I must have liberty
Withal, as large a charter as the w imis,
To blow on Hliom I please."

I. C.4.mpbell's Vitruvius Britamiicus contains a design for a church,
by himself, — "an origin.il invention," as he calls it, — which is nothing
more than an Ionic prostyle, pseudo-peripteral along its sides, so far
tolerably Grecian as to its plan, but a mere parody of Grecian archi-
tecture, as to style. The east end has a large Venetian window,
which is the only one in the building, but he says, it would give suffi-
cient light to the whole interior ; and if so, it is a pity the hint has
never been taken by any one else for structures of that class, instead
of cutting up and crowding their designs with a multiplicity of win-
dows, that become so many blemishes, as is the case with St. Martin's
Church. In all the various styles of pointed architecture, windows
are principal and almost indispensable features, they and doorways
being the chief source of decoration, and of character; whereas they
are so much at variance with either the Grecian or the Roman style,
if intended to be kept up with tolerably consistency, as to be hardly
admissible, more especially where the general idea is aiTected to be
borrowed from that of an ancient temple, whither it be a peristylar or
merely a prostyle one. Its windows detract very materially from the
design of St. Pancras' Church ; and when it is viewed obliquely, the
flank of the building produces a harsh and disagreeable contrast with
the portico — which last is not disfigured, as too frequently happens
with any apertures of the kind. That there is authority for windows
in ancient structures, is undeniable, because those of St. Pancras are
copied from the same edifice as the order itself, and the ornamental
details. But then, the application of such features is altogether dif-
ferent from what it is in the original precedent. In the last there are
only three at one end of the exterior ; in the professed copy there is
a range along each side, besides a series of smaller ones below, which
gives an air of insignificance to the whole. Were there no other ob-
jection against them, it is no small one that they quite contradict the
portico, indicating as they do not only that the interior is divided into
two floors, but that the ceiling of the lower one or ground floor, is not
half so high as the doors 1 Without entering the church, we may
guess that there is in reality no such division, but that the lower win-
dows, are merely intended to admit light beneath the galleries. The
question then becomes, what occasion can there be for windows just
there, provided the interior be otherwise sufficiently lighted, as it
certainly might be ? What occasion in fact for side windows at all
— unless indeed they can be made to contribute advantageously to ex-
ternal effect — when they might be dispensed with altogether, and a
building of the kind — a single spacious room — be lighted entirely
from the ceiling, in almost any way that would best suit the particular
design ? — If, for instance, there is a dome, let the light proceed chiefly,
if not exclusively, from that part of the ceiling plan, instead of the
concave of the dome being in comparative gloom and darkness, as is
the case at St. Paul's. One advantage attending the exclusion of side
windows — which except in the Gothic style are more injurious than
conducive to effect — would be that the walls being solid, noise from
the street would be obstructed. Whether smart Sunday bonnets in
the seats imder the galleries would be seen to so much advantage as at
present, is a different consideration — doubtless a most important one
in itself. The galleries themselves are a nuisance; and never have I
met with an arcliitect who did not cordially agree with me on that
point. The pew-system is not much better, though mightily in favour
with

" A loyal Church, that keeps the rich and poor
Duly apart, nor blends the lord and boor.
'Tis sweet to witness jueH'S, nor mean, nor scant,
For those who pay, — -free seats for those who can't," &c.

These lines are from a clever poem which has just issued from Albe-
marle-street — hitherto considered the seat of High-Church orthodoxy,
and conservatism !

II. In regard to the church I have just been speaking of (St. Pan-
eras,) I cannot help thinking that the design would have been very
materially improved, had the two caryatic wings, been placed at the
west instead of the east end ; so as to combine with the portico, and
form an extended fa9ade. A very striking composition might have
been so produced, one no less distinguished by picturesque variety
than by its richness. Those wings would have balanced the tower
above, and given a pyramidical outline to the whole structure as viewed

in front. Neither would it have been the least recommendation of
such arrangement, that the wings would have served to screen the in-
sipid side elevations. It would however have been further desirable
that instead of being merely stuck on to the body of the edifice, as at
present, they should be made to unite with it 'symmetrically, for at
present the upper line of the cornice ranges with no other line, but
falls about midway of the windows.

III. Caryatides or aidhropostyle supports to an entablature, as they
may very properly be described, entirely upset the old-women critics'
fudge as to the different orders being proportioned after the human
figure, their proportions being more robust than those of the "manly
Doric." Whether these columnar ladies were matrons or virgins, is
a point I leave to be settled by the more curious, — and indeed, I almost
wonder that no one should as yet have given us some learned twaddle
in regard to it; — but it is certain that they are by no means of that
maypole appearance which those dames must have exhibited, who
stood for models of Ionic and Corinthian columns. After all it is pos-
sible that the Greeks borrowed the idea of Caryatides from Holland,
for they are most indisputably very Dutch built, and to all appearance
brawny enough to perform the office put upon them, without flinching.

IV. If for no better one, it is for this last reason that I do not object
to the use of Caryatides, as being disagreeable to the feelings. Thank
heaven! my feelings are not quite so refined and super-refined as to
be shocked at beholding ladies of stone, bearing a burden they seenr
quite able to support. I should as soon think of expressing my sympa«
thy for the Cardinal Virtues which are frequently turned out of doors,
and doomed to keep watch on the outside of a building in all weathers,
while the Cardinal Vices, perhaps, are enjoying themselves very snugly
within. — As soon should I think of being mawkishy sentimental, and
compassionating some poor devil of a Neptune who is compelled to
stand as a sentinel on such a ticklish situation as the top of a pedi-
ment, to be there roasted in a broiling sun. It is wonderful how vastly
sentimental many people can be, provided the display of outrageously
fine feelings costs them nothing! Many a one who would almost pre-
tend to snivel at "Patience on a monument smiling at grief," would
drive over a poor old apple-woman and her stall, as unconcernedly as
if she were a mere stock and stone. And yet the Apple-woman is a
more perfect image of patience, than all the "Patiences" ever
sculptured, were there one upon every hypocritical monument that has
been erected.

V. Panegyric, as Swift observes, " is all pork, with very little variety
of sauce : for there is no inventing terms of art, beyond our ideas; and
when our ideas are exhausted, terms of art must be so too." This
last remark certainly holds good, in regard to those writers and critics
who repeat what they have picked up in praise of Palladio and Jones,
prettv much as a parrot would repeat a pater-noster. They would
fain insist upon our believing that those worthies possessed every
architectural virtue and excellence ; but to dwell upon their merits, or
to examine the beauties of their edifices one by one, assigning to each
its due value, is more than they care to attempt, — for reasons perhaps,
well known to themselves, and not difficult to be divined by those who
are not arrant gulls. Very quickly indeed are their ideas of art ex-
hausted, for after they have uttered some stale commonplace, or vapid
truism they are completely aground. It may be questioned whether
"the celebrated Inigo Jones" would consider Goldicutt's publication
of Heriot's Hospital, particularly complimentary, since the account of
it is dispatched in less than a page and a half, without any thing being
said in regard to the structure itself. Yet its beauties certainly re-
quire to be carefully pointed out, for they are of a kind quite invisible
to unprejudiced eyes. Not so, however, the defects, they being glar-
inf enough. The entrance tower might be supposed to have been
intended as a whimsical burlesque on modern applications of the an-
cient orders ; and the whole is no better than an architectural hotch-
potch—an unintelligible. Babel-like jargon of styles jumbled up together.
Still, for aught I can tell, the Doric entrance and Corinthian patchwork
above it, may be precisely that part of the design which finds most
admirers. The great charm after all, I suspect, lies in the name of
Inigo Jones : take away that, and few persons would be able to dis-
cern any beauty or grandeur in it whatever. , ■ .,

VI. In the " Magasin Pittoresque " it is said that the windmill, built
by him at Chesterton in Warwickshire, does Jones no less honour than
the palace of BUnhetm".' It is a wonder the writer did not favour us
with the information that luigo Jones was the father of the equally
" celebrated" Tom Jones, of whom there is a tolerably well written
life by one Mr. Henry Fielding, an author not very much inferior ta
some of the second-rate geniusses of our own enlightened age.

25S

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[AuGtrsT,

g; HISTORY OF DECORAXn' E SCULPTURE IN FRANCE.

By Albekt Lenoir, Architect.

(Translated for the Civil Engineer and Arcliitecfs Journal, from the
Heme Generate de I'Arehitfclure.)

GAULISU PERIOD.

In the earliest ages men, in however rude a condition, have always
been fond of decorating their dwellings, an impulse to which the Celts
and the Gauls gave way, and of which we tind many evidences in their
monuments. On the coasts of Britany, and on the sides of Druidic
monuments, we see rude sculptures of rays and spirals so combined as
to produce something of a decoration. On the well known peulvan or
jough obelisk of Kervuatou in Finisterre, we fijid the head of a bull
represented in such a way as to enable us to comprehend the outline.
All other monuments wliich preceded the civilization of Gaul by the
Greeks and Romans, except those of the Druids, having perished, we
are deprived of the opportunity of describing the mode of ornamenta-
tion adopted by the Aborigines.

GREEK PERIOD.

The Phoceans, as is shown by the remains preserved in the Museum
of Marseilles, brought into Gaul the elements of Asiatic art, which
I'tbey used with taste. In 1773 M. Grosson, an inhabitant of that city,
published a quarto volume,* in which are engravings of many ancient
monuments, found within the boundaries of the old colony. Notwith-
standing the mediocrity of the representations, we can easily recognize
on some of the tombs, decorated with bas reliefs and inscriptions, how
completely they had succeeded in imparting a classic taste, the
crowns of "olive leaves, and wreaths of flowers and foliage boast the
same elegance as on the coasts of Attica or the Peloponnesus, Caria or
Ionia. On the borders of the territory of the Greek colony, in a place
called Le Bas Vernegues, near the Pont Royal, on the road from Aix to
Lambesc, is to be seen a temple of the Corinthian order, evidently of
a Greek character, both as regards its general composition and the
Style of its raouldiugs and ornaments, as may be judged by the follow-
ing engraving.

Fig. 1— Leaves of the capital of VernSgues.

The capital of a grave form, notwithstanding the richness of its de-
tails, is decorated with sharp cut leaves, like those still to be seen at
Athens, and on the coasts of Asia Minor. It reminds us of the foliage
used in the decoration of the capitals of Pompeia, sculptured in the
Hellenic school. In the temple of Verm'gues, the bases of the columns,
the mouldings of the pedestal, and the ])roportions of the architraves
have evidently been designed and executed by Greeks.

The influence of the Asiatic colony was not limited to the bounds
of the Marseillese territory, but was felt throughout Gaul, and thus it
is we find at Vienne in Dauphiny, and at St. Remy-en-Provence, the
ancient Glanum, traces of oriental art, as readily to be recognized there
as in the fragments of the Phocean metropolis.

When Gaul came under the power of the Romans the Greek spirit
still survived, as we may see in the case of the two cities just men-
tioned. At Vienne, the capitals of the temple of Augustus and Livia,
were executed on the Greek plan, as may be ascertained by the finely
executed sharp leaves, and in the Museum of Vienne, formed in the
cella of the temple maybe recognized more than one fragment which
shows the Greek chiseLt

* Recueil des Antiquiles et Monumcns Marseillais, 1 vol. 4lo., Marseille,
X77o.

t The reader may consult Antiqtiites de Vienne, 1 vol. in folio, by M. Reg,
Director of the Museum of Vienne. .^ . .,

The tomb of St. Remy, raised for a Roman personage, as the in-
scription, figures and bas relief show, was also of Greek workmanship,
this we can trace in the fragment of a capital represented in the fol-
lowing engraving, and further proved by the Greek contour of the
mouldings.

Fig. 2— Leaves of the capital of St. Remy.

The capitals surmount the colunms, decorating the upper part~of
the tomb ; the sculpture of them is broad and well massed.

The triumphal arch at Orange is a monument cotemporary with the
first victories of the Romans in southern Gaul, in it we trace some-
thing Greek, every detail serving to remind us, in some degree, of that
school. The composition of the mouldings of the entablature, and
particularly those at the top of the architrave bring to mind the pro-
files seen in the ancient edifices of Asia Minor ; a cavelto is seen sur-
mounting a line of ova, reposing on a string of pearls, a detail com-
pletely Ionian.* The modillions, decorating the principal cornice of
the arch, have a remarkable peculiarity which is met with in the
octagonal monument at Athens called the Tower of the Winds, and as
we shall hereafter see reproduced in the Maison Carree at Nimes, aa
edifice of a later date than that on which we are now treating. These
modillions are sculptured in an inverse way from those which de-
corate all the ancient entablatures, the larger part, instead of rest-
ing against the cornice so as to form a console, is on the contrary
near the outer edge of the corona, a very rational arrangement by the
bye if we consider this part of the decoration as being derived from
a wood building, and as the expression of the pendent extremities of
the rafters, supporting the tiles. The resemblance between this enta-
blature at Orange, and the Athenian edifice, which as it is described by
Vitruvius,t must be of ancient date, comes in confirmation of the in-
fluence exercised by Greece on architecture and its details iu southern
Gaul. A specimen of the Greek palmetto is to be found in the midst
of the foliage of the upper ogee of the impost of the Arch at Orange.
The cotlres, decorating the arches are executed with more delicacy
than in any Italian monuments, particularly iu the double arches, where
we observe a happy arrangement which adds to the finish of the exe-
cution. In general, the Roman monuments of southern France show
in their ornamentation a lightness of touch which may be attj-ibuted
to the Greek school ;is introduced by the Phocean colony.

We have already shown what Hellenic elements are observable in
the tomb of St. Remy ; the same we have to notice in the triumphal
arch of that town, particidarly in the double arches decorated w ith.
arabesques. The archivolts of this monument, as well as those of the
triumphal arch of tJrange, are decorated with foliage and fruits, taken
from the produce of the country, an interesting ornament as it makes
us acquainted with the state of culture at that date.S

ROMAN PERIOD.

Out of Provence we perceive a considerable change in the style of
ancient architecture, approaching to the Roman forms, of which Nimes,
one of the richest cities of Europe in antiquities, affords many exam-
ples, having been for a long time opulent enough to construct fine
buildings. Augustus gave walls to Nimes, as is attested by an uiscrip-
tion on the gate, still bearing his name. The Corintliian capitals of
the pilasters of this gate are executed with breadth, and remind us of
the style at that period adopted at Rome. To the same emperor b
attributed a portico which decorated the fountain of the Baths, the
fragments of which are preserved on the site of the Temple of Diana.
In the Maison Carrce are two of the finest bases ever sculptured by

• .See the works of M. Choiseuil Gouffier and of the Dilettanti Society of
London.

t Vitruvius, book 1, chapter 6.

\ See the introductory plates lo the History of France, by Jorand, JoulTray
and K. Brecon.

1841.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

259

the ancients, also parts of the fountain.* At the temple of Diana are to
be seen many fragments of richly ornamented double mouldings, which
decorated the lower part of the great pedestal or stylobate in the cen-
tre of the Baths. They are beautifully executed. Neither must we
omit the long marble frieze of the stylobate of the fountain preserved
in the Maison Carroa.

The temple of Nimes, known by the vulgar name of the Maison
Carri'P, and built in honour of the grandsons of Augustus, was executed
by skilful artists; the capitals, in the Roman manner are broadly
modelled, but we car. see here, as well as on the frieze, abundant
proofs of a ditference in the skill of the several workmen employed.
The raodillions of this temple, as we have already mentioned, exhibit
the same peculiarity as those on the Triumphal Arch at Orange, but
being deeper cut, they are evidently imitations. The great gallery or
colonnade around the temple, forming the sacred bounaarv, shows the
same style of sculpture as the temple itself, but with less luxuriancy
in the details : the frieze was formed of garlands, fruits and flowers,
bound with floating ribands.

Antoninus, who was a native of Nimes, adorned that city with many
important buildings. To him are attributed a temple and a basilica
dedicated to Plautina; and the fragments of sculpture collected in the
Museum, apparently belonging to this goUlen age of art, fully bear out
their claims. Among these may be remarked the eagles supporting
the olive garlands ; and a frieze composed of ox sculls, supporting gar-
lands of fruit.

Vienne, the rich Museum of which is formed' in the temple of
Augustus and Livia, possesses more than one fragment of the best ages
of Roman art.'l' Here are to be seen the cornice, frieze and architrave
of a beautiful entablatiu-e, on the frieze of which is particularly to be
remarked the rosette which serves to unite the bends of the foliage.
The cornice is less remarkable, showing as it does in its niodillions
evident symptoms of the decline of the arts, first, because their form
is that of a console en talon, little in harmony with the richness of the
other members ; second, because these modillions are all decorated
ditferently, which is contrary to the strict rules of the best periods of
art. It is singular that among all the remains of ancient art those of
France alone should be found to present these departures from the
general rule, an exception which we shall have occasion to remark
both during the history of the Roman period, and of the middle ages,
in which this variety of form became the parent of riches to a new
stj'le. In the Museum is also to be seen a beautiful piece of monu-
mental sculpture, forming a frieze, and consisting principally of an
eagle attacking a serpent, (t seems to belong to the time of Septimus
Severus.

Aries, a city of little importance before the time of Constantine,
rapidly increased under the reign of that prince, and became to a cer-
tain extent, the Gallic Rome. Extensive buildings, still in existence,
serv-e to show its splendour, but art was no longer what it was under
the Antonines, the theatre, capitol, amphitheatre, and great ceme-
tery or elyseum, show by the bad taste of their details, and the trans-
position of the principal members of the styles, how complete was
the decadence. The capitol, of which a part is still to be seen in the
Men's Square, consists of a ruin composed of two columns, crowned
with an entablature and the fragment of a pediment; the ornamental
sculpture is neglected, the frieze being composed of scrolls without
character, while in the capitals, the bad proportions of the leaves indi-
cate the period of ignorance at which the monument was erected. The
theatre exhibits greater signs of decadence than even the capitol, the
entablature of the lower story presenting the greatest anomaies, the
sculptors have placed a frieze decorated with triglyphs and rosettes
immediately above the capitals, where the architrave ought to be ;
then come a frieze in bad taste, and a badly proportioned cornice.
In the Museum at Aries is preserved part of a marble entablature,
which appears also to belong to the time of Constantine ; the modil-
lions varying every two and two in their decoration, which we have
already pointed out as contrary to the principles of classic antiquity.

The walls of the city of Sens, of which the destruction, going on
even now, presents numerous details of ancient architecture, placed by
the Romans themselves on hasty foundations made in the time of the
Emperor Julian, have afforded several cases analogous to those we
have mentioned under the head of Aries.

The city of Autun, celebrated in Gaulish history and the capital of
a province, has preserved some remarkable monuments. Those in
the best condition are two gates attributed to Constantine, who was a
great patron of the town. These two military constructions are in
good style, both as regards the architecture and the ornamental sculp-
ture, notwithstanding the well known general decadence of art

* Antiquites de Nimes, by Cleiisseau.
t Antiyuites de Vienne, by Eeg.

which prevailed under the first Christian emperor. In the same city
an ancient entablature of the Gallo-Roraan epoch, which affords an
example unique in France, of modillions sculptured on the angle of
the corona. The ornamental details of this fragment show one of the
last periods of Roman art in Gaul ; we can however recognize the fer-
tile imagination of the native artists, in the variety of motives in the
sculpture, which change the form and character of each modillion.

A triumphal arch of large proportions is formed in the walls of the
city of Rheiras, and is now known as the Gate of Mars. The construc-
tion has been attributed to Cesar by some modern writers, although
there is nothing to give any foundation to this notion. An examina-
tion of the sculptural details of this edifice is enough to prevent its
being assigned to any period anterior to the Lower Empire, and per-
haps it ought rightly to be placed in the time of the emperor Julian,
who fought often enough in the East of Gaul to obtain triumphal
honours in a provincial city. In this monument the sculpture is of
most uncommon barbarism, the foliage being scarcely of a recognizable
form ; the capitals out of proportion surmount heavy and badly chiselled
columns, and the monldings of disagreeable figure are made heavier
by ornaments of which the model is a large hole in the midst of a
shapeless leaf.

mSTORICAL SKETCH ON THE USE OF BRONZE IN

WORKS OF ART.

By Cesar Daly, Architect.

( Translated for the Civil Engineer ayid Architect's Journal, from the
Revue Generate de I' Architecture.)

( Continued/rom page 2 19. J

The exertions of the Italian artists excited general emulation
throughout Europe ; and in a very short time every country used
bronze for the decoration of its public edifices, and to transmit to pos-
terity the deeds of its kings and great captains. Italy erected statues
to the Medici and the Farnese, Spain to Philip HI, Russia to Peter
the Great, Sweden to Gustavus Adolphus, and England to Charles 1st.
Much might be said with regard to the progress of this art, but we
consider ourselves obliged on account of the extent of the subject to
limit it to the history ot bronze in France.

It was under Louis 14th, that this art made rapid progress through
the enlightened endeavours of the two brothers Keller, whose princi-
pal master pieces are yet to be seen adorning the royal palaces of
Versailles and the Tuileries. In IG'.IO, Balthazar Keller cast in one
piece the equestrian statue of Louis 14th, modeled by Girardon. This
colossal mass was more than seven yards high, and yet weighed only
26,072 kil. (57,50 16.) It seemed however as if the art of founding
had only attained this state of perfection soon to fall into decadence ;
the equestrian statue of Louis 15th, cast by Gor in one piece, from the
model of Bouchardon, and afterwards raised on the Place de la Con-
corde, was only 5-40 m. (17 ft. 0 in.) in height, while its weight was
29,370 kil. (CA,775 ib.) During the revolutionary crisis, the only bronze
work was limited to cannon; but under the Empire, bronze was again
appealed to, to take its place among the other arts in representing the
military triumphs of the French. Unfortunately the art had been too
long neglected to allow of success, and some of the first essays were
not prosperous, the statue of Desaix was a complete failure, and the
Column of the Place Vendome is far from being a master-piece of
founding.

According to M. Payen, to whom we are indebted for the following
details, the execution of the Desaix statue was put up to contract, and
it was undertaken for 100,000f. (£4,000), a price in which the bronze
was not included. The contractor gave up his bargain to a bell-
founder, and he knowing nothing of the fashioning of such great works,
and calcdlating upon the basis of his ordinary limited operations, en-
gaged to do it for 20,000f. (£S00) ; but in order to economize as much
as possible, he required that the sculptor should be forbidden from
superintending the moulding. The most difficult hollows were filled
up, in order to avoid the trouble they would occasion ; an attempt was
made to mould in sand with frames, furnaces were erected, and an ill-
constructed scaffolding, and after many useless arrangements and ex-
penses, the bronze was let out, and having burst the moulds, ran about.
Thus the operation completely failed, a good deal of the bronze was
lost, and it was necessary to begin again. The founder then tried to
cast the monument in pieces, but not arranging his moulds well, nor
securing a uniform mixture of the metal, the pieces produced were
dissimilar. He managed however to fit them together, but all the
proportions of the figiu-e were altered, and as these defects could not
be remedied by the chisel, a most wretched monument was produced.

2 N 2

2G0

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[August,

Wlien the Column in the Place Vcndnme was erected, the same
faults were repeated ; a bargain was made with an ironfounder, who
had never been engnged in bronze work, he however had the temerity
to undertake the moulding and finishing at one franc per kilo. C^(l. per
2 Ih.) The government on the other side undertook to deliver to him
in guns, taken from the Russians and Austrians during the cani))aign
of 1805, the quantity of bronze necessary for the completion of this
enormous monument. The founder used a furnace he had for casting
iron, but not being aware of the phenomena of bronze casting, and
urged by his vanity to attempt in the first instance the casting of
several uf the great pieces of the base of the coKunn, he encountered
several defeats. Each time he necessarily altered the alloy by oxidiz-
ing the tin, lead and zinc, which metals so oxidized passed into the
scoriae or were carried off by the current of warm air. He did not
perceive this cause of continual loss, and continued to produce the bas
reliefs; but it may be readily conceived that they contained more
copper than the bronze of the'guns. When the founder had got two
thirds through the column, lie found out that he had got uo more metal,
■and being, according to contract, responsible for the metal delivered
to him, he was at once ruined. In this lamentable situation he tried
to melt up the white metal obtained from the reduction of the scoriae,
and a large quantity of refuse metal which he had bought up at a low
price. The bas reliefs which he obtained from the mixture of all
these materials were marked with blotches and lead spots, their colour
from a dirty grey became quite black ; the authorities refused to re-
ceive work so defective, and put his foundiy under sequestration.
He succeeded, after much petitioning, in obtaining a committee to
examine his accounts, which was composed of two chemists, two
architects, two mechanical engineers, and two founders, with an auditor
of the Council of Slate for the chairman. The weight of each piece
delivered by the founder was known; specimens were taken from
them, and the proportional parts weighed, from which was made an
ingot representing the mean composition of the whole column. It was
then found by analysis that it contained :

Copper - - - 89-140

Tin .... 7.200

Lead - - - - 3-313

Silver, zinc, iron - - 0-047

100
The committee then took specimens of bronze from the guns re-
maining in the government stores, and an ingot was formed to repre-
sent as nearly as possible the mean composition. The analysis of this
ingot gave the following proportions:

Copper - - - 89-3iiO

Tin .... iu-0-10

Lead .... 0-10-2

Silver, zinc, iron, loss - 0-40S

100

It was further known, that the law in France had fixed the composi-
tion of gun metal at 90 parts of copper and 10 of fin per cwt., but that
this law was never well executed, and during the revolution scarcely
attended to at all ; it was also known that these foreign guns were of
a more complicated and baser alloy than the Frent-li. Taking all
these circumstances into consideration the committee were of opinion
that the founder had produced an alloy, if not superior, at least equal,
to that which had been given to him; and that they considered that
he could not be charged with fraud in his contract. The chemical
operations fuither explained the whole proceeding; by making separate
analyses of the specimens of the great bas reliefs, the shaft, and the
capital, it was found that the first had only 0-OG alloy per quintal ; the
second, particularly towards the upper part, and the third contained
as much as 0-21. It was therefore evident that the founder not know-
ing how to manage bronze, had refined his alloy by several times re-
melting, and consequently diminished the total weight, and that to
make up for this loss, he was obliged to put into the last castings the
white metal extracted from tlie scoria. Thus he had given bronze of
too good alloy in the beginning, which had obliged him at last to make
the alloy too low. The moulding of the several bas reliefs was so
badly executed, that the chaser employed to go over them, removed
by chiseling or filing, a weight of bronze equal to 70,000 kils. (7 tons),
■which were given to him, besides a sum of 300,000f. (£12,000) paid
down.

It was certainly hard to pay so dearly for experience, but fortunately
it was profitable ; not however that all the subsequent bronze works in
France have been more successful, for the founders liad to submit to
several severe checks, and were obliged to study the processes, and
proportions necessary to form a good alloy. Thus when in 1817 Lemot

was employed to cast the equestrian statue of Henry 4th, now on the
Pont Xeuf, he at least took the precaution to take specimens from three
bronze statues of Keller at Versailles, which were the best, with re«
gard to casting, green colour, and the grain. The following is the
result of his analvsis.

No. 1.

2.

3.

Mean.

Copper

91-3

91-G8

91-22

91-4

Tin

1-

2-32

1-7S

1-7

Zinc

G-09

4-93

5-57

5-53

Lead

1-Gl

1-07

1-43

1-37

100-

100-

100-

100-

Lemot thought that he had gained experience enough from these
analyses, but he did not escape from serious difficulties during the
casting. Wishing to make use of the furnace, which had been built
for casting the equestrian statue of Louis loth, formerly in the Place
de la Concorde, but the furnace not having sufficient draught for the
fusion of Keller's alloy, in which there was more copper than in that
of the statue of Louis 15th, he was obliged after several trials to make
great changes, and still the casting did not perfectly succeed. The
body of the king had several hollows in it, and the belly of the horse
failed, a hole so large having been formed that it was obliged to be
filled up; further 14,000 kilo. (14 tons) of oxidized rubbish was sold

off-
Casting in bronze, although presenting only slight difficulties in the

manufacture of objects of small dimensions, has always required greater
responsibility when it is required to form considerable masses, per-
fectly homogeneous. The component metals are deficient in energetic
affinity for each other, when in fusion tend to separate in the order
of their densities, and, when the less fusible begin to solidify, the
others in a liquid state, rise up towards the top, where the easy
oxidation of a component part of the alloy always causes the risk of
refining the metal. Besides these great obstacles, others are encoun-
tered in calculating the several component parts of the bronze, where
it is wished to obtain precisely the required quantity of metal for the
object to be cast, also in the preparation of the model, the construction
of the furnace, and the disposition of the moulds. These and other
difficulties explain bow many abortive attempts sometimes preceded
in former days the casting of a large work in bronze. They point out
why Falconnet was 15 years casting the equestrian statue of Peter the
Great, which figures on an immense monolithic pedestal at St. Peters-
burg; why the Kellers were 9 years casting the statue of Louis 14th;
why Bouchardon and his successor Pigalle took 8 years for that of
Louis 15th, on the Place de la Concorde ; why the statue of Desaixi
and we may almost say the Column of the Place Vendome, failed, and
why the great equestrian statues we have mentioned did not come
perfect out of their moulds. The statue of Peter the Great was ob-
liged to be begun again from the knees of the Czar and the breast of
the horse, to the top of the statue. Bouchardon had much trouble in
restoring the delicate forms of the horse in his beautiful equestrian
statue of Louis 15th, which were badly produced in the lower part,
and we have related the difficulties encountered by Lemot and Piggiani
in casting the statue of Henry the 4th, difficulties which lasted four
years. We cannot better finish this essay than by mentioning those
which have just been surmounted in casting the various parts of the
July Column, and for the better effecting this we shall compare it with
the Column of the Place Vendome, which is the only one having any
analogy to it. The Vendome Column is only coated with bronze, and
the largest pieces are only five yards in extent, while each of its tam-
bours is composed of six pieces, and the whole cost of the column in
specie and metal provided by the state was 2 millions (£80,000).
The July column on the other hand is entirely of bronze, and each
tambour is in one piece, the base of the column extends about 16 yards,
and the capital at the most extended place has the enormous dimen-
sion of 26 metres, 85 feet. This column however only cost 1,17-2,000
francs (£46,880).

Inequalities in the thickness of the parts constitute one of the great
difficulties of casting, because the thin parts cooling rapidly, and the
thick parts slowly, the shrinking of the former taking place sooner
than that of the "latter is apt to split the metal. It may be also con-
ceived that the shrinking of a large object is so much more than that
of a small one, as its dimensions are greater, and the necessity for
taking this into consideration causes a fresh difficulty in the construc-
tion of the mould, which must be calculated so as to provide for the
contingency. It is easy in the same way to conceive that the least
motion of the mould, during the operation, will cause the required
thickness to be exceeded. These considerations will explain the
difficulties which had to be surmounted in casting the several parts of
the Column of July, and as to th^ statue we cannot do better than re-

1841.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHlTECrS JOURNAL.

261

publish an extract from the report of M. Hericarb de Thuiy, made to
the Societe d' Encouragement, on the improvements introduced by M.
Soyez in the moulding of bronze sculptures.

"This statue 4'25 m. (11 feet) in height, supported on the toe,
and bending forward, presented great difficulties in the moulding, and
still greater in the casting, as the solidity of the statue depended on
the extreme lightness of the upper parts, and the strength of the leg
on which it is supported. Had the old methods been resorted to, the
figure would most probably have failed, or have been tried in several
pieces ; because the upper part being very thin would cool down im-
mediately, while the lower part cooling more slowly, would have con-
tracted on itself, leaving at the ancles an opening of about 25 milli-
metres (au inch), the metal contracting from 12 to 14 millimeires per
metre (4 an inch) and the statue would undoubtedly have been lost.
To obviate these difficulties, M. Soyez determined upon casting it
head downwards, by which he diminished the danger, I say diminished,
for in this posture, the mould must have yielded, or the leg broken
above the ancle. To provide for this, Jr. Soyez placed on each side of
the foot a branch of copper G-6 met. (2t) in.) broad, finishing in a strong
head, so as to force the foot to contract on the knee. Further these
branches were so managed as to be rather thinner than the leg. Full
success crowned the trial of this bold and ingenious innovation, the
casting of this admirable statue succeeded in every detail, being per-
haps the first time that a figure of this importance was cast without
any defect. The thickness of the statue is from 4 to 5 millimetres (a
sixth to a fifth of an inch) in the upper part, except the wings, which
are only 2 millimetres. The supporting leg is 55 millimetres (2i
inches) thick, beginning from the ancle, and progressively diminishes
in thickness up to the thigh."

The monument of July undoubtedly marks a new era in the history
of the art of bronze casting, and places France in the first rank in its
pursuit, and in order to do justice to M. Soyez, we must mention some
of the improvements effected by him. This artist has got rid of
the use of iron as a means of consolidating isolated parts of figures,
and particularly in supporting members ; he casts these parts full by
turning the figure upside down, which is an important innovation. He
gets over the resistance of the sand of the mould on the contraction of
the metal, not only by the weight of the mould, but by the progressive
tenacity of the bronze while cooling. This tenacity, which may be
considered as proportional to the area of the section of the part so
cast, is increased at pleasure by accessary parts placed in the mould
according as they are wanted. It is thus that the Genius of Liberty
■was cast, having as it were a second shapeless leg placed parallel to
that which supports the figure, and intended to become at the period
of contraction, auxiliary to the statuary leg to which it was united by
the two extremities. Thus also was cast the bent back leg of the
horse of Charles Emmanuel of Savoy. In order to prevent this leg from
breaking in the ham when cooling, the foot was united to the thigh by
a strong tenon, which was afterwards chiselled away.

ENGINEERING WORKS OF THE ANCIENTS, No. 7,

WORKS OF HERCULES.

Besides the performance of the Egyptian Hercules already mention-
ed, Diodorus Siculus, Book 4th, gives an account of several works of
the Greek Hercules. Not to speak of the operations attributed to
him at the Straits of Gibraltar, there w ere two hydraulic works in
Greece said to have been executed by him. The large champain
country about Tempe being all over a stagnant lake, he cut trenches
through the lower grounds, and through these trenches drained all the
water out of the lake, by which means were reclaimed all the pleasant
fields of Thessaly as far as the River Peneus. In Beotia he did quite
the contrary, for to punish the Minyoe it is related that he caused a
river to overflow the whole country, and turn it into a standing pool.
In his passage of the Alps from Gaul, an expedition in which he was
the predecessor of Hannibal and Napoleon, he levelled and opened the
rough and difficult ways to make way for bis army and carriages. In
Italy Hercules performed some remarkable works about the Lake
Avernus, for whereas the lake extended as far as the sea, Hercules is
said by casting up earth, to have stopped up its current, and to have
made the way near the sea, called the Herculean way. — In Sicily to
express his good wishes for the inhabitants, he caused a pond or tank
to be sunk near the city of the Agrineans, four furlongs in compass,
which he caUed after his own name. — In Greece Hercules had the
further merit of having diverted the River Achelous into another
channel which he had dug for it. This irrigated a considerable part
of the country, and was done to please the Calydonians. It gave rise

to the poetical fable that Hercules fought with Achelous transformed
into the shape of a bull, and in the conflict cut oft" one of his horns and
gave it to the Etolians. This they call Amalthea's horn, in which the
poets feign that there grows all manner of summer fruit, as grapes,
apples, and such like, not the only time by the bye that engineers have
filled the horn of plenty.

DED.\.LnS — ENGINEERING FESTIVALS.

Diodorus gives a long account of Dedalus, from which we have
made the following extracts. Dedalus was an Athenian of the family
of the Erechthids, being the son of Hymetion, son of Eupalamus, son
of Erechtheus, King cf Athens. He was extraordinarily ingenious, and
very studious in the art of architecture, an excellent statuary and en-
graver upon stone, and improved those arts with many notable inven-
tions. Dedalus was obliged to flee to Crete for the murder of his
nephew Talus, who was killed by him out of envy. To Dedalus is
attributed the invention of sails for ships. After leaving Crete he
staid with Cocalus and the Sicilians, in whose country Diodorus, a
native, says that works of his were to be seen in that day.

While on the subject of Dedalus we must not omit what the Bio-
graphie Universelle says on the subject of festivals established in his
honour. When the Plateans returned to their native city, 311 B.C.,
after an exile of sixty years, they instituted an annual festival called
Dedalia, which every sixtieth year was celebrated with extraordinary
magnificence. All the trees cut down were made into statues callei
Daedala. The name of Dedalia was also given to a Theban fete in
honour of the reconciliation effected between Jupiter and Juno by
Cithero.

talcs.

Talus is sometimes called Atalus, Calus, and Acalus ; he was the
nephew of Dedalus, as before mentioned, and murdered by him. Being
the son of Dedalus's sister, and but a young boy, he was bred up with
his uncle to learn his trade. Talus for ingenuity exceeded his uncle,
and invented the potter's wheel ; he got likewise a serpent's jaw bone,
and with it sawed a little piece of wood asunder, then in imitation of
the tooth in the jaw, he made the like in iron, and so he found out an
instrument for sawing the greatest pieces of timber. He invented
likewise the turner's lathe and many other tools.

PROMETHEUS — CRETAN HERCULES — VESTA — MINERVA — VXTLCAN.

Prometheus is according to some the first who stole fire from the
gods, and bestowed it upon men (Book 5th), but the truth is he found,
out the way how to strike fire out of flint or stone. The Idsei Dactyli
are also said to have found out the use of fire. They discovered the
nature of iron and brass to the inhabitants of the Antisapterians, near
the mountain Berecynthus, and taught the manner of working it, and
because they were the first discoverers of many things of great use
and advantage to mankind, they were adored" and worshipped as
gods. One of them they say was called Hercules, a person of great
renown. After them were nine Curetes who invented swords and
helmets. — Vesta invented the building of houses, and upon this ac-
count almost everybody sets up her statue in their houses, and adores
her with divine honours. — Minerva was the introducer of architecture,
and also according to our chronicler of the use of garments, so that
architecture and tailoring according to him boast one common parent.
Vulcan they say found out the working of iron, brass, silver and gold,
and all other metals that require forging by fire; and the general use
of fire in all other cases was found out by him.

XERXES — AGRIGENTUM — PHEAX — THEjaSTOCLES — DIVERSION OF
THE NILE.

The Eleventh Book of Diodorus, is on Greek history, he mentions
Xerxes throwing a bridge over the Hellespont, and cutting a canal
through Mount Athos.

The Agrigentines in Sicily having acquired great spoil by the defeat
of the Carthaginians, took the greater part of the prisoners into the
public service, and employed them in cutting and hewing stone. They
not only set them to build the largest of the temples, but made water
courses and sewers underground, so great and wide, that though the
work itself was contemptible, yet when done and seen was worthy of
admiration. The overseer and master of the work was one Pheax, an
excellent artificer, from whom these conduits were called Pheaces.
The Agrigentines likewise formed a tank for fish, at great cost and
expense, seven furlongs in compass, and twenty cubits deep. This by
neglect of succeeding ages, filled up with mud, and at last through
length of time turned wholly into dry ground ; but the soil beingvery
fat and rich, it was planted, and yielded the city a large revenue.

Themistocles has the merit of projecting and carrying into effect the
construction of a haven at the PyrEeus, by which the naval power of
Athens was greatly increased. "The account of his negociations with

262

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[AtJSUST,

the assembly of the people is of much interest in an historical sense,
but not immediately relating to the end we have in view, we are com-
pelled to omit it.

In the '21st chapter is mentioned the diversion of the Nile during
the war between the Persians and Egyptians.

BLOCKING I'l' OK THE EURIPeS.

In his 13th Book our historian describes the measures taken by the
inhabitants of Euboea on their revolt from the Athenians. This island
being separated from the continent only by the narrow strait of the
Euripus, they solicited the Beotians to assist then) in stopping if up,
in order that they might receive assistance against any attacks from
the Athenians who were masters of the sea. To this the Beotians
agreed, and all the cities set upon the work, and everyone strove with
diligence to perfect it, all the citizens, foreigners and strangers being
set to work. The mole began at Chalcis in Eubcea on one side, and
at Aulis in Beotia on the other, that being the narrowest part. In these
straits the sea was very boisterous and rough, but after this work much
more unquiet and raging, the passage being made so very straight and
narrow, that only one ship could pass througli. There were forts built
on both sides upon the extremities of the moles, and wooden bridges
made over the currents for communication.

CARTHAGTXIAN EN'GIXEERIXG.

Our author gives an account of several sieges by the Carthaginians
in Sicily, who appear from his account to have been as skilful as the
Greeks in military warfare. At Oie siege of Himera in Sicily, Hannibal
the elder (Book 13th), undermined the walls, supporting them with
great pieces of timber, which being set a-fire, a great part of the walls
suddenly fell down.

In the 20th Book, in the account of the expedition of Agathocles
into Africa, there is a description which mentions, the country as
well irrigated and supplied with canals and sluices.

JIACEDO.N'IAN GOLD MINES.

Philip, King of Macedon, (Book 16th), having taken Crenidas, and
called it Philippi, so improved the gold mines in those parts, which
before were but inconsiderable and obscure, that by building of houses
for the w orks he advanced them to bring in a yearly revenue of above
a thousand talents.

ALEXANDER THE GREAT.

The siege of Tyre by Alexander the Great, recounted in the IGth
Book, required the execution of works on a very great scale. Alex-
ander demolished Old Tyre, as it was then called, and with the stones
carried by many thousands of men, raised a mole two hundred feet in
breadth across the sea, width by the help of the inhabitants of the
neighbouringcities, who were impressed for the purpose, was speedily
carried out a considerable way. This mole was afterwards injured by
a violent storm, when Alexander caused it to be repaired with trees
laden with earth, and so again brought it near the city. By this and
many other operations he was able to take the city, after a gallant de-
fence, in which the inhabitants displayed much ability.

In the memorandum books of Alexander examined after his death,
(Book !&th),were fou .d heads of six colossal plans, among which were
the following, — that a plain and easy road siiould be made straight
along the sea coast of Afnca to the Pillars of Hercules, that sis mag-
nificent temples should he built, and that arsenals and ports should be
made in places convenient for the great navy he contemplated. These
things, although highly approved by the Macedonians, yet because
they seemed things beyond all measure impracticable, were desired
to be laid aside.

INUNDATIONS.

During the Seleucian war, (Book 19th), the Macedonians under
Eumenes encamped on the banks of the Tigris, about three hundred
furlongs from Babylon, Seleucus occupying the river with a flotilla of
small vessels. The Seleucians, having sailed to au old water course,
cut down the banks at a part where it had been filled up from length
of time, ujicn this the Macedonian camp was surrounded with water,
and all the tract of ground overflowed, so that the army was in great
danger of being utterly lost. At last removing a great part of his
army in fiat bottom boats, he caused all the Macedonians to repass the
river, and then for the purpose of recovering his carriages and baggage,
by the direction of one of the native inhabitants, he set about cleansing
such another like place, by which the water might be easily diverted,
and the ground all round about drained dry. When Seleucus per-
ceived this he granted a truce, and the works were suspended.

In the same book is the account of the natural inundation, bv which
tlic city of Rhodes was so much injured. Rhodes being built in the
form of a theatre, and the rain very heavy, the water ran for the most

part into one place, and the lower parts of the city were presentlv filled
with water, for the winter being looked upon as over, no care had been
taken to cleanse the channels and sewers, and the pipes likewise in
the walls were choked up, so that the water stood several feet deep,
until part of the city wall breaking down, the pressure was suddenly
relieved,

PILEWORK.

In a mention of the Cimmerian Bosphorus in Book 20th, it is related
that the king's palace was surrounded with the river Thasis, and that
there was a road to it through tlie fens, guarded with forts and towers
of timber, raised upon pillars over the water.

DEMETRIUS POLIORCETES.

We find in the 20th Book a long account of the siege of Rhodes by
the celebrated Demetrius, who among other works made extensive
mines under the city walls, which being told to the Rhodians, by a
deserter, the Rhodians made a deep trench along the walls, which was
now ready to be tumbled down, and forthwith fell to countermining,
and at length met the enemy under ground, and so prevented the mine
from proceeding any farther.

MR. MUSHET'S PAPERS ON IROX AND STEEL.— No. 3.

Sir — The opinions adopted by Drs. Ure and Karsten respecting the
quantity of carbon in iron, namely, assigning to white cast iron a
larger proportion than to gray, and taking the manifestation of the
graphite fracture in the latter as a certain sign that the quantity of
carbon in the metal is on the decrease, appear to me so much at
variance with, and subversive of, all that practical men have under-
stood and believed upon this subject, that it is my intention, with
vour permission, to make a few remarks upon the matter, in order to
ascertain, by an examination of facts, how far they are borne out by
the appearances which we every day see exhibited on the scale of
manufacture, and in the manipulation of the metallurgical department
of the laboratory.

I hope your readers will not consider I have travelled out of my
way to make any gratuitous observations on Dr. Ure's most elaborate
work further than the necessity of the case required, seeing his views
of the subject are at direct variance with my table of the proportions
of charcoal used in the fusion, and in forming the various qualities of
iron and steel so frequently referred to in these letters.

As a prelude to the subject, and with a view to enable your readers
to arrive at a more clear understanding of the points at issue, I shall
define and class the distinct characteristics which cast iron assumes.
Nothing can be more marked in the page of metallurgy than those
divisions in the progressive stages of this metal:

1st. Steel-grained cast-iron, or erode steel.
2nd. White cast iron.
3rd. Gray cast iron.
In the absence of chemical analyses, but grounded upon numerous
direct and comparative experiments, I have considered steel-grained
cast iron to contain from 1 to li percent., the white cast iron from
In to 2A per cent., and gray c.ist iron from 2i to 4, or, when richly
carburetted, to 44 or o per cent.

Steel-grained cast iron is rarely to be met with at the blast furnaces
in this country : decided traces of it are occasionally to be found in
the commencement of a blast, particularly should the furnace be
started with too heavy a charge; a high temperature being required
to maintain its fluidity, it either sets on the bottom of the furnace, to
be cleared ofl' afterwards by an alloy of gray iron, or it escapes with
the white iion when the furnace is tapped. At this juncture, which,
when steel-grained iron is produced, is always one of ditKculty in the
afiairs of tlie furnace, should the iron which has been obtained be
examined, it will be found possessed of a white fracture, frequently
mixed with a portion of the steel-grained iron.

Calcareous ores, however, afford the steel-grained cast iron more
as a natural product ; the supposed alloy of the metal of lime with
the iron produced from those ores, renders the white cast iron more
lively and fluid than the gray, and becomes in some measure a sub-
stitute for carbon in maintaining a considerable degree of fluidity,
when the metal is at any time passing into the steel-grained quality,
so as it may be run out cf the furnace in quantity, and with a com-
paratively clean cinder.

Castings made of such iron possess a degree of strength quite
unknown in the general operations of the foundry ; they will beat up
like soft steel, and acquire by hammering a permanent flexure like
malleable iron ; but, as far as my information and experience go, all
attempts hitherto to remelt it have failed.

Rare as this peculiar state of the metal may appear to the iron

1841.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL

263

maker of this country, yet the whole of his nietaUic produce, in pass-
ing through the furnace, must have, in the first instance, been sulijected
to this process of steelification, before it absorbed enough of carbon to
constitute it white cast iron. It may, however, be produced at any
time artificially, by exposing white cast iron, particularly of that
quality that merges on the steel-grained, in an open or covered fur-
nace for some time to the action of a red heat, the time of exposure
to be commensurate to the thickness of the iron employed. This
operation has the etiect of discharging the white or lamellar fracture,
and substituting in its place one of a grayish colour, very dense, and
minutely steel-grained, the process itself being one of decarbonization,
and which, from its colour and softness under tlie file, ought not to be
taken, as it sometimes is, for a manifestation of an increased quantity
of carbon in the iron.

2ndly, as white cast iron occupies a position between steel-grained
and graphite or gray iron, and is frequently found merging in both,
it of course possesses a variety of quality and character greater than
either of the other tw^o, so as to render the details of experiments
made with this variety of the metal subject to greater uncertaintv
than with the graphite or steel-grained.

Dr. Ure has assigned no definite quantity of carbon to the steel-
grained iron, but that, in his estimation, it possesses a notable propor-
tion, may be gathered from what foUovi's: he assigns to white cast
iron a maximum dose of .V^ per cent., and further states that with a
proportion of 4A per cent, it still retains its white or lamellar fracture.
So that in the absence of more correct data, it may be inferred that
when the change to steel-grained iron has taken place, the iron has
lost 1 per cent, and still retains about 3i per cent, of carbon, so that
as it regards carbon, the iron is in the same situation with good
foundry iron, but observe the difiference when this theory is tested by
practice — the foundry iron will melt in an air furnace, and come out
as fluid as water, while the steel-grained iron, under the same circum-
stances would not melt at all, but pass rapidly into the state of mal-
leable iron.

3rdly, graphite or gray cast iron first makes its appearance by small
dark specks inserted on the fracture of the white iron, and at this
stage it is said to be mottled when those specks cover the entire sui'-
face, and receive, from the addition of more carbon, some degree of
lustre, the iron is said to be bright gray ; as the fracture becomes more
open, and the colour darker, it is called dark gray iron; and when
uniformly open throughout with a smooth surface, it is called best
foundry iron.

Hitherto it had been supposed and believed that white cast iron
contained a much less quantity of carbon — that the change of fracture
from white to gray was in consequence of the iron absorbing or be-
coming united with a large share of that substance — that whatever
carbon white iron contained, the graphite was so much in addition,
and never considered as a symptom of its abatement.

Dr. Ure, however, holds a contrary opinion ; according to him, the
greatest quantity of carbon which can be united to the metal is in the
state of white iron, and may be to the extent of 5i per cent, as the
iron becomes more gray by the addition of carbonaceous matter in
the furnace, the quantity of carbon in it diminishes inversely to 3i or
4 per cent. This I confess is a paradox of difficult solution, as it in-
volves, to a certain extent, the operation of substracting during a pro-
cess of repeated additions.

Independent of this, the new theory is to me abundantly perplexing,
as the student has to deal with carbon in a considerable variety of
states with which he bad not been formerly familiar. We have " free
carbon, residuum of plumbago and carbon, graphite or plumbago,
combined carbon, carbon uruiltered, carbon in mechanical mixture,
carbon in a state of alteration, &c." The most of this is new and
strange to me, but I may inquire whether Dr. Ure ever separated
carbon from cast iron by mechanical means that were not magnetic.

Were the new theory true, we should be obliged to abandon the old
legitimate conclusion that iron and steel were fusible in proportion to
the carbon they contained, but now inversely, seeing white pig iron,
which is said to contain the most carbon, is much more infusible than
gray iron.

The process of refining pig iron for the manufacture of bar iron,
would, under Dr. Ure's system, be no longer a decarbonating operation,
but the reverse ; for when the gray pig iron introduced into the fur-
nace, had acquired the white or lamellar fracture, it would be found
to have absorbed or taken up 1-^ of carbon in addition, being the
difference between 3^, the utmost that forge iron may be supposed to
contain, and 5^, the quantity assigned to white iron, and this during
an operation of the most severe decarbonization with which we are
acquainted.

In like manner, suppose a founder was to charge his air-fumace
with 2000 ft. or any other quantity of gray pig iron, which is known

to contain 3i per cent, of carbon by repeated fusions, accompanied
with a considerable loss of iron, it would at last become possessed of
the white or lamellar fracture, and have acquired nearly 2 per cent,
more of carbon while passing through a reiietition of consecutive
fusions. To believe this for one moment appears to me the climax of
absurdity.

Again, in the blast furnace a comparatively limited quantity of coke
only is necessary merely to fuse the charge, and cause the whole to
flow in one common slag, without any portion of the iron being sepa-
rated. More coke, that is carbon, is added, separation takes place,
the iron becomes white, and partakes of the lamnielated fracture, and
may at that period"be supposed to contain the maximum dose of 5J
per cent, of carbon. The manufacturer, aiming at a more profitable
result, adds more and more carbon in the furnace, until he has attained
his object as to quality ; but, according to the new doctrine, while he
has been adding carbon in the furnace, it has been uniformly diminish-
ing in the pig iron.

The pig iron maker might naturally put the following questions:
if white pig iron absorbs 5i per cent, of tlie fuel by weight, how is it
that this augmentation is not felt in the yield of our ores, but quite
the contrary, whereas, when the furnace is making gray iron, the yield
from our ores is considerably better i

The operator in the laboratory may be apt to doubt and inquire how
it is that, after obtaining his metallic result in white cast iron, and
with a fine gloss, he can at anv time, by the addition of charcoal,
augment the produce of his ore from 1 to 3 per cent. This fact has
been known and acted upon by myself for at least 40 years, so that
when carburetted results have been obtained beyond the range of the
blast furnace, an allowance has been made in the yield of the ore for
their extra dose of carbon.

The steel iron maker of Kindostan might well call in question the
truth of the new theory upon the most solid and philosophic grounds;
for were it so that white cast iron contained more carbon than gray
iron, he would decidedly make white iron in preference, for he could
do it for for one third of its present cost for charcoal ; but he has
continued for ages to make gray iron, for the best of all reasons, viz.,
that his customers can, with gray iron, convert into steel a greater
quantity of malleable iron than they can with white.*

On the same grounds I make no doubt that Agricola understood the
secret of making iron like the East Indian (gray cast iron), for the pur-
pose of converting, by steeping therein his malleable iron, into steel,
and on the same principle, namely, that of its possessing more carbon
to communicate to the iron.

I shall, for the present, furnish no further objection to the theory of
Drs. Ure and Karsten, but conclude by stating the follovping facts as
being finally conclusive against it : — quantities of gray cast iron, white
cast iron, and steel-grained cast iron, were reduced to powder so
small as to pass a sieve containing 900 holes in the square inch of its
surface, my purpose being to form a species of metallic charcoal to be
used in the reduction of an ore of iron, confident that that iron which
contained the greatest proportion of carbon would revive from the ore
the greatest per centage of iron. A micaceous ore was used in pre-
ference, from its presenting more surface to the iron, and which con-
tained 70 per cent, of iron ; with the powder made from gray iron
40 per cent, was on the average obtained from the ore, besides making
good the weight of the original quantity of iron introduced into the
crucible, whereas, when the same experiment was carried into effect
with the white and steel-grained iron, not only was there no yield
obtained from the ore, but the original iron had sustained a loss
van'ing from 4 to S per cent.

I will now make a few final remarks upon the subject of the
alleged quantity of carbon contained in steel, on which subject I find
my opinions as widely dilterent from those of Drs. Karsten and Ure as
upon the proportion which they allege is contained in white cast iron,
and which has been alluded to at large in my former communications
on this subject.

Dr. Karsten, whom Dr. Ure quotes upon most occasions on the sub-
ject of iron and steel, says that he has found the proportions of carbon
in steel v-ary from Ij to "2| per cent. ; now in noticing this latter pro-
portion, I have no hesitation in saying that 2'i per cent, of carbon
united with iron would not form steel at all, but white cast iron.
Again, it is said that the proportion in blistered steel reaches, some-
times, but never exceeds, IJ per cent., so that we are led to infer that
some sort of steels contains 1 per cent, more carbon than that which is
said to be contained in steel of cementation. According to my know-
ledge and view of the matter, steel of any sort united with IJ per
cent, of carbon, would not at any degree of heat extend under the
hammer, or be applied to any useful purpose. 1| per cent, would be

* See my Papers on Iron and Steel, page 670.

2C4

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[August,

nearly equal to jV part the weight of the iron; now j^ part the weight
of iron of charcoal fused with Swedish charcoal bar iron on the scale
of manufacture, affords cast steel of a very high qualitv, which requires
careful working at a low red heat to convert it into form; any in-
crease of charcoal beyond this proportion would entirely destrov its
ductility, either cold or hot. Should an adequate allowance be made
for the waste which the charcoal must unavoidably undergo in the
crucible, before the affinity is established between it and the bar iron,
and for the moisture which, in common with all charcoal, it contains,
probably not more than i of its weight becomes united to the iron in
the process of fusion.

In proof that Dr. Karsten's estimate of the proportions of carbon
forming steel is excessive, I refer to the celebrated Bergman's analysis
of Swedish steel iron and steel. According to him, the proportion of
carbon in steel is (or ^j^ P^ir') - - "oO

Caibon originally in the iron - '12

Taken up by the iron in passing into the state
of steel, equal ^j^ ?*"■' ! -^ proportion very
different from those furnished by Dr. Karsten,
which range from ^ to ^ij- - - "SS

A still less proportion of carbon was found in the laborious analyses
of four specimens of French steel iron performed by M. Vauquelin,
and which seems to have carried the dose of carbon to the opposite
extreme.

*Specimen No. 1, contained of carbon - - 'llOZSO

Do. 2 do. - - •001183

Do. 3 do. . . -00789

Do. 4 do. - . -00043

I also subjoin a very accurate and interesting analysis made bv Mr.
Teimant at Glasgow, and inserted in the Gth volume of the transactions
of the British Association, of cast steel made from Danamora iron,
which, in point of proportion, coincides with my view of the matter :

99-28S
•190
•3S8
•134

Iron
Manganese
Carbon -
Loss

100- parts.

This proportion is equal to ^^ part the weight of the steel, and ex '
hibits in a most striking point of view, the minute proportion of car-
bon which communicates to iron the varied and enduring properties
of steel, without which, or some equally powerful substitute, arts and
manufactures would soon become stationary.

^ . Your's, &c.,

Cole/ord, June 17. d. Mushet.

P.S. When Dr. Ure revises the article upon the assay of iron ores,
I should recommend him to substitute some other glass or flux for flint
glass, as it would be inconvenient and perplexing for the juvenile
assayist to have to deal with a button of iron over-riding one of lead,
the former containing a little lead, and the latter some iron.

PLATE LAYERS GAUGE LINE.

/

/, four lengths of 16 feet rai's, with the set-ups at o and p.

n, p, the set-ups on the rail with the line fixed, and shoviing the reel at p.

g, b, ditto across the ditto.

m, n, section ot chairs and rail, with the instrument placed.

r, r, r, top of rail when corrected.

^n/

Sir — I take the liberty of handing to you the annexed rough sketch
of a plate-layer's line, &c., for the purpose of enabling the plate-layer
to keep nearly a correct gradient on the surface of the rails, between
two correct heights, at the distance of four or five 10 feet rails. If
you think this of any use, or worthy of insertion in your widely cir-
culated Journal, it is at your service, at the same time I beg to say
that I am not aware of its ever being applied, but from the best con-
sideration I am able to give on its ntility, I am persuaded that it may
be applied to advantage, more particularly on railways like the Great
North of England, which has so many favourable positions for a great
distance in a straight line.

The instrument can be made very portable, and of a light construc-
tion, readily fixed on the cheeks of "the joint chairs, at any distance re-
?|uired, by merely placing the claws of each set-up on them, no other
astening being required.

One of the set-ui)s (or gauge) is furnished with a reel and ratch, so
that when the line is wound tight, it will be kept from slackisg; the
line must be made fast to the other 'set-up,' and at equal distance
from the top of the rail with the other. When the points at a and e,
(sketch/) are connected, the instrument may be then fixed on these
places ; when the intermediate blocks, &c., at 6, c, and d, may be beat
up to the proper height, by gauging from the line to the top of rail,
(as per dotted line at/, r;) the line may be so arranged as to stretch
from the points a and t, on the surface of the rail, and the intermediate
rails then brought up to the line, so that no gauging would be required,
but I believe the first process would answer the best.
Your obedient servant,

M. Q.

Yorl!, June 13, 1841.

If you refer to page 184, 1 wish you to correct an error in the weight

* See Mushet on Iron and Steel, and the quarto edition of Nicholson's
Journal.

of chairs, &c., the following is the correct statement, and should have
been inserted : —

Joint chair - - 40 lb. each.

Middle - - 30 „

Check - - 41 „

M. Q.

CHIMNEY FLUES.

Sir — According to the new Act, chimney flues are, in future, not to
be less than 14 inches by 9 inches, or (if cylindrical,) 12 inches diame-
ter. Is this meant to apply to the whole extent of the flue ? for if so,
all chimney-pots, &c., of less diameter are at once condemned ; as far
as such unsightly terminations are concerned, that will however be no
loss ; but as experience has proved that when flues exceed a certain
size, contraction becomes necessary, at the top at least, to ensure a
good draught, if that is henceforth not to be permitted, the fire-places,
in order to contain fire enough to rarify the greater column of air that
will thus be exposed to its influence, must be enlarged to an incon-
venient extent.

Your opinion on the proper construction of the Act, will oblige your
obedient servant,

A Subscriber.

N.B. According to Tredgold on this subject, flues seldom ought to
be more than 8 or 9 inches in diameter, indeed frequently much less ;
and when climbing boys are no longer permitted, there can be no
objection whatever to making them of any size that the particular
case may require; and indeed there never was any objection, since
there is no necessity, even now, for using so barbarous a mode of
sweeping as is about to be forbidden by law.

[We are of opinion that the Act does not apply to chimney-pots —
a chimney-pot is not a flue — the flue terminates with the brick shaft. —
Editor.]

1841.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

265

ON THE BUILDING MATERIALS OF THE UNITED STATES

OF NORTH AMERICA.

By David Stevenson, Civil Engineer, Edinburgh.

Read before the Society of Arts for Scotland in Stssion 1841.

There is, perhaps, nothing connected with the useful arts, which
has a greater share in forming the characteristic appearance of a
country, than the materials which it produces, and of which its public
works are necessarily constructed. I use the word materials in the
technical sense in which it is employed by engineers and architects,
to denote the several productions of the mineral and vegetable king-
doms which are used in the construction of engineering and archi-
tectural works ; and we have only to look around us for a moment, to
be at once convinced how much these, in their almost endless variety,
affect the appearance, as well as modify the structure, of the public
works of every-country.

A good illustration of the truth of this observation presents itself,
when we compare the circumstances of Scotland and England in this
respect; the former being what may be termed a stone, and the latter
a lirick country. To what circumstance can the far-famed beauty of
the Scottish metropolis be more reasonably attributed, than to the
great abundance of beautiful sandstone afforded by the quarries in its
immediate vicinity, to which its street architecture and public build-
ings are so greatly indebted for their striking appearance. This
remark applies, as we are well aware, not only to Ediiiburgli, but to
many other towns in Scotland ; while our less highly-favoured neigh-
bours in the south, from the scarcity of good coloured building stone
in some districts, and the total want of it in others, are reduced to the
necessity of using brick for their dwelling-houses, and in many in-
stances for their public buildings. So generally acknowledged are the
fine qualities of the stone from many of the Scotch quarries, that it is
exported to a considerable extent. To London itself, indeed, a large
quantity of stone is annually sent from Craigleilh in Mid-Lothian,
which is the largest, and probably the finest sandstone quarry in the
world, and of which the dwelling-houses in the New Town of Edin-
burgh, and most of the public buildings, were in a great measure built.

Many similar illustrations maybe found, even in matters of much
smaller importance than that to which I have just alluded. In Great
Britain, for example, with the exception of some districts in England,
the roofs of houses are very generally covered with slates, the greater
part of which are supplied by the extensive slate quarries of Bangor
in North Wales, and Easdale, Balachulish, and others, on the west
coast of Scotland. But Holland has not the advantage of a like sup-
ply, and consequently the houses in that country are invariably
covered with tiles ; and if we extend our observations still further, to
Canada and the United States, we there find that the want of more
suitable materials for roofing, and the great quantities of fine timber
with which those countries abound, have induced the inhabitants to
cover their dwelling-houses with wood cut into thin pieces called
" shingles," while the spires of the churches, which rise from all the
principal towns on the banks of the St. Lawrence, are covered with
highly polished tin.

Another of the many illustrations that may be given, appears in the
construction of roads — a most important branch of engineering. The
roads in this country are now invariably macadamized, as materials
hard enough for forming them advantageously on that principle are
very generally met with throughout the length and breadth of the
island. In France, on the other hand, the want of hard materials
renders Macadamizing not so applicable ; and consequently, it has not
by any means been generally introduced in that country, many of the
principal roads being still pitched or paved with large stones. In Hol-
land, owing to the scarcity of stones of every description, most of the
roads are paved with small well-burned bricks, called "clinkers,"
which are set in sand, and present an exceedingly smooth surface ;
while in America and Russia, we find long stretches of "corduroy
road," constructed entirely of timber — the produce of their extensive
forests, which forms a species of highway by no means so well calcu-
lated as any of the others alluded to, for extending communication or
promoting the comfort of the traveller ; as the painful experience of
every one who has travelled en them can abundantly testify.

The materials of every country may therefore be regarded as a
subject of great interest connected with its history, and this conside-
ration has induced me to offer a few remarks on the materials em-
ployed in the construction of the public works of the United States, in
the belief that they may not be uninteresting to the members of a
society which has for its object the promotion of the useful arts.

Ikon is pretty abundant in North America, and it is worked in
several parts of the United States. The only iron-works which I had

an opportunity of visiting in the course of a late tour in that country,
were those in the neighbourhood of Pittsburg, on the river Ohio,
which are said to be the most extensive in America. At this place,
the workmen were engaged in the manufacture of pig iron and plate-
rails for railroads. The use of plate-rails, however, has been very
limited, and as no other description of rail has been manufactured in
the country, it has been the practice to import both the rails and chairs
for the greater part of the American railroads from Britain, as well as
the iron used for some other purposes. The government of the
United States, indeed, in order to facilitate the progress of railways,
do not exact the duty on iron rails and chairs imported from this
country. It may safely be said, that the manufacture of iron in the
United States, and what is more closely connected with the subject of
this paper, its application to engineering works, are still in their in-
fancy, at least when we regard the great extent and perfection to
which these arts have been brought in Britain ; and my observations
on the materials of the country will therefore be confined to those of
masonry and carpentry, as these are in some degree peculiar to the
country, and any remarks regarding them will of course be more
interesting.

Brick is the building material which is now invariably used in the
construction of dwelling-houses in the towns of the United States.
Timber is still pretty generally used for houses in the country ; but of
late years the erection of wooden structures, from their liability to
take fire, has been prohibited in the neighbourhood of towns. Clay
suitable for brick-making is found in great quantities, which is a for-
tunate circumstance for the inhabitants ; and the bricks, which are
burned with wood, and manufactured in other respects like those in
this country, generally cost about (J4 dollars or 2Gs. a thousand.

Experience in our own and in many other countries, has proved that
brick is well suited for house-building ; but experience has also shown
that it is by no means so well adapted as stone for engineering ope-
rations generally ; and to some works it is with us considered wholly
inapplicable. Marble and granite, of which I shall afterwards have
occasion more particularly to speak, occur in the northern parts of the
United States ; but stone easily accessible to the quarrier, and fitted
for building purposes, is very rarely to be met with, and the American
engineers have therefore been obliged, as is the case in all countries,
to adapt the structure of the works to the materials they possess ; and.
in making this adaptation, they appear to have violated many of the
established rules of engineering as practised in this country. The
scarcity of stone, and the unsuitableness of brick for hydraulic pur-
poses, for example, has forced them to construct most of the locks and
aqueducts on the lines of their great canals wholly of timber, with
which the country abounds ; and that material, ill adapted as it may
seem to such a purpose and situation, where it is not only exposed to
the constant tear and wear occasioned by the lockage of vessels, but
also to the destructive effects of alternate immersion in water and
exposure to the atmosphere, has nevertheless been found in practice
to form a very good substitute for the more durable materials used
for such works in Europe.

Stone. — The quarries of the United States, taking into considera-
tion the great extent of the country and the number of its public
works, are, as I have already hinted, few in number; and, generally
speaking, the workings are on a small scale. They afford granite and
marble, and their produce is almost exclusively applied to facing pub-
lic buildings, forming stairs, window and door lintels, and to other
architectural purposes.

Granite is worked in the northern part of the comitry at Quineey in
the state of Massachusetts, and at Singsing in the state of New York,
and also in New Hampshire. The Quineey granite is of a fine gray
colour, and can be quarried in large blocks. It has been used a good
deal in Boston and the neighbouring country for architectural works.
It has also been employed for railway blocks on some of the lines of
railway in the neighbourhood of Boston, and in the construction of the
only two graving docks which exist in the United States, the one at
Boston, and the other at Norfolk in Virginia, the latter at a distance
of upwards of 500 miles from the quarries ; and these, so far as I am
aware, are the only engineering works of any consequence in America
in which granite has been employed.

The Singsing granite, which is of a dark gray or bluish colour, is
quarried on the banks of the Hudson, about "25 miles from the town
of New York, at which place it has been pretty generally used for
some time for stairs and lintels, and has lately been introduced for
facing buildings. The Astor hotel, the largest in America, and per-
haps in the world, which is one of the very few stone buildings in
New York, is built of this granite.

In the neighbourhood of Boston, and also Philadelphia, a species of
soap-stone is found, which is quarried to some extent, and used in
situations exposed to high temperatures instead of fire-brick.

2 0

266

THE CniL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[August,

Makdle. — To the marble quarries, however, the Americans look
for their principiil supply of in;iterii\ls. These are more numerous,
and are more widely distributed than the others I have mentioned,
although they also arc confined to the nortliem states. The principal
marble quarries are in the states of Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, and
Vermont. I visited some of them when in' the country, and had also
the advantage of receiving much information regarding them, as well
as the materials of the Tnited States generally, from Mr. Strickland,
architect, at PhiUulilphia, and from Mr. John Struthers, marble-cutter,
of the same place, to whom I am indebted for the speK-imens of mar-
bles and woods which! had the pleasure of laying before the Society.*

The marble quarries in Femisylvai ia are situate in the valley of
the river Schuvlkill, and are from thirteen to twenty miles distant
from Philadelphia. They produce white, blue,black, and variegated
marbles. Limestone is found resting on the marble, and is blasted off
with gunpowder, and burned for making mortar. In some of the
quarries which I visited, tlie beds of marble dipped from north to
south at an inclination of 60= with the horizon, and they were worked
at considerable disadvantage. In one quarry the men were working
a bed of white marble 11 feet in thickness, at a depth of 120 feet be-
low the natural surface of the ground. The blocks, some of which
■weighed 12 tons, were raised to the surface by means of a rudely-
constructed horse-gin, there being no road to the bottom of the quarry,
or rather pit, from which they are taken, by which even a man could
conveniently, or safely, descend or ascend, without the use of a rope
to prevent ids falling headlong to the bottom. In this respect the
American marble quarries reminded me of the celebrated sandstone
pits of the ancient city of Caen in Normandy, which are not only
remarkable as having produced the materials for the old London
Bridge, but as presenting a mode of working very similar to that pur-
sued in the coal-pits of this country ; the blocks, being excavated at
a great depth under the ground, are conveyed in subterranean pas-
sages to shafts, through which they are raised to the surface by horse
power, as in the American quarries. The price of the American
marble varies according to its quality and kind. The carriage of the
materials, owing to the badness of the roads, forms a very expensive
item in all the public works, and is, of course, regulated by the dis-
tance of transport; but the white marble costs about -Is. H'rf., and the
blue about is. per cubic foot at the quarries, and although this may
seem a very moderate price for marble, which in this country costs
from 15s. to 2/. a cubic foot, still, when used instead of stone through-
out the whole thickness of the wall of a dwelling-house, or the pier
of a bridge, it becomes, even at the lower price 1 have mentioned, a
costly material.

The Massachusetts quarries, which are at a place called Slockbridge,
produce white and blue marbles, and the Vermont quarries, which are
near Lake Charaplain, ftunish black and white marbles.

Those I have enumerated are the principal quarries in the United
States; but from the circumstances of their being so much confined to
particular localities, and the manner in which they are worked, it is
evident that their produce cannot be applied by any means to the
general wants of the country; and consequently, excepting in the case
of buildings on which a good deal of money is to be expended, it is
but little employed, the cost of the material itself, and the expense of
carriage, being very considerable.

The marbles of the United States, according to the account of many
intelligent Americans with whom I conversed on the subject, are not
suited fur sculpture or very fine ornamental works, or even, indeed,
for the capitals of columns, which require superior workmanship ;
and the marble used for the capitals of all the fine buildings through-
out the country is imported from Carara in Italy, whence a very large
quantity is annually exported to America. For similar purposes
black marble is also imported into the States from Ireland. If, how-
ever, 1 might form a j\i(lgment from the quality of some of the speci-
mens which I procured, 1 should think that were the American quar-
ries efficiently worked, there could be very little necessity for apply-
ing either to Italy or Ireland for so great an annual supply. Those
buildings which arc constructed of the whitest description of American
marble carefully selected for the purpose, such as the Capitol and the
President's house at Washii gton, the Bank of the L^nited States, the
Mint, and other public buildings at Philadeliihia, and the monument
erected to the memory of Washington at Baltimore, have certainly a
most imposing and gorgeous appearance, owing to the fineness and
beauty of the material. But the buildings which are constructed of
the blue or nnselected marble, such, for example, as the State Capitol
at Albany, or the Town-House at New York, have a bloated and dingy
look, and the general effect produced by the marbles in these buildings

' These spf cimens are now in the museum of the Society of Arts.

is greatly inferior to that of some of the sandstones from Craigleith
and other British quarries.

The white marble retains its purity of colour much longer in the
United States than it would do in this country, owing to the clearness
of the atmosphere and the absence of smoke, the use of anthracite
coal, which produces no smoke during combustion, being common in
most of the towns. These circumstances may also account for the
seemingly permanent vividness of the various colours, such as red,
white; brown, yellow, and green, with which, according to the taste,
or rather want of taste, of the occupiers; the exteriors of the brick
liouses in New York, and many other town* in the- United Statesj are
generally painted.

Timber. — I must now make haste to speak of the materials^of car-
pentry, the other department regarding which I proposed to offer a
few remarks.

The forests, to the British eye; are perhaps the most interesting
features in the United States, and to them the Americans are in-
debted fur the greater part of the materials of which their public
works are constructed. These forests are understood to have origi-
nally extended, with little exception, from the sea-coast to the confines
of the extensive prairies of the western states; but the effects of cul-
tivation can now be traced as far as the foot of the Alleghany Moun-
tains, the greater part of the land between them and the ocean having
been cleared and brought into cultivation. It is much to be regretted
that the early settlers, in clearing this country, were not directed by a
systematic plan of operations, so as to have left some relics of the
natural produce of the soil, which would have sheltered the fields and
enlivened the face of the country, while at the same time they might,
by cultivation, have been made to serve the more important object of
promoting thp growth of timber. Large tracts of country, however,
which were formerly thickly covered with the finest timber, are now
almost without a single shrub, every thing having fallen before the
woodman's axe ; and in this indiscriminate massacre there can be no
doubt that many millions of noble trees have been left to rot, or, what
is scarcely to be less regretted, have been consumed as firewood.
This work of general destruction is still going forward in the western
states, in which cultivation is gradually extending ; and the formation
of some laws regulating the clearing of land, and enforcing an obli-
gation on every settler to save a quantity of timber, which might per-
haps be made to bear a certain proportion to every acre of land which
is cleared, is a subject which I should conceive to be not unworthy of
the attention of the American Government, and one which is inti-
mately connected with the future prosperity of the country. But
should population and cultivation continue to increase in tlie same
ratio, and the clearing of land be conducted in the same indiscriminate
manner as hitherto, another hundred years may see the United States
a tnekus countrv. The same remarks apply, in some measure, to our
own provinces of LTpper and Lower Canada, in many parts of which
the clearing of the land has shorn the country of its foliage, and
nothing now remains but blackened and weather-beaten trunks.

The progress of population and agriculture, however, has not as yet
been able entirely to change the natural appearance of the country.
Many large forests and much valuable timber still remain both in
Canada, and in the United States; the Alleghany Mountains, as well
as other large tracts of countrv towards the north and west, which are
yet uninhabited, being still covered with dense and unexplored forests.

The timber trade of the United States and of Canada, from the
quantity of wood which is required for home consumption and exp .r-
tation, is a source of employment and emolument to a great mass of
the population. It is carried on to a greater or less extent on all
American rivers, but the Mississippi ancf the St. Lawrence are more
especially famous for it. The cliicf raftsmen, under whose direction
the timber expeditions on these rivers are conducted, are generally
persons of great intelligence, and often of considerable wealth. Some-
times these men, for the purpose of obtaining wood, purchase a piece
of land, which they sell after it has been cleared ; but more generally
they purchase only the timber from the proprietors of the land on
which it grows. The chief raftsman and ins detachment of workmen
repair to the forest about the month of November, and are occupied
during the whole of the winter months in felling trees, dressing them
into logs, and dragging them with teams of oxen ou the hardened
snow, with which the country is then covered, to the nearest stream.
They live during this period in temporary wooden huts. About the
middle of May, w hen the ice leaves the rivers, the logs of timber that
have been prepared and hauled down during winter, are launched into
the stream, and being formed info rafts, are floated to their desti-
nation. The rafts are furnished with masts and sails, and are steered
by means of long oars, which project in front, as well as behind them ;
wooden houses are built on them for the accommodation of the crews
and their families. I have several times, in the course of the trips

1841.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

207

which I made on the St. Lawrence, counted upwards of thirty men
working the steering oars of the large rafts on tliat river, from which
some idea may be formed of the number of their inhabitants. Those
rafts are brought down the American rivers from distances varying
from one hundred to twelve hundred miles, and si-x months are often
occupied in making the passage. When it is at ,nll possible, they
moor them during the night in the still water at the edge of the river,
but when this camiot be done, they continue their perilous voyage in
the dark, exhibiting lights at each corner of the raft to warn^vessels
of their approaclvtovthem. The St. Lawrence rafts vary from 40,1100
to-300,00U square'feet, or from about one to no less than seven acres
in -surface, «nd some of them- contain as much as £5000wortb of tim-
ber, df not marKiged with great skill, these unwieldy specimens of
naval architecture are apt to go to pieces in descending the rapids,
and it not unfrequently happens- that the labour of one, and sometimes
two seasons is in this way lost in a moment. An old and experienced
raftsman, with whomi had some conversation on board of one of the
St. Lawrence steamers, informed me that he, on one occasion, lost
^•250U by one raft which grounded in descending a rapid and broke
np. He said the safest size for a raft was from 40,000 to 60,000
square feet, or about one acre, and that five men were required to
work a raft of that size.

The species of forest trees indigenous to different countries is an
inferesting subject connected with vegetable physiology. There are
said to be about thirty forest trees indigenous to Great Britain, which
attain the height of thirty feet; and in France there are about the
same number. But according to the best authorities, there are no less
than 140 species which attain a similar height indigenous to the
United States.

To notice each of these numerous species, whose timber is employed
by the Americans in the arts, even if I were able to do so, would
greatly exceed the limits to which I am. restricted by the nature of the
present communication, and I shall therefore only make a few remarks
regarding those timbers which are most highly prized and most ex-
tensively used in the ship carpentry and public works of the country.
The first which I shall notice is the Live Oak (Querciis vireiis), so
named because it is an evergreen, its leaves lasting during several
ye-ars and being partially renewed every spring-. It grows only in the
southern states, and is one of the most valuable of the American tim-
bers. The duty imposed by our government on wood from the
United -States, prevents its importation into Britain, and as live oak
grows only in the United States and is not found in Canada, it conse-
quently never reaches this country as an article of commerce ; the
whole produce being consumed by the Americans themselves in ship-
building. Its specific gravity is equal to, and in some cases greater
than, that of water, and it is used along with white oak and cedar for
the principal timbers of vessels. The climate, according to an Ame-
rican authority,* becomes mild enough for its growth near Norfolk in
Virginia, though at that place it is less multiplied and less vigorous
than in more southerly latitudes. From Norfolk it spreads alon^ the
coast for a distance of loUO or ISOO miles, extending beyond the
mouths of the Mississippi. The sea air seems essential to its exist-
ence, for it is rarely found in the forests upon the mainland, and never
more than fifteen or twenty miles from the shore. It is most abundant,
most fully developed, and of the best quality, about the bays and
creeks and on the numerous fertile islands which lie scattered for
several hundred miles along the co-ast. The live oak is generally
forty or fifty feet in height, and from one to two feet in diameter, but
it is sometimes much larger, and its trunk is often undivided for eigh-
teen or twenty feet. There can be little doubt, from its great density
and durability, that this is one of the finest species of oak that exists,
surpassing even that for wdiich Great Britain is so famous. Its culti-
vation has been tried in this country without success ; but could it be
imported, it would be found admirably suited for the construction of
lock-gates and other engineering works, for which hard and durable
timber is required, and for which English or African oak is generally
used.

The White Oak (Qiiercus alba) is the sp£cies of which so much is
imported into this country. It is known by the name of "American
oak," but it is a very different and much inferior wood to the live oak
of the United States which I have just described. It is also much
more widely distributed, and occurs in much greater quantity, than the
live oak. It is very common throughout the northern states and in
Canada, from whence it is exported to this country. It attains an
elevation of seventy or eighty feet, with a diameter of six or seven
feet. It is known by the whiteness of its bark, from which it derives
its name, and from a few of its leaves remaining on the branches in a
withered state throughout the winter. The wood is of a reddish

* The Sylva Americana, by J. D. Browne. Boston, 1832.

colour, and in that resi>ect is very similar to English oak. But it is
generally acknowledged to be greatly inferior to it in strength and
durability. It is very straight in the fibre, however, and can be got
in pieces of great length and consider.iblejscaiitling — properties whichi
for certain purposes, make it pi-eferable to the British oak. It is much
used in ship-building, and also for the transverse sleepers of railways.
There aremany other oaks in the United-States, but the two I have
mentioned are those most in use.

The pines are perhaps the. nest woods in importance to the oaks.
The species of those are -also very numerous, and I shall only mention
one or' two of theanost- important of them.

The White, ^)r Weymouth Pine (Pinus sirobus),:is widely distri-
bute'd both in the United States and in 'Canada, and is exported to
Britain in great quantities from the latter country. It is tlie tallest
tree of the American forest, having been known, according to Michaux,
to attain the height of 180 feet. The wood has not much strength,
but it is free-from knots, -and is easily wrought. It is very extensively
employed in the erection of bridges, particularly frame and lattice
bridges, a construction peculiar to the United States, and very gene-
rally adopted in that country, which I have described in detail else-
Vfhere.* For this purpose it is well fitted, on account of its lightness
and rigidity, and also because it is found to be less apt to ii^ai-p or cast
on exposure to the atmosphere than most other timbers of the country.
It is much used for the interior fittings of houses, and for the masts
and spars of vessels.

The Yellow Pine (Pinus milis or mriabilis) occurs only in the
southern and middle states, and is not found in Canada, and therefore
does not reach this country, the wood known by that name in Britain
being the Pnnis resmoaa. ' It attains the height of 50 or bO feet, with
a diameter of i! or 3 feet, and is the timber which the Americans em-
ploy in greatest quantity for the masts, yards, booms, and bowsprits
of their vessels. A large quantity of it is annually consumed for this
purpose in the building-yards of New York, Philadelphia, and Bal-
timore.

The Red Pine (Pinus resiiiosa) is the only other of the pine species
that is much used. It occurs in great plenty in the northern and
middle states, and in Canada, from whence it is e-xported in great
quantity to this country, and it is known to us by the name of "Ame-
rican yellow pine." It attains the height of 70 to 80 feet, with a
diameter of two feet, and is remarkable for the uniform size of its
trunk for' two-thirds of its height. Its name is derived from the red-
ness of its bark. The wood, owing to the resinous matter it contains,
is he-avy ; and is highly esteemed for naval architecture, more espe-
cially for decks of vessels, both in this country and in America.

The Locust (Robinia psend-acacia), from the beauty of its foliage
and the excellent qualities of its timber, is justly held in great esteem
in America. It abounds in the middle states, and in some situ-ations
attains the height of seventy feet, with a diameter of four feet. The
wood of the locust tree is of a greenish yellow colour, marked with
brown veins, not imlike the laburnum of this country. It is a close-
grained, hard, and compact wood, and is of great strength. It is
used, along with live oak and cedar, for the upper timbers of vessels,
and is almost invariably used for treenails, to which it is weU adapted.
It is also employed in some parts of the country as transverse
sleepers for railways: Its growth being chiefly confined to the
United States, it is not imported into Britain, It is one of the very
few trees that are planted by the Americans, and may be seen forming
hedge. rows in the highly cultivated parts of Pennsylvania.

The Red Cedar (Jujiiperua Vtrginiana) is another valuable wood,
the growth of which is confined to the United States. In situations
where the soil is favourable it grows to the height of 40 or 50 feet,
with a diameter of 12 or 13 inches. This wood is of a bright red
colour; it is odorous, compact, fine-grained, and very light, and is
used, as already stated, in ship-building, along with live oak and
locust to compensate for their weight. It is considered one of the
most durable woods of the United States, and being less affected by
heat or moisture than almost any other, it is much employed for rail-
way sleepers.- I remember, in travelling on some of the railways, to
have been most pleasantly regaled for miles together, with the aroma
of the newly laid sleepers of this wood. It is now, however, becoming
too scarce and valuable to be nsed for this purpose.

The White Cedar (Oupressus t/njoides) and the Arbor Vita (T/mja
occidaitalis) are employed for sleepers and other purposes to which
the red cedar is applied, but the latter is preferred when it can be
obtained.

The onlv other tree -svhich I shall notice is the Sugar Maple (^cer
satcharinum) which occurs in great abundance in Canada and the

* Stevenson's Sketch of the Civil Engineering of North America. Lon-
don: John Weale, 1S38.

2 0 2

268

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[August,

northern states. It attains tbe heiglit of 50 or GO feet, and is from
12 to 18 inches in diameter. The wood of this tree is soft, and when
exposed to moisture it soon decays. It is very close-grained, and
when cut in certain directions is remarkably beautiful, its tibres, owing
to their peculiar arrangement, producing a surface variegated with
undulations and spots. It is also susceptible of a very high polish.
These qualities tend to render it a valuable acquisition to the list of
American woods for ornamental purposes, for which it is very gene-
rally employed, and is well known in this country by the name of
•'Bird's Eye Maple." The wood of the Red-flowering Maple {jlcer
rubrum) is also employed for ornamental purposes, and is generally
known by the name of "Curled Maple." The cabins of almost all
American-built vessels are lined with these woods, or with mahogany
inlaid with them, and tliev are also much used for making the tiner
parts of the furniture of houses.

The property of the sugar maple, however, from which it derives
its name, is of perhaps more importance in a commercial point of
view than its use as timber. I allude to its property of distilling a
rich sap, from which sugar is largely manufactured throughout the
United States. From two to four pounds of sugar ccn be extracted
annually from each tree without hurting its growth. I had an oppor-
tunity of making some inquiries regarding this simple process when
on the banks of the river Ohio, where I saw it in progress. One or
two holes are bored with an augur, at the height of about two feet
from the ground, and into them wooden tubes, formed of the branch
of some soft-heaited tree hollowed out, are inserted. The sap oozing
from the maple flows through the tubes, and is collected in troughs.
It is then boiled until a syrup is formed of sufficient strength to be-
come solid on cooling, when it is run into moulds and is ready for use.

Such is a brief notice of some of the principal timbers of the United
States, which, from their great abundance and variety, are suitable for
almost every purpose connected with the arts, and thus serve in some
degree to compensate for the want of stone, while at the same time
they afford great advantages for the prosecution of every branch of
carpentry, an art which has been brought to great perfection in that
country. Many ingenious constructions have been devised to render
timber applicable to all the purposes of civil architecture, and in no
branch of engineering is this more strikingly exemplified than in
bridge-building. Excepting a few small rubble arches of inconsider-
able span, there is not a stone bridge in the whole of the United States
or Canada. But many wooden bridges have been constructed. Seve-
ral of them, as is well knovvn, are upwards of a mile and a quarter in
length, and the celebrated Schuylkill Bridge at Philadelphia, which
was burnt about two years ago, but was in existence when I visited
the country, consisted of a single timber arch of no less than 320 feet
span. Canal locks and aqueducts, weirs, quays, breakwaters, and all
manner of engineering works have there been erected, iu which wood
is the material chiefly employed; so that if we characterize Scotland
as a stone and England as a brick country, we may, notwithstanding
its granite and marble, safely characterize the United States as a
country of timber. I shall only, iu conclusion, very briefly allude to
the appearance of the American forests, of which so much has been
written and said ; and on this subject I may remark, that it is quite
possible to travel a great distance without meeting with a single tree
of very large dimensions; but the traveller, I think, cannot fail very
soon to discover that the average size of the trees is far above what
is to be met with in this country. I measured many trees, varying
from 15 to 20 feet in circumference, and the largest which I had an
opportunity of actually measuring was a Button-wood tree (Plalanus
occidinlatis) on the banks of Lake Erie, which I found to be 21 feet
in circumference. I saw many trees, however, in travelling through
the American forests, which evidently far exceeded that size, and
which my situation, as a passenger in a public conveyance, prevented
me from measuring.

M. Michaux, who has written on the forest trees of America, in
speaking of their great size, states, that on a small island in the Ohio,
fifteen miles above the river Muskingum, there was a button-wood
tree, which, at five feet from the ground, measured 40 ft. 4 in. in cir-
cumference. Ht mentions having met with a tree of the same species
on the right bank of the Ohio, thirty-six miles above Marietta, whose
base was swollen in an extraordinary manner ; at four feet from the
ground it measured 47 feet in circumference, giving a diameter of no
less than 15 feet 8 inches ; and another of nearly as great dimensions
is mentioned by him as existing in Genessee ; but these trees had per-
haps been swollen to this enormous size from the effects of some dis-
ease. He also measured two trunks of white or Weymouth pine, on
the river Kennebec, in a healthy state, one of which was 154 feet long
and 64 inches iu diameter, and the other was 142 feet long, and 44
inches in diameter, at three feet from the ground. M. Michaux also
measured a white pine which was C feet in diameter, and had reached

probably the greatest height attained by tlie species, its top being
ISO feel from tlie ground. It is difficult for an inhabitant of our islancT,
without having seen the American forests, to credit the statements
which have been made by various authors, as to the existence of these
gigantic trees of 180 feet in height (being about 4u feet higlier than
Melville's monument in St. Andrew Square, in Edinburgh) ; but such
trees undoubtedly do exist. Mr. James Macnab of the Koval Botanic
Garden, in a paper on the local distribution of different species of
trees in the native forests of America,* mentions having measured
numerous specimens of the Piiiiis slrobus in Canada, which averaged
16 feet in circumference, and 1 GO feet in height; and one specimen
which had been blown down, and of which the top had been broken
off, measured 88 feet in length, and even at this height was IS inches
in diameter.

The ascent of the sap in trees is a subject which has long occupied
the attention of physiologists. Some difference of opinion, however,
exists regarding it, and hitherto it is believed no very definite con-
clusions have been arrived at ; — and although not strictly connected
with the subject of this paper, I may be excused for remarking, that
tlie quantity of sap required to sustain such enormous trees as these
I have been describing, and the source and nature of the power by
which a supply of fluid is raised and kept up, at the great height of
180 feet from tbe ground, are inquiries which, could they be satis-
factorily solved, would form most interesting and instructive additions
to our knowledge regarding vegetable physiology.

Edinburgh, Ftbruary, 1841.

ON' THE SYSTEM OF WARMING BUILDINGS BY HOT WATER.

A Re]>hj to Mr. Perkins's " Answer" fin the Journal for June last, p. 201, J
to the Report presented to the Manchester Assurance Company. By John
Davies, and George Vardon Ryder.

Mr. Perkins declaims against our " unfair report ;" and charges us with
"errors and misstatements," with " manifest absurdity," with "unjust and
absurd experiments," " conducted with any new rather than that of candid
investigation." Such charges are easily made on either side of a discussion,
and are most generally resorted to by those who are least warranted in ap-
plying them. We shall presently show how unmerited and irrelevant such
charges are in reference to us ; and we trust that we shall be enabled to
satisfy every disinterested reader, that Mr. Perkins has, in order to conceal
the weakness of his defence, indulged his feelings in this kind of phraseology,
which, from the facility with which he uses it, seems to be quite natural to
him. It usually happens, as in this case, that the use of such language leaves
every thing untainted but the reputation of him who utters it ; while it for-
feits every claim upon an opponent for any greater courtesy of expression in
reply thau the example would suggest, or the nature of the objections appear
calculated to excite.

Our directions, as the reader of the preceding pamphlets will remember,
were "to inquire into the nature of the accidents jchich have recently oc-
curred from the use of the hot water apparatus ; and to institute a personal
investigation into some of the cases referred to ; and t j make such experi-
ments as might tend to satisfj' our minds as to the causes of the accidents
ichich had occurred" from the use of the apparatus as it has been erected in
Manchester, and not as it may have been since improved by the Patentee ;
for the latter being unknown until very " recently," that is to say, until our
Report had appeared, it was impossible for us to notice.

We had to investigate the abuses, as well as the uses of the apparatus, as
hitherto jiut up in this town and neighbourhood ; for, if the abuses were
likely to be of frequent, or even occasional occurrence, if they could arise
from ordinary carelessness or mismanagement, it is clear that the danger to
property must be very considerable. Of the advantages of Mr. Perkins's " re-
cent" improvement we know nothing excepting what he tells us in his " An-
swer ;" but, how ill soever he may think of us, we do most sincerely assure
him, that if it really renders the apjiaratus secure, we shall hail its applica-
tion with much pleasure ; not altogether with a feeUng of satisfaction, re-
sulting from the consciousness that we have hastened, if not occasioned it,
by having proved that it was necessary. From his own shomng, therefore,
Mr. Perkins ought, in this case, to be grateful, rather than angr)-. We have
given to the ai)paratus a popularity which it did not previously possess, while
we have pointed out its defects; these defects Mr. Perkins affirms that he
has "recently" completely removed ; and, therefore, the very detection of
his former errors has tended to dittuse more widely a knowledge of his pre-
sent state of perfection. Had an "opportunity" been " afforded " to Mr.
Perkins " of assisting" us in our " experiments," it is far from probable that
he would ever have obtained these advantages, of the source of which he so
unreasonably complains.

It seems to be almost impossible to satisfy Mr. Perkins. At first he con-
demns us because we attended to " appearances ;" and he afterwards inveighs

• Agi-icultural Journal for 1835.

1841.1

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

269

against us because we resorted to " experiments :" it is, therefore, difficult to
conceive how we should have proceeded to form our Report, unless by an
imphcit reliance upon his assertions, which certainly do not, in some cases,
rest upon either appearances or experiments.

The great gist of the charges against us is, that we employed in our ex-
periments an apparatus improperly constructed ; for he says, " the patentee
utterly disclaims the apparatus experimented upon by Messrs. Davies and
Ryder as his, any further than that the pipes were closed in all parts." — This
charge assumes a very imposing aspect ; and if we had done designedly that
which he here imputes to us, we should indeed have been highly culpable.
From a few facts the reader may judge of the truth of the allegation. Mr.
Perkins sold some time ago to Mr. Walker the patent right to the apparatus
for Manchester and the vicinity. When we were professionally engaged by
the Directors of the Assurance Company, we first inspected the premises
which had been recently injured ; and then, previously to the performance of
any experiments, applied to Mr. Walker to see what information or assistance
he was able and willing to afford. Mr. Walker acceded, in the most obliging
manner, to our application ; accompanied us to some establishments where
the apparatus was in operation ; and promised to get erected on his own
premises, and under his own superintendence, a suitable apparatus, on Mr.
Perkins's system, for the express purpose of our experiments. Some little
delay occurred ; and, as it happened, Mr. Walker had in the interval several
interviews on the subject with Mr. Perkins, to whom our investigation was
no secret ! The apparatus was at length put up ; the form and the propor-
tion of the parts were precisely those which Mr. Perkins bad taught Mr.
Walker, and on the same principle which had guided Mr. \\'alker in others
which he had erected, and might be called upon to erect ; and was, therefore,
in every respect as essentially on " Perkins's System " as any of those which
have been yet introduced into any building in Manchester. In short, Mr.
Walker made the apparatus ; we the experiments. In all the operations we
had the assistance of Mr. Walker's intelligent Foreman, and that of other
persons belonging to his establishment.

Mr. Perkins does not find fault with 26 feet of coil in the furnace, though
he forgets that only 21 feet, as stated, were exposed to the fire, a fact which,
being in his favour, he conveniently suppresses ; but he seizes with avidity
upon a presumed deficiency in the expansion pipe, insisting that from the
proportions in the diagram annexed to the Report, it must have been " six
inches less than the apparatus required." Now, even in this plausible objec-
tion a slight inadvertency on our parts has rendered him unfortunate ; for the
diagram having been originally drawn from dimensions given by one of Mr.
Walker's assistants was, as it happened, six inches less than it was found, on
actual admeasurement, to be in the apparatus really employed in the experi-
inents performed.

It is asserted in the " Answer" that "in the absence of Mr. Walker a stop-
cock was introduced, which, cutting off the greater part of the circulation,
left only 40 feet of the tubing out of the furnace to carry off all the heat that
could be communicated from 26 feet within it." This is a grave charge ; but
like the others, it rests entirely upon Mr. Perkins's vivid imagination. A
reference, liowever, to our diagram, which, by singular ill luL-k is, whetlier
correct or incorrect, a stumbling-block to Mr. Perkins, will clearly show that
instead of 40 feet of tubing there were 140, with 21 feet only exposed to the
action of the fire '. As to the stopcock, it is suflicient to remark that it was
contrived and attached by Mr. Walker himself!

Mr. Perkins, in his allusions to his safety valve, places himself in an awk-
ward dilemma. Such an addition is either necessary or it is not : if unne-
cessary, then it renders the apparatus no better than it was previously ; but
if it is really necessary, what are we to think of the person who has been
until " recently " endangering, by his own acknowledgment, in bis " some
hundreds of apparatus," life and property to an unlimited extent ? What are
we to think of him who could, knowingly, leave such places as Messrs. Crafts
and Stell's unsupplied with an essential protection ? Did he carefidly and
promptly impress Mr. Walker with its great importance .'

We have reason to believe that this gentleman was not acquainted with it
previously to the publication of our Report. It appears, then, that Mr. Per-
kins sold for Manchester and the vicinity an apparatus which he has, for
some time, known to be dangerous, and against which danger he did not warn
either Mr. Walker or bis customers until he produced his " Answer" to our
statements. The pubUc have, therefore, derived some information from oiu'
Report, whatever may be the advantage which the " Answer" has conferred
upon its author.

Mr. Perkins rallies us very much for having said that the experiments made
at the Natural History Museum, and at Messrs. Vernon and Co.'s, were " un-
satisfactory." Whatever may be his opinion, we regard it as unwarrantable
to make experiments, even with his apparatus, where other people's property
might be endangered. That was, we can assure him, the reason which in-
duced us to afford him this opportunity for the display of his pleasantry.

When he taunts us, so humourously, in reference to the explosion, by say-
ing, to our discomfiture, that " some grey calicoes spread round the furnace
were alone wanting to complete the scene, and put the finishing touch to this
exquisite specimen of ' Perkins's Hot Water Apparatus,' " he forgets that this
experiment was so amply illustrated in the warehouse of Messrs. Crafts and
Stell, that it could not, by possibility, be rendered more striking by repeti-
tion. This is a portion of his " Answer," in which he is peculiarly jocular ;
as if the destruction of " grey calicoes" by fire, and the consequent loss of a
great amount of valuable property, were a most amusing exhibition. It can

only be compared to the case in which Nero fiddled while Rome was burning.
This sort of wit may induce an enemy to smile, but it must, certainly, make
a real friend look very serious.

An attempted explanation of an unexpected phenomenon is pronounced to
be a "manifest absurdity," because, as Mr. Perkins positively avers, "it is
impossible that increase of heat can be produced by the condensation or cool-
ing of steam ! ! " He must surely have intended this statement as a piece of
irony to relieve a dull discussion ; for, if be bad really any doubts upon the
subject, he might have easily and readily proved that the very reverse of his
assertion is the fact; and if that failed to satisfy him, he might have demon-
strative evidence whenever he may pay his contemplated \isit to Manchester.

Mr. Perkins might on this point have consulted authority. An author
who treats of bis system, and with whose work he may be supposed to be
acquainted, says, that " the specific beat of condensed steam, compared with
[that of] water, is. for equal weights, as '847 to 1 : but the latent heat of
steam being estimated at 1000°, we shall find the relative heat attainable
from equal weights of condensed steam, and of water, reducing both from the
temperature of 212° to eo"", to be as 7-425 to 1."

Mr. Perkins afterwards says, that " another observation from which erron-
eous conclusions are drawn," (of course from an error in the premises,) " is
that the temperature of the pipes, is influenced by the variation of their in-
ternal diameter : this is not the case ; the amount of heat conducted off de-
pends on the surface exposed to the atmosphere, and not upon the internal
diameter :" from which all that can be inferred is, that Mr. Perkins's pipes
must be of a very peculiar kind, when, all other things being the same, the
internal diameter affords no indication of their magnitude.

Mr. Perkins tries to evade another explanation by the assurance that " the
expansive power of hydrogen gas is far less than that of water." Let us
examine this singular statement. Professor Graham, of the London Univer-
sity, says, " Hydrogen gas, steam, and the vapour of sulphuric ether, expand
in the same proportion as air." — "The expansion by heat of the different
forms of matter is exceedingly various. By being heated from 32° to 212",
1000 cubic inches of iron become 1004

1000 water 1045

1000 air 1375

Gases are, therefore," he adds, " more expansible by heat than matter in the
other two conditions of liquid and solid." Thus Mr. Perkins rests his ob-
jection on the assumption that 1 000 increased by 375 is "far less " than 1 000
increased by 45 ! The reader can now judge for himself how much, in even
this simple case, Mr. P. knows of the properties of the agents which his ap-
paratus requires, and of those which it is liable to bring into action.

Mr. Hood, in treating of the hot water apparatus, says that " a most ma-
terial difference of temperature occurs in the several parts of the apparatus;"
a fact, which we have attempted to explain, but the very existence of which
Mr. Perkins denies. It is thus accounted for in the work before us : — " The
difference, amounting sometimes to as much as 200' or 300°, arises from the
great resistance which the water meets with, in consequence of the extremely
small size of the pipes, and also from the great number of bends, or angles,
that of necessity occur, in order to accumulate a sufficient quantity of pipe."

" M'e shall find," says the author, " that a temperature of 450° produces a
pressure of 420 ft. per square inch, while a temperature of 530° makes the
pressure 900 tb. ; and when it reaches 560°, the pressure is then 1150 ft. per
square inch. Those who are acquainted with the working of steam engines
are aware that a pressure of 45 to 48 ft. per square inch is considered as the
maximum for high pressure boilers ; but we see that in this apparatus the
pressure varies from ten times to twenty-four times that amount. It will also
be borne in mind that, in consequence of the extremely small quantity of
water used in these pipes, the slightest increase in the heat of the furnace
will cause an immediate increase in the pressure on the whole apparatus.
For it appears that if the temperature of the pipes be increased 50' above the
amount before stated, the pressure will be raised to 1800 ft. per square inch;
and by increasing the temperature 40° more, the pressure will be immediately
raised to 2500 tb. per square inch ; so that any accidental circumstance tvhich,
causes the furnace to burn more briskly than usual, may, at any moment, in-
crease the pressure to an immense amount."

Mr. Perkins seems, in some allusions, to insinuate an impression on his
part, that we entertain towards him something like a feeling of hostihty.
Any impression of the kind is, we can assure him, completely unfounded. He
is entirely unknown to us, excepting in connexion with his system. We were
required to investigate his apparatus as ire found it ; and, without any per-
sonal consideration, we conducted that investigation to the best of our know-
ledge and abiUty.

In conclusion, we beg to assure Mr. Perkins, that if he can really render
his " system" safe, we shall, on being satisfied as to the fact, be quite as ready-
to recommend it, as we have been to warn the public of the danger which
might arise from its use in the state in which it was when we were called
upon to examine it.

Report of William Fairbaim, Esq.

Having directed my attention to the experiments recently conducted by
Mr. Davies and Mr. Kyder on this apparatus, 1 have been induced further to
extend my inquiries, and to visit several establishments where Mr. Perkins's
system of heating has been introduced. Amongst others I may mention
those of Messrs. Schunck, Mylius & Co., Messrs. Novell! & Albanelli, as

270

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

r August,

instances wliere tlie apparatus lias worked satisfactorily for a number of years,
and a|)|>arently without ri&k or danger to the liuildings. At lioth places the
parties expressed themselves satisfied witli the apparatus, and appeared to
have uo apprehension beyond the alarm and excitement caused by the late
accident at Messrs. Crafts and Stell's.

It is true that reflecting persons, and indeed the whole community, have
been seriously ajipreliensive of danger since that accident took place ; and
Mr. Davies's report, and the opinion of Mr. Ryder, «ccm conclusive on that
point. In fact, it could not lie otlier^vise, as the practical conclusions dc-
ducililc from the experiments arc clear, namely, the singeing of feathers, ex-
plosion of gunpowder, charring of wood, ike, aic in themselves sulticient evi-
dence of the risk to which the property of individuals is exposed. It is also
apparent, that no system of heating is safe where the water, circulating
through pipes of small ijore, is raised to a high temperature, and subjected
to the changes of increased and sometimes suddenly diminished pressure.
On this question, therefore, I have no hesitation in giving it as my opinion,
that >lr. Perkins's principle of heating is imperfect, and that mure pnrticu-
larly from its liability to be overheated, either by improjicr treatment or a
sudden change of temperature, to which the apparatus is at all limes ex-
posed.

Mr. Perkins, in describing Ids apparatus, replies to these objections by
stating that, in order to maintain for any length of time an equal temperature,
it is only necessary to proportion the furnace to the time the beat is required
to be continued, and the damper will regulate the combustion of the fuel,
and the heat of the ))ipes. Uy this Mr. Perkins means, that the attachment
of his heat regulator or governor, as given in his description of the ap]iaratHS,
will so rcgidate the admission of air to the furnace, by the expansion and
contraction of the flow-pipe acting upon a series of levers, as to 0]ien or close
tlie damper according to the temperature or intensity of heat contained in
the flow-pipe. N'ow 1 have closely examined this |)art of tlie apparatus, and
although exceedingly ingenious on the part of the projector, it is nevertheless
inefficient in its operation upon the furnace, and cannot therefore be depended
upon under all the changes to which the whole series is from time to time
subjecle<l. Mhcther this arises from excess of heat in the coils on the one
Land, or from a diminution of temperature on the other, is immaterial, as it
appears that the apparatus, as now constructed, is liable, either through
neglect or otherwise, to almost all the changes of temperature indicated by
the experiments of Mr. Davies and Mr. Ryder.

Mr. Perkins, in his description of the apparatus, ijives (Mr. Babbage's ex-
periments) the range of temperature in the How-pipe and chimney as follows :

Thermometer Thennometer
on Flow.pipe. in Chimnev.

185° 116° ■

225 130

244 132

249 176

249 182

249 178

249 180

249 . 182

246 184

247 140
235 135
229 2U2

Giving a mean temperature during a period of

6 hours of 23S-

102°

Being an exceedingly low temperature, and such as imder the regulations
prescribed by Mr. liabbage, would be perfectly safe. But com])aring the
above with the experiments of Mr. Davies and Mr. Ryder, -ne have (be tem-
perature of the flow-pipe equal to that of melted lead, nearly -JOO' in excess
of that which Was considered safe by Mr. BaTjbagc. It is clear that in a series
of experiments such as those conducted by Mr. Davies and Mr. Ryder, the
temperature of the water in the coils and in tlie flow-pipe, as it issues from
the furnace, might be raised to ncarlyihe melting point of iron ; but in justice
to Mr. Perkins, I am hound to observe, tliat it is only an experimental case,
no doubt carefully and properly conducted, but certainly not indicative of
tbe general working state of the apparatus.

In Mr. Perkins's system of beatingthcre is, Ibclievc, considerable economy,
and convenience in its application ; it is not, however, the best, nor yet the
most wholesome or safe mode of heating. It appears to me to be liable to
the following objections :—

1st. The increase of tcmi)crature to whicli the coils and pipes are exposed,
and the consequent danger arising from the ignition of floctdent matter, which
by accident or neglect might surround tbe pipes.

2nd. The impurity of the air, caused by its contact with metallic surfaces
highly be.ited.

3rd. Deficient ventilation, where means are not provided for carrying off
the impurities, and admitting fresh air at proper intervals.

The above appear to me to be some of the more prominent defects of rthis
system ; it is. hcwever, a simple and ingenious apparatus, and jirovided cer-
tain improvements were introduced, I have every reason to behove it iinight
be rendered an agreeable, if not a safe and efficacious mode of heating.

In this country it is obvious'that large sums of juoneyhave been expended

on the uss and application of this apparatus ; and as numerous buildings,
shops, houses, &c., are already fitted with all the necessary furnaces, coils,
&c., and as it is impossible to change the apparatus for a better all at once,
it appears very desirable to adopt such measures as will prevent the possibility
of accident, and afford greater security to property. Kor these objects I
would suggest the attachment of a mercurial tube to the flow-pipes issuing
from the furnace, with a metallic piston to rise and fall, an<l by its action on
a throttle-valve damper to check the draught in the furnace, and thns reduce
the heat whenever the flow-pipe indicates an excess above the maximum tem-
perature.

Again, I would recommend the flow-pipes to be incased in a perforated
iron tube, to a distance sufficient to render a reduction of the temperature
certain, and to prevent the possibility of ignition, even Vfhen in contact with
inflammable matter.

These precautions being adopted, and having encircled the furnace by brick
work, I should, under such circumstances, consider the apparatus less objec-
tionable, and freed, in a great measure, from the danger which now sur-
rounds it.

^VM. Fairbairn.

.Manchester, /ipri! 7!f>, 1841.

ON VENTIIATION OF THE COURTS IN THE OLD BAILEY,
LONDON.

On tlie 0th nit. a Court of .\ldermen was held for the purpose of receiving
a report from the Gaol Committee on the important subject of the vcntilatioa
of the courts of the Old Bailer. Dr. Reid was present during the proceed-
ings.

Sir M. Wood brought up the Rejiort of the Committee to whom it bad
been referre<l to consider Dr. Reid's plan for improving the ventilations of
the courts of tbe Old liailcy. The committee were of opinion that the plan
ought to be adopted. The (OTimittee recommended this Court to direct a
communication to the Committee for Letting the City Lauds, requesting they
will present a report to tbe Court of Common Council, for authority for the
work to be proceeded with under their directions accordingly. Sir M. Wood,
in conclusion, moved that the Court agree with the Committee in their Re-
port.

The following is the plan, as described officially by Dr. Reid : —

" My Lord and Gentlemen,

" The defective state of the ventilation at the courts in the Old Bailey,
which I have examined according to your instructions, arises principally from
the following causes ; —

" 1. The inadequate supply of fresh air.

" 2. The imperfect discharge of tbe vitiated air, a large proportion of which
is returned indefinitely upon the person, instead of being removed with cer-
tainty and decision.

" The severity of the currents, arising from inadequate diffusion, and the
necessary opening of doors and windows from time to time, when complaints
are great from the deficiency in the Supply of air.

" 4. The imperfect nature of various parts of the apparatus in use, which
presents difi'erent causes that render the air less whulcsome and agreeable
than it otherwise would be.

" 5. The contamination of the small proportion of air supplied to a great
extent vith vitiated air, more particularly from the hall and other passages.
In the kitchen there is a cesspool liaving no connexion with any drain, into
which about 30 pails of water are introduced daily during the sitting of the
Courts, all of which appears, so far as I have been able to ascertain, to mingle
by evaporation with the atmosphere of the kitchen, and to find its way to the
jiassages.

" It will be olivlous that defects such as these cannot be eft'ectually remedied
without intioduciiig arrangements of proportionate magnitude, as in the
original construction of the courts, it could not be expected, from the period
at which they were built, that provision would be made for meeting the views
now entertained as to the nature and importance of ventilation ; while the
chambers below and above both courts, excepting on tlie roofs of the New
Court, are so niiicli occupied that few facilities are inesented for diffusive
ventilation, by which alone any degree of comfort can be given in places so
liable to a fluctuating attendance iis these courts must be. Under the cir-
cumstances, and proceeding upon the assumption that 2000 persons are as
many as it would be necessary to pro\ide nir for, according to the repUes to
the various inquiries upon which I entered in reference to this point, I have
to propose the following arrangement*. It may lie proper for me to premise,
however, that 2000 persons 12 hours a day in court require air for 28,800,000
respirations during that period, independent of what may be necessary for the
surface of the body : —

" 1. Let a chamber lie provided for the reception of fresh air where it
shall escape much of the contamination which it receives at present from
■eating-houses, chimnics, &c., in the immediate vicinity.

".2. J,et the air be filtered from soot as it enters the chamber, washed,
when necessary with lime-water to remove various impurities, and finally he
propelled to the courts by a fanner worked by a steam engine. This arrange-
ment ajipears to be the only cconoiujcal plan that will insure the ventilation
of the courts, considering the pecuUarity of their position, and the manner ifi
whicli thoy.arebcmmcd in on all sides by different apartments.

1841.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

271

" 3. Let ebambcrs be provided below each court, tliat the air may enter
difTusively, and as imperceptibly as possible, the ditTusioii bc4n{; regulated by
perforated zinc or porous cloth at every place represented by the red dotted
line in the plan of tlie courts.

" -4. Let a mild hot water apparatus be procured, and let it be arranged in
such a manner that by the mere opening or shutting of a valve, it may be
made to atford any proportion of wai'mth, such as the circumstances of the
moment may require. I must here remark, that though ventilation may be
induced without warming the air before it enters the court, still the two
questions are inseparably connected, more especially as in an apartment not
■ventilated, the vitiated air stagnated around the person produces part of that
warmth which ought to be procured from other sources, and which is required
to a greater and greater extent, the more freely the air is snppUed. To some
constitutions the absence of olTensive currents, and the supply of air at a
proper temperature, are as important as a supply of pure air.

" 5. Let the entrance of the air to the court be regulated by a single valve,
so that the amount may be proportioned to the state of the eiternal atmo-
sphere and the fluctuating attendance, so that the effect produced ui)on the
person may in all cases be as nearly as possible the same, whatever ch.anges
may ensue, either on the attendance at the court or in the external atmo-
sphere.

" 6. Let the foul air also be discharged through a single aperture, a valve
being provided there also, to be used under particular circumstances,

" 7. One external discharge from each court may be provided, but one
alone for both would be preferable, but also more costly, from the cuttiugs
required in the roof.

" 8. The external discharge should be protected from the action of currents
of air by a cowl, or any equivalent modification of the cowl.

" 9. The galleries should be supplied with pure air from the fresh air
chamber.

" 10. A commnnication shoidd be established between the cesspool in the
kitchen and the adjoining drains.

" All the above points are essentially connected with the ventilation of the
courts aloue, and would cost, as nearly as I can estimate, about 1,925?. In
stating this sum, it may be proper for me to mention, that a precise estimate
cannot be formed, as the precise facilities or difficulties that may lie met with
in following out the underground cuttings must necessarily modify the result.
But I do not consider that there would be a difference of 100?., which might
be either less or more than the sum mentioned, acconUng to details that
could only be ascertained as the works proceeded. I ought also to observe,
that my estimate is foimded principally upon the cost of similar works exe-
cuted in the Queen's Bench and Bail Courts, Westminster, in the Insolvent
Debtors* Court, and in various other buildings in Loudon.

" I shouhl not consider the report complete did I not submit for your con-
sideration, that it would be advisable that some minor arrangements should
be made for the ventilation of the hall, staircases, and some of the principal
apartments in connexion with the courts. In places where the principal
room has been ventilated without some attention being paid to lobbies and
contiguous apartments, the contrast between the air where ventilation has
been introduced and where it has not often leads to complaints that would
not otherwise be made, and to the introduction of ventilation in these minor
apartments at a future period at a considerable increase of cost. An addi-
tional sum of 150/. or 200?. would enable the ventilation to be greatly im-
proved in all the places now referred to.

" Again, in all buildings constructed in the usual manner there is a defect
observed in the movement of air near windows in cold weather, which can
be remedied entirely only by double windows ; this not being essentially
connected with the general arrangements for ventilation, though most impor-
tant in preventing local discomfort in the seats next the windows, is brought
before your notice as a separate question, that can be considered either at
present or at a future period.

" Lastly, in making the above report I have to mention, that I have had
the advantage of communicating with Mr. Mountague, who has assisted me
in obtaining the information required as to the present state of the buildings ;
and I have the satisfaction to state, that he is of opinion that the several
•works may he executed without interfering with the character or stability of
the building.

" I have the honour to remain, my Lord and Gentlemen,
" Your verv obedient servant,

" D. B. Reid."

Sir P. Laurie seconded the motion. He trusted the Court would be unani-
mous in recommending the adoption of Dr. Reid's plans. It was universally
admitted that he had successfully applied them in the ventilation of both
Houses of Parliament, an object of paramount importance, which had often
been attempted and as often failed. The best evidence that Dr. Reid had
been completely successful in his operation on the Houses of Parhameut
^vas to he found in the fact that at the conclusion of his labours they had
rewarded his talent and perseverance with a compUmentary gratuity of 1,000?.
over and above the stipulated compensation.

The report was confirmed uem. con., so that this complaint will soon be
effectually removed.

THE MIASMA OF AFRICA.— NIGER EXPEDITION.
Mr. J. F. Daxiell lately read a paper at the Royal Institution, " On the
spontaneous evolu/ioii of siiljiliirretted hi/drotjnH in the u-alers on the luestern
coast of Africa anil elsewhere." He commenced by observing, that this sub-
ject was now interesting on two accounts — 1, because it would recall to the
mcmbei^ of that institution the experiments of Sir Humphrey Davy on the
subject, and which led him to advise the adoption of ship protectors'; and, 2,
in consequence of the Niger expedition, fitted out to visit and endeavour to
introduce civiUzation on the western coast of Africa. Tiie effect produced
on copper sheathing by the presence of suljihurettcd hydrogen in the waters
o:i that coast, was, he premised, well known to every one informed respecting
vessels visiting it, and it was a fact that a cruise of nine months on the wes-
tern coast of Africa injured the copper sheathing of a vessel as much as four
years' w-ear in any other part of tlie world. The lecturer sliowed a piece of
sheathing taken from the bottom of a Government frigate that had not been
many months on the African station, and also a piece from the Royal George,
sunk at Spithead, and which had been under water CO years ; the former was
eaten through in ven- many places, and so thin all over that he might push
his thumb through it, while the latter was tough and in excellent condition.
Ilis attention had been directed to the subject by the Lords of the Admiralty
sending him 10 bottles of water, from as many different places on that coast,
extending from S deg. north of the Equator to 8 deg. south, to analyse, and
to report on the component parts thereof, and the accompanying table was
the result : — ■

Sierra Leone, per gallon

Volta

] Bonny River

JMooney

'Gaboon

jLobez-bay

jCongo River (Mouth)

jCongo River (35 miles inland)

(Uaugo

iLagos

Sulphuretted

Saline

Hydrogen.

Matter.

Cubic Inches.

Grains.

6-18

1,696,0

6-99

2,480,0

1-21

1,788,0

2,104,0

2,169,0

11-69

2,576,0

0-67

188,0

8,0

4-35

2,736,0

14-75

1,920,0

All the bottles were hermetically sealed, and he had no doubt the water
was in every way as good as when taken from the rivers. On drawing the
cork, he was immediately struck with the smell of suli)huretted hydrogen,
and adopted the general idea that it arose from animal and vegetable decom-
position, but it had since appeared to him that such was not entirely the case.
The gas extended a distance of 15 or 16 deg., and in some places as far as 40
miles to sea. covering therefore a space of 40,000 square miles. Now what
could the origin be .' He thought that it arose from the action and reaction
of vegetable and animal matter brought from the interior of the rivers upon
the sulphates in the sea water. With this idea he gathered last autumn some
leaves from a shrubbery and put them into three jars ; into one of which he
poured some plain New River water, into the second some of the same water
in which three ounces of common salt had been dissolved, and into the third
the like water, in which some crystallized sulphate of soda was dissolved.
To the covers of the jars he fixed inside some litmus paper, and placed them
in a cupboard, the temperature of which varied from 70 to 100 or 110 deg.
The effect was, that in the first the litmus paper was perfectly white, and the
smell by no means unpleasant ; in the second the paper was quite white, and the
smell similar to that of a preserve ; hut in the third jar, in which a sulphate
was present, the paper was nearly black, and the stench was horrible and
nauseous in the extreme, as every one knew the smell of sulphuretted hydro-
gen gas to be. Now sea-water contained sufficient sulphates to produce this
effect, under peculiar circumstances. But a more interesting part of the sub-
ject was the miasma so injurious to life on the marshy shore of Western Africa.
Some persons said that if science cannot point out a remedy, it is useless to
investigate the causes, but he did not so think ; if science could not point
out a remedy, still it could point to something as a palliation of the evil. The
presence of the injurious gas was easily tested by the roughest hand, so that
places in which it abounded could be avoided ; and if imperative duty rendered
it absolutely necessary to go to those places, then plentiful fumigations of
chlorine gas would effectually destroy the sulpliuretted hydrogen. The effect
of this gas was not only visible on the Western coast (rf Mrica, but in many
places elsewhere, although not to so great an extent. Might not the jiuigle
fever of India, the periodical fevers of New York and Charleston in America,
and the minor diseases on the coast of Essex, be traced to the effects of this
deleterious gas ? It was a well known fact that tlie ships in the mouth of
the Medway consumed more copper than other ships. Chlorine gas then
destroyed the injurious gas, and it was easily made, and the materials very
cheap ; the Government had plentifully supplied the African Expedition with
the materials necessary for the most perfect chlorine fumigations, and he had
the pleasure of believing that his report founded on the analysis of the waters
submitted to him, and the precautions taken, had imparted confidence not
only to the gallant men who composed that expedition, but also to those who
bad interested themselves in its welfare.

272

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[August*

SKVKRN NAVKJAl ON IMPROVEMENT.

(Concluded from page 24 '.J

Abstract of the Eridence mi behalf of the tVorcesli r and Birmingham Canal
Cnmuanii a''aiiisl the Bill for improvinn the Severn, gieen before the Committee
of the House of Commons on the Hill, May 17, 18, 21, 24, 25, 27, Sf 28, 184-1.

Mr. F. Giles, engineer, examined by Mr. Austin. — I am a civil engineer,
and have survevcif many rivers, liarljours, canals, and railways. I am ac-
quaiiiled with 'ihe Thames. Mcr.'ey, Medway, Ayr, and Caldcr, and many
other rivers ; 1 have also planned the construction of works with reference
to the .Severn : 1 have surveyed llie Severn with reference to ihe navigation ;
1 then particularly directed my attentiun to the drainage and scour of the
river, as f.ir as they were compatible with the navi|,'ation ; I surveyed the
river in 1837 with Mr. Rhodes' plans; 1 have surveyed it partially in the
present year. 1 am acquainted wiih the plan of Mr. Cubilt. Mr. Rhodes'
plan was for a ship canal up to Worcester, and a barge canal up to Stour-
port. [Witness then described Mr. Rhodes' plan.] That plan was not carried
into execution. I liave heard the whole of tlie evidence on the present plans.
My objections to it beginning at .Stourport are to tlie iiroposcd solid dams ;
I object to the principle of <lamming a river pomianentlv. With reference to
this river, it will decidedly obstnict the drainage, and be a great bar to the
navigation, when there is suflicient depth of water to pass ; and I think a
dillcrent kind of weir could be constructed that would afibrd the means of
passage m low- water season. In the first place, a solid dam must necessarily
raise The summer water level to the height of the dam; when the flood is
above the summer w aler level, supposing it to commence as the summer water
is now, not imp. unded (but you can pound it five, six, or seven feet) suppos-
ing the flood to commence rising above the artificial sum, if in the first place
Ihe flood rises five feet or more "above the original summer water, it must rise
it also five feet above the artificial sum of water, and so on every flood it
must increase with the rise of the flood in the same degree that the summer
water is to the flood.

]jy Mr. Barncby. — >Iy answer does not refer to the river when bank full,
but of course it would fnl sooner.

I5y Mr. Austin.— This plan would afi'ect some of the existing drains, par-
ticularly that wliich is made in the sewer at Worcester, and the drainage up
the country from the Salwarp to Ombersley. The drainage is about eiglileen
inches above the low summer wator. and of course the dam at Upton must
raise the water permanentiy in proportion to its height, and thus in flood
aflect the drainage; and that is not all, for the drainage of thi- gross matter
which comes from the sewers of large towns would be collected in pools,
which 1 lliink would be a very important matter. The Bcvere Island dam in
like manner would affect tlie drainage of the Salwarp; for if the water was
penned up below the Salwarp, it would be penned up in the Salwarp too.
■fhe Salwarp drains an important district, which would consequently be
aficctcd. In my opinion, if oblique weir.s would ]iass more water than straight
ones, which I du ncjt think they will, it would not the less aflect the drainage
of the district. Whether oblique or at right angles the permanent height
would be Ihe same, and from that I apprehend the eflect to the drainage.
The deposit would silt upon the upper side of the ueir ; and I understand this
to be ihe eflect at the weirs on the Ayr and C'alder. where they have flood-
gates which would assist to remivc the deposit. 1 would have the weirs so
constructed as to have two, three, or more flood-gales, si.xty feet wide, so as
to be ojien whenever freshes come doH n ; 1 believe this would have a good
eflect upon the drainage. With any weir there must be a lateral lock, but
when the weir was open there would be no necessity for using the lock. I
can form but one opinion of the mode in which it is proposed to construct
the weirs— and that is, that they must wash away. I have never built one
myself but with solid masonry, and with a puddle bank to back it ; 1 believe
a fooling is absolutely necessary. I don't hesitate to say that it would be
most advisable to dispense with weirs between Gloucester and Worcester ;
I certainly think the experiment should be tried. I would put a weir above
Worcester, at Ihe upper end of the pool, opposite the '■ Dog and Duck ; ' I
would dredge up to this iioint, through the bridge at Woicester. I think
also the dam at Bcvere Island should be at the .Salwarp. This would render
it necessary to sink Ihe soil at Diglis lock, nothing more. The channel-
dredging in the river would necessarily lower the water at the wharfs at
Worcester, and it would therefore be necessary to dredge up to the wharfs
also ; this would improve the drainage at Worcester, it would be necessary
to have a dam at Worcester bridge, and to underpin the piers. I think the
improvements below Worcester should be executed, according to the exigen-
cies of the case, as they presented themselves during ihe undertaking. 1
would first proceed to narrow the river to a certain channel in the soft parts
by groins, the points of which would form one grooved channel down the
river. I should be able to asi eriain the force of Ihe scour as ihe works pro-
ceeded, and thus to regulate the extent to which 1 would apply the operation
of dredging. I should dredge at once in the hard shoals wilh an inclination
of four leet to one; I would propose to dredge six feet for the purpose of
obtaining five. 1 should not let my groins run into the river to the fuUextent
at first, liut should a3d to them, if I found it necessary to do so, to maintain
the depth. Deerhurst shoal being wholly composed of sand, it would be an
inteiminable task to attempt dredging alone, but with Ihe assistance of the
jetties or groins, I think ihe scour of ihe river would maintain ihe depth re-
quired. 1 think Mr. Provis' mode of throw ing in stones for the foundation
of his side walls a very barl one. 1 propose in forming my groins to use
stakes of larch, lined in the usual way with faggots. My groins will gene-
rally be about 120 yards apart. The quantity to be dredged I estimate at
500,000 cubic yards, which, at Is. per yard, would come lo £25,000; the
groins 1 eslimale at £28,500 ; and 1 have put down £G.000 lo be spent upon
Wcreeslcr Bridge, but I lliink that is much more ih^n will be requ red, lor I
believe £1,000 fur each [lierwill be quite suflicient. 'I'hen 1 have set down
£10,000 for contingencies (w)iich is more than 10 per cent.) so we will take
the total cost, in round numbers, at £70,000. 1 w as employed by the Wor-

cester and Birmingham Canal Company to form a plan of my own for im-
proving the Severn ; this was after Mr. Rhodes" plan had been given up.
My plan went before Parliament, but it did not pa.ss.

Cross-examined by Mr. Serjeant Merew ether. — I cannot tell you Ihe height
of the weir in my plan for improving the Seven;, but it was up to higli water
mark. I liave this morning had a model brought here, at the request of an
hon. member made to me yesterday, but I should like to speak with Mr.
Austin before I produce it. (Mere a question arose whether the model should
or should not be produced. Previous to the termination of the conversation,
it was understood that the Committee would re-examine Mr. CuUtt towards
the close of the investigation, to hear his answer to Ihe objections which
had been made against his plan.l Tliis plan was suggested by me to the
Worccser and Birmingham Canal Company, who paid for the surveys and
application to Parliament, and wlio intended to have carried out the im-
provement by a commission. The toll was to be 2d. per ton from Diglis to
Ciloucester. 'I have proposed another plan for the improvement, where the
toll lo be iiaid was Is. per ton. but that was for a Company, and not in con-
nexion with the Birmingham Canal Company. It was brought forw.ard in
opposition to Mr Rhodes' plan, and when that plan dropped my plan also
dropped. I agree wilh Mr. M'alker's regret— as expressed m his report— that
so 1 ille has been done towards the improvement of the Severn. I do not
think that Mr. Cubilt has sufticiently considered the drainage in his plan.
I know the situation of Lord Sandys' drain. I w ent down last Friday night
to open it and examine its level, and 1 knew the drain before. This drain
is about 100 yards above Holt Fle^t Bridge. The sewer at Worcester, which
1 mentioned yesterday, has been lately constructed, and 1 particularly men-
tioned it because it is' the principal one in the city. 1 was told the fall of
that sewer by the person who built it. 1 am only acquainted with the out-
fall of that drain. I do not believe the fall is 25 feet. The bottom of the
outfall of this drain is 18 in. or 2 ft. above the present low summer level of
the Severn, and the sewer is perhaps S ft. in height.

By Mr. Godson. — The basin in Lowesmoor is at least 20 feet above the low
summer level of the Severn. ,,_,..

Cross-examination continued; I have no doubt but that there is a great
fall in that drain. I should think the entrance of the drain may be 20 feet
above its outfall. I have not heard of any public meeting of the people of
Worcester, in alarm at the eflect of the improvement on this sewer, but 1
have seen a gentleman on the subject. It was Mr. Williams, of the Distillery.
He resides on the opposite side of the river to wliere this sewer enters.
Where the water, in consequence of these artificial ponds, stops up the
moiilhs of drains, it must impede the drainage. I do not know the particular
eff'ect it may have upon this sewer, because I do not knoiv the fall, hut the
silt will have a tendency lo collect at the moulh, and will certainly be de-
posited at Ihe foot of the weir. The banks are about 16 or 17 feet above the
sewer at Worcester. There is not a considerable fall on the Salwarp a short
distance from its mouth ; there is only a fall of a few inches about a quarter
of a mile up the river. The height of the banks of the Severn near the
mouth of the Salwarp is about 15 ur 16 feet. I do not know the fall a quar-
ter nf a mile further up where the mill is situate. I still say that the valley
of the .Salwarp would be flooded sooner in consequence of the weir at Bevere
Island than it otherwise would be. I have never seen weirs constructed as
Mr Cubitt proposes to construct his. but 1 still think that his weirs would
not stand. Though I know Mr. Cubitt well, and know him to be a man of
great experience in these matters, I have no hesitation in saying that I be-
lieve him to be wrong in the construction of his weirs, both in Ihe mode of
forming them and the material to be employed (red sandstone from Holt and
itsncighbourhnod). I never heard of such a weir giving way, because I
never heard of .Mich a weir being constructed. I ilo not believe that Mr.
Cubitt's weir will be water-tight, for 1 do not think the sheet-piling will be
water-tinht; and 1 do think that the water leaping over the sheet piling
will blow' up the stone-work. I think a single row of sheet piles will not be
waler-tight. I have never seen a weir on the Taft. and I do not know that
there is one there constructed by Mr. Cubitt.

By Mr. Hastie.— I have seen the weir at Hampton Court, but it is not
applicable to tho?e proposed to be constructed on the Severn, as it is formed
of strong piles, having sluice-boards, and I will undertake to say that it has
a solid foundation, cither of timber or masonry.

Cross-examination continued.— The placing of rubble stone as an apron in
front of the sheet-piling will strengthen the weir, if ihe piling be water-tight.
I shall construct my groins with a slight inclination downwards. My groins
will be formed of willow stakes wattled ; they will be triangular, the base
being against the back of the river, and the apex running into the stream.
It is a very old mode of forming groins, and groins constructed m this man-
ner were formerly in the Severn at Upton and near the Ketch. They were
removed as a nuisance, because ihey canted the stream tc one side. 1 inean
to construct my groins so as to preserve a continuous channel as much as
possible. I hive certainly no doubt but that longitudinal walls would get
a more jierlectly continuous channel than the use of groins, if they could be

t be the case by dropping in the
" ' " " 'or a

^ ^,_ , Cu-

buT's'proposarto 'taiie' advantage o'f "jie deepest parts of" the channel, but
prefer dredging a straight channel .along the centre of the river. Ilierc are
five arches at Worcester Bridge, and the centre one is 42 feet wide. Ihe
total ascent I have by my plan from Gloucester lo Worcester race-course is
6 ft. 4 in. The deepest water is under the centre arch and the one to the
left When the water is low, 1 do not think there is more than 3 leet under
Ihe centre .arch. I shall first dr.dge three arches, then a channel 60 leet
wide, through the sho.il up the race-course, and subsequently dredge up to
Ihe wharfs. When 1 have dredged thiougli Ihe arches and shial. 1 should
think all ihe waKr will be drawn from the wharfs, as it generally is at pre-
sent I h.ave been employed lor years by the Worcester and Birmingham
Canal Company. I do not know that, in consequence of the boats not being
able to unload at the Worcester quays, from want of water, they go into the
B irmingham canal to unload. 1 ha\e not calculated the amount nor the cost

perfectly formed, which 1 think could not be the case by dropping m tl
stones, as proposed Ly Mr. Cubitt. No doubt it would be a great ev^il for
boat to strike the point of one of my groins. I do not approve of Mr. Ci

1841.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

273

of the .IrodRinp; alo^K uu- ,j,,„, o . , v. ,„„,,, j, j,, ,i,e £10,000

for contmyoncies, an 1 in theib.OOO lor the urioge. I sliouiQ iuuik a.^ .,„,.ya
would require under-pinning in consequence of the dredging. Ijut I think the
parties connected ivilh them will find it tlieir interest to do it themselves, as
the quays are very dilferent to interfering with the bridge, which uf course it
would lie my dufy to jirotect from injury. The surface of the water :,t the
quays will be lowered .5 feet. There will be 19 or 20 feet from the surface of
flie water, after the bottom has been dredged, to the top of the quays. Be-
low the bridge, there is the wall of tlie Bishop's Palace, and the Cathedral is
not far from the edge of the river; dredging would have the effect of under-
mining these sfructures if it were carried close up to them-

Re-e.\amined by Mr. Spooner. — The model I have exhd)ited does not apply
to any part of my plan below Worcester. The groins will be about 50 feet
long, by 10 feet wide at the head, and 25 feet at the base or abutment, and
packed inside the faggots with liard clay. The channel will not be dredged
np to the wall of the Bisho|>'s Palace, but merely in the middle of the river.
I am still of opinion, notwithstanding the five hours' cross-examination, that
I could successfully dredge up to the Dog and Duck.

By Mr. Banieby. — I do not think the weirs on the Thames are at all .appli-
cable to those proposed to be put on the Severn.

Mr. Giles examined by Mr. Lowndes. — There is a lower drain on Lord
Sandys' property which is not stated in the section. I have had it opened at
various points, and it applies to the under springs. I should say that the
outfall of this under drain will be 18 inches below the crown of the pen of
water formed by Mr. Cubitt's weir at Bevere Island. The fall of this drain
in the first 200 yards is 4 feet If the present outfall were raised, it would
lose the full force which at present exists there. I think the dam at Bevere
Island will affect the drainage ; about 100 acres of good land are drained by
this under drain. The dam at Holt Fleet will aflect the drainage of the sur-
rounding land there, which is also very good land. My plan w'ould only
raise the level at Salwarp and at Holt one foot, instead of up'.* ards of 4 feet,
which it would be raise<l by Mr. C'ul)i(t's scheme. I see no difficulty in the
way of dredging quite up to Holt, and thus have no weir below that point. I
think th-? weirs below \\ orcester will not only have ihe effect of atl'ectingthe
drainage, but also prevent the foul air escaping from the sewers, wfiich would
be a great nuisance to the city. Tlie towing paths in the neighbourhood of
Lord Sandys' properly are very bad. I know of none in such bad condition.
I think any plan which would place the rivir under the control of one body
and the tow ing paths under another must be bad. This inconvenience could
be avoided.

Cross-examined by Mr. Serjeant Merewether. — I kne.v the under drain be-
fore, but I did not open it till Saturday. Jn stating that this drain will be
18 inches under Mr. Cubitt's level, I stated on the supposition that there
wonld be 6 inches water on the crown of his weir above the drain. I think
that a crust would form in the mouth of the drain, because the floods bring
down clay and slime which soon harden.

Mr. W. C. Milne then gave evidence in favour of dredging, which closed
the case of the Worcester and Birmingham Canal Company.

Evidtnce on behalf of the Gloucester Canal Company, and the Corporation of
Gloucester.

Mr. Walker examined by Mr. Sergeant Wraugham. — I am a civil engineer
of long standing. I was employed to build the Haw Bridge on the Severn 12
or 14 years ago. I also surveyed the river in 1836, and reported upon Mr.
Khodcs' plan to the then Severn Navigation Company, by whose chairman,
J. W. Lea. Esq., I was employed. 1 was rcquestei in March last by the
Berkeley and Gloucester Canal Company to give my opinion upon Mr. Cubitt's
plan. 1 differ very little with respect to that plan from Mr. Cubitt. up to
Upton Ham. except in the details. As we difier so much as to the mode of
improving the river above Upton, I should state that Mr. Cubitt proceeds
upon the same principle between Gloucester and Upton. 1 think the river
might be made navigable up to Diglis without weirs ; and I think it would be
a pity to introduce them into so fine a river. My great objection to a lock
below Diglis, is, that it would be unnecessary and expensive. I see no reason
why the fall from Diglis to Upton could not be practically maintained, as
well as the fall below. I do not know any objection to dredging above Upton
on account of the hardness of the shoals. It is on account of their hardness
they are there, and were they removed the scour of the river would keep the
channel clear. If locks and weirs are placed in the .Severn, and prove inefh-
cient. I think the matter deposited woulil be so great in quantity (as in fact
the bott(<m of the river would be then at the top of the weir) that it would be
a work of more labour to remove it than to remove the weirs themselves. The
shoals formed by the weirs would be greater than the present shoals, but I
do not say they would proportionally obstruct the navigation, because the
trade will pass through lateral cuts. I am supposing that the bed of the river
is formed of gravel and similar substances, which would be washed down in a
flood. This in the course of time would have to be removed from the mouth
of the cuts by the dredging machine, or else the cuts must be carried further
above the weirs. The river below is capable of taking more water ihan could
pass over the oblique weirs, which would consequently be an obstruction. I
heard tlie evidence given in reference to these weirs with great surprise. The
only advantage of oblique weirs over others is when little water is coming
down, when there would be a thinner sheet of water over the oblique weir
than there would be over a cross one, but in a sharp fresh the water would
flow over, parallel with the banks, and the oblique weir would not be more
advantagecjus than another. In some instances the oblique weir has an ad-
vantage over the direct one, but it is not of more advantage in preventing
floods, and I think they would not be so convement for shouting boats over
them in flood time. 1 think boats would have a greater tendency to capsize
over an oblique weir than over a direct one. The expense of my plan up to
Diglis would be, including contingencies, £66,000. The cost of maintenance
would not be so much as in the plan of Mr. Cubitt ; except the lock and weir
at Upton, there is not much dilierence in the expense of our respective plans,
sofar as Diglis. I see no engineering difficulty m placing the Jock at Diglis

above the entrance to the Birmingham canal. There is no reason why there
should not be steamers up to AVorcester all the way from Bristol, so that
u oroosier may become a little Glasgow. On the Clyde steamers are em-
ployeil not only to convey passengers, but also to tow up fleets of vessels
carrying merchandize. I see no great difliculty in dredging through Wor-
cester Bridge, the only ijuestion is the amount of work necessiry to secure
the foundations, but I think it would be advisable to place the w'eir a little
below the bridge, that there might be an extensive pool opposite the city.
On the wliole I agree with Mr. Cubitt's plan so far as relates to th it part of
the river between Worcester and Gloucester, with the exception of the solid
w-eii<. In jjoint of fact, if we had an opportunity of consulting together, I
think that as repects the whole line there would be little difterence between
us.

Mr. Walker cross-examined by Mr. Sergeant Merewether.— Were I the
friend of Worcester, I should endeavour to prevent six feet being the masi-
mum depth of the improvement of the river. I have t.aken a great many-
soundings, but no borings. I think Worcester bridge cannot be built upon a
shoal ; there is deep water under the arches, and the shoal is below the
bridge I did not say wherever there is dredging there should be walling,
but wherever the material is soft it should be walled ; but this is not the
case above L'pton. If the slope of the rubble stone facing is U to 1, it re-
quires packing; but a slope of 3 to I would not require packing. I do not
know that the Deerhurst shoal has increased: I do not know whether the
gravel which is marked in the first section is natural to the place, or has been
brought there. The support of each side of the gateway of ray weirs would
be br,->ce piling. The rest ot the river would be occupie'd by standards about
16 feet apart, and level at least with the top of the proposed weirs, which
weirs again would be level w ith tlie top of^ the penned water. There is
no reason why the gates should not be raised by machinery, but they are not
so in the Thames. If the parties waited till a flood came they could not be
moved, and in such case there would be no advanta.ae over the solid weirs. I
h.ave seen the Teddington gates partly opened. 1 think the weeds floating
down the stream might have a tendency to fill up the gates. I have made
no estimate of the expense of this sort of weir, nor of the expense of attend-
ing to or repairing it. I think all the frame-work might be taken out at the
beginning of the winter, and put in again about April. M'hile I entertaia
the opinions that I do at present respecting the improvement of the Severn,
1 shall always prefer open weirs. No human art can altogether prevent the
necessity of dredging in the river. I think a basin at Worcester would be a
very desirable thing.

Re-examined by Mr. Sergeant Wrangham. — Since I was examined on
Thursday I have carefully re-perused Mr. Cubitt's evidence ; and tlie opinions
I then expressed respecting it are strengthened by my having done so. It
would be very easy to pick out the weeds from the gates and timbers, much
more so than to dredge the deposit at a solid weir. According to my doctrine,
if none of the shutters of my weirs could be removed before the flood came,
the obstructions would not be greater than by the solid weirs. My weir
would cost more per se than Mr. Cubitt's ; but if you include the dredging
that would be required at Mr. Cubitt's weir, mine would be much the cheapest.
I think a lock below Worcester would be a great disadvantage to the future
navigation to that city ; but if it were constructed on my principle I think
that inconvenience would be proportionally diminished.

By Sir W. Rae. — The additional expense of dredging by my plan from Up-
ton to Diglis would be £10.640; the expense of walling 4i miles would be
£10,000. I take the whole expense at £25.000 up to Diglis ; and there would
be £4.600 additional for dredging up to Worcester; £1,600 for walling, and
£2.000 for dredging opposite the quays.

By Mr. Barneby. — There would be as much dredging above Worcester
bridge if my plan was put in execution.

By Viscount Ingestrie. — The gates of the weir would be ordinarily raised
by hand by a person in a boat ; I dare say it would take three hours from
beginning to end to raise them.

By Mr. Bailey. — The obstruction by a solid weir is 7 times 16, or 112 ; the
obstruction by the open w eir would be about one-third of this. There would
be no danger in short water of not being able to keep sufficient water for the
navigation in consequence of the leakings. I give my plan simply as a general
idea ; I did not expect to be examined so closely respecting it.

By the Hon. R. Clive. — My honest opinion is that dredging should be first
tried for the improvement of the river ; if that should fail, a weir of some
kind should be tried ; but I think they would be the worst friends of the na-
vigation of the river who would recommend the construction of the w eirs in
the first instance. I think, as I said in my report, it w'ould be very important
to try of w hat the ri er is capable without locks and weirs.

By an Hon. Member.— There is more tide in the Clyde than in the Severn.
Tlie shoals in the .Severn would be more difficult to remove than the soft stufl"
now in the Clyde ; but there were originally hard shoals in that river.

By Mr. Godson. — The sum about to be expended upon the Clyde is about
hall a million. I can't tell what has been expended. Whether the improve-
ment I propose would be worth a shilling a ton to the trade is out of my de-
partment to answer ; but I think all the trade would be benefitted by it. The
Severn will never become so large a navigable river as the Clyde, because the
tide does not so much assist it ; but I have no doubt it will become a fine
river one day. The resistance on any given amount of an oblique w eir would
be less than on a direct one, but on the whole sum it would be the same. I
have seen Mr. Giles's model of a weir. 1 think there is a complexity about
it that should be avoided ; it would also be expensive. I don't tliink walls
would be required on both sides the river; two might be injurious. At the
lime Mr. Smeaton made his survey of the Clyde the shoals were much worse
than they are in the Severn.

By Mr. Pryme.— I do not know what the piers at Worcester Bridge are,
but I should think the dredging under it could not affect the safety of the
bridge.

By Mr. Barneby. — It mav be necessary to remove the shoal in the Avon in
conseL(uence of the dredging below Upton. Kvery weir makes as it were a

2 P

274

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[August,

stc]! In :h^- lucr : an.l if > ou nniiive il. it would l;e necessary also to remove
llie ilejiosit that HouliI Ijc accumulated.

Mr. Joliii TImperley, formerly resident engineer of the Ayr anrl CnlJcr Na-
vigation, was then called to prove lliat in that Navigation the oblique weirs
were of no advantage, and that dredging to a great e.\tent «as still necessary.
and was now carried on at a oonsiderahle expense. The only portion of his
evidence relating to the matter before the Committee was the loUowing :— I
do not agree with Mr. Cubitt Ihat in floods the water will pass oft just as
freely as il his oblifjue weirs were not in the river at all— it is impossible. I
do not think Mr. Cubltt's weirs will be nearly strong enough. I have seen a
vessel washed over the top of the dam nn the Ayr and Calder, and it was not
a very unusual occurrence, as they could not always stop the boat; the rope
might slip or break, and ihen the boat would go over the dam. I have not
examined the Severn, but from what I have heard, 1 have no doubt the river
might be improved up to Worcester w ilhout weirs. If weirs are used they
should not be solid.

Cross-examined \j Mr. Talbot.— I only know personally about the Severn,
from l)aving once driven over the Haw l^ridge. There are many mills on the
Ayr. The weirs were originally put in to keep up the water 'for the mills.
There are dam boards in these weirs, and if tliere is a heavy fresh it is difficult
to remove them. They require repairing sometimes. The Calder is a tortuous
liver.

Re-examined by Mr. 'Wortley.— The Calder is a tortuous river, but the Ayr
is not.

By Mr. fiodson. — The water at the highest floods goes straight over the
weir, but it goes at right angles wlien it is a moderate stream ; at six or seven
inches water it goes at right angles, but at six or seven feet it goes over
straight. lagreewiih Mr. M'alker thai it is possible, after dredging up to
Moreester to the depth of six feet, furiher to improve the river so that ships
might come up. 1 do not know the exact depth of the Gloucester & Berkeley
Canal.

By Captain M'innington.- 1 believe tliat the Ayr and Calder Navigation is
not wider above the oblique weirs than at any other part.

Mr. Fidljames, examined by Mr. Wood. I am an architect and engineer,
and am surveyor to the county of Gloucester. I have erected a bridge over
the Jsis, su]ierinlended the removal of the old Over Bridge, and have put up
large flood-gates on the Severn six miles above Gloucester, &c. 1 have been
cemployed by the landowners between Worcester and Gloucester to oppose
this measure, and have made observations accordingly. There are about
20,000 acres between Worcester and Gloucester under Hood water-mark, (or
the level of the banks) and the parties employing me own about half that
quantity. 1 have been used to the Severn all mv life, and from observations
made during the last ten or fifteen years, I find' that, on an average, there
is one summer flood in five years, tliree land floods per annum, and three
winter floods in two years. Summer floods are wholly injurious, and so are
back water or land floods, but the winter floods are sometimes useful, inas-
much as Ihey dej^sit a sediment which is beneficial. In 1839 the whole crop
of hay on this extent of land was either carried away or destroyed. The loss
«as about 3/. per acre, and nearly the whole tract is grass land. I believe
that the weir at I plon would cause a flood to overflow these low lands for
miles, which would not ri.se above the banks if there were no weir there.
[Here the witness statcl, in answer to various questions, that he entirely
agreed w ith Mr. Walker's evidence, and on Mr. Pryme informing Mr. Wood
that tht? weir at Upton « as abandoned, he turned his attention' to the im-
provemmt as eflected by dredging up to Diglis.] I do not approve of Mr.
tubitt s mode of dredging, because he does not take the centre of the stream,
as proposed by Mr. Walker; by dredging near the banks they would be
liable to slip in. I do not ap[irove of the mode of forming the'side walls,
because there would not be enough stuff to fill up the space between the
walls and the banks. I should not recommend the landowners to assent to
Mr. Cubitt s plan of dredging up to Diglis, suppc sing that the weir was not
putm at I.' plon. Mr. KulTjames was further examined, but his evidence
mainly coincided with that of Mr. Walker

Cross-examined by Mr. Craig.-The 10,000 acres I spoke of are subject to
floods. I Ihnik about 200 of them belong to Mr. Hyett. They are about
ten mi es from the proposed weir at Upton Ham. Part of them are H mile
from the Severn. About 000 acres belong to Mr. Fulljames, a near relation
of mine. A boiU 158 acres belong to Mr. Yorke. They are all below flood
mark, arid are o miles below the proposed weir. The witness was examined
at considerable engih. but his evidence was merely a repetition of what has
been alreaily piibliihed in that of other witnesses. In answer to questions
by hir VV. Kae he said ;— By doing away with the weir at Upton, steam tugs
could come up to Diglis. Vessels lugged by a steamer would require thr?e
men for general piirposes. Steam boats have been tried on the river, but
were discontinued for want of water.

Mr. Cubitt was recalled by the Committee, and confirmed his former evi-
dence. In answer to .(ucstions by Mr. Bailey, he said— I ,im not aware of
tlie length of the drains of W„rce.ster nor of the fall.— (Mr Bailey then
stated the dimension .and fall.) I do not think, if such ;s the dimension and
fall. ..ur work.s will aflect it 1 think covering up the mouth of the drain
would be beneficial rather than oiherwise. as it would prevent the effluvia
from reaching the city. It is i.ossible to widen the river to so great a width
and to put in a weir across it at so great a length that it sh.all be able to take
the whole water of the river at summer tune or flood lime- therefore -is-
sumiiig 1 make a weir of great length across the bed of the river, and widen
out the river lo admit free access to the weir, and make the weir so long tliat
SIX inches of water along the weir should be of a sectional area eiiu.al to the
whole of the r ver, of the same heightabove and below the weir; and itmust
beevidcntto those who think about it, that there is as much water way at the
lieiglit of two feet six inches as in any cross section of the river above or be-
ow, at any dead level. It is, therefore, possible to make a weir which sh.all
be an obstruction to a certain height, and after Ihal height shall be no ob-
fM"'/'".'-.. ,"'*"■""' 'lie weir consists not in its obliquity but its length.
(Mr.uibitt then produced a model to show the amount of obstruction that
would be occasioned by llie weirs, the details of which he explained to the

Committee.) He .alsos;iid iliat he e.u.t.i , ■,. , .■.^■•„.-iouuque

or .ii."». — !•:.■■ -i/iiiu iioi aitt/tt tne stream at all ; others might say it could
not be effected, but it was a fact which could not be affected by their state-
mentsr I could produce a model in which water could pass over a weir, but
I have an objection lo do so, since they never act well on any scale. 1 have
lieard dredging down the centre of the stream mentioned as preferable to my
plan ; my only objection to it would be its expense ; 1 kept expense constantly
in view in my arrangement. I said in my cross-examination that it was
feasible to dredge up to Worcester. Vie could sooner build a lock and weir
at Upton than we could dredge from Upton to Worcester; dredging would
take one season more. It does not appear to me that there is any mateiial
objection to that plan being followed. It would be impracticable' to dredge
from Worcester to Stourport : millions might do it, but hundreds of thousands
would not ; it would be quite out of question to dredge to the Dog and Duck
on account of the fall. With six feet navigation over the lock sills, vessels
from 80 to 120 tons could come up from the sea, through the Gloucester and
Berkeley Canal, up to M'orcester and Stourport; steam boats could pass
through the leaks without difficulty. If ihe bill passed I should be content
to confine myself to one lock and weir this winter, and in the spring I would
commence the others together. I think it woidd be best to commence below
Worcester; I would engage to get the Diglis lock completed before Clirist-
mas. Suppose the bill passed, omitting the Upton weir, I would put all the
lower Severn in a fit state for dredging by that time. 1 would finish the
Diglis lock and weir at the same time ; and 1 would be content that further
operations should depend upon the effect of those works.

By Mr. Lowndes. — 1 admit the level near Lord Sandys's drain may be
raised 18 inches.

Mr. Cubitt and Mr. Giles then entered into mutual discussion and explana-
tion as lo the effect of the works upon the drainage at Holtflcet and the .Sal-
warp, when it appeared that in consequence of the section being very small,
Mr. Giles had supposed the hne representing the level formed hj the Bevere
Island weir to be horizontal, whereas in fact it sloped one inch per mile.

The Committee came to the following resolution : —

" That the preamble of the Bill is proved ;" and then proceeded to con-
sider the Bill clause by clause. The Bill was idtimalely postponed until next
■Session, in consequence of the early conclusion of the Session,

REVIEVrS.

The True Principles of Pointed or Clirisiian Architecture : Bet forth in
Two Lictures, dilivired at St. Mlarie's, Oscolt. By A. Welbv Pugin,
Architect and Professor of Ecclesiastictl Antiquities in that CcUege.
Small 4to. London: J. Weale, lS-11.

That this new work of Mr. Welby Pugin's will excite much interest,
both amone his professional brethren, and amateurs, may be confidently
pronounced by us beforehand, since whatever comes from him must
command attention ; but that it will please every one is more than we
dare assert; or rather we are certain that a good deal in it will prove
unpalateable to a good many folks. By not a few, this volume — and
a very handsome and tasteful volume it is — will be opened with
anxious misgivings and apprehensions for themselves and their pro-
ductions, since Mr. Pugin is known to be a tolerably plain-spoken man,
and if anything rather overstrict than at all lax in his critical opinions.
He is not one of those who keep beating about the bush, who fearful
of giving offence, or of being thought too severe, rather hint at than
utter what may be unpalateable trutlis. On the contrary, he gives
free utterance to what he tliinks, and he both thinks and speaks to the
purpose ; consequently what he does say must ou that very account be
all the more provoking to those who woidd be exceedingly glad to be
able to gainsay not a little that his book contains.

Among tlie malcontents will be those who have been taught, or who
teach others to look upon c/ass/ca/ architecture, as the very perfection
of the art — as its culminating point both in taste and genius, and who
even consider it to be the highest merit of us moderns to be able to
transplant a portico from a Grecian or Roman temple. The follow ing
extract will at once convince our readers, that Mr. Pugin will scanda-
lize those whose orthodoxy is of the above kind.

Grecian architecture is essentially wooden in its construction ; it originated
in Kooden buildings, and never did its professors possess either suflicient
imagination or skill to conceive any departure from the original type. \'itni-
vius shows that their buildings were formerly composed of trunks of trees,
with lintels or brestsummers laid across the top, and rafters again resting on
them. This is at once the most ancient and barbarous mode of building that
can be imagined ; it is heavy, and, as I before said, essentially wooden ; but
is it not extraordinary that when the Greeks commenced btuldiiig in stone,
the properties of this material d'l! not suggest to them some different and
improved mode o/ construction ' Such, however, was not the case ; they set
up stone pillars as they had set up trunks of wood ; they laid stone lintels as
they had laid wood ones, //«/ nc)-o.vs,- they even made the construction appear
still more similar to wood, by carving triglyphs, which are merely a repre-
sentation of the beam ends. The finest temple of the Greeks is constructed
on the same principle as a large wooden cabin. As illustrations of history

184 1. J

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

275

they are extremely valuable ; but as for their being held up as the standard
of architectural excellence, and the types from which our present buildings
are to be formed, it is a moustrous absurdity, which has originated in the
blind admiration of modern times for every thing Pagan, to the prejudice aud
overthrow of Christian art and propriety.

The Greeks erected their columns, Uke the uprights of Stonehenge, just so
far apart that the blocks they laid on them would not break by their oxuri
weiyht. The Christian architects, on the contrary, during the dark ayes, with
stone scarcely larger than ordinary bricks, threw their lofty vaults from slender
pillars across a vast intermediate space, and that at an amazing height, where
they had every difficulty of lateral pressure to contend with. Tliis leads me
to speak of buttresses, a distinguishing feature of Pointed Architecture, aud
the tirst we shall consider in detail.

It need hardly be remarked that buttresses are necessary supports to a
lofty wall. A wall of three feet in thickness, with buttresses projecting three
feet more at intervals, is much stronger than a wall of six feet thick without
buttresses. A long unbroken mass of building without Hght and shade is
monotonous and unsightly ; it is evident, therefore, that both for strength
and beauty, breaks or projections are necessary in architecture. \Ve will now
examine in which style. Christian or Pagan, these have been most successfully
carried out. Pointed architecture does not conceal her construction, but
beautifies it : classic architecture seeks to conceal instead of decorating it,
and therefore has resorted to the use of engaged columns as breaks for strength
and effect; — nothing can be worse. A column is an architectural member
which should only be employed when a superincumbent weight is required
to be sustained unthout the obstruction of a silid wall ; but the moment a
wall is built, the necessity and propriety of columns cease, and engaged

columns always produce the effect of having once been detached, and the in-
termediate spaces blocked up afterwards.

A buttress in pointed architecture at once shows its purpose, and diminishes

naturally as it rises and has less to resist. An engaged column, on the con-

[ trary, is overhung by a cornice. A buttress, by means of water tables, can

j be made to project such a distance as to produce a fine efiect of light and

I shade. An engaged column can never project far on account of the cornice,

and all the other members, necessarily according with the diameter of the

column, would be increased beyond all proportion. 1 will now leave you to

judge in which style the real intention of a buttress is best carried out'.

I have yet to speak of flying buttresses, those bold arches, as their name
implies, by which the lateral thrust of the nave groining is thrown over the
aisles and transferred to the massive lower buttresses. Here again we see
the true principles of Christian architecture, by the conversion of an essential
support of the building into a light and elegant decoration. Who can stand
among the airy arches of .\miens, Cologne, Chartres, Beauvais, or Westmin-
ster, and not be filled with admiration at the mechanical skill and beautiful
combination of form which are united in their construction .' But, say the
modern critics, they are only props, and a bungling contrivance. Let us
examine this. Are the revived pagan buildings constructed with such superior
skill as to dispense with these supports .' By no means ; the clumsy vaults of
St. Paul's, London, mere coffered semi-arches, without ribs or intersections,
hace their flyiny buttresses ; but as this style of architecture does not admit
of the yreat principle of decorating utility, these buttresses, instead of being
made ornamental, are concealed by an enormous screen, going entirely round
the building. So that in fact one half of the edifice is built to conceal the
otiier.

Section of a Pointed Church, with the Flying Buttresses decorated.

Although we will not go so far as to say it is inconsistent with cor-
rect principles of taste to introduce columns merely for the sake of
decoration,— a doctrine which il consistently and strictly followed up,
would put us out of conceit with the ornamental parts of many Gothic
structures also ; — we certainly do agree with Mr. Pugin in the main.
Beautiful as we consider Grecian architecture to be as regards its
mere forms, we have always felt it to be exceedingly iorne ana limited
in expression. The whole of it lies in a very narrow compass; it ad-
mits of scarcely any combinations; it may, in fact be said to be stereo-
type. Like a barrel-organ it can play only a single set of tunes, which
however agreeable they maybe at first, become tiresome by repetition.
Antiquarian travellers visit Lycia and other parts of Asia Minor, aud
merely return with mare's-nest discoveries of what we may find just

Section of St. Paul's. London, a Church built in the revived Pagan
style, with the Flying Buttresses concealed by a Screen.

as well, in our own libraries and portfolios ; or if they do chance to
meet with something like a new idea for a column or capital, scarcely
ever is it turned to account, but we go on with our hackneyed llissu*
Ionic, &c., usque ad nauseam. — But we are now improving upon Mr.
Pugin, so let us cut short our own remarks, and retuni to him and his
book.

As it will, doubtless, be ere long in the hands of most of our readers,
who will then have the advantage of the numerous illustrations as well
as the wliole of the text, we shall not attempt to follow its author step
by step ; therefore, passing over many clever original remarks in re-
gard to ' mouldings,' and the "use of the splayed form,' &c., we shall
notice his free animadversions on the preposterous absurdities passed
off by fashionable upholsterers, cabinet-makers, and paper-hangers as

2 P 2

27G

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[August,

Gothic furniture and Gothic pattern?, in the true Brummagem gusto ;
illustrating some of these mongrel monsters by specimens in his en-
gravings and cuts, — among the rest, of a "New SheflBeld pattern for a
modern Castellated Grate ."'

" Modern grates," he observes, " are not unfreqnently made to represent
diminutive fronts of castellated or ecclesiastical buildings with turrets, loop-
holes, windows, and doorways, all in a space of forty inches.

" The fender is a sort of embattled parapet, with a loiige-gate at each end ;
the end of the poker is a sbar]) pointed finial ; and at the summit of the tongs
is a saint. It is impossible to enumerate half the alisurdities of modern me-
tal-workers ; but all these proceed from the false notion of disguisiiuj instead
of lieautifying articles of utility. How many objects of ordinary use are ren-
dered monstrous and ridiculous simply because the artist, instead of seeking
the most convetiinit form, and then decorating it, lias embodied some extra-
vagance to conceal the real purpose for which the article has been made .' If
a clock is required, it is not unusual to cast a Koman warrior in a flying
chariot, round one of the wheels of winch, on close inspection, the hours may
be descried ; or the whole front of a cathedral church reduced to a few inches
in height, with the clock-face occupying the position of a magnificent rose
■window. Surely the inventor of this patent clock-case could never have re-
flected that according to the scale on w Inch the edifice was reduced, his clock
•would be about two hundred feet in circumference, and that such a monster
of a dial would crush the proportions of almost any building that could be
raised. But this is nothing when compared to what we see continually pro-
duced from those inexhaustible mines of bad taste, Birmingham and Sheffield ;
staircase turrets for inkstands, monumental crosses for light-shades, gable
ends hung on handles for door-porters, (?) and four doorways and a cluster of
pillars to support a French lamp ; while a pair of pinnacles supporting an arch
is called a Gothic-pattern scraper, and a wiry compound of quatrefoils and
fan tracery an abbey garden seat. Neither relative scale, form, purpose, nor
unity of style, is ever considered by those who design these abominations ; if
they only introduce a quatrefoil or an acute arch, be the outline and style of
the article ever so modern and debased, it is at once denominated and sold as
Gothic.

" While I am on this topic it may not be amiss to mention some other ab-
surdities which may not be out of place, although they do not belong to me-
tal-work. I will commence with what are termed Gothic-pattern papers, for
hanging walls, where a wretched caricature of a pointed building is repeated
from the skirting to the cornice in glorious confusion, — door over pinnacle,
and pinnacle over door. This is a great favourite with hotel and tavern
keepers. Again, those papers which are shaded are defective in principle ;
for, as a paper is hung round a room, the ornament must frequently be shadowed
on the light side.

" The variety of these miserable patterns is quite surprising ; and as the
expense of cutting a block for a bad figure is equal if not greater than for a
good one, there is not the shadow of an excuse for their continual reproduc-
tion. A moment's reflection must show the extreme absurdity of repeating a
perspective over a large surface with some hundred differeut points of sight :
a panel or wall may be enriched and decorated at pleasure, but it should
always be treated in a consistent manner."

These cavalier censures will hardly obtain for Mr. Piigin the good-
word of the honourable company of Paper-Stainers and Paper-Daubers.
It may reduce the value of their stock on hand, and also of that of the
Sheffield and Brummagem artists, at least 75 per cent. ; but let them and
Messieurs the upholsterers plaister up their pique with the comfort-
able reflection that, as many people will now be ashamed of their
trumpery Gothicizijigs, and proceed to get rid of them as fast as they
can, they must have their rooms refurnished, — which will, of course,
be all for the benefit of trade.

In his second lecture he again touches upon the subject of furniture,
and has another slap at the Upholsterers ; who

" Seem to think that nothing can be Gothic unless it is found in some
church. Hence your modern man designs a sofa or occasional table from de-
tails culled out of Britton's Cathedrals, and all the ordinary articles of furni-
ture, which require to be simple and convenient, are made not only very ex-
pensive but very uneasy. We find diminutive flying buttresses about an arm
chair ; every thing is crocketed with angular projections, innumerable mitres,
sharp ornaments, and turreted extremities. A man who remains any length
of time in a modern Gothic room, and escapes without being wounded by
some of its minntia", may consider himself extremely fortunate. There are
often as many pinnacles and gablets about a pier-glass frame as arc to be
found in an ordinarv- church, and not unfrequently the whole canopy of a
tomb has been transferred for the p\irposc, as at Strawberry Hill. I have
perpetrated many of these enormities in the furniture I designed some years
ago for Windsor Castle. At that time I had not the least idea of the princi-
ples I am now explaining ; all my knowledge of Pointed Architecture was
confined to a tolerably good notion of details in the abstract ; but these I
employed with so little judgment or propriety, that, although the parts were
correct and exceedingly well executed, collectively they appeared a complete
burlesque of pointed design."

This last confession is highly creditable to Mr. Pugin. Such a frank
avowal of his own artistical delinquencies, speaks much in his favour.

and shows that if he is severe towards others, he cannot be reproached
with being over-indulg''nt towards himself. At the same time we
must say that if the censures he levels against architects and their
employers be for the most part well merited, they are occasionally too
sweeping and overstrained. His objections, for instance, against the
application of the Italian style, to domestic architecture in this coun-
try, amount to little more than a sophistical tirade. "What," he asks,
" does an Italian house do in England ?" Which question put forth
by him as an unanswerable one, might be turned against the cause he
himself advocates; for just as well might it be asked, on the other
hand, why should a house erected in the reign of Queen Victoria, be
made to resemble one built in the time of Edward IV., or, Henry VII.
or VIII? Why should a Protestant church of the I9th century be in
any respect modelled like a Roman Catholic one of the 14th or 15th I
Is not the Italian style to the full as applicable to our actual wants and
purposes in the majority of cases, as any mode borrowed — for borrowed
after all it must be — from examples to be found, indeed, in our own
country, but belonging to periods more dissimilar from, than in aught
resembling the present one? Nominally Italian as to design, are not
Barry's two Club-houses in Pall Mall, perfectly English in their accom-
modation? W^e could easily extend this list of questions ; but until
they are answered they will answer for the present occasion. Even
our ancestors themselves were addicted to change : they endeavoured
to make their buildings keep pace with the progress of social im-
provement and the spirit of the times. Nay, mutatis mutandis, what
Mr. Pugin himself urges against the castellated style might in some
degree be objected to some other styles of much later date.

" What can be more absurd than houses built in what is termed the cas-
tellated style ? Castellated architecture originated in the wants consequent
on a certain state of society : of course the necessity of great strength, and
the means of defence suited to the military tactics of the day, dictated to the
builders of ancient castles the most appropriate style for their construction.
Viewed as historical monuments, they are of surprising interest, but as models
for our imitation they are worse than useless. What absurdities, what ano-
malies, what utter contfadictions do not the budders of modern castles per-
petrate ! How many portcullises which will not lower down, and drawbridges
which will not draw up ! — how many loop-holes in turrets so small that the
most diminutive sweep could not ascend them I — On one side of the house
machicolated parapets, embrasures, bastions, and all the show of strong de-
fence, and round the corner of the building a conservatorj- leading to the
principal rooms, through which a whole company of horsemen might pene-
trate at one smash into the very heart of the mansion ! — for who would
hammer against naded portals when he could kick his way through the green-
house ? In buildings of this sort, so far from the turrets being erected for
any particular purpose, it is difficult to assign any destination to them after
they are erected, and those which are not made into chimneys seldom get
other occupants than the rooks. But the exterior is not the least inconsistent
portion of the edifices, for we find guard-rooms without either weapons or
guards ; sally-jjorts, out of which nobody passes but the servants, and where
a military man never did go out; donjon keeps, which are nothing but draw,
ing-rooms, boudoirs, and elegant apartments ; watch-towers, where the
housemaids sleep, and a bastion in which the butler cleans his plate : all is a
mere mask, and the whole building an ill-conceived lie."

We would give a trifle to know what is Mr. Pugin's opinion of
Windsor Castle; — in fact we should very much like to see a volume
of comments from his pen relative to some of the principal modem
Gothic structures he has examined in various parts of the country.
We do not imagine that he is perfectly satisfied w ith any one of them
— not even with Windsor itself; still, they cannot ail be equally bad:
some must possess more or less merit in particular parts, or i Ise be
conspicuous for egregious sins and defects ; and at any rate, we should
then obtain something in the shape of specific criticism from Mr. Pugin,
instead of those generalized observations to which he has hitherto
chiefly confined himself. In the meanwhile, we thank him for the pre-
sent work, from which much profitable instruction is to be obtained.
Considerable praise is also due to the publisher, for the truly elegant
manner in which the volume is got up, so as to render it one well fitted
not only for the library, but the drawing-room and boudoir; nor is it
deficient in the popular recommendation of being unusually cheap.

History of Belvoir Castle, from the Norman Conquest to tie Nineteenth
Century ; roilh a Description of the Present Castle, and Critical
Notices, and the Panitings, ^c. ^c. By the Rev. Irvin Eller, of
Queen's College, Cambridge. 8vo. London, 184 1.

We shall confine ourselves to the latter half of this volume, namely,
the description of the Castle itself and its apartments, as being that
which more properly comes under our cognizance, and which is most
to our individual taste. From the first or historical part we content

1841.1

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

277

ourselves with gathering the following notices in respect to the build-
ing. After being wantonly laid in ruins by Lord Hastings, on whom
it had been bestowed by Edward IV., the Castle was begun to be re-
built in the reign of Henry VIII, by Thomas, first Earl of Rutland, and
was completed by Henry, the second Earl, about 1555. It was after-
wards dismantled by the Parliamentary forces under Cromwell, and
again rebuilt in 1.GG8. Excepting some slight alterations, such as the
addition of a picture gallery, made by George, the third Duke of
Rutland, about 1750, the structure underwent little change until the
beginning of the present century, when the new works were coin-
menced in ISOl, and carried on undor the direction of Wyatt till
181G, at which time the south-west and south-east fronts were com-
pleted, and the grand staircase and picture gallery in the north-west
one nearly finished. On October 26th of that year a most calamitous
fire broke out,* which consumed the uhole of the north-west and
north-east sides, and would probably have extended its ravages fur-
ther, had it not been arrested by bricking up the doorway opening
from the grand staircase into the Regent's gallery, which, with the
chapel, form the south-west front of this extensive pile. Of the pic-
tures destroyed we have here a complete catalogue, with the sums at
■which each was valued — varying from iil. to 300U guineas — and those
for which each was insured. Among them were a great many family
portraits by Sir Joshna Reynolds, and his large picture of the Na-
tivity, painted for the centre compartment of the stained glass window
in New College, Oxford.

After this event the north-east and north-west fronts were rebuilt
under the direction of the Rev. Sir John Thoroton.t an amateur archi-
tect, who appears to have greatly improved upon the ideas of his
professional predecessor, notwithstanding that the latter was no other
than the " celebrated" Wyatt. One very material improvement on
the original plan, both as regards external appearance, convenience,
and internal effect, adopted by Sir John — is the grand entrance in the
north-west front, consisting of a spacious advanced carriage porch,
connected with the building by a short corridor forming an approach
to the vestibule or "guard-room;" whereas, previously to the fire,
there was nothing, wnatever of the kind — no sheltered intermediate
space, but visitors entered immediately from the open air into the
vestibule.

" It would be tame language," says Mr. E., " to speak of the present
entrance (merely) as an improvement. Nothing can be in better
taste than the porch with its lofty doors, its pointed arches, its ogee-
shaped canopies with finials, and the cloister-like entrance." "The
porch, entrance-passage, guard-room and gallery, were all designed by
Sir John Thoroton from portions of Lincoln cathedral. The entrance-
passage is lighted by eight windows (four on each side), between
which shafts rising from flowered corbels, form the support of moulded
ribs on the vaulted roof."

Judging from the plans, we should imagine there must be a striking
degree of effect in the view through the arch facing the entrance,
into what is called the Guard-room Gallery, formed by a screen of
arches on a higher level, it being in fact the first landing, off from
which lies the grand staircase. For want, however, of more exact
explanation, and of either view or section, it is difficult to compre-
hend so clearly as we could wish to do, what, owing to the difference
of levels, is rather a complex and intricate part of the interior. We
may, therefore, express our regret that none of our graphic "Illus-
trators" and view-makers, should have thought proper to satisfy our
curiosity relative to Belvoir. The most that any of them, we believe,

' -*' Hjw the fire originated, could, it seems, never be discovered — probably
because those who could have cleared up the mystery chose to keep their
own counsel. For somi> piquant remarks on the subject of such " accidents,"
we may refer our reailcrs to an article in the last No. of the Polytechnic
Journal, entitled the British Museum and its Library," where the writer
indulges in some pleasantry on the py^ophobia — the excessive horror of fires
and candles exhibited by the managers of that national institutinn — which
is such that it induces them to close the reading rooms very long before sun-
set, during several months in the year.

If not as a preventive against fire, at least as a means of checking its pro-
gress, we would suggest that in all very extensive residences, particularly
where the entire pile consists of distinct masses and part^, there should be
exceeding] thick internal party walls between the ditterent ranges of rooms,
so that the fire could not spread beyond that portion of the plan where it
might happen to break out. Were this done, not only would there be com-
paratively little danger, but also less alarm and confusion in case of fire, as
the inmates would feel themselves in safety in other parts of the building.

t This gentleman, who was rector of Bottesford, adjoining Belvoir, from
1782 to 1820. (in which ye.ir he died at Belvoir Casde, Dec. 18ih, in his 62nd
year,) and who was knighted by George IV. uhen Regent, deserves to rank
high among those who have cultivated the study of architecture. "One half
of the present Castle," says Mr, Eller, " and certainly the most henutiful por-
tion in an architectural point of vieiv, was erected chiefly from his designs
and under his superintendence."

have done, is to give us one or two general views of the Castle, but
from such points as rather to exhibit its locality, the general charac-
ter of the structure, and the various masses of building composing it—
as seen rising above the lofty trees embosoming it — than to show
what its architectural design really is. This is the case with the
view (the north-east front), which serves as the frontispiece to the
present volume. Greatly do we desiderate a distinct architectural
view of the entrance and corridor connecting it with the building; as
likewise of another representing that portion of the south-west front
which forms the exterior of the chapel, and which is spoken of as
being of " purely perpendicular character."

" it has some good features about it," continues the writer, "es-
pecially in the parapet above the arcade in the basement story, which
formed no part of the original design by Wyatt, but was added by
Sir John Thoroton, in imitation of a portion of the parapet in Lincoln
Cathedral. The windows are of elegant proportions, and harmonize
well with the general character and intention of the building. We
might, perhaps, have wished that the embattled parapet of the two
towers had been of a rather less gossamer character, and that more
substantiality had been imparted to the pinnacles. But, upon the
whole, the architecture of the chapel forms an exquisite break upon
the general plainness of this part of the Castle. It comes upon the
view so unexpectedly, and contrasts as effectually with the remainder
of this front, as the little cultivated spots which we meet with in the
surrounding scenery, when, after passing through the dense foliage of
gigantic trees, we suddenly arrive at an open area, wliere the tasteful
skill of the floriculturist has been at work."

We return again to the interior; but, referring to the work itself
for descriptions of the several apartments, and of the paintings and
other works of art they contain, shall merely enumerate some of the
principal rooms, adding their respective dimensions. From the upper
landing of the grand staircase, any of the following rooins may be im-
mediately entered. The Picture Gallery (over the Guard-room gal-
lery, and the ascent to it), the Regent's rooms (over the Guard-room
or Vestibule), the Regent's gallery, an Ante or Waiting-room, beyond
which is the principal library.

Picture Gallery G1.10'x25.8' and 31.5' high, lighted from above by

a series of windows fitted with ground glass.
Regent's Rooms. — Sitting-room •.j4.6'X20.9'.
Bed-room 24.6'XIS.

Dressing-room 21 X 17.9'.
Regent's Gallery, 13 1X17. S', or, including the semi-circular bay,
(35.9' in diameter, and containing five windows) 35.8'. Height
18.2'. The folding doors at the S. W. end open into the
tribune of the chapel.
Ante-room, 30.4' X 2 1.6' with a single window towards the inner

court, but lighted principally by a lantern in the ceiling.
Library, 47X23.9' and IS high; with four windows on the side

towards the inner court.
Grand Corridor, extreine length including the staircase on that side
of the building, 120x24. Though called a corridor, the propor-
tions and dimensions of this thoroughfare room entitle it just
as well to the name of Gallery ; and it is in fact occasionally used
as a ball-room.
Green or Assembling Room, 27X24, and 17.6' hig-h.
Chinese Rooms: Setting Room 29x22.
Bed Room 26X17.

Dressing-room 26xf7.
Ehzabeth Saloon, 55x36, and 20.10' high.

Grand Dining-room, 55X31, and 19 high. Five recesses, viz. one
at each end, and three on the side opposite the windows, with
two fire-places between them.
Hunters' Dining Room, 21x 17.
Family Dining Room, 34x21.
This last is one of the suite of private apartments in the S. E. front;
above which is another suite, occupied by the late Duchess; the
principal one, a boudoir, 22.4'X19.6', exclusive of the oriel window,
which adds 6-3' more to tlie length of the room, and which commands
a most delightful prospect, where "the eye, passing over the foliage
on the terraces immediately below the Castle, is refreshed by a beau-
tiful expanse of water, immediately beyond which is rising ground
covered with plantations. The village of Woodthorp, in the valley,
a little to the left, with the spire of its simple church, is sufficiently
distinct to form a sweet feature in this scene of rural repose. At a
more remote distance, the magnificent mansion of Mr. Gregory (at
Harlaxton), forms a terminal point for the eye to rest upon near the
horizon of the landscape."

Here we must take leave of Belvoir — not because little more re- "
mains to be spoken of, for we have not even mentioned one principal

278

THE riA IL ENC;l\Ei:H AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[August,

object of atlraction to visitors, namely the Mausoleum, of which, and
also of Bottesfoid Church and its monuments, long descriptions are
here given; — but we do so hec.iuse we have ahead v bestowed as
much notice on Mr. Ellei's book as our limits w ill permit. It has
afforded us considerable gratification, and we would suggest, for his
consideration, whether it would not be desirable to republish the
description of the castle, &c., separately in a duodecimo volume,
oDiitling altogether the biographical notices of artists in the account
of the p:ctures ; which being done, there would be opportunity for
entering into some particulars that are now either passed over or but
slightly touched ui)on. It wouUl be a further improvement were the
terraces to be shown in the ground floor plan of the building.

Graphic liliislralions with Historical and Descriptive Accounts of Tod-
dnigton, Gloiiceslersliire, the seal of Lord Si(dtli>/. By Joux Biuttox,
F.S.A. Publisher, the Author, Islo.

By this work, containing twenty-three external and internal views,
r.ud nine lithogra|)hed plates of details, Mr. Britton has sought to
make known to the jjublic one cf those modern adaptations of the
pointed stvle to private dwelling houses, the excellence of which he
lias by his earlier works so mainly assisted to bring about. The
energy with which Mr. Britton for more than five and forty years, has
continued to superintend the illustration of our ancient buildings, and
to direct public attention to their beauties, affords an example well
worthy of imitation, and must entitle him to the warm applause of the
light minded.

Lord Sndeley, the owner and the designer of the new mansion at
Toddington, formed one of the Committee (as Mr. Haubury Tracy,*)
appointed to select from the numerous designs sent in competition for
the new Houses of Parliament, and devoted much time and zeal to the
investigation. The building under consideration which has occupied
{lis Lordship's attention more than twenty years, proves fully that he
was well qualifieil for the task, having an intimate knowledge of
architecture as a fine art. The construction of a modern mansion in
the style of buildings of the middle ages is not an undertaking of
trifling difficulty. "By a judicious attention to appropriate models,"
says Mr. Willson in his preface to Pugin's specimens, "a modern resi-
dence of whatever size, may be constructed in the Gothic style without
departing from sound principles of taste. Some modifications of an-
cient precedents must be allowed, for an absolute fidelity will fre-
quently prove incompatible with convenience; but as few deviations
as possible should be gone into ; and above all, nothing should be
attempted which is inconsistent with the character and situation of
the place, or which cannot be executed on a proper scale of dimen-
sions." This feeling is evident throughout Toddington, and has led
to a very successful result, redounding to the credit of its designer the
more highly because of the difficulty. Attached to the account of the
house is a short essay on the comparative merits and eligibility of the
Grecian, Roman, and Monastic or Gothic architecture for the purposes
of the modern English mansion, wherein the author traces lightly the
progress of architecture in England, and refers to those men who have
chiefly aided this progress. In this essay Mr. Britton observes, "of
the manner in which architects were employed soon after the Reform-
ation, the household accounts of Henry VIII. furnish some curious but
■deplorable information. From these it appears that painters, sculptors,
carvers, and architects, were retained at stipulated periodical wages.
Holbein, John of Padua, Lawrence Bradshaw, Richard Lea, and some
others were thus engaged ; and they designed several of the mansions
which were then erected, and which are now more admired in the
picturesque drawings and engravings of the artist, than as comfortable
residences for the noble or wealthy families of this age. So the chateaux
of the old noblesse of France, and the castles of the Edwardian dynas-
ties of England, are picturesque and imposing objects in the landscape,
but have few charms or attractions to render them endurable as per-
manent homes for persons who wish to enjoy domestic quietude and
comfort."

For Walpole's advocacy of Gothic architecture, although ill exem-
plified by him at Strawberry Hill, Mr. Britton gives his tribute of
praise, and then describes some few of the better sort of dwellings
more recently erected in England in this style.

Want of space however prevents us at tl.is moment saying anything
more of the work in question, than that it is a very valuable and accept-
able addition to the scanty stock of books which we at present possess
on domestic architecture.

* Mr. Trtcy was raise.1 to the p<erage July 12, 1838.

Illustrations of Windsor Castle. By the late Sir Jeffrt Wy\tville
R.A. London: Weale, 1S41.

This is a folio work in two volumes, on a scale of magnificence but
rarely seen, the size of the plates corresponding to the beauty of their
execution. These plates are six and twenty in number, besides wood
engravings, some of them too containing more than one view, and em-
bracing nearly every part of the external architecture of the Castle and
Stables, besides plans of the Castle in its former state. These en-
gravings are executed in a manner so costly as only the devotion of an
architect to his favourite subject could authorize, being quite beyond
the usual limits of publishing enterprize. The letterpress being printed
on paper of the same dimensions, makes the volume rather unwieldly
as a readable book, which is to be regretted as the valuable matter
contained in its pages is such as to excite great interest. The general
superintendence has been confided to Mr. Henry Ashton, and the
literary portion by him again transferred to Mr. Poynter, than whom
few conld be found better qualified. The editors having determined
upon excluding a description of the interior of the edifice on account
of so much of its decoration being not merely of a passing interest, but
adopted against the will of the architect, necessarily restricted them-
selves to a mere antiquarian description of the Castle. To this task
Mr. Poynter has brought a depth of research, which has added much
that is new to our previous knowledge of the subject, and given a de-
gree of certainty to many points which before were involved in ob-
scurity. The result of these labours may not be great, but the extent
of research required is easily to be appreciated. To transfer to our
pages any thing like a complete history of the Castle would be of
course impossible, but we cannot allow this volume to pass us without
gleaning in some way from its pages.

In the reign of Edward the Third, called the Confessor, we find the
earliest authentic notice of Windsor, when it was granted by that last
reigning sovereign of the Saxon kingly race to the Abbey of West-
minster, under the name of Wyndleshore, a grant which by William
the Norman was resumed by au exchange for some lands in Essex.
This prince erected a castle at Windsor, which is registered in Domes-
day Book. At Old Windsor, however, the Saxon kings are believed
to have had a palace at an early period. In the reign of Henry III.,
the castle w-as rebuilt, and from this period begins to date its historical
renown, being in the next reign considered second in importance only
to the Tower of London. A few architectural fragments brought to
light during the progress of the improvements, are supposed to be the
only relics of this edifice. Henry III. made great improvements in the
lower ward, and the traces of his work are to be recognized in the pre-
sent day, during the whole of his reign indeed extensive buildings were
in progress. Of the chapel built by this prince, Mr. Poynter is of
opinion that a doorway may be recognized behind the altar of St.
Georges. In two years the large sum of &73/. was allotted to the
works. The Belltowerthe editor attributes to the 25th year of Henry's
reign, and to the Garter Tower he is inclined to assign the same date.
It is to be observed that during this reign we find frequent provision
for chimneys and glass windows ; it seems also that the erection of
temporary wooden dwellings within the Castle was not uncommon. In
searching out the particulars of the works of Henry III., Mr. Poynter
has made a very diligent investigation of the Pope and Close Rolls
and other records, which have enabled him to employ a minuteness of
description equally interesting to the antiquarian and to the archi-
tect. Of how much value researches of this nature may become we
see when we come to consider how they bear upon any restoration of
the western extremity of the Castle.

The next great epoch in the history of the Castle is the reigu of
Edward III., a period respecting which we have ample information.
The foundation of the College and restoration of St. George's Chapel
was the first step taken by this monarch, which was succeeded by the
inauguration of the Order of the Garter. In 13511, the celebrated
William ofWykehamwas appointed surveyor, and the works pro-
ceeded with great vigour, and in 1359 three hundred and sixty masons
were pressed for the service of the castle, and in 131)2 on account of
a pestilence three hundred and two more. In the first half of 13G3 as
much as 3SU2/. 17s. 8d. was paid for the works including 932/. for
lead, and thirty-six glaziers were impressed, twenty-four to serve in
London, and twelve at Windsor. More masons were also impressed.
In 13G4 the whole expenditure was 3u31/. 9s. 9rf. In 1365 a payment
occurs of 13/. Gs. Srf. to John, a canon of St. Catharine's, the king's
picture painter, for a picture with images for the chapel, and another
of 501. to John de Lvndesav, for a table with figures also for the chapel.
It is to be remarked that then as during the reign of Henry III., the
artists appear to have been generally ecclesiastics, dignitaries of the
church combining the practice of the arts with their clerical functions.
In 1366, 600/. was paid for lead, and the whole expenditure was 4076^

1841.1

.^ ^i.vTii^iiliK AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

279

9s. dd. To William de Burdon, the king's painter, was paid 13/. 7s.
for a great tablet for the altar. In each of the years 13()7 and 13G8,
the expenditure was about 2000/. To William de Burdon was paid
20/. more for his picture for the chapel, 10/. was paid for buying mar-
ble, 60/. for German copper for bells, and the very large sum cf 200/.
for a great alabaster table for the high altar of St. George's. This
according to the largest estimate would be 6000/. of the present money.
After 13G9 no more workmen were impressed, and in a few years the
expenditure was gradually diminished ; the last payment being in
1374. In this reign from a payment of 50/. for a new bell for it, a
clock seems to have been placed in the bell-tower, as has been the
practice down to the present day. Of the early works of Edward III.
a portion is the Dean's cloister, of other works the outlines are scarcely
to be traced, although he added to the castle the upper ward. Here
however is yet to be seen the principal gate adjoining the keep. In
the interior of the castle the work of Edward III. is still visible in the
vaulted basement of the Devil Tower. The arches of this vaulting
are four centered, and present an early specimen of the systematic use
of that form. By Edward III. most of the buildings of Henry I. were
pulled down, and the Keep is supposed to have been rebuilt.

Under Richard II. in 1390, the appointment of Clerk of the Works
was for a short time held by Geffrey Chaucer, the Father of Modern
English Poetry, his salary being 2s. a day, with the power of appoint-
ing a deputy. Under Henry VI. the revenues of Windsor amounted
to 207/. 178. 5id., a sum far from sufficient to meet the expenses; the
manors of Cookham, Eray, Binfield and Sunninghill were farther charged
w ith 100 marks per annum for the repairs.

By Edward IV. the existing Collegiate Chapel of St. George was
built, the direction of the works being confided to Richard Beauchamp,
Bishop of Salisbury, a most distinguished prelate and architect. In

1450 the expenditure was U08/. 16s. 'Hd. The principal part of the
stone came from Tainton in Oxfordshire, where Henry Jennings the
master mason purchased 9755 feet at 2d. per foot ; the carriage by
land through Burford andCulhara to Henley cost 151/. 12s., and it was
thence conveyed by water to Windsor bridge. Some portion of Caen
stone was also used, and Heath stone from Cranbourne Chase, The
timber came principally from Upton, Ashridge, Farnham, Wyke and
Sunninghill, and the carriage of these materials and of sand and lime
amounted to 29/. lOs. 33^. The cost of scaffolding and other plant,
tools, smith's bellows, tiles and tilepins for workmen's sheds, withes
to tie scaffolding, straw, candles, seacoal, charcoal, steel, iron for the
windows, iron bolts for the carts, sheet iron, tin, tin pans, nails, Sec.
amounted to 141/. Ss. Id., and the workmen's wages to 555/. 6s. lid.
For these works masons were impressed, and the best workmen were
so monopolized by the king for St. George's, that other works were
sadly impeded, as was the case with the Divinity School at Oxford.
Carving seems now to have become a secular employment, and a large
sum was appropriated for this class of work, being in this year
75/. 4s. Gd. With the Chapel the Chapter House was also rebuilt. In

1451 stone was obtained from Caen, Tainton, Sherborne, Ryegate,
Milton and Little Daryngton, and the expenditure for the year 1249/.
ISs. 5d., being for stone 137/. 5s., for carriage 349/. 18s. Ujrf., for other
materials and stores 144/. lis. llirf., and for wages 457/. 10s. G^d.,
including 62/. 12s. 6rf. for carving. The next year the expenditure
vas 1145/. 7s. 2Jrf., of which for carving 100/. 10s. Ad.; and in 1483
960/. 12s. lOrf., of which 186/. 10s. id. for carving. Thus in four
years out of a total expenditure of 4674/. 15s. 3(/., 425/. 7s. Sd. was
paid for wood carving. In 1483 Edward IV. was buried here, behind
a curious screen of iron work, an elaborate piece of workmanship,
generally thought to be of foreign manufacture, but by the editor as-
signed to John Tresilian, the master smith. Ainong the benefactions
of Bishop Beauchamp to the Chapel, was the following exertion of the
influence in its favour. John Shorne or Schorne was a pious rector of
Northmarston in Bucks, about the year 1290, and held in great venera-
tion for the virtues which his benediction had imparted to a holy well
in his parish, and for his miracles, one of which, the feat of conjuring
the devil into a boot, was considered so remarkable, that it was repre-
sented in the east window of his church. Bishop Beauchamp obtained
a license from the Pope to remove the shrine of John Shorne from
Northmarston wherever he pleased, and he accordingly removed it to
the Lincoln Chapel at Windsor. At the Reformation, the College of
St. George's lost 500/. per annum from the offerings at this shrine. In
1481 Bishop Beauchamp was succeeded by Sir Reginald Bray.
Richard III., the last of the Plantagenets, during the first year of his
reign appropriated 733/. 10s. 9Jc?. for the building of the College and
Chapel. In 1484 the body of Henry VI. was removed from Chertsey
and buried in the Chapel.

Henry VII. left his personal property and the profits of his lands for
the completion of the new works in the body of the Chapel. During
his reign the works were directed by Sir Reginald Bray, who built the

Bray Chapel, now the South Transept. In 150S the roof of the Choir
was constructed in stone, the expense being supplied by a subscription
of the Knights of the Ciarter. The main vaulting is by the editor cited
as without exception the most beautiful specimen of the Gothic stone
roof in existence. Henry VII. took down the original chapel of Henry
III., for the purpose of building a royal mausoleum in its room, but the
work was not completed. The shell of the building is sujiposed to be
of his reign. In 1500 the Deanery was rebuilt by Doctor Christopher
Urswick ; the bouses of the Minor Canons are also attributed to this
reign. A lofty oriel in the upper ward and the inclosure of the stairs
to the Keep may be assigned to the same date. By a typographical
error in the work before us, the death of Henry VII. is assigned to
1503 instead of 1509. The principal work of Henry VIII. was the
great gateway of the lower ward of the Castle. In 1528 the exquisite
fan groining of the roof at the interstices of the Cross of the Chapel
was executed by subscription of the Order of the Grarter. Wolsey
began a stately tomb at Windsor in the chapel erected by Henry VII.
hence named Wolsev's Tomb House. On this work he employed
Benedetto, a Florentine artist, who began it in 1524, and to hinri
were paid 4250 ducats, and 380/. 13s. for gilding. These works
were destroyed by some of the Parliamentary troops in 1IJ46 for the
sake of the metal, except a sarcophagus of black marble of Italian de-
sign, which in 1805 was placed over the tomb of Nelson in the crypt
of St. Paul's. In 1519 James Denton, one of the canons, founded the
building called the New Commons, now incorporated with the Pre-
bendal Houses, but of which a doorway is preserved, richly ornamented.
Under Edward VI. in 1537, the fan vaultings of the side aisles to the
choir were executed, and works begun for bringing a supply of water
to the Castle from Blackmore Park near Winkfield, a distance of five
miles. To supply the pipes, Wallingford Castle and other ancient
buildings were stripped of their lead, 370 cwt. from Maidstone. Under
Queen Mary in 1555 the pipe was brought up into the middle of the
Upper Court of the Castle, "and there the water plenteously did rise
13 foot high." In this place was formed a reservoir from which every
part of the Castle was supplied. In this reign the houses of the mili-
tary knights were completed, having been begun in the third year of
Philip and Mary, and finished in three years at an expense of 2747/.
7s. Gd. The .Square Tower and some portion of the structure to the
east were previously standing, and the additions and alterations were
made with materials taken from other buildings. The stone was
brought from Reading Abbey, and eighteen fothers of lead, and "twenty
old apparails for chimneys," from Suffolk Place in Southwark. To
Elizabeth Windsor Castle is indebted for its terrace, although some
parts of it appear to have been in existence previously, every ten feet
of the terrace wall, twenty feet in height, and six feet at the base
gradually sloping to six feet at the top, costing 125/. 16s. 8d. In 1570
1900/. was expended on a thorough repair of the Chapel, supposed to
be the private Chapel adjoining St. George's Hall. A general repair
of the Castle was made by this Queen, which in the six years ending
1575 had amounted to 6600/. In 1576 Queen Elizabeth's Gallery was
built, it now forms a portion of the Library. In the seven years end-
ing 1 577 the works had cost 7800/. In the report on the works ia
1580, a clause, relating to the apartments of the Maids of Honour, re-
cites that these ladies " desire to have their chamber ceiled, and the
partition, that is of boards there, to be made higher, for that the servants
look over." In this reign for the first time we have a connected de-
scription of the Castle by Paul Hentzner, a German traveller who
visited England in 1598. He says that in the Castle he was shown
among other things the horn of a unicorn, eight spans and a half in
length, and valued at 10,000/.

Under James I. was executed the survey of the Parks and Forest by
John Norden, which contains the first view of the Castle. By an entry
in the Issue Roll for 1607, it appears that this survey was presented
to the King by its author, who was rewarded with a gift of two hundred
pounds. Nothing it is said was done at Windsor under Charles I. un-
til 1635, when several alterations were made. It was the intention of
Charles I. to convert tlie Tomb-house into a place of sepulture for his
family, but this plan was not carried out. On the deposition of Charles
I., Captain Fogg, an officer of the Parliament, and subsequently, Colonel
Venn, under orders from the Commonwealth, carried off the plate and
decorations of the Chapel and ruined the painted windows. In the
reign of Oliver Cromwell many repairs were made, and the revenues
of the Castle greatly improve'd. This prince also attached to the
Chapel the foundation of the Military Knights, for whom Sir Francis
Crane's building was erected. Under Charles II. a complete alteration
of the Castle was made by Sir John Denham and Sir Christopher Wrer^
and the best artists were employed upon the paintings and carvings of
the interior, in w hich a profusion of the exquisite works of Grinling
Gibbon still exist. XJharles's principal addition to the Castle was the
Star Building, now called the Stuart Building, about one hundred and

280

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS jou^w

'" * ^'CUST.

seventy feet long. Verrio was employed ou the allegorical paintings,
for wliich he was to receive a sum of above seven thousand pounds in
five years; in ITOI, however, 20 years after, ISW/. was still due to
bim. In 1674 St. George's H;dl was titled up as a theatre, and French
plays performed in it. In lti7G tlie North Terrace was enlarged to its
present extent. Wren's alterations of the exterior of the Castle were
far from improvements, for he le't it willi a most unpicturesque ap-
pearance which it retained for above a centurv. In 1G"-U the eques-
trian slatue of Charles 11. was erected hy Tobias Rustnt, Yeoman of
the Robes. It is the work of Josias Ibach Stnula of Bremen, but the
sculptures on the pedestal are attributed to Grinling<Tibbons. In this
reign was commenced the Long Walk. James II. fitted up the Tomb
House as a Catholic Chapel, which Verrio was employed in decorating.
William III. contemplated great improvements, and employed Wren
to draw a plan in the Italian style, which is inserted in the work under
our consider;ition ; nothing however was done. Under Queen Anne
Sir James Thornhill was employed in p;iintiug the Great Staircase,
and in the tiri^t eight years lO.OUO/. were laid out in repairs. The ex-
traordin.;ry works were principally confined lo the Parks.

The two first Hanoverian kings merely kept the Castle in repair,
George the -Jnd however employed William Kent at an expense of
400/. in restoring some of the paintings. George 111. erected the de-
tached edifice opposite the South Terrace, called the Queen's Lodge,
which was completed in 1782 at an expense of nearly 44,000/., and is
said by the editor to have been executed from the plans of His Ma-
jesty, " whose taste for practical architecture is well known." It was
letnoved iu lb"i3 by George IV. In 17S7 Mr. Emlyn was employed
to restore the interior of St. George's Chapel, at the private expense
of George III In 1791! the painted glass window in the Chapel was
completed by Jarvis and Forest, from the designs of West. In 17'.)(j
James Wyatt was appointed Surveyor General, who effected many im-
provements. In IS 10 the design of establishing a royal sepulchre was
carried into effect, and a vault constructed under the Tomb House.
George IV. having decided upon extending the Castle as an imperial
residence, obtained a preliminary grant of 300,000/. from parliament,
and appointed Mr. JefIVy Wyatt to the snperint ndence of the works,
who in 1S2S received from the monarch the honour of knighthood, by
the title of Sir Jetfry Wyatville. The cost of the whole of Sir Jelfry's
works was 771,000/., and they included the following works, new, re-
built, or thoroughly repaired. New St. George's Gate; New Octagon
Turret to Devil Tower; York, Lancaster, Chester, Prince of Wales's,
Brunswick, George III., and Round Towers ; George IV. Gateway; a
great length of walling; a new Turret to the Stuart Buildings; Grand
Entrance Tower; Front of St. Cieorge's Hall; Kitchen Gateway ; and
two octagon Turrets; Gallery from the Devil Tower to St. George's
Hall, 5,50 feet long, new terrace lOGO feet long, some part of the
walls of which is 30 feet high, lowering the court-yard from three to
six feet, removed 13,000 cubic yards. Internally : — His Majesty's apart-
ments with a corridor .500 feet long, kitchen and servants apartments,
state apartments, St. George's Hall ; ball-room ; Waterloo Gallery ; grand
staircase. In the Waterloo Gallery George IV. placed the series of
portraits painted by Sir Thomas Lawrence. In the reconstruction of
the Keep Sir Jetfry mannged vsith great skill to sustain the increased
weight of this enormous piie on an artificial rock of concrete. During
the reign of William IV. and Queen Victoria, the works left unfinished
by George IV. were successfully prosecuted by Sir Jetfry, until his
death in 1S4(', when the task devolved upon Mr. Henry Ashton, by
whom the new stables are being constructed at an expense of 70,000/.

As Windsor Castle has employed the talents of some of the most
celebr.itt'd of our architects and artists, we thought that the following
chronological account (jf officers and jjersons employed, drawn up by
us from .Mr. Poynter's materials would prove of interest to our readers.

1173. Master Geoffrv, master of the works.

117;i. Master Osbert, ditto.

1223. John le Draper and William, the clerk of Windsor, ditto,
(Master Thomas, the king's carpenter).

122<i. (Master Nidiolas, the king's carpenter, allowance for a gown
los., Master Jordan, ditto).

1228. William de Millars, constable of the castle.

1237. William de Burgh, director of the works.

1240-32. (Friar William of Westminter, a painter, and John Sot his
assistant).

1241. (Master Simon, king's carpenter).

1260. (Master John of Gloster, king's mason).

1261. Richard de Fremantle, Custos of the manor of Cookham and
Bray.

1350. (John dc .Sjjanlee, master of the stonehewers).

1351. James de Dorchester, deputy constable of the Castle.

135G. William de Wykeham, surveyor, (Bishop of Winchester),
salary a shilling a day, a shilling extra while travelling, and three

shillings per week for his clerk. He succeeded Robert de Bernhara
and Richard de Rochell who had the same salary. In 1357 Wykeham
obtained an increase of a shilling a day.

13. i3. William de Mulso, canon of Windsor, surveyor.

136ii. (John, canon of St. Katharine's, king's painter; John or
William de Lyndesay, of London, wood carver).

13o7. Adam de Hertyngdon, canon of Windsor, surveyor or clerk
of the works : (William de Burden, king's painter).

13i)0. Geffrey Chaucer, clerk of the works, salary two shillings a
day, with privilege of appointing deputy.

1391. Unknown.

Ii74. Richard Beauchamp, Bishop of Salisbury, surveyor of the
works. (Henry Jennings, master mason; Thomas Canceler, clerk of
the works, salary 10/. ; John Tresilian, master smith. Is. -id. per day.
The clerk of the works, master mason and master carpenter had gowns
allowed them. Robert Ellis, John Fille.s, Derrick Van Grove and
Giles Van Castel, carvers.)

14S1. Sir Reginald Br.iy, surveyor of the works.

150.). (John Hylmer and William Vertue, contractors for the stone
work of the roof of St. George's Chapel).

1524. (Benedetto, artist, employed on Wolsey's tomb).

1575. Humphrey Muhill, clerk of the works; ditto, comptroller,
2s. per day ; Henry Hawthorne, clerk of the works, 2s. per day.

1603. Sir John Norris, comptroller; Sir John Trevor, surveyor of
the works.

1637. Sir Robert Bennet, surveyor of the works; (David Ramsay,
Esq., king's clockmaker).

1639. (Christopher Van Vianen of Nuremburg, makes the plate for
the Chapel).

1660. .Sir John Denham, surveyor-general ; Sir Christopher Wren,
deputy.

16 — . Sir Christopher Wren, surveyor-general; Baptist May, clerk
of the works.

1676. ( Antonio -Verrio, painter ; Grinling Gibbons, carver).

1679. (Josias Ibach Sirada, casts statue of Charles II).

1707. (Henry Wise, landscape gardener).

1710. (Sir James Tliornhill, painter).

1746. (William Kent, painter).

177S. George 111. builds Queen's Lodge after his own designs.

17s7. Mr. Emlyn restores part of St. George's Chapel.

1795. (Benjamin West, painter; Jarvis and Forest, painters on
glass).

1796. James Wyatt, surveyor-general.
1815. (Sir Thomas Lawrence, painter).

1824. Sir Jetfry Wyatville, surveyor-general; (Sir Richard West-
niacott, sculp(or).

1840. Henry Ashton, architect.

The description of the plates is far from being so copious as we
could wish, being confined principally to an account of the alterations
made by Sir Jeffry Wyatville ; but it is but fair that we should mention
that Mr. Poyi.ter is not respousible for this portion of the work. It is
mentioned in describing the Round Tower, that Sir Jeftry being un-
willing to disturb the associations of the spot, has provided holes in
the stonework of the Castle for the jackdaws and starlings who build
here in numbers, to form their nests in. They are for the most part
invisible from below, except between the corbels of the battlements
of the Keep. From the level of the road on the west side, to the top
of the flags left of the Keep, is a total height of 203 feet, of which the
Flag Tower is 25 feet, and the flag staff 50 feet; the diameter of the
Keep is 102 feet.

On the Nature, Properties, and Applications of Steam, and on Steam
J\'avigalion. Frum the seventh edition of the Encyclopcedia Britan-
nica. By John Scott Russell, M.A., F.R.S.E. Edinburgh: Adam
and Charles Black.

The volume before us comprises, in addition to the articles on the
above subjects which are printed in the Encyclopaedia, an historical
account of the origin and progress of the art of steam navigation down
to the vear 1S39, by the same author; besides the account of the loco-
motive'steam-eugine, from the Treatise on Railways by Lieutenant
Lecount.

The present articles, Ste.\m and Steam-Engine, in the Encyclo-
pedia Britannica, are intended to contain all that was interesting and
valuable iu the original articles (written by Dr. Robison,) with Mr.
Watt's notes, enriched by the results of subsequent labour and research;
and it has been the author's aim, as he states in the preface to the
present volume, " to add to all that Robison had originally said of

1S41.J

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

2S1

Watt's invention, what lie would have required to add if he had lived
to witness its present extended use, its multifarious applications, its
varied forms, its modifications in material and construction* He has
endeavoured to place before the reader, in a simple form, all the most
important information which many yeais of research and of practical
experience in a favourite subject have placed in his possession ; and
" the reader who is familiar with the subject will," he says, " readily
discover that he has read and thought for himself, and that his errois,
if manv, are at least his own. In one point he trusts he has facilitated
the progress of the student. While giving the general reasoning of
complex calculations, he has endeavoured to disembarrass them as
much as possible of that parade of calculus which exhibits the author
at the expense of the reader; and rather to present their results in
that simple form in which alone great truths present themselves to
those who thoroughly understand them."

The plan of the work here laid down is in accordance with the
nature of an Encyclopjedia, wliich, being a work of a popular charac-
ter, and a book of reference rather than instruction, many, if not the
majority of its readers, moreover, being uninitiated in the arcana of
abstruse matliematical science, and therefore willing to take for
granted the truth of propositions, the demonstration of which they
are unable to comprehend, sliould not be unnecessarily encumbered
with complex and difficult calculations. It should, however, at the
same time be borne in mind that some, and we trust we may say many,
of the readers of the Encyclopaedia are possessed of snIBcient scien-
tific knowledge to enable them to think and judge for themselves.
Therefore, although the facts advanced should in general be such as
are recognized by the best acknowledged authorities, and in support
of which it suffices in most cases to cite the authority, yet, when any
new proposition is etmnciated, or any new doctrine propounded, it
should be accompanied by a rigorous demonstration, or it must incur
the risk of being rejected as unfounded. There are two instances in
the work under review, in which we do not find the reasoning ade-
quate to justify the conclusion ; we allude to the determination of the
best vacuum in the condenser of a steam engine, page 27(j, and of the
best proportion of poner to tonnage in sea-going vessels, page 'JSS.
We must, however, remark, in justice to the author, that we have
seldom, if ever, met with a work so full of typographical errors, by
which so much unnecessary labour is imposed on the reader, that many
are deterred from attempting to make themselves masters of the
author's meaning, and which are in some cases so serious as perhaps
even to render the accomplishment of the task impossible. Some of
the errors are of such a nature that it is difficult to decide whether
they are to be ascribed to the author or to the printer.

The article Steam, which occupies nearly the first half of the
volume is on the whole a valuable contribution, particularly the second
section, in which are collected together all the most recent experi-
mental researches concerning the elastic force of steam at different
temperatures, as well as the most esteemed of the earlier experiments,
accompanied by figures of the apparatus employed.

In the first section, where the projierties, phenomena, and appli-
cation of steam are considered in a general manner, there is the fol-
lowing simple illustration of the doctrine of latent heat by Dr. Dalton,
from which those who are not familiar with the operations of heat
may form a tolerably correct notion of the phenomenon in question:

The liquid and its vapour may be con-
sidered as two reservoirs of caloric, capable
of holding different quantities of that fluid.
Let figure 1 represent to us such an arrange-
ment ; the internal cylinder of smaller capa-
city, the external one of enlarged capacity
surrounding and extending far above it, and
a small open tube of glass, communicating
freely at the bottom with the internal cylin-
der. Let us now conceive water to be poured
into the internal cyUnder, the water will mani-
festly flow into the slender tube tdl it stand
on the same level in the tube as in the cylin-
der. If any additional quantity be now poured
into the internal cylinder, the rise of water
in the slender glass tube will serve as an in-
dex of the quantity of added fluid ; and when
it is filled to the top, the fluid will stand at
the height marked 212", and will still be a
correct index of the addition of fluid. But if
more water be now adiled to it, it will not
make its appearance in the slender tube, but
will simply overflow from the internal cvlinder

* The article on the Steam-engine is, ue belie\e, published in a st.p;ir:ite
volume ; bm, as we have not yet seen it, we are unable to notice it in this
monih's Journal. — Ep. C. E. Si A. Jodbnal.

over into that of enlarged capacity, so that, while a large quantity is passing
into the vessel and gradually filling it up to 212', no ad.litional rise takes
place until the whole of the outer cylinder becomes filled to that point, after
which any further addition will again become sensible, by a corresponding rise
in the tube. This process is in precise analogy to the succession of circum-
stances in lieating a liquid, and converting it into steam. The internal cyhn-
der represents the liquid, the external one the vapour of greater capacity, and
the slender glass tube at the side the thermometer placed in communic ition
with tliem. When heat flows into the liquid, it passes equally into the ther-
mometer; and each increment of the one produces an equal increment in the
other, until the liquid reaches the limit of its capacity, when it suddenly be-
gins to enlarge its bulk and take the form of steam ; but the quantity of heat
required to fill up this enlarged capacity is so great, as to require about 5i
times as much to fill it as was contained in the whole liquid before, so that
all this time the thermometer is standing still, and it is not until the whole
of the steam is thus supplied with 212' of caloric, that the thermometer will
begin to show any further elevation; after which, any increment of heat
thrown into the steam wUl make its appearance on the thermometer, and
proceed as formerly, by simultaneous increments.

As a practical application of the influence of pressure on the boiling
point of water, the following rule is given for finding the heights of
mountains by boiling water :

Boil pure water in an open vessel at the bottom of the elevation, and ob-
serve on the thermometer the point at which it boils. Boil it again at the
top of the mou!itain, and observe with the thermometer the point at which
it now boils : the difference of temperature, multiplied by 530 feet, will give
a close approximation to the height of the upper above the lower station.

This will give an approximation ; but, if greater accuracy be required, it
will further be necessary to correct for the difference of the temperature of
the air at the two stations, in the following manner. Add the temperatures
of the air at the stations, and subtract 64 from their sum, nudtiply the re-
mainder by one thousandth part of the height found; and this will be the
correction to be added to the height formerly found. The result thus found
will stdl require a slight correction for the figure of the earth and latitude of
the place ; but this does not amount to more in our latitude than an addition
of about two feet in a thousand, which forms a second correction.

To iUustrate the mode of deducing heights from the boding point, as we
have given it, we take tlie following example.

Water boils on the top of Bei: Nevis at 203-8°, while at the side of the
Caledonian Canal it boils at 212*, the temperature being 30° on the summit
of the mountain, and 35" below. In order to determine the height,
From 212°

Take 2038° To 30°
Add 35°

There remains 8-2°
Mioltiply by 530

2460
410

Sum

Subt.

65°

64°

4346 first approx.
4 first correct.

4350 second approx.
8-7 second correct.

Remain 1° mult, by 4-316

Latitude 56° nearly
Mult. 4-350
by 2-

8-700

Calc. height, 43587 third approximation.
4358- true measured height — the difference being less than 1 foot.

This method, however, is seldom susceptible of so high a degree of accuracy,
even with the most carefully conducted experiments.

There is also a description with explanatory figures, of the elegant
and compact apparatus contrived by the Rev. F. J. H. WoUaston for
facilitating the procedure of taking the observations with the requi-
site precision.

Among the contents of the second section we may mention, as par-
ticularly worthy of notice, the abridged account of the experiments
undertaken bv the French Academy of Sciences, and conducted prin-
cipally by the M. M. Arago and Dulong, having for its object the dis-
covery of the relation existing between the temperature and elastic
force of steam ; and those conducted, with the same object, by the
committee of the Franklin Institute of Pennsylvania, appointed to
examine into the causes of the explosions of the boilers used on board
of steam-boats, and to devise the most effectual means of preventing
the accidents, or of diminishing the extent of their injurious effects.
The former were completed in 1829, and are in every respect entitled
to a larger share of confidence than the latter, as well on accoimt of
the greater perfection of the apparatus employed and the extraordi-
nary care bestowed upon the manipulations, as the names of two phi-
losophers so well versed in experiments of a similar nature.

In the 3rd section, ort the mathematical law which connects the elastic
force of vapour with its temperature, Mr. Russel has certainly laid
before his readers a considerable collection of fori^nlse (15 in nimber)

2 Q

282

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[August,

previously proposed by divers aiilhors to represent tliut law, none of
which are applicable but in a limited extent of the scale ; but we are
surprised to find that he has made no mention of that proposed by Mr.
A. A. Momay in the second volume of our Journal, page 200, which
represents Dalton's experiments below 212", an3 those of the French
Academy up to 24 atmospheres, (beyond vvliich they did not extend)
within 2-43 degrees Fahr. at the latter limit, where a new formula,
proposed by the author of the present work, gives a difference of
10'26 degrees.

In the reasoning through which he arrives at this formula, we rather
suspect that Mr. Kussell has fallen into the error he deprecates so
much in his preface — that o{ exhibiting the author at the expense of the
reader, though we think his parade of calculus only calculated to dazzle
the very ignorant, without being intelligible to the mathematician.
What, for instance, do the series a, B, y, and the equations !, e, (page
113) signify ? We confess they are above our comprehension, but
perhaps some more profound mathematician might be able to explain
their meaning, and to point out their connexion with the laws of tem-
perature and pressure, mentioned in the previous part of the para-
graph, and with each other. By some means, however, we are led to
the equation, (page IIG)

'ogF

which appears in an entirely different form from any other that has
been published, but which differs in fact from Tredgold's only in the
values of the constants ; it is, indeed, when freed from logarithms,
nothing more or less than the following:

V 333 J

6-42

Mr. Mornay's formula alluded to above, possesses this great advan-
tage over the others, that it furnishes a very simple equation for find-
ing the elastic force of steam in terms of its density alone, which is
necessary in calculating the effect of steam used expansively in steam
engines. Regarding the density of steam Mr. Russell has given no
calculations at all, although, besides the formula just alluded to, one
has been proposed by Mr. Navier, and a modification of it employed
by the Count de Panibour in his Theory of the Steam Engine, published
in 1839; but there is in the 4th section a very comprehensive table of
the density of steam at different temperatures, by Gay-Lussac, as well
as an engraving and description of the simple and elegant apparatus
used by that philosopher, with his method of operating.

The 5th section, 071 the application of our inowledge of the properties,
phenomena, and laws of steam to practical and economical purposes, is
interesting as far as it goes ; but, as we stated at the beginning of this
notice, the most important application, the Steam Engine, is published
in a separate volume.

The article Steam Navigation might, with greater propriety, be
entitled "the Steam Navigation of Scotland and the United States,"
the share of that part of Great Britain called England being represented
by the following paragraph :

" To the talent of Mr. Maudslay of London, the present marine en-
gine owes the introduction of that high degree of precision in its con-
struction and details, which gives it so much durability and efficacy as
a machine."

From the tenor of this article it would appear that the author was
utterly ignorant of the numerous steam boats with which the river
Thames is studded at all hours of the day, and some of which vie in
speed with the vaunted American steam boats, and that he knew of no
steam vessels which navigate the ocean with other than Scotch engines.
He does not say (is he ignorant of the fact?) that the Great Western,
with Maudslav's engines, makes better passages to New York than
the British Queen, with Napier's. The history of the progress and
present condition of the art, as here traced, thus bears reference only
to the two countries named above— Scotland and the United States;
it is, however, as such, interesting enough, but would be rendered
much more so, if combined with the history of the art in England.

The following paragraph in page 268, taken in conjunction with the
omission of all mention of Maudslay's four cylinder engine, and with
the description of Humphreys' trunk-engine, accompanie<l by a wood
cut, in the preceding page, would corroborate the opinion that the
author had but a very limited knowledge of the state of Steam Navi-
gation in England.

For a like purpose, oscillating cylinders have been user] with some measure
of success. Rotatory engines have been unsuccessfully tried. The reader
may now examine the vertical engines in the plates.

We believe the only trunk-engine yet made is that of the Dartford,
which turned out a failure, while many steam boats now rucning on the
Thames are fitted with oscillating engines, among which are aome of
the swiftest boats on the river.

We copy the following proof of the doctrine that the vacuum in a
condenser may be too good, or rather that any improvement in the
vacuum beyond a certain limit must be obtained at the expense of
more fuel than it is worth ; because it is not altogether without found-
ation, but, by reason of false notation, seems a tissue of absurdity and
contradiction.

Let / = the caloric of water of 1".

c = the constituent caloric of water in the state of steam.
p = the total force of steam in the boiler in inches of mercury ;
and j: = the elastic force of steam at the temperature of best condensation
which we seek to discover.
Then from the law which connects the elastic force of steam with tempera-
ture, as already determined in our treatise on Steam, it follows, that in the
case of maximum effect, or the temperature of best condensation,

t X et

— = — that is x= —
c e c

now ff = 1000, and if the steam in the boiler be at 5 fb. above the atmosphere^
or if e = 40 inches of mercury, and / = 1.

40

-=Iooo=»'^''

Again, if the steam be at 7 J lb. = 45 inches,
45

1000

= 0045

Again, if the steam be at 10 tb. = 50 inches,

50
' = IO0O = «'»^

Hence, we find that the best elasticity or temperature in the condenaer
depends on the elastic force of the steam in the boiler.

With steam of 5 %. in the boiler, the elasticity of maximum effect in the
condenser is at 93° of Fahrenheit, and the best vacuum in ihk barometer is
28. With steam of 7i tb. in the boiler, the elasticity of maximum effect in
the condenser is 95' of Fahrenheit, and the best vacuum in the barometer is
27'8. With steam of 10 lb. in the boiler, the elasticity of maximum effect in
the condenser is 97 , and the best vacuum in the barometer is 27a. In like
manner it would he found that with steam of 50 tb. in the boiler, worked
expansively, as in Cornwall, the best vacuum in the condenser would he about
26° on the barometer.

Our first impression on reading this proof was that it was altogether
fallacious, and, as the calculation was not supported by reasoning, it
was not likely to convince us of the contrary; but, on consideration,
it seeming probable that the general proposition was true, although
Mr. Russell's equation was not the interpretation of a truth, we in-
vestigated the subject more closely, and found that this equation did
not represent the author's own opinion, but that x ought to stand for
the increment of elastic force due to the increment 7 of heat at the
temperature of most advantageous condensation, that c ought to repre-
sent the total quantity of caloric required to evaporate water from that
temperature, and not merely the amount of latent heat at 212°, and
that e should express, not the total pressure in the boiler, but the mean
effective pressure on the piston before the allowance for friction has
been deducted. The equation should therefore stand thus, retaining
X with the signification first assigned to it by Mr. Russell, and express-
ing by dif. X a very small difl'erence of elastic force, and by dif. t the
corresponding very small difference of temperature,

dif.x__df. t
e c

the explanation of which is as follows :

The first member expresses the ratio of an assumed small gain of
power to the total power exerted by the steam, and the second mem-
ber the ratio of the quantity of heat thereby abstracted from the feed
water (which must be restored in the boiler at the expense of a pro-
portionate quantity of fuel) to the total amount of heat requisite to
convert it into steam, or, which is the same thing, the ratio of the ex-
tra fuel to the total quantity used. Now it is obvious that, if these
two ratios are equal, that is, if the increase of power is in proportion
to the increase in the consumption of fuel, there is no gain of dutf,
and, of course, if the second member were greater than the first, the
result would be a diminution of duty.

If we make the small difference of temperature = 1°, as Mr. Russell
has done, dtf. x will express the -increment of force due to an incre-
ment of 1° of temperature; and, if we suppose the best temperature

1841.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

283

of condensation to be 100°, we shall have c = 112 + 1000 ;
the above equation may be put in the form,

1112, and

dif. X =^

1112

If the pressure in the boiler be about 5 lb. above the atmosphere, we
shall not have a greater mean pressure than about 30 inches in the
cylinder, in which case

if/. ^ = ^^ = 0-027.
-'1112

This is about the difference between the elastic force of steam at
72 and 73 degrees, according to Dr. Dalton's latest experiments, and
the force at 73° is 0-95 inch; so that, when the mean pressure in the
cylinder is 30 inches, and the barometer without stands at 294 inches,
the condenser barometer should mark 28-55 inches.

The calculation of the best proportion of power to tonnage (page
288) is so confused by errors (of the press?), that we have no leisure
at present to wade through it.

The article on the immediate Mechanmn of Propnlsion is defective
in as much as the Archimedean Screw Propeller is not so much as
mentioned, and the author seems to have formed an erroneous idea of
the principle of Morgan's Paddle Wheel, in consequence of a trifling
resemblance which it bears to Oldham's Wheel. See the article On
Paddle Wlietls in the Appendix to the new edition of "Tredgold on
the Steam Engine."

The Historical Sketch of 'Steam Locomotion, by Lieut. Lecount,
forms an interesting appendix to the work, which on the whole con-
tains much useful information on the subject of steam, perhaps more
than is to be found combined in any other volume- of its size, although
■we do not think it does full justice to its title, particularly in what re-
gards Steam Navigation, as we have already observed.

ON WIERS OR DAMS ON RIVERS.

Observations on Hie Effect produced by erecting Weirs or Dams on

Rivers, and on their efficacy for Navigation Purposes.

By William Bull, Civil Engineer.

Weiks are generally erected either for the purpose of raising a
head of water for the use of mills, or for the purpose of navigating
the channel of a river, and they cause in the first instance a permanent
elevation of the ordinary surface of the water.

If a weir has the same length of top surface as the section of the
river at the place where it is erected, it will cause such flood waters
as would have been retained within the natural banks of the river,
before it was erected, to rise above them in proportion to its height,
and overflow the adjoining lands if artificial embankments of propor-
tional height are not erected to prevent it.

When more water comes down the river than its banks could have
previously held, then, although the weir causes an increase of height,
the evil is less in proportion than in the former case.

In extreme floods, when the water would rise far above the surface
of the valley, the small increase of height caused by the weir is of
little or no consequence, as other causes generally exist, such as em-
banked roads leading to bridges, and the contraction of the stream by
the bridges which obviates the effect of the weirs ; unless the latter
be situate at or close to the bridge.

Weirs cause the beds of rivers to rise by retaining the sand and
gravel brought down by the stream, with much more rapidity than the
adjoining lands rise from the deposit of lighter silt first in the upper
portions of the rivers where they are erected, and ultimately through-
out their course as far as the weirs extend, by which the sectional
area of the rivers is diminished and of course the land adjoining ren-
dered more subject to floods.

This is an evil that may be partially remedied by dredging and
embanking. I say partially, because, from the manner in wliich the
former is usually done, (?. e. only with a view to keep open a narrow
channel in the river for the use of boats,) it has very little tendency to
produce it, and if done to the whole extent of the river, would become
a very expensive operation, and the latter, even when well executed
at first, being constantly liable to delapidation, is for ever subjecting
the lands to inundation. This is particularly illustrated in Holland,
•where the rivers, having been dammed up and embanked, have been
permanently elevated above the adjoining lands, and where destruc-
tive inundations are by no means of rare occurrence.

Where no weirs exist, rivers have generally a tendency to deepen
their beds (particularly if the water is confined to a channel of mode-
rate width) from their source to their confluence with the sea, or until

they arrive at an estuary or low flat track of land, when the sand and
gravel or other material driven or borne down by the water, is either
deposited in such estuaries or on bars at the river mouths, or is dis-
persed along the shores of the sea by the tidal wave.

1 have observed many instances of the gradual lowering of the I)ed3
of rivers, but more particularly one which has recently come under
my observation, where the out-fall of a mill-goit has been lowered two
feet in about four years. This phenomenon is, of course, most obvious
where the fall in the river is greatest, all other circumstances being
equal.

By making a weir of greater length than the general section of the
river, and by widening the river above and below the same, a part of
the injury to adjoining lands by raising the surface of ths water may
certainly be avoided, so long as the river is continued of the increased
width, and by extending the length of the weir and the widening of
the river to a great or almost indefinite extent, both in line of the
current as well as in width, the injury to adjoining lands may be
nearly if not entirely obviated for a limited time, but it can only be
for a limited time without constant care and attention, and a con-
siderable periodical outlay, (much more of each than is usual or likely
to be devoted to such purpose,) because, from the surface of the
water being extended, the stream will become proportionally sluggish,
particularly towards one or both sides, where, as well as in the natural
bed of the river, the matter brought down by the stream ivill be de-
posited, and the river will again assume its original width or nearly
so, and render the increased length of the weir of little or no avail.
The time which will expire before the river assumes its original
width will depend materially on the quantity of matter held in sus-
pension by the water, or driven forward by the impetus of the stream,
and on the velocity of the stream above and at the point where the
weit is erected.

In such instances as where, for some distance before arriving at the
weir, the fall and consequent velocity of the stream is of a moderate
degree, and where the upper surface of the river has been enlarged,
and thereby the velocity of the current diminished, there being only a
light alluvial matter and sand held in suspension, or driven forward
by the stream, such matter will be rapidly deposited on the sides of
the river, until the sectional area is again so contracted as to increase
the rapidity of the current to its original rate.

If, instead of the fall and velocity being of that moderate degree
which will only carry forward the lighter matter, it is of such a degree
as to force down gravel and other heavy matter, the length of the
pond first caused by the erection of the weir will be gradually di-
minished, until the whole of the original bed of the river is filled up
to the weir, so as to form the inclination of the new bed at nearly the
same angle as it was before the weir was erected; but in this case the
contraction of the stream to its original width will go on much more
slowly than in the former case, arising from the filling up of the bed,
causing the velocity of the stream to be reduced in a less ratio than
it would have been if the heavier matter had not been brought down
into the original bed of the river.

If the bed of the river is constantly dredged, so as to keep it of its
original deoth to the upper end of the pond formed by the weir, then
the top surface will contract much more rapidly than in the last case,
until it arrives at or approximates to its former width, as in the first
case by reason of the heavy material being prevented by the dredging
from raising the body of the stream so much as it would have done
had no dredging been used, and the consequent less velocity of the
stream allowing the lighter matter to be deposited at the sides.

From the foregoing observations it will follow that the increased
length of the weir, and accompanying width of the river beyond its
former dimensions, renders but a partial and temporary advantage, in
diminishing the damage to adjoining lands arising from the erection
of such weir, and that such erection, whether of greater length than
the section of the river or not, does not in itself provide a pernianent
means of navigation.

Many instances of the inadequacy of weirs for supplying a perma-
nent means of navigating natural rivers may, I have no doubt, be ad-
duced. In the instance of the Calder and Hebble navigation, where
I have been practically acquainted with the subject for the last eight
years, they are abundantly manifest, as well as in the adjoining navi-
gation of the Aire and Calder, with which I am well acquainted, the
proprietors of both of which have been for many years adopting means
to avoid the natural stream by substituting cuts or canals.

When first the River Calder was made navigable, it was divided
into pools by weirs of sufficient height to give the required depth of
water and these weirs were passed by means of locks ; but it was
soon found that the matter brought down by the stream was rapidly
filling up the pools, and consequently diminishing the depth of water,
whereby the navigation was much impeded; this was first most ap-

2 Q 2

2S4

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[August,

parent at the upper ends of the pools, where the heavy materials, such
as gravel and boulders, were first deposited on coming in contact with
the comparatively still water |)roduced by the weirs, and as the stream
advanced, by deposit of the sand and lighter materials further down.
At first recourse was had to remedy the evil by raising the weirs by
means of boards, which were frequently washed away by the floods,
and had to be renewed as the water subsided, and partly by raking
the gravel and sand to the sides of the river. But as soon as the
power of the dredging engine became known, recourse was had to it;
it was, however, still found that although they had procured and kept
in constant work two of these engines, the deposit was gaining on
them ; they therefore had recourse to the adoption of canals, as before
stated, commencing w ith those parts which were the most affected by
the deposit, until they now use only a little more than four miles out
of a distance of twenty-two miles of the river. The Aire and Calder
Company now use about nineteen miles out of forty-three, by having
recourse to dredging, and raising their weirs by means of boards, as
before described. That they, are enabled at present to navigate a
greater proportion of the rivers than their neighbours, no doubt
arises principally from the «ircumstance of their being situated further
pown the stream, and their being numerous weirs above, which retain
the sand and gravel from coming down to them.

I cannot conclude these remarks better than by giving the result of
my observation and experience, which i« that converting natural rivers
into artificial navigations by erecting dams across them, is much to be
deprecated. First, because the dams cause the adjoining lands to be
more frequently overflowed than they otherwise would be. Secondly,
because dams obstruct the ordinary drainage of the country. Thirdly,
because the object sought is but imperfectly obtained, and lastly,
because it is the means of materially retarding, if not of entirely pre-
venting, the adoption of the more efficient means of providing for
inland navigation by artificial canals, which, if made at all, are rarely
or never made so complete as they would have been had no attempt
been made to adapt the natural rivers.

PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES.

INSTITUTION OF CIVIL ENGINEERS.
March 9. — The President in the Chair.

" Deicription of the Arched Timier Viaducts on the Newcastle and North
Shields Railway, erected from the designs of Messrs, John and Benjamin
Green ; and on the aj/plication of the same system of construction to obliqve
and other JSridges, to the Roofs of Railway Stations, and to otiier large Build-
ingt." 15y Benjamin Green.

The coustruction of viaducts and bridges forms so important an item in the
cost of a railway, tbat the engineer is induced to device new methods of com-
pleting his works with due regard to stability and durability, and at the same
time with the least possible expense. Stone and brick have been the mate-
rials most generally used for bridges ; cast iron has been introduced where
the heights were too low for the spans, in large arches, or in trussed beams
where a certain clear space beneath was required, with only a limited height
to the level of the rail. Timber, from its lightness, strength, and cheapness,
has been extensively used, but only in spans of limited extent, owing to the
»ole mode of its application being by framed trusses, upon the same principles
SB those usually employed for roofing.

These considerations induced Mr. John Green, as far hack as the year 1S27,
to make a design and model for a bridge, with timber arches resting upon
stone piers. In 1833 the plan was adopted, and in 1837 it was put into exe-
cution at the Ouse Burn Viaduct, where the construction was of great extent,
and the cost was an important consideration.

The Viaduct is 018 feet in length, and 108 feet in height from the bed of
the river. There are five arches, the versed sine 33 feet, and the radius 68
feet; three of them are 116 feet span each, and two are lit feet each : two
•tone arches of 40 feet span each have been introduced at each end to give
length to the abutments, and to prevent the embankments from being brought
too near to the steep sides of the ravine. The piers are of stone : the spring-
ing stones for the three ribs, of which each arch is composed, are on offsets,
within -10 feet of the top of the piers ; cast-iron sockets are there bedded in
the masonry, and secured so as to receive the feet of the ribs. Two of the
piers are placed upon ))iles ; the others are founded upon the rock ; immedi-
ately beneath the centre of one of them an ohi coal-pit shaft was discovered,
and close adjoining to it the remains of the working of a coal scam : both were
rendered secure by being filled up with grouted rubble masonry.

The ribs for the arches are composed of planks of Dantzic deal (Kyanized) :
the lengths vary from 46 feet to 20 feet, liy II inches wide and' 3 inches
thick: they are so disposed, as that the first course of the rib is two whole
deals in width, the next is one whole and two half deals, crossuig the joints
longitudinally as well as in the depth. Each rib consists of fourteen deals in
thickness, bent over a centre to the required form, and secured together liy
oak treenails I J inch diameter at intervals of 4 feet apart, each treenail tra-

versing three of the deals. A layer of strong brown paper dipped in boiling
tar is placed between the joints, to bed them and exclude the wet. Trussed
framings and beams are secured upon the arched ribs; the platform composed
of planks, each 1 1 inches wide by 3 inches thick, is spiked down and covered
with a composition of boiling tar and Urae mixed with gravel in laying on,
forming a coating impervious to the wet ; upon this platform the two lines of
radway are laid, leaving a foot-path between them.

The centreing for turning the ribs was very light and simple, and as every
convenience was afforded by having a railway with travelling cranes along
the sides of the piers, a whole centre could be moved by twenty men from
one arch, and fixed in another in one day.

The author then describes the construction of the Welhngton Viaduct, and
that which has been erected by him at Dalkeith for the Duke of Buccleuch;
giving the relative costs of the three structures which have been mentioned,
and stone biuldings of the same dimensions : whence it appears that in the
Oiise Bum Viaduct there was an economy of £9000, resulting from the
adoption of this system.

lie then shows the application of this system to the stnicture of oblique
bridges, particularly where a certain clear space is required beneath, and the
total height is limited : this is illustrated by a description of a bridge of 71
feet span, on the Newcastle and North Shields Railway, which crosses the
turnpike road at Walker, and by one erected over the lUver Wear on the
West Durham Railway.

He describes also the application of the same system to the extensive
buildings and sheds of the Shields Railway Station ; to churches and to pri-
vate houses ; in the latter the arched form is very advantageous in gaining
space for the upper rooms, showing at the same time the economy resulting
from the adoption.

The paper is illustrated by a series of nine elaborate detailed drawings,
showing the application to every kind of construction.

Mr. Rendel remarked, that on those radways where first cost was a matter
of importance, the introduction of a superior kind of Timber Bridge was a
great desideratum. The communication proposed the application of tarred
paper between the joints , from experience be could not recommend either
paper or felt in such situations. He found that both substances prevented
the intimate contact of the surfaces of the timber ; in all framings exposed to
the action of the weather the tar was absorbed by the wood ; the paper and
felt then became saturated with and retained the moisture, so that decay very
speedily ensued. The mode he at present adopted was to have all the joints
and mortices of the framings very closely fitted, leaving only sufficient space
at the edges to be caulked with oakum, and the joint run with pitch, like the
seams of the deck of a vessel. M'herevcr it was practicable, great advantage
would result from covering the joints with sheet lead, to exclude the mois-
ture and prevent the decay, which was the great bar to the more general use
of timber in many engineering works.

Mr. Vignoles was inclined to think the curve of the arch was too steep ; he
should prefer its being flatter. He would not then enter into the subject, but
he would present to the Institution a large model of a Timber Bridge, and
with it a communication, explaining his views on this subject, which was one
to which he had ])aid much attention.

Mr. Macneil had found constant tronhle to result from the decay of wooden
bridges. The Dalmarnoch Bridge, which had been erected about thirty years,
now demanded continual repairs; the struts were nearly all decayed at the
points of insertion into the cast-iron sockets. The original floor had been
replaced by one of teak wood.

In answer to a question from the President as to the process of " Kyaniz-
ing" timber for the Hull and Selby Radway, Mr. Timperley described the
method pursued there. In a close cyhndrieal wrought-iron vessel, 70 feet
long and 6 feet diameter, filled with a solution of corrosive sublimate, the
timber was piled, leaving a space along each piece ; the air was then exhausted
by air-pumps to a vacuum of about 25 inches by the mercury gauge, and by
the apphcation of a force-pump, under a pressure of 100 tb. per square inch,
the solution w.as driven into the pires of the timber. From experiments he
had made he believed that the timber was thus thoroughly saturated, and
although sufficient time had not elapsed to give any correct result as to the
comparative diu-ation of the sleepers, he thought very favourably of the pro-
cess.

The original cost of the timber, which was the best Riga Balk, squared,
was 5/. 10s. per load (50 cubic feet). The expense of "Kyanizing" about
400,000 culdc feet, including the interest of the first cost of the apparatus,
was between fourpence and fivepence per cubic foot. The process was carried
on with greater r.ipidity, and much more effectually, than it could have been
done in open tanks.

Mr. Lowe was of opinion, that although the mechanical part of this process
appeared %-ery effective, it was not really so. There were chemical difficul-
ties : a certain length of time was required to dilute and extract the sap and
aqueous matter from the pores. The greater or less duration of the process
might in some measure account for the difference of the residts practically
obtained. Dry planks succeeded better than wet ones ; with sound dry tim-
ber any solution of the metallic salts, such as the sulphates of iron or copper,
was efficacious, but with wet timber he doubted whether any preparation
would he effectual.

Mr. Cooper believed that in the process of " Kyanizing" the chlorine united
with the albumen, and formed chloride of albumen ; it was possible that in
the exhausting process the air contained in the timber would expand and

1841.

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

285

prevent the capillary tubes from becoming perfectly saturated with the solu-
tion of corrosive sublimate.

March 1 6. — The President in the Chair.
John Hambley Humfrey was elected an Associate.

" Description of the Methods adopted for raising and sustaininr/ the sunken
Roof (if St. George's Church, Dublin." J3y Robert Mallet, Assoc. Inst. C. E.

St. George's parish Church, one of the finest ecclesiastical edifices in the
city of Dublin, was completed in the year 1802, from the designs of the late
Francis Johnston, Architect to th« Board of Works at that time, at a cost of
about i;90,000.

The church had not been built many years, before the roof, which was
covered with tun slating and copper, gradnally sunk in several places, by which
the cornices at the flank wall were pushed several inches outward. The sub-
sidence slowly but continually increased. The ceiling cracked in various
places, the ornaaiental stucco work began to drop off, and in the year 1836
the state of the roof was such, that the church was deemed unsafe for use,
and was shut up.

Messrs. John and Robert Mallet were consulted as to the practicability of
restoring the roof. In November, 1836, they reported that they considered
the ceiling might be preserved, and described the manner in which they pro-
posed to accomplish it.

The mode proposed consisted in interweaving with and adapting to the
timber framing of tlie roof, a system of metallic framing, so arranged, that all
strain or stress should be removed from the former, and borne by the latter,
as well as removing all lateral pressure from the walls of the building.

A careful survey of the roof showed that the ends of several of the princi-
pals were unsound. A small hole was then bored through the ceiling, close
to each queen-post, and a deal rod, J an inch square, dropped through each.
These rods were all of equal length, and their upper ends were secured level
with the top surface of the tye-beam of each principal ; then with a levelling
instrument placed in the gallery, observations were taken, and the exact
amount of the deflection of the framing ascertained. The variation was con-
siderable, but the greatest amount of depression was found to be 5J inches.
The whole roof was strained and distorted, and was so unsafe that the sUghtest
effort caused vibration throughout.

The causes of this failure a]ipeared to be threefold : a radical want of
strength in the framing of the roof; secondly, the employment of unfit tye-
beams, which having been constructed during the Continental war, when
timber was scarce and dear, were formed almost wholly of short lengths,
averaging not more than 20 feet, lapped and scarfed; thirdly, in the queen-
posts having been badly constructed and ill placed.

The stone corbels, which supported the oak cantilevers, being originally
cut almost through to receive the wall-plate, were nearly all broken in the
middle. It was proposed, therefore, to remove the oak cantilevers and stone
corbels, and to cut away the timber wall-plate beneath each principal, to level
up the wall, placing a suitable cast-iron abutment piece at each end, and to
spring from side to side a cast-iron arch, in " double flitches," connected
through the spaces of the timber framing by hollow distance pieces, and also
by a certain number of equidistant cross-heads, from which should drop down
vertical suspending rods, capable of being adjusted in length, and connected
with the tye-beam of the principal, so that being drawn up straight, and the
respective parts secured, the weight of the whole roof would be transferred
through the framing to the tye-beams ; whilst they being hung from the sys-
tem of suspension rods of the cast-iron arches, which would thus sustain the
■whole load, and their abutments being held together by the tye-bars in the
chord line, the load would bear vertically upon the walls.

It was then determined to raise the roof and ceiling by forces applied from
below ; to cut away the rotten ends of the principals and to reconnect them
with the walls by a modification of tlie cantilever bracket, invented by Mr.
Alfred Ainger, and described in the Transactions of the Society of Arts (vol.
42). The whole of the oak cantilevers and stone corbels were to be removed
as useless incumbrances.

The total weight of the roof being about 133 tons, each framed principal
would sustain about I65 tons, and each vertical suspending rod about I4 ton.

Although the weight of material in this roof and ceiling may be considered
uniformly distributed, it was impossible to foresee what change might be
effected in the framing by forcing the ceiUng and roof up to a level line, or
what amount of force might bear upon particular points, from the elasticity
of the materials being thus forcibly constrained. It hence became a matter
of prudence to provide in all parts a large surplus of strength, bearing in
mind that, in any complete system, " the strength of the whole is limited by
that of the weakest part, and thus that partial strength becomes total weak-
ness." The dimensions of the scantling were accordingly so calculated that
the utmost strain upon it should not exceed 4-5 tons per square inch, con-
sidering 9 tons to be the practical limit to which wrought iron might be ex-
posed.

After giving the formula; for calculating the strains upon the different
parts of the roof, with the reasons why the theoretical dimensions were in
some instances departed from, the autlior apologises for entering so much into
detail of the construction, quoting at the same time the writings of Smeaton
and Telford, as abounding in the richest details of theoretic deduction, modi-
lied by practical judgment. He then proceeds to describe the means adopted.

Immediately beneath each of thefourteen queen-posts of the roof, an aper-

ture of 30 inches square was cut through the floor of tlie church, and a piece
of brick and cement built up from the arches of the vaults beneath to the
level of the floor ; on the top of each, a i)late of cast iron was bedded, and
upon each plate a block of oak timber about 4 inches thick.

Fourteen straight whole balks of Memel timber, each 3 feet shorter than
the height of the church between the floor and the ceiling, with their ex-
tremities cut square and smooth, were placed vertically upon the blocks ; up-
on this level a platform was laid ; across the tops of the vertical balks, pieces
of oak scantling were placed ; fourteen powerfid screw-jacks were then fixed,
one beneath each queen-post, and the ceiling cut away for the points to bear
directly upon the beams.

During the progress of these operations, the whole of the ceiling and roof
framing had been carefully examined. The dust was removed from the joints
and open mortices, &c., of the framing, and the cracks in the ceiling were
cleared out by passing a fine whip saw through them, so as to permit their
closing when the ceiling was raised to a plane surface.

The preparations being completed, the word was given to heave simultan-
eously u])on the screw-jacks ; the roof rose slowly and steadily, and as soon
as any one of the small deal standard rods had reached the level plane, the
motion of the screw-jack at that spot was stopped. In about two hours, the
whole roof, together with the ceiling, was brought up level, without any acci-
dent or injury to any portion of the ceiling. The cracks in the latter as well
as the joints and mortices of the framing were found to be nearly all closed.
Some slates were broken, and the copper of the platform, which before was
wrinkled and loose, was now found to be drawn tight over the timber sheath-
ing.

The roof being thus supported from beneath, the masonry was cut out
round the ends of the principals ; the oak cantilevers and corbels of granite,
and the rotten ends of the timbers, within a few inches of the inside face of
the walls, were also removed.

The cantilever and abutment castings were now applied and bedded with
lead and oil putty, on blocks of stone set at the level of the under side of the
tye-beams, on footings of brick and cement. The chord bars were next placed,
and temporarily adjusted by means of their screw nuts. The arch segments
were put up in succession, their centre or key pieces bolted in, and the seg-
ments adjusted to them by means of wedges of African oak : the suspending
rods were then hung on from the top shackles, and the junction made good
with the tye-beams, by means of the lower cross-heads, stirrups, and shackles.

As soon as the whole system of the seven arched frames was complete, and
the cantilevers adjusted to the ends of the decayed timbers, standing lengths
of pine rods were placed in right lines from centre to centre of each pair of
abutment cross bolts, and all the chord bars and suspending rods were brought
up by means of their adjustment screws, until the united effort of the whole
system had lifted and supported the entire roof and ceiling from the screw-
jacks, on which they had previously rested, so that these latter all became
loose.

The whole was now left quiet for some days, in order that every part might
take its bearing, and that the sufficiency of the structure should be proved
before the final removal of the screw-jacks, &c., which remained within about
J of an inch of the blocks beneath the tye-beams, by which means, in case of
accident, the amount of fall would have been limited to that small distance.
The entire work, including the repairing the cracks in the ceihng, occupied
little more than four months, and has never since required either alteration
or repair.

The total amount of the contract for this work was 1362/. 6s. The repair
of the injury done to the ceiUng only amounted to 33/. 0.«. 8af., and the
damage done to the slating, platform, flooring, &c., did not amount to more
than an equal sura.

The total amount of cast and wrought iron in the stnicture was 21 tons
10 cwt. 2 qrs. 19 lb.

The communication is illustrated by five elaborate drawings on a large
scale, showing the general arrangement and modes of proceeding, and also
the details of the construction of the roof and of the cast and wrought-iroa
works used in the repairs.

ROYAL INSTITUTE OF BRITISH ARCHITECTS.
July 3. — Earl db Gret, President, in the Chair.

A paper was read by Professor Willis, of Cambridge, lion. Mem. F.R.S.
&c., On the construction of the Vaulting of the Middle Ages.

The vaulting of the Gothic architects differs essenti.illy from that both of
ancient and modern times, inasmuch as it consists of a combination of ribs,
each forming an independent arch, both laterally and diagonally, with the
intermediate spaces filled in upon the extrados of the arches to form the
spandrils, whereas, according to the ordinary system of vaulting, the whole
is soHd and keyed together. The principles of this latter mode of construc-
tion were first developed by Philibert de I'Ornie, who, in his celebrated trea-
tise, lays down the rules for drawing the vaults and setting out the voussoirs
— but of the practice of the Gotl-.ic architects we have no iiccount, and it
remains to be inferred from ,-in cx.imination of their works. That they pro-
ceeded by geometrical methods there can be no doubt, though they were
probably extremely simple, differing greatly in that respect from those ex-
pounded by PhiUbert dc TOrme. One thing to be especially observed in the

286

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[August,

plain vaultings of the miilfile ages is, that all the curves are segments of
circles, the diagonals being struck from a centre below the springing of the
lateral and cross ribs, and are contrasted in this respect with diagonals pro-
jected from the direct arches, according to the rale familiar to every carpen-
ter, from which it results that all the points of a groined vault coincide, and
vrill be touched by a straight line drawn from one end of such a range of
vaulting to the other. To this mode of setting out the curves may be attri-
buted the flagrant want of character which is apt to distinguish the modern
imitations of Gothic vaulting, and it may even be obsened in original ex-
amples, that the effect is less pleasing as this coincidence is more nearly ap-
proaclied. This is the case with vaultings executed after the four-centered
arch came into fashion, in which, although the curves n^ay not be projected,
yet there is an approach to greater regularity from the springing of all the
ribs being brought to one level. During the Norman period the drawing of
the vaults is very rude, and we find it to have been frequently necessary to
back up the ext'rados of the ribs in order to bring the spandrils into shape.
In the succeeding period of our architecture more care was indispensable,
on account of the greater complication of mouldings converging together at
the springing, and the free and sketchy manner in which they are managed,
and the superfluous mouldings got rid of before they overioad the impost, is
much to be admired, and is greatly superior to the method pursued in the
I5th centnrv, when the coverging ribs were all brought down to the impost,
and died away into a mere bundle of reeds, of which the eft'ect is exceedingly
tame and uncharacteristic. Previously to the introduction of the last style
of gothic vaulting, fan groinmi], various complicated figures were formed by
the introduction of numerous cross ribs, but the mode of construction con-
tinued to be the same. The vaulting immediately preceding fan groining,
which may, in fact, be considered as a transition style, Professor Willis desig-
nated as stellar groining, from the star shapes which usually enter into its
composition, and it is remarkable, that in some cases this form is lost in
execution, although laid down on the plan, the architect apparently not hav-
ing calculated on the effect of perspective, whereas, in others, the artist has
evidently depended upon it in order to bring out his design. At length, in
fan groining, the compartments become so numerous that the system of
separate ribs is abandoned, and the vaults are constructed according to the
ancient and modern principle of cut stone. Professor Willis accompanied
his lecture by an extensive display of drawings and models, illustrative of
the geometrical system upon which he supposed the Gothic architects to
have worked in producing these results.

After the lecture the noble President presented to Mr. Hall the medal of
the Institute, which had teen awarded for his essay on iron roofs.
July 19. — R. Wallace, Esq., in the Chair.

Henry Gaily Knight, Esq., was elected an honorary member.

Mr. Hall's essay on iron roofs, to which the medal of the Institute had
been awarded, was read.

This was the closing meeting of the session.

CALOTYPE.

The following account of some recent improvements in photography, by
II. F. Talbot, Esq., was lately read before the Royal Society.

The author had originally intended, in giving an account of his recent
experiments in photography, to have entered into numerous details with
respect to the phenomena observed ; but finding that to follow out this plan
would occupy a considerable time, he has thought that it would be best to
put the Society, in the first place, in possession of the principal facts, and by
so doing perhaps invite new observers into the field during the present fa-
vourable season for making experiments. He has, therefore, confined him-
self at present to a description of the improved photographic method, to
which he has given the name of Calolype, and reserves for another occasion
all remarks on the theory of the process. The following is the method of
obtaining the Calotype pictures.

Prpparalion of the Paper,— Take a sheet of the best writing paper, having
a smooth surface and a close and even texture. The watermark, if any,
should be cut off, lest it should injure the appearance of the picture. Dis-
solve 100 grains of crystallized nitrate of silver in six ounces of distilled
water. Wash the paper with this solution, with a soft brush, on one side,
and put a mark on that side whereby to know it again. Dry the paper cau-
tiously at a distant fire, or else let it dry spontaneously in a dark room.
When dry, or nearly so, dip it into a solution of iodide of potassium contain-
ing 500 grains of that salt dissolved in one pint of water, and let it stay two
or three minutes in this solution. Then dip it into a vessel of water, dry it
lightly with blotting-paper, and finish drying it at a fire, which will not in-
jure it even if held pretty near ; or else it may be left to dry spontaneously.
All this is best done in the evening by candle-light. The paper so far pre-
pared the author calls iodized paper, because it has a uniform pale yellow
coating of iodide of silver. It is scarcely sensitive to light, but, nevertheless,
it ought to be kept in a portfolio or a drawer, until wanted for use. It may
be kept for any length of time without spoiling or undergoing any change,
if protected from the light. This is the first part of the ]ireparation of Calo-
type paper, and may be performed at any time. The remaining pait is best
deferred until shortly before the paper is wanted for use. When that time
is arrived, take a sheet of the iodized paper and wash it with a liquid pre-

pared in the following manner: — Dissolve 100 grains of erystalhzed nitrate
of silver in two ounces of distilled water ; add to this solution one-sixth of
its volume of strong acetic acid. Let this mixture be called A. Make a
saturated solution of crystallized gallic acid in cold distilled water. The
quantity dissolved is very small. Call this solution B. When a sheet of
paper is wanted for use, mix together the liquids A and B in equal volumes,
but only mix a small quantity of them at a time, because the mixture does
not keep long without spoiling. I shall call this mixture the galh-nitrate of
silver. Then take a sheet of iodized i)aper and wash it over with this
gallo-nitrate of silver, with a soft brush, taking care to wash it on the side
which has been previously marked. This operation should be performed by
candle-light. Let the paper rest half a minute, and then dip it into water.
Then dry it lightly with blotting-paper, and finally dry it cautiously at a fire,
holding it at a considerable distance therefrom. When dry, the paper is fit
for use. The author has named the paper thus prepared calotype paper, on
account of its great utility in obtaining the pictures of objects with the ca-
mera obscura. If this paper he kept in a press it will often retain its quali-
ties in perfection for three months or more, being ready for use at any mo-
ment ; but this is not uniformly the case, and the author therefore recom-
mends that it should he used in a few hours after it has been prepared. If
it is used immedialely, the last drying may he dispensed with, and the paper
may he used moist. Instead of employing a solution of crystallized gallic
acid for the liquid B, the tincture of galls diluted with water may be used,
but he does not think the results are altogether so satisfactory'.

Use of the Paper. — The Calotype pajier is sensitive to light in an extra-
ordinary degree, which transcends a hundred times or more that of any kind
of photographic paper hitherto described. This may he made manifest by
the following experiment : — Take a piece of this pai)er, and having covered
half of it, expose the other half to daylight for the space of one second in
dark cloudy weather in winter. This brief moment suffices to produce a
strong impression upon the paper. But the impression is lateut and invisi-
ble, and its existence would not be suspected by any one who was not fore-
warned of it by previous experiments. The method of causing the impres-
sion to become visible is extremely simple. It consists in washing the paper
once more with the gallo-nitrate of silver prepared in the way above de-
scribed, and then warming it gently before the fire. In a few seconds the
part of the paper upon which the light has acted begins to darken, and
finally grows entirely black, while the other part of the paper retains its
whiteness. Even a weaker impression than this may be brought out by re-
peating the wash of gallo-nitrate of silver, and again warming the paper.
On the other hand, a stronger impression does not require the warming of
the paper, for a wash of the gallo-nitrate suffices to make it visible, without
heat, in the course of a minute or two. A very remarkable proof of the sen-
sitiveness of the calotype paper is afforded by the fact stated by the author,
that it will take an impression from simple moonlight, not concentrated by
a lens. If a leaf Is laid upon a sheet of the paper, an image of it may be
obtained in this way in from a quarter to half an hour. Tliis paper being
possessed of so high a degree of sensitiveness, is therefore well suited to
receive images in the eameia obscura. If the ajicrture of the object-lens is
one inch, and the focal length fifteen inches, the author finds that oneminute
is amply sufficient in summer to impress a strong image upon the paper of
any building upon which the sun is shining. When the aperture amounts to
one-third of the focal length, and the object is very white, as a plaster bust,
&c., it appears to him that one second is sufficient to olitain a pretty good
image of it. The images thus received upon the Calotype paper are for the
most part invisible impressions. They may be made visible by the process
already related, namely, by washing them with the gallo-nitrate of silver,
and then warming the paper. When the paper is quite blank, as is generally
the case, it is a highly curious and beautiful phenomenon to see the spon-
taneous commencement of the picture, first tracing out the stronger outlines,
and then gradually filling up all the numerous and complicated details. The
artist should watch the picture as it developes itself, and when in his judg-
ment it has attained the greatest degree of strength and clearness, he should
stop further progress by washing it with the fixing liquid.

The friny process. — To fix the picture, it should be first washed with
water, then lightly dried with blotting paper, and then washed with a solu-
tion of bromide of potassium, containing 100 grains of that salt dissolved in
eight or ten ounces of water, .\ftcr a minute or two it should be again
dipped in water and then finally dried. The picture is in this manner very
strongly fixed, and with this great advantage, that it remains transparent,
and that, therefore, there is no difficulty in obtaining a copy from it. The
calotype picture is a negative one, in which the lights of nature are repre-
sented by shades ; but the copies are positive, having the hghts conformable
to nature. They also represent the objects in their natural position with
respect to right and left. The copies may be made upon Calotype paper in
a very short time, the invisible impressions being brought out in the way
already described. But the author prefers to make the copies upon photo-
graphic paper prepared in the way w hich he originally described in a memoir
read to the Royal Society in February 1839, and which is made by washing
the best writing paper, first with a weak solution of common salt, and next
with a solution of nitrate of silver. Although it takes a much longer time
to obtain a copy upon this paper, yet, when obtained, the tints appear more
harmonious and jdeasing to the eye ; it requires in general from three mi-
nutes to thirty njinutes of sunshine, according to circumstances, to obtain a
good copy on this sort of photographic paper. The copy should be washed

1S41.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

287

and dried, and the 6xing process (which may be deiferred to a subsequent
day) is the same as that aheady mentioned. The copies are made by placing
the picture upon tlie photographic paper, with a board below and a sheet of
glass above, and pressing the papers into close contact by means of screws
or otherwise. Aftei a calotype picture has furnished several copies, it some-
times grows faint, and no more good copies can then l)o made from it. But
these pictures possess the beautiful and extraordinary property of being sus-
ceptible of revival. In order to revive them and restore their original ap-
pearance, it is only necessary to wash them again by candle-light v\i>h gallo-
nitrate of silver, and warm them ; this causes all the shades of the picture
to darken greatly, while the white parts remain unaffected. The shaded
parts of the picture thus acquire an opacity which gives a renewed spirit
and hfe to the copies, of which a second series may now be taken, extending
often to a very considerable number. In reviving the picture it sometimes
h.ippens that various details make their appearance which had not before
been seen, havhig been latent all the time, yet nevertheless not destroyed by
their long exposure to sunshine. The author terminates these observations
by staling a few experiments calculated to render the mode of action of the
sensitive paper more famiUar. 1. Wash a piece of the iodized paper with
the gallo-nitrate ; expose it to daylight for a second or two, and then with-
draw it. The paper will soon begin to darken spontaneously, and will grow
quite black. 2. The same as before, but let the paper be warmed. The
blackening will be more rapid in consequence of the warmth. 3. Put a large
drop of the gallo-nitrate on one part of the paper, and moisten another part
of it more sparingly, then leave it exposed to a very faint daylight ; it will be
found that the lesser quantity produces the greater effect in darkening the
paper; and in general, it wdl be seen that the most rapid darkening takes
place at the moment when the paper becomes nearly dry ; also, if only a
portion of the paper is moistened, it will be observed that the edges or boun-
daries of the moistened part are more acted on by light than any other part
of the surface. 4. If the paper, after being moistened with the gallo-nitrate,
is washed with water and dried, a shght exposure to daylight no longer suf-
fices to produce so much discoloration ; indeed it often produces none at all.
But by subsequently washing it again with the gallo-nitrate and warming it,
the same degree of discoloration is developed as in the other case (experi-
ments 1 and 2). The dry paper appears, therefore, to be equal, or superior
in sensitiveness to the moist ; only with this difference, that it receives a
virtual instead of an actual impression from the light, which it requires a
subsequent process to develope.

Plaster Ornaments. — The late Mr. Bernasconi was engaged, we believe,
to a greater extent than any other ornamental plasterer of the present cen-
tury, under all the leading architects of the day. We were lately induced
to pay a visit to his former scene of business, in Alfred Street, Tottenham
Court Road, now in possession of Mr. Brown, his son-in-law, who has lately
arranged the numerous ornaments bequeathed him by the late possesor.
They are well deserving of a visit by the architect ; here he will find Gre-
cian, Roman, Gothic, Elizabethan, the Renaissance, Arabesque, and almost
evei7 other style of ornaments that have been introduced at Windsor Castle,
Buckingham Palace, Pavilion Brighton, Staff'ord Hoii^e, Westminster Abbey,
Fonthill, Woburn Abbey, York Minster, Ely Cathedral, and numerous other
public buildings and mansions throughout the United Kingdom.

HZSCEIfliANEA.

WESTMINSTER BRIDGE.

On Thursday, 15th ult., the water was admitted into the coffre-dam in-
closing the 15th and IGth piers, and the next day a commencempnt was made
in removing the clay preparatory to dra'.\ing the piles. It is intended to
open two arches for navigation before any further steps are taken with the
next dam, which is to enclose one pier only. A deep water channel is now
in progress of being made on the north side of the river, in line with the two
arches about to be opened, by a steam dredging engine, for the use of navi-
gation. The present neglected state of the river not only interferes most in-
juriously with the interests of those who navigate it, liut causes the velocity
of the current at the latter part of the ebb to be greater than is consistent
with safety to the number of small boats and inexperienced persons frequent-
ing the river at this season of the year. It is, therefore, a consummation
much to be ilesired, that a subject so important to the welfare of this great
metropolis should receive the attention it deserves, and that the city autho-
rities, aided by government, will yet be able to carry into effect either their
former scheme of embanking the river to a more regular line, or some modi-
fication ijf this plan by which the present evils may be removed, so that this
noble river may again be restored to its former uselulness.

OPE^fINGS OF RAILWAYS.

The thirtieth of June witnessed a great extension of the Great Western
Railway, as on that day the main line was opened from Chippenham to

Bath, 13 miles, the Cheltenham and Great Western to Cirencester, and the
Bristol and Exeter from Bristol to Bridgewater, .S3 miles. Thus the Great
M'estern Railway is opened throughout IISJ- miles, and there is a continuous
line of railway communication from London to Bridgewater of 152 miles in
length.

On the 5th of July 285 miles of the Brighton line were opened, being
from the Croydon Junction to Hayward's Heath, and 5 miles from Clayton
Tunnel to Brighton, a measure which augurs well for the successful opening
of the remainder.

The extension of the Blackwal! railway to Feneburch Street was to take
place about the period of our publication, so that all the metropolitan rail-
ways would thus be complete at their London termini.

the unfortunate accident to the Fareham tunnel on the Gosport branch of
the South Western Railway, has unfortunately delayed the opening of that
line, just when it was on the point of being examined by the Government
inspector.

GREENWICH RAILWAY.

Amounts < f the tenders delivered on the 6th ult. for the fourth contract

for widening the Greenwich Railway from the Croydon Junction.

Messrs. Lee .... 15.825

Mr. Munday .... 15.990

Messrs. Little . . . 16.189

Mr. Grimsdell . . . 16.53fi

Messrs. Ward ... . 16,698

Mr. Bennett .... 16,920

Messrs. Piper . . . 16-920

Grissell & Peto . . 17.280

., Baker . . - 17-440

THE "PRINCESS ROYAL" STEAMER.

This splendid vessel, which appears to surpass the speed of any other in
the north, is now running between Liverpool and Glasgow, and has made
several successful trips ; she performed a trip from Dublin to Liverpool in 9
hours, and another trip on the 9th ult. from Greenock to Liverpnol in 15i
hours, the quickest passage on record, the distance is 227| miles ; she carried
at the time 100 tons actual weight. Both the vessel and engines wire built
by Messrs. Tod & Macffregor of the Clyde Foundry. Glasgow, the former is
of the following dimensions, viz., 185 feet keel and 208 feet on deck. 28 feet
beam, and 17 feet hold above the flooring, draws when light 8 feet, and when
full 10 feet of water ; her register is 750 tuns (N.M.). She is entirely built
of iron, (there is not a single beam of wood,) very strong, and has a fine ap-
pearance in the water, her cabins are very richly and tastefully fitted up.
The vessel is propelled by two steeple or upright engines of 190 horse power
eac/i, or 380 together ; the power is applied direct to the crank. Diameter
of cylinders is 73 inches, length of stroke 6 ft. 3 in., performs 18 strokes per
minute when in good trim, and 17 strokes with from 100 to 120 tons of cargo,
diameter "of piddle-whcel over floats 29 feet length of float 7 ft. 9 in., and
breadth 28 inches, speed in still water 15 miles per hour.

Launch of the Devastation War Steam- vessel —Ihe launch of this first-class
war steam-vessel took place at Woolwich, on Saturday, 3rd ult. Mr. Lang,
master shipwright, superintended the launch ; she was immediately after
hauled into the dock, opposite the blacksmith's workshop, wliere she will be
coppered, and will be afterwards taken into the basin to have her engines
fitted and made ready for sea. The Devastation is about 180 feet long, and
about 1,050 tons burden, old measurement, or about 1,000 tons burden ac-
cording to the new mode of calculation.

Tht Cadogan Chain Pier, Chelsea.— K3x\ Cadogan, the lord of the manor,
has erected'a handsome and convenient pier for steam-boat passengers on a
novel construction, at an expense of between £3,000 and £4.000. This erec-
tion was constructed by Mr. Cul;itt, from ihe design and under the direction
of Mr. Handtord, the surveyor and architect of the manor. The pier is situ-
ated in the mall of Cheyne-walk, the most beautifnl part of Chelsea, and
forms one of the most interesting objects of the place. Shortly the pier will
be open to the public.

Professor Wagner's Electro- Magvetic Engine. — The German journals publish
the following extract from a protocol drawn up by the Germanic Diet; —
" The Germanic confederation desiring to acquire, for the purpose of pub-
lishing for the public good, the secret by means of which citizen Philip Wag-
ner, of Frankfort, makes use i^f electro-magnetism as a moving force, Sill
secure to the said Wagner for the exclusive ])ossession of his secret the sum
(f 100.000 florins (£8.000 British), on condition that he cause an electro-
magnetic machine to be constructed at his own expense, and upon a suffi-
ciently large scale, to serve as a locomotive ; that a trial be made of this
machine, in order that the diet be assured of its efficacy ; and that M. Wag-
ner consented to abide by the dec sion of the Diet on that trial. The Diet
will wait for one month for M. Wagner to accept those conditions.

Land-slip at Sidmouth.—A land-slip of considerable extent took place at
Sidmouth on the 11th ult.. about seven in the evening. It commenced about
half-past six by a rumbling noise, resemhliug a distant peal of thunder, and
at seven o'clock part of the Peak Hill was observed to glide towards the
ocean, carrying everything before it. and forming a rock or pillar out of the
sea (70 feet high and 175 icet in circumference), opposite to the town, and a
quarter of a mile from the shore. It is covered with fossils, and is of a hard
iron-like substance. So singular an occurrence has attracted the attention
of every ore in the town, and hundreds are flocking frjm the immediate
neighbourhood to gain a sight of its results. — Dorset Chronicle.

The Dissolving Views at the Royal Pohjleehnic Institution.— Ihe directors of
thisscieiitific institution, ever seeking to combine amusement with instruction,
have recently added to their numerous attractions an entirely new series of

288

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[August,

disrolving views by Messrs. Wroncb & Smilli, w hicli, for selecti(in of subjects
and the artistic feeling «itli uhich tliey are treated, may le consiiiered un-
questionably the best of (he kind hitherto exhibited ; there are sixteen in
numi er. and if \vc may judge from the gratification evinced by the numerous
company uho attend upon each occ.nsion that lliese beautiful views are
shown, thespirited proprietors cannot but congratulate themselves upon hav-
ing secured such to an exhibition, which is and mu.st doubtless become an
increasing attraction to this institution.

IiIST OP NSW PATENTS.

GRANTED IN ENGL.\ND FROM 28tH JUKE, TO 28tH JDLY, 1811.

Six Months allowed Jor Enrolment.

JoH.N Chater, of the Town of Nottingham, machine-maker, and Rich ark
Grav, of the same place, lace niaruifacturer, for " improvements in machinery
for the purpose of making lace and other fabrics, traversed, looped, or woven."
— Sealed June 2G.

^VILLouGHBY METnLEY and Thomas Charles Methley, of Frith-
street, Soho, ironmongers, for " improvements in machinery fur raising, lower-
ing, and moving bodies or weights." (A comrauiiicition.) — June 20.

Moses Poole, of Lincoln's-inn, gentleman, for " improvements inproduc-
ing and applying heat." (A communication.) — June 26.

William Los h, of Little Benton, Northumberland, Esq., for "improve-
ments in the manufacture of railway wheels." — June 20.

Nathaniel Benjamin, of Camberwcll. gentleman, for " improvements in
the manufacture of type." (A communication.) — June 28.

William Knight, of Durham-street, Strand, gentleman, for " an indicator
for registering the number of passengers using an omnibus or other passenger
vehicles." — June 28.

Christopher Nickels, of York-road, Lambeth, gentleman, for " im-
provements in the manufacture of mattresses, cushions, paddings or stuffings ;
and m carpets, rugs, or other napped fabrics." — June 28.

William Thomas Berger, of Upper Homerton, gentleman, for " im-
provements m the manufacture of starch." — June 28.

Thomas Marchell, of Sobo-square, surgeon, for " improvements in rait-
ing and conveying water and other fluids." — Juue 28.

George Henry Phipps, of Deptford, engineer, for "improvements in the
construction of wheels for railway and other carriages." — July 2.

Thomas Hagkn, of Kensington, brewer, for " an improved bagatelle board."
—July 7.

George Onions, of High-street, Shoreditch, engineer, for "improved
wheels and rails for railroad purposes." — July 7.

Rouert Mallet, of Dublin, engineer, for "certain improvements in pro-
tecting cast and wrought iron and steel, and other metals, from corrosion and
oxidation ; and in preventing the fouling of iron ships, or sftips sheathed with
iron, or other ships or iron buoys, m fresh or sea water." — July 7.

William Edwarh Newton, of Cbancery-lane, civil engineer, for " cer-
tain improvements in the manufacture of fuel." (A communication.) — July 7.

Thomas Fdllkr, of Bath, coachmaker, for " certain improvements in re-
tarding the progress of carriages under certain circumstances." — July 7.

Andrew M'Nab, of Paisley, North Britain, engineer, for " an improve-
•ment or improvements in the making or construction of meters or apparatus
for measuring water or other fluids." — July 7.

Charles Wheatstone, of Conduit-street, gentleman, for "improvements
in producing, regulating, and applying electric currents." — July 7.

John Steward, of Wolverhampton, Esq., for " certain improvements in
the construction of piano fortes." — July 7.

Thomas Young, of Queen-street, London, merchant, for "improvements
in lamps." — July 9.

Charles Payne, of South Lambeth, chemist, for " improvements inpre-
serving vegetable matters where metallic and earthy solutions are employed."
July 9.

William Henry Phillips, of Manchester-street, Manchester-square,
civil engineer; and David Hichinbotham, of the same place, gentleman,
for " certain improvements in the construction of the chimneys, flues, and air
tubes, with the stoves, and other apparatus connected therewith, for the pur-
pose of preventing the escape of smoke into apartments, and for warming
and ventilating buildings." — July 13.

Benjamin Beale, of East Greenwich, engineer, for " certain improve-
ments in engines, to be worked by steam, water, gas, or vapours." — July 13.

Moses Poole, of Lincoln'; -inn, gentleman, for "improvements of steam
baths, and other baths." (A communication.) — July 13.

Miles Berry, of Chancery-lane, civil engineer, for *' improvcm nts in the
construction of locks, latches, or such kind of fastenings for doors and gates

and other purposes to which they may be applicable." (A communication ) —
July 14.

Thomas Peckston, of Arundel-street, Strand, Bachelor of Arts, and
Philip Le Capelai.n, of the same place, coppersmith, for " certain im-
provements in meters for measuring gas, and ot/ier aeriform fluids." — July
15.

Andrew Smith, of Belper, Derby, engineer, for " certain improvements
in the arrangement aud construction of engines, to be worked by the force of
steam, or other fluids ; wfiich improved engines are also applicable to the
raising of water and other liquids." — July 21.

John M'Bridk, manager of the Nursery Spinning Mills, Hutchisontown,
Glasgow, for " certain improvements in the machinery and ap/iaratus for
dressing and weaving cotton, silk, flax, wool, and other fibrous substances." —
July 21 ; four months.

John White Welch, of Austin-Friars, merchant, for " an improved re-
verbei-atory furnace to be used in the smelting of copper ore, or other ores
which are or may be smelted in reverberatory furnaces." — July 21.

Frederick Theodore Philippi, of Belficld-hall, calico-printer, for "cer-
tain improvements in the production of sal ammoniac, and in the purification
of gas for illmninations." (A communication.) — -July 21.

William Ward Andrews, of Wolverhampton, ironmonger, for " an im-
proved coffee pot." — July 21.

William Newton, of Chancery-lane, civil engineer, for " certain im-
provements in machinery for making pins and pin ?iails." (.-V communica-
tion.)—July 28.

Anthony Bernhard Von Rathen, of Kingston-upon-Hull, engineer,
for " improvements in high-pressure and other steam-boih-rs, combined with
a new mode or principle of supplying them with water," — July 28.

Anthony Bernhard Von Rathen, of Kingston-upon-IluU, engineer,
for " a new method or methods (called by the inventor, 'The United Station-
ary and Locomotive System *) of propelling locomotive carriages on railroads
and common roads, and vessels on rivers and canals, by the application of a
power produced or obtained by means of machinery and apparatus uncon-
nected with the carriages and vessels to be propelled." — July 28.

ERRATA.

Sir — In my coramunnication on " Slopes in Sidelong Ground," in this
month's (July) Journal, page 220, you will find the following misprints,
which you will perhaps have the kindness to notice in your next publication.

For (u;tan/3-i^L) = C F, read (u> tan J3 + A) = C F.'

sin C F D sin C F D.

For C D = (« tan e + A) ^-— ^^-p, read C D = (» tan fl + A) — ^-^

sin C F D , „„ , sin C F D

For C E = (w tan 3 + A) ;t— Tn-^- read C E = (tt tan (3 + A) ;

sin C D F

sin C E P'

For " therefore the angle C /) F will be constant," read " therefore the
angle C FO will be constant."

W. R.

In the review of Windsor Castle the following errors of the reviewer were
passed unobserved until after the article had gone to press.

Page 278, col. 2, for Edward the Third called the Confessor, read Edward
the Confessor.

In the 2nd paragraph, for Henry /// read Henry /.

Page 279, col. 1, 3 lines from the bottom, for Henry 7 read Sir Reginald
Bray. And in the last hne, for his read Henry VU.

TO CORRESPONDENTS.

Mr Barrett's and Mr. Brooks' communications must stand over until next
month ; also the commuriirations from S. L. and D. C IVe must bcff nf our cor-
respondents to excuse us in postponing any articles of controversy,

" A clear fire." In our opinion bis scheme is not practicable.

"On the forms and proportions of steam vessels,'' ti/oi received as we were
f;oi?;f^ to press ; it will appear next month.

Two communications on long and short connecting rods are in type, but must
stand over until next month for want of space.

Communications are requested to be addressed io "The Editor of the Civil
Engineer, and Architect's Journal," JVo. 11, Parliament Street, Westminster.

Books for Review must be sent early in the montli. communications on or befori
the 2i)lh (if with drawings, tartier), and advertisiments on or before the 2,5th
instant.

Vols. I, II, and III, may be had, bound in cloth, price £1 eachiVolume.

1S41.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

2S9

EPISODES OF PLAN.

( Continued from page 143. J

We should be less embarrassed by the extent and complexity of
our subject, could we command an unlimited number of cuts to illus-
trate it ; but being under the necessity of observing economy in
that respect, and to confine ourselves to Jloor-plans alone, without at-
tempting to show anything further, we experience no little difficulty
in determining whatsketches to give in preference, out of the ample
stock of our materials. Under such circumstances it will jjerhaps be
expected that we should select such as bear the least resemblance to
each other ; yet, bv so doing, we could not show how the same lead-
ing idea may, bv some slight modification of it, be so altered as to
produce a room of quite dilferent character. Which last consideration
induces us to give a second plan for a dining-room, bearing a strong
resemblance to the preceding one in its general shape and arrange-
ment, yet greatly varied from it with respect to many otlier circum-
stances. Therefore, in order that the two may be more conveniently
compared together, we will here again introduce the first one, which
wa5 but indifferently printed when originally given.

FiR. 1.

Owing to the peculiarity or singularity of both these ideas, the re-
semblance between them will probably be thought far more striking
tlian the difference, since the second one also shows a room whose
ends are convex in plan, and which is otherwise very similarly ar-
ranged. The situation here given to the fire-place would be in itself
too trifling a variation to call for notice, were it not that it materially
alters the character of the whole, by leaving the entrance recess en-
lirelv 0[ien to the room ; and in consequence, the elevation of that end
liecomes precisely similar to the opposite one, each of them present-
ii!g three open intercolumns, formed in this instance merelv by a di-
style in antis, consequently with two columns less than in the other
plan. A more important distinction is that in this second plan the
corners of the room are cut off, whereby not only is the somewhat
objectionable sharpness of the angles, occasioned in the other instance
by the curved ends being brought up to the side walls, avoided, but
the proportion which the end elevation bears to the entire breadth of
the apartment is also altered. Besides which, four niches, placed
diagonally on the plan, are thus obtained, where they would seem to

No. 48.— Vol. IV.— September, 1841.

come in with great propriety — conspicuously, but not obtrusively; on
the contrary, where they are in some measure required in order to
fill up, and give importance to those spaces: For the last assigned
reason, niches are likewise introduced into the entrance recess A.

Should it be made an objection that in consequence of its forming
two intersecting curves in its plan, the part A would either occasion
much space to be lost, or render it difficult to connect this apartment
with an adjoining one, it may be got over by converting the cm ved wall
in which the door is placed into a flat one. Such alteration would
still leave the rest of the design just the same as before ; nevertheless
its character would in some degree be affected by it, and that for the
worse, if only because the uniformity now kept up, by the smaller re-
cess A being curved both ways similarly to the larger one B, would
then be destroyed. How far the circumstance here noticed would
create difficulty by interfering too much with the general plan of the
house, must depend upon what would be altogether foreign from our
present purpose to take into consideration ; our object here being
merelv to suggest new ideas, and bring forward episodical portions of
a plan, not to adapt them to plans in general. We leave the particu-
lar application of them to others, leaving also those who may care to
adopt any of our hints to adapt and modify them accordingly as cir-
cumstances may require ; for what would be found eligible and con-
venient enough in one case, would prove exactly the contraryin another
A remark to the same effect has, we find, already been made by us,
nevertheless it is one that will very well bear to be repeated, as it
is likely to be forgotten by others, though it is highly important that
it should be constantly borne in mind by our readers.

The sideboard alcove B does not call for much explanation or com-
ment, we shall therefore confine ourselves to saying that the same ac-
commodation is here afforded as in the first plan, namely an entrance
into it for servants. Though two doors are shown, one of them would
be sufficient for the purpose, and the other might either be a sham
one, or should the plan allow of its being done, might be made to lead
to a strong closet for containing the more valuable articles of plate,
and also a small retiring closet, &c. The window in this alcove is
supposed to be at a considerable height from the floor— eight or nine
feet — as the sideboard would be placed beneath it ; and it is intended
merely to obtain some light from a back court or area, for which rea-
son it should have coloured or ground glass, but merely of such hue as
would be sufficient to correct rawness of effect, and throw a sunshiny
glow into that end of the room. Though it is differently represented
m the cut (fig. 2), it would perhaps be better to confine this window
to what now forms its centre compartment (corresponding in breadth
with the centre intercolumn of the alcove), treating it as an oblong
transparent panel, slightly sunk in the upper part of the wall.

We will now submit another idea jirofessing to be no more than a
variation of the alcove capable of being adapted to either of the pre-
ceding plans ; for which reason it is unnecessary to show the whole of
the room in the cut.

In this instance the alcove is great'y extended as to depth, more
especially as compared with that in fig. 1, from which, indeed, it is
altogether dissimilar, because there not orily is the recess considerably
shallower, but its back wall is curved convexly, and concentrically
with the elevation towards the room. At the same time it resembles
fig. ), in so far as it occupies the entire width of the room; but then
again, such resemblance is attended with a very material difference,
inasmuch as in fig. 3, the alcove is more enclosed, so that it seems to
expand itself wilhin, as viewed through the external columns. The
same may be said of it, if it be compared with fig. 2, that being a sim-
ple recess merelv divided off from the room by columns, and no wider
within than its opening towards the room.

Fig. 3, on the contrary, affords an example of what may very well
be distinguished by the name of a compound recess, — and also of what

2 R

200

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[SEPTElStBER,

many will, no doubt, be apt to consider a strangely fanciful— not to say
fantastical, arrangement. We certainly cannot produce authority for
any thing of tlie kind, because we do not recollect, and therefore may
safely affirm that we have never met with any similar instance. If
iilliers choose to say, it ought on that very account, to be received with
a good deal of suspicion, they are certainly at liberty to do so — or for
that matter, to reject our ideas and opinions altogether.

Capricious as it may at first sight be considered, this alcove (fig. 3),
will, we think be found, on examination, to be well motived and com-
modious in plan. While the inner columns would produce great rich-
ness of effect — would render the whole a striking architectural picture ;
they serve also to define the central space, to keep that part more
distinct from the rest, thereby giving more importance to that, and by
screening ofi' the spaces behind them', to convey the idea of the alcove's
being greatly extended by the addition of these last. Nor is it in
such respect'alone that the plan belongs to the class we would distin-
guish as compound, since such character is still further increased by
the addition it receives from the part s, which is here made to form
a second or inner recess where the sideboard would be placed, and
which therefore should be allowed to show itselt distinctly as such by
being treated as a large niche, or else covered with a semidorae carried
up above the ceiling of the alcove and room. In the last mentioned
case, that recess might be lighted from above through its dome, nor
would other light be then required ; should that however, not be prac-
ticable, and should an arched niche-like recess also be objected to for
the design, it would then be better to contract the space 8, reducing
it from a semicircle to a more shallow recess whose curvature would
be anti-conctniric to, and therefore correspond with, that on which the
columns facing it are placed, — as is done in the recess B, fig. 2.

Almost any one of these three plans above will be found, if studied
for that purpose, to contain within itself the germs of many others ;
and notwithstanding that they possess sometliing in common — taking
them altogether they furnish more variety, as far as plan is concerned,
than is now to be met with in as many thousand examples, — which
however they may differ as to matters of decoration and detail are
nearly alike in regard to arrangement and plan.*

Instead of proceeding, as we could easily do, with other plans of the
same class, and for similar purposes, we will, by way of change, now ex-
hibit one for the windgw side of a library, occupied entirely by three bays.
Li order both to obtain novelty of character, and increase picturesque

Fig. 4.

posing the situation of the enclosed and open portions, — that is by
removing the screen between B and the room, and in lieu of it, screen-
ing off the two lesser bays 6 h, which might either immediately com-
municate w ith, and he open towards the larger bay, or entirely shut up
from it, as one of them is shown in the cut. In the former c^se a vista
would be obtained through the three bays, by a compartment at each
end filled with a mirror, so as to give the effect of an open arch ; or
else instead of being filled with a single mirror, each of those com-
partments might be (livided into panels by mullions, &c., like those of
the screens, whereby the effect of an additional open screen in each of
the smaller bays, might be obtained.

As our chief object is rather to afford suggestive hints, than to give
plans definitively fixed, and intended for some one individual case, we
do not pretend to enter into more exact description. The cut itself
too, must likewise be- received as a mere explanatory sketch, it being
on too small a scale to admit of nicety as to detail, or do more than
indicate the arrangement and principal forms.

(To he continued.)

effect, the larger bay B, in the middle, is converted into a sort of case
separated from the rest of the rooms, by an open screen with tracery,
and carried down to about three feet from the floor. This screen,
which might either be grazed or not, as should seem most expedient,
would not only be characteristic and ornamental in itself, but be rather
serviceable than otherwise, by moderating the light within the body
of the room, and thereby rendering the two open bays, 6 b, more
piquant and brilliant by contrast. In fact the plan would admit of the
lower part of the screen being closed up to the height of about six
feet from the floor, by which means additional space for book-shelves,
on one if not both sides of it, might be obtained. And although this
would materially diminish the light in that part of the room, little if
anv inconvenience would result from that circumstance, because it is
here supposed that the room itself is chiefly intended to contain books,
and that the cabinet B, and the two bays b b, would be for sitting in.
Accordingly the fire-place is put within B, as the most convenient
situation ; and as that one would be sufficient, the space that must
otherwise be occupied by a chimney-piece and chimney pier would
be left free for book-cases or shelfing.

With the same plan, a room of very different appearance as to de-
sign, if not exactly as to character, might be produced by merely trans-

" Should this he disjiuteil. Wi' should feel obliged to anyone whoHouUI
inform us wliat remarkable instances of the kind there arc uliich would tend
to support an opinion contrary to that here expressed. — Kd.

ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF OBUQUE ARCHES.

Sir — I am sorry to trespass again on your pages in reference to Mr.
Peter Nicholson's work on Railway Masonry, but having a few days
since been made aware that a second edition of his book was published,
in which a reference was made to some remarks I had previously
written in your Journal, I procured a copy of it, and the reference in
question being nothing more or less than a gross misrepresentation of
facts, I trust you will allow me space to set the matter in its proper
light.

The point in dispute is relative to Mr. Nicholson's trihedral system.
In his first edition he says at page xxiii , "If a trihedral be cut by a
plane perpendicular to one of its oblique edges, the section shall be a
right angled triangle." Relative to this I made the remark that there
were three sorts of trihedrals, and that this assumption only holds
good with one of them, namely, a right trihedral.

In his second edition, page xxix. A, after stating that the trihedral
there treated is a right trihedral, he says, "if such a trihedral be cut
by a plane perpendicular to one of its oblique edges, the section shall
be a right angled triangle." To the end of which he appends the fol-
lowing complimentary observation. "I have called this kind of trihe-
dr;d a right trihedral ; but a narrow-minded hireling, who signs him-
self W. H. B., in the Civil Engineer and Architect's Journal, page 152,
has erroneously transcribed from a paragraph following, Dei'. 6, page
xxiii., Railway Masonry, first edition, ' If a trihedral be cut by a plane
perpendicular to one of its oblique edges, the section shall be a right
angled triangle,' leaving out the part that would make sense. His
remarks, founded on this mistranscription, resemble rather the pueri-
lities of childhood, than the reasoning of mature age."

Setting aside his personal abuse which will neither benefit his posi-
tion nor injure mine, the reply I have to make to the rest of his
observation is, firstly, that in saying I have mis-quoted his work, be
deliberately states that which he knows to be untrue ; and there stands
the paragraph at page xxiii., of the first edition to prove it.

Secondly. In saying I omitted the part that made sense of the pas-
sage, he accuses me of the very blunder he himself committed, of
which the fact of his having corrected himself at page xxix. A, of the
present edition, is abundant evidence.

The fact is, the page (xxix. A) is a fresh page which he has added
to his book, for the express purpose of inserting the corrected para-
graph; and has attached my remark to the corrected paragraph, de-
claring it to be a misquotation. It is really very lamentable to see a
man of the standing Peter Nicholson once had, obliged to have re-
course to so mean and unworthy a subterfuge ; and it is stilj more
lametitable to see him forget himself so much in the language he makes
use of. I consider it to be the duty of every one who is in a position
to do so, to expose the errors of a work addressed to the public ; par-
ticularly when it comes from the pen of one who has enjoyed a con-
siderable portion of their confidence and support, and is addressed to
those classes who being unable to investigate the subjects contained in
it for themselves, are compelled to rely implicitly on what is given to
them by the author. With this view I made my remarks on Mr.
Nicholson's first edition, and vrith this view I now proceed to show
that a great deal yet requires alter.ation in the second.

Taking for example page 7, he says, " in order to prevent two joints
from meeting each other, it is necessary that the number of arch stones
in each face should be an odd number." Now every body at all ac-

184 1.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

291

quainted with the subject knows that the number of courses being odd
or even has nothing at all to do with the meeting of the joints.

Next, (referring to the same page), about dividing the line E A,
fig. 1, we will here take a iigure with his own letters as example,
Suppose it was required to construct an oblique arch of the following
dimensions, viz. :

Span 10 feet = A C.
Rise 2-5 feet.

Angle of obliquity 45° = A H C.
Width of bridge IG feet = A u.

And take the case he does at page 7, in supposing the number of
courses to be nine; following out the directions given by him, namely,
to draw F K to meet the straight line A E perpendicularly in K, E K will
be divided into eight courses, and A K will be the ninth ; nhich mould
require eight counes to be 1/oot 10'17 inches thick, and the remaiiwig one
to he G'3G inches thick. Now I would ask, does Mr. Nicholson really
come forward with such a rule as this, and call his book a Guide to
Raiheay Masonry ? Is he ignorant of the fact that Mr. Buck has sur-
mounted this difEculfy by the simple expedient of adjusting the angle
of intrado — or is it that, rather than acknowledge his inferiority, he
persists in what he knows to be wrong, and addresses bis book to the
working classes in the hope of escaping detection ?

Again, with reference to obtaining the angles between the joint lines
in the face and in the soifit of the arch. It is perfectly distressing to
see a problem which admits of easy solution so miserably mutilated
as it is in his hands. The construction given by him, that is to say
the on'y one that deserves the name of an approximation, occupies
two and a half closely printed pages of his book, while these angles
may be obtained with much greater accuracy, and with about a quarter
of "the labour as follows. Let A D B 6g. 2 be the elliptical face of

292

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

September,

the arch, and O the point to which the joints in the face converge fsee
Buck on Oblique Bridges) ; produce O D to F any convenient dis-
tance, and make F E = half the obliquity of the arch. Draw G H
parallel to A B, set off G E ^r A K, join G F, and draw the lino F H,
making the angle E F H equal the angle of extrado.

Then to finu the curved bevel for any joint a, join a o, and draw
a b and h d respectively parallel to O F and G H. Take two lines m n,
0 h, at right angles to each other, as at fig. 3, set otf o c = <i c, fig. 2,
and from r, with a distance equal to a o, fig. 2, describe an arc inter-
secting o A at /. Then applying the mould of curvature of the spir.d
line of the intrado s f r, so that the line s' t f drawn at right angles to
0 A, is a tangent to the curve at the point t; the angles s t v and r t i;
are the bevels adapted for the joint a, fig. 2, and the corresponding
joint a' on the other side of the arch. With this construction the
angles for all the joints may be obtained from fig. 2, without any con-
fusion in the figure.

These angles may also be obtained by computation, for let A D B,
fig. 4, be the elevation of the arch on a plane at right angles to the
axis of the cylinder, and C be its centre, and let a the position of any
joint be given. The angle D C a being then known,

If the angle D C a = A,

Angle of obliquity of arch := 8,

Angle of extrado = <p,

And the radius of the cylinder = r.

Let r (cot. 0, sec. <?) = a.

And r (cot. e, tan. (jj) ^ 6,

*Then ° '^^'"' ^-^ — • = tangent of the angle a i o fig. 3.
(4 cos. X) + r ° ^ ^

An oblique bridge however is not necessarily built of stone, nor has
it ahvavs stone faces. Yet Mr. Nicholson would have the same inter-
minable process gone through in every case, while if the arch be en-
tirely of brick, and the span, the angle of obliquity, and the radius are
given, all that is required for the workmen is the angle of skew-back,
and the length of the check on the impost, which are at once obtained
as follows:

Let 8 = angle of obliquity,
s = square span,
a — length of arc,

- — '— s=-tan. 0, the angle of skew-back, and (eosec j3) 3= length

of the check in inches, 3 inches being the assumed thickness of a
course of bricks. The length of the check thus obtained may be either
adjusted so that each extremity of the impost coincides with the ex-
tremity of a check, or retaining the computed length of check, they
may be so placed on the impost that the springing shall take place at
the same elevation on botli sides of the arcli. After which if the
courses are properly gauged on the centre, and the course lines drawn
down to their respective checks, no mistake can arise in laying the
bricks.

Mr. Nicholson's rules however are not only very unnecessarily tedious,
but it would appear by liis own showing, that they are not over certain
in their results. In a note at the bottom of page 22, in reference to a
model made by the joint assistance of two masons, a joiner, and Nichol-
son's Guide to Railway Masonry, he says, "N.B. the model here alluded
to has only IG spiral courses, although 1" were intended. However,
the calculations in all the principal parts will remain the same." One
course too many in sixteen is not much certainly, but in these econo-
mising times it is just as well, considering that it is just as easy to
know before hand how many courses there are to be in a bridge. In
whatever way however the alteration of the number of courses was
produced, one thing is clearly showed by it, namely, the fallacy of his
assertion at page 7, respecting the necessity of having an uneven num-
ber of archstones iu the face.

As for all that part of his book which contains such problems as the
following, viz.: "Given the three sides of a triangle to construct the
triangle," and "from a given point near the middle of a straight line
to draw a perpendicular;" it is, to say the least of it, most arrant
twaddle. He might with equal propriety have added, given a pair of
compasses with a point at one leg and a pencil at the other, to describe
a circle.

However, I will say no more. For this time I have, as he observes,
"done with him;" and I hope enough has been said to show Mr.
Nicholson that his ideas have got a twist in their beds by ho means
adapted to skew-bridges, and that no species of brow-beating or in-

" The mode of obtaining the formula and construction is too long for in-
sertion in this letter, but 1 will supply it if required.

vective on his part will be of tlie slightest use to him, while his book
remains so very imperfect.

i am, Sir, your obedient servant,

\V. H. Barlow.
Drerelon, August 16, 1841.

CA.ST IRON TUBBING.

In the Mining Journal there are some useful communications on
Engineering Works connected with .Mining, from which we select the
following on "Tubbing of Shafts:" the first description is the applica-
tion of a cast-iron tub, for the stop[)ing back of water at Mardyke
Colliery, the property of the Irish .Mining Company, by Mr. Dunn, of
Newcastle-on-Tyne, the first attempt in Ireland. The colliery contains
two principal seams of coal, lying at an angle of one in three. The
upper one, lying at the depth of 22 fathoms, is exhausted; aixi in
order to win the second seam, at the depth of 30 fathoms farther, the
waters of the upper seam were required to be either pumped up to
the natural adit (12 fathoms from surface), or to be forced up to tliat

EYE SECTION
OFTUBBINa

SHAFT

EYE PROnLE OF STRATA AT MARDTKE
COLUERY.

CRIB
CRIB

point of discharge by tubbing. In order to give this project a fair
chance, a piece of fire-clay, lying below the first seam, was taken ad-
vantage of as a foundation, and the shaft was rounded out to ten feet
diameter. The base of tubbing is made to rest upon a pair of oaken
cribs, fitted closely to the fire-clay foundation, and wedged from behind
as long as ever a wooden wedge can be driven. This done, the cast-iron
tub begins to be built, consisting of cast iron segments, four feet long,
two feet high, and three-quarters of an inch thick, with a rectangular
flange all round, of three inches; between each of these segments are
placed half-inch (end ways) fir deal, wherein to wedge; the space be-
tween the segments and the rock is also stuffed with small stones, and
tightened with wood. The top of the segments was completed by a
wooden crib, which was stayed fast against the superincumbent rock,
and then the whole fabric underwent the most severe wedging so long
as any leak continued ; and, wdien finished, the shaft was laid perfectly
drv, with the feeder of water discharging out at the adit 12 fathoms
above, and the sinking of the shaft resumed perfectly dry. The pressure
against every square inch of the lower range of tubbing is equal to
two and a half atmospheres, or about 37 ft. per inch, and, taking the
average altitude at 3l) feet, the wdiole tub is sustaining a pressure of
about bl,2(J0 tons; and so complete is the job, that the sinking has
been since carried on without any pumping apparatus, whilst suiiicient
water is discharging at the adit as would give employment to a heavy
engine.

It is often found convenient to surmount these tubs
with a suthcient quantity of stone walling, to enable the
wedging to be made effective.
" Some years ago Mr. Dunn effected the "winning" of
b a shaft, 30 fathoms deep, at Castle Comer, in the same
', county, by means of a plauk tubbing, of JO fathoms in
5 length, constructed of three-inch planks, a, spiked
" against wooden cribs, *, and supported again by a range
' ot inside cribs, c, which were in their turn dead with
common d«>als ; this mode of stopping water was prac-
tised for many years previous to the invention of cast
iron tubbing.

IS4I.

THE CIVIL EXGIXEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURxVAL.

293

ACCOCXT of SOUE plans adopted is the north of EXGLiND OF
SINKING TUllOUGH QUICE-SAXD.

By EDWARD StaNi.ev, Engiueer, Sundprl;u)d.

When a "winning" numbers nmongst its contingencies an encoimier
with a formidable quicksand, tlie preparations are, or ought to be, well
digested as to power and appliances to overcome it. The viewer,
engineer, and master sinker, each in their respective departments,
take a retrospect of the means used on former occasions at other places,
selecting the improvements that each adopted from previous works,
which give every new " winning" an opportunity of ])rofiting by the
p-sperience of the past. Boring by rods having determineil the dis-
tance the sand is situated from the surficc, and also the thickness of
the sand previously ; this operation is re<iuisite, as the pit has to be
chambered or bevelled like the friistrum of a cone, for the purpose of
driving the spiling and laying criljs, each length and round in the
descent being within the previous one. Supposing, for instance, the
pit is 15 feet diameter, and the saiKi five fathoms, or 30 feet, in depth,
and the spiling and cribs averaging each sis inches thick, and the
length of the spiles six feet, it remain? now to examine what must be
the diameter of the base of the frustrum of the cone, bevelled out so
as to have the pit of sufBcient size at the bottom of the sand as to ad-
mit the metal tubbing, and preserve the size of the pit It will be, of
course, premised that in sis feet lengths it will require for the 30 feet,
five lengths ; if fewer lengths could be driven through the sand, the
less the frustrum of the cone bevelled out in the rock ; but long lengths,
when driven, if the deviation is small, are like the trifling inaccuracy
o( an angle, which, if produced, are a long way out at the far end ; it
is, therefore, advisable to keep the lengths short, and in the annexed
diagram are five. The five rounds of spiles and cribs, according to the
former dimensions, will take U(> 10 feet of the diameter of the pit.
We must add a clear space round at the surface of the sand, a a, of J8

Figl-

inches, which will add to the former diameter tliree feet, making it 13
feet. Further, we have to add the breadth of wedging crib, b b, cut
at the bottom, and the space between its outer circumference and the
lowest crib of the last spile, c c, together two feet each, wdiich, added
again to the 13 feet, makes 17 feet. This summary is the extra dia-
meter over and above that of the pit, which we took at 15 feet, which
gives 32 feet as the diameter of the base of Uie frustrum of the cone.

The height of this frustrum will depend upon the soundness of the
limestone in contact with the snnd. If not very sound, it must be car-
ried flirther up, both for the s ifety of the sinkers and efficiency of the

wedging crib at the top of the tub. Tlie str.itum of quicks.inil is
shown by the letters d d, and the snperiiicumbejit limestone, e t, the
top, or closing crib, //, and the metal tubbing, if «- ; the manner of
putting in which is by an intervening layer of deaUheathing, at the
vertical and horizontal joinings, and subsequent wedging, has already
been given in the Mining Journal. No lelters of reference are put to
the spiles and cribs, as they will easily be recognized, each spile hav-
ing three cribs, at a distance apart of'atxjut two f^et.

The following figure in perspective mav give a more general irlea
of the mode of spiling and cribing through 'the sand :— It will be per-
ceived that the spiles are

driven round the pit in the
sand, and considerable atten-
tion and care is required on
the first round — and the rea-
son is, that when it is accom-
plished, and the three cribs
inserted, the lust of these acts
as a guide for the circular in-
sertion and driving of the suc-
ceeding s.t. Tlie cribs are kept up in their proper position by cleats
or brackets (see fig.) till a suificient external pressure keep's them
tight. The spiles may be lighter near the surface of the sand if thought
proper, and increase in thickness in the succeeding lengths with the
(jressure, but some consideration should at the same time he made for
the large diameter requiring increased strength. It may, therefore,
be consider- d a prudent error to be too strong instead of too weak. A
bird's eye view of the spiling, when complete, presents in principle an
analogy to the elongation of a telescope.

It may appear paradoxical to a person unacquainted with the dis-
trict, to be told tliat the quicksand sometimes presents itself in the
form of a hard rook, requiring the liberal use of gunpowder to detach
it. This stone is very porous, through which immense quantities of
water filter, and which, by a continuous, running, increase the size of
the apertures, along which are at the same time conveyed a large
quantity of sand to the pit. This result is technically called "gutter-
ing," and, on any cessation of pumping, and consequent rising of the
Fi:j. 3. water, it increases to a great extent. As the

water is being drawn out of the pit, its reced-
ing from the gutters brings along with it sand,
and hence their enlargement.

The annexed fig. shows a gutter fallen on to
the limestone roof. At the bottom will be per-
ceived a stream proceeding from the far end,
having tributary ones from each side. These,
in some cases, keep filling up the liottom of the
pit with sand, nearly as fast as it can be sent to
bank. With a sand of this kind, the general
aim is, to keep the water always down if pos-
sible, for it has been found tha't its rising in-
variably increases this guttering, which proceeds
in long irregular chasms radiating from the
shaft.

As "spiling" cannot be driven under circumstances of this kind, the
cribbine- and lathing is put into the pit in sections, as shown in the
annexed fig., varying in depth according to circumstances, and as the

sand can be excavated. These sec-
tions, when t)ie round is complete,
are kept together vertically by hang-
ing deals, which are planks spiked
to the previous rounds, or if it be the
first round, to some suitable provision
in the shaft; external pressure soon
binds them horizontally. In some
cases the sand becoraes'soft towards
the bottom, and the sections are
abandoned for spiling.
The foregoing details are enumerations of the resources hitherto
applied, which appear, and, indeed, have been found in practice to
answer best. In cases of difficulty, parties having works of this kind
in hand are frequently favoured with friendly suggestions, the most
popular of which appears to be the suspension of a cylindrical iron
vessel, of proper diameter, which it is proposed to lower and lengthen
at the top a-s the excavation proceeds. This suggestion has certainly
feasibility about if, though it is said to have originated from an ama-
teur.

The present article may not inaptly close with a brief notice of tlie
Datton "winning," which is going on slowly but suiely. The most
determined and persevering spirit is shown by the owners fXIessrs. T.
R. G. Braddyll and Co.), and the viewer. The outlay of money is im-

204

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

rSEPTEMBEK

mense, and the conviction is, that the colliery will be eventually " won."
The engine power is ample, cancelling accidents, which have not been
frequent. The settling of the sand on the bucket on one occasion was
so dense as to be the means of lifting a column of 33 fathoms, of 22-
inch pumps, by the spears on the starting of the engine. The sand is
hard, and the feeder flowing principally from the south, has occasioned
great delay and expense by guttering. Fig. 4 is a representation of
the wooden segments that are being put in to get through the sand
previous to metal tubbing, which is now about half penetrated. The
liberality and public spirit of the owners deserves the most complete
success, which all parties earnestly wish may be the case.

Another "winning" is now being made at Shotton, belonging to the
Haswell Company, under the manigement of Mr. Thomas Foster, where
the quicksand is very nearly arrived at. Should " any thing fresh" be
brought into play at this place, either in getting through the sand, or
the surface arrangements, it will appear in the Journal, with suitable
illustrations, so far as it cau be done without injury to the proprietors.

DREDGE'S SUSPENSION BRIDGES.

Sir — May I request the favour that the following remarks (on an
snonymous communication, signed G. F. F., which appeared in your
last Journal), may be inserted in your next.

The curve of a taper chain either connected or unconnected with
the platform, is not a catenary, but one of very different properties;
it might be easily demonstrated, but let that pass — for your corres-
pondent makes as great a mistake in regard to the action of the oblique
suspending rods in connection with the chains, and which is the only
part of his letter I shall notice.

Fig- 1- Let ABC represent a portion

A of the cliain of a suspension

"t _JE bridge, B D an oblique suspend-

g- — "- ing rod having the same incli-
nation with the horizon as that
portion of the chain BA; then
C, the centre of the bridge. will the strain upon B D, and of
course upon B A, be proportional to the secant of the angle D A makes
with the horizon, and there being no resolution of forces from the
point B, there can be no tension in the direction BC.

Fig- 2. Again, put ABC part of the chain

A of a common suspension bridge, B A

c B____— forming the same angle with the

I horizon as A D did in the former

curve ; then will the strain in the
direction B A be proportional to the
C, centre of the bridge. secant of the angle which it makes

with the horizon (or the same as before), but by a resolution offerees,
there would be a tension in the direction B C, Ot as the radius, which
tension must be borne by a sufficient quantity of iron, and that iron
causing a strain on the curve Ot as the secant of the angle B A makes
with the horizon.

I shall take no further notice of this anonymous communication, but
if your correspondent wishes further information, he must affix his
name to his next letter, and then be careful what he says, for though
the diagram he shows is totally different from the form proposed, his
demonstration if carried out, would only tend to support that principle
he is attempting to refute, and the several structures either in course
of, or about to be erected in various parts of the kingdom, will at once
silence every futile objection that can be raised against it.
I remain, Sir, your humble obedient servant,

J. Dredge.
Bath, August IG, 1841.

P.S. I would refer your readers vrho may be interested in this sub-
ject, to the drawings wliich have appeared in your Journal, and they
will at once perceive that there is not the slightest similitude between
them and that represented by your correspondent in the last cumber.

*** We know not what right Mr. Dredge has to make the insinua-
tion which he has done in the above letter, with regard to an "anony-
mous communication." The article of G. F. F., was written without
the slightest taint of presumption or slur upon Mr. Dredge's invention,
it was a fair scientific enquiry into its merits, and such a one as every
Inventor must be ready to encounter, if ho be desirous of introducing
to the scientific world any new form or invention. For the puriioses
of free and open discussion, we do not see the necessity of corres-
pondents giving their names— and we shall leave it to G. F. F. to re-
ply to Mr. Dredge's remarks. — Editor.

ON THE TRANVERSE STRAIN OF BEAMS.

By Herdert Spencer, C. E.

The following paper is an outline of a new system of investigating
the laws of the transverse strain, differing from the usual method, in
as much as it depends solely upon the position of the neutral axis. "The
results as here given, will probably not be considered sufficiently con-
cise for practical application; but they are published in the hope
that something useful may be elicited.

Fig. 1.

1. Let A B C D be a piece of timber, subject to the transverse strain
in the direction shown by the arrow ; and let P P' be assumed as the
plane of fracture, and N the position of the neutral axis. Take any
line P' R,to represent the resistance to fracture of all the fibres in the
bottom lamina, then by the theory of the lever, if N, R, be joined, and
any line be drawn parallel to P' R, and terminated by N P', and N R,
it will represent the relative effect of all the fibres in its latitude, and
therefore the whole triangle N P' R, will denote the resistance to
fracture of all the fibres in tension. In the same manner, a triangle
NFS may be assumed, which shall represent the resistance of all
the fibres in compression.*

2. Now the mode of action of the fibres in resisting the force im-
pressed, involves the necessity of the equilibrium of the compressive
and tensive resistances, about the transverse line through N, that is
the neutral axis ; for suppose a saw-gate made down the line P N as
far as N, and the force to be then applied ; a deflection will immedi-
ately take place, and the surfaces of the opening will come into close
contact. Carrying out the idea it would appear, that the deflection
would continue, until the resistance to compression in the upper por-
tion P N of the plane of fracture, is equal to the resistance to tension
in the lower portion; or that in the uncut beam, the neutral axis ar-
ranges itself so that these forces are in equilibrium.

As it is this theory upon v/hich all that follows depends, and which
if disproved, will invalidate the succeeding calculations, it may be well
to give a further illustration.

Fig. 2.

Let A B C D be a piece of wood as before, subject to transverse
strain, and let E F and G H be the planes of fracture; (the diagram
being necessarily greatly exaggerated to make the action clear) draw
the arrows K, and O, perpendicular to E F, and L, and M, perpendicular
to G H; then K, and L, will represent the direction of tlie resistances
of certain fibres to compression, and M, and O, those of the resistances
of other fibres to tension ; (the forces extending the fibres are acting
from H towards B, and from F towards C, and the resistances will ob-
viously be in the reverse directions) — now K, and O, being perpendi-

* This theorem affords a simple demonstration, that the strength varies as
the square of the depth ; for if the depth be increased, (the neutral axis re-
maining constant) so that N P' becomes N P", the original supposition being
carried out, the triangle N P" R' will denote the new tensive resistance ; but
the triangle N P" K, is to the triangle N P' R, as (N P")= to (N P')- ; that is
the resistance of the fibres in tension, varies as the depth square, and the
same will be true of those in compression.

1841.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

295

cular to E F are parallel, aud the same may be said of L, and M ; hence
if produced they will form a parallelogram, and the resultant diagonal
of K, and L, will be equal, and in the opposite direction to that of M,
and O ; that is, the forces will be in equilibrium ; but if K, and L, be
greater than M, and O, their resultant diagonal will also be greater,
and motion must ensue, that is such a state of things cannot exist.
And what is true of these single forces, will be true of the forces of
all the fibres collectively ; or the resistances to compression and ten-
sion will be equal. It may be said that this explanation, involves the
necessity of the centre of motion N, being midway between the con-
tending forces, and that that does not obtain, in the case in point; but
this does not prevent its application, for the resistances to tension
though exercised nearer to the neutral axis, are greater in amount, so
that the effect is practically the same.

3. The position of the neutral axis therefore, depends upon the ra-
tio between the tensive and compressive resistances of the material,
and by the application of the above principle, with the necessary data,
its situation may be found. The nest step will be to develop the
general expression for obtaining it in simple cases.

Let A B C D be a transverse sec-
♦ •ou of a rectangular beam ; assume
N as the middle of the neutral axis,
and through it draw the central line
E F, and in F C take any line F L, to
represent the resistance of all the
fibres in the line B C ; join N L, and
the triangle X L F will denote the
resistance of all the fibres in tension.
Make N G, equal to N F, and draw
GH perpendicular to it, and let GH,
be to F L, as the resistance to com-
pression, is to the resistance to ten-
sion in the material in question; join
N H, and produce it to K, then the
triangle NEK will represent the re-
sistance of all the fibres in compression, and will consequentlv he equal
to the triangle N F L. Let .r equal X F, the distance of the neutral
axis from the bottom ; take d for the depth, and let/) and q stand for
F L and G H respectively ; that is, let them denote the tensive and

A.

Fig. 3.

n

B

U C

compressive resistances.

Now by similar triangles N G : G H : : N E

or.r : y : : d — x : EK,orEK = ?i^m^,

X
q {d—x)

EK,

(,d — x) X

= area of triangle NEK; and ■

of triangle N F L; hence we have the equation.

px q {d — J")^

2x

OT p .

q(,d — x)'

, hence p x^

d ■ — 2 dx -\- x". dividing by x'-,

p _d^

:q{d — xY- or ^x'-

1

•2 — \-\ and extracting root
d

+ 1

(10

4. The application of the principle to the common form of girder,
i» the next case that suggests itself.

Fig. 4.

d:..:

/

>!i

Let A B C D E F G H be the section, assume X to be the midde of
the neutral axis, and through it draw the central line K L, and in the
line E O, take a line M E, to represent the resistance to fracture of all
the fibres between E, and O, and for the sake of convenience, let M E
be equal to half E O ; join X E, X F, and let N F, and H G, produced,
meet in P.

Make N Q, equal to N M, and draw Q R perpendicular to it, and let
Q R, be to M E, as the compressive resistance in cast iron, is to the
tensive resistance ; join N R, and produce it to S, and as T S ; T D,
so make T U : T C ; join X U, and let X U, and AB, produced, meet
in V.

Then in accordance with the principles as applied in the last case,
the figure N L P F E, will represent the resistance to fracture, of all
the fibres below the neutral axis ; and the figure X S U V K, the re-
resistance of all those above, and these will be equal.

Xow let .r = N L the distance of the n. a. from the bottom.

d = the whole depth.
d' = depth of top flange,
rf" =: depth of bottom flange.
b = breadth of top flange.
J' := ditto of middle rib.
h" = ditto of bottom flange.
And as before, let/) and q represent M E and Q R respectively.

;; h"*

p^

b' p b" X

or L P ^= 37r= rr, jHI- Therefore the area of the figure

X — d b' (x—a) ^

X LP F E will be represented by,

Then N M : M F

XX'

NL : LPor.r-(i"

.r : LP

pb"

p b" X

Pi^-d") , ^„ ( V +b' {x-~d")\
o— ^-d \ 2 ^ =

pjx-f^) p_drjr_ / X X

2 ^ 2 6' ^ V Kx—d") )

Again, asNQ :QR::NT .TS,

thatisar — rf" : 5 t : d — d' — x : T S,

q (d — d' — x)

or T .S :

X — d"

ButTD : TS : : TC : TUoro : 'J('^—^^'—^^ • • ^' • TU

X — d" h'

b p q (d — d' — x)

h' (x~d") _ bq (d — d' — x)_
p ~ b' {x-^dn

And N T : T U : : N K : K V or

, „ b a (d — d' — X)

d—d'~x : -i-}~- — -—--!■ : : d—x : kv,

b' (X — d") '

that is T U ;

hence K V =

bq (d—d' — x) . (d — x)

b'(x — d") _bq(d—x)

d — d' — x b'(x — d"y
And the area of the figure X S U V K, will therefore be represented by
d-d'-xXg(d-d'-x) , , /Q(d-d'-x) bq(d-x)
2 x-d'' + '^ y b'(x-d") +b'(x-d" j

* As ^ represents the resistance of all fibres between 0 and E ; T7,will

denote that of all those between W and F; and (— -; ) that is — , will

e.tpress the multiple, that the number of fibres between W and F. is of the
number between 0 and E, and ifju equal the resistance of fibres between O

and E, then p x 77- will equal that of all fibres between W and F. It is ne-
cessary that the quantity should be put in this form, instead of the simple
fraction , in order that the value of L P, should involve the term (p).
t The last note explains this also.

200

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[September,

But, area N L F F E = area N S U \' K
Hence we liave the equation,

p(.r-d"^ pd"b" / .r \_q(d-d'-
2 ^ + -2^^ V+ ^^-d"))-^'2-(^

qd' bdd—lx — d')

d' — 'Y

2 6' (X
qd' b(2d—2T

■d")

dy-+t^x

■d')

{x — d")/ 2(x — d")
And multiplying by 2 (j- — d"),

+

(.r— i" + j) =g(d—d' — xr- +

p b' {x—d"y +p d"b" (2 x—d") —

q b' {d—d' — xY + 5 (/' 6 (2 d — 2 x — d').

Ex|)anding tlie squares we have
;, b' (j>^ — 2d"x-\-d"^)^p b" d" (2x — d") = qb' (d^ + d'- + x'+
2d' x — 2dd' —2d x) + qd' b(2d—2 x—d'), or

p b' X' ~2 p b' d" X -i- p b' d"^ + 2 p b" d" x—p b" d"^ =

V 6' (d'- + d" —2 d d')-\-q h' a^ + 2 q V d' x — 2q U d x +

V d' b (2 d—d') — 2qd' b x.
And by transposition,

(pb' — >i U) .r2 + (2 p b" d" — 2p b' d" -\--2i b' d — 2 'j b' d' +
2 V d' b) x=p b" d"^—p b' d"'' + q b' {d'-\-d"' — 2 d d') +
1/ d' h (2d—d'),

lience .r' +

2(pd" {!/'-

■b')+g!>' (.d — d') + qd'i)^_

p d'—qb'
p d'" (b" — b') + q [V (d—d'Y + d' b (2 d—d')-\

p //—qd'

Ami comi)leting the square, extracting the root, &c., we have

•»■ =A / lpd"Hi'" — i^) + 9li''(d — d'y+d'b(2d-d')],

'V \ pb' — q^ ^

(

■pd^ (i" — yj + qb' (d—d') + qd'6Y \

pb' — qb'

)

J

(^.)

Fig-
Q

a.

pd" (b" — b') + q V {d— d') +qd' b
p b' — qV

And thus we obtain tlie situation of the neutral axis. It must be
admitted that the equation is rather forbidding in appearance, but the
reductiiiu of the value of x, will not be found so tedious as may at
first be imagined, since the quantities are simple, and the same com-
binations often repeated.

5. Assuming that N L, the dis-
tance from the centre of the neutral
axis, to the bottom of the girder,
has been found by equation 2 ; ue
shall at once be able to determine
the dimensions of a rectangular
beam, whose strength shall be equal
to that of the girfler.

The figure being constructed as
before, produce N L to O, and N E
to P, and let O P be drawn at right
angles to N O, the distance L O
being supposed to be such, that
tlie area of the figure M E P ( ), may
be eqmd to that of the figure
I . '■" M L G F, and consequentlv, that

;': ; \ the triangle N O F, and the figure

I ; i \ K L G F E, may have equal areas.

■: i I \ ^ince therefore the area XLGFE,

"o P which represents the resistance to

fracture of that portion of the gir-
der below the neutral axis, is equal
to the triangle N O P, which will
indicate the resistance of the middle rib, produced to an imafinarv
point O : by finding the distance L O, we shall obtain the dimension's
of a simple rectangular rib, having a strength equivalent to that of the
portion of the girder b^:l(Av the neutral axis N.

i

Let the known distance N L, be represented by (aj, and L O by (j),
and the other dimensions remain as before.

h" a i"

Tliena-i": ^ : : a : LGorLG = j^^— ^^.

and d" | ^ ^ ;,, J = area of figure M L G F.

\ 2 2 (a — d )/

2~

A' b' (a + .r)

Again.a-d" : - •. : a+x : O P or O P = ^^£^J.

b' , b' (a-j-x)
And {x + d")Xf^2'^ 2 (a — d") )= ="■«=! of ^S^^^ M E P O,
V 2 ^

henc^, by the construction we have the equation,

^'(t+4^^"))=(^ + '^'^x {l + U^=d^)

d" b'

"*Vij__?_\ f' C' + d") /, , a + ^\

4-V +^"^^7" 4— (.l + ^TTj^J

Multiplying by 4 (o — d") we have,

d" b" (a^d" + a)z=z b- (xJf-d") ■/. (a — d" + a + x)
or, d"b"(2a—d")=^b'(x+d")X (2a + '^ — d"),
and, d" b" (2 a — d") = V (x' + 2 ax -^2 ad" — d'--)
d"b"(2a — d")

bence,

b'

= j^ + 2 a x + 2 a d" — d"

by transposition, — ■ +(f"- — 2 ad" z:z x' + 2 a j,

completing the square, ^^- +d"' — 2ad" + a'h:^i' + 2ax + a'

extracting the root, x + a-= ^ / L " •* ^ (^11 (^y

or. No^^'^-^-cy-g^T^^ri^. ,3.)

The points Q and R, having been assumed in the same manner as O
and P, we shall have the proportion, O P : Q R ; ; ^ ; y,
and as the triangles X Q R, Is' O P, are equal,

O K ; N Q inversely as pio ^
_p>i ON

that is, N Q :

and the whole depth, O Q = N O +

/' X K O

(4.)

It will be seen therefore, that by applying the equation No. 2, to
ascertain the position of the neutral axis, and subsequently Nos. 3 and
4, we obtain the depth of an imaginary rectangular beam, havii»g the
same thickness as the middle rib, whose strength shall be equal to that
of the girder, thus bringing us within the reach of the usual formuki.

It may be as well to repeat the remark made at the commeneement,
that this system is not proposed for (iractical application in ccmro< n
cases; the essay being merely intended, as an exposition of another
mode of viewing the action of the transverse strain, and as affording a
means, should the principles be found correct, of testing the accuracy
of the common approximate methods.

Derby, Augmt 11, 1S41.

Pacific Stcnm Nafieaiion. — Extract of a letter rcceiVcil by the Directors of
tlictompany from Mr. W'heelw ligh;, ilated Lima, April 28. 1841 .— '• Cap;aiu
Peacock arrived here en Saturday, the 24ih. liaving consumed nothing I'Ut
Cliili coal diirinL' the voyage :— his calculations have Icon most beautifully
carried out, for he li.is not Lean 15 moments out of his time, on arriving at
and sailing from each port in the voyage, from Talcahuano to this place, a
distance of nearly l.TCO miles: and it affords me p'casurc to remark, that his
zeal in the cause of the Company merits the highest praise. His ship is.
am happy to state, well regulated with a due regard to economy, and tlie
several departments are most judiciously arranged.'"

1841.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

297

CANDIDUS'S NOTE-BOOK.
FASCICULUS XXX.

" I must have liberlv
AVidinl, as large a charter as the winas,
To blow on whom I please."

I. It is a most fortunate circumstance tliat the Croakers, and
Screech-owl school of philosophers, both contratUct each other, and
are contradicted by experience ; else we should have a most woful
time of it, were we to pay attention to all their notable advice in re-
gard to the hygehie regimen of architecture. At one time the public
—at least the nervous public — are scared by being told that St. James'
Park is the seat of malaria, and by being made to believe that Queen
Victoria actually dwells in the midst of pestilence, although she does
so only metaphorically, like all sovereigns, amid the moral malaria of
a court. Next come the ventilation folks, who would fain persuade
us that we are now all suffocating ourselves in rooms whose atmosphere
is incapable of supporting animal life, owing to our present defective
modes of construction. And indeed were the atmosphere in our houses
as oppressive and suffocating as their doctrines, it would be so deadly,
that I question if any sort of ventilation could correct it — except it were
the ventilation occasioned by a hearty laugh. It was certainly a very
great piece of presumption on the part of the Old-Londoners to pre-
Bume to exist, as they did, cooped up in narrow lanes and alleys, where
the different stories of the houses, projected over each other, so that
the occupiers of the garrets could Pyramus-and-ThMe with their
opposite neighbours. No less impertinent is it that even nowadays,
people will presume to fancy they can contrive to exist huddled to-
gether in the cabin of a steamer, in an atmosphere reeking with frowsi-
ness ! — and sleeping in boxes, not very much bigger than — and certainly
not so well aired as, an ordinary dog-kennel. Did I wish to set up a
fussy doctrine of my own, I should say that sea-sickness is chiefly oc-
casioned by the horrible agglomeration of impurity condensed between
the decks of a ship. Nevertheless instead of keeping quietly at home
in their own comfortable rooms, many people are seized every season
■with a desperate fit of fidgetiness, until they can regale themselves
with fresh air in a steamer, and squeeze themselves into poking little
rooms in crowded lodging-houses, peopled from Cockney-Land, in a
place that looks just like a suburb of it. — Well if the Ventilation folks
can frighten them a bit, they may so far do good. If too, their doc-
trine be worth anything, an act ought to be passed making it a cogniza-
ble offence, for any one to get a genteel squeeze, especially if their
"saloons," as the newspapers call them, consist of no more than two
ordinary-sized upstair parlours, with a little cabin beyond them, made
to perform the part of Boudoir — for that 'night only'. As for that, it
matters very little how many or how spacious the rooms themselves
may be, if more persons are to be crammed and jammed into them
than their area can well contain ; for it is no less absurd to attempt to
pour a gallon into a quart mug, than a quart into a pint one. " Was

not the squeeze, last night at 's actually insupportable ?" was a

question once asked, and produced the following reply : "It was, in-
deed, tremendous, but not insupportable, since the gentlemen sup-
ported the ladies, and the ladies supported the gentlemen."

II. Though th'i first has been a long one, I must give a second act to
the farce of Ventilation. If the Terrifiers be in the right, ought not
all under-ground kitchens, servants' halls and other rooms, to be strictly
prohibited? — or does it not matter whether the High-Life-below-
stairs part of the creation are suffocated or not ? We are told that
those whose avocations compel them to be chiefly in the open air, are
proportionable healthier than others; and in proof of this we are per-
haps referred to the striking difference between a ploughman, and a
weaver; — a gamekeeper ranging about the woods, and a tailor doomed
to sit all day upon the piece of wood called his shop-board. In all
such arguments the stress is laid exclusively upon the single circum-
stance that happens to make for it. Here, the difference is attributed
entirely to air, — to exercise, diet, &c., nothing. Should a tailor chance
to drink himself into his grave, the "Ventilators " would seize upon him
—not exactly after the fashion of body-snatchers, — but as an instance of
the deplorable consequences of the want of fresh air. Well but put
exercise to fresh air, and good appetite and its wherewithal, to them
both, and they achieve wonders. — Yet, your jolly, jovial, foxhunter
dies at the venerable age of forty, while some poor feeble, sickly,
bookworm who immureshimself almost constantly within his study, out-
lives another foxhunting generation, keeping among the living for four-
score years. — It is unnecessarv to repeat so well known an anecdote as
that of Fontenelle's "slow poison;" — which, by the by, is only one of

the slow poisons which certain ingenious gentlemen have from time
to time invented for the laudable purpose of alarming their neigh-
bours. I remember once reading an awful medical invective against
carpets, — the general use of which was said to have rendered people
less healthy and long-lived than their ancestors who were unacquainted
with such foolish luxuries. Yet I make no question but that the Doc-
tor himself had his rooms carpetted, as well as his neighbours.

III. The author of the World of London, in Blackwood's Magazine,
speaking of the building at the corner of Downing-street, observes
that it is by " Sir John Soane, of Baeotian celebrity, who, together with
Nash, has done so much to deprave our metropolitan taste in archi-
tecture, that another invasion of the Goths and Vandals were more to
be desired than deplored." Indeed it is truly wonderful, and not a
little scandalous also that two such Bseotians as Soane and Nash should
have obtained fat-headed patronage to the extent they did, and been
permitted to play their tasteless and extravagant pranks, while John
Bull paid the piper. Both of them were acldicted to the expensive
practice of experimentalizing with their buildings, constructing, pull-
ing down again, and reconstructing afresh, as if alterations of that kind
cost no more time or money than they would have done in a drawing.
Such was notoriously the case with Buckingham Palace, such too was
it with the Downing Street edifice, which after all is unfinished, and
doomed never to be finished, it having been commenced so Bsotianly
and bunglingly that it caimot possibly be continued Northwards with-
out either being twisted, or else projected into the street, so as to
extend across the foot-pavement. Tlierefore it is likely to remain as
long as it lasts, in statu quo, — a monument of its architect's taste, and
his great affection for the "scored pork" style, and likewise of his
extraordinary ingenuity, the entablature being most artfully contrived
to block up a series of raezzannie windows just behind, and separated
from it merely by an interval of three or four inches. It is lucky for
Soane that this fault has escaped the notice of his friend Gammon,
who has just found out what he might have discovered many years ago
that Soanean Gothic is very so-soish stuff. But poor little Gammon's
esteem for Soane, has steamed itself quite away, and is now utterly
evaporated.

rV. One of the least exceptionable samples of Soane's taste is the
basement of the State Paper Office, St. James' Park, where he has in-
troduced a rather novel mode of rustication, which is at once rich and
sober in effect. There are also one or two other good points about
that building, although as a whole it is not particularly happy. It
appears to be no more than a private house, and even as such by no
means a large one. Most certainly there is nothing whatever in the
exterior to indicate, or even remotely suggest for what particular pur-
pose the building was erected. In regard to Soane's works generally,
it is somewhat remarkable that they have been so very little noticed
by foreigners, either for approbation or the contrary. The venerable
architect's affection or appetite for his "scored pork" was so inordi-
nate, that he did not scruple at times to employ that singular species
of decoration even internally.

HINTS ON ARCHITECTURAL CRITICISM.— Part 1.

It is a very delicate thing to insist on primary principles, when the
very suggestion that a knowledge of those principles is necessary,
seems almost like a whisper of insult. Thus, to intrude with aa
alphabet for the critic, in an age when men have grown grey in criti-
cism, becomes scarcely pardonable ; — nay it would be almost dangerous,
but for the suggestive attitude the writer would assume, in pleading
anew those elemental truths, by which alone the critic can arrive at
an equitable conclusion. If therefore, out of regard perhaps for one
or two, (who have viewed the vision of Palladio's family with horror,
as if the harmless race of a Banquo had been passing in review,) I
draw for a httle a veil upon the past to introduce a new subject, and
appear on a new scene, tlie spectator must judge me mildly ; for I am
no literary coxcomb, pufling myself into notice, but anxious, — deeply
anxious, to remove some of those weeds, which entangle around to
choke the beautiful flowers of a still more beautiful art.

The subject of consideration, is criticism, which, like politics, be-
trays many currents of opinion, and many hostile enthusiasts.

It is right that there be enthusiasm, for without it art would slumber,
but it is also right that every persuasive argument be adduced, to free
the mind from certain prejudices, which lead the enthusiast astray;
and it is a commendable task, to try at turning these various currents
of opinion into one deep channel, the original source of which shall
be " truth." — This preface must suflice. I am satisfied after this at-
tempt at beckoning the attention towards what I would present, to
leave it to the reader to judge, whether I quibble merely for indefinite

2 S

2ns

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

^S

E P T E M B E R ,

purposes, or strive with tbe noble and the proud aim of ameliorating
my country's art.

First, «liat is criticism ? — Criticism is a brancli of polite science,
and wlien found in union with art becomes an index to its position.
From this arises its importance. It is also a court, where the several
disputes of art are brought to issue, and upon the decisions of which
the public opinion stands : hence arises its influence. The foundation
of its laws, is based on sense, imagination, and judgment, as the three
natural powers it attempts to move. Its laws of adjudication vary
according to the claims of art, and according to the nature of appeal;
and from the labour necessary to frame these laws, and to apply them,
is inferred the necessity of their adoption. An appeal to ihe judg-
ment of criticism, is based upon plausibility, and implies public assent
to certain principles; these however, critics as counsel in the social
contentions of art, quarrel upon, whilst the judge "nature" sits to dis-
entangle and apply them. The arguments vary first, according to the
art, and secondly, accordingly to the nature of its claim, — its claims
being always in the shape of some emotion, (emotion being the aim of
the affecting arts) the fitness, or unfitness of which, for the present is
immaterial. The institution of the court itself, is founded upon pre-
sumed error, as implying an uncertain acquaintance with those laws,
which are the philosophy of our taste. It follows then, in order to
meet the wisdom of such an institution, that the principles which de-
tect the propriety, or expose the error of appeal, should be free from
arbitrary application. It is first then, upon the necessity of a judgment
in matters of art, secondly, — upon the required clearness of the laws
of judgment, and, thirdly, upon the arbitrary interpretation of those
laws, which interpretation, I for the present assume to exist, that I am
induced to throw out a few hints on criticism, which I hope will be
received by the reader with a politeness due to the subject, however
in exhibiting this politeness, he may disguise a dislike to what may
appear officious interference in the writer. However these hints may
be generally received, the man of correct taste knows that it is not an
irrational task, to dissect those principles which aid us, or ought to
aid us, as we either feel or affect a love for the great examples of art.
He knows that about architectural excellence there is an air of mys-
tery : so that without any implied reproach upon the elegance of any
choice hitherto made, or which may be made, he would prefer our
being guided by principle, rather than by instinct, in our search after
the beautiful, and that instead of wrangling over fragments, like beasts
over carcases, he would choose an explanation of the real basis of
choice, of which a noble profession cannot be ashamed. The very
circumstance of our choice being a habit, requires that some eftbrt be
made to enlarge and unfetter the mind, so that by infusing into it those
ideas which are the very key to effective design, we may stand in
rivalry with the ancients; — adopting if we please their beauties, but
adopting them from choice, not from necessity.

I feel strongly on the subject, because it is so important that archi-
tecture should rank amidst the poetic arts, and that the attainment to
architectural excellence, shall be only by the acknowledged effort of
genius. 1 feel strorgly too, because I conceive it is owing to our nega-
tive character as artists, and our supine imitation, that critics rise no
higher in their views. The architect of original bent, feels the in-
competency of ordinary men to discuss his claims : a critic in his idea,
being a man who has only read through Creasy or Stewart, or if learned
in Christian architecture, has his dictionary of reference only in some
convenient examples. He is unfamiliar with the man of that severe
yet elegant mind whose opinion he covets. He has been deceived in
fancying architecture an art, where conception, the inseparable com-
panion of genius, might alight. The root of the defect at once ap-
pears in criticism, which is confined to certain laws inimical to inven-
tion. The evil of this criticism is, that it limits that range of mind
which every other poetic art allows, and is either founded on a pre-
sumption against the poetry of the art, or against the ability of its
students. If in the former ground it is inconsistent, because that com-
bination of parts, with the ancients so fortuitous, being deemed by
many the monopolist of beauty, shows an argument then against the
poetry of the art, for poetry is confined to no set disposition of forms.
If on the latter ground it is a libel upon the genius of our nation, and
stagnates by its mean policy, those eflbrts which might introduce fresh
beauties amongst us. I admit that our rules are protective, and ex-
clude many incongruities; but would it not be more honourable to
make the antique amenable only to fresh creations ? very possible if as
artists we catch the spirit of oui masters. It being evident then, that
our art for inventive beauty is far behind the other arts, with which it
claims sisterhood, and that however good this claim to equality may
be, it does not appear either from the pen of the critic, or the example
of the architect, to be so dignified; it follows, as a natural consequence,
that to maintain this kindred claim, there should be shown a similarity
of laws, by which the composition is governed, and by which the emo-

tions are engaged : it follows too, if this be the case, that then, our
laws of criticism are erroneous, or capricious, being essentially at
variance with those of other arts.

In watching the progress of a design, in either art, to its completion,
that is in observing that anatomy of thought out of which the com-
position is formed, we may perceive a relationship existing, although
we do not yet admit its existence. We read an able critique upon
poetry, music, sculpture or painting, and the mind responding with
ready fidelity to truth, becomes at once conscious that it hears in that
criticism, but the echo of its own suggestions : but architectural criti-
cism we do not feel in this way, and purely because its compositions
are not criticized on the same ground, the mechanical being ever
judged as in partial skirmish with the poetical. Architecture how-
ever, is not more mechanical than the other arts, for the conception
which occupies the brain of the poet, or the painter, can onlv acquire
a correct and tangible shape by a process of adjustment. Calculation
enters into the design; associations are dwelt upon ; and the senti-
ment which is to appear is only featured by a careful arrangement.
Music, amidst all its sweetness and harmony, has its mechanism. The
rush of chords, the softer modulation, independent of tbe art, which,
if I may so speak, can embody for the ear its anticijjations, is but the
sale of a passion, or a sentiment, shaped and tutored in the mind, with
reference to situation, circumstance, time and probability. Each art
is alike too in its finished performances : they are so many appeals to
the mind through the senses; music, through the ear, sculpture, paint-
ing, and architecture through the eye, poetry through the eye and ear,
and it is upon this beautiful and exquisite web of sensation, that the
power of art moves. But supposing that architecture be equally with
the other arts, a mirror where the eye can seek objects, which the
mind may enjoy, a barrier intrudes itself at once, in the shape of that
word, "taste," (which like the ghost of Junius assumes a variety of
shapes) to make it doubtful after all, whether there can be shown
common grounds, upon which the feelings are moved. It will be ne-
cessary then, to define this word " taste," because if this be unex-
plained, we may be only right by chance.

It has been deemed a fruitless task, to reconcile to a principle the
varying opinions current upon the same object in arts, each of which
is termed the opinion of taste, because of the different degrees of
sensibility and imagination found in different minds, and because it
has been observed, that the same object, which is viewed carelessly
by one man, fills another man with exquisite delight. Strange as these
differences may appear, they are all to be traced to one source. The
taste of a man which is a progressing principle, receives its perfect
development only from time. Taste which in infancy is mere sense,
becomes improved as imagination and reason blend to assist it. —
Taste resulting not from a simple idea, but from the union of reason
and imagination, varies then not according to that chance inseparable
from a simple notion, but according to tlie effort of the imagination
and the exercise of the judgment, the latter quality of the mind being
a determinable thing, whose degree of ability is proportioned to the
attention and care bestowed. Imagination too, though a power ex-
tremely elastic, resembles when engaged with architecture, either
more or less that faculty we denominate "taste," for its essential
power then lies in tracing resemblances, and it is either perfect or ad-
vancing towards perfection, according to the degree cf judgment in
simultaneous exercise. Thus taste is subject to degree, and according
to this degree of taste in different individuals, we find the degree of
refined pleasure which a work of art produces. Taste which is a
habit is therefore imperfect taste, because inimical to progression.
Hence habit which is the origin of our views in a great measure, may
explain the source of our arcTiitectural taste.

Independently of this definition of taste, and the grounds of its sup-
port, there is a further difficulty attendant upon its application to
architecture, from the circumstance of there being little or no direct
appeal to the sympathies, which the painter, the poet, and the sculptor,
so powerfully affect, and which the rudest mind intuitively feels, with-
out previous study, to acquaint him with the source of his emotion.
This is one reason why public opinion varies so much ; men untaught,
with their judgments unassisted, feeling that emotion is the object of
the art, are precipitated into hasty conclusions, just because their
sympathies cannot be awakened. A correct taste in architecture is
more difficult than in any other art, because the ideal resemblances
aflecting the mind are more remote : and this is the reason why the
taste is pleased by figures, pictures, statues or striking ornaments, to
the prejudice very often of a taste strictly architectural : — the mind
being conducted towards familiar objects.

The essential difference between architecture and the other poetic
arts, consists then in this suggestive character, whilst the poetry it ex-
hibits, appears in expression, attitude, or relative position. It has
however, all the attributes of the other arts at command, and which it

1841.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

299

makes subsidiary ; and tluis its claims to criticism are as strong and
as important, as tlie noble art of the painter, or the sculptor. Having
then endeavoured to state that architecture is equal to the other arts,
in its claims to liberjl criticism, I shall reserve it for my next to show
the origin cf its eflects upon the mind, by a definition of that faculty,
inherent in us, by which we extract emotion from attitude, proportion
and position, even when these three essentials have no counterpart in
nature.

Frederick East.
August, 1S41.

ENGINEERING WORKS OF THE ANCIENTS, No. S.

DiONYSius of Halicaniassus who lived in the time of Augustus, is
the next author who contributes to our series, having extracted from
his Roman Antiquities the following accounts of Roman works.

BRIDGE OVER THE TIBER.

Ancus Marcius, the 4th King of Rome (B. 3, ch. H,) is said to have
been the first who built over the Tiber the famous wooden bridge,
which is considered as sacred. It must only be made of wood, and
neither iron nor copper may be used in it. When any damage occurs
it is the duty of the pontitfs to see to the repair, and to perform cer-
tain sacrifices prescribed by law during the progress of the-works.

Ancus Marcius greatly enlarged the city of Rome, and built the port
of Ostia at the mouth of the Tiber.

Tarquinius Priscus, the 5th King TB. 3, ch. 20), built the walls of
Rome of large squared stones, and commenced the sewers, by which
the waters are collected in the streets of the city, and carried into the
Tiber. The work is admirable, and beyond anything that can be said.
For my own part, I believe that Rome has nothing more magnificent,
nothing which better shows the grandeur of her empire, than her
aqueducts, streets, paved roads, and sewers ; I judge thus not only on
account of their utility, but still more on account of the immense out-
lay which they have required. To prove what I assert, I will only
instance the sewers. According to Caius Aquilius, having been for
some time so neglected that they were stopped up, the censors concluded
a bargain with a contractor to clean and repair them for a thousand
talents.

We cannot pass over this tribute of the old historian without re-
marking that while the temples of Greece are scattered in ruins, and
their proudest ornaments become the trophies of barbarians, the roads,
aqueducts, and sewers of the Romans still minister to the wants of
nations, centuries after the power of their founders has ceased to exist.
The English emulate the Romans in the useful nature of their enter-
prises, and we trust that the labours of our engineers may minister as
long to the service of the world as those of their predecessors.

GREAT circus.

Tarquin also embellished the Great Circus between the Aventine
and Palatine mounts, and was the first who constructed around this
circus covered seats, whereas the practice formerly was to place
scaffolding around.

TARQUINIUS StJPERBUS.

Tarquin the Proud (B. 4, ch. 10,) the seventh and last king of
Rome, employed the people on the public works iu order to occupy
them and prevent them from plotting. He continued to the Tiber the
sewers begun by his grandfather, and carried out several of bis un-
finished works.

STRABO.

Having thus dismissed Dionysius of Halicarnassus, we come to
Strabo, one of the most celebrated of the geographical writers of the
ancients, and from whom, as from Diodorus Siculus, much information
is to be gleaned as to ancient mining, a most important branch of engi-
neering, as bearing upon earthworks. We shall first take the third
book.

mines in SPAIN.

A chain of mountains, (the Sierra Morena), parallel to the Betis
(Guadalquivir) extends towards the north, approaching more or less
the banks of the river ; it contains a great many mines. Silver is
found every where in the neighbourhood of lli|)0 and Old and New
Sisapone (Almaden). Near the pace called Cotinas, gold and copper
are worked together. The mountains on the banks of the Anas (Gau-
diana) also contain mines.*

* B. 3. ch. 2.

From Turdetania is exported cinnabar equal to that of Sinope.
There is also found fossil salt.*

What renders Turdetania particularly remarkable is its excellent
mines. In fact all Iberia is full of them ; but Turdetania unites all the
advantages of a mining country to a degree which surpasses any
praise. In no country in the world do we find gold, silver, copper and
iron in such quantity or of similar quality. Gold is obtained not only
from the mines but also from the rivers and streams, in which it is
contained mixed with sand. It is also to be found in many dry places,
but with this difference, that in these it cannot be distinguished at
sight, whilst it shines when covered with the water. This is the
reason why water is made to pass over sandy placfts, to make the par-
ticles of gold shine. Wells also are dug, and many means have been
invented for separating the gold from the sand by washing, so that
there are more gold washing works in the country than mines. The
Gauls assert that their mines, as well those of the Cevennes as those
of the Pyrenees situated on their side, are better ; but, nevertheless,
the mines on tlie Spanish side are generally more esteemed. Among
the particles of gold are sometimes lumps of gold weighing half a
pound, which are named pales, and require very little refining. In
cutting stones of ore, small lumps of this metal are sometimes found.
After having roasted the gold intended to be purified, by means of an
aluminous earth mixed with it, the result of the operation is the alloy
of gold and silver known under the name of tkctnun. It is again
placed in the fire, ndiich separates the silver, and leaves the gold
pure ; for this latter metal is easily fused, and is not of much hardness.
It is also fused sooner by the flame of straw, which, being milder,
agrees better vidth the nature of gold, which obeys its action, and dis-
solves easily, while charcoal, being stronger, consumes a great part by
liquefying it too soon, and converting it into vapour. As to the beds
of rivers, the particles are extracted, washed in buckets, or in wells or
holes made near, and the earth is washed. The furnaces for melting
silver are generally made higher, to enable the pernicious vapour of
this metal to rise and be dispersed. Some mines of copper have the
name of gold mines, whence it is presumed that they formerly supplied
this metal.

Posidonius, in speaking of the number and excellence of these
mines, uses ail the exaggerations of an enthusiast. The Turdetanians,
says he, use the greatest industry and labour in digging winding gal-
leries far into the earth, and often in draining, by means of Egyptian
spirals, the subterranean streams with which they meet. But their
lot, he observes, is very different from that of the miners of Attica, to
whom may be applied the ancient enigma, "They have not taken all
that they have drawn from the earth, and they have left there what
they possessed." The Turdetanians, on the contrary, draw from their
mines enormous profits, since the fourth of the earth which they ex-
tract from the copper mines is pure copper; and the silver mines fur-
nish private individuals in three days with a quantity of this metal
equivalent to a Euboic talent. As to tin, according to the account of
Posidonius, it is not found on the surface of the earth, as some his-
torians assert, but it is also extracted from mines. Mines of this metal
are found among the barbarous people who inhabit beyond the Lusi-
tanians and in the Cassiterrides Islands, and tin is also brought from
the British islands to Marseilles. Among the Artabri, in Gallacia, the
last people of Lusitania, on the north and west, there is earth covered
with a dust of silver, tin, and of the metal, known under the name of
white gold, on account of its alloy with silver. This dust is brought
down by the rivers, raked up by the women, and then washed by them
in sieves placed upon baskets. This is what Posidonius says as to
the mines of Iberia,

Polybius, in speaking of those of silver which exist near New Car-
thage (Carthagena) says that they are 20 stades from the city, that
they are so great that they extend over a district of 400 stades in cir-
cumference, that they habitually employ 40,000 workmen, whose
labour brings to the Roman people 25,0U0 drachms per day (about
£350,000 per annum). I do not enter into the detail of all the other
operations, which would be too long, I confine myself to what Poly-
bius says as to the manner in which the silver is treated, which is con-
tained in the rivers and torrents. After having pounded and sifted it
over water, what remains is separated from the water and pounded
again ; after having been sifted again, it is pounded and sifted five
times in all. After this the pulverized matter is melted to separate
the lead contained in it, and the silver remains pure. These mines
of silver still exist, but there and elsewhere they belong to the state
no longer, but have been taken possession of by private individuals ;
those of gold on the contrary mostly belong to the state. Here as
well as at Castalon (Caslona) and in other places are mines of lead,
which contain silver, but in too small quantity to defray the expense
of separition.

* B. 3, ch. 2.

2 S 2

300

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[September,

A little way from Castalon is the mountain wlience the Betis (Gua-
dalquivir) springs ; it is named the Silver Mountain, on account of the
mines of that metal which it contains.*

Lusitania is watered by great and small rivers which contain many
grains of gold. Although the country abounds in gold, the inhabitants
preferred living by plunder.t

The mountains in the neighbourhood of Malacca (Malaga) contain
in several places mines of gold and other metals.

Not far from Dianium (Uenia; are very fine forges.J

WORKS IN SP.\1N.

In the neighbourhood of Asta (Mesa de Asta), Nebrissa (Lebrisa),
Onoba ((iihraleon), are canals dug in several places to facilitate the
navigation.jj

Near Cadiz is to be seen the Tower of Caepio built on a rock,
washed on every side by the sea. This admirable work was con-
structed in imitation of the Pharos of Alexandria.il

SCILLT I3L.\NUS.

The inhabitants trade in the tin and lead which they dig from their
mines. Publius Crassus, who went there, found that their mines are
not very deep.

WORKS IN GAUL.

The extracts which follow are from various books.

Wariiis, perceiving that the mouth of the Rhone was becoming
gradually shoaled up, had a new channel dug, wliich received the
greater part of the waters. This canal he gave to the Marseillese in
recompense for their service in the wars, and it became to them a
great source of riches on account of the dues which they levied on
those who went up or down.H

The road from Iberia to Italy passes through Nimes. It is good
enough in summer, but very bad in winter and spring, on account of
the rivers overflowing and depositing mud. This road passes several
rivers by boats, or by bridges of stone or wood.**

The territory of the Cevennes abounds with gold mines.tt

The Tarbelli, a people of Aquitaine, are in possession of the most
esteemed gold mines; for without digging deep, lumps of gold as big
as the hand are sometimes found, requiring only a slight washing.
The rest of the mine consists of grains and lumps, which do not either
require much work-H:

DRITAIX.

Britain produces gold, silver, and iron.^^

LIPARI.

Lipari has very productive mines of alum.||||

ROMAN ROADS AND BRIDGES.

The Romans, says Strabo, have principally employed themselves
upon what the Greeks have neglected — I mean paved roads, aque-
ducts, and those sewers which drain the city of Rome. In fact, by
cutting through mountains and filling up vallies, they have every where
throughout the country made paved roads, which serve to convey
from one place to another the goods brought by sea to the ports.
The sewers of Rome, arched with dressed stone, are broad enough in
some places for a cart laden with hay to pass; and the aqueducts bring
water in such abundance as to form streams running across the city,
cleansing the sewers, and are sufficient, as it may be said, to supply
all the houses with great fountains, canals and reservoirs. This last
advantage is principally owing to tlie cares of Marcus Agrippa, who
has decorated Rome with many other public monuments. lH

The principal of the great roads which traverse the country are the
Appian Way, the Latin way, and the Valerian Way.***

According to modern accounts, the Valerian way was about 100
miles long; for the first 15 miles are found ruins of bridges, cause-
ways, &c. Beyond, the remains of it are not so evident, but the bold-
ness with which it is carried across three mountain chains is sur-
prising.

Near the city of Como, to master the people disposed to robberj',
roads have been constructed, which are as practicable as it is possible
for art to make fhem. Augustus, not content with clearing the roads
of the banditti, has made them as convenient as possible, although the
country is very difhcult.ttt

M. Emilius Scaurus constructed the Emilian Way running to Sab-
bata and Darthon ; and there is another Emili m WaV, which continues
the Flaminian Way, and was the work of M. Emilius Lepidus, col-

* H 3, ch. 2. T B. 3, ch. 3. I B. 3, cli. 4

^ B. 3. cli. 2. II B. 3, ch. I. ITB. 4, ch, 1.

••lb. tT lb. ;iB.4, ch. 2. §§B. 4. di. 5. 1 1 B. G. ch. 4.

:iH B. 5. ch. 7. ■ ••• B. 5. ch. 7. Ttt B. 4, ch. 6.

league of C. Flaminius* (This is an error of Strabo in attributing the
Flaminian way to this Flaminius.)

The Salarian Way is a great road very short.t To it joins the
Nomentan Way.

The Appian Way is paved from Rome to Brendisiura (Brindisi),
and is the most frequented of all the roads made in Italy. Beyond
Terracina on the Roman side, the Appian way is bordered by a canal,
which receives the water of the marshes and rivers. It is particularly
by night that this way of the canal is preferred ; upon it people em-
bark in the evening, and leave it in the morning, and take for the rest
of the journey, the Appian Way, but even in the day-time the boats
are towed by mules.X

Near Baia is an isthmus of a few stades, through which a road is
tunnelled. Near Naples is a similar one, which, in the space of seve-
ral stades, crosses the mountain situated between Neapolis and Di-
cearchia. Its breadth is such that carriages which meet find no diffi-
culty, and light is admitted by several openings pierced internally from
the surface of the mountain tlirough a great thickness.j^

The Aternus (Pescara) in the country of the Peligni is passed bjr
a bridge 24 stades from Corfinium.H

CAXALS.

The greater part of Transpadane Italy is full of lagunes, and there-
fore the inhabitants have made canals and dykes as in Lower Egypt,
a part of the inundated ground being drained and the rest navigable.

Epiterpum, Concordia, Atria, Vicetia, and some other small places
in the neighbourhood of Ravenna, by small navigable canals commu-
nicate with the sea.

The Cispadane was for a long time covered by marshes, which
arose from the superabundance of the waters of the Po, but Scaurus,
by having navigable canals dug from Placentia to Parma, drained the
plain.

Ravenna is a great city built on piles in the midst of the marshes,
and intersected with canals, which are crossed bj' boats or bridges.?

DYKE.

The Locrine Gulf in its breadth extends as far as Bais, and is sepa-
rated from the external sea, in a length of 8 stades by a dyke broad
enough for a great waggon to pass. This dyke it is said is the work
of Hercules; as in rough weather the waves flowed over it, so as to
make it impassable for foot-passengers, Agrippa had it raised higher.**

TI.MBER.

From Tyrrhenia (Tuscany) is obtained timber for building, of which
is made very long and straight beams.

Pisa supplies timber for building much used by the Romans.tt

CEMENT.

Dicearchia or Puteoli has become a place of great trade, on account
of the works by which it is sheltered, having in the sand of the neigh-
bourhood (puzzolana) great facilities for such constructions. This
sand employed in a certain proportion with lime, makes a body, and
becomes very solid.U

MINES AND QUARRIES.

The Salassi have gold mines, the working of which was facilitated
by the Durias (Doria) which supplied the water required for the wash-
ings ; so that, by diverting the courses by numerous branches, they
often dried up the main bed, which was the cause of constant war with
the neighbouring peo|ile, whose agiiciilture was aft'ected. The Sa-
lassi, althougli conquered by the Romans and di.-possessed of their
mines, being masters of the mountains, continued to sell water to the
mine contractors.

Polybius relates that in his time among theTaurisci Norici, (people
of Corinthia, Istria, &c.) were mines of gold so rich that by digging
the ground only two feet deep gold was met with, and that the ordi-
nary works were not more than fifteen feet deep ; that a part was
native gold, in grains the size of a bean or a lupine, which in the fire
only diminished an eighth, and that the remainder, although requiring
to be more purified still, gave a considerable product. [He adils] that
the Italians having entered into agreements with the barbarians for
working these mines, in the space of two months the price of gold fell
lhrouc;hout Italy a third, and th.it the Taurisci having perceived it,
turneil out their foreign colleagues, and sold the metal themselves.
At the present day the Romans possess these mines. The rivers,
also, like those of Iberia, contain grains uf gold, although in smaller
quantity. i'Ji

Near Acyleia (Aquileia) are mines of gold and iron easy to work.||||

* B. .5. ch. 2. t B. 5. ch. 6. ; B. 5. ch. 7. § B. 5. ch. 10.

BBS. ch. 9. liB. 5, ch. 2. '"• B. 5, ch. 7. rt B. 5. ch. 4.

JI B. 4, ch. 2. ^^ B. 5, ch. 6. Illl B. 5, ch. 2.

1841.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

301

Cisalpine Gaul has mines which are not worked so much as they
used to be, perhaps because they produce less than those of the
Transalpine Celts and of Iberia, but formerly they were worked very
much, since a mine of gold was wrought even in the territory of Ver-
celli.*

In the territory of Poplonium (Capo di Campana) are some aban-
doned mines, and the forges in which is wrought the iron of Elba,
■which, as it can only be reduced in the furnaces, is transported to the
continent, as soon as it is brought out of the mine. Strabo says that
the excavation of these mines grew up.'"

Pithecusa (Procida) has gold mines.!

Near Luna in Tyrrhenia are the quarries of marble, white, and
spotted with green, of which tables and columns are made of a single
block. These quarries are so numerous and so well supplied, that
they are sufficient for most of the fine works which are made at Rome
and throughout Italy.

The Pisan territory has an abundance of marbles.^

Gabii near Palestrina is in the midst of the quarries most used by
the Romans.

At Tibura (Tivoli) are quarries of those different kinds of stones
known under the names of Tiburtines, Gabians, red stones, of which
most of the Roman buildings are constructed. ||

B.

* E, 5, ch.
, ch. 2.

§B.

t B. 5, ch. 4.
ch. 4. II B. 5, ch. 7.

ON THE FORMS AND PROPORTIONS OF STEAM VESSELS.

Sir — Among the numerous opinions which have been advanced, as
to the causes of the failure in point of speed which has attended the
voyages of the British Queen and President, a subject to which the
non-arrival of the latter vessel has given a most painful interest, I
have not met with one which appears at all conclusive or satisfactory.
Deficiency of power is always the first reason assigned ; and a writer
in a professional periodical, assuming that the models of these vessels
are as perfect as any in existence, has gone the length of asserting
that the power necessary to produce the same speed in vessels of
similar form, but different dimensions, must increase in a larger ratio
than the tonnage. His first position as to the forms of the vessels
could, I think, be easily proved untenable, and his conclusion tends to
subvert a plain physical principle ; as he would make it appear that
to overcome the resistance of the water, in which the surface of the
immersed portion of the vessel alone is concerned, requires power in-
creasing in a greater proportion than is requisite to conquer the iner-
tia; the latter being always directly as the mass. Yet similar opinions
are avowed by most persons who place reliance on the popular notions
prevalent respecting the models of these steamers. — The nearest ap-
proach to the true manner of considering this question which I have
yet seen, is, I think, made by a correspondent signing himself E., in
the number of your Journal for last January ; where he remarks that
of the vessels lie mentions, the best have the most beam in proportion
to their length ; and afterwards, that more seems to depend on model
than power. Taking somewhat similar ground, I shall endeavour to
show that as regards the several points of speed, capacity for carrying
fuel to advantage, efficient working of the paddles, good qualities as
seaboats, and power of carrying sail on an emergency; one essential
requisite for seagoing steamers is a good breadth of beam in propor-
tion both to their length and depth ; and out of these considerations
will arise others as respects the most advantageous modifications of
form in the fore and after body. On all these points I shall confine
myself, as much as jiossiible, to such remarks as arise from known
facts, my intention being merely to state opinions resulting from a good
deal of observation, on a subject which I do not think has ever received
the attention it deserves, from those more practically interested in it
than myself. The first point to which I would call attention is that of
speed. In all the comparisons which I have ever seen drawn as to the
relative merits of dill'erent steam vessels, the principal data have
always been the power of their engines, and the sectional area of the
immersed parts of their bodies ; and the comparison so far as regards
the latter particular has always proceeded simply on the superficial
area of these sections, no regard being paid to the increased pressure
of the water w ith an increased depth : so that supposing two vessels
have their immersed sectional surfaces parallellograms severally 40
feet wide by 15 feet deep, and 30 feet wide by 20 feet deep, these
giving the same result as to area, their resistances are in the abstract
considered equal, and any advantage which one such vessel may have
in point of speed over the other, supposing their power, speed of en-
gines, S;c. tu be equal, is always referred to some supposed superiority
of form in the entrance and run of the faster vessel. Such a mode of

calculation is founded, I believe, on the experiments of M. Bossut,
who gives as a rule that any plane surface moving with a given speed
perpendicularly against a fiiiid, suffers a resistance equal to the weight
of a column of the fluid, with a base equal to the area of the moving
surface, and of such a height as a body must fall to acquire the given
velocity. I have never seen the details of these experiments, nor do
I know whether they are within my reach, but I feel pretty certain
that the surfaces made use of must have been immersed in all cases
the same depth in the fluid, and the difference of dimension must have
been made in breadth only, or such results could never have been
arrived at. Suppose the "two above named surfaces were those of
flood gates ; to ascertain the jtressure of water on each, GOO square
feet, the common result of 40 x 15, and 30 x 20, must be multiplied
into the pressure at the mean depth of each. The pressure of water
at the depth of 7-2 feet, the mean of 15, may be taken as 3-75 lb. per
square inch : and that at 10 feet, the mean of '20, as 5 lb. These num-
bers multiplied into S6400 the number of square inches in each surface
give the results of 325000 lb. =i 145 tons 1 cw t. &S lb. for the first named,
and 432000 lb. =r 192 tons 17 cwt. 6 lb. for the second, being about as
7 to 9 ; and yet if the rule applied to calculate the resistances of ves-
sels be correct, these two surfaces when put in motion at the same
speed, immediately have their amounts of resistance equalized, be-
cause their areas are equal !— Such a result is manifestly absurd; and
as the increased pressure of water in the proportion of its depth is an
established fact, I shall proceed on these premises to inquire into the
manner in which these vessels would be affected by the alteration of
form necessary to reduce their resistance in moving through the water.
We will suppose, for simplicity of argument, that their transverse
sections are uniform throughout, and that both in plan and elevation
they are also parallellograms : that they are each of the length of 200
feet, and their cubic contents consequently the same, viz., 120,000 feet.

Fig. 1.

Fig. 2.

L/?«.j i/yii^.

—t^

a

Suppose it were required to reduce their resistance by one half, pre-
serving to the wider vessel her advantage of 7 to 9. Let fig. 1 repre-
sent the vessel of 40 feet beam, and fig. 2 that of 30. To effect the
required reduction, we have simply to employ the principle of the
wedge, and making a 6 in each figure equal to c d, in the same we
have 6 a, the velocity of the vessel, equal to twice be, the velocity
of the weight which represents the resistance of the water to the mo-
tion of the vessel in the direction ba. For the weight or resistance
of the whole surface cd \s divided into two equal parts on the sur-
faces a c, a d, and these two halves being each moved the distance
be or b d, while the vessel moves the distance a 6, a power is shown
exactly equivalent to that of a wedge c a e iu fig. 1. I state this thus
fully because some writers on mechanics, as Emerson for example,
make it appear that though the direction of the power be that of the
line a b, it is to be calculated on the proportion which ed bears to ab,
instead of that borne by c 6 or 6 d, the half of c d.

The vessels are thus reduced in their bulk or tonnage by the amount
of a rectangular prism equal in its upper surface to the parallelogram
c 6, 6 a, and, (as we are at present considering only the immersed
portion of their hulls,) of the immersed depths of each, viz., 15 feet in
fig. 1, and 20 feet in fig. 2. Now a 6 is in each equal to the beam of
the vessel, and c b equal to half a b, therefore the cubic contents of
the parts removed are in fig. 1, 40 X 20 x 15 = 12,000 cubic feet,
and in fig. 2, 30 X 15 X 20 = 9000 feet, giving a difference of 3000
feet, which divides exactly 40 times into ]2u,000, the total cubic
contents of each vessel; thus by the sacrifice of ^th part of the im-
mersed portion of her body, we preserve to the vessel of greatest
breadth her advantage in point of speed of 7 to 9, together with the

302

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

Sep

T E M 1! K R ,

other gootl qualities which I shall hereafter show to attend her pro-
portions, by the alteration of form in the horizontal direction alone.
VVe have next to consider how the relative merits of the two vessels
will stand if it he required to give the same speed to both with the
same power. Their relative resistances beit)g as 7 to 0, we will sup-
pose that the velocity attained by the narrower vessel with a given
power is sufficient for the wider; to reduce the latter to the speed of
the former, we again have recourse to the priuci|jle of the wedge, by
making a b bear the same proportion to c d, or 10 feet as 7 to 9. We
thus find as <) : 7 : : 10 : 31-11; then 6 c 20 X 15 fthe depth)
X 3M1 = 9333 cubic feet, the amount by which the bulk of the wider
vessel is decreased to attain the same speed as the narrow one. But
the latter was shown to lose only '.HJOO cubic feet of her bulk by this
means, and she has still therefore an advantage of 333 feet over the
wide vessel, 333 will divide about 360 times into 120,000, therefore
the wide vessel sacrifices l-3(;oth part of her bulk more than the nar-
row one to attain the same speed by alteration of her horizontal form ;
but this amotuit is so small as to be quite inconsiderable, for in a vessel
of 2000 tons burthen the difference will be but 3^ tons.

Tims much as to the diminution of resistance by alteration of the
horizontal form ; let us now inquire how the same effect may be pro-
duced by altering the vessels in their vertical section. Let fig. 1* re-
present the vessel of 40 feet beam, and fig. 2* that of 30, in elevation,
or longitudinal section. The depth a h equals 15 feet in fig. 1*, and
20 feet in tig. 2*. To reduce their respective resistances as before to
one half, we make h c equal to twice a b, viz., 30 feet in fig. 1*, and
40 feet in fig. 2*. They are then reduced in bulk as follows: fig. 1*
by 15 X 15 X 40= 9000 cubic feet, and fig. 2* by 20 X 20 X 30 =
12,000 cubic feet, showing a difierence of 3000 cubic feet in favour of
fig. 1*, being exactly what was lost when reduced in her horizontal
form to give the same results. Again, to reduce the speed of fig. 1*
to that of fig. 2*, make 6 c : 30 : : 7 : 9, thus bc= 23-33 feet, and
23-33
— ^ — X 15 X 40= 0999 cubic feet, making a difference in bulk of 5001

cubic feet in favour of fig. 1*, at the same velocity as fig. 2*. Com-

x'ig. 1*

J*-

Water
Line.

Fig. 2"

a_ Water

' Line.

paring these results we see that giving the wider vessel the same
speed as the narrow one, she lost 333 cubic feet more of her bulk than
the latter, by doing the same by change of form vertically she has an
advantage of 5001 cubic feet.* As it is almost always necessary to
employ both these methods of reducing a vessel's resistance, I shall
suppose them equally applied, and deducting the loss from the gain
■we have still 4GGS cubic feet of bulk remaining for buoyancy or stow-
age in favour of the wider vessel when the two have the same velo-
city ; and as the loss in preserving her advantage of 7 to 9, by change
of horizontal form exactly equalled her gain in cloing so by the vertical
alteration, if both means are equally employed we find she preserves
her advantage in speed without any loss of bulk whatever beyond the
narrow vessel, and, as I think can be proved, with many points of
superiority in other respects. I have considered these effects as ap-
plied to bodies of simple parallelogramic forms in the first instance
for the sake of simplicity of illustration, but the principle is applicable
to all forms ; and as regards vessels with sharp bottoms, and of a
breadth of beam say equal to the wider vessel supposed above, and of
a draught equal to the narrow one, their resistance may be resolved
into that of parallelograms depending in their proportions of depth
and width en the acuteness or obtuseness of the angle which their
bottoms make at the keel, and on the depth of their bilge or union of

■» The j^merican river steamers referred to in the eenversalion at the Civil
Ergineer's Institution on Mr. .Sea«ar(l's table of velocities, are described as
(liminisbed )iriiicipally in the vertical direction; ihev have been apth de-
scribeil as having ■' spoon entrances."

the sides and bottom below the water line. I shall have occasion
again to refer to this part of my subject when I come to speak of the
comparative stability of vessels of different transverse sections. At
present I shall only remark that the results of the above calculations
are fully borne out by all the seagoing steamers I am acquainted with.
For instance, the Gorgon and Cyclops of 1200 tons burthen and 320
horse power, having good beam, have performed excellently ; while
the Liverpool, in her first state of 1042 tons burthen, and 460 horse
power, through great deficiency of beam, was a miserable failure; but
since her alteration, though greatly increased in tonnage bv the addi-
tion of 7 feet beam, she gives more satisfactory results with the same
power than any of the large steamers built for crossing the Atlantic.
The Great Western registering 1340 tons, and of 450 horse power,
having pretty fair beam, was the only one of the New York steamers
which could be said to answer, until the Liverpool was altered, since
which time the latter seems to have the advantage. The British
Queen and President have completely nullified the calcidations of
their projectors, and Mr. Cunard's steamers, almost equally deficient
in this respect, employ about 500 horse power to do what, judging
from past experience, the Gorgon* and Cyclops would in all probability
easily effect with 320. I think these results, independently of others
which, with your permission, I shall hereafter adduce, are suflScientto
prove the fallacy of the almost universal belief among shipbuilders
and others that narrow vessels are necessarily faster than those of
greater beam. So strongly however is this opinion held, that I knov7
that shipbuilders of considerable experience and ability have declared
that no steamer should have beam in a larger proportion to her length
than as 2 to 13 ; or in other words should have no less than G J breadths
to her length; a proportion which has proved insulBcient in most of
the ])oints which I named as necessary for a seagoing steamer : and
for the sake of this dogma though sometimes giving their vessels very
good horizontal lines, they sacrifice all the advantages they might
obtain by a proper application of the reduction of body vertically, and
are obliged from their want of beam, to trust to the enlargement of
their bows above water to prevent their constantly shipping water
forward, involving defects which I shall endeavour to make clear if I
continue the subject. The subject of long narrow steamers of small
draught in proportion to their beam, which have had many advocates,
will occupy another part of our consideration, and I refer to it here
merely to say that it is not overlooked. I believe the late system of
computing tonnage for shipping has had a great share in producing
the defect in point of beam which is to be observed both in our sailing
merchant vessels and in our mercantile steamers; for inconsequence
of the gross absurdity of assutning a fixed proportion of depth for
every vessel, namely, half of their measured breadth, and 94 as the
divisor for reducing the cubic result of the three dimensions to tons,
however different in form the vessels might really be. Merchants and
shipbuilders universally endeavoured to gain as much as possible on
their registered tonnage, by giving depth beyond the imaginary
standard, and a form fore and aft which should give an absolute amount
of bulk much above the -nr^hs of the parallelogramic solid which were
supposed, by the use of 94 as a divisor, to remain after reducing the
vessel by the sharpening of her bottom, entrance, and run. This style
of building has been frequently carried, as too many fatal instances
have proved, far beyond the limits of safety, while vessels of really
good proportions and fine form being registered by this method of a
much greater tonnage than their real burthen, had an absolute fine in
the shape of duty imposed on their good qualities. — In the fruit trade
and others especially requiring speed, this has led to the building of
deep narrow vessels sharp forward, and lean and hollow abaft, gaining
somewhat in tonnage, but wanting in all really good qualities, being
the wettest and most uneasy vessels which leave our ports. The
numerous beautiful models which have fallen into the hands of our
merchants as slave prizes have for the same reason, almost without
exception, been lengthened and raised upon, have had all their fine
points destroyed, been greatly reduced in speed, and frequently be-
come exceedingly unsafe vessels, as was the case with a most beautiful
slave schooner sold for the turtle trade in this port a few years ago,
which having been raised upon, lengthened, and square rigged, went
to the bottom on her second voyage. Since the passing of the New
Tonnage Act, which assigns as nearly as possible the real contents of a
vessel for her register, it might have been expected that some
improvement would have taken place in the models leaving the stocks
in our merchant builders' yards, but so strong is habit, especially bad
habit, and so rooted is prejudice, particularly in matters where ex-
pediency and not principle has been the ruling power, that hardly any
use has been made of the advantages offered by the new act, and our

T SeeC. E, and A. Journal, vol. 1, p. 385.

1841.1

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT.S JOURNAL.

.303

newly built merchant ships, iii general, present no more satisfactory
aspects than their predecessors; and the proportions published as
those of the new steamers building in Scotland for Government, are a
further illustration of this position.t Unfortunately this defect has
influenced the docks intended for the reception of merchant steamers,
and unless the gates of those in this port were increased in width they
■would not admit steamers of the same tonnage as those now using
them, but of greater beam. — Having trespassed at so great length on
your space, I beg to observe in conclusion, that my reason for having
cited no authority in support of my views is simply that I have met
■with none taking the same ground; and of those treating on this sub-
ject under any aspect, the older ones are generally very vague and
general in their statements ; and the more modern, though entering at
gi'eat length and with much pains into particular forms, are so partial
in their manner of considering the matter, that of the two whose
opinions have latterly carried most weight, I have foimd one advo-
cating the construction of seagoing steamers twelve times as long as
they are broad, and the other predicting the time -when masts and
sails would be considered mere useless incumbrances, and our Itne-of-
battle ships be used only as coal transports for steamers. Such ideas
indicate any thing but a comprehensive mode of viewing this subject,
and not trusting much to the assistance to be derived from such sources
1 have preferred merely stating the result of my own observations, re-
lying on the candid consideration of those who are practically inte-
rested in this matter.

I am, &c.,

H. P. H.

ON LONG AND SHORT CONNECTING RODS.

Sir — Perceiving in your excellent

Journal for this month, an article

respecting long and short connecting

rods, wherein it is stated that the

short connecting rod is as eftective

"'- as the long one, I take leave to send

',] you a diagram, which will perhaps

W show that there is a greater amount

of friction with the short connecting

rod.

The accompanying figure repre-
sents the direct connection with the
piston of a long and short connect-
ing rod. In this case it is clear that
the long rod c, b, is working always
nearer the parallel liiieoi the piston
than the short rod c, a, or that the
short rod is pushing against the
slide s, e, at a much greater angle
than the long one, and consequently
that there must be less friction at e,
than at s, therefore as the angle c,
a, d, is greater than the angle c, b, d,
so is the friction at s, greater than
the friction at e. The same results
will be found with common marine
and all other engines, only that
■where slides are used there is al-
ways a much greater amount of
friction than upon centres. I am
however of opinion, that a short
connecting rod, with a direct con-
nection with the crank, might be
used with greater effect than a longer
one in the common marine engine,
where heavy side levers are kept
continually reversing their motion,
besides the extra weight which the
boat has to carry.

J. F.

I am, Sir, your most obedient servant,

London, July 12.

Sir — In your July number you have a letter from Mr. Daniel Clark

* The Forth has lately arrived in Liverpool, anJ fully confirms the above
opinion ; proving with two steamers lately sent hiilier from Hamburg, that
the examples of the Liverpool, British Queen and President have not in-
fluenced their builders in assigning the proportions of breadth and depth.

on "Long and short connecting rods," in which he arrives at the con-
clusion that "upon the whole, then, shore and long connecting rods on
the same length of crank must be equally effective, whatever pecu-
liarities there be." In this, however, I do not concur with him and
would recommend him to re-consider the subject and see if really the
force (see Mr. Clark's first figure) D C or E M be of no consequence ;
I think he will find it to be of the greatest consequence, and to be to-
gether with the analogous force of pressure on the other journals, the.
reason why long connecting rods always have been and always will be
preferable, and why, moreover, an engine, the connecting rod of which
bears to the length of the crank a ratio less than a certain quantity,
would not work at all. Mr. Clark would find it very interesting to
consider minutely the case in which the length of the connecting rod
is equal to the length of the crank, he will find that the strength re-
quired for the paddle-shaft, the connecting rod, all the journals, the
framing, and in fact the whole engine, is what may probably startle
him.

I am. Sir,
Greenock, July 5. Your obedient servant,

J. G. L.

MR.

PARKES NEW THEORY OF THE PERCUSSIVE
ACTION OF STEAM.

Sir — Feeling some interest in Mr. Parkes' new theory of the per-
cussive action of steam in the Cornish engines, might I offer a few re-
marks on the former part of a paper which appeared in your Journal
for this month. The w'riter of that paper appears from his remarks
at the beginning, to have an opinion that Mr. Parkes has rather fa-
voured the Cornish engines, in considering that the percussive force
of steam is only developed in them; and he remarks that if such a
property does exist in the steam, we might expect to find it more
fully developed in the case of the locomotive engines ; for he says,
"though why he coiisiders it to operate in these engines only, we
know not; we are of opinion that if it obtains in them, it should obtain
ci fortiori in locomotives, where the density and velocity of the steam
entering the cylinder are so much greater."

The object of the following remarks is to try to show that the Cor-
nish single-acting engines are the only ones at present in which the
percussive force of steam could act with any very great advantage ;
and that the locomotives are the very worst engines in which it could
be used as a moving force.

We will first of all take the case of a common double-acting rotative
engine. In these engines the slide is so adjusted as to let the steam
into the cylinder when the piston is either at the top or bottom of its
stroke; and consequently, when the crank is just passing the centre.
Now this being the case, it is evident that any percussive force of the
steam striking upon the piston would be injurious rather than benefit
the engine, as it could not by any means have any effect in turning the
crank, but, on the contrary, only create an additional wear and tear of
the different working parts, on account of the violent jerk which would
be the eflfect of its striking upon the piston while the crank is in such
a position as not to let it recede before the blow. In this engine,
then, as at present constructed, we must not expect to find any very
great economy by bringing this force into action.

In consequence of the rapidity with which the strokes of the piston
in a locomotive follow one another, it is found necessary to admit the
steam into the cylinder before the piston has finished its stroke, for
two reasons: 1st, it is found necessary to admit the steam into the
opposite side of the piston before it has finished its stroke, in order to
bring it gradually up to the stop, and to diminish the violent jerk that
would be occasioned by its motion being so rapidly changed, and 2ndly,
so that it may be ready to act as soon as the piston has finished its
stroke. This being the case, the percussive force of steam would act
still worse here than in the before-mentioned case, as it would, instead
of helping to impel the piston, actually impede if, if not stop it alto-
gether. In this case, as well as in the former, the percussive action
is altogether avoided by the gradual motion of the slide, for as soon
as the slide begins to open the steam way, the steam rushes into the
cylinder and strikes upon the piston, but with very little effect, on
account of its being so much wire drawn in consequence of the small
size of the opening at first.

In order to render the percussive force of steam available to its
fullest extent as a moving povf er in single acting pumping engines, it
would be necessary to have some medium interposed between the
direct action of the steam on the piston and the pumps ; so as to con-
vert the ever-varying pressure on the piston into a regular and steady
pressure on the plunger of the pump. This I think will be clearly
seen, for if we suppose for an instant this medium not to exist, such as

304

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[Skptembhk,

the momentum of the different parts of the engine, the pump roil,
and the column of water set in motion ; we must come to the conclu-
sion that iis the pressure on the piston varies without any medium to
equalize its effect, the resistance opposed to the pump plunger ought
to vary also.

In the common single acting pumping engine this medium is in a
measure supplied hy the weight of the pump rod, which is made suHi-
ciently heavy to overcome the friction of the engine, and to raise
the piston at the relurij stroke, and by the momentum of the beam
and other parts of the engine ; and also by the momentum of the
column of water before it enters into the air vessel ; these however
would form but a very small reservoir for the immense pressure at the
conjmencement of the stroke, so that in these engines the application
of the percussive force must he very limited, in consequence of the
pump rod not being of a sufKcient weight to accumulate all the over-
plus power at the commencement of the stroke, so as to impart it to
the plunger when the pressure on the piston, in consequence of the ex-
pansion of the steam, falls below the resistance on the plunger so that
the percussive force would be in a great measure entirely wasted.
Again on the other hand, if the rod which generally weighs from 8 to
9 tons, were made heavier, so as to equalize to a great extent the pres-
sure on the plunger, it would be more than necessary to overcome tlie
resistance of the engine at the return stroke, and so occasion a loss of
power.

The action of the Cornish single acting engine is somewhat different
from that of the common one, the pressure of the steam on the piston
instead of being applied directly to work the pumps, is applied to
raise a pump rod of sufficient weight to work the pumps at the return
stroke. The result of this difference of arrangement is that instead
of having a pump rod of S or 9 tons weight, we get one of from 20 to
70 tons weight according to circumstances. Here then we get an im-
mense mass of matter amply sufficient to accumulate all the overplus
pow er at the commencement of the stroke, and to return it as required
at the end of it. The action of it is this : the steam being admitted
suddenly into the cylinder strikes upon the piston at rest with a con-
siderable force above what is due to its elastic pressure alone, and sets
this massive pump rod in motion ; the steam in the cylinder expands,
and consequently acts with less force on the piston, and the pump rod
after the pressure of the steam on the piston, becomes insufficient of
itself to raise it any higher, assists to carry itself through the remainder
of the stroke, by means of the power that it accumulated at the com-
mencement. When the rod is thus as it were thrown up to the top
of its stroke, the equilibrium valve is opened and the weight of the
pump rod descending acts upon the plunger of the pump and raises
the water. In this engine then we have the means of applying the
percussive furce of steam to almost any extent in consequence of the
weight of the pump rod, which acts as a reservoir for the power that
would otherwise be wasted.

These remarks I think have clearly shown that in the common double
acting engine the percussive force of steam could not be made to act
with any advantage, but would, on the contrary, occasion an additional
wear and tear; that in the locomotive it would act still worse, and
w ould actually impede the engine, if not stop it altogether ; that in the
common single acting pumping engine it could only be brought into
viseful action in a small degree ; and that in the Cornish engine we
might use it as a moving force to a very considerable extent.

When we consider the amazing quantity of work done by the Cor-
nish engines as compared to any other, we are perfectly at a loss to
account for the difference, and are brought to the conclusion that there
must be some force in the steam which can only be applied to any
considerable extent in those engines, and which will not allow of being
so applied in any others. The elastic force of steam can be appliea
in any sort of engine, the expansive force can be applied economically
in all, but more so in the Cornish than any other engines ; but still this
is insufficient to account for the difference of the amount of duty done.
The only other force that we can conceive the steam to possess is that
which Mr. l^arkes has denominated its percussive force. If the con-
clusion drawn from the preceding remarks be just, we see that the
Cornish engines are the only ones in which this force could be applied
to any considerable extent.

It also stands to reason that if this force does exist in the steam,
and if it was usefully applied it would increase very considerably the
duty done. It is also now a fact well ascertained that the Cornish en-
gines will do three times the duty of any other with the same expendi-
ture of fuel.

is it not then reasonable to infer that as the Cornish engines are the
only ones in which the percussive action could be cm|)loycd to any
considerable extent, and that they alone jierform that additional work
that would be the effect of this force if usefully ajjpiied, we may safely
conclude (if all other evidence was wanting), that this percussive force

does actually exist in the steam, and that it in a great measure will
account for the quantity of work done by these engines.

Hoping that these observations may help to throw a little light on
the suliject, and may induce some of your readers who may have the
means, to pay a little attention to the'subject.

I remain. Sir, your's, respectfullv,

C. s.

Danksiile. Sonlhrnnrk,
August 13, 1641.

ON THE MOMENTUM PROPOSED BY JfR. JOSIAH PARKES,

AS A MEASURE OF THE MECHANICAL EFFECT OF

LOCOMOTIVE ENGINES.

By the Count De Pambocr.

In- the Transactions of the Institution of Cicil Engineers, vol. Ill, Mr.
J. Parkes has published a paper On Slt,am-buikrs and Sltam-tngines ,
in which the object s to propose, as a uew measure of the mechanical
effect of locomotive engines, what he calls the momtntum produced by
the engine, that is to say the product of the mass, in tons, of the en-
gine, tender and train, multiplied into its velocity, in feet per second.
According to him, this momentum being measured at one velocity, for
a given engine, the effect of the same engine, at any other velocity,
will be immediately deduced from it by a single proportion (page 130),
without troubling one's head about the inclination of the road, the
friction of the wagons or the engine, the counter-pressure due to the
blast-pipe, the resistance of the air, or, in fact, any of the resistances
realU' encountered by the engines.

To establish this new idea, Mr. Parkes' first step is to represent as
altogether faulty and impossible every calculation or experiment made
by others, to take account of the divers resistances offered to the mo-
tion of the engines. With this view he enters into a long and male-
volent discussion on the experiments of our Treatise on Locomotive
Engines, and on all the experiments on the same subject published by
different engineers; and to demonstrate the difficulties insurmountable,
in his opinion (page 124, 129), and the uncertainty attending such re-
searches, he indicates several verifications which, as he says, these ex-
periments ought to satisfy, and which they do not satisfy. As Mr.
Parkes gives on the subject a great number of arithmetical calculations,
the errors of which are protected against detection by the heap of
figures presented, we shall first enter, with some detail, into the ex-
amination of his pretended verifications, and afterwards shall discuss
the value of the new measure proposed by him to represent the me-
chanical effect of locomotive engines.

On seeing the fundamental errors on which his reasoning and his
calculations are grounded, the inaccuracy of his criticisms and of the
results at which he has arrived, will be at once recognised.

1st. Mr. Parkes proposes to calculate the pressure at which the
steam was necessarily expended on the cylinder of each engine sub-
mitted to experiment, m order afterwards to compare that pressure
with the pressure resulting from the sum of the different determina-
tions of resistances exerted against the piston, according to the treatise
on locomotive engines. With this view, he seeks, from the velocity of
the engine, the number of cylinders full of steam which were expended
per minute. Comparing tlje volume thus obtained to the volume of
water vaporized in the boiler, he concludes the relative volume of the
steam during its passage into the cylinder; and finally, recurring to
the table of the relative volumes of steam under divers pressures, con-
tained in our Theory of the Steam Engine, he concludes the pressure
which the steam must necessarily have had (page 82, &c.) This is
conformable to our theory developed in the Treatise on Locomotive
Engines, which, in fact, Mr. Parkes entirely adopts. But to perform
this calculation, Mr. Parkes takes the a rerage velocity of the whole
trip from Liverpool to Manchester (page 85, and table viii., col. 10;
table xiii., col. 9 ; table xvi., col. 2, &c.), and from that velocity he
pretends to deduce the mean pressure of the steam in the cylinder
during the same trip. Now it will be easy to prove by an example
that this mode is altogether faulty.

Suppose, in effect, the engine Atlas has travelled a distance of 30
miles in an hour and a half, vaporizing 60 cubic feet of water per hour.
As the wheel of the engine is 5 feet in diameter, or 15-71 in circum-
ference, as there are two double cylinders-full ot steam expended at
every turn of the wheel, and as the capacity of those two double cylin-
ders, including the filling up of the steam ways, amounts to 4-393
cubic feet, it follovrs that the volume of the steam which passes into
the cylinders per mile performed, or per distance of 5260 feet, is

5280
15-71

X 4-398= 1478 cubic feet.

1841.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

30.5

This premised, when Mr- Parkes refers to tlie average velocity of
the whole trip, to value the pressure in the cylinder, as that velocity
is 20 miles per hour, and as the vaporization at the same time is GO
cubic feet of water per hour, he finds, for tlie ratio of the volume of

1478 X 20
the steam expended to the volume of water, — -— =r 492-7. Con-
sequently, recurring to the table of the relative volumes of steam under
different pressures, he obtains for the corresponding total or absolute
pressure 5t)-06 Hi. per square inch; and deducting the atmospheric
pressure, he obtains for the effective pressure, 4 1-95 tti. per square
inch.

But to show that this mode of calculating, from the average velo-
city, can only lead to error, let us suppose that, by reason of the divers
inclinations of the portions of the railway, the first 15 miles liave been
traversed in half an hour, and the other 15 miles in an hour, which
still makes 30 miles in an hour and a half; as 30 cubic feet of water
will have been vaporized in the first half hour, or during the passage
of the first lo miles, and GO cubic feet of water during the next hour,
or in the passage of the last 15 miles, it is plain that the volume of

1478x 15
the steam will have been respectively in each of those times — =

1478 X 15

739 first, and afterwards = 3G9-5. Whence results, ac-

uO

cording to the table, that the effective pressure of the steam will have
been successively 21-62 and (J2-9.'> Iti. per square inch.

Thus, during the first half hour the effective pressure will have been
21-02 It). ; during the second half hour it will have been G2-95 It;., and
during the third again (i2-9.">it). Consequently, taking account of the
time during which the pressure has had these respective values, it is
plain that the mean effective pressure in the cylinder will really have

21-62 4- 62-95 + G2-95 ^ . , ,

been :, =:r. 49-1/ It), per squire inch, and not 4 1 95

o

lb. per square inch, as given in Mr. Parkes's calculation ; which, by
the fact, supposes all the portions of the tri^i to have been performed
in equal times. In this case, therefore, which has nothing in it but
what is very ordinary, there would be an error of 7-22 tb. per square
inch out of 41-95; that is an error of more than i on the effective
pressure of the steam. It is evident that the calculation, such as Mr.
Parkes makes it, is exact only for portions of road composed of one
inclination, or travelled with nni/onit velocity, and that it cannot apply
to the total passage of a line composed of different inclinations. For
further elucidation on this head, we refer to chapter XVII., relative
to inclined planes, of our Treatise on Locomotive Engines, 2nd edition,
and to chapter XII. of the same work, in which all the experiments
considered by Mr. Parkes are calculated.

2nd. We have just shown the first error which Mr. Parkes intro-
duces, as a fundamental basis, in his calculation of the pressure of the
steam in the cylinder. But he does not stop there. In the table of
experiments on the vaporization of the engines (Treatise on Locomotive
Engines, page 175 of first edition, and page 253 of second edition), we
have given tue average velocity of the engines during each trip ; and that
velocity is obtained simply by dividing the whole distance performed,
by the time employed in performing it, as is seen in the table in ques-
tion. It would be natural then for Mr. Parkes, who, as has been said,
is satisfied with average velocities in his calculations, to take those
which are given in the table ; but instead of that, he augments almost
all the velocities about ^. Thus, for instance, the Vulcan, which tra-
velled 29-5 miles in 1 hour 17 minutes, and whose average velocity in
consequence was stated to be 22-99 miles per hour, had, according to
Mr. Parkes, a velocity of 26-90 miles per hour. The velocity of the
Vesta rises from 27-23 to 31-60 miles per hour, and so of the others
("table viii., col. 10 ; table xiii., col. 9 ; table xvi., col. 2). The critic
falls into this new error because, in the Treatise on Locomoli re Engines
(page 324 first edition, and page 311 second edition), in speaking of
fuel, it is said that, when the engines ascend without help the inclined
planes of the Liverpool and Manchester Railway, the surplus of work,
thence resulting for them, equals, on an average, the conveying of
their load to ^ more distance, and Mr. Parkes logically concludes from
this that the velocity of the engine must be by so much increased (pages
86, 112). So that if an engine perform 1 mile in 4 minutes, ascending
a plane inclined -^, which renders nearly five-fold the work of the
engine, it would follow, from this calculation, that the velocity would
not have been 15 miles per hour, but 15 X 5 =r 75 miles per hour,
since the quantity of work done would have been five-fold ! Mr.
Parkes's error proceeds from his having applied to the velocity a cor-
rection which refers only to the !Dor/: done, and, as a consequence, to
the corresponding consumption of fail.

But on examining what effect results from this substitution of the
imagined velocity of Mr. Parkes for the observed velocity, it will be
remarked that whenever an engine is obliged to ascend without help
one of the inclined planes of the Liverpool and Manchester Railway,
it exerts at that moment, as we have said, an effort five times as great
as upon a level, and draws its load less rapidly. One would deem it
then allowable to conclude, that the average pressure of the steam in
the cylinder must be augmented, since during a certain portion of the
trip, the effort required is greater, and that the useful effect per unit
of time must be diminished, since during the same time the useful load
is drawn at less velocity. But no. Mr. Parkes's calculation, by aug-
menting, then, the apparent velocity of the engine, demonstrates that,
in this case, the average pressure in the cylinder becomes on the con-
trary much less, and that the useful effect becomes much greater. So
that the error committed produces itself here in the two opposite
ways.

With these elements JVIr. Parkes establishes the /i/o't of his cal-
culations and tables, to the very end of his paper (table viii., col. 10;
table ix., col. 19; table xiii., col. 9 ; table xiv., col. 2 : table xvi., col. 2);
and as, to augment the evil, this pretended correction is made only on
one portion of the experiments, namely those in which the engines
were helped up the inclined planes, without being made in the other
cases, there results an inexplicable confusion in all the calculations.
Thus, it happens that Mr. Parkes's determination of the volume and
pressure of tlie steam consumed by the engines (table ix., col. 26, 29),
the horse power produced per cubic foot of water vaporized, or the
quantity of water employed to produce one horse power (table x., col.
44, 45, 49, &;c.), the momentum generated per pound (table xiii., col.
1 1, 12 ; table xiv., col. 9, 10, 1 1), and all the consequences thence de-
rived are in every way erroneous.

To show by a particular example, the fallacy of the results to which
Mr. Parkes has been led by this wholesale and faulty way of calculat-
ing, we need only refer to the two experiments of the Flhy, which he
extracts from our work on locomotive engines. He pronounces, " with
certainty," (page 12s), these two experiments to be erroneous, as ex-
hibiting an engine performing more work at 23 than at 215 miles per
hour, in the ratio of 2 1 to 19. Now, to arrive at this conclusion, Mr.
Parkes first takes the velocity of the engine, not at 18-63 and 19-67
miles per hour, as given from actual observation, page 175 of the first
edition, and pages 253 and 392 of the second edition of our Treatise
on Locomotive Engines, but at 21-79 and 23 miles per hour (table xiii.,
col. 3). Secondly, in comparing the work done in the two trips, he
does not take into account that the first of the two trips has been made
from Manchester to Liverpool, and the second on the contrary from
Liverpool to JIanchester. But there is a general rise of the ground
from Manchester towards Liverpool, and from that circumstance, the
gravity opposes more resistance in that direction than in the contrary
one. Thus it happens that a less train carried on the line from Man-
chester to Liverpool, may require from the engine, a greater quantity
of labour than a heavier train carried in the opposite way. In effect,
Ijy referring to pages 5ul and 504 of the second edition of our work
on locomotives, it will be found that in the two experiments under con-
sideration, the work done by the Fluiy, in carrying the two loads of
43-8 and 51-16 tons, besides tender, from Manchester and from Liver-
pool respectively, to the other end of the line, was

13-S tons, from Manchester to Liverpool, equal,

gravity included, to - - - 1964 tons to 1 mile.

5 1- IG tons, from Liverpool to Manchester, equal,

gravity included, to - - - 1837 tons to 1 mile.

We see, therefore, that when we take an account, as we ought to do,
and as Mr. Parkes has not done, of the surplus of labour caused by
gravity, the work required of the engine is in reality more in the first
case than in the second, although the load itself is less. Consequently
the engine ought to have accomplished the second trip in less time or
with a greater average velocity than the first, which in fact it did, and
which had led Mr. I'arkes to pronounce with such " certainty" the
experiments to be erroneous.

This example shows that the calculation of Mr. Parkes, made with
an erroneously averaged and exaggerated velocity, in which, more-
over, he omits the gravity on the inclined planes, the resistance of the
air, the friction of the engine, and all the other resistances really op-
posed to the motion, leads him to a very inaccurate measure of the
work performed by those engines ; and this refers to the whole of the
results obtained, table ix., col. 29 — 32; table x., col. 41 — 50; table
xiii., col. 11, 12; table xiv., col. 9, 10, 11; table xvi., &c., and also to
his comparison of locomotive and stationary steam engines, which we
shall notice further on.

3rd. After having calculated very exactly, as we have shown, the

pressure of the steam in the cylinder, Mr. P.irke3 compares the result

, which he has obtained, with the total pressure on the piston resulting

2 T

30G

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[September,

from the partial resistances siiftered by tlie engine, according to the
Trealixi oil Locomolire Eiigiiita ; and as, in the fiist edition of that
work, tlie author had confined himself to mentioning the [iressiire
against the piston due to the action of the blast-pipe, without making
any experimental research on the subject, Mr. Parkes, without noticing
the results presented since in the thortj of Oit, sUam etighie, (page 161),
takes the dilTorence between the two results, as necessarily exjiressing
the pressureilue to the blast-pipe (pa<;es Si?, 83) ; and he demonstrates
the inaccuracy of it. Here we perfectly agree with him ; for, besides
the errors already pointed out in his research of the pressure of the
steam in tlie cylinder, every thing varial)le that can occur in the dif-
ferent data of resistance, now passes to the account of the pressure
due to the blast-pipe, and must necessarily come to falsify the calcula-
tion of it. Thus, for instance, in the experiments, a great deal of
water was lost by priming, and there resulted an apparent vaporiza-
tion greater than the true one. A part of the difference between the
Ciilculated and the observed pressure was tlierefore to be attributed to
that cause, though it could not be accurately measured ; but, by the
calculation of Mr. Parkes, it all passes to the account of the pressure
due to the blast-pipe. Similarly, the resistance of the air, then im-
perfectly computed in the total resistance for an average velocity of
about \i miles per hour, is found, in all eases of greater velocity, to
augment considerably the pressure due to the blast-pipe, and on the
contrary to diminish it in all cases of less velocity. A favourable or
an unfavourable wind necessarily produce similar effects. Thus, cir-
cumstances, combined with the fundamental errors already introduced
in the calculation, raise or lower that pressure to all imaginable degrees
(pages S7, bS, 90, '.H) ; and it will be readily imagined that such a de-
termination cannot be exact.

4th. Mr. Parkes has observed, in the experiments of the Treatise on
Locomotive Eiigims, and particularly in two of them, made with the
Leeds engine, and quoted in the Tlitory of the Steam Engine, that the
useful effects produced by the same cjuantity of water va[iorized varies
according to different circumstances, and he is amazed at it ; for, as
he affirms, the useful effects produced by the same quantity of water
vaporized, in the same time and under the same pressure in the boiler,
ought in all cases to be identical (pages 104, 110). But this again is
merely an error of the critic; for if we suppose a locomotive engine
drawing a heavy load at a small velocity, since it is only at a small
velocity that the engine has to overcome its friction, as well as the
atmospheric pressure against the piston, and, above all, the resistance
of the air against the train, it follows that out of the quantity of total
work executed, there will be but a trifling portion lost in overcoming
those resistances; but if, on tlie contrary, we suppose the same engine
performing precisely the same cjuantity of total work, but drawing a
light load at a great velocity, it is obvious that a much greater part of
the work done will be absorbed in moving, at that velocity, the resist-
ance which repiesents the friction of the engine, as well as the atmo-
spheric pressure against the piston, and in overcoming the resistance
of the air, which increases as the square of the velocity; and conse-
quently there w ill remain a much smaller portion of it applied to the
producing of the useful effect. Hence, in the two cases considered,
the useful effects produced by the same quantity of water vaporized,
so far from being identical, will, on the contrary, be very different
from each other. Mr. Parkes may, besides, satisfy himself on this
point, by perusing the Thtorj of the Steam Engine, in which he will
find numerous examples of steam engines, in wliich the useful effect
of one cubic foot of water varies in very wide limits, according to the
velocity of the motion or the load imposed on the engine ; and lie w ill
find it explained tlii'oretioally in chapter XII. of the Treatise on Loco-
motive Engine--, or in chapter III. art. 11, of the Theory of the Steam
Engine. '1 hus Mr. Parkos's reasoning errs again by llie basis itself.

5tli. But there is another jjrinciple to which Mr. Parkes would sub-
ject all llie observations of vaporization of locomotive engines. He
remarks that in the two e>.pe]iments above cited, the total resistance
opposed to the motion is di!i(?rent in the two cases. Consequently,
says lie, the quantities of water vapoiijied iiy the engine in the same
time must be ii» proportion to the pressures" in the cylinder, and the
exijcviments ought to satisfy this condition (pages 99, 100). Upon
tills point he is merciless.

To establish this new principle, Mr. Parkes recurs io iho Treatise
on Locomotivt Engines itself. He quotes a passage in which, suppos-
ing same engine travi-Uing the same distance with two different loads,
the author says positively that the distance travelled being the same
in both cases, the number of turns of the wheel, and consequently the
number of strokes of the piston given by the engine, that is to say, Uic
number of cylinders full of steam, or firially the total volume of steam
exjiended, w.ll also be the same in bothcises; whence results tliat
the same volume will successively have been filled with two steams at
different pressures, or in other w'ords, at dillercnt densities; and con-

seqnently the quantities of water which have served to form tliose
steams will be in proportion to their respective pressures (page 310 —
312 of the first edition). Thus, this passage establishes very distinctly
that the quantities of water vaporized, /or the same dintaiice, are in
proportion to the pressures of the steam in the cylinders. But what
does Mr. Parkes conclude from this? Why, that the quantities of
water vaporized in the same distance are in proportion to the pressures
in the cylinder. Now it happens to be just the contrary ; for, if we
su|)pose, by way of example, the two pressures to be in the ratio of 2
to 1, the volumes of water vaporized for the same distance tr.iversed,
will also be in the ratio of 2 to 1 ; but if the time employed in per-
forming the distance in question be two hours in the first case, and one
hour in the second, it is plainly the quantities of water vaporized in
two hours and in one hour resnectively, which will be one to the other
in the ratio of 2 to 1, so that the vaporizations per hour, or in the same
time, will be equal instead of being in the ratio of the pressures. Thus
it is clear again that Mr. Parkes's principle rests but on a new error,
which consists in making a confusion between the vaporization for the
same distance and the vajjorization for the same time.

Gth. A final observation of Mr. Parkes (pages 89, 90, 9S), is this,
that in some experiments, the locomotive engines produced, for the
same quantity of water vaporized, a greater useful effect than several
stationary high-pressure steam engines, or even than several condens-
ing steam engines; and he considers this result as a proof of the in-
accuracy of those observations; for, says he, the locomotive engines
having to contend with the pressure arising from the blast-pipe, which
the high pressure engines have not, and also with the atmospheric
pressure, neither of which resistances the condensing engines have to
contend with, it is incontestable that they cannot even produce equal
eflTects, much less superior ones (page VH). But this reasoning is as
unfounded as those we have already noticed; for, since the useful
effect of steam engines, for the same vaporization, diminishes as the
velocity of the motion increases, which has been already explained
above, and which is found developed, either in chapter XII. article II.
of the Treatise on Lo'-omotive Engines, second edition, or in chapter
111. article II., section 1, of the Theory of the Steam Engine, it is easy
to conceive that a locomotive working, for instance, at its maximum
useful effect, that is to say, with its maximum load, and consequently
at a very small velocity, at which the pressure due to the blast-pipe
and the resistance of the air are nearly null, can produce a useful effect
greater, nay much greater than a stationary high pressure engine,
working on the contrary with a light load and a great velocity. The
same inferiority of effect may also occur in a condensing engine, be-
cause an engine of that system working, fur instance, at 10 tb. pressure
per square inch in the cylinder, and condensing the steam to 4 It), per
square inch uniler the piston, where the pressure is always greater than
in the condenser, loses, by that fact alone, a quarter of the pow er which,
it applies; whereas a locomotive, working at 5 atmospheres in the
cylinder, and at a very small velocity, which renders almost null the
pressure due to the blast-pipe, suffers, by the opposition of the atmo-
spheric pressure, a loss equal to only i of its total power. Hence, de-
finitively, in the latter engine, the counter-pressure against the piston
destroys a smaller portion of the total power applied, and consequently,
wuhout even noticing the difference of friction of the two engines, or
enteiing into any other consideration relative to the velocity, it is con-
ceivable that the useful effect of the locomotive may be found gieater.

But if a more complete calculation be desired, it will be easy to
furnish it; for the relative volume of the steam at 10 lb. pressure per
square inch, being 1072 times that of water, it is plain that if 8 repre-
sent the number of cubic feet of water va|)orized ])er minute in the
boiler, and if a represent the area of the cylinder expressed in square
feet, lo72 S will be the volume of the steam generated per minute

whence results that will be the velocity, in feet per minute,

a

assumed by the piston of the engine working at that pressure. More-
over, the effective pressure of the steam or the load which the piston
can support, is 10 — 4= 121b. per square inch ; which gives 12 X 144 a
for the total resistance, in pounds, supported by tlie piston. Thns, in
the condensing engine, the effect produced by the number S of cubic
feet of water, expressed in pounds raised one foot per minute, is
1072 X 12 X 144 S = 2,&!39,21G S. Calculating in the same manner
the case of the locomotive engine, we find that the effect it produces
for the same vaporization S, working at the total pressure of 75 lb. per
square inch, or at the effective pressure of GO lb. per square inch, and
expressed in pounds raised 1 foot per minute, is 3S1 X oU X 144 S=:
3,29i,b40S. Therefore, finally, its useful eff<?ct, ;>er cubic foot of
water vaporized, will exceed that of the condensing engine, and this
again is a circumstance, examples of which will be found in the Theory
of the Steam Engine.

1841.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

307

Thus this new peremptory condition wliicli tlie experiments ought
to satisfy is as unfounded as the former ones; and, in fact, Jlr. Parkes
contradicts it, himself, a little further on (pages 157, loS), so that we
might have referred liis first argument to his second, for refutation.
But, besides the foregoing observations it must be borne in mind that
the velocities employed by Mr. Parkes, for locomotive engines, being
nearly all considerably augmented, as has been explained above, he
must necessarily arrive (pages So, ST, S9, 92, and tables x., xiii., xiv.,
xvi.), at exaggerated results, for the effects wliich he supposes to have
been produced by those engines; and therefore his comparison be-
tween locomotive and stationary engines, is altogether founded upon
false calculations.

It is remarkable, finally, that in applying the preceding considera-
tions to all the experiments published on locomotive engines, by difte-
rent engineers, namely, Messrs. R. Stephenson, N. Wood, E. Woods,
and Dr. Lardner (pages 102, 117, 118, 159), Mr. Parkes finds that the
conditions to which he proposes to subject those experiments are not
verified in them. Such a result ought to have put him on his guard
against the validity of his own arguments ; but the want of knowledge
in the principles of Mechanics and of habit in mathematical reasoning
(the author tells us that he is more accustomed to handle the hammer
than the pen), causes him to heap errors on errors, combining and
complicating them unawares, till he arrives at a point where he does
not produce a single result that is not erroneous.

There is a matter of surprise in the numberless errors contained in
the paper of Mr. Parkes, and of which, for the sake of brevity, we
have noticed merely the principal ones, reserving the rest for another
opportunity if necessary. But on inquiring what was the end he had
proposed to himself, what was to be definitive consequence of his
labour, one is yet much more surprised.

His object is to propose a new measure of the effect of locomotive
engines; and this new measure is what he calls the "momentum"
generated, that is to sav, " the product of the mass, in tons, of the
engines, tender and train, multiplied into its velocity, in feet per
second." This standard is to "represent the repective mechanical
effect produced per second by each engine" (page 12S).

Now, the true mechanical produce includes the whole of the
resistances and frictions really overcome by the engines; that is to
say, the friction of the carriages, the friction of the engines, the gravity
of the mass on the different inclines traversed, the atmospheric pres-
sure, the pressure due to the blast-pipe, the resistance of the air, &c. ;
and in multiplying the sum of all these resistances, by the velocity of
the motion, we shall have the mechanical ef!'ect produced. But, if
among all those divers resistances, we take account only of the friction
of the carriage, and the engine, omitting all the rest, and if we suppose,
for an instant, that friction to be 6 lb. per ton, as well for the engine
as for any other carriage, we shall have the effect produced, in multi-
plying tlie weight of tlie train, tender and engine included, first by G
lb., and afterwards by the velocity of the motion. Now, it is evident
that in calculating thus, we shall have exactly the same number given
by the computation of Mr. Parkes, excepting that all of them shall be
multiplied by 6. Therefore, the new measure proposed comes merely
to this, that the effect of the engines will be calculated by the friction
of the carriages only, and that of the engine considered as a mere
wagon, and the results divided by 6.

But, as this pretended "standard" comprehends only a portion of
the resistances really overcome; as it does not include the gravity of
the train, which may, according to circumstances, offer a resistance
exceedingly great, or null, or even act in favour of the motioii; as it
does not include the counter-pressure due to the blast-pipe, which
varies according to the velocity, the rate of vaporization and the size
of blast-pipe; as it does not include the total friction of the engine,
but only the friction of its wheels, as a single wagon ; as, above all, it
does not include the resistance of the air, which, from experiments of
•which Mr. Parkes is "utterly ignorant" (page 12-1), varies according
to the bulk of the train and the square of the velocity, so that the
quantity neglected, on that account, in the calculation may, at times,
be quite trifling, and at other times, exceed the momentum of Mr.
Parkes itself; as in fact this pretended new measure is nothing more
or less than the common useful effect of the engine, as given in many
works and particularly in our T/ieory of the Steam Engine, and Trea-
tise on Locomotive Engines, with these differences only that in Mr.
Parkes's calculation, it includes also the weight of the engine, and that
it is erroneously computed, inasmuch as, in multiplying the weight of
the train, in tons, by the velocity, the calculation is made as if the
whole weight were raised up in the air by the engines, instead of being
dragged or rolled along the rails; as, finally, this pretended standard,
instead of being constant, varies with the velocity, just as well as
what Mr. Parkes calls the commercial and mtfid effects, so that it is
not more easy to know the one than the others, or that the rule of Mr.

Parkes, which we are going to quote, refers to the one just as well a^
to the others; fur all those reasons, then, we see that the aforesaid
measure is not new, that it does not measure the mechanical effects of
the engines, and finally that it is nothing more or less than the common
useful ettect (weight of engine included), calculated in considering the
whole train raised up in the air and the engine as a mere wagon.

After having thus found upon reasoning the accuracy of his new
measure of the mechanical elfect of the engines, Mr. Parkes proceeds
to show the "powers of this method of analysis" (page 131). Col-
lecting all the erroneous results which he has obtained in his tables,
and admitting then, as accurate, the experiments of the Treatise on
Locomotive Engines, which he thought of demonstrating false before,
Mr. Parkes forms a table in which tie sets in view, on one side, the
vaporization effected by the engine, and on the other side the useful
effect produced, giving it only the name of momentum when it includes
the weight of the engine besides that of the wagons, Then comparing
the vaporization to the eft'ect produced, and taking an average, not
upon his own experiments, since he has made none, but upon all tha
experiments which he has collected from the divers works published
on the subject, he presents (page 130), as the result of his labours, the
following conclusion, which he proposes to substitute in place of every
other kind of research on locomotive engines.

When the velocity of a locomotive engine is augmented in the pro-
portion of 1-52 to 1, the vaporization necessary to produce the same
effects varies in the following proportions :

To produce an equal momentum (an equal useful effect, weight of
wagons and engine included), in the proportion of 1-42 to 1, or in a
proportion something less than that of the velocities ; to produce an
equal commercial gross effect (an equal useful effect, including the
weight of the wagons), in the proportion of 2-43 to 1, or nearly as the
square of the velocities; to produce the same (iSf/uZ effect (the same
useful elfect, net weight), in the proportion of 3-11 to 1, or nearly as
the cubes of the velocities.

This is the definitive result which Mr. Parkes has attained, and the
help of which seems to him to render it needless henceforward to seek
to determine either the friction of the wagons, or that of the engines,
or the resistance of the air, or any thing in fact that may influence the
effects produced ; researches which appear to him to offer insurmount-
able difficulties. Possessed of the niholesale result of Mr. Parkes, no-
thing more will be needed. Does any one wish, for instance, to know
what load a given engine will draw at 25 miles per hour, on a given
inclination ? to know what velocity it will assume with a load of 60
tons ? to know what is the maximum of useful effect that it is capable
of producing ? to know what proportions must be given to it, in order
to obtain desired effects? Why, having recourse to Mr. Parkes's re-
sult, the solution of all these questions is self-evident!

It is evident, on the contrary, that Mr. Parkes's result, even were it
exact instead of being founded on erroneous calculation, could lead to
but one thing, namely, to find the useful effect produced by an engine
at the velocity of 30 miles per hour, when the same effect, in quite
similar circumstances, is known at the velocity of 20 miles. But,
even then, making use of so rough an approximation, in which all is
thrown in the lump : friction of the wagons, friction of the engine, re-
sistance of the air, resistance owing to the blast-pipe, &c., the result
could never be depended on. Assuredly, calculations like these do
not tend to the progress of science ; they would rather lead it back to
its first rudiments. For this reason we persist in our belief that the
only means of calculating locomotive engines, is to endeavour to deter-
mine, as exactly as possible, each of the resislances which oppose their
motion, and by taking an account of the value of those forces in the
calculation, we may then in every case attain a valuation really founded
in principle, of the eHects of every kind that are to be expected from
them.

MR. RANKIN'S WOOD PAVEMENT.
(Mridged from the Polytechnic Journal.)

This new wood pavement is the invention of Mr. Rankin, and
manufactured by Messrs. Esdailes and Margrave at their City saw-
mills. We will first proceed to describe the process of its manufac-
ture from the beginning. A square-sided piece of timber, of a proper
length, is provided, each side being four inches across. By the ap-
plication of the steam machinery at the saw-mills, two equilateral
grooves are rapidly cut along the whole length of the piece. As soon
as this operation is performed, the piece is turned completely over,
and on the side immediately opposite to that previously grooved, two
tongues are cut, in like manner, along its whole length.

2 T 2

30R

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AM) ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[September,

Tlie leiigtli of limber, tluis prepared, will luive two siJes opposite
T) each other with plain surfaces, one of the remaining sides grooved,
and the ci\\\n tongmd ; and in this state it is ready to to be cut into
blocks, to be laid down as street pavement.

Simple as this grooving and toiigning may appear to be, thoy con-
stitute, in fact, a principal ]iart of the merit of the invention. The
fundamental principles of geometry have been strictly attended to iu
their construction, and the result is consonant with an adherence to
scientific laws. The tongues of one piece of timber fit into the grooves
of another ; and when two ))ieces arc thus united, the are not ftish
with each other, but the side of the second piece projects beyond the
side of the first to which it is fastened, exactly half its own width. If
a third length were attached to the second, in the same way that the
second was to the first, the edge of this third length would again pro-
ject beyond that of the second, half its width, and the same effect
would be produced with any number of pieces.

The lengths, first prepared in the way described, will then have to
be cut into blocks. In order to facilitate information on this part of
the plan, we here introduce a diagram.

fig. 1.

Fia

It will be observed there are two shaded parts, C and D, one at
each end of the length. These are cut to waste ; but the amount of
loss is so small as hardlv to be worth consideration in any estimate of
prime cost. With this'trifling exception, the whole of each piece, v.o
matter how long it may be, is brought into use. The dotted lines,
which intersect the length, indicate the direction of the saw when it is
converted into blocks. AAA are base-blocks, and B B B the key-
blocks. Let us, for the sake of an example, sup-
pose tjiat one length is cut into six blocks. Of
these, three are intended to be laid upon the ground
with their bases downward, and the other three to
form the surface of the pavement by reversing this
position, and placing their bases upward; and this
is the only distinction between the blocks of which
Mr. Rankin's pavement is composed. The lower
blocks are called base-blocks, and these support the
others; the upper blocl>s are called key-blocks, and
these firmly interlock the under blocks and them-
selves together. The annexed drawing, fig. 2, re-
presents the g/oond side of a base-block, a and b
being the grooves; and the engraving opposite fig.
:i, presents the loiigiud side of the same base-
block, a and B A being the tongues. The two similar
sides of the key-block are also exhibited in the
accompanying diagrams ; a and b in fig. 1, repre-
senting the grooves, and a in fig. .'> the tongue.
Such is the shape of the blocks of this most in-
Kig. 5. genious pavement; and begging

our readers to bear in mind that
there are but two sets, upper and
lower, and that the individual parts
of every block of each set are geo-
metrically alike, we proceed to the
proof of its advantages, with the
promise of which we started.

As " U.NCHANGEABLENKSS OF

position" is a primary and most
important quality of this pavement, we will first explain how this is
secured. Fig. I! is a representation of five blocks locked together. It
will be noted that four of these are base-blocks, and but one a surface
block. If examined in detail, it will also be found that the key or
surface block is supported by the others, and by all equally; and that
no surface pressure can separate them laterally, or drive them asunder;
so that any weight applied at the surface, is distributed over a base
nearly four times its area ; but these lour base-blocks likewise respec-
tively lock in with four other dilTercnt series of the same kind, and so
on continuously from side to side of the street, where they rest on the
kerbs, and longitudinally from end to end of the pavement; and thus

Fi;.' G.

the weight applied to an individual surface block is not confined to the
four base-blocks, its immediate supporters, but is transmitted through-
out the whole structure, and no one part can yield to the superincum-
bent pressure, without causing a general deflection from kerb to kerb;
and as this is manifestly impossible, except to a small amount, it must
be granted, that the base of the pavement can never be affected, or
dislocated, by any tralfic whatsoever ; no inequality of surface, from
the sinking or depression of individual blocks, can consequently arise,
until the surface blocks themselves are fairly worn out, a residt which
is assuredly much more remote in wood than the public are yet pre-
pared to believe. The construction of this pavement, therefore, as
regards uniform stability of base, places it beyond all comparison with
any stone paving now in use, because it includes the principle of the
arch, the kerbs representing the abutting piers, and the upper or sur-
face blocks the key-stones ; and the greater the weight, the more solid
does the structure become by the tightening process of the wedge-
shaped key-bloeks, with their grooves and tongues. If our readers
will again examine figures 1 and 2, they will observe that the angular
terminations on two opposite sides of the base of every substratum
block (A — A) are chamfered or squared ; and if, furthermore, they
will suppose a row of these blocks to be placed on the ground between
two piers, or abutments, with their chamfered edges together, and the
upper blocks afterwards introduced in their proper place, it will at
once be evident that no sinking can take place without complete de-
struction of the parts. In truth, by this arrangement of shape, un-
changeableness of position is absolutely obtained.

But, after all, the most important consideration in the adoption of
wood as a substitute for stone in the street-paving of the Metropolis,
will ever be the providing an effectual remedy against slu'PEKiness.
No pavement of wood, that does not offer a firm foothold for the horse
in all states of weather, will ever become generally adopted in London.
In every situation, whether in continuous motion, in backing, in being
abruptly pulled up or suddenly started, the horse must be able to main-
tain his feet in precisely the same place in which he places them down,
otherwise wood pavement will not have realised the grand advantage
of which it is susceptible. That nothing of the kind has been hitherto
accomplished, needs but a five minutes' examination of any public
street paved with wood immediately after and during the existence of
a passing shower. The plunging and sliding about of the animals are
then awful. If an omnibus going at the usual speed were suddenly
required to be stopped to take up a passenger, its momentum would
force the horses along the pavement several yards, in spite of all their
efforts to prevent it. In starting too, their feet rapidly slip from under
them for se\ eral moments before they can succeed in moving the vehi-
cle. Frequently they fall down and are injured, and the greatest pre-
cautions aie necessary under such circumstances to prevent accidents.
These things happen because there is no foothold for the horse in
damp weather upon any of the wood pavements hitherto introduced.
We can testify, of our own knowledge, that the reverse of this is the
fact in the case of Mr. Kankin's pavement. Indeed, it speaks for itself;
no argument is required to prove that the foot of a horse cannot slip
over its surface. At the same time it offers no resistance to the un-
interrupted progress of the wheel, and therefore a remedy against slip-
periness is not obtained by any sacrifice of facility of traction. A
general character of the paving may be gleaned from the annexed en-
graving.

1841.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

309

Fig. 7.

Here, then, us the licencees fairly remark, is a pavement, removing
at once the great and liitherto insurmountable evil attending the use
of wood, the insecurity of the horse's foothold; and offering a facility
of removal equal to the present stone paving, and an evenness of sur-
face, and combination of construction, together with an absence of
lioise and increase of cleanliness, which wood alone can give.

We have felt great pleasure in thus calling the attention of tlie
public to the invention of Mr. Rankin, because we know it to be very
ingenious, and believe it to be, for all seasons, by far the best wood
pavement hitherto made public. The government ought to allow an
experiment upon an extended scale to be made with it duty free, for
the question of wood pavement is one of metropolitan, if not of na-
tional, convenience.

PROFESSOR FREUND, DANISH SCULPTOR.

If not in the fine arts generally, the north of Europe has distinguished
itself in sculpture — that one of them, on which the fame of Greece
now chiefly rests, and which more especially demands a critical study
of beautiful forms and proportions. The eminent and excellent sculp-
tors Sweden and Denmark — and we may add Russia — have given
birth to, sufficiently vindicate their pretensions and character in that
branch of art. The names of Martos (+18.35) and Boris Orlovsky
(+]S37),of Sergell, Bystrom, and Fogelberg (belonging to Russia and
Sweden), may be said to be European ones, while that of the great
Danish master almost dims that of Canova himself. Neither is it of
her Thorwaldsen alone that Denmark has cause to be proud, since she
ran boast of having given to the world another highly gifted sculptor
in Hermann Freimd, who died at Copenhagen in July 1840.

Of this last-mentioned artist we are not as yet prepared to give
any biographical sketch, nor even to enumerate his principal works.
We are enabled, however, to state a few particulars relative to some
of his subjects from ancient northern mythology, which had been a
favourite study with him, and of whose imagery and traditions he
sought to avail himself for plastic and sculpture, in like manner as his
countryman Oehlenschlager has done for poetry and the drama. It
was here that he displayed poetical conception, a noble simplicity, a
characteristic yet graceful severity, free from aught like mannerism,
and from those mere conventionalities upon which so much stress
seems to have been laid by most modern sculptors, to the exclusion of
either originality or feeling. Among the works of the class above
referred to, is a bas-relief representing the three Nomas or northern
Fates, who are consulted by Mimer, Baldur, and the Valkyrias, in
consequence of Iduna, the goddess of youth, having been carried off
by the evil spirit Loke, and thereby both gods and mortals subjected
to the infirmities of age and decay. In this dilemma Baldur, the
Apollo of the Scandinavians, solicits the counsel of Mimer, the god of
wisdom, and he, being unable to assist by his advice, they both pro-
ceed to solicit that of the Nomas. These last form the centre group
in the composition, and represent Veranda, she who presides over
the preiiait, Ur, who presides over the;;as/, and is here seen recoiding
its events upon a tablet; and Skulda, or the future, wiWi her finger

upon her lips. To the riglit of these figures are those of Mimer and
Baldur, the former with a long beard and arrayed in a bear's skin, the
other a beautiful youth, vying in form with his classical prototype.
To the left of the centre group are the three Valkyrias (whose office
it was to tend upon the souls of the blest in Valhalla, the Scandinavian
Elysium), who are here represented as attired in long under garments,
and with wings growing from their temples.

Among Freund's single figures and statues are many representing
personages belonging to the same mvthological system : viz. Odin,
Thor, Freya, Iduna, Bragur & Loke. the first-nipn'tioned of these is
seated on u throne, and wears a diadem inscribed with Runic charac-
ters. He is the Scadinavian Zeus, and like the Grecian one, is dis-
tinguished by majesty of appearance, but his features are more aged,
his form less expressive of strength ; for though superior in power to
the rest of the deities, Odin was supposed to be liimself under the
control of Fate — an arbiter more awful and tremendous than even the
sovereign of the gods. His attributes are two ravens, seated on the
arms of the throne, which were the messengers commissioned to bear
his orders to gods and mortals — and two wolves couched at his feet.

Thor or the Thunder-god, is a standing figure, with his right foot
advanced forwards, and looking earnestly on one side. He is here
supposed to have just hurled forth his lightning, and to be striking a
thunder-peal with his hammer. This figure — which is somewhat be-
tween that of a Jupiter and a Hercules — is quite naked with the ex-
ception of a wolf's skin, hanging upon one arm, and reaching to the
ground. Beside him is a coat of mail, which serves to support and
balance tlie statue. In a second figure he is somewhat differently
represented — in a more composed attitude, with his hammer in his
right, resting upon his armour, and a thunderbolt in his left.

In the group of Freya, the goddess fabled to preside over sexual
passion, that figure is represented veile<l, resting lier chin on her right
hand, and holding a wreath of flowers. On one side of her is Siofne
(under whom was typified the first emotion of love), endeavouring to
draw aside her veil and behold her countenance ; while on the other
is Hnos, or Enjoyment, with her left arm around her mother Freya's
neck. Both Siofne and Hnos are naked figures. So far the allegory
seems well conceived, but there is one circumstance which, though it
may be significant enough as a symbol, is far more associated with the
ludicrous, than with either the sentimental or poetical, according to
modern ideas ; for instead of turtle-doves, the northern Venus has at
her feet — two cats! as images of the potent influence of la belle pas-
sion !

Iduna, the Scandinavian Hebe, is represented by a graceful youthful
figure, holding in her left hand a patera filled with apples, and in her
right a cup of mead. Her luxuriant tresses fall from beneath a long
pointed cap, similar to that still worn by the maidens of Iceland,
wdiich han^s down behind, where it terminates in a tassel.

Bragur, her consort, and the Scandinavian deity of poetry and min-
strelsy, and wdiose office it is to recreate the indwellers of Valhalla
with his songs, is shown in the act of playing upon his harp, which is
attached to a riband that crosses his shoulders.

The evil malicious spirit, Loke, is characteristically described —
under a shape speakingly expressive of the disposition attributed to
him. There is something stealthy in his very attitude, as he creeps
along resting his chin upon his left hand, while brooding upon mis-
chief. His other claw-shaped hand is partly concealed beneath his
mantle, as are likewise his long and ugly ears, and his bat-wings.

However admirable may be the talent manifested in those produc-
tions, it is with us a question whether it might not have been more
advantageously employed. If heathen mythology is now worn out, if
it does not address itself to our sympathies, especially when served
up — as it necessarily must be in modern sculpture, at second-hand ;
that of Scandinavia has to contend with the additional disadvantage
of being less known, consequently less intelligible. All attempts to
revive it, to bring it again into vogue, either in poetry or the graphic
and plastic arts have proved comparative failures. Did the fame of
Gray rest chiefly upon his productions of that class, it would be much
less than what it actually is; or rather, he would share the fate of
Sayers, whose northern poetry has been descanted upon and praised
by critics, to be forgotten — supposing it ever to have been regarded —
by the public.

A new Paving.— yi, Polonceau. the engineer of Paris, proposes a new mode
of paving for Paris, consisting of artificial stones made of clay, sand, and
[jiilverized charcoal. This mixture stood heat well, and became vitrified ; it
also dried without cracking. The stones were made in an he.xagonal fonn,
and could be put ilown or taken up one by one. Government had given
leave for an experiment to be made of this system in one of the streets of the
capital.

310

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[September,

COMPETITION DESIGNS.

(Benevolent Imtitution for the Relief of Aged and Injlrm Journey man

Tailors.)

The mal-administration of competitions for designs becoming every
day more apparent, the indignities ami imposition practiced upon
architects who are foolish enougli to yield to importunilv and submit
the result of their labours to the decision of men not merely unfitted
for the task, but in most cases prepared to decide in a certain maimer
even before tlie reception of the drawings, becoming additionally

flaring, it surely only needs that some few more hi me-cases should
e brought forcibly before the public eye to induce the entire aban-
donment of the present scandalous system, and to enforce from com-
mittees an honest decision and something like consideration for the
time and talents of the professional men applied to. With this view
we proceed to lay before our readers the particulars of a recent com-
petition which have come to oiir knowledge in the hope that the
statement may aid in rousing public indignation against such pro-
ceedings : furthermore, we have a latent hope that by putting the
whole matter fairly before tlie parties interested they may be led, as it
is not yet too late, to retrace their steps.

Some few months ago the Committee of the Institution named at
the head of this article, requiring designs for an asylum which they
propose to erect in the Hampstead Road, invited a limited number
of architects to forward drawings, namely Messrs. Lee and Duesbury,
Mr. Jones, Mr. VuUiamy, Mr. Thomas Meyer, Messrs. Winterbottom
and Sands, Mr. George Godwin, and Mr. E. H. Browne.

It being understood that one of the competitors, namely Mr. Meyer,
was brother of a member of the Committee and had already sent in a
design, some of the other architects inquired pointedly whether or not
this gentleman was to be in any degree considered more than the rest,
and were informed by various members of the committee that the best
design would positively be accepted whether made by Mr. A. or
Mr. B. Designs were accordingly sent in by all the gentlemen we
have named. A building committee was appointed by the general
committee to examine the drawings, and recommend for adoption that
which they considered the best. They accordingly met various
times, gave a long consideration to the matter, and ultimately selected
Mr. Godwin's design as the fittest for their purpose ; a written report
to this effect was drawn up and the matter was talked of out of doors
as a thing settled. Several weeks having elapsed after this had
reached Mr. Godwin's ears accidentally, without his receivhig any
special communication, he applied to know how the competition had
terminated, and the following letter was shortly afterwards sent to hira:

Benevolent Institution, S;c.
32, Sach'ille Street,
\ithJuly, 1841.
Sia — I beg leave to inform you that, by a decision of the Board of Di-
rectors, their choice of an architect has fallen on V.i. Meyer.

I am, Sir,

Your obedient servant,
George Godwin, Jun., Esq. T. P. Davidson, Sec.

The gentleman to whom this was addressed accordingly called the
next day to fetch away his drawings, and being shown into the room
of meeting, saw there five of the seven sets of designs, including those
selected as the best. In consequence of this examination he imme-
diately addressed a letter to the Board, which, as it puts the whole
matter in the fairest point of view possible we here annex

To the President and Directors of the Institution/or the relief of infirm
Journeyman I'aihrt.

Brompton, July 17, 1841.

Gentlemkx — I have the honour to acknowledge a note from your Secre-
tary, stating " that the choice of an architect has fallen on Mr. Meyer."

Some time previously I was told, in three different quarters, that my plans
had been selected by the Committee as the most approved, and I fclti there-
fore, a little disappointed on receiving official intimation to the contrary ;
still, considering tliat I must have been misinformed, I was of course quite
disposed to bow to the decision in silence, and to believe that a better plan
than my own had been chosen.

Applying, however, a few days hack in SackviUe Street to regain the draw-
ings, I there saw the various designs of the other competitors. Amongst
them were those of the preferred candidate, and an examination of these led
me to the conviction, that such a decision had not been come to as those
architects who had given their time and attention to the subject at the re-
quest of the IJoard, had every right to expect. I make this remark with the
greatest deference to every member of the Board, for many of whom per-
sonally I have great respect.
, Far be it from me to deny that the Boai'd had right to appoint arv archi-

tect they pleased ; what I would very deferentially submit is, that having
induced six or seven architects to make plaus for the proposed asylum, at an
expense of both time and money, ia the full persuasion that the author of the
best design wonid be aiipoiuted to execute the building, the Board were
bound to make that selection »olely on the ground of superiority, and with-
out reference to the name of the author of the plan.

That such has not l)ccn the case, referring solely to the designs submitted,
anil without the slightest intention of disparaging Mr. Meyer's fitness for
the task, I venture without hesitation to assert.

Apart from private grounds (and even in this respect, as my jilan was se-
lected by the Buihliug Committee after due consideration, as the best adapted
to your purpose, I am, perhaps, authorized to address you,) I am induced ttt
this step by strong pnhlic motives — by that desire to obtain a just adminis-
tration of competitions for designs which is felt at tliis time by all those who
wish the prosperity of the arts in England.

On this ground then, gentlemen, 1 appeal to your sense of justice, and the
desire which, 1 will venture to behcve, you all have to maintain the gOod
opinion of the world, to give this matter re-consideration.

I hope sincerely that you will not deem any thing I have said disrespectful
in the slightest degree, and that you will permit me to subscribe myself,
gentlemen,

(Waiting your decision),

Your hmnble servant,

Geo. Godwin, Jun., Architect.

The result of this letter was that the Board, at their next meeting,
refused to confirm the appointment of Mr. Meyer, and it was proposed
that the whole of the designs should be referred back to the decision
of one or more architects. A subsequent meeting, however, influenced
in a manner one would hardly venture to hint at, overturned this in-
tention and confirmed the original appointment. Here the matter
stands. We have seen the various plans, and without stopping to
inquire whether Mr. Godwin's plan is the best (a point we don't in
the least care for), we have no hesitation in saying that not merely is
the selected design not the best, but that it is perhaps the least en-
titled of any one of the seven to claim for its author the appointment.
If the Board desired to employ Mr. Meyer, why did they not do so in
the first instance ? No one would have questioned bis fitness, or their
right to appoint. But having given seven gentlemen the trouble, and
led them into the expence, by special invitation, of preparing designs,
we assert that the Board were bound, by every feeling of honesty, to
appoint the author of the best plan, without the slightest reference to
his name or his connexion with the society. We hope even now it is
not too late for redress.

COMPETITION.

Sir — If your readers will refer to the Athenaeum for the last month, they
will find an account of a highly entertaining squabble arising out of the com-
petition for a new church in the parish of Paddington.

When this competition was announced, I applied for the particulars, and
subsequently for further information ou a few points which did not appear to
my humble comprehension to be quite explained in the instructions. With-
out troubling you with the whole list, I will mention one question, viz. How
many of the prescribed sittings were to be in pews, and how many in free
seats ? to which I took the liberty to add the further inquiries, whether any
member of the vestry would be permitted to compete, and to whose judg-
ment the designs were to be submitted. To which answer was made, to the
first question, that many architects had applied for the like information, but
that the instructions already given were considered sufficient— to the second,
that no member of the vestry could have an interest in any parish work — and
to the third, that it was calculated to give great offence I and that it was
quite enough for the architect to know that the parties concerned were "all
honouralile men."

Of course all applicants were obliged to be content with the same answers,
for, of course, nobody gave, or profited by, private information — nobody ever
does. 1 submit, therefore, that any one who competed after receiving such
answers, got what he deserved, whatever he may have or may think he has
to complain of, and I trust th.at none of the profession who lend themselves
to the system of scrambUng for jobs in the dark, will ever be better treated.

I am, Sir,

26<A August. Yonr obedient servant,

T. J.

ON RAILWAY CARRIAGE WHEELS.

Sir — In your number for June last, there is a paper, page 197, pro-
fessing to contain accounts of improvements iu Railway Carriage
Wheels.

The writer's first two heads of method contain two different modes
of constructing the axle of a pair of wheels, to allow these to turn in-
dependently. One would infer from his manner of stating the modes,
that they should be united in one pair. They evidently cannot. At
all events, he implies that, on either plan, the independent rolling of

1841 .J

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

311

the wheels, together, I suppose, with the additional fliUiges, would
entirely prevent the engines being thrown oil' the line by an obstacle.
Now the indtpendaice of their rates of motion cannot facilitate the
prevention of such an accident.

In his third head he tells us that his wheels should be of cast iron,
preferably to malleable iron. But why this preference ? It is uni-
versally agreed that malleable iron is superior to cast iron for all wheels
of the kind now in use. Why are tlie writer's wheels to be an excep-
tion ? Is it oil account of spreading? The writer himself says that
malleable iron wheels spread out only on the bare side. And, there-
fore, now that they are to be flanged on both sides, the spread will be
checked, therefore let us yet use malleable iron. There is no other
new circumstance requiring this change of metal. The jolts, strains,
and every thing else will be the same. Again, therefore, let us yet
use malleable iron. His preference for cast iron is of a kind with the
dislike of Dr. Pell versified in the immortal quartet so often quoted.
Again, he says that the wheels as they are double flanged will not re-
quire to be so strong as at present, because side jolts will be divided
between the opposite wheels. The consummation of lateral strains
and jolts would be both wheels rising on the rails, which case, there-
fore, we must consider in judging of the required strength. Admitting
the writer's assumption that both wheels share the strain equally,
(which however cannot always be, as in cases of variation of gauge,
which fact itself is an argument against his conclusion), it is clear, as
Telford has it, that the engine on being raised, is elevated on both
rails through the depth of flanges, and that therefore its centre of gra-
vity also rises through the mean depth of flanges. Now with the
single-flange wheels the engine would be raised only on one side,
through the depth of flange, and therefore its centre of gravity rises
through only one half this depth. It is clear again, then, that double
flanged wheels would have as tight work each as the single flange
wheel, and therefore would require to be as strong. What right has
he to deny this, who never proved the contrary? He again says that
the face of the wheels ought to be in outline a circular segment instead
of conical. Now the face of a wheel, as he views it, is not conical ;
it is a straight line inclined to tlie axis. He proceeds to mention by
wholesale the great saving in his plan. Particularly, he says, no at-
tention will be required in laying the rails to an angle in straight parts.
What although, there will be the same attention altogether in laying
them horizontally? At all events, he allows that the angular position
is required at curves. But under the fifth head, he says that railways
are all curves together; therefore he must conclude against himself
that the saving in straight parts is just nothing, since he supposes
there to be no straight parts at all.

Again, he says that the inclination of the rails the same way on
curves instead of towards each other, as now set, will enable gravity
to act more forcibly. This can be only on the ground that the com-
parative virtual velocity in the direction of gravity is greater in the
first case than in the other. The writer has evidently not troubled
himself as to the truth of this gratuitous statement. It would be easy
to prove that the centre of gravity moves through equal depths for the
same horizontal movement, in both cases. And therefore is he entirely
wrong.

Again, he says that the inclination of the rails to one another in pre-
sent plans causes great friction on the journals. How so? The pres-
sure on the journals must be the same. Nor is there any twisting or
other adverse action of the kind. 'In fact, the only sources of fric-
tion by this cause would be at the contact of wheels and rails, owing
to the wedge-like action of the conical wheels, which is utterly insig-
nificant. Again, each wheel cannot possibly press th.e other against
the rail, for their action is equal and opposile, and therefore nothing.
In his fourth head he has asserted all, proved nothing. How did he
know the exact saving of power he mentions? It is evident that his
improvement was never in operation. What right had he then, when
he knows nothing about it, to pronounce so decisively as he has done,
and that not only in this paragraph, but throughout the whole paper.

His last notable and most ridiculous statement is set down in the
fifth head. He tells us that railway curves do all differ in intensity,
and they must therefore be of various radii. But this evideiitiv re-
quires wheels of various diameters to suit them, and to produce that
sweetly-gliding motion which he loves. This exigence is beautifully
provided for in conical wheels. Now he proposes to set his engine
running upon the flanges of the wheels forsooth when they enter
upon curves. By this exceedingly quack plan, the wheels are evi-
dently adapted to only one kind of cuive, and would therefore, on any
other curve, grub up the rails most sweetly indeed.
I am, vour's, respectfully,

D. C.
Glasgow, July 9, 1841.

QUESTIONS FOR THE OPINION OF THE EDITOR.

Sir— I shall feel obliged if you will inform me if I could sustain a
charge in a court of law under the following circumstances. In the
early part of the year I was applied to, amongst other tradesmen in
the parish, to tender for certain alterations and additions required to
a building, in the erection of schools, and iu due course I was informed
that my tender was accepted, and that a delay of a week would most
likely take place, but from that time to this, a period of sis months
and upwards, I heard nothing of the matter until a day or two
since, when I received a letter (certainly a polite letter), statino- cir-
cumstances prevented the design from being carried into eflfecl, and
that they were sorry I could not have an opportunity of carrying my
contract into effect.

Do you not think. Sir, I should be fully justified in charging two
per cent on the amount of my tender, .as some judgment was necessary
and much time taken up in making the estimate.

I am. Sir,

Yuur obedient servant,
^>ig- 9. T. O. M.

In all cases when our opinion is required, we should be furnished
with full particulars; for instance, in the above case, a copy of the
advertisement should have been forwarded. Taking for granted that
there is nothing very special in the wording of the advertisement, and
that there was nothing pers(3nally objectionable to the tradesman
making the tender as to his general way of doing business in point of
construction, or for want of pecuniary means to fulfil liis contract, we
are then of opinion that a claim could be legally substantiated against
the parties advertising.

We have some recollection of a case being fried about six months
since, either in the Sherifts' or Secondaries' Court in London, of a
builder suing a person for tlie trifling sum of about 3/. for his loss of
time in making an estimate of some works; after receiving the tender,
the defendant declined employing the plaintiff; without showing any
reasonable excuse ; in this case the plaintitf recovered the sum sued for.
Our impression is that there are ether cases which might be cited;
probably, before our next number appears, some of our readers will
be able to furnish us with some information regarding this question,
which is one of very great importance, not only to the builder, but
also to the profession. — Editor.

Sir — I thank you for your reply respecting the legal arrangement
of chimney flues, and from which I gather that the termination at top,
if of different materials from the stack, may be of any size that one
pleases ; but suppose I choose to have nothing resembling a chimney-
pot, is it your opinion that the law will forbid such a contraction for
the last two or three feet of the brick or stone, as is now effected by
the addition of the cement or pottery abominations ?

I am. Sir,

Jlug. 10. Your obedient servant,

A subscriber.

If the chimney be built as our correspondent suggests, it will be
necessary, in our opinion, to construct it with an aperture not less than
14 in. by 9 or 12 inches diameter, agreeably to the Act. We hope
that the legislature will see the iiecessity for altering the clause in the
act before it comes into operation ; the Architects' institute or Society
should interfere and obtain a repeal or modification of the objectionable
clause before the act comes into operation. — Editor.

Sir — I have lately had an opporturdty of seeing the Illustrations of
Ancient Halls by Nash. Now it struck me at the time, that though
they were certainly very pleasing to the eye, how much more useful,
simple but correct outline elevations and plans would have been to the
architect and other?, as it would be the means not only of preserving
a true delineation of the subject, but would also be the means of fur-
nishing numerous d.ita in erecting similar edifices, which I know lo be
useful to all. Now as many very beautiful specimens still exist in
this part of the country, I have it in contemplation to bring out a work
of this kind. The only question is, whether architects will patronize
it as they ought to do, as I am sure plans, elevations, &c., of such
buildings must be very acceptable to them. If you will be kind
enough to give your opinion in your next number, I shall feel greatly
obliged.

A Subscriber.

Such a work as our correspondent describes has already been com-
menced, but not proceeded with. We think a work got up at a
moderate price, suitable for the architect, might stand a chance of
meeting with support, but we are afraid to recommend the publishing

312

THE CIVIL EXGINEKR AND ARCHITPXT'S JOURNAL.

TSkptember.

of it, as it is very iloubtful if our correspondent would be remunerated
for his labour. — Kditok.

MOVE.\BLE FURNACE B.\RS.

Sir — With your permission I beg to make the following remark ret-pecting
an article vrhiuli appeared in your valuable Journal of last July, under tlie
head of " New Inventions and Improvements." Tlie article in question is
one which I suppose to be an cvtract from the specification of ^Ir. C. W.
Williams's patent im]irovements in furnaces and boilers.

If there be any credit due to thediscovery of the method therein described,
for producing the continual up-and-down movements in the grate bars, that
credit is most certainly due to the late Mr. Matlicw Murray of Leeds, who
had the furnace of an eight horse steam engine, so constructed as to keep the
grate bars continually in motion, by means of small eccentrics formed on a
horizontal shaft, which revolved beneath, and supported the ends of the grate
bars next to the furnace bars. This was done with an intention to prevent
the formation of clinkers, and to keep the fire perfectly clear ; but, as the
plan did not prove perfectly satisfactory to the inventors, the whole system
was very shortly taken out, and rciilaecd by that then most commonly adopted.
It appears to me somewhat singular that this contrivance, thougli upwards of
fourteen years old, should at length become the leading feature in a specifi-
cation of patented impro\ements.

I am. Sir, with great respect,

Your humble servant,

FtORKNTINr..

J/olteck, Augusl 16, 1841.

REVIE^VS.

«/4 (Series of Original Dvsigm for Churches and Chapila in the ^nglv-
Norman, Early English, Decoralin English, and Perpendicular
Sti/kn (f Eccltsiaslical Architecture, including also dcsigits/or Rec-
tory Houses and Schools in the Domestic English and Tudor Styles.
By Frederick J. Fb.\ncis, Architect. London: John Weale, 1841.

This forms the tirst part cf a series of original designs, whicli are
divided into four classes. 1. The Norman. 2. The Early English.
3. The Decorated English, and 4, the Perpendicular English. We do
not think liowever from the specimens before us tliat Mr. Francis is
so happy with his pencil as with liis pen, neither are we of opinion
that these designs are likely to induce the Church Building Commis-
sioners to abandon their " Barn Church Architecture." We might
instance several defects, for instance in design No. 1, we have the
principal entrance opening direct into the body of the Churcli witliout
any lobby, or second entrance; the same again in the side entrance of
No. 2, nor do we admire the stunted steeples which have been intro-
duced in designs Nos. 2 and G, the pedimental parapet of No. 7.
and the stepped parapet of No. 12 design, nor the square hood mould-
ing over the pointed windows of the clere-story.

Description of a Series of Geological Models. By T. Sopwith, M. Inst.
C.E., F.R.S., &c. Newcastle : Blaekwell.

^As a Mineral Surveyor Mr. Sopwith has had excellent opportunities
of acquiring practical geological information, and he has been no less
successful in imparting it to the public. The models, which this work
is intended to describe, illustrate the nature of stratification, valleys of
denudation, succession of seams in the Newcastle Coal Field, the
effects produced by faults or dislocations of the strata, intersection of
mineral veins, kc. These models are very ingenious and useful, and
the work before us besides being a necessary companion to them, is
of great interest on its own individual account. The illustrations
being drawn from actual inspection, and greatly to the merits of the
■work, whicli abouuds in practical instruction on mining geology.

PARLIAMENTARY PROSPECTS OF THE ENGINEERING
INTEREST.

A change in the administration of the country being imminent, it is
the bounden duly of the engineers, both civil and mechanical, to profit
by tlie present state of affairs to obtain redress for their luuneroiis
grievances. No time can be more appropriate than the opening cf a
new parliament to canvass for a change in the Standing Orders of the
House of Commons, and the formation of a ministry is a good oppor-
tunity for securing a sound system of government policy. When we

consider the vastness of the interests involved, and the extent of in-
fluence at the command of tlie engineers, we entertain no doubt of a
relief from the oppressions by which they have hitherto been afHicted.
It may not be in the power of the engineers to meet together at this
season and act in concert, but it is at least open to them to exert them-
selves individually in influencing the members for their several towns
and districts, who may be calleu on to co-operate in a cause, which is
nonpolitical, and of the greatest importance to the industrial interests
of the country. It is perhaps fortunate that Sir Robert Peel has
hitherto shown himself favourable to our interests, and we think tliat
after the formation of a new ministry under his guidance, no time
should be lost in ascertaining by a deputation of men of all parties the
course he intends to take upon the momentous (juestions of the Stand-
ing Orders, Railways, Steam Navig-ation and the Irish Railways, so
that the engineers might be able to take their measures accordingly.

MR. JOHN SCOTT RUSSELL'S TREATISE ON STEAM
NAVIGATION.

Sill — In a late Treatise on Steam Navigation, by John Scott Russell,
I observed a statement regarding a steamer lately constructed on the
wave-line principle, which ran thus, page 3U1, " the next and last
vessel is the Flambeau, built in ISIU, on the wave principle, by Mr.
Duncan of (ireenock, with the co-operation of the present writer.
This vessel with the smallest proportion of power to tonnage, and with,
the smallest supply of steam, is nevertheless by far the swiftest vessel
on the Clyde." Now I think " the present writer" ought not (althougli
the vessel was constructed on the wave principle), to have allowed
himself to go beyond the bounds of truth, I mean in the three last sen-
tences. 1st. "She has the smallest proportion of power to tonnage."
This is certainly doubtful, as you will see by the following indicator
diagram, taken when at the speed of 24 strokes, (now she has many
times made 27 strokes per minute), making 13S horse power; not as
Mr. Russell has supposed, or rather wishes to make the world believe
to be "0 only. Now taking her at 2^)0 tons measurement, we have
=^ =z 2 tons per horse power. If that is the smallest, pray what may
be the largest,— and yet with all this she was not by far the swiftest.

2ud. " With the smallest supjily of steam." I understand the first
boiler was not capable of sujjplying steam to the engine the whole
length of stroke, so that they ex|iaiided one-third or 2U inches, as was
intended, and pressed a little higher to compensate ; yet so much was
Mr. Russell disappointed with the speed of the vessel, that he attri-
buted the deficiency of speed to the deficiency of steam, and accord-
ingly with his usual tact, got the proprietors prevailed upon to put in
another boiler that should follow up the steam, which they accordingly
did, and pressed at about (5 or 7 lb. ; the result was her speed diminished
to Mr. Russeirs inortificatiou, and time, labour, and money lost to the
proprietors.

3rd. " Is nevertheless the swiftest on the Clyde." With her first
boilers I grant she was the swiftest last season, only when she made
the 27 strokes, but this season she is not classed aiiiong the swiftest.
Now this is a statement of facts, as Mr. Russell knows very well.
Cylinder 4S in. diam. 48= X-7S54 x 14 X 240 „, ,
Stroke 5 feet. - ^ .^^^^y =1^8 horse power.

.Mean pressure 14 lb.

Your in ortiou of the above in your useful Journal, will oblige,
Vour obedient servant,

.lug-ust 14, 1S4I.

H.

1841.

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT S JOURNAL.

313

REMARKS ON RAILWAYS REPORT AND EVIDENCE.— 1841.

Sir — The report of the " Select Committee appointed to consider
whether it is desirable for the public safety to vest a discretionary
power of issuing Regulations for the prevention of Accidents upon
Railways, in the Board of Trade: and if so, under what conditions
and limitations;" together with the evidence upon which such report
has been founded, has fallen under my notice, and with the view of
adding my experience and reflections to the general fund of infor-
mation upon railways, I request the favour that you will lay the fol-
lowing observations before the public at your earliest opportunity.

I am an engineer of 18 years' experience in my profession, and for
the last G years have been'intimately connected with railways, princi-
pally in endeavouring to introduce into the system various contri-
vances by which the public safety will be increased.

It has' occurred to me as a matter of great regret that the Com-
mittee was not assisted, during its deliberation, by a practical engi-
neer fully versed in the various railway details which were brought
under its consideration, a practice which is quite usual in the Admi-
ralty Courts, by which the testimony of the various witnesses would
have been checked ; for it is just evident, had such been the case, the
extraordinary opinions and assertions advanced by some of them,
would never have been broached, as it is clear, when the questions of
the Committee were directed in such a way as to convict a witness
from his own testimony, the party never failed to take refuge behind
some technical det^iils, into the peculiarities of which the Committee
could not follow. A striking instance of this occurs in (Question 5G7)
Mr. Brvnel's evidence, who states as the probable cause of accident,
" that perhaps a pair of wheels upon a train is slightly out of gauge,
being too narrow, that in passing some guard-rail they get strained,
and that when they come to a part of the line which is rather wide in
gauge, they get off, and the train is delayed." Now every technical
man of experience knows that if a pair of wheels be out of gauge,
the fault is in the construction of the spindle, for if every spindle is
made with a collar or shoulder, so that the b:ick of the boss of the
wheel butts against it, a method I invariably practice, if the
wheel run round upon its axle it could never get out of gauge, so that
a re^ida/ion providing that every axle should be made with shoulders
would be a very wise and proper regulation, and would apply to all
railways whatever.

In another part of his evidence !\Ir. Brunei states th,it amongst
other causes of accident, "a policeman immediately runs up, and stands
right in the way of the tail-lamp of the train, and the next train runs
into it. Now the majority of persons W'Ould say, that if the police-
man had done his duty, and showed a red light, and if the engine-man
had seen the red light, there would have been no accident." If
the policeman, in the case of accident, received positive instructions
to run back 50U yards and hold his red light, so that the engineer of
the succeeding train should not fail seeing it, this precaution, one
which I have invariably insisted upon, under whatever case or form of
accident, is, and would always be, an efficacious and proper regulation.

Mr. Brunei states, amongst other minor improvements, it would be
better for the wheel not to touch the guard-rail; a man who knew
any thing of a railway would then have inquired th^ use of the guard-
rail, because, this being placed purposely to guard the wheel from the
point on the opposite rail, if the wheel was not governed by it, it is
useless — and there is no secondary use for it, as Mr. Brunei endea-
vours to make it a]ipear in Ques. G04, and so far as the use and prin-
ciple of the guard-rails go, it is the same in all cases on all raihcays.

There is another observation in the same answer, so palpably in the
teeth of experience, that I cannot fail here to notice it, and that is the
denial on the part of Mr. Brunei that railway improvements can be
made by any parties excepting by those connected with railways. It
would have been a proper question following this assertion, if Mr.
Brunei had been asked whether his own father was originally a block
maker, and whether the fact of his not being so would have been a
proper reason for Sir Jeremy Bentham declining the encouragement
due to Sir I. Brunei's very admirable machinery for making blocks by
machinery — or whether the illustrious Watt was an engine driver, or
before his improvements in steam engines he was actually accustomed
to the management of steam engines — or whether Arkwright was a
cotton spinner — or Mr. James, the fatlier of railways, previously to
his conception of railway extension, was intimately and exclusively
connected with railway matters — and lastly the inquiry might have
been made, wdiat improvements have been introduced, I will not say
invented, by railivay engineers since the formation of the Liverpool
and Manchester Railway, and in what respect this last mentioned
railway differs essentially from a colliery railway that had been
formed half a century before it.

And whence does it arise that the improvement of railways, con-
trasts so essentially with the advances made by the great branches of
trade, and manufactures, since their fir^:t introduction, but from the fact
of the monopoly of the companies on the one hand, and the disincli-
nation of railway engineers to introduce any contrivance wdiich does
not emanate from themselves, on the other; had a liberal spirit pre-
vailed amongst engineers, and had they the judgment to select fiom
the mass of crude suggestions offered to them, railways would have
been bv this time not only safe by contrast with stage coaches,
but absolutely so, there is no reason why the system should not
have been so formed as that, by no chance or design could an injury
happen to passengers, and no one contrivance would conduce to this
result more certainly and more directly than the adoption of the
low carriage, upon the ]ninciple of those invented by myself, and
in use upon the Greenwich Railway, and although Mr. Entwistle takes
credit for the arrangements upon the Greenwich line, inasmuch as
G,SOO,0'JO passengers have been carried without the loss of life or limb
to any one, he had not the candour to admit that this gratifying result
is to be attributed mainly to the construction of the carriages, for the
accidents from broken axles, &c., have been much greater upon the
Greenwich line than upon any other in the country, and but for the
low carriages, some most awful accidents would have resulted. I may
here mention that the Board of Directors to which Mr. Entwistle be-
longs, have not only done their worst to disgust the public by the
manner in wdiich their carriages are kept, but they would have been
long since abolished by the Directors but for the resistance made to
that measure by the parties who are in the habit daily of using the
line. This fact is one more in proof of the necessity of some super-
vising power to control the measures of railway managers.

The mode in which Mr. Brunei attacks the recommendation of Sir
F. Smith that an engine should not be loaded beyond a certain amount,
proves again the necessitv that a technical judge should have been in
communication with the Committee ; in that case I can scarcely be-
lieve Mr. Brunei would have indulged in the same arguments. The
power of a locomotive is resolvable into two elements, the quantity
of water evaporated by it, and the gradients it passes over ; therefore,
instead of appealing to one of these elements, viz. the gradients, had
Mr. Brunei included both, the proposition of Sir F. Smith would have
proved a most reasonable one. Had Sir F. Smith's proposition been
that the load behind an engine should bear a certain ratio with the
area of the cylinders, multiplied by a certain constant, having a ratio
with the average gradients of the line, it would have amounted to the
very rule of every-day pvactice upon any railway whatever, and by
making either of these ratios fully within the average working con-
dition of an engine, he could have so defined his object as to have
ensured the punctual observance of his rule by the railway companies,
a rule to which no reasonable objection could be made.

The advantage resulting from massing the trains, by the average
power being thus obtained from the engines connected together, is, in
my opinion, a very questionable one : supposing a very heavy train
has tuo engines a head, and that the last engine runs so dry as to be
useless ; supposing, likewise, that the train is at a considerable dis-
tance from a siding or watering place, or a station whence another
engine can be obtained, the power of the engine in good order will be
almost entirely absorbed in dragging the defective en^iue behind it,
and thus, the entire load will be retarded, and perhaps dangerously so.
Had each engine taken its own load, the defective engine with its
load would 'have been alone delayed : and, talking of expense, it
would have been much better economy that a disabled engine and a
small load should have been left at the first siding out of Bristol, than
that a good engine should be strained and worked violently, and a
heavy train delayed a considerable time throughout its journey to
London, deranging all the arrangements, and endangering the line
throughout. As to the maximum velocity, that could be disposed of
in the way before mentioned, for the word power is resolved into the
same elements, whether it be employed for draught or flight.

Mr. Brunei states "that with the best assistance of professional
men, and others whose whole time asd pecuUar capabilities are ap-
plied to the system, we find it difficult enough to make our regulations
sufficiently general to apply even upon our own line, and that the
great diffi'culty in drawing up auy code of regulations always is, to
make a good regulation which is sufficiently applicable in all cases
even on our own line of railway." I will prove that this very de-
sirable svstem of uniformitv can be easily accomplished as regards
statiou?,'and that is, to form them in such way that neither trains nor
passengers shall ever cross the line. Fig. 1 will explain this method,
by which it will be perceived that sidings must be placed on both
sides of the line, and the crossings in such way that a train enters and
departs from the siding without backing, backing into a siding being
uuquestionablv most gothic and unskilful, the only apology for it being

2 U

314

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[September,

Fig. 1.

the incapacity of the engineer to construct a safe switch and point.
The passengers will enter into the offices by a bridge over or under
the railway, as the case may be ; it will not be out of place here to
remark upon the most injudicious and unscientific practice adopted
upon the Great Western Railway, in common with many others, of
laying all the crossings along the line in one direction, by which means
it is indispensable to back the train across the line, and brirg it con-
sequently to a dead halt twice before it can pass upon the wrong line ;
the apology for this i?, tliat the peculiar switches adopted require
such an arrangement, in order that the train may pass over them safely,
and in the case of the switch being placed improperly, the train not
being liable to be thrown off' the rails. My patent switches are formed
in such a way as to meet this latter case, and have this additional
value attached to them, that a train may pass over them in both di-
rections at full speed with perfect securitv, the switch being so made
as to form a perfect and unbroken line, whether laid for the main line
or cross line ; my patent point or crossing is likewise so made as to
require no cut in the line, nor a guard-rail in the main line ; both
these contrivances are in use, and when they are more generally
known, the practice under discussion will be, it is trusted, altered.

It is likewise self-evident, that if sidings of this form be placed at
intervals along the line, swift trains may pass slow ones with perfect
facility by the slow train entering the siding, and leaving the main
line open to the fast train; thus neither train need stop, nor would
there be any further delay than a slight retardation of the slow train
whilst the switches were altered ; but supposing a man kept on the
gi-ound on purpose to effect this alteration of the switch, there would
be no necessity to reduce the velocity of either train.

Here, again, therefore, a very general and very judicious regulation
might be introduced applicable to all railways.

Admitting the deep interest which railway engineers ought to have,
and the deep breeches-pocket interest which railway directors must
have in the perfect working of railways, there is another interest which
the Committee was not, perhaps, aware of operating most powerfully
against the introduction of improvement, and that is the jealous and
selfish feeling of engineers against adopting the contrivances of a con-
temporary, however useful such contrivance may be, their interest is
to let well alone, and to keep without censure.

It is surprising it did not occur to Mr. Brunei that in the case of a
public officer recommending to one company the adoption of a valu-
able improvement made by another, the two parties would be in the
same relative position in the event of the compliment being returned,
by the first being required to reimprove its own improvement, because,
if it were proper in one company to go to an expense to effect a certain
object, it is still their duty and interest to incur espence to perfect
their arrangements; perhaps he may not be aware how large a com-
parative amount of profits is sunk amongst manufacturers to perfect
Iheir processes, when the spur of competition urges one man to sur-
pass his neighbours, but in the case of railways the same feelings do
not operate, which is the most powerful reason of all others why this
want sl'.ould be supplied by the interference of the legislature.

I agree with Mr. Brunei that butTers are matters of secondary im-
portance, and I hold them only useful to protect tlie carriages from
injury when they arc knocked about in the station; for any purpose of
benefit to a train when in motion, I never could discover, inasmuch as
the action and reaction of the engine and trains is fullv provided for
by the springs connected with the drag links, in fact, were carriages
provided with merely two springs acting in reveise ways, so that
when the carriages are arranged in trains, a buffer spring connects one
end of the links, and a drag spring the other, and supposing the link
inflexible, the most perfect ease would be produced in the carriage,
and every provision made for any sudden retardation to which the
carriage will be subjected. How'ever, a buffer is a buffer, whether
formed by springs or hair, or by any other elastic means.

Had H'n F. Smith been simply a man of invention, without any con-
nexion with the Board of Trade, and had he not the means of making
his suggestions respected, his treatment from railwav companies and
railway otlieers would have been the very reverse of 'that he has found

it, and the fact that his suggestions are treated with respect is a most
jiowerful reason that the public supervisor should be the vehicle
through which suggestions should be made, otherwise my experience
and that of numberless other men prove that their thoughts and their
time will be exerted in vain, in fruitless appeals to railway companies
or their agents.

Mr. Brunei's objection to the 15 minutes interval is fair and well-
considered ; such an arrangement is wholly impracticable, and if
adopted might lead to accidents in another point of view than that
stated: a train miglit break down a few minutes after it had left a
station, the guards and engine-men might be killed or disabled, then
supposing the night dark or foggy, the succeeding train would run
upon it, and very sad results would ensue ; but if signals such as I
have contrived were adopted, and which have been since ably recom-
mended by Sir George Cayley, formed in such a way that the engine
shoidd make its own signal, and leave notice a mile behind it, whether
it had passed or not the next signal post a mile in advance ;
the engine man would be thus certain of being informed of the
state of the line in advance, and supposing any disarrangement of the
signal, no delay or embarrassment would arise beyond the caution
necessary in proceeding a mile forward, or perhaps one or two mi-
nutes in that distance. This objection is, I conceive, conclusive against
any signals acting by time, as it would most infallibly fail at those
times it was wanted, viz., in cases of accidents in bad weather. Whilst
upon the question of signals, I cannot but advert to the evidence of
Mr. Entwistle on this subject ; that more accidents have not happened
upon the Greenwich Railway is indeed a most providential circum-
stance ; what would become of the trains in the case of a foggy night,
with a bleak driving storm of rain or snow and wind from the north-
west, and what security would there be that the men would hear the
approach of a train and pass it, supposing a Croydon train was coming
from London, time enough for eitlier the Croydon train to pull up, or
the Gi'eenwich train from Greenwich to do so, or both ; because, as-
suming that Mr. Entwistle's la men were most advantageously disposed
of, placing 0 men from the junction towards London, and 5 towards
Greenwich, the other 5 towards Croydon, the men on the London side
would have to pass the word 400 yards towards Greenwich before the
Greenwich train could be advised, and then either the one or the other
would require to be brought to a dead halt within 200 yards, or a col-
lision would ensue. I very much doubt whether Mr. Entwistle would
not have been puzzled had the question been put to him, when was
the last occasion that he was aware that this plan had been adopted,
and how many times since he had been a director of the Greenwich
Railway ?

My experience tells me that if Mr. Brunei employs a break to his
tender and engine-wheels of sufficient power to drag or stop the
wheels, he will very soon destroy both the wheels and engine and
railway. If any one thing has been settled in the management of a
railway, it is this very fact, that, to block the wheels is to wear a flat
place in the circumference, which, whenever the break is applied,
allows the wheel to revolve until this flat place comes in contact with
the rail, and which, by every successive operation, becomes worse,
then, when the break is released, the flat side strikes the rail with a
violent blow, and to such an amount that I have known one case on
the Greenwich line when nearly a dozen rails were broken, on one oc-
casion, by a bad wdicel, the cause of which arose from this most vicious
practice; if, therefore, Mr. Brunei realizes his notion, he will have
good reason very soon to alter his plan. It is unquestionably a good
plan that a large rubbing surface should be opposed to the momentum
of the train, but that this sliould be sought, not by blocking, destroying
the wheels, but by an independent method, similar to that I have
already patented, and published in your Journal.

Mr. Brunei's opinion of the class of men for engine drivers, and his
disposal of book principles amongst them, is most excellent, both in
its substance, and in the w-ay he defines it. I cordially and fully assent
to all he says on the subject, and only wish, for his own reputation, he
could always see his position as clearly and state it as cleverly as he
has done in this instance.

1841.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

315

111 thus fully and freely criticising the evidence of Mr. Brunei,
I trust that gentleman will do me the justice to believe that the im-
portance attached to his opinions is my apologv for subjecting those
opinions to rigid review, and the object of the Conimiltee, viz. to
provide for and secure the public safety, renders it a duty of every
well-wisher fo railways to use his best efforts to assist such object.
1 purpose continuing my observations in your nest paper ; meanwhile

i remain, Sir,

Your obedient servant,
15, Stamford Street, Blachfriars Road. W. J. Cuktis.

July 22.

REMARKS ON MR. BARRETT'S OBSERVATIONS ON
BARS, &c.

Sir — I have read in the July number of your Journal some observa-
tions bv Mr. Barrett, on Mr. Brook's New Theory of Bars. Not having
had time to peruse the work of the latter gentleman, I shall not pre-
sume as vet to form any opinion upon it ; nor do I mean at present to
make anv remarks on Mr. Barrett's paper further than relates to a parti-
cular passage. Mr. Barrett says, "at the Neva, Gulf of Finland, the
Narva, Dantzic, the Danube, the Nile, and many other places, the current
without intermission (there being no food tid() is perpetually running
out at the rate of six, seven, or eight knots per hour, and yet the old
entrances to these rivers have been blocked up by impassable bars,
&c." — On this passage I will take the liberty to observe in the first
place, that it presents one among too many examples of the confusion
arising from hasty writing. Thus the names of rivers are mixed up
with those of places in a way to render the writer's meaning rather
doubtful. I presume, however, Mr. Barrett means to say — the Neva,
at its effluence into the Gulf of Finland, the Narova, (not the Narva,
which is a town) also at its egress into the Gulf of Finland, the Vis-
tula rnot named) at Dantzic, tlie Danube and the Nile at their entrance
severally, into the Black Sea and into the Mediterranean.

And again, when Mr. Barrett says, "the currents of these rivers (at
their embouchures understood) is perpetually running out at the rate
of six, seven, or eight knots per hour, there being no food ti'dcf," we
are at a loss to understand whether the six, seven, or eight knots, re-
fer severally to any three of the five rivers, and, if so, to which respec-
tively, or whether the writer means that each of the five rivers has a
current constantly running out without impediment, at the rate of
from six to eight knots an hour, according to the season. The latter
meaning seems to be the most rational. Now, with all due deference,
I would observe, that the rivers mentioned ditTer so essentially in their
characters that their currents must be very dissimilar, as must also the
quantity and the quality (as regards sedimentary matter) of their
waters. As to the Neva in particular, I know not whence Mr. Barrett
has gleaned the incorrect information as to the rapidity of its current;
but 1 beg leave to assure him, on the best authority, that its ordinary
velocity, so far from being from six to eight knots per hour, is 27
inches per second, or 2^ knots an hour. I cannot state with equal
confidence the velocities of the other rivers at their embouchures,
neither could I point out, without taking up much more room than
you have to spare, the several particulars in which the rivers men-
tioned differ from one another; nor is it essential to my present pur-
pose. The point to which I would specially draw attention is this.

According to Mr. Barrett, it is the deposit, by the outflowing waters
of rivers, of the debris with which they are charged, that forms bars,
whether there be tide or not, and in proof of this assertion, he gives
as an instance among other rivers, the Neva. Now admitting the
general correctness of his vie%vs on the formation of bar?, it must be
confessed he has been most unhappy in mentioning the bar at the
mouth of the Neva as a case in point. The fact is, the Neva, of all
rivers in the world, is the least obnoxious to the reproach of forming
a bar to prevent ingress ; on the contrary, she does all she can to open
her mouth and invite entrance. True, there is a bar, but the materials
of that bar are brought not by tie river but by the sea.

The Neva at St. Petersburg is 50 feet deep, and, having deposited
all impurities in the immense Ladoga, its waters are at all times, ex-
cept when a strong wind blows in from the seaward for any continuance,
as clear as crystal.

The head of tlie Gulf of Finland narrows gradually to the very
mouth, or rather mouths of the river : accordingly when a strong wind
blows in from the Gulf, a sea is soon raised whose waves, being pent
in, cross and break, and, with the sand stirred up from the bottom rush
for escape to the open mouths of the Neva, where being met by the
obstacle of the descending current of the stream (bearing along in its
main stream a mass of IIG.OOO cubic feet of water in a second; there
naturally results an annihilation of force and a deposit or bar of sand.

This being the fact, I am sure Mr. Barrett will see the impropriety
of bringing in the Neva in support of an argument to which it does
not apply.

The truth is, a bar or deposit will ever be formed where two bodies
of water meet, and one or both is charged with detrital matter; but
in many cases it is the sea, and not lite river which furnishes the whole
of the material of the bar, and in almost every case, I believe, it brings
its quota to the mass.

In conclusion. Sir, for I have already trespassed too far, I would say,
the subject of bars is a most interesting and a most important one ;
but those who discuss it cannot be too careful in the choice of facts in
support of their arguments if they would not furnish weapons against
themselves.

I am. Sir, your most obedient servant,

J. R. Jacksojt.

P.S. As connected with the subject of bars and sand-banks, I cannot
refrain from adverting to a common error which is being continually
repeated by persons writing on these matters, viz., that the sand of
rivers and that on the sea beach, results from the trituration of the
stones rolled by the stream or agitated by the waves. Now Mr. Editor,
it is physically impossible that sand can be formed in this way. Sand
is an original formation, and all that running water and waves do or
can eftect is, to wash away the lighter matter, and leave, or carry away,
and deposit the sand in particular places. Trituration in the beds of
rivers and on the beach, will wear away stones and rocks and polish
(hem, and the result will be a fine impalpable powder, but not one
particle of sand will be formed in the process, were it to continue till
doomsday. It is high time this egregious error was exploded, an
error wdiich could never have gained credit but for that unaccountable
indolence of mind which leads so many to take every thing for granted
without a moment's reflection.

J. R. J.

ON CANDIDUS'S REMARKS ON THE LECTURES OF THE
PROFESSOR OF ARCHITECTURE.

Professors, whether of architecture or any other art or science,
are undoubtedly public men, and as such are open to the most un-
limited criticism ; but, by the same rule, the critics must submit to be
attacked in their turn, if any one of the public should think proper.
But it should be remembered that abuse is not criticism, and that
more elfect w ill be produced by clearly pointing out errors than by the
use of "damnable" expressions, which is the style I alluded to, and
which will be found scattered occasionally through the fasciculi. I
should not, however, have noticed it, had not C.mJidus been so much
in the habit of boasting of his freedom of speech, which, however, by
his own confession, avails but little, as it is evident he might as welt
"try to tickle a rhinoceros with a rose leaf" as attempt, with a oue
Candidus power, what it would require sixty to effect.

The possibility of treating Gothic architecture properly so as to>
conduce to comfort, is still unproved. I find repeated the bare asser-
tion of the necessity for treating it with intelligence and ability, but
no evidence produced to show that the greatest ability can lead to
satisfactory results.

If no more was to be expected from Grecian and Roman than is to
be fouud at the British Museum and other works by tlie same architect
or others of his school, I should then call for Gothic or anv other style
to save us from such insipid abortions, which are, at any rate, as bad
as facsimilies of Gothic, and much worse, inasmuch as they have been
so much more often repeated ; but I liave a higher opinion of the re-
sources of those styles than to believe such to be the case, and from
some former remarks of Candidus, I think he will agree with me in
that point at least. I shall make no comnieut on the preference appa-
rently given to tlie spire of St. George's, Bloomsbuiy, over that of
Bow Church ; such an assertion would require more boldness than
even Candidus is gifted with — it can therefore be only a mischievous
insertion of the printer's devil. ,

Barry has taken up Gothic architecture with an originality of con-
ception to be found in no other architect — but even his success will
not warrant the assumption that we shall ever be able to incorporate
the principles of the style with the habits of the present day. At the
period at wdiich this style flourished, it followed a regularly progress-
ing course, commencing with the Norman. This was gradually im-
proved upon till it resulted in the early English, wdiicli, by further
modifications, became that of the decorated period, the most perfect
of all. From that time \l increased in richness and exuberance, but
declined in purity till it was worn out in the reign of Henry VIII.
Now I cannot see how we can, with advantage, dip down into any one

2 U 2

316

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[September,

of tlicse styles at pleasure, and follow it OMt in the spirit in which it
was then foUoweii, and in which is the only hope of success. It is
like transporting the trees ol the tropics into tliis country, where only
the most assiduous attention can keep them alive — nothing can ever
make them equal in beauty the natural growth of the trees of our own
forests, though in their native climate thev may as much surpass them
as llioy now fall short.

S. L.

THE ROYAL ACADEMY.

Sir — I am very glad to perceive that painters as well as architects,
are at length beginning to remonstrate against tlie trulv preposterous
system of hanging jjictures and drawings at the Royal Academy. Let
us hope that what has lately been sai<l on the subject both in your own
Journal, and the Art-Union, will now shame the Academy into common
sense, and deter them in future from taking in more works than can
be properly seen wlien hung up.

Of course this would contract their catalogue to about one-half its
present extent— in which case it might be sold to tlie public at half
its present price, — but both the public and artists would be benefitted
by the reduction — I do not mean of tlie price of the catalogue, but of
the dense throng of pictures and drawings, the majority of which are
annually put out of sight, by being ixalltd to disgrace— to their own
disgrace and to that both of the Hanging Committee in particular,
and of the Academy generally.

Still it is very doubtful whether the expostulations and remonstrances
that have been made will produce any effect, unless repeated from
time to time, and dinned in the ears of the Academicians, until they
can no longer aflect to be ignorant of them. Did the matter rest en-
tirely with the President, the evil complained of would no doubt be
remedied at once, but I suspect that like some othergreat personages,
he is no more than "the puppet in the chair," and permitted to fill
it on the condition of his napping in it, and not interfering with
those around him. Though these composing them may be well-in-
tentioned and reasonable people, corporate and public bodies are
almost invariably shameless, and do not scruple to do in their united
capacity, what hardly one among them would dare to sanction, defend,
or justify individually and personally.

In the course of his remarks, the writer in the Art-Union attributes
some portion of the present absurd system of hanging pictures in our
public exhibitions, to the want of better contrivance and arrangement
on the part of architects who build the rooms. Herein he is partly
right, but he is assured]^' mistaken if he supposes that, as far as archi-
teclural appearances is concerned, any thing would be lost were the
rooms to be designed in such a manner as to render it impossible to
put any pictures at more than a moderate height above the eye. On
the contrary, as much might be gained in point of architectural effect
as of positive convenience; since it would not be at all requisite that
the proportions of the rooms, as to height, should be altered, or their
ceilings an inch lower than at present. All that would be necessary is
that no more than a proper altitude should be allowed as the available
space for hanging pictures on the walls, (which might vary in the dif-
ferent rooms accordingly as they are intended for small or large paint-
ings) ; and from that height tlie architectural decoration of the upper
part of the walls and ceiling should commence. By this means the
general appearance would be very greatly improved ; and instead of
the broker's-shop and picture-dealer's-warehouse look, which now so
disagreeably characterises all our exhibition rooms, there would be an
air of elegance and spaciousness,— of there being room enough and to
spare without ston-iiig airaij a number of pictures, piling them up to
the very ceiling, when they might just as well be poked into a lumber
garret at once.

In short, let the Academy and other exhibiting Societies break up
their Lumber Troop corps, dismiss their host of supernumeraries, and
instead of surfeiting their visitors with an annual cram— consisting of
a good deal of trash, give us much less as to quantity, and much
more as to quality.

I remain, &c.,

COM.MON Se.n'se.

PILBROWS CONDENSING CYLINDER STEAM ENGINE.

This is a contrivance intended, according to a pamphlet written by
Mr. Boyman Boyinan, to save the loss of power occasioned by the ini-
perfect exhaustion of the cylinder in steam engines of the ordinary
construction, and by which Jlr. Pilbrow considers that he will save
mon than half \h& fuel of Mr. Watt's Rotative engines. The author

of the pamphlet in question, however, dispels at the very outset the
illusion as to the extent of saving by stating that Mr. \Vatt estimated
the mean resistance of the unexhausted steam at 4 Xtt. per square inch,
in an engine loaded so as to exert its intended power, the steam being
24 ttj. less than the atmosphere. In this case the pressure of the steam
is 2i m., from which deducting 4 It), for imperfect exhaustion, and Ij
It), for friction fas at page 2S) there remains an effective pressure of
G-4() D). The pressure in the condenser at a temperature of 1L»0' is
1 tti., therefore the limit of what may be saved by Mr. Pilbrow's arrange-
ment is 3 Itj. per square inch, wliich is the entire loss resulting from
the exhaustion in the cylinder being less perfect than in the condenser;
but if the whole of this were saved, the load of the engine being in-
creased, the friction would be so likewise, and the effective pressure
would become, say f)-09 lb., and the saving of fuel would be less than
29, instead of more than .JO per cent., as anticipated by Mr. Pilbrow.
It is evident that the loss in question would not rise in the same pro-
portion as the pressure of the steam employed, particularly when it is
expanded in the cylinder, which is now pretty generally done to a
greater or less extent, and we are persuaded that Mr. Farev must have
overrated the resistance of the unexhausted steam, where it is used at
3i It), above the atmosphere, when he estimated it at S-'l fli. ; but
even with this allowance the consequent loss of duty amounts to no
more than 29 per cent. It should be observed that this is the nhole
loss due to imperfect exhaustion in the cylinder, which can certainly
not be saved by Mr, Pilbrow's arrangement, though he considers that
it is.

Little need be said of the theory of condensation, as it is called, laid
down at pages 19 and 2ii, wliich is very little of a theory, and nothing
at all to the purpose ; but since it is dragged in, as it were, in con-
firmation of the advantages of the Condensing Cylinder Engine, we
shall merely show that the inferences intended to be drawn from it are
erroneous.

The theory of condensation is that " steam can only be condensed
as fast as it rushes from the cyliniler to the condenser, as far as the
injection can enter, and as fast as the water, or cold surface, can absorb
all the caloric of the steam." Mr. Boyman concludes that "if the
vacuum gauge shows, whilst the steam is being condensed, a less mean
vacuum in the condenser than what is due to a temperature of 100,"
(considered by Mr. Watt as a fair average), "it shows that the steam
has flowed quick enough to the condenser, and is there waiting to be
condensed," and that " no increase of eduction valve would, therefore,
cause a quicker annihilation of the steam, to give a better mean ex-
haustion of the cylinder, for it is already large enough to permit its
escape as fast as a certain quantity of water can take up its caloric."
But what is the just conclusion to be drawn from the above circum-
stance ? — Simply that there is not sufficient injection water to reduce
the condensemeiit to the required temperature; a knowledge of the
actual state of exhaustion in the cylinder would alone show whether
the steam flowed fast enough into the condenser. Mr. Boyman harps
continually on one string — the impropriety of reducing the condense-
ment to a lower temperature than 9G- or 100", and pretends to con-
clude therefrom that no better cylinder exhaustion than was obtained
by Watt can be achieved with the ordinary air pump, separate from
the condenser.

The long discussion of the comparative performance of Mr. Watt's
rotative engines and the present is irrelevant, and we shall therefore
discuss it with one or two remarks.

After extracting Mr. J.S. Russell's proof of the fallacy of the opinion
that the better the vacuum the greater is the duty, the author informs
his readers that " the above formula is given because it confirms the
general principle, that more is lost than gained by a vacuum buyond
certain limits. It does not embrace," he says, "the principles of con-
densation, but has reference simply to temperature; not," he continues,
" that this theory is supported by the practice of Cornish engines,
where the greatest duty is performed with the greatest vacuum."

If, then, this theory is not supported by facts, how can it be said to
confirm the general principle ?

In speakihg of the cilraordinarij Indicator diagrams of the present
day, (which seem to puzzle Mr. Boyman exceeaingly, because they
show that Mr. Farey's observation, made 14 years ago. Is not applicable
to engines of the present day, namely, that "the modern engines are,
by their construction, less capable of speedy exhaustion of the cylinder
than the original construction"), he mentions that in the diagrams of
the British Qua/', where a mean cylinder exhaustion of 12-3 tt>. is
shown, the condensement is reduced to the temperature of the exter-
nal water, but he does not seem to be aware that tht condensing water
lift the condenser at a much higher temperature, \\h\c\\ it must have
done, or it could not have condensed the steam. It is however certain
that, whatever may have been the state of the vacuum in the upper
part of the condenser, where the steam from the cylinder entered i t

1841.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

317

the mean difterence between it and tlie mean cylinder exhaustion can-
noi ^ossiV)/!/ have amomited to "2.41 tti., tlie external barometer standing
at 30 inclies, as that would indicate a perfect vacuum, which is ob-
viously impossible.*

In Mr. Pilbrow's engine the ordinary condenser and air pump are
replaced bv a double-acting air-pump of the same size as the steam
cylinder, called the condensing cylinder, in the interior cf which the
condensation is etiected by injection alternately above and below the
piston, which is of course solid, like the steam piston. The two cylin-
ders are connected at top and bottom by passages, with valves to open
and close the communication alternately. The action will be as fol-
lows: while the steam piston is ascending, the air-pump piston is
descending, and the two cylinders communicating at top, the steam
■which performed the previous down stroke will flow into the condens-
ing cylinder, and be condensed by the jet, by which, as we know from
the experience of ordinary condensing engines, the vacumn above the
air-pump piston will be maintained at nearly its maximum, while the
exhaustion of the cylinder will be nearly the same as in ordinary con-
densing engines. Mr. Boyman however supposes that, "during its
condensation, the uncondensed steam will keep giving to the condenser
piston, until completely annihilated, just as much power as it offers
resistance to the effective action of the steam piston." The exhaustion
on the under side of the condenser piston will be the maximum through-
out the stroke, so that the resistance to the motion of the steam piston
(exclusive of friction and the resistance to the discharge of the con-
densement in the latter part of the stroke) will be equal to the mean
pressure of the used steam remaining in the steam cylinder minus the
difference between the maximum and mean exhaustion in the condenser,
and this difterence, which is quite insignificant, is, after deducting the
surplus power required to work his large air-pump, the true gain of
power obtained by Mr. Pilbrow's contrivance, and we think it probable
that after the deduction the gain w ill be found to be negative, or a
loss.

CARBONIC ACID GAS VERSUS STEAM.
fFrom " Buckingham's Amerha.J

Towards the close of our stay in Pliiladelphia, I had an opportunity of
attending one of the chemical classes of mv friend Dr. Mitchell, and witness-
ing there a most interesting experiment for the rendering carbonic acid gas
solid, and for producing by it a degree of cold, extending to 102 degrees be-
low zero, on the scale of Fahrenheit's thermometer. The materials, first
confined in a strong iron receiver, were, super-carbonate of soda and sul-
phuric acid, in separate divisions; the whole was then powerfully shaken, so
as to be well mixed or incorporated, and this operation continually evolved
the gas, tiU the whole vessel was filled with it in a higldy condensed state.

An instrument not unlike a common tinder-box, as it is used in England,
but about twice the size, and with a small tube of inlet passing through its
sides, was then fixed by this tube to a pipe from the receiver. The inside
of this box was so constructed as to make the gas injected into it fly round
in a series of constantly contracting circles, which was effected by projecting
pieces of tin at different angles, fastened around the sides of the interior.
The gas being then let out by a valve, entered tbis box from the receiver,
making as loud a hissing noise as the escape of steam by the safety-valve of
a large boiler, and in about three or four seconds the emission of the gas was
stopped.

The box was then taken off from the receiver and its cover opened, when
it was found to he filled with a milk-white substance, in appearance like
snow, but in consistence like a liighly-wrought froth, approaching to a light
paste. It was surrounded with a thin blue vapour like smoke, and was so
intensely cold, that the sensation of touch to the fingers was like that of
burning; and the feehng was more like that of heat than cold. The shghtest
particles of it dropped on the back of the hand, and suffered to remain there,
occasioned a blistering of the skin, just like a scald; and some of the stu-
dents of the class who attempted to hold it in their fingers, were obUged to
let it drop as if it were red-hot iron.

Some liquid mercury, or quicksilver, was then dropped into a mass of this
" carbonic acid snow," as it was called, mixed with ether, upon which it
instantly froze, and being taken out in a solid mass, it was found to be mal-
leable into thin sheets under the hammer, and capable of being cut up like
lead, with a knife or large scissors. As it became less cold it grew more
brittle, and then, when pressed strongly by the thumb or finger against a
sohd substance, it was found to burst under the pressure, with a report or
explosion like the percussion powder.

.\ small piece of this carbonic acid snow was placed on the surface of
water, where it ran round by an apparently spontaneous motion, and gave

* It may be as well to observe here that the dulerence between the ex-
haustion in the cylinder, and in the condenser is independent of the mode of
condensation: and that consequently, if by any improved process the vacuum
in the condenser be' increased, the cylinder exhaustion must be so too.

out a thin blue vapour like smoke. Another piece was placed under the
water, and kept beneath it, when it emitted gas in an immense stream of
air-lmbbles, lushing from the bottom to the top; thus returning, in short,
from lU solid to its original gaseous condition. Some of the snow was then
mingled with the well-known " freezing mixture," and bv stirring these both
together, ^ degree of intense cold was produced, extending to 102 degrees
below zero, and there remaining for a period of ten or fifteen minutes ;
tliough the weather was extremely hot, the thermometer standing at 94
degrees in the shade, in the coolest parts of Philadelphia, and being at least
90 degrees in the lecture-room itself.

The practical application of this discovery to the propelling of engines in
lien of steam, was then exhibited to us. A model of an engine of the ordi-
nary kind now in use for mines, manufactories, and steam-ships, was placed
on the table before the lecturer. A metal tube was then screwed on to the
pipe and valve of the receiver, in which the condensed carbonic acid gas
was contained, and the other end of the tube through which the gas was to
escape, when let into it from the receiver, was applied to the wheel of the
model engine; the gas was then let out, and the rushing torrent of it was
such as that it propelled the engine wheel with a velocity which rendered its
revolutions invisible, from their speed, making the wheel appear stationarv,
though in a trembling or vibratory condition, and rendering all perceptioH
of the parts of the wheel quite impossible till the gaseous stream which gave
the impetus was withdrawn.

Dr. Mitchell expressed his belief that this power might he made to super-
sede entirely the use of steam and fuel in navigation, and thus overcome the
greatest difficulty wliich has yet impeded long voyages; he thought it might
effect the same salutary change in manufactories wliere engines are used, so
as to remove the greatest nuisance, perhaps, of all manufacturing towns, the
inunense quantities of smoke which darken the atmosphere, and destroy the
cleanliness of places, persons, raiment, and dwellings. He founded his be-
lief on the expansive power of this gas when brought into a highly condensed
state, such as we saw it, and the practicabdity of bringing this power to act
upon engines of any size by land or by sea. For the latter purpose he sug.
gests the use of iron tanks, made with the requisite degree of strength, to
act as receivers; these being fitted to a ship's bottom, along the keelson and
the inner floor of the hold, as the iron water-tanks of ships of war are at
present, it may be placed on board vessels intended to be propelled by engines,
in such quantities as the length of the voyage may require ; communications
from these tanks, by tubes of adequate size and strength, would then have to
be made to the engines, and placed under the complete control of the engi-
neer, as the steam-pnwer is at present. The expansive power of the con-
densed gas, and its pressure outward, or tendency to escape, being the same
in its nature with steam, but greater in degree, the application and direction
of tbis power would effect all that steam now does, and thus supersede the
use of fuel, with its inconveniences and accidents, entirely.

In reference to the expense. Dr. Mitchell had made such calculations as to
satisfy him that it would be cheaper than tlie present materials of steam
navigation. The Great Western steamer, in coming from London to New
York, actually consumed GOO tons of coal, which, at the lowest possible
estimate, could not cost less than f 1000 sterhng, or 5000 dollars. But as
it was necessaiy to provide for a longer voyage than that actually performed,
in case of accident or delay, no less a quantity than 800 tons we're taken on
board, and consequently 800 tons of space were wholly lost, or rendered
unproductive, by its appropriation to fuel. The expense of the requisite
quantity of gas for such a voyage, including all the fittings, would not, he
thought, exceed that of the coals and requisite machinery; and the saving
of the space, for freight, would be a source of considerabie profit ; while the
avoidance of the beat and smoke, inseparable from fuel and steam, the ab-
sence of boilers and chimneys, and the safety from accidents of bursting and
taking fire, would be all such high recommendations to passengers, that none
would venture to embark in steam-ships while those propelled by carbonic
acid gas were available.

PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES.

INSTITUTIOX OF CIVIL ENGINEERS.

March 16. — The President in the Chair.

" Description of tvo Wrought-Iron Roofs over the buildings at Mr. Thomas
Cubiti's Works, Thames Bank." By Mr. Adams.

This communication describes in detail the constniction, and gives the
dimensions of the several parts of two fire-proof roofs of 29 feet si)an, one of
which bears, in addition to the covering, a ceiling of tde arches upon iron
girders, the weight of which is equal to 5 tons 4 cwt. upon each truss.

The paper is accompanied by two drawings of the roofs.

" Description of a Double Telescope Theodolite." Arranged by Nathaniel
Beardmore, Grad. Inst. C.E.

The improvement in this theodolite consists in its having a second telescope
fixed over the ordinary one, in a reverse position, so that the line of collima-
tion of the two telescopes when properly adjusted shoidd be the same. The
principal advantage gained is, that a straight line may be carried out with
perfect accuracy, without the tedious and uncertain process of adding 180

I

318

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[Ski'tember,

degrees to the observed angle and reversing the instniment. A drawing of
tlie instrument accompauieJ the communication.

" O-i setting out Curves for liailicai/s." By R. C. May, Assoc. Inst. C.E.

The method of setting out curves proposed in this communication is founded
upon the 32nd I'rop. of the 3rd hook of Euclid. Jt consists in Cutting off
by a chord a segment of the circle to be described, and then finding any
number of points in the curve by means of a reflecting instrument, which is
set so as to reflect the angle in that segment.

The instrument which has been adapted by the author for this operation,
consists of two plane mirrors, the upper one being fixed vertically upon a
disc of brass, and the lower one fastened to an arm wliich turns upon its cen-
tre, and permits the tw o mirrors to be set at any angle with each other ; the
arm can be fixed by a clamp screw. In tlie case surrounding the inirrors are
two holes, for admitting light, and between them is the sight hole, placed so
as to bisect the angle formed by tlie mirrors. From the underside at the
centre of the instrument is suspended a slender wooden rod, with a pointed
end, weiglited with lead.

Angles are taken with the instrument in the same mansier as with the bo.';
sextant. To determine any point in the curve, the instrument when set fast
is placed in such a position that the two given oljjects coincide in the mirrors,
and the weighted rod being released by withdrawing a bolt, falls directly
beneath the centre of the instrumeut, marking the required point in the
curve.

The author presented with this paper a Reflecting Instrument, and field
tables of chords and segments to Ije used in sclting out curves by this method.*

March 23. — The Phesident in the Chair.

" yin imprnnd Plank Frame, for satoing Bealn an I P/nnkn of various thick-
ness into any number of boards." By Benjamin Hick, M. Inst. C.E.

The principal improvement in this machine is a novel kind of gearing for
producing what is usually termed the "taking-up" or "traversing motiuu"
of the plank during the operation of sawing.

A revohing motion is given to two pair of coupled vertical fluted rollers,
by means of worms and wheels, which are worked by a ratchet wheel and
catch, from the crank shaft of the machine. \Vhen a plank is introduced
between the moving rollers and the fixed guides in the centre of the macliiiie,
the tendency of the motion is to draw the plank forward at each stroke, with
a force exactly corresponding to the degree of resistance opposed by the
teeth of the saw. By this means, the necessity of any other support or side
roller to the plank, during its progress through the macliine, is avoided, and
any number of planks of diflferent leugth, depth, and thickness, can be put
through the machine after each other, without any alteration or stoppage of
the work.

Several minor improvements are introduced in the general arrangement of
the machine, particularly in the position of the crank shaft and connecting
rod, which latter is placed in the centre of the moveable frame, occupying a
space which has not hitherto been made use of in machines for cutting two
planks simultaneously ; and by carrying the crank shaft upon the framing,
instead of having it fixed upon a separate foundation, the construction is sim-
plified as well as rendered less expensive.

The commmiication was accompanied by a working model of the machine.

" An historical Accounl of Tfood Sheathing for Shijis." By J. J. Wilkin-
son.

This communication commences with the earliest history of naval archi-
tecture, the diff"erent modes of constnietion, and the precautions taken for
the preservation of the vessels from the attacks of marine animals.

A very early instance of extraordinary attention to the preservation of the
bottom of a vessel appeared in a galley supposed to have belonged to the Em-
peror Trajan, a. d. 98 to a. d. 117, which was found in the fifteenth century
in the lake Hcmorese (or Lago Riccio), in the kingdom of Najiles, and was
weighed after it had probably remained more than 1300 years under water;
it was doubly planked with pine and cypress, coated with pitch, upon wliich
there was a covering of linen, and, over all, a sheathing of lead fastened with
niiils of brass or cnjiper; the timber was in a perfectly sound state.

In the reign of Henry VIII. large vessels had a coating of loose animal hair
attached with pitch, over which a sheathing board of about an inch in thick-
ness was fastened " to keep the hair in its place."

It is beheved that the art of sheathing vessels was early practised in China :
a mixture of fish oil and lime was applied ; it was very adhesive, and became
so hard that the worm could not penetrate it.

The opinions of Sir Richard Hawkins, of Franf ois Gauche, and of Dampier,
on the practice of wood furring, arc then given at length, with extracts from
their journals.

The sheathing the bottoms of ships with timber, appears to have been dis-
approved by these early navigators. In 1CG8, the officers of the fleet, then
preparing uuder Sir Thomas Allen for an expedition against the Algcrines,
petitioned that their vessels might not be thus encumbereil, as they were in
•consequence always nnable to overtake the light-sailing unsheathed vessels of

* This paper, with enlarged fiekl tables, has been published by the Author,
with ;hc permission of the tcuucil cf the Insti'aitiun, to accompany the in-
strument.

the enemy ; the petition was granted, upon the condition that precautions
should be taken by cleaning the ships' bottoms very frequently.

In 1670 a patent was granted to Sir Philip Howard and to Major Watson,
for the use of milled lead sheathing ; it was not, however, introduced without
difficulty ; nor until an order was issued that " no oilier than milled lead
sheathing should he used on his Jfajcsty's ships." About the year 1700 the
lead was acknowledged to have failed, and wood sheathing was again intro-
duced.

Numerous instances are given of the employment of wood as sheathing for
ships in celebrated expeditions : the ravages of the worm, the accumulation
of barnacles and weeds, are then described ; the qualities of the wood em-
ployed for sheathing in different countries, both formerly and up to the pre-
sent time, are examined, and the aulhor, who undertook the investigation of
this subject in consequence of finding how little good information existed in
an acccssilile form, promises the history of metal sheathing in a future com-
munication.

"A Machine for bending and setting the Tire of Railway Carriage JTheelt."
By Joseph Woods, Grad. Inst. C. E.

The usual mode of bending tire bars was by means of swages and hammers
round a fixed mandril ; after being welded, (hey were stretched on a cast-iron
block formed of two semicircular pieces hinged at one point, and wedged
apart at the opposite side ; the hoops being heated were placed on this block,
and by repeated blows driven into close contact with the mould.

Much difficulty was exjicrienced in thus making up tires for large railway
wheels, and the present machine was constructed for facilitating tlie process.

One end of the tire bar when heated is wedged into contact with one of
four segments of a circle, of the required diameter, upon a cast-iron table,
which is caused to revolve slowly ; the pressure of a guide whe£l at one side
forces the tire bar to warp round the segments, and to form the circular
hoop required ; its ends having been previously scarfed, are then welded
together.

The tire is again thoroughly heated and placed around the four segments,
which slide radially on the table, and are then simultaneously forced outwards
by a motion of the centre shaft.

' The tire being slightly chilled, and assisted by the swage and hammer,
soon adapts itself to the segments, and forms a circular hoop instead of two
semi-circles irregularly joined at their points of contact, as by the old system ;
it is then ready for being chucked on the lathe, and bored out before shrink-
ing on the wheel.

It is apparent that a machine of this desciiption becomes applicable to
tires of any diameter, by having three or four sizes of segments adapted to
the table. It is found to diminish the manual labour, .and to prepare the tire
more accur.itely than by the usual process.

A model of the machine, and a detailed drawing of the several parts, ac-
companied the communication.

" On the improvement of the Roads, Rivers, and Drainage, of the Counliet
of Great Britain:' By Robert Sibley, M. Inst. C. E.

The author had on a former occasion drawn the attention of the Institution
to the subject of a Bill before Parharaent, " for the better regulation and
general improvement of the Drainage of the Country ;" and at the same time
pointed out the course pursued by the magistrates of the County of Middle-
sex, in procuring with his professional assistance an accurate account of the
Rivers, Bridges, &c., hoping that it might lead to similar surveys in other
counties.

In tlie present communication he investigates the nature of the works
which each county may be expected to undertake, and the means of accom-
plishing them economically, so that real public benefit may accrue.

The objects principally requiring the attention of the county magistrates,
he considers to be. First— Facility of intercourse by the improvement of the
roads, bridges, rivers, and canals. Secondly — Protection from injury by the
passage of the waters from or through tlie county ; and Thirdly — The removal
of causes tending to vitiate the atmosphere, or to render unwholesome the
water used for the support of human life.

All these points, which do not appear to have been fully comprehended in
the Sewage Acts, are examined at length, and suggestions are offered for their
regulation, with examples of the effecls resulting from their neglect.

The advantage of placing the water-courses of the country generally under
a well regulated system of management, is insisted upon as the most efl'ectual
mode of guarding against tlie destruction of property, and not unfrequently
of human life, wliich ensues from the efl^ects of suddeu inundations, such a3
have recently occurred in the county of Middlesex.

March 30. — The President in the Chair.

" Description of a new Universal Photometer." By Dr. Charles SckafhaeutI
of Munich, Assoc. Inst. C.E.

The inadequacy of the photometric instruments invented by Pictet, Rum-
ford, and others, is universally acknowledged. The bromide of silver, as used
by Sir John Ilerschell, although extremely sensitive, is only slightly aftected
by artificial light.

' These cinumstanccs induced the author to complete the present instru-
ment,* which he contemplated about twelve years since.

" The instrument was coi.structe.l by Mr. E. M. Clarjie, 428, Strand.

1841.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

.319

The intensity of the iintlulations of gaseous fluids, as well as that of the
air, is proportional to the amplitude of the oscillations, or more properly to
the square of the amplitude.

A wave of light striking the retina must create a similar vihratory motion
in the nerves of the retina, hecause the velocity of the molecular movement
of the nerves depends upon the force with which they have been struck by
the original wave, and if this velocity could be measured, it would show at
the same time the intensity of light.

It is scarcely possible to obtain a direct accurate measurement of this velo-
city, but if the time during which the viliratory motion of the nerves ceases,
be ascertained, the velocity of the vibrating molecules, and therefore the in-
tensity of light, may be determined ; because the duration of an impression
on the retina is dependent on the resistance w hich the molecules of the nerves
oppose to every force striking them ; lint as tliis resistance of the nerves in-
creases as the square of the velocity, four times the momentum or intensity
is necessary to double the time of duration ; or, in other words, the intensity
of the pencil of rays is as the square of the time of the duration of that im-
pression made on the nerves of the retina.

The new photometer consists of a brass bar fixed vertically in a stand,
carrying at its upper end a small tube in two parts, which may be lengthened
from 5 to 10 inches if requisite. This eye tube has at each end a sliding
plate pierced with holes of corresponding diameters. From the bottom of
the bar a projecting arm sustains the lower end of a strip of rolled steel 18
inches long, -n^ths inch broad, and ^nd inch thick ; this has at the upper
end a thin plate pierced N\ith a small liole, corresponding with the holes in
the sliders, and standing -ith of an inch from one of them : upon the main
bar is a prism with a slit in it, through which the strip of steel passes ; this
prism can be moved up or down by a rack and pinion, so as to lengthen or
shorten the vibrations of the strip.

The method of using the instrument is to adjust the two holes at the oppo-
site ends of the horizontal eye tube, so that they perfectly correspond, and
do not permit any rays of light to enter, unless the plate at the extremity of
the spring be pushed aside. The light to be compared is tlien placed at a
certain given distance behind the plate, so that by bringing the axis of the
hole which is ]iierced in it into the axis of the tube, a small pencil of light
may enter the pupil of the eye. The prism is then placed at 100 of the scale
on the side of the brass bar, and the steel strip caused to vibrate gently. A
luminous disc immediately appears, accompanied by scintillations, which are
caused by the impressions on the retina being interrupted by dark intervals :
the prism is then gradually raised until the length of the vibrations of the
Strip being diminished, and the velocity increased, tlie luminous disc appears
perfectly steady and clear. The length of the vibrating portion of the strip
is then read off by the verniers marked on the brass rod, and compared with
the whole length of the spring, measured Irom 100, which is considered as
unity. The number of the vibrations to be computed from the found length
of the spring, are inversely to the numbers of vibrations of the whole length,
as the squares of their relative lengths. Hence are constructed the formula;
for calculation, which are given at length in the communication.

A fresh luminous impression is made on the retina as often as the circular
aperture in the screen on the top of the spring cuts the axis of the tube. If
the duration of the small vibration of the nerves of the retina is shorter than
the time of a vibration of the spring, a dark interval appears between the two
luminons impressions. In this case the viluation of the spring is shortened
until the next impression returns just as the first ceases, and therefore the
dark interval disappears ; then by measuring the length of the shortened
spring, the number of vibrations can be computed, and from them the inten-
sity of the light.

This communication was illustrated by a series of experiments npon diffe-
rent lights, with the Photometer which was presented by the author to the
Institution.

" On the circumstances under which the Explosions of Steam Boilers gene-
rally occur, and on the means of preventing them." By Dr. Schafhaeutl, of
Munich, .\ssoc. Inst. C. E.

Ex'jilosions of Steam Boilers. — In this communication it is assumed, that
perhaps not one-tenth of the recorded explosions of steam boilers can be
correctly attributed to the overloading of the safety valve, or to the accumu-
lation of too great a quantity of steam in the boiler. The author alludes to
the degree of pressure which hollow vessels, even of glass, are capable of
sustaining, if the pressure be applied gradually. He found, in repeating the
experiments of Cagniard de la Tour, subjecting glass tubes of one or two
inches in length, one-fourth part filled with water, hermetically sealed, and
immersed in a bath of melted zinc, that they apparently sustained the im-
mense pressure of 400 atmospheres without bursting; but if the end of an
iron rod was slightly pressed against the extremity of the tube, and the rod
caused to vibrate longitudinally by rubbing it with a leather glove covered
with resin, the tube was invariably shattered to pieces.

Hence he concludes, that something more than the simple excess of pres-
sure of steam in the boiler is necessary to cause an explosion, and that a
slight vibratory motion alone, communicated suddenly, or at intervals, to
the boiler itself, might cause an explosion. From the circumstance of safety
valves having been generally found inefficient, he concludes that a force has
operated at the instant it was generated in tearing the bottom or sides of the
boiler, before it could act upon the safety valve.

From the sudden effect of this force, explosions have been ascribed to the

presence of hydrogen, generated by the decomposition of water ; but inde-
pendently of the difficulty of generating a large quantity of hydrogen in such
a manner, it could neither burn nor explode without the presence of a cer-
tain quantity of free oxygen or atmospheric air; and such an explosive mix-
ture would not take fire, even if mixed with 0-" of its own volume of steam.*

Sudden conversion of Water into Sleam. — The ordinary mode of converting
water into steam is by successively adding small portions of <aloric to a rela-
tively large body of liquid ; but if the operation was reversed, and all the
heat imparted to a given (]uantity of water in one unit of time, an explosive
force would be developed at the same moment. For cxamjile, if a bar of
iron be heated until it is coated with liquid slag, and is then laid upon a
globule of water upon an anvil, and struck with a hammer, the liquid slag
communicates its caloric instantly to the water, becoming solid at the same
time that the water is converted into vapour with a loud report. A similar
occurrence may take place in a steam Ijoiler when a quantity of water is
thrown into contact with an overheated plate, either by a motion of the ves-
sel or from a portion of tlie incrustation formed on the bottom or sides be-
coming loosened. A sudden opening of the safety valve may, under certain
circumstances, prove dangerous, or even any rapid increase of heat which
would cause a violent excess of ebullition in the water.

An examination is then entered into of the respective powers of water and
of steam, to transmit undulatory motion, and of their compressibility. Ac-
cording to Laplace, the conducting power of steam at our atmosphere and
?041° Far. is 1041-3-1511 feet per second, and that of water 6036-88 feet.
The ratio of these different velocities is therefore as 1 : 4-5.

In cases of a sudden explosive development of steam, the principal action is
directed against the bottom or the sides of the boiler, whence, spreading itself
through the water, it is finally transmitted through the steam to tiie safety
valve; a wave created by an explosion, even at the surface of the water, would
reach the bottom or the sides of the boiler, 4 1 times sooner than it would affect
the top of the steam chamber ; but if it took place at the bottom, the time
for the explosive wave to reach the safety valve would be the sura instead of
the difference of both velocities. Although these relative periods of time
may be considered as infinitely small, it is contended that there is sufficient
delay (counting from the moment at which the plates begin to yield) to cause
the rupture of the material which would otherwise have yielded by its own
elasticity had the time been greater, as all communication of motion is de-
pendant only on time.

E-rperiments npon JJlres. — To illustrate the effect of the sndden develop-
ment of an explosive force upon the plates of a boiler, the author gives the
results of a series of experiments made by liim upon iron w-ires, for the pur-
pose of ascertaining the arammt of elongation which took place before yield-
ing under the sudden application of a given weight. The result was, that a
wire which had resisted a tension of 22 cwt. when gradually applied, broke
invariably, without any elongation, when the same force was suddenly applied
by a falling body.

f.};on Railway Bars rf different qvalilies.. — Similar experiments with rail-
way bars showed that fibrous iron, which supported a gradual tension, broke
by the sudden application of the same force ; while close-grained iron, which
was incapable of resisting the gradual strain, bore perfectly well that of sud-
den impact. These facts are worthy of consideration in the selection of iron
for boiler plates, where the sudden action of the rending force is to be
guarded against.

The details are then given of a series of experiments, illustrating in an in-
genious model, by means of an explosive mixture of chlorate of potassa, the
effects of explosions at different heights within a boiler.

Proposed Safety-valve. — A careful examination of the circumstances, and
the results of his experiments, convinced the author that a simple mechanical
arrangement, applicable to all boilers, might be introduced, so as to diminish
the danger ai-ising from the sudden development of an explosive force. He
proposes to connect with the bottom of the boiler, by means of a pipe, an
extra safety valve of a given area, loaded to five-sixths of the absolute cohe-
sive force of the boiler plate, la the event of a sudden development of
steam, the first shock would act upon the valve and open it, which would
have the effect of depriving the wave generated of its destructive force, and
at the same time diminish the violence of the second shock from the top of
the boiler, having permitted the escape of a portion of the water from the
boiler.

The apparatus for conducting the experiments -was presented with the
communication.

Steam Boiler explosions. — Mr. Parkes stated, that he had been occupied
for several years in collecting facts illustrative of tl:e phenomena of steam
boiler explosions. These disasters could not all be referred to one cause. A
boiler might be too weak to sustain the pressure within it, and a rupture
would be the necessary conseqiience. But though the simple elastic force of
the steam might thus occasionally account for the rending of a boiler, that
cause was insufficient to explain many well-known phenomena, such as the
projection of an entire boiler from its seat, the separation of a boiler into two
parts, the one remaining quiescent, the other being driven to a great distance,
&c. He was of opinion that a very sudden development of force could alone
have produced such effects.

Dr. Schafhaeutl had ingeniously shown that an explosive force generated
under water would act upon the bottom of the boiler and burst it, before the

* See the author's experiments, Mechanics' Mag., Vol. XXX. p. 144.

320

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[Septkmber,

safety valve could relieve the pressure. The Doctor deduced from Mr.
Parkes's theory of " the percussive action of steam," and his own experi-
ments, that if, from any cause, such as the hreaking up of a i)ortion of crust
adhering to the bottom of the Ijoiler, a volume of steam of high elastic force
was suddenly evolved, a rupture of the bottom would be the consequence, or,
the boiler might be separated into two parts. Mr. Parkes coincided in this
opinion, and cited several examples in support of it.

It appeared to liim that a force different from, and greater than, the simple
pressure of the steam, was the principal agent. The Committee of the
Franklin Institute, and others, who in their experiments Iiad endeavoured to
produce explosions of boilers, liad very rarely succeeded, and the effects ob-
tained fell far short of those which continually occurred by accident. It
might be safely inferred from this fact, that the experimenters had not ar-
rived at the tnie cause of the ruptures and projections of boilers, otherwise
the production of similar effects would not have been difficult.

Sail Pans. — Describing the sudden development of a volume of steam,
from highly heated plates, which no practicable number of safety valves could
discharge tpnckly enough to save a boiler from destruction, he instanced the
effects |iroduced by the lircaking up of the scale in salt pans. Carbonate
and sulphate of lime were separated from brine by eva]ioration, and adhered
very firmly to heated surfaces. A crust of salt frequently formed upon this
deposit ; the cessation of ebullition (if the deposit occmTed over the furnace)
was the consequence, and the bottom of the pan became red hot. The man-
ner in which the pan scale was disengaged, was to strike it with the edge of
a heavy iron pricker, which allowed the brine to reach the plate; it was also
frequently broken through by the expansion and bagging down of the plates,
leaving tlie crust above like an arch. In such cases the plate was seen for
an instant to le red hot, and immediately afterwards an immense column of
brine was projected from the pan, the steam evidently being of high momen-
tary elasticity. Mr. Parkes had seen a yard square of scale thus burst, the
whole siuface of the plate being at a glowing red heat. Had the pan been
closed, like a steam boiler, he conceived that the blow of the steam on the
roof, bottom, or sides, would liave destroyed the vessel.

A thin copper salt pan at Mr. Parkes's works, bad a hole burst through
its bottom by the sudden action of steam thus generated. The spot had no
doubt been previously injured by heat. lie conceived that similar pheno-
mena might, and frequently did, occur in steam boilers.

Healed Plates. — A theory has been adopted by many writers on the ex-
plosion of steam boilers, that red-hot iron plates would generate less steam
than plates at a less heat. This was founded on the experiments of Leiden-
frost, Klaproth, and others, on the length of time requisite to evaporate a
small globule of water in a red-hot spoon. But there was no analogy be-
tween the condition of a hot spoon containing a drop of water, and that of
a body of water and heated plates in boilers.

Steam of great force would instantly be produced from a thin sheet or
wave of water, passing over hot plates, the molecular attraction of a drop
falling a short distance upon a plate would be destroyed, and the whole be
instantly converted into steam of a high momentary elasticity. The theory
of the hot spoon experiment, as applied to boilers, had been demonstrated to
be fallacious by Dr. Schafhaeutl in a paper pubUshed in the Mech. Mag.
vol. XXX. No. 799.

" Vnion ' Steamer at Hull. — The explosion of several boilers had been at-
tributed, and Mr. Parkes thought justly, to a wave of water washing over
highly heated plates. He believed that the fatal accident to the " Union "
steamer at Hull was so produced. The boilers of steam vessels were not at
that period so well arranged as at present, for preventing the water from
flowing to one side, and leaving a portion of the top of the flues dry with
the fire beneath. Under such circumstances, the disaster which occurred
would be inevitalde, on the vessel's coming on an even keel. Mr. Parkes
was not of opinion that it required the exposure of a large area of heated
metal to effect the separation of a boiler and the projection of the upper half
of it ; as, in this case, it was the suddenness of the action, no number of
safety valves could have deprived the steam of its instantaneous force, so as
to have saved the boiler. The entire circumference of large boilers had been
frequently divided as clean as a pair of shears would ha\e accomplished the
work. These phenomena were evidences of a force very suddenly exerted.

Sudden actions on the surfaces of boilers arose aUo from other causes than
the heating of plates. During the inquiry into the causes of steam vessel
accidents, he ascertained that of twenty-three explosions, ninetecu occurred
on the instant of starting the engines, or whilst the vessels were stationary;
three only whilst the engines were at work : the greatest number took place
at the moment of admitting the steam upon the piston. He attributed this
effect to the steam's jiercussive force, which would be as much felt by the
boiler as by the piston ; if the boiler was weak, and, distended by steam to
nearly the bursting point, the shock would be suflicieut to cause its rupture.
Mr. Parkes then gave several instances of such occurrences.

Steam Ves.fel e.iphsion at jYoru'icA. — In 1817, the boiler of a steam vessel
at Noi-nich burst, and killed many persons. Previous to the accident, the
boiler Irakcd in several places ; the steam issued coi>iously from the safety
valve, which was evidently very heavily loaded. The engine had scarcely
made a revolution before the explosion occurred. By applying the present
state of our knowledge to these facts, he felt assured that the steam's impact
on the piston bad been the immediate cause of that accident.

Erplosian at Passy. — In 1826 or 1827, Mr. I'arkes witnessed the effects of
an explosion, a few minutes after its occurrence, in the neighbourhood of his

works, near Paris. The boiler was of wrought iron, G feet long by about 2
feet C inches or 3 feet <liameter. By his advice the owner had previously
put in a new end, formed of one piece of hammered iron, and he was strongly
dissuaded frou) overloading his engine, or using habitually such enormous
pressures. The cylinder of the engine was horizontal, and was connected
with the boiler by a short pipe and cock. The proprietor informed him, that
finding his machinery working too slowly, he went into the engine-house and
stopped the engine. He held down the lever of the safety valve, and on
turning the cock to start the engine, the explosion instantly occurred. The
new end of the boiler, which was opposite lo the engine, was found separated
from the body, and lying in the flue. The line of rivets and a complete ring
of the new end remained upon the body, apparently little forced, and the
faces of the fractured ends were as sharp and clean as if cut by a chisel or
shears. The boiler, engine, and masonry, were driven into the yard in the
opposite direction to the escape of the w.iter and steam ; thus, though the
entire end of the boiler was removed, and the whole contents evacuated, it
acted too late as a safety valve.

Explosion at Camden Town. — He observed similar effects last year in an
cx)ilosion at Camden Town, being fortunately on the ground to investigate it
before much change had been made. Two boilers were set .end to end with
a chimney between them. The end of one was blown out, and was lying
close to its original seat. It was forced backwards into the chimney, which
it iiartly supported on a pipe flange, and pushed the other boiler and entire
masonry in a horizontal direction fully two feet. He considered that the
percussion of the steam from its re-action against the opposite ends of the
boiler in the act of tearing it off (which was the effect in tliis case) produced
the recoil. In this case there were upon the boilers (which were connected
together) two safety valves in good order, and not heavily loaded. The acci-
dent occurred during the breakfast hour, whilst the engines were not at
work. One of the two stays which originally held the fractured end of the
boiler, was found to have been previously broken, as its separated ends were
covered with old lime scale — the other had evidently been long cracked, and
was only held by a fragment. The fractured end of the boiler was not exposed
to the fire, nor did the shell or the flue within it exhibit any marks of injury
from fire or from dislodgnient of scale. The steam, in its effort to escape,
acting first against one end, not only raised the boiler from its horizontal
position to an angle of about 45°, but gave it a twist obliquely from the line
of its bed.

High and low preisure. — Mr. Parkes could not agree in the often expressed
opinion, that what are called high-pressure steam boilers were more dangerous
or more liable to explode than others. Much depended on care and manage-
ment. He believed that he was in possession of accounts of nearly all the
explosions which had occurred iu Cornwall since the expiration of .Mr. Watt's
patent, when higher pressures began to be used, and they amounted only to
five or six instances, exclusive of some cases of collapsed flues. More explo-
sions had occurred in a small district round M'cdnesbury during the present
year with low pressure boilers, than in Cornwall in forty years, where the
lughest pressures were employed. He believed also that the coal districts of
Northumberland, Durham, and Staffordshire, would furnish more cases of
these disasters from boilers both of high aud low pressure, than all the rest
of England put together.

The coal districts.— When the practice in the coal districts was contrasted
w ith that of Cornwall, the explanation was simple. AVhere coal was so cheap,
the quantify used was unlimited, the negligence was great, and the allowance
of boiler was small for any given sized engine, as enough steam could he
raised by fires of greater intensity — the rule there being, to save in the first
cost of the boiler ; in Cornwall, on the contrary, the object was to insure
economy in the consumption of fuel ; consequently, all that class of accidents
arising from injury to plates by fire and deposit, would be in about the ratio
of the intensity of the combustion.

Notwithstanding the bad practice generally prevading in the coal districts,
there were some exceptions. .\t an iron work near Dudley, there were boilers
now in good order after nearly thirty years' use, having required but trifling
repairs during that period. In those boilers the plates of the bottoms w hich
were exposed to the fire were all made of hammered, not of rolled iron — the
boilers were large for their work, and were cleaned thoroughly every week.

Hammered plates. — Tilled plates were alone used for salt pans in those
parts where the heat was most intense. Though continually heated to red-
ness, and distorted by the action of the fire, the quality of the iron in plates
thus formed did not appear to be deteriorated, for when taken out the smiths
used them for making rivets, nails, &e. Rolled iron plates would do for
making coarse salt, which required a heat below ebullition, but they were
quickly injured when used for fine salt, and were useless when taken out.

Eiplosion at Esuonne. — Mr. Parkes then adverted to several other remark-
able cases of explosion. It was a well authenticated fact, that a boiler be-
longing to Messrs. Ferey, at Essonne in France, exploded on the uistant of
opening the safety valve.

Explosion at Lyons. — Three successive reports were heard when Steele's
steam boat boilers exploded at Lyons, indicating that they did not burst at
the same instant. Now, though Mr. Steele had fastened down the safety
valve to increase the pressure of the steam, v«t the explosion of the first boiler
should, according to the received opinions, have acted as a safety valve to the
second and third, aud have saved them — for, by the destruction of the first
boiler, the pipes would be broken, and a free exit be afforded for the steam
in the others ; nevertheless, they all three burst in succession. Several similar

1841.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

3-21

instances of successive explosions hail occiirrcil in England, lie would not
at present enter npon an explanation of what he considered might have oc-
casioned these phenomena, hut he would express his conviction that the
practice of suddenly opening and closing the safety valves was extremely
dangerous. To be usehil as escape valves, they should he allowed to open
and to close in obedience to the steam's pressure only, not to be handled
more than was absolutely necessaPr'.

None of the theories yet advanced appeared clearly explanatory of the
cause of the projection of heavy boilers from their seats, when in many cases
they contained abundance of water. He instanced a case in which a boiler
exploded, and carried to some distance a boiler connected with it, and in
which some men were at work. The boilers separated while in the air, and
the one which exploded attained a very considerable height, although it was
28 feet long by 6 feet diameter. The particulars of this explosion weie fur-
nished to him by Mr. Clarke, engineer to the Earl of Durham, but they could
not be properly appreciated or explained without the drawings and descrip-
tion.

Explosion at Durham. — A boiler weighing about 2.J tons was projected
from its seat at Messrs. Henderson's M'ooUen Factory at Durham, in 1835 ;
it ascended to a considerable height, and fell 300 yards from the place where
it had been seated.

Crenoer Mine. — A cylindrical boiler exploded at the Crenver iline in
Cornwall in 1812. It passed through the boiler house, and opened itself in
the yard outside, where it was described to have fallen " as fiat as a piece of
paper."

Facts of this nature were replete with interest, and should lead engineers
to the consideration of causes and remedies.

Boilers red hot. — Mr. Parkes then instanced several cases of boilers which
had become red hot, and had not exploded ; one example was a set of three
boilers, the tops as well as the bottoms of which were red hot, in consequence
of the house in which they were fixed being on fire ; yet they did not explode.
No water bad, however, been pumped into the boilers whilst so heated.

Explosions of hydrogen gns. — He was in possession also of several curious
examples of ruptures and projections of vessels arising from causes very dif-
ferent to the foregoing. One case occurred in February 1837, at the Works
of Messrs. Samuel Stocks and Son, in the Township of Heaton Norris, near
Manchester. The boiler was 20 feet long, 9 feet wide, and 10 feet deep, and
weighed about 8 tons. On a Saturday night the water was blown out of it
through the plug-hole at the bottom, by the pressure of the steam, the man-
lid not being removed. On Sunday evening the fireman proceeded to take
off the man-hole cover to clean the boiler; on entering it with a candle and
lanthorn, a violent explosion occurred ; and the man was projected to some
distance and killed. On examining the boiler it was found quite dry, no fire
being alight, no traces of water near it, and it was quite cold : it had been
lifted from its seat up to the roof, which it destroyed, and the walls of the
building were thrown down. There was no difficulty in accounting for the
presence of a combustible gas, as hydrogen might be evolved from the de-
composition of the steam (which would remain in the boiler after the expul-
sion of the water) by the heated sides and bed of the boiler, and the atmo-
spheric air which entered through the plug-hole or through the man-hole,
when the lid was removed, was sufficient to form an explosive mixture.
The projection of the man was the simple effect of firing the gas ; but to ac-
count for the entire boiler being carried from its seat, was more difficult.
The figure of the boiler after explosion exhibited two distinct actions ; the
ends and sides had evidently been bulged outwards by the force of the ex-
plosion within it, and the bottom had been crushed upwards by the force
which raised it from its seat.

Mr. Parkes thought the circumstances admitted of a satisfactory explana-
tion, but would not then enter upon it, as it involved the history and pheno-
mena of projections of vessels from their beds with a vacuum within them,
which he thought would be better understood after the reading of his paper
on the " Percussive Force of Steam and other Aeriform Fluids," then in pre-
paration for the Institution.

The foregoing case of the formation of hydrogen gas in a boiler, after all
the water had been evacuated, was confirmed by one which took place in a
similar manner at the Sugar-house of Messrs. Rhodes and Son, in London, of
which all the particulars had been furnished to him by Mr. Henrickson, the
manager. .A man entering the boiler with a candle and lanthorn to clean it,
was projected to a great height. No rupture of the boiler took place, as the
quantity of hydrogen seemed to be comparatively small, f.nd to be confined
to the upper portion of the boiler, but a series of detonations occurred, like
successive discharges of cannon.

These two remarkable instances showed the importance of attending to
minute circumstances in the management of boilers. The practice of com-
pletely blowing out boilers whilst the flues were intensely heated, was evi-
dently dangerous, nor should it be done without removing the man-hole
cover.

Mr. Parkes felt that these notices of explosions were very imperfect with-
out drawings, and reference to documentary evidence, but, as the subject had
been brought before the Institution by Dr. Schaf haentl, he hoped that they
would be received as contributions to the stock of knowledge, and as illus-
trative of the precautions to be observed by attendants on steam engines.

Mr. Seaward was glad to find the idea of the explosions of boilers arising
from the formation of hydrogen gas, so successfully combated by Dr. Schaf-
haeutl and Mr. Parkes. He perfectly agreed with the former in his opinion

of the causes of the majority of explosions. In all that he had witnessed
the effects of, the lower parts of the boiler appeared to have suffered most.

He was at the I'olgooth Mine immediately after the explosion theie. when
seventeen persons were killed. In that case, he was told that the boilers
were moved a distance of 7 or 8 feet from their seats, before any detonation
was heard.

At the Hurlam Mine (which Trevithick had undertaken to drain for a cer-
tain sura) an engine with a cyUnder of 40 inches diameter was erected im-
mediately over the shaft. Its power was not sufficient for the work re-
quired ; the pressure of steam was therefore gradually increased as tue depth
became greater. At length the boiler, which was of an immense length, was
observed to have a constant tremulous or sinuous motion at each stroke of
the engine, and eventually it exploded.

Boilers in London. — It appeare<l that there were fewer explosions of boilers
in London, in proportion to the number employed, than in any other district.
One reason for this might be, that fuel being exjiensive, it n'as used econo-
mically, by maintaining a slow rate of comb\istion, and a regular supply of
steam, avoiding the intense action of the fire, which, in the event of the' en-
gine standing still for a time, had a tendency to produce an explosion.

Mr. Parkes attributed the small number of explosions of boilers in the
vessels on the Thames to the practice of allowing the steam to act upon the
safety valve, instead of the engineer lifting it when the engine was stopped,
as on board vessels in the north. The sudden closing of the valve had in
many cases produced an explosion.

While on this subject, he felt it necessary to comment upon what he con-
sidered fallacious reasoning of Tredgold on the formation of hydrogen gas in
toilers.* The passage he alluded to was couched thus: — "Hydrogen gas
may be, and frequently is, formed in steam boilers through the water being
in contact with a part of the boiler which is red hot ; and it seems to be
regularly produced during the formation of steam at very high temperatures."
Dr. Schafhaeutl had shown, that the eflfect of water coming suddenly in con-
tact with a part of the boiler which was red hot, was only to disengage in-
stantaneously a large volume of steam of very high elasticity. Mr. Parkes
contended, that an instance of the sudden production of hydrogen gas in a
boiler under such circumstances was unknown, and he much doubted the
possibility of such an occurrence. Again, allowing such an event to be pos-
sible, an explosive mixture of gases must be formed before the boiler could
be destroyed ; and this could not take place so long as a sufficiency of water
was present, from which any considerable quantity of steam could be gene-
rated.

ilr. Donkin did not entirely agree as to the non-formation of hydrogen in
boilers under peculiar circumstances. He conceived the explosions which
occurred in iron fonnderies, on the contact of the melted metal with wet
sand, to be analogous. He believed, that when water was thrown suddenly
npon red-hot plates, decomposition did occur.

He bad once examined a wagon-shaped boiler which had exploded ; the
top was thrown to some distance, and the bottom was depressed throughout
its entire length. He believed, that by intense firing the water had been
nearly all evaporated ; the bottom had then become red hot, the pressure of
the steam had forced the bottom downwards when weakened by the heat ;
the water on each side then suddenly flowed on to the heated part, and an
explosion instantly occurred.

Mr. Seaward had known instances of the internal tube of a boiler being
collapsed without any injury to the external part or body of the boiler. He
had always ascribed such occurrences to a deficiency of water ; but Dr.
Schaf haeutl's explanation of the rapid transmission of force through the wave
to the bottom would sufBciently account for the eft'ects which had been
observed.

Mr. Donkin believed, that in almost every case the unequal pressure upon
the exterior of the tube, arising firom its not being perfectly cylindrical, was
the cause of its collapsing.

Mr. Field was inclined to attribute aU the explosions which he had wit-
nessed to simple pressure. I

When steam, or a small quantity of water, was suddenly admitted into a
dry heated vessel, hydrogen gas was readily formed. He had made several
sets of apparatus for the purpose. A strong wrought-iron tube was heated,
and, being filled loosely with fragments of iron-turnings, steam was intro-
duced and the gas was rapidly evolved.

He agreed with Mr. Parkes in condenming, generally, the fallacy of the
opinion of Tredgold, previously mentioned, as to the formation of hydrogen
gas. Still, in a large boiler, almost dry, and of which a portion was red hot,
he conceived, that on the admission of a small quantity of water, hydrogen
gas might be evolved.

Elevation of boilers Jrom their seats. — The President was unwilUng that
this conversation should terminate without endeavouring to explain the cause
of the elevation of the boilers from their seats. In his opinion, this might
be satisfactorily accounted for by the action of atmospheric pressure.

When an explosion took place in a boiler, a considerable body of highly
elastic fluid was disengaged ; a partial vacuum was thus created above the
boiler, whilst the full pressure of the atmosphere was exerted beneath it.
This would cause the boiler to rise from its seat, provided the atmospheric
air did not at the same instant rush into it, in which case the bottom would
be pressed downwards, and the upper part being torn asunder, as had been
described, would then rise into the air with the elastic fluid.

' Tredgold on the Steam Engine, vol. i. p. 251.

Edition by Woolhouse.
2 U

322

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[September,

AVhen it was considered that the superficial area of these boilers was about
GO square feet ; that the pressure of the atniosphere was uearly 1 ton per
square foot, and that the weight of the boilers was only 8 or 10 tons, it
would be apparent that the cause was quite ailequate to the effect, with a
very partial vacuum or inequality of atmospheric pressure. The case was
analogous to those in which light bodies were raised into the air by wbirl-
trinds.

lie referred also to two cases of an equally uncommon nature, which had
lately come under his notice professionally, and which lie considered to arise
chielly from inequality ef atmospheric pressure.

The first occurred at the I'lymouth Breakwater during the great storm in
the month of February, 1838, when several of the largest granite lilocks,
weighing from 3 to H tons each, composing the surface or pavement of the
breakwater, which, although squared and dove-tailed into the structure, and
embedded in excellent cement to the extent of their whole depth, and thus
forming a solid mass, were torn from their positions, and projected over the
breakw.iter into the Sound. He attributed tliis to the hydrostatic pressure
exerted beneath the stones, at the moment when the atmospheric pressure
above had been disturbed by the masses of water suddenly and rapidly thrown
upon the surface of the breakwater. Ulocks of stone were tlius often carried
to a great distance, not so much by the waves lifting them, as by the vacuum
created above them by the motiou of the water, which exerted at the same
tinie its full pressure from below.

The other rase occurred during a storm in the year 1840, when the sea
door of the Eddystone Lighthouse was forced outv\ards, and it strong iron
bolts and binges broken by the atmospheric pressure from within. In this
inst.mces be conceived that the sweep of the vast body of water in motion
round the lighthouse had created a partial and momentary, though eft'eetual,
Tacuuni, and thus enabled the atmospheric pressure within the building to
act iipon the only yielding part of the structure.

Signals for Railways,

A letter was read from Mr. Edward Alfred Cowper, describing some ex-
periments on the use of maroons as signals on railways.

The maroons are either small tin cases, or cartridges of brown paper, charged
with from \ oz. to2oz. of gunpowder, mingled with which are 4 of " Jones's
Prometheans," which are small glass tubes, each containing a drop of sul-
phuric acid ; the tubes are surrounded with chlorate (hyper-oxy-muriate) of
potassa, and are each enveloped in a strip of paper.

In the event of an accident occurring, which renders it necessary to give
notice that an approaching train should be stopped at a given point, two or
more of these maroons are fastened upon the upper surface of the rail by the
strips of lead attached to them. The wheels of the engine, in passing over
them, crush the glass tubes of the " Prometheans," the sulphuric acid in-
flames the chlorate of potassa, and causes an explosion of the gunpowder,
which is distinctly heard by the engine driver, who immediately shuts off the
Steam, and puts down tlic break.

Mr. C. H. Gregory bad permitted several trials to be made with these
maroons on the Croydon Railway.

An engine was driven at full speed with a number of empty wagons attach-
ed to it, and with the steam blowing off to create as much noise as possible,
yet the explosion of even half a drachm of gunpowder was distinctly per-
ceived : he considered the invention to be practically useful.

BRITISH ASS0CI.A.T10X FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE.

Eleventh Meeting, 1841.

Desei-ij/fion of the existing and contemplated Rnihrays and Machinery con*
nevted vith the Granite Quarry on Dartmoor, and of the mode of working
them. By William Johnson, Grosvenor Wharf, Al'cstminstcr.

Dartmoor is an extensive granitic table-land occupying the heart of Hie
county of Devon, and in which many of the rivers of this county originate.
It is in length from north to south 22 miles, and in breadth from east to
west 14 miles. The heiglit of the table-land above the level of the sea is
from 1000 to 1200 feet ; but the surface is broken by numerous masses of
rock, which run up to three, four, and five hundred feet above the ordinary
level of the moor ; these are ranged in short chains, or they rise in rifted
blocks, or in insulated hillocks, which ere distinguished as Tors, or provin-
cially Tars.

The surface granite of Dartmoor, which is in detached blocks, in infinite
quantity, had been employed in the neighbourhood for the ordinary purposes
of building from time immemorial. Quarried granite from Dartmoor was
first brought into the market about 1820 by the Haytor Granite Company.
A stone tramway was constructed from the llaytor quarries on the south-
eastern face of the moor to the Stover Canal, near Newton Bushel, a few
miles above Teignmoutli, the nearest available port at which stone couhl be
shipped, and by tliis means Dartmoor granite caiue into the market at con-
siderable advantage, especially as the quality of the stone is such as to enable
it to compete with the best .\berdGenshirc, and, for many purposes, the
lightness of its tint aided by the fineness of its texture, and the almost un-
limited size of the blocks in which it could he procmed without defect se-
cured it a jircfcrence. The western face of London Bridge is mainly com-

posed of granite from Dartmoor. Dartmoor granite has also been intro-
duced into many of the |)ublic buddings in the metropoUs; amongst others
the New Post Office, the Goldsmith'* Hall, Fishmougcr's Hall and Bucking-
ham Palace.

The establishment of the Plymouth and Dartmoor Railway, which was
completed in the year 1825, directed attention to the fine granite on the
western face of the moor, by affording ready means of transport to the port
of Plymouth for stone from Foggintor and other points adjacent.

The length of the Plymouth and Darmoor Railway, from Prince-town to
the Tide Docks, known as Sutton Pool, at Plymoutii, is about 25 miles;
though the distance from one terminus to the other, by the carriage road, is
not more than 16 miles ; whilst a right line, from point to point, does not
exceed 13 miles in length, the greater length of the railway being occasioned
by windings to save expensive works, and to obtain tolerably equable incli-
nations upon which the trains might nui down freely and allow the empty
or slightly laden waggons to be drawn back without much waste of power.

The whole rise of the railway from its toll-house in Plymouth to the
Prince-town terminus, by the Prisons of War, is 1350 feet; which, upon the
net distance of 24 miles between those points, gives a rise of 56'25 feet per
mile, or a ratio of nearly 1 in 94. The road is almost entirely upon the sur-
face, with occasional slight cutting and filling, and a short tunnel (30 chains
in length) occurs within the fourth mile from Plymouth. The wagons or
trucks used upon the line consist of a platform or bed, set upon two centres,
on two under carriages, to a'lapt them to their work and to the excessively
sharp curves and irregidar surfaces that frequently occur upon the line. The
power used in working the line is the gravitation of the load, assisted by
horses, the return being by horses entirely. Three horses draw eight single
wagons, or four double ones, with from 30 to 40 tons of granite down, and
take the wagons back when empty. There are at present no planes upoa
the line having gear worked by fixed power, or as self-acting planes.

The quarry which affords this railway its principal occu^tion, is worked
by the Haytor Granite Company. It is situated witliin a quarter of a mile
of the main line of the railway, from which a branch is laid into the quarry,
at two miles from Prince-town, the floor of the quarry being at a level of
48 feet above the turn-out, and 12C0 feet above the level of the quay at
Plymouth, from which the stone is shipped.

The quarry is on the side of the Mount known as Foggintor, at from 350
to 400 feet below the summit. A gullet was first driven in horizontally,
until a face of rock 50 feet high was obtained, presenting a most beautiful
section of stone, in beds or layers of from eight to ten feet thick. The gullet
has since been carried forward from 110 to 120 yards, and extended laterally
until the bed of the quarry presents a cleared horizontal surface of nearly
4000 square yards. The benching onw ards and outwards of the upper layers
exceeds 2G00 square yards, and the highest bench is 80 feet above the rails
on the floor of the quarn-. A considerable further extent of surface, beyond
and above this, is uncovered of earth, and, the crust being removed, a ver-
tical section of the granite tor is exposed, of nearly 100 feet in height.

A single blast in this quarry has been known to separate and remove 3000
tons of stone, and single blocks have been sent out weighing 20 tons, com-
puted to contain about 250 cubic feet.

From the lower benches, in the face of the quarry, the stone has beeu
taken up by derricks, or moveable cranes, and placed by them in the usual
manner upon trucks on the railways, laid on the floor of the quarry ; whilst,
from the topmost benches, the stone is delivered over the sitle of the hill,
and skidded down an inclined plane to the masons' sheds, where the ope-
rations of converting and dressing are performed, and from whence the
blocks are conveyed upon railway trucks to the place of shipment.

The existing facilities for working the quarries, are now in course of fur-
ther extension, by the construction of stroi)g timber stages or scaffolds, with
travelling frames, and upon the frames iiowerful traversing crabs, avoiding
thereby the excessive labour and delay of lifting by the ordinary means of
derricks and cranes. These stages rest upon the floor of the quarry in front,
and run in parallel lines of 30 feet in width onwards upon the benches ac-
cording to their heights, and give the means of taking up the stone wherever
the blocks may be thrown out in blasting upon the different benches, and
placing them at once upon the tnicUs on the floor of the quarry, by which
they are taken to the mason's sheds, so that the quarry is kept constantly
clear, and the largest blocks of stone are moved out with the greatest pos-
sible ease. An arrangement is in progress for transferring the travelling
frames, with the crabs upon them, from one line of scaffold to another, by
which means power may be accumulated to almost any extent upon any one
stage, to operate upon blocks of extraordinary size.

Foggintor granite is at present extensively used for all the purposes to
which granite has been hitherto ajiplied. It is superior to any other in this
country for steps, plinths, string and blocking courses, ashlars, pedestals,
obehsks, columns, cornices, and indeed for all the purposes of architecture,
because of the freedom and comparative ease w ith which it can be worked,
being alike capable of the finest arris and of the fairest face, whether moulded
or plain ; whilst the purity and evenness of its colour, and the fineness of its
texture in the deep beds, give it advantages not possessed in an equal degree
by the |)roduce of any other quarry in Great Britain. Foggintor granite is
moreover iiecidiarly fitted for the more massive works of the hydraulic arcLf«
tcet or engineer, on account of the magnitude of the blocks in which it
procurable. It is in great demand for the quoin, hinge, and heel stones
dock :!nd other lock gates, for altars iti graving docks, as well as for

1841.1

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

32.3

floors and curbs of such massive constructions, and for bridge constructions
in all their varieties. Indeed, notwithstanding the facihties with which the
work in the quarry is performed, the extent and depth of face exposed, and
the ease with which the blocks are got out of the quarry, and upon the rail-
■way, it has hitherto been found difficult to supply, with sufficient rapidity,
the existing demand.

The works at the Government Yard at Devonport — those of the magnili-
eent new graving dock now in course of construction at Woolwich — Tenby
Beacon in Pembrokeshire — the Neale Memorial in the New Forest, Hants —
and the Nelson Testimonial — the retairdng walls of Trafalgar Square — and
the new buildings of the Sun and Alhance Fire Otlces, in London, are all
supplied with granite from the Fogginfor Quarr)'. JIany private works in
various parts of England are also supplied with granite from this quarry, and
the terrace walls and their approaches in the great quadrangle of Christ
Church, Oxford, are about to be restored with Foggiutor granite. Indeed,
the fine texture and tint of Dartmoor granite adapt it peculiarly for terraces
and for the basements of buildings whose superstructure and other collateral
works are of Portland stone, Bath stone, or any of the best English free-
stones.

An important feature in the quarry now under consideration is the great
depth at which the beds already accessible lie below the surface, yielding
therefrom stone of the greatest degree of compactness and strength with
perfect equality of colour; whilst the horizontal disposition of the rock
allows of the removal of stone of fair forms, and in blocks of the largest size.
Blocks have been sent from the quarries on Dartmoor even to Scotland to
supply works there with sizes which could not be procured iu that country.
Sir Francis Chantrey's bronze statue of King George the -tth, in Edinburgh,
stands on a block of Ilaytor granite, and the statue of Watt, at Glasgow, by
the same distinguished sculptor, is also placed on a block of granite from
Dartmoor.

Mr. Rendel bore testimony to the excellence of the quality of the Dart-
moor granite, and to its peculiar fitness for any kind of work. The material
was extremely good, and of sufficient fineness to admit of the most dehcate
moulds being made for it. It cleaves freely ; there is little waste, and pieces
of stone of all sizes, from the smallest to the largest, can be readUy obtained.
He had, some time ago, taken the dimensions of a block, and found it to he
67 feet in length, 5 feet by 8 feet at one end, and 3 feet by 5 feet at the
other end. If a great outlay were justified, this granite would be the cheap-
est stone that could be used. The President stated, that he had attempted,
some years ago, to introduce this granite into the market by means of the
canal, near Tavistock, and now that such facilities existed for its transport,
he would direct public attention to the beautiful slabs, columns, vases, and
forms into which the Aberdeen granite was worked, and express his hopes
that before the British Association next met at Plymouth, there would be a
large manufactory of these articles in Dartmoor granite. The beautiful por-
phyry of Cornwall might also be employed in a simUar manner. He coidd
mention a remarkable instance of the durability of the Dartmoor granite. A
slab which had been used as afoot bridge from time immemorial had recently
been removed, and on the face, which had been turned downwards, was a
Eoman inscription, showing it to be at least 2000 years old. — Mr. Eaton
Hodgkinson, in reference to some questions which had been asked, respecting
the strength of stone according to the position in which it was placed, stated
that in all bodies of imiform texture the strength would be the same in what-
ever position they are ])laced, but in bodies that are laminated the case is
very different. He observed a veiy pernicious practice to have prevailed in
the construction of many of our buildings, namely, the placuig the stone
without any regard to the direction of its lamination. He had extended his
experiments to a great variety of stone, and he found that cubes of granite
when broken with the greatest care, break up at once into wedges. Some
valuable experiments on the strength of granite were published in the Trans-
actions of the Institution of Civil Engineers, but the mode in which the ex-
periments had been conducted was not stated, and a distinction is drawn be-
tween the crushing and the breaking force ; but he thought that if the ex-
periments had been made by pressing the stone between two perfectly smooth
plates a somewhat different result would have been found ; the granite would
have broken up at once without crushing, as was uniformly the case in liis
experiments. He thought it important to interpose a thin substance, as a
sheet of pa|)er, between the plate and the stone ; the pressure by this means
becomes more perfectly distributed. A remarkable connexion existed between
the ratio of the forces of extension and compression, and the angles at which
the wedges or masses would shde off when broken by pressure. If these
forces were equal, the wedges would slide at an angle of 45°. — Prof. Moseley
remarked that the experiments of Mr. E. Hodgkinson were peculiarly valuable,
because he had not confined himself to cubes, but extended his experiments
to other forms. A singular prejudice had existed in favour of cubes. The
commissioners appointed to report on the stone for building the House of
Commons, experimented simply on cubes, whereas rectangles would have been
much better.

Dr. Lardner's Report on Railway Constants was read. Details of this paper
were presented to the Association in the year 1839, and reported very fully
in the Journal, vol. 2, page 383, but as the communication was then merelj^
verbal, and the rules of the Association requure a written report, the report
was formally presented, and the reading led to a good deal of discussion, but
no new facts were eUcited.

"Report of the Commillee on Railway Constants." By Edward Woods,
In a preceding Report of the Committee (published in the 8th volume of
the Transactions of the Britisli Association), five various modes of ascertain-
ing the resistance to the tractive power on railways were described, and their
relative merits discussed, and a variety of experiments on one of these me-
thods, viz , by observing the motion of a load down an incline, sufticiently
steep to give accelerated motion, having been made, it appeared, that the re-
sistance increased in a degree previously unsuspected in proportion as the
speed of the train increased, — but in what ratio, was not tlien determined,
owing to certain discrepancies due, principally, to the varying effect of the
wind at the time of the experiments. The Committee have continued to
conduct their experiments in a similar manner, repeating them with various
sizes of trains, at various velocities, on the Sutton incline, of 1 in 89 on the
Liverpool and Manchester Railway, and on the inclines of 1 in 177, 1 in 265,
and 1 in 330 on the Grand Junction Railway.* The data ascertained and
given in the Report are, — 1, The co-efficient of grarity on the inclination of
the plane. 2, The initial velocity of train at some determinate point on that
plane. 3, The terminal velocity at sotne other determinate point on the
same plane. 4, The time elapsed in traversing the space intervening betweeu
these two points. 5, The space intervening. 6, The force of gravitation.
7, The weight or mass of the train, exclusive of the wheels and axles. 8,
The weight or mass of the train subject to the rolling motion, viz., the wheels
and axles. 9, The radius of the wheels. 10, The distance from the centre
of the wheel, to the centre of oscillation. If a body move down an inchned
I)lane without resistance, its velocity at any given depth below the level of
the point where its motion first commences, will be equal to the velocity it
would have acquired by a free vertical descent through the same height. This
standard velocity being compared with the observed velocity of a body mov-
ing down an inc'hne, and meeting with resistance, the amount of tliat resist-
ance can be assigned. This mode has been objected to, from the apparent
inconsistencies iu the results ; but these may be readily explained ; and the
Report shows a remarkable correspondence in the motions of the same train,
when permitted to descend the same plane from the same point, provided the
atmosphere be perfectly calm. The usual formula is applicable to three cases
of accelerated, uniform, and retarded motion ; the co-efficieut of gravity is
greater than, equal to, and less than the co-efficient of resistance accordingly ;
and the requisite correction will be negative, zero, and positive, so that the
co-efflcient of resistance tnay be found in all cases. The method of determin-
ing this correction was set forth in the former Report. When the motion is
uniform, the mean resistance for any particular velocity may be assigned; but
when the motion is accelerated or retarded between the two points of obser-
vation, although the mean resistance may be known, it cannot be stated with
accuracv, whether that mean resistance is due to the mean velocity, or to
some other velocity intermediate between the Umits of the initial and termi-
nal velocities, because experience has not yet assigned the law of the corres-
ponding increments of resistance and speed. The results which the tables of
this Report present, are considered under the following heads : the determi-
nation of the friction ; the additional resistance produced by increase of speed
in trains of different sizes ; the effect of modifying the form of the front or
end of carriages, and of other changes in the external surface of the train.
Three first-class carriages were allowed to descend the Sutton incUne from
rest four times in succession, a length of 2420 yards. It appears that the
resistance diminishes until the train attains the speed of 7-58 miles per hour,
after which it increases; at 4-32 miles per hour, the resistance was 6-07 IU.
per ton ; at 7-58 miles per hour, 5-6 tb. per ton. This remarkable and hitherto
unobserved result is owing, probablv, to the more perfect lubrication of the
axles at the higher speed ; a certain thickness or film of grease is formed be-
tween the bras's step and the upper surface of the journal, and keeps the two
surfaces more effectually apart ; at the lower velocities, the pressure of the
step upon the journal has a longer time to act in effecting the displacement
of the fresh grease which has been suppUed from the box, and the result is,
a greater amount of friction. Eight second-class carriages were allowed to
descend the Sutton incline ; the friction was a minimum at o-84 miles per
hour. The following results mav be deduced from the above-mentioned
series of experiments. 1, The friction was least when the train was moving
at the rate of about 6 miles per hour. 2, The total resistance was also least
at the rate of about 6 miles per hour, notwithstanding the effect of the atmo-
sphere .It that speed. 3, The mean resistance of first-class caiTiag_es was
never less than 5-6 ft), per ton ; aud of the second-class never less thaii / -/S lb.
per ton ; 6 and 8 ft. per ton will represent very neariy the mean of the resis-
tances ; and these values are used in the subsequent part of the Report, ine
motion of these trains being observed at lower parts of the inchne, where the
velocities were greater than the preceding, the resistance to the train of three
carriages was 8, 12, aud 16 ft. per ton, at velocities of 22, 26, and 29, miles
per hour respectivelv, and the resistance to the train of eight carnages was
11, 12, and 14 J ft. per ton, at the velocities of 20, 25, and 29 nnles per hour.
Trains of 4 and of 6 carriages were impelled to the summit of the 'nchne,
and, the engine being detached, commenced their descent at the rate of 33
and 26 miles per hour. They descended through the first half of the 'nc me
with a mean velocitv of 34 and 29 miles per hour, and through the latter
half, with a mean velocity of 37 and 33 miles per hour. Other series of ex-

- As Dr. Lardner's paper on " the Resistance of Air to Railway Trains/'
(read at Newcastle, and reported fully, with fa-rams Juurnal vol 2, p.
383, was founded on these experiments, the reader had better retei to it.

2 U 2

324

THE CIVIL KNGINI'ER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[September,

peiiments were made ou tlie Grand Junction inclines ; and the result of the
whole shows the existence of an opposing power, created at it were by the
speed itself, far exceeding that liitlierto suspected.

A train of eight carriages weigliing lOi tons was started down the Madely
incline 1 in 17", at speeds varying from 23 to 20 miles per hour; the mean
speed attained was 2.')J miles per hour. Tlie motion of the train became
uniform, so that the coefficients of gravity and resistance were eipial. The
mean resistance of the train was 12.\ tb. per ton. A train of four carriages
was started down the incline at 10 miles per honr, half way down the jilane
the velocity was reduced to .30 miles per hour, and at the foot, it was only
2.5 miles per honr. Four other carriages were started at a velocity of 32-7
miles per hour, they were retarded to 227 miles per hour, and proceeded
with this uniform velocity to the foot of the incline. The results obtained
in these experiments with the trains of eight carriages are of great practical
importance, this being the nearest api)roach to the average passenger trains.
30 miles per hour is a fair average speed, and the resistance at the speed is
about 1.') th. per ton, or almost double the value of the friction only. The
friction may be diminished by proper attention to the fittings and the perfect
lubrication of the axles, but its reduction is of secondary importance in the
economic working of passenger traijis, which, from their high velocity, must
necessarily bring into play large and independent sources of resistance. The
resistance to trains at different speeds being ascertained, the Committee di-
rected their attention to the effect of external configuration on the resistance.
A pointed body, as a prow, was fixed successively to the front and
end of a train, but the diflerences obseived were extremely slight, and such
only as would have occurred with the same experiment repeated twice over;
the pointed figure, whether before or behind, exercised no appreciable in-
fluence ou the rate of the train's motion, or on the resistance of which that
motion is the index. Experiments were also instituted, to ascertain whether
the carriages being sent with their square enils forward, instead of being pre-
ceded by an engine and tender, would affect the results, but here also there
were no greater differences than njigbt be expected in an experiment repeated
twice over; and it may be fairly concluded, that the form of the front has
no observable effect, and that whether the engine and tender be in front, or
two carriages of etiual weight, the resistance will be the same. The inter-
mediate spaces between the carriages were closed in, by stretching strong
canvas from carriage to carriage, thus converting the wiiole train into one
unbroken mass. The results were in favour of the train without canvas, but
the difyorences are extremely slight ; it is certain that no additional resistance
is occasione<l by leaving ojjcn spaces between the carriages, confining the
intervals to the dimensions allowed in practice.

The Committee having ascertained that the excess of resistance, after de-
ducting friction, required for its estimation something besides the elements
of the dimensions and form of frontage, and of continuity of surface, it be-
comes imjiortant to inquire, what is the element exei ting so powerful an in-
fluence ? Their former Rejiort contains the results of experiments with wagons
on the Madely incline loaded to six tons each, and furnished with boarded
fronts and sides moveable at pleasure; the diflerences in the results attained,
were then referred to the increased frontage alone. But the experiments
detailed in the present Report liaving been made, it became probable that the
increased resistance was in a great measure dependent on the general volume
of air displaced ; and the Committee recommend experiments to be directed,
to ascertain the effect on the resistance of diminishing and increasing the
bulk of trains, the weight remaining the same.

Experiments were also made with the view of determining the amount of
moving power expended in working a line, and for this purpose, the character
of the hne, in respect of its inclines, the weight and bulk of the train, and
the speed at which tlie load is required to be conveyed, must be considered.
The first of these alone is constant, de)iending on the nature of the acclivities
and declivities. As an abstract question of dynanics, the power expended
(the resistances being supjiosed constant, whatever the speed) is the same for
a train travelling between two points on the same level, whether the road he
be level or undulating, a dne allowance being made for the difference of dis-
tance traversed. On the level li?ie of railway, the speed of travelhng would
be uniform, but on the undulating line it would vary. And the real question
is, will the increased velocity on the declivities compensate for time lost on
the acclivities? Will the average rate of speed over the whole line he difie-
rent .' In order to obtain some definite result on the point, it was determined
to_ send a train from Liverpool to Uirniingham and back, a distance of lltO
miles. Great care was taken in conducting this experiment, and the results
are tabulated in great detail ; and the following remarkable inference may be
drawn, that a train of 12 carriages di.awn by the same engine can be convev-
cd over a railway whose gradients range within the specified limits, in the
same time as it could over a perfectly level railway of the same length. In
ordinary practice, an engine of the dimensions tried (the Ilecla) would re-
ceive assistance up the Sutton, Whiston, and Warrington inclines (1 in 8!t.
90, and 80), but this was not the case in flic experimental trip, and the train
encountered acclivities and declivities not contemplated in the appUcation of
this theory. It may therefore be inferred that the oi)inion entertained was
correct, or that trains whose weights bear an ascertainable relation to the
nature of the inclines they have to traverse, may be made to tr.averse those
inclines at an average sjieed equal to what the power of the engine can effect
on a level, and that an ordinary train would travel over the Grand Junction
Railway (the steeper inclines of I in fO being excepted) in as short a time as
if the line had been absolutely level.

Mr. Brunei remarked on the inapplicability of results obtained from trains
running down inclines to the ordinary working of trains on railways. Many
of the residts given ifi the Report differ exceedingly from the results of his
experience in the woiking of the Great Western Railway. The cause of this
discrepancy arose from the manner in which the resistances were obtained.
In the train of caniages running down an incline, each carriage is slightly
pressed upon by the next behind, so that the whole train is in the condition
of a train that is pushed ; and it is well known that the resistance of a train
pushed from behind is much greater than of the same train pulled from be-
fore, as the carriages are thrown out of square. — Alhenifum.

" Remarka on the Connexion vliicli exists between Improvements in Pit-
work and llie Duty of Steam-etiginen in Cornwall." By Mr. Enys.

After adverting to the admission of the truth of progressive increase of
duty, it was shown that considerable changes have been made in the course
of seventy years, in the methods by which water is lifted out of tlie mines in
Cornwall ; and that in comparing the duty of earlier periods, an allowance
of the difference of the Imperial and Winchester bushel of coal ought to be
made. The distinction between horse-power and duty, pointed out by Mr.
Parkes, was alluded to; one excludes, the other includes, the friction of the
pitwork ; and the remarks attached to each in Lean's report, show the ne-
cessity of adverting to the different conditions of the pitwork, in an attempt
to estimate with accuracy the reliitive merit of different engines separate
from the pitwork. In an endeavour, some time ago, to trace the causes of
the great variation of the duty, a small amount of expansion was observed in
engines remarkable for a low duty, and the reasons assigned were, either
weak pitwork — flat rods — heavy load per square inch on the piston, and old
boilers — and often the joint action of the above causes. The strength of
the pitwork, or of ihe boilers, in different cases, seems to become the limit
of expansion in the engines. In reference to deficiency of water from pumps,
in proportion to the calculated quantities, on which duty is founded, two
causes have operated in inducing a strong belief that it is less than at any
former period : 1. Greater attention to the pitwork by the managers of the
mines, under whose care it is placed, to the exclusion of the engineers of the
steam-engine by which it is worked; 2. The extended use of the plunger
pump — the latter instantly showing the slightest defect of the packing, and
allowing of an easy remedy ; while the bucket pump, on the contrary, does
not show the defects in the packing; and the operation of tightening it is
attended with great difficulty, so much so, as often to cause the repairing to
be delayed to the last moment that the jiunip will lift water. The first
cause, though it has a tendency to decrease duty in proportion to imjiroved
water delivery, has in a still greater degree the tendency to reduce the fric-
tion of the pitwork on a given load ; yet it is not easy to assign the exact
values. Oil the whole, a reduction of total resistances probably occurs in
shafts of equal depth. On the other h.ind, the great increased depth of
many shafts obviously produces a greater proportional friction on a given
load. Under these circumstances, it becomes the fairer method to select the
duty of engines working the deepest shafts, for a comparison w ith the duty
of the earlier periods, when engines were worked so differently as regards
the steam. Mr. J. W. Henwood (Wlieal Towan) estimates the deficiency of
water delivery at 7 or S per cent. ; Mr. T. Wicksteed (E. Holmbush) 10 per
cent, water from three lifts measured and weighed ; Mr. Enys (Eldon's en-
gine, United Mines), -1 per cent., measured four strokes of the engine from
one plunger lift, i'he absence of attention in earher times can only be as-
sumed from tlie known habits of the miner, and the absurd stories prevalent
of particular instances of neglect. Another great, but altuost inappreciable
change, has occurred within the last ten or fifteen years, in the increase of
weight in the rods for a given load ; but the circumstance of the greater
weight of such rods again allowed of the reciprocal action of a still greater
amount of expansion in Watt's engines ; and in the heavy pitwork, the accu-
mulated force stored up .it the commencement was restored at the end of the
stroke ; the only loss in duty arises from an increase of the friction of the
necessary balance weight ; because, while a direct gain is obvious, the same
mean power, by a greater amount of expansion, is obtained from a smaller
quantity of water expended as steam. The present form of rod, with lifts
alternately, where the shaft admits of this method, was probably dne to Wat,
or Murdoch. Smeaton, at the Ch.icewater .\tmospheric Engine, in 1775t
seems to have effected the introduction of one rod for a portion of the shaft,
and dispensed with the older practice of tying up to the arch of the beam a
separate lod for each lift. The plunger pump seems to have effected another
change of some importance, in the velocity with which the larger portion of
water is raised. The engines are usually made to go, out of doors, at rather
more than half the velocity of the in-door stroke, the piston moving in-door,
from 240 to 200 feet, and out of doors from 14t to 156 feet per minute;
the velocity of the plunger, or bucket, is usu.ally four-fifths of these amounts,
or 110 to i20 feet per minute. Still a jiortion of the water, from one-third
to one-sixth, is laised at three-fourths of the higher velocity ; and receutly
larger valves have been placed below the plunger than above, with a view of
equalizing the resistance of the water on passing the valves. A few experi-
ments of trying an engine in-doors at a very low velocity have been made,
wliich may jierhaps be extended, to determine the increase of pressure due
to different velocities of water in the pumps. The column of mercury, how-
ever, only becomes the measure of the total resistances of all kinds, which
are subsequently, as far as practicable, to be separated, and values assigned
to each as nearlv as our means of observation admit. In commencing mo-

1841.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

325

tion, after (he state of rest to -which pumping engines are brought, it is pos-
sible a greater power may l)e employed than is required to continue it. Still
the terra variable load, formerly adopted by the writer of this paper, may be
too strong, and the rapid action of tlie mercury may render it inappreciable.
In an attempt to value friction by the area of the rubbing surfaces of the
packing of the plungers, it appeared the unanimous opinion of many of the
best pitmen, that water could be kept from escaping with less friction by
means of twelve-iuch packing than with nine inch packing, in a twelve inch
plunger-lift — a circumstance that requires attention, not only in this, but
probably under numerous other conditions. In regard to the cft'ect of ex-
pansion on the pitwork, in producing a variable strain during the load, it
was observed, that with twelve times expansion on an engine recently erected,
of Watt's construction, including clearance steam, the variation was as 8 to
1 at the end of the stroke ; but that in a new engine of combined cylinder,
by Sims, in which the expansion after three times in a smaller cylinder in-
doors, was increased about four times out of doors into a larger cylinder, and
which power was converted in-doors into a constant quantity by means of a
balance, the variation would be about as 2 to 1 ; and in Ilornblower's or
Woolf's, if worked with high steam, that under the condition of twelve times
expansion, including clearance steam, the variation might be roughly taken
as 3 to 1 — that the commercial part of the question of more or less expense
in engines or pitwork, would determine the relative advantages, on the whole,
of each engine for Ufting water from deep mines. It seems that expansion
has not been carried out to so great an extent when the load is near the end
of the beam, and when the enormous balance weights, usual in Cornish pit-
work, are not required to be applied, though it is obvious that this condition
causes less pitwork friction. — Ibid.

KING'S COLLEGE.

By a prospectus that has reached ns of the business of the ensuing session,
we perceive that, in accordance with the intimation given in our last number,
the department hitherto known at this college as that of " Civil Engineering,
and of Science applied to the Arts and Manufacture," is now designated the
department of " Engineering, Architecture, Arts and llanufactures."

The coiurse of instruction proposed for students in architecture is as full
and satisfactory as that for engineers has been found to be. It extends over
three years, and is as follows : " JIathematics ; the principles of Mechanics,
Hydrostatics and Acoustics ; the theory of Coustraction ; the elements of
Chemistry ; Mineralogy ; Geology ; the principles of Experimental Philo-
sophy ; Geometrical and Perspective, Ornament and Landscape Drawing ;
Land Surveying ; Machinery ; the principles and practice of Architecture,
including Design and Composition, Construction and Architectural or Build-
ing Surveying."

Mr. Hosking has been appointed to the Professorship of the Principles and
Practice of Architecture, in addition to his former duties, and he is to be
assisted by Mr. Andrew Moseley, a younger brother of the County Surveyor
of Middlesex, and of the eminent Professor of Natural Philosophy in the
same College. The drawing of enrichments will be taught under the direc-
tion of Professor Dyce, of the Government School of Design, and Landscape
Drawing by Mr. Cotman, who is well known as an artist, and for his work
on the Picturesque Architecture of Normandy.

BITUMEN.

A new application of this material whicli promises to be of very great ser-
vice in engineering works, has lately been successfully practised by the Pa-
risian Bitumen Company. The new application consists in cementing large
masses of rubble stone with the bitumen in a liquid state, and this has been
successfully practised on a very extensive scale on the works of the Upper
Medway Navigation Company in the following manner.

The river is divided into levels by weirs and locks in the usual manner.
Some of those wiers are constructed at great expense of squared masonry ;
others are less expensively constructed, by throwing in the rubble stone of
the country to the desired shape and height of the weir ; it may be remarked
that no care is taken in bedding the stones, or in laying them, which is per-
formed by the ordinary labourers of the country. The bitumen is then
melted and run in between the stones, and the whole forms a mass of such
solidity as to resist the heaviest floods, and is perfectly impervious to water
in every part, and it is supposed that it will not require one tenth of the re-
pairs usually bestowed on w"eirs of the ordinary construction.

It may be noticed that previous to this material being used, the repairs
after the winter floods, which are very heavy, were very great, and caused
considerable interruptioTi to the traffic.

The great advantages arising from using the bitumen in the manner de-
scribed are cheapness and facility of construction — a very considerable re-
duction in the expence of repairs. It is evident that this may be used to
very" great advantage in foundations of bridges or large buildings, as forming
a compact body capable of r^isting any pressure, bearing any weight that
may be imposed on it, and becoming perfectly soUd in live minutes after being

laid; it will effectually prevent vermin from getting into houses or burrow-
ing near the fuuiulations.

The manufacture of bitumen is now brought to great perfection by the
same Company. Some beautiful specimens of tessclated pavement are
being laid of diflferent coloured bitumen, and floors of stations, churches,
halls, &c., may be made very ornamental, and equally durable with York-
shire stone, whilst it is much warmer to the feet and not more than half the
price.

Pr.ESENTATIOM OF A PlECE OF PLATE TO Mb. StOREV, C.E. A pieCC

of plate value 350 guineas was lately presented to Thomas Storey, Esq., civil
engineer, purchased by subscription and presented as a token of the respect
entertained for that gentleman by the difl'erent parties connected with the
great public works which have been completed under his superintendence.
The plate was presented at the Fleece Inn, Darhngton, after a sumptuous
dinner to which 62 persons sat down. The service consisted of an epergne,
elegantly and elaborately chased ; a full-sized tureen ; two do. sauce-do ; four
double vegetable dishes, with handles to remove, and to form eight dishes ;
two 12-inch salvers ; four salt-cellars, gilt inside ; four spoons do. to match ;
two gravy spoons ; one tish slice ; one soup ladle ; two do. sauce. On the
epergne, the tureen, and six other pieces, the following inscription, sur-
mounted by Mr. Storey's crest, was beautifully engraved : — " This service of
plate was presented to Thomas Storey, Esq. C.E., by a number of his friends,
as a sincere though inadequate tribute of the esteem and regard they enter-
tain for his professional talents, and private worth." Nicholas Wood, Esq.,
of Killingworth, C. E., presided, and John Harris, Esq. of Darhngton, filled
the vice-chair. In proposing Mr. Storey's health, the Chairman said —

" It has, however, been Mr. Storey's lot to extend his services beyond the
immediate district. Of the great line of communication between England
and Scotland — the great chain of communication — he has had the good for-
tune to execute a link ; and I may add that it is a pretty long link. Now
when I call to remembrance that it is 45 miles, I venture to say that this
link will bear a comparison with any other link in the chain between London
and Darhngton (immense cheering). Gentlemen, I have heard only one
opinion of that hnk ; which is, that it is the smoothest and best piece of road
between London and here (cheers). When I mention a " chain," I speak of
the great lines of communication — the great public railways, and when I
allude to the railway from Darlington, I do not refer to the various local lines
which are more immediately connected with the transmission of coals ; but
I allude to the line between York and Darlington, which I think will hear
comparison with any of tlie great lines that lie between this place and Lon-
don (applause)."

Removal of the North I'ier Light-house. — We have this week to
record one of the most ingenious efforts of mechanical skill, which has ever
been exhibited in the town of Sunderland. The enterprising engineer to the
Commissioners of the River Wear, John Murray, Esq., who has already mani-
fested so much ability in improving our harbour, and our noble piers, has
long been engaged in erecting a new pier on the north side of the river, for
the purpose of widening the entrance to the port, and this being now nearly
completed, it has become necessary to remove the lighthouse from the flld
pier to the present splendid erection. To give our distant readers an idea of
the difticulty, we may state that the height of the lighthouse is 1)8 feet, and
its weight 280 tons. It was on Monday last, the 2nd inst., every thing
having been prepared for the attempt, that Mr. Murray carried the first part
of his design into execution, and actually succeeded in moving the ponderous
mass 20 feet 5 inches to the northwards. The means by which this was
accomplished will seem very simple when explained to our readers ; but in
reality great ingenuity was retiuisite in overcoming difficulties, which, to
many persons, seemed to present obstacles altogether insuperable. Five
principal pulling screws were strongly fixed to the glacis in front of the
building, and were attached to chains fastened to the cradle upon which the
hghthouse stands. These screws were worked by 24 men. In addition to
these, there were four screws behind the cradle to assist in propelling it,
which were worked by three men each ; the total number of men em.pIoyed
on the occasiou was forty. The cradle was supported on a great number of
wheels, which travelled on eight parallel lines of rails, and the entrance end
of the bracing was supported on slide balks. Operations were commenced
at half-past three P.M., and at a few minutes after eight it was safely landed
on the new pier, where it now stands, without the shghtest accident having
taken place. The building is now intended to be carried 150 yards to the
eastward, or very nearly to the end of the New Pier, and for that purpose it
will be blocked up in its present situation, mitil the railways and wheel tim-
bers are reversed, which part of the work vdW occupy about a fortnight,
when it is intended to resume the operations for its removal. — SvndeTland
Advertiser, Avg. 6.

LEGAL CONSTRUCTION OF RAILWAY ACTS AS TO BRIDGE
BUILDING.

The Quccu v. Walker mat Another, and tlie Birminglium and Gloucester Hait-
leai/ Compavy .—( Dl Montpelier Street.)— Ihh was an indictment against the
Bifmingbam and Gloucester Railwav Company for a nuisance. The bill was
found at the January sessions, ard having been removed into the Court cf

326

THE CIVIL ENG INKER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[September,

?:

Queen's Bcneli. l/y wri t of ccr/iornri obtained by tlie defendants, it came down
to I* tried on tin- civil side.

Mr. .Serjeant (Jonlburn, Mr. Humfrev. and Hr. Daniel appeared for the
prcseeution ; and Mr. Hill, QC:., Mr. ( larke, and Mr. Spooner for the de-
fendants.

It appeared that the company had erected a bridge for the purpose of
carrying tlieir railway over Montpelier Street, at Highgate. near Birmin^'ham,
wliich street It crossed nearly at right angles. The 4ijth section of the C'om-
lany's Act of Parliament provides, " that where any bridge shall be encted
ly the said company for the purpose of carrying the said rail'.ray over or
across any public carnage road the span of the arch of sucli liridge shall be
formed. ari(l .shall at all times be. and be continued, of such \i iilth as to leave
a clear and open space under every such arch of not less than 15 feet, and a
height from llie surface of the road to the centre of such aiTh of not less than
16 feet, and the descent under anv such bridj;e shall not exceed one toot in
13 feet."

By the 48ih section of the same act it is provided, that " vvlienever the said
railway shall cro.ss any [.ublic footpath not on a level, the said company shall
raise or lower the said footpath so as to preserve an ascent or descent, as the
case may require, of nut more than one toot in 13 feet."

The span of the bridge in question over the carriage way was 16 feet, being
one foot more than the span mentioned in the act, but about four feel less
than the original width ut the road. The company had at first intended to
obtain the required height of 16 feet under the arch by lowering the surface
of the road, but at the request (as was stated) of some of the neighbouring
inhabitants, who apprehended inconvenience from such a declivity, they had
only lowered the road about seven feet, leaving a headway of ten feet eight
inches.

When, however, the hill of indictment had been found against them, they
excavated the road about five feet more, but not, it apffeared, sufficiently by
about si.x inches to give the full height of 16 feet. This excavation reniiered
it necessary to build retaining walls of 96 yards in length to support the loot-
paths on each side of the carnage way, the thickness of these retaining walls
being an encroachment on the original width of the carriage way till they
reached the bridge. At first no provision had been made for the footpaths,
but subsequently the piers of the bridge had been cut through, and the foot-
ways had ocen carried through them, descending under the railway by steps,
and ascending in the same manner on the other side.

Mr. Serjeant Goulburn opened the case on behalf of Mr. Unett, the prose-
cutor, the proprietor of an estate in the neighbourhood, and contended that
the company were bound to preserve the road of its original width, and had
no right to contract it by means of their bridge; that the width of 15 feet
mentioned in the act was a provision only applicable to cases where the road
bad been originally of no greater width, or of less width than 15 feet, and
was the minimum, not the maximum width which the company were bound
to leave ; that the company were not justified in lowering the surface of the
road, but ought to have obtained their height of 16 feet from the surface of
the road to the centre of the arch, by takii^ the railway across the road at
a higher level; that with respect to the retaining walls they were an en-
croachment upon the approach to the bridge, and were not justified by the
act; and with respect to the footpaths the company had no right to contract
their width where they were carried through the piers of the br.dge, nor to
carry them underneath the railway by means of steps.

Mr. Justice Parke, on the counsel for the prosecution calling Mr. Horn-
blower, architect and surveyor, of Birmingham, as the first w itncss, suggested
that the case appeared to be a question of law' upon the construction of the
act of parliament, more than a question of fact, and enquired if the facts could
not be agreed upon. It was ultimately arranged that Mr. Hornblower's exa-
mination should be proceeded with, as the shortest way of eliciting the facts,
which were proved by him to the ellect above stated.

Mr. Justice Parke then ruled : — 1st. That the company were not bound to
pareservc the road of its former w idth, but had a right to contract it by means
of the bridge, provided they left a width of not less than 15 feet.— 2nd. That
the company had a right to lower the surface of the road in order to obtain
a height of 16 feet under the arch, and th.at they might lower the road either
before or after they had built Ihe bridge. — .'rd. That the company had no
right to contract the carriage way in its approach to the bridge by the re-
taining walls.— 4-ih. That the company had not complied with their act by
carrying the footpaths under the railw ay by moans of steps ; but as this plan
appeared the most convenient to the public, and as the sloping of the foot-
patli, in lieu of steps, would render it necessary to underbuild the bouses, the
court would not compel the company to alter the footpaths.

At the su''gestion of the judge, and by the consent of the parties, a verdict
was enterecl for the crown, tlie company entering into a rule to widen the
carri.age way by pulling down the retaining walls, and throwing them back
into the footpath, and undertaking to lower the road still further, so as to
leave a height of 16 feet clear from the surface of the ro.ad to the girders of
the bridge.

The costs to be taxed by Mr. Hilditch.

Tlie Queen v. 5«me.— This was an indictment for a similar nuisance in
Highgate Place.— A like verdict was Ulcn.— Midland Counties Herald.

ST. GEORGE'd CHAPEL, AVINDSOR.

August 2.
For some years past the grand western window of this edifice lias been
corsidered to be in an extremely dangerous position, and very far from
secure, in consequence of its bulging considerably inwards in many of its
parts to the extent of several inches.

About 10 or 12 years since, the late Sir Jeffry Wjatville minutely examined
the stone work of the window, and in consequence of Iris report it was deter-
mined it should undergo the necessary repairs under Sir Jeffry's supeiin-

tendance ; but, in conse luence of the architect's then engagements, the re-
pairs were not proceeded with.

The Dean and Canons, however, have just decided that the massive stone
work shall be taken down, and the wholeWindow entirely rebuilt, preserving
the valurdile stained glass it contains for replacement. The execution of this
work, which will require the greatest care, so as not to injure some of the
finest specimens of pain'ed glas in the kingdom, has been intrusted to Mr,
Blore, the an hitec:, by the Dean and Canons.

The gicat painted w indow, over the altar, representing the Resurrection of
our Saviour, diviiled into three compartments, designed by the late Benjamin
M'est, and executed liy Messrs. Jarvis and Forest, in 1788. has hitherto been
seen to great advantage, in c.jnsequence of the three windows on the north
and south sides of the west-end of the choir having been darkened fto give
greater iffect to the design), and painted over with the arms of the .Sovereign
and Kniuhts Companions of the Order of the Garter in 1782, 1799. 1805, and
1812. The arms of e:ich knight are encompassed with the .Star and Garter,
and surmounted with his crest and coronet. Tlie (ieorge is beneath, afSxed
to a b!ue riband, on which the Christian name and title are inscribed. Tliese
si.t windows are to be immediately taken out, nnd for the darkened glass
there is to be substituted transparent p.ainted glass fcontaining the arms of
the Sovereign and the Knights, and other heraldic devices), thus giving an
air of great lightness and elegance to this part of the chapel, although, at the
same time, very materially diminishing the grandeur and efliect of the large
painted window over the altar.

One of the windows was completed on Saturday July 31, and judging of
the effect which will be produced from this one only, the alteration decided
upon by the Dean and Canons will greatly improve the general ap|iearance
of the interior ot the chapel. It will only require the remainder of the win-
dows of the choir. « hich are now plain, to be of stained glass, to render St,
George's Chapel one of the most imposing and magnificent sacred edifices in
the kingdom.

The painted glass for the sis windows referred to has been executed by and
under the superintendence of Willemont

Except on .Sundays the chapel has been closed for several weeks past, in
order that no delay may take place in the completion of the work.

The splendid organ, which is considered to be one of the finest instruments
in England, has just undergone a thorough repair by Gray. The old keys,
which were upivards of 50 years old, and completely worn through, have been
replaced by new ones, and several adiiitions have been made to the pipes. \m

As soon as the improvements now in progress are completed, it is tlie in- *
tention of the Dean and Canons that the whole of the interior of the chapel
shall undergo a complete and thorough cleansing and repair. Nothing has
been done to the chapel in these respects during the last half century.

THE RIVER CLYDE.

At a meeting of the River Trust held on Tuesday, 27lh July last, Mr. James
Hutchison called the attention of the Trust to a matter of thelast importance,
viz. Ihe extent to which the river should hi- widened. In the Bill which had
lately passed Parliament powers had been taken to widen the rier vastly
beyond its present breadth, but if these powers were acted upon to their full
extent, the time occupied in the operations, and the vast increase which it
would cause in the expense of dredging and maintaining the extended river
at the proper depth would be such as to place the Trust in a moil d;ingerous
position ; and Mr. Bald had given it as liis opinion that it might be produc-
tive of ultimate ruin. Mr. Bald had, however, prepared a plan of the con-
templated improvements, similar to those which had been approved of in 1836,
and though this plan did not widen the river to the extent which they had
power to widen it by the Act of Parliament, still it must be admitted by all
that It would improve the river sufliciently to accommodate the most exten-
tive trade which could be reasonably expected to belong in after years to the
harbour of Glasgow.

Mr. Bald briefly addressed the Trust, in explanation of his plans. From
his remarks we learn that the width of the river from the bottom of harbour
(at which it is intended to commence operatiijiis.) ilown to Renfrew, varies at
present from 165 to 190 feet. It was his intention, however, to increase this
width to 300 feet at the bottom (of the harbour ; to 310 at the niuulh of the
Kelvin, and to 325 at Renfrew Ferry ; and at the same time to "sweeten"
the course, or, in other words, to rea'.ove angles and jutting points, and to
make the line a straight one. If the Clyde were thus widened it would be
sufficient for any increase of trade that would come to it. By not going be-
yond this proposed width, the channel would deepen itself, and of the pro-
gress of this deepening process, they had that day an example in the arrival
m their harbour of a sliip drawing 17 feet water ; and he anticipated, that in
a few J ears, if the large or extended plan were not adopted, that the depth
would increase to from 18 to 20 feet. He considered the proposition to in-
crease the width of the river to 100 feet, beginning immediately below the
harbour, to be most unwise, and one w hich he would not advise, even though
the Trust might possess the means to execute it. It would take 70 years to
complete the operations according to this extended plan, and when once
finislied the expense of maintaining it would be absolutely ruinous.

To a question from Mr. Burns,

Mr. Bald replied, that it was a law- recognised by all engineers that if the
channel of a river were w idened beyond the proportion of its depth, it be-
came more shaHpw, from the slower motion of the current. If, on the other
hand, it was nari'owed beyond this proportion, it had a tendency to become
deeper from the more rapid motion of the stream, particularly in land floods.
He instanced three places in the river, the harbour being one of them, where
deposits were continually taking place, from their being ijousually wide. —
Were it otherwise, this silt or deposit would be at once removed by tho Totad
flood to the sea.

1841.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

327

Mr. James Hutchison explained, that at the time it was resolved to t;.ke
powers to widen the liver to a g^reat extent by the last Kill. Mr. Walker, upon
making out the plans, informed them that if the hreadih of the river was nt
any time extended according to these plans, they must make up their minds
to the maintaining of it by dredging being immense.

After a conversational discussion of .some length, it was finally resolved
that Mr. Bald's modified plans should be adopted, and, as we understood,
that operations should be commenced immediately. — Glasgow Argus.

STEAM NAVIGATION.

The Iron fVar Steamer Phhgethon. — We perceive, by the Calcutta papers
brought by the India mail, that this vessel, which was built by Mr. John
Laird, of North Birkenhead, for the East India Company, has arrived at that
port. She is about 500 tons measurement, armed with two 32-pounders and
other small guns, and is exactly the same size and model as the former iron
war steamer, the Nemesis. She was to sail for Chiia about the middle of
June, to join tlie expedition. It was reported in the Bombay papers, that
two armed steamers, the Ariadne and Medusa, both built by Mr. Laird,
carrying each two 26-poiinders, would be ordered to China : they would
make an effective flotilla of four powerful iron armed steamers attached to the
expedition, and, from the services rendered by the Nemesis, are likely to
prove a great acquisition, llie following extract of a letter, dated Ca'cutta,
June 5, gives an account of the Phlegethon : — " I am too full of business to
write at length just now ; but you will be delighted to hear we arrived at
this place on the 22nd of last month, as sound in hull, boilers, and engines as
when we left England. M*e have had some severe trials, and a large share of
stormy bad weather. The Phlegethon, in bad weather, has surpassed my
most sanguine expectations, and having gone over 17.157 miles without strain-
ing a rivet, will I consider quite carry out the principle that these sort of
vessels can navigate in security between England and India." — Liverpool
Alhion.

The Steam Ship " Admiral."— In these days of steam triumphs, we have
frequently had to record the achievements of mechanic art, as applied to
steam-ships of leviathan dimensions, as well as of the consummate skill dis-
played in the performance and management, and we remember few that have
possessed greater claim to public attention than the splendid steamer Admiral
now running between Liverpool and Glasgow, the same line on which the
Achilles^ Commodore, Acteeon. City of Glasgow, and Princess Royal, all splendid
steamers, are employed. The Admiral is a vessel well worthy of her name
and lineage, and, whether the size and beauty of the ship, her excellent ac-
commodations, or the great power and perfection of her machinery be the
object of admiration, it must be admitted, that in each of these departments,
she has never been surpassed. The engines supplied to this vessel are of un-
usual power and beauty of construction, fitted up with expansion gear, and
possessing all the latest improvements: they were produced at the Glasgow
Vulcan Foundry, and are of 200 horse power. It is a matter of great interest
to w itness the cleanliness and order al» ays observed in ihe engine-room, and
the great care and attention of the engineers are particularly worthy of no-
tice for skill and sobriety : neither is the grand desideratum to a landsman
(roomy accommodation) to be forgotten. There r.re 107 sleeping berths, all
of the most ample dimensions, a limited number of which are divided ofiinto
state apartments. The grand salo- n, around which these state apartments
are arranged, is a magnificent room, and unites extreme comfort with orna-
ment; on either side of it tables are ranged with elegant seats of richly
carved oak, uniform with the chase panelling and groined roof. The entire
fittings are of the most costly detcriiuion, and the cuisine is excellent and
cheap. The range of the Admiral's deck is 220 feet, it is perfectly flush, and
forms a beautiful and unbroken promenade. The Admiral is a vessel of the
same class and under control of the same bu.siuess management at Liverpool
as the Halifax line of steamers, and the same system of speed, punctuality,
and good order which has obtained an exalted reputation for the Ailantic
steamers prevails here, and has met w ith equal success. — Mornivg Herald.

RUSCELLANEA.

ELECTRO-MAGNETIC PRINTING.

On Monday, 2nd ult., the first pubic exhibition of Mr. Bains's electro-
•magnetic printing-machine took place in the Lecture-room of the Royal
iPolytechnic Institution.

The apparatus consists of a dial-plate, inscribed with the al|habet and
numerals, wiih a revolv ng han.l, workeil by ordinary cbjck-work. On the
other side of the room stood the important portion of the invention— that
which furnished in type the communicati(,n to be sent forth from the dial-
plate already described. Between thes ■ two machines a connexion (capable
of being extended in practice to any length) bv means of wire conductors,
communicating with two electromagnets placed on a frame, and connected
with a cylinder covered with paper, upon which the type uas to leave its im-
pression— an horizontal wlicel, in which types to correspond with the letters
and figures on the dial were fixed. This wheel was ingeniously brought in
contact with an inking roller, and these three portions of the machine were
all brought into motion horizontally.

The party tlireciing the communicaiii.n stands at the dial-pla'c first de-
scribed, and fixes a peg under the letter desired to be communicated. The
index or revolving hand performs its rotat. on until its progress is arrested

by coming in contact with the |iog. A small trig-er is then pidled, the gal-
vanic iioncr is then brought to bear by the aid <pf the communicaiing wires
upon the two electro-magnets, with their machinery on the second frame,
and the letter thus communicated is printed upon the paper afiixed to the
cylinder.

The operations excited universal admiration, and tlie machine itself is well
worthy the attention of the curious, for though at present it may fail as a
speedy means of communicating in'ormation in print, still by the adoption
of a code of signals (by which one letter or character might be construed to
denote a sentence or describe a subject) the invention might be made ex-
tremely valuable in the times in which we live.

Electro-magnetic Exhibition. — A very interesting exhibition has been lately
opened at No. 8, St. Andrew Square, Edinburgh. It consists of several
working models of diflerent machines, such as a tuming-laihe, a printing-
machine, a saw-mill, and a locomotive carriage, driven by the power of
electro-magnetism. The inventor of these models is Mr. Robert Davidson,
an ingenious mechanic from Aberdeen, who has been engaged upon them for
the last four years, and who has succeeded in eflecting several improvements
in the application of electro-magnetism, which promise to be of great prac-
tical value. He is the first, we understand, who has employed the electro-
magnetic pow er in producing motion, by simply suspending the magnetism
w ithout a change of poles. The mode employed by Jacobi, Davenport, and
Storrar, consisted in keeping the repulsive power (which is equal to a third
only of the attractive power) in operation during the one half of the time,
and the attractive po«er during the other half. Mr. Davidson's discovery
consists in a simple and extremely ingenious method of communicating and
cutting ofl' alternately the galvanic current to and fn ni a pair of electro-
magnets that always act attractively, so as to exert a constant moving force
upon the machine which is put inaction. It has received the approbation
of numerous scientific gentlemen, who consider that Mr. Davidson lias suc-
ceeded in showing the perfect applicability of m gnetism as a motive power
to engines of e ery elescription. It would no doubt be desirable, however, to
see experiments tried on a larger scale ; which Mr. Davidson, we understand,
is anxious to do, but is deterred by the want of funds. — Scotsman.

Travelling by Elcctro-magnetie Power. — We are informed that a distance of
57 miles has been travelletl on the common road, in a Bath chair, by electro-
magnetic power, in one hour and a half; and further, that the applicr comes
over elaily from St. Alban's to the Bank of England in the said chair in half
an hour at an expense of sixpence. The model of an electro-magnetic engine,
which has been exhibiting at the Adelaide C^allery for some time, is an in-
stance of ingenitus mechanic arrangement, whereby contact is broken and
renewed, the poles reversed. Sec; anel from its performances gave great pro-
mise of practical powers on a larger scale. The battery employed is the
nitric acid, or Groves battery. Of the invention that has done the great
feat, and estab'ished the successful ajplicaiion of this wonderrul agent, we
know little more than its success. We heir that the increase of power is due
to the (liscovery of a new combinatipn of elements ; that this is the secret of
the moving power; and that the battery is to be the subject of a a patent.—
Literary Gazette.

Edinburgh and Glasgow Railway.— It is gratifying to observe the inces.'ant
exertions w hich are tnaking everywb.ere on the line in the vicinity of this
city to get this national umlertaking comp'eted. The magnificent entrance
to our great funnel is drawing to a conclusii n, while the booking and other
offices are all but finished. The landing and departing platforms ^re now
getting very handsome sheds, with elegant cast iron supports set up ; and
the ground is clearing out for laying the permanent rails. Yesterday Mr.
John Craig, the mineralogist, made a survey of the tunnel, in furtherance of
the objects of the British Association, and proceeded right through it. in
company with the very polite and spirited contractor. Mr. Marshall. Amongst
many other geological specimens got in the journey, we saw perfect masses
of the Nucula Tumida. Prodiicta .Scotia, Prodiicta ilartinnii, Bellerophon Urii,
and Apiocrinites, imbedded in a shale, above a two feet limestone, with many
other interesting remains of a period long belore the creation of man. — Glas-
gow Constitutional, August 4.

London and Brighton Raitwai/.-The Brighton terminus is now completed^
externallv. All the weirks are on a magnificent scale ; and the passengers'
sheds and station vie with any works of a similar kind in the kingdom. The
station is even larger than that at the London terminus of the Birmingham
Railway in Euston- square ; and the edifice forms a pleasing and prominent
object from various parts of the town. — Brighton Gazette.

Bristol and Glocester Railwni/.—Jhe w orks on this line are proceeding rapidly
in the neighbourhood of Wickwar, where 600 additional labourers have been
put on this week. — Glocestershire Chronicle.

Cheltenham and Great Western Union Railway .—ConUacis have been taken,
and in some instances the works have been commenced, for carrying on this
line from its present terminus at Cirencester towards Stroud and Gloucester.
— Cheltenham Looker-on.

Paris and Rouen Railway.— This great work is proceeding rapidly, under
the superintendence of Mr. Locke ; and we understand that thirty-five miles
of the Paris end of the line will be opened early in the spring ol next year.

Railroad from Berlin to Hamburgh on the right bank of the Elbc.—Jhn Ham-
burgh Gazette., under date Berlin, the 24th ult., announces that a commence-
ment had been made in this aflair. The provisional committee was appointed
definitively, with power to adopt resolutions. This enterprise was calculated
to consolidate the interests of so rouny people, that the most perfect accor-
dance was necessary. The num'oer of subscribers amounted to 5,C0O.

Railway Filte'-s— For some time a number of men have been cnijiloyed in
the erection of filters on the top of the terminus of the Greenwich Railway,
for the purpose of supplying the engines with pure water, it having been dis-
covered that the water tliat''has been used has occasioned considerable injury
and wear to the machinery. There are also similar tiJters erected at the
New Cross station, on the Croydon line.

328

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL

[September,

yl (\isl-lroii Lh-hl-iioiisc—Jhc necessity tor a lighthouse to I'acihtate the
navigation of the wind »ara passage by tho Morant point, in the island of
Jamaica, so as to enable vessids to avoid the Morant C'avs. a <langcroiis reel
of rorks, 25 milfs souiliwanl of that point, having' heen long felt hy the au-
fliorities of tlu' inland, tliey have determined upon the election ot a tower
and lights for that obicct, upon the rcnommendation and under the direction
of their consulting enginesr, Mr. Alexander (Jordon; and it may no.v he seen
in a very advanced state of forwardness, from the road at I'imUco, erecting
on the works of Charles Robinson, proprietor of the long-known cstaldish-
ment of Rramah and .Sons. It forms a most ccmspiciunis and nnposing object
as it rears its head above the surrounding buildings ; and when completed to
its full height, 100 feet, will doubtless attract much notice from its novelty.
The diameter of the base is 18* feet, tapering gradually to 11 feet under the
cap, which supports the lantern containing the lights and reflectors, which,
with the actuating apparatus for revolving the lights, arc constructing by
Deville, of the .Strand,

The Dnj A"o/.— Government have recently ordered the opening of the fungus
pits in Woolwich dockyards, which bad been closed in August, 1836, for the
purpose of testing the 'virtues of Sir \V. Burnett's process for tendering wood,
cordage, and all descriptions of woollen free from the eflects, of dry rot. The
result, it «ould appear from the reports of the officers deputed by the Ad-
miralty to superintend the experiments, is in every way successful, the pre-
pared wood being as clear and sound when it came out as when first deposited.
— Inventors^ Advocate.

Thiiiiics Tiiiiiiel.—'l'be shaft of the Tliames Tunnel on the M'apping side of
the river, in which the circular staircase is to be formed for foot passengers,
has now almost entirely disappeared, and uol more than (i\'e feet of it ap-
pears above the ground.' A month ago it was on a level with the tops of the
adjoining houses, and its gr.idunl sinking as the earth below is excavated has
excited the surprise of the inh;djitauts. In depth it is 60 feet, and it will be
raised 1.5 feet higher, and again sunk. Since the engineer of the Tunnel, Sir
Isambard Brunei, and three other gentlemen, passed under the driftway con-
necting the shaft «itb the Tunnel, many others have passed from one shore
lo the other by the same means. The completion of this stupendous work is
•close at hand.

Axphalle.— For some time past the Seyssel Asphalte Company's men have
been actively engaged on the New Junction line of the Greenwich Railway.
in covering the arches, which when completed will extend over a space of
400,000 feet.

New Steamers.— On the 21st instant a fine steam vessel was launched from
the building yard of \V. Pitcher, at Northfleet. She is for the Sicilian Go-
vernment, and named the " Maria Teresa." her tonnage is about 300, and the
collective power of her engine will be 120 horses, manufactured by Messrs.
Boulton, W'-M U Co. of Soho. A second vessel for the same government is
in considerable progress, of smaller dimension to carry two 50-)iorse engines,
from the s,ame establishment.

A MiiiinlKre Steamer called the " Fire Fly," has been astonishing tbe fre-
ijucnters of the Thames by its rapid evolutions on the river, she is a moderate
sized boat propelled by Kricsson's propeller fitted in the stern and drivei>by
two oscillating engines, set horizontally, and at right angles the crank shaft.
The diameter of the cylinder is only 3 inches, and C-inch stroke, making 180
to 200 strokes [ler minute, worked with high pressure steam of 50 to 601b. ou
the square inch, generated by a very compact locomotive boiler. Tire engines
and boiler were entirely constructed by Mr. W'arrincr, formerly a pupil of
Messrs. Braithwaite, Milner and Co.. the'engines possess several improvements
worth introducing in larger engines, particularly the method adopted of con-
veying the steam into the cylinders instead of through the gudgeons, upon
which the cylinders oscillate. .She steams about 8 to 9 miles per hour through
the water, and has run «ith the tide from Blackwall to 'Westminster Bridge
in 50 minutes.

Captain Ericsson is now in New York, and engaged by tlie American
Government to construct two engines of 1,000 horse power collectively for a
large sea-going vessel to be propelled by the Captain's propellers.

Gatenno-plaatic Casts, — A letter from Munich informs us that the celebrated
Bavarian sculptor Stigelmayer has Ijrought to such a pitch of perfection his
galvano-plastic process, that its effects would be deemed fabulous were they
not publicly exhibited in the Jluseum of the Society of Arts. In the space of
two or three hours colossal statues in plaster are covered with a coat of
copper, which takes with the greatest accuracy the most minute and delicate
touches, giving the whole all the appearance and solidity of the finest casts
in bronze. M. Stigelmayer has also applied his process to the smallest objects.
as flowers, plants, and even insects, bringing them out with such accuracy,
that they seem to have been executed by the bands of the most skilful artists.
Highest Chimneif in the World. — The highest chimney in the world is at the
soda ash manufactory of James Muspralt, Ksq.. near Liverpool. It is tlie
enormous height of 406 feet above the ground, 45 feet diameter inside at the
base, 9 feet ditto at the top, and contains nearly 4,000,000 of bricks.— Zlai7i/
paper.

LIST OF JfBrW PATENTS.

GRANTED IX ENGLAND FROM 28tH JULY, TO 2"th AUGUST, 1841.

Six Months allotceii/br Enrolment.

Joseph Ratcliffe, of Birmingham, manufacturer, for " certain improve-
ments in the constriictivn and manufacture of hinges for hanijing and closing
floors." (A communication.) — Scaled August 4.

Owen Williams, of Basing Lane, London, engineer, for " improvements

in propelling vessels." — August 4,

John Lee, of Newcastle-upon-Tyne, manufacturing chemist, for " im-
prorements in the manufacture of chlorine." — August 4.

James Warren, of Montague Terrace, Mile Lnd Road, for " an improved
machine for making screws." — August 4.

Stopkord Thomas Jones, Tavistock-place, Russell Square, gentleman,
for " certain improvements in machinery for propelling by steam or other
power." — August 4.

William Craig, engineer, Robert Jahvie, rope-maker, and James
Jar VIE, rope-maker, all of Glasgow, in the kingdom of Scotland, for " certain
improvements in machinery for preparing and spinning hemp,Jla.r, wool, and
other fibrous materials." — August 11.

Samlel Brown, of Gravel-lane, Southwark, engineer, for " imprmemenU
in tlie manvfaclure of metallic casks or vessels, and in tinning or :iticing
metal for such and other purposes." — August 11.

John Seaward, and Samuel Seaward, of the Canal Iron Works. Pop-
lar, engineers, for " certain impeovemenis in str-am engines." — August 13.

William Hale, engineer, and Edward Dell, merchant, both of Wool-
wich, for " improvements in cases and Magazines for gun-powder." — August
13.

John IIarvig, of the Strand, gentleman, and Felix Moreau, of Holy-
weU-street, Millbank, sculptor, for " a new and improved mode or process of
culling or working cork for various purposes."- — August 21.

John Harvig, of the Strand, geutlcmau, and Felix Moreau of Holy-
well-street, Millbank, sculptor, for " a tiew or improved process or processes
for sculpturing, moulding, engraving, and polishing stone, metals, and other
substances." — August 21.

John Thomas Caer, of the town and county of Newcastle-upon-Tyne,
for " improvements in steam engines." (A communication.) — August 21.

George Hickes, of Manchester, agent, for "an improved machine for
cleaning or freeing wool, and other fibrous materials, or ftirs and oilier ex-
traneous substances." — August 21.

Ch.^rles de Bergue, of Broad street, Loudon, merchant, for " improve-
ments in axletrees and ailetree boxes." (A communication.) — August 21.

Frederick de Moleyns, of Cheltenham, gentleman, for " certain im-
proreynents in the production or development of electricity, and the applica-
tion of electricity for the obtainmetit of illumination and motion." — August
21.

William W.\lker Jenkins, of Gred, in the county of Worcester, manu-
facturer, for " certain improvements in machines for the making of pins, and
sticking the same into paper." — August 27.

Edmu.vd Morewood, of Iligbgate, Middlesex, gentleman, for "an im-
proved mode of preserving iron and other metals from oxidation or rust."
(A communication.) — August 2".

MiLE.s Berry, of Cbancery-lane, civil engineer, for " certain improvements
in the means and apparatus for obtaining motive power, and rendering more
effective the use of known agents of motion." (.\ communication.) — August
27.

Samuel IIardman, of Farnworth. near Lancaster, spindle and fly-maker,
for *' certain improvements in machinery or apparatus for roving slubbing
cotton and other fibrous substances." — August 27.

Thom.^s Chambers and Francis Mark Franklin, of Lawrence-lane,
Loudon, and Charles Rowley, of Birmingham, button raanufactiu'er, for
*' improvements in the manufacture of buttons and fastenings for wearing
apparel." — August 27.

TO CORRESPONDENTS.

"G. Coe.'" — On Reversing Engines ; an accident occurred, as we were going to
press, which damaged the engravings, we were therefore obliged to postpone the
notice until next mouth.

.Severn Navigation.- — fVc have received a very valuable report by Mr. Full-
james, ou the proposed i itiprovements of the river, well ^deserving a perusal by
alt parties connected with this long contested " improcement."

Mr. Brooks and Mr. Barrett. — After a careful perusal of the communications
from thesL two gentlemen, we have determined not to insert them, as we feel con-
rijwed that they will only lead to an endless altercation between both parties.

iVe must request the favour of our correspondents, ivlto may favour vs with
articles which require engravings to illustrate them, to let the drawings be separate
from the manuscript, and drawn on thin paper — good tracing paper is the best, and
if possible to draw them so that they shall come within the width of a column
(^\ inches), or the width of a page (1 inches.)

Communications are requested to he addressed to " The Editor of the Civil
Engineer, and Architect's Journal," No. 11. Parliament .Street, IVestminster.

Books for Rt^view must be sent early in the mouth, communications on or before
the 2Qth (if with drawings, larlicr), and advertisements on or before the 25lh
instant.

Vols. I, II, and III, may be had, bound in cloth, price £1 each Volume

ERATTA.

Page 319, col. 1, 18 lines from the bottom, for " quantity," read " pressure."
Page 319, col. 2, 23 lines from the top, for " our atmosphere," read " four
atmospheres."

1841.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL,

329

HISTORY OF DECORATIVE SCULPTURE IN FRANCE.
( ConcUided from page 259.J

When the kings of the first race founded the French kingdom, they
built churches, some of vfhieh are mentioned by Gregory of Tours
(B. 2 i 14, 15, &c.), but which have all unfortunately been destroyed.
Some remains of these primitive edifices are still however to be seen
in marble capitals used in the churches rebuilt after the Norman ra-
vages. Thus at Montmartre there are capitals of white marble, the
style of which calls to mind degenerate antique forms, and which can
only be assigned to the first ages of Christianity ; this is evident from
the Greek cross still to be seen on the volutes of one of them, the
irregular management of the foliage, the inferior execution, and the
sharp forms which made their appearance with Christianity, and did
not leave until the Revival. These are features belonging to a period
of art very nearly approaching the Lower Empire, but Christian not-
withstanding as the emblems plainly show. At Jouarre, a place famous
for its abbey, is still to be seen a subterranean chapel at the end of the
cemetery, having, like the church of Montmartre, several capitals of
white marble, which in the singular form of their leaves, and in the
variety of their composition, since there are no two alike, show more
of the classic character of antiquity, and on the contrary present all
those which are proper to the first centuries of Christianity. The
church of St. Denis has on several capitals (?e«roK8, like those of Jou-
arre, and which might have formed part of the church of Dagobert. To
the same period a Greek cross, found some years ago behind the apsis
of the present church, appears to belong. The ruins of the Abbey of
St. Medard, at Soissons, have among them a marble capital, in which
may be recognized the degenerated traces of ancient art, and seeming
to belong to some of the edifices of the kings of Soissons, who were
buried at St. Medard.

Between this first period of modern civilization and the eleventh
century, monuments are wanting to enable us to follow up step by step
the history of the subject before us, a deficiency which must no doubt
be attributed to the numerous invasions, which took place during the
Carlovingian reigns. When the reign of the Capets commenced
Robert the Pious rebuilt the churches, and art took a new direction,
of which there is now abundant evidence. The church of St. Germain
des Pres, at Paris, for instance, notwithstanding many details attri-
butable to the barbarism of the age, has some fine parts, particularly
around the choir. There, the capitals, composed of large leaves, con-
tain chimerical animals, contributing to the eflTect of the composi-
tion, and the great variety which prevails is good proof of the rich
and fertile imaginations of the medieval artists. At this period the
leaves of the acanthus and the volutes, with other elements of ancient
ornament, still formed part of decoration, but their general forms were
entirely modified. The historical capitals of the nave of St. Germain
are also of the eleventh century, and are not less interesting than those
of the choir. (See Figs. 1 and 2.)

During this period of art, the capitals form two very distinct classes,
1st, of those in which, in imitation of the Pagans, Christian artists
only Imitated foliage as the basis of decoration ; 2nd, capitals enriched
with human or animal figures, and of which the origin is also to be
found among the ancients. The first are evidently a consequence of
the capitals of the first period of our era, of which we have mentioned
that there are examples at Montmartre, St. Denis and Jouarre. In the
eleventh century they exhibit an imitation more or less exact of the
Corinthian column. The ornaments of the astragal of the capital in the
church of St. Spire at Corbeil, and of Esnay at Lyons, are composed
of water leaves, imitated from the antique, and executed badly enough.
In the cloister of Moissac they are replaced by Byzantine rosettes.
The foliage of this period presents acute forms, removing the artist
from the study of nature, a direction which was given to art by the
Orientals in the time of Justinian, and afterwards adopted in the west.
Above the astragal is the capital, differing from that of the ancients as
it takes every imaginable geometric figure, the details of the Corin-
thian foliage gradually disapjiearing and giving place to original com-
positions, sometimes not without harmony and taste. The sub-
joined capital from the church of St. Germain des Pres is an instance
of this.

During the whole period, included between the last Carlovingians
and the 13th century, the principal elements of ornamental sculpture
are an imitation, more or less good, of the acanthus, their leaves edged
with pearls, palms, scrolls, ana other exotic types.

The second class of medieval capitals is distinguished from the first
by heads of men and animals, chimeras, and sea or land monsters, mixed
up with acute foliage imitated from the oriental flora, and which are
afterwards succeeded by religious, historical, or symbolical subjects
covering the whole surface of the capital to the exclusion of other

Fig. 1.

Fig. 2.

Capitals at the Church St. Germain des Pres.

ornament. This second system, like the first, owes its origin to
antiquity. The Etruscans often mixed up the heads of men with
foliage in their capitals;* the Romans introduced persons on foot, of
whicn a fine example is to be found in St. Lawrence without the Walls.
Without leaving France, ancient examples are to be found of this
mode of decoration, as at Vienne in Dauphiny, where on a beautiful
Corinthian marble capital of large proportion, are four heads of Pagan
divinities. The Museum of the same city contains a fragment seem-
ingly rather later, and in which are also figures and animals in the
midst of foliage. A Medusa's head is in the middle, two serpents in-
tertwined form the volutes, which rest on large acanthus leaves. The
church of St. Germain des Pres shows the whole progress of the sys-
tem, some of the capitals being covered with historical and religious
subjects. (Vide Fig. 2.) The royal vault in the subterranean church
of St. Denis, is decorated with purely historical capitals, representing
kings of France, bishops removing relics, &c. (Vide Fig. 3.)

Fig. 3.

Fig. 4.

Capitals at the Church St. Denis.

In the 12th century national art acquired a less barbarous tendency,
and in St. Denis, we see in the parts built by the Abbot Suger, capitals
of good character and scrollwork still more remarkable, forming the
decoration of the pilasters of the north side door to the cemetery of
the Valesians. At this period, more than in the preceding, painting
was applied in aid of sculpture, and in the next century, it attained its
complete development. Even in the 12th century the Christian artists,
deprived of ancient models, sought for the elements of ornament in the
national flora; and in the succeeding period the acanthus and all the
exotic plants were wholly excluded from sculpture, and gave way to
French flowers and foliage. The execution of ornament in the end of
the 12th and 13th centuries is very good, for the sculptor, being per-
fectly acquainted with the forms he was to imitate, produced broad
and noble compositions, in a style which, although severe, was com-
pletely in harmony with the buildings. In the 13th century Peter of
Montereau, architect to St. Louis, one of the most skilful artists of his
time, gave new vigour to the art of decoration; he introduced in the
chapel of Our Lady in the church of St. Germain des Pres, and the
Sainte Chapelle of the Palais, ornaments of remarkable precision and
taste. Notre Dame, which has some parts of the same date, shows
in the great capitals, supporting the columns of the nave, and in the
details of the doors, how much the art of the scultpor was advanced.

See an example in the British Museum.— Eorr.

2 X

330

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[October,

Fig. 5.

Fig 6.

Capitals at the St. Cliapelle, Paris.
Figs. 7 and 8.

Ornaments from the C'liurch Notre Dame, Paris.

The capitals of the Hotel de Dieii at Paris, of the Abbey of Poissy, of
the front of St. Julian the Poor, &c., were so many masterpieces of the
luxuriant imagination of the decorators of the li3th century. Among
the examples of this period may also be classed the beautiful ironwork
of the gates of Notre Dame ; it is composed of scrollwork in the best
taste and of the finest execution. The date of it is not decided; but
it evidently belongs to the 13th century, agreeing in style with the
ornament of the rest of the building. In the gate in the middle of the
grand front the skilful artist has intermingled birds, winged dragons
and foliage, with a statue of St. Marcel in the midst. This beautiful
piece of ironwork is unique in Europe, and well deserving of the at-
tention of artists on account of the elegant forms which have been
given to the iron.

The ornament of the 14th century was of a character almost as high
as that of the preceding, but the forms had already become less simple
and less true, the capitals were divided into stages of foliage, the as-

Fig.9.

tragals assumed the obtuse angles of the polygon, and the foliage
rolled upon itself, gives an appearance of confusion which destroys
the general effect. The fleurons which decorate the finials and
crocketings are formed of sharp and divided leaves, as thistles and
holly, from which there results loss severity of appearance in build-
ings of this age than in those of the foregoing.

In the 15th century great license prevailed in national art; the
sculptors gave themselves up to the most vagabond inventions, repre-
senting climbing plants of a light form an(l divided foliage. The
vine, thistle, and endive were tlie most frequent models adopted in
buildings of this period, and the use denoted the approach of a revo-
lution. The execution is free, and shows great facility, which they
abused, and often to such a degree that their productions are mere

Fig. 10.

Fig. 11.

From the Church at St. Gervais. Crocket for the Cathedral of Clermont.

Fig. 12.

From the Chapel of the " Hotel Je Cluny."

sketches, touched up with taste. While however we refuse to the
decorator of this period the gravity, which cliaracterizes the labours
of the two preceding periods, we are obliged to acknowledge that
they produced works, remarkable for the luxuriance and variety of
their composition, and the eflect of the boldness of their undercutting.
Towards the end of this century the Revival of ancient art began to
take root in the midst of the productions of national medieval art, and
again were oriental productions mixed with those of the indigenous
Flora. The reign of Louis 12th has left us many monuments of this
period of transition, among which the fayade of the Chateau de
Gaillon, at the Palace of the Fine Arts, deserves to be particularized,
as showing the union of the two styles.

Under Francis the 1st, the revolution in art became complete, the
ancient style imitated with more or less perfection, sometimes wit-
nessed the introduction of Gothic forms, but always without any dis-
turbing effect. The details of the tomb of Louis the 12th, nnd the
capitals of the Chateau de Madrid, are well enough known to require
only to be alluded to. It was under Henry the 2nd, that the Revival
arrived at its height. The Louvre, the Chateaux of Anet and Ecouen

Fig. 13.

Bracket for a Lamp, from the C^hateau de Gaillon.

18J1.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

331

and the Tomb of Francis the 1st are monuments perfect in the details
of their ornamental sculpture, in which they may contend with classic
antiquity, the Revival however was never a servile imitator of the
Greek and the Romans. This epoch is particularly remarkable for
tlie composition of capitals and arabesques.

From the reign of Henry the 4th, the Revival begins to lose part of
its charm, ornaments became heavy, too numerous, and neglected in
their execution, showing how much art had declined.

Under Louis the 13th and 14th, the direction given to ornamental
sculpture was in some degree stationary, but at the end of that age,
during the Regency and the whole reign of Louis 15th, the decline
was rapidly going on. In fact, the corruption of form was such that
no epoch in the history of the art has ever produced anything similar.
In the details of the architecture of this period, we witness the com-
plete absence of the observation of nature, which hitherto had always
been looked up to as a guide.

Under Louis 16th, it was seen how little this capricious style was
adapted to the decoration of severe edifices, and a return to the an-
tique was begun by the architects Soufflot and Servandoni. There were
still to be seen however remains of the influence of that bad taste
which gave way to the revolution of 17S9, and the serious study of
the antique which has been pursued in the 19th century.

THE ETCHING CLUB.
This association has been formed by twelve artists (eleven painters
and one sculptor), composed of the following gentlemen, whose names
will at once be recognized as amongst the most rising of the day; —
Redgrave, A.R.A; Webster, A.R.A.; Knight, A.R.A.; Cope, Taylor,
Creswick, Horsley, Townsend, Stonhouse, Bell, and F. Stone, with the
view of reviving the older excellence of the art of etching, and of
conferring upon the popular literature of the country, especially
poetry, a more pleasing, original, and arlist-like mode of illustration.
The first work that they have sent forth, consists of a series of eighty-
two illustrations of Goldsmith's exquisite poem, "The Deserted Vil-
lage. These illnstrations, in whatever way regarded, whether for
originality of conception, beauty of composition, truth and delicacy of
feeling, or correctness of delineation, are worthy of the highest praise.
We regret, however, to perceive that the club have adopted the bar-
barous practice of destroying tlie plates after taking a certain number
of impressions, which, in these days, is quite inexcusable.

FOOT BRIDGE OVER THE RIVER WHITADDER.

Sib — In the cumber of your Journal for July last, there is a descrip-
tion of a proposed new construction for railway viaducts on the tension
bar principle, in which the writei refers to the foot bridge over the
river Whitadder, in Berwickshire, on the property of George Turnbull,
E^q., of Abbey St. Bathans, as an instance in which the princi;ile
he proposes has been applied to bridges. The principle however as
adopted at Abbey St. Bathans foot bridge is not carried so far as
in the proposed railway viaduct, and as it is simple in its construction,
and is found to answer the purpose well, you may consider the accom-
panying sketch of its details not unworthy of a place in your Journal.

In 1821 Mr. Robert Stevenson of Edinburgh,* designed a bridge for
the river Almond, in Edinburghshire, in which the principle of sup-
porting the roadway by iron bars passing underneath was first adopted.
This plan however differs from that now in use at Abbey St. Bathans'
bridge and elsewhere, as the chains for supporting the roadway are
fixed in the abutments, whereas at Abbey St. Bathans the roadway
beams themselves are made to resist the strain. Mr. Smith of Dean-
iton, has erected a foot bridge of this kind 103 feet span near Doune.

I am not aware where and by whom the plan of fixing the tension
bars to the extremities of the roadway beams was first adopted, but
the principle has now come into pretty general use. A beam may in
this way be rendered perfectly rigid, and even forced into a slightly
arched form, and from the lightness and compactness of the whole it
possesses many advantages over the other methods in which the same
thing is accomplished.

In 1S33 a bridge was erected on the tension bar principle over an
arm of the Lake of Geneva. It has 13 openings of 55 feet span, and
is 25 feet broad. The same plan has been adopted for two foot bridges
of 138 and 81 feet span respectively erected several years since over
the river Ness, near Inverness, and also for a bridge over the river
Whitadder, in Berwickshire, at Hutton Mill, designed by Mr. Jardine,
of Edinburgh, which consists of three openings 60 feet span. Mr.

* See Edinburgh Philosophical Journal for October, 1821, and Drewry on
Suspension Briilges, page 30.

Smith has also applied tension rods very successfully for supporting
the floors of the Deanston cotton works, where they have been in use
for many years. These, so far as I am aware, are the only instances
in which this principle has been adopted.

The Whitadder is subject to heavy floods, especially in the winter
season, which interrupts the intercourse between the opposite banks,
and as there is no bridge within many miles of Abbey St. Bathans, the
want of some means of communication was long felt to be a great in-
convenience, and several attempts had been made to build a foot
bridge by which the water might be crossed at all times, without hav-
ing recourse to the inconvenient and often dangerous alternatives of a
ferry-boat or a ford: but the heavy floods and ice during the winter
destroyed the erections by carrying away the piers.

Messrs. R. Stevenson and Sons, of Edinburgh, being applied to for
a design of a bridge, recommended one on the tension bar principle,
from its simplicity of construction and the moderate cost at which it
might be executed.

'rhe bridge was commenced at the beginning of last summer, and
finished in the course of six months. Its total length is IGO feef, and
its breadth 4 feet. The planking is 16 feet above the water, which
rises 11 feet on the piers during floods, and although the bridge was
originally intended for foot passengers only,liorses have been occasionally
taken across it. It consists, as will be seen from the sketch fig. 1, of
two main openings of CO feet span, and a smaller one of 24 feet span.
The beams are supported upon piers of coursed Graywacke rubble.
The two in the centre measure 10 feet x 7 feet at the base, and batter
to G ft. 6 in. X 4 feet at the top. The one which is most exposed to
the water is founded upon rock, at the depth of 4 feet under the bed
of the river, and the other is founded upon a platform of timber laid
on gravel. A causeway of river stones is laid round the base of the
piers to protect their foundations from the run of the water. The
beams for supporting the roadway planking were made of four pieces
of timber for the convenience of getting them readily conveyed across
the hills; they measure 11 inches X 6 inches, and are formed of planks
of red pine 11 inches x 3 inches. Two of them are 37 feet long, and
two 27 feet, so that when put together the scarphs which are 2 ft. G
in. long occur at dift'erent places and exactly over the uprights. The
planks are firmly fixed together by means of oaken treenails 3 feet
apart, driven right through and wedged at both ends. The ends of
the main beams fit into cast iron shoes, as shown in figs. 5 and 0, and
the tension rods which go under the beams, and support them by means
of the uprights, pass through auger holes in the centre of the beams,
and are secured by means of screw nuts G inches long to the back part
of the iron shoes, as shown in figs. 5 and G. The diameter of the ten-
sion rods is one inch. The screws are used in order to tighten up the
rods, which is done until the beams are quite rigid.

Figs. 5 St C— .Section and side view of tlie Ends of ihe Beams.

The main beams and iron work of the bridge were made by Messrs.
J. B. Maxton and Co., of Leith Engine-works, and were proved in the
work-yard with a weight of one and a half ton, before being sent to
their destination. The remainder of the wood work was executed by
Mr. Thomas Swan, of Cranshaw.

The entire cost of the bridge was as follows:

Masonwork - - -£10 175

Main beams and iron work - - 50 0 0

Planking and railing - - 78 G 0

Forming approaches, &c. - - 8 5 0

I remain, your obedient servant,

47, Melville Slreel, Edinburgh,
27M August, 1841.

£237 18 5
John R. Wilson.

2X2

332

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[October,

K
03
Ut
o

g

w

pq

K

<

cq

H

>^
PQ

n

O
Q

I— I

a

>

a

>■
O

O
Q

PQ

H
O
O

(14

O

'^.

r

%3

:ir.

'>^

•m

«.••.

r

\/

o

1841.J

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

333

CAST IRON LIGHT-HOUSE,

In progress at Morant Point, Jamaica,

By Alexander Gordon, Engineer to the Commissioners.

<--4^

Stt.A'^

ijt»/*Kw ^

In writing a description of a cast iron lighthouse tower just com-
pleted for the Island of Jamaica, an opportunity is afforded for a few
words on the advantages offered by this peculiar mode of construction.
Mariners have frequently been deprived of the security afforded by
lighthouses on dangerous coasts, from the great costliness of such
structures, as well as from the danger or diiBculty attending their erec-
tion, in consequence of local peculiarities arising either from tidal
restrictions, or from the difliculty of obtaining foundations of sufficient
solidity to support the heavy mass of masonry of the tower. It is a
fact of common occurrence that years are required to erect a light-

house of very moderate dimensions where the rate of working is
limited, both by the nature of the tides, and by the peculiarity of the
season ; and the authorities who preside over these matters are fre-
quently deterred from Entertaining the application, for such faciRties
to navigation, from the cost and trouble attending their execution.

The situation for which the lighthouse represented in the accom-
panying drawings is intended, has long required this protection, but
the great expence of stone or brick erection, and the time requir«cl to
complete them have interfered with their earlier execution to com
plete the plan.

334

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[October,

Mr. Alexeinder Gordon, the engineer to the Commissioners appointed
to carry the phui into effect, is the designer of this building, and who
recommended the adoption of cast iron, in consequence of the sugges-
tions some years ago of Captain Sir Samuel Browne, and the subse-
quent erection of a small light tower on Gravpsend t'ier, by Mr. Clarke.
The advantages which iron, when not in contact with sea water,
possesses over stone or other materials, is, that upon a given base a
much larger internal capacity for dwellings and stories can be obtained
with equal stability. The "nature of the material admitting of the
plates being cast in large surfaces, there are fewer joints, and conse-
quently greater solidity. A system of bonding the plates may also be
adopted, which will insure the perfect combination of every jnirt, so
as to form one entire mass, and by the facility which such a plan offers
for imiting the parts, the best form for strength and stabi ity can be
obtained. The time required for the construction of such a building
in iron being less than that required for the j)rei)arationof one of stone,
would in many instances influence its adoption, and from the compara-
tively small bulk and weight of the component parts of the structure,
much greater facilities are afforded for transporting and erecting it at
its destination. It is a fact worthy of remark that in less than three
months from the date of the contract, the lighthouse in question was
east and erected on the contractor's premises, and it is the intention
of Mr. Gordon, the engineer, to have the light exhibited in Jamaica,
on January 1st, 1S42, being six months from the date of ilscominence-
nrent. This is a degree of expedition commensurate with the extra-
ordinary despatch of the present day, when all operations however
great and difficirlt, seem to advance with a celerity which a few years
back would have been deemed chimerical.

The expences of the construction, the transmission to its destination,
anil its final erection, will not exceed one-third the cost of a stone
building of equal dimensions and capabilities, and in localities where
the materials are not naturally produced, but have to be transported
from a distance in a fit state of immediate erection, the expence would
considerably exceed this ratio. Another prominent feature in the
construction of iron lighthouses, &c. is the security fi-om electric in-
tUience, the material itself being one of the best conductors of tlie
electric fluid, and if proper means be taken to transfer the electric
fJuid from the base of the tow er to the sea by means of copper con-
ductors, no danger need be apprehended from its effects.

The lighthouse in question is the first of its kind that has been
jiractically carried out, and from its having to withstarrd the destruc-
tive hurricanes, which, as well as the frequent earthquakes that occur
in the West Indies, it will afford a good example for future practice.
The form has been selected as well for strength as for symmetry ; and
the arrangement of the lantern and light apparatus reflects the greatest
credit on the manufacturer, Mr. Deville.

The tower is to be founded on a coral rock, a little above the level
of the sea, the face of which rock is about 10 feet beneath the surface
of the sand, and which will be excavated to receive the base of the
tower, resting on and cased with granite, to prevent the natural filtra-
tion of the sea water from acting upon the iron. The course of granite
upon which the base of the tower rests, is grooved to receive the
flange of the lower plates, from which the lightning conductors are
continued to the sea. The diameter of the tower shaft is IS ft. 6 in.
at its base, diminishing to 11 feet under the cap; it is formed of nine
tiers of plates, each 10 feet in height, varying from 1 to | inch thick-
ness. The circumference is formed of 1 1 plates at the base, and nine
at the top, they are cast with a flange all round the inirer edges, and
when put together these flanges fornr the joints which are fastened to-
gether with nut and screw bolts, and caulked with iron cement. The
cap corrsists of 10 radiating plates which form the floor of the light
room, arrd secured to the tower upon 20 pierced brackets, being
finished by a light iron railirrg. The lower portion, rramely 27 feet, is
filled up with masonry and concrete, weighing about 300 tons, and so
connected with the rock itself that it forms a solid core of resistance ;
the remaining portion of the building is divided into rooms v\bieh are
to be appropriated as store rooms and berths for the attendants in the
lighthouse.

The light room consists of cast iron plates 5 feet high, on which
are fixed the metal sash bars for receiving the plate glass, these ter-
minating in a point are covered with a copper roof, from which rises a
short lightning rod, treble gilt at the point, to attract the electric cur-
rent.

The light is of the revolving kind, consisting of 15 Argand lamps
and reflectors, 5 in each side of an eqirilateral triangle, and so placed
as to constitute a continuous light, but with periodical flashes.

In order to preserve as low a temperature as the nature of the cir-
eumstances and climate will permit, the iron shell is to be lined with
a non-conducting material, such as slate or wood, leaving an annular
interstice, through which a constant ventilation will be effected, ani

bv which the excessive heat will be carried off, or which it will doubt-
less be assisted by the evaporation of the sea spray which may ac-
cidentally be cast upon it, as it will be placed within (10 yards of the
ordinary water level.

In order to preserve the two lower tiers from oxydation, they have
been coated with coal tar, and Mr. (jordon intends to set them in the
granite with a bituminous cenrent. The only bracing which has been
thought requisite is a few cross ties at each horizontal joint, over
which the irorr tongued wood floors are laid.

'Ihe several rooms are provided with five apertures fitted with oak
sashes glazed with plate glass; the ap|)roach to the doorway which is
about 10 feet above the level of the sand, will be by means of stone
steps, ladder irons are also provided in the event of the stone steps
being carried away by a hurric.ine.

Over the entrance is a large tablet of iron, su[)ported by two small
ones, and on them, in bas relief, are the following inscriptions : —

"Erected A.D. 1842,

" Under the act 3 Victoria, cap. GG.

" CosiMrssroNERS.

' Vice-Admiral Sir Charles Adam,

K.C.B.
' Commodore Douglas, R.N.
• Hon. S. J. Dallas.
' W. Ilyslop, Esq.
' J. Tavlor, Esq.
' l.'on.'M. Mitchell.

" E. Jordan, Esq.

" P. Lawrence, Esq.

" Hon. T. M'Cormack.

" Hon. E. Panton, Speaker.

" A. Barclay, Esq.

'* II. Leslie, Esq.

" G. Wright, Esq.

'On the designs and specitrcation of Alexander (Gordon, civil engineer,
London."

' C. Robinson, Engineer, London,
fecit."

And on the side supporters : —
" Captain St. John, R.A., Island
Engineer."

The whole of the castirrgs were executed by Mr. Robinson at his
manufactory, (late Bramah and Robinson), at Pimlico, and put together
in the yard i.f the manufactory prior to their removal for its intended
destination.

The work will be re-erected in Jamaica by means of a derrick and
crab from the inside, without the aid of any external scaflolding.

Arch. R. Renton.
Seplemher ■2-2, 1841.

[We understand that the who'e expence of the lighthouse, including
the passage over the Atlantic, and the erecting it on the promontory
in Jamaica, will not exceed .£'000, and that the entrre weight
of iron of the whole fabric is about 100 tons. The masonry is
bein" prepared in this country, as it will be more economical
to send it from England than it will be to get the stone and work it
irr Jamaica. Three mechanics are also to be sent out with the work
to put it together on its destined spot. — Editor.]

TURKEY.

The spirit of imorovement which has been of late years exhibited
by the Turkish government has not been confined to political and
social reforms, but has also been directed to objects of a practical na-
ture. In aid of these efforts frequent calls have been made on the
talents of our engineers, and some very fine machinery indeed has
been sent out to Constantinople. Much of this has been on a very
large scale, and we may enumerate saw nrills, musket machinery, and
gun-boring machinery. The machinery sirpplied by Messrs. Maudslays
for boring brass guns, said to be the finest and most extensive of any
in the world, has given great satisfaction. The same firm have lately
finished an order for mint machinery, also on a large scale, which has
excited great commendation fr'om the completeness of its design, and
the beauty of its execution. It consists of two 16 horse power high
pressure engines, two pair of large rollers, and two pair of smaller
rollers, six cutting out presses, two double draw benches, four coining
presses with prreumatic apparatus, and a die sinking press, with two
double acting milling machines, ingot moulds, &c. To those who ad-
mire this class of machinery, as who does not, the examination of this
minting apparatus was highly interesting, uniting as it did all the re-
cent improvements which have been adopted in our mint. The
Turkish dockyard it must be farther remembered, is directed by ub
Anglo-American, and is in a very efficient state, and the public at
Constantinople have recently been turning their attei lion towards
steam navigation, so that we may look forward for a new market for
our machinery in the Turkish empire. To the engineering and min-
ing interests ihe progress of this increasing branch of our commercK is
of great importance.

i841.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

835

IMPROVED CONSTRUCTION OF PISTONS AND VALVES,
FOR RETAINING OR DISCHARGING LIQUIDS, &c.

Patented by Messrs. G. H, Palmer and Charles Perkins.
Fig. \.

Fig. 1, is a plan of the piston, a section of which is showii by fig. 3.
AB the major, C D the minor diameter; the joint (by which the
pump rod is secured), is in the centre of the true line of the
major diameter A B, but neither in the centre of the pump or piston,
being removed therefrom more or less as the diameter of the pump,
the altitude of the column of water lifted, and other circumstances
may require. The whole area of the piston is therefore divided into
two unequal areas.

Fig. 2, is a plan of the lower valve, which is fixed in the barrel by
means of the axle O, the eccentricity of which is regulated upon the
same principle as that of the joint in the upper valve or piston.

Fig. 3, shows the relative position of the piston and valve during

the upward or effective stroke. The dotted lines show the position of
the valves in the downward or return stroke.

Figs. 4 and ">, are apian and section of a patent double balancing
valve, an ajiplication of the same principle as adapted for safety, or
any valves connected with steam engines or air pumps, also to lock
gates or sluices, and generally as a simple and effective mode of re-
taining or discharging liquids, gases and steam. The two valves being
of unequal, but the inner of the greater area, and the pressure upon
both, being in the same line of direction, it is evident that the power
to open or shut them may be determined at pleasure by regulating the
difference between the two areas, a 6 is the larger, and/y'the valve
of smaller area, each of which are connected with, and works'upon,
the axle M M, supported by carriages on the valve bed N N. The
valves a b and//, receive simultaneous action by means of the curved
lever or tail piece X.

The patentees recommend the adoption of the patent elliptic self
adjusting balancing pistons in all pumps for whatever purposes in-
tended, as the most simple, durable and effective of any arrangement
now before the public. Simple, as is evident from the diagrams and
description herewith. Durable, because the process of raising water
from any depth is performed by two metallic discs, not liable to de-
rangement, and free from most casualties of climate, circumstance, or
wear. Eff'ective, first, because a very superior water way is obtained,
(there are no valves to clog or gag, no resting place for any extraneous
matter to impede the duty of the pump, whether it be sand or rubbish).
Secondlv, it will remove the evil arising from concussion in pumps of
large diameter; and thirdly, in consequence of the decreased amount
of friction, the service of a man in pumping is increased in the ratio
of nearly 3 to 1, as the following statement will demonstrate.

The patentees have two 10 inch pumps, the levers G to 1, the stroke
8 inches, tlie column of water 5 feet; both pumps were made by Messrs.
Bramah and Robinson, in their best manner ; alike in all respects, except
that one is fitted with the usual packed bucket and butterfly valves, the
other with the patent piston and valve. In an experiment recently
made with weights over a pulley, it required the exertion of a force
equivalent to 4lil tb. to raise and deliver the water, (about 2 gallons),
and return the bucket with the packed pump, and only 19j Hi. to do
the same work with the patent pump ; making the labour to work the
two pumps in the ratio of 4i31 to 196 — 23 to lU.

Another experiment was made for the patentees by Mr. Beale, of
Greenwich, sliowing similar advantages in the diminution of friction,
and consequently an increase power. The following is the result of
this experiment.

A vessel of a capacity equal to 314-16 gallons = 31411b. was filled
by pumping 140 strokes in 4^ minutes, which was at the rate of 31
strokes per minute, and 2-244 gallons per stroke. The working barrel
of the pump was intended to be 10", but was said to have been turned
to 101 inches nearly.

If the diameter was 10, then the delivery by comput-
ation in 140 strokes of 8" = .... 318 gallons.

If the diameter was lOi, then the delivery ;= - - 330

The actual delivery was by computation of the re-
ceiving vessel =^ ...... 314

The average lift during this time was about six feet.

In a second experiment the water in the well was kept at an average
height which, with pipes added to the exit pipe, made the total lift
15 feet 4 inches.

Under these circumstances weights were applied to the end of the
lever, and it took 98 tb. x 6 the leverage to raise the column of water.

Now 93 X 6 = 5 88 ft.

The actual weight of a column of water lOJ" diameter and

15 feet 4 inches in height, is ..... 550 lb.

Leaving for friction in the up stroke only - - - 38 lb.

As there was no friction in the down stroke or return of the piston,
it resnits that 38 lb. was the total amount of friction out of 588 lb. (ex-
erted), being only G-4G per cent, or -^ part.

The velocity of the water may be taken at 20 feet per minute.

In a third experiment, to produce a maximum effect, two men made
41 strokes in one minute, lifting the water 15 feet 4 inches, and de-
Itvering as per first experiment 2-244 gallons, or 22-44 tb. per stroke :=
to 14107-28 lb. raised one foot high in one minute by two men, or
7053-G4 lb. raised one foot high in one minute by one man.

Artificial Ice, — The projectors of the artificial ice plan have found a site
in the Ne«' Road, eppusite Lord's cricket ground. M'e have seen the com-
position, which seems to succeeJ, and the plan is approved by the Skating
Club.

336

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[October,

ON REVERSING OF ENGINES.

Sir — When we look to the methods of reversing the motion of re-
ciprocating steam engines which have hitherto been generally adopted,
it becomes a matter of surprise that, whilst in almost all patents for
rotary engines, where it has been considered the motion would want
reversing, it has been done on the principle of changing the steam in-
duction and eduction passages, (/. e. what is the induction for one way
is made the eduction the other, and vice versa), the same principle has
not been adopted for them. The most general and simple way of
changing the passages in rotary engines nas been by means of the
common slide valve, and my object in now addressing you is to pro-
pose the adoption of the same slide valve to the reciprocating engine.

The accompanying figures represent it as applied to a pair of marine
engines, for which it seems particularly suited. Let A in the figures
represent the cylinder; B B B B, valve boxes fitted with stop valves
r I' V V, almost similar to those of Messrs. Seaward's patent, except
that both the valves and boxes are faced on both sides ; C 1, C 2,
communication pipes to each pair of boxes ; D D, branch pipes from
C 2, C 1, to the apertures in the slide valve box E ; being alternately
steam and exhaust as their respective apertures may be covered by
the slide valve F; G is the exhaust or eduction to the condenser; H
the induction or steam-pipe from the boiler. The valves strike simul-
taneously (as Seaward's), and are like them worked by one fast eccen-
tric.

Fig. 1. — Plan of Cylinder.

It will be seen as the valves stand in the figures that the steam
passing down H into the valve box E, and down the uncovered aper-
tures to communicating pipeC 1, finds the upper aperture stopped up,
it consequently makes its way through the lower one and forces up the
piston, at the same time the upper valve on the other side of the
cylinder is open, and a vacuum being formed in the condenser, it ex-
hausts G, under F, the branch to and the communicating pipe C 2, and
the portion of the cylinder above the piston.

If we wish now to reverse the motion, we have only to push the
valve F to the other end of the box, as represented bv dotted lines in
fig. 3, the branch pipe, and C 1 is open to the condenser, and the
steam passes down the branch into C 2, and presses down the piston.

The mode of operation will I think be now understood. Fig. 4 is a
view of the valve F, as proposed for a pair of engines, showing the
midfeather to separate the exhausts or eductions to the respective
condensers. The branch pipes to the other cylinder are shown broken
off. There is another use of the valve F, it is a perfect regulator or
throttle valve, to stop or regulate the engine by ; for it is so constructed
tliat supposing the steam to be shut off by it when running either way,
still the exhaust apertures remain entirely open. The simplicity of
its action, and its doing away with a considerable number of small
moving parts consequent on reversing and management in general, by
the present methods are its recommendations, not to mention that one
man could manage a pair of the largest engines which have yet navi-
gated the ocean, better than 4 or (i, or even 1(J men, to jome of our

Fig. 2.— Section of Cylinder.

Fig. 3.— Elevation of Cylinder and Section of Valves.

Tig. 4.

present large marine engines. 1 have a sketch by me, only in pencil
as yet, for working locomotives by the same principle, but being so
confined as to space, little difficulties present themselves in the arrange-
ment, which a more practical man might soon set aside.

Your's,

G. CoE, Civil Engineer.
Horbury Bridge, near Wakejield,
^nginl 17, 1841,

1841.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

3.37

CANDIDUS'S NOTE-BOOK.
FASCICULUS XXXI.

•' I must have liberty
Withal, as large a charter as the wine's,
To blow on wliom I please."

I. Those who rail against competition, not because competitions are
for the most part vilely conducted — most bunglingly also, supposing there
to be houestv of intention, or else most fraudulently, as there is fre-
quently good reason to suspect, perhaps all but positive evidence to
prove — the deciaimers against competition, carefully keep out of
sight the mischiefs that have been produced by non-competition. It
is impossible to believe that Buckingham Palace would have been the
miserable architectural abortion it now is, an object of shame to En-
glishmen, and of contempt to foreigners, had others been allowed to
measure their talents with those of John Nash. In such case an open
competition might not have been at all advisable, but a middle course
might have been pursued, and a certain number of those of most like-
lihood in the profession should have been invited to send in designs,
and every set of drawings should have been paid for except those by the
successful architect, who would be amply remunerated otherwise.
A thousand pounds a-piece would not, perhaps, have been at all too
much : while it would have been sufficient to induce those selected as
competitors to exert themselves heartily, it would not have been an
extravagant reward, considering the study such a subject would have
required, the expenses the competitors must have incurred, and the
other engagements they must have neglected or postponed. Sup-
posing the number of competitors had been ten — it might have been
fewer, the £9,000 would not have been recklessly squandered. Even
supposing the result had been precisely the same as at present, we
should at least have had the satisfaction of knowing that the bauble
we have now got was the very best thing of its kind that was to be
had. As it is, there was the saving of a few thousands in the first
instance, and we have got John Nash's chef-d'ceuvre — no very great
bargain after all, any way, when we take into account the tens of
thousands expended in pulling down and re-building, while it was in
progress, and afterwards in botching it up and licking it into shape.

II. The anti-competitionists would do well to consider what sort of
design we should have had for the new Houses of Parliament, had
there been no competition, but a Nash, a Soane, or a Smirke, been
called in, and left to do his best or his worst, and to go on as he
pleased without further inquiry. Without much fear of contradiction,
it may be affirmed that had there been a competition for the National
(jallery, we should have had something better rather than worse than
the present structure ; and the same may be said in regard to a great
manv other buildings. Of course it must he assumed that the com-
petition is fairly manuged, and that there be not only perfect fairness,
but the recjuisite taste and judgment also. It is no satisfaction to be
assured that the decision has been made to the best of their ability by
those with whom it rested, if the choice itself convicts them of utter
in;ibility and incapacitv for such office. If associated with bad taste,
honesty may do more harm than good in such matters ; yet as far as
honesty is concerned, there is very little danger of any mischievous
consequences from excess of it, at least not just now, for, if reports
may be credited, some very ugly instances of thorough-paced roguery
and rascalitv in the management of competitions, have recently taken
place.

III. If no other, there is at least one remarkable peculiarity attend-
ing architectural criticism, viz. that so far from endeavouring to be
un courant dujoiir, it generally lags most wofully behind-hand, as if it
were almost a positive breach of decorum, to discuss the merits of
productions belonging to our own times. Why it should be considered
requisite to exercise such forbearance towards living architects and
their works, more especially, the very reverse of it being freciuently
manifested in the case of literary men, actors, artists, &c., it is difficult
to understand. Neither is such over-delicacy particularly compli-
mentary, since it almost amounts to a confession that it is impossible
to speak honestly of the living without also speaking harshly, therefore
the critic who would neither give otfence nor compromise his own
judgment, has no other alternative than silence. On the other hand,
however, Brummagem criticism and puffery are allowed to circulate
freely enough ; for though delicacy may witlihold some from giving
their opinion unreservedly in the case of architects either living or
recently deceased, many there are who do not scruple to cry up
almost every thing as a wonder of its kind. With them every goose
is a swan, or rather a phoenix. Whatever they are speaking of is, for

the time being, superlative of its kind. Their chief merit is their im-
partiality, since they treat all alike, making no distinction between a
Charles Barry and a Richard Brown. Yes, incredible as it may seem,
even Professor Brown has his admirers; not long ago a flaring-up puff
appeared in a weekly paper on the Professor's "Domestic Architec-
ture," bearing testimony to the value of the work, and the varied
talent displayed in the designs, " which w'ould afford to the student
examples in every style of building" ! Thus a publication which is
absolutely pestiferous in taste, and as far as it circulates, is calculated
to spread the most vulgar taste throughout the land, not only escapes
reprobation, but is actually recommended as an authority and a trust-
worthy guide. Pity it is that Pugin did not show up some specimens
of bis brother Professor's designs along with " castellated " firegrates,
and similar monstrosities. Should Welby not be yet aware of the
existence of Brown's publication, we earnestly recommend it to him,
for he will find in it some exceedingly piquant tid-bits, tn/er alia, a
sample of Egyptian that might very well pass fur one of the plagues
of Egypt.

IV. Want of keeping is so exceedingly prevalent a fault iu archi-
tectural design, that it would seem to be the most excusable of any,
as being of all others, the one most difficult to be avoided, whereas I
should "decide precisely the reverse, it being, in my own opinion, one
of the most offensive and the least venial, because that which argues
the absence of artistical feeling. In every composition there ought
to be some leading features, and some parts of a building will very
properly bear to be more ornamented than the rest ; yet this should
be so managed that the enstmbk shall appear consistent, and the whole
design all of a piece as to taste. Look at the Post Office— there are
Ionic columns, but the structure itself is absolutely dowdy in its style.
Look at the Post Office, Dublin— there we have another large Grecian
Ionic portico attached to a very plain and ordinary house-front. Look
at Goldsmith's Hall— the lower half of the design is altogether diffe-
rent and distinct in character from the upper one. Look again at
Lord Sefton's new mansion in Belgrave Square— within a carriage
porch of the very plainest Italian Doric possible, is a doorway of
unusually rich design, which, in such situation, looks as much over-
dressed in itself, as it causes the columns and their entablature to
look plain, even to the appearance of being unfinished. In a new
house near Park Lane, I observe there is some approach to the Italian
style, the elevation being crowned by a cornice somewhat bolder and
richer than usual ; but the windows!— they are in the modern Pseudo-
Grecian fashion, with no other dressings than architraves, and those
of the very plainest description. In all such cases it looks as if the
architect had been obliged to pare down his design in order to save
expense, and that, instead of simplifying it consistently throughout,
he had merely omitted in execution that decoration which was in the
first instance proposed as essential to unity of expression.

V. Another great and pervading vice in modern design is that so
little regard is had tc the sound and legitimate principle of commenc-
ing decoration by first applying it to essential features — those arising
out of construction, or required by utility and convenience, instead of
introducing what is merely for embellishment, while other things that
cannot possibly be omitted or got rid of, are left not only plain, but
quite rude in appearance, so as to become, by contrast, positive eye-
sores. That such errors in taste — such violation of all artistic prin-
ciples of composition, should ever be committed, is grievous enough,
but that it should be committed so very frequently, and by those who
are so fastidious and puritanically pedantic in regard to matters of
infinitely less importance, is most grievous and most provoking.
Utility and beauty ought to go baud in hand, but should be made to do so
after a very different fashion from what is now generally the case,
when one half of a design aims at nothing more than unadorned use-
fulness, and the other at ostentatious show. Their usefulness does
not reconcile us to ugly chimneys and chimney-pots confusedly hud-
dled together on the roof of a building — to bare openings for windows,
or else having only some scanty common-place mouldings bestowed
on them, — to insignificance and vulgarity as regards matters of that
kind, while unnecessary and inconsistent, therefore absurd parade is
indulged in as regards others. One ill consequence of such unfortu-
nate system is that people are satisfied with mere shreds and patches
of design, and think it quite enough if they are able to say such or
such a part is very good, though the general effect may nevertheless
be poor in the extreme, and the whole no better than a jumblb of the
most incoherent and contradictory members.

Progress of Sleam.— We learn that in a short time the merchants of St
Pelersbursh will have a direct line ot steam communication, ria the Noitli
of Germany, Yarmouth, and this city, with New York.— Bristol Simidard.

2 Y

338

THE CIVIL ENGiXEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[October,

ARCHITECTURE AS A FINE ART : ITS STATE AND

PROSPECTS IN ENGLAND.

Br George Godwix, Jux., F.R.S.

" Hint art where most magnificent apjKars
Tlie liltJe Uiililer, man."

«I shall not nepde (like llie most part of writers) to celebrate the
suhjcct which I deliver. In that point I am at ease. For architecture
can want no commendation, where there are noble men and noble
mindcs." So wrote Sir IIcDry Wotton more than two hundred vears
ago, with reference merely to the Roman style, when classic architec-
ture was but beginning to revive: — before "inigo .Tones and Sir Chris-
topher Wren had nationalized it amongst us, or Lord Burlington's ex-
ample and endeavours, had made a smattering of its principles almost
a necessity of fashion. Since then, the treasures of Greece have been
ransacked and sent home to us to correct our taste and aid the study;
the claims of middle-age arcliiteclure to be regarded as the work of
supreme genius have been admitted universally, (its intrinsic beauty,
the extraordinary skill displayed in its development, its power of
inducing

" ,'\ slir of mind too natural to deceive ;
Giving the memory h?Ip when she would v.eave
A crowai for Hope !"'

liave all been felt,) and delineations of its choicest specimens in a
thousand and one books have been dispersed amongst us to render its
details more known, aud its imitation less difficult.

The history of architecture has been written, — the beautiful rela-
tidnship of the various styles has been shown, (each growing out of
and in its turn producing, — ) forming a narrative most interesting and
striking to all who look not carelessly on the progress of the human
family, and suflicient it might be thought, to arrest and retain the at-
tention of all readers. The history of our ancient buildings is more
fully felt to be inseparably connected with the history of our country, —
every old stone in England is known to tell a story, and therefore
should have now a firmer hold upon the people than then, and yet we
doubt whether any might venture to repeat at this time Sir Henry
Wotton's remark which we have quoted. Certain it is that many
"noble men" care nothing about architecture, and that many more
"noble mindes" seem to require it should have very much "" com-
mendation" before they will be induced to give attention to it.

The degree of ignorance on the subject of architecture to be found
amongst persons in other respects not merely well infoimed, but even
learned, is quite extraordinary. Grecian, Roman, Gothic, Elizabethan,
as applied to architectural style, are to them but words without any
corresponding ideas ; they have never considered that architecture
lias a chronology, still less, a philosophy, — architectural integrity,
harmony, proportion, fitness, are to them foreign things, — in fact,
beyond a notion that architecture means piling one stone upon another,
and forming places to live or meet in, they know nothing and care
less.

Great jiart of this inattention on the part of the multitude to the
interesting and noble study under notice, (and of which the results
■whether for good or ill, usually endure long, and are constantlv before
the eyes of all,) has been justly ascribed to the cotmectio'n which
exists in the public mind between architecture as a constructive sci-
ence, and architecture as di fine-art, and every endeavour ought there-
fore to be made to enforce a knowledge of this difference on general
readers, aud to point out to them how large a source of fresh delight
■would be opened to them by its study in the latter ijoint of view. The
pleasure of travel is trebled by if. Proofs in aid of former studies,
objects for investigation, incentives to inquiry, arise on all sides;
tongues are literally, found in stones, and a habit is acquired of weigh-
ing causes, aud testing by judgment whatever is brought before the
mind, which is of the greatest value, not merely in this particular case
but in all the affairs of life.

For the sake of example, but briefly, let a man possessed of its
liistory, and imbued in some degree with its principles, visit, in com-
■pany with one entirely ignorar.t of both, an old town, or be set down
before a new building. In the first, he might perhaps find a massive
piece of walling, formed of beach-stones imbedded solidly with mortar,
and bound together at certain distances in its height, by layers of long
thin bricks almost resembling tiles. This he woiild at once recognise
as a remnant of the work of that period when the Romans brought,
though as conquerors, the arts to England, and laid the foundation for
after-elevation and prosperity. Britain and its skin-clad inhabitants,
the invasion of Casar, the downfall of Rome, the invitation to the
Saxons would be the concomitant remembrances.

One of the gateways leading into the cathedriU-close — which we

will suppose the town to possess, might present semi-circular arches
springing from sma|l columns, and ornamented on the face with a rude
zig-zag moulding, or a series of bird's beaks, which he would know to
be the design of some of those Norman architects who. after the con-
quest of England by Duke William, employed themselves activelv for
some time, in covering the land with donjons and churches. The
abasement of the Saxons, the curfew, forest laws, the feudal svstem
generally, would jiass involuntarily throngh his mind, and afford matter
for long and pleasant reflection.

The cathedral itself would perhaps display in part, the feathery
lightness of the pointed style of architecture with lofty arches, pinna-
cles and buttresses, intermixed with work of later date, shewing
arches almost flat, superfluity of adornment, and the decay of taste :
all which would be sufficient not merely to recall to the initiated be-
holder the changes which took place in architecture during two or
three hundred years, and ended in the importation of a style from
Italy, in the reign of Charles I, or a little earlier, and a contemptuous
disregard of the beautiful structures before spoken of, aud then first
termed Gothic, in derision, — but would bring before him the progress
of Christianity, the power attained by the clergy, and the state of the
country and tiie people, in a variety of fresh phases.

At the new structure again, he would perhaps see the clever adap-
tation of means to an end, and proportions well preserved ; read in its
architectural expression an accordance or otherwise, as the case migiit
be, with its purpose ; and study the causes which conduced to render
the elfect of the whole on the mind satisfactory and pleasing. Thus
would the imagination of the one be gratified, his judgment strength-
ened, his sagacity increased, while the second, who had given no
thought to the subject, and had gained no information upon it, would
necessarily be blind to it all, or seeing, would understand not.

The analysis of the causes of beauty in works of architecture, is
certainly far from an easy task ; it yet remains for some powerful
mind keenly perceptive and nicely discriminating to deduce a code
of laws or principles to be universally applicable in this inquiry.
Whether however, this is likely soon to be effected, or that these sub-
tle properties will continue to evade reduction to general rules, it is
difficult to say. At present we must be contented to apply in indivi-
dual cases, a number of unconnected canons, aud to investigate the
particular results of certain arrangements of form, compliance with
prejudices, or the production of novelty.

"The art which we profess," says Sir Joshua Reynolds, speaking
of painting, "has beauty for its object; this it is our business to dis-
cover and to express ; the beauty of which we are in quest is general
and intellectual ; it is an idea that subsists only in the mind ; the sight
never beheld it, nor has the hand expressed it : it is an idea residing
in the breast of the artist, whicli he is always labouring to impart, and
wdiich he dies at last without imparting— but which he is yet so far
able to commimicafe, as to raise the thoughts and extend the views of
the spectator ; and which by a succession of art, may be so far diffused
that its effects may extend themselves imperceptibly into public bene-
fits, and be among the means of bestowing on whole nations refine-
ment of taste." Now in architecture, which is not an imitative art,
but one of imagination and adaptation, if we may so speak, (bom of
necessity,) there are two other objects to be attained, namely, com-
modiousness, (or fitness for the purpose,) and stability : in reference
to both of wdiich, although perhaps it is not for these it is entitled to
the appellation of a fine art, the claims of a building to perfect admir-
ation must be tried. It seems clear that these qualities may exist
without the production of beauty, even with proportion oi the parts
superadded, — (a word by the way the meaning of which is any thing
but precise, as what is deemed proportion umler some circumstances,
or in one place, is not so in others ;) but the production of beauty
which will satisfy the mind can hardly be hoped for without minute
attention to all these points. Variety and intricacy, with yet a pre-
vailing uniformity, may be regarded as important in the production of
pleasure in the spectator: — in so far as while the mind is able at once
to comprehend and dwell upon the unity of the whole, it may be in-
terested ill the novelty or propriety of each detail, and find delight in
this indication of the energy, ingenuity, and power displayed in its
formation. We must not however here venture on an inquiry, which
interesting as it may be, is beyond the intention of the present paper.
To return, then, to our former subject. The neglect which archi-
tecture has experienced at our universities (as, indeed, have all the
arts), is another plainly apparent cause of the ignorance complained
of, and it is gratifying to see indications, although but partial, of the
presence of a different spirit amongst the members of the universities,
if not in the universities themselves. Oxford and Cambridge both
have now societies for the study of Gothic architecture, and for the
purpose of aiding in the proper restoration of old buildings. Many
papers of great merit have been read at both, and museums of casts

1841.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

33»

have been commenced, classified in such a m^inner as to aiil materiallv
in impressing on those who will study them, the peculiarities and
characteristics of the various seras in architectural historj'. In Bristol
a similar society has been formed recently, and it is to be hoped that
the example will be extensively followed throughout England.

Among the important advantages, not before alluded to, as certain
to arise from the spread cf architectural knowledge, would be an
almost immediate improvement in the professors of the art them-
selves. Improve the capacity of the judges, raise the ordinary
standard of taste, create a demand for superior skill, and the result
inevitably must be that individuals will be found capable of supplying
it, and that fine works will be produced.

The association of architects not merely for the study of their pro-
fession and the interchange of opinions and kindly feelings, but with
a view to popularize their ait, and by spreading abroad their Trans-
actions, and inviting strangers to their meetings and cvnrersazioni to
render it matter of general interest, must be regarded as likely to
assist greatly in removing the ignorance complained of. The Royal
Institute of British Architects, a chartered body, including in its list
of members the greater number of the heads of the profession, in cor-
respondence with most of the continental states, and presided over by
one of the most accomplished noblemen of the day, may be considered
as the chief of these associations, and has it in its power to influence
the age very materially — more so indeed than it has yet attempted
to do. The publication of a volume of its transactions, at least an-
nually, should be regarded by the members as most important, wdiile,
to make these trans ictions valuable and effective, should be the con-
stant study of all who are connected with the Institute, or wish well to
their art.* The London Architectural Society, the Institute of Irish
Architects, and the Manchester Architectural Society, are all influ-
ential bodies of a like character, and are called on to exert eificiently
the power wdiich is in their hands.

At the Royal Academy, where of late years an inexcusable degree
of inattention to architecture has been manifested, affairs are wearing
a more promising aspect. The present accomplished professor, Mr.
Cockerel], has entered on his duties with singular and praiseworthy
zeal, and eminent as he is for a love of his art and desire to spread a
knowledge of it, will not fail to pursue them energetically in a right
course. The establishment of schools of design throughout the coun-
try (in the arrangement of which Mr. Cockerell has taken active part,
as also did Mr. 3. B. Papworth,) will be of great service to architec-
ture, by increasing the number of those able to carry out effectively
the designs of architects, while, by imbuing artizans with an artistical
feeling, they will serve materially to raise their callings in the scale
of society. How greatly the architects of the middle ages were in-
debted to the ability and feeling of their operatives is too well known
to need notice here.

The want of information, and the low state of architectural taste,
which have been complained of as still existing, have been strikingly
exemplified in the results of many competitions for designs which
have been brought before the public within the last ten years. The
insufficient particulars and instructions given to architects, the want
of courtesy displayed towards them, and the ultimate unjust decisions,
have proceeded in as many cases from entire ignorance, with a wish
to act rightly, as they have from underhand influences and bad motives.
And until we cau in some degree remove these first-mentioned evils,
we can hardly hope, however much we may strive, to prevent this
injurious result, injurious not less to the public than to the artists and
art itself. That artistical competitions, by affording opportunities for
the encouragement of unaided merit, by preventing professors of
established practice from falling into a routine habit of composition,
and by inducing young men to study subjects which otherwise might
not come under their notice — are advantageous, is the opinion of the
great majority of those who have thought upon the matter. We
would go so far as to say that for all works entitled by their desti-
nation or importance to be called national, the nation should unques-
tionably be appealed to, and opportunity thus given for unknown
talent to come forward.

Bninelleschi, Michael Angelo, Palladio, Fontana, Scamozzi, are all

* If a montlily bulletin were issued in a cheap form, containing an abstract
of each night's proceedings, it would be of much service. Unconnected
items of information elicitcil in conversation, ancJ papers not sufficiently im-
fortaat to appear in the " Transactions,'' misbt therein he recorded. Infor-
mation would thus le spread, and there would be an aJdition-d motive for
members to communicate matters vbich. though trifling in themselves,
might be important in the aggregate. Besides, the more the fine arts are
talked about and written about— the oftener they are brought under public
notice, the more likely it is they will receive ger.eial attention. The public
require a thing to be said a great numi.er ot times, and in a great many
ways, before they will hear it.

to be found in the list of those who competed for the honour of con-
ducting important works in Italy. In England, however, until the de-
cision in these matters can be more depended on than now, (when, it»
fact, the administration of every succeeding competition is worse than
that which preceded it,) men of integrity and ability wdio have repu-
tation to lose, will not enter the lists except in special cases, and the
result must be that the field will be left chiefly to unemployed tyros
or manoeuvring traders.

If we be cori-ect in our opinion, that until information be spread ami
the taste of the multitude be improved, we cannot e.'cpect to effect
much alteration, it is to this end surely we should apply all our efforts,
vigorously and unceasingly. Why .should not architeclure and the
other fine arts be taught universally in our schools, and be made a
necessary part of a liberal education? At all events, professorships
should unquestionably be instituted at the universities, to spread a
knowledge of the beautiful, and inculcate a love for it. Every day is
science exerting its powerful influence to liberate men from the ne-
cessity of manual labour. Evety day, therefore, does it become more
and more necessary that unemployed minds should be put in the right
track, that inlellectual and moral wants should be created, and that all
means be taken to elevate the taste of the multitude, and supply their
cravings for excitement with pro\ier pabulum.

To improve a love of the fine arts amongst a people, not irrespec-
tive of Religion, but in connexion with it, must be regarded by all
wise and enlightened statesmen as an object of paramount importance,
to be attained almost at any price.

EKGINEERIXG WORKS OF THE ANCIENTS, No. 9.
In our present paper we conclude onr extracts from Strabo.

THE GREEKS.

The silver mines of Attica (Book 9, chap. 1), were formerly very-
productive, they are now exhausted. When they still produced a
slight return for the labour of the miners, they melted up the old.
rubbish and scoria, and a considerable quantity of very pure silver
was obtained from tbem, seeing that the ancients were not very skilful
in the art of extracting metal. A commentator remarks on this pass-
age that it is a proof of the progress of mining in this age, but that
even then the Romans had been by no means gone to the extent of
modern art, as sufficient is still sometimes found in Romish scorix to
pay for the expense of extraction. He farther observes that the mines
of Laurium showed signs of exhaustion in the time of Socrates (Xeno-
phon Memorabilia, book 3, chap, d, § 12.)

In the next page Strabo notices a bridge over the Cephissus.

In book 9, chap. 2, our author gives a description of the works oa
the Euripus, but one which is very inaccurate.

Speaking of the plains of Beotia opposite (o Eubea (book 9, chap. 2),
an account is given of the works undertaken to drain them by a con-
tractor for works of the name of Crates of Chalcis. He was obstructed
by the factions among the Beotians, but in a report, addressed by him
to Alexander, he relates that he had already drained several large
tracts. This contractor is also mentioned by Diogenes Laertius, book
4, ^ 23, as being employed by Alexander.

In book 10, chap. 1, is an obscure passage relative to the mines of
Chalcis.

In the same, chap. 3, Strabo refers to the labours of Hercules on the
Achelous.

The Rhodians as well as the Cyzicans and Marseillese were famous
as military engineers (book 14, chap. 2.)

CILICIA.

Book 12, chap. 1, contains an account of the mode in which King
Ariarathes the 10th stopped up the Melas, a feeder of the Euphrates,
and how the dike having burst and caused injury to the neighbouring
lands, the king was fined 300 talents by the Romans.

POXTl'S.

Chapter 2iid of the same book describes the mode of working tiift
mines of Sandaracurgiura.

EPHESIJS.

The enti-ance of the port of Ephesus is too narrow, the fault of the
architects and engineers, who were led into error by the king, who
employed them on this work. This prince, who was Attalus 2nd,
Plulad"elphus, King of Pergamus, seeing that the port was being siltetl
up with banks from the deposits of the Cayster, and thinking that it
could be made deep enough to receive large vessels, if a mole were
thrown before the entrance wdiich was too broad, ordered the con-

2^2

340

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[October,

struction of the mole. The contrary however happened, for the nuid
filled the port with slioals as far as the entrance, whereas before the
deposit was sutricientlv carried out by inundations, and by the recipro-
cal movement of the waters of the outer sea. Such are the defects of
the port of Ephesus (book 14, chap. 1).

PERSIA, &C.

Alexander in his expedition to Gedrosia was preceded by miners
to search for water (book IJ, chap. 1).

In book l."", chap. 3, a bridge is mentioned as being thrown over the
Choaspes at .Susa.

In the next page sluices are mentioned on the Tigris.

In book V), chap. 1, an enumeration is made of the works of Semi-
ramis.

Alexander destroyed a number of sluices on the river Tigris. He
also occupied himself with the canals, which are of the greatest im-
portance to the agriculture of that country (B. 10, eh. 1), a theme
upon which our author dwells at some length. He relates, on the
authority of Arisfobulus (see also Arrian, B. 7, f 22), that Alexander,
seated in a boat steered by himself, attentively surveyed the canals,
and caused them to be cleaned by employing a great multitude of men,
whom lie took with him. He also had certain outlets closed and new
ones opened. He remarked a canal, principallj' leading to the lakes
and marshes on the Arabian side, and the outlet of w hich, on account
of the softness of the ground, could not easily be closed ; he therefore
opened a new canal or mouth about 30 stades off, in a rocky ground,
through which he turned the waters.

Egypt.

In his 17th Book, Strabo describes Egypt. He mentions the skill
the Egyptians showed in hydraulic works, but the fact upon which he
nwells is partly perhaps attributable to Roman science. He says that
before the time of C. Petronius (ch. 1) Governor, A.D. 20, that the
greatest inundation and most abundant harvest took place when the
Kile reached fourteen cubits, but that under the administration of that
governor an inundation of twelve cubits produced abundance.

In that book and chapter there is frequent mention of canals, and
there is a description of the canal of the Red Sea. (See also Diodorus
SieuluB, B. 1, s^ 1<.) and 33.

Here also Strabo describes the Egyptian mortar as being made of
pounded basalt, brought from the mountains of Ethiopia.

PAUSANIAS — iELIAN AND APPI.A.N.

In Pausanias the only notices in any way relating to our subject are
an allusion to the silver mines of Laurium in the commencement of
the Attics, and in the Laconics a statement that Eurotas diverted the
river. In iElian and Appian there is nothing except perhaps that the
latter, in the account of the siege of Carthage, mentions a cut made
through the harbour by the Carthaginians.

Arrian.

Arrian in his Life of Alexander, 7th book, chap. 21st, gives a better
account than Strabo of Alexander's repair of the canal called Palla-
copas, although this latter account differs, we shall content ourselves
■with a reference to it. We may observe that Gronovius has annexed
to his edition of Arrian a small treatise on this canal, which embodies
all the account and modern information respecting it.

In his second book Arrian devotes much space to the siege of Tyre,
from which we shall extract some of his remarks on the mole. He
says that the sea there has a clay bottom, and shallow towards the
shore ; but when you draw near the city, it is almost three fathoms
deep. As there was abundance of stone not far off, and a sufficient
quantity of timber and rubbish to fill up the vacant spaces, they found
no great difficulty in laying the foundations of their own rampart ; the
stift' clay at the bottom, by its own nature, serving instead of mortar,
to bind the stones together. The Macedonians showed a wonderful
forwardness and alacrity to the work, and Alexander's presence con-
tributed not a little thereto ; for he designed every thing himself, and
saw every thing done. In describing the subseqiient operations Arrian
says that many engineers, meaning military engjpeers, were brought
from Cyprus and Phenicia. v

In the fifth book a long account is given of the mode adopted by the
Romans, and particularly by the old Romans, in forming temporary
bridges for crossing large rivers.

The Prilisli Queen Sleam-sliip. — This spU'iiiIid steamer sailed yesterday for
Anlvcrp. A select party of gentlemen went in her on a visit' to BelHiam.
The Briiish and American Steam Company have, it is said, received lor her
the sum of £00,000 from the Belgian government. For the President the
same cumpanv received above £70,000 from tlic underwriters. The losses
sustaineil Ijy the company since iis cstaWishment are supposed not to be less
than £80,000 nor more than llOO MO.— Liverpool Albion, Sep. G.

OX THE MANUFACTURE OF BRICKS AND TILES.

[We are indebted for the following article to a very useful work bv
Mr. Aikin, just published; we have appended some additional notes,
which we think will be found useful, and make the article more com-
plete.— Editor.]

Till lately, bricks appear to have been made in this country in a
very rude manner. The clay was dug in the autumn, and exposed to
the winter frosts to mellow; it was then mixed, or not, with coal
ashes, and tempered by being trodden by horses or men, and was
afterwards moulded, without it being considered necessary to take out
the stones. The bricks were burnt in kilns or in clamps ; the former
was the original mode, the latter having been resorted to from motives
of economy. When clamps began to be employed I do not know:
but they are mentioned in an act of parliament passed in 1726, and
therefore were in use prior to that date. The following, in few words,
is the present process of brick-making in the vicinity of Loudon, for
the practical particulars of which 1 am indebted to Mr. Deville and
Mr. Gibbs.

It is chiefly, I believe entirely, from the alluvial deposits above the
London clay, that bricks are made in the vicinity of the metropolis ;
and a section of these deposits generally presents the following series,
such as vfould naturally result from a mixture of stones, and sand, and
clay, and chalk, brought together by the force of water, and then al-
lowed to subside. The lower part of the bed is gravel, mixed more
or less with coarse sandy clay and pieces of chalk; this by degrees
passes into what is technicaUy called malm, which is a mixture of
sand, comminuted chalk, and clay ; and this graduates into the upper
earth or strong clay, in which the clay is the prevailing or character-
izing ingredient, the proportion of chalk being so small that the earth
makes no sensible effervescence with acids. Bricks made of the
upper earth, without any addition, are apt to crack in drying, and in
burning they are very liable to warp, as well as to contract considerably
in all their dimensions ; on this account they cannot be used for the
exterior of walls ; and a greater number of such are required for any
given quantity of work than of bricks, which, though made in the
same mould, shrink less in the baking. The texture, however, of
such bricks is compact, which makes them strong and durable.
Bricks formed of this clay, whether mixed or unmixed, are called
stocks ; it was formerly used unwashed, and when the bricks were
intended to be kiln-burnt, oijlame-bunil, to use the technical word, no
addition was made to the clay. If they were intended to be clamp-
burnt, coal-ash was mixed during the tempering. Of these and all
other clamp-burnt bricks the builders distinguish two kinds, namely,
the well-burnt ones from the interior, and the half-burnt ones, or place
bricks, from the outside of the kiln.

The calcareous clay or malm earth requires no addition of sand or
chalk, but only of ashes. The bricks made of it differ from those
made of the top earth, in being of a pale or liver brown colour, mixed
more or less with yellow, which is an indication of magnesia. The
hardest of the malm bricks are of a pale brown colour, and are known
by the name of gray stocks; those next in hardness are called seconds,
and are employed for fronts of the better kind of houses ; the yellow-
est and softest are called cutters, from the facility with which they
can be cut or rubbed down, and are used chiefly for turning the arches
of windows. What I have said of top earth and malm earth must be
understood, however, to refer to well-characterized samples of these
varieties, but, as might be expected, there are several brick-fields
that yield a material partaking more or less of the qualities of both,
and therefore requiring corresponding modifications in its manu-
facture.

Brick earth is usually begun to be dug in September, and is heaped
rough, to the height of from four to six feet, on a surface prepared to
receive it, that it may have the benefit of the frost in mellowing it and
breaking it down. It is then washed by grinding it in water and
passing it through a grating, the bars of which are close enough to
separate even small stones. The mud runs into shallow pits, and is
here mixed with chalk ground with water to the consistence of cream,
if any calcareous ingredient is required. Wlieu it has become tole-
rably stifl'by drying, coal ashes (separated by sifting from the cinders
and small pieces of coal) are added, in the proportion of from one to
two and a half inches in depth of this latter to three feet of clay, the
most tenacious clay requiring the greatest quantity of ashes. The in-
gredients are then to be weU mixed ; and, finally, the composition is
to be passed through the pug-mill,* in order to complete the mixture

* The pug-mill is an iron cylinder set upright, in the axis of which an
arbor or shaft revolves, having several knives, with their edges somewhat
depressed, projecting trom it and arranged in a spiral manner round the ar-
bor. By the revolution of the arbor the clay is brought within the ac'.ion of

1841.1

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

341

and to temper it. The moulder stands at a table, and the tempered
clay is brought to him in lumps of about 7 or 8 lb.: the mould is a
box without top or bottom, 9^ inches long, 4| wide, and 2 J deep;t it
lies on a table : a little sand is first sprinkled in, and then the lump of
clay is forcibly dashed into the mould, the workman at the same time
rapidly working it by his fingers, so as'to make it completely close up
to the" corners; next he scrapes off with a wetted stick ('s/nfej the
superfluous clay, throws sand on the top, and shakes the brick dex-
terously out of the mould on to a flat piece of board, (a pallet board)
on which it is carried to a place called the hacks formed of the new
bricks, into open hollow walls, which (in wet weather) are covered
with straw to keep oft' the rain ; here Ihey dry gradually, and harden till
they are fit to be burnt. A raw brick weighs between 6 and 7 lb. ;
when ready for the clamp it has lost about 1 lb. of water by evapo-
ration.* A first-rate moulder has been known to deliver from 10,000
to 11,000 bricks in the course of a long summer's day, but the average
produce is not raucli more than half this number (1).

The price of bricks varies from forty to sixty shillings a thousand,
of which not more than one shilling and three pence a thousand, at
the utmost, can be the cost of moulding, assuming the average work
of a moulder to be five thousand in a day ; any improvement, there-
fore, calculated to save time in this department of brick-making by
the introduction of machinery worked by steam, or by horse power,
can only amount to a benefit equal to a fraction of one thirty-second
or one forty-eighth of the entire price of the commodity. If we as-
sume such machine to produce fifty-two million bricks in a year, this
amounts to two millions a week (for the season for brick-making in
this country continues no longer than from April to September inclu-
sive) or three hundred and thirty thousand in a day, equal to the
labour of sixty-six men or eleven horses, without making any allow-
ance for friction, or any deduction on account of temporary repairs.
The cost of hand-moulding fifty-two million bricks at one shilling and
three pence per thousand is 3250/. from which, if we deduct the first
cost and repair of machinery, the expense of fuel or of horses, of
superintendence, &c. it would probably be found that nothing would
remain for profit.

Bricks are burnt either in kilns or in clamps (2). In the former the

the knives, by which it is cut and kneaded, and finally is forced through a
hole in the bottom of the cylinder.

* A malm brick of the above dimensions will shrink by burning to the
length of 9 or 94 inches. A brick made of top clay without any mixture of
chalk, will oileu shrink to 81- inches.

t From some experiments made in France we learn the following partcu-
lars : — A nioukl 8 inches 3 lines long, 4 inches, 3 lines broad, and 2 inches
2 lines thick, yieliled bricks which on an average weighed, when first made,
5 lb. 14 oz. When dried and ready for the kiln they weighed 4 lb. 8 oz.
having 22 oz. of water; 9 oz of this quantity evaporates in the first twenty-
four hours, the other 13 oz. require five or six weeks to evaporate. By burn-
ing, 4 oz. more of volatile matter is driven off; a well-burnt brick of the
above dimensions weighing 4 lb. 4 oz. A fresh-burnt brick when laid in
water absorbs about 9 oz- i.e. from one-sevenili to one-eighth of its weight.

It appears, hdwever, from experiments by M. Gallon, that the weight of
bricks varies according to the care with which the clay is worked or tem-
pered. Some clay was well worked, and then beaten for half an hour, on the
morning of the next day it was again worked and beaten as before, and in
the afternoon was again beaten for a quarter of an hour, and was then made
into bricks. Another parcel of bricks was made of some of the same clay,
treated in the usual manner. Botli parcels were dried in the air for thirteen
days, when it was found that those made by the former process weigh d on
an average 5 lb. 11 oz. each, while those made by the latter weighed 5 lb.
7 oz. Both kinds were burnt together for ten days ; they underwent no
relative change in bulk, but the weight of the former was 5 lb. 6 oz. and of
the Ipitler 5 lb. 2 oz. — Arts et Metiers, vol. iv.

(Ij Tlie operation of making the bricks is generally undertaken by one
man c.illcd the moulder, who with his wife, children, and one or two men,
form a gang. One of the gang, a man, wheels the soil to the nug-mill ; after
it is tempered it is removed by a boy or girl from the pug-mill to the banker,
(the moulder's work-bench), it is then kneaded bv a woman, who passes it
to the moulder next to her, and as fast as the moulder turns the bricks out of
the mould, they are removed by a boy on to the off-bearing barrow, wdiich
is wheeled to the drying-ground by 1 or 2 men, who set up the bricks in the
hacks in a slanting direction, two in width, and about two inches apart, and
3 feet high ; these hacks run the whole length of the drying ground and are
placed in parallel lines 4 to 5 ft, apart. When the bricks have stood a few
days they are reset with a greater space between them, which operation is
called sriiiiling, and in about a week after, they are removed to the clamp or
kiln. — En. L'. E. &, A. Jour.

(2) A clamp is formed first by raising the earth a few inches above the
natural surface of the ground to an uniform level ; some of the hardest of
the ne'.\" made bricks, or, if there be any in the field, some old bricks pre-
viously burnt are set on edge over the whole site of the intended clamp,
which are to prevent the moisture of the ground penetrating the new made
bricks. Flues are then formed by the bricks being laid side by side, with a
small space between to the height of 3 feet and about 9 inches w ide ; the top
is covered by bricks being set 0(1 on each side, until they form an arch or
covering; these Hues run the whole length of the clamp, and generally

burning is completed in twenty-four hours; in the latter it requires
from twenty to thirty days, but is on the whole cheaper, notwithstand-
ing that the loss from over-burning, from under-burning and other
accidents amounts to one-tenth of the whole number of bricks (3).

The consumption of London is for the most part supplied from the
brick-fields that surround it in all directions, the principal of which,
however, are situated north of the Thames, at Stepney, Hackney,
Tottenham, Enfield, Islington, Kingsland, Hammersmith, Cowley, Ac-
ton, and Brentford. Those made at Grays Thurrock, Purfleet, and

about ti feet apart j they are filled with furze or dry faggot wood, over which
are laid small sea coal, or breeze (cinders), the intermediate sp.aces are filled
in with bricks (this operation is termed crowding) laid a short distance apart,
and between each coiu'se a layer of breeze is laid and repealed the whole
height. The upper courses are laid a little closer than the lower ones, as
they receive a greater proportion of heat, the outside of the clamp is gene-
rally closed in with place bricks (half burnt or soft bricks), and the top
covered with breeze and sometimes earth ; when the clamp is made up the
fi.el in the flues is igniteil, which communicates with the breeze laid between
each course, and shortly the whole of the clamp is in a state of combustion,
and becomes one mass of fire, communicating with the ashes contained in
the bricks ; part of the e.xterior is sometimes coated with clay to prevent the
cold winds penetrating. As soon as the whole of ihe clamp is properly ig-
nited, the flues are closed, when particular attention is retjuired to prevent
the fuel burning too fiercely or too slowly. If it bum or draw too quickly
on either side, screens are placed on the outside to check the draught. When
the whole is properly burnt, which is in about 2.5 or 30 days, the clamp is
partially opened and alloii ed to cool ; the bricks are then sorted, those which
are properly burned are called stocks — if they arc not suflifiently burned they
are of a pale red colour and soft, called place bricks — if the fire has acted too
fiercely, several of the bricks will be vitrified into one solid mass, which are
called burs. The whole operation of making bricks from the time the earth
is turned into the pug-mill to the time the clamp is open, averages about 6
weeks.

The kiln is of an oblong form, brick built, with one opening in the end
or side, and generally 13 feet long, 10 ft. 6 in. wide, and 12 feet high; and will
contain about 20,000 bricks, the walls, on the top, are about two bricks thick,
and at the bottom three Ijricks ; they are built battering (inclining) inwards,
the bottom is covered with narrow recesses arched over with openings left in
the top, having the appearance of lattice work, in these recesses is deposited
the fuel, on the top the bricks are laid with spaces between to allow the fire
to pass up ; the upper courses are laid a little closer than the lower ones, and
the surface covered over with old brick (ir tie rubbish to keep in the heat
and prevent the rain damaging the upper bricks ; when the kiln is full, s me
wood is put in and ignited, to dry them thoroughly; «lien this is done,
which is known by the smoke becoming transparent, the mouth of the kiln
is closed with old bricks and covered with clay, leaving sufl^icient space for
faggot ; brushwood, furze, bavins or dry faggot wood to be put in and lighted.
The fire being made up it is continued till the ashes assume a whitish ap-
pearance, and the flames appear through the top ut the kiln, the fire is then
slackened and the kiln cools by degrees. The process iscontinued, alternately
heating and slackening till the bricks are thoroughly burned, which is gene-
rally in the space of 48 hours. The advantages of kiln burniu" is the greater
certainty in the operation and shortness of time in burning, which is done in
about two days, whilst the operation of clamp burning occupies frequently 30
days. The bricks are generally of a bright and sometimes dark red colour. —
Editor C. E. and A. Journal.

(3.) The following are the prices for the several operations in brick mak-
ing :—

DIGGl.SG PER CUBIC V.VRD. s. d.

To digging the uncallow, including wheeling not exceeding one run
(a run is three 20 feet planks placed in a continuous line, length-
ways) . . . . . . .04

Digging and wheeling brick earth . . . . .04

Turning and soiling (mixing sand or ashes with the brick earth . 0 2^

M.^KING, PER TUOUS.\Nn.

Making the bricks, including the tempering of the clay, molding.

and hacking (stacking) . . . . ' . .40

.Scintling (removing and restacking the bricks in the hacks) . 0 2}

Crowding (placing) the bricks in the clamps or kiln . . 1 4i

Two yards of clay or brick earlh (which will make one thousand

bricks) digging and soiling at 6irf. per yard . . .11

Wear and tear of tools (found by the master) and keep of horse . 2 0
One-filth of a chaldron of ashes for soiling, at 5s. per clial.lron . 1 0

One-fifth ditto of breeze for fuel, 7s. (irf. ditto ... 16

Straw 6rf., sand 6rf. . . . . . . .10

Kiln or clamp expenses for attending to open it. loading c.iris. &c. 1 0
Duty . . ... . . . .5 10

Rent . 2 0

£1 1 0

To the above must be added the expenses for removing the uncallow, risk,
losses, interest on capital sunk, &c., and if washed the additional labour and
cost of chalk, &c. Stock bricks average at this time abiut 30s. to 32s. per
thousand, in the field, and place bricks 24s. The price fi;r the latter is almost
prime cost, consequently a greater profit must be allow ed on the sleeks to
cover all losses, which in wet seasons are very serious. The duty is obliged
to be paid on the quantity in Ihe hack, notw ilhstaudmg any part or the whole
may be damaged or destroyed by wet weather or in process of manufacture ;
for these risks government allow 10 per cent., reducing the duty to 5s. 3d.
per thousand on the quantity made before burning. — Ed. C. E. & A. Jour.

342

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL

[October,

Sittiiigljoiirnp, are ofa very good qu-.ility and a fine yellow colour ;
stone-coloured ones are made near Ipsvvicb, and have been largely
enjployed in the outside walls of some of the new churches of the me-
tropolis. At Cheslmut, in Hertfordshire, is a bed of malm earth of
the finest quality, no less than tvveiUy-tive feet in depth; from this are
made the best small kiln-burnt bricks, called paviers. They are hard,
absorb very little water, and are used for paving the floors of stables,
wash-houses, Sec. They have entirely superseded the use of Dutch
clinkers, which formerly were imported from Holland in large quanti-
ties. The red sandy bricks called Windsors are made at Hedgerley.
There is a considerable exportation of bricks from London ; many
being sent to the West Indies, to Quebec, and to other colonies.*

Tiles, from the purpose to which they are applied, namely, roofing
houses in order to shoot ofVthe rain, require a texture as compact as
can be given to them, consistent with a due regard to economy. The
fattest and most unctuous clays are, therefore, those which answer the
best, especially if free from gravel and the coarsest sand. The price
of tiles, comiiared with that of bricks, is such that the manufacturer
can afford to dry them under cover; while, being not more than one
quarter of the thickness of bricks, the drying is more speedily per-
formed, and with far less hazard of warping or cracking: the same
also is the case with the baking. Sand is added to the clay, but spar-
ingly ; for if, on the one hand. It prevents the ware from warping, yet,
on tiie other hand, it increases the porosity, which is a fault especially
to be avoided. The general manipulations of grinding the clay and
tempering it are analogous to those already described for making
bricks; but more pains are bestowed in getting it to the utmost de-
gree of plasticity so as to allow of its being rolled, like dough, iuto
cakes of a proper thickness, which are afterwards brought to the re-
quired shape by pressing them into a mould.

ON THE PERCUSSIVE ACTION OF STEAM.

Our correspondent C.S. ui the last number of the Journal has taken
an observation which we made in the first part of our article on this
subject in the August number in a wrong light; nor should we have
expected him to have attached so much importance to that observa-
tion after reading the rest of the article, from which he woald have
seen that, if we thought it unfair of Mr. Farkes to attribute all the ad-
vantage of percussive action to Cornish engines, and none to others,
we also considered the amount of that advantage to be equal to nothing,
which wc think clearly demonstrated by our reasoning ; so that we
cannot exactly be of opinion that Mr. Parkes furours the Cornish en-

fines, simply by considering that the percussive force of steam is only
eveloped in them. The remark that this force should be developed
in a greater degree iu Locomotive engines does not necessarily imply
that it should be developed favourably ; for, by reason of the lead
given to the slide valve in those engines, the steam is first let on to
the back of the piston, and its percussive force would therefore tend,
as our correspondent justly observes, "to impede the engine, if not
stop it altogether."

The rest of our correspondent's remarks, since they have for object
"to show that the Cornish single-acting engines are the only ones at
present in which the percussive force of steam could act with any very
great advantage, and that the locomotives are the very worst in which
it coidd be used as a motive force," and thus suppose the fact of its
advantageous action in the former to be already established beyond all
question, cannot be regarded as an answer to our article above men-
tioned, but merely to the single remark already alluded to, and to
which he has, as we have shown, attributed a meaning we never in-
tended it to convey. It is difScult to assign a reason for his replying
to the least important portion of our article, and passing over the main
argument in silence. — Is it that he considers the question of the pro-
priety of applying the principle of Percussion to the action of the
steam as above discussion ? — This was not very reasonable, since he
has, so far as we are informed, the authority of but one writer, the in-
fallibility of whose theories has not hitherto been established by ex-
perience ; in proof of which, see the Count de Pambour's paper On
Momentum proposed by Mr. Jos i ah Parkts as aj\kosurtof the Mt-
chaiikal EJJ'tct of Locomolire engtnes, and our Reviews of Mr. Parkes'
paper on the same subject, in the Journal of last year, page 102. We
must, however, assume this to have been our correspondent's motive
for abstaining from any discussion of the principle of the percussive
action of steam, as otherwise we should be reduced to the alternative

■^ The ttholc number of bricks made in Great Britain and Ireland in the
year 1835, on which the excise duty was paid, was 1380 millions.

of either supposing that he did not understand the reasoning by which
ne demonstrated, or attempted to demonstrate its fallacy, or uat he
followed Paddy's plan of beginning at the end. Be this as it may, the
following remarks may perhaps induce C. S. to modify his opinions in
some measure.

He observes that, " in a common double-acting rotative engine,
where the steam is let into the. cylinder when the crank is just passing
the centre, it is evident that any percussive force of the steam striking
upon the piston could not by any means have any eilect in turning the
crank." But he states farther on that "the action of this force is
avoided in this case, as well as in that of the Locomotive engine, by
the gradual motion of the slide, for as soon as the slide begins to open
the steam way, the steam rushes into the cylinder, and strikes upon
the piston, but with very little effect, on account of its being so much
wire-drawn in consequence of the sm.dl size of the opening at first."
It would naturally be inferred from this latter observation that our cor-
respondent supposed the percussive action of the steam to be confined
to the moment when the valve begins to open, in other words, that it
is only the Jirsi portion of the steam which has any percussive action,
and that this action is communicated instantaneously to the piston the
moment that portion of steam passes through the valve ; which, if it
were tiue, would obviate the "development of percussive action in
Coruish single-acting engines as well as iu those above mentioned ;
for the steam valve of a Cornish engine, though opened more suddenly
than the slide valve, is nevertheless not opened instantaneously, but
mere or less gradually. If, on the other hand, we assume the develop-
ment of this action to occujjy some time, however brief, so as to allow
of the ("peiiing of the valve of the Cornish engine, (wduch is equally
necessary for the double-acting rotative engine), then must we also
admit, not only that there is percussive action in the latter as well as
iu the former, but also that this action must assist in turning the crank,
which will have passed the centre before it has ceased to operate.

We do not agree with C. S. in the opinion that " in order to render
the percussive force of steam available to its fullest extent as a moving
power iu single-rcting pumping engines, it would be necessary to
have some medium interposed between the direct action of the steam
on the piston and the pumps; so as to convert the ever-varyiug pres-
sure on the piston into a regular and steady pressure on the plunger of
the pump;" for the condition of a constant pressure on the pump
bucket, is by no means indispensable, as the effect of a diminution of
pressure on the steam piston, supposing such medium not to exist,
would be simply a corresponding diminution of the velocity, or of the
acceleration of the bucket and column of water, which would by no
means affect the application of the percussive force of the st'am. This
column of water is, liowever, considered by C. S. as a medium inter-
posed between the direct action of the steam on the piston and the
pumps, which is curious enough, since the action of the steam works
the pumps, and these raise the column of w'ater.

We cannot make out that our correspondent's remarks have in any
degree shown, as he supposes, "that in the Cornish engine we might
use the percussive force of steam as a moving force to a very con-
siderable extent;" for such negative evidence as that which he re-
produces from Mr. Parkes' paper, viz. that the duty performed by
those engines is greater than he could otherwise account for, cannot
be admitted as rigorous. What is required of the supporters of Mr.
Parkes' opinions is a direct proof that in Cornish or any other engines,
the steam develops a power, by means of percussion, in addition to
that measured by its elastic force, without which it is idle to enter
into any discussion respecting the comparative fitness of different
kinds oi" engine for the development of this additional power.

ON THE POWER OF THE SCREW.

We have received a letter from Mr. J. R. Cussen, in defence of the
views set forth by him in a communication published in our Journal
for May last, and which were partially refuted by a correspondent in
the July number. We cannot insert this letter, since it is evident that
the writer is in error on all points ; but for his information, and the
information of any other persous who may be led into error by his
arguments, we sliall point out clearly in what his mistakes consist,
and how they have probably arisen.

As to his'first objection to the theory laid down by the Rev. Mr.
Bridges, our July correspondent alluded to above is undoubtedly
right with regard" to the meaning of rf, which' signifies the heigfU of
the inclined plane, or distance between the top of one coil of the
thread of the screw and the top of the next, which is the distance
through which the resistance is moved in one revolution of the screw.

1841.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

343

and is called the pitch of (lie screw ; it could not possibly signify, as
understood by Mr. Cussen, the distance from the upper side of one
coil of the thread to the under side of the next, as tliat would admit
of an infinite luiuiber of different solutions to the problem of finding
the power necessary to overcome a given resistance, according as the
ratio of the thickness of the thread to the interval between its coils
might be more or less, which circumstance could not effect the result,
since it is only the upper side of the thread, or that which is in con-
tact with the' resistance, wdiich sustains the resistance. Mr. Cussen
may, therefore, rest satisfied that aU theorists agree with him in sub-
stance, if not in expressions.

Respecting his second objection, Mr. Cussen has overlooked the
chief part of the theory of the /trtr, and, unless he objects to that
theory also as now taught by all authors and professors without ex-
ception, the following reasoning will convice him of his error.

We will take his examples of the three screws, each of i inch
thread, which, converted into intelligible mechanical language, is one
inch pitch, and of 3, 6, and 9 inclies diameter respectively, worked by
a lever of HO inches long, the lever moved by a windlass of one ton
power. But it is necessary first to understand clearly what is meant
by a lever 90 inches long. In mechanical language its signification is
the distance in a straight line from the fulcrum (which is in the axis
of the screw) to the point of application of the power, which does not,
however, seem to be the meaning attached to the expression in Mr.
Cussen's second letter ; he seems rather to mean the distance from
the siiiface of the cylinder to the point of application of tlie power,
which is not the true measure of the power of the lever; we shall
therefore take the liberty of understanding it in the former sense.
This being premised, suppose for a moment that no lever is used ; we
shall have, by Mr. Cussen's, as well as by Mr. Bridges' formula:
in the first case 1 ; 3 X 3-1416 : : 1 : ni = 9-4246 tons,
in the second case 1 : 6 X 3-1416 : : \ ; w = 1S-S49G tons,
in the third case 1 : 9 X 3-1416 : : 1 : w = 28-2744 tons.
Now the power is applied in the first case at a distance of lA inch
from the fulcrum, in the second at 3 inches, and in the third at Ak in.
distance ; so that, by applying it at a distance of 90 inches in all
three cases, we shall obtain the following results respectively:

in the first case 1^ : 90 : : 9-4248 : ?»= 565-4SS tons,
in the second case 3 : 00 : : 18-8496 : «) = 565-488 tons,
in the third case 4* ; 90 : : 28-2744 : ?» = 565-488 tons,
or the ]jressure independent of the diameter of the screw, which over-
throws the second objection.

Mr. Cussen's third objection falls to the ground with the preceding,
indeed it has no meaning at all ; for he virtually multiplies by the cir-
cumference of the circle described by the extremity of the lever when
he multiplies by the circumference of the screw and by the length of
the lever, although he omits to divide by the semidiameter of the
screw, as he ought in that case to do, and as it will be seen, on an in-
spection of the above calculations, we have done to obtain the final
value of ic. If we take the first case, we had finally
1x3x3-1416X90'

>»=: ; ■ ,

ixU

and it is obviously the same thing whether we suppose 3-1416 to be
first multiplied by 3, to give the circumference of the screw, and the
product to be afterwards multiplied by 90 the length of the lever, and
divided by \h the semidiameter of the screw, as above, or whether
we suppose 3-1416 to be first multiplied by tioice 90, to give the cir-
cumference described by the extremity of the lever, and as the factor
3 of the numerator is essentially twice the factor U of the denomina-
tor, these two factors disappear. Or, to make it still more apparent,
■^ let r represent the radius of the screw, d its pitch, / the length of the
lever (measured from the axis of the screw), P the power and w the
resistance. Then the last equation would be

Px2r X3-1416xi

n»:= ■

dXr

from which it is evident that, if we take the 2 from the factor 2 r, and
multiply it by the two factors 3-1416 and /, we shall obtain the cir-
cumference described by the extremity of the lever, or by the power;
and this product, multiplied by P X r will obviously be the same as if
the product 2rx3-1416, which is the circumference of the screw,
were multiplied by P X /. But Sir. Cussen has committed the error
of leaving out the factor r in the denominator, forgetting that when no
lever is used, the power is applied at the circumference of the screw,
and that the leverage is equal to r, so that when tlie leverage is in-
creased to I, the resistance is increased in the ratio -. Having demon-

strated Mr. Cussen's error, and shown its probable origin, we may now
cancel the r in the numerator and denominator of the fraction, and it
will remain

PX 277/

IT being the ratio of the circumference of a circle to its diameter.

If Mr. Cussen's remark "that one-third of the calculated power is
lost by friction," is meant to bear upon the comparison of the effect
of screws of different diameters but the same pitch, it will be found on
investigation, that the friction bears no fixed ratio to the resistance,
but increases in a slightly greater ratio than the diameter of the screw,
and thus gives a proportionate advantage to screws of small diameter.

ON THE ECONOMY OF FUEL IN LOCOMOTIVES CONSE-
QUENT TO EXPANSION AS PRODUCED BY THE
COVER OF THE SLIDE VALVE.

Sir — Having observed several errors in Mr. J. G. Lawrie's calcula-
tions, published in your useful and interesting Journal for August last,
allow me to point them out for the benefit of your readers.

I should premise that the formula he has given for the several dis-
tances travelled by the ])iston : from the commencement of the stroke
to the commencement of expansion, from the commencement of the
stroke to the openi-jg of the eduction port (not to the end of expan-
sion, for expansion continues, but more rapidly, and the effect during
the rest of the stroke is not to be neglected), and from the commence-
ment of the stroke to the position of the piston when the valve opens
for the lead of the next stroke, are correct. I should however observe
that the expressions under the radical sign in the values of a' and c'
are identical, and may be reduced to (1 — c') [1 — (^ + c)'']; and per-
haps it would be better if the expressions (1 — i c—c") and (1 + / c -f c')
in the same two values were written respectively

[l-e(/-1-e)]and[l-i-c (/ + c) ].
The errors I have discovered are in the computation of the effect,
which follow.

Mr. Lawrie finds the volume of steam of the initial pressure p ad-

((2 d — h) t\
a' j , (at least

I suppose this expression to have been meant by the writer, although
the factor s is omitted and A is printed instead of p in the denomina-
tor,) which is a sufficiently near approximation, but I cannot compre-
hend how he can make this quantity equal to 2 (^ X !> although he
observes with truth that the quantity of fresh steam must (whatever
the expansion is) be constant ; bnt a constant quantity is not neces-
sarily an arbitrary one, as which it might be considered in this case,
for we may give s any vahie we please, and it would follow that the
quantity of steam used per stroke would be the same, whatever the
area of the piston might be, provided the length of stroke, lead and
cover of the slide were the same. And if we supposed the area of
the piston s:=\ square foot (a reasonable hypothesis), the factor 1 in
the expression 2 a! X 1 signifying (as I suppose) also 1 square foot,

we should necessarily have a' — ^ — = 2 «?, which is impossible

P f

for a' £ 2 d. His expression of the value of s is therefore incorrect;
besides it is obviously impossible to deduce the area of the piston
from the length of stroke, cover and lead of the slide, and ratio of the
greatest to the least pressure in the cylinder, without knowing how
much steam is generated in the boiler.
Secondly, the effective working pressure during the expansion is

found = — — /, .r expressing the distance travelled by the piston

from the beginning of the stroke ; and this expression will give too
great a value by 3 or 4 ft. per square inch, if not more ; for / is used
to express the least pressure of the steam in the cylinder, which it has
at the moment when the eduction port is closed, and which probably
scarcely exceeds the atmospheric pressure, and the mean resistance of
the waste steam amounts to 4 or 5 ft. per square inch. Besides this,
the formula given to express the quantity of work done during the
portion b of the stroke makes no allowance' for the diminution of tem-
perature consequent on expansion ; but this may be too slight to be of
any consequence, as the expansion is inconsiderable in locomotives;
nor is any aUowance made for the waste space which has to be filled
with steam. But tJie effect during the rest of the stroke is not to be

344

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

rOcTOBKR,

neglectetl, that ii^, from tlie nitiment when the eduction port is opened
to tlic termiii;ition of tlie stroke : for, on account of the very small
opening of the ])ort during tlint period, very little steam is enabled to
escape, and it had previously been but slightly reduced in pressure by
expansion, so that its mean pressure during this last portion of the
stroke will bear a considerable proportion to its initial |)ressure, and
cannot therefore be neglected. On the other hand, the elTect of the
compression of the spent steam of the pressure /, between the instant
of shutting the eduction valve and that of opening the steam valve, is
so small that it might much rather be disregarded ; for it commences
with a pressure of about 1 atmosphere and terminates with about 1-4,
say on an average .1 atmosphere through one-fortieth part of the stroke,
or about one-tenth of a th. through the stroke, due to compression.

Thirdly, Mr. Lavvrie makes the inexplicable assumption that the
safetvvalve be so loaded that /)::= s — the initial pressure of the steam
in atmospheres^ the area of the piston I — Supposing the square foot
to be the unit of area, and s= 1 square foot; we should then have
p= 1 atmosphere, and the engine would not move; but if the square
inch were the unit of area, for the piston of the same size as before
we should have s=: Ml square inches, and consequently ;^ = 144 at-
mospheres !=rT!iese results show the manifest absurdity of the sup-
position.

Lastlv, the values of a', b and c', in the examples which close the
paper, are not determined correctly from the formula; which, I said
above, are themselves correct, so that the whole paper requires revi-
sion and correction, except the first part, as I have explained.

Hoping that the above remarks may be found serviceable to your
readers,

I remain, &c.,

M.

MR. JOSIAH PARKES IK REPLY TO COUNT DE PAMBOUR

Mr. Editor — M. de Pambour has recently repeated, in several of
tlie weekly and other periodicals, certain virulent strictures on my
writings. I am at a loss to conjecture on what grounds that indivi-
dual should have indulged in these, as well as in his earlier, and nearly
similar, attacks upon me. I have, hitherto, declined replying to them,
and for two reasons ; first, I did not wish to convict a man of M. de
Pambour's celebiity of deliberate misrepresentation; nor, seeondiv, to
expose, more publicly than he had himself done to persons really con-
versant with the steam engine, his lamentable ignorance of practical
matters. But, his resumption of these attacks, in the present form,
renders it incumbent on me to be no longer silent. I, therefore, avail
myself of the same medium of communication, and shall confine my
reply to the exhibition of one instance of his gross ignorance, and of
one instance of his numerous, and injurious, falsifications of my o])inions
and writings.

Every engineer is acquainted with the cataract, an instrument nearly
as old as Newcomen's engine, and used for the purpose of opening the
steam induction valve, and thus starting an engine, after any required
period of rest. This s])ecies of water clock is also occasionally em-
ployed to open other of the valves at definite times. The Cornish
engineers a])preciate its value, not only as a means of regulating the
number of strokes to be made by a pumping engine, in a given time,
but also as efl'ecting the influx of steam into the cylinder in the most
instantaneous manner. Neither they, nor any other engineer ever,
probably, imagined the cataract to exercise an influence over the pro-
duction (ifstiam in the boilers of their engines. The Comte de Pam-
bour, however, ascribes to the instrument this miraculous virtue, in the
following passage :

"We will finally remark that it is customary in these engines to
make use of the cataract. Under this circumstance the engine docs
not evaporate the full quantity of water, that its boiler would other-
wise be capable of evaporating per minute; but, on introducing into
the formulffi the evaporation really eftected, the formula; will always
give the corresponding effects of the engine." — (New Theorij of the
Steam Engine. J. Weak, 1839, chap, xi., Cornish Si/igle Pumping
Engine, p. 278. J

This !s, verily a neiv theory. No observations of mine are requisite
to illustrate the absurdity of theories, and formulae, emanating
from a person who is so little practically versed in the mechanism,
and auxiliary apparatus of an engine, as to jumble together, and con-
found, in one paragraph, the distinct functions of the cataract, the
boiler, and the engine.

[n a later work, M. de Pambour has devoted no less than IG pages
of introductory matter to a criticism of my Paper on the Locomotive
Engine, (published in the Transactions of the Institutution of Civil
Engineers, vol. iii.), in which, among others, I had occasion to examine

his own experiments. In that paper not a word will be found dis-
respectful of M. de Pambour ; his sentiments are treated with cour-
tesy ; and, at the ri^k of being thought tedious, I prefaced each of my
observations on his conclusions with a quotation of the matter com-
mented upon. M. lie Pambour's reply contains numerous misappre-
hensions of my meaning, and arguments, of which I do not complain;
but every author has fair ground of complaint against the antagonist
who perverts his text ; who invents arguments for him; or who cites,
as authentic quotations, phrases which he never employed. In no one
instance has M. de Pambour quoted mv own words; in lieu of which
he has frequently«invented words and opinions for me. The following
extract affords a concise example of the veracity and style of the IG
pages of criticism.

"The want of using equations which facilitate so much accuracy in
mathematical reasoning (iih(/ Mt author accountufor it in telling un thai
he is more accustomed to handle his hammer than his pen,) causes him to
heap errors on errors, combining and complicating them unaware, till
he arrives at a point where he does not produce a single result that is
not erroneous." — (.-i Practical Treatise on Locomotive Engines, 'IniX
edition. J. Weale, 1840. Introduction, page xxxiii.)

The paragraph in italics is a pure invention. No such v ords even
occur in my paper as hammer ov pen.

The writer who resorts to the miserable tactics of falsifying the
language and opinions of one who differs from him on subjects open to
large controversy, exhibits a consciousness of inferiority in his argu-
ments, which it would have been wiser, and far more manly to ac-
knowledge, than to attempt to conceal, by expedients so unworthy,
and so certain of detection. Such a man may, possibly, be a skilful
mathematician, but he cannot claim rank among philosophers, whose
sole objects are the discovery and propagation of /;-«M. I consider
myself exonerated from all obligation to reply, in greater detail, to an
adversary who descends to such ignoble practices; but justice to my
own reputation requires that I should expose them to public reproba-
tion. This I do with the more regret as I have derived both instruc-
tion and pleasure from some parts of M. de Pambour's researches.
I remain. Sir, your obedient servant,

J05IAH Parkes.

12, Great College-street, Westminster,
September 13, 1841.

LONG AND SHORT CONNECTING RODS.

Sir — In your September number there are two communications an-
imadverting on my paper on connecting rods in the July number. In
this paper, my object was to establish the soundness of the connecting
rod, m general, as a medium of moving force, and thereby to endea-
vour the settling of the controversy about long and short rods. For
it is not disputed by any, I presume, that the strains and consequent
friction between moving parts, in machinery, occasioned by connecting
rods on the same crank, are in a certain proportion to their lengths ;
and I agree that herein longer rods have the advantage of shorter.
But the question has been, whether, purely as transmitters of force,
the former has any superiority to the latter, which leads to the ques-
tion whether generally and abstractly, connecting rod motion is just as
a medium of force. As I have said, it was my object to prove the
affirmative of the question. Therefore, in this view of the subject
rods of difl'erent lengths to the same crank ought to be one in effect.

Though certainlv I did not notice the fact, 1 was aware that the con-
necting rod would not work on a crank of the same length in the usual
style. We may mention, however, that a modification of this case is
in fact practised in epicycloidal motion, a demonstration of which is
given in March number for last year, in which the stroke of the piston
is twice the throw of the crank, and the radius of the inner wheel is
the connecting rod.

I am, Sir, your's, obediently,

D. Clark.

Glasgow, September 16, 1S41.

Artesian Well at Gmiclti-.—V. Malot, in some of his recent exiirrimciUs at
the Artesian well in the abattoir of Gr.nellc, succeeded in furcin^' the jet of
water as hi{;b as 63 feet above the ground, and when it reached this heiyht,
the water assumed a bell shr.iie, ten metres in diameter, which produced the
most picturesque eflect. Untortunalcly the water continues muddy ; there-
Cure, thiaigli there is a certamty ot being able to procure nearly 2000 litres
of \ialer in the course of a minute, at a height wliich admits uf its being
conveyed into the highest stories of the houses in Paris, it is not yet known
to what purposes the water can possibly le applied.

'S4I.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

345

EPISODES OF PLAN.
( Continued from page 290.^

The breaks and interruptions occasioned by our " Episodes " being
given to tlie reader piecemeal in montlily portions, are attended with
no injury to our essay, and with some convenience to ourselves, by in
some measure concealing abru[itness of transition from one subject to
another, and by enabling us to avail ourselves of such pauses, in order
to bring such incidental remarks as we may deem expedient. Such
being tne case, we venture again to remind our readers that the plans
here presented to them, are intended merely to furnish ideas in respect
to form and arrangement ; for, as we ourselves are perfectly aware,
they would recjuire to be more or less modified, in order to adapt them
according to the other — and to us, of course, unknown — circumstances
attending any given case. For more frequently than not, probably, it
would be considered necessary to retrench and simplify them, to con-
sult etfect less and economy more. Accordingly there is very little
danger of their being borrowed from in so direct a manner, that appli-
cation of tliem would be tantamount to plagiarism, more especially, as
hardly any two persons would produce the same design from the same
plan.

Should any one be of opinion that those here produced might be
greatly improved upon as regards further development of the ideas
contained in them, great would be our satisfaction at tinding any of
them so turned to account, or otherwise corrected and matured. It is
possible, however, that a very different construction may be put upon
our motives, and that it will be thought to betray somewhat too much
^f self-complacency, if not of arrogance, on our part, to suppose that
our suggestions can be of any value to other persons. Such presump-
tion, it presumption it be, we, of course, partake in common with all
who publish designs of their own; but vith this difference, that while
they give entire plans of houses, as if they were so many perfect
models in every respect, we merely throw out partial hints, without
presuming to dictate any further. In so doing, we of course leave it
to be inferred that we think sufficiently well of our ideas as to imagine
they may possibly prove serviceable to others, and of the two, it is
surely less offensive to suppose that architects can have occasion for
any promptings of such kind, than that they can at all require studies
for the arrangement of ordinary houses, or can obtain fresh instruction
from plans which are, for the greater part, of the most familiar and
every-day character.

On the other hand, it may fairly be urged against ourselves and our
Ejiisodes, that the latter manifest too much straining after novelty and
architectural display ; that no regard is paid in them to economy, and
that, in fact, they are applicable to general purposes, nor at all likely
to suit the taste of persons in general. This is too true for us to at-
tempt to contiadict it; we leave persons in genera], be they architects
or those vidio employ them, to adhere to the present jog-trot system,
taking no thought or study in regard to effects arising out of plan and
varied combinations, but satisfying themselves that every thing in re-
gard to plan is accomplished, provided that the number of rooms of
the dimensions required be obtained, and mere convenience sufficiently
attended to, which last, however, is|far from being invariably the case,
where the plan is only divided into so many squares and parallelo-
grams.

It is not the least ill consequence of all attending the routine system
we would fain break through and abolish, that by excluding variety of
form in ])lan, it likewise excludes what would else suggest fresh ideas
in regard to style of fittirg up, and decoration. Most undoubtedly
much character may be given to a room of the simplest and most
usual form, yet it is seldom done, and seems to be as seldom at-
tempted. On the contrary, there is a certain established uniform
into which rooms of the same class are put almost indiscriminately,
without regard to other circumstances. This is more particularly the
case with regard to dining-rooms, for which it seems to be laid down
as a rule that they have as little architectural attraction as possible
bestowed upon them, in fact, show little more than plain walls of a
single tint. As a general rule this is, we admit, a wholesome and
safe one enough, because, if it admits nothing to gratify, it excludes
much that might offend the eye. The very monotonousness and plain-
ness are, besides, characteristic in themselves, so far as such a room is
thereby sufficiently distinguished from the others in a house. Still,
equal distinction, we conceive, could be kept up, equal propriety of
character be maintained, with far greater variety of design ; because
simplicity and sobriety are by no means restricted to any one mode in
particular; neither is the same degree of them desirable upon every
occasion. What in one case would be modest elegance, may in
another prove scarcely better than chilling nakedness and monotonous

duhiess. Where all else is plain and unpretending, an air of quiet
homeliness and even snugness is becoming enough; but where plate
is profusely displayed, and all the appointments of the table are of a
sumptuous kind, some corresponding degree of show in the room itself
can hardly be an inconsistency. Not only cheerfulness, but festivity
of appearance will be perfectly- in character, care of course being
taken that the particidar character be distinctly in accordance witn
the particular purpose of the room itself. Some variety of colouring'
is admissible, and though we would exclude ^/c/i«-£S, we would freely
admit paintings, that is of a light decorative cast, and as subsidiary to
architectural character, such as borders and narrow upright panels at
intervals, with arabesques or single figures en camaieu, or on a marbled
ground. Eut as to oil pictures in frames, we consider them very ill-
suited for dining-rooms, notwithstanding that they are frequently to
be met with in them, and are almost the only decorations that are.
As far as elfect goes, the frames are of more importance than the pic-
tures themselves, which, let them be ever so worthy of examination,
are not likely to obtain it, unless attention be pointeilly directed to
them. Oil pictures are mucli better adapted for morning than even-
ing rooms; since, so far from at all showing themselves to advantage
by artificial light, many of them rather give a room a sombre though
rich appearance at such time, unless the room happens to be lighted
up expressly for the purpose of exhibiting the pictures themselves.

But all this while we are forgetting our "Episodes," or rather our
main subject, and indulging in lengthy episodical remarks grafted
upon it, and from which we will now make a transition by quoting an
example of a dining-room that was certainly a frequent architectural
episode in the interior of Carlton House, we mean the circular one on
the principal floor, for the "Gothic" dining-room at the east extre-
mity of the lower apartments towards the gardens, was a positive
monstrosity — almost as vile and trumpery in taste as can be conceived.
The other was an octastyle Ionic rotunda, extended by four deep re-
cesses or alcoves radiating to the centre of the plan, consequently
expanding inwards. We are not aware of any thing similar having
been done in any other room of the kind ; and yet not only is the plan
exceedingly beautiful in itself, but one that admits of numerous vari-
ations, to say nothing of the great diversity of design it allows and
even suggests, in other respects.

By way of contrast to the plans we gave in the first instance, we
now show one for a dining-room whose ends are concave and semi-
circular, but whose plan is of peculiar character, there being small re-
cesses with columns, between which there is at one end of the room a
third recess for the side-board, at the other a window. Any arrange-
rs. 5.

nient of this kind would produce an unusual degree of architectural
play and richness, with somewhat of intricacy, but not such as to pro-
duce confusion or disturb the regularity, if not simplicity, of the en-
semble, since the individual parts and recesses are sufficiently con-
nected together by the columns and antae, disposed semicircularly.

The idea itself admits of being so variously shaped, of being taken
as the germ of so many distinct designs, not for a dining-room alone,
but for apartments of other kinds, that were we at all at a loss for sub-
jects, we could make it serve us for a great many Episodes. For in-
stance, supposing the plan to admit of it, the same arrangement would
be exceedingly well adapted for a library or morning-room with a
window at each end, the four recesses, eitner with or without columns,
being filled up with bookshelves, and either a single door opposite the
(ire-place, or two doors in the angles on that side of the room as cir-
cumstances might require. Else there might be a window there as at
present, and three recesses for book-cases at each end of the apart-
ment

2 Z 2

346

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[October,

In regard to the plan here shown as tliat for a dining room, it is not
proposed as one capable of being strictly followed, because it \vouId
stand in need of more or less alteration in order to adapt and adjust
it, so as to combine advantageously with the rest. Of course it is here
presumed that there is nothing to hinder its being executed precisely
as it is represented in the cut. The door near tlie sideboard is sup-
posed to open into a corridor communicating with the offices, and the
other from a vestibule or ante-room, as the case might be. There are
four pedestals for candelabra, and there might be others in the two
arches within the recesses : these, however, are not absolutely essen-
tial to the design, but might be adopted or omitted according as more
or less decoration should be held desirable, — a point to be regulated
by the scale of embellishment fixed upon. The recesses and semi-
circular ends of the room are supposed to be floored with ornamental
tiles or mosaic (like the saloon of tlie Reform Club), and the square or
centre part to be covered with a rich c.irpet. Or eise the whole might
be carpetted, and the same kind of di^tinction be nevertheless kept up,
by putting down plain carpetting of some quiet neutral tint at the ends,
for the purpose of giving more importance to the middle compartment
of the room, and to the two extreme ones somewhat the air of being
spacious semicircular alcoves with smaller recesses within them.
After all, however, the propriety of so doing would depend upon
whether any corresponding sort of distinction between the several
divisions of the room was observed in the design of the ceiling. .Should
the situation of the room be such as to admit of the centre being
lighted from above, the ceiling might then be raised by a cove, and
have a lantern occupying the rest of it. In such case no side windows
would be required, still the one at the end of the room might be re-
tained, unless it should be preferred to make a second sideboard recess
corresponding with that at the opposite end, or to have these folding
doors opening from an ante-room, substituting a niche for the present
door in the recess on the left hand.

( To he continued.)

ON THE FORMS AND PROPORTIONS OF STEAM VESSELS.

Though reluctant to call in question the opinions of so able a writer
as " H. P. H." appears to be, I think he lias no autboritv for multiplv-
ing the "sectional ana of the immersed parts" of a steam vessel, into
the (mean) dtjjth below the surface of the water, in order to find the
resistance to her motion. Doubtless this would be correct for " flood-
gates," of which one surface only is exposed to the water, and the
pressure is that arising from the might of the fluid ; but the case of
a vessel is totally difierent, the resistance arising not from any weight
of the fluid, (for the pressure on the after half of the vessel tending to
push her forward, is exactly equal to the pressure on the fore part
which tends to retard her,) but from a species of friction and from the
inertia of the fluid. This resistance probably increases in porportion
to the densily of the water, not to its depth.

As the whole of the theoretical part of the article "On the Forms
and Proportions of Steam Vessels," is founded on the presumption
that the resistance is proportional to the section and depth, instead of
section without regard to depth, as given in mathematical works, and
as It will be completely erroneous if the above view is the correct one,
It may be worth while for H. P. H. to reconsider the nature of the re-
sistance of which he writes, and to favour the readers of the Journal
with his opinions — waiting which I am,

Very respectfully,

Neath, lUhof^lh month, 1841.

ON THE STRAIN OF BEAMS.

Sir— It may be interesting to trace the effects on beams of strains
acting on them in a parallel direction. In the common hand punch,
lor example there is an upright beam bent at right angles at top to a
convenient distance, the extremity being fitted to receive the reaction
ot the plates under the punch. Here the strain on the beam is up-
ward. Instances of similar downward strains, too, are familiar, as in
some portable balances, in which the scales hang from the extremity
of an upright standard bent forward at the upper end.

Let ABC be an upright standard rising perpendicularly from the
sole N C. and beut at right angles at B; let it be subjected to a force

acting downwards in the line A N parallel toBC. Then it would
appear on a general view, that the pait BC will be equally affected
throughout, as the force, which let AD represent, has the same lever-
age on all points of B C.

But, more particularly, in estimating the action of the force on any
point M, we may consider it as acting on M by the imaginary straight
lever AM. The action of the force A D on M may be analysed by
drawing D F perpendicular to A M ; A D =: A F and F D, the former
being longitudinal pressure along A M, the latter, a lateral strain on
the cross section at M by the leverage AM. Similar resolutions for
other points in BC will form right angled triangles on the common
base AD, and thus the locus of the vertices of these triangles is a
circle described on the diameter AD, passing through point F, of
course.

To ascertain how the forces A F, F D, acting on the section M,
affect any other section, as that at the base C, draw AC cutting the
circle at E, join D E, and complete the parallelogram O E ; draw F H
perpendicular to O D, cutting A E and O D at L and H. Then A F=i
A L and L F, and F D = D H and H F, these four resultants all acting
at point A on lever A C ; the sura of the longitudinal strains is A L -|-
HD = AL + LE = AE; the lateral strains LF and F H, acting in
opposite directions =FH — FL^HL= DE. Thus the resultants
of the forces A F, F D, acting on the section M, are A E and E D on
section C. But A E and ED are also the resultants of AD acting
directly on section C. It appears, then, that the effect of the force
AD on the section C is one, whether acting directly by A C, or indi-
rectly by AM C. Again, the reciprocal action of the forces A E, E D,
acting directly on C, upon the section M, may be had by drawing EK,
Eti perpendicular to D F, AM respectively. For we then have
D E =: E K and K D, and A E = A G and G E'. Then G E or F K -f
K D = F D, and A G — K E or F G = A F. But A F and F D are
the resultants of A D acting directly on M. Therefore, as M and C
represent every two points in B C, and as the direct action of the
force AD on either point is identical with its indirect action through
the other point, we conclude, generally, that its action on every cross
section of B C is constant, and therefore B C ought to be of equal di-
mensions from bottom to top. Draw O P perpendicular to AD, then
A0 = AP andPO, and DO = OP and P D, and as PO in these
two quantities acts in opposite directions, we have AO and DO =
A P and P D =: AD, which intimates that there is no lateral thrust on
the standard, so that the cross section of BC may at once be deter-
mined from the quantities A D, NC. The part AB ought to have
the parabolic outline, modified when the corner B is rounded.

By supposing all the forces reversed in direction, the above demon-
stration will apply also to standards subjected to upward strains.

I am. Sir,

Pheenix Iron Works, Your obedient servant,

Glasgow, 20th ^4ug. Daxiel Clark.

P. S. I think it would be a great improvement to introduce symbols
to express the most common terms in papers of the nature of the pre-
ceding: o fi-^r circle, i ior perpendicular, Sic.

1S4I.J

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

347

COMPETITIONS.

Sir— While I regret to find that »o very little good, if any at all,
should hitherto have been produced by all that has been said on the
subject of Architectural Competitions, I am glad to perceive that you
are not backward in aiding to correct the abuses now attending the
present mode of conducting them.

The case stated in your last number is perfectly scandalous and
flagitious, that vpere not the circumstances given upon Mr. Godwin's
own authority, I should conceive it to be unfairly reported. And yet
when I consider what sort of a design it was to which the highest pre-
mium was awarded in the first competition for the Royal Exchange, —
a design tliat would be now utterly forgotten— had not that circum-
stance' rendered it so memorable ; when, again, I consider the result of
the two competitions for the Nelson Monument, and that nothing more
tasteful and original than the stale absurdity of an overgrown column
could be picked out of all the designs anil ideas submitted to the
Committee, I am less astonished than I else should be at the measures
which, it appears, have been taken by the " Tailors."

After especially inviting seven architects to make selection of the
poorest design of all, certainly does look most awkwardly suspicious.
Still, in this instance, I should say that the "honourable" Committee
have perhaps done no more than act up to the very letter of their en-
gagement, bestowing the prize on him who displayed Siipciwri/ij —
though it happened to be that of demerit.

It is some little consolation to reflect that such very flagrant instances
may in time have the good effect of stiring up the profession to unite
cordially and vigourously in devising such measures as should in
future protect them from such swindling, — and to give it, would be
almost to countenance it. Any sort of delicacy towards persons who
scruple not to lend themielves to such dirty doings, would be sheer
weakness. Better would it be were the names of all the parties — all
the "highly respectable" individuals, concerned in such transactions,
shown up to the public. A little pillorying of that kind would do a
vast deal of good, and serve to render such respectable gentlemen
either a little more ca'itious or a little more adroit. If they must be
rogues there is no occasion for them to show themselves such arrant
bunglers also, as they now generally do.
I remain, Sec.

ViXDEX.

Sir— Eventually the evils arising from the present system of public
and limited competitions will work their own cure, as architects who
love tlieir profession and desire to uphold its respectability will pause
ere they lend themselves to the gross jobbing, and party interest which
so generally occurs on such occasions. It seems to me that as a body
we are heaping insult upon our own heads by the submission of designs
(generally— if not always — the result of mature deliberation), to men
seldom possessing an atom of architectural taste, or any other qualifi-
cation requisite to render them efficient as judges of the works placed
at their disposal for acceptance or rejection. I would advise my friend
Mr. Godwin to keep an eye upon the Tailors he alludes to in your last
number, (page 310), as no doubt they have been at their usual dirty
work, and have "cabbaged" portions from each of the designs en-
trusted to their care ; with regard to the Paddington Church job I
happen to know very little about it, but should think, if all we hear is
true, that for the credit of the Committee, " the least said is the soonest
mended."

Having myself done with public competition, I may be permitted to
add my opinion that architects competing should do so only upon the
understanding that members of their own body should be their judges,
as regards the comparative architectural merit and fitness of the several
designs, and the more fairly to do so I would sviggest that each candi-
date in turn should examine and compare the designs, and omitting
his own, should give in a written opinion upon their several degrees of
excellence; the decision thus come to could hardly fail in being a just
one, while by this means the first, second and so forth would be pointed
out without any chance of favouritism, and each of the judges having
in his own case been compelled to study the whole work minutely, he
would thus be the better qualified to give an opinion upon the pro-
.ductions of others; this proposal no body of persons advertising for
designs could reasonably object to, if they wish to have erections
throughout the land, which are to remain monuments of the talents of
their respective architects, and of their own taste in expending the
means committed to their disposal.

The success of some of the profession, who (like itinerant vendors
of tea, millinery, &c.) scour the country in the various directions
pointed out by the public advertisements, and earwig the Committees,
may induce them for a time to follow up competition as a tliriving
trade; but I feel assured such a system cannot last, it only requires

those architects who honour their profession, to unite in upholding its
respectability, by refusing to enter into any competition unless it is
regulated in some equitable and consistent manner, and in the long run
they must succeed. The two last competitions that I had any thing
to do with were the Infant Orphan Asylum and the Tower of Wands-
worth church, at the first the architects were limited to 20,000/. as about
the sum to be expended, and in order that this stipulation should be at-
tended to, all the parties competing were required to furnish detailed
quantities of their several designs, in defiance of this stringent clause,
which of course sate like an incubus upon the ideas of the greater
number who sent in — a design was chosen, the lowest tender for the
execution of which was about 33,000/. ; in this case two premiums
were offered, one of 100 guineas and one of 50 guineas, the second of
which only was awarded, thus : those who conformed to the printed
regulations were excluded from participating in the first premium,
while those who did not reaped the whole benefit ; and I maintain that
the Committee were bound in justice to those who obeyed the instruc-
tions, to have awarded both premiums, if to please themselves they
chose to execute a more expensive design.

In the second case, namely, that at Wandsworth, the present Tower
of the Church being in a very dilapidated state, the parish deemed it
necessary that something should be done, and the result of their de-
liberations was that architects should be invited to send in plans, &c.
for a new Tower, to cost 1,000/., which sum they were willing to ex-
pend : but lo 1 when the designs came before them, they, contrary to
the above case, considered economy to be the order of the day, and
they in consequence awarded their premium to a design to cost 500/.
only, and thus again those who conformed were laid on their backs,
but it did not rest here, for after their economical decision in came
the (xtnme economists of various denominations unconnected with the
church, and at a subsequent meeting decided on curtailing the edifice
of its intended fiir proportions, by actually carrying a resolution to
repair the already condenuied and ruinous old Tower, at a still less
expense ; but the tables are turned, the work (I am given to under-
stand) is stopped, the builder is afraid to proceed, and the architect
refuses or rather suspends any other opinion but that he is to complete
his contract; thus the parish are literally in a pretty situation between
two stools, and have no one to thank but themselves. While from the
want of rule in competitions as shown in the above cases, the profes-
sion never have any guarantee that their productions will be judged
by any uniform and equitable rule, but find themselves put out of court
sometimes because they are not sufficiently gorgeous, and sometimes
because they are too expensive, while in both cases they have strictly
conformed to the instructions given.

I am, Sir, your obedient servant,

JOHX BUR&ES WaTSOX.

39, iMancliesler Street, JManchcster Square,
September 7, 1S41.

Sir — Reading in your valuable Journal for this month, some curious
statements respecting "Competition Designs." I beg to state a case
which happened to me some time since at Shrewsbury, which I think
will surpass, in richness of facts, any I have yet read about.

A premium of 10/. was offered, publicly, for the best plan of a chapel
to be erected near the town of Shrewsbury. The vestry were to be
the judges.

They met at the publicly advertised time, and selected my design,
and their officer informed me of the fact.

Not hearing any thing more about the matter for some time, I called
at the vestry-room, and inquired how things were going forward.

And, Sir, what do you think was the answer I received, from the
same functionary who had previously charmed my heart by giving the
information previously stated i A cheque for the 10/. was — not handed
over; nor was any order from the vestry given for me to proceed with
the work. But still — "something" was given me which astounded
me equally with either, and that was a grave address from the afore-
said officer, in the following words: — They have now given the pre-
mium to .* JMv feelings were of course those of surprise

and astonishment, and almost disbttkf; but the latter was soon expelled
on receiving from my informant the reasons which actuated the "ves-
try." "The fact is this, Mr. assured some of our vestry that if

thev thought proper to give the premium to him, he would hand it
over *o one of the town charities, and they thought as how they could
not commit a a nobler liact." This you will say iras a noble act.

Your's, truly,

Veritas.

' An architect who lived in the town and parish.

2 Z 2

31S

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

Oc

TOBER,

NEW ACTS OF P^UILIAMENT.

There liave been introduced, by Lord Normanbv (the late Secretary
of Statej into the Houses of Parliament, three pery important Bills
connected with the profession, which demand their immediate and
especial attention. The bills are too long to be transferred entirely
into our Journal, but we shall give an abstract of the most important
clauses in each Bill, which will show their general character.

REGl'LATIOX OF BUILDINGS IN LARGE TOWNS.

Abstract of a Bill intituled " An Act for regulaiiny Buildings in large Toifns,"
which has passed the House of Lords, aiul is now before the House of Com-
mons.

1. WiiKREAS disease is engendered and aggravated by t!ie crowded and un-
licaltliy manner of building the dwellings of the v.orl«ng classes in tlic large
towns and poimlous places of this realm, and it is expedient to niaUe provi-
sion for improving snch dwellings : be it therefore cnactud, &c., That the
council of every borough wbicli is within the provisions of an act passed in
the sixth year of the reign of Ids late Majesty, intituled " an Act to provide
for the Regulation of Municipal Corporations in England and Wales," or of
any charter granted in pursuance of that or any sidiseqnent act, and of every
borough which is within the provisions of an act passed in the fourth year of
the reign of her Majesty, intituled "an Act for the Regulation of ^lunicipal
Corporations in Ireland," and the magistrates and councils of every royal
burgli and parliamentary burgh in Scotland, and of eveiy burgh of barony or
of regality in Scotland under the government of magistrates and councils, and
also in England and Ireland the justices of the peace in general or quarter
sessions assembled, and in Scotland the sberifT, having jurisdiction in any
other town or ])laee which her Majesty, with the advice of her privy council,
shall order to be within the provisions of this act, shall, within six calendar
months next after the passing of this act, or next after such order, and from
time to time as vacancies shall happen, appoint a fit person, or so many fit
persons as tlie council or justices or sheriff respectively shall think fit, not
being surveyors of the estates of the mayor, aUlermcn, and burgesses of any
borough, or of the corporation of any burgh, in which they are appointed, to
be surveyors of buildings in such borough, town, or place, and to see that the
several provisions of this act are observed therein ; and each of the said sur.
veyors shall liave in Ids special charge such district of the borough, town, or
place for which he is appointed as the council or justices or the sheriff shall
in that behalf appoint ; and each of the said surveyors shall hold his otbce
during the pleasure of the council or justices or slieritf by whom he is ap-
pointed, and may, if the council or justices or sheriff shall so thiuk fit, but
not otherwise, have an assistant or assistants under him (such assistants being
in all cases appointed by and holding their situations during the pleasure of
the council or justices or sheriff); and the council or justices or sheriff shall
have authority to fix the districts in which the said surveyors are to act within
the borough, town, or place, and to do all things relating in anywise to the
appointment and direction of such surveyors and assistant surveyors : pro-
vided ahv.ays, that if a charter of incorporation shall be granted to any town
or place in which such surveyors or assistant surveyors have been appointed,
the future appointment of such surveyors and assistant surveyors shall be
Tested in the council, as if such town or place were incorporated at the time
of the passing of this act.

2 and 3 enacts, that surveyors are to make declaration, to diligently, faith-
fully, and imi>artially perform the duties of the office ; the council or justices
or sheriff shall provide an office for the said surveyors.

4, Surveyors to he paid by fees, not exceeding for a first rate building 3/. \0s.,
second rate 3/., third rate 21. \0s., fourth rate 21., fifth rate \l. 10s., sixth rate
1/. ; and for every alteration or addition to any building, a sum not exceeding
half the above.

."), Powers given to councils of boroughs by this act to be exercised in Ox-
ford by commissioners imder act 11 G. 3, for improving the city of Oxford.

6, The surveyors appointed under any of the acts specified in the schedule
(London, Bristol and Liverpool), shall he the s\irvcyors tor enforcing so much
of this act as is to be enforced within the limits of the said several acts, and
shall be entitled to receive for their trouble herein 5\ich additional fees as
shall he ordered and settled by the authority by which they are appointed.

7, Notice of building or altering premises to be left at the surveyor's oftice.
Clauses 8 to 15, regulations for fees, duties of surveyors, penalties for de-
fault of notice, workmen offen(bng and lefusing inspection.

16, That it shall not be lawful to build within the limits of this act any
bouse in which the floor of any room or cellar to be used as a dwelling* shall
be below the surface or level of the ground in the immediate neighbourhood
of such house, unless there shall be an open area not less than three feet wide
from the floor of such room or cellar to the top of the area adjoining to the
front or back of such room or cellar, and extending from one side or party
wall to tlie other side or party wall ; but this enactment shall not be taken to
prevent any archway or coveriitg which may be laid across such area for the
purpose of approaching the doorway of the house.

" We considr that the words here used require to be |iarticularly defined
if they mean any mum tb.it is used for domestic purposes, such as a kitchen
forming part of a dwelling bouse, the act will Ihen eflect a very serious injury
on nearly half the bouses in Ijondon: if dwelling mean a room wherein any
person sleeps, then we do not see any objection to the Act, Uit in sucli case
it would be better to alter the v\ord dweilivg to sleeping room. — Editor.

1 7, That in any house to be built within the limits of this act after the
passing thereof it shall not be lawful to let separately, except as a warehouse
or storehouse, or to suffer to be occupied for hire as a dwelhng place,* any
underground cellar or room not having a window and fireplace, as v.ell as
such an open area adjoining thereunto, as is herein-before specified.

18, Enacts, that in any house built within the limits of this act before the
passing thereof it shall not be lawful to let sejiaratcly, except as a warehouse
or storehouse, or to suffer to be occupied for hire as a dwelling place, after
the first day of January 1845, any underground cellar or room not having a
window, or after the first day of January 1848, any underground cellar or
room not 'laving, in addition to such window, such an open area not less than
two feet wide, as is herein-before descriled, or after the first day of January
IS.Jl, any underground cellar or room not having a fireplace in addition to
such window and area.

19, Enacts, that every person who shall wilfully let or suffer to be occupied
any underground cellar or room contrary to the provisions of this act shall
forfeit and piy the sum of 20s. for every day that such cellar or room shall
be so occupied, to be recovered by action of debt, either by the person occu-
pying such cellar or room, or any other person who wdl sue for the same.

20, Enacts, that on any nert' _/b«n(fa/iOH within the limits of this act it shall
not be lawful to build any house, except corner houses, and houses biult in a
street or thoroughfare which was begun or laid out, before the passing of this
act, under the authority of any act of parliament, unless there shall be a clear
space of at least 20 feet wide between the back wall of such house and the
back wall of any opposite house : provided always, that.in estimating this
distance no account shall be taken of any hack addition or outbuilding be-
longing to either of such houses not more than half the height of the back
wall of the house above the level of the street, and which addition or out-
buUding shall not extend along more than two-thirds of the whole width of
the house to which it belongs; but no such addition or outbuilding shall be
nearer than seven feet to any other house, or to any addition or outbuUding
to any other house, except privies, sheds, or other buildings, not more than
eight feet high above the level of the street which may adjoin the fence or
fence wall on cither side.

21, Enacts, that it shall not be lawful to build any new street, alley, or pub-
lic passage within the bmits of this act, except such as were begun or laid
out before the passing of this act, under the authority of any act of parlia-
ment, unless the houses therein shall be separated by at least 30 feet where
there is a carringeway between such houses, or at least 20 feet in the case of
alleys and foot passages where there is no carriageway.

22, Enacts, that it shall not be lawful to bidld within the bmits of this act
any new court or alley (except mews and stable yards) nanower than 30 feet,
through which there shall not be an open passage at eacli end thereof at least
20 feet wide, and entirely open from the ground upwards.

23, Enacts, that the level of ground floorof every house which shall be built
within the limits of this act shall be at least six inches above the level of the
footway or road adjoining such house.

24, Enacts, that no room which shall be built within the limits of this act
to be used as a dwelling on the cellar or ground floor, or elsewhere than in
the ujjper story of any third rate house, or any house of a lower class or rate
than the third, as defined by the said several acts named in the schedule
(London, Bristol and Liverpool), within the limits of the said acts respectively,
and elsewhere as defined by this act, shall be less than eight feet in height
from the floor to the ceding, and no room in the upper story of any such
house sluiU be less than seven feet in height from the floor to the ceiling.

25, That there shall not be more than one story in any part of the roof of
any house or other building which shall be built within the limits of this act.

2G, That no third rate or lower rate of house, defined as aforesaid, except
houses in a street or thoroughfare which was begun or laid out, before the
passing of this act. under the authority of any act of parbaraent, shall be buUt
within the limits of this act without an enclosed yard, which, exclusive of any
buildings therein, except the privy (if any), or any shed or other building not
more than eight feet high, shall be of the extent of one-sixth part at least of
the ground covered by the bouse ; and no house shall be built within the
limits of this act without a privy, with proper doors and coverings to the
same, either in the bouse, or in the yard attached to the house, and sufficiently
screened and fenced from public view, to the satisfaction of the sur\eyor of
the district.

27, .'Vll buildings ei'ectcd contrary to this act to be abated.

28, Provides for preventing neglect or evasion of this act.

2n, And whereas it is exjjedient that further provisions for seeunty against
fire should be made in such boroughs and towns as aforesaid which' are not
within the provisions of any of the acts named in the said schedule (London,
Bristol and Liverpool) ; be it enacted, that all buildings begun to be built or
rebuilt in any such borough or town not within the provisions of one of the
said acts shall, after the passing of this act, be Imilt and rebuilt according to *
the regulations herein-after contained, and the outer walls, party walls, sepa-
rate side or end walls, chimney backs, and chimney flues shall be built ac-
cording to the schedule (A.) annexed to this act : provided always, that where
there is more than one story below the level of the street the walls of the
lowest story shall be half a brick or four inches and a half tliicker than is
otherwise required.

The remainder of the clauses apply to provincial towns, and are framed
somewhat similar to the Metropolitan liuilding Act. The annexed schedule
explains the thickness of the walls and the classes of buildings.

i

1841.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

349

SCHEDULE (A).

DESCRIPTION

OF
BUILDINGS.

THICKNESS OF OUTEK WALLS.

s §
u s

O

<^ c -

5 £-0

•"^- o
2 g_ to

5 n^ '«J

<u fS oj

< o o

THICKNESS OF PARTY WALLS.*

« O

^ O

;30

^ o

-*j O

o O

-'^^

3. ^

2 B. or
17^ In.

UB. or
13 In.

U B. or
13 la.

\\ B. or
13 In.

2 B. or
17i In.

\\ B. or
13 In.

U B. or
13 In.

U B. or
13 In.

1 B. or
8i In.

1 B. or

8iln.

1 B. or
84 In.

1 B, or

8iln.

1 B. or 2i B. or
8i In. 22i In

1 B. or

8iln.

1 B. or
8JIn.

1 B. or
8i In.

2 B. or
17i In.

2 B. or
17iln.

2 B. or
174 In.

H B. or
13 In.

2* B. or
224 In.

2B. or
17A In.

2B. or

174 In.

14 B. or
13 In.

14 B. or
13 In.

First Rate.

Every Church, Chapel, and other Place of Public Worship,
Brewery, Distillery, Manufaetory, Warehouse and other
Building (not being a Duelling House or a Building in
the Fifth or Sixth Class) which is higher than 31 feet.

Every Dwelling House which is higher than 50 feet,
or which contains more than nine squares of building on the
Ground Floor — every Dwelling House or other Building
which has more than three clear stories above ground.

Second Rate.

Every Warehouse or other Building (not being a Building
in the First, Fifth, or Sixth Class, or a Dwelling House,)
which is higher than 22 feet, orwhich has three clear stories
above ground.

Every Dwelling House (having three clear stories and no
more above ground) which is higher than 40 feet, and every
Dwelling House which contains more than five and not
more than nine squares of building on the ground floor.

Third Rate.

Every Warehouse and other Building (not being a Dwel-
ling House or a Building in the first, second, fifth, or sixth
class,) which is higher than 13 feet, or which has two
clear stories above ground.

Every Dwelling House (having three clear stories and
no more above ground) which is higher than 37 feet.

Eveiy DwelUng House which contains more than
three squares and a half and not more than five squares of
building on the ground floor.

Fourth Rate.

Every Warehouse and other Building (not being a Build-
ing in the first, fifth, or sixth class,) which is not higher
than 13 feet.

Every Dwelling House (having two clear stories and
no more above ground) which is higher than 25 feet.

Every Dwelling House which has not more than one
clear story above ground, or which does not contain three
squares and a half of building on the ground floor.

Fifth Rate.
Everv Building (not being a Building of the first class or a Dwelling House) which is at least four feet and not more than ten feet from any Public
Street Road or Wav, and at least sixteen feet from any other Building not in the same possession, or connected with any such building only by a tence
or fence wall, may be buUt of any dimensions, but must be buUt either of brick or stone, or covered with incombustible materials.

Sixth Rate.
' Everv Building, not in the first class, which is at least ten feet from any Public Street, Road, or Way, and at least thirty feet from any other Building
not in the same possession, or connected mth any such BuiUUng only by a fence or fence wall, may be built of any dimensions and with any materials.

2 B. or
174 In.

U B. or
13 In.

14 B. or
13 In.

U B. or
13 In.

U B. or
13 In.

U B. or
13 In.

i; B. or
13 In.

14 B. or
13 In.

U B. or
13 In.

IB. or
84 In.

* Separate Side or End Walls between Buildings shall not be less than the length of one brick or 84 inches thick, or, when the wall is higher than
21 feet less than the lencth of one brick and one half, or 13 inches thick. ,,,,.., ,^,i a i

W ere ai y B "ildiiig is^t founded on rock, ever>- Outer or Party Wall shall have at least four footing courses below the leve of he Cellar floor, each
two coirse pro ie t nf 2\^ches on each side of the course or wall immediately above them ; and all Inner Walls sl,..ll have at least two footing courses
4rincheswi^erthaa the wall above them; and all such footings shaU commence upon a firm natural or artificial foundat.ou to be approved by the

Surveyor.

350

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL

[October,

DRAINAGE BILL.

Ezlracls from a liill intituled •' An Jet for the letter Drainaye of Towns
and Villages," which has passed tite House of Lords, and is now in the
House of Commons.

1. Whereas there is great need of sanatory regulations in the towns and
populous places of tliis realm, especially for want of suflicient means of
drainage, whereby <lisease is engendered and aggravated ; be it therefore
enacted, &.C., that after the passing of this act it shall not be lawful to build
any house within the limits of this act, unless a drain be first constructed to
the satisfaction of the commissioners of sewers having jurisdiction there, of
such material, size, level, and fall as they shall ilirect, which drain shall lead
from the intended site of such house to such common sewer, common drain,
or common watercourse as the commissioners shall direct, or if there be i.o
such common sewer, common drain, or common watercourse witliin 10 yards
of any part of the intended site of such house, then to such cesspool or other
place as the commissioners shall direct, not more than ten yards from some
part of such intended site.

2. That in all cases where any house built within the limits of this act,
cither before or .after the passing thereof, shall not be drained by a sufficient
drain communic.iting with some common sewer, common drain, or common
watercourse, to the s.itibfaction of the commissioners of sewers, and if a
sewer, drain, or watercourse of suflicient size, under the jurisdiction of the
commissioners of sewers, and which they shall think fit to be used for drain-
ing such house, shall pass along any public thoroughfare or way in front of

* or behind any part of such house, it shall be lawful for the said commissioners
to give notice in writing, signed by .luy surveyor or officer appointed by them
for that purpose, to the occupier of such house, rc(|uiring such occupier or
the owner thereof forthwith, or within such reasonable time as shall there-
fore be appointed by the said commissioners, to construct a covered drain of
such materials, size, level, and fall as the commissioners shall direct, from
the said house to the said sewer, drain, or watercourse; and if the owner or
occupier of such house shall refuse or neglect, during 28 d.iys next after the
said notice shall have been delivered to such occupier or left at such house,
to begin to construct such dr.aiu, or shall thereafter fail to carry it on and
comi)lete it with all reasonable despatch, it shall be lawful for the said com-
missioners to construct the same, and to recover the cxpcnces to be incurred
thereby by distress and sale of the goods and chattels either of the owner or
of the then present or any future occupier of such house as herein-after men-
tioned, by warrant under the hands and seals of six or more or the said com-
missioners.

3. That whejiever .any house shall be rebuilt within the limits of this act,
the level of the lowest floor shall be raised sufficiently to allow of the eon-
jtruction of such a drain as is herein-hefore provided in the case of houses to
be built after the passing of this act. and for that purpose the levels shall be
taken and determined under the direction of the commissioners of sewers ;
and whenever any house shall be taken down as low as the floor of the first
story, for the purpose of being built up again, such building sh,ill be deemed
a rebuilding within the meaning of this act.

4. The level of every new street, court, alley, and place which shall be
made, and also the level of every street, ivc. in which any new common sewer
or common drain shall be made, shall be fixed under the direction of the
commissioners of sewers.

5. The commissioners of sewers shall have avithority, from time to time, as
they shall see fit, to widen, deepen, embank, alter, arch over, amend, clean,
and' scour all or any of the sewers, drains, watercourses, sinks, vaults, cess-
pools, and privies within their jurisdiction, and also to cleanse, drain, amend,
and abate all stagnant ponds and other nuisances whereby the health of the
neighbourhood is or is likely to be afl!'ected, and to make new sewers, dr.aius,
sinks, cesspools, or vaults where none foimerly existed, and also to make re-
servoirs, engines, sluices, penstocks, or any other works for better draining
any place within their j\irisdiction, in, under, or across .ill or any of the public
ways, thoroughfares, or places within their jiuisdiction, and, if needful, through
and .across all underground cellars and vaults which they shall find under any
of the said )iublic Wiiys and thoroughfares, doing as little damage as may be,
and making due compensation for the damage done to the owners and occu-
piers thereof; and in case it shall be found necessary, for completing any of
of the .aforesaid sewers or drains, to build, cirry, and continue the same into
and through any inclosed lands or other place, not being a. public way, it
shall be lawful for the said commissioners to build, carry, and continue the
same into or through the said lands or other place accordingly, milking due
compensation to the owners and occupiers thereof; and all such sewers and
other works and premises shall be .at all times under the control, care, and
management of the said commissioners, and of their surveyors and officers.

C. It shall be lawful for the commissioners of sewers, at their discretion, to
abandon .any common sewer or common drain rumiing through narrow courts
or alleys of houses or inclosed places, or through or under any place uot being
a public way, in all cases wherein a new common sewer or common drain
shall be constructed, in any public streets, roads, or highways contiguous
thereto, and capable of receiving the drainage of such courts, alleys, or in-
closed or other places ; and that upon such drainage being turned into such
new sewer or drain the said coniinissioncrs shall not thereafter be obliged to
maintain the sewers or drains so to be abandoned, but shall order the same
to be filled up at their discretion, and th.at all branch drains communicating
with anv sewer or drain so to be abandoned shall be turned bv the owners of

the lands and tenements theretofore drained thereby into the new sewer or
drain to be constructed instead of such abandoned sewers or drains, bv mak-
iiig drains into such new sewers or drains, conformably to the regulations of
the commissioners of sewers : provided always, that if such new sewer or
drain shall not be brought within the distance of ten yards from the lands or
tenements formerly drained by the abandoned sewer or drain, the cost of
completing the branch drains beyond the length of 10 yards shall be defrayed
by the commissioners of sewers.

". Commissioners to give 28 days notice and provide a plan and section be-
fore making any new common sewer or common drain under this act, where
no common sewer or common drain already existed, and before abandoning
any old common sewer or common drain, and before abating any such nuisance
as aforesaid.

10. That before making any drain or watercourse for the purpose of ilrain-
ing water directly or indirectly from any land or tenement into any common
sewer, &c., and also before beginning to lay or dig out the foundations of any
house therein, or to rebuild any house therein, 11 clear days notice in writing
shall be given to the commissioners ; such new drain or watercourse shall be
made of such materials and workmanship, and laid at such level, as is i)ro-
vided by this act, and under such regulations as the said commissioners shall
order.

11.* That it shall be lawful for the commissioners, or for their surveyor or
such other person as they shall appoint, to inspect any drain or v^■atercourse
within tlieir jurisdiction, and for that purpose to enter at all reasonable times,
by themselves, or their duly authorized surveyors, officers, and workmen, upon
any lands and tenements, and also to cause the yronnd to be opened in any
place they shall think ft, doing as little damage as may be ; and if such drain
or watercourse shall be found to be made to the satisfaction of the commis-
sioners, they shall cause the same to be closed and made good as soon as may
be ; and the expences of opening, closing, and m.aking good such drain or
watercourse shall be defrayed by the said commissioners out of the rates and
assessments authorized to be made by them by the laws in force relating to
sewers.

12. That all branch drains, «.y ivell irithin us witliout the lands and tene-
ments to which they belong, and all watercourses used for drains, and all
privies and cesspools, within the limits of this acl, shall be under the survey
and control of the said commissioners, il^c, and shall be repaired and cleansed
.at the cost and charge of the owners or occupiers of the lands and tenements
to v\hich the s.ame shall belong ; and if the owner or occupier of any land or
tenement to which any branch drain, watercourse, cesspool, or privy shall
belong shall neglect to repair or cleanse the same in the manner required by
the said commissioners, during 14 days after notice in writing for that pur-
pose, signed by any such surveyor or otticer, shall have been given to such
occupier, or left upon the premises, it shall be lawful for the said commis-
sioners to order such branch drain, l'^c, to he repaired and cleansed, and to
levy and recover the costs and expences thereof by distress, &c., either of the
owners or of the occupiers so neglecting to repair and cleanse the same.

21. Commissioners shall cause a map to be made of the district within
their jurisdiction, on a scale not less than one inch to 400 feet, and to mark
thereon the course of every common sewer, common drain, and common
watercourse, and shall cause the same from time to time to be altered and
.amended ; and such map, or a copy thereof, with the date expressed thereon
of the last time at which it sh.ill have been so amended, shall be kept in the
office of the commissioners, and shall be open at all seasonable hours to the
inspection of the owners or occupiers of any lands or tenements within the
jurisdiction of such commission.

25. Where any common sewer or common drain shall be made by the said
commissioners, under any public way where no common sewer or common
drain formerly existed, the cost of making the same shall be borne, in the
manner herein-after specified, by the several owners of the lands and tene-
ments abutting on such public way on either side thereof, in proportion to
the several lengths of frontage so abutting ;t and it shall be lawful for the
commissioners, when they shall have undertaken the construction thereof,
to charge the said several owners with the cost of constructing a common
sewer of the usual sizej in tlie jurisdistiou of the commissioners, to be paid
by^ce equal yearly instalments, the first instalment being payable as soon
after the completion of the work as the commissioners shall require the same.

26. And whereas by the laws in force relating to sewers the commissioners
are empowered to lay sep.arate and distinct rates, as occasion shall require,
for every separate and distinct level, v.alley, or district within their commis-
sion, or for any part thereof, whenever tbey shall think fit to do so ; be it
enacted, that so much of the cost of making any common sewer or common
drain above the usual size which shall exceed the ch.arges herein-hefore laid
upon the several owners of lands and tenements abutting on any public way,
and also the costs of making those parts of any common sewer or common

" Clauses 11 and 12 contain very extraordinary poners, and such .as are
liable to be used with great abuse.— Editor.

T For corner houses there ought to be some provision, so as to make them
chargeable for one frontage only, and not as is now the case for two frontages
— Kditor.

I We consider that the commissioners ought not to have the power for
chargiuf; or enforcing in any case more than for what is considered in London
as a second size, sewer. If a Jirst rate sewer be couslrueted, the extra price
ouRht to be chargeable to the whole district drained by it, as provided in the
following clause.— Editor.

I

1841.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

.351

drain wliicli cannot be charged upon any particular owner of lands and tene-
ments, and of widening or deepening any coninion sewer or couinion drain
already existing, and of repairing and cleansing each common sewer and com-
mon drain when made, shall he borne by the owners of all lands and tene-
ments within the level, valley, or district, or part thereof, for which such
separate rates are made, wherein such common sewer or common drain is
situated.

29. That, subject to the provisions herein contained, the instalments pay-
able for making any common sewer or common drain, and all rates which the
commissioners are empowered to assess and shall assess upon any lands or
ments within their jurisdiction, shall be recoverable, if not paid, by distress,
&c. either of the owner or of the then present or any future occupier of such
lands and tenements.

30. No occupier of any land or tenement for a less term than from year to
year shall be required to pay, more than the whole amount of rent which was
due and payable from him at the time when the notice herein-before men-
tioned in each case shall have been delivered to him, or left upon the pre-
mises as aforesaid, or which shall thenceforth from time to time accrue and
become payable by him. unless he shall neglect or refuse, upon application
made to him for that purpose by or on behalf of the commissioners, truly to
disclose the amount of his rent, and the name and address of the person to
■whom such rent is payable ; but the burden of proof that the sum demanded
of any such occupier is greater than the rent which was due by him at the
time of such notice, or which shall have since accrued, shall lie upon such
occupier.

31. In every case in which any tenant or occupier shall have paid any sum
for making, repairing, or cleansing any common sewer, &c., or for making or
repairing any branch drain, or any cesspool or privy, in respect of his occu-
pation of such lands or tenements, he shall he entitled to deduct from hi
rent such part of the amount so paid by him as is herein-after specified ; (that
is to say,) if at the time of such payment he is a tenant for an uncxjured
term of 7 years, or any less term, he may deduct the whole amount paid by
him ; if for more than " years and not more than 14 years, he may deduct
4 thereof; if for more than 14 years and not more than 21 years, he may de-
duct f thereof; if for more than 21 years and not more than 28 years, he
may deduct § thereof; if for more than 2S years and not more than 3j years,
he may deduct ^ thereof; but if for more than 35 years, he shall not be en-
titled to deduct any part thereof : provided always, that any tenant under a
lease containing a covenant for renewal thereof shall be deemed a tenant for
the full term to which his holding may be extended under such covenant ;
and that every tenant for a term depending upon a life or lives shall be deemed
a tenant for such absolute term of years as shall be of the same value as such
contingent term, according to the government tables for the purchase of life
annuities ; and every lessor, being himself also a tenant or lessee of any lands
or tenements, from whose rent any part of the amount so paid to commis-
sioners shall have been deducted, shall be entitled in like manner to deduct
from the rent payable by him to his lessor such part thereof as according to
the provisions herein-before contained he would have been entitled to deduct
from his rent had he paid to the commissioners as aforesaid the sum so de-
ducted from the rent payable to him ; and the receipt of the commissioners,
or of their treasurer or clerk, duly authorized in that behalf, shall be in each
case a sufficient discharge for so much of the rent as is hereby authorized to
bededucted : provided always, that nothing herein contained shall he taken
to aftect any special contract between any lessor and tenant or occupier of
any lands or tenements, whereby it is agreed that the tenant or occupier shall
defray the charges of making, repairing, or cleansing all or any sewers, drains,
cesspools, and privies belonging thereunto.

40. .\nd be it enacted, that the limits of this act in England shall be the
city of London ; every place within six miles in a straight line from St. Paul,
and also within the jurisdiction of any commission of sewers now in force for
any part of the counties of Middlesex or Surrey, during the continuance of
such commission ; and also every place in England within the jurisdiction of
any commission of sewers w hich shall be duly issued after the passing of this
act, by letters patent, wherein it shall be expressly declared that such com-
mission is issued in furtherance of the provisions of this act.

41. .\fter the passing of this act it shall be lawful for her Majesty, &c., to
issue commissions of sewers in furtherance of this act for any part of Ireland.

42. .\nd be it enacted, that this act shall extend to Scotland, and shall in-
clude all royal and parliamentary burghs, burghs of barony and regality, and
also all towns and villages in Scotland which her Majesty with the advice of
her privy council shall from time to time order to be within the provisions of
this act.

IMPROVEMENT OF BOROUGHS.

There is a Bill now before the House of Commons intituled " an Act for
the improvement of certain Boroughs, "which act is to grant powers for open-
ing and widening close and narrow streets, alleys, passages and places therein,
and for otherwise improving the town, such powers to be vested in the coun-
cils of such boroughs, under certain restrictions. The follow ing clause is the
most important, and explains when the council is empowered to take lands
compulse rj-.

4. And be it enacted, that in any of the following cases the council shall
be empowered, if they think fit, to take any lands which they shall require
for the purposes of this act, with or without the consent of the several
owners and other persons interested therein, subject nevertheless to the pro-

visions for ascertaining and giving compensation for the value of such lands,
and for the other purposes herein-after contained ; (that is to say,)

1. When any such lands are needed for the purpose of opening a thorough-
fare through any court or alley which is closed at either end :

2. When any such lands are needed for the purpose of widening any
thoroughfare which is narrower than 20 feet :

3. Wlwn any such lands project 10 feet or more beyond the general line
of the street :

4. When the council shall have agreed with the owners thereof for the ab-
solute purchase of the lands on each side of the lands so required to be
taken, the value of those already agreed for being at least 10 times the
value of those not agreed for :

5. When any such messuages or tenements built before the passing of this
act are contrary to the provisions of an act passed in this session of par-
liament, intituled " an Act for regulating Buildings in large Towns and
Villages," and are not amended according to the provisions of the said
act within six calendar months after notice thereof given by the coimcil
to the owner or occupier thereof;

Provided always, that it shall not be lawful for the conncil to take any such
messuages, lands, or tenements, without the consent of the owners and other
persons interested therein, unless with the approval of the commissioners of
her Majesty's woods, forests, land revenues, works, and buildings.

NEW HOUSES OF P.\RLIAMENT.— VENTILATION, &c.

The following is a copy of the correspondence for the warming and venti,-
^.ation of the two Houses of Parliament, laid before Parliament.

Office of Woods, Ang. 27, 1841.
Sir — The progress of the works at the new Houses of Parliament, and the
necessity of laying down the foundations on which the flues for warming and
ventilating the houses are constructed, induced me to desire Mr. Barry and
Dr. Reid to make a joint report on these subjects, by which it appears that a
sum of 86,000/. will be required for warming, ventilating, and securing the
buildings from fire, according to the following statement : —

Ventilating tower £20,000

Air and chimney flues iu the walls 12,320

Apparatus 12,000

£44,320
For securing the buildings from fire —

Fire-proof floors under the roof £20,680

Brick floor on iron beams between the

principal and upper stories 21,000

41,680

£86,000
I must observe, that in this sum Mr. Barry has included the sum of 20,000^.
for a centre tower, not intended in the original plan, but which will be sa
constructed as to suit Dr. Reid's new system of ventilation, which he con-
siders will be a great addition to the beauty of the structure. I am unwilling
to recommend so large a sum to the Treasury without the sanction of Parlia-
ment, although a considerable part will be necessary under any circumstances,
if the houses are to be warmed and ventilated on the system adopted by Dr.
Reid in the present temporary houses, and which appears to me to give gene-
ral satisfaction.

From the prices at which contracts have been taken for the works already
in progress, there can be no doubt, with care and attention, that a consider-
able saving will take place on the original estimate that was sanctioned by
the committee of the two houses ; and 1 therefore request you to bring the
subject before the House of Commons, as the state of the woiks makes it ne-
cessary that some decision should be come to without delay ; I wUl only add,
that no unnecessary delay has taken place in bringing this subject forward,
and that Dr. Reid has delivered in his estimate as soon as the state of the
works allowed him to do so.

I have, &c.,

DlXCANNO.V.

The Right Hon. F. T. Baring, &c.

Westminster. Aug. 21. 1841.

Mv Lord — I beg to submit for your Lordship's consideration, a drawing
of the river front of the new Houses of Parliament, showing the eftect of a
central tower of the height and diameter required by Dr. Reid for the purpose
of ventilation, according to bis first suggestion ; and 1 have no hesitation in
expressing my opinion, that the adoption of such a feature in the design
would considerably improve the general eflfect and importance of the intended
building.

I have, &c..

The Viscount Duncanuon. Charles Barrv.

Whitehall Treasury Chambers,
Sept. 14, 1841.

T. F. Freemantle.

352

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[October

PROFESSIONAL CHARGES.

ViGXOLLE! V. LeFROY.

At the last Summer Assizes held at Liverpool, August 30, the following
important action was tried against the Hon. Thomas Lefroy, M.P., as one of
the directors of the Central Irish Railway Company, to recover compensation
for work and labour performed by the plaintiff as an engineer.

Mr. Dundas, Mr. Martin, and Mr. Watson were for the plaintiff; Mr.
Cresswcll, Mr. Wortley, and Mr. Cleersby for the defendant.

The details of the case were long and tedious, but the following were the
principal facts : —

It ai)peared in the case for the plaintiff, that, in the year 1836 a number
of gentlemen, connected with Ireland, were of opinion that a railway from
Dublin to Shgo, running through the centre of the island, would be a de-
sirable undertaking. Of these, the defendant was one of the most active.
Preliminar)' meetings were held, prospectuses issued, the usual staff appointed,
and otlier measures taken for carrying the project into exeention. A provi-
sional commiltec was formed, at whose meetings the defendant usually as-
tended, and very frequently took the chair. The meetings took place, whether
in London or Dublin, usually at tlie offices of Messrs. Young, Murdoch, and
Leahy, solicitors to the company. The services of an engineer being required,
inrne discussion took place on the appointment. A person of the name of
Walker was mentioned, but it was afterwards decided, very much at the in-
stance of the defendant, that the plaintiff, who had been the engineer of the
North Union, the Midland Counties, and the DubUn and Kingstown Railways,
should be requested to undertake the office. The solicitors for the company
communicated with him, and he accepted the situation on the -Jth of June.
Immediate steps were taken for completing a survey, and a number of Mr.
VignoUes's pupils and assistants were set to work upon tlie line. He himself
paid frequent visits to Ireland in superintendence of the work up to the 2Ut
of Septemljer, during which time frequent meetings of the committee had
taken place in London and Dublin, at which the defendant presided, and on
which occasions resohitions were come to as to the course which should be
adopted, and the measures which should be taken in advancement of the pro-
ject. One subject of discussion was, the site for the Dubliu terminus, and on
this point some coiTCspondence took place between tlie plaintiff and the de-
fendant with reference to a meeting to discuss the matter in Dublin, and the
course which should be adopted respecting it. In one of these letters the
defendant says, that tlie terminus at Kdmainham would not go down with
the DubUn people, and that he must rely upon the skill and industry of Mr.
VignoUes to select a better one. On the 21st of September a meeting of the
committee took place, at which the possible appointment of Mr. Vipnolles to
the office of engineer to the Irish Kadway Commission was brought under
their notice, and it was agreed that his name should cease to appear as the
engineer to the company, being replaced by a Mr. Nimmo, one of bis assistants,
who had previously been carrjing on the survey under his superintendence.
It was, however, for the plaintiff, alleged that be continued really to superin-
tend the work as before, and that Mr. Nimmo was acting under him, and not
as an independent engineer. The plaintiff went to Ireland repeatedly, and
carried on a correspondence with Jlr. Nimmo when in England. The work
was then completed, the surveys made, and the necessary maps and books of
reference deposited in the Parliamentar)' Dflices. Mr. Nimmo died in 1839.
The present action v\as brought by Mr. Vignolles for the balaure due to him
for these engineering services. He had received 500/. His charge was 40/.
per mile on a hue of 126 miles. Much more, it was said, had been surveyed,
including the lines which had been abandoned as not eligible.

For the defendant it was coutended that there was no contract between
him and the plaintiff, and that though, as a public man and a member of
Parliament, he had encouraged a project which it was supposed would be of
public benefit, he was not himself one of those embarked in the speculation,
had never taken or been allotted any shares, and had merely given the provi-
sional committee his assistance and advice. It was alleged that at all events
the plaintiff had resigned his office of engineer in September, when appointed
to the Royal commission ; and that, even supposiug he had e.\ecuted all the
work, the charge of 40/. per mile was excessive. Considerable payments had
been made to Mr. Nimmo.

The case occupied the whole day, and at nearly 8 o'clock the Court ad-
journed, postponing his Lordship's summing up untU the following day, when
his Lordshi]) having gone through the facts of the case.

The Jury retired for a considerable time, and brought in a verdict for the
plaintiff— Damages 1,980/., being the balance due up to September 21, when
they were of opinion he ceased to be engineer to the company.

Exportation of Machinerij. — The select commiltEC of the House of Commons,
lately appointed to iiiquife into the operation of the existing laws aflecting
the exportation of machinery, liave just published their second report to the
House. This report is much too long to allow of any ditailcd reference fo
it, but we subjoin the final recommendation of the committee on the subject,
which is to the following effect, viz. : — " That, considering that machinery
is the only product of British industry upon the export of which restraints
are i.laeed, the committee recommend that the law urohibiting the export of
machinery should lie repealed, and the trade of m.-ichine making be placed
upon the same footing as other departments of British industry."

STIRLING'S AIR ENGINE.

Messrs. Stirling have constructed an air-engine, now working at the Dun-
dee Foundry, Vifhich fully realizes the expectations of the inventors : its supe-
riority over the steam engine consists in an immense saving of fuel, and in
its capabihty of being contained ia a very small space. For tlie purposes of
navigation these properties are invaluable. We subjoin a description of the
air-engine, furiushed us by a friend well acquainted with mechanics.

The air-engine now working at the Dundee Foundiy, for which a patent
was lately taken out, is the joint invcntiou of the Reverend Dr. Stirling, of
Galston, and of his brother, Mr. Stirling, engineer, Dundee.

The principle of the invention consists in alternately heating and cooling
two bodies of air confined in two separate vessels, which are arranged so, that,
by the stroke of two plungers worked by the engine, while the whole of the
air contained in one of the vessels is at the lower end immediately over the
furnace, and is consequently quite hot j the whole of the air contained in the
other vessel is at that time disposed at the upper end, which is cut off" from
auy commuiucation witli the furnace, and is therefore comparatively cold.

The expansion caused by the heat renders the air in the one vessel much
more elastic than that in the other ; and the two ends of the working cylinder,
which is fitted with a piston similar to that of a steam-engine, being respec-
tively connected with the two air-vessels ; a preponderating presstire is pro-
duced on one side of the piston, and it is thereby pushed to the opposite end
of the cylinder. By the alternate action of the plmigers in the two air-ves-
sels, this end of the cylinder then comes in its turn to be subjected to the
pressure, and the piston is thereby pushed back again to its former position,
and so it continues a reciprocating motion, and is applied to turn a crank iu
the same way that a steam engine does.

It has been satisfactorily shown that this engine may be worked with very
great economy of fuel as compared with a steam engine ; and the principal
means of producing the saving is this ; that, of the heat w hich is communi-
cated to the air from the furnaces, only a very small portion is entirely thrown
away when the air comes again to be cooled ; for, by making the air, in its
way from the hot to the cold end of the air-vessel, to pass through a chamber
divided into a number of small apertures or passages, the great extent of sur-
face with which it is thereby brought in contact, extracts iu the first place,
but only temporarily, the greater part of the heat from the air ; and after-
wards restores it to the air on its passage back again from the cold to the hot
end of the vessel. The process of cooUng is finally completed by making the
air to pass thrctigh between a number of tubes in which there is a current of
cold water, and thus far the heat caimot he made available again, but the
portion which is abstracted iu this way is very small.

As a sufficient expansive power cotdd not be attained from using air of the
common density of the atmosphere ; without either making the diameter of
the cylinder, and all the other parts of the engine inordinately large, or sub-
jecting the air to greater alternations of heat and cold than would be con-
venient; the air is used pretty highly compressed, and a much greater power
is thereby obtained upon a given area of the piston.

It is necessary therefore to employ a small air-pump to keep up the air to
the requisite density : but very little power is expended on this ; for, as the
same body of air is used over and over again, all that is required of the air-
pump, after the engine has been once charged, is to supply any loss that may
arise from leakage ; and this is found to be very trifling.

The machine has been working occasionally for about six months, and it
has been proved, to the satisfaction of the inventors, to be capable of per-
forming advantageously the amount of work which they bad reckoned on,
from their calculations, and from former experiments made on a working
model of about two horses' power. It has uow, for upwards of a month,
been doing work in driving all the machinery employed at the extensive en-
gineering works of the Dundee Foundry, which a steam engine of approved
construction bad hitherto been employed to do; and it has been ascertained
that the expenditure of fuel is, cetei-is paribus, only about one-fifth part of
what was required for the steam engine ; but, as considerable improvements
are contemjilated in some of the details, it is confidently expected that a much
greater saving of fuel eventually will be effected.

The whole machine, including its furnaces and heating apparatus, stands
in about the same space that a steam engine of equal power would occupy
without its furnaces and boiler ; and, taking into account this saving of space,
along with the vast saving of fuel, the invention must necessarily be of im-
mense importance for all ordin<iry purposes requiring motive power ; and, as
an instance, it wotdd reduce the expense of the power employed in driving
machinery in Dundee alone by at least 25,000/. or 30,000/. a year; but,
viewed in reference to the purposes of navigation, the application of this in-
vention must lead to results still more extraordinary, and will render a voyage
to India roimd the Cape, by machinery, a matter of perfectly easy accom-
plishment.— Dundee Advertiser.

IIercu!anetm—ll is stated that the Neapolitan government have resolved
upon undertakin;; some new excavations at Herculancum and its neighbour-
hood, and it is added that they will be on an extensive scale. Negotiations
have commenced already with this view for the purchase of various estates
on tlie spot; and so soon as these purchases have been completed the works
will be commenced. A commission of antiquaries and architects is to he ap-
pointed by the Minister of the Interior and the Royal Academy of Sciences
to preside over the operations of the workmen ; and no doubt discoveries
will be made to add largely to the present knowledge of this interesting
ruined city, and the manners and customs of its former inhabitants.

1841.]

THE CnaL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

.353

THE ZINKING PROCESS.

We derive from the Revue Generate de VArcMltcture llie materials
for the following notes on the process of zinking iron, us described by
the Baron Menu de Mesnil, in the Report of the Committee of Inquiry
to the Minister of Marine in France. On the importance of preserv-
ing iron from oxydation it is unnecessary to make any remark, we
may just observe that the only effective modes hitherto used have been
tinning and glazing. In 1742 M. Maloin presented to the Royal Aca-
demy of Sciences a memoir on the analogy which he had observed be-
tween iron and tin, and points out a mode of zinking iron similar to the
modern one. Whether the price of zinc was then too high or other
difficulties stood in the way, it was not until 183G, that tlie process of
zinking was made effective by M. Sorel, wlio took out a patent for it
under the name of Galvanization of Iron. On the iSth September
1838, a committee was named by tlie Minister of Marine to make ex-
periments in the dockyard at Brest on zinking iron, by them a first
report was made recommending experiments to be made on a larger
scale, which latter commenced on the 14(h of May ISIO, and it was on
the 30th April of the present year that they made their report.

The process consists simply in dipping an iron article, previously
cleaned with acid, for 3 or 4 minutes into zinc infusion, then taking it
out progressively, shaking it in the air to get rid of the excess of zinc,
and at last plunging it suddenly in cold water; after which it only re-
quires to be rubbed over with fine sand and dried. What is called
Galvanization is therefore nothing more than a process similar to
tinning; but while iron is rendered more oxydable by contact with
tin, and oxidizes rapidly, if by any mistake in the preparation the iron
is left uncovered in any point ; in zinking, on the contrary, a true alloy
of zinc is formed on the surface of the iron, and the parts accidentally
left unzinked alone rust, and the evil is soon stopped. This latter fact
is enough to prove that the iron is not protected by any Galvanic effect
as is the opinion generally received. Thus in the operations pre-
paratory to zinking, such as cleaning by acid, &c., great care is taken
to free the surface of the iron by scraping from it all matters which
would resist the action of the acid, and prevent zinc from attaching to
the iron all over.

The cleaning with acid is an operation which requires much care,
for while it is indispensable that the iron subjected to the acid should
be wholly free from rust, care must also be had that the iron be not
too strongly acted upon by the acid, but be taken out at the proper
moment. Very weak acids only are used for the cleaning as a mix-
ture of nine parts of sulphuric acid with 100 of water. In France the
refuse acid used in purifying vegetable oils is also employed ; after a
certain time the acid can no longer be used, as it is almost wholly
turned into sulphate of iron, a salt which may be readily extracted,
and which would bring more than the worth of the acid used. The
time during which the iron is kept in the acid varies according to the
degree of rust from 12 to 24 hours.

The pieces after coming out of the acid bath are cleaned and passed
rapidly into hydrochloric acid of 15^, and then put in a stove to be
quite dried. It is in this state of absolute dryness that they may be
plunged into the zinc infusion. At the time of immersion the object
is powdered over with sal-ammoniac, a great part of which volatilizes,
and then decomposes, and the remainder, the acting portion, cleanses
the object a third time, and makes the zinking certain and perfect.
The use of this salt, on account of its value and the large quantity
used, forms a great part of the cost of zinking. The zinc bath soon
becomes covered with a black fluid matter, without adherence to the
surface of the bath, on which it forms a continuous layer. The work-
men consider it as advantageous to the zinking, and therefore take it
out of the bath after the day's work, and put it in again the next
morning, when they go back to work. During the night the zinc it
kept in fusion, and the surface exposed to the air, is tarnished and
oxydized, and it may be therefore allowed that the black matter acts
so as to dissolve the oxide formed, and thus to restore the surface of
the zinc to the purity requisite for zincing properly. An analysis of
this black matter, made at Brest by M. LangonneJ First Class Naval
Apothecary and Member of the Committee, shows it to be composed
of a great quantity of chlorure of zinc, a small portion of chlorure of
iron, and an insoluble compound of ammoniac and zinc. As we know
therefore that chlorure of zinc and ammoniac are good detersives, it is
not surprising that the black matter, having an analogous composition,
should be equally efficacious. The time that objects remain in the
zinc bath depends on the dimension, if they are thin, they must be
only rapidly passed through, if massive they must be left some minutes.
In general it is enough to take the objects out as soon as they leave
off giving out smoke or rather steam.

The immersion of the zinked object, still quite hot, in cold water.

is for the purpose of preventing the formation of oxide of zinc, which
tarnishes the surface, but this operation gives the iron a kind of tem-
pering, which added to the effect of a layer of alloy covering the sur-
face, renders it more brittle. Sheet iron in particular, on account of
its thinness, is subject to this inconvenience, and can no longer be bent
with ease. An improvement has however been recently made, which
avoids the dipping, the slight layer of oxide of zinc which is formed
on the surface, and which does not stick, is easily got rid off by rubbing
after the object has been cooled in sawdust and sand.

When objects have just been zinked, they have a metallic lustre,
which they will keep for a long time, when free from damp, but when
left in the air they by little and little tarnish, become covered with a
whitish efflorescence, which increases, acquires consistency, sticks to
the metal, and soon forms a continuous and solid layer, which preserves
the surface from ulterior alteration. This transformation is slow in
taking effect, and appears to be complete only after 15 or IS months'
exposure to the air. Even the weakest acids and the alkalis attack
and dissolve the zinc with the greatest facility and bare the iron.
Heated red for several minutes the layer of zinc in excess soon peels
off, but the iron is not yet bared, as the alloy of zinc and iron, more
adiierent, harder, and less fusible, long repel the action of heat.

The thickness of the zinc layer is very small; on cannon balls it
was only IG hundredths of a millimeter, on sheet iron it was from 7
to 12 thousandths of a millimeter, 9 thousandths is the mean. The
thickness has little ert'ect on the windage of cannon balls, but the com-
mittee suggest that zinking might be employed to increase the dia-
meter of deficient balls. The committee farther suggest that experi-
ments should be made to zinc old iron objects in order to preserve
them. The thickness of the layer of zinc, although so very small, is
amply sufficient, when we consider that an alloy is formed with the
iron, which extends its protective influence deeper into the met;d._

The influence of the air or water is very little on the zinked iron,
if entirely exposed, but if subjected to the action of water and air al-
ternately', they are more affected. Zinked apparatus produces no
injurious effect upon drinkable water.

As to the various articles on which they experimented the com-
mittee report that the zinking appears very effective for roofs and
cisterns. Zinked nails and bolts are recommended for shipping, but
the committee are not yet prepared to recommend them to supersede
copper. These nails are recommended for the decks of ships, as the
ordinary nails soon produce a black spot on the surface of the wood,
which penetrates and affects the fibres, gallate of iron being produced.
Zinked nails are strongly urged as substitutes for iron in securing
slates on root's, as the iron nails soon rust, particularly near the sea,
and in high winds are the chief cause of the slates falling. The zinked.
gutters the Committee consider will supersede tin. For the flues of
stoves the zinked iron is recommended, and zinked wire also meets
with their approbation. They had not made suflicient experiments
as to chains, but they reported that those which they had tried, when
put to the hydraulic test, supported it well. For locks and bolts in
lighthouses and sea buildings, zinking is exclusively advocated. An
advantage which zinc possesses for ear-rings for sails is that it does
not rust the sails, which is apt to rot them.

The Committee conclude by making several recommendations. They
report that zinking of wrought and cast iron can easily be practised in
all ordinary circumstances of the use of that metal, that zinking shows
every symptom of durability, and that it is of the greatest advantage
to the navy. They consequently recommend a contract to be made
with the patentee for the use of zinc in the arsenals of France, being
convinced of its efficacy.

S. L. AND CANDIDUS.

The question at issue between S. L. and myself seems as it were
about to be protracted as interminably as a Chancery suit. However
we now seem to understand each other somewhat more clearly than at
first : — at least there is one point on which he expresses himself de-
cidedly, and on which I can cordially agree with him ; since so far
from attempting to defend, he unscrupulously reprobates that sickly
soidisant Greektsm, and pseudo-classical style, which during the last
thirty years have given us so many " insipid abortions," where oppor-
tunities—now, alas ! not to be recovered — presented themselves for
achieving noble and original works.

Most certainly S. L. is not mistaken, when he imagines I will admit
that Grecian and Roman architecture affords resources not yet worked
out, ideas so capable of being yet further extended, that they may be
said to be as yet only very partially developed, whereas they have

3 A

a54

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[October,

only been studied and cramped in the mechanical productions of the
school. My chief surprise is that he should for a moment doubt or
affect to doubt my sentiments on that head, when I have more than
once plainly stated — though perhaps in the very same terms I now use
— that I am not an admirer of any one style in particular, however ex-
cellent it may be, to the exclusion of all others. My architectural
creed is of a more liberal and comprehensive kind-, it is free from
those narrow sectarian prejudices that blind some to all beauty — all
merit that docs not come under the standaitl of their favourite style.
So very far am I from being one of those who can not only tolerate, but
admire even inferior productions, provided they do but belong — if
only nominally — to what they consider the only legitimate mode, that
as far as esthetic value is concerned, I hold the manner in which a
style is treated to be even of more importance than the question of style
itself. So long as the work itself manifests artistic spirit, feeling and
power, the particular language of the art, it happens to be composed
in, is comparatively of little or no moment, however important it may
be from other considerations attending any given case ; — so far at least
adopting Pope's doctrine that

'■ M'hatc'cr is best administered is b"St."
By no means, was it my intention in what I first said to uphold the
Gothic in preference to all other styles, nor did I conceive that it
would be so construed by any one. And having thus cleared up S. L.'s
misconceptions— or at least his doubts, I may now leave him to call
Welby Pugin to account, as being a far greater offender — not only a
gtauiich advocate for Gothic, but so exceedingly intolerant withal, that
he would, were it in his power, exclude and uproot every thing else.
Yet, should he have read the Professor's " True Principles," S. L. will
probably not care to measure his strength with so redoubtable a cham-
pion. In case they should ever so encounter each other in argument,
they may probably be so well matched that each will make a convert,
—as such things have happened before now, and that S. L. will be
converted to Puginism, while Pugin goes over to " Paganism."

Candidus.

PROCSEDIIVGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES.

INSTITUTION OF CIVIL ENGINEERS.

April G. — The President in the Chair.

Experiments on ihe strength nf Iron Girders. By Thomas Cuhitt, Assoc.
Inst. C. E.

This comnumication gives in a tabular form the results of experiments
upon upwards of 60 pairs of cast iron girders, varying in length between
7 ft. f> in. and 27 feet, with corresponding depths, and of all the forms usually
adopted for beams for buildings. They were proved in pairs by a hydraulic
press placed between them, the ends being retained by wrought iron ties.
The deflexion was noted at each increase of pressure, and in many instances
the beams were fractured.

Sketches of the girders, and of the apparatus used for proving them, ac-
companied the paper ; from them five drawings have been made at the Insti-
tution to facilitate a reference to the information contained in the com-
munication.

Description of an improved Level and Stand. By G. Townsend.

This improvement lieing intended to procure a firmer basis and greater
fafility of adjustment than by the ordinary level, the autlior has adopted the
principle of the triangular plate, with three levelling screws, in the ordinary
instrument, with two pairs of screws, it has been found that the antagonist
screws, besides being apt to wear unequally, and to indent the lower plate,
are sometimes bent, and thus cause an unequal action upon the upper plate.
To. obviate these defects, the screws in the tripod level are made to work
into inverted cones, which are fixed in the three grooved arms of the stand
head ; the weight is more equally distributed, and the telescope more speedily
brought to a level.

The telescope is fixed to the levelling plate by an upright limb, and to this
is added a small longitudinal cross level, as in C lavatt's instrument. In the
improved stand, each of the legs is attached to two arms of the lower tripod
plate, by which means a firmer basis is obtained. The usual locking plate,
to secure the levelhng screws, is also attached to this instrument, and kept
in place by a spring catch ; there is also a metal ring fixed on the upright
limb, above the arms, and which falls into three spring catches in the table
plate, by which any derangement from accidental violence, or in removal
from one station to another, is effectually prevented.

A small circular spirit level is fixed in the stand in order to adjust it before
the instnuncnt he placed on it, by which means the labour of adjustment is
considerably abridged.

April 20. — The President in the Chair.

Experiments for determining the position of the Neutral Axia of rectangu-

lar beams of Cast and Wrought Iron and Wood, and also for ascertaining the
relative amount of compression and extension at their upper and under sur-
faces, when snbjecteJ to transverse strain. By Joseph Colthurst.

These experiments were undertaken in consequence of the difference of
opinion which has long existed respecting the position of the neutral axis of
extension and compression of iron and wood.

first experiment. — Two series of experiments were made to determine
this point by cutting through the centre of each of a set of eight girders,
each 0 ft. 6 in. long, 5 in. deep, and half inch thick, the first to the depth of
half an inch, the second to the depth of 1 inch, and so on, to the eighth
girder, in which only 1 inch of metal remained unsevered. The spaces cut
out were then filled with carefully fitted wrought iron keys, and the girders
were broken by the application of weights, in the expectation that these
weights would be some indication of the neutral point of each girder. The
results were, however, so irregidar, that no satisfactorj- deductions could be
drawn from them.

Second experiment. — The next attempt was made in the manner suggested
by the late .Mr. Tredgold, by drawing two fine hues, 2} inches apart, on a
polished surface at right angles to a girder, in the middle of its length ; it
was then subjected to strain, and dimensions were sought to he taken to de-
termine where their divergence and convergence commenced, but the diffe-
rences were too small to be susceptible of accurate determination, otherwise
than by a fine micrometrical operation, which at the time the author had not
an opjrortunity of applying. The following plan was therefore adapted.

Third experimejit. — In the side of a east-iron girder, 0 ft. 6 in. long, 7 in.
deep, and 1 inch thick, a recess was planed at the centre, 3 in. wide by -| in.
deep. This was filed up ven,- true, and fourteen small bars of wrought iron,
with conical ends, were placed in it at regular distances of J an inch apart.
These bars were of such lengths as to hold sufficiently tight to carry their
own weight, and yet that the slightest touch should detach them. The
girder was then subjected to strain. The supports were 6 feet apart;
with a strain equal to 100 tt. the lower bar fell out ; as it was increased, they
continued to drop, and with 1500 Ih. all those below the centre had fallen.
The strain was then increased to 7000 lb., but no more bars fell. The centre
bar remained exactly as when put in ; all those above the centre became
firmly fixed, and were evidently under considerable compressive force. The
strain was then gradually taken off, and all the bars above the centre fell out,
their ends having become compressed by the sides of the recess pressing on
them ; they were of course too short when the girder resumed its former
condition, and the recess its previous width. These experiments were re-
peated several times, with pieces of fine wire and dry lance-wood charred at
the ends.

The result in every case showed that the neutral axis of extension and
compression was certainly situated within -^ of an inch of the centre.

Another experiment was still more decisive. A girder 9 ft. 6 in. long,
8 in. deep, 1 in. thick, was cast with two brackets or projections on the side,
each 9 in. on either side of the centre. A brass tube bar, with circular ends
and a sliding adjustment, wiis fixed between the brackets, which had been
filed true. Tlie clear bearing was 7 ft. 6 in. ; a strain of 50 tb. was sufficient
to cause this bar to drop out ; and with 250 lb. the whole effect of the pre-
vious experiment was produced. The tube, when placed loosely, 1 inch
above the centre, was held fast by a strain of 1000 lb.

Wrought Iron. — Similar experiments were then made on wrought iron,
with precisely the same results, showing that the neutral axis, if not actually
situated at the centre, was nearly identical with it.

Wood. — A similar series of ex))eriments, made upon wood beams, gave
exactly the same results as regarded the position of the neutral axis.

From all the foregoing experiments, the author concludes that the neutral
axis of extension and compression in rectangiilar beams of cast and wrought
iron and wood, is situated at the centre of their depth, when those beamsare
subjected to transverse strains.

Extension and compression. Cast Iron. — Experiments were also instituted
to ascertain the amount of extension and compression of cast and wrought
iron and wood.

Upon a bar of cast iron, 3 inches square, and 9 feet long, two strips of
thin hoop iron were attached, the one on the upper, and the other on the
lower side, each strip being fastened to the bar at one end only, while the
other end was left free ; any change which occurred in the length of the
surface to which it was applied was clearly indicated. The differences were
recorded by very fine lines on a polished surface. The strips were 7 ft. C in.
long, and were bound to the whole length of the beam by bands of fine wire,
wound round and enclosing them at every 9 inches ; the beam was then sub-
jected to strain, and the following results were obtained : —

VeiKht.

Deflection.

Compression.

Extensio

lb.

inches.

inches.

Inches.

1000

0-22

2000

045

0041

■6^\

3000

0-65

006

006

4000

0-87

008

008

5000

1-20

Oil

012

6000

1-50

013

014

6240 the beam broke ; good iron, showing a good clear fracture.

It will be perceived, that until rather more than two-thirds of the breaking

weight was put on, the amounts of extension and compression did not sen-

1841.1

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

355

8ibly differ, but between tbat point and the breaking weight, extension
yielded in a higher ratio than compression.

Wrought Iron. — Similar experiments were next made on bars of wrought
iron, 2i in. square; the supports were 13 ft. 6 in. apart, and the strips of
oop iron were 12 feet long.

Weight. Deflection. Compression. Extension, lilaslicity.
lbs. inches. inches. inclici. impaired.

500 0-55 003 003

1000 1-55 0-06 0-06

1280 1-4.') 0-07 OO" 0-15

15C0 1-85 008 008

1800 2-20 009 009

2000 2-70 Oil Oil 0-65

2280 4-15 0-18 0-19 205

With this weight the beam was permanently bent, and its elasticity nearly
cstroyed.
These experiments showed tbat, differing from cast iron, the amounts of
extension nd compression in wrought iron continue to be equal up to the
complete destruction of the elasticity of the beam.

Fir battens. — The amounts of extension and compression in rectangular
beams of fir timber, when subjected to transverse strain, were next deter-
mined ; the manner of proceeding was precisely the same as in the preceding
experiments.

A batten, i in. by 3 in., with the supports 8 ft. 2 in. apart, and with strips
7 ft. 6 in. long, when subjected to transverse strain, gave these results : —
Weight. Deflection. Compression. K.vtensioc.

lb. inches. inches. inches.

500 110 0-12 0-12

1000 2-30 0-24 0-24

Results. — From these experiments on the amount of extension and com-
pression of cast iron, measured at the under and upper surfaces of rectangular
beams, subjected to transverse strain, the author assumes, that within limits
which considerably exceed those of elasticity, and equal to at least two-thirds
of the breaking weight, there is no sensible difference between the amounts
of compression and extension, and that as the breaking point is approached,
extension yields in a higher ratio than compression, and gives way first.

It would appear certain that up to the point when the elasticity of wrought
iron is completely destroyed, and the beam is bent, the amounts of com-
pression and extension continue exactly equal, and it is therefore probable
that this equality would continue to the last.

It is clear that the amounts of extension and compression up to three-
fourths af the breaking weight do not sensibly differ in fir battens, but that
as the ultimate strength of the beam is approached, compression yields in a
much higher ratio than extension, and may be actually seen to give way first.
He states also, that the amounts of extension and compression are in direct
proportion to the strain, within the limits of elasticity, and that even after
those limits are greatly exceeded, and up to three-fourths of the strength of
a beam, they do not sensibly differ.

The apparatus with which these experiments were made was exhibited,
and presented by the author to the Institution.

Mr. Donkin eulogised the novel and ingenious manner in which Mr. Col-
thurst had conducted the experiments, which he considered to be highly
satisfactory. They not only determined the position of the neutral axis of
the beams experimented upon, but showed also the relative amounts of com-
pression and extension, so as to demonstrate that the elasticity of a body
was the same in compression as in extension. These experiments also con-
firmed the correctness of Tredgold's opinion as to the pernicious effects of
attempting to produce peculiar forms in beams by cambering and inserting
wedges into their upper sides.

Mr. Vignoles reminded the meeting of the discussions which bad taken
place relative to the position of the neutral axis in the raUway bars, which
had the upper and under tables similar ; it was contended tbat the neutral
axis was situated close beneath the upper lip, or table of the rail, whereas, if
Mr. Colthurst's mode of experimenting had been adopted, a different and
more correct result would have been arrived at.

Mr. Cubitt accorded great merit to Mr. Colthurst for the experiments,
which had determined the question as regarded rectangular beams. It ap-
peared tbat no attempt had been made to use the same mode of proceeding
with beams of irregular figures ; in them, therefore, it might he concluded,
that the neutral axis would he found in the centre of gravity of the section
of the beam.

Mr. J. Home remarked, that these experiments perfectly accorded with
those which be laid before the Institution in 1837. His object had been to
show that the neutral axis was always in the centre of gravity of the section,
as well as to determine the figure which should resist the greatest amount of
pressure with a given quantity of materials ; the strongest form was shown
to be a prism, placed with the base upwards, and the same figure reversed
was the weakest ; the strength of the former figure exceeded that of the lat-
ter by at least one-third.

■ipril 27. — The President in the Chair.

Memoir of the Montrose Suspension Bridge. By J. M. Rendel, M. Inst. C.E.

Previous to the year 1792, the passage of the River Esk at Montrose was
eflfected by common ferry boats j at that period an act of parliament was ob-

tained for the construction of a wooden bridge, with numerous arches, or
rather openings formed by heams, supported upon piles, ivith stone abut-
ments at either end ; the action of the tide undermining the piles, and the
usual progress of decay causing great expense for repairs, it was decided in
the year lh2.>, to erect a suspension bridge, the iron work of which was con-
tracted for by Captain bamuel Urown, R.N., for the sum of £9,430, and the
masonry of the towers for £9,080. The total cost being £18,510, exclusive
of the land arches and approaches; those of the old bridge being preserved
for tlic new one. ° '^

The dimensions of the new bridge were

Peet.

432

42

412

26

21

68

40 by 20

Distance from centre to centre of the towers
Deflection of the chain or versed sine of the catenary
Length of the suspended roadway
Width of ditto ......'

Height of ditto above low water . . [

Ditto of tlie towers above ditto
Base of the towers at the level of the roadway
Archways through the towers . . 16 wide, 24 high

The towers were built of red sandstone ashlar, raised on a base of the
same material, carried upon piles.

Construction.—lhere were two main chains on each side, arranged above
each other in parallel curves, 12 inches apart. Each chain was composed of
four bars of iron, 5 inches wide by 1 inch thick, and 10 feet long, united by
short plates, and strong wrought iron pins. The roadway was suspended to
these chains by perpendicular rods. 1^ inch in diameter, attached at intervals
of 5 feet, alternately to the upper and lower lines of main chains, at the
joints, which were arranged so that those of the upper chain should be over
the long bars of the lower one ; at the lower end of each suspending rod
was a stuTup, which received and carried the cast-iron bearers for supportine
the roadway. °

Upon these bearers was laid and rivetted longitudinally a flooring of fir
planks, 3 inches thick, and well caulked ; upon this a sheathing of fir, 1 J in.
thick, was placed transversely, and spiked to the lower planks ; over all was
spread a coating of about 1 inch thick of fine gravel and sand, cemented with
coal tar.

The suspending rods were without joints. The main chains rested upon
detached cast iron saddles, built into the masonry of the towers, and passing
down at either extremity, were secured behind cast iron plates in masses of
masonry, 10 feet under ground.

The construction was commenced in September, 1828, and was finished in
December, 1829, a period of only sixteen months.

Accident to the Bridge.— On the 19th of March, 1830, about 700 persons
assembled on the bridge to witness a boat race, when one of the main chains
gave way, and caused considerable loss of life. The injury was speedily re-
paired, but a careful survey of the structure was ordered, and it was dis-
covered that the intermediate or long Unks of the chains bore so unequally
upon the saddles as to he bent and partially fractured. Mr. Telford, who
was consulted on the subject, proposed the addition of two other main chains
placed above the original ones, aud having the same curve, so as to increase
the sectional area 40 inches— thus giving six chains of 20 inches area each,
instead of four chains, as originally constructed.

Mr. Telford's decease occurring at that period, the author was instructed
to report upon the state of the bridge, and advise such alterations as he
judged to be necessary.

After a minute personal inspection he concurred in Mr. Telford's idea of
the necessity of increasing the strength of the bridge, but instead of aug-
menting the number of the chains, he advised the addition of two bars in
width to each of those existing, by which means the required strength might
be gained. He was led to this by an opinion that, in all cases, it is'desirable
to have as few chains as possible.

It appeared that there bad been hut little precision in the workmanship of
the chains ; for on releasing them they immediately became twisted ; thus
showing that all the links had not a true bearing. On taking them apart,
many of the traversing pins were found to be bent, and some of them were
cut into, evidently by the friction of the links. This was to be rectified, and
new saddles of a different principle and stronger form were recommended :
also, that those parts of the chains which rested in the saddles should be en-
tirely composed of short plates. Additions to the masses of masonry holding
the chains were likewise deemed advisable.

Between the years 1835 and 1838, all the principal works, with many
minor improvements, were executed.

In the author's report on the state of the bridge, he noticed what he
deemed defects in the construction of the roadway, but as there was no posi-
tive symptom of failure, it was allowed to remain. He conceived, that in
the anxiety to obtain a light roadway, mathematicians and even practical
engineers had overlooked the fact, that when hghtness induced flexibility,
and consequently motion, the force of momentum was brought into action,
and its amount defied calculation.

On the 11th of October, 1838, the roadway of the bridge was destroyed
by a hurricane, the effect of which upon this structure is the subject of a
paper by Colonel Pasley, published in part 3, vol. 3, of the Transactions of
the Institution C. E. 'fo that account the author refers for the principal
details, only adding, that on inspecting the bridge, he found the chains, the
saddles, and the fastenings or moorings, quite sound ; the principal portion

3 A 2

356

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[October^

of tlie roadway had been complelely carried away, and tlie remainder much
injured, lie then gives some account of the uiidulatory motion ohser\ed
during the storm. This motion was greatest at about midway between the
towers and the centre of the roadway; hut tlie waves of the platform did
not coincide witli those of the chains, either in magnitude or in order ; no
oscillatory motion was perceived either in tlie roadway or in the chains, al-
though particular attention was directed to them.

It appears that the centre of the platform fell in a mass. This the author
attributes t the failure of the suspension rods, which , having no joints, were
twisted oft' close to the floor by the undulatory motion. A similar occur-
rence at the Menal Bridge* induced Mr. Provis to adopt the joints in the
suspension rods, which the author had previously introduced at the Montrose
Bridge.

The author had long been convinced of the importance of giving to the
roadways of suspension bridges the greatest possible amount of stiffness, in
such a manner as to distribute the load or the effect of any violent action
over a considerable extent.

The platfoims of large bridges, in exposed situations, are acted upon in so
many different ways by the wind, that he had an objection to the use of
stays or braces to counteract movements which ought rather to be resisted
by the form of the structure.

Holding such opinions, he determined to adopt a framing which, although
connectedly rigid in every direction, should nevertheless be simple, composed
of few parts, cajialile of l)eing easily renewed; should distribute its weight
uniformly over the chains, not be subject to change from variation of tempe-
rature, and not augment the usual weight of suspended platforms.

The details of the alterations, and general repair of the bridge, arc then
given ; a few may be mentioned.

An entirely new set of stronger suspending rods was introduced; they
were IJ of an inch in diameter down to the flexible joint at the level of the
platform ; below that point the diameter was increased to IJ of an inch, and
a strong thread was cut on to the lower end, so as to adjust them to the re-
quisite lengths.

In the place of the cast iron bearers cross beams were substituted, com-
posed of two Memel planks, 13 inches deep, 3.V inches thick, bolted together,
and trussed with a round bar 1 -^ inch diameter ; every sixth beam had a deep
trussed frame on the under side, so as to give great stiffness. Above and
beneath the cross beams, on each side of the carriage way, were bolted two
sets of longitudinal timbers, four in each set ; they were further united by
cast iron boxes, at intervals of 10 feet ; and the ends were secured to beams
of English oak, built into the masonry of the towers. A curb of Memel
timber, 11 inches by 6 inches, was attached to the ends of the cross bearers,
and extended the whole length of the platform.

The planking of the footways was composed of narrow battens, 2 inches
thick, laid transversely from the inner longitudinal beam to the outer curb
piece, with an inclination or drip of l\ incli in 5 feet.

The carriage way was formed of four thicknesses of Memel plank ; the
two lower layers, each 2 inches thick, were placed diagonally with flic trans-
verse beams, crossing each other so as to form a reticulated floor, abutted
against the longitudinal beams; they were firmly spiked to tlie beams, and
to each other, at all the intersections, and upon them was laid and spiked a
longitudinal layer of Memel planking, 2 inches thick. Over the whole was
fixed, transversely, a layer of slit battens, \] inch thick. Each hayer was
close jointed and caulked, and the upper one was laid in a mixture of pitch
and tar. A composition of fine gravel and sand, cemented with boiled gas
tar, was laid over the whole, to the thickness of 1 inch, forming the road
track.

To add to the stiffness afforded by tliis construction, the author caused to
be passed through the spaces between the pairs of longitudinal beams, a
series of diiigonal truss pieces of Memel timber, G inches square, with their
ends stepped into the cast-iron boxes, which, at every 10 feet, grasp the
beams. On the other ends of tliese diagonal truss pieces, cast iron boxes
were fixed, which received the straining pieces, placed 3 ft. fi in. above, and
the same depth below, the roadway: an iron screw bolt, 1] inch diameter,
at every 10 feet, and a contrivance of wedges in the cast iron boxes, enabled
any degree of tension to be given to the framing.

The roadway was thus stift'ened by two of the strongest kinds of framing,
in parallel bncs, dividing the carriage way from the foot-paths ; it was deemed
preferable to disconnect them from the suspending rods, and, by bringing
them nearer together, to .avoid a twisting or unequal strain. The whole
formed a compact mass of braced wood work, the diagonal planking giving
the horizontal stifl"ness, and the two trussed frames insuring the vertical
rigidity.

The weight of the new roadway was — Tons. Cwt.

Wood work 130 19

Cast and wrought iron about ditto . . 36 G

AVrought iron in the suspending rods . . 20 14

Ditto in the fencing 8 18

Gravel concrete 30 0

Total 226 1 7

The weight of the original roadway was —
Wood work ....

Cast iron about ditto
Wrought iron in the suspending rod
Gravel concrete

Tons. Cwt.

69 0

92 0

12 9

30 0

Total 203 9

Or 47.5 lb. per square foot, superficial, for the entire roadway

' Minutes of proceedings, pages 167, and 204.

Or 23 tons less than the new roadway.

Cos/. — The platform described is 412 feet long, and 27 feet wide; it cost
.-£4026 or about 7s. 3t/. per superficial foot.

The works were completed in the summer of 1840; the bridge has borne
without injury the gales of the last winter; and the stiffness of the platform
has given confidence in its strength to all who have examined it.

Five elaborate drawings of the bridge, giving all the details of its construc-
tion on a large scale, accompanied this communication ; they were presented
by Mr. Page on his election as an Associate of the Institution.

Mr. Seaward agreed with Mr. Rcndel in the advantage of reducing the
number of suspension chains, aud thus rendering the whole construction as
simple as possible. The trussed framing, which appeared to be the main
feature of this bridge, was particularly deserving of commendation, as it im-
parted a degree of stiffness to the platform which had not hitherto been at-
tained in other cases, although it was demonstrated to be the best method of
preventing the undulation which was so prejudicial to the suspension bridges.

Mr. Itendel had, on a previous occasion,* explained his view of the action
of wind upon the platforms of suspension bridges, and of the necessity of a
certain degree of stiffness in the construction ; tliis he conceived would
always be better attained by having a simple well-trussed framing to prevent
undulation, than by the application of braces or stays to check either undu-
lation or oscillation— the latter being in his opinion only the result of the
former.

He would now only insist more forcibly upon those points. The roadway
should be so stift" as to prevent as much as possible all tendency to motion,
because it added to the nafiiral decay of every part of the structures; for
instance, he found on taking down the chain of the Montrose Bridge, after
seven or eight years' wear, that the pins of the links were cut some depth
into; demonstrating how great had been the amount of motion among the
links. In constructing suspension chains, after this experience, he should be
inclined to abandon the circular form for the pins, and forge them of a long
oval shape in their transverse section ; making the apertures in the links by
drilling two holes, and cutting out the metal between them with a machine ;
this form of pin would allow sufficient play for the necessary curve of the
chain, while the pin itself would be stronger, would weaken the link less
than the large circular hole, and would be less expensive to manufacture.
He disapproved of all the complicated contrivances for allowing expansion of
the main chains ; he had found that plain saddles of proper form were quite
sufficient to permit the expansion of the back chains, which was all that
required attention.

Mr. Palmer mentioned, on the authority of Mr. Chapman, the destruction
of a suspension bridge in America, caused by the sudden passing of a drove
of cattle when frightened. This was peculiar, as it always had been con-
sidered that an irregular motion was innocuous, hut that when any regular
impulses were communicated, there was danger of fracture of the bars.

ilr. Vignoles eulogized this excellent communication for the practical con-
clusions which it contained. Mr. lieudel had materially assisted in affording
facility of communication by the introduction of the floating bridges, in com-
munication with railways, and it was not difficult to foresee that, by carrying
out the system of adapting well-trussed framings to the platforms of suspen-
sion liridgcs, sufficient rigidity would be attained for locomotive engines and
carriages on railways, to traverse rivers or ravines by means of these bridges,
instead of by costly viaducts or heavy embankments.

Mr. Kendel saw no difficulty in giving any required amount of rigidity to
the platfonns ; it was only necessary to increase the strength of the framing,
to enable tlie roadway to bear with perfect safety the passage of an engine
and a train of carriages.

The President directed the attention of the members to what he considered
the most valuable part of this interesting communication — the detection of
the errors in the original construction of the bridge. This was the most
useful class of papers which members could present to the Institution, and
they were particularly valuable when they were illustrated by such complete
drawings as those now communicated by Mr. Page on his election. He
hoped this example would be extensively followed. He mentioned that an
attempt had been made to carry a railway across the Tees by a suspension
bridge, but it had been abandoned.

Mr. Rendel understood that the weight of the trains had so stretched the
chains, or rather forced the moorings of the back chains of the bridge over
the Tees, that the platform sunk in the centre so as to prevent the passage
of the carriages ; piles had therefore been driven beneath each bearer of the
roadway, and the chains now remained merely to show that it had formerly
been a suspension bridge.

May 4. — The Pbesidk.vt in the Chair.

" Suppleinentary Account of the I'ne of aiLriliary Steam Power, on board
the ' Earl of Ilardxp'cke' and the ' Vernon ' Indiamen." By Samuel Seaward,
M. Inst. C.E.

' Minutes of Proceedings, page 205

1841.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

35T

The advantage of the employment of auxilian- steam power, on boiird large
sailing ships, had been shown by tlie author in a former paper (p. 63) ; it was
now further exemplified by the result of the recent voyages of the " Earl of
Hardwiclie" and the "Vernon."

Earl of Ilardwicke. — This vessel, of 1000 tons burthen, with one engine
of 30-horse power, effected the voyage from Portsmouth to Calcutta in 110
days, a much longer time than usual ; but still with an advantage of 29 days
over the " Scotia," a fine vessel of 800 tons, which sailed one week before
the " Ilardwicke," and arrived 22 days after her. During the voyage, the
" Ilardwicke" used her engine 3C-1 hours, and was propelled by it 9-lG knots ;
an average of nearly three knots per hour : while in a calm, with the ship
steady, she made five knots per hour. The total consumption of fuel was 90
tons.

The '• Vernon," which sailed one month after the " Ilardwicke," made her
passage to Calcutta in 97 days ; passed the " Scotia," and arrived seven days
before her, gaining 42 days upon her during the voyage. The "Vernon's"
consumption of fuel was also 90 tons, but the copy of her log not being ar-
rived, the number of hours dming which steam was used, could not be ascer-
tained.

The " India" steam ship, of 800 tons burthen, with engines of 300 horse
power, had not arrived at Calcutta, althongh she had been out 109 days, so
that the " Vernon," with only auxihary steam power, had already gained 12
days upon her.

The comparison between the advantages of these two vessels, in point of
expense, is then fully entered into, and shows a saving of £3733 in favour
of the " Vernon," on a single voyage, while she gained at least 12 days upon
the " India," in point of time.

This communication is accompanied by a copy of the log of the " Earl of
Hardwicke," and by letters from the captains of that ship and the "Vernon,"
speaking in the highest terms of the assistance of the steam power in certain
parts of the voyage."

" Description of an improved Levelling Staff, and a modification of the
common Level." By Thomas Stevenson.

In enumerating the advantages of this improvement, the author passes in
review the difl'erent levelling instruments in general use. He describes the
self-reading staff as very useful, but ill adapted to the extreme accuracy gene-
rally necessary in the operation of levelling. — He considers the running level
to be equally inadequate, from the difficulty of attaining a precise coincidence
in the cross wires and the vane line.

On the authority of Mr. Simms, in his Treatise on Mathematical Instru-
ments, he states that these evils are in some measure remedied by Mr. Gra-
vatts' rod, but he still considers tiiat instrument to be imperfect. He there-
fore caused a rod to be constructed by Mr. Adie, of Edinburgh, the vane of
which is adjusted by tangent screws. The range of this staff is 12' 7 feet,
and the graduation so perfect as to be read by verniers to the -j-oW' °f "
foot. On the right of the lower portion of the rod there is a screw, which,
on being tightened, clamps the vane, and on the opposite side is the tangent
screw for adjusting it. Supposing in practice that the level line strikes the
lower half of the rod, the vane and screw are then easily moved liy the band
to within \ inch of the point, and then, by means of the tangent screw, per-
fect correctness can be attained.

After having sent his communication to the Institution, the author learnt
from the Secretary that adjusting screws had already been used in two other
leveUing staves by Captain Lloyd and by Mr. Bunt. He was not, however,
aware of this circumstance, and he considers that these instruments being
adapted only for scientific purposes, are hardly suitable for the ordinary use
of the engineer.

Improved Level. — The author also introduced a ball and socket joint at the
junction of the legs of the common level, retaining at the same time the
parallel screw plates, and adding beneath a small sluggish spherical level. By
these means the surveyor is enabled to station the instrument, regardless
either of the inequalities of the ground, or of the inclination of the telescope
to the horizon.

When in use the clamp of the ball and socket is released, and the head of
the level moved until the bubble shall be in the middle of the circle ; the
socket screw is then clamped, and the telescope brought to the absolute level
by means of the parallel screws. It becomes thus unnecessary to move the
legs of the instrument when once fixed.

" An improved mode of Paving Streets." By Edward Lomax.

In this communication the author proposes to remedy the danger and diffi-
culty of stopping or turning horses during wet or frosty weather on wood
pavement. His plan is, that a breadth of 2 feet 6 inches, near each side of
the street, should be paved with stone, for the horses to travel upon, the car-
riage wheels still running upon wood ; by which means all the advantages of
that kind of pavement would be preserved without risk to the horse. In
very wide streets a centre track might also be paved with stone.

By this plan the labour of the horse would be greatly diminished, a con-
sideration portion of his power being now lost, because the wood pavement
is less favourable for the footing of the horse than for the motion of the
vheels.

The author is therefore of opinion, that granite pavement for the horse to
travel upon, and wood pavement for tlie wheel way, would form a road on

which the horse would work with the least loss of power, and the greatest
safety.

A model of the proposed improvement accompanied the paper.

" Specimens of Sea-weed used for sea defences."

Mr. Macneill presented three specimens of the Sea-weed with wliich the
Sea Embankments are formed in some parts of Holland. — He described one
of the specimens in its natural state as resembling the weed which is collected
by the peasantry on the western and north-western shores of Ireland, and
used by them for bedding. — The second specimen was taken from near the
bottom of the embankment at Niewe Diep, the entrance of the grand canal
near the Helder. It was much compressed, but elastic. — The third specimea
was less compressed ; it was taken from the same embankment, above the
range of the ordinary neap tides.

This embankment is of considerable width, and has very little slope to-
wards the sea : the work appeared extremely compact and solid ; he saw it
when a heavy sea was running in, and each action of the waves against it
caused a vibration throughout the whole mass — thus proving the elasticity of
the material when consolidated, and corroborating the Hon. Mr. Stewart's
description of the same effect upon the peat sod embankments, in a paper
shortly to be laid before the Institution. Mr. Macneill spoke with confidence
of the efficiency of the peat sod for sea defences, as he had used it with good,
effect, although at present only to a limited extent.

The attention of the Members of the Institution was especially directed to
the sea embankments of Holland, as afl'ording excellent study and ample ma-
terials for communications for the meetings.

On Lead Sheathing for Sliips. By J. J. Wilkinson.

The commencement of this communication, which is the continuation of
the paper on the " Wood sheathing of Ships," which was read March 23rd
(page 318), examines in great detail the various uses to which metals were
put in the earliest period of which any record exists, and then it traces the
first .ipplieation of lead to the protection of shipping.

There are very early instances of ships and vessels being covered with lead.
In the 15th century, a boat, 30 feet in length, was found in the Mediterra-
nean sunk in 12 fathoms water ; it was built of cypress and larch. The deck
was covered with paper and linen, and over all with plates of lead, fastened
with gilt nails ; this covering proved so impervious to moisture, that parts of
the interior were perfectly dry. It is supposed to have lain there above
1-100 years. A Roman ship was also found sunk in the Lake of \erai. The
hull was of larch ; bitumen had been applied to the outside, over which was
a coating of a reddish colour, and the whole covered with sheets of lead,
fastened by gilt nails. The interior had a thick coating of cement made of
iron and clay. The seams of the planks were caulked with tow and pitch.

Some of the ancient domes at Ephesus were sheathed with lead, and it
appears that the column of Constantine at Constantinople was formerly
covered wifli metal.

It is certain that lead mines were worked in Britain by the Romans ; and
long before the Conquest, plates of lead were used as coverings for eccle-
siastical buildings. These coverings being designed to endure, were of very
thick lead.

Water pipes. — In 1231, water was brought from Tyburn to London in
pipes ; but the material of the pipes has not been ascertained. In 1285, the
great conduit in Cheapside was supplied with water conveyed through pipes
from Paddington ; these pipes are expressly stated to have been of lead. It
has, however, been averred, that lead pipes for conveying water were first
introduced by Robert Brook, in the reign of Henry the Eighth.

Sheet lead was used in Spain and Portugal for sheathing ships, and for
covering the rudders, long before it %vas employed in England. It was used
in Holland in 1666, and at Venice in 1710. — It is probable that we are in-
debted to Sebastian Cabot for its introduction into England ; it is stated ia
his Memoirs that he first saw it used in 1514 ; be was then in the service of
the king of Spain, which he entered in 1512, and was appointed pilot major;
he afterwards returned to England, and in 1553 was named by Queen Mary,
" Governor of the Mysterie and Company of Merchant Adventurers, for the
discovery of Regions, Dominions, Islands, and Places, unknown," — Three
vessels were fitted out for this purpose, under the command of Sir Hugh
Willoughby, one of which was sheathed, or at least partly so, with thin plates
of lead, then first mentioned as an " ingenious invention." This expeditiOQ
was unfortunate — Sir Hugh Willoughby, with the crew of two of his ships,
being frozen to death ; one of the commanders, and his crew, alone escaped.
This expedition was the origin of the trade to Russia, and of the Spitzbergea
Whale Fishery.

In the reign of Elizabeth a patent was granted to one Humphrey, for
melting lead, but was afterwards recalled, the plan not being new.

Milled lead. — It appears that, up to about 1670, cast sheet lead was used
for sheathing; at that time milled lead was invented, and a patent for milling
lead was granted to Sir Philip Howard and Francis Watson ; by this process
the inequalities, as well as the defects from air holes, in the former mode of
manufacture, were remedied ; the whole surface was rendered smooth and
uniform, and the weight greatly reduced. This invention met with much
opposition from the plumbers, who averred that it could not be durable ; an
offer was therefore made on the part of the Milled Lead Company, to keep in
repair during 41 years all milled lead of the weight of 7 lb. per square foot, at
the rate of five shillings annually per each hundred pounds worth in value. —
One of the earliest vessels in the royal navy thus sheathed, was the Phoenix, a

358

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL

[October,

fourth rate. This was done at the express command of Charles II. This
vessel made two voyages to the Straits, apparently for the express purpose of
testing the new invention, and on her return in 1G<'.'}, was careened at Uept-
ford, and personally inspectod by the King. An order was then issued that
his .NIajesty's ships should in fi!tuie he sheathed only with lead, excepting by
especial order from the Navy Board. It appears that about 20 ships of the
royal navy were consequently sheathed with milled lead, and fastened with
copper nails. — Even the royal protection could not save this invention from
cavillers, so that, in ICT" and 1078, complaints were made by Sir John Nar-
borough and Sir John Kempthorne, that the rudder irons of the IMymouth
and the Dreadnought were so much eaten, as to render it unsafe for those
Tessels to proceed to sea ; these complaints were repeated in 16S2. — The pa-
tentees maintained, on the contrary, that the damage to the rudder irons
could not possibly arise from their being covered with lead, as it had been
the invariable practice for a great many years, to secure the iron work of
ships, generally, by lead covering, and especially by capjiing the beads of
their bolts, under water, with lead, seized to and nailed over them. Reports
too in favour of the invention were made by Sir I'hineas Pett, and by Mr.
Betts, master builder, at Portsmouth, in which the latter stated, that lead had
effectually prevented the vessels becoming what is technically termed " iron-
sick," meaning that the bolt-holes became so widened by corrosion, that the
bolts were loosened ; he recommended, however, that the lead sheathing
should be stripped every seven years, on account of the decay of the oakum
in the joints ; declaring, too, that it became less foul on the voyage than wood
sheathing, and was much more easily cleaned. These different opinions led
I to the issue of an Order i]i Council in 1C82, for the appointment of commis-
sioners to examine and report upon the alleged injury to the iron work by
milled lead covering ; it is |)robable their report was unfavourable, as it is
said that the use ot lead covering, fastened with copper nails, was abandoned
on account of the rapid corrosion of the rudtler irons. A controversy appears
to have arisen on this subject, the merits of which it would be difficult to as-
certain after such a lapse of years. Government, however, subsequently de-
termined to make another trial of the value of lead covering ; accordingly,
the .Marlborough was so sheathed, and laid up in ordinary, at Sheerness. A
few years after, she was docked, at Chatham, in 1770, when it was found that
the lead sheathing was covered with weeds, and the iron fastenings very much
decayed ; the lead was in consequence removed, and a wood sheathing sub-
stituted.

Mixture of metals. — Several patents were afterwards obtained for different
mixtures of metal for this purpose, none of which seem to have succeeded,
being all subject to the same inconveniences as the simple metal ; among
vrhich was the influence of the sun in the torrid zone, which was said to re-
duce the lead, in the course of five or six years, to a calx. — .\mong these
patents, for mixed metals for sheathing, is mentioned that of Mr. Bulteel, in
1693 ; it was found to have all the inconveniences of lead. Mr. Donithorue,
in 1780, obtained a patent for sheathing, of a mixture of 112 parts of tin to
10 parts of zinc; this was also as objectionable as lead. — Slade's patent for
sheathing with copper laid upon lead, and the patents of Wetterstedt, and of
Muntz, for mixed metals, are examined ; and the author promises a continua-
tion of the subject, with the liistory of copper sheathing.

BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE.

Eleventh Meeting, 1841.

(From the reports of the Athenceum.J

" On Trtmcott's plan for Reefii^ Paddle Wheels."

Mr. Chatfield described, by reference to a model, an improved paddle-
wheel, the principal feature of which was a new application of the principle
of feathering and reefing. Each paddle or float is attached to an axis passing
through its centre, with a crank at the extremity of the axis, and the feather-
ing is elfected by the motion of a roller attached to this crank, and moving
in a groove eccentric to the wheels. The radii of the paddle wheel are con-
nected at their extremities by a chain instead of a rigid rim, and the reefing
is effected by drawing the radii together, like the folding of a fan. by means
of a peculiar arrangement of the clutch box at the centre of the wheel.

" On a Plan of Disenyaging and Reconnecting the Paddle WheeU of Steam
Engines. By J. Grantham.

There are four cases in which it may he desirable to disconnect the paddle
wheels from the steam engine in steam vessels, viz., when the vessel is on a
long voyage, and the fuel must be economized as much as possible by using
the sails on every favourable opportunity ; when the engines are damaged,
and, the vessel being close to a lee shore, it is necessary to disengage the en-
gines quickly, to allow the vessel to make sail ; when some derangement has
taken place, and the engines are allowed to continue to work imperfectly to
the end of the voyage, rather than detain the vessel by causing the paddles
to drag throngh the water while the engines are stopped ; when, the vessel
being at anchor, the action of the swell and tide on the paddle floats, while
stationary, causes a great additional strain on the cables, which would he ob-
viated could the wheels play freely. The Admiralty had called attention to
the subject, by inviting ])lans for effecting it. Several had been proposed for
disconnecting the paddles, but Mr. Grantham is not aware of any plan hav-

ing been proposed by which the wheels could be readily reconnected in a
heavy sea. The crank pins are usually fixed in the cranks of the intermediate
shaft, a little play being allowed in the eye of the crank of the paddle shaft,
to prevent the crank pins from breaking when the centres of the three shafts
vary from a straight line by the yielding of the vessel. For the purpose of
disengaging and reconnecting, a brass box of a rectangular form is inserted
in the eye of the crank of the paddle shaft, which can be moved several inches
by means of a screw at the back of the crank. The eye of the crank is so
made that two of its sides may be cut away, and through these openings the
crank pin can pass when the box is drawn back, or the disengaging effected.
The brass box has one of its side.s which restrain the crank pin when in gear,
cut away one or two inches to assist in reconnecting the engine, which it
eflecfed by screwing the box out one or two inches, or just so far that the
crank pin can pass the side which has been cut away, and come in contact
with the higher side. This is the correct position for reconnecting, which is
accomplished by a single turn of the screw.

Mr. Grantham, in reply to a question from Capt. Taylor, R.N., stated tliat
he should consider it very dangerous to disconnect the paddle wheels \rithoat
having first stopped the engine.

" On the Projjukicn of Vessels by the Trapezium Paddle-wheel and Screw."

Mr. G. Rennie gave an account of the various experiments to which he had
been led, on the propulsion of vessels by various forms of paddle floats and
by the screw. It was generally admitted that the i)addle wheel was the best
means of propulsion with which engineers were at present acquainted, and
various attempts had been made for its improvement. There are several ob-
jections to the square or rectangular floats, particularly the shock on entering
the water, and the drag against the motion of the wheel on the float quitting
the water ; both of which give rise to considerable ribrations. He had been
led, in considering the improvement of the paddle wheel, to have recourse to
nature ; and the form of the foot of the duck had particularly attracted his
attention. The web of the duck's foot is shaped so that each part has a re-
lation to the space through which it has to move, that is, to the distance
from the centre of motion of the animal's leg. Hence he was led to cut off
the angles of the rectangular floats, and he found that the resistance to the
wheel through the water was not diminished. Pursuing these observations
and experiments, he was led to adopt a float of a trapezium or diamond shape,
with its most pointed end downwards. These floats enter the water with
their points downwards, and quit it with their points upwards, and then arrive
gradually at tlieir full horizontal action, without shocks or vibrations ; and
after their full horizontal action, quit the water without lifting it, or produc-
ing any sensible commotion behind. After a great variety of experiments, he
found that a paddle wheel of one half the width and weight, and with trape-
zium floats, was as eflective in propelling a vessel as a wheel of double the
width and weight with the ordinary rectangular floats. The .-Vdmiralty had
permitted him to fit Her Majesty's steam ship African with these wheels, and
he had perfect confidence in the success of the experiment. Another means
of propulsion was the screw, which had been applied with success by Mr.
Smith in the Archimedes. In examining the wings of birds and the tails of
swift fish, he had been particularly struck with the adaptation of shape to the
speed of the animals. The contrast between the shape of the tail of the cod-
fish, a slow moving fish, and the tail of the mackerel, a rapid fish, was very
remarkable,— the latter going off much more rapidly to a point than the
former. From these observations he was led to try a screw with four wings,
of a shape somewhat similar to these, but bent into a conical surface, the
outline being a logarithmic spiral. He found also that certain portions of
these might be cut off without diminishing the effect. With respect to as-
certaining the friction of the screw on the water, great difBculty existed ; hut
he would refer to his experiments, published some years ago in the Philoso-
phical Transactions, in which he measured the friction of the water against a
body revolving in it, by the time which a given weight took to descend ; this
body consisted of rings, and he found that the friction or resistance throagh
the water did not increase in proportion to the number of rings.

" On a Floating Breakwater." Dy Capt. Taylor, R.N.

The breakwaters hitherto constructed have generally consisted of solid
masonry, thus presenting an unyielding obstacle to the waves, and permitting
accumulations of mud and sand behind them, and not aftbrding the security
to shipping and life which is required, and may be afforded by other means.
The floating breakwater consists of floating sections framed of timber, moored
to piles ; these sections yield to the shocks of the sea, and admit the wave to
pass under, over, and through them, and by thus dividing the waves, reduce
them to an open and harmless state. The forms of these sections vary ac-
cording to the situations in which they are employed. The sea in the most
tempestuous weather is said to be tranquil at the depth of sixteen or eighteen
feet below the surface ; a l)reakwater, therefore, immerged to that depth, and
presenting six or eight feet above the surface, is sufficient to form a safe har-
bour on the most boisterous coast. The angle of inclination which the sec-
tion presents to the wave is that pointed out by nature in the Mew-stone,
viz. 35 degrees. Stone breakwaters check the ground tides, and cause accu-
mulations of mud and deposits which otherwise would go seaward, and are
pecuUarly subject to the action of the teredo, constantly at work below the
doTC-tailed stone; and cavities being formed, large portions are occasionally
blown up. The destruction by the teredo may be obviated or arrested in the
floating breakwater by tarring the wood with a preservative mixture, or by
restoring from time to time such portions as are injured. The distinction

1841.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

859

between waves and breakers is very important, the former being an undula-
tion, the latter being accompanied with a translation of the mass, and capable
therefore of exerting extraordinary forces on the masses opposed to them.

Some remarks were made on statements in another Section, respecting the
destniction to which the limestone of which the Plymouth Breakwater is ex-
posed from certain animals {Saxicava rugosa). These animals do not, how-
ever, meddle with granite, and probably timber payed over with hot tar would
resist their ravages, as animals of this nature seem peculiarly averse to the
smell of tar and similar substances.

" On Fontis of Vessels."

Mr. Scott Russell reported the progress made by " the Committee on Forms
of Vessels" during the past year. The object of the experiments is two-fold
—to advance our knowledge of the laws of resistance of fluids, — and to obtain
data for tlie practical improvement of the art of naval construction. Many
and expensive are the experiments formerly made on this subject. Unfortu-
nately, these experiments had been made with imperfect apparatus, or under
circumstances different from the conditions of bodies moving on the surface
of the water, 'or on solids of a form unsuitable to the formation of ships, or
on so small a scale as to render them unworthy of the confidence of the prac-
tical constructor. In the present series of experiments a more simple appa-
ratus was employed than in any former series of experiments. The forms of
body experimented upon were those of actual ships, or bodies analogous to
those in use : it was the object of the experiments to supply the actual de-
siderata of hydrodynamics and of practical ship building. The experiments
were made on vessels of every size, from models of 30 inches in length to
vessels of 1,300 tons. The experiments v\ere also made upon vessels in water
of variable depth and in channels of various dimensions, so as, if possible, to
embrace all the elements of the resistance. A minute description of some of
the apparatus was then given, along with some general illustrations ; but as
the experiments were still in progress, and to be continued during the follow-
ing year, no general statement of results was entered into at the present
meeting. It was expected that by the next meeting the whole would be con-
cluded.

** On Captain Couch's Chock Channels"

Mr. Snow Harris explained and illustrated, by a model and drawings, the
safety chock channel, for allowing the masts and rigging of vessels to be
easily disengaged when the masts are carried away. Many cases have occurred
in which, with the rigging and ordinary channels, the greatest danger has
been incurred, in consequence of not being able to get clear of wreck. The
ordinary channels may be blown up by the sea ; whereas, if made solid, on
Capt. Couch's plan, all danger from this source will be avoided, and the sailors
would be at once able to clear the vessel of any wreck.

" On ArnotVs Stove, and the Construction of Descending Flues, and their
jipplication to the purposes of Ventilation." By J. N. Hearder.

The general advantages of Arnott's stoves in economizing fuel, avoiding
smoke, and regulating the temperature, are well known ; but these stoves are
attended with some disadvantages, of which the danger of explosion, and im-
perfect ventilation, are the most serious. The liability to explosion, Mr.
Hearder considers to arise from the construction of the stove, in having the
door air-tight ; the only aperture for air being the valve aperture of the ash-
pit. The air so admitted is immediately decomposed, and nearly the whole
of its oxygen is abstracted, so that by the time it has passed up through the
fuel, and reached the upper chamber of the stove, it has not oxygen enough
left to support combustion. The heat evolved by the lower stratum of fuel,
acting upon the upper stratum of fresh or unignited fuel, liberates from it the
inflammable gas which it contains, and which also accumulates in the top of
the stove. A mixture is then formed analogous to the fire damp of coal
mines, ready for explosion whenever the requisite oxygen or degree of tem-
perature shall be present. Under these circumstances, should the door be
opened, a burst of flame outwards may be the result ; or should a puff of wind
down the chimney carry the mixture down through the ignited fuel, an explo-
sion may ensue. Other causes, such as the sudden shutting or opening of the
doorofan apartment, may occasion the downward draught and consequent ex-
plosion. Now carbiiretted hydrogen will not explode when the proportion of
the air to the hydrogen exceeds a certain limit, so that if air be supplied to the
top of the stove, so as greatly to preponderate over the hydrogen, the latter will
burn off in a flame at the moment of its formation, or be carried up the flue.
Mr. Hearder, therefore, proposes as a remedy, perforations through the lower
edge of the door, so that air may be admitted on a level with the top edge
of the fire brick, through which a constant in-draught of atmospheric air will
be insured, sufficient to obviate the evil. The heat evolved by the perfect
combustion of this inflammable gas, under these circumstances, will, he says,
more than compensate for the admission of cold air into the upper part of
the stove. The perforations just mentioned will also obviate, in a great mea-
sure, the w ant of ventilation. The author suggests a small rarefying appara-
tus, to be inserted in the vertical shaft connected with a descending flue.

" Some Eaperiments showing the possibility of Fire, from the use of Hot
Water in vanning Buildings, and of Explosions in Steam Engine Boilers."
By Mr. Goldsworthy Gurney.

After detailing several instances of fire which arose from the steam pipes
of water apparatus used for warming houses, the author proceeds to describe
some of the experiments likely to be of practical value. From a tubular
boiler, driving a high pressure engine, the injection pump was cut off — half

an hour after the supply jjump was stopped, no water appeared on opening
the gauge cocks, and the engine was observed to slacken its rate and to move
sluggishly — it liad dropped from .^0 to 30 strokes a minute. The steam pipe
from the boiler to the engine was 40 feet long, and was carried for convenience
through the open air, thickly wrapped round vvith woollen cloth to prevent
radiation : soon after the engine became sluggish, the woollen cloth was ob-
served to char near the boiler, which soon extended along the whole length
of pipe ; the engine still working, but with more apparent difficulty, making
only 16 strokes per minute; Ihe pressure gauge, which usually ranged be-
tween 30 and 10 pounds, now stood at 15, and was gradually sinking. In
about five minutes after the woollen cloth had charred, a lead flange, used as
a parking at the cylinder joint, melted, and was followed by a loud escape of
elastic matter. The engine stopped working, and on bringing a lighted match
into the escapage, it took fire, and burnt with the lambent flame of hydrogen
gas. The author's imjiression was. that the escaping vapour was not pure
hydrogen. Water condensed on a piece of cold iron held in the flame, but
no water condensed on the cold iron after the flame was extinguished. On
examining the boiler, all the tubes were found red hot. This experiment was
repeated with many modifications. The temperature of the escaping vapour
was ascertained by means of bars, previously prepared to melt at different
temperatures; these indicated a temperature of about 400°. In about eight
minutes a piece of pure lead melted — -woollen cloth was charred, and a piece
of tow held in the esc.ipage took fire. In other experiments it was found,
that the pipes became sufficiently hot to exjdode gunpowder, and many che-
mical preparations. Having satisfied himself of this property of heated steam
or elastic matter, formed from the last portions of water in a boiler, the
author proceeded to examine, as far as possible, its chemical nature — to de-
termine whether any decomposition, or new elementary formation, took place,
He found that the clastic matter was not eoudensil)ie over cold water, and
would not in many cases burn, or show any indications of the presence of
hydrogen, or other inflammable matters. In some experiments it was found
it would extinguish flame. The experiments with copper vessels afforded the
same results as those manufactured from iron. From these experiments it
appeared, that whenever the heating apparatus falls short of water, the elastic
matter formed over the fire will carry sufficient heat through close pipes, to
any distance, to set fire to wood and other combustible bodies, and that
whether the hot water apparatus be under pressure or not, or whether the
heating surface be of tubes, plates, or cylinders. On the other hand it would
further appear, from some experiments enumerated, that in no case is there
danger when a given quantity of water is present. Mr. Gurney suggests, that
if both ends of the circulating series in hot water apparatus, namely, the part
which immediately goes from the heating surface beyond the furnace, and
that part where the circulation returns to it before it enters the furnace, was
made of a metal which would not melt at the fair working temperature of
the water, but which would melt at a temperature of from 5 to 600° of heat
(say lead pipe), there would be little, if any, danger from fire.

It was mentioned that some experiments made many years since, by Woolfe,
on some of the boilers of the Cornish steam engines, corroborated the facts
now stated. It was also mentioned by Mr. Hunt, on the authority of Capt.
Tregaskis, that where the boilers had been covered with sawdust, it was found
in some instances, and in a very short time, to be charred.

" Account of the Strata penetrated in sinking an Artesian Well at the ViC'
toria Spa, Plymouth." By Dr. Edward Moore.

The author pointed out the mode by which the operations were conducted.
The strata penetrated were as follows : — Earthy clay slate, 20 feet ; lime-
stone, 150 ; blue slate, 20 ; red sandstone, 3 ; red slate, 37 ; limestone, 50 ;
sandstone, 4 ; red and blue slate, 30 ; dunstone, 8 ; earthy clay slate, 20 ;
red sandstone, 12 ; making a total of 305 feet. The earthy slates were of
the character of those generally found under the limestone, but they were in-
terspersed with blue shillat slates, similar 4o those which occur above it.
From the circumstance of the slate rocks immediately below the red sand-
stone being in each instance tinged red, the author imagined that their colour
might in these cases, if not in all, arise from the iron of the red bands affect-
ing them by percolation. He next remarked that from the alternations of
slate and limestone, the former appearing, from a consideration of the section,
to come up in wedges through the latter, it might be possible that the opinion
that some of the Plymouth Hniestones might have been formed in a manner
analogous to the modern coral reefs, was founded on correct data, although
in man; other localities in the vicinity the bands belong to the same unin-
terrupted series of deposits. The quantity of water obtained was at first con-
siderable, and overflowed the pipe ; at present it generally remains about two
feet below the surface, from whence it is carried to the saloon by a pump ; it
is clear and sparkling, and of a saline taste ; it has been examined by Profes-
sors Faraday and Daniell, and found to contain in the imperial pint S'lOO
cubic inches of carbonic acid gas, and 15166 grains of dry salts, thus: —

Chloride of Sodium 9664

Muriate of Magnesia 18'68

„ „ Lime 1510

Sulphate of Soda 9-55

„ „ Lime 8-94

Carbonate of Lime 2'06

„ „ Iron 0-69

151-66
Its specific gravity at 62° is I013'3.

3G0

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[October,

Prof. Sedgwick, after reviewing tlie general principle of Artesian wells,
described two districts in wljicli these operations were attended with verj-
different results. In the eastern part of Essex the chalk is covered by sandy
beds of the plastic clay, and these by several hundred feet of impervious strata
of London clay, all dipping together towards the east. The arenaceous beds
below the London clay rise higlier towards the chalk than the clay does, and
absorbs a considerable part of tlie water from the high grounds. Uy boring
through the clays to this sand, si)rings of water immediately rise above the
surface, and are carried off by natural channels. By this supply of water, the
Talue of the land has been materially increased, since the country, though
abounding in peat bogs, and stagnant ponds during winter, suffers much from
the summer drought. Tlie other attempts to form Artesian wells, referred
to by Mr. Sedgwick, were made near Lincoln, which, though surrounded by
•/ens, covered with water in the winter, is not sufficiently supplied during the
summer, liut the clays supporting the fens of the Bedford Level are below
the chalk, and though there are pervious beds beneath them, which rise to
the north-west, yet the clays are of such enormous ibickness that they have
never been penetrated ; and even were that accomplished, the high land is so
distant th.at intervening fissures, filled up with impervious materials, might
intercept the supply. Expensive sinkings have been made at Ljnin, and also
at Boston, aud after boring through many hundred feet of clay they have
utterly failed, and in any future operations in this district the chance of suc-
cess vvo\ild be very remote. Mr. Sedgwick then observed with respect to the
red colour of rocks mentioned by Dr. Moore, that he considered it simply
owing to the red oxide of iron which niigiit be present or not in any bed ;
sometimes the tinge was only superficial. In Nassau the red colour was owing
to vicinity of trap rocks. He also observed, as to the condition of limestone
rocks, that although they sometimes appear in masses, presenting a brecciated
appearance, shells and broken corals being cemented together, yet generally
they occur as regular parts of the series repeated without any regularity, in
formations of all ages. In position and inclination they resembled their asso-
ciated rocks, and partook in all their contortions aud dislocations, except so
far as their sohd masses would resist mechanical movements, better than
yielding deposits of sediment and mud. The organic remains found in lime-
stones only differed from those in the other beds of the same age as far as the
conditions differed under which each was deposited. At the present day
different families of corals grow upon a solid and a soft bottom. — The Rev.
\V. D. Conybeare pointed out the similarity between Artesian wells and mines
simk in the coal measures. Artesian borings had been made with success
near the outcrop of certain strata, but at a distance from this, although the
combination of strata was the same, they had failed, from the great depth
necessary to be penetrated. Now it is certain that the coal exists in many
places beneath the new red sandstone and magnesian limestone, but at such
depths that it would be hopeless to attempt to reach it. He therefore re-
commended to the attention of miners the formation of a series of Artesian
borings in some of the coal districts, beginning where the probability was
greatest, and proceeding from that point till the depth became too great.
Such a series of experiments would show the nature and depth of the strata
below, and over what extent coal might be worked without sinking shafts at
enormous expense and with the risk of complete failure. — Mr. Bartlett ob-
served, in confirmation of one of Dr. Moore's remarks, that where limestones
abounded in corals, as at Berryhcad, their structure was homogeneous, and
exhibited little trace of stratification ; when the corals were rare, the bedding
became distinct.

" Some Inquiries into the Causes oy the increased Desttntctibility of ilodem
Copper Sheathing." By Mr. Prideaux.

In May 1840 Mr. Prideaux was applied to by Mr. Owen, of Her Majesty's
dock-yard, to analyse some sheet copper from the sheathing of the SattspareH,
which had been on thirty years, aud was still in good condition. The sample
gave about 0'25 per cent, of alloy, chiefly zinc and tin. This contrasted well
with a sample rendered unserviceable in a very short time (in only one year),
and in w hich no quantity of alloy sufficient to weigh had been found ; and
the two agreed with two recorded analyses of Sir H. Davy and Mr. R. Phillips,
the former having detected, in a very good sample of sheathing, about -^^
of tin; the latter having found the sheathing o! the 7'aWar frigate (almost
destroyed in four years, though never out of Sheerness harbour,) the purest
copper he had ever analysed ; and further with the reputed inferiority of the
recently prepared sheathing of the Royal Navy, which must have been much
purified by the repeated fusions it has undergone. The inference adduced
was, that the presence of tin and zinc was favourable to the durability of the
copper. Mr. Prideaux, however, proceeded with the analyses in other cases.
Pour were selected, viz.

From the Copper on Annual loss.

Minden 1 7 years 0 43 per cent.

Ploeer only 5 11

Linnet, copper rapidly destroyed, could not be taken off sound enough to
weigh a sheet.

New-sheathiny prepared at Iler Majesty's mills, Portsmouth.

There was no conformity between the results in these and the former ex-
periments ; they did not show any coincidence between the composition of
the sheathing and its durabihty. The next step, therefore, was to examine
how far it might be referred to any of the physical properties of the metal.
To ascertain this, slips from each sample, all of equal surfaces (4 + 0'5 inch),
were immersed each in a pint of sea water ; the five vessels being placed side

by side, so as to set them all in like conditions. Sea-water being electro-
neutral, and acting slowly on copper, a Uttle sal-ammoniac was added, to
quicken the action without affecting the neutrality. The greatest waste was
on the SamparieV copper, which had worn tlie best of all ; the least on that
of the Plover, one of the worst. Thus, in the laboratory, under parallel cir-
cumstances, they do not observe the same order of durability and waste as
they had done in use. Tlie cause of comparative waste appears, therefore,
to be in part at least, due to external conditions, aud of these two classes
may be noticed : one depending on the connexion w ith the ship, the other
on the circumstances of her employment. Of the first class two suggested
tlieraselves — the position on the ship's side, and the nails by which the cop-
per is fastened. The lower part of a ship's copper seems to suffer much less
than the upper, so long as she continues in deep water ; but w hen she grounds
at low water, if on black mud, ibis part suffers most from the action of sul-
phuretted hydrogen, peeling off in blue flakes. The influence of the nails
offers rather more chemical interest. They are never of pure copper, and
being very numerous, all in contact with the copper sheets, whilst their heads
present also a considerable metallic surface to the salt water, tliey may pro-
duce very decided effects, cither preservative or destructive, by a slight elec-
tro-chemical difference. Mr. Prideaux therefore examined a vessel which
they were just then stripping, her copper being worn out in four years. It
was found that round some of the nails the copper was quite entire, for aa
inch or two, though worn ragged in other parts ; whilst elsewhere, and some-
times on the same sheet, the copper round other nails was quite gone, though
other fragments of the sheet remained. Here some of the nails appeared to
have exerteil a protective, others a destructive influence. To ascertain the
effect of the nails, five slips of new copper from the same sheet, and of the
same size, were suspended equidistant; and at the same depth, in a vessel of
sea water from the West Indies. The result was, that all the nails, except
one (which was from Her Majesty's dockyard), appeared to act destructively.
Here appears to be one instance of a protective nail, not enough so to prevent
all waste of the copper, which experience has shown not to be desirable ; but
doubtless the preservative power may be increased to any requisite degree by
attending to the composition of the alloy. The copper is alloyed chiefly with
tin ; but if the nail is at once hard and flexible the manufacturer is satisfied
without examining what other metals are present. If they were always made
just so much electro-positive to the copper as to protect the sheathing, so far
as compatible with their own durability, they would seem to offer the simplest,
most perfect, aud most convenient means of electro-chemical protection. The
damage to which the copper is subjected is affected by the circumstances of
the ship's employment. Sheathing suffers most where most subject to wash
and air, for friction is an agent in the waste as well as oxidation. It is also
well ascertained that the copper sheathing suffers most in hot climates, which
might be expected, upon a common chemical principle, that chemical action
increases with the temperature ; and it became a question whether this effect
of heat, as well as its tendency to promote organic production and decom-
position, might not form an important element in this destructive agency.
Mr. Prideaux therefore obtained w ater from different parts of the Gulf Stream,
with and without the weed, from the Caribbean Sea, and from Falmouth har-
bour, where the packets moored, the waters of which might possibly be
affected by the mine drainings discharged into the river. Whilst these were
being collected. Prof. Daniell's announcement of large quantities of sulphu-
retted hydrogen in the waters of the Guinea coast came before the public.
To try the action of these different waters five copper shps, of the same
dimensions, cut from the same sheet, were suspended in a pint each of the
following samples of water :

1. Heart of the Gulf Stream.

2. Ditto with the weed.

3. Caribbean Sea.

4. Falmouth harbour.

5. Plymouth harbour.

After thirteen days they were taken out and reweighed, having been put in
all bright, but cleaned, on taking out, only with a brush in soft water, as in
the other experiments : —

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Put in 16th 180-26 182-56 190 16901 176-41

Out 29th - 17S-45 182-3 1896 168-55 1761

Loss in 13 days 1-81 0-26 04 046 031

No. 1, came out clean and bright, the others with tarnished surfaces, except
No. 2, which was blotched and speckled. The Falmouth water presented no
indications of being more corrosive than that of Plymouth, and Mr. Prideaux
attributed the great difference of waste in these two cases to same unobserved
difference of conditions in the experiment. But the excessive action of the
Gulf Stream water, he considered too decided to be doubtful. Not only the
quantity wasted, but the metallic clearness of the surface, showed a marked
distinction. " But to whatever extent the recently increased waste of sheath-
ing may fairly be charged upon the greater velocity, more constant employ-
ment, and greater consequent liabihties of weather and climate of our ships,
particularly of the commercial classes, as well as to difference in the nails, I
am incUned," said Mr. Prideaux, "to fear the fault is still to be sought in the
copper itself. I have it on the authority of Mr. Moore, that the Quarantine
cutter, generally at anchor in our harbour, was coppered in October 1832,
and her copper is now in a very good state. Her last sheathing held good
14 years. The Eddystone tender, which also moors in Catwater, was cop-

1841.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

361

pered in July 183S,and is now in much worse condition than the Quarantine,
which has heen on six years longer. Tliat the waste on the Eddystone ten-
der is not owing to her work, is evident, from the fact, that the upper
part of her sheathing, which suffers the wash and friction, continues sound,
whilst from beneath her floor the copper peels off in blue ilakes. That this
is attriliutable, iu a great degree, to her occasionally grounding upon the
black mud, which generates sulphuretted hydrogen and other corrosive mat-
ters, is very probable ; the other never grounds, and does less work. Yet the
difference is too great to be tlius satisfactorily accounted for. The one is in
good condition for nine years, the other comes to patch before tlie end of
three : both lying the most of their time in the same harliour. On neither
was there any distinct indication of protective or destructive influence in the
nails.'' " Meanwhile, as nails must he used, and present a large metallic sur-
face to the salt water, as well as numerous points of contact with the copper,
calculated to give great effect to small electro-chemical differences, either in
protection or destruction, it would seem that we ought to render them slightly
electro-positive to rolled copper, hy the addition of zinc, which would not
injure their flexil)ility nor enhance their cost. The test, hy the galvanometer,
would be easily applied (after a little practice) in making up the metal for
casting them, if it is of importance to continue the present system of their
manufacture."

There is another method of protection, which came out in the course of
these investigations ; and which is beginning to occupy pubhc attention. It
was before noticed, that the upper part of the copper on the Eddystone ten-
der, which bears the wash and friction of the waves, continues sound ; whilst
the bottom is fast wearing out. This exception, or rather subversion of the
usual conditions, is owing to a coat of fish oil, laid on when the copper was
new, to keep it bright ; and not extended over the parts out of sight. Such
a permanent effect could never have been anticipated from an oil which is
not drying, and strongly indicates the facility, as well as efficacy, of this mode
of protection. A still more striking case presented itself in the vessel which
suppUed the observations on the apparent influence of the nails. During our
examination, we observed the complete preservative effect of some coal tar,
which had trickled down over the copper, from the wood-work above. This
had crossed tlie sheets just where most subject to the wash and friction ; and
whilst the naked metal had been quite worn away, the coal-tarred streaks
remained entire, the surface of the copper, on melting off the tar, being as
perfect as when fresh from the roll. Hence coal tar seemed to be an efficient
preservative ; but then recurs the question — will it keep a clean surface, free
from organic adhesions and earthy incrustations ? To embrace the oppor-
tunity for experiments, the vessel was sheathed with copper on one side and
yellow metal on the other; and her fore-quarters to her mid-length varnished
with coal tar, laid on hot, upon the metal also heated, by fires of chips round
the sides. She has now heen twelve months at sea ; and, according to the
last account, the varnished as well as the metallic surfaces, kept quite clean.

METHOD OF PREVENTING THE OXYDATION OF IRON.

By M. F. L. .4.ll.\mand.

This composition, of a metallic nature, preserves iron and steel from
oxydation, by entering into the pores without in any degree affecting their
external appearance, or leaving the least blemish, so that steel instruments
(including razors), tire-arms, &c., retain their poUsh, and are in some degree
better fit for use, after having heen subjected to the metallic application.
Articles either plain or chased appear superior to platina, and retain, after
the application, all the hieroglyphic characters, figures, letters, and other en-
gravings, or cuttings, which were there previously.

COMPOSITION OF THE MATEKIAL.

Pure Malacca Tin 120

Silver filings 4

Yellow tincal 12

Purified Bismuth 12

Purified Zinc 12

Regulus of Antimony 4

Nitre 11

Salt of Persicaria 1

Method of Purifying the Metals. — The tin ought to be melted separately
18 times. Each melting shoidd remain about 20 minutes exposed to the
action of caloric, and the impurities which arise on the surface should be
carefully removed ; it is thrown afterwards into a ley formed of vine twigs
and persicaria (herb) in equal proportions. The bismuth, the regulus of an-
timony, and the zinc are also melted separately, but they only require it
twice, and they are carefully run into an ingot mould, so that all impurities
may remain at the bottom of the crucible. The tincal does not require any
purification.

Mixture of the different suisfances. — The tin is the first material that is
melted ; the silver is afterwards added to it in small quantities, and in a few
minutes afterwards the tincal, then the bismuth and the zinc in succession.
As soon as it ascertained by the flames that the alloy is effected, the two
kinds of salt are thrown in together, and are left to burn with vigour, and
the alloy is stirred with an uron rod ; after which it is earefuUy skimmed and
poured into a vessel, to be made use of for the metallic application.

Method of apphjiny the mhstance. — Before the piece of iron or steel is
dipped in the recipient w hich contains the metallic mass already liquified, itg
surface must be rubbed well with a composition of sal-ammoniac and cream
of tartar, in the proportion of 5 per cent, of tartar to the sal-ammoniac ; the
iron must then be dipped in the nielted alloy, where it must remain only for
a few seconds, and till it is perceived to be covered with a certain quantity
of the metal. It is next placed in a wooden box of its own size, and in which
there has ))een previously put a small quantity of sal-ammoniac and cream of
tartar, in the proportions already indicated. It is again rubbed with a hand-
ful of tow, and a small quantity of the powder is put on the surface. In the
course of this operation the steel loses its colour, and assumes that of silver.
When this is done it is again plunged into the metallic mass for a few seconds,
and when it is taken out it is again lightly rubbed with the tow to remove
any superfluous particles. The article being perfectly clean and shining, it is
plunged into a basii; of cold water, into which there has been poured a bottle
of spirits of wine of forty degrees of strength, in the proportion of \ per cent.
.■Vfter having withdrawn it from the water, the article is rubbed carefully with
a linen, then it is rubbed as carefully with some fine sand, that has been
moistened, to remove the spots of smoke : it is at last rubbed a second time
with di7 sand, then with a linen, and finally with a leather. After all these
operations, which require great celerity in the execution, the iron will remain
impervious to oxygen, and by care it will preserve all its whiteness. — Inven-
tors' idvocate.

APPARATUS FOR DISTILLING SEA WATER.

We have seen iu operation, at Mr. Robinson's manufactory, Pimlico, an
apparatus for evaporating water in large quantities. An authentic account
of the apparatus has been given in the Inventor's Advocate, from which we
give the following details : —

The principle on which the patent " Distillator " is constructed, is that of
the continuous transfer of heat through a series of vessels by evaporation.
Thus, steam being generated iu the boiler, is admitted into a chamlier sur-
rounded by water, where it is condensed, forming distilled water. From
that chamber the water is permitted to run off into a suitable vessel. The
heat transferred from the condensed steam to the water with wliich the con-
densing chamber was surrounded, produces renewed evaporation, and the
steam from that second boiler is conveyed to a second condensing chamber
placed in a third vessel of water. The process is repeated in that vessel, and
may be so continued through five or six condensing chambers. In the appa-
ratus we inspected at Pimlico thare are only three condensing chambers, and
the hot water in the last vessel is pumped back to the first boiler until it
becomes saturated with salt, and then it is blown off.

As in the ordinary process of distillation only one condensing vessel is
used, it is evident that a positive saving of fuel must arise from the addition
of other vessels in which a similar process can be carried on without the
addition of fresh fuel. In the apparatus already constructed, it is found that
by the addition of two chambers to the ordinary still, an increase of distilled
water is obtained equal to from 130 to 140 per cent. The produce of the
three condensing chambers, at a minimum, are three measures from the first,
two from the second, and one from the third ; the two last being equal to
the evaporation from the boiler heated by fuel. At a maximum the quanti-
ties are : from the first, five measures ; from the second, four; and from the
third, three. This is equalto a gain of 140 per cent.

In the report of experiments made to the Lords Commissioners of the
Admiralty, it was proposed to produce 20 lb. of distilled water by the com-
bustion of 1 lb. of coals. This was actually produced by the apparatus, under
a working pressure of steam in the boiler of 10 lb. to the square inch ; but,
as in subsequent trials, the working pressure has been reduced to 5 lb. the
square inch, as a measure of safety, the effect falls short of 20 lb. of water
for 1 lb. of coal, in a slight degree ; but in a new apparatus, this can be
amply compensated, by giving an increased evaporative power to the first
boiler of the series, and by coating the whole with felt, so as to prevent the
radiation of heat. In a trial of three hours duration, 59 gallons were evapo-
rated from the three vessels as now constructed.

It is proposed, as a matter of convenience and safety, when tiie apparatus
is employed on board ship, that the fire should be placed on the U|iper deck,
and the distilling or condensing chambers on the lower deck, or in tlie hold.
By this arrangement it is expected that the same fire which is used for cook-
ing may be made the means of producing a constant supply of fresh water.

By the use of this invention, the necessity of encumbering a vessel with
the usual cargo of water and tanks for a long voyage is entirely obviated, hy
merely substituting five per cent, of that cargo in coals for the distillation.

FRESCO PAINTING.

Mr. Haydon, with characteristic energy and enthusiasm, has made a trial
in fresco, on the wall of his painting room ; and the result of this first and
hasty attempt is decisive of two important points — the beauty of fresco
painting as a means of decoration, and the ease with which a knowledge of
the practice may be acquired. The subject is a study for the archangel Uriel,
the bust and arms only, of the life size ; it was painted at once on the plai-

3 B

362

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[October,

tcr, «itliout a cartoon to work from, iii four liours; the painter's liaud
trembling with apprehension for the success of his experiment, and incom-
petent from inexperience to do full justice to the means. It is a rough
sketch, in short, made without the boldness and firmness of pencilling that
certainty of purpose and mastery of hand alone can give. Yet the figure
stands out from the wall, solid inform, lively in colour, and brilliant in tone,
making the pictures beside it look poor, flat, and muddy in comparison ; its
flesh tints surpassing in ])urity the freshest oil painting. It has a majestic
presence, that seems to enlarge the space it occu))ics, and to give new radi-
ance to the light reflected from it ; hut while it thus fills the sense and ele-
vates the mind, it is not obtrusive. In describing the impression made by
this piece of fresco, our object is not to compliment Mr. Ilaydon, or to praise
'his design. \Ve do but record the effect produced upon us by the work ;
though the conception and style of the painter must have had their share in
producing this impression, we endeavoured to regard only the physical quali-
ties of the art. The large scale of the design and the breadth and simpHcity
of the painting, have unquestionably a material influence over the mind; but
these characteristics belong to all fresco, and constitute its chief recommen-
dations ; the greatness of the style powerfully aids the grandeur of the idea,
and the largeness and boldness of the handling inspire the painter with con-
genial vigour of execution, which the cartoon he works from would prevent
from ruuniug into exaggeration. As the tendency of high finish in cabinet
pictures is to contract the focus of the mind and cramp the execution, so
that of fresco is to enlarge the conception and expand the style. Fresco
painting is the school of greatness in j.ainting; it daunts and depresses only
the little mind ; it fires and elevates the noble and aspiring genius ; the artist
works with that grand gusto of which we hear so much and see so little.
Mr. Ilaydon tells us, and we can well believe, that there is a fascinatiou in
the very manner of painting which is inspiriting and stimulating to fresh
exertions ; and he now regrets not having followed the advice of Sir David
Wilkie twenty years ago, to apply himself to fresco. Any zealous artist
might easily make the experiment ; the same means of information are open
to all. The book authorities for the Italian method, we are told, are Vasari,
Armenini, and Cennini. Messrs. LatiUa, of London, Bell, of Manchester,
and Barker, of Bath, are the artists in this country whom Mr. Ilaydon con-
sulted ; Mr. Lane, of whom we spoke, is not, we believe, in England. The
method is simple ; chip off the outer surface of the plaster from a dry wall,
and substituse for it a coating of wet plaster, composed of two parts of river
sand and one of lime, well mixed together with water to a proper consisten-
cy ; this applied to the wall will remain suflnciently moist to work upon for
four hour ; no greater space should be plastered at once than can be covered
in that time. Every touch is indelible ; but it may be gone over again when
the plaster is moist. The pigments used are of the common kind, being
earths, and are dissolved in water ; the lime itself is white ; the difBculty is
to allow for the change of tint in drying. — Spectator.

I

REVIEVirS.

Illmtrations of Arts and Manufactures. By Arthur Aikin, F.L.S.,
F.G.S., &c., late Secretary to the Society of Arts. London : Van
Voorst, ISn.

Arthur Aikin is the scion of a literary house prolific in respectable
names — we need only mention Dr. Aikin, Lucy Aikin, and Mrs. Bar-
bauld. For a long while he was, as Secretary of the .Society of Arts,
the friend and adviser of the majority of the mechanical world, and
well did he sustain his own position and the character of the insti-
tution. As a popular lecturer on subjects connected with the practi-
cal arts few could exceed him, for while he possessed the art of rivet-
ing the attention of his auditory, he was remarkable for a precision of
idea and expression, which, even without the aid of diagrams or en-
gravings, enabled him to give complete and correct ideas of most in-
tricate and complicated machinery. So well was this known to be
Mr. Aikin's characteristic, that Lord Brougham, himself no mean au-
thority, is reported to have recommended a friend to apply to Mr.
Aikin, as lie knew "no other man but he who could make a specifi-
cation without drawings." When Mr. Aikin retired from the post,
which lie had occupied so long, it was to the general regret, but still
we hoped that one who had led u life so active and useful as his has
been would not remain idle in his retirement, although he has well
earned repose. We feel pleasure, therefore, in welcoming this first
fruit of his retirement, which, as it is natural, is devoted to his ancient
pursuits and connected with his former haunts. It is, what it pur-
ports to be, illustrations of arts and manufactures; it may, indeed, be
considered as a manufacturing sketch or series of essays. The sub-
jects treated on are pottery, limestone and calcareous cements, gyp-
sum, furs, felt, bone, horn, &c., iron, engraving and paper. In their
original form these papers were delivered before the Society of Arts,
at their evening meetings, where we recollect the interest they ex-
cited ; their republication therefore is likely to prove valuable.

From the article on ])0ttery we have, at another page, given long
extracts relative to brick-making, so that we cannot do better than
here to take up the subject of limestones and calcareous cements.
After tracing the origin of cement to brick -building countries, in the
use of bitumen in the plains of Babylon. Mr. Aikin proceeds to al-
lude to the improvements in its application which were made by other
nations. To the Romans, however, he justly awards the palm among
tlie ancients for their use of calcareous cements, on account of the
extent to which they applied it in hydraulic works. They had also
an advantage in discovering the use of puzzolana (vide C. E. & A.
Journal, Vol. IV. p. 300.)* In alluding to the monuments of the Ro-
mans in this country our author Siiys that the most ancient limestone
quarries in this part of the empire, and which continue in full activity,
were first opened by the Romans at Tadcaster, in Vorkshire, which,
in the Roman itineraries, is named Calcariae. In giving this praise to
the Romans, it is to the Gothic style that we must refer the great ex-
tension given to the use of cement, the intricacy and elaborateness of
its parts, its richness and multiplicity of ornament, not allowing the
use of large blocks of stone. Limestones, Mr. Aikin divides after the
usual arrangement into four classes. The first contains the pure lime-
stones, including white statuary marble (which is of no use for mortar),
white chalk, oolite, and gray limestone. In the second family are
placed the svvinestones and bituminous limestones, which are of value.
Magnesian limestones come next, and lastly limestones containing so
large a proportion of iron and clay as to enable them to form cements,
which have the property of becoming solid under water, and are for
this reason called water or hydraulic cements. (On this subject see
also M. Vicat, p. 3 of our present volume). Among these are gray
chalk, chalk mail or Dorking lime, found in large quantities at Dork-
ing, Merstham and Hailing; blue limestone, lying betweeen the lower
oolite and the new red sandstone running across the country from N.E.
to S.W. frdin Whitby to Lyme Regis, sending out a branch to Mon-
mouth and Glamorgan. The entire thickness of this deposit is 450
feet, and among its chief quarries are Watchet, Aberthaw, Barrow and
Bath. In the three former, according to Smeaton, the proportion of
iron and clay appears to be the same, or about II per cent., but in
the time of Barrow, according to that authority, 21'3, but according
to Mr. Marshall, 14. In the upper and lower beds of the lias for-
mation, and in all deposits of bluish slaty clay containing carbonate of
lime, are balls of a compressed globular figure, less clayey than the
slate marl, but less calcareous than the limestone. In the London
basin these balls in the blue clay are called septaria or cement stone.
They may be observed in the cliff's of London clay forming the eastern
coast of the Isle of Sheppey, and in the low clitf at Southend in Essex.
They were met with frequently in the cutting for the Highgate Rail-
way and Primrose Hill tunnel. Of late years these stones, bnrned
and reduced to powder, have been very extensively used under the
name of Roman cement, in all water building and other masonry re-
quiring particular care, with such success as to have entirely super-
seded the employment of puzzolana and terras. These two materials
should also be noticed ; tiie first comprehends a few calcareous sub-
stances, the essential ingredients of which appear to be oxide of iron
and burnt clay ; the latter is quarried at Andernach on the Rhine for
millstone, and the fragments are ground up in Holland, and mixed
with lias lime to form a cement lor dykes and other works of the
water-staat. In England, Rowley rag, a, basalt obtained from the
Rowley Hills in Warwickshire, and in composition similar to the An-
dernach stone has been used for the same purposes with good effect.
The Egyptians, as it will be seen under the head of Ancient Engineer-
ing, used black liasalt from Abyssinia, With regard to sand, the use
of ])it-sand is objected to unless previously cleaned by washing, but
sand having a vellow colour, caused by ochre, and having chalybeate
springs rising from out of it, will produce a cement of great hardness,
provided that it be used soon after it is dug. But limestone and sand
are not enough of themselves ; the limestone must be deprived of its
carbonic acid, and used as soon as possible, as it reabsorbs carbonic
acid from the ;itmosphere. When packed in close casks, lias lime
will keep good for a long time, and Smeaton's experience goes as far
as seven years, but in this case, the lime was previously reduced to
powder by slacking with water, and then was trodden down into the
casks. The lime having cold water poured upon it, becomes hydrate
of lime or slacked lime, and in this state and not that of pure lime,
enters into the composition of mortar. The proportion of sand in
mortar depends partly on the fineness or coarseness of the sand itself,

* It was an ancient law in Rome says Pliny. Ibat after the ingredients of
mortar had been rubied together wilb a little water, the mass should be kept
in a covered pit for three years before being used ; and we are expressly in-
formed ihat buiklings erected during the operation of that law were not liable
lo cracks.

1841.1

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

303

and partly on the nature of the Hme, but on account of the cheapness
of sand there is always a disposition to deteriorate mortar by a too
liberal employment of it. The proportions given by Pliny are 1 of
lime to 1 of sharp pit-sand, and 1 of lime to 3 of round grained sand
from the sea or river, an improvement, he says, may also be made by
the addition of a third part of pounded tiles. The common London
mortar is made of one part of white chalk lime and 2i of clean sharp
river sand, but not unfrequently, dirty pit-sand is substituted, and the
lime itself, being imperfectly burnt, the mortar never becomes hard,
and has not sufficient adhesion to the bricks. White lime, when really
good, will take a larger proportion of sand than the brown limes do,
but it is an additional proof of the badness of common chalk lime, that
in the London practice the reverse generally prevails.

Upon the question whether any chemical action takes place between
the lime and silica in mortar, Mr. Aikin admits that it is difficult to
come to a decision, but he alludes to several facts which seem only
explainable by the existence of chemical acts.

in enumerating the water cements our author states, on the autho-
rity of Vitruvius, that the cement used by the Romans in the con-
struction of moles and other structures in the sea, was one of lime and
two of puzzolana, from which the proportions of Mr. Smeaton's ce-
ment, used in the construction of Eddystone Lighthouse do not ma-
terially differ, namely, equal quantities of Aberthaw lime in the state
of hydrate and in fine powder, and of puzzolana also in fine powder ;
the cement was also well beaten till it had acquired its utmost degree
of toughness. The Dorking gray chalk is used in proportions of 1 of
lime to 3 or 83 of sharp river sand ; and for filling in the interstices
of thick walls, 1 of lime to 4 of coarse gravelly sand. In setting the
bricks, that form the facing of the London Docks to the depth of 14
or IS inches from the outside, a cement was used of 4 lias lime, G
river sand, 1 puzzolana, and 1 calcined iron stone.

This sketch of Mr. Aikin's mode of treating one subject will be
sufficient to give an idea of the work, which we leave with the con-
viction that it is one highly useful and instructive.

Letter from Sir Frederick Trench to Viscount Duncannon. London:

Ollivier, 1841.

In this letter Sir Frederick proposes a railway from London Bridge
to Hungerford Market, to run in the river parallel to the northern
bank. This is to consist of an embankment one mile and three quarters
in length, faced with stone or plates of cast iron to imitate stone ; on
this, 4 feet above high water Trinity mark, is to be a promenade, bearing
on iron columns, 13 or 14 feet high, a railway thirty feet wide, to be
■worked by fixed engines on wooden rails. At intervals in the embank-
ment are to be arches for the passage of barges. The embankment,
railway and all, as far as we understand is intended to pass under the
arches of the bridges. With regard to the bed of the river between
the channel and the shore. Sir Frederick proposes to leave it as a
space for a carriage road, wharfs, warehouses, houses, docks, or open
mud banks as the case may be. The estimate given on the authority
of Mr. Bidder and Sir Frederick Smith is, for the embankment
£110,000, elevated platform £100,000, machinery £70,000, stations
£25,000, interest£3O,500, for filling carriage road, paving, lighting and
sewers £ 100,000. Total £435,500. The time for the works is calcu-
lated at two years.

Sir Frederick urges the necessity for an embankment on account of
the changes made by London bridge and the embankment before the
new Houses of Parliament, from which he says have resulted a great
increase of shoals, and the production of a number of mud-banks
covered with vegetation, and in a pestilential state of decomposition.
These are evils which are but too apparent, and it is evident both as
a measure of health, commerce, and ornament, that some plan of em-
bankment should be adopted, whether Sir Frederick's, Mr. Walker's,
or Mr. Martin's, we do not say ; but we feel sure that the day is at
hand when a great and general improvement will be effected on the
metropolitan river, and placing it on a par with its Parisian and Dub-
lin rivals.

To the plan of Sir Frederick Trench there are many objections, and
some, and not the least, are those suggested by considering it as a
plan for the adornment of the metropolis. Passing, as this railway
proposes to do, through three bridges and touching a fourth, it is evi-
dent that it will not only abstract from the grandeur, but absolutely
spoil the view of those noble monuments, without any adequate com-
pensation. The view of Somerset House will not be improved, and
St. Paul's will be the only edifice which will derive any advantage,
so that on that ground we fear that any measure so extensive is inex-
pedient. How the railway is to pass under the bridges we coafess

we do not see, and as to passing over them, it is out of the question
A stronger objection is as to the effect such an embankment will have
in producing depositions of silt and off below Woolwich, which may be
looked upon as a certain result. As to the estimates, although a good
foundation may in most places be obtained, we are decidedly inclined
to think that they are too low.

We are willing, however, as we before said, to support some plan
of embankment, but one so general we do not think under all circum-
stances is applicable. That the terraces of the Temple, of Somerset
House, of the Adelphi, and of Hungerford Market, should be united,
we are ready to admit, but we are well aware that there are great
difficulties in the way. As to the consideration of making a profit
from the undertaking, we think that they need not be taken into ac-
count on the present occasion, for the urgency of some plan of embank-
ment is such that the funds must be furnished regardless of any other
objects than the public benefit to be effected.

In thus dissenting from the details of Sir Frederick Trench's plan,
we cannot do so without expressing how much the public are indebted
to the gallant General for the great exertions he has made for the im-
provement of the Thames, and how much the successful result will be
owing to his counsels and active co-operation.

CANDIDUS AND THE VENTILATION FOLKS.

" Cease rude boreas, blust'ring railer."

This humble petition is addressed to Candidus, who last month took
out " a licence to blow on whom he pleases." We pray that he may
abate his sweeping gale against the " ventilation folks," who most hum-
bly acknowledge their fault in daring to acquaint the public that car-
bonic acid gas from a chimney — or sulphuretted hydrogen from a
drain, do not strengthen the lungs, refresh the nerves, and invigorate
the constitution. We will say with Candidus that the vocation of a
tailor is more conducive to longevity than is that of a ploughman —
that there is real salubrity below deck under London Bridge — even
that a cargo of slaves enjoy the most refreshing change of air, and that
their sickness and death of 50 in a hundred, is a proof of their sullen
ingratitude to their owners. We will say that the metropolitan im-
provement trustees are egregiously in error not to consult Candidus.
That 'old London may be revived with its neighbour-like projections,
its lanes and alleys, so contributary to disease ; its overground kennels,
its annular visitation of plagues and pestilence, its lamentations and
cries, bring out your dead; we will turn all serious proofs of modern
blessings into frivolity for a month. We will say with Candidus, that
the great orb of day, " is sun or moon, or a penny rushlight," to ap-
pease his anger ; and when in cool reason he will debate upon this
question upon which we live and die, "we will argue with him upon
this theme until our eyelids will no longer wag."

Some of the Ventilation Folks.

THE NEW ROUTE TO INDIA BY THE EUPHRATES.

The Commerce publishes some private correspondence dated Aleppo, June
10, 1841, which states that the English steam boats Nimrod and Nitocris
had arrived at Beles, on the Euphrates, after a navigation of 16 days and a
distance of 375 leagues. Lieutenant C^ampbell, who commanded the expedi-
tion, had ascertained that both the Tigris and Euphrates are navigable for
large vessels, and that those rivers present a new passage to the British pos-
sessions in India. "Documents stolen from M. Lasraris at Alexandria, in
the year 1814," continues the writer, ■■ contained important information col-
lected by this gentleman, who was despatched by the Emperor Napoleon to
explore Mesopotamia and the Euphrates, in order to ascertain the possibility
of discovering a passage to India by the Orontes. The British Ministry de-
termined to verify those plans. Colonel Chesney was deputed on this mission
in the year 1835. Great Britain then ascertained that the Orontes, which
falls into the Mediterranean, was navigable as far as Latakia (the ancient
Antioch). That the ancient harbour of Selencia, situate at the mouth of this
river, could be rendered an excellent harbour at a small expense. That it was
easy to make a road to Aleppo, and thence to the Euphrates through the
vallies, and that the distance, 45 leagues, could be easily traversed. A coal
bed was discovered at the foot of Mount I'aurus, 16 leagues from Tarsus.
Near this coal bed, which is of cunsiderable extent, has been discovered an
iron mine, which gives 60 per cent, of metal. These mines are surrounded
by oak woods of great value.

The writer calculates that the journey may be made from Bombay to
Liverpool in 34 days— viz., from Bombay to Beles 16 days; from Beles to
Alexandrette, 3days ; thence to Liverpool, 15. The letter concludes l)y stat-
ing that there is no doubt but that in a few years the English will monopo-
lize the trade of Bagdad, Bassora, Aleppo, and all Mesopotamia.

3 B 3

364

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[October,

ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF OBLIQUE ARCHES.

Sir — In compliance with the request contained in your letter of the
Kith, I forward you the metliod by which the formula and construction
given in your last number, for finding the angles between the joint lines
in the face and soffit of an oblique arch, were obtained. The approxi-
mations thus arrived at are as accurate as it is possible to work to,
the discrepance being much too small to be detected practically. As
the subject is somewhat complex, I must be excused if the explanation
here given is not strictly mathematical, the deductions however will
be found correct.

Fig. 1. r=-;

Let A B Cfig. 1.) be the elevation of an oblique arch, on a plane at
right angles to the axis of the cylinder on which it is formed, and let
c be the centre, and a the point at which any joint a m in the face of
the arch meets the intrado.

Fig. 2.

Let C D E (fig. •2,") be the plan of the same, (part of the arch being
supposed to be removed), and let o' be the position in plan of the
point a (fig. 1.) Suppose a vertical plane P P to pass through the
point a', intersecting the spiral surface c/ a' m' in the line a' V. From
/' let/ ' m' be drawn a tangent to the spiral line of the extrado meet-
ing D E in m'. And because the plane P F is perpendicular to the
axis of till' cylinder, the line of intersection /' a' will be a straight line
at right angles to the tangent I' m'. The triangle a' I' m' is therefore

the projection of a right angled triangle; and in the short distance
/' m' the tangent very nearly coincides with the plane of the spiral
surface, hence the angle I' a' m' will be a very close approximation to
that formed between the chord of the curved joint in the face and the
line /' a' \ which is the angle represented by ii / o, fig. 3, and that
which it is required to find.

FiS- 3.

From o' where the axis intersects D E in plan draw o' u' parallel to
/' m', meeting P P in j.', produce r o' to c'. In fig. 1 let / a be the pro-
jection in elevation of the line /' a' ; join a c and produce it to u, mak-
ing I a : a u : : I' a' : a' u'. Through u draw a o at right angles to
a 0, meeting the vertical line B c produced, in o; and through 7 draw
i m at right angles to a I, meeting o a produced, in 7ji.

From the nature of the spiral surface it follows that / a and a u will
be in the same straight line, and without going through the detail of
each part of the construction, it will be seen that the triangle repre-
sented by o' o' It' in plan, and a o u in elevation, is a right angled
triangle similar to, and in the same plane with the trangle a' m' I',
having the angle o' a' u' equal the angle I' a' ;«'. Also that the side
represented by a v and a' o' is the hypotheneuse, and is the line drawn
from tlie point where the joint intersects the intrado to the point of
convergence of the joints in the face; and that the side represented
by 0 H and o' «', which is the perpendicular of the triangle a u o, is the
hypotheneuse of another triangle whose perpendicular is c' o', and the
angle c' o' ii! equal to the angle of extrado. In the construction given
in your last numhoi', it will be seen that these are the two sides made
use of to obtain the angle «' a' o' =il' a' hi', but in the formula it is
more convenient to work with the base of the triangle w u' o', which

is the line a
have given

z
z

L

and a c
then drawing a c

u in fig. 1, and represented by a' ti in fig. 2, for when we

C D E ^ 6 the angle of obliquity.

c' o' u' = (j> the angle of extrado.

o c B := A the angle from the vertical,
r the radius ;

t right angles to B c fig. 1,
(Fig. 1> a c =: )■ sin. \, =; a' c' (fig. '2).
(Fig. 2) o' c' = )• sin. A, cot. e,

(Fig. 2) o' u' = r sin ^, cot. 8, sec. <f = the perpendicular.
(Fig. 1) 0 !< =; f sin. a, cot. 9, tan 9.

(Fig. 1; u c:=r sin. A, cot. 0, tan. ip, cot. A =: »•, cos. A, cot. 9, tan. <f.
(Fig. \) a u:=r ■\- (r cos. A, cot. 9, tan. <p) = the base.

_, , , , , '■ sin. A, cot. e, sec. a>

Therefore tan Z u' a' 0 z:z — — — 7

r -\-(r COS. A, cot, e, fan. <f)

Separating the constant from the variable quantities, and calling

r cot. 6, sec. <p =: a,

antl )■ cot. e, tan. (p =: 6,

. , , „ , , " sin. A

tan. Z li a 0 := tan. Z I a m = --; — .

(6 COS. A) + r

Hence if the arch be a semicircle on the square section, the expression

for the angle I' a' m' at the springing will be tan. Z /' a' m' = cot. fl,
sec. f.

1841.1

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

365

From the above may be proved the existence of the property dis-
covered by Mr. Buck, namely, that the chords of all the joints in the
face converge to one point below the axis; for co the distance of that
point below the axis (fig. 1,) will be o « x cosec \.

And 0 uz= r sin. A, cot. 0, tan. <p.

Therefore c o = r sin. \, cosec A, cot. 8, tan. <p.

Whence the variable angle \ disappears, and c o=^ r, cot. 9, tan. <p.

This like the formula previously given for the angles, has reference
to the line m a (tig. 1,) and not to the true chord of the curved joint of
the face; the approximation is however exceedingly close. If the
angle of intrado be used instead of the angle of extrado, the results ob-
tained by both formula apply to the taiigtnts of the joint lines in the
face, drawn from the points at which the joints intersect the intrado,
and these results are theoretically true, though not available in the
practical working of the case.

The formula tan. Z /' a' m' =. ' — '- leads to another con-

(i cos. i.) -\- r

Struction for finding the angles between the joint lines in the face and

soffit which possesses some advantages over that already mentioned.

Fi 4.

1

* The dotted line ii p should be produced to r. and V u produced fo (—the
dotted line/// should be a full line.

Let L M (fig. 4) be the elevation of the face of an oblique arch, on
a plane at right angles to the axis of the cylinder on which it is formed,
n u being the radius.

From the point K in the straight line K H, (fig. 5,) draw K F and
K G, making the angle HK F equal the angle of obliquity of the arch,
and the angle H K G the angle of extrado. Set off'K G =z n u the
radius, and through G draw G F at right angles to K H, intersecting
K H and K F at H and F. Upon the vertica. line M u produced (fig.
4,) set off« r 1= F H, and from u with the distance H G describe the
arc R W S. Then to find the angle formed out any ioint n. Join n u
and through W where n u intersects the arc R W a, draw p t parallel to
L II, and from ji draw ii r parallel to M u, intersecting p t in ;;. Join
J) V and the angle p v t is the required angle. For let F H = r' and using
the same letters for the angles as before.
K H = r' cot 1

K G = r' cot. e, sec. 9. f- fig. 5.

h %•

4.

/ u := r' cot. e, tan. 9, cos. t..

u V = r'.

tv=:r'-\- ()•' cot. 9, tan. 9, cos. X..)
And p I ■:= !■ u=z r', cot. 6, sec. 9, sin '.. j

Hence the ratio o( p t to t v is the same as a sin. /C is to (b cos. I) -f- r,
and therefore the angle p v I is the same as that obtained bv the
formula.

Fis

Tlie angles for the remaining joints being foimd in the same man-
ner, and the mould of curvature of the spiral line of the intrado applied
at V, the curved bevels or templates for all the voussoirs on both sides
of the arch are at once obtained as shown in the figure.

I am. Sir, vour obedient servant,

\V. H. Barlow.
£rereton, September 17, 1811.

N. B. Will you be so good as to make the following corrections in
my last communication.

In Fig 1 the letter A is omitted at the intersection of the lines EJ^il
and D C.

Fig. 4 should be Fig. 3, and Fig. 3 should be Fig. 4.

In Fig. 3 the straight line S T R should be S' T R'.

Page 292, line 3. For draw G H read through E draw G H.

H G := / cot. e, tan. 9.

J

THE NEW ROYAL EXCHANGK.

The contract of Messrs. Webb for the foundation of the new Royal Ex-
chan^^e was finished un Tuesday evening, ami the Gresbani Committee met
on the 1st ult tu receive tenders for the second contract, which is forjthe
completion of the \sbole of the edifice.

Fourteen of the principal builders of London had. as we formerly stated,
been applied to. and it \', as also determined that eich teiv'er should contain
two prices — the one being for executing the mason work with the best Port-
land slone; the other, the a^ldilional price for usmg magnesian limestone,
similar to tliat introduced at the Houses of Lords and Commons. T j

The amount of the several tenders were as follows, September 1. 1841 : —

Magnesian

Tenders. Portland. limestone.

£ £

Thomas .l.ackson ll.i.900 .. 124.700

Baker ind Sons 122.765 . . 127.300

Henry and John Lee 126.,390 . . 131 .900

S.imuel Grimsdell 12U.762 .. 13:3.S48

Grissell and Pelo 127,400 .. 132,000

Piper and Co 128,700 .. 131.100

John Jay 129.609 .. 1 4,905

Jobn an 1 .losenh Little .. 129.800 .. 134.300

Webb and Co 130,150 .. 131,'l.JU

Joseph Bennett 131,500 .. 133,500

Brilger 131,519 .. 138,660

William Cubitt 132,200 •. 135,700

Nicholas Winsland 134.219 .. 136,620

H. Ward 135,500 . . 1 38,500

The tender of Mr. Thomas Jackson was, of course, accepted. The « hole;" of
the works are to be completed Lv Midsummer, 1844.

The amount ot the first tender for the fouadaUons was £8124. See. Jour-
nal, Vol. III. p.nge 399.

/tuslraHan Steam N/tvigation. — Notwithstr.nding the wreck of one of the
steamers, others have been sent out, and evei7thing is now going'on well.

Havannah. — A steamer has been started this month from Liverpool . to.
Madeira, the West India Island and the Havaimah.

m

."36G

THE CIVIL ENCINRER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[October,

SHANNON IMPROVEMENTS.

■\V'e have much pleasure in noticing the very spirited and energetic manner
in which (he Commissioners for the improvement of the navigation of the
River Shannon, are carrying into efiect the powers vested in them by Go-
vernment— besides tlie ivarioiis works in progress on the lower Shannon at
Kilrush, Kilteerv. KiMisart, and Foyn's Island, and in our immediate vicinity
at IlIanaro<jn, Plassy, and Killaloe. We learn that the same e.xeriions are
manifested to complete as soon as possible the numerous proji'ctcd works on
the middle .Shannon, particularly at Meelick, Hana(;her. and Alblone, to-
gether w ith the important operation of dredging the bed of the river.

The principal feature of the impro\ements to be e.vecuted at Banagher,
appears to be tlie erection of a new bridge over the .shannon, in place of the
present old bridge, which measure has been foundabsolutelynecessary.no
less for the safety and accommodation of the public, than for the proper
drainage of the country. The present bridge is built of rubble masonry, and
consists of 17 arches of various dimensions, the piers of which occupy nearly
one-half of the entire width of the river, the clear waterway being but 2&.'j
feet, whilst the total width ol the piers is 214 feet. This structure is in a very
ililapidaled condilion, and has lately shown numerous symptoms of its ineOi-
eieney as a means of communication between the King's County and Galway.
It may however, be considered, (from its having been built in the reign of
King John.) if not the oldest bridge over the Shannon, as at*ll events pos-
sessing an age which few other bridges can so satisfactorily trace, and is on
that account, a very highly interesting work of anlicjuity. In its construc-
tion we find all that characterizes the early specimens of bridge architecture ;
the small arches for allowing the passage of^ the water, and. as before men-
tioned, unnecessarily wide piers, which have large angular projections not
.only to throw oil the force of the current, but for the purpose of enabling
passengers to retire into, to avoid carriages and horsemen when passing along
Its narrow roadway, the width between the parapets being only 12 feet.

Tlie works of the foundation of the new bridge having been sufficiently ad-
vanced on the King's County side of the river, the first stone was laid by
Colonel Jones, on Saturday, the 21st August; over which a brass plate was
laid, bearing the following inscription : —

" Sn.VN.SON COMMISSION."

(Vmlei the Act 2ntl and 3r,l Vk. Cap. Gl.;

" By virtue of an Act passed in the second and third years of the reign of
Her present Majesty Queen Victoria, the first entitled an Act for the im-
provement of the Navigation of the River Shannon, the following are the
names of the Commissioners appointed for carrying the works into execution ;
Major-General Sir John Fox Burgoyne. R.E.K'.C.B., K.T.S , &e. &c. ; Lieut.-
Colonel Harry David Jones, R.Iv, M.R.I.A., M. Inst. C.E. ; Richard Griffith,
Esrj.. C.E . F.R.S.E., M.R.I.A."

" This Bridge over the River Shannon at Banagher, was designed by
Thomas Rhodes, Esq., C.E., M.R.I.A., M.Inst. C.E. , the Commissioners' prin-
cipal engineer.and the first stone laid on the 21st day of August, in the year
of cur Lord 1841. — Henry Buck, Esq., C.E. , district engineer; Henry Ren-
ton, Esq.. C.E. A. Inst. C.E., resident engineer ; William Mackenzie, Esq.,
C.K.. M. Inst. C.E., contractor. — Mward Hornsby, Secretary.'

Having had an opportunity of inspecting the plans and other documents
relative lo the bridge, we are enabled to give some particulars which, per-
haps, maybe acceptable to our engineering readers. It is to consist of six
semielliptical arches, of 60 feet span each, with a cast iron sw ivel bridge, of
45 feet span, to allow m.asted vessels and steamers an uninterrupted passage
at all times. The following are the principal dimensions: — Span of stone
arches each, 60 feet; rise of ditto, 16; thickness of abutment, 13 ; ditto of
piers. 8; ditto of swivel bridge pier, 40 ; total length of bridge, including
wings. 721 ; width of bridge, in clear of parapets, 24; ditto of carriageway,
16 ; ditto of each footpath, 4 ; thickness of arch stores at springing, 5 ; ditto
crown, 2 feet 8 inches. The foundations will be all laid on a bed of strong
gravel, at a level of about six feet below the bed of the river: the stone of
which it is to be built is blue limestone, of a very fine quality, procured from
a quarry recently opened adjacent to the works. The contract is stated to be
about £2.j,000, and the whole of the works are expected to be completely
finished in two years.

Mr. Kaivelle is the contractor for building the much required pier at Kil-
rush, which is to extend 150 feet into the sea in a westerly direction, and
there are 120 men now daily employed in the immediate neighbourhood
quarrying stones for the work. The masonry embankment forming on the
northern shore close to the present pier is very forw ard, and will be a great
im[>rovement.

Mr. Vignolles, C.E., son of the celebrated engineer of that name, is ap-
pointed resident engineer to superintend the construction of the piers or

quays at Kilrush and Cahircon.

Mr. Sykes, of York, is declared contractor for building the pier of Ca
con,_ underthe Shannon Navigation Commissioners, and the preparatory

I'aher-

works will be commenced immediately.

The new pier, or quay, at Kilteery, between Glin and Loughill, in progress
under the Shannon Navigation Commissioners, will be completed against
winter, and admit of sailing vessels and steamers coming to there, in 21 feet
of water, while the new road from Abbey feale, through the interior of the
country, will render this a work of great public benefit to the farmer and
trader — hitherto deprived of a market for their produce.— ii'merict Chronicle.

Kailuay in the Brazils.— A railway has received the sanction of the Bra-
zilian legislature and the support of the government, which is to run from
Kio Janeiro to communicate w ith the provinces of St. Paulo and Matto Grosso.
It lias only one chain of hills lo cross, the Serra de Parahyba.

STEAIVI NAVIGATION.

The Cairo. — A new steamer bearing this tit'e made her first appearance in
the Thames on Friday, 17th ult.. and exciied general attention. She was
built by Messrs. Ditchbum and Mare, of Blackwall, for the Peninsular and
Oriental Steam Navigation Company, fur the navigation of the Nile, .and is
intended as a branch steamer to convey pas.sengers and luggage to and from
various places on the banks of that river. The Cairo is a remarkably elegant
vessel, similar in appearance to those very fast and pretty steamers called
the Watennen, running between London and Woolwich, and built by the
same firm. The Cairo, however, is four feet longer and flat bottomed, to
adapt her for the shallow waters of the Nile, her draught being only two
feet. She is propelled by two engines of 16 horse power each, from the fac-
tory of Messrs. Penn and Son, of Greenwich. The cylinders are oscillating,
and the machinery, which occupies a very .small space, is precisely similar to
that in the Watermen, and of the same dimensions. The cabins, fore and
aft, are tastefully fitted up with l«d places and other conveniences for pas-
sengers. The Cairo is an iron vessel, and divided into five compartments
with water-tight bulkheads separating each, which adds much to the safety
of the vessel. The engines and machinery occupy such a frnall space that
100 persons can be accommodated in the cabins, and there are two spacious
stow-rooms for luggage only, between the engine-room and the fore cabin,
and the engine-room and after-cabin. The Cairo made a trial voyage from
the Blackwall pier to Gravesend and bick. and with all !he disa'<lvantages
attendant upon the working of new engines and machinery, she passed every
thing on the river, the Star, a large Gravesend steamer, only excepted, and
fully came up to the expectations of the builder and engineer. Mr. Ditch-
burn an 1 Jlr. Penn, jun., who entertained a select party of gentlemen con-
nected with steam navigation on boanl. have guaranteed the average speed
of the Cairo at 15 miles an hour; but for the Nile, a light draught of water
is her greatest reeommendalion. .Several other iron steamers, of similar di-
mensions, are to follow the Caiio to the Nile, and her design and appearance
has been so much approved of, that the M'atermen's Steam Packet Company
intend to augment their fleet by five new vessels of the same size and ma-
chinery of the same power, to te in readiness by Easter Monday next.
Messrs. Ditchbum and Messrs. Pe m have taken the contracts. — Times.

Marine Engines. — It may be said that Great Britain is the manufactory for
the whole world for marine engines; at one factory alone (Messrs. Maudslay
and Field), there are at the present moment going through their various
stages of manufacti re, engines of 3600 horse power in the gross, viz. the
Devastation, a government steamer with 400 horse power, fitted with double
cylinders, now in the Wi olwich basin just ready for action. The Thames and
Meiluaif. each wi(h 400 horse power beam engines belonging to the West
India Mail Company ; the Thames is nearly ready ; ihe Herculana (sister
boat to the Mongcbello) with 200 horse power, double cylinders, nearly com-
pleted for the Neapolitan government ; and the Mcmnon w ith 400 horse power
double cylinders for the East India t.'ompany. All the above engines are
now being fitted on board of the several vessels — besides the above, in the
same factory tliere are now in progress four pair of 150 horse, one pair of
100 horse for the Danish Government, and a pair of 100 hore for the admi-
ralty all with double cylinders, also two pair of 50 annular cylinder engines
on Mr. Joseph Maudslay's last patent. In another place we have noticed
engines for Egypt and the United States.

The Satellite. — A beautiful iron vessel built by Messrs. Ditchbum and Mait
has been running the last two months between the Adelphi and Gravesend
with great speed and regularity. She draws but little water, and frequently
steams the distance from Blackwall and Gravesend in about an hour ; she has
a pair of 35 horse steeple engines arranged expressly for her, w hich are a beau-
tiful specimen of Messrs. Miller, Ravenhill and Co.'s. workmanship, they
occupy a very small space in the vessel and are fitted with expansive gear
worked with great simplicity.

Steam Towing— We leam that during the present fruit season a steamer
will tow vessels between Malaga and Gibraltar. It is to be hoped that this
system of towing in the sea will be extended.

The Chili. — We regret to learn that this steamer has been wrecked on th«
coast of the same name.

FOREIGN INTELLIGENCE.

The Mosaic Pavement at Salzburg. — Munich, Sept. 7. — Private accounts froin
Salzburg state that it is intended to remove the lately discovered Roman
mosaics from their present position, and lay them down in another situation,
where they may be protected from the influence of the weather. It is said
that the place fixed on is the site of Mozart's monument. Besides the large
mosaic pavement, the design of which consists only of architectural orna-
ments and foliage, two smaller pieces were discovered, which are equally de-
void of pictorial representation. There are likewise considerable remains of
the walls of ihe chamber to which these mosaics belonged. The paintings on
these are similar to those found at Pompeii, consisting of flowers and tendrils
of vines on a red ground. The mosaics, as well as the paintings, are evi-
dently of the third or fourth century alter Christ. One very striking pecu-
liarity in the smaller mosaics is the frequent introduction of the sign of the
cross, which it is scarcely possible to regard as a mere accidental ornament.
At the depth of half a foot below the large mosaic pavement, is another of
finer workmanship, which, as it is necessarily the more ancient, promises to
be an object of still gre.aler interest. The proprietor of the bouse must have
had some motive in thus covering over the old pavement and raising the floor.
If once the upper pavement were removed, there would be no great difficulty
in uncovering the second. — Allgemeine Zeitung,

1841.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

367

Sl. Pilersbiirg, Jiigiisl 26.-300 workmen are now daily employed in re-
building the Imperial pnlace in the Kremlin at Moscow, which was pulled
down four years ago. The new building is made fire-proof, iho very rafters
being of iron, and no wood being employed except for the llonrs. This pa-
lace is to be heated by means of 250 metal pipes communicating with every
fart of the building, and proceeding from a furnace contained in the vaults
elow. The ornamental gilding alone costs 300.000 rubles.
The great hall of St. George of the winter palace, which had just been re-
built, Ind given way, and all the splendid Italian paintings and vases which
it contained been destroyed.— The loss is estimated at several millions of
francs. No life was lost ; and the remainder of the palace was intact. On
the day before the accident a chapter of the Order of St. George was held in
the hall which has fallen.

fenire. — A bridge is about to be constructed at Venice, intended to unite
that city to the Continent, and to connect it with the railroad of Milan. The
management of this gigantic undertaking has been conceded to the engineer,
Antoine Bu,setto Pitich ; the average expense is estimated at 4,830,000 livres
Austrian. The bridge will also contain an aqueduct intended to supply the
town with fresh water, which has hitherto been supplied in boats from the
Continent ; Venice being unprovided with wells and fountains, and having
bu*t very few cisterns.

T/ie Improvement of the Seine. — A commission has been appointed by the
Prefect ot the .Seine", to take into consideration a project for improving the
navigation of the river w ithin and below Paris. Part of the project consists
in establishing this navigation on the left branch, running along one side of
the Cite. Another p'an attached to it is the construction on the centre of
the Pont Neuf of a vast building, from which eight turbines, of the force of
4000 horse power.f?) would throw immense quantities of water into every
quarter of Paris.

Russia. — A joint-stock company in England has obtained the Emperor's
permission to make an iron railway frt.m Moscow to St. Pctersburgh, and
will begin its operations perhaps this autumn, but certainly in the spring.
Five years are allowed to complete the whole line, which will be 33 miles
longer than the common road between Moscow and St. Petersburgh, because
it is to pass throi'gh to Bybinsk, in the government of Yaroslaw, on the right
bank of the Volga, because that town carries on the most e.vtensive corn
trade with St. Petersburgh. All the vessels laden with the produce of the
south, which comes up the Volga to the north, must stop here. — Hamburgh
papers, Sept, 10.

The Rhein and Mosel Zeitung of Sept. 4 St ,tes, that in the course of the
operations in the Cathedral of Cologne for the restoration of the pictures of
the Saviour and the Apostles Peter and John, the workmen have brought to
light several colossal figures which have been obliterated witli whitewash
during the last century. It is to be hoped that these figures will be restored
along with the others to their original state. The same journal mentions
that the two pictures which had been wantonly injured at the e,>ihibition in
Cologne have been again hung up in their places, after having been removed
for the purpose of repairing them. In spite of every inquiry, the person w lio
committed the malicious act has not yet been discovered, nur is it possible to
assign any imaginable ground for so wanton an outrage.

laZSCELLANEA.

The Sun Fire-office Building.— The dispute between the city authorities and
the Sun Fire-office, is at last terminated by the consent of the latter body to
set back their building to the act of Parliament line, and to round the corner
at the south-east of Bartholomew-lane. The Commissioners of Sewers will
pay, as the value of the land thus appropriated to the public, such a sum as
may be determined upon by Mr. Cockerel!, the surveyor of the Sun Fire-
office, and some surveyor to be appointed by themselves. The directors of
the Sun Fire-office have, in the opinion of the citizens, acted most unwil-
lingly and ungraciously, and it would have been rfiuch more creditable to
these directors to have conceded to general convenience, what was never
equitably theirs, than, by persisting in forming this projection, to have com-
pelled the Commissioners of Sewers to appropriate public monies to an im-
provement in which the Sun Fire-office was really as much interested as the
public themselves. — Tijues.

Kew Mode of Ruling the Gas and Water Companies — Some of the parishes
in the eastern districts of the metropolis have lately been making a valuation
survey of the length and bores of the various mains and branch services be-
longing to the Water Companies in their respective parishes, as also the
length of the gas-pipes laid down, and all property belonging to them, for
thepurpose of rating them on a fair and equitable per centage, in the place
of allowing the companies to compound for them, by the payment of a stipu-
lated annual sum as heretofore, and which composition has been found in
reality to be much beneath their actual value. The companies' profits, it is
well known, being very considerable, their property has not been rated in a
fair proportion to the general property of the parish. By the adoption of
rating the companies after the survey, the parishes will derive a great annual
increase of revenue, whicli will contribute much to relieve the parishioners
in general, by adding to the parochial resources. The example is about to
be followed by other parishes in the southern districts, who are making sur-
veys for the same purpose, where the source of revenue, increased by rating,
will be much more considerable, in consequence of the immense quantity of
water and gas-pipes laid down in the southern districts by several companies
n rivalry of each other. — Times.

Improved Locomotive. — Messrs. C'oulthard, of Gateshead, engineers, have
just completed a powerful locomotive engine, including all the modern im-
provements, with also, ia one respect, a novelty in construction of great

practical advantage. This consists in the rejection of what we may call the
'• cinder-chamber.' so that the bars are exposeil to the external atmosphere,
and the ashes fall directly upon the ground. Thus, the bars being presented'
to the cold air on the outside, they do not waste away witli that rapidity
which is consequent upon the ordinary construction, and considerable econo-
my is the result. The engine being bviilt more for power than for speed, tlie
works are placed chiefly on the outside, and are of peculiarly easy access for
purposes of repair. Trial was made of her powers on Thursday week, in the
presence of Mr M'ood, under whose superintendence she was built, and other
gentlemen, who were much gratified by her perlormances ; and after remain-
ing for experiment on the Brandling Junction Railway a few days from this
time, she will be removed to the Clarence line, to commence her labours in
good earnest. — Tyne Mercury.

The .^tril-e at the New Houses of Parliament.— 'the strike of the two hundred
masons is likely to be productive of much injury to the working men. as they
could not have chosen a worse plea on which to strike, while they have put
themselves in direct contact with government. All combinations are bad,
and particularly where they are employed to repress industry for the benefit
of idleness. Nothing can be more infamous than a system which fines men
for working faster than their fellows. The masters will gain by this impru-
dence.

Sir William Burnett's patent process for the preservation of timber, canvass
&c. is gaining ground with the public; it has already been adopted by the
government authorities at the dock yards. For the service of the Portsmouth
Dock Yard, there is now being made at Messrs. Fairbairn's, Mill Wall, a large
iron tank. .51 feet long and 6 feet diameter, with air and force pumps for the
purpose of impregnaiing timber and canvass with Sir Wilham's solution — it
is also to be applied for the preservation of upwards of 6000 yards of felt, and
the deal casing to be used for clothing the steam boilers of H. M. War
steamer the Growler, niw having her engines put on board at Messrs. .Sea-
wards manufactory at Limehouse.

Hoai hy a Bank Chrk. — Last month we transferred into our columns an
extract from the Literarj/ Gazette, giving a short account of a neuly-dis-
coveied method of propulsion, by which a common garden or invalid chair
could be propelled along a common road by a galvanic power at the rate of
40 miles an hour ; and it was further stated that the young m.an who had
discovered this new power daily travelled in his chair from St. Alban's to the
Bank of England in half an hour— a distance of 22 miles! Great curiosity
was naturally excited by the supposed discovery, and the young man, who is
a Bank clerk, was questioned concerning it, both by the governor of the
Bank, and also by Mr. Smee, the cashier, &c. He was invited by the latter,
and by several other persons, to display the powers of his new machine, but
made repeated excuses for delay ; he first excused himself on the score of
illness, and on being again pressed to exhibit the machine, he stated that he
had driven it accidentally against a post, and shattered it to pieces. Upon
being, however, more closely questioned, he at last confessed that the whole
story w'as a hoax, and that no such machine h,ad ever existed, save in the
fertile imagination of the supposed inventor. This denouement was only made
known on Thursday, and it has created a great sensation in the Bank of
England. The motive of the youth for the above hoax cannut be accounted
fori We are informed, however, that some such galvanic power does exist,(?)
but that tlie expense is too great to allow of its being made use oi.— Times,
Aug. 28.

Projected Light on the Goodwin Sands. — The Lords of the Admiralty and
the Board of the Trinity-house have finally arranged with Mr. W. Bush, the
engineer, thftt the cast-iron caisson, which he has now nearly completed at
Deal, shall on M'ednesday, the 15th inst., be floated to its place on the north-
east end of the Goodwin Sands. It will be remembered some weeks ago we
noticed the progress of this undertaking, wliich is now about to be sunk and
firmly fixed to the chalk rock which Mr. Bush calculates on fimling about
30 feet below the surface of the sand. The caisson will then form a base
upon which a lofty column of stone will be raised, surmounted with a light,
and that from its position and general usefulness to eU maritime counties, it
will be called "The Light of all Nations," which will be inscribed on the
column. This new Goodwin light is not only designed as a beacon to warn
the mariner off these sands, which have been so fatal, bit is also intended as
a guide from the North Sea, through a swashway, hitherto, from its danger,
impracticable This channel is about half a mile wide, and leads into a ca-
pacious ba>' within the Goodwin, having from 30 to 40 feet water, and being
sheltered from every quarter, ships will there ride in safety. A very large
party are going out on the 15tli to view tlie floating of the caisson, and the
Government steamers are ordered to be in readiness. It is expected that his
Grace the Duke of Wellington, who takes a lively interest in the undertak-
ing, « ill be present on the occasion. — Times. Sep. 6.

Newly Recovered iniirf.— Since the opening of the new cut from Eau Brink
to Lynn, which took place about 20 years ago, the old channel, which was
very wide and spacious, by which tlie water of the Ouse and its tributary
streams were formerly conveyed to Lynn, has been gradually silting up, and
much of it has now become firm land, producing rich and flourishing herb-
age. A few days since a portion of this newly recovered land (containing
about 900 acresj, which is now embanked and fenced with live quickset
fences, and divided into convenient pieces for occupation, was let by auction,
at the Globe Inn, Lynn, and the annual rental obtained for it averages nearly
3'. per acre. Calculating upon this ratio, were an embankment of the Wash
to take place, the annual value of the land which would be obtained by that
undertaking we might reasonably estimate at not less than £500,000. At
the last quarterly meeting of the Lynn town-council, Mr. F. Lane laid upon
the table a copy of a memorial presented to the Commissioners of Woods and
Forests, which memorial referred to the inclosure of the Great Level of the
Wash, and was accompanied with a letter, stating that the application to
Parliament upon that subject was intended to be renewed in the next session.
—Norfolk Times.

368

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[October,

ig the
inches

London Briilgc. — Tliis Iridgf is to be closed for the purpose of repavin
road, ■■■lucli is tu Le done with Aberdeen Granite, not exceeding three ii
in wid h, to Ije laid in parallel courses.

Winihor Home Pari:. — Great improvements are going on by order of Her
Majes y. A very neat iron bridjie has been erected ever the I) itcbet roid
which has been covered with the Stysscl Asphaltc. Other wurki in Asphalle
have :dso been executed at the castle.

LIST OF NB'W PATENTS.

GRANTED IN ENGLAND FROM 24TH AIGIST, TO 23rD SEPTEMBER, 1841.

Sia: Months allmeed/or Enrolment.

Richard Whitaker, of Cambridge, machinist, for "improvements in
cuitiiuj the edtjea of books, and paper for other purposes ; aiid in lynpressimj
ornaments, letters, aiidfii/uresonlhe binding of boolcs and on oilier surfaces."
— Sealed September 4.

Thkophile Antoine Willhelme Count of Hompesch, of Mivart's
Hotel, Brook-street, Middlesex, for " improvements in obtaining oils and other
products from bituminous matters, and in purifying or rectifying oils obtained
from such matters." — September 4.

John Boot, of Qiianilron, Leicester, lace glove manufacturer, and John
King, of Henor, lace-maker, for " certain improvements in macJiinery or ap~
paratns for manufacturing or producing fgured or ornamented fabrics in
wary and bobbin-net lace machines." — September 4.

John Grafto.n, of Cambridge, civil engineer, for "an improved method
of manufacturing gas." — September 4 ; two months.

Michael Coupland, of Pond-yard, Southwark, millwright and engineer,
for " improvements in furnaces." — September 4.

George Wildes, of Coleman-street, merchant, for " improvements in the
manufacture of white lead." (Being a communication.) — September 4.

William Hill Darker, senior, and William Hill Darker, junior,
both of Lambeth, engineers, and William Wood, of Wilton, carpet manu-
facturer, for " certain improvements in looms for weaving." — September 4.

Louis Lachenal, of Titchfield-street. Soho, mechanic, and Antoine
ViEYRES, of No. 40, Pall-mall, watch-maker, for " improvements in machinery
for cttt'jng cork." — September 4.

John Jukes, of Lewisham, gentleman, for " improvements in furnaces or
Jire-places." — September 6.

Pierre Pelletan, of St. Paul's Church-yard, professor of medicine, for
" improvements in propelling fluids and vessels." — September 6.

Joseph Drew, the younger, of Saint Peter's Port, for " an improved me-
thod of cutting and rolling lozengrs, end also of cutting gun-wads, icafers, and
all other similar substances, by means of a certain machine designed by him,
and constructed by divers metals and woods." — September 6.

Luke Hebert, of No. 12, Staple's-inn, London, for "certain improve-
ments in apparatus and metals used in the manufacture of gas for illumina-
tion ; nh:o improvements in the apparatus for burning the same." (Being a
communication.) — September 8.

ItuHARD Else, of Giay's-inn, Esq., for "certain improvements in ma-
chinery or apparatus for forcing and raising water and other fluids." — Sep-
tember 8.

William Fairba!rn, of ^lillwall. Poplar, engineer, for "certain im-
provements in the construction and arrangement of steam engines." — Septem-
ber 8.

Joseph Cooke Grant, of Stamford, ironmonger and agricultural imple-
ment maker, for " improvements in tiorse rakes and hoes." — September 8.

Nathaniel Card, of Manchester, candle-wick-maker, for "certain im-
provements in the manufaclure of wicks for candles, lamps, or other similar
jmrposes, and in the apparatus connected thereivith." — September 8.

James Thorburn, of Manchester, machinist, for "certain improvements
in machinery for producing knitted fabrics." — September 8.

Miles Berry, of Chancery-lane, civil engineer, for " a new or improved
me/hod or means if, and apparatus for, cleansing typographical characters
or forms of type, after betngused in printing." (Being a communication.) —
September 8.

Oglethorpe Wakelin Barratt, of Birmingham, metal-gilder, for " cer-
tain improvements in Ihe precipitation or deposition of metals." — September
8.

Joseph Garnett, of Haslingden, dyer, and John Mason, of Rochdale,
machine maker, for " certain improvements in machinery or apparatus em-
ployed in the manvfacture of yams and cloth, and are also in possession of
certain improvements applicable to the same." (Being partly a communica-
tion.)—September 8.

Edward Loos de Sciielestadt, engineer and chemist, and Etienne
Stbrlingne, tanner, of Rcgent's-square, in the county of Middlesex, for
" certain neio or improved machinery or apparatus and process for tanning
skins or hides, and preparing or ojierating upon vegatable and other substances."
— September 8.

George Mann-ering, of Dover, phimber, and Henry Harrison, of Ash-
ford, plumber, tor ■' certain improvements in the means of raising water and
other lii/uids." — September 8.

Alphonse Rene Le Mirb be Normandy, of Rcdcross-square, Cripple-

gate, doctor of medicine, for " certain improcemoi! s in the manufaclure of
soap." — September 8.

William Crosskill, of Beverley, iron-founder and engineer, for " im-
provements in machin ry for rolling and crushing land, and in macftinery to
be used in the culture of land." — September 9.

William Hickling Bennett, of Ravcnsbourne Wood-mills, Deptford,
gentleman, for " improvements in machinery for cuttmg wood, and in appa-
ratus connected therewith, part of which may be applied to other purposes."
—September 9.

Charles Louis Stanislas Baron Heorteloup, of Albany-street, Re-
gent's-park, for " nn improved manufacture of continuous priming for, and
improvfd mechanism for Ihe application of the same to, certain descriptioni
of fire-arms." — September 9.

Conrad Frederick Stoltmeyer, of Golden-terrace, Barusbury-road,
Islington, merchant, for ** certain improvements in obtaining and applying
motive power by means of winds and waves, for propelling vessels on water,
and driving other machinery." — September 1 7.

William Newton, of Chancery-lane, civil engineer, for " improved ma-
chinery for manufacturing felts or felted cloths." — September 20.

Joseph Hul.me, of Manchester, engineer, for " certain imvrovements in
machinery or apparatus for grinding, sharpening, or setting tlte teeth of cards,
or other similar apparatus employed for carding or operating upon cotton,
wool, or other fibrous substances." — September 20.

Thomas Hu(kvale, of Over Norton, O.\ford, farmer, for " improvements
in horse-hoes, and in apparatus f.r treating and dressing fifinips, to preserve
litem from insects, and promote tlieir growth." — September 20.

Alfred Ela.m, of Hudderifield, surgical instrument maker, for " improve-
ments in apparatus for instruments for the relief atul cure of procedencia and
prolapsus uteri." — September 20.

Luke Hebert, of Birmingham, for " improvements in machinery for full-
ing woollen cloth." (Being a communication.) — September 20.

,Willi,\m Charlton Forster, of Bartholomew Close, gentleman, for " a
material, or compound of material, not hitherto so used for preventing damp
rising inwalls,and for freeing walls from damp, which material, or compound
of material, can be applied to other purposes." — September 20.

Francois Marie Ag.' the Dez Maurel, of Newington Terrace, Surrey,
for " en improved buckle." (Beiug a communication.) — September 20.

George Shillbeer, of MUtou-street, Euston-square, carriage builder, for
" improvements in the construction of hearses, mourning and other carriages."
—September 20.

William Bush, of Deptford, engineer, for " improvements in the means
of, and in the apparatus for, building and working under water." — September
21.

CoMTE Melano de Calcina, of Nassau. street, Soho, for " improvements
in paving or covering roads, and other ways, or surfaces." — September 21.

Edward Emanuel Perkins, of Weston Hdl, Norwood, gentleman, for
" improvements in the manufacture of soap." — September 21.

John Duncan, of Great George-street, Westminster, gentleman, for "im-
provements in machinery for driving piles." — September 21.

Henry- Bessemer, of I3axted House, Saint Pancras, engineer, and Charles
Louis Schonberg, of Sidmouth Place, Gray's Inn Lane Road, artist, for
" improvements in the manufaclure of certain glass." — September 23.

George Scott, of Louth, miller, for " certain improvements in flour mills."
—September 23.

James Whitelaw, engineer, of Glasgow, and James Stirratt, manu-
facturer, of Paisley, Renfrew, for " improvements in rotary machines to be
worked hy water." — September 23.

TO CORRESPONDENTS.

Mr. Pilbrow.— HV shall he happy to lay before our readers any new facts ht
may bring forward in support of his peculiar form oj Engine, and when he has got
the steam up in the 50 horse engine now constructing on his principle, tee shall
feel much pleasure in recording the results.

Mr. Barret and Mr. ISrnoks. — /fV have been again called to account by these
two gentlemen, for not publishing their communications ; we can assure them that it
is our desire to accommodate all our correspondents if possible, but on account of
the numerous articles connected with the profession which dema/id immediate atten-
tion, we are obliged to defer controversial articles; tec teill hoieever endeavour
next month to accommodate both Mi . Barret and Mr. Brooks.

Probably after three years more practice V. tvill say that we have been merciful.

Books received which must stand over for notice until ne.rt month — Elements of
Perspective Drawing ; Ilepori on Boucherie^s Process of Preserving Wood ; Den-
tons Outline of a Method of Model Mapping ; A Letter to the Shareholders of
the Bristol and Eieter Uailtvay. by W. Grava't, C.E., F.R.S. ; this tetter dis-
closes some sttspicious circumstances, which we hope before our next jmblication
appears, the parties concerned will be able to clear jtp.

We regret that we liave not been able to find room for a very valuable report 0»
the Improvement of Lough Erne, by Mr. Rhodes, B.C.

Communications ore requested to he addressed to " The Editor of the Civil
Kngineer and Architect's .lournal," No. 11, Parliament Street, Westminster.

Boohs for Review must be sent early in the month, communications on or before
the 20th (If with drawings, earlier), and advertisen:ents on or before the Z5th
instant.

Vols. 1, 11, and III, may be had, bound in cloth, price £1 each Volume.

■J^M/f// • //f//f^^Ufi/^ ■ JwA uw^d- 4/0^, /If 'J/^a^/i/ 0'/ta.t^tCL/'--^

I'ial.

**!«-> Vtu-^.tXi-

181].]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

360

IMPROVEMENTS IN THE CONSTRUCTION OF MARINE
STEAM ENGINES.

(Wilh an Engraving, Plate VUI.)

Abstract ofSpeciJtcalion of a Patent granted 16/A March, 1841, to Joseph
Mauds'aij, of the firm of Maudslay, Sons, and Eicld, Enginiers,
harnhdh.

These improvements relate to llie arrangement of certain parts of
steam engines of that kind, (usually termed direct action engines),
whereof the centre of the cylinder is situated immediately beneath
the axis of the cranks, and are assigned for the purpose of producing
and applying a greater amount of steam power than has heretofore
been avai'.able within a given space or area on ship board, and for the
purpose of applying a greater length of stroke and connecting rod in
a given height, than can be obtained (in a direct action engine) by any
other means, and the lower end of the connecting rod guided without
any lateral pressure on the piston or piston rods.

They consist in disposing the connecting rod in a space which is
left vacant for its reception, (together with the requisite appurtenances
of that rod) within the central part of the steam cylintler, and within
tlie central part of the piston whicli works up and down in the said
cylinder, the steam cylinder having for that purpose a small cylinder
fixed concentrically within it, and the piston being a broad ring or
annulns, which encompasses the said small cylinder, and tits into the
annular cylindrical space which is left between tlie interior of the
steam cylinder, and the exterior of the said small cylinder. The an-
nnlar piston is moved alternately up and down in the said annular
cylindrical space, by tlie force of steam acting therein, but which steam
does not enter into the interior of the small cylinder, neither is any
piston or part of the piston fitted therein, but tlie interior of the small
cylinder is left open at top and vacant within, for the connecting rod
and its requisite appurtenances to work in, with liberty for that rod
to move up and down therein, and likewise wilh liberty when so mov-
ing, to incline as much as it requires to do, from a vertical position
alternately on one side of the vertical and then on the contrary side
thereof, in consequence of the upper end of the connecting rod accom-
panying the motion of the crank pin in its circular orbit ^in the usual
manner of connecting rods), whilst the lower end of the said rod
moves alternately up and down in a vertical line, that line being at
the central line or imaginary axis of the steam cylinder, and which
axis w'onld in ordinary steam engines be situated in the centre of the
solid metal of the ordinary piston and piston rod, but according to my
improvements in the arrangement and combination of the various
parts, the said vertical line or imaginary axis of the steam cylinder,
is situated in an Ojien space which, as already stated, is left vacant for
the purpose of receiving the connecting rod, together with its appur-
tenances within the central part of the steara cylinder, and within the
central part of the annular piston, in consequence of the small cylinder
being fixed concentrically within the interior of the steam cylinder,
and in consequence of the cylinder cover, as well as the piston being
each a broad ring or annulus, and each being suitably fitted to the
annular cylindrical space between the two cylinders, but without cover-
ing or occupying the interior of the small cylinder.

These improvements will be more fully understood by a reference
to the accompanying engraving, and the following description thereof,
in which lig. ) is an elevation of the said engine taken longitudinally,
fig. 2 is a longitudinal vertical section corresponding to the side ele-
vation fig. 1, fig. 3 is a horizontal plan of the upper part of the engine,
and fig. 4 is a horizontal section of the cylinder thereof; fig. 5 is a
transverse vertical elevation and section representing two such engines
disposed side by side for combined action; one of the two engines in
fig. 5 being represented in elevation, the other in section. The same
letters of reference denote the same parts in all the figures.

The exterior or large cylinder is shown at a a, the interior and
smaller cylinder concentric to it at b b, and an annular piston at c c,
having two piston rods d d, working through stuffing boxes in the
annular cover of the cylinders, the upper ends of which rods are
affixed by keys to the T shaped cross head e, c, e, e, at the lower ends
of which cross head there is a slider y, working within the inner cylin-
der, to this slider f one end of a connecting rod g is attached, the
other end of the rod being attached to the crank pin of the crauk h,
on the propelling shaft.

From this arrangement it will be perceived that by the ascent and
descent of the piston e c, the rods d d, will cause the cross head e f, to
move perpendicularly up and down, and in so doing to raise and de-
press the slider/, with the connecting rod g, which rod will by that
means be made to give rotary motion to the crank li, and thereby
cause the paddle-wheel shaft i to revolve. The rods j;, connected to

No. 50.— Vol. IV.— October, 1841.

the slider/, will at the same time work the levers or beams k k, to
which the rods of the air pump /, are attached.

Having fully described the invention, the patentee desires it to be
understood that he does not claim the use of two concentric cylinders
and an annular piston, but he claims as his invention the use of tlio
space within the interior cylinder for the lower end of the connecting
rod to work in, whereby the ultimate length of stroke and connecting
rod within a given height is obtained, and the lower end of the con-
necting rod guided without any lateral pressure on the piston or piston
rods.

CANDIDUS'S NOTE-BOOJC.
FASCICULUS XXXII.

" I must have liberly
MMtlial, as large a charter as the tt\nils,
To blow on whom I please."

I. On'E of the prettiest little bits of street architecture about town
that I know of is tlie front of a small house adjoining the Polytechnic
Institute, in the upper part of Regent Street; — a very clever and
artist like specimen of Italian, in which rustication of a more than
usually finished and picturesque character has been very happily ap-
plied— of that kind which may be termed mixed rustication, both ver-
miculated rustics and moulded ones with plain faces being employed,
— as has likewise been done in the new houses on the soulh side of
Lowndes Square. The character thus produced is at once rich and
sober. The archway forming the entrance to some livery staWes, on
one side, is not the least agreeable feature in the design, nor is it anjr
compliment to it to say, that it is in infinitely better taste than the huge
slice of architectural gingerbread which Nash clapped by way o£
frontispiece, against that mass of ugliness the Royal Mews at Plmllco.
How that Nash did palm his Brummagem stull' upon old George the
Fourth ! — and took pretty good care to be paid for It In sterling cask
— good and lawful money of the realm!

II. Because It does not happen to be as big, as tawdry, and as ugly
as one of the Regent's Park Barracks — those genteel Union Work-
house aflfalis — no one has been able to discern any merit at all in the
specimen above referred to. The Paddlngton or Paddy style — the
horrible mushroom monstrosities which are now springing up in that
district, and which are apparently directed by some Nash the second^
some genius well qualified to be the successor of that mighty master,
— are far more to John Bull's taste, and according to his notion of
"genteel houses."

III. " Can you give me any sure general rule for my guidance by
adhering to which I sliall always be certain of attaining superior
beauty in composition and design ?"^ — Such was the question once put
by an architect to a connoisseur of acknowledged taste, who thereupon
replied : " My advice was asked the other day by a writer who wished
me to Inform him what rule he should attend to in order to raise him-
self in the literary world. My counsel to him was : be original if you
can, be Interesting if you are able. As I answered him, so now I
answer you : display both invention and taste, and into whatever yon
do take care to put character and effect. I know of no other general
rule ; but if you can act up to that, I believe you will find It a suffi-
ciently efficacious one." A plain answer to a very simple question!

IV. It is a wonder that Pugln has not shown up the range of Brum-
magem Gothic buildings in the Temple, — most trumpery and tasteless
as to character, though, no doubt, not very trumpery — perhaps of
most sterling merit, as to cost. Not a little strange, too, is it that he
did not have a fling at that notable example of Civic Gothic the facade
of Guildhall, which Is such a perfect monstrosity that It deserves to
be pulled down.

V. Besides giving Turner a tremendously heavy blow — one almost
sufficient to demolish him, and put him quite liors de combat, the re-
viewer of the "Exhibitions," in Blackwood, deals a few home strokes
at Stanfield, and also at our present English view-mania. " What,"
he asks, " must the inhabitants of all the tumbledown places on the
Rhine and the Rhone think of us, our scenery, our buildings, anil our
taste, when they learn that representations of their beggarly edifices
and their abominable outskirts form the chief ornaments of our Royal
Exhibition?" — "Nor in respect to architecture," he afterwards ob-
serves, " are our views always In good taste. The low and the mean,
the decayed and the poverty-stricken, are often thought to be the only
picturesque, as iS picture must indulge in vile associations. Let not art
take habitat in "rotten rows," nor vainly imagine that the eye should

3 C

370

THi: CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCIHTECT'S JOURNAL.

[November,

seek deliglit wliere the foot would not willingly tread — tlie purlieus
of misery and vice. All the pictorial charms of light and shade, and
colour are to be found in subjects whicli shall not degrade them. There
is no lack of architecture that elevates instead of depressingthe mind,
both by its grandeur of design, the work of genius, and by the asso-
ciations it calls up. In a word, in every branch of art let what is low
and me.in be discaided, however it may tempt the artist under the idea
of the picturesque." — To tlie above advice which is very nuuh needed,
might be added another wholesome caution — namely, that in subjects
more or less professedly architectural, the architecture itself should
be treated as principal — as that in which the main interest lies, and
not as too frequently happens, exhibited little more than nominally
being nearly slurred over, while the value of the composition is made
to depend upon accessories and casual circumstances^l-'erhaps on
ataffagi and figures, or some exaggerated contrast of light and shade,
improbable if not impossible, — a pyebald medley of midday and mid-
night. As to architectural character, whether arising from the ensem-
ble or the detail, that is not to be looked for in the " illustrations" an-
nually manufactured to suit the taste of the million. We have views
of Windsor Castle, wherein the building itself shows itself only as a
mere speck in the landscape, the real view being that of trees and
cattle, or figures in the foreground. In many cases, indeed, such
mode of representing and "illustrating" buildings is not only highly
convenient, but suitable and advantageous also, the things themselves
being of no interest, or at all worth being shown. This may be affirmed
of almost the greater part of topographical illustrations — views of the
most insipid and common place houses, &c. imaginable, "of no value
except to their owners."

VI. One might almost imagine that scarcely a building of any note
had been erected in Germany within the last five and twenty years, —
that Berlin, Potsdam, Munich, Dresden, Vienna, Hamburgh, &c. could
not boast of a single new architectural feature of any merit, that
Schinkel, Klenze, Gartner, MoUer, Gutensohn, OhlmuUer, Semper, &c.
bad executed nothing — nothing at least deserving the attention of the
English public. How else are we to explain the neglect which modern
German architecture has experienced from those who set themselves
up as luminaries of taste, to enlighten the public, and to "illustrate"
by their pencils the tiolabilia of other countries? — Our consolation
must be that perhaps we lose very little by such subjects as those
above alluded to being passed by unnoticed by our manufacturers of
views and "illustrations," — things for the most part made up from
slovenly, hurried sketches, which the engraver is left to make out as
well as he can, and to dress up to the best of his ability. What such
productions want in regard to truth and fidelity, is amply made up for
by imagination and invention, — which have ever been reckoned among
the more valuable qualities of art. Besides which there is one very
great advantage attending the disregard of truth-telling accuracy,
which is, that it does not forestal the gratification to be derived from
viewing the buildings and places themselves, since they are generally
found to be altogether diflTerent from their pretended representations.
Thus when seen they make all the impression of perfect novelty, and
produce double surprise — agreeable surprise at finding them greatly
surpass expectation, and a queerish, indiscribable sort of surprise at
finding out how much we have been all along mialAfied by owlish
illustrators.

VII. After seeing to-day the works at the New Houses of Parlia-
ment I feel most amiably disposed towards Mrs. Wright of "awful
conflagration" celebrity — whom 1 once, I believe, called a stupid old
Jessabel worthy of the pillory, for had she by timely interference pre-
vented the "accident," the splendid pile now rising to view would
never have been reared. It was a mercy that the old " Houses" were
burnt down when Ihey were ; since had the fire occurred during the
" reign" of James — tiiat is, the reign of James Wyatt "of execrable
memory," — we should have had some strange Gothicizings, sucli as
those which now strike us with astonislnnent in some of the buildings
still remaining in what was formerly the river front. Tlie great fault
of Mr. Barry's Gothic is that it puts us quite out of conceit with a good
many other things, and with Windsor Castle among the rest ; which I
must confess falls greatly short of what 1 had been previously led to
expect, there being very much in it that is exceedingly questionable
as to taste. Not the least remarkable circumstance in Barr\'s edifices
is that the inner courts — the quadrangle of the Speaker's residence,
for instance, will be though less elaborate as carefully designed and
finished as those parts which are exposed to public view ; whereas
the greater part of the exterior of the British Museum presents only a
mass of plain brick wall, with naked windows. 1 admit that more at-
tention is paid to design in the inm'r court of that edifice, — and won-
derfully frigid it is — classically dull and Smirkish throughout. Poor
Smirke! ho« greatly he is to be pitied.' — and forthe very reason that
many may now envy him, to wit, because he has had so many oppor-

tunities of manifesting his imbecillity. Barrv — Smirke, they are as far
asunder as the two poles ; or I might say the difference between them
is that of the trojjical and the frozen regions. As to Barrv, I am afraid
that his Houses of I'arliament will sadly discomfort Welbv Pugin, by
giving the lie direct to his assertions

VIII. "One of the Ventilation Folks" has taken too much o« /;je(i
de la htire, tlie obviously quizzical remarks in which I indulged in re-
gard to the excessive and fusay rout on the subject of ventilation, as
if it was a perfectly new discovery, and as if people had been suffo-
cating themselves for ages past, rich and poor alike, in palaces as well
as in hovels, in the country as well as in towns, and inhaling pestilence
at every breath, at least when within doors. Nothing as far as I can
discover, did I say in favour of stinking alleys, and frowsy rooms;
nor did I express any admiration for the aroma of a drain, though
from what the "One" has said it might almost be fancied that I re-
commended it as "a cheap and elegant substitute" for altar of roses.
My remarks went no furllier than a little banter on the overstrained
necessity for far greater attention to ventilation than has hitherto been
considered requisite, except for prisons, factories, and other buildings
where people are densely pent up together. That the doctrine of the
Ventilation Folks is somewhat overstrained can hardly, I think, be
denied ; for the plain reason that it proves rather too much, and that
a great portion of the population in towns could hardly exist at all;
nevertheless exist they do, and that, too, under circumstances which
must frequently aggravate a thousandfold the mischiefs arising from
insufficient ventilation.

If ventilation be of such exceeding importance as is insisted upon by
its advocates, how terribly — nay fatally must those people blunder who
take their daily airing in a carriage with the windows drawn up, and
which is then nearly air-tight. Not less blundering is tlie practice of
those who make it a point to secure an airy bedchamber, and then
closet themselves within curtains drawn so closely around them, that
they might as well sleep in a closet of the same dimensions as their
bed. If " Ventilation" be quite in the right. Gentility must be con-
foundedly in the wrong; since what barbarians those must be who io
order to gratify a little trumpery vanity, stow away and squeeze their
"five hundred dear friends" together, till they might nearly as well
be in the Black Hole at Calcutta! Why do not the Ventilation Folks
call upon the legislature to make all such "At Homes " illegal assem-
blages, devised for the purpose of smothering her Majesty's loyal and
fashionable subjects? I know not whether the Ventilation Folks are
particularly musical, but if they are so at all, I presume that their
chief and favourite instrument is the iEolian harp; at the same time
I suspect that some of them have bo particular dislike to playing the
trumpet.

HINTS ON ARCHITECTURAL CRITICISM.— Part 2.

My last paper confined itself to a statement that architecture pos-
sessed the same claims to open criticism as her sister arts ; — my present
design is to enforce those claims more strongly. The attempt then
was to deprive taste of its precarious nature, and so to shake preju-
dice, as to prepare the mind for further illustration in proof of that
statement; the present effort consists in reconciling an apparent dis-
crepancy between the claims of architecture and the other arts, by dis-
plaving the peculiar features in which her poetry is cast, and by
showing that though the mind be eflected in a more remote and deli-
cate manner, and that though an emotion, or an idea induced by it, be
neither so animated, nor so vivid as another art might produce, yet
that its eftects are not the less faithful, nor less the result of a principle
(whilst tlie principle itself emanates from nature); and hence, that if
there be such a principle to guide the architect towards the material
of his fancy, then architecture may remodel herself, and criticism may
unbend.

One peculiar distinction of architecture appears to be in its com-
pelling us when viewing the composition, to assume a suggestive or
comparing attitude, and this necessity is consequent upon there being
little that is strictly imitative in its phisiognomy or shape. This
power of suggestion varies in degree, in the choice of features, and in
the manner of their disposal. "Where tliere is an introduction and
classification of natural figures, so as to intrude on the province of the
sculptor, the suggestive power of the art is shown in its faintest de-
gree, fur the imagination is in that case assisted by the presence of a
familiar object, and the senses being palpably impressed, the mind has
less effort to arrive at the final conception and emotion. The sugges-
tive power in this ease however still belongs to architecture, because
it forms a feature in the whole, and because the architect exercises a
discretionary power in the adaptation; but the features themselves
are not so strictly suggestive as architectural features usually are

184 1.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

371

The strictly suggestive character is, where flie object has no counter-
part in nature, but where, from a certain altitude or proportion in the
tigure, assisted by relative position, the mind is left to suggest to itself
an object in nature, expressive of some ideal quality, to which the
figure might claim a point or two of resemblance.

In the comparison between the figure which has no counterpart in
nature, and that which the imagination furnishes, there is extreme
delicacy of perception requisite to detect a similitude ; for, in exer-
cising this power of comparison, we but transpose the elements of
wit, since the strength of wit whicli consists in its delicacy is but the
perception of a certain resemblance between two things, not essen-
tially similar, but alike only in those features of which the idea takes
cognizance. Two ideas in this case present themselves, and the rela-
tion found in those ideas, after the test of comparison, is essentially
the product of wit. The relish which the mind has for this ingenious
activity, the natural bias there is ap|)arent in most of u-;, to indulge in
this harmless intricacy of thought, — the pleasure too which we ex-
perience in detecting the force of an allusion, all imply an innate
power in the mind to perceive a possible harmony or relationship be-
tween two separate and distinct things. It is in fact a self creative
power, which for the time the mind exercises, by which out of ap-
parently inapt materials, it shapes a perfect idea. Applying this to
architecture, we may at once perceive the origin of the claim, which
its inanimate features have upon us. Furtiier to examine into the
principle which moves us, we may perceive, that in the comparison
of wit, however varied the play of fancy, or however apportioned the
strength of perception may be, the ideas placed in juxtaposition, are
not seen directly in the attribute of an object, but in that which is
mostly associated with that attribute, — viz. the attitude or position by
which we judge of the mind or intention. It is the external sign
which wit first embraces, and not the inward evidence, and hence it
is we comprehend 'he force of the ludicrous, (which is in truth the
force of unexpressed wit) from figure, attitude, Sic, our idea of plea-
sure arising from conflicting associations, — that is, from certain real
or declared properties of the object, or of the mind through the object
being seen connected with associations, which we perceive totally at
variance with those naturally connected with them. It is upon this
ground that we smile at the large head of a dwarf, or at the affectation
of delicacy in a fat person, or laugh at the threatening attitude of a
little slender man: therefore the pleasure of comparison is the plea-
sure of attitude ; and inasmuch as this pleasure may be carried from
wit to poetry, a definition of the poetry of attitude is necessary to
assist in supporting the poetry of architecture.

The attitude of an object affects us then because we observe certain
dispositions of the mind when exhibited, are frequently associated
with certain attitudes, which, when unstudied appear natural, until
from frequent observation that the same attitude is an index to the
same disposition of the mind, we identify that altitude with it. It is
this which has given personification to still life, and peopled nature
with living beauty and grandeur. It is this same principle which has
associated the willow with grief, and the oak with stubborn dignity ; —
which has detected modesty in a flower, or discovered wanton beauty
in moving foliage. It is in truth the principle of life to the art of the
poet, and it is by this that the poet is understood. The spectator of
nature admits this in his own emotions, as he watches those objects
which surround him, for he sees the graphic power of scenic poetry
to consist in its picture of attitudes. The poet admits its influence
still more delicately when he allows an attitude to invisible things. It
was a conscionsness of the poetry of attitude, that induced the lines :

"I'is swoot io listen :is the night v imls
From Wv.i to loaf.''

reop

For whilst tlie ear is made sensible of the approach of the winds, the
eye also may observe their furtive melancholy progress. It is thus
then that attitude engages us, but attitude is not always significant of
a collected state of mind ; — there is often a carelessness about it which
induces a different emotion from that attitude, which directly expresses
an idea : it being always borne in min<l that the cbject is for a time
the persoiiification of feeling and of will. A similar kind of ell'ect is
produced on the mind in such a case, only very laintly, — there being
no definable idea connected therewith. It is very frequently the case
in architecture that we feel the truth of this, as we revel amidst the
.smaller attractions of a comirosition, where we perceive abuut its
minutiae, attitudes, which we think beautiful, without knowing why.
This innocent perplexity of thought which assails the mind, leaving it
only when it has bewildered it, is the very secret of all the interest
created: the reason being tempted into inmmiei'able petty defeats,
from each of which it arises to encounter a fresh one, as the several
parts of beauty appear to seduce it on. It is here that cri'.icism is
disarmed, — criticism taking cognizance ouly of the position and ex-

tent of such attraction; and, it is because criticism is disarmed at this
point, that architecture often exhibits such redundancy of beauty,
which sickens the fancy and the taste. Attitude however has its
carelessness, in a nearer approach than this to individual beauty, that
is, where there is a more definite proportion traceable through its
parts, though the same perplexity of the mind may be preserved ; and
it is in this state of attitude that we discover the beautiful in archi-
tecture, and by this are enabled to depict its ideal of grace or of
grandeur. Byron beautifully illustrates this thought in his description
of Dudu :

Few angles were tlcre m her form, 'tis true,
Thinner she iniglit have been an<l yet scarce lose ;
Yet, alter all. 'twould puziile to say where
It would not spoil some separate charm to pare.

She looked • ■

'Iho mortal and the ni.irble still at strife,
And timidly e.spaniliiig into life.

Admiration of women in general, springs from the same subtle and
exquisite cause : our ideas moving like the movements of sense amidst
the same perplexities, becoming as we gaze, like the lovely cause, an
elegant deceit For to admire woman requires not that we be absorbed
by her mind, or her acquirements, since to appreciate either, we must
turn to the cold test of a balance, or a criticism : nor do we descend
to t' e base notion that she is the mere adjunct of pleasure, since
poetry, the very element of her charms must then decay. No! — we
seek her as a riddle, — we love her as an enigma, — we chase her through
the follies of her course as a lovely inconsistency, — as a fanciful ligut
we would snatch at and grasp. Our vanity tempts us to seize this for
ourselves, which nothing seems to arrest, and to hug this creature of
caresses, if only to rob nature of her dearest child.

Our ideas of grace and grandeur in architecture becoming then often
those of attitude, as do those of the beautiful and sublime in nature, —
grace, which we identify with no particular proportion when dis-
covered in nature, becomes at once in attitude a lovely perplexity, — a
creature of careless, yet correct shape, which, at a motion however
slight, would take another form of elegance, as beautiful as she herself
would be unconscious. Grandeur differs from grace, inasmuch as the
energetic differs from the wanton, so that grandeur is always the crea-
ture of comparison, whose colossal form suggesting powers, contrasts
itself with familiar trifles.

The principle which affects us has already been shown, but looking
at this in a simpler and more homely guise, we may say that it is the
poetry of attitude, wdiich is the poetry of arrangement; — that is dis-
plays itself iu domestic taste, and gives to the taste of a woman, that
elegance and beauty so peculiarly her own. It is because her mind
can engage itself in such gentle and beautiful comparisons, — because
her perception of things is but a perception of their poetry, — because
("which is a consequence) she allows nothing, and admits nothing around
her, but such as can echo to her sensitively graceful mind, that her
abode is replete with harmony, and beauty, and love.

Such is a feeble definition of the poetry of attitude, which is uni-
versal throughout nature, whether exhibited in her minuteness or her
vastness, and such is a scanty description of that subtle faculty which
extracts from her ever varying flowers, that honey which it hives for
the nourishment of art.

Laboured as such reasoning may appear, inapplicable as such ab-
stract considerations may be thought to the practical requirements of
art, there is nevertheless in such an analysis, the exposure of poetry
in its germ. There is, in testing our sensations by the varieties of
nature, that secret spring opened into activity, which enriches the
productions of art, and causes beauty, grace and grandeur, to stai-t from
the inanimate stone. There is, in generalizing our views, a liberality
given to the mind, which deducing out of its observations, the true
principles which affect it, begets an intuitive confidence in its own
powers, to conceive and embody for the eye, its ever beauteous — ever
endless creations. The deduction from the argument is, that if nature
be the poet's laboratory, ami if attitude prove to the mind one of her
most operative principles, then, the degree of poetry in architecture
bears a ratio (as far as attitude is concerned) to her power over atti-
tude. It has already been shown by inference that she has this display
of attitude, and that she embraces the same materials of beauty, which
we see in external n;iture, therefore, as children of nature, we assert
the poetry of our art. We know too that she has the same scenic
effects from the lights and shadows she distributes; for when, as in
the cathedra), these f.iU softly on surrounding objects, or when the eye
sinks wearied from its awful wanderings amidst vastness and obscurity,
to repose amidst beauties which peep from the dimest perspective,
chords of joy swept by attitude vibrate on to entrance the senses.

So much for the principle which moves us, and so much for the
argument in favour of architecture and her claims to criticism: yet, it

3 C 3

372

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[NOVKMBER,

must be borne in minil, tliat no mure is attempted than to show a
principle; — all illustration being consequent upon, and not connected
with it : — the present attempt beine; solely to establish a claim to criti-
cism, and not to dilate upon what it would be premature to consider,
when attitude itself is merely subsidiary.

Space prevents further pursuance of a subject which would lead us
away from attitude, to proportion, the questionable nature of which it
•was designed to sketcli. Not wishing however to intrude fnrtlier be-
fore the reader, the conclusion is reserved. However humbly these
liints are delivered, or however feebly they may have been conceived,
the writer knows that nature is adequate to the profoumlest investi-
gations, supplying as she does to every art the truest and the wisest
rules, and that the more closely we adhere to her unchangeable maxims,
the more dignified do we rise as artists, and as lovers of truth. He
Isnows also tliat unless an art be cajiable of charming the senses, or of
enriching, or of delighting the imagination, and can support its claims
to such power, it is only a mockery of commendation to say that its
compositions are governed by the most exact rules, and hence it is
only a mockery to criticize: — " ars enim, cum a natiird pro/ecla sil,
nisi naturam moveat «c deleckt, nihil sajte egrissi vicklur:" — Cic.de
oratore.

'Frederick East.

Ocfohcr, 1941,

ENGINEERING WORKS OF THE ANCIENTS, No. 10.

The present paper, which will be devoted to the Latin authors, will
conclude this series, which, although far from being complete, is ex-
tensive enough to show that much may be done to illustrate the anti-
quities of engineering. C. J. Cecsar is the first author who comes
before us, and in him we find nothing except an allusion (o the mining
skill of the Gauls, and an account, in Book 4, ch. IS, of the bridge he
threw over the Rhine. In Salliist we find absolutely nothing. From
Livy the gleanings are but few, an allusion to the works of the Tar-
quins in the first book; in the ninth book a statement that Appius
Claudius Censor executed the Claudian aqueduct and Appian wav ;
in book I3i), a similar mention of C. Flaminius; in the 100th book,
which is lost, there was an account of the drainage of the Pontine
Biarshes. Qnintus Curtius, in his -Ith Book, ch. 2, has a long account
of the siege of Tyre, and in Book 5, ch. 2, a description of Babylon.
From Paterculus we liave not been able to gain any thing, and Vitru-
vius we have left to the architects.

PLINY.

Pliny the Elder, who died A.D. 79, is to us one of the most inte-
resting writers, fur including in his work every department of the
organic and inorganic world, we could scarcely fail to discover some-
thing of his value. We had occasion, however, last month to refer,
in the review of Mr. Aikiu's work, to some of Pliny's remarks on
briclts, so that we are precluded from now giving them ; the mining
portion, we have also felt it necessary to exclude

BUILDINGS IN EARTHQUAKE COUNTRIES.

Pliny Book 2, ch. 82, recommends several modes of construction as
calculated to resist the effects cf earthquakes; he says that in some
cases deep wells are advantageous, as they allow the dangerous gases
to escape ; that in some towns where there are many underground
sewers, earthquakes are less felt; and that building on piles is ex-
tremely effective, as was to be observed in Naples, where the most
solid part of the town is that which has sufl'ered must. Brick walls,
lie also thinks, are less injured than others.

TU.SCANS — ISTUMUS, &C.

In the 3rd Book, ch. l(j, our author says that the Tuscans were the
first to begin the canal system of the Po, by improving the .Sagis. In
Book 4, ch. 4, it is mentioned that King Demetrius, and the Emperors
Julius Caesar, Caius and Domitins Nero tried to cut a canal through
the isthnuis of Corinth but failed. In Book 31, ch. 3, is given a long
treatise on wells, and chap. G, on conduits.

INVENTORS.

Euryalus and Ilyperbius, two brethren at Athens, caused the first
brick and tile kilns, yea and houses thereof to be made in Greece.
Gellius is of opiiuon that Doxius, the son of Ccelus, invented the first
bouses that were made of earth and clay, taking his patterns from
swallows and martens' nests. Cingra the son uf Agriupa, first devised
tiling and slating houses, as also found out the brass mines, both in the
island of Cyprus, he also invented pincers, hammers, levers, and the
anvil. Danaus sank the first wells in Greece at Argos. Cadmus
at Thebes found out stone quarries first. Thraso was the first builder
of town walls, towers and fortresses, according to some, but according

to others the Cyclojis and Tyrinthians. Lydus, the Scythi.m, or Dclas
the Phrygian, taught the art of casting and melting brass, and of tem-
pering it, and the Chalypes or the Cyclops invented the forge and
furnace for brass. Erichtlionius or^Eacus discovered the silver mines
of Attica, and Cadmus, the Phenician, the gold mines of Mount Pan-
giEus, and the mode of working and melting that metal, although by
some it is attributed to Thoas and jEaclis in I'ancliaia, or to Sol the
son of Ocean. Midacritus was the first who brought lead (query tin)
from the island Cassiteris. The iron-smith's forge was first invented
by the Cyclops. Cora;bus, an Athenian, taught the art of casting
earthen vessels in moulds. The weaver's spindle was invented by
Closter, son of Arachne ; the potter's wheel by Anacliarsis the
Scythian, or Hyperbios the Corinthian; carpentry, and carpenter's
tools, as the saw, chipaxe, plane, hatchet, plumb-line, augre, gimlet, as
also glue byDedalus; and the rule and square, the level, the lathe
and the key by Theodore the Samian. Pyrodes, son ofCilix, found
out the way of striking fire from flnits, and Prometheus the means of
keeping it in a wick of thejtrnla or giant fennel stalk. Instruments
of warfare and vessels of war owed their origin to many liands, but to
the Syrians is attributed the catapult, to the Phenicians tlie balista,
and to Epeus at Troy the ram. (Book 7, chap. 50.;

METALS.

In the 33rd book Pliny begins his discourse on metals, minerals and
mining, this is continued in the 34th.

CEMENTS, BRICKS, &C.

It is in the 35th book that our author discusses the subject of
pottery. He says that a means had been found out to make a strong
kind of mortar or cement with the broken sherds of potters, if the
same be gro\ind into powder and tempered with lime, this is called
Signina, and durable pavements are made in the same way. Puzzo-
lana is next described, and other earths used for hydraulic cements as
those of Cyzicum, Cassandria, Gnidos, Aulis, the Nile, &c. After-
wards came the several kinds of mud walls, pisee work, rubble, &c.,
and the several forms of bricks.

The 35th Book is descriptive of stones, marbles, &c., where it is
said that Ethiopian and Indian sand was used in cutting marble. This
Book also treats upon limes, mortars and pavements.

In thus concluding our labours on this subject, we trust that we may
indulge a hope that we have not laboured in vain; it was our en-
deavour to show that engineering was no art or science of to-day, but
one of the remotest antiquity, long practised and long honoured, and
if in so doing we have in degree vindicated the claims of the engi-
neering profession to distinction, we shall consider onr exertions fully
repaid. We may say with truth, that however trifling the result,
they have cost us much research, long time, and the perusal of many
volumes, which, as they rarely come under the student's inspection,
so has he little time to devote to their perusal. '

A NEW SAFETY VALVE.

Sir — If you consider the following worthy of insertion, you would
much oblige by giving it a corner in your valuable Journal. It being
well known that a compound bar of steel and brass will, on account of
their diirerent rates of expansion, assume a curved form on the appli-
cation of heat, which property I propose to ap|)ly to a new safety-
valve by the following means: — I would place such a compound bar
in a curved form into a cylinder open at each end, having four arms
radiating to its centre through which passes a rod fixed to the cylinder,
and which carries at the other end a circular plate moving steam
tight, of a fixed plate perforated with two or three holes for the es-
cape uf steam. Then the bar being set, so that the apertures in the
fixed plate shall be covered at the proper working pressure of the
steam, then if the temper.iture should by any means be raised, tlie
bar will inniieuiately cause the rod to turn and open the va\\ e.

There are many mechanical details that are not mentioned, wishing
only to set forth the principle.

I am. Sir,

ISIh Oct. &c. Sec.

Funnel.

f'ininn. — -'The Auslridn governmenl.'' says a letter from Viiuiia of the
IGih of September, •• has foimed die gigantic plan oi builiiuig at die eastern
extremity . f this capital, on ground nhiih is wholly unprial.iclivc, a new
town, capable ol contaiiiiiu; 50.0LO inhabianla, and which is to be nrovided
at llip outset vilh all ilie re,,iiisilc ureal public buildings, such as churchis,
residence ot the jjovernur, court of justice, exthange. iheaircs. museum, &c.
This town is to be called •' l-'erdinaml lailt." 'llic jilans are already made
by the t'lievalier l'"orster. arcbiloct ol the Cdurt, \ilio beluri Iiettibmits ibem
lo the gnveninient. intends to communicate diem to the principal academies
of tile line arts in Europe, with a reijucsi lo give llieir opiuion."

1841.1

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

373

MR. STEVENSON'S IMPROVEMENTS ON LEVELLING
INSTRUMENTS.

S[R_Intlie minutes of the Institution of Civil Engineers wliich
were publislied in last montli's Journal, there wns a notice of my im-
provements on levelling instruments; but that notice was not correctly
given, and strangely enough omitted all mention of two of these im-
provements. I have therefore as a favour to request that you will
give the following correct account of these improvements a place in
your Journal, which may be considered to be the present acknowledged
organ of the profession.

Lcrelling S/aJ'. — The improvements on the levelling staff is as fol-
lows: the first is the introduction into the staff with sliding vane of
an adjusting screw with clamp, by which, af'er the vane has been
brought within i or i inch of being correct (which is readily done
wil'Ahe hand), the vane is firmly clamped, and the final adjustment
up "V down is at once made with the screw. A similar plan, I have
since been informed by Mr. Manby, Secretary to the Institution of
Civil Engineers, was used by Capt. Lloyd (Roy. Soc. Trans.), and idso
by Mr. Bunt, while prosecuting their scientific researches; but Capt.
Lloyd's staff' was only 6 ft. long, and Mr. Bunt's 9 ft., being too short
for engineering use. The application of this arrangement to engi-
neering purposes I have found of great utility. The above adjusting
apparatus is fur the vane when on the lower half of the rod, wiiich is
32I ft. long. But when the level line (i. c. the optical axis of the
telescope produced) is above the lower half of the statf, the vane is
as in all rods with sliding vanes, first clamped at the top of the upper
half of the staft", wdiich is then pushed or slid along the face of the
lower half, until the vane is within ] or s inch of being correct, when
the upper half 0/ /he rod is clamped and finally adjusted up or down
by a clamp and screw apparatus fixed at the back of the lower half.
By this plan, although the vane may be far out of reach, the adjusting
apparatus never moves, being a fixture and within reach of the hand,
thus obviating the necessity of having a long adjusting wire fork for
working a capstan-headed vane screw, which, although perfectly
suitable fur Mr. Bunt's cp/imum levelli-ig would of course not answer
the long rods used by engineers. The next improvement is //le com-
hinations in one rod of all the advtintages of the sliding vane staff, with
vernier readings for accurate rcork, and the scf-readtng staff fur rough
norl;. This is effected by having the back of the rod graduated to
feet and decimals by means of inlaid bone figures which are read
through the telescope level. In tliis way I have not lost sight of Mr.
Gravatt's ingenious contrivance of self reading. In making a section
where it is necessary, in order to carry forward a correct result, to be
careful only with the first and last sights after and before moving the
instrument, the intermediate sights are read off the back of the staff
by the telescope. The above instrument, vvhicli is 122 feet long, and
may be said to consist of a sliding vane staff and a seif-reading staff,
is, by the contrivance of a late friend of mine, packed up in a box
3A feet long and 4 inches sc]uare '

Level. — 'I'lie first impruvement in the level is the fixture to the
telescope tube of a circular level sluggish in its motions, instead of the
comparatively delicate cross bubble of Mr. Gravatt's level.

The Ui'^t improvement is the introduction of a ball and socket Joint
between tlie head and legs of the iiistniment, so as to have a motion
intermediate in fineness between that of the parallel |)l,ite screws and
that of the legs. Befure the introduction of the parallel plate screws,
1 understand that levels had a ball and socket motion instead of the
screws. The present improvement consists in restoring the ball and
socket for the rough setting, and at the same time retaining the parallel
plate screws for the Jinal adjustment. The clumsiness of the present
arrangement consists in the instrument being at all dependent on the
setting of the legs. With the instrument thus improved, the surveyor
is made quite independent of the level of the gn.und where he sets
the legs of his instrument, and may place them without regard to the
inclination of the telescope to the horizmi. Looking first to the cir-
cular level, and releasing the clamp of the ball and socket, he with
one hand moves the head of the instrument till the bubble is in the
centre of the circle, an operation which is done almost instantaneously.
The socket screw is then clamped, and the telescope bubble is brought
to the absolute level by a slight touch of the parallel plate screws.
In this way the legs of the instrument need never be moved after the
instrument has been pi, iced on the ground, and the parallel plate
screws have almost nothing to do, advantages which all who are
accustomed to levelling wdl fully appreciate. 1 may mention that the
price of altering my old level tu the new form was 1/., but 1 have no
doubt that in future the charge may be less. That the above im-
provements are well worthy the attentiun of the profession I am fully
assured, else i should nut have brought tbein forward. My own ex'-

perience on liundreds of occasiuns, as well as that of others, has
placed any tiling like doubt completely aside, and with the ball and
socket joint I have been enabled on very many occasions lately to take
in sights with one setting of the instrument, that would otherwise
have required two, owing to very irregular and precipitous rocks,
vvhich did not afford snlficiently level rests for the legs to allow the
bubble to be brought right.

I remain. Sir,
Little Ross Island Light House Your obedient servant,

IForis, Kirkcudlirighl. Tho.mas St£V£nso.\.

Oct. 11, ISU.

ON THE ECONOMY OF FUEL IN LOCOMOTIVES CONSE-
QUENT TO EXPANSION AS PRODUCED BY THE
COVER OF THE SLIDE VALVE.

Sir — ^The confidence of anonymous writers is sometimes exceed-
ingly amusing. For reasons best known to themselves they seem to
put but little value on the idea that they themselves may perhaps be
labouring under misapprehension; and such is singularly the case of
a gentleman signing himself M., the author of a letter in your October
number, containing some strictures on a paper of mure in your August
number, on the subject which is the title of this letter. This gentle-
man, Mr. M., having discovered, he says, some errors in my calcula-
tions, hopes you will allow him to point them out for the beriefit of
your readers; and he begins by premising that although some.formulac
of mine, which he points out, are correct, yet in two of them there are
expressions which are identical, and which, he says, might perhaps be
better expressed, now whether or not these expressions are identical,
any schoolboy can find out, and whether or not they are identical, 1
hope Mr. M. will have the generosity to allow me to suppose them
better stated in the form 1 have adopted. Mr. M. now proceeds to
state that the value of (s) (s being the area of the piston) is incorrect,
and that it is impossible to deduce the area of the piston from the
length of the stroke cover and lead of the slide, and ratio of the
greatest to the least pressure of the cylinder, without knowing how
much steam is generated in the boiler, if Mr. M. would have the
goodness to read over again a part of my paper, he would find it there
stated that in the mode of expansion virtually adopted in locomotives,
the cylinders are enlarged so as to consume the same quantity of steam,
(which is just the wdiole steam that the boiler can produce) ; and this
is the only way in which the question of advantage from expansion
can be treated ; now if Mr. M. would consider for a little he would see
that what I am about with the equation,

a' |=2rfXl is finding wdiat area the piston

must have so that the steam may be cut off at (a'), and yet the same
constant quantity of it consumed, and he would see that so far from
being able to give (s) any value we please, it can on the contrary have
only one definite and particular value, which is assigned by this equa-
tion, and so far from 2d X i being an arbitrary quantity, it is the very
quantity that properly represents the quantity of steam produced by
the boiler, or which is the same thing in the question under consider-
ation, the volume that the cylinder would have if no expansion took
place.

Ml-. M. in the next paragraph leads me to doubt if he understands
the mode of analysis it is necessary to follow in estimating the work

performed by an engine w orking expansively, for the expression — — I

does not express the effective working pressure during the expansion,
and only at that part of expansion wliere the piston is at a distance
(iv) from the beginning of the stroke ; and how he has discovered that
this gives the effective working pressure 3 or 4 t6. per square inch too
much lie does not mention, and 1 am unable to find out. Mr. M. men-
tions that 1 make no alluwanee either for the diminution of tempera-
ture of the steam during the expansion, or the waste sjiace which has
tu be filled with steam. Perhaps Mr. M. for the benefit of your readers
will be kind enough to tell us liuwmuch the temperature of the steam
will be reduced in the hot climate of a locomotive's smoke box?
Would Mr. M. seriously propose to introduce into this analysis the
slight modification necessary for the waste space filled by the steam;
which waste space varies in all locomotives, and will yet be reduced
to almost nothing? Again, Mr. M. states that the effect during the
part of the stroke from llie opening of the eduction port the termina-
tion ot the stroke, must not be neglected on account of the small open-
ing of the port during that period, and that the pressure of the steaiu

111 'ill

371

THE CIVIL I:NT;INEER and ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[November,

is previously very little reduced by expansion. Mr. M. ought to have
told us what degree of expansion he alludes to, as that altogether de-
cides the extent of diminution of pressure by expansion, and when he
considers that at this part of the stroke the motion of the piston is
very slow, and the motion of the valve very quick, he will be able to
see that the contemplated effect of this part of the stroke is consider-
able. Mr. M. next states that the elfect of the coin|)ression of the
educted steam is so small that it miglit be di^regarded. I am sorry to
see Mr. M. make sucli a remark, after having read the last paragraph
of my paper, as the effect of this compression is altogether dependent
on the extent of the cover ami the lead.

Mr. M. in his concluding paragraplis has got into a sad maze, he
supposes that I put the initial pressure of the steam in atinosiiheres
equal to the area ot the piston, and founding upon this most wonderful
C(|uation some beautiful deductions, he states that "these results show
the manifest absurdity of the supposition." If Mr. M. would substi-
tute for the letter (s) the figure (."i), he would immediately be relieved
from a multitude of his diHicullies, and you are able to say whether
the letter or the figure is in my ]>aper. With tlie assistance of these
remarks, perhaps Mr. M. will find out that the paper which he states
requires " revision "and correction'' virtually less requires either than
his own letter.

And I am, your obedient servant,

J. G. Lawrie.

Carlsdyke Foundry, Greenock,
OcioberG, 1811.

SiR^— I regret exceedingly that any expressions contained in my
letter concerning Mr. Lawrie's communication on the Economy of Fuel
in Locomotives consequent to Expansion as produced by the cover of the
Slide-valve, and which you favoured witli insertion in your Journal for
this month, should have given that gentleman offence, as I perceive by
his letter, which you were kind enough to send me fur perusal, to have
been the case. I therefore take the earliest opnortunity of assuring
him, through the medium of your columns, that such was perfectly
unintentional, and also of acknowledging two errors into which I had
fallen, though not altogether by my own fault, as I think I shall now
show. lu the first place 1 objected unjustly to his equation

in which he merely stated (s) to be the area of the piston, having in-
advertently omitted to mention at the same time that the area of
piston required to use the same quaiiity of steam without ex[)ansion
was considered as unity, so that (s) is not the absolute, but the relative
area of the piston, or the ratio of its area when the steam is cut off
after the piston has travelled a distance (a') to what it would be if the
steam were not cut off at all ; and I think Mr. Lawrie will allow that
any other reader v\ou!d be liable to be led into the same mistake as
myself through this oversight on his jjart.

The second error which I have to acknowledge is the having attri-
buted to Mr. Lawrie the absurd hypothesis that the safety valve be so
loaded that (p) is equal to (s) (whicli he would have seen to be so
printed in the Journal, if lie had taken the trouble to refer to it before
writing his letter), whereas I ought to have supposed it to be a mis-
print, as in fact it is, and I now see clearly that the (s) was intended
by Mr. Lawrie fur a (5).

I shall now endeavour to convince Mr. Lawrie that the rest of my
remarks were not thrown out without due consideration.

First then, although a school boy might have been able to find out
that the two expressions alluded to in the first part uf my former com-
munication iveve identical, if the problem had been proposed to him,
yet 1 should very much doubt whether he would see it at a glance,
without having any previous suspicion of the fact ; but, having dis-
covered it in tlie course (>f my investigation (for which discovery,
however, 1 beg to be understood to claim no particular merit), 1 thought
it would lie useful to communicate it to your readers, since it saves
the trouble of calculating the same (|uantity twice over by two dif-
ferent methods.

1 have now to return to the equation already quoted above, in the
second member of w hich the factor ( I) expresses the area of the pis-
ton wlien there is no expansion, and (s) its area when the steam is cut
off at (a'), the same quantity of steain being admitted during the
stroke in both c.ises ; and with this explanation 1 acknowledge the
correctness of the above equation, except inasmuch as tln^ waste space
at the end of the cylinder, which has to be filled with steam as well as
the length fa') (.f the cylinder, li.is been omitted in the account (and
this Mr. Lawrie must excuse me from admitting to be rtduced lo almost
nothing), and also inasmuch as the pressures (p) and (/) are used in-
stead of the corre.sponding densities of the steam. The Count de

Pambour, in his Treatise on Locomotite Engines, and Theory of the
Steam Engine, assumes this waste space to be equal to J^ of the con-
tents of the cylinder within the limits of the stroke of the piston, and
I believe this estimate to be, in all cases, rather below than above the
truth. Besides, where is the necessity or advantage of neglecting
that quantity, when there is no difficulty in taking account of it, at
least by approximation? Its actual value may be employed, when
known, otherwise by using an approximation such as ^, a more correct
result would be obtained than by omitting it altogether. The above
equation, corrected for the waste space, and with the substitution of
the densities (5) and (5') for the pressures (p) and (t) respectively,
becomes

[g. (^d-b)^

whence

5 — y , 5 — 5'

2dh+w (5—5')

a' i — ('>d — b)V -\'Wyi—h'y

where {w) expresses the length of a portion of the cylinder equal to
the waste space at either end of it.

In order to show that the corrections which I have introduced, al-
though not greatly affecting the result, ainount notwithstanding to
sometliing appreciable, I shall presently apply tliem to one of the ex-
amples at the end of Mr. Lawrie's former communication; but it will
be necessary first to make a further correction in the latter, which I
shall do as soon as I have replied to the remaining paragraphs of his
present letter.

With regard to my understanding the mode of analysis it is neces-
sary to follow in estimating the work performed by an engine working
expansively, I am sorry tlie want of perspicuity in my former letter
was such as to create a doubt in Mr. Lawrie's mind, and I trust I shall
now succeed in dispelling it; indeed the doubt has arisen from his
assigning a more extended signification to an expression, which I used
in common with himself, than the said expression had any right to
bear, or was originally intended to bear by either of us. When I said
that he found the effective working pressure during the expansion to be

"a' p
equal to /, I did not mean the mean effective rrorking pressure,

nor could I mean that that quantity, which so evidently varies with
the value given to (x), could be supposed constant during tlie whole
of the expansion, but precisely what Mr. Lawrie himself meant, viz.,
that it was the general expression of the effective trorking pressure
during expansion, the particular value of which at any given instant
would be found by substituting for (x) its value for the position of the
piston at the given instant. 'This is, however, merely a misconception
on the part of Mr. Lawrie, who no doubt thought my objection rested
on the supposed difference which I liave just explained away, whereas
the real point at issue is whether the constant term (/) in the above
expression f.uthfuUy represents the negative part of the effect, or the
resistance of the waste steam on the back of the piston, or not. Now
(/), as I stated in my former communication, is used by Mr. Lawrie to
express the lowest pressure of the waste steam in the cylinder, which
probab'y scarcely exceeds the pressure of the atmosphere, and he has
likewise used it for the mean resistance of the waste steam, that is,
the resistance due to the blast pipe added to the pressure of the at-
mosphere, during the whole of the portion (6) of the stroke. Now,
according to the Count de Pamboui's experiments, with the mean
evaporation of locomotive boilers, and the size of orifice of the blast
pipe commonly adopted, the mean resistance due to the blast pipe,
when the velocity of the engine is 20 miles an hour, is 3-i ft. per
square inch of the piston. In the description of Robert Stephenson's
|j.itent locomotive engine in the new edition of Tredguld on the .Steam
Engine, jiage 451, it is stated that that resistance is " G lb. per square
inili when running at the usual rate of 2;') or 28 miles an hour," au'd
that at greater velocities it "has been found to increase to double that
amount, and even more." I think I am therefore fully borne out in
the opinion that Mr. Lawrie's calculation makes the effective working
pressure (I should have added, on the average) 3 or 1 lb. per square
inch too much, if not more.

Willi respect to the diminution of temperature consequent on ex-
pansion, Mr. Lawrie must snrely be aware of the possibility of re-
ducing the temperature of elastic fluids, by sudden dilatation, many
degrees below that of the surrounding bodies ; but, since he wishes
me to tell him how much the temperature will be reduced in the hot
climate of a locomotive's smoke-box, 1 answer that, when the time
given for expansion is excessively short, as it is in locomotives, this
reduction is not sensibly affected by the climate, but depends on the
primitive pressure and degree of expansion of the steam, and that in

1841.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

375

his 3rd example, wlipre the steam is (supposed to be) cut off at 5*2
inches from the commencement of the stroke, the diminution of tem-
perature would, with that expansion, amount to about 80 degrees;
but this is much greater than it would be in reality, on the hypotheses
made by Mr. Lawrie, because the values found by him for (a ) and (b)
are so much too small as to exaggerate the expansion enormously ;
as an inst.nce of which, in the example just quoted, tliese valves
ought to be 0-7726 and 0-9259 respectively, instead of 0-2884 and 0-7,
and the steam would consequently be cut off" at 13-9 inches, instead of
6-2, from the commencement of the stroke. This error, which runs
through all 4 examples, and thus vitiates all the deductions, arose
from Mr. Lawrie inadvertently changing the unity from the radius of
the eccentric to the width of the port, in applying his formula.

Mr. Lawrie says that, when I objected to the omission of the effect
of the steam during the part of the stroke from the opening of the
eduction port to the termination of the stroke, I ought to have told
you what degree of expansion I alluded to, as that altogether decides
the extent of diminution of pressure by expansion. This is sufficient
reason for not neglecting the quantity in question ; for if there is any
degree of expansion for which it ought not to be neglected, the only
way to be sure of not doing so in that particular case is to include it
in the general formula. However, I will take Mr. Lawrie's 2nd ex-
ample, where the lead (on the steam side) is ^ of the breadth of the
port, and the cover (also on the steam side), i breadth of port. Mr.
Lawrie assumes that the valve has no cover on the eduction side of
the port, which I think he will not find to be exactly the case ; Mr. R.
Stephenson allows -j-j inch on each side, and the ports are only 1 inch
wide, which makes the cover on the eduction as well as the steam
side of the port, -'^ of its width. It is obvious tliat this arrangement
causes the eduction to commence later, by which means the pressure
of the steam is not reduced so low at the end of the working stroke
as it would otherwise be. It is, however, with the conditions assumed
by Mr. Lawrie that I have calculated, at a great cost of time and
labour, what the diminution of pressure would be in this example,
from the opening of the eduction passage to the end of the stroke.
I have supposed the initial pressure (before expansion) to be 5 atmos-
pheres or 73-53 tb. per square inch, and the total area of the port ^
that of the piston, and I have purposely made the reduction of pres-
sure come to more, rather than less, than it would really amount to.

The radius of the eccentric, or i the travel of the valve, which is
called unity in the formulae for calculating (a') (6) and (c'), is equal to
the width of the port -\- the cover = J width of port, whence the
width of port =: f, and i =: ^, c = i. With the aid of these values
we find a' ■=. 0-8482, 6 ^= 0-9479. Neglecting the waste space, the
pressure is reduced by expansion to 65-07 lb. The eduction lead =
the lead ■\- the cover on the steam side = f width of port, which is
the extent of opening to eduction at the end of the stroke ; and the
crank is 26° 23' 16" from the dead centre when the port begins to
open. This I have divided into intervals of 1°, and have computed
tlie discharge of steam during each interval, supposing it due to the
difference between the pressure at the beginning of the interval and the
pressure of the atmosphere. This calculation is consequently very
long, but I believe there is no formula yet discovered which gives the
discharge during the whole time at once. I found in this manner that
the pressure would be reduced at the end of the stroke to 52-8711)., or
38-16lf). above the atmosphere, which gives a mean pressure during
the eduction lead of at least 44-26tt). per square inch, or distributed
through the whole length of the stroke, 2-3 1ft. This, I think, Mr.
Lawrie will net call tncomidcrable ; while the effect of compression
would certainly not surpass, if equal, 0-41t). per square inch through
the stroke, which I consider rather to be neglected than the former.

I shall conclude my letter with showing, as I stated above, that the
corrections I introduced into the value of (s) are not altogether to be
neglected, and for that I shall apply them to the example chosen
above. Qy Mr. Laivrie's formula, we have

s = = 1-193G.

4-241—1 -f 0-9479

By the corrected formula, making 2 rf= 1, 5 r= 1, 5 := 4-3057, ra =
0-05, we have

— 4-3657 + 0-1633 _

■' — 3-703 — 0-0521 + 0-1683 ~ ' ' '
The difference is certainly not very considerable, being only about
I per cent, on the required area: but v\hy should even that correction
be omitted, when it can be applied without any ditEculty and «ith
scarcely any additional trouble?

I am, Sir, vour obedient servant,

M.
Ociobtr 14, 1841,

CROSBY-PLACE, BISHOPSGATE STREET.

The committee appointed to superintend the restoration of this
most interesting specimen of ancient domestic architecture appear to
have brought their labours nearly to a close, and an inspection of the
result of those labours will secure the praise of every lover of our
architectural antiquities. It is highly gratifying to witness the timely
preservation of a building which is " the only example of any magni-
tude of the halls and places of our forefathers in the metropolis, the
numerous other buildings of this nature which once gr.iced the city
having fallen victims to the great fire, or the no less destructive hand
of innovation. The reparation appears to have been carried forward
as far as is desirable until the particular use to which the hall is to be
hereafter applied shall be ascertained ; and most fervently do we hope
that it may be such as shall best accord with its present beauty and
its past historv. The new materials and workmanship harmonize so
thoroughlv with the original, as to render it impossible, except on the
minutest inspection, to distinguish between the new and the old. The
matchless beauty of the roof in the hall has been effectually preserved.
This unique specimen of timber-work is remarkable for the skilful
omission of ties and hammer-beams. It is divided into eight principal
compartments in length, and four in breadth, the points of intersection
being ornamented with light and graceful pendants, pierced with small
niches, each pendant forming the centre of four arches, so that from
whateier point it is viewed the eye is presented with a series of arches
of elegant construction. The principal timbers are richly decorated
with bosses of foliage, and "spring from octangular corbels of stone."
It is remarked that the low pointed arch, approaching to an ellipse, is
admirably calculated for the dissemination of sound. " The shafted
oriel," notwithstanding all the rough usage to which it has been ex-
posed, has recovered its pristine beauty, and, as well as the other
windows, is "richly dight" with the s'ained glass armorial bearings
of the former proprietors, and of the various companies and individuals
of whose munificence the hall itse'.f will be the lasting memorial.
From some sources, of which we are ignorant, the council chamber
and throne-roora have been restored to a state of great beauty ; not,
indeed, on the same scale of magnificence as the hall, to which alone
the pulalic subscriptions have been devoted, but yet in a style perfectly
in keeping with the age and character of the structure. When Cros-
by-place shall be transferred to the hands of its next possessors, these
rooms will probably receive all those rich decorations which will en-
able them to vie with the splendour of a hall. It is, however, from
its historical associations that Crosby-place must ever derive its
greatest value and interest. In the reign of Edward IV., it was the
magnificent home of Sir John Crosby, its reputed builder, who was
here probably honoured with the presence of that Monarch whose cause
had been so greatly strengthened by the zeal and prudence of his
princely host. It is well known to have been afterwards the abode of
Richard IIL ; Shakspeare has immortalized the fact, so that "Richard,
Shakspeare, and Crosby-place, must ever be identified." Here Sir
Bartholomew Read, Mayor of London, entertained a solemn embassy
from Maximilian, Emperor of Germany, of which Lord Cassimir, Mar-
quis of Brandenburg, his cousin, accompanied with a bishop, an earl,
and a great number of gentlemen well- appareled, was principal em-
bassador, which were triumphantly received in London, and were
lodged at Crosby-place." Sir Thomas More, the witty and unfortu-
nate author of the Utopia, when in favour, occupied Crosby-place, and
afterwards sold it to '-his dearest friend" Bouvisi, the Lucca mer-
chant. In 1594, it was jiurchased by "the rich Spencer," who died
possessed of nearly a million of money, and was an ancestor of the
present Marquis of Northa\npton. Here he entertained no less a per-
sonage than the Duke of Sully, the Ambassador of Heury IV. of France.
Among the sub-tenants in the early part of the 17th century, we find a
name immortalized bv Ben Jonson's most beautiful epitaph, "Sidney's
sister, Pembroke's mother," and William Russell, probably a scion of
the noble house of Bedford. In the disastrous period of the civil wars
it was used as a prison for the Royalists; and in 1662, the Reverend
Thomas Watson was the first ejected minister who officiated in the
hall: he converted it into a Presbyterian meeting-house. He was
followed by Stephen Charnock, Dr. Grosvenor, a pujiil of Benjamin
Keach, and Edmund Calamv, jun. The congregation continued to
meet here till 1769, when it was dispersed, a farewell sermon being
preached on the occasion by Mr. Jones, the predecessor of Dr. Collyer,
at Peckham. The hall, as every one knows, became subsequently a
common warehouse, and fell rapidly into a state of ruinous decay, from
which degradation it has now, at length, been recovered. Thus, for
nearly four centuries, has this beautiful structure remained, the witness
of decent hospitalitv, of boisterous mirth, and of merry wassail; atone
time its " rich embowed roof" and arras-covered walls echoing the

370

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[November,

sweet music tliat arosi' from the minstrels' g tilery ; those walls then
deniuled of their costly ilriiperies, and resounding with the groans and
oaths of the Cavaliers, and once again consecrated by the solemn
psalms and hymns of the Presbyterians ; and now, rescued from the
dust and noise and bustle of the packer's warehouse, it silently wails
tQ witness the mysterious future, and again to see " one generation
passing away, and another coming." — Cor/aionduit of the Times.

LIFE OF ST. ETHELWOLD.
By Hyde Clarice, Esq., F.L.S.

The end of the tenth century is famous in English history for the
great extension of the Benedictine order, and of monastic buildings,
effected by St Dunstan, Archbishop of Canterbury, and his two coad-
jutors, St. Oswald, Archbishop of York, and St. Ethelwold, Bishop of
Winchester. These were men of remarkable ability, furniing a con-
stellation of talent, which might well affect the monkish writers with
admiration, and arrest the attention of Ihe historian. Under their
direction King Edgar lavished the wealth of his kingdom on the Be-
•nedictines, and he was able to boast of having erected fifty monasteries,
many of which flourished in splendour for above GOO years, and be-
came the germs of some of our finest monuments. The reign of Edgar
indeed, forms an epoch in our architectural history, and as to St. Ethel-
wold was committed the direction of the material part of this revo-
lution, it cannot be uninteresting to architects to contemjilate the
deeds of Ihis ornament of their profession, of whom it is to be re-
gretted that no modern memoir has yet bo.en written.

Ethelwold was born towards the end of the reign of Edward 1st,
suniamed the Elder, between the years 010-20, in the imperial city
of Winchester, then the metropolis, and was the son of opulent, re-
spectable, and |)ious parents, his birth, according to the legends, being
preceded by omens of bis subsequent greatness. St. Swithin and
Daniel, Bishops of Winchester, were also natives of the city, as was
Ethelwold's after colleague, St. Oswald. Having at an early age
shown most pious dispositions, Ethelwold attracted the notice of the
illustrious King Athelstan, in whose palace he, with Dunstan, for some
time lived, and by whom he was afterwards placed under the care of
St. Alfege the Bald, Bishop of Winchester, uncle of St. Dunstan.
Having attained the proper age, and having previously received the
minor orders, he was consecrated priest by St. Alfege, in the cathe-
dral church at Winchester, at the same time with St. Dunstan, and it
is supposed about the year 936 or 937. Besides Dunstan and Ethel-
wold, there was another priest ordained, who was named Athelstan,
and who afterwards relapsed into a bad life, and Bishop Alfege is said
OQ this occasion to have prognosticated the several careers of the
yoang men. Ethelwold soon after retired to Glastonbury, and put
himself under the care of his friend Dunstan, who had introduced into
that house the rule of St. Benedict. Here Ethelwold afterwards be-
came Dean, and must have been present, and no doubt co-operated, at
the period when St. Dunstan was engaged in rebuilding the mo-
nastery.

At Glastonbury Ethelwold greatly distinguished himself, not only
by his scholastic acquirements, and by the skill with which he taught
grammar and prosody, but by his great industry, labouring with his
own hands,, and even cooking and performing menial oirices. Being
seized with an ardent desire of acquiring knowledge, the dean had
intended to travel on the continent, but was prevented from carrying
his design into execution by the Queen-mother Edgiva. This prin-
cess was the daughter of Sigeline, a Kentish earl, and mother of
King Edmund 1st, and the reigning King Edred, whom she advised
not to allow such a man as Ethelwold, whose wisdom and acquire-
ments she highly praised, to leave his kingdom. The king, |)leased
with hearing such a character of EtiieKvold, took great interest in
him, and at the persuasion of the Queen-mother, gave, him an estate
at Abiiigdon, with the ch.irge to restore an ancient monastery, then
greatly (lila])idated, consisting of a wretched building, and only ])0s-
sessing lU manses. This event is gener.dly said to have taken place
in 954, but according to Ingulf and the Croyland charters, it was sis
ye.u's before, namely in 04b. With the consent of his abbot Dunstan,
and no doubt by his influence, Ethelwold went to Abingdon with Os-
gar, Foldbert, Friwegar of Glastonbury, Ordbcrt of Winchester, and
Edric of London, and soon collected a body of monks, of whom he, by
the king's wish, was ordained Abbot, and he then set himself to work,
by head and hand, to carry out the task imposed upon him. From
the king he obtained large estates at Abingdon, and a grant from the
treasury, and he found in the queen-mother a liberal benefactress.
From the king Ethelwold obtained a charter of ample privileges,

which he himself appears to have illuminated. On a certain day the
king came to Ihe monastery, laid the foundations himself, and measured
them ont, giving directions also how the works should be prosecuted.
At the banquet given in honour of this occasion, Ethelwold is repre-
sented by his biographers as having begun his career of ndracles, by
a prodigy much better suited to tlie tasLe of those times than of these,
having furnished to Ihe imnierous Northumbrian guests an inexhaus-
tible supply of wine from one jar. It appears to have been the prac-
tice in these days to board the workmen, and one of the legends relates
that the monk who had Ihe charge of supplying the workm^^n with
provisions was named Alfstan, and that he performed his duties most
laboiiously and assiduously, not only cooking and serving out the pro-
visions, bat himself lighting the fire, drawing water, and cleaning the
dishes. Abbot Ethelwold, seeing him one dav engaged in performing
his accustomed duties, begged him to dip his naked hand in the
cauldon, and to reach a piece of meat, which Alfstan did without
scalding his hand, a proof of the religious purity of himself an<l the
abbot, and of their unrefined manners. Among Ethelwold's gifts to
Abingdon, most of them the work of his own hand, were a gold sacra-
mental cup of great weight, three crosses of pure silver and gold, lost
in the troubles of Stephen's reign, and candlesticks, censors and other
vessels for the service of the church of pure silver, and some adorned
with precious stones. Many of these were afterwards carried off by
a Norman monk of Jumieges. At the request of King Edgar, Abbot
Ethelwold also made a silver altar table of the weight of three hun-
dred pounds, and which long remained admirab'e for the delicacy of
its workmanship. He also made two bells with his own hands, and
put tliem in the belfiy with two larger ones, which had been made by
St. Dunstan. Another of Ethelwold's works was a kind of chime con-
sisting of a wheel full of bells, called the golden wheel, on account of
its being gill, and winch was used on high festivals. Abbot Ethel-
wold w;is famous for preserving the sanctity of manners of his tJock,
but beseems to have been by no means illibeial as to matters of
eating and drinking, Ids allowances to the monks being so bountiful
as to become matters of proverb. As a ruler of the monastery
Ethelwold acquired the highest reputation, and formed a school for
singing and reading the service, to which persons fi'om all parts of
England resorted. Being greatly desirous of securing uniformity in
the mode of performing the service he sent to Corby in France, tliea
famous in this respect, and obtained some skilful monks as instmctors.
He also sent one of his monks, named Osgar, to the Benedictine Abbey
of Fleury to study the rules of the order in that school. This Osgar,
there is reason to believe is the one who succeeded our Abbot at Abing-
don. Ethelwold exerted himself to a great degree for the advance-
ment of his house, for which he obtained more than six hundred
cassates of land, and charters from Edred and Edgar. One of his chief
works at Abingdon was a cut which he made from the river [sis to
supply the abbey with water, and also to work a mill, wdiich he built.
While digging for this canal the excavators found in the sand near
the monastery of St. Helen, an iron cross, which Cessa, Viceroy of
Wessex, and ifounder of the old idjbey, had caused to be lai<l in the
tomb on his breast. Tliis cross was translated to the abbey, and be-
came famous under the name of the Black Rood or Cross, upon whicli
no one could take a false oath under pain of death, for it was believed
to be partly made out of one of the nails of the cross, and sent by
Constanline the Great or some of his British followers to England.
It is further related that the monks having sometimes attemjited to
adorn this cross with gold or silver, as fast as they put it on one
day it fell olF and dissolved on the next. Abbot Ethelwold's zeal for
his monastery was great, working even wdth his own hands, and hav-
ing as his biographer states, attracted the especial despite of the
devil, had on one occasion a heavy beam thrown at him by the gieat
enemy, which knocked him into a pit and broke several of his ribs,
and if it had not been for the pit the Abbot would have been crushed
to pieces. As it was he soon recovered. Under his go\ernnient the
house prospered in sanctity, and a young boy, who was a favourite of
the monks, had on his death-bed a beatific vision of the glories of
heaven.

The time was now arrived when the talents of Ethelwold were to
shine in a still more extensive sphere, the unfortunate King Edwin,
pursued by the monks, had lost Ihe greater part of his dominions,
which had rebelled to his brother Edgar, and in 959 this patron of the
monastic order obtained by the death of his brother the undivided
rule of the whole empire. In 9.3S Edgar had granted a charter to
Abingdon, and in 960 at Dunstan's request he chose our Abbot to un-
dertake the work of the restoration of Evesham, wdio went there,
restored the monks and appointed Oswald Abbot. Of Ethelwold's
subsequent government at Abingdon, we have nothing more to relate
than that having made that abbey one of the great schools of learning
and piety, it became the nursery, whence the new monasteries of King

1841.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL,

377

Edgar were supplied with pastors. A prayer for the prosperity of
Abingdon remains as a monument of Etlielwold's lo%'e for that institu-
tion, and as a testimonial of his scholarship.

In 9G3 Brithelm, Bishop of Winchester, having died, Ethelwold was
appointed to succeed liim, and thus became bishop of his native city,
wliich as before said was then the metropolis of the country. On .St.
Andrew's eve in this year which fell on a Sunday, Ethelwold was conse-
crated bv Archbishop Dunstan, and inunediately entered on !iis labours,
finding his cathedral greatly needing repair, and what ali'ected liiin
more his canons of irregular life. In 9G4 we find Bishop Etlielwold's
signature to three charters of Worcester Abbey, and it was in the
same year that he was engaged in the restoration of Chertsey monas-
tery in Surrey, sending to Abingdon for thirteen monks of whom Ord-
bert, a fellow townsman of the Bishop's, and originally of Glastonbury
monastery, was appointed Abbot. In 91)5 we find the Bishop busy
with the reform of the two monasteries at Winchester, in which he
had great difficulties to contend with. Only three of the canons, Edsy,
Wulsy and W^ilstan could be induced to put on the cowl, the others
retired, and were re]ilaced with monks from Abingdon. Some of the
displaced canons attempted to revenge their disgrace by giving tlie
bishop a poisoned cup, but he soon recovered from the consequences.
The result of these discussions was the liolding of the two celebrated
councils of Winchester and of Calne, at the first of which the cause
was given against the seculars by a miraculous voice from a crucifix,
and at the latter, on Dunstan appealing to God, the floor sank down and
the adversaries of the monks were precipitated among the ruins, Dun-
stan and his friends remaining safe. In the preparation for this second
miracle it is more than probable that Bishop Ethelwold was concerned.

Ethelwold was now high in power, holding one of the chief episco-
pal dignities, a minister, confident and confessor of the king, he took
a great part in public events. Ethelwold is described with some pre-
judice by Sharon Turner as a man bred up by Dunstan himself, and of
a temper to execute all his schemes. Dunstan was about the same
age as Ethelwold, if anything rather younger, and although associates
iu their youth, and at Glastonbury, it could not with justice be said
either by Florence of Worcester, or Adelard, that Ethelwold was
brought up by Dunstan. Oswald, was like St. Dunstan, of high con-
nexions, a native of Winchester, and partly educated there, and these
two with Ethelwold formed a cabinet, which however obnoxious it
might be for some of its schemes, yet it is not to be denied that it
greatly promoted the prosperity of the country. Edgar and his minis-
try greatly patronized foreigners and trade, delivered the country
from the scourge of wolves, reformed the coin, improved tlie navv,
and the administration of justice. To return to the immediate exer-
tions of Ethelwold, we learn that he rebuilt and re-established the
Abbey of Benedictine Nuns at Winchester, and placed over it, Ethel-
dritha, who had been his nurse. He also rebuilt the other two Bene-
dictine monasteries. In 9;J6 the site of the monastery of Medham-
stead was bought by Ethelwold, and a magnificent abbey built, which
was named by him Peterborough. According to Hugh Whyte, the
Bishop was warned of God in the night that he should go to the Mid-
land English or Mercians and repair the monastery of St. Peter, and
that taking his joumey into those parts he came to Oundle, supposing
that to be the place, but was warned a second time, that he shoulil
follow the course of the river, he came to Medhamstead, and here the
Lord appeared to him a third time and directed him by a singular
omen, how he should proceed. Having cleared the site of the church,
which he found used as a recejitacle for herds of cattle, he returned to
Winchester to make preparations for the restoration of the monastery.
When having put up fervent prayers to God to incline the hearts of
King Edgar and his queen and his court, to contribute their assistance
to this work, he was overheard by the queen, w ho thenceforth solicited
the king for its reparation, and he accordingly patronized the under-
taking. Ethelwold among other measures purchased the fourth part
of Whittleseameiv, and many other endowments. In this same year
he signed a charter for Croyland Abbey, and for the abbey of Hyde,
at Winchester, and at London in the end of the same year, he united
with the archbishops and bishops in a deed threatening the censures
of the church on any disturbers of Croylaml.

In yGS the Bishop attached his signature to two charters of Wilton
Abbey, and it was most probably about this lime that he received at
that convent the vows of .St. WiKrude or Wulftrude, the mother of
St. Edith. In 9G9, the distinguished scholar Alfric who was a pupil
of Ethelwold's, was appointed Abbot of St Alban's. In 1)70 the Bishop
translated the relics of .St. Svvithin from the churchyard of Winchester
to the cathedral. In this same year although much occupieil with his
disputes with the monks at Winchester, Ethelwold was appointed by
the king to restore the convent "f Ely, and having obtained th'' Isle of
Ely free of reg:d jurisdiction, he dismisseil the priests, gave orders for
repairing the thuich, and established therein a convent of monks.

Brithnoth, who had been prior of Winchester, was appointed Abbot,
and was succeeded at Winchester by Leo the provost. Brithnoth who
was consecrated by Dunstan and Ethelwold, was afterwards unfortu-
nately assassinated by order of the Queen Dowager Elfrida for refus-
ing to comply with her passions. For Ely the Bishop obtained
many grants of land, and he was a subscribing witness to two of its
charters. In this year Ethelwold succeeded in completing Peter-
borough, and King Edgar being desirous to see it went thither, with
the Archbishops Dunstan and Oswald, and attended by most of the
nobility and clergy cf England, who all approved and applauded both
the place and llie work. It was Etlielwold's happiness also to dis-
cover some very ancient charters bestowing great privileges on the
place. It is to be remarked that at this time the prelate was con-
stantly engaged travelling about, superintending the works, and ex-
amining the convents. During one of these journies it is related that
performing mass in a country parish, the priest whose duty it was to
take care of the sacred oil, having left the vessel behind him on the
road, went back to find it, and to his surprise not only found it safe,
but marvellously replenished.

In 971 the Bishop attached his signature to two charters for Ely,
and the next year lie prevailed upon Edulf, chancellor of King Edgar,
instead of going to Rome, to labour in the restoration of St. Peter's
church at Peterborough. Edulf approving of this advice, accompanied
the king to Burgh, ottered all his wealth to the monastery, assumed the
monk's habit, and became first abbot of Peterborough, which he after-
wards left for the archiepiscopal seal of York. In 973 Ethelwold sub-
scribed the charters of Ramsey andThorney. In the succeeding year
the Bishop was at Wilton, signed one of the charters, and received the
vows of St. Edith, natural daughter of King Edgar and St. Wulftrude.
The Bishop used to visit Wilton from time to time, and on one occa-
sion reproved St. Edith for wearing splendid garments, not .being
aware that she had haircloth next the skin. Edith replied that the
Almighty looked not to the garment, but to the soul, and that he would
as well receive her with splendid robes as in the attire of povertv. The
Bishop in this year (974j translated the relics of St. Withbufga and
other saints into the new church at Ely. This same year Ethelwold
was applied to to use his influence with the king respecting the found-
ation of St. Neot's in Huntingdonshire, which was begun by Earl Alric
and his countess Etlielfleda. Ethelwold also consecrated the church
and took it under his protection, sending monks from Ely and Thornev.

In 975 a charter was obtained for Winchester by the Bishop aiid
subscribed by him, and sliortly afterwards King Edg'ar died. During
the reign of this prince Ethelwold also signed charters for Westmin-
ster, Rochester, Ramsey and York. Dunstan and Ethelwold immedi-
ately crowned Edward the Second, surnamed the Martyr, as King, but
they soon found in the Queen Dowager Elfrida a powerful antagonist,
bt-nt upon their ruin. One of the results of these discussions was as
before mentioned, the holding of the councils of Winchester and Calne,

and the country was distracted both with civil and religious broils.

in 978 Elfrida proceeding to greater extremities, murdered the king,
who was succeeded by Ethelred, surnamed the Unready. This prince
was crowned on the Sunday fortnight after Easter, in 979, at Kin<rston,
by Dunstan, Oswald, Ethelwold, and nine other prelates.

In 980 Ethelwold completed one of his great works, the cathedral of
Winchester, which he rebuilt from the ground, obliging the monks
themselves to assist with their own hands in the wo\:^. It is related
that one of them njined Guth, being at the top of a high scattbld at
work fell down, but by the protecting influence of our saint, received
no injury, climbing up again and resuming his labours, as if nothino-
had happened. In this year Ethelwold added to the cathedral the
crypts or vaults under the east end of the church, and the walls, pillars,
and groining of which remain in mucli the same state in which he left
them, and are executed in a firm and bold, though simple and un-
adorned manner that gives no contemptible idea of Saxon art. A
w eather cock and organ are enumerated among his performances, and
he enriched the church with the shrines of St. Swithin, Birin, Brinstan,
St. Alfege and St. Edburg, when a farther rededication took place
with great splendour, in the presence of King Ethelred, Archbishop
Dunstan, and eight bishops. In 981 the Bishop of Winchester signed
the charter for I'avistock, and ordained Elsy as Abbot of Ely.

It was in this year that the Danes attacked and plundered South-
ampton, and put Winchester itself in peril, and in the next year our
prelate buried Alderman Eihelmer. In 9bj Ethelwold visited Dunstan
at Canterbury, and th.it saint foretold to him his approaching death.
In 9b 1 we find his last public act in his attestation to the charter of
Shaftesbury, and in that year being taken ill at Beddington, in the
county of Surrey, he dieil there on the 1st of August 981, his death
being it is said accompanied with miraculous circumstauces, his body
having all the freshness of life, and his face the rosy hue of that of a
young boy. His body was transported with great pomp to Winches

3 D

378

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[November,

ter, and he was buried in the cathedral, but in what part is uncer-
tain.

As an ecclesiastic Ethehvold has received the unbounded admiration
of the monkish writers, but from everyone his conduct during the
famine at Wincliester, leaving all other things out of consideration,
entitles him to universal praise. During that severe famine he caused
all the church plate to be sold in order to purchase provisions for the
poor, remarking tli.it the church, if reduced to poverty, might be again
enriched, but that if the poor were starved, it was not in the jiower of
man to recall them to life. His life is said to have been of a most
hermit-like character, devoting himself to labour and study. Of his
miracles besides those already alluded to, many are mentioned, parti-
cularly of the arms of a thievish monk being suddenly bound down to
his side, of the Bishop's being found by the monk Theoduric overcome
with fatigue, and sleeping over his book, how the monk sat down in
the bishop's seat, was frightened by a horrible vision, and temporarily
blinded lor his temeritv, how another monk Leofred, under similar
circumstances, found that the candle had fallen on the book without
even greasing it.

Ethelwold is represented as active in person, of acute genius, and
of extremely retentive memory. We know that he patronized and
practised every liberal ait, and we have Alfric's testimony that he
was one of the great restorers of learning in that age. Of his writings
we have no specimen, except the prayer for the prosperity of Abing-
don, but of his scholarship we can entertain no doubt, his zeal for the
advancement of learning causing him tliroughou' his life to teach per-
sonallv, and he was consequently the instructor of many of the most
distinguished characters of the age, both in civil and religious life.
As an illuminator he is said to have had great skill, and his love for
music showed itself in the foundation of the school at Abingdon. As
an architect he is said, like his successor William of Wykeham, to
have been a great builder both of churches and divers works, both
while abbot and bishop, and we may note his mechanical skill in the
donations he made to Abingdon. Besides the canal at Abingdon, he
was also the designer of a similar work at Winchester, the benefit of
which, says the l.istorian of Winchester, is still felt by the inhabitants.
They experiencing great inconveniences from the want of water, which
then or.lv flowed in one current at the eastern end of the city, St.
Ethelwold made different canals, one of which begins near the village
of Worthy, and thus distributed the water, at great toil and expense
throughout the greater part of the city. He is also said to have been
the builder of what is call St. Swithin's chapel at Winchester.

For a character so distinguished in all time the greatest admiration
has been felt, and we have his life from the pens of two cotemporaries
and pupils, Alfric, monk of Abingdon, and Wolstan, chanter of Win-
chester. It was in 99i) that Alf helm of Wallingfoid, being attacked
with blindness, was directed by a vision to the tomb of Ethelwold and
to Wolstan, who also had a vision of the saint, and on Christmas eve
of that year, the body of the saint was enshrined. The offices in his
honour are to be found in the Acta Sanctorum for the 1st of August,
with two hymns in his honour, one of which is a curious specimen of
the alliterative form adopted in Latin. The episcopal chair of this
eminent man long remaineil an object of veneration and popular awe, it
being believed that those, who, while they sat in it, instead of attend-
inc to the divine office, gave way to sloth and drowsiness, were punished
wi°h terrific sights and painful visions. A representation of St. Ethel-
wold is said to exist in the west window at Winchester.

[Authors consulted:— Wolstan's Life of St. Ethelwold ; Acta Sanc-
torum : Acta Sanctorum, Ord. St. Benedict ; Mabillon, Annales Ord.
Sancti Benedicti ; Butler's Lives of the Saints ; Dugdale's Monasticon ;
Milner's Winchester: Britton's Winchester Cathedral; Warner's
Hampshire; Lvson's Berkshire ; Turner's Anglo Saxons; The Saxon
Chronicle; Knight's Pictorial History of England; Penny Magazine,
No. 503; Rudborne's History of Winchester in Wharton's Anglia
Sacra; Life of St. Dunstan ; Life of St. Oswald ; Life of St. Edith;
Life of St. Alfege the Elder.]

SUNDERLAND LIGHT HOUsE.

Rams^ate.—\Ve understand that a survey is in progress for the purpose of
ascertaining the practicability of a plan lor forming a harbour of relume
capable of containing a fleet of men-of-war, or mcrclrintmcn of the largest
class. It is well known ihat the (Joodwiu and IJrake Sands atford c nsider-
able shelter to this part of the coast, an 1 if die additional works necessary
for forming this bay into a liarbour of refuge can h<: made at a comparatively
moderate expense, it will be one of the grandest and most valuable under-
takings of these modern and wonder-working times. Ihe survey is being
ma Ic under ilie direction of Sir John Kcnnie, liy Mr. Hamilton H. Fulton. —
Kent Herald.

In' the Journal for September last, we gave a short account of an un-
usual occurrence, the removal of a Light-house, which we are ha:ipvno\T
to announce has been firmly set upon its new foundation. The above
engraving is a view of the light-house taken during its progress by
Mr. Nicholson, of Newcastle. The removal from the North Pier was
commenced on the 2nd August, and transplanted to Ihe eastern ex-
tremity of the pier, a distance of 500 feet, and placed upon its new
foundation on the 30th September last, and all the work will be com-
pletely finished by the 2nd instant, the whole period occupied being
only two months.

"The following is the plan submitted by Mr. Murray to the commis-
sioners of the River Wear in May last, when it was under their con-
sideration to pull down and re-erect the light-house on its new site: —
" The masonry was to be cut through near its foundation, and whole
timbers were to be inserted, one after another, through the building,
and extending seven feet beyond it. Above and at right angles to
them another tier of timber was to be inserted in like manner, so as
to make the cradle or base a square of 20 feet; and this cradle was to
be supported upon bearers, with about 2.50 wheels of six inches dia-
meter, and was to traverse on six lines of railway to be laid on the
new pier for that purpose. The shaft of the light-house was to be
tied together with bands, and its eight sides supported with timber
braces from the cradle upwards to the cornice. The cradle was to be
drawn and pushed forward by powerful screws along the railway above
mentioned, on the principle of Morton's patent slip for the repairing
of vessels." The project was approved of, and the necessary arrange-
ments made for carrying it into effect; the only deviation from iti
plan being, that during the progress of the work a windlass and ropes,
worked by 30 men, were substituted for the screws. Not a crack nor
appearance of settlement is to be found in the building.

We have been favoured with the following communication from Mr.
Murray, by w hich it will be seen that the under-setting of the founda-
tions are perfected.

iS4l.J

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

■■i-i)

Sir — In reply to your communication respecting tlie removal of tlie
liglit-liouse on the north side of the harbour, I have to state that since
it has been brought to its new site I have drawn out the timbers upon
which it w.'s conveyed, and the base on its southern side has been
underset with two pillars of solid masonry. lam proceeding to do
the same on its norlhern side preparatory to striking the supporting
braces of timber, which probably may occupy another fortnight.

The light-house was erected in the year 181)3, by the late Mr.
rickernell, then engineer to the harbour commissioners. It is wdiolly
composed of stone ; its form is octagonal, 15 feet in breailth across its
base, 62 feet in height from the surface of the pier to the top of the
cornice, where it is 9 feet in breadth across, and the top of the dome
is 16 feet above the cornice, making a total height of 78 feet ; and its
calculated weight including the cradle and supporting timbers is 320
tons.

I am, Sir, your obedient servant,

JOH.M MURR.W.

Sutidtrland, October IS, 1841.

It affords us much pleasure in offering our congratulations, wilh
which we are sure all the profession will join, to Mr. Murray for the
very successful issue of the bold experiment.

NEW SYPHON GAS VALVES.

Sir — I beg to forward you herewith a drawing with c
two Syphon-valves for the use of Gas Companies, which 1 1

description of

V yphon-valves for the use of Gas Companies, which I have intended

to answer the double purpose of syphon for receiver) and regulatino-
valve, and I flatter myself I have succeeded in my object. The cost
of either valve and syphon united, will be considerably less than the
common slide valve alone. Knowing it to be a subject of interest to
many of the readers of your highly esteemed Journal, I have for some
time had tliis subject under consideration, and I now place the result
in your hands, by an early insertion of which you will oblige.
Sir, your very obedient servant,

Thos. Henry Nimmo.
Chartered Gas Company,
Westminster Station,

A, cylinder to receive condensation, .Sc. from mains.

B, the inlet to be jointed into spigot of pipe.

C, the outlet to be jointed into socket of pipe.

D, division plate directing the inlet from the outlet, and bolted to
the cylinder.

E, the tube to convey conde

F, is a smaller tube placed
tion is drawn off.

G, the valve.

H, the valve-s at.

nsation
within

, &c. from main
E, through wh

into cylinder,
ch this con lensa-

KoTE.— The supply of gas will b? regulated in the same manner as ot'icr
valves.

October 15, 1841.

IMPROVED RAIL AND CHAIR FOR RAILWAYS.

Sir — Having been practically engaged in the construction of rail-
ways for some years, my attention, about three years since, was
directed to the designing a rail that should overcome several of the
disadvantages, if not failures of the then, as well as the one still used,
of intermediately supported rails.

My observations were then, and are now, with regard to that des-
cription of rails at present used. First, that the greatest strength of
the rails is not in the direction of the force which they are intended
to bear.

Second/i/, that there is invariably considerable attrition between
the rail and chair, and between the joints of the rails, and from which
a portion of the useless noise so much complained of on Railways
arises.

Tliirdly, the fixing of the rails is subject to failure, by the loosening
of the key or wedge that is used to fix them in the chair from the
attrition consequent upon the imperfect connection between two hard
surfaces, or from the wooden wedge Iiaving greater force to sustain
than it is able without being compressed.

Fourthly, from the great force required to roll the irregular forms
of the present rails, the same are very frequently flawed or frac-
tured by the force applied to change the metal to the form so widely
different from the bar converted, or otherwise in cooling from the
sudden difference in bulk of metal after the rails are rolled.

From the preceding observations I designed, and have practically
proved the following rail, which I shall feel grateful for the indulgence
of making it public through the medium of your valuable and widely-
circulated Journal. I respectfully submit it to the consideration of
the profession, that it claims the following advantages. — First, the
equal strength to resist or bear the weight or force of the transit of
carriages with one-tenth less metal than intermediately supported
rails now in use.

Secondly, requiring less power to roll the metal, and there being
much less possibility of the rails being fractured by the process of
rolling.

Thirdly, the greater security in fixing the rails in the supports, par-
ticularly at the joints.

Fourthly, the simplicity and strength of the supports added to the

3 D 2

3S0

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

f November.

seciirilv of tlie rail, lessening tlie attrition, and being constructed willi
us little or less metal than the supports generally used. It will be
admitted according to tlieory and practice, by a perfect cylinder
rolling on a perfectly horizontal plane, the weight of the cylinder is
received in vertical pressure on the surface of the plane. But as the
wheels used on railways are not portions of cylinders but are portions
or frustra of two cones with their bases opposite, formed by an axle
(whose centre is the axis of the cones) at the distance of the gauge of
the rails; allliough the surface of the rails should be perfect planes,
the pressure or weight and force of the •vehicles, and their contents
transmitted from the surface of the wheels on to the rails, will not be
vertical but at right angles to the head or surface of the wheels (which
are portions of two cones), consequently the resistance to the force
from the wheels ought to be in the direction the force is received from
the surface of the wheels, and the strength and support for the wheels
of railway carriages ought to be laterally as well as vertically. In the
common intermediately supported rail, this is endeavoured to be
obtained laterally by the flange of the rail, and vertically by the depth
of the rail, assisted a little by placing the chairs declining a little in-
wards, but which is entirely at the mercy of the workmen employed
to lay the rails.

Fig. 5.

Fig. I.

ri!,' 2.

Fig- 3. )

Fi^'. 4.

From the preceding axion s. 1 v.ill ende.nour to sIk.w, that my
design is praclic.dlv on the right principle for intermediately sup-
|ic rted rails, in as clear and concise a manner as I possibly can, by
reference to the diagrams.

' Fios. 1, and 2, arc elevations of two chairs, with portions of wheels
there"on, and section of rails. Figs. 3, an.1 -1, are two chairs cut oil' at
the line A B in Pg. 1, shewing the juncture of two rails in the wide
chair, tig. 3. Fig, 5, is a perspective elevation of the rail, shewing
the tongue joint. Figs. G, and 7, are diagrams of two barrels, the
rji!war"wheels are supjiosed to be portions thereof. The one tig. IJ,
sippoitcd bv two half-inch boards four inches wide, jdaced at right
a gles to lie tearing surface of the barrels. The other, tig. 7, sup-

ported by one-tenth more wood in the shape and
common rail ; this is suggested as a cheap and easy p
inent to test the principle of the rail.

position of tlie
ractioal experi-

Fig. 6.

Fig.

With regard to the rail being equal in strength with one-tenth less
metal, arises from its being placed so as to receive the direction of
the force or weight from the surface of the wheels in the direction of
tlie greatest strength of the rail, and from its impracticability to bend
outwards without rising upwards, so long as the weight or force is not
more than the rail will bear without flexure, and the tendency of the
wheels to thrust outwards, will of course prevent its bending inwards.
In the rolling metal in the several forms they are now used on rail-
ways, the force or power required is in the proportion of the several
angles that are to be formed, and the departure of the form from the
previous section of the m^tal, and the forming of internal angles, is
not only the cause of the rails being fractureil by the greater force
required for internal angles, but from the sudden difference in bulk of
metal on its cooling, cinsi'quently a rail that has no internal angles,
and the form, but the slightest departure from the section of the metal
converted will require less power or force to roll it, and there will be
less liability to fracture.

The security of fixing the rail in the ch.dr consists in avoiding the
attrition of two liard surfaces of equal density, by introducing a piece
of metal mere malleable than the rail or chair between them, and by
securing the rail with a wood wedge, prevented from coming out by
means of an iron key being driven into the centre of it, causing the
wood to fill the ratchets in the chair as shown in figs. 3 & 4, and the
wood having the greatest pressure downwards on the rails, as shewn
in figs. 1 and 2, keeps the rail securely from rising, ard the wood re-
ceives but little or no pressure fom any Weight transmitted from the
surface of the wheels as shewn in figs. 1 and 2, and is therefore not
liable to failure. The security at the juncture of two rails consists in
their being kept firmly down in the cli.drs by the manner of their
jointure by a tor gue joint, as shown in fig. 5, are preventeil from rising
one above the other, and the noise is prevented by introducing a
|dcce of thin casi lead between the meeting of the two rails, and by the
chair being made of greater width as shewn in fig. 3. The chairs are
w ithout anv internal angles, and consequently are not weakened, nor
do t!:ey require additional metal to counterpoise against it, and their
being no outward pressure by the rail, the chair does not require to
be cast so heavy as those used to resist the outward pressure of the
vertical rail. In conclusion, on this design 1 have only to add, 1 have
full sized models of the aliove rail and chairs, and should it meet with
the ajiproval of the profession, I shall be happy to undertake the lay-
ing of the permanent way on any line of railway.
And am, Sir,

With much respect,

Your obedient servant,

\V. B.

i

1S41.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

381

PROPOSED IMPROVEMENTS IN RAILWAY CARRIAGES
FOR THE PREVENTION OF ACCIDENTS

Sir — In conversation with a friend on the late Brighton R-\ilway
accident, I have been informed, and beUeve the fact is, that from the
generality of accidents on railways affecting the passengers on the
first carriage behind the tender, (the engineer or engineers lives being
considered of little value) a luggage van is placed behind the tender,
or between the tender and first passenger-carriage, and the company
do it as a great preventive of danger to the lives of the passengers, and
as to the engineers, it is better for them to be in danger of their lives
to make them vigilent and careful ; all this may be very good for
railway companies to soothe the public, but it can never be necessary
to make engine-men careful by placing their lives in jeopardy beyond
what can be absolutely avoided or eased, and I most respectfully sub-
mit it to the public, that as the engineers in the tender, and passengers
in the first carriage behind the tender are subject to greater risk of
their lives than the passengers in the second carriage behind the
tender, and those at greater risk than the passengers in the third
carriage and so on, the risk decreasing in the ratio to the distance of
the carriage from the engine, the cause ought to be solved, or at
least an attempt made to render the tender safer, and the first carriage
as safe as the fifth one is now, and not let it rest by placing even a
luggage van, to say nothing of passengers luggage in the van, in a
situation of such imminent risk.

As a strenuous advocate for rendering travelling by railway the
ne plus ultra for safety, I propose for consideration a few suggestions
for the prevention of accidents on the following grounds.

The carriages are now all provided with elastic concussion receivers
of equal elasticity, although it must be quite evident the elasticity is
not acted on equally. To illustrate this we will suppose the elasticity
of each carriage equals 1, and all the carriages are close on their
concussion receivers ; and we will suppose each elastic receiver to
have already given way a length equal to one foot.

A train of carriages are started down an inclined plane, and at their
arriving at their maximum velocity, an obstruction is met with,
and the engine is stopped ; the result will be that the tender comes
with a force that the elasticity of 1 in 1 foot is completely overcome,
and a concussion is the result between the tender and the engine to
such an extent as to throw the men off or out of the tender, and the
tender being stopped, the first carriage adjoining thereto receives a
concussion on it, although the elasticity between the tender and
engine had allowed the same to be eased one foot, and consequently
with the elasticity between the first carriage and the tender of 1 in
one foot, the first carriage is eased by the elasticity of one in two feet,
but this proves to be insufficient and so does the elasticity or the
easing received by the second carriage which is equal to 1 in 3 feet,
but the elasticity received by the third carriage, proves iu some cases
sufficient to overcome to a very great extent, the concussion caused
by the obstruction met with. As an improvement, I propose that the
elasticity between the engine and tender should be increased to the
greatest extent possible, say five feet, and the receivers of the con-
cussions be kept close to each other, that is the drawboys or connect-
ing chains should be just long enough to keep the receivers close,
this would give the luggage van behind the tender, the safety the sixth
carriage, and the first passenger-carriage the safety, the seventh one
now enjoys. Trusting ray motive in forwarding the preceding re-
marks, being for the safety of railway travelling, will be a sufficient
plea for requesting it a place in your columns.

I am. Sir,
Your very obedient servant.

W. B.

ANONYMOUS ARCHITECTS.

Sir — I should feel obliged to any of your correspondents who would
supply some information relative to the Market Cross at Shepton
Mallet, which I understand is a new structure, and a handsome one of
its kind. I could further wish to ascertain who was the architect of
the building occupied by the "Society of Arts," at Birmingham, his
name not being mentioned in Drake's " Picture " of that town, although
the structure itself is there spoken of as "one of the most striking
edifices" in the whole place. Surely local " Guides" might afford
some information as to the authorship of modern buildings — which
could be ascertained on the spot without any very great difficulty ; or
are we to suppose that the public have not the slightest curiosity
■whatever as to such trivial matters, and care no more who was the

architect that designed, than who were the masons and laboiirers
employed upon a public edifice.

In the case of a paltry building, the concealment of the architect's
name may be an act of great kindness towards him; but it is some-
what preposterous to speak of one as " a splendid edifice" — "a truly
elegant piece of architecture;" or in other terms of very high praise, and
yet treat the author of the design as if he were a mere nobody, whose
name was not worth recording at all,— not so much as that of an organ
builder, for artists of the last description come in far more frequently
for some share of notice.

Such being the case, it becomes a question whether its architect's
name ought not invariably to be inscribed on every building making
any pretensions to design; — I do not mean that it should be conspicu-
ously placed so as to attract notice, but inscribed quite unobtrusively
somewhere on the level of the eye, where if sought it could at once
be found out, — in fact just as the name of an artist is attached at the
bottom of an engraving ; and if no objection be made to this last prac-
tice as savouring of presumption or conceit, hardly could there be any
scruple as to adopting a similar practice in regard to buildings. In
some few instances it might be altogether superfluous, — for example
in the New Houses of Parliament, and the Royal Exchange, it being
already matter of notoriety throughout the kingdom, that Barry is the
architect of the one, and Tite of the other. But there are many works
• — and those not without merit, of which owing to there being no
architect's name attached to the structures themselves, it is very diffi-
cult to ascertain by whom they were designed. However should I be
mistaken at least in regard to the two above-mentioned — the informa-
tion I ask for, can be furnished me in your next number.

I remain, &c.

DREDGE'S SUSPENSION BRIDGE.

Sir — I have been accidentally prevented from seeing your Journal
of September last until now, or I should sooner have availed myself of
your kind permission to reply to Mr. Dredge's communication. I do
not know whether it is a part of Mr. Dredge's patent right to be exempt
from criticism, but if such be the case, it ought in fairness to have
been announced to the public at the same time that the invention was
made known ; as this, however, has never, I believe, been done, it is
hard to account for the expression of "injured innocence" with
which Mr. D. has seasoned his letter, unless, indeed, he is to be re-
garded as a sort of privileged character, whose inventions are not to
be subject to animadversion like those of other individuals. Neither
was I before aware that the truth of a mathematical demonstration
was, in any degree dependent upon the name of its author, but as
Mr. D. seems to think otherwise, I now give my name, in order that
he may no longer suffer from the intellectual trammels which it would
seem I have most unwittingly imposed upon him. It is much to be
wished that Mr. Dredge, at the same time that he made known my
having misconceived the construction of his bridge, had, at least for
the benefit of your readers, if not of myself (who it appears am unde-
serving of such a favour, because I have omitted my name) stated in
distinct terms, what are the peculiar features which distinguish his
patent bridge. I should thus have been enabled to form an opinion of
the merits or demerits which it may possess, without incurring the
danger of a second "great mistake ;" but as the case now stands, I
do not see how I can enter upon the discussion with justice to myself
or your readers, as it might very possibly happen that I should not be
writing about Mr. D.'s bridge, but something quite difterent. The
drawings which appeared in your Journal (Vol. III. page 193), it must
I think be allowed, are calculated to convey the impression that the
suspension rods are arranged in parallel though inclined positions,
especiaUy Fig. 3, at least they do not appear to be tangents to the
curve which Mr. D. seems to assert, and no one could suppose, of
course, that they are arranged without any order or method whatever.
I think, therefore, that the inspection of the drawings alluded to,
would necessarily lead to the conclusion that the rods were parallel.
If, however, I have fallen into an error upon this point, which, however,
Mr. D. does not distinctly assert, it will follow that such of ray re-
marks as are founded on the supposition of the rods being parallel,
will immediately fall to the ground as inapplicable to Mr. D.'s bridge,
and I am qnite willing to allow him the fail benefit of this, claiming,
however, at the same time for myself, the privilege of examining his
bridge de novo, when I know what it is ; and he may rest assured that
should I discover any merits which were not before apparent, I shall
at once freely acknowledge them.

I remain. Sir,

October lit Your obedient servant,

George F. Fordham.

3 E

382

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[November,

OX THE FORMS AND PROPORTIONS OF STEAM-
VESSELS.

Sir — A former paper on tliis subject, which you were so good as to
give a place in your columns, having occasioned the observations of
your correspondent A. M., before proceeding further, his letter
demands my attention. I think Ids objections to llie method adopted
for ascertaining the comparative resistance of the simple forms of
vessels on which the calculations were founded, arises principally
from his having overlooked the effect of what has commonly been
called the "minus pressure," that is, the loss of pressiue abaft, occa-
sioned by the water's not closing in immediately on the vessels' after
body, on account of the rapidity of her motion. This effect of motion
is equivalent to an increase of pressure on the bow, and when the
velocity is such that the water will not close in on the loitttt part of
the immersed body, the case becomes one of simple hydraulic pressure
increased by motion. Besides the loss of pressure occasioned by the
absolute absence of water behind the moving body, it has always been
found that there is a great reduction in this respect before such a
velocity has been attained as would prevent the closing of the water
behind. This is occasioned by the rarefaction of the water, or its
being ndxed with a large portion of air, or leaving intervals of unoc-
cupied space in the wake of the vessel, and though these effects are of
course diminished, (as it W'as my intention to notice as I proceeded
with the subject) by the proper modification of form in the after body
of a vessel, I believe that in the simple forms which I have supposed,
moving at such velocities as are acquired by large steamers at the
present day, the result of these two sources of resistance would be
such, that the sections would rest verv nearly on the merits of their
respective hydraulic pressures. It is the difficulty of estimating the
exact influence of these two effects, which has caused all experiments
hitherto made, as far as I can ascertain, to prove defective in their
results, and apparently to contradict themselves at different velocities.
Sir Isaac Newton assigned twice the pressure given by M. Bomit, and
though lie shewed his own results to be defective, they long remained
the best data on which calculations on this subject could be founded.
The experiments of the London Society for the Improvement of Naval
Architecture, did not afford the means of establishing any certain law
for estimating these resistances, and the velocities at which their
trials were made being comparatively low, I do not think I am alto-
geflier unauthorised in adopting this mode of calculation for high ve-
locities and simple forms. Some experiments detailed by Dr. Hutton,
on the motion of bodies in air tend to support this view, as they show-
that resistance increases in a larger ratio than the square of the velo-
city even in an elastic fluid, and the deviation from this ratio becomes
greater and greater as the velocities are increased, a result most pro-
bably arising by decrease of pressure on the hinder part of the body,
caused by the rarefaction of the air as the speed is increased.

After this explanation, I proceed briefly to notice the two points of
carriage of fuel, and action of the paddles as compared in vessels of the
different proportions supposed. If two such vessels required each 400
tons of coal for her voyage, equal to about l(i,UUO cubic feet of water,
the vessel 200 feet long by 40 beam, would have her draught of water
increased 2 feet by this additional load, wdiile the other, 200 feet by
30, would suffer an increase of draught of 2 ft. S in. We here see
that the narrower vessel has the disadvantage in several respects, she
has a greater depth in proportion of her body immersed, and suffers
consequently an increase of hydraulic pressure. lu consequence of
the coal occupying a greater deptli, on account of her smaller amount
of beam, than in the other vessel, her centre of gravity is more raised in
proportion, brought nearer to her axis of rotation, if it was before be-
low it, and raised further above it, if in the first instance it was already
so, as 1 believe most frequently is the case. In either case one great
source, though perhaps not the principal one, of her stability or power
of resisting a rolling motion is diminished; she is rendered less able
to carry sail, which may sometinips prove the only resource for safety
and less able to resist the stroke of the sea abeam, the latter being
very commonly supposed among nautical men to be the cause of the
President's foundering. Again, by leaving a smaller depth of the hull
.vacant for buoyancy above water, her power to rise over a sea is
diminished, and she will consequently be wetter and pitch deeper in
proportion to her increased load than the vrider vessel. And lastly,
(supposing her a vessel of the usual form) by bringing her full lines
more in contact with the water, her speed must sutti;r a most serious
diminution. Again, as regards the action of the paddle-wheels, sup-
possing the paddles of these two vessels to be of equal diameter, and
the floats having the same dip at their respective draughts of 15 and
20 feet. The narrow vessel again suffers a disadvantage as compared
with the other ; for her paddles being sunk deeper, the floats enter

the water at a smaller angle to the horizon, and leave it at a greater,
and thus the effective action is diminished and the backw ater increased.
This defect being severely felt in narrow vessels, different means have
been tried to counteract it. The mean dip of the paddles has been
reduced by raising the wheels higher on the hull, but this method has
the disadvantage of making the paddles fly light when the fuel is re-
duced, the weather wheel frequently hardly dipping; the heavv pe-
destals for the paddle shaft must also be raised with it, and thus the
centre of gravity must also rise, and the tendency to roll be increased,
and if the hull he built higher out of the water in the same proportion,
an imnecessaiily large surface is exposed to the sidewav action of the
water and wind, and the rolling tendency still further augmented ; —
besides the engines working more rapidly increase the consumption
of fuel without a proportionate increase of speed. The various de-
scriptions of feathering paddles seem most applicable to narrow deep
vessels, as it is in such when deeply laden that the oblique action of
the floats is most felt; but even here I believe the additional power
requisite to overcome their friction is generally considered to counter-
balance the gain of power; and the floats being all constantlv vertical
present a much larger surface to the direct action of a head or follow-
ing sea, and in such case become additional imi)ediments to speed.
The reefing paddle seems most likely to answer the end proposed, but
may it not be a question whether the increased speed of the engines,
when the wheels are reduced in diameter, does not cause some increase
in the consumption of fuel ? which would certainly be avoided in a great
measure by building vessels of such proportions as would render any
such contrivances needless. Feeling the great advantage of experi-
mental evidence in support of expressed opinion?, it was my intention
to have illustrated these remarks by a few simple experiments, bear-
ing solely on the points they refer to, but on consideration, so many
difficulties appeared to oppose the probability of obtaining any data
sufliciently accurate by such means as I could command, that this de-
sign was unavoidably abandoned. It is to be hoped that the experi-
ments now proceeding under the auspices of the British Association,
of the further prosecution of which I was not aware when I entered on
this topic, will tend to clear away the difficulties which have hitherto
attended the application of theory to this interesting subject, and ad-
vance naval architecture to a station somewhat more on a parallel with
the present state of the other practical sciences.

I am, Sir, vour's, kS;c.

H. P. H.

COUNT DE PAMBOUR IN REPLY TO MR. PARKES.

Sir — In a paper written by me and inserted in your number for
September last : On the Momtnliim proposed by J\Ir. Josiah Parkes, as
a measure of the mechanical effect of locumolive engines, the following
passage occurs: "The author tells us that he is more accustomed to
handle the hammer than the pen." I have since perceived that I had,
there, by mistake, attributed to the paper of Mr. Parkes, on boilers
and steam engines, a sentence which I had read in the very useful
work of Mr. Armstrong, on the boilers of steam engines, preface, page
xi, Weale, 1S39. The two works having come to me at the same
time, and being precisely on the same subject, I had made the error
of ascribing to the one, what in reality belongs to the other. This
point is however without the least importance, liaving no reference to
the arguments presented in my paper, and I correct it only for the
sake of accuracy.

Since the publication of the paper above alluded to, Mr. Parkes has
printed in several periodicals, a letter in which he accuses me of
having misrepresented his sentiments, in my refutation of his strictures
against me. I had thought, first, that if my paper itself were put
under the eyes of the persons who had read Mr. Parkes's letter, it
would, by the full references contained in it, show sufficiently that I
had not misrepresented the sentiments of Mr. Parkes; and 1 had, iii
consequence, only asked of the editors of the periodicals in wliich Mr.
Parkes's letter had been published, to insert that paper as an answer.
But this request having been refused by the Literary Gazette, and a
mutilated part only of the letter which I l-.ad sent with the paper,
having appeared in the Mining Journal, with the omission of what I
considered the most important passages, it becomes necessary for me
to make a different answer. Therefore, I beg you to insert in your
next publication, the following paper, as a reply to Mr. Parkes's alle-
gations.

I remain. Sir,

Your very obedient servant,

G. De Pamboub.

October 18, 1841.

1841.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. 383

S\ipplementary paper, On the Momentum proposed by Mr. Joslah Paries,
as a measure of the Mechanical effect of Locomotive engines. By the Count
(le Pamboiir.

In a former paper, inserted in the Civil Engineer and Architect's Journal,
for September last, we have proved that all the strictures presented by Mr.
Parkes, in his paper: On steam boilers and s/ram enymes, inserted in the
Transac/i'ins of the Institution of Civil Engineers, vol. ill., against some of
the experiments of our Treatise on Locomotive Engines, are entirely founded
upon errors of his own ; and, besides, that his momentum or intended
"standard" of the mechanical effect of locomotive engines, which he pro-
poses to substitute in place of every other research on the same subject, leads
him to conclusions and results altogether faulty.

However, as in a letter inserted by Mr. Parlies in several periodicals
{Literary Gazette, September 18th, Mining Journal, ismc date. Civil Engi-
neer and .irchitect's Journal for October), he complains that in answering
his strictures, we have misrepresented his sentiments, we shall now add a
few more observations, to show that we have not misrepresented the senti-
ments of Mr. Parkes; and, besides, that it is not upon sentiments, but upon
facts, that we can establish clearly that the whole of the calculations and
tables of Mr. Parkes are erroneous, and, as every one of his conclusions and
strictures are founded upon tlie numbers obtained in his tables, tliat every
one of his conclusions and strictures are equally erroneous.

For that purpose we shall resume, in the same order, all the articles of our
former paper, quoting more particularly the facts, or the expressions of Mr.
Parkes, upon which is grounded our refutation.

1st. We have said that, to calculate the mean pressure of the steam in the
cylinder of each of the engines submitted by us to experiment, Mr. Parkes
uses the average velocity of the whole trip between Liverpool and Manches-
ter. This fact cannot be denied, and is made quite evident by looking at his
table viii. column 10, table xiii. col. 9, table xvi. col. 2, in which the veloci-
ties are headed, mean velocity of the engines jier hour, and are in fact the
average velocities of our experiments, given page 1 75 of the Treatise on Lo-
comotive Engines, 1st edition, and page 253, 2nd edition ; with the exception
only of the cases in which Mr. Parkes has increased the velocities, from a
pretended correction of his own, of which we shall speak in a moment.

Now, in recurring to our former paper, same article, it will be seen that
such mode of calculating the pressure in the cylintlcr, from the average or
mean velocity of the whole trip, is altogether faulty : because it gives only
the pressure which would have taken place, if the whole trip bad been per-
formed at a uniform velocity. But the velocity varied considerably in the
different portions of the trip, according to the more or less inclination of the
part of road traversed by the engine, as may be seen in our detailed table of
those experiments (pages 225 to 234, 1st edition, and pages 389 to 394, 2!id
edition of the Treatise on Locomotive Engines). And in taking account, as
ouglit to be done, of the time during which each partial velocity has been con-
tinued, we have proved, in our former paper, that the real mean pressure in
the cylinder, is very different from the pressure given in Jlr. Parkes's calcula-
tion. We can, therefore, safely conclude that the pressures, and correspondent
volumes, of the steam in the cylinder, presented by ilr. Parkes as the results
of his computation, are altogether faulty.

2nd. Me have shown a first error, which Mr. Parkes introduces, as a funda-
mental basis, in all his calculations, and which has nothing to do with his
sentiments. But he does not stop there. We have said that, moreover, he
increases almost all the velocities nearly i ; and to be assured of this, it again
suffices to compare, in his paper, table viii. col. 10, table xiii. col. 9, table
xvi. col. 2, with our own table ]iage 175, 1st edition, and page 253, 2nd edi-
tion, of the Treatise on Locomotive Engines. It will be found that the velo-
city of Vulcan, in experiment VI. i table viii. of Mr. Parkes), is increased from
22'99 to 26'90 miles per hour, that of I'esta, in experiment V, from 27'23 to
31'60 miles per hour, that of .Mas, in experiment III, from 15-.j3 to IS'15
miles per hour, that of 4tlas in experiment IV, from 20-59 to 24-07 miles
per hour, that of Leeds, in experiment VIII, from 21-99 to 26-/0 miles per
hour, that of Fury, in experiment IX, from 18-63 to 21-79 miles per hour,
and that of Fury, in experiment X, from 21-99 to 2300 miles per hour. So
that, out often experiments extracted from our work, seven have been made
entirely false by this alleged correction to the observed velocities ; and this
is worse than if the whole of them had been falsitied in the same manner, as
it would, at least, have left the same proportion between the results. Mr.
Parkes makes the same addition to the observed velocities, and therefore in-
troduces the same error, in calculating the experiments of .Mr. E. Woods,
with the Ilecia, since we find (page 112) :

" Mean velocity during the trip 29-4 7 miles per hour.

" Differetice for gradients 1-46 ,,

" Mean velocity on a level 30-93.

Mr. Parkes falls into this error, because, in speaking of fuel, it is said, in our
Treatise on Locomotive Engines (jia^Q 324, 1st edition, and page 311,2nd
edition), that when the engines ascend without help one of the two inclined
planes of the Liverpool and Manchester Railway, tlie surplus of work, thence
resulting for them, equals, on an average, the conveying of their load to about
^ more distance ; that is to say that the engine will, in that case, consume
as mwQhfnel as if it had conveyed an equal load to a distance greater by ^,
on a level. And the critic thence logically concludes (page 86) that the ve-
locity must be by so much increased, without perceiving that this correction
refers only to the work done, and, as a consequence, to the corresponding

consumption of fuel, but not to the velocity, which would suppose, not only
that the load has been conveyed to ^ more distance, but, besides, that it has
been conveyed there in the same time.

Respecting this mistake, we have also proved that the error of Mr. Parkes
has the double consequence of increasing the pretended effect produced, and
lowering the pretended pressure of the steam in the cylinder ; so that the
proportion between the power applied and the effect produced is made doubly
erroneous, and introduced so in his tables.

All this is certainly undeniable, and rests upon tables and facts only, not
upon sentiments, and when we say that the whole of the calculations and
tables of Mr. Parkes are grounded upon those mistakes, it cannot be denied
either, in looking only at table viii. col. 10, table ix. col. 19, table xiii. col. 9,
table xiv. col. 3, table xvi. col. 2. It will be there seen that everg other
column is depending upon the alleged velocity of the engines. Therefore, we
are right when we conclude that the volume and pressure of the steam con-
sumed by the engines (table ix. col. 26, 29), the horse power produced per
cubic foot of water vaporized, or the quantity of water and coke employed to
produce one horse power (table x. col. 44, 45, 49, &:c.), the momenta gene-
rated per second (table xiii. col. 11, 12, table xiv. col. 9, 10, 11), and finally
all the consequences derived from the comparison of the results obtained in
those tables, about the alleged inaccuracy of the experiments, or the respec-
tive effects of loconmtive and fixed engines, arc in everj- way erroneous.

To show, by a particular example, the fallacy of the results to whicli Mr.
Parkes has been led by this wholesale and faulty way of calculating, with a
wrongly averaged and greatly exaggerated velocity, without taking account
of the gravity, or of any of the other resistances really encountered by the
engines, we refer to the two experiments of Fury, of which Mr. Parkes says
(page 128), " a reference to the Fury (previously adverted to as giving ano-
malous results) exhibits that engine as having performed more work at 23
than at 215 miles per hour, by the ratio of 24 to 19 ; it is therefore with
certainty we may conclude one or both of those experiments to be erroneous."
We have shown that this consequence presented by the critic with such cer-
tainty, proceeds only from bis having neglected to consider that one of the
experiments was made from Manchester to Liverpool, and the other, on the
contrary, from Liverpool to Mancbester. But, on account of the general ris-
ing of the road from Manchester towards Liverpool, the gravity opposes more
resistance in that direction than in the other. So that, .ilthough the load of
the engine was lighter in the first trip, stiU there was more work required of
the engine, to convey that load to the other end of the line. In fact, in
making the calculation as it ought to be, that is to say in taking account of
the gravity overlooked by Mr. Parkes. it is found that, in the trip made from
Manchester to Liverpool, the work done liy the engine amounted to convey-
ing 1964 tons to one mile, or 65-5 tons to 30 miles, on a level, and in the
other trip, to 1837 tons to one uule, or 60-6 tons to 30 miles, on a level.
Therefore the engine ought to have employed more time in performing the
first trip than the second, which, concurrently with the other errors of com-
putatioi\ of Mr. Parkes, had led him to conclude with " certainty" these ex-
periments to be erroneous.

3rd. Mr. Parkes (pages 82, 83) says, " the pressure deduced from the sum
of the resistances, given in column 29, for M. de Pambour's experiments I. to
X, is composed, 1st of the friction of the engine without load, which includes
the resistance opposed to it as a carriage, in comuion with the train; 2ndly,
of the additional friction brought upon the engine by the load; 3rdly, of the
resistance of the load at 8 lb. per ton. According to the author, these three
items include all the resistance overcome by the steam, excepting that occa-
sioned by the blast, in excess over the atmosphere. The amount of the latter
shotdd, therefore, be ascertainable by comparing the whole force exerted by
the steam on the piston, with the force assigned as requisite to overcome the
aforesaid tliree, out of the four component parts of the total resistance. The
difference between these pressures should represent the precise amount of the
counter elasricity of the steam in the blast-pipe." So, it is clear, as we have
said in our former paper, that Mr. Parkes calculates the pressure owing to
the blixst-pipe, merely by taking the difference between the valuation of the
divers resistances and his own result of the pressure of the steam in the cylin-
dei-. Now, we have already proved that this last result, obtained by .Mr.
Parkes as representing the pressure in the cylinder, is altogether erroneous.
Tlierefore his supputation of the pressure in the blast-pipe must equally be
60. But, besides, it is evident that such a mode of proceeding, by merely
taking the difference between two assumed quantities, to establish the value
of a third unknown, coidd never give, for this one, a value siitficiently certain
to make it the test of experiments ani facts; since every thing neglected in
the calculation, like water lost by priming, resistance of the air. gravity, &c.
would necessarily pass to the account of the pressure due to the blast-pipe,
and falsify it. Consequently, if, by tins calculation, Mr. Parkes is led to very
inaccurate results, he ought not to be astonished, and we are not certainly.

4th. Mr. Parkes (pages 98, 99), in speaking of our two experiments made
with the engine Leeds, says : " the author also has informed us that in the
two experiments, the pressure in the l)oiler was precisely the same, and the
regulator opened to the same degree. The power applied in the two cases
was, consequentlv, preciselv equal, and equal weights of water as steam passed
through the evlinders in equal times ; whence it rcstdts that the effects should
have been sim'ilar. The expenditure of power was, however, greater by more
than a third in the second than in the first case, to produce like effects, for
we see that the effective horse power required 85-43 lb. of water as steam in
the second and only 60-94 lb. in the first." And (page 100), " if, as asserted,

3 E 2

384

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[November

ILe pressure in the boiler were precisely the same, and the regulator opciicil
to the same degree in the second as in the first experiment, equal power
juust have been generated and expended in the same time, though at the
liighcr velocity, the lighter load was moved through a greater space in that
lime. Had >i. de Pamboiir reduced his data to the terms of value in these
tables, he must inevitably have discovered the numerous errors of fact, and
deduction, which are now brought to light."

So, it is clear that we did not misrepresent the sentiments of Mr. Parkes
T^hcn, in our former paper, we said that he concluded against the accuracy of
the experiments, because in the two cases cited, the useful cfTccts of the en-
gine bad not been the same. But we liave ])rovcd, in that paper, that in
Kpitc of an equality of pressure in the boiler and of opening of the regulator,
there is always more loss supported by the engine, in overcoming its friction,
the resistance of the air, &e., at a great than at a small velocity. Therefore,
the useful eficct produced, or effective horse power ought not to be similar in
the two cases ; and the " numerous errors of fact, and deduction, which are
now brought to light," by the Crilic and his fables, are nothing but a new
misconception.

5th. Ve have said that Mr. Parkes submits the two same experiments, and
the other experiments afterwards, to the test of a new princijile, which con-
sists merely in his making a confusion between the vaporizations etfected in
traversing the same distance and the vaporizations effected during the same
time. This wUl be proved by the following passage, in which it will he seen
that Jlr. Parkes quotes our words relative to the vaporization /or the same
distance, and afterwards applies them to the vaporization in tlie same time.
Vie have marked in italics the words which make this misreasoning quite
evident. He says (page 99), " in bis Treatise on Locomotive Engines, (pages
310, 312), M. de Pamhour states a near parallel to these two experiments, by
supposing a case of the same engine, with the same pressure in the boiler,
travelling the same distance with two different loads. The distance travelled
Jjeing the same, the number of turns of the wheel, and consequently of strokes
cf the piston, or cylinders of steam expended will be the same in the two
cases. ... So the mass or weight of steam expended will be in each case in
the ratio of the pressure in the cylinder. . . . Kow the author has given us the
resistances on the piston which amount in the first case to 38-43 lb., and in
the second to 23-93 lb. per square inch ; and yet he assumes an equal ex-
penditure of water as steam, in equal times, in the two cases. ... To be con-
sistent, however, with his own rule, above quoted, viz. that the weight of
vater consumed as steam are to each other as the resistances on the piston,
it is obvious that if, in the first case, 3026 lb. of steam passed through the
cylinders in an hour, 21C61b. only would have been expended in the second
case." And (page 101), "But we have already seen that if the quantity of
vater were correctly taken in the first case, a less quantity must have been
consumed in the second, as the load upon the pistons of the engine in the
tv^'o experiments deduced from their velocity and assigned resistances, differed
in the ratio of 38-43 to 23-93 ; and the water as steam consumed, in equal
iimes, mtist necessarily have varied in the same ratio, or as 30261b. to 2166
lb. It would be fruitless to pursue this analysis further, and vain to attempt
the rectification of errors, — a task which properly belongs to the author."

■\Ve see that the passage quoted from our work establishes distinctly that
vben an engine draws two different loads over the same ground, the quantity
©f water vaporized, y&r the same distance, must be in proportion to the total
pressures of the steam in the cylinder. But Mr. Parkes concludes from it,
that the quantities of water vaporized, in the same time, must be in the ratio
of the pressures. But we have proved, in our former paper, that those two
consequences are precisely contrary to each other. Therefore the principle
alleged by >Ir. Parkes, and which he uses afterwards throughout bis paper,
to " test" the accuracy of the experiments, rests merely upon a new mistake
cf his own, which consists, as we have said, in making a confusion between
the vaporization /or t/te same distance, and the vaporization ybc the same time.
So that there is no occasion to "attempt the rectification of errors" dis-
covered by the application of this new principle.

6th. Mr. Parkes comparing the locomotive with the fixed engines, says,
(page 90), " Thus the fixed non-condensing engine is the most economical of
the two ; but if Mr. de Pambour's data are correct, we must abandon all
preconceived opinions, and all belief in the accuracy of pre-ascertained results
on the non-condensing engine ; we must reverse our engineering creed, and
acknowledge the fixed non-condensing engine, with its simple atmospheric
resistance, to be far inferior, in economy of steam, to the locomotive, witli
its plus atmospheric resistance." And (page 98), " for it is utterly impossible
that the locomotive should accomplish an equal efl'eet, with i less steam than
the condensing engine. To go over this ground again would be a mere re-
petition of arguments previously used."
' By these passages it is fiUly established that Mr. Parkes would, as we have
said in our former paper, conclude against the accuracy of the experiments,
because a locomotive engine cannot possibly produce a useful effect equal to
that of a high pressure non-condensing, or to that of a condensing engine.
But we have proved that the case may occur; and Mr. Parkes concedes it
himself (pages 156, 157), in saying of a sort of locomotive engine under his
charge, " the consumption of steam per effective horse power, per hour, has
been shown to be 1201b. for the fixed non-condensing engine, and for the
locomotive under review 112-54 lb., which proves the latter to have been the
most economical of the two, at nearly the same absolute pressures. This is
a new, and perhaps, an unexpected result." Therefore Mr. Parkes's first ob-
jection was good for nothing. But, besides, it must be borne in mind that

the velocities used by Mr. Parkes, to calculate the effects of the locomotive
engines, being nearly all considerably increased, as has been proved above, be
must necessarily arrive at exaggerated results for the effects which he sup-
poses to have been produced by those engines. Therefore this new argument
against the accuracy of the experiments, is again the result of his own errors
of reasoning and calculations.

/th. To prove that the same unfounded arguments have been urged by
Mr. Parkes, and with the same results, against every other engineer who has
published experiments on locomotive engines, we need only quote the follow-
ing passages.

Respecting the experiments of Mr. Robert Stephenson, Mr. Parkes says
(page 105), "They contain within themselves abundant proofs of error in the
quantities assigned to the consumption of water as steam. ... >>'ow, if the
evaporative data are correct, it would appear by the ratio which the volume
of steam consumed bears to that of the water which produced it (^li^th being
deducted for waste), that the absolute pressure upon the pistons in this ease
amounted to 81-95 lb. per square inch ; but there was only 50 lb. in the boiler !
If, therefore, 7" cubic feet of water passed through the cyUnders in an hour,
in the shape oi pure steam, the blast-pressure or counter-effort above the at-
mosphere, was 34-41 lb. instead of 2-{ lb. per square inch on the pistons."
And (page 106), "Experiment XII. In this case I have assumed an equal
evaporation in the same time as in the foregoing experiment -, and if ^ were
deducted for waste, the blast-pressure would be less than nothing — or a va-
cuum ; for, with the subtraction of } for waste, as in the table, the absolute
pressure amounts only to 11-lOlh., whilst the resistance required 101b. per
square inch ; and if, contrary to demonstration, it be considered possible that
the 77 cubic feet of water were converted into pure steam, and that this
quantity passed through the cylinders in the hour, the blast-pressure would
equal the whole force required to balance the assigned resistance ; for the
absolute pressure on the pistons woidd have amounted to20-70 lb. per square
inch, whilst the sum of ascertained resistance was only 101b."

Respecting Dr. Lardner's experiments, Mr. Parkes says, (page 110), "It
appears, from the tenth conclusion, that the author considers his experiments,
so far as they have gone, as giving results in very near accordance. It can-
not fail to be remarked that the term discordance would seem to be much
more appropriate than accordance to the indications of the last column iu
the table. But no fair average can be struck from such irregular results ;
and (page 118), " If the resistance assigned by Dr. Laidner as opposed to the
motion of the train be correct, the efliciency of the steam in the locomotive
is more than double that obtained by the best condensing engines, more than
treble that derived from stationary non-condensing engines, and equal to the
performance of a Cornish expansive engine doing a 50 million duty with a
bushel of coals."

Respecting the experiments of Mr. Nicholas Wood, Mr. Parkes says, (page
\29), "The North Star affords a sequence of six experiments at velocities
varying from ISj to 38J miles per hour, but the sequence of results is so
irregular as to indicate error in two of them, which I have accordingly marked
and rejected, for it is certain that a greater measurable effect must accrue
from the expenditure of equal power at 25 than at 30, and at 3I3 than at 34
miles per hour; yet the reverse appears on the face of the experiments. It
is also equally impossible that a greater momentum should have been gene-
rated by a like consumption of force at 34 than at 25 miles per hour."

Respecting the experiments of Mr. Edward ll'oods, with the Hecla, Mr.
Parkes says, (page 117), " On turning to the tables, and examining the results
of this experiment (case 2), it will be apparent ;

" I. That a duty has been performed of double the amount effected by the

condensing engine, with an equal expenditure of power (column 15).
" 2. That the absolute force impressed upon tlie pistons, as determined by
the relative volumes of water and steam was 3095 lb. per square inch,
whereas the tractive efJbrt requisite to overcome the assigned resistance,
amounted to 39-28 lb. per square inch, exclusive of the force equivalent
to the friction of the loaded engine and blast pressure (cols. 29, 30).
" 3. That the power required of the engine to balance the tractive effort
alone was 1515 horses, whilst the absolute power furnished by the steam
to move the engine, to neutralize the blast resistance, and to overcome
the load, amounted only to 119i horses (columns 33, 34).
" 4. That the water expended as steam per horse power per hour, was
37-89 lb. for the tractive effort or duty only (column 42), whereas the
condensing engine consumes 70 lb. per efl'ective horse power.
" 5. That compared with a fixed non-condensing engine at equal pressure,
the locomotive, though labouring against the heavy counter pressure of
the blast, from which the other is free, is assumed to liave performed
equal work, with less than one-half the expenditure of power.
" Such ar« the incredible results arising out of data purporting to be fairly
and uecessarily deduced from impeachable experiments."

Therefore we were quite justified to say in our former paper, that it was
remarkable that in applying his pretended verifications to all the experiments
pubhshed on locomotive engines by different engineers, Mr. Parkes had found
that the conditions to which he proposed to subject those experiments were
not verified in them, and that such a result ought to have put him on his
guard agaiust the soundness of his own arguments. But, besides, we have
proved that Mr. Parkes has used, iu all bis calculations, velocities wliich are
erroneously averaged and greatly exaggerated ; that he has taken no account
of the gravity on the different inclinations of the road ; that he has neglected
the friction of the engines, the resistance of the air, &c. ; that he has calcu-

1841.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

38.5

lated erroneously the pressure aud volume of the steam in the cylinder, as
veil as the press\u-e due to the blast-pipe ; that he has tested the experiments
by a false principle, grounded upon his confusion of the vaporization for the
same distance with the vaporization in the same time ; and we shall see very
soon that in calculating what he calls the mommtum generated by the en-
gines, he has wrongly considered the whole weight of the train as raised up
in the air by the engine, instead of being dragged or rolled along the rails ;
idl points established upon the very talles and words of Mr. Parkes, so that
he cannot say that his sentiments have been misrepresented ; consequently,
we were justified also in adding that he heaps errors on errors, combining
and complicating them unawares, till be arrives at a point where he does not
produce a single result that is not erroneous.

8th. After having shown the material errors and general misreasoning
which pervades the whole of the strictures of Mr. Parkes against our re-
searches and those of others, we come to the Critic's own conception, that is
to the calculation of the mechanical effect of locomotive engines, by what
he calls the momentum generated. He says, (page 128), " Column 2 exhibits
the momentum, or product of the mass, in tons, of the engine, tender and
train, multiplied into its velocity in feet per second ; and the sums thus re-
present the respective mechanical effect produced per second by each engine."
And (page 130), " Four means are derived from these results. Mean I. in-
forms us, Ist, That when the velocity is increased in the ratio of 1'52 to 1, an
increased consumption of power is required for the production of equal me-
chanical effects, or of equal momenta, in the ratio of 1'43 to 1, being some-
what less than in the direct ratio of the velocities. 2nd. That power is ex-
pended in the ratio of 2-43 to 1, or in about that of the square of the velocities
to produce equal gross commercial results. 3rd. That power is expended in
the ratio of 3-11 to 1, or in not much less than that of the cubes of the
velocities, to realize equal useful commercial results."

So, in our former paper, we have properly cited Mr. Parkes, and therefore
cur conclusion is correct, that what he calls momentttm is nothing more or
less than the common useful effect (weight of engine included), as explained
in every work upon that subject j with the exception that, here it is wrongly
calculated ; and to be convinced that it is wrongly calculated, it suffices to
give a glance at table XVI., page 143, of Mr. Parkes's paper. There we see
that the Atlas, in experiment I, produced a momentum equal to 206'90 tons,
gross load of the engine (column 5), multiplied by 14-263 feet per second,
mean velocity of the engines per second (column 9), equal to 2951*01 tons
moved one foot per second (column 11). This momentum or mechanical
effect, reduced in pounds, is equal to 6,610,262 lb. moved one foot per second,
or to 396,615,744 lb. moved one foot per minute. Now, if we observe that a
horse power is expressed by 33,000 lb. moved one foot per minute, we shall see
that the momentum produced by the Atlas, in that experiment was equal to

296,615,744

—33^00- = 12,019 horses.

Experiment II. exhibits a momentum equal to 12,504 horses, experiment III.
a momentum equal to 5,862 horses, and so of the others. The North Star
alone produced a momentum or mechanical e^ec^ equal to 21,668 horses.
These extraordinary results proceed from Mr. Parkes taking erroneously the
total weight in tons, for the resistance moved, as if the whole train were
carried up in the air by the engine ,- whereas the true resistance overcome in
rolUng the train along the rails, is only at the rate of about 6 lb. per ton of
weight ; besides the friction of the engine, the gravity, the resistance of the
air, &c., neglected by Mr. Parkes.

Certainly, then, we were quite right to say that calculations like these do
not tend to the progress of science, but that they would rather lead it back
to its first nidiments ; and if we have added, besides, that Mr. Parkes has
not made one ej.periment on locomotive engines, it is a fact that can easily be
verified in looking at bis table XVI., from which he has drawn his momenta.
In column I. of that table, the name of every one of the experimenters is
given, and there is not one experiment in the name of Mr. Parkes. So that
a man so fertile in strictures against the experiments of others, has not made
a single one, himself.

I must now say a few words on the letter of Mr. Parkes, lately inserted in
several perioilicals, in support of his former strictures against my experiments
on locomotive engines. It would seem from that letter, that I have attacked
^Ir. Parkes, but mere dates will easily settle that point. The attacks of Mr.
Parkes against me will be found in his paper. On Steam-loilers and Steam-
engines, inserted in the Transactions of the Institution of Civil Engineers,
Tol. III., with the date, London, 1839, given (page 162) at the end of the
paper. In this writing I am attacked almost without interruption, from page
77 to the end. The alleged inaccuracy of my experiments is presented under
all possible forms, as the necessary consequence of the results obtained by
Mr. Parkes in his tables. It was then incumbent upon me to protest against
any conclusions drawn from these tables, and to prove that they are, as well
as the reasonings of the Critic, an uninterrupted series of mistakes. There-
fore I published an answer in the introduction to the second edition of my
Treatise on Locomotive Engines, Weale, 1840, and afterwards printed it again
with more details and full references, in the Civil Engineer and Architect's
Jonmal, September 1841. This date, and the whole subject of the paper
itself, show sufficiently that it is but an answer to the unfounded strictures
of Mr. Parkes.

Now that I have e tablished that, in my refutation of the criticisms of Mr.
Partes, I have not m'srepresented hi» sentiments, it would be very easy, and

completely justifiable, to add some observations upon the expressions used
by Mr. Parkes in bis letter, to support by words what he could not support
by arguments. But, as it is my decided intention to keep distinct from any
discussion foreign to the scientific question, I shall abstain from presenting
any remark on the subject, begging only the persons who want to form a
precise judgment of this controversy, to read the letter of Mr- Parkes again,
after having perused this paper, and then to make their own observations.

G. De Pamboir.

GREAT WESTERN STEAM SHIP COMPANY.

The question about the legality of the Great Western Steam Ship
Company carrying on a marine engine factory has now been decided,
the supporters of sucli an absurd plan have at last been compelled to
come forward and concur in their own defeat, a circumstance not to be
regretted, when it is considered with how much pertinacity they
stuck to their bantling, and how determined they were in their endea-
vours to foist it upon the unwilling shareholders. As it is, a great
loss must be incurred in the disposal of the property, independently
of the waste which must have been caused by the maintenance of the
establishment, ami the victimized shareholders remain without any
remedy against those who have so grossly abused their trust. When
individuals embarked their property in the Great Western Steam
Ship Company, marine engineers especially, they never contemplated
that the funds of the Company were to be applied to any purpose but
the legitimate one of engaging in the carrying trade, they did not ex-
pect that their money was to be wasted in rivalry against themselves,
or that the company was to go to the expense of hazardous experi-
ments. Yet scarcely had one ship been launched, before the directors,
who had barely capital enough to fit out another ship, set up a large
building yard and an engine factory, intended for executing machinery
on the greatest scale. The result it wanted but little sagacity to fore-
see ; it was a sad destruction of the Company's prospects, and a
serious injury to their revenue, for while these experiments have been
going on, the North American apd West Indian Mail Companies have
launched each half-a-dozen steamers, and have set them to work.
Where, however, is the Mammoth ? she has not even her hull Bnished,
and when she will be launched no one can tell. As to the propriety
of any company, except one with a fleet of vessels, like the General
Steam Navigation Company, engaging in ship-building or engineering,
it is preposterous, and still more so where there is only a paltry
amount of capital available for the purpose.

The next question is whether it is at all proper for a joint-stock
company to engage in such a business as marine engineering, and we
have no hesitation in saying that no company is justified in under-
taking any thing of the kind. We think it more necessary to dwell
upon this' point, as some ambitious individuals are endeavouring to
form a separate company for the purpose of carrying on the rejected
steam factory, which will as certainly prove a loss to its new proprie-
tors as it has to the Great Western Company. There is no rule laid
down which applies more clearly to this case than that which governs
the constitution of joint-stock companies; it is expressly defined that
a joint-stock company can only safely engage in such pursuits as are
beyond the capital or credit of a private individual, and that any
company, endeavouring to compete with private enterprise in its own
proper sphere, must sustain a loss. Now, surely, with regard to steam
ship building, it cannot be said that there is any call for a company to
engage in it, as the private parties who now carry it on have proved
themselves fully competent, having, during the present year, supplied
not only the English government, but other governments with steam
frigates, and having turned out of their yards a fleet of first-class ves-
sels for the North American and West Indian stations. There is no
call for a company, every one is satisfied with the present system, and
the Great Western Steam Ship Company, or the Steam Ship Factory
Company, must lose largely in a ridiculous contest with a small capital
against the Maudslays, Seawards, Millers, Lairds, Napiers, aud Acra-
mans, of the great steam ports. We therefore conjure the Bristolians
to beware of the snare which a few ambitious men are getting ready
for their downfall.

il/«//a.— It has been determined by the Admiralty to erect at Malta a bis-
cuit baking apparatus on the plan of Mr. T. T. Grant ; it wdl be situated
over the galley arches. We have heard also that a dock is forthwith to be
constructed in the dock-yard there, on a site pointed out by Captain Bran-
dreth, and for that purpose a contract has been made in Calanea for stone
of an admirable quality, equal to granite, but in reality lava, which is to be
delivered on the spot, ready worked for use, at 2s. 9d. only the cubic foot.

380

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[November,

SMOKE NLISANCE IN LARGE TOWNS.

At a Court of Common Council held at Guildhall, London, on the Mth
October last, Mr. Anderton presented a Report of the Committee appointed
to inquire into the nuisance arising from smoke of manufactories and steam
engines, &c., and the hest means of obviating the same.

The following is the document referred to: —

To THE Right Hon. the Lord Mayor, Aldermen, and Commons of
THE City ok London, in Common CovNtii. assembled.

We, whose names are hereunto subscribed, your committee for general
purposes, to whom on the 29th day of October last it was referrcil to inquire
into the annoyance and nuisance to which the inhabitants of tliis city are
subject from the smoke of manufactories and ^team-cngincs, and .ilso from
steam-boats on the river Thames, and the best means of obviating the same,
and to report thereon to this Court, do certify, that with a view of collecting
every information upon the subject we directed advertisements to be issued,
intimating the nature of the reference to us, and expressing our desire to
receive any suggestions in writing as to the best means to be adopted for
remedying the inconveniences complained of, and in consequence thereof we
were favoured with communications from upwards of 41 jiarties, suggesting
a variety of modes for that purpose, and for the better information of this
hon. court we have classed and arranged the same under the following
heads : —

1 . Parties tendering general advice.

2. Methods for the combustion of coal and the prevention of smoke, by
the introduction of fresh or undecomposed air into the furnaces.

3. Methods for the purpose of coking or charring the coal in furnaces,
such furnaces forming part of the ordinary furnace of steam-boilers, coppers,
&c.

4. By the introduction of a jet of steam, in conjunction with a jet of air,
into the furnace of steam-boilers.

5. By the use of anthracite, Welch coal (eitlier Langannoch or Merthyr),
or coke.

0. Cy compressed fuel.

7. Parties possessing plans, but at present unexplained.

8. General complaints, but no remedy proposed.

Class No. 1.
Number of
Communication.

17 Hood, C, Earl-street, Clackfriars.

33 Reid, Dr., 1.^, Duke-street, Westminster.
39 Wright, J., Hart-street, Bloomsbury.

Class No. 2.

15 Ilazelden, W.. at Mr. Bewley's, Liverpool.
5 b Bewley. John, Brunswick-street, Liverpool.

18 Hall, Samuel, 18, King's .\rms-yard, Moorgate.

41 Dircks, IL, at Routledge, W., 38, Prince's-street, Manchester.

11 Forrester, R. F., Derby.

Class No. 3.
1 Aeraman and Co., Bristol Iron Works.
3 a Chanter, John, Earl-street, Blackfriars.
7 Dartmouth, Earl of, St. James's-square.

19 Juckes, J., 95, Union-street, Borough.
30 Rodda, R., St. Auste, Cornwall.

36 Thompson, R., Liverpool.

Class No. 4.

3 Bell, W., 11, Queen-street, Edinburgh.
9 English, 37, New Broad-street.

13 Greaves, W., Westgate-street, Newcastle.

34 Smith. W"., Police-office, Aberdeen.

Class No. 5.

4 Barber, E. S., Newport, Monmouthshire.

5 Coles Child & Co., Belvedere Wharf, Lambeth.
10 Flisher, Parker's-terrace, Bermondsey.

12 Fyfe, Andrew, Edinburgh.

16 Ilinde, J., 39, Chester-terrace, Regent's Park.

20 Langannoch Coal Company, Crosby-hall Chambers.

23 Manby, Brothers, 22, Parliament-street.

24 Mackay, W., Swansea.

25 Nutting, IL, 37, Neble-street.

27 Pocock and Sons, St. Bride's Wharf.

29 Pritchard, D., Capeldewy-house, Carmarthen.

32 Rowton, F., 2, North-place, Kingsland-road.

35 Scale, Henry, Merthyr Tydvil.

37 Vickery, T. W., 25, Lincoln's-inn Fields.
39 Wright, J. Ilart-street, Bloomsburj-.

Class No. 6.

26 Oram, Thomas, Lewisham.

Cl.' ss No. 7.

6 Dez Maurel, 3, Newington-terrace, New Kent Road.

8 De Varoe, E. 11. liryanston-street, Portman-squarc.

14 Griesbach, W. IL, G, Baker's-row, Walworth.

22 Miller, W., surgeon, Poole.

28 Parsons, John, Whitecross-street.

31 Reddell, Brothers, Bow. common.

38 Williams, John, Pitmaston, near Worcester.

40 Wood, W., Croydon-eommon.

4 a Brinley, R. J., 121, Leadenhall-street.

Class No. 8.
2 Ansell, S., West Hackney.
21 Misokapnos, Cannon-street.

Class 1.
General Advice by Papers, Books, &e.
The papers and communications of Mr. Charles Hood (No. 17), Dr.
Reid (No. o.i), Mr. C. W. Williams, presented by Mr. Henry Dircks (No. 41),
are of too valuable a character to be curtailed (particularly'the latter). The
whole suliject is handled in a manner that would, if put fairly in practice,
completely do away with the smoke, and be attended with highly beneficial
results to the proprietors of steam-engines, manufactories, and others using
coals in large quantities ; it will he needless here to refer to any particular
point, as the whole are included, by the methods to be considered, as they
present themselves in the following classes ; —

Class 2.

Methods for the Combustion of Coal and the Prevention of Smoke

by the Introduction of Fresh .\ir into Furnaces.

Mr. W. Ilazelden (No. 15) writes a favouralde report of a furnace patented
by a Mr. Andrew Kurtz, and of which piitent he has a share ; he further
states that a saving of 22 per cent, in fuel has been etfected by the use of
this patent. Their terms are liberal, and they are willing to allow any engi-
neer appointed by the committee to examine and report upon the same.

John Bewley (No. 5 b), on the same patent, writes that the plan is simple
and easy of application to the great majority of steam-engines ; that he is
agent for this patent, and shall be happy to show the plan in operation to
any person conversant with such matters, and give them the opportunity of
testing the same to their entire satisfaction.

This patent, we believe, consists of a series of hollow fire-bars forming an
inclined plane, the highest end being next the bridge; through these bars
air is admitted from thence through small openings in the bridge. This air,
mixing with the gases from the fuel, forms an explosive mixture which
readily fires; thus doing away with smoke, &c.

Samue' Hall (No. 18) is the patentee of a plan mneh of the same nature.
His method is to place a quantity of pipes in the flue between the boiler and
the chimney. Air is admitted through those pipes, thence it passes in flues
or tubes to perforations in or near the bridge. 'The office of the tubes (placed
in the chimney throat) is to intercept and return a portion of the heat
(which would be lost up the chimney i to the fire, and to warm the air ad-
mitted for the purpose of forming an explosive mixture with the gases.

Mr. Samuel Hall thus writes—

" If you will select a stationary engine, and one on board a tolerably large
steam-boat on the banks of the "Thames, for the application of my apparatus,
I will furnish it and put it up to the engines at my own expense, to be paid
for at a moderate price (to be previously agreed on) if it answers the pur-
pose ; but if not, to be taken away also at my own expense, and the success
or non-success of the process to be left to your decision."

Numerous testimonials accompany this communication.

R. F. Forester (No. 11) is a testimonial of more recent date (in favour of
the foregoing), and since the advertisement has been put in by our directions.

Henry Dircks (No. 41) — This communication is principally in explanation
of a patent by C. W. Williams, of Liverpool, which is for the admission of
fresh air through small orifices placed in the flame bed behind the bridge,
stating that by the use of this apparatus, the air (forming the explosive mix-
ture with the gases) will be mure divided and mix more readily, and the
combustion will be more perfect. He at the same time uses a perforated
plate, or a series of tubes in the ash-pit beneath the fire bars, thus insuring
a more perfect and economical combustion of the coke or charred coal on
the bars, and by this process the Newcastle coals possess every advantage of
the .\nthracite, Langannoch, and other Welch coals.

A variety of testimonials in favour of the process from the most eminent
chemists accompany the communication.

Class 3.
By the method of coking or charring the coal in furnaces, forming
part of the ordinary furnace of steam-engines, &c.
John Chanter (No. 5 a) is the patentee of a number of plans for the pur-
pose jnst described.

His combination, as he now describes it, is as follows: — To the front of
the common boilers now in use, he places an " auxiliary boiler," which is
connected to the principal boiler by both water and steam pipes, tlius in-
suring a circulation of tlie water. Under this supplementary boiler he places
the fire bars, laying them lowest at the back end (the incUnation being six
or eight inches to the foot) beneath these fire-bars he places a plate of iron,
which he terms a " deflector ; " this is for the purpose of warming the air
(feeding the fire on the bars) by reverberation. .\t the lower end of this

1841.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

.387

furnace a common furnace is constructed, which receives the coke or charred
coal in an incandescent state from the upper bars.

Thus when coal is thrown into the upper furnace, tlie smoke, in its pas-
sage to tlie chimney, has to pass downwards over the clear burning fire on
the bottom bars.

Acramanand Co. (Ko. 1). — This communication is a letter to Mr. Chauter
on the last subject, and on the utility of such patent wlien applied to marine
engines. Also a list of questions submitted by them to Mr. Thompson, resi-
dent engineer, at Liverpool, for the British and North Americau steam-boats,
all of whicli are answered in a very satisfactory manner by the latter gentle-
man.

R. Thompson (No. 36). — This is a letter from this gentleman lo Messrs.
Acramau & Co., of Bristol, containing a favourable report on the application
of Mr. Chanter's plan to the Enterprise steamer, of Glasgow.

Earl of Dartmouth (No. 7). — This communication is in favoiir of a plan of
Mr. Hall, of Leeds, and is the only notice of this principle. This we beUeve
is the plan adopted : — A division is formed longitudinally or otherwise in the
fire-place, thus forming two furnaces, which are fired alternately, the smoke
and gases arising from the fresh fuel in one furnace is destroyed by passing
over the bright fire of the other. The noble Earl states that he has applied
the apparatus to some boilers in Staffordshire, and it causes them to consume
nearly the whole of the smoke.

J. Juckes (No. 19) is the patentee of a plan for consuming of smoke, and
saving of fuel. The method he uses is as follows : —

" In the centre of a common fire-place he places an apparatus which re-
ceives the coal from a hopper, the coals so placed are introduced into the
furnace beneath the fire, instead of being thrown in from above and upon
the coals under combustion in the usual manner ; by this plan, the gases
(arising from the fresh fuel) are destroyed by passing upwards through the
coke or charred coal under combustion.

When the coal so admitted becomes caked, the feeder is again lowered,
and a free vent or passage is formed for the admission of fresh air into and
through the burning fuel. The patentee is willing to give reference or in-
formation.

R. Rodda (No. 30) is the patentee of a plan for the consumption of smoke
and saving of fuel. His method is to divide the furnace into two parts, the
fresh coals are put in the first division to coke, and are then thrust back into
the second division ; the gases arising from the fresh coal pass through late-
ral openings into the second division, where they are destroyed by the bright
fire. A stream of fresh air is admitted joining the smoke in the passage,
thus rendering it more fit for explosion.

A list of testimonials from the houses of Messrs. Barclay, Perkins, & Co.,
Messrs. Truman, Haubury, & Co., and others, accompany the communication.

Class 4.

By the introduction of a jet of steam, in conjunction with a jet of

air, into the furnace of steam boilers.

W. Bell (No. 3). — This communication is in favour of a plan patented by
Mr. Ivison, of the Castle Silk Mills, Edinburgh. The method he uses is to
admit a portion of steam through a small pipe into a finely perforated fan
branch placed in the furnace, whilst at the same time openings are made into
or near the bridge. Through these openings fresh air is admitted, which air
and steam mingling with the gases arising from the fuel under combustion,
forms an explosive mixture which readily fires, thus destroying the smoke.

A report from the Manchester poUce accompanies this communication.

Jlr. Enghsh (No. 9) is the editor of the Mining Journal, Mining Review,
&c. In his communication he directs attention to notices of Ivison's and
other patents contained in the above works, most of which have been de-
scribed in the present papers.

W. Greaves (No. 13) also notices Ivison's patent, he being agent in New-
castle for the said patent. He further advises the use of coals known by the
name of Leaze's Main, which, in conjunction with the said patent, produce
but little smoke.

\V. Smith (No. 34) writes that Ivison's patent has been applied to an en-
gine belonging to the police-office, Aberdeen ; the smoke is in a great mea-
sure consumed, and that a saving of coal is effected.

Class 5.

By the use of Anthracite Welch coal (either Langanuoch or

Jlerthyr) or Coke.

All the communications which are classed under this head show that fuel
of the above description can be procured in any quantity, is perfectly free
from smoke, and would be found as economical as the Newcastle or other
descriptions of coal.

Class 6.
By the use of compressed Fuel.

Thomas Oram (No. 26). — This communication states, that the patentee
has a method of preparing the compressed fuel, which will emit but little
smoke, has a greater power of heat than the best coals, and of a much lower
price to the consumer. A sample of the fuel accompanied the communi-
cation, a portion of the same has been burnt, and we find but little smoke
emitted, but without analysis it would be difficult to form an opinion.

Class 7.
Parties possessing plans, but at present unexplained.

Dez Maurel (No. 6). — Of this we cannot do better than give the following
translation : —

" Invention of an apparatus to prevent chimnies taking fire, exempts them
from cleaning or sweeping, and which does not allow any soot to escape from
the top.

" The inventor proposes to make the following demonstration : — There
will be constructed, at the expense of the committee, a chimney, of which
the tower is to be 20 feet high, and made of wood. 'The part nearest the
fire shall be tarred in order to demonstrate the impossibility of its taking
fire ; and the upper part shall be whitened, in order to be assured of the
nullity of action of the smoke destroyed by the apparatus.

" In the fire are burnt pit-coal, wood shavings, oil, and essence of turpen-
tine, and after this the apparatus shall be taken away, and in less than half
an hour the white part of the tower will be entirely coloured. The a]>paratus
(of which the price is very moderate) is of long duration, and requires but
one minute to clean it."

Mr. Eugene de Varoe (No. 8). — This memorial showeth that he hath in-
vented an apparatus by which the soot or carbonic portion of smoke is de-
stroyed, and the gaseous portion rendered harmless ; it is easy of adaptation;
chimney-sweepers are rendered unnecessary ; an impossibility of overheated
flues ; would render the atmosphere of London as pure and serene as the
cities of the continent, and would give an additional security to life and pro-
perty. Has performed experiments before men of science, and would feel
honoured by the commands of the Court of Common Council to perform such
experiments as would demonstrate the utility of the invention.

\V. H. Griesbach (No 14) showeth, that if 50/. be placed at his disposal
(in consideration of his time and expences), and the use of a steamer, he has
no doubt of removing the nuisance complained of. The expense of the ex-
periment to be borne by the parties interested. In the event of success, a
sum of money (the amount previously determined) to be paid to him ; and

further, did he not receive an answer to his communication, dated the

day of , he should leave for the continent in a few days.

\\. Miller (No. 22) showeth, that he has discovered a method of preparing
coal by a simple process, which has the desired effect, and should be happy
to submit some coals thus prepared, at any time, in London.

John Parsons (No. 28) showeth, that he has invented a plan, by which the
nuisance complained of may be got rid of, as also the inconvenience arising
from smoky chimnies of houses in general. That his plans have been tested,
and found perfect ; and he would be glad to explain to any person appointed
ly the committee.

Reddell Brothers, (No. 31) show that they are in possession of a plan by
which the object cotUd be gained ; that it is very simple and self-evident
upon explanation, and they would be happy to give such explanation to any
person appointed by us. The plan would meet with the cordial support of
the fire insurance companies and of the public generally.

John Williams (No. 38) showeth, that he has tried different experiments,
and at last succeeded in finding one perfect, which would completely do
away with the nuisance complained of; and, if allowed a httle time, he in-
tends publishing a treatise on the subject, the profits of which he purposes
giving to some institution in the part of the country where he resides.

W. Wood (No. 40) showeth, that he has invented a plan which would
have the desired effect, is easy of application, and, in the case of stationary
engines, would be much cheaper than the methods used at present. He
would be happy to show his plans to any person appointed by us at a few
days' notice.

R. J. Brinley (No. 4 a) refers to an article in the 7th volume of Chambers'
Edinburgh Journal, in which there is a thing detailed calculated to effect the
object required, and would be happy to lend us the volume in question.

Class 8.
General Complaints, but no remedy proposed.

S. Ansell (No. 2) complaining chiefly of the annoyance arising from the
ropes of the Birmingham railway at the Euston station, and the Blackwafl
railway, through the eastern part of the metropoUs.

Misokapnos (No. 21), complaining of the deficiency in height of the
chimney belonging to Jlessrs. Calvert's brewery.

At the same time your Committee feel we should not do justice to the
several parties if we did not annex the whole of their plans and communi-
cations to this report, and to state, after a careful perusal of the same, that
it appears to us to be highly desirable that the nuisance arising from the
smoke of steam- engines and manufactories should be abated, and that we
have no douljt a remedy may be found which will remove the annoyance
complained of, and be a'ttended with economy to the owners of steam-engines
and manufactories generally ; and under this conviction we recomtnend this
hon. court to present petitions to both Houses of Parliament, complaining of
such nuisance and annoyance, and praying that a law may be passed to pre-
vent a continuance of the same.

And we are further of opinion that this Report should be printed, and
copies thereof sent to the members of the legislature and of this hon. court,
to the authorities of Birmingham. Sheffield, Glasgow, and all the other large
mamifacturing towns likely to be affected by smoke from steam-eng'nes ; and

388

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[November,

also to the principal engineers and scientific institutions of the metropolis ;
and we recommend the same accordingly.

All which we submit to the judgment of this hon. court.
Dated this 15th day of September, 1841.

j. w. a.nderton.
John" Raxs.
George Selson.

E. EVTON.

Charles noNn.
William Mcddell.
James Uooi.e.

J. Ml'SGROVE.

JoHV Adamson.
W. Simpson.
George M'Kenzie.
James Davies.
W. A. BECKWaTH.

The report was then ordered to be printed aud circulated, and taken into
consideration on a future day.
After the transaction of some further business, the Court adjourned.

ENCROACHMENT OF THE SEA AT DOVER.

Tuesday Evening, 19/A October.
DcRiNG the last three or foiir days the very boisterous weather which all
along the south-eastern coast has more or less been detrimental to the ship-
ping interest, has done considerable damage at Dover, carrying away an im-
mense quantity of beach, and undermining a number of boat-houses and
other small buildings which had for a number of years past bid defiance to
the fury of the waves. In the bay, which to a considerable extent was
sheltered from the wind and tide by the projection of the pier, several boat-
houses opposite the Royal York Hotel have been washed down. For several
days past, during the time of high water, the waves have come rolling into
the bay in such awfid grandeur as is rarely witnessed on this coast, carrying
back with them the shingle to so great an extent that the sea now washes in
10 or 15 feet nearer the ilarine-parade and Waterloo-crescent than it for-
merly did. The greatest destruction of property, however, has been to the
westward of the Stonebead. Here, where the beach used formerly to accu-
mulate in great quantities, and passing hence to the month of the harbour,
whereby a free ingress and egress to vessels was prevented scarcely a pebble
is to be seen — a phenomenon never before witnessed by the oldest in-
habitant.

What can be the cause of this extraordinary circumstance, is difficult, per-
haps, to determine, although the most probable conjecture is, that the enor-
mous fall of chalk at the Round Down Clifl', about twelve months since, has
stopped the progress of the shingle beyond it, in travelling to the eastward, as
it used to do. But some persons, who have paid considerable attention to
the subject, conclude that it arises from the large quantity of beach used in
the construction of the sea-wall between this town and Folkestone. The
circumstance, however, from whatever cause it may arise, is a subject for
deep regret, as the presence of the beach was a great preservative to the
town, while its absence has been the sole cause of the late destruction of
property.

We have not been able to ascertain the amount of the damage sustained
in this part of the town, but as the buildings belonged principally to boat-
men and the humbler classes of society, they are of a serious nature ; whilst
future gales threaten more extensive destruction, unless something be done
to check the raging waves. Further onward is the Bullock rock, on which is
built ArchcIitT Fort, the residence of Colonel Munro, R. A., the commandant
of the garrison. The base of this rock we perceive has also been undermined
to a very great extent by the washing of the sea, and as there are several large
clefts in various parts of it, there is every reason to fear that a portion of it
will soon give way. The houses beyond this rock have been by the late
gales placed in imminent danger. The platform on which they were built,
and which extended several feet in front, has nearly all been carried into the
sea, and some of the smaller buildings, one of which was the residence of a
poor family, have been pulled down to prevent the materials being washed
into the sea, and to make a road to the other houses. The platform leading
to the entrance of the tunnel under Shakapcare Cliff, which was many feet
in width, has also disappeared, with the exception of a narrow slip ; but as a
second tunnel is yet to be excavated, we do not apprehend that it will be of
any loss to the South Eastern Railway Company. One thing, however, is
now quite certain — the company will not be able to make the railroad in
this place stand, without going to the c pense of erecting a wall to defend it
from the encroachment of the sea ; and this, it appears to us, w ould be ad-
visable before the Dover terminus of the tunnel be commenced, if the mate-
rials for the construction of the same can be obtained. The whole of the
beach, as wc before obsened, having been carried away, nothing now remains
to prevent the sea washing against that vast and stupendous cliflF which
Shakspeare has immortalized, and we perceive tliat even here also the raging
jurf seems fully bent upon destruction. A large quantity of several thou-
and tons' weight fell into the sea on Sunday last, near the mouth of the

railway tunnel, and many other huge masses may be seen at a distance tot-
tering over an excavated base. A walk, therefore, beneath this cliff may now
be considered as extremely dangerous.

The attention of many of the inhabitants of Dover is now turned towards
the object of preventing the sea making any further encroachments on the
town, and for this purpose a deputation of them yesterday morning waited
on Mr. Jcnkinson, the Deputy Lieutenant Governor of Dover Castle, to as-
certain if any assistance could be rendered by the Harbour Commissioners.
The deputation was received by .Mr. Jenkinson with every mark of respect,
and he informed them that everything that he, as a Harbour Commissioner,
could do should be done, and that he would immediately communicate with
His Grace the Duke of WelUngton on the subject.

A .STEAM BOAT OF A NEW CONSTRUCTION.
(Abridged from the New York Herald, August 7.)

The new steam boat, the Germ, is arrived in our waters, and has made an
experimeutal trip off the Battery. Lieutenant Hunter, the inventor of this
boat, and Captain Hosken, of the Great Western, took a trip in her yesterdr.y,
through our harbour and round the Nor'.h Carolina, and were highly gratified
with her performance. This beautiful little vessel is just 50 feet in extreme
length : width of beam at the water line 9 feet, at the gunwale 1 1 feet. The
area of her displacement at the greatest breadth of beam is a fraction over
20 square feet. .She is propelled easily 8 miles an hour ; and, with better en-
gines, could easily be propelled 1 1 miles an hour. She has two engines ; each
of which, if properly constructed, would be equal to uhat is called five horse
power; they are, however, so indifferently arranged, as to work at a loss of
one-third of «hat should be their power ; and have therefore together but six
and two-thirds horse power. Calculating on this data, it will be seen that
the propulsive power used in the " Germ" is equal to one horse for every 3
square feet ; whereas the propulsive power used for our fastest steamers it
equal to three burses for every square foot of displacement. The contrast,
therefore, is very great. The well established fact, that the power necessary
to prone! a vessel is estimated by the area of her displacement at the greatest
breadth of beam, and the advantage of speed known to resu't from great
length of keel, and the application of paddle wheels of greater diameter,
leaves us the interesting and valuable truth clearly self-evident, that the
submerged horizontal paddle-wheels (like that in the Germ) is a much more
eflicient propeller than the paddle-wheel now in use. The great advantages
consequent on the use of this new kind of propeller, for ocean navigation, is
too evident, therefore, to require much stress. By its lateral action, the
movement of the vessel is always under control ; she is in no danger from
broaching to, or bringing by the lee ; as by the peculiar power of her paddles
in the lateral action, she can easily be brought out of the truuj^h of a sea,
and be made to " head it," without the aid of a rudder, or without headway
on her. And, more than this, the propellers being at all times submergeti,
the vessel moves through head sea with but little diminution of her speed.
The Germ has the appearance of a handsome canal boat. No « heels arc
seen, very little smoke, and a very small escape pipe, are all that tell she is
a steam boat. She moves with great velocity, and perfectly noiseless, with
scarcely any rippling of the water. She turns easily, almost upon her own
centre. Half ilie boat is formed into a neat cabin; the forward half is occu-

Eied by the engine and boiler, which is on the high-pressure plan. The
oiler is made on the locomotive plan (.ind it appears to have been a locomo-
tive boiler, at some time), with cylinders attaclied to it, larboard and star-
board. In the cy inder works a small piston rod 18 inches long, from this
e.\lends the connecting-rod, about four feet lung ; and this last rod is attached
directly to the paddle-wheel crank. The crank on each side is connected
with a vertical shaft that works the paddle-wheels exactly like a man work-
ing two coili-e mills with his tuo hands. The great feature in this boat, that
is the propeller, consists of a hollow iron hub. four feet diameter, with pad-
dles made of boiler iron radiating from it. The superficies of each paddle is
one-half of a square foot, therefore the whole ditmetcr of the paddle wheel Is
exactly five feet. There are two of these paddle wheels, the space betweea
them being occupied by the keelson. These paddle wheels camiot be injured
by the vessel's f;roundinjj. for the bottom of the vessel (which can be made
of any desired thickness) is always below the paddle wheels, ground where
she may. The Germ has an advantage over all vessels otherwise propelled,
in not requiring a rudder to direct her course, by reason of the lateral aclioa
of her wheels. She has a rudder, but it is more for convenience than actual
use. It w ill be easily seen, too, that the hull of a steamer thus constructed
must be subject to less wear and tear than all others, for the power of the
engine is imparti-d in a line with the keel, and at a point most available for
propelling. Again, the paddle wheils are not subject to the irregular action
of the sea, and therefore they have always a uniform resisting power, and her
engines work smoothly.

On the other hand, if a vessel thus constructed chose to u.';e sails, her pad-_
die wheels offer less resistance than those of any other steam boat ; take oft"
the connecting rods and her wheels do not present a resistance of half a knot
out of every ten knots. Her paddle wheels are of iron, made very simple but
strong. They are not liable to get out of order ; and although made of boiler
iron, are so buoyant as to float, owing to the displacement caused by the
hollow hub in the centre. Such is the Germ, and such is the new and im-
portant principle in the propulsion of vessels which has been conclusively
established by the performance of this little vessel.

The fitness of these propellers to canal navigation has been fully settled
by the actual working of the Germ on several canals, and the privileges
already given to Lieutenant Hunter, by the directors, for the use of ni»
valuable improvement.

1841.1

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

389

MR. BROOKS IN REPLY TO MR. BARRET ON BARS OF
RIVERS.

Sir — In reference to the letter by Mr. Barrett in yonr July number,
I shnll merely notice the statements that gentleman makes in defence
of his own theory, and this for brevity's sake only, else I should seek
to refute the false positions and strained unfair inferences with which
the whole is filled. I purpose, therefore, to confine myself to the dis-
jiroval of his theory and not aUow him "to go ort' upon another tack,"
as he seems inclined to do by a statement which contains no notice of
his much talked of theory, which is as follows: "The cause of the
existence of bars is the conflicting action of effluent currents or tides,
passing into tlie ocean al right angles to the shore ;" and he adds as
his reimnlv for the removal of the bar, " But if the current or tide be
hv artificial means conducted into the ocean so as to join the sea tide
n't ail acute angle, no conflicting action can arise, and then no bar will
accumulate." On the above I have stated, in page 5 of my Treatise
on Rivers, " That the casual direction of the lower reach, or position
of the mouth of a river, caimot be truly assigned as the cause of the
existence of bars, is easily proved by observations on rivers subject to
great variations at their entrances; the bar being always found to
exist quite independent of the direction of the discharge into the sea.
This fact at once refutes the third and fourth theories which have
been noticed above." In the preceding, the words " independent of the
direction of the discharge " mean evidently independent of " the great
variations" or "casual direction of the lower reach before alluded to;
but Mr. Barrett in reply states " In this extract there seems to be two
distinct facts, i.e. the casual direction of the lower reach, and the in-
dependence of a bar, in the direction of the discharged waters ; that
is, he means that the deposit or bar does not occur in the direction of
the egress waters. With respect to Mr. B.'s assertion of the inde-
pendence of the bar of the egress waters, I have much to say, if he be
correct, he has indeed " at once refuted my theory."

I submit to the judgment of your readers whether the language
quoted from my work, which, be it remembered, is in direct reference
to the theory by Mr. Barrett, which bases the existence of bars upon
the casual direction of the discharge, can by any fairness be construed
into the meaning attempted to be put upon it by Mr. Barrett to cover
his own want of arguments, or facts in support of his tlieory ? I have
not made any "assertion of the independence of the bar of the egress
■water," the plain meaning of my language to any common understand-
ing is, that whether the discharge into the sea be effected at either a
right, or at an acute angle with the shore, the former case, or a rect-
angular direction of the discharge, will not cause the formation of a
bar: and the latter, or where the direction of the discharge makes an
acute angle with the shore, will not prevent the formation of a bar,
or have any effect upon its removal ; and therefore I am correct in
stating that the existence or non-existence of a bar is independent of
ihe casual direction of the discharge. It is disingenuous in Mr. Barrett
to try to make me appear to have said "that the deposit or bar does
not occur in the direction of the egress waters," inasmuch as my reply
to his theory plainly states that whatever be the casual variation of
the direction of the discharge, the bar will still be found attached to
it ; whereas, according to Mr. Barrett's theory, tlie bar ought to dis-
appear by a certain change of direction of the discharge. The whole
of Mr. Barrett's long lectures on bars maybe included in the simple
statement that he beheves that a bar is caused by the discharge of a
river taking place in a direction at right angles to the line of shore,
and that there will be no bar when the discharge takes place in a di-
rection w'l}ich forms an acute angle with the shore. These are his
assertions, which, however, he does not support by a single practical
example.

Mr. Barrett's theory on the cause of bars rests solely upon the di-
rection of the discharge, and I submit to your readers' judgment
whether I have, or have not, sufficiently refuted it by showing that
bars are as frequently found at the mouths of rivers which discharge
their waters at acute angles with the shore, as at the mouths of those
■which are discharged in a rectangular direction. In illustration of this
statement, even the youngest of your readers will bring forward many
examples. It is, however, Jlr. Barrett's duty to support his state-
ment by bringing forward a mass of examples of rivers, which are ob-
structed by bars because of the rectangular direction of their discharge,
and of otbers which are from bars because of their discharge being
effected at an acute angle with the shore. In doing this, of course
Mr. Barrett will not omit to notice those rivers which are free from
bars, notwithstanding their rectangular direction of discharge, nor
will he omit those numerous rivers which have bars, notwithstanding
their discharge is at an acute angle ; if he do omit to notice them, I
promise to amply supply his deficiency. In Mr. Barrett's last letter

I looked for practical examples to illustrate his theory on the bars of
rivers, the matter in dispute! and in lieu I find advanced as proofs of
his accuracy, " the Bay of Wangarver, New Zealand ; " and " the Bays
of Plenby and Port Nicholson" as "free from bars"; Mr. Barrett
might just as apnropriately have referred to the Bay of Fundy or the
Baltic Sea. This same letter contains specimens of the powers of
observation and of "the devotion" of which Mr. Barrett boasts go
much ; and I might also add, that it contains specimens of his taste
where, writing of the " Neva, Gulf of Finland, Narva, Dantzic,
Danube, Nile, he adds, "no salt water being in the ricinity of the dis-
emboguing site of the above rivers," and he also adds, " that there is an
absence of sloping to those rivers." By Narva and Danlzic, Mr-
Barrett doubtless meant to have alluded to the Rivers Narova and
Vistula ; but wliat does Mr. Barrett mean in another part of his letter
where he writes " Norway, Scotland, Ireland, Scilly Islands, MinorcSi
and Malta Harbours are of the first kind V

I am your obedient servant,
Slocf:ton-on-Tees, W. A. Brooks.

12M July.

RULES FOR CALCULATING THE HORSE POWER OF
STEAM ENGINES.

Sir — The rules for calculating the horse power of steam engines in
the Clyde have long been known to be different from those employed
by the English manufacturers, and it appears to me that the charge
against Mr. Scott Russell's assertions, made in page 312, in the Sep-
tember number of the C. E. and A. Journal, is based in some degree
on the unsound foundation of this difference.

The English rule for a cylinder 48 inches in diameter would be
founded on two assumptions, the first, that the speed of the piston
would be 220 feet per minute, and the second, that the surplus pres-
sure on the piston would be 7; or "-l, or 7-3 ft, per square inch. The
practice, I believe, varies within these limits, hence

48-X-7854X220X 7-1 „„ ,

„ .^ = 90 horse power.

33,000 ^

The Scotch rule takes the actual speed of the piston per minute,
and the mean pressure per square inch, and then employs 44,000 tt>. as
the divisor on the gross, instead of 33,000 tb. on the nett or surplus
power of the steam.

The effect of this rule is an allowance of 25 per cent, of the gross
power for engine resistances and friction.

Under the given conditions — ..„_,' — = lOz 16. is the surplus
° 44,000 *^

steam pressure taken, instead of 7-1 ft. the assumed pressure by the
English rule.

If a question had arisen, which rule is preferable, that adopted in
the Clyde is, I conceive, superior in every point, especially in the
closer approximation given of the real engine resistances.

W^e have however to deal with Mr. Scott Russell's assertions; that
the Flambeau, built on the wave principle, " with the smallest propor-
tion of power to tonnage, and smallest supply of steam, is never-
theless the swiftest vessel on the Clyde."

The assertion of greatest speed obviously referred to last seasotj,
and is granted to be correct. The least steam assertion is in fact
granted by the account of the change of the boiler, but the effect of a
new and probably heavier boiler is curious, and an accurate state-
ment of the facts would be valuable. Ou the estimate of horse power

260
here given, as the Flambeau is 280 tons, we have -— -:=3 tons per

horse power.

Is the assertion of less po'wer in proportion to tonnage correct or
not, on this estimate? (Clyde boats are notorious for power in pro-
portion to tonnage, an opinion due I conceive to the rule of horse
power used on that riverj — other boats of course being estimated in the
same mode — however I should prefer a comparative estimate of both
by the Clyde rules ; and it would be extremely interesting, if accom-
panied by the dimensions of the steam boats, and of their engines,
with other particulars ; for though the public may but slightly regard
questions relating to Mr. Scott Russell's figures, yet the success or
failure of the Wave principle applied to ship building will and ought
to command attention, provided satisfactory data can be supplied.

However desirable an uniform method of calculating horse power
may be, yet its general adoption will be prevented, by the wish of
each party to impose their own rule on others ; but the fact of an ex-

3 F

390

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[November,

isling difference cannot be too strongly bronglit before the public, as a
decided demonstration of opinion on tlieir part could alone compel
manufacturers to adopt a decent degree of uniformity in the method
of estimating engine power. .Vrgument will be of no avail in cases of
this character, wTiere interest, or supposed interest interferes, still a
steady exposure of all attempts to exalt or depreciate engines, or
steam boats, when founded on the unsound basis of a difference of
horse [lOwer rules will tend towards the desirable object, of producing
unifornuly.

I remain, Sir, vour obedient servant,

V — .
Septtmber 2G. 1841.

COMPETITIONS.

Sir — An error, at least an awkward omission in the printing of my
former letter will ser\ e as excuse — if excuse be wanted — for my
troubling you again, although I should hardly consider it worthwhile
to do fur the purpose of correcting it, had 1 not also some further re-
marks to offer on the subject itself. I applied the term " swindling"
to the manner in which architectural competitions are frequently con-
ducted, adding that " to give it anij siiftir name would be alniost to
countenance it." But the words here put in italics having been omitted
either by myself or the printer, the sense could be only guessed at.

I am no friend to "soft names" — to that squeamishness of language,
■which is unhappily so prevalent at the present day, and which desig-
nates an affair of murder " an affair of honour," and" an affair of villainy
"an at^air of gallantry." That the indtcoroiia but expressive word
swindling was not at "all too harsh a one is fully proved by Mr. Wat-
son's letter, which appeared on the very same page of your Journal as
my own. Nevertheless no steps of any kind seem to'be adopted by
the profession, in order to put a stop to the shameful abuses now
practised, and reform the present juggling system of competition. As
to the Institute of British Architects, they are like the Gods of Epicurus,
and wrapped up in their own divinity trouble themselves not with the
concerns of the lower world which tli'cy leave to shift for itself as best
it may. So far from coming forward with any measures of their own
for correcting the present shameful or shameless system of competi-
tion, they do not even care in any way to support or aid — I might say,
even to countenance aught that has been from time to time suggested
as an abatement, if not a perfect cure of the evils now so frequently
and so loudly complained of by the professiou generallv, as individuals;
and which affect not only the interests of these lasf,"but those of the
art itself, converting the opportunities for advancing it into nothing
better than so many jobs and jobberies. More than once before now
it has been asked " what has the Institute done for the advancement
of architecture?" and we are waiting for the answer. In the mean
while — and a prodigiously long while it is likely to be ere that jjlain
question can be plainly and satisfactorily replied' to, i would propose
in addition to the suggestions which have already been thrown out in
otlier quarters, that in future in every competition for a building of

any magnitude — say where the contem'plated cost exceeds lO.OUU/

a lithograph copy of the selected design should be sent to each of the
competitors, either when his own draw ings are returned or afterwards,
whereas now, nothing, if it can possibly be helped, is suffered to tran-
spire relative to the one approved of and adopted,— or possiblv,
adopted without any grounds of approval or preference being assigned,
supposing it were possible to do so.

As an instance I will mention the Camberwell Church Competition,
for wliicli I saw one or two sets of drawings before they were sent in,
and for one of which in piuticular I anticipated success,"— that is, sup-
posing matters were to be managed fairly, anil that success was to de-
pend upon the merit of the design. The result, however, lias contra-
dicted me, yet it is exceedingly doubtful to myself whether the one
chosen be at all better, or even so good by jnanv degrees. Be it what
it may, no one as far as I can learn seems to kiiow what it really ;s,—
not even those who measured their strength against the succe'ss'ful
candidates (Messrs. Scott and Moff.it) and who consequently are rather
interested in ascertaining the quality of their design. Now I conceive
such a regulation as that above sug'gestcd would he a very wholesome
one. It would effectually remove the appearance of skulking mys-
tery tliat is now allowed to hang over competitions. It would at any
rate be some pledge on the part of those who selected the design,
that they had confidence in its merits. Yet for this very reason, per-
haps, it is most unlikely that such measure should be a'dopted by the
"Great Unknown" behind the curtain. It must therefore be forced
upon them,— and it can be done by no others than the profession them-
selves, who might if they pleased make a law among themselves to

such effect. At any rate so long as they take no steps whatever to
correct tlie abuses cow practised with impunity in competitions, they
have no very great right to complain of them. Let them join in a
body and defend their onn interests. Or are we to imagine that the
majority of them are rogues, and consider it their interest to uphold
the present corrupt and absurd system of Competition?

ViNDEX.

ADVICE TO PUPILS.

[Tlie accompanying letter has been forwarded to us by a corres-
pondent; it was written by an engineer of considerable experience to
his son, a youth of 17 years of age ; we consider that the sound practi-
cal advice it contains should be read by all young men entering the
engineering profession, and we feel much pleasure in publishing the
letter verbatim.]

Dear Son — Yours of the 19th I duly received, you inform rae that
Mr. B. has appointed you to superintend the bridges, on a certain rail-
way. Now my advice is, adhere strictly to the directions of the spe-
cifications and drawings. If you feel yourself at a loss to understand
thoroughly, (but first of all spare no pains in studying them,) by all
means see or write to Mr. B., "not any one else by any means." I am
quite sure he will feel it a great pleasure to explain any part or por-
tion to you : but always remember Mr. B. first. Never consult any
one, or give your opinion on the subject: what you speak, or explain,
let it be the words, or parts of the drawings, specifications, or your
instructions: and be sure always to act up to your instructions, with
firmness. Never conceal any thing from Mr. B. in any shape respecting
the works, for there is nothing so bad. I am perfectly aware that
when any portion of the works does not come together, or remain firm
as it was at first intended, the fault generally occurs in the commence-
ment, or during its progress, by the superintendent's oversight, or feat
of asking his employer; by this neglect the work is condemned; your
employer is brought into contempt; and the superintendent is dis-
charged : and all this happens, because the superintendent did not like
to see trouble, or explain the faults to his employer ; but will sooner
give way to some foreman or workmen, and hide his or their mistakes.
" Always remember and bear in mind this one thing, let your em-
ployer's duty be such to you, that you will s/a^rf or_7«// by, or with
him." I am quite aware that you will find enemies for a while, but
when they finil that you will not deviate, (for depend on it, there is
but the right way,) they then will give way and be reconciled, although
perhaps against their will. Never be afraid of stating the plain_/ac/s,
for by so doing your employer is on his guard; and then he has it in
his power in time to proceed in that way which seems most prudent
to him, and the safety of the work. The next thing 1 wish to call
your attention to is, you will be sure to meet with persons on and off
the works, (and perhaps some of them have great interest in the work),
that will ask you many questions, and also your opinion about the
works ; and it sometimes occurs they will be questions which they are
ashamed to ask your employer. Now in respect to these points be
very much on your guard. In the first place you have no opinion to
give, your place is to see the work performed agreeably to your in-
structions; and, in the nest place, always have something in hand;
for generally speaking, those characters do not address themselves to
industrious persons ; and if pressed hard on the subject, you can say I
will ask Mr. B. if they think proper; but above all, every person must
be respected agreeably to the station he holds. Every one, both thy
and ijoii must know vour stations. Be free and pleasant to all, but all
must know their places, and every one must bo kept there.

To conclude this advice, I am quite sure if servants would act
straight forward with their employers, and be ve.\Ay lo itaiid ov/all
by them, (be sure to understand me clearly, I abhor tale-bearers,) their
employers would not experience so many anxious hours; perhaps I
should not be wrong if I were to say days or itetks, respecting the pro-
gress, and the ultimate safety of the works.

Now in respect to the works themseh es, if it be wood-work. If there
are any longitudinal beams or bearers, anJ they require bolting to-
gether to obtain sufficient strength, always prefer those pieces that
have a camber or circle. Then bv placing the inner circle of one on
the outer circle of the other, vou w ill find the beams will bear a greater
burden than two straight ones. Again, never permit any sap to remain
in that portion of the timber which is jointed together, for in a short
time that will decay, bolts will be of no service, and the work will
fail. If timber cannot be obtaiued without sap, let that portion be
placed where it can be seen and repaired, and then it will not injure
the work. Again, wherever timbers joint, bear, or overlap each
otlier, be sure those joints, &c. are firm, square, and well put together^

1841.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

391

Again, in respect to bolts, see that the heads are well welded on, also
the nuts well cut and fitted, and the nut and head in proportion to the
size of the bolt. Then again, in bolting timbers together, see that the
lioles are straight, for a bolt cannot be so strong if it be not straight.
Again, never permit the bolts to be driven with an iron hammer, (a
wooden one is best,) for it often happens that when the head comes in
contact with its situation, off it goes, or almost off. (Then where is
the strength ? ichij, it is lost.) Again, in preparing the wood work,
always have by tlie men a few temporary bolts, do not use your per-
manent bolts for every thing. Again, never permit your bolts to be
longer than necessary (and also not too short), for when the work is
finished, and one bolt is longer than another, it appears the superin-
tendent had no eyes, and also it is a waste of money. Again, I find in
bolting up the work, washers under the nuts are much required, for it
is almost impossible to get viorkftnn and solid without tlieui. Also
Tie very careful in the selection of your materials (if timber) ; suppose
for instance, you require 20 pieces, and they be one inch longer than
required, (there is 20 inches waste), the carpenter will say it is only
one inch, but I do assure you, if your employer had a sack full of
money, a careless servant will soon make him find the bottom of it. I
am aware many will at times make many shifts in carrying on works,
but if can ied loo far, it is naste : men cannot do their duty without ma-
terials, but if used too freely, then there they make waste. This case
I consider will answer in every department. Now in respect to men,
endeavour to obtain that price for their labour which is correct; also
in keeping their time, or measuring their work, be ;«.s/ — never give
nor tahe. Let them be paid for what they work and no more; for if
once you go beyond that mark the man is never satisfied, either with
his nork, money or master. I also beg to state, that in carrying on and
at the finish of the works, always keep them in a clear and comfortable
state ; then materials do not get buried up and wasted, the men are
enabled to go forward with their work to much greater advantage, and
also your employers can examine and inspect the work with that ease
and pleasantness which should always be considered by a superin-
tendent towards his employer. I know it will remove many anxious
thoughts and unburden the minds of those above you, in passing your
portion of work, after viewing the careless scenes and ways of others.

I remain, your affectionate Father,

VENTILATION OF THE NEW HOUSES OF PARLIAMENT.

REPORT BY THE LORDS* SELECT COMMITTEE.

That the committee have met and considered the matter to them referred,
and have examined witnesses thereon, and have come to the following reso-
lution, viz. : —

" Resolved, that it appears from the evidence of Mr. Barry, that the only
expense necessarily to be incurred in the course of the next six months, with
the view of making preparation for the adoption of the plans prepared liy
Dr. Keid, for ventilation of the new Houses of Parliament, by means of a
central tower, consists in strengthening the foundation of tlie central saloon ;
that under these circumstances, and adverting to the fact, that according to
the evidence of Dr. Reid, he is still engaged upon a course of experiments
upon the subject of the ventilation of the Houses of Parliament, it appears
to the committee that it is not necessary to come to a final decision upon the
matter referred to them before the next session of Parliament."

That the committee recommend in the meantime that authority be given
to Mr. Bany to increase the strength of the foundation of the central saloon,
as adverted to by Mr. Barry, in case it should be found necessary, before the
next session of Parliament, to proceed with the foundations of tliat part of
the building.

October 1, 1841.

Their Lordships examined only two witnesses — Dr. Reid, and Mr. Barry,
the architect. The following are extracts from the evidence : —
The Lord President in the chair (Sept. 27).
David Boswell Reid, Esq., M.D., examined.

Do you tliink it desirable to carry the air from the new houses of Parlia-
ment through one chimney in the manner which has been proposed .■' — I do.

Will yon explain the course which the air would take in passing through
the buildings, and the way in which you propose to manage it.' — This is a
general illustrative section (producing a section), intended to represent the
principle, not the details. We find that the air as it is discharged generally
from various altitudes in London passes horizontally much more frequently
than in any other direction; hence, if there was a considerable discharge of
foul air from any chimney or shaft, either from the houses or the neighbour-
hood, it might enter at one part of the building but not at another ; it is
accordingly recommended that there should be two openings provided for
the ingress of fresh air, so that if the external air were blowing in one direc-
tion, and the foul air being discharged in the same line, one of these might

be shut, and the other being opened we should have a purer atmosphere in-
troduced, while at the same time the natural force of the wind filling with a
plenum movement all these chambers below, and there tending to pass into
all the several apartments from this reservoir in the basement, and having
been led subsequently into the individual apartments, its entrance into each
of those being regulated by valves, its own ascending power, arising from the
heat communicated to it, would not be lost, but added, as it were, to Ihe
original impetus communicated by the wind, and tend to convey it from each
individual apartment till it all centred in this large shaft ; so that were this
shaft adopted, or any central discharge equivalent to it, there would be at all
times and seasons a power of movement upon the atmosphere throughout the
whole of the buildings which would perpetually renovate the air, whether
machinery were employed or not. But it is considered desirable (more espe-
cially since I have seen at the bar of the House of Lords fully nine members
of the House of Commons upon every square yard — that is, a man to every
foot), in order to check and prevent entirely the draughts whiih under those
circumstances are apt to be perceived if a sufficiency of air be introduced, to
assist from time to time a mechanical power whenever the apartments are
crowded, by placing machinery under the central hall ; so that even on those
days when the air is dull and sluggish, from a similarity of temperature within
and without, this moving power may be brought into operation in supplying
the proper quantity of air without incurring the risk of partial draagbts at
the doors. Further, it has been recommended strongly, that while fireplaces
may be introduced in the individual apartments, still it would be impurtantto
warm the air generallv in the centre, which may be considered the heart of
the building ; so that, instead of local currents flowing unequally, there would
he a general warmth communicated to the atmosphere of the whole building,
so as to sustain not only the apartments but also the passages at a compara-
tively uniform temperature. It has further been suggested, connected with
the general outline represented here, that smoke might be entirely avoided
were particular kinds of fuel adopted which are quite competent to produce
a cheerfid and agreeable-looking fire, as I am prepared to demonslrate by
models, and also by fireplaces which have been constructed for the purpose,
the flues being led from each individual apartment and being carried into fire-
proof channels communicating with the central shaft. Then the risk of fire
wonld be very much avoided, and all sweeping would be rendered unneces-
sary, for which there is a very considerable expenditure annually even in the
present buildings ; and at the same time, while comparative security from fire
and general ventilation would be attained, there wonld he a complete and
entire prevention of all return of smoke, or even where no visible smoke was
produced, all return of foul air from the cbimnies would be utterly and en-
tirely averted, from the certainty of discharge iusiured by the power of draught
in the central shaft.

Suppose this to be the east and that to be the west, if the wind is in the
east you bring the air in here by this valve, and vou shut the other valve ? —
Yes.

Then the air coming iu here, you bring it to that point, and it expels the
foul air up this chimney .' — It does. I would beg to add, that since f had
any thing to do with these houses I have sometimes found that the demand
for air is exceedingly great. On the late occasion, when Parliament first met,
which is the first time that there have been crowded houses in the autumn,
so far as I have had an opportunity of observing, we found that 50,000 cubic
feet per minute was far too small : in both houses they called for a larger
supply of air; and I was obliged to put on additional power by the action of
heat, which increased the supply to about 70,000 cubic feet per minute. Now,
the observation I wish to connect with that is simply this, that if the pure
air he driven down into those vaults below which have been left expressly
for this purpose, then, during warm and oppressive weather, we shall not only
he able to obtain air of comparative purity, but we shall also have the power
of cooling this atmosphere in those extensive vaults, which will warm the air
as much iu winter as they will cool it in summer.

Would it be possible to apply this method of letting in the pure air and
driving out the foul air only to the Houses of Lords and Commons, without
extending it to the other apartments, and would that decrease the expense
very considerably ? — It would certainly decrease the expense considerably,
but I should question whether it would increase the comfort, or whether it
would diminish the annual expenditure. After the experiments which I made
with 100 people in an apartment constructed expressly for this purpose, I
found that the great difficulty in all cases of ventilation was, that when a
great amount of air was required, when a number of individuals sat within a
certain space, there were sensible currents. This led me to the idea of uni-
versal diffusion in introducing the air, which forms the principal peculiarity
of my plans; but in adapting that universal difli'usiou to the new houses it
occurred to me that if certain arrangements are permitted connected with the
mode of placing the seating, the same extent of diflusion might be obtained
without the risk of any portion of the air coming through a part of the floor
on which a foot had trod. I would aho beg to be permitted to say another
word upon this point, namely, that even with universal diffusion it is difficult
to reduce sensible currents. It is found that iu this city there is a difference
of temperature extending to a range of 35 degrees as far as different indivi-
duals like or dislike the atmosphere introduced. An average, therefore, only
can be attained under such circumstances: and in endeavouring to attain
this, and knowing the desires and requests which are continually urged upon
those who are in attendance for tbe purpose of regulating the state of the at-
mosphere, I think I have at last ascertained that by introducing air in large

3 P3

392

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[November,

quantity, and at a more elevated temperature than is generally given, there
is less dissatisfaction connected with the amount of supply than in any other
Tfay. * * »

Are you aware that frequently peers have been obliged to leave their seats
on account of currents of air that came in at the back of the necli ? — I Iiave
been informed that they liavc ; and 1 attiihnte this to the conflicting opinions
entertained by dilTcrent peers as to the amount of supply required, for the
force of these currents can be checked in an instant, to any amount, by the
present arrangements, were instructions given to that effect. It frequently
happens that the most opposite demands are made at the same moment. I
may also he permitted to state, that when the alterations in the House of
Lords were introduced I was limited to a given sum before any estimate was
made, the committee considering it not desiraljle to expend a larger sum
■when they had the prospect of occupying the new houses in a few years. .\t
the time that sum was allowed 1 represented at the Oflicc of Woods that it
■would be desirable to make some addition to it at all events, which was agreed
to as 1 represented, as I was afraid 1 should do more barm than good if some
increase was not allowed ; but it was impossible with the sum that was
jjTanted to put it exactly upon the same fooling as the House of Commons.

Su|>posing that the committees of the houses of Parliament were to decide
against having this great tower or spire, in what way would you then projKJse
to conduct the ventilation ? — I should propose under those eircnnistances to
retain everything else as it is represented, but to have the moving power here
(pointing to the machinery under the central hall) increased to such an extent
as to possess an equivalent power to the total discharge of the shaft. In the
plan contcmpliited the moving power is proposed to he the shaft, conjoined
■with machinery to be used on particular occasions ; then, if the shaft be dis-
pensed with, it woijd be necessary to increase the mo\ iug power.

Mr. Charles Barry examined.

You are aware of the plan which has been proposed by Dr. Reid for the
purpose of ventilating the new Houses of Parliament, and the buildings gene-
rally .' — I am quite aware of it.

And yon have prepared a plan with reference to it ? — I have.

Dr. Keid having stated the advantage of a central egress for the air, you
lave prepared a drawing of an addition to the building in the centre for that
pui'pose ? — I have.

How high is it to be above the roof of the present building ? — The height
above the central hall of the intended building will be 150 feet to the aper-
ture beneath the spire.

Then is all above that solid masonry.' — No ; it would be hollow, and might
le pierced for the egress of air. There would be no difilcully in making the
spire available for the egress of air, as well as the louver beneath it.

Would there be any necessity for this addition of the tower for any other
purpose tint for the ventilation of the houses ? — There is not any positive ne-
cessity for it, except for the purpose of carrying into full effect the proposed
system of ventilation.

But there is no other reason why you would wish to have this additional
building? — I cannot say that there is no other reason, because I think that
the addition of a tower to the intended building, in the situation and of the
form proposed, would enhance considerably the importance and picturesque
effect of the mass, and, therefore, upon that account I should be anxious to
have it adopted.

Have you made an estimate, and are you therefore enabled to state what
the additional expense would be of the erection proposed for the purpose of
Tentilation, independently of the fire-proofing and the apparatus.' — Indepen-
dently of the firc-proofihg, the expense of the ventilating tower would be
20,000/., of which about 8,000/. or 10,000/. may be considered for external
decoration.

Under any principle of ventilation, supposing several egresses to be made
in different parts of the building, it would be equally necessary to have flues
for that purpose ? — Certainly.

Therefore the whole sum of 86,000/. is not fairly attributable to the tower
alone .' — Certainly not ; only 20,000/. of that amount is applicable to the
tower.

Therefore the increased expense of the proposed tower, beyond the expense
of ventilating by means of several egresses, would be only 20,000/..' — That
would he the actual cost of the tower itself; but if Dr. Reid's system of
■warming and ventilating shouM he adopted, the difference in the cost occa-
sioned hy the central tower would be about 10,000/., as in case of dispensing
■with it other works would be necessary, the cost of which would be above
10,000/.

That is including the provision of making the whole of the floors fire-proof ?
—Yes. The estimate of 86,000/. includes the cost of the works which are
necessary to render the entire building fireproof.

What part of the building was originally intended to be fire-proof? — Tlic
vbole of the public rooms of the building were intended to be fire-proof, such
as the two houses, the committee rooms, the libraries, &c., as well as the
■whole of the basement and ground floors, but not the olhrial residences.

Was the roof intended to be fire-proof.' — No; the roof is proposed to be
framed of timber in the usual way.

Is this system of ventilation intended to apply to the of&eial residences as
■well as the committee rooms and the houses themselves .' — 1 understand so.

ON FRESCO PAINTING.
By C. Eastlake, R.A.

The present German School of Fresco Painters has been formed within
the last 25 years. Its first essays, to which I have alluded, were in a great
measure the result of a general spirit of imitation which willingly adopted
all that was associated with the habits of the latter middle ages. It may be
.as well to review the origin and progress of this state of feeling in the present
century. The historians of modern German art have indeed traced its rise
to earlier influences, lut all agree that the circumstances to which we are
about to refer greatly promoted the introduction of a new taste in painting.

The efforts to create a new style of art, in Germany, iu the beginning o£
the present century, were intimately connected wiih the struggle for political
independence. The cathedrals and churches on the Rhine had been more
or less desecrated and plundered, and the pictures by the early German mas-
ters dispersed and sold. The gradual recovery of these cuded in the for-
mation of collections of such works ; this ltd to a higher appreciation of
their merits, indulgently seen as they were by patriots anxious to restore ami
maintain all that especially characterized tlic German nation. With men
thus inspired, the connexion of such feeUngs with the religion of their fore-
fathers W.1S obvious. German artists and writers again, who visited Italy,
dwelt on the relation that h,nd subsisted between Germany and Italy before
and since the revival of letters, not only in politics but in the arts. The
Tower at Pisa, the church of St. Francis at .\ssisi, and other buildings, had
been erected by Germans, and it was remembered with pride, that the new
life of Italy had been kindled chiefly by the genius of the northcni nations.
The spirit of the middle ages was thus in a manner revived, and the Germans
looked with complacency on that period when the Teutonic nations, unas-
sisted (as they assume) by classic examples, produced a characteristic style
of architecture, and developed their native feeling iu the arts of design and
in poetry. In those ages, architecture, the most necessary of the arts, and
therefore the first in date, had time to develop itself fully, especially in the
north ; but before painting could unfold itself in an equal degree, the thirst
for the revival of classic learning and the imitation of classic models pre-
vented the free formation of a Christian and national style. The early speci-
mens of art which were most free from this classic influence were thus re-
garded with higher veneration, and the Germans of the 19th century boldly
proposed to throw aside all classic prejudices, however imposing, and follow
up the imperfect beginnings of the latter middle ages in a kindred spirit.
This general aim connected the early efforts of Italian art still more with
those of Germany, and the German painters who visited Italy, recognized the
feeling that inspired them in all works which were supposed to be indepen-
dent of a classic influence.

The degrees in which this spirit has prevailed have naturally varied. With
many, the imitation of the earlier masters soon gave place to a juster esti-
mate of the general character of the art. The antique has even, to a certain
extent, reassunied its empire ; but on the other hand, some of the best Ger-
man artists have unflinchingly maintained the general principles above de-
scribed, even to the present d,iy; indeed not a few had at first returned to
the old faith, and had imbibed with it a still deeper attachment to the spirit
of the early painters.

It is necessary to bear these facts in mind, in order to understand the
particular aim which many (perhaps the best) of the German artists have in
view. The veneration for the general spirit which prevailed at the revival of
art was accompanied by an imitation of the characteristics and even the tech-
nical methods of the early painters; the habits and the pr(;ductions of me-
diaeval Italy were, as we have seen, easily associated with German feelings,
and to this general imitation the adoption of fresco painting is partly to be
attributed, though that art was never before practised by the Germans.
Fresco painting was, in short, only one of many circumstances which had
acquired interest and importance in the eyes of German painters from the
above causes. The predilection for the early examples of Christian art did
not exclude the study of better specimens created in the same spirit, but the
indications of a classic influence were sufficient to condemn the finest works,
and hence the later productions of Raphael were not considered fit models
for study.

Let us now consider how far we, as Englishmen, can share these feelings
and aims. If the national ardour of the Germans is to be our example, we
should dwell on the fact that the arts in England under Henry the Third, in
the l.Ttb century, were as much advanced as in Italy itself; that our archi-
tecture was even more characteristic and freer from classic influence; tliat
sculpture, to judge from Wells Cathedral, bid fair to rival the contemporary
efforts in Tuscan)-, and that our painting of the same period might fairly
compete with that of Siena and Florence. Specimens of early English paint-
ing were lately to be seen — some very important relies still exist on the
walls of the edifices at Westminster. The undertaking now proposed might
be the more interesting, since, after a lapse of six centuries, it would renew
the same style of decoration on the same spot. The painters employed in
the time of Henry the Third were Engli>h ; their names are preserved.
Thus in doing justice to the jiatriotism of the Germans, the first conviction
that would press upon ns would be that our ov.n country and our own
English feelings are sufllcient to produce and foster a characteristic style of
art; that although we might share much of the spirit of the Germanic na-
tions, this spirit would be modified, perhaps refined, by our peculiar habits;
above all, we should entirely agree with the Germans in concluding that we

1841.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

3D3

are as little in want of foreign artists to represent our history and express
our feelings, as of foreign soldiers to defend our liberties. Even the question
of ability (allliough that ability is not to be doubted for a moment) is uninv
portant ; for, to trust to our own resources should be, under any eircum-
gtances, the only course. Ability, if wanting, would of necessity follow.
Many may renienilicr the time, before the British army had opportunities to
distinguitsh itself, when continental scoffers atfected to despise our pret'-n-
sions to military skill. In the arts as in arms, discipline, practice, ami oppor-
tunity are necessary to the acquisition of skill and confidence; in both a
beginning is to be made, and want of experience may occasion failure at first;
but nothing could lead to failure in both more effectually than the absence
of sympathy and moral support on the part of the country. Other nations,
it may be observed, think their artists, whatever may be their real claims,
the first in the world, and this partiality is unquestionably one of the chief
causes of whatever e.tcellence they attain. It is someTimes mortifying to find
that foreigners are more just to English artists than tlic English themselves
are. Many of our artists who have settled or occasionally painted in Italy,
Germany, Russia, and even in France, have been highly esteemed and em-
plcyed. The Germans especially are great admirers of English art, and a
picture by Wilkie has long graced the Gallery of Munich.

If, however, we are to look to the Germans, the first quality which invites
cur itnitation is tlieir patriotism. It may or may not follow, that the mode
of encouraging native art which is now attracting attention at Munich is fit
to be adopted here. We have seen that a considerable degree of imitation
of early precedents is mixed up with the German efforts ; this of itself is
hardly to be defended, but the imitation of that imitation, without sharing
its inspiring feeling, would be utterly useless as well as humiliating. The
question of fresco painting is in like manner to be considered on its own
merits, without reference to what the Germans have done, except as an ex-
periment with regard to climate. The fresco painters of Munich geneially
work on the walls from May to September oidy ; the greater part of tlie year
is thus devoted to the preparation of the cartoons. Five months in the year
"would probably I)e the longest period in which it would be possible to jiaint
in fresco in London. But assuming tlie new Houses of Parliament to be
thus decorated, and that the works could not be completed before the rooms
would be wanted, the paintings could he continued annually in the autumn
vrithout inconvenience. The climate of England and Germany might in some
respec'rj be more favourable to the practice of fresco than Italy. The surface
of the wall is in the fittest state to receive the colours when it will liarely
receive the impression of the finger (when more moist, the ultimate effect of
the painting is faint) ; this supposes the necessity of a very rapid execution
in a warm climate, where the plaster would dry more quickly.

Fresco painting, as a durable and immoveable docoration, can only be fitly
applied to buildings of a permanent character. Not only capricious altera-
tions, but even repairs cannot be attempted without destroying the paintings.
There can be no doubt that the general introduction of such decorations
would lead to a more solid style of nrchitectiu-e; at the same time the im-
possibility of change would be considered by many as an objection. This
objection would not, however, apply to public buildings. In case of fire,
frescos would no doubt be more or less injured or ruined, but they might not
be so utterly effaced and destroyed as oil pictures in the same circumstances
would be. On the whole, the smoke of London might be found less preju-
dicial than that of the candles in Italian churches. The Last Judgment of
Michael Angelo could hardly have suffered more in three centuries from coal
fires than from the church ceremonies, which have hastened its ruin. The
superior brilliancy (looking at this quality alone) of frescos which adorn the
galleries of private houses, where they have not been exposed to such in-
jurious influences, is very remarkable ; as, for example, in the Tarnese ceiling.
The occasional unsound state of some walls, even in buildings of the most
solid constiuction in Uome, is to be attributed to slight but frequent shocks
of earthquake. A ceiling painted, by one of the scholars of the Carracci in
the Costaguli Palace in Rome, fell from this cause. Such disadvantages
Blight fairly be set against any that are to be apprehended in London. With
regard to the modes of cleaning fresco, the description of the method adopted
by Carlo Maratti in cleaning Raphael's frescos when blackened with smoke
happens to be preserved ; but no doubt modern chemistry could suggest the
best possible m'^^ans.

The general qualities in art which fresco demamls, as well as those which
are less compatible with it, have been already considered. It may be assumed
that it is fittest for public and extensive works. Public works, whether con-
nected with religion or patriotism, are the most calculated to advance the
character of the art, for as they are addressed to the mass of mankind, or at
least to the mass of a nation, they must be dignified. Existing works of the
kind may be more or less interesting, but there are scarcely any that are
trivial or burlesque. This moral dignity is soon associated in the mind of
the artist with a corresponding grandeur of appearance, and his attention is
thus invohmtarily directed to the higher principles of his art. In my evi-
dence, I expressed the opinion that alttiough a given series of frescos must
be under the control of one artist, it would be quite possilde to combine this
very necessaiy condition with the employment of a sufBrient number of com-
petent artists by subdividing the general tiieme. Thu<, if we suppose the
general subject to be Legislation, it might combine the symbolic and drama-
tic styles, and even subjects of animated action. It might be subdivided, for
example, into the history and progress of legislation, founded on religion and
morals, and producing its effects in peace and war j exemplified in the one by

industry .and commercial enterprise, in the other by instances of the courage
which results from a due appreciation of natic.nai benefits, and the feelings of
loyalty and patriotism. Any subject of great and universal human or na-
tional interest might be made equally comprehensive. It has been assumed
that the practice of fresco vjould be beneficial to English artists techuically;
we proceed to consider how it would affect them in other respects.

The painters employed on an extensive series of frescos would have to de-
vote a considerable portion of their lives to the object. Such an undertaking
would require great perseverance on their part. It is needless to say that
they ought not to encounter any impatience or want of confidence om the
p.irt of their employers : the tri.d should be a fair one. It would hardly be
possible for the artists to undertake any oil iiictures while so employed, and
I confess I have some fears that, when debarred from the exercise of oil-
painting, and confined to a severer and drier occupation, they might find their
task irksome. One of the first artists at Munich, in writing to me not long
since, said he sighed to return to oil-painting. If the German fresco painters
can feel this regret at giving up their first occupation, for so many years, it
may be supposed that the Knglish artists would exjierience such a feeling ia
a greater degree. When the King of Bavaria honoured me with a visit in
Rome, he told ine he had made an arraitgemeiit witii Schnorr, and had given
him employment in fresco for ten years : that excellent artist has now been
occupied at Munich in public works for a much longer period. No hopes
could be held out to the princip.Tl painters that they would find time for oil-
painting as well, for their designs and cartoons would take up all their spare
time. After a few years, when assistants were well formed, more leisure
might be gained, and it was under these circumstances that Raidiael painted
in oil when employed by Julius the Second in Rome; but for the first three
years after he began the frescos in the Vatican, he confined himself entirely
to those labours ; and Michael Angelo, as is well known, painted the ceiling
of the Cappella Sislina alone.

The more general practice was however to employ assistants, and this is
one of the serious considerations connected with the present inquiry. Owing
to the self-educating system of painters in this country, the younger artists
are more independent than they are elsewhere, and they might have some
reluctance to co-operate in works in which their best efl'orts would only con-
tribute to the fame of the artist under wiioin they worked. In Italy, and in
recent times in Germany, this subordination was, however, not felt to be irk-
some, and the best scholars were naturally soon intrusted with independent
works. It is possible the talents thus created would be employed to decorate
private houses, but the Government would incur a sort of obligation not to
leave a school thus formed unemployed, especially as the artists, from want
of practice, might be less able to cope with those who had been exclusively
employed in oil-painting. The result, however, might be that the school
would gain in design, at some sacrifice of the more refined technical processes
in colouring, in which the English painters now excel their Continental rivals.
It is true some Italian painters, for example, Andrea del Sarto, the Carracci
and their scholars, were equally skilful in oil and in fresco. The earlier mas-
ters were, however generally stronger iu the latter; and Sir Joshua Reynolds
observes that Raphael was a better painter iu fresco than in oil. — Athenaum,

PROCEEBSKGS OF SGSEWTIFIC SOCIETISS.

INSTITUTION OF CIVIL ENGINEERS.
May II. — (continved.J

" Exjierimmfs on the strength of Brick and Tile Arch's," By Thomas
Cubitt, Assoc. Inst. C. E.

In the course of his extensive building engagements, the author had oc-
casion to construct some fire-proof floors ; he therefore wished to ascertain
how the greatest amount of strength could be attained, with a due regard to
the space occupied, and the cost of the structure.

Two arches were built, each with a span of 15 feet 9 inches, and a rise of
2 feet.

The brick arch was 2 feet wide, and composed of half a brick in thickness,
with cement.

The tile arch was 2 feet 4 inches wide, and built of 4 tiles, set in cement,
forming a thickness of 4J- inches.

The spandrels of the arches were filled up level to the crown with rubble
work and cement. A load of dry bricks was placed along the centre of both
arches, and gradually increased at stated periods, from 12 cwt. 3 qrs. up to
lliO cwt. at the end of 75 days, when the abutments of the brick arch gave
way ; and the tile arch broke down while loading.

the deflection at three points is given in a tabular form ; and although,
from the circumstance of there having been no tie bars across- the arches,
the experiments cannot be considered satisfactory, they are valuable, as sup-
plying data hitherto rarely recorded.

Drawings of the arches accompanied the paper.

" Descriplmi of a Stone Bridge on the Middlesborovgh Railway." — By
John Harris, M. Inst. C. E.

The bridge described in this communication is only remarkable for the
flatness of the arch, the rise being 5 feet for a span of 30 feet.

394

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[November,

A drawing, and the specification of the cost of the work, with a schedule
of prices, accompanied it.

'• Descriplmn. of a Ilritlye l/uill of lilue Lias Limestone, acroii the Uii--
miiigham and Gloiicexter Jiailwai/ at Dunhampstend." By Captain James
Vetch, Assoc. Inst. C. E.

The pccnliaritics in the construction of this bridge are, th.it the arch was
composed of very small stones of the hlue lias limestone, from three to five
inches thick, and squared to about nine inches long and broad ; that it was
erectod without the usnal timber centreing, and that the mode of removing
the earth centreing precluded any danger from unequal sinking in the arch.
The span of the bridge is 60 feet, with a rise of 10 feet. The material of
the cutting where the bridge is situated, consisted of weak slate and clay,
conscquoiitly the mode of construction was subjected to a severe test. The
ahntmcnls being completed to the springing beiglit, tlic ground was cut away
roughly to the form of the arch ; seven "iows of pegs were then inserted with
their upper cuds correctly designing the proper curve; a line of jilanks .3
inches thick was laid transversely beside each row of iiegs, and upon them
were jdaccd lines of battens on edge, gauged to tlie exact profile of the
bridge ; the caith was consolidated, and a flooring of battens laid over all to
form a true bed for the soffits to rest upon. From the absence of parallelism
in the lias stones, their varying thickness, and the difficult adhesion of the
mortar, it was deemed necessai y to introduce seven transverse bonds of free-
stone, which imparted to the whole structure a tendency to settle in the
lines of the radii of the arch, and also prevented any rent in the lias masonry
from proceeding to a dangerous extent ; these free-stone bonds were firmly
fastened witli iron cramps. The face bad a batter of 1 in 9, from the spring-
ing to the string course, in order to counteract any tendency to bulge to-
wards the fares, or in the line of the least resistance. The base was also
extended and the crown narrowed, which gave a concave form to the string
course. The whole arch being filled in with the full depth of stone work on
each springing, and the bonds of free-stone all placed, the lines of each be-
tween the second and third bonds were keyed up, and then those between
the third and the centre bond, which thus apparently formed the key stone.
The earth centre was removed by cutting a heading 4 feet 6 inches wide,
directly beneath the key stone, and then gradually excavating on either side
uniformly towards the abutments, stopping at certain intervals to allow any
settlement to take place. By proceeding thus, as successive portions of the
arch were left to their own bearings, regular compression ensued, and a small
portion only of the work was exposed to the risk of fracture from inequality
of pressure ; the rising of the haunches which generally accompanies any
undue depression of the crown, appeared by this method to be entirely
avoided.

The author ascribes much merit to the careful manner of keying in the
courses, as no cracks occurred, and the settlement of the arch did not ex-
ceed 2.1 inches, lie conceives this experiment to have answered completely,
as there was a saving of time, the exjicnse of erecting the usual wooden cen-
tre was avoided, and the bridge was ready when the railway cutting reached
it. lie considers that this system may be advantageously used in many situ-
ations upon railways, and that the span may be at least double that of the
bridge now described.

The communication was accompanied by three drawings, showing the
details and progress of the construction.

" Dmcrij/lion of the great Aqueduct at Lisbon, over the Valley of 4lcantra."
By Samuel Clegg, Jun.

This aqueduct was founded by king John the Fifth in 1713, and completed
by the Marquis of Pombal, 1755. It resisted uninjured the shocks of the
great earthquake in that year, although it was observed to oscillate con-
siderably. The most conspicuous part of the work is that which crosses the
Valley of Alcantra; it consists of 32 arches, with spans varying from 50 to
105 feet; the crown of the centre arch is 225 feet from the ground. The
length of this portion is 3000 feet.

The sources from which the supply of water is derived, are situated in the high
ground in the neighbourhoods of Cintra and of Bellas— they are eighteen in
number; one of these tributaries is conveyed by a culvert from a distance of
15 miles. The main duct into which the tributary streams empty themselves,
forms a trmnel of 6 feet wide, and 7 feet high, ventilated by vertical shafts,
at distances of a quarter of a njile apart. The channels for the water are
made with " drain tiles," 12 inches wide and 9 inches deep, open at the top.
After passing over the great aqueduct, the main duct runs under ground for
half a ndle, is carried across the " Estrada do aico Cavalho" on seven arches
of 40 feet span each, on the south side of which it continues beneath the
surface until it reaches the aqueduct of " Agua Livres" in Lisbon, and emp-
ties itself into the reservoir at its ternnnation.

This reservoir is 00 feet long, by 54 feet wide and 27 feet deep. The
quantity of water contained in it when the author took the measurements
■was 64^800 cubic feet, lie was unable to obtain a section of the retaining
walls, but supposed them to be about 23 feet in thickness.

The pipes through which the water is distributed to the neighbouring
fountains arc of earlhenware and stone set in mortar. The velocity of its
flow thrnupb the main duct is 75 feet per minute. The quantity discharged
is about 73,000 gallons in 24 hours during the winter months.

Consttiiction. — Tl :e particulars relating to the construction of the aque-
duct, the author translated from the documents preserved at the office of
Public Works in Lisbon. The foundations were laid in May 1713, arul the

piers, which in common with the rest of the work are of gray marble, carried
up without footings. They are faced with ashlar work in courses from 1 foot
G inches to 2 feet deep. The stones are dowclled together with bronze and
iron ; the centre portion of each pier is filled in with rubble masonry to
within 30 feet of the top, above which it is left hollow. The voussoirs of
tlie principal arch, to which the author more particularly refers, are carefully
jointed, their thickness being on an average 8 feet at the springing, and 5
feet on the square at the crown. The figure of the arches is pointed Gothic,
the rise being -jiy of the span. The spandrels are of closely joinled ashlar
work, about 2 feet C inches in thickness. The backings are filled in with
rubble quite solid; nor is there any provision made for the drainage.

The mortar used was made with lime from the gray marble of the neigh-
bourhood, and sharp sea sand, in the proportions of one of the former to four
of the latter.

Mode of raising the materials. — No mechanical contrivances were used for
hoisting the blocks of marble, but they were slung upon poles from men's
shouldeis, and carried up a series of inclined planes to the height required.
Some of these blocks weighed upwards of three tons. The scaffolding and
inclined planes erected round the piers were of a very substantial description.
The lower parts were trussed framings formed of double Riga or Dantzic
timbers 15 inches square, fastened together with trenails of teak and chesnut.
The inclined planes had a rise of about 1 foot in 6 feet, with a level space at
each end of the pier to serve as a resting place, where a separate gang of
men received the stone block, and relieved the others. The ends of the
upright timbers of the scaffolding were not suflTered to be surrounded by
earth or moisture, but were placed upon blocks of stone bedded firmly and
evenly upon the rock, and kept well tarred. The struts and braces retaining
them were also secured from decay in the same manner. These precautious
were necessary, not only from the great weight they had to support, but from
the length of time they remained in use — not less it is supposed than thirty
years.

The centreing for the arches was constructed by an Italian architect named
" Antonio Davila." The arches were commenced from each side of the valley
at the same time, and a temporary gangway erected over them as they pro-
ceeded, so that the inconvenience of raising the material from the bed of the
valley was avoided. The centreings were framed in their places. The
crad'es which supported the bearing timbers of the lower truss, were morticed
into sleepers resting upon projecting stones left for the purpose; those on
the same pier were secured by cross timbers so as to balance each other.
The lower framings were first fixed and secured by straining pieces, and the
upper portion erected afterwards in the manner of a roof principal. All the
scarfs were cut vertically, fastened by trenails of leak, and but little iron
was used in any part of the struetuie. The striking wedges were placed
under each voussoir, as in the French centreings. As the arch rose from the
springing, the crown of the centreing was loaded with stones to prevent it
rising, and altering the shape of the arch.

The cost of the entire aqueduct, which was about 21 miles long, with all
the immediate and collateral works, and including the reservoir', was two
millions and a half sterling.

The communication was accompanied by three elaborate drawings of the
general construction and details of the aqueduct, with the manner of cann-
ing the stones.

May 18. — The President in the Chair.

Thomas Lloyd was balloted for and elected a member.

" On Sea Defences constructed with Peat Moss." By the Hon. Wont-
gomei'y Stuart.

In the commencement of this communication, the author refers to the
curly period at which the art of reclaiming land from the sea was practised,
and to the extensive districts both in Britain and on the continent, where
sea defences of various kinds are constantly in course of construction. He
then proceeds to detail the modes suggested by the experience of many years,
and practised by him in constructing sea defences in the Bay of Wigtown,
for tlie protection of the estate of his brother, the late Earl of Galloway.
The whole of the district abounded with peat moss, possessing many pro-
lierties which rendered it, independent of its cheapness, a peculiuily valuable
material for constructing embankments to resist the action of the sea. Its
tough fibrous nature, its elasticity, and at the same time, the rapidity with
which the mass became solid, were useful qualities which he sought to take
advantage of. He f<mnd also that it possessed advantages as a material for
puddling ; as from its absorbent nature it imbibed and retained all the mois-
ture that approachcil it, and never cracked from dryness, as occurs so fre-
quently with clay puddle. In case also of holes being made in the puddle
either by vermin or external injury, they soon closed again from the elastic
nature of the peat moss, and ils tendency to grow together.

Uses of Peat Moss.— 'the aulhoT somclimes uses peat moss as a puddle
between two ranges of stone walls, and sometimes as a hacking instead of
clay sod ; hut he more particularlyreeomniends it as a hacking to a stone
def^ence parallel with the shore. For this purpose, the turf should be cut
thin, placed against the hank, and the stone-work built against it; he has
found this the most durable and effectual defence against the sea; the action
of the waves against it even adding to its security, as from ils fibrous nature
it retains the sdt thrown against the wall until all ilie interstices between the
stones are completely filled"", and a defence is thus formed for the wall itself
by the accumulation against it. The method he employs is to build the sea-

1841.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

805

wall of rough rubble stone, laid dry, with a slope of about two to one ; the
peat moss backing, cut into blocks lather thicker than usual, is laid in
courses well bonded and beaten together ; it is thus consolidated throughout
the height of the wall. Upwards of twenty years have elapsed since some of
the first embankments were made on this principle ; they have perfectly
answered the purpose, and have been the means of effectually reclaiming a
great extent of valuable land.

n'arpinff sill. — The author also states, that he has lately been occupied in
forming a defence, by warping silt, with whin or gorse kids, laid horizontally ;
a method which he prefers to that practised in Liucolnsbire, where the kids
are placed upright. He keeps the kids in their positions by means of stones
laid on tliem, which are removed as the surface rises ; fresh kids are tlien
added, and the stones relaid.

The communication is accompanied by three sections of the sea defences,
as they are executed, and by some corroborative testimony as to their effi-
ciency, by Mr. Lewiu, of Boston, who has examined and reported upon them.
Full instructions are also given for constructing the different kinds of de-
fences mentioned.

" In account of the repairs done to the Beechwood Tunnel, upon the Lou-
don and Birmingham Railway, September 1840." By Thomas M. Smith,
Grad. Inst. C. E.

The tunnel is built of brick, is 302 yards long, and passes through strata
consisting of alternate layers of rock and marie, abounding in springs of
water; it was completed at the latter end of the year 1837; that winter
being of unusual severity, many of the bricks were partially destroyed, owing
to their containing lime, upon which the weather acted. Mr. Robert Ste-
phenson first contemplated applying a coat of cement throughout the inside
of the arch, but it was apprehended that it would not adhere, in consequence
of the constant dripping of the water. No positive steps were, however,
taken until the effects of the winter of 1S39-40 had so injured the brickwork
as to render further delay dangerous ; it was then resolved to line the whole
length of the tunnel with an interior brick arch, 9 inches thick, so as to sup-
port and insure the stability of the old work.

For the purpose of executing the work with facility, all the trains of car-
riages were diverted upon the down line through the tunnel, and for a quar-
ter of a mile at each end ; no up train was allowed to pass upon the single
iine while a down train was in sight ; a hoarding was then erected between
the lines of railway throughout the length of the tunnel, to protect the
workmen, and to prevent the building materials from interfering with the
trains. The internal casing of brickwork, 9 inches thick, of English bond,
was then carried up one side to the height of 4 feet 9 inches above the
springing ; a course of York paving 4* inches thick, was at this point bonded
into the old work, and the new work was securely attached beneath the
stone bond course by iron wedges, and regular half brick toothings were in-
serted, at intervals of 2 feet 3 inches apart, in chases cut into the old work ;
by these precautions the new work was secured from being detached, and
from falling upon the passing trains.

One side being finished throughout its entire length, the trains were turned
upon the up line, and the same mode of proceeding followed with the other
side. A series of bearers, 6 feet apart, were then placed over head, and a
close flooring laid so as to serve for scaffolding for the workmen, and to pre-
vent the building materials from falling upon the rails. A pair of ribs were
then raised upon each bearer, and keyed with a strut, 7 inches below the
crown of the arch ; the supporting stays were fixed, the laggans laid upon
the ribs, and the brickwork of the arch was constructed in English bond
throughout the whole length, and on both sides of the tunnel, simultaneously,
to witiiin 2 feet of the crown ; a moveable centre, 2 feet 3 inches long, was
then introduced, and the arch was closed in with two half brick rings.

The whole of the work was done with blue hard burnt Staffordshire bricks,
laid in cement and sand, in equal proportions, for the side walls ; for the
arch, up to within 15 inches of each side of the crown, two-thirds of cement,
and one-third of sand : the two rings for keying up the centre or crown were
laid entirely in cement, without any mixture of sand. Previous to commenc-
ing the new woik, a series of chases were made in tiie old wall, w hich, when
closed in front by the lining arch, formed drains, 4 J inches square, termi-
nating in the culvert beneath the centre of the railway, and conveying thither
all the water, wliich would otherwise have separated the new from the old
brickwork.

Tiiis work was finished, and the scaffolding removed, within the short
space of forty days, by Messrs. Grissell and Peto, under the direction of Mr.
Robert Stephenson, and the immediate superintendence of Mr. Dockray.

This communication was accompanied by a drawing, showing the details
of the scaffolding, and the mode of construction.

" Oa the formation of Enibaiihneiits and the fiUinq in behind retaininr/
Walls." By John B. Hartley, M. Inst. C. E.

The numerous failures of the embankments in the construction of railways,
and the constant occurrence of defects in retaining walls, induced the author
to offer some remarks upon the suhiecf. He first examines the ordinary
mode of commencing the embankment at the contemplated finislied level,
and proceeding with the work at that height throughout, leaving the mate-
rial to find its own inclination ; forming the required slopes on the sides
when the filling is completed. This he contends (although without doubt
the most rapid mode of proceeding) is defective in principle, for the material

as it is deposited forms layers or strata at such an inclination as its nature
permits, and always has a tendency to slide in the direction of the slope.
In such cases, as the centre sinks, the sides slide away, and having nothing
at the feet to resist such a tendency, they are carried out to a dangerous
extent. This is particularly the case with clay embankments, for the mate-
rial is generally brought from the cuttings in large lumps, which cannot be
consolidated as they are deposited ; the water lodges in the interstices, keep-
ing the bottom soft, and when it begins to subside it slides away, until it
has formed itself into a slope at which it can resist the pressure. To prevent
this sliding, the author recommends proper footings being prepared for the
sides of the embankments by cutting trenches, about 4 feet 6 inches deep,
along the bottom line of each slope, and forming a "cop" of sods or of
stones, placed at right angles to the line of the slopes. These footings must
be of a strength proportioned to the height of the embankment, and the
whole length should be completed before the filling is commenced, that they
may become solid, and the sods have grown together, before the weight is
brought upon them.

Proposed mode of fllinij. — He advises, also, that instead of carrying on
tlie filling in one lift, two embankments should be made, varying in height
from 15 feet to 20 feet, according to the nature of the material, wide enough
for two earth wagons on the top, one of them running along each side of the
site of the contemplated embankment ; a valley would thus be left in the
centre at the junction of the two inner slopes. When they have been carried
along the whole length, or to such a distance as would insure their being
considerably in advance, the second or the final lift may follow. With clay
or soft materials, four low lifts following each other would be advisable ;
with these precautions slips of the embankments would be of rare occurrence.
The bottom would become solid by the passing of the weight over it, and the
succeeding lift being thrown into the centre valley, must settle vertically.
The subsidence, which is always in the line of inclination, would be concen-
trated and thrown inwards ; by these means the width of the slopes would
be restricted, and the work would be constructed much cheaper, there being
a saving of both land and labour. Land springs, which are usually only dis-
covered by the pressure of the weight above, woidd be more easily reached
with the low lifts than when covered by the heavy ones.

This mode of construction has been practised by Mr. Jesse Hartley, on
the Manchester and Bolton Railway, where the embankments were very
heavy, and the material of the worst description ; yet the work was executed
in a most satisfactory manner, and the cost of the maintenance of way upon
that line is quoted as being less in pioportion than on any other railway in
the kingdom. Tliis method may require more time, and be a little more ex-
pensive, but the author is of opinion that the trifling difference in time and
cost would be amply repaid by the freedom from expense when the road was
opened.

Retaining Walls. — The author then examines the subject of retaining walls.
He considers the method of fliling towards the wall from the natural bank
behind to he highly objectionable ; the material lies in strata at the angle at
which the deposit is made ; as the quantity increases, the subsidence com-
mences, and the earth slides dowiiwards, throwing its whole weight against
the back of the wall. The tendency to slide is frequently accelerated by the
natural form of the ground upon which the earth is thrown, as it not unfre-
quently inclines towards the wall, in which case the pressure will necessarily
be in proportion to the inclination of the slope, and the nature of the mate-
rial of which the fliling is composed. The wall at Hunt's Bank, on the
river Irwell, is instanced as a fadure of this description. The wall, about
100 feet in length, and 20 feet in height, 5 feet thick at the bottom and
3 feet 6 inches at the top, built of ashlar masonry strengthened by counter-
forts, was forced into the stream by the pressure of the earth behind it.
With proper attention to the manner of filling the ditferent materials, a com-
paratively slight wall may he constructed to sustain a considerable weiglit of
backing.' The author lays down as a rule that, wherever it is practicable, all
filling behind walls should be commenced at the wall, and be proceeded with
from thence towards the solid ground, by which means the strata would be
inclined in a simdar direction ; ledges or benches, either level or inclined in
an opposite direction to that of the bank, should be cut in the solid ground
to receive the filling, and counteract its tendency to slide. The weight
should not be laid too quickly upon a new wad, aud if with these precautions
care be taken that the couuteriorts are constructed simultaneously with, and
well tied into, the wall, a comparatively weak structure will bear a heavy
mass of filling.

The author gives as an example the retaining wall constructed on the west
side of Jackson's dam, near the Brunswick Graving Docks, Liverpool. This
wall, although built of slight dimensions, and tilled behind with material of
the worst description, resisted perfectly all strain ; this could only be attri-
buted to the filling having been gradually done in the manner which the
author's practice leads him so strongly to recommend.

This communication was accompanied by diagrams descriptive of the mode
of constructing embankments.

May 25. — Henry Kodinsov Palmer, V.P., in the Chair.

" A Tabular Statement of the Dimensions and Proportions of Forty Iron
Vessels." By Lieut. E. N. Kendall, U. .N'., Assoc. Inst. C. E.

The vessels, the dimensions and proportions of which are given in this
communication, were all built by Mr. John Laird of Liverpool; they are

396

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[November,

adaptcil to a variety of p^irposes, so that they present but little tiniformity.
The "Rainbow" anrl the "Glowworm" are celebrated for their speed;
their proportions of beam to length are above one to six, and more than three
tons to each horse power, which is generally assumed to lie the proper ratio
for sea-goins steamers. The tabular statement gives the dimensions and
tonnage of tiie vessels, the power of the enjiiies, the proportion of beam to
length, and of tons to each horse power, the names of the owners, and the
stations where the vessels are plying.

" On the Stationary Ene/ines n! the netn Tunnel on the Liverpool and Man-
chester Jlailway." 15y John Grantham, Assoc. Inst. C. E.

This communication gives a description of two pair of stationary non-con-
densing engines, which were constructed by Messrs. Mather, Dixon, and Co.,
of Liverpool, from the designs and undi:r the superintendence of the author.
The steam cylinders are 25 inches diameter, with a length of stroke of G feet;
they have si.le levers like marine engines, but the connecting rods are re-
versed, and convey the power downwards to the maohinery, which is placed
in vaults cut out of the sandstone rock, upon which tlie beam pedestals are
fixed without any framing. Cast iron slides are used instead of the usual
parallel motion, and afte^ several years' constant use, they exhibit no marks
of deterioration. The drum wheel is 21 feet diameter, and makes usually
22 revolutions per minute, when drawing up a train at the rate of 15 miles
per hour ; there is a groove in its periphery, at the bottom of which is wound
a small cord to form a bed for the main rope to rest upon — tliis main rope
encircles about J of the circumference ; it is made of the best Russia heir.p,
in three strands, patent shroud laid, the inner strand being composed of JO
yarns of white hemp, overlaid by -10 yarns of hemp, tarred to the point of
saturation ; this arrangement is found most conducive to the lightness and
durability of the rope; its circumference was G inches, and its length, when
new, was 4800 yards; in the tirst few weeks it stretched to the extent of 10
per cent, of its length, after which it remained unchanged under the tension
imposed. The total weight is 8 tons 8 cwt., and the cost was 21. 8s. per
per cwt. It is guided by 474 grooved pulleys, 14 inches diameter, and by
6 sheaves 5 feet diameter. A new rope will last well for three years, after
■which it is renewed by splicing in a short portion each time, so as to reduce
the amount of stretching.

Inclined plane. — The length of the inclined plane is 2370 yards, at vary-
ing gradients; giving an aggregate rise of 77 feet 1 inch, and a mean rise of
1 in 92. The tunnel is 2220 yards long. The average weight of the trains
drawn up is 55 tons, and the time occupied is six minutes. Tlie pressure of
steam is usually from 50tti. to COtb. when the engines begin to wind, and
sinks gradually to about 301t). in the reservoir during the time it is working.
Power required to draw Carriages up the Inclined Plane. — From some ex-
periments made by Mr. Edward Woods, the details of which are given, it
lias been ascertained that each pound per square inch pressure of steam upon
the pistons over and above the 7'56H). necessary to overcome the friction of
the machinery, is capable of drawing one carriage weighing 5 tons gross up
the inclined plane. On the first erection of these engines, in order to com-
ply with the provisions of an act of parliament, it was necessary to work
them with steam generated in boilers, at a distance of 448 yards, and con-
veyed through pipes 10 inches diameter, laid in a tunnel excavated through
the rock. Several experiments were made to determine the relative amounts
of pressure in the boiler and the steam reservoir, and the quantity of steam
•which was condensed in a certain time. The results were, that when the
engine was standing still, the difference of pressure was about 31b., and when
working with a load it was as much as 131b. The quantity of steam con-
densed was on an average about 156 gallons per hour. Subsequently, a set
of tubular boilers, similar to those of locomotive engines, were erected close
to tiic engines, and are now constantly worked instead of those at the great
distance ; the economy of fuel has been considerable. The consumption of
gas coke ui;der tlie tubular boilers is about 15 tons per week, at ten shillings
per ton. The larger boilers consumed about 30 tons ia the same time.

Mr. Edward Woods gives his approval of the action of the engines, and of
the employment of non-condensing engines generally for this class of work,
on account of their great simplicity, and the readiness with which they may
be brought into full action, so that the greatest power is always at band to
start the train ; whilst during the intervals of working the steam may be
Buffered to accumulate. These advantages are rarely attainable with con-
densing engines, as unless a small engine be employed to keep up the vacuum,
there is a difficulty in starting them with tlie train attached to the rope.

This communication is accompanied liy four detailed drawings of the en-
gines and machinery, and by a model of Mr. Grantham's apparatus for regu-
lating the admission of steam to the valves.

Observations. — Jlr. Fairbairn bore testimony to the good quality of the
engines and machinery described by Mr. Grantham ; their performance had
been very satisfactory. The mode of keeping the rope in tension was an im-
provement upon the plan which Mr. Fairbairn had previously adopted at the
\Vapping Tunnel, of the same railway, lie would present drawings of that
machinery to the Institution. The loss by condensation in long steam pipes
is so considerable, that it has been generally found more economical to trans,
niit power by a line of shafts, than to convey steam to any great distance,
lie had recently constructed some Cornish pumping engines of large size,
with side levers and reversed connecting rods ; they had answered extremely
well. Drawings and descriptions of theai would be presented to the Insti-
tution.

" On the percussive action of Steam and other Aeriform Fluids." By
Josiah Parkes, M. Inst. C. E.

In a previous communication "On the action of Steam in Cornish single*
pumping Engines,"* Mr. I'arkes, after a careful analysis of the ascertained
facts of the quantity of water which, in the shape cf steam, passed through
the cylinders of the engines, arrived at the conclusion that the steam's elastic
force was insufBcient to overcome the resistance opposed to it. On obtaining
this remarkable result, he was induced to examine the circumstances under
whirh the steam is applied, and was convinced that from the instantaneous
and free communication made between the boiler and the cylinder of these
engines, an action, distinct in character from the simple pressure of the
steam, must be transmitted to the piston. And, in order to convey some
precise idea of the peculiar nature of this action, he adopted the terra " per-
cussion " to distinguish such action from that due to the simple elastic force
of the steam. A'arious phenomena, connected with the working of the en-
gine, were adduced in confirmation of the views then advanced. In the
present communication Mr. Parkes has resumed the subject, and brought
forward numerous facts derived from experiment and observation, on steam
and elastic fluids generally, in farther corroboration of his opinions respecting
the percussive action of steam in engines.

The effect of the percussive action of steam may be clearly traced on the
indicator diagrams (a series of which, 41 in number, taken from four engines,
with differeiit indicators, the pressure of the steam varying from 6'5 to 34.7tb.
per square inch, accompanied the communication), and it will be seen that,
in every instance, the piston was driven to a greater height than that due to
the simple elastic force of the steam ; in many instances a greater pressure
was marked than existed in the boiler. The difference in the action, ac-
cording as the steam is admitted suddenly, or gradually, into the cv'linder of
the engine, may be also distinctly traced on the diagrams. The same effects
were observed on the sudden admission of steam upon the surface of raercory
in the cistern of a mercurial column. In these experiments, the steam being
let on gradually, the gauge marked a pressure of 401b. per square inch, which
was the true pressure iu the boiler ; but, being admitted suddenly, the gauge
exhibited a pressure of at least BOIb., and the same results were repeatedly
obtained.

The steam generator of Mr. Perkins will afford a good illustration of the
effect of the steam's instantaneous action. The pressure in this apparatus is
denoted by .".n instrument having an index moving round a dial plate. Steam
of 26 atmospheres being suddenly admitted, the index was observed, during
repeated trials, to register a pressure as high as 36 atmospheres, and then to
recede until it remained stationaiy at 26 atmospheres, which was the pres-
sure in the generator. The results of these various experiments are arranged
in two tables, exhibiting an analysis of the elements into which they may be
resolved.

The author then proceeds to point out the different circumstances of the
pumping and crank engines, in respect of their realizing, beneficially, the
steam's percussive action. In the latter, this instantaneotis action takes
place (as the indicator diagrams show) when the connecting rod and crank
are in one vertical line, so that it is inefficiently expended ; the centre, by
the agency of the fly wheel, not having been passed. In the former, the
load and fiictional resistance alone oppose the descent of the piston ; the
piston is free to move, and the steam's action is wholly efficient in impelling
it ; and, whatever the amount of the percussive action, it will be accounted
for in the effect.

A remarkable confirmation of the conclusions arrived at, and the views
advanced by Mr. Parkes in his previous communication, bad been furnished
by Mr. W. West. The cylinder cover of the Fowey Consols engine, 80
inches in diameter, and weighing 4 tons, springs upwards at the centre -150
of an inch, on the sudden admission of steam, which in the boiler has a pres-
sure of 49'7tb. ; and i of an inch, the steam in the boiler being Gl'71t). ; but
no change of form, or springing, occurs when the steam is let on gradually,
and fills the cylinder at the same pressure as that in the boiler.

The author adduces many other facts in illustration and confirmation of
his views ; as, the oscillation of the mercury in steam and vacuum gauges;
the audible sounds produced in a steam pipe on suddenly checking the mo-
tion of the elastic fluid by shutting a cock ; the curious phenomena connected
with the impact of elastic fluids on each other, particularly those observed
by Mr. Greener on firing gun-powder in long open-ended barrels; and, in
conclusion, suggests whether these remarkable facts may not serve to assist
in elucidating some of the very difficult and apparently inexplicable phe-
nomena, connected with the explosion of steam boilers.

Remar/ts. — Mr. Lowe had recently made some experiments, which in his
opinion confirmed Mr. Parkes's views on this interesting subject. A pressure
gauge, attached to a line of gas pipes, showed, when the communication was
slowly opened, a pressure of four inches column of water; but it invariably
exhibited a maximum of oscillation of full six inches column on the sudden
opening of the small stop-cock between the pipe atd the gauge. In aline
of pipes, full of gas, the whole volume of gas received an impulse on suddenly
opening the valve at one end, and the passage of the undulating wave was
indicated by the sudden and successive depression of the water in the gauges
along the whole line.

Mr. Uomersham could not agree with Mr. Parkes as to the effect due to

* Sec Transactions Institution C. K., Vol. III.

1841.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

397

what he termed the " percussive action of steam ; " he beheved that the
superior economy of the Cornish engines, as far as related to the action of
steam in the cylinders, would be found to be due to the amount of the ex-
pansion of the steam ; which depended, not only upon the opening and
closing of the steam valve, but also upon the greater or less area of the
aperture of the throttle valve. It was evident, that on closiTig the steam
valve, the space between it and the throttle valve would be filled with steam
of a density nearly, or quite, equal to that in the boiler; therefore, on the
first admission of the steam into the cylinder, it might be presumed to act
upon the piston with that pressure ; considering, likewise, that a short inter-
val of time necessarily occurs for setting in motion the beam, with the heavy
pump rods appended to it ; but immediately the piston starts, expansion
takes place, as the throttle valve prevents the steam from following the pis-
ton freely, so that a greater degree of expansion must take place when the
steam is at a higher density; for the throttle valve being then more closed,
offers a greater resistance to the steam following the piston. The indicator
diagram of the East Crinnis Engine showed this efl^ect to a certain extent,
although neither in that nor in the diagram of the Huel Towan Engine was
there nearly the same degree of pressure exhibited in the cylinder at the
commencement of the stroke, as in the boiler ; but it was evident that those
diagrams coidd not be relied upon, as they did not account for the whole
duty done by the engines, either on the percussive or the expansive principle.
-Assuming a bushel of coal to weigh 941b. as generally reckoned in Cornwall,
and that 1ft. of coal would evaporate lOUb. of water, it could readily be
shown, that the quantity of water converted into steam by one bushel of
coal, would, when expanded in a cylinder, during ^ of the stroke, lift up-
wards of 257 million tb. one foot high in one minute; which was a much
greater duty than was realized by atiy Cornish engine.

Mr. Seaward allowed that Mr. Parkes had clearly shown, that a certain
amount of effect was due to the sudden impact of the steam upon the piston
of a pumping engine. Whether the term " percussion," as applied to this
action, was the proper one, he would not then examine ; but the effects
shown to have been produced, and the phenomena attendant upon the ex-
hibition, were so remarkable, that he conceived the subject to merit the most
deliberate investigation of engineers as well as philosophers. He had pre-
viously objected to the theory, on the ground that the effect could only be
in the ratio of the weight of the steam multiplied into its velocity ; but he
believed the subject must be examined in a different manner ; and although
the principle must always have existed, it was only in consequence of modi-
fications in the application of steam, that the effects had been so fully de-
veloped.

Mr. Parkes mentioned, that since his paper had been written, he had found
an experiment which was strictly analogous to his proposition. It was re-
lated by Mr. Robins, who was so justly celebrated as a mathematician and
philosopher, and first discovered that the gas evolved from gunpowder was
a permanently elastic fluid : " when gunpowder is fired in an exhausted re-
ceiver, the mercurial gauge instantly descends upon the explosion, and as
suddenly ascends again, .\fter a few vibrations, none of which, except the
first, are of any great extent, it fixes at a point which indicates the density
of the inclosed gas." He considered this result as corroborating those ob-
tained by himself, as well as justifying the comparison he had drawn between
the instantaneous action of gunpowder gas and steam. .Mr. Robins's words
precisely described the steam's action, as traced on the indicator diagram
exhibited. The springing of the cylinder cover referred to, and in the man-
ner stated, must, he thought, satisfy every one, that the steam's instantaneous
action far exceeded in effect that of its simple elastic force, which was proved
to have been unequal to produce any change in the parallelism of the cover.
As regarded Mr. Homersham's investigation of the power of the steam in
the Huel Towan engine, it was correct that the initial steam was in a state
of expansion during ^§ of the stroke, but not all the steam, for it had not all
entered the cylinder until the piston had travelled through nearly ^ of the
stroke. His calculations were, therefore, hypothetical, and not in accordance
with the facts of Mr. Henwood's experiment.

THE CALEDONIAN CANAL.— THIRTY-SIXTH REPORT OF THE
COMMISSIONERS.

Few undertakings have been more singularly and uniformly unfortunate
than the one which forms the subject of the present report.

Though originating in the purest and most praiseworthy motives, though
directed by the talents of a Telford, and supported and carried out by an
almost unlimited supply of public money, this canal appears to have arrived
at such a point of dilapidation and decay, and to be attended with such pe-
culiar difficulties, that it has at length become equally impossible either to
advance or recede, without incurring a further enormous outlay and expense.

In this situation, and as the lesser evil, it would appear that a select com.
mittee of the House of Commons, appointed in 1839, for the purpose of ex.
amining into the affairs of the canal, made a report, wherein they recom.
mended that a further advance of public money to the amount of ,€200,000
should be made, for the purpose of completing and finishing it properly anj
effectually, so as to render it available for the purposes for which it was or;,
ginally intended, giving it as their opinion, that inasmuch as a vast sum q^

money had already been expended on the concern, which, though at present
unproductive in a pecuniary point of view, had still, to a certain extent, been
beneficial to the country through which it passed ; and as destroying the
works, filling up the canal, or abandoning the undertaking altogether, must
be attended wilb a further expense for the purpose of making the country
secure from inundation, which expense would amount to as much a« would
put the canal in good working condition and repair, they felt that tlie choice
left them was only one of two positive evils, either of which must be attended
with an equal outlay, and that, therefore, it was not advisable to sink the
money already expended and put up with the dead loss; but rather, by ex-
pending the same money in rendering the canal more easily navigable, and
more adapted to the purposes of commerce, to take the chance which, though
remote, might yet by possibility render the undertaking sufficiently productive
to pay its own expenses, and thus leave it, if not a positive benefit to the
present generation, in a commercial point of view, at least a gigantic monu-
ment to posterity of British industry, ingenuity, and talent.

In order to account for the enormous but fruitless outlay of the public
money, which, in the present instance, has already exceeded £1,000,000
sterling, without including the £200,000 above-mentioned, it will be neces-
sary to go back into the origin of this undertaking, and to trace the causes
which have led to tliis unsuccessful result.

It would appear that, in the year 1803, France having, by successive ag-
gressions, arrayed the whole of Europe, and more especially the great
northern Powers, against her great maritime rival, and there being no naval
station of any consequence in the north of England, the whole coast of Scot-
land or the north-west of Ireland, the enemy had it in his power to annoy
this part of the country from the North Sea, I)y passing round the Orkney
Islands, whereby the commerce of a considerable portion of the United
Kingdom frequently suffered great and serious losses. This circumstance,
and the idea of affording employment to the inhabitants of the highlands of
Scotland, who at that time were in great distress, and were rapidly emigrat-
ing from home, were much pressed on the attention of the Government of
that day. and caused the subject to be taken into serious consideration, and
enlarged views were developed by describing the singular valley called the
Great Glen of Scotland, which, commencing between the promontory of
Burg Head in Elgin and Cromarty, passes through a succession of sea inlets
and fresh water lakes to the soutern extremity of Cantyre, for a distance of
200 miles, and in nearly a straight direction between the Naze of Norway
and the north of Ireland, and which, it was alleged, afforded great facilities
for internal navigation. It was said that the whole of this extensive valley,
with the exception of 22 miles, being occupied by navigable waters, and the
excepted space by a navigable canal, would save upwards of 500 miles of
dangerous navigation.

\Vith these views the Caledonian Canal was originally undertaken; but
though there can be no doubt that the natural features of the country sug-
gested the plan, yet it is doubtful whetlier it would ever have been enter-
tained but for the distressed state of the Highland population, which it was
an object to relieve, by affording them employment, and this being best at-
tained by extensive public works, was the immediate cause which led to the
adoption of the scheme.

Accordingly Telford was employed to examine the line of country indicated,
and liaving testified to its practicability he was alone employed to carry the
design into execution, agreeably to a plan he had furnished.

By this plan it was proposed to form a canal large enough to admit of the
navigation of a 32-gun frigate throughout its whole length, and the estimated
cost of the work in question was fixed by him at an amount of £350,000.
This estimate was subsequently increased to £474,500, but which latter sum
fell very far short of the real expense incurred in the undertaking. This sin-
gular difference between the estimate and the real cost was said to arise from
the fact, that subsequently to the estimate being given in, a serious rise had
taken place, as well in the value of timber as in the cost of labour (conse-
quent on the rise in tlie price of provisions), and something must also be
attributed to the want of experience in estimating the cost of works of such
a gigantic nature ; from these causes, ami from other unforeseen difficulties,
the canal was not opened to the public until many years had elapsed from
the time of its commencement.

In the meanwhile, and during the period wherein these works were going
forward, the enormous inaccuracy of the estimates became every day more
apparent, and much opposition was manifested in various quarters to any
further advance of the public money towards carrying out the objects of the
scheme ; under these circumstances, and finding increased difficulty in raising
the supplies necessary to complete the work, the commissioners determined
to open the canal to the public in its unfinished state, and accordingly, in
1822, the canal, though only partly completed, was opened to the public,
and in which state it has remained up to this time.

The consequence of this premature opening led to numerous accidents and
misfortunes, and to frequent interruptions of the navigation.

Up to the time of opening the canal, the expences of its construction had
amounted to the enormous sum of £905,258, which amount h,id in May,
1839, been increased to £1,023,628, exclusive of a debt to the Bank of Scot-
land of £39,146.

From the very first hour of its being opened to the public, the canal, in a
pecuniary sense, has been a losing concern, never having paid even the ex-
penses of keeping it in repair, much less leaving any surplus available to the
liqiudatiou of its debts. On the contrary, the commissioners have been com-

3 G

398

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[November,

pelled ever}' year to make application to the Bank of Scotlaud for advances
necessary to complete repairs iioperatively called for ; neither has the tratGc
upon the canal been such as to encourage the idea of its ever being, at least
as at present constituted, a very successful undertaking.

In the mean time, the works of the undertaking seem to have been gradu-
ally deteriorated until the latter end of the year 1S37, when a serious acci-
dent occurred to the lock at Fort Augustus, and this being followed by other
extensive damage, information was forwarded of the stale of things to the
Lords of the Treasury, and their attention was drawn to the bad state of the
canal generally, and to the danger to be apprehended to the large district of
the neighbouring country from the defective condition of many portions of
the works, more especially the Gairlochy lock.

Accordingly Mr. Walker, the engineer, was directed by the Treasury to
proceed to the spot, and to ascertain the nature and extent of the damage
sustained, with which directions he complied, and further gave instructions
for doing what was then immediately necessary.

In the year following a committee of the House of Commons was consti-
tuted for the purpose of hearing evidence on the subject of the canal, and
Mr. Walker and Mr. May, the resident engineer, attended and testified to
the state of the works.

From this evidence, it appeared that much danger was to be apprehended
to the works themselves, and also to the country adjacent, as well as to the
lives and property of individual inhabitants resident in the neighbourhood of
Gairlochy. It was stated that at this lock the waters of Loch Lochie, which
extend over a surface of 6,000 acres, had been dammed many feet above
their natural level, and that they were supported at that height by only one
pair of gates, on the breaking of which the outpouring water on the adjoin-
ing country would occasion such a loss of life and property that no time
ought to be lost in guarding against such an occurrence. It further' ap-
peared, that other parts of the works were in an exceedingly bad state, and
■were hourly becoming worse.

Upon being questioned as to the reason of the canal not being used by
shipping, these gentlemen stated that the objection to the canal on the part
of the masters and owners of craft arose from the uncertainty of water, and
from the want of steam-tugs, as it would be impossible to form towing paths
on the borders of the lake.

Upon being pressed to state what sum would be required to put the canal
in a proper and efficient working state, inclusive of everything, he estimated
the amount to be required for that purpose to be ^£200,000 more, and advised
that course to be adopted in preference to abandoning the canal altogether,
as he stated, that in the event of that course being adopted, the expence of
fence works, &c., necessary to prevent the country from being overflowed,
■would be as great as the expense of repairing, and this without the possibiUty
of a return, not to mention the claims of parties for compensation, &c.

After hearing other evidence to the same effect from other parties, the
committee became of opinion that the proposition for abandoning the canal
altogether was one that ought not to be entertained, and after making nume-
rous inquiries with the object of ascertaining whether any increase of busi-
ness would be likely to accrue if a certain passage through the canal could
be obtained, and having ascertained that point, and that thus the dangerous
and tedious navigation of Pentland Frith might be avoided, they resolved,
that the navigation of the canal was insecure ; that the state of the canal
should be immediately attended to, not only as regarded the preservation of
the work, but also as relating to the security of hfe and property in the dis-
tricts through which the canal passed ; that they could not recommend the
abandonment or shutting up the canal, and that the insufficiency of water,
the imperfect execution of the works, and the absence of steam tugs, had
prevented the development of the benefits to commerce which might be ex-
pected ; tliat much benefit would arise to the trade and commerce on the
canal, if the works were placed in a sufficient state of repair, if the depth of
water were increased, and the assistance of steam tngs were afforded, as re.
commended by Mr. Walker j and for these purposes they recommended that a
further sum of £200,000 should be advanced by Government.

The following are some observations upon the Report by the Times : —

Subsequently to this report it appears that certain propositions had been
made to carry the recommendations of the committee into effect by private
enterprise, by which means the necessity of application to Parliament for
more money would be obviated, and this great national work rendered more
available to the interests of the country without the further expenditure of
public money.

In conscquence.of this proposition the committee re-assembled and resolved
that such arrangement would be desirable under certain conditions, which
were, that the Treasury should grant a lease of the canal and its appurte-
nances to the adventurers for a term of 99 years, gratis; that the company,
before the execution of this lease and the application to Parliament, in lieu
of the 10 per cent, deposit, should pay £45,000, to be applied in liquidation
of the debts now owing on account of the canal ; that the works recom-
mended by Walker should be executed, and should afterwards be kept in
repair, and that the company should relieve the Treasury and the commis-
sioners of the canal from all responsibility from accidents and damage, and
should, at the exjnry of the time, leave it in good repair.

In the event of these terms not being acceded to, the committee recom-
mended the matter to be again left in the hands of the commissioners as
before.

It would appear, by the report now under consideration, that Government

were imable to effect a transfer of the Caledonian Canal upon the terms sug-
gested by the select committee of the House of Commons, and, consequently,
the navigation has remained under the charge of the commissioners during
the past year.

Notwithstanding the severity of the winter of 1810-1, no further serious
damage was sustained by the works, nor is any material deterioration of the
general condition of the works apparent ; still it cannot but be felt, espe-
cially with respect to the very important locks of Gairlochy and Fort Augus-
tus, that the lapse of every additional year renders their situation more pre-
carious.

Little further of any interest appears upon the face of this report beyond
the unpleasant fact that the receipts to the 1st of May for dues received to
that day amounted to £2,728 9s. %d. exclusive of afurther sum of £173 0.v. 'd.
for rents, whilst, on the other hand, the expenditure amounted to £6,420 1«. 6d.
and the total debt to the Bank of Scotlaud up to the same time amouuted
£23,i92 9i. \d.

It further appears that during this time 1,283 vessels had made use of the
canal, paying in respect of tonnage rates £2,723 9s. 8<f.

Little else can be gleaned from this report than what has been hereinbe-
fore stated, nor does it appear that anything has since been done towards
carrying out the recommendations of the select committee of the House of
Commons.

Upon the whole, a perusal of the report affords no ground for forming any
judgment on the propriety or good policy of adopting the advice of the com-
mittee to repair the canal ; yet it is difficult to imagine what other course
could be adopted under the circumstances of the case, as it is evident that by
abandoning the undertaking the commissioners would save nothing in the
way of expense, and that the amount which would be required to make the
ground safe after them would be sufficient to repair the caual, and to provide
that description of steam power which seems all that is required to make the
passage through the canal preferable to the round sea voyage, presuming the
canal to be in that perfect state of repair as to obviate the chance of danger
to those travelling on it. At any rate, if we can believe the evidence adduced
before the House of Commons on the subject, there can be little doubt that
the steps recommended would greatly increase the traffic, and would render
it, presuming the canal to be in such a state of solid repair as to be lasting,
capable of paying its own annual expenses, and, perhaps, lay by enough to
provide for future unforeseen contingencies. We confess we are adverse to
seeing the enormous sum of money already expended absolutely sunk and
sacrificed without making some further effort to make the canal useful, and
we should greatly regret to see the gigantic conception of Telford's mind
sink into neglect and oblivion without an effort to save it from such a fate.

REVIE^VS.

^n Experimental Inquiry concerning the relative Power of, and Use/iil
Effect produced by, fhe Cornish, and Boidivn and Watt Pumping En-
gines, and Cylindrical and Wagon-head Boilers. By Thomas
WiCKSTEED, M. Inst. C. E. and Engineer to the East London Water
Works. London: John Weale, 1841.

This highly interesting paper, as many of our readers may be aware,
was presented to the Institution of Civil Engineers during the last
session, but as there was not sufficient time left to allow of its being
read the same session, the :iuthor obtained permission of the Council
to W'ithdraw it, for the purpose of publication in the present form.

Its nature and object are clearly and concisely defined in the first
and last paragraphs of the preface, which we here subjoin.

" Those who take up the following paper in the expectation of
meeting with a theory of the Cornish Engine will be disappointed, as
it is little more than a plain narrative of the result of experiments
made with a view to establish the commercial value of two classes of
Pumping Engines."

"With respect to the calculations introduced into this paper, it is
to be observed that the mode in which they have been worked is given,
as well as the results recorded. If, therefore, the calculations are ob-
jected to, an opportunity is afforded of adopting a different method.
The facts will remain the same, and it is hoped they cannot fail to be
useful."

The work is divided into two parts ; the first relating to the boilers
and fuel, the second to the engines.

In the first part, the author describes the mode in which fhe experi-
ments upon cylindrical and wagon-head boilers were made, which can-
not fail to inspire confidence in the accuracy of the/acts observed,
although we think the deductions therefrom will bear some little
modification. It is, how ever, satisfactorily shown that not the slightest
reliance can be placed in an experiment of short duration to ascertain
the duty of an engine. The author gives a statement of " the duty
done each 12 Lours (excepting in one instance, that of the highest

1841.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

399

duty, which was for six hours only,) by the engine, coals from the
same heap being used." The experiment lasted ISj hours. In these
16 observations the highest duty was 118,522,475 t1>. lifted one foot
high witli 04 16. of coals, the lowest 03,650,298 It)., and the average
Sli,4S0,U18 16. From which it appears that the A; "'^ts/ duty was 37
per cent, above the mean, and the hivesi 26 per cent, below the mean.

" Finding the disparity so very great in these experiments," the
author "commenced a fresh series, with a view of ascertaining the
actual evaporation of water with cylindrical and wagon-head boilers
under different circumstances of surface exposed to the action of heat,
of coals burnt per square foot of grate, of quantity of water evaporated,
and, as regards the wagon-head boiler, /eith and without clothing:
wishing also to ascertain the comparative merits of the tw'O engines,
he recorded the average quantity of water used per strolce in the form
of steam."

The following statements are calculated to give weight to the re-
sults recorded by Mr. Wicksteed in the work before us.

" The time occupied in the trials upon the cylindrical boilers was
above 3400 hours, the coals consumed above 900,000 lb., and the water
evaporated nearly 7 j millions of 16. Upon the wagon-head boiler the
time occupied was 1291 hours, the coals consumed nearly 600,000 16.,
and the water evaporated above 44 millions of 16."

The quantity of water supplied to the boilers was accurately deter-
mined by means of a cistern "gauged by weighing 21 cvit. of water
into it, and marking the height of each cwt. upon a floating gauge-
rod ;" which is of course the same thing as if it had all been weighed.

" The coals were actually iccighed, not measunS, into the stoke-hole,
and the surplus, if any, was also weighed at the end of every 12
hours'"

The results of these experiments on boilers are contained in Table
No. v., in which are also given all the details of the experiments ;
and, from a comparison of columns 16 and 22, which show Me it'tighl
of fuel burned per square foot tif grate per hour, and the neight of rcatei
evaporated by one 16. of coals from 8u^, respectively, we should con-
clude the latter to be independent of the former, since there is not the
slightest correspondence to be perceived in the variations of the two
quantities, if these variations be observed throughout the whole series
of experiments ; but the author, by comparing only the six experi-
EQents upon all four Cornish boilers, and the one upon the wagon-head
boiler, when most perfectly clothed, found the evaporative effect of a
pound of coals to increase with the rate of combustion per square foot
of grate. He gives the follow ing table of the mean results of the six
experiments upon the Cornish boilers, three with quick, and three
with slow combustion.

Quick. Slow.

Pound of coals per hour - - - 342- 1S8.

Cubic feet of water per hour - - 46-9 25-4

Pounds of coals per square foot of grate per hour 4'682 2'59G

Pounds of water evaporated per ft. of coal from 80° 8-524 8-426

Ratio - - - - - 100 98-8

In this comparison the advantage of increasing the rate of combus«
tion from 2-596 16. to 4-GS2 16. per square foot per hour, or a little
more than SO per cent, appears to be nearly 1^ per cent. But if this
advantage can with certainty be attributed to the more rapid combus-
tion, ought we not to expect the same advantage to accrue from a still
greater increase in the rate of combustion, with two or three of the
same boilers ? — This does not, however, appear to have been the case.
The mean rate of combustion in the 26 experiments upon 2, 3 and 4
cylindrical boilers was 5,01316. per square foot of grate per hour, and
the mean evaporation per 16. of coals, 8-224 tt>. of water from 80°. The
slowest rate of combustion was 2*475, with the 4 boilers, and the cor-
responding evaporation, 8*258 ft., or 0-41 per cent, above the mean ;
and the quickest rate of combustion, with two of the same boilers, was
8-708 lb. with an evaporation of only 8-082 lb. of water per lb. of coals,
which is 1'73 per cent, below the mean. The mean of the six highest
rates of combustion with the cylindrical boilers was 7-7171bT and the
corresponding mean evaporative effect of a pound of coals, 8-038 lb.,
or 2-26 per cent, below the mean of all the 26 experiments upon Cor-
nish boilers. The rate of combustion under the wagon-head boiler
(when well clothed, as the comparison [would not otherwise be fair)
was 10-89 lb. per square foot of grate per hour, and the evaporative
effect of a pound of coals in that boiler under those circumstances,
8-301 lb. ; but the engine was only worked during the day time, whence
resulted a loss of effect equal to 1-78 per cent., so that the evapora-
tion per pound of coals, if the boiler had been worked continuously
night and day, as the cylindrical boilers were, would have amounted to
8-449 lb., or 2-74 per cent, more than the mean of the cylindrical
boilers, the rate of combustion being rather more than double. If,
Ijowever, Mr. Wicksteed had happened to make only one experiment

with the cylindrical boilers (as he did witli the wagon-head boiler well
clothed), and that one had been the 2nd in the table, in which the rate
of combustion was equal to the mean of the 26 experiments, but the
evaporation 8-605 lb. per pound of coals, the advantage would have
appeared in favour of the cylindrical boilers with slow combustion.
It would seem, therefore, from these results, either that the propor-
tions of grate and heated surface to the quantity of coals burned per
hour exercise little or no influence on the evaporative economy of a
boiler, or that experience is not yet sufficient to justify any conclusions
on that head. However this may be, the facts here recorded are ex-
tremely valuable, inasnnich as they are the results of long continued
and carefully conducted experiments, of which we are made acquainted
with all the circumstances generally considered necessary to be known.
They seem to indicate that each experiment, in order to be conclusive,
ought to last as long, or nearly so, as all the experiments upon the
cylindrical boilers taken together, and that all the circumstances con-
nected with the management of the flres ought to be closely attended
to, some of which are not observed at all, such as the supply cf air t»
the furnace, and the temperature of the air in the chimney, if they
can be ascertained, even comparatively ; for it is very probable that
these circumstances varied much in the experiments under consider-
ation without its being perceived, and thus caused variations in the
evaporative results, which may be ascribed to other causes. The ex-
periments upon the wagon-head boiler appear, however, to prove very
clearly the great advantage of efficient clothing, since the evaporative
effect of a pound of coals increased invariably with the quantity of
clothing, the advantage of a well clothed boiler over the same boiler
entirely exposed being shown to be equal to 10-8 per cent, which pro-
duces so important a saving of fuel, that the practice of clothing boilers
cannot be too strongly recommended.

We extract the following calculation made by Mr. Wicksteed to
show which kind of boiler is preferable in a commercial point of view.

"One wagon-head boiler evaporated 54-5 cubic feet per hour, and
weighed 7i tons. Four cylindrical boilers evaporated 46-9 cubic feet
per hour (the most rapid evaporation), and weighed 48 tons. If 46*9
cubic feet required 48 tons of boiler, 54-5 cubic feet would require
5oi tons.

£ s. d.
Cylindrical boilers, 654 tons at ^27 - 1498 10 0
Wagon-bead boilers, 7i tons at £27 - 195 15 0

Difference

- 1302 15 0

"Supposing the boilers are worked 365 days, the whole 24 hours,the
coals consumed by the cylindrical will be equal to 1556 tons per annum,
and by the wagon-head boiler 1569 tons, the saving in favour of the
cylindrical boilers is equal to 13 tons of coals, which at 20s. is equal
to 13/. It would be useless to continue the comparison of the com-
mercial merits of the two classes of boilers farther."

From the results of his experiments on the evaporative power of
various coals, the author has formed the following table,

"SHOWIXG THE COMMERCIAL VALUE OF THE COALS.

The price of small Newcastle coals evaporating 7-68 ft. of water per It. of
coals was, in 1S40, I4s. 6d. per ton m the Pool ; this price is taken as a
standard, and the value given is according to the evaporative power of the
different varieties.

The best M'elsh

Anthracite . . . -

The best small Newcastle

Average small Newcastle

Average Welsh ...

Coke from Gas-works

Coke and Newcastle small J and -}

AVelsh and Newcastle, mixed 4 and J -

Derbyshire and small Newcastle, i and i

Average large Newcastle

Derbyshire

Blythe ilain, Northumberland

We have seen that Mr. Wicksteed's experiments upon Cornish and
wagon-head boilers do not establish any certain superiority of either
over the other in evaporative economy, although Mr. Parkes, in his
paper on Steam Boilers and Steam Engines, published in the 3rd
volume of the Transactions of the Institution of Civil Evgineers, states
the Cornish to be superior to the common wagon boiler by as much as
one-third. It is, however, to be remembered that this conclusion is
drawn from experiments of short duration compared to those made by

3 C 2

Water eva-

Vah

le per

porated per

ton in

ft of coals.

the Pool.

9-493

17 s

lid.

9014

17

0

8-524

16

1

8-074

15

H

8-045

15

U

7-908

14

11

7-897

14

lOf

7.805

14

10

7-710

14

6^

7-658

14

5^-

6-772

22

H

6-600

12

5*.'

400

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[November,

Mr. Wicksteed, and consequently not (o be deppnfled upon; never-
theless we cannot but think that a still longer continuance of observa-
tions is necessary to confirm the opinion expressed by Mr. Wicksteed,
that evaporative economy is promoted by more rapid combustion, as
compared to the slow combustion elTected in the Cornish boilers, the
rapidity of combustion being measured by the weight of coals burned
ou each square foot of grate per hour, for we do not consider it fully
borne out even by his own experiments. Nor should we have sup-
posed that the amount of heated surface which would produce the
maximum of evaporation with a given weight of fuel had been sur-
passed, even in the Cornish boilers, which Mr. Wicksteed states to be
proved by his experiments.

With the engines the case is very different: — tlie circumstances
which affect the economv of ittarii are simple and manifest, and their
effects easily ascertained and measured ; for which reason this part of
the investigation is much more satisfactory than the former. But the
dulij or effect produced by the engine with the consumption of a given
quantity of fuel, resulting from the combination of the evaporative
economy of the boiler, and tlie economy of the engine in the expendi-
ture of steam, must necessarily be an uncertain criterion of the excel-
lence of an engine, unless deduced from observations continued through
a considerable length of time, and unless due account be taken at the
same time of the various circumstances affecting the evaporative
economv of the boilers. For this reason the author has adopted the
judicious plan of separating the two sets of causes and effects, by as-
cert.iining, for the boilers, the weight of water evaporated per lb. of
coals, and for the engines, the weight of water used as steam in the
engine to produce the observed effect. By this means he has been
enabled to obtain the relative commercial values, if not of the boilers,
at least of the engines experimented upon.

By an inspection of Table No. VII., which contains the particulars
of the experiments upon the engines, it will be seen that the duty in-
creases progressively with the degree of expansion of the steam in
the cylinder ; also that there is very little difference between the mean
steam pressure on the piston and the mean resistance, that difference
being in favour of the steam pressure, thus proving that there is no
necessity whatever to call in the ptrcusnive force of the steam to assist
its elastic force in overcoming the resistance, according to the new
theory which Mr. Parkes attempted to establish.

It will be remarked, on examining column 27 of this table, that the
mean steam pressure was always found to exceed the mean resistance,
and that the excess increased progressively with the degree of ex-
pansion : but on this point we have one or two observations to
make.

The mean steam pressure, (column 21), is calculated from the
quantity of water in the form of steam used per stroke in the cylinder,
(column 9) ; the quantity of steam remaining in the cylinder from the
preceding stroke when the steam valve is opened (column 12), de-
duced from the pressure of that steam (column 9) ; the space above the
piston upon the shutting of the steam valve (column 15), whence is
deduced the pressure of the steam before expansion (column 16) ; the
proportion of the stroke through which the steam expands, (column
2U) ; and the pressure at the end of the stroke (column 17).

We have to observe with respect to these calculations, that the
pressure of the steam is always supposed to be proportional to its
density, (except in the case of col, 13, where Trcdgold's rule is used
to determine the volume of the steam at boiler pressure generated
from the quantity of water used per stroke) which occasions a slight
error in each of the columns 12, 14, and Hi ; and in col. 17, an average
pressure at the end of the in-door stroke of 6-71b. per square inch is
assumed, but which we find by calculation from the quantity of water
used per stroke, supposing the pressure in column 11 to be correct, to
vary in the five experiments upon the Cornish engine from 8'021b. to
6'Oil, diminishing as the degree of expansion increased. After making
these corrections, as well as a slight alteration in col. 13, from the use
of a different method, we find the mean pressure of steam in the ex-
periments B, C, D, E, and F, = 12-581b., 12-301b., 13-UGlb., 13-331b.,
and 12-8lb., respectively, the mean resistance in all cases being as-
sumed to be 12-941b., the power thus appearing to be sometimes
superior, and sometimes inferior to the resistance, but never differing
from it more than 0-391b., per square inch, which may almost be con-
sidered as a practical equality.

In the experiment H, on the Boulton and Watt engine, the excess of
the steam ))ressure over the resistance becomes greater after the cor-
rections ; but that is evidently to be accounted for by the quantity of
water used per stroke being estimated too highly, fur we find the
pressure at the end of the stroke 12-S31b., (instead of lU-25lb., as given
in the table both for this pressure and that of the steam remaining in
the cylinder before the steam valve is opened), which is no doubt
erroneous. At all events these experiments sutficiently prove the

capability of the Cornish engine to perform the duty it is asserted
to do.

We regret that we cannot give a few more extracts from this
valuable work, which contains several tables that deserve the attentive
perusal of all parties in any way connected with the steam engine,
particularly in a commerckd point of view. To Mr. Wicksteed the
public are greatly indebted for his indefatigable exertions and perse-
verance in carrying out his experiments, and laying the facts open to
all without the sliglitest concealment or mystery.

Lardtier'i Cabinet Cyclopadia — Treatise on Ehctricily, Magnetism, IfC.
Bv Dionvsius Lardner, LL.D. Vol. I. London: Longman & Co.
1S41.

The Cabinet Cyclopsedia has now reached its 130th volume, a su6B-
cient proof of its popularity and its consequent utility. In the present
work Dr. Lardner discusses electricity, magnetism, electro-chemistry,
electro-magnetism, terrestial magnetism, v'v.'c, subjects all of the high-
est interest, and of the greatest importance to the votaries of science
and to practical men. The progress of these sciences is most rajiid,
every day new powers are developed, and new and extraordinary
applications are carried into effect. The mere experimental history
of electricity is important as shadowing out the future, were not the
results already produced sufficient to stamp its value. Under such
circumstances the necessity for a popular digest of the scattered in-
formation on electricity is imperative, and also that it should be exe-
cuted by one who has proved himself competent for the task. In the
next volume Dr. Lardner proposes to conclude the treatise, to record
the latest discoveries, and describe the several practical applications.
We are glad to see the severity with which the Doctor handles M.
Arago for trying to supplant Franklin by a French intruder, as he sub-
sequently attempted to do with regard to Watt, when he received
merited castigation at our hands.

Vitn of the Oiise I'alley F'iaducl on the London and Brighton Railway.

London: Ackerman & Co. 1841.

The great progress of those magnificent public works, the railways,
has led to the publication of numerous engravings devoted to their
illustration. Messrs. Ackerman, who are so successful in the pretty,
seem determined to show their capability for the grand, and they
could scarcely have chosen a better subject than Mr. Rastrick's Ouse
Valley Viaduct.'which steps across the Lowlands with 37 arches of
30 feet span, the highest standing a hundred feet above the water.

Elements of Perspective Draning. By Augustus Deacon. London : Tay-
lor and Walton. 1841.

This work, the designs only of which are by Mr. Deacon, but the
plan of which emanates from a well-known promoter of this branch of
education, is calculated to be highly useful to the student of mechani-
cal drawing. The author grounds his system on the use of a series of
models, to which, however we should object in some cases, as being
too small ; some system, however, is better than the present want of
system.

A Letter to the Shareholders of the Bristol and Exeter Railway. By
W. Gravatt, C.E., F.R.S. London: M'Dowall. 18U.
We really do not see that we can with propriety enter into the
subject matter of this pamphlet, for there has been already so much
unpleasant discussion and recrimination, that we are most unwilling
to have our columns occupied witli a subject so painful, which the
farther it is debated, the more productive of ill-feeling does it
become.

Outline of a system of Model Mapping. By J. Bailey Denton, Sur-
veyor, Gray's Inn Square. London, Weale, 1811.
Mr. Denton's chief object in producing this pamphlet, has been to
call the attention of the agricultural interests to the superiority of
model mapping as a means of delineation, and to its application as a
basis for draining and irrigating operations. The author shows for-
cibly the advantages to be derived not only from a proper collectioa

1841.}

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

401

of the waters on an estate, but from their proper distribution and
application to useful purposes. He also proposes that model mapping
should be resorted to in all designs for the draining of towns. Some
of Mr. Denton's specimens we have seen, and they appear to possess
a minuteness and accuracy of detail, which is calculated to give satis-
faction to those who may avail themselves of this useful art.

THE CALCULATING MACHINE.

There are few efforts of the mind more fatiguing, more irksome, dry and
monotonous, than the drudgery of making long calculations. Tlie fi.xed and
unceasing attention to a subject in itself devoid of interest, when the slightest
intrusion of thought or fancy destroys the work already done, 9nd compels
us to return our weary way, is enough to addie and stupify the brain. No
woniler, then, that, from times immemorial, the ingenuity of man should
havi' been directed to the discovery of some contrivance, whereby this weari-
some labour might be lightened or abridged. Hence the invention of calcu-
latii g instruments and mechanical aids of various kinds. This long-sought
desideratum appears at length to have been obtained ; but before we present to
our readers some accountof the latest attempts of this kind, we will take a rapid
glance at the various endeavours previously made to accomplish the end in
view, and which will place in a more conspicuous light the merits of this new
invention.

The instruments hitherto contrived for assisting or abbreviating calculations
may be classified as follow : —

1. .Such as supersede the mere settmg down of figures, but requires as close
an application of the mind as common arithmetic. To this class belong the
calculating boxes of the Russians and Chinese, where the figures are repre-
sented by balls moved by wires. Even the Romans possessed an instrument
of this kind, called Abacus, in which the figures were indicated by buttons
running in grooves.

2. To another class belong such instruments as are constructed on the fol-
lowing principle, viz. : — Two long slender rules are divided into 100 equal
parts, those parts being numbered from 0 to 100, and are thus used : If, for
instance, it be desired to add 17 to 23, the rules must be so placed that the 0
of one shall be exactly opposite to 17 in the other, then by finding 23 on the
first, you will have below it on the second the number 40 as the result. If,
on the contrary, you wish to subtract one number from another, as 13 from
30, the number 13 on one rule must be brought opposite to 30 on tlie other,
and under the 0 of the former you will find 17, the remainder. Such con-
trivances, being of very limited utility, and partaking more of the character
of toys than of practical inventions, have long since sunk into oblivion. In-
struments on this principle, some square, and others of a circular form, have
been produced by Perrault, in 1720; Poetins, in 1728; Peregre, in 1750;
Prahl, in 1789 ; Gruson. in 1790 ; Guble, in 1799, &c.

3. A third class of instruments for assisting calculators, comprises the
" Virgulae Neperianoe," as likewise the other two works of this celebrated
Scotchman — namely, his MuUiplicationis Proviptuarium, and h\s Abacus Arcatis
in 1617. In his footsteps followed Caspar .Scott, 1620 ; Demeam, 1731 ; Lor-
dan. in 1798 ; Leopold, Pelit, and others.

Equally well known with the foregoing is the calculating scale, so much
used by the English in mechanics, which was invented by Michael Scheffelt,
of Ulm, in 1699.

All the contrivances above enumerated, and others which we pass over in
this brief sketch, do certainly diminish the labour of arithmetical calcula-
tions, more or less, but they all require the attention to be fi.\ed. and do not
completely attain the object sought. Hence the aim of scientific men has
been to invent an automaton, or self-acting instrument, for calculation,
which alone can deserve the name of a calculating machine. The first
attempt of this kind was mjde by B'aise Pascal, in 1640. His machine per-
formed addition and subtraction mechanically: but it was so difficult to work,
and the michanism so imperfect, that it was soon discarded and forgotten.
A similar destiny attended a machine for adding and subtracting, invented
in England by Samuel Moieland. in 1673. His other mathematical instru-
ment is nothing more than an adaptation of Napier's scale to circles for mul-
tiplication and division. The defects and insufficiency of these two inven-
tions of Pascal and Moreland gave rise to subsequent endeavours to improve
them. Lepine in 1725, and llillorin de Boisti.ssandeau m 1730. were not
more successful than their predecessors; nor did Gersten's invention, sub-
mitted to the Royal Society of London in 1735, afford any greater satis-
faction.

In Italy, in 1709, Polenius tried his skill on a machine of this kind, but
produced only a coarse unsightly abortion, encumbered with weights, that
was far inferior to those which had preceded it. In all these cases the aim of
the inventors was only to work addition and subtraction. Leibnitz sought to
extend the operations of an arithmeti al calculator to multiplication and
division. The plan of his machine was submitted to the Royal Society of
London in 1673, and met the approbation of the society. A similar honour
attended it a short time al'tenvards from the Academy of Sciences at Paris.
But, despite the approbation of those celebrated learned bodies, the plan
wliich looked so promising on paper proved impracticable in execudun.
Leibnitz laboured hard during his wdiole life to bring his scheme to perfection,
expended vast sums upon it, ami yet effected nothing. Deaih caried him
oft, and his work remained unfinislie 1 and forgotten. In 1727 Leopold pro-
mised to publish to the world the pLin of a riiachine ihat should perforin
aiddilion, subtraction, and multiplication ; be died, leaving behind him only a
few fragments of his plan. After this it seems that no furiher attempts were
made for a long period, until, in the year 1799, a minister of M'irtemberg,
named llal'n, came forward with a nen machine, wh ch, however, attracted
no attention, as it was lound to commit serious errors in arithmetic : its in-

ternal structure remains unknown, as does also that of a faulty instrumen
presented to the Academy of Sciences in Gottingen, by Muller, 1786.

The machine constructed by Mr Thomas Colmer in 1820, was a retrogade
step in this branch of science.

In the year 1821, Mr. Habbage of London, undertook to construct a ma-
chine for Government, which should by mechanical means form tables of
progression for the use of surveyors. A portion of this machine, forming a
progress'on up to five figures, was complete — 17,000?. had been expended on
it already, and to perfect the entire work would have required twice as much
more ; consequently, in 1833, the project was abandoned, and it is not pro-
Kable that the costly machine will be brought to a perfect state.

The fragment or member alluded to may be seen at the inventor's. Mr.
Babbage is at present occupied with the plan of a machine wliicli is to per-
form mechanically all the operations of algebra. Already he has 30 plans
extant ; every friend of science must heartily wish that the inventor may be
more successful with his new project than he was with the previous one.
\Ve come now to speak of the recent successful attempt belbre alluded to.
For the last two years. Dr. Roth, of Paris, has been engaged in the construc-
tion of arithmetical machines, and the success that has attended his efforts
hitherto, proves he has accomplished his scheme for performing automatically
all the operaiions of arithmetic, from simple addition, subtraction, multipli-
cation, and division, to vulgar and decimal fractions, involution and evolution,
arithmetical and geometrical progression, and the construction of logarithms,
with ten plans of decimals. The machine in its present state works addition,
subtraction, multiplication, and both kinds of progression, quite mechanically,
In division alone the attention is required to avoid passing over the cipher.
The arithmetical progression is of vast importance, as it operates from one
farthing to millions of pounds sterling ; and when we consider the variety
and utility of the functions performed by a small instrument, not more than
a foot wide, and its comparatively insignificant price, we cannot but congra-
tulate the inventor on hi.s decided success in the results hitherto obtained,
and express our cordial wishes that he may meet with every encouragement
to persevere in his highly interesting and important labours.

Mr. Wertheimber, the proprietor and patentee of this invention, has two
descriptions of these machines — a larger one which performs sums in addi-
tion, subtraction, multiplication, and division; and a smaller, which per-
forms addition and subtraction only. These machines have been submitted
to the inspection of several gentlemen eminent for their scientific attain-
ments, all of whom, particularly Mr. Babbage, have expressed the most un-
qualified admiration at their unparalleled ingenuity of construction. Mr.
Wertheimber had the honour of an introduction to the Royal presence, at
Windsor Castle, on Wednesday, the 6th inst., when both Her Majesty and
Prince Albert were graciously pleased to express their approbation of the
machines, and to order two of each sort to be supplied for their use.—
Times.

STEAM NAVIGATION.

A war steamer has been just built and completed for sea at New York for
the Emperor of Russia. She is 2.468 tons burden, and is called the Kamts-
chatka ; on trial it was found that under steam only she made nine knots,
and with the aid of some of her canvass 13 knots an hour ; she has 600 horse
power ; her spar deck is 240 feet in length, on which she has two ten-inch
with two eight-inch hollow shot guns (Paixhans), and 10 36- pounders ; she
is built wholly of American wood and metal, at a cost of 400,000 dollars.

The Cairo, a small iron steamer, belonging to the Oriental and Peninsular
Company, has arrived in our waters, and has, during the week, made several
experimental trips, the result of which has been, that, for speed, she can
beat any of the steam-vessels which ply between this port and the Isle of
Wight very considerably. On Monday last she proceeded hence direct up
the Medina to Newport Quay, to the amazement of those along the river,
who never saw a steamer there before. She did the distance in one hour
and twenty minutes. The engines of the Cairo are complete models ; they
occupy a space of only three feet by six. Hampshire Telegraph.

Improved Feed Apparatus for Steam Boats. — For the purpose of working the
force-pumps to suppply the boilers with water when the engines are stopped,
Messrs. Penn and Son have introduced into the " Father Thames " steamer,
a small engine (about half horse power) occupying a space 15 by 12 inches,
driven by the steam which w ould otherwise be blown oft' from the safety
valve, when the engines are at rest.

The Devastation Steam War Frigate. — This fine vessel which was recently
launched from Woolwich Dock li ard, has been fitted by Messrs. Maudslays
and Field, with their patent double cylinder engine, (drawings and descrip-
tion of w hich are given in the 3rd vol of the Journal, p. 73.) and the appa-
ratus for connecting and disconnecting the paddle-wheel, lately patented by
Mr. Field ; this apparatus is worked with the greatest ease and simplicity.
The power of the two engines is 400 horse, and tlie armament consists of
two 10 inch, and four 32 pounder guns placed on swivels, and revolving on
circular turn plates let into the Hoor of the deck. An experimental trip was
made on Tuesday the 19th ult, when the vessel attained an average speed of
lU miles per hour.

ENGINEERING V^ORKS.

Aberystwith Harbour.— The progress which the works at this harbour have

J '---•' ■ - 1 -- > i,„.i. „,..„„„;,.„ n„,j jatisfactory. The

•ards. Its present

Aberystwith Harbour.— The progress wlucli ttie worlcs at

made during the present year, has been both extensive and satisf.ictory. The
length of the pier having lieen extendeJ ^seaward 41 y ' '

-102

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL

[November,

]en;rth is 261 yards, and it is oxpeclcd by tliis time Iwdvcmonth the retr.rJn-
inf; 39 yards will be comiileled, wliicli will carry out the pier to its intended
length 300 yards. M'c are glad to state ihr.t ?s the pier is extended seaHard,
the depth of water at the entrance is found to increase considerably, the
lieavy weight of the sea being iToken on the seaward side maVcs the inner
harbour to he in a perfectly quiet state during the heaviest seas, and the
most stormy weather. It is now found that as soon as vessels pass the end of
the pier they are in jierfeci safety. No frreater proof can be given of this
than tlie ease and safety with which the grea; American timber laden ships
have jiasise'l in and out during the present season. On .Saturday last his
Grace the Duke of Newcastle and family visited the works, and expressed
themselves highly pleased with the progress made since their Wsit last
autumn. — Carmarthen Journal^ Oct. 1,

~ South Foreland Light.— The original tower, v.bich was amorig the first
erected in England, is now under the process of dom<ilition, being already
almost levelled to the foundation. This tower is said to have been built in
the reign of Charles II., and must consequeiitly, have experienced the de-
vastating influence of time for about a century and a hal;'. The original light
was coals burnt upon the Hat roof of the old tower, which w as supplanted in
1793. when the moilern one was built for 15 oil lamps. There is also a lower
light-house, to enable ihe mariner, in time of dan^r, to keep the two ligh'.s
m a line, and thereby avoid the Goodw in Sands. The object of the Trinity-
house, who purchased the jiroperty of Greenwich Hospital, in taking down
this venerable tower, is to adopt a similar light to the one on the opposite
coast, at Cape Grinez, which is found to answer better and more powerfully
than those already in use. These ameliorations for the safety of lives and
security of property are highly commendable in this body. The height of
Ixith clifiand tower will, it'is supposed, be about 400 feet above the level of
the sea. — Canterbury Journal.

Venlee.—-A. bridge is about to be constructed at Venice, intended to unite
that celebrated city with the Continent, and to connect it »i!h the railway
to Milan. The management of this gigantic undertaking has been delivered
into ihe hands of the engineer Antoine Busetto Pitich. The expense is esti-
mated at 4,830,000 hvres Austrian. The bridge will also contain an aqueduct,
inteniied to supply Venice with fresh water, which has hitherto been supplied
in boats from the'Conlinent, the city being unprovided with wells and foun-
tains, and having but very few cisterns.

The .lllilone Bridge. — This work is progressing wondrously, and the ope-
ration by which the workmen are enabled, with perfect impunity, to proceed
wi'h the excavations now several yards below the bed of the river, is a sub-
ject well worth the attention of the lover of the arts and sciences. By the
simple efficacy of a steam-engine of twelve horse power, two large pumps,
sunk within the area of the excavation, are set in motion; to these is ap-
pended by an air joint a tail nhit^ can be extended to any necessary depth,
the pumps still remaining in their original position. By this process the
accumulating water of springs and leakages, inseparable iiom a work of this
nature, is drawn up and transported to a vast distance, over the heads of the
operatives, through wonien troughs or conduits, into the Shannon ; and thus
an agency superior to ihe principle that causes its irruption, almost constantly
acting upon that element, the men are free from the embarrassment conse-
quent on Its aproaches, and the works are made to progress without any
material impediment. — .ithlone Mirror.

Artesian Wei! at Southampton. — llie works of the Artesian well on the com-
mon are now proceeding very favourably ; the contractors have got to the
depth of 430 feet. Should no untoward accident happen, it is expected the
works will be completed by the beginning of next summer. — Hampshire Tele-
graph.

The Hirer Thames. — The accurate survey of the river Thames, from Staines
to Yantlet-creek, which was undertaken some time ago under Ihe authority
of the corporation of London, has been just completed, The following official
men were engaged in the survey : — Mr. James Walker, the engineer ; Cap-
tain Bullock, R.N.; Mr. Charles Pearson, the city solicitor; Captain Fisher,
R. N., principal harbour-masler of the port of London ; Mr. Nathaniel
Saunders, the watc bailiff; Mr. Stephen Leach, the clerk of the works to
the Thames Navigation Committee ; aud the harbour-masters of the port of
London in their respective staiions. It is believed that the report which will
shortly bo made upon the important subject of the improvement of the
Thames by Mr. Walker and Captain Bullock, will lead to the adoption of a
plan of improvement of inunense magnitude, and calculated to render service
in a great variety of ways.

NE-W CHURCHES, «rc

TRINITY CHURCH, NOTTINGHAM.

On Wednesday. Oct. 13, the interesting ceremony of consecration was per-
formed by the Right Rev. the Lord Bishop of Lincoln, at the New Church
recently erected on Purton Leys, litis building, which has been erected at
an expense of £10.000, is a perfect specimen of architectural excellence; the
simple and chaste appear to have been studied in its planning; and the grace
and beauty of its tall .and tapering spire have seldom been surpassed. It
may not ind ed emulate in grandeur and magnificence the vast piles of ma-
sonry reared by the pit us zeal of our ancestors —

" Where, through Ihe long-drawn aisle ami fretted vault,
The pealing anthem swells the note of praise."
but for elegance of design and beauty of execution it may challenge com-
parison wiih the most admired of modern stiuctures.

The nave is internally 80 feet long, by 54 feet w ide. 30 feet high at the side
walls, and '35 feet C inches high in the centre. It is approached at each

.-ingle through roomy lobbies, or porches ; those at the West end contain the
stair-cases to the galleries. The seats in the church are placed transversely,
and are separated into three divisions, or ranges. The greatest p,-iri of those
in the centre division are uninclosed and free. Those on each side aic in
pews, a few of which remain without division for the accommodation of large
families ; the majority alternately divided, 90 as to form pews of various
din-ensions. to accommodate respectively four, five, or .six persona. The
access to ihe pews, &:c.. is from four aisles, extending the whole length of
the nave, from East to West, and connected with each other at the Kast and
West ends by broad aisles, at right angles.

The galleries are spacious, and extend the whole length of the North and
Si.uth sides, approached from the South-west and North-west entrances.
There are four longitudinal ranges of pews, and a raised commodious seat
against the walls in each gallery. The west gallery has a range of front
pews only ; the remainder is entirely appropriated to children's sittings, and
space for an organ. This gallery has a separate communication from the
outside, throBgn the tower ; and the inconvenience so often experienced in
the departure of the congregation, is entirely obviated by the position, size,
and number of the entrances.

The nave is lighted by five triple lancet windows on each side. At ihe
west end is the tower, 14 feet square, which is opened to the naye by a loify
Gothic arch. The lower part is occupied by open seats, and the font, and
the upper part is divided i:,to ringing room, clock room, &c. Tlie chancel is
at the east end 25 feet wide, and 19 feet deep, and equal in height to the
nave, lighted by a large rose, or wheel window in the centre, and a single
lancet window on each side. An arch, similar to that of the tower, marks
the division between the nave and the chancel. On the right and left are
pews for the minister's fami'y, and the communion is iiicloseJ by a low
Gothic iron railing. Tlie floors of chance! and tower are elevated one step
above the nave, and the communion another step in addition.

On the north side of the chancel is a vestry, communicating vith the lob-
by and chancel ; and a corresponding room on the south is appropriated for
the warming apparatus.

The pulpit, reading desk, and clerk's pew are centrally situated, near the
archway, at the east' end of the nave.— 'Tlie preacher is not only seen by, but
faces the whole congregation, except those occupying the two pews in the
chancel.

The pews have sloping backs, broad seats, and are 2 feet 11 inches wide,
and the whole internal arrangement comprehends those essential requisites
— space, comfort, and convenience ; the absence of which, in modem
churches, is too frequent.

The total accommodation in the church is 1,215 sittings, 415 of which are
free.

The roof is supported by nine strongly framed trusses, alternately resting
upon stone corbels. The inconvenience and unsightliness of horizontal tie
beams fespecially in so wide a span), is avoided, by placing the tie beams
above the wall plate level, and connecting strong principal rafters at the feet
of beams inclin ng upwards to, and abutting upon the tie beam in the centi'e.
This peculiar construction allows the ceiling to assume the same inclination,
which fonn is so conducive to the conveyance of sound, and effectual venti-
lation ; for which latter purpose three large circular ventilators are provided
at the intersection of the principal timbers. The whole of the wood-work of
the roof below the ceiling line, is moulded and painted in imitation of oak ;
and the longitudinal ceiling beams divide the whole into compartments.

The details of the interior are designed with strict regard to durability and
economy ; due care having been taken that the eye be not offended by incon-
gruities of style, Ornament is sparingly introduced, and in those parts only
where it conduces to the general harmony and eflect.

The exterior is cased with stone, and the style of architecture adopted is
that called early English, used in this country during the 13th century. The
sides are divided into five compartments, by substantial weathered buttresses,
canted at the angles, and terminated at the level of parapet by sharply
pointed hoods. Each compartment is filled with a trinle lancet window.
The centre light, higher than the side ones, is 20 feet high. The jambs and
mullions are facet! by the characteristic column, with its base and capital.
The door-ways are deeply recessed with a trefoil over the head, covered by
a pyramidal drip moulding. The staircases at the north and soulh-west
angles an- necessarily higher than the corresponding entrances at the oppo-
site end of the church, but do not attain the same elevation as the flanks, in
order to show as much of the base of the tower as possible ; they are lighted
by single lancet w indows. facing the west. The parapet of the nave and
chancel is supported by a corbel table, and the base is in two divisions, each
terminated by a deep weathered horizontal moulding. The chancel is lofty,
the roof being a continuation of that of the nave. At the east end is a tiebly
composed window ; in the centre of the head is the large wheel before men-
tioned, which alone is glazed (with coloured glass), all the lower part being
blank, to prevent the admission of too strong a glare of light behind the
preacher ; the jambs, mullions, tracery, &c., neing sufliciently recessed to
relieve the plainness of the end. Tlie double rectangular weathered but-
tresses of the chancel are terminated by octangular pinnacles, and the blank
spaces in the gable and sides are relieved by quatre-foils. The tower at the
west end has substantial double buttresses at each angle, and a triple lancet
window of the same dimensions as those in the flanks, which is seen through
the archway from the church. A pointed arched corbel table supports the
string course. Another compartment is formed by a string course at the
level of the ridge of the roof.— From this point upwards is llie clock room,
with a circular space for'dial on every face, and n arked also by a weathered
string course ; at this point the tower is sloped off by weathered angles to
an octagon, and four pinnacles surmount the buttresses. The belfry is lofty,
and each face is pierced by a lancet window, in unison with those before
described. Each angle of the tower is terminated by a pinnacle, and the
parapet is pierced. Above this rises the spire, ribbed at the angles, with
three tiers of openings and hoods. Ihe whole height from tlie ground to the
apex of the spire is 172 feet. Tlie architect is Mr. H. 1. Slevenr, of Derby.—
Nottingham Juornul,

1841.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

403

Risleij Church. — This pictui-esqiie little church, having undergone consider-
able repairs and enlargements, was re-opened for divine service on Sunday, the
3rd of October. Alterations have been effected according to the designs and
under the superintendence of Mr. Stephens, architect, Derby. A capacious
aisle has been erected on the north side, connected with the body of the
church by two gothic arches, capable of accommodating about 120 persons,
of which 61 sittings are free and unappropriated. A beautiful window, re-
presenting the two great apostles. St. Peter and St. Paul, painted by Mr.
VV'arrington, of London, has been placed in the chancel.

The sum of £1,100 has been subscribed by the parishiouersof Tettenhall in
aid of the extensive alterations and repairs which are being made in the
church of that parish.

Woolwirh .—The first stone of the new Scotch church at Woolwich was
laid on the 8th of September, with a very imposing ceremonial, there being
present above 500 of the military members of the church. Colonel Dundas
oflSciated on the occasion. The church is to contain 1000 sittings ; the di-
mensions of the interior in the clear are 76 ft. .3 in. by 51ft. 6 in. It is of
t!>.e Norman style with a spire. The contract for the carcase i%s been taken
l-y Mr. Jay for £1850. Mr. T. L. Donaldson is the architect.

St. Pancras.—A new church is about to be built in Gordon Street, St. Pan-
eras, to contain 1200 sittings. Mr. T. L. Donaldson, the architect, has de-
signed the front in the style of the " Renaissance." It consists of 4 pilasters
raised upon a lofty stylobate. The doors are circular headed, and are between
the outer pilasters on each side, the window being the centre object, divided
in the middle by a column, and circular headed like those of Bramante The
whole is surmounted by a regular entablature, pediment and bell tower. The
committee have accepted Messrs. Haynes' tender to erect the carcase for
£2825.

The Temple Church. — Probably the public may not be generally aware of
the extensive reparations which this ancient building is now undergoing.
The object which the society have in view is the complete restoration of the
church to its former state — to that in which it was originally completed.
The church is a mixture of the Norman and early English styles, and has
generally been considered the best of the few round churches of which this
country can boast. The Ulterior has been completely stripped of all its
former ornaments and monuments, of which those of sufScient value, and
which it is desirable should be retained, are being brought into a state which
will harmonize with the character of the rest of the building. The ceiling
of the choir and side aisles of the church, and particularly of the eastern
portion, which is a fine specimen of early English, was originally painted
and embellished in ornamental work of a very high character. The effect of
this, which can already be partially seen, will be very beautiful and striking.
It may also be in the recnllection of some, that in the large circular tower
next to the entrance of the church were several columns of the Corinthian
order. These from possessing a rather dilapidated appearance, arising from
Ihcir antiquity, will now be restored to the highly polished marble pillars of
the time of the Templars. There are many other parts of the building to
which we could wish to draw attention. The figures of the old Templars
will be preserved, as also those in the porch outside the entrance. The
church has already been closed for about a year and a half, and it is expected
it will take full that time in addition before the work is compl.ted. The
Temple Church will then rank as one of the finest buildings of the metro-
polis, carrying with it, as it does, the respect due to age.

dZSCELIiAKEA.

The Bude Light. — The new system of lighting and ventilating by means of
this improved light was most successfully shown at Christ Church, Albany-
street, Regent's-park, on Sunday, 1st ult.. at the evening service, a more
perfect illumination having been produced by two ornamental lustres (similar
to tliose used in the House of Commons} than by the 72 argand burners pre-
viously used there. The perfect ventilation of the church was likewise
effected by meaes of flues ascending from these lustres through the ceiling
into the open air, which carried oft' all heat, noxious products of combustion,
as well as air vitiated by respiration, so prejudicial to health in close or
crowded apartments. These advantages appear to be peculiar to a light of
this power, as lights of a lesser power must be placed at such distances from
the ceiling, in order to illuminate the lower parts of a room or building, as
would rentier impracticable any attempt to carry ventilating flues from each
light ; independent of which, the glare from a multiplicity of naked lights is
not only oflensive but injurious to the sight. These improvements were ad-
verted to in a very appropriate manner from the pulpit by tlie rector, Mr.
Dodsworth, to whom, as well as to the Hon. Captain Maude, one of tha
churchwardens, much credit is due for their exertions in providing a remed y
for evils of this nature, which had been much complained of in this church-
evils to whicli all unventilated apartments must be more or less liable.

Gigantic Chimney. — A chimney of extraordinary dimensions is being built
at St. Rollox chemical works, and will, when completed, be elevated upwards
of 600 feet above high-water level at the Broomielaw ; it is founded upon a
bed of solid sandstone rock, 20 feet below the surface of the ground ; the
diameter of the outer chimney is 50 feet at the foundation, 40 feet diameter
at the surface of the ground, and will diminish in one unbroken curved line
or " baitr" to a diameter of 14 feet 6 inches, when it will have attained an
altitude of from 420 to 430 feet. The inner chimney is a cylinder of sixteen
feet diameter, rising perpendicularly to a height of 260 feet. This inner
chimney is unconnected with the outer one, but comes very nearly in contact
at its teraiination, allowing only space for the e.\pansion arising from the
temperature. The br,cks used in the work are a compositioa of common
clay and fire-clay, cootaioiug a small portion of iron ore.

New Raiiwai/ Sii^nah. — A rievv system of signals for railroads has been in-
vented by Mr. Hall, the managing director of the Eastern Counties Railroad,
intended to supersede the red and white flags now carried and exhibited by
policemen at certain distances, and which have been sometimes found inade-
quate to the purpose. The new signal, which Mr. Hall calls the '• Panel or
fan signal.'' has, when put in operation, the appearance of an upright post
of about 12 feet high, surmounted by a piece of woodwork resembling in
shape that of a closed fan. Where they both join is a strong iron frame-
In tno upper woodwork three panels are encased, which are worked by ma-
chinery, and when brought down to the iron framework before described, as-
sume the appearance of a crimson quadrant of a span sufficent to be visible
in a straight line for two miles. When a tram is due to start, the three
panels are lowered. As scon as it has started and reached the signal, the
man in charge of it sets in motion a piece of machinery, which grridually
works up the three panels in 15 minutes, and the signal at the end of that
time presents its original appearance. By this arrangement engine-drivers
will be able accurately to calculate the time which has elapsed since a train
has passed ; one panel indicating five minutes, two ten, and three a (juarter
of an hour. The new signal w ill, in a few days, be put in operation on the
Eastern Counties Railway.

Jl'ear of Granite Pavement. — During 17 months, the fcliouingwas the rela-
tive wear of pavement made of the granites named, laid down on the Com-
mercial-road in London: — Guernsey, I'O; Herm (an island close to Guern-
sey), l'I9: Budle (a Northumberland whinstone). 1-316; blue Peterhead,
2 08 ■• Heyton, 2238 ; red Aberdeen, 2 524 ; Dartmoor, 3 285 ; blue Aberdeen,
3'571. These difl'erences are very considerable, and are, in a great measure,
to be attributed to the mineralogical structure of the stone, granite being
comi>osed of at least three species, mica, feldspar, and quartz, of which the
quartz is the hardest and the mica the softest. Permeability to wet is also
a rapid cause of disintegration, especially in conjunction with frost. It is
melancholy to see many of our public edifices rapidly hurrying to decay,
from the bad qualities of the stone employed in their erection. Great atten-
tion should be paid to the qualities of the stone, in selecting railway blocks ;
although the opinion of railway engineers is now most inclined for timber
bearings. Leaving out the question of first and last cost, longitudinal tim-
bers uitii iron cross trees, decidedly make the most pleasant r^ad ; and the
efl'ect of this, not only on the passengers, but the engines and carriages will,
in our opinion, put the ultimate cost on one side. We shall not easily forget
the smoothness of the Great Western Railway, which was so evident as to
admit of no doubt, although, when we went on it, we were much prejudiced
against it, from what we had heard ; our prejudices were soon dispelled. —
Railroad Journal.

Discovery of Ancient Pavement. — In addition to the ancient paintings dis-
covered lately by Mr. Devon, in tiie Chapter-house Record-office, he has
found under the present wooden floor a pavement composed of the ancient
Norman tile, which is characterizid by figures in gold, burnt in brick. The
figures on these tiles are very beautiful and various. Among them are the
arms of England, as borne in the thiiteenth century, when the building was
erected, lions placed back to back, female figures seated on chairs with hanks
on their wrists. David playing on the harp, <Tiusicians playing on the violin,
and various other patterns, making altogether a most magnificent ground-
work. The art of preparing similar tiles has been recovered, and fac-similes
of those in the Chapter-house are now being manufactured in England for
the Temple Church.

Absorbing Wells. — The Council General of the Department of Isere has
voted the sum of 1800 francs for the application of absorbing wells to the
drainage of the numerous ponds and maishes in the neighbourhood of Bour-
goin. The principal engineer of the mines. Gueynard. on whose report the
grant has been made, is to superintend the fii-st cxpenments. Ii, as it is be-
lieved, there lies between the diluvial soil and the turf or peat of these
marshes a stratum of clay, it will only be necessary to penetrate through it
to attain the sand and diluvial gravel, which form the subordinate strata,
and the success of the undertaking will then be placed beyond all doubt.
The drainage of the bogs of Verpilliere, Bourgoin and La Tour du Pin will of
course follow ; and those of Dauphiny, whicli up to this period have been so
unprofitable, will develop a new source of riches for a country which has
hitherto only considered them as a serious inconvenience. Should the ab-
sorbing wells have the success which we anticipate, the turf districts of Bour-
goin will assume, in regard to Lyons and Grenoble, the same importance as
those of Menecy and the department of the Eure have held in relation to
Paris and Rouen. Every one is aware that turf has the property of carboni-
zation like wood. — Courrier de Lyons.

New Locomotive. — M. de Ridder has completed a new locomotive, in which
he has found means to turn to account the quantity of steam which is suflere^i
to escape in other locomotives. The result of this improvement is a great
saving of fuel, besides diminishing the weight. The dimensions of these new
locomotives are such as to hinder the use of them on iron railways. Per-
haps M. de Ridder had in view the realization of his projected railway by
St. Nicholas. However that may be, we have examined attentively this ma-
chinery in all its parts, and it appears to us to be one of the most satisfactory
of the kind hitherto made in Belgium. — Brussels Paper.

China Grass-cloth. — If any person will be at the trouble of cutting a leat
from an aloe plant, which is reared and encouraged as an exotic in this
country, he will, upon close inspection, detect a course of long white fibres,
posse-sing considerable tenacity. These, when taken from the fleshy part
of the leaf, and place<l together by themselves, will exhibit a very beautitul
clean hemp, corresponding precisely with the material of which the linen
called China grass cloth is composed. The aloe grows wild and in great
abunilance throughout China, and the people of that country have lurned it,
as they do everything else, to a profitable account. The flax which consti-
tutes ihe fishing lines known under the name of Indian twist, but which is
in reality a Chinese producimi. is manufactured from the same identical
commodity. There are many Chinese inventions, at present retained as a

404

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

'November,

monopoly by the above jieople. which are easily cipabU' of being arrived at
iiy those of oiher countries, if proper attention anJ a very moderate iliare of
curiosity were besloued upon the subject.

United Stales Bank Building. — The extinction of the United States Hank
leaves that magnificent edifice in the hands of the assignees, as a part of its
available proivrlv. To what use ii '.sill now revert, is matter of conjecture.
This splendid pile was commenced in 1819. Itwr.s five years in biiililing.
Ttie original oipense was .WO. 000 dollars, but when the (dd Bank charter e.\-
pired. it was .'.okl to the present institution for 300,000 dollars. The building
IS purely of while marble, and both inside and out scarcely any wtod is to be
seen. From Chestnut-stieet the bank is reached by a lofty llight of marble
steps. It prestnts a splendid front of 80 feet in width, w iih eiybt Doric
columns, four feet si.\ inches in diameter, and 27 feet high. The building is
161 feet long, and the porticoes at e.ach end correspond. F!oth internally
and externally the style and fini.sh are equally massive and beautiful. The
principal b.anking room is 48 feet wide and 61 feet long, with an arched ceil-
ing, supported by rows of marble columns. Aside from this, there area
mnllilude of apartments, for the use of the diflierent officers and directors, as
well as for engravers and copperplate printers. It is admired for its beautiful
proportions, as well as for its imposing size and classic architecture. — Times.

EXTRA HIGH TiDi:S OF THE RIVER THAME.S.

The following tible shows the lieights of extraordinary high tides for the
last 20 years, by which it will be seen that the unusual high tide of the 18th
tilt, was the highest : —

ft. in. ft. in.

1P21 Dec. 28 . 27 IJ . 2 lOJ

1824 . Dec. 23 . 27 3 . 3 0

1827 . Nov. 21 . 27 5} . 3 21

1834 . Jan. 29 . 27 2 . 2 11

1836 . May 2 . 26 10 .27

1841 . Oct. 18 . k7 7 . 3 5

The total heights are those of the rise of tide above the sill of the Black-
wall entrance to the West India Docks, w hich is 24 feet 3 below H. W. Trinity
standard, and 6 feet 5 inches below L. W. of the same standard. The other
column shows the rise of tides above zero, or Trinity High Water Mark.

Thames Tunnel. — Considerable fears were entertained during the late flood,
that this great work would have filled with water, the top of the shaft at
Wapping being only three feet above the level of the surrounding ground-
fortunately the water subsided without in this case doing any damage. The
shaft on the Wapping side is already sunk to the level of the excavation,
under the bed of the river, of which only seven feet and a half remain to
form the junction, so that in about another month the Tunnel itself will be
completed.

Plate Glass. — This article is of late being introduced for purposes some time
back little thought of, it is now manufactured as thick as | of an inch, and is
used unpolished in floors where a light is rcijuired to be thrown down on a
story below, even as a substitute for coal plates we have seen it used, when
the top surface is ground.

Carpenters' Mrillit. — An improvement has been introduced by encasing the
mallet with a ferule or case ol iron 5 to | of an inch thick with the wooden
ends protruding, thus a small mallet :.bout 3 by 2 inches on the end is equa
in weight to the largest size mallet made entirely of wood.

A Steamer launched at Canada.— On the 13th of September, a splendid new
Goveniment steamer, constructed by Mr. J. Tucker. A<!miralty Architect.
was launcbed from the building yard of Messrs. Millar, Edinonstone, and
Allen, at Montreal. The day selected for the launch was the anniversary of
Wolfe's \ictory. The length of the Sydenham between perpendiculars is 170
feet, the breadth 27 feet, and the depth of hold 16 feet 9 inches. .She is to
carry two 68-pfcunder guns, and be propelled by two engines of 110-horse
power each. On examining the vessel after the launch, it was found she bad
only settled one-eighth of an inch, a result highly flattering to the skill and
talent of the architect.

LIST OF ViEW FATSNTS.

GRANTED IN ENGLAND FROM 24tH SEPTEMBER, TO 28TH OCTOBER, 1841,

Six Months allowed for Enrolment.

Jean Louis Alphonse 1'etigars, of Brewer-street, Golden-square, gen-
tleman, for " improvements in the construction of presses." (Being a com-
munication.)— Sealed September 24.

Hugh Lee 1'attinson, of Bensham Grove, Gateshead, Durham, manu-
facturing chemist, for " improvements in the manufacture of white lead, part
of which improvements are applicable to the mumifacture of magnesia and its
salts." — September 24.

Frederick Brown, of Linton, Bedford, ironmonger, for " improvements
in stoves or fire-places." — September 24.

Theodore Frederick Strong, of Goswell-road, engineer, for " certain
improvements in locks and latches." — September 28.

Samuel Stocker, of Barford-street, Islington, engineer, and George
Stocker, of Birmingham, cock-founder, for " improvements in machinery
and apparatus for raising, forcing, conveying, and draicing off liquids." —
September 28.

John White, of Burtou-in-the-Wolds, Leicester, farmer, for "an im-
proved horse hoe, for ttse in agrictillural pursuits." — September 29 ; four
mouths.

Joseph Miller, of Monastery Cottage, East India Road, engineer, for
" an improved arrangemetit and cnmbination of certain parts of steam engines,
used for steam navigation." — September 29.

Edward Welch, of Liverpool, architect, for " certain improoements in
the construction of liriclcs." — September 30.

M'lLLiAM lIiRsT and Jos^Ei'H Weight, of Leeds, in the county of York,
clothiers, for " certain improrements in the machinery for manufacturing
troollen cloth, and cloth made from u-ool and other materials." — October 7.

Tiio.MAS Wells Ingr.\m, of Birmingham, manufacturer, for ** nnprove-
meats in shears, and other apparatus for catling, cropping, and shear-ng cer-
tain substances, — parts of which said invention being a i omrnnnicat ion from
a foreigner, residing abroad." — October 7.

Joseph Clisild D.>niell, of Tiverton Mills, Bath, for " improeementt in
the manufacture of manure, or a composition to be used on land as a manure."
October 7.

.MATTHi.\i Nicolas La Roche Barre, of St. Martin's-lane, Middlesex,
manufacture^f cotton, for *' ah improvement in the manufacture of a fabric^
applicable to sails and other purposes." — October 7.

Marcus Davis, of New Bond-street, optician, for " improvements in the
means of ascertaining the distances vehicles travel." — October 7.

Thomas Biggs, of Leicester, merchant, for " improvements in securing
hats, caps, and bonnets, from being lost by the effectfof unnd or oth( r causes,"
— October 7.

Benj.vmin .\ingwortii, of Birmingham, gentleman, for '• improvement!
in the manufacture of buttons." — October 7.

John Jo.ves, of Smethwich, Birmingham, engineer, for " certain im-
provements in steam engines, and in the modes or methods of obiaining power
from the nse of steam." — October 7.

John Harwood, of Great Portland-street, gentleman, for " an improved
7neans of giving erpansion to the chest." — October 7.

William Newton, of the Office for Patents, 66, Chancery-lane, civil en-
gineer, for " certain improvements in engines to be woried by gas, vapour, or
steam." (Being a communication.) — October 14.

Moses Poole, of Lincoln's Inn, gentleman, for " improvements in fire-
arms." (Being a communication.)— October 14.

Edward Massey, of King-street, Clerkenwell, watchmaker, for " im-
provements in watches." — October 14.

Henry Ross, of Leicester, worsted manufacturer, for " improvements in
combing and drawing wool, and certain descriptions of hair." — October 15.

Junius Smith, of Fen-court, Fenchurch-street, gentleman, for " improve-
ments in 7nachinerg for manufacturing clothe of wool and other fibrous sub-
stances." (Being a communication.) — October 20.

John Bradford Furnival, of Street-.\shton, farmer, for " improve-
ments in evaporating fluids, applicable to the manufacture ofsalt,aad to
other purposes where evaporation of fluids is required." — October 20.

Henry D.wies, of Birmingham, engineer, for " certain improved tools or
apparatuses for cutting or shaping metals and other substances." — October
21.

Thomas Jo.ves, of Varteg Forge, near Pontypool, Monmonth, engineer,
for "improvements in the construction and arrangement of certain parts of
marine and stationary steam engines." — October 21.

James Whitwokth, of Bury, in the county of Lancaster, manufacturer,
and Hugh Booth, of the same place, machine maker, for " certain improve-
ments in looms for weaving." — October 21.

Martyx John Roberts, of Brynycairan, Carmarthen, gentleman, and
William Brown, of Glasgow, merchant, for "improvements in the process
of dyeing various matters, whether the raw material of wool, silk,fla.T, hemp,
cotton, or other similar fibrous substances ; or the same substances in ang
stage of manufacture ; and in the preparation of pigments or painters'
colours." — October 26.

Thomas Holcroft, of Nassau-street, Middlesex, gentleman, for an " im-
proved portable safely boat or pontoon." — October 28.

TO CORRESPONDENTS.

.-/h .irehitect accuses us of discontinuiyig to give the particulars and amount of
contracts of New Churches and Public Buildings ; we can assure him and the Pro-
fession generally, that we hare every disposition to insert any aunounciment that
may be sent us, but we fnd the architects so backward in forwarding the particu-
lars required, that it is impossible for us to give the information, although wc are
most desirous to do so.

Wc have received another communication on Competition, requesting us to an-
nounce the amount of contracts of those Buildings tvhiclt far exceed the limited
auiount of the conditions of Competition ; ice are not in possession of them, but if
any information he forwarded us on the subject, wc sliall he happy to announce it.

The next number will conclude the fourth volume.

Communications are requested to be addressed to ** Tiie Editor of the Civil
Engineer and Architect's Journal," No. 11, Parliament Sine/, H'estminster.

Books for lievicw must he sent early in the month, communications on or before
the 20th (if with drawings, larlicr), and advertisements on or before the 25<A
instant.

Vols. I, II, and III, may be had, bound in cloth, price £\ each Volume.

LONDON & BIRMINGHAM KAILWAY. SELF-ACTINO CHOCK

1 , 11 1

El

El

a.

¥

FLA N

f
FI G 1.

SCALE TO FIGS 12*5

JOL

SECTION A.B.rUV, 2.

SfM*

f

^

"A

FIO. 4 .

J

}

(

J

\

Enlarged Elevation of Cho^u- e

F I C. . 5 ,

/

/

/

/

vz_

SCA'LE TO FIGS 4 * o

Jwchs ;2

Enlarged Elevation of Chair f

Pl^AN SHEWING TOSITTON OF CHOCK

^tiiJb'^K Z6ver3oj>

Chook 1 <i,v t7' £ 0 x/

J R Jo^hiu^ .'iM

1841.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

405

LONDON AND BIRMINGHAM RAILWAY.

Self-acting Chocks.
With an Engraving, Plate IX.

The object of these chocks is to prevent carriages or other vehicles
from being blown out of the sidings on to the main lines of railway,
or from their being pushed out by inattention or carelessness, the con-
sequences of which, especially during the night, have frequently been
collisions of a more or less serious nature.

The chock (a) (forged out of a piece of railway bar) is placed upon
one of the rails of the riding; the end next the switches, is turned
back to the centre (6) from which it moves, the other end is formed
to receive the periphery of the wheel, a balance weight contained in
the box (c) is attached to the chock, and so hung as to retain it upon
the rail; by means of the lever (d) the chock can be withdrawn from
the rail, the chair (e) carries the centre pin (6), and the chair (/)
supports the chock when withdrawn from the rail. It is obvious that
the wheels of a carriage, when pushed into a siding, will open the
chock by pressing against its inner surface, and that when the wheels
have passed, that the balance weight will return the chock upon the
rail, and that no carriage can pass from the siding tc the main lines
until the chock is withdrawn by the handle (d).

These chocks have been in use upon the London and Birmingham
Railway upwards of 10 months, and are found to answer the purpose
intended.

R. B. D.

KARL FRIEDRICH SCHINKEL.

In this eminent individual, who died at Berlin on the 10th of October
last, in his Gist year, architecture has lost one of its ablest professors
and greatest ornaments — an artist of whom Germany may justly be
proud, and who was well entitled to the splendid funereal honours paid
to him in the capital he had adorned with so many noble monuments
of his taste and genius.

It was, we believe, the Foreign Quarterly Review, which first of all
made the name of Schinkcl known in this country, by calling attention
to some of the principal works he had then executed, and speaking of
them in terms of commendation, which, strange to say, so excited the
wrath of Mr. Joseph Gwilt, that he thought proper — not at that time but
a year or two afterwards, to attack the article in that periodical, and
attempt to write down Schinkel. With that extraordinarv exception,
all that we have ever read or heard concerning Schinkel and his
works, has been uniformly expressive of admiration. In fact, many of
our readers, at least so we are willing to believe, must be well ac-
quainted with his "Entwiirfe" or published designs, for they ought to
be in the library of every architect who can atFord to purchase them.*
He has been characterized as being the poet of architecture, who, in-
stead of merely transcribing and copying the Greeks, has shown him-
self imbued with a kindred feeling, and has expressed himself as they
would have done under similar circumstances.

Without pledging ourselves to admiration of all he has done — cer-
tainly not as regards his designs in the Gothic style — we scruple not
to afhrm that many valuable novel ideas and motives are to be met
with in his works, although not to the extent that might have been, for
he has repeated himself too frequently in many features, especially his
doors, which are nearly on every occasion alike. However, reserving
criticism of this kind for some other opportunity, when we may pro-
bably enter into description of some of the structures erected by him,
we shall at present confine ourselves to such a biographical notice of
Schinkel himself as we have the means of collecting from the sources
just now at hand.

Karl Friedrich Schinkel was born at Neuruppin, where his father
was "Superintendent," March 13th, 17S1. By the death of that
parent in 1787, he was left totally dependent upon his mother, who
placed him in the Gymnasium or public school of his native town until

' Such, however, is certahily not the case, for we know of one who bor-
rowed them of a bookseller, under the pretence of keeping them if appruveJ
of, and then ordered him to send for them again, when it »as discovered by
marks left on it, that he had copied one of the plates for some particular
purpose, on ■v\hich accovmt he had just then occasion for the \\ork. Hon ever
as the poor devil alluded to makes only a few thousands a year by his prac-
tice, it is not much to be wondered at that he should be obliged to borrow
books of the kind_. instead of purohtsing th?m. Another reason for the
miserable creature's not keeping .SchinkeTs works might be that they re-
ruach h's own for the want ut every merit the German architect displays.

No. 51.— Vol. IV.— December, 1841.

the age of 11, wlien the family removed to Berlin. Having manifested
a decided taste for drawing and designing, lie there became a pupil
of the elder (Villy, the architect, and afterwards of the son. Professor
Gilly, to whose instructions he was in no small degree indebted for
the liberal views he afterwards entertained of his art, as one attbrding
scope for the exercise of invention, fancy and taste. The younger
Gilly, however, died within about two years, and the completion of
several buildings was in consequence entrusted to Schinkel. Not
long after this period, he began to apjdy himself more to designing
and to the study of architectural composition ; also to making de-
signs for vases, bronze work, ornamental furniture, and ether things of
the kind, wherein he could display taste, and which, although they
do not exactly belong to the province of the architect, as it is usually
defined, are not at all more alien from it than some others presumed
to belong to his professional pursuits, notwithstanding that they have
no connexion with art, and but very remotely with practical building.

At length he determined upon visiting Italy, and set out for that
country in the spring of 1808, taking his route through Dresden,
Prague, Vienna, and Trieste. After exainining the antiquities of
Istria, he passed over to Venice, thence proceeded to Florence and
Rome, and in the following year to Naples and Sicily, returning through
France, and reaching Berlin after an absence of two years. At that
period the state of public affairs in Prussia was exceedingly unpro-
pitious to his prospects in his profession, more especially in that
higher department of it to which he aspired ; and he therefore devoted
himself for a while to landscape painting — partly views of some of
the places he had visited, and partly original compositions, which he
generally made the vehicle of his architectural ideas, introducing into
them studies and designs of his own. These productions earned for
Inm no small reputation, and by so doing they probably opened for
him the career in which he subsequently obtained such universal
celebrity. On the return of the royal family, he was commissioned to
make designs for some alterations in the palace, and in IS 10 was ap-
painted «ss<;osor of the Baadcputalion or Board of Works and Build-
ings, his duty being to give his advice upon matters of taste.

At the time of the Allied Sovereigns being in this country, he re-
ceived an order from the King of Prussia to prepare designs for a
Cathedral to be erected in the capital as a testimonial in honour of
the military acliievements so felicitously terminated. But although
all the plans and drawings for this Prachl-baa were finished, it was
considered more advisable to postpone the work itself indefinitely to
some future opportunity.

Nevertheless, though he was doomed to disappointment in regard
to the execution of that magnificent project, the restoration of peace
was the epoch from which Schinkel's career as an architect may be
dated. It was at that period his talents were first called into play,
and important opportunities afforded them, almost uninterruptedly,
for a series of years, during which he not only erected most of tlie
finest of the public structures wdiich now grace the capital of Prussia,
but also many at Potsdam and various other places, besides numerous
others for private individuals. To Schinkel, it has been observed,
Berlin is indebted for a new physiognomy, one that imparts to it an
original and peculiar character; and certainly his works, even the
least successful of them give evidence of genialitv, and of an inventive
mind, less scrupulous as to following established precedents, than am-
bitious of forming precedents for others, and of extending the limits
of the art. Among the earliest and certainly not the least successful
of his works in the capital are the large Theatre, the Wachtgebaude,
and the Museum. To these succeeded the Werder Church, Bauschule,
Observatory, &c. &c. Of the buildings here mentioned, together with
a great many others, the designs are given in his "Eutwiirfe;" and
many of them are illustrated more copiously than is usual in works of
the kind, not only by sections and plates of detail, but bv perspective
views both exterior and interior. The plates themselves are all iu
outline, nothing being shaded except the grcuud plans and solid parts
of the sections, therefore those in perspective do not fully express the
effect of the buildings themselves. All of them are beautifully drawn,
— perhaps too delicately, for they certainly do not possess that vigour
and spirit which are so captivating in someof tlie French architectural
works all trait. The publication itself, however, has extended Schinkel's
influence as well as hi.s reputation, and has almost given rise to a new
school of the art in Germany. Among his immedi.de pupils may be
named, Sttiler, Knoblauch, Biirde, Menzel, Geisler, Strack, besides
many others of rising talent in their profession. Among .Schinkel's
other publications is one consisting of a series of designs for furniture
(Miibel-entwiirfe), and "Entwiirfe der Holicren B.mkuust," containing
designs for the new royal palace, on the Acropolis, at Athens, for
which, however, another site was chosen, and G.irlner of Munich ap-
pointed the architect.

3 H

40C

THE CIVIL ENCINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

'"December,

AN ARCHITECTURAL NOTE FROM PARIS.
By Geokge Godwin, Jux., F.R.S., &c.

If the same spirit which now seems to pervade all classes of the
population there should cotiiinue to prevail, Paris will speedily become
the most elegant city in the whole world. Nevi- qtiartkrs are being
built, old houses razed to the ground, fresh streets opened ; her an-
cient glories protected and restored, the modern public monuments
long in progress, completed with magnificence quite regardless of ex-
pense. No person wlio visits Paris with his eyes and ears open, can
fail to observe how nuicli more general are a knowledge and love of
art there than in England, — how much more interest all matters con-
nected v.ilh it appear to excite, how much move competent to judge in
it the majority of persons are, and consequently how much reason there
is that its jjrofessors should become numerous and eminent. The re-
sult of the free admission of the peo))le to national monuments and
■works of fine art, and of the liberal encouragement afforded by the go-
vernment to the arts of design, is becoming more evident every day,
and is seen to be in most respects good. .Something more than this it
is true, is necessary to ensure the perfect happiness and well-being of
a state, but with this just now the writer has nothing to do : he alludes
to it simply to prevent any from supposing that he considers the en-
couragement of the fine arts the only one thing necessary, and to an-
swer ill some degree a remark which might be, in fact which lias been
made, namely, that as France is not more tranquil and prosperous,
politically, than we are, this cultivation of the arts has been of little
service, and is therefore not greatly to be desired. Depend upon it
if it were not for this, France with her myriad population, — fermenting,
imeraployed, would be in a much worse state than she now is. Love
of the fine arts amongst the people generally, is one of the anchors by
which the stability of a state may be ensured.

Hardly a house is now erected, even in the back streets of inferior
localities, without liighly enriched dressings for the doors and windows,
balconies of which the soffits are sculptured, cornices richly decorated.
The pediments over windows are filled with foliage, every moulding
is enriched; and figures and heads fin most cases etfectively, and in
many instances beautifully sculptured), ornament the piers, or the
spandrells of arches. Ironwork of elaborate design fills the lower
part of the window openings from the top of the building to the bot-
tom, and this being partially gilded, aids materially the general eflect.
The Citi'da 7/a//£??s, a building near the Boulevard des Italiens, designed
by the brothers Kaufman, (the eldest of whom died prematurely), may
be cited as a good example. The window dressings are exceedingly
elegant, the general arrangement excellent, in fact as a whole it quite
puts to shame any specimen of street architecture of which we can
boast. The interior court displays much richness of fancy. The
cafe adjoining this building and fronting on the Boulevard, is another
instance, and presents a series of elaborately sculptured adornments
over the whole of its two fronts. The frieze above the ground floor is
especially worthy of examination. On the Boulevard Bonne-Nouvelle ;
in the new quarter towards the north, near the church of Notre Dame
de Lorette ; in the neighbourhood of the Madeleine ; indeed in nearly
every part of the city, other buiidirgs might be instanced. Stone being
used universally as the staple building material, tlie houses as all know,
have an aspect of substantiality and permanence not to be attained
■with our 14 inch brick walls and conipo adornments. The stone gene-
rally employed does not take a good face, being full of shell-holes and
cavities, but nevertheless is of nice colour and seems to endure
tolerably well. It is found necessary however, to protect from the
■weather the tops of walls and the upper surface of large projections,
such as cornices, for which purpose sheet lead is emjiloyed.

With regard to the execution of the sculpture spoken of, one cannot
but be surjirized at the number of workmen in Paris, for the most part
very young, who are found com|)etcnt for if. They form a class
which we have not, but much want in England, coming between the
mere stone cutter and the professed sculjitor, — the first of whom can-
not execute this description of work, and the latter may not. Our
schools of design when made numerous will perhaps supply this de-
sideratiun, hut that which would perhaps be even more eltbctive in
producing the class of artists alluded (o, is a greater demand for this
description of talent on the part (jf the public. Did we require here
to cover a house with foliage and figures of stone, we should have to
make search for half a dozen men capable of performing it satisfac-
torily, whereas in Paris there are scores, it nught almost be said hun-
dreds, judging from appearances, who could be found to execute it
efltjctively. Jn the article Car/on j'Xrre, to illustrate the point a little
further, it is found that designs sent from England may be modelled in
Paris, worked in this material and relumed to us, at less cost than the

same designs can be executed here in an inferior manner, chiefly be-
cause of the scarcity of eflicient hands.

Now we must not infer from the above tliat there is anv want of
ability, or any natural inferiority on the part of our ceuntrvraen, ex-
perience proves the contrary triumphantly ; it results there can be no
doubt from the little attention paid to the arts of design in the educa-
tion of our operatives, the want of opportunity to study beautiful
forms and to raise their standard of taste by the contemplation of
works of fine art, as well as from the limited nature of the demand for
artistical productions, — this latter being in part a result of the opera-
tion of the two former causes amongst other classes of societv. lam
glad to find Mr. W. Dyce, the excellent superintendent of the Go-
vernment School of Design, alluded to this subject in his evidence
given before the last Select Committee on the Fine Arts. Mr. Dyce
said with respect to the effect the decoration of the new Houses of
Parli'ament would have on the arts of design for manufactures, "we
want a middle class of artists ; we have only at present artists of the
highest sort, those who paint pictures, and of the lowest, who make
patterns of the worst description for manuf ictures ; we want a middle
class, who have the knowledge of artists, and the skill of ornamentists."
And again, " I should say the same thing with regard to sculptured
ornaments as I have said with regard to painted ornaments, that we
want a middle class of artists, — a class of artists who could execute
such statues as those in Henry the Seventh's Chapel, which are not
good enough to be the work of first-rate sculptors, but still are suffi-
ciently good for the purpose."

To return to the mode of building in Paris, it will be observed by
every one that plain squared masses of stone are alone put up in the
first case, and that all the ornamental parts are worked out of them
after the erection is finished, beginning at the top and making all per-
fect as they go down. When a very hard stone is not used this method
seems to have several advantages: injury to delicate parts during the
progress of the work is avoided, and furthermore the effect of a deco-
ration in its position can be judged of when first commenced, and al-
tered if need be.

Many of the doorways in recently finished hotels are exceedingly
elegant. In some cases the upper panels contain glass protected by
elaborate ironwork of beautiful designs.

M. Hittorff to whom was confided the completion of that rcndeZ'
rous of monuments, the Place de la Concorde, after the erection there
of the Luxor obelisk, has constructed a theatre for the exhibition of
horsemanship in the Champs Elysees, and called the Cirque Js'alional,
which is perhaps the most striking thing of its kind ever seen. The
plan is a polygon with a portico on one side adorned with sculptured
figures and enriched mouldings. Colours are successfully employed,
here in external embellishment of the architectural members, being so
far as my own knowledge extends, the only instance of their use on
a stone building in France or England.-'" The building is of large size,
and would probably contain several thousand persons. The seats,
much elevated one above the other, extend all round the theatre, the
arena being in the centre, and the horses and performers entering by
two openings on the ground level. When filled with spectators the
upper part presenting vast unbroken circles of them, the efti?ct is very
striking. The roof, which together with the rest of the interior is a
mass of ornamental painting and gilding, is supported on sixteen very
light columns (of iron) and arches.

Amongst the most important restorations going on are those of the
Hold de V>lk, (designed nearly at the commencement of the IGtli
century and completed at its close,) and of the Sainle Chaptlie adjoin-
ing the Palais de Justice. At the former, which is a curious and
valuable specimen of the Renais^avce period, the style whereof in its
purer shape, is now literally the ragt in Paris, considerable additions
as well as restorations are being made at a great expense. At the
Sauilc ChuijiUe where every one knows there is some most excellent
stained glass, the whole of the interior having been originally painted
and gilt, is being restored. In order that it may be made a perfect
work, the municipal council have voted the sum of 4,000/. annually, to
be paid, it is said, so long as the architect may require it for this pur-
pose! The fact that in the interior of nearly all churches in the mid-
dle ages, colours and gilding were employed systematically to aid the
architectural effect, has been but recently arrived at with certainty
either there or in our own country: now however, scarcely a week
passes without fresh discoveries in confirmation of its truth. In much
earlier times the same aid was resorted to, as is proved by the build-

" M. ll.tlorH. it will I.e rememberoii, «as llie first siriler. supimrlal by dis-
jointed remarks on ihc sulijict by previous travellers, wIki buldly asserted
thai llie tirteks systematically adopted polychriiniailc dccuralioii in their
buildings. Sec liii paper '■ Z)c /V/«/jiV(T/Kr( Poh/rlnmne ties Grecs," a's^) his
flue work on Sicily li required no ordinary degree of r.erve to m-akc, at
ihat time, such a s.atemenl.

1841.1

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL,

407

ings of Egppt, Etruria, Greece, Byzantium,* and Pompeii. The
painted decorations of our own churches were all coloured over or other-
wise obliterated at the Reformation, (when sculpture, stained glassy
and many monumental brasses were also destroyed,) and the whitewash
of the churcdiwarden has served each year since to reader the dis-
covery of them more difficult. The spirit of restoration which now
prevails in many quarters, has brought numerous instances to
light, as in the Temple church in our own metropolis, to which as its
renovation has been commenced, we may soon hope to refer as an ex-
ample.

At the Cathedral of St. Denis, near Paris, (the stone work of which
has been entirely restored,) traces of colour on the various architec-
tural members were found almost universally. The chapels and aisle
of the choir are consequently again adorned with colours, gilding and
arabesques. The coluunis are covered with leaves, foliage and shields,
the capitals being gilt : the vaultings are blue with silver stars upon
them in some parts, and in others trefoils and quatrefoils in red and
gold. Wherever it was practicable, it is said, they adopted the ori-
ginal painting as a guide, but this does not seem to have been the
case very generally.t The large rose window in the north transept
has been filled with stained glass from the establishment at Choisy le
Roi, and other windows for the cathedral are in progress of execution
at the same place. In the south transept one window is nearly com-
pleted, and presents a very indiiferent design commemorative of a
visit to St. Denis by the present king.

For the church of St. Gervais in Paris, where considerable restora-
tions are in progress, two very excellent stained glass windows are in
progress at the Choisy works. While speaking of restorations it may
be mentioned that the cathedral of Notre Dame is about to undergo
a thorough repair and renewal. 51. H. Godde is the architect to whom
the honourable task is entrusted.

The interior decorations of the Madeleine are making progress, but
are still far from being complete. The ceiling, which forms three
domes, is a mass of gilding, the flowers in the panelling being simply
backed with blue colour. The capitals of the columns and the face of
the tinted shafts are gilt, as is also the entablature. The sculptured
frieze presents some slight colourings successfully introduced. Coloured
marbles are profusely employed iu the lower part of the church, (as,
it may be mentioned, is the case in most of the modern French build-
ings,) and in the absis ; — the pavement is entirely of marble, and the
whole of the decorations of the most costly kind. Painting and sculp-
ture in their highest walks are called in to aid the general effect.
Several fine statues in marble are already in their places, and others
are in preparation. The semicircular portions of wall above the en-
tablature, enclosed by the pendenfives of the domes are appointed to
receive large paintings, indeed many of them are finished, and most of
them commenced. The mode adopted is that termed in France paint-
ing a la cire, and by us, encaustic painting: — a preparation of wax and
certain colourless resins kept in a state of fluidity by volatile oils, are
employed as the medium for the colours on heated walls. JI. Monta-
bert, author of a work entitled Traili- complet de la Peinture, was the
first writer who made known to the moderns this very ancient mode
of painting, and he himself executed many pictures in this way twenty
or five and twenty years ago, the whole of which continue, it is said,
without the slightest alteration. In France a veiy strong impression
exists in favour of its great superiority over Fresco, and as at this
moment (when the manner of decorating the new Houses of Parliament
excites so much interest, and is ready of so much importance to the
progress of the arts,) it is desirable that we should obtain all the in-
formation in our reach on the subject, so that the best mode may be
employed, I propose ofleriug hereafter a few detailed remarks on the
subject. Besides the Madeleine, Notre Dame de Lorette, St. Denis

' Some time since il. Didron, the distinguished French antiquary, obtained
from the monks at Mount Athos a very curious M.S., relative to painting
Byzantine churches. It is wrtteu in Greek, consists of about 350 pages, and
is divided into three parts : the tirst treating of the mode of preparing the
colours and the ground work for frescoS: tlie second describing the liistorical
and allegorical subjects which may be represented, the attitude, costume, Ssc,
and the Ihird, the particular parts of the building appropriated to difier,:nt
figures. The text is ascribed to the IX. century, but this particular copy is
somewhat later. A translation of it lias been made, and will shortly be
printed.

T No person interested in the preservation of specimens of ancient art, can
go through St. Denis, and intact through iew buildings in Paris, without
leeling how much gratitude is due to the memory of M. Alexandre Lenoir,
T\ho succeeded in rescuing from destruction during the Revolution, many
magnificent monuments of the middle ages, and preserving them until quieter
times, irlis son, M. Albert Leuoir, one of the government architects, and a
man of great talent and zeal, is now engaged on a fine work for t!ie ■■ Comite
HUtoriquc" entitled Statistique Monumentale de Paris, which his father's
collections will enable him to complete most efficiently.

au Marais. the Ch.'deau of Fontainebleau, &c., contain specimens of
this method of painting.

Mentioning Notre Dame de Lorette, I cannot avoid pointing it out
as an extraordinary instance of the application of the decorative arts
to church architecture, although it is now perhaps well known to all.
Large pictures fill the clerestory and the sides of the chapels, figures,
symbols, arabesques, and Latin texts on gold or other grounds, cover
every inch of wall, the Ionic columns which support tlie ceiling are
apparently covered with composition or varnish of a cream colour with
a high polish, the ceiling of the nave is formed into panels, each con-
taining an ornate flower, and is adorned with colours and gilding, —
chocolate, blue, and white, predominating. The choir is terminated
with a dome, the ndiole of which is painted. The cost of this extra-
ordinary building, which occupied fourteen years iu completion, and
called into requisition the talents of most of the principal artists of
Paris, was j;S2,000, — defrayed by the city of Paris.*

Want of time prevents me from dilating further at this moment, or
the Column iu the Place de la Bastille, the restoration of the sculpture
in the portico of the Chamber of Deputies, the decoration of the Pan-
theon, the establishment of a Society of Architects in Paris,v and the
competition designs for a monumetit to Napoleon in the Hotel of the
Invalids, aiford ample matter for much comment. The last subject,
indeed, seems imperatively to demand a few words, as this proposed
monument has e.scited the greatest interest in France during the past
tw'elve months, and can hardly be said to be devoid of it here.

More than eighty proje'.^ were received, notwithstanding a general
feeling against the competition prevailed in the minds of artists on
account of the profound silence which was observed by the Jlinister
of the Interior (to whom the designs were directed to be forwarded)
as to the names of those to whom the selection would be confided.
The designs, immediately after they were received, were exhibited
to the public without restriction, in the Ecole des Beaux Arts, and at-
tracted great numbers of persons. They were nicely arranged, none
of the drawings were torn or injured in hanging, and all were seea
equally well — points to which, iu conjunction with the very important
step of public exhibition before making the decision, committees here
in similar cases would do well to attend.

A subterranean chapel formed beneath the dome appears to be the
favourite idea. M. Visconti, M. Labrouste, M. Isabelle, M. Battard,
and others, have adopted it. la M. Visconti's design the chapel is
open at the top (being protected by a balustrade around it on the
pavement beneath the dome), and is approached by a subterranean
passage of great length opening into the C'otir Roijale, wdiere he pro-
poses to erect an equestrian statue of the Emperor. M. Labrouste's
chapel, on the contrary, is covered by an enormous shield of bronze
gilt, supported some few feet above the pavement by four white mar-
ble eagles, allowing a view of the sarcophagus containing the remains
of Napoleon, in the chapel beneath. The shield, wdiich is of elegant
design, would be 50 feet in length, and could hardly fail to produce a
striking eilect.

M. Due exhibited a very beautiful enclosure of gilt bronze, sur-
mounted by an elaborate canopy, and containing a porphyry sarcopha-
gus. Two figures of white marble sit beyond the enclosure, and the
whole is surrounded by a balustrade. M. Feuchere had a model of
considerable merit representing an oblong temple of eight columns on
a stylobate, which is elongated at the four angles to receive figures.
Within the temple is the sarcophagus, and above it a statue of the
Emperor.

M. Felix Duban has designed an elegantly simple sarcophagus on a
pliuth, against the sides of which latter stand figures. M. Victor
Lenoir has a very clever design, and the same may be said of those by
M. Morey and M. Bouchet. Mr. Goldicutt's design for the Nelson
monument has been worked on by several, and was produced in two
or three shapes. There was one projei for a colossal figure of the
Emperor nearly as high as the dome itself, and another (claiming

■-' The following particulars may be interesting to some. When the city of
Paris detenr.ined on rebuilding the church of Notre Dame de Lorette (the
old church being much too small and mean for its position.) ten architects
were invited to send plans, namely M.M. Cariotie, Godde, Menager. C'ha-
tillon, Gauthier, Le l3as, Nepveu, Lec'ere, Provost, and Guenejin, all of
whom complied, with the exception of M. Godde. The commission appointed
to make the selection was composed of the following gentlemen: Count Cha-
brol de Volvic, president ; Viscount Hericart de Thury, Director of " 'I'ra-
vaux Publics," Fontaine, Hunault. llujot, Thibault, and Percier, architects_
and members of the Academy, and M. Lirribe, Conservator of the objects of
art in the city of Pans, who acted as secretary. The design submitted by
M. Le Bas was selected, and reported on at the Hotel de Ville, April '23.
1S23 ; the first stone was laid August 25 m the same year, when a medal was
struck m commemoration of the occasion, and the consecration of the build-
ing took place December 15th, 1836.

T The fast raseung was held January 24, 1811.

2 H 3

40S

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL

[Dkcember,

praise for originality, if not for good taste,) to liang an enormous eagle
of bronze by tbe tips of its expanded wings from wall to wall, a little
below the springing of the dome. Borne up in tlie talons of the royal
bird, the sarcophagus would be suspended, jMahomet-like, 'twist
heaven and earth.

Allliougli the exhibition contained ninch that was satisfactory, it
could hardly be said to be worthy of the architectural and arlislical
talent existing in Paris. .Some of the drawings were exquisitely
executed.

ON COLOUR AS APPLIED IN DECORATION.
By Hyde Clarke, F.L.S., &c.

At the present period, when so much interest is excited as to the
decoration of our public buildings, and when a better epoch for this
department of art seems opening, the subject of the laws which regu-
late it can scarcely fail to be attractive to the profession, as the theory
of colour and its relations to heat and electricity have been already
explained in the Journal, (Vol. II, p. IbS,) «e can at once consider
the ))ractical portion of tlie subject; but I should first wish to call at-
tention to M. Chevreul's theory of contrast, with some few remarks I
have to make upon it. M. Clievreul says (De la Loi du Contraste
Simultanc des Couleurs : par M. E. Chevreul, Menibre de I'lnstitut),
that where the eye sees at the same time two contiguous colours, it
sees them as dissimilarly as possible, both as to their optical com-
position, and as to the depth of their tone, so that there may be at the
same time simultaneous contrast, properly so c;dled, and contrast of
tone. Thus if two colours a and 'j are in juxtaposition, they will
difTer as much as possible from each other when the complement of a
is added to h, or the complement of b added to a. If we choose for
our experiment orange and green, and if we place orange by the side
of green, blue, the complement of the orange, is added to the green,
which thus becomes more blue and less yellow, and so similarly the
red, the complement of green, is rendered more vivid in the orange,
which also becomes less yellow. M. Chevreul has not suggested the
cause of this remarkable phenomenon, but I am myself inclined to
attribute it to a tendency which the colours have to balance each
other, in a manner like to that in which heat ditluses itself from a
heated body to one of a lower temperature, and similar to the law of
electrical distributior. If this should be the case, it would also be
confirmatory of a homogeneity of colour, which many other circum-
stances would lead us to believe, so that light, instead of being con-
sidered to be composed of three simple coloured rays, would, accord-
ing to that view only, owe the phenomena of colour to the different
arrangement of its particles, as ponderable substances, according to
the arrangement of their molecules, vary their forms. Colour, per-
haps, after all, is only dependent on electrical action, and could we
establish this, our way would be clear to the production of coloured
representations by electricity, instead of the present daguerreotypes,
and to many of the operations of dyeing.

Pursuing his remarks M. Chevreul says that it is evident that the
phenomena of simultaneous contrast would increase the brightness
both of a and h, and make them appear more brilliant than they would
when looked at isolatedly. If the colours brought together belong to
the same group of rays, and gnly differ in intensity, the clearest in
tint w ill appear still clearer at the point of contact, while that deepest
in shade will ajipear deeper, the tints will be regularly affected from
the point of junction, the one set lighter and the other deeper. Co-
loured and white bodies, when put in juxta-posilion, become, the for-
mer more brilliant and deeper, and the latter of the complementary
colour of the others. Thus green and white : red, the complement of
the greon, is added to the white, and the green appears deeper and
more brilliant. In the juxta-position of coloured and black bodies,
the effect of the contrast of intensity is to deepen the black and lower
the tint of the juxtaposed colour; but a very remarkable fact is the
weakei.ing of the black itself, when the juxtaposed colour is deep,
and of such a kind as to give such a bright coin|)lementary colour as
orange, yellowish orange, greenish yellow, S.c., for instance, with blue
anil black, orange, the complement of the blue, is added to black, the
black becomes lighter, and the blue is clearer, perhaps greenish. All
gray bodies contiguous to coloured bodies may present the phenomena
of contrast in a manner more sensible than v\hite and dark bodies do.
Thus yellow and gray : the gray takes more of a violet cast by re-
ceiving the infiuence of the complement of the yellow, and the yel-
low appears more brilliant, and yet less iehgenrs.

Besides this simultaneous contrast of colours, M. Chevreul distin-
guishes a successive contrast of colours, by which he means all those

phenomena which are observed when the eye, having for some time
looked on one or more coloured objects, perceives, after having ceased
to look at them, images of these objects presenting the complementary
colour which belongs to each. He also defines a mixed contrast,
which is the result of the two others, it takes place when, having
looked at a red paper, for instance, and we turn towards a blue, it will
appear greenish ; if, on the other hand, we look first at the blue, and
then at the red, the red will appear orange. These are all well known
phenomena, but M. Chevreul makes a practical application of them;
he recommends the painter not to keep his eye too long fixed on his
model, and the purchaser of coloured goods to be similarly careful, if
he wishes to keep his eyes in a normal state to look at the last pat-
tern, otherwise the several patterns will, after the first, appear faded,
and less fresh in colour, although they may all be of the same quality.
A shopkeeper who shows several silks, say red, should show others of
a complementary colour, green in this case, in order to restore the
eye to its normal state, and better to prepare it for the red, by making
the red look more brilliant than it really is.

I shall now make another halt to give a hint to those of ray readers
who consult French works as to the use of several words used by the
authois: thus /o)( we call intensit)', tint and shade, ^ajnmts, the key
colour or tone, and nuancm, hues. Two or three useful rules I shall
also advert to here. The best contrast, it must be remembered, is
produced by the complementary colour, and all colours must be of tlie
same intensity.

When two colours do not agree, it is best to separate them by
white. Black is also useful for this purpose when applied with bright
colours, and, in some cases, preferable to white.

Black may be advantageously apjdied w ith sombre colour.-, and with
some of the dark tertiaries.

It w ill now be necessary to consider the several colours separately,
in doing which I shall principally avail myself of Mr. Hay's work on
colour,* the best and cheapest practical work on the subject, and one
which, to the professional man and to the student, is indisjjensable.

Like Mr. Hay, I shall begin with white, the representative of light,
which is regarded as produced by the reflection of the three primary
colours simultaneously in their relative neutralizing proportions. Al-
though there are eight kinds of whites, there is only cue which is un-
derstood as a pure white. Its contrasting colour is black, being oppo-
site to it in the scale, but the arrangement in which its effect is the
most happy is with blue and orange. In the series it lies nearest to
yellow, which may be adopted as its melodizing colour. With nearly
all colours, however, it harmonizes in conjunction and opposition, and
to its properties in separating two discordant colours I have already
referred. It does not agree so well as gray with red and orange, and
with blue, violet, &c. it is harsh. It is to be preferred to gray with
yellow and blue, also with red and green, red and yellow, orange and
yellow, orange and green, and yellow and green. With very light
primrose, yellow forms an agreeable arrangement. All colours brought
in contact with pure white must be light and cool, amongst which
gray and green may be employed, and intense or rich colouring must
be avoided. A south light is the best for white, which, when it is the
predominating colour for a room lighted from the north, should be
made of a cream colour, so as to get rid of the cold reflection as far as
possible.

French white is, properly speaking, the lightest shade of purple,
and is seldom used in house painting, but Mr. Syme says that he has
seen it made the prevailing colour of a drawing-room in a country
residence with good effect. It can only be introduced when all the
other colours are light and cool in tone, as any quantity of intense or
rich colouring completely subdues it.

Black, the representative of darkness, is regarded as produced by
the absorption of the three primary colours, simultaneously in their
relative neutralizing proportions. In the series it lies next to purple,
which may be considered as its melodizing colour. Its contrasting
colour is while, we may also add yellow, but it is most happy in com-
bination with red and green, red and yellow, orange and yellow, orange
and green, and yellow and green. By being associated with sombre
colours, such as blue and violet, and with the lower tints of the bright
colours, it may be often made to produce a very good effect. It is
always hapj.y when used with two bright colours, as orange, yellow,
red, and bright green. As a separating colour it is often to be pre-
ferred to white. It is not so good as gray in combination with orange
and violet, green and blue, and green and violet. It is only in arrange-
ments of a cool and sombre character that it can be used in large
quantities, and it is recommended to be used always pure and trans-
parent. The ancients used it happily and in great profusion, and in

" The l.aws of I[,.rmor.ious C'o'ouring. Bv D. R. Hay. London: M'. S.
Orr. 1M8,

1841.J

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

40!>

tlie monuments of tlie Egyptians, tlip vases of Greece and Italy, ami
the decorations of Pompeii and Herculaneum. We find it in combi-
nation witli tlie briglitest colours, often used as a separating coloui^pr
as a contrast, and always with eftect. Mr. Hay recommends great
caution in tlie use of botli white and black, for being at the top and
bottom of the s^ale, they are very dangerous colours to manage.
Where gorgaousness is the object, they must not be brought in.

Pure Yellow, of the power of 3, which Mr. Hay calls yellow jas-
mine, or a deep lemon hue, is the lightest of the three primary colours,
and the nearest to white. Its contrasting colour is piir|)le and it forms
a strong contrast to black. Its melodizing colours are orange and
green, which are the secondaries it forms with red and blue. Its ter-
nary is citron, and its quaternary is brown and marrone. Being the
most powerful of the primary colours, if is most otFensive to the eye
when used extensively in a pure state. With red, orange, or green,
it does very well in combination with black, and even with gray. In
artificial light yellow, it is well known, appears to be of less intensity,
as is the case with all colours into tlie composition of whicli it enters.

Primrose, which is a very light yellow, forms a pleasing arrange-
ment with pure white, being a light and cool colour.

Red, of the power of 5, is, by Mr. Hay, represented to be of the
most intense geranium colour, and as difficult to be defined; it is tlie
second of the primaries, a very warm colour, and the most positive of
all colours, pre-eminent among them. Its contrasting colour is green.
The secondaries with which it melodizes are its comhniations with yel-
low, forming orange, and with blue, forming purple. Its tertiary is rus-
set, and its quaternarv is marrone and slate. With another bright colour
it forms a good arrangement with black, as it does also w hen combined
with vellovv. Being a warm colour, it acts upon all colours brought in
contact withit, or into which it enters, and must not be used on a large
scale uncombined, requiring great skill in its use. It is heightened by
artificial light. It is considered to be an excellent key colour, and when
so used, it is recommended that its contrasting colour, green, should
be neutralized by being brought down in tone towards olive.

The nearest hue of red towards yellow is scarlet, which is very bril-
liant, and requires much the same management as orange. It must
never be used in large masses, except under very peculiar circum-
stances. Its contrasting colour is a bluish green. The ancients used
black with scarlet.

The nearest hue of red towards blue is crimson, one of the most
gorgeous, at the same time most cool and mellow, and very useful as
a key colour. Its contrasting colour is a citron green, and its melo-
dizing colours a bluish green and reddish purple.

Pink is the next hue after crimson, and is very useful for heighten-
ing reds in cool toned arrangements.

Blue, of the power of S, is the deepest of the primary colours, and
the nearest in relation to shade. It is a cool colour, acting upon co-
lours used with it, and may be employed in masses with much less
glare than either of the other primaries. Its contrasting colour is
orange. The secondaries with which it melodizes, are its combi-
nations with yellow, forming green, and with red, forming purple.
With green, however, blue is very discordant, more so than any pri-
mary with its secondary. Its tertiary is olive, and its quaternaries
slate and marrone. With orange it makes a good arrangement with
white, and with green agrees with gray, and with violet it enters into
composition with black. Black may be very advantageously used
with it under many circumstances. White and blue are apt to appear
raw in contrast. When used with green and olive, on account of the
discord, blue requires the interposition of gray, or of some other
neutral colour, with olive a purply gray may be used. Blue is
reckoned a good key colour, where a refreshing appearance is desired :
with artificial light, however, it is chilled.

We now come to the secondaries.

Orange is a compound of yellow 3 and red 5, being of the power of
8. It is one of the most brilliant colours there is, and the contrast to
blue ; it requires therefore to be used with a sparing hand, although
it is reckoned a good key colour. Olive also forms a contrast with it.
It is the melodizing colour to yellow and red, and is itself melodized by
its tertiaries, citron, formed with green, and russet with purple. It is
acted upon by artificial light much in the same way as yellow is. With
blue it may be combined with white, and with red, yellow or green
may be used with wdiite or black. With more yellow the hues orange
forms, are gold, giraft'e, &c., and it then requires for its contrast
purplish blue.

Green is the coolest of the medium of the secondaries, and is com-
posed of yellow 3 and blue 8, being of the power of II. Its contrast-
ing colour is red, and also russet. Green melodizes with yellow and
blue, and is itself melodized by the lertiuries, citron, formed with
orange, and olive with purple. It is one of the worst colours under
artificial light. With red, orange, or yellow it may be used in com-

position with black or white, but with blue or violet gray is to be
used. Being such a soft colour, green may be used in quantity with-
out fear. It requires great care when used with blue, and should
be separated by a neutral tint.

Purple is one of the darkest colours most nearly allied to black ; it
is of the power of 11, and is composed of yellow 3 and blue S. Its
contrasting colour is yellow, and the tertiary citron, which is much
used with it. Purple melodizes red and blue, and is melodized by its
tertiaries russet formed with orange, and olive with green. It is a
cool colour, and it suffers much under artificial light, but next to green
it may be used with the most freedom. With green or orange it may
be used, with gray and with blue black is to be used. With white its
combinations are verv raw.

Indigo is the first hue, formed by blue on its union with red, and is
a heavy colour little used, except in wove fabrics.

Purple forms various hues as lilac, &c., with which citron may be
advantageously used.

Gray is a neutral colour, and enters with effect into many combi-
nations, being the medium between light and shade. It is very useful
in separating blue from green or olive. Its most happy combination
is with red and orange, and with orange and violet, green and blue,
and green and violet.

To proceed to the tertiary colours.

Citron is a tertiary colour, in width yellow predominates, it is com-
posed of orange S, and green 11, being of the power of 19, or yellow
G, red 5, blue S, its contrasting colour is purple, and also slate: it me-
lodizes with orange and green, and is melodized by the next series,'
brown formed with russet, and marrone with olive. Citron is greatly
relieved and harmonized by olive, it is soft and pleasing to the eye,
and is the lightest of the tertiaries, much used as a contrast amongst
low hues of crimson and purple.

In russet, red predominates, being composed of orange 8, and pur-
ple 13, of the power of it, or yellow 3, red 10, blue 8. Its contrasting
colour is green, and also marrone. It melodizes with orange and juir-
ple, and is melodized by the next series, brown, formed with russet,
and slate with olive. This tertiary is of great use, and particularly
with green.

Olive has blue for its predominant constituent, and is composed of
green li, and purple 13, being of the power of 24, or yellow 3, red 5,
blue 16. Its contrasting colour is orange, and also brown. It melo-
dizes with green and purple, and is melodized by marrone formed
with citron, and slate formed with russet. Olive has a great relation
to shade, and is characterized by Hay as soft and unassuming, being
of great use in all arrangement, whether cool or warm, being employed
with the lower hues of warm toned or brilliant composition. It must
not be brought in contact with blue, but separated by gray.

The next rank is held by the quaternaries or semi-neutral hues.
These are : —

Brown composed of citron and russet, of the power of 40, consisting
of yellow 0, red 15, blue 16. Its contrasting colour is olive. It is a
most useful colour in the low parts of warm toned arrangements.

Marrone is composed of citron and olive, being of the power of 43,
or yellow 9, red 10, blue 24. Its contrasting colour is russet. This
semi-neutral is most useful in wove fabrics. It is considered to be
deep and clear, and although allied to red, may be used where there
is a preponderance of cool-toned colours.

Slate is the deepest of the semi-neutrals, and is composed of russet
and olive, being of the power of 45, or yellow 6, red 15, blue 24. Its
contrasting colour is citron, and it can only be used in cool-toned ar-
rangements.

FIRE-PROOF CONSTRUCTION NECESSARY TO GENUINE-
ARCHITECTURE.
By Alfred Bartholo.mew, Esq., F.S.A.

The three recent great fires at the Parliament Houses, the Royal
Exchange, and the Tower of London, with those at Hatfield, Lord Di-
norben's, and the Marquis of Londonderry's, while they show that
public and aristocratic property can, under the present vicious mode
of construction, no more escape than private bouses, are no doubt cal-
culated to awaken prudence if every other warning should fail.

He who would be a reformer of any abuse must of necessity prepare
himself to be accounted first a kind of monster — then if not absolutely
insane, certainty not in his jiroper senses, and mayhap as far from
right-mindedness as Don Quixote himself: but he who would conquer
nuist often previonsly stoop for that end, and should as little attend to
the clamor which is made about his ears by the ignorant, the super-

410

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[DfiCKMBER,

ficial, and tlie senseless, ns the l;idy of orienUil story wlio went to dis-
enrhaiit lier brothers, or Rinaklo of La GirusaUmme Libcrata in the
enchanted wood ; if he persevere, some circumstance or other will be
sure to turn up, wliicti will show tlie mad sayings of such a Quixote,
are not so mad as they appeared to be.

Perhaps the fire at the Tower may be considered a fortunate cir-
cumstance, tliough it has destroyed many proud trophies of national
victory, since it has not only consumed an uglv inappropriate unfor-
tress-like edifice, with a vast store of wretched useless arms which it
is confessed were unfit for service, but has so harrowed up public at-
tention to the subject, that it may be doubted whether any more such
dangerous repositaries may be built for containing public records,
trophies, libraries, pictures, or curiosities.

If our ideas did not " run " as D'-. Robison says, "in a tcoodtn train"
and so induce tlie designing of buildings upon false principles, per-
haps hardly such a thing as a combustible public building would exist.
The cupola of the Pantheon, Palladio's representrtion of the leputed
Temple of Vesta at Nismes, the Cathedral of Milan, the Church of
Batallia, Rosslyn Chapel, and the Kitchen of Glastonbury Abbey,
show buildings may be roofed not only incombustibly, but also with-
out loss of sectional space between a ceilijig and an outer covering — a
beauty which, though often discoursed upon, is but very rarely pro-
duced.

At the present day it is scarcely necessary to notice how much
more handsome and architectural, are solid vaultings than flat com-
bnstible ceilings: neither in good construction nor fire-proof construc-
tion, is it likely that any thing so ugly and unarchitectural as a dome
rising cut of a flat ceiling could ever be found; nor is it now much
more necessary to show that all the generic beauties of pointed archi-
tecture, are the direct and necessary emanation of fire-proof construc-
tion, every form from the summit of the vaulting of a church to the
buttress feet, resulting from that masonic cunning which was put in
action throughout tlie work to make every stone press to its neigh-
bours, instead of suftijring any cross strain, and snapping beneath it
like modern flat stone lintels and architraves; the only parts which, in
pointed architecture, are ever found violating this principle, are the
ugly ill-formed combustible roofs with which so many ancient churches
are covered, and which frequently being heavy, ill-designed, and
badly put together, by counteracting the masonic skill contained iu
the walls, vaultings, and buttresses of such fabrics, cause nearly all the
ruin which such edifices suffer. The finest piece of middle-age car-
pentry does not contain a tithe of the skill possessed by the fiee-
mascns; the imitation of ancient carpentry, in modern architecture is
a positive vice; national edifices built without such carpentry would
be found, in the long run, cheapest. It is to be hoped that when the
London Guildhall shall be rendered safe, by the removal of its present
roofii:g, there will be no new introduction of a roof of wooden faggots
for the martyrdom of its marble monuments.

Not only may all edifices be incombustibly vaulted to appear tole-
rable, but to be in the highest degree architectural, and with the addi-
tional beauty of colour : tor vaultings may be formed in mosaic of dift'e-
rent coloured bricks, in herring-bone, chequered, or in any other man-
ner: and indeed by covering over the centering with plaster of Paris,
and drawing upon it any patterns, devices, or figures, every kind of
pictorial representation may be made as it were in carpet-stitch,
needing no plastering, no extraneous application of colour, scarcely
any future repair, and requiring from time to time simply to be washed
clean; parts of such vaultings may be glazed, parts may be finished
with fine porcelain, and the whole may be heightened with unfading
fired gilding. In some cases, patterns may be formed in light and
shade by indentations in the bricks, or by sunk stippled-work ; in
others variety of colour may be produced by sunk indentations filled
up by cement, some bricks with one colour, and others with a different
'one ; in palaces iind the higher class of edifices, embossed work and
all these methods may be united to produce one rich eft'ect. To insure
security to such vaultings with the least possible material, and there-
fore to render them lighter, and consequently requiring less abutment,
to make them, if possible, moie secure, though of but an inconsider-
:ible thickness, in all cases each brick should be secured to its neigh-
bours by small copper pins or plugs, so that though any trifling settle-
ments should happen to any part of the vaulting, still no derangement
should occur, and no part of the vaulting should drop without either
breaking the bricks or snapping off the pins. By these means Mr.
Bartholomew would undertake to produce a fac-simile of the vaultings
of the Temple Church, which neither fire, water, nor air should
destroy.

ON THE ECONOMY OF FUEL IN LOCOMOTIVES CONSE-
0 QUENT TO EXPANSION AS PRODUCED BY THE
COVER OF THE SLIDE VALVE.

Sir — I am very sorry that your correspondent Mr. M. should have
found reasons for regretting any expressions of his October letter, and
I can assure him that he meets with my most sincere regard, for hav-
ing found them, so to moderate the tone of his communications, that
he places himself in a position in which he is much less likely to meet
with asperity. Mr. M. now acknowledges that he objected unjustly
to the equation given fur finding the area of the piston necessary for
any assigned degree of expansion: which acknowledgment is of the
more value, since if this equation bad been wrung the whole paper
would have fallen to the ground : and he also now acknowledges that
inconsequence of a misprint he was led into the dilemma of supposing
that the area of the piston was put equal to the pressure of the steam.
Having thus satisfied himself as to the accuracy of the main features
of the paper, he now addresses himself to the demonstration that some
functions of the question which I neglected as being of verv small
amount are actually so " ap|)reciable" that even at the expence of
very much complicating the analysis he would recommend their in-
troduction. In replying to this demonstration 1 would have been saved
all trouble had Mr. M. subjected all his objectioLS to as rigid a calcula-
tion, as he has the effect tlvat the waste space at either end of the
cylinder has on the area of the piston, he finds, he says, that the cor-
rection which he has introduced for the waste space makes a difference
betwixt my formula and his of ^ of one per cent, upon the whole area
of the piston ; now I have neither investigated whether Mr. M. has
correctly introduced into the formula the waste spice, nor have I gone
through the numerical computation, for if Mr. M. has no objections, I
am perfectly willing to take for granted that he is correct in both, and
shall seek to produce only his assertion that the correction amounts to
so much as | of one per cent, on the whole area of the piston, as my
defence for neglecting the effect of the waste space. — But although
Mr. M. has found the correction to be as stated above, I will at the
end of this letter throw out a hint which will enable him to reduce it
to much less than even what he has found it, to probably one hundredth
part of it.

Mr. M. L-ext proceeds to persuade me that he understands the mode
of analysis it is necessary to follow in estimating the work performed
by an engine working expansively, but in persuading me to believe
this, he persuades himself that I did not understand what he meant,
and I must allow that that is not only very possible, but very probable;
for although I believe that I thoroughly understood his words, yet un-
less thev happened to express his meaning, I could hardly be expected
to reach it ; but inasmuch as after explanation it turns out that we both
meant exactly the same thing, I shall take it for granted that Mr. M.
thoroughly understands the mode of analysis it is necessary to follow
in estimating the work performed by an engine working expansively,
and proceed to the consideration of more important matters, namely,
what Mr. M. states to be the real point at issue, and that is whether

the constant term {t) in the expression -J- — / faithfully represenis

the negative part of the effect, or the resistance of the waste steam on
the back of the piston. Mr. M. states that I put (/) to express both
the lowest pressure of the waste steam in the cylinder and the mean
resistance of the waste steam ; now I most certainly never intended to
make (0 express two distinct quantities, and I h ive examined the
paper to see if I had stated any thing which could furnish grounds for
supposing I had done so, but I cannot find that I did ; for the satisfac-
tion of Mr. M., however, I shall state in words (although to a mathe-
matician I have always been in the habit of supposing the language of
analysis most precise,) that (/) is put to express the mean effect of the
waste steam. Mr. M. will perhaps now discover that the expression

— - — / does not give too great a value by 3 or 4 lb. per square inch.

Mr. M. was probably led to suppose that (0 was put to express the
lowest pressure .of the waste steam in the cylinder by the way in which
it is involved in the equation for finding the area of the piston, but if
he reconsiders that equation on the supposition that (/) expresses the
mean resistance, he will find the error thereby introduced to be very
small, and to be in the opposite direction from that produced by ne-
glecting the w'aste space at the end of the cylinder.

Mr. M. in the next paragraph asserts that when the time given for
expansion is excessively short as it is in locomotives, the reduction of
temperature due to expansion is not sensibly affected by the heat of
ihe smoke bos, and ought therefore to be taken into account; but for

1841.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

411

two reLisons the effect due to this alteration of temperature vanishes,
in the firbt pfjce Mr. M. will surely not deny that if the part of the
steara pipe within the smoke box and the cylinders were tilled 0th
water it would speedily be evaporated, which must be in consequence
of heat imparted, and it is certainly very c iJent that at least part of
that heat must enter the steam; and Mr. M. will find that although
the diminution of temperature due to expansion (alone considered)
becomes greater with the expansion, so also does both, the surfaces of
the cylinder and steam pipe, and the time for which the steam is ex-
posed to the heat of the smoke box ; again in the second phice, if Mr.
M. had introduced into his laborious calculation?, to jirove that he was
right in objecting to the omission of the cifect of the steam during the
part of the stroke from the opening of the eduction port to the termi-
Dation of the stroke, the remainder of the ertVct of ihis diminution of
temperature due :o expansion, he would have found that the one so
balanced the other that the correction to be introduced though appre-
ciable, is of analogous importance «ith f^ of one per cent.

The remainder of Mr. M.'s last letter is taken up in correcting the
values of (a' and 6) that I calculated for the four particular cases,
which presents a beautiful illustration of a person, in his attempt to
have the ]>'easure of helping another over a ditch, steppiug into it
himself; when Mr. M. first stated that the equations wliich give the
values of (a' and b) are themselves correct, but that the numerical
values which I calculated were incorrect, I thought lu meant that I
bad made some numerical mistake, and therefore did not trouble my-
self about it, but I now see that he imagines I have made a radical
error in applying the formulEe, by making incorrect substitutions for
the known quantities. Had the formula; been made on the hypothesis
that Mr. M. thinks they were made on, they would (instead of being
as Mr. M. thinks quite correct) have been altogether wrong ; Mr. M.
seems to think that the radius of the eccentric is a function of the
cover of the slide, whereas such I never hitended it to b", and such it
is not which Mr. M. might liave very easily discovered by looking at
the investigation of these formufe. The stroke of the valve being in
DO degree dependent on the cover of the slide does not at all effect
the size of the port for the admission of the steam. Mr. M. will hence
find it necessary to recalculate his values of (a' and 6), and make the
alterations thereby caused on his laborious calculations with reference
to the omission of the effect due to part of the stroke from the opening
of the eduction port to the termination of the stroke.

I %vill now conclude this letter by remarking that so far as economy
of fuel is concerned, so far as the advantage that an engine working
expansively has over one working with full pressure is concerned, we
may neglect taking into account all things that equally affect both,
■which 1 would recommend Mr. M. to consider in estimating the value
of some of his objections.

And I remain. Sir,

Your obedient servant,

J. G. Lawrie.

Cartsdyke Foundry, Greenock,
Novemler \o, 1841.

f

EVAPORATION OF NVATER.

Sir — Having obtained a patent for certain improvements in evapor-
ation, I take the liberty of sending you a description thereof, and also
an account of the result I have obtained from the appaiatus; should
you consider this communication of a nature interessing to your nnme-
ous readers, I shall be happy to see it inserted in your very useful
fournal.

If an open vessel containing water is placed over a fire, the water
will take up heat and will retain the same until it boils, after which
the water will throw off with the steam exactly the same quantity of
beat that it takes up from the fire.

If the steam thus generated under atmospheric pressure is forced
into a worm contained in the water, so as to acquire a pressure of
about one twelfth of an atmosphere, it will be condensed therein at the
rate of about 3tb. of steara per hour for every superficial foot of re-
frigerating surface of the worm, and as by condensation all the latent
beat of the steara will be given up to the water, a corresponding eva-
poration thereof will be effected, so that providing there was no loss
of heat by radiation or other leakage, a liquid once brought into a
state of ebullition might be constantly kept in that state by its own
steam alone ; loss is hoivever inevitable, so that the liquid can be kept
boiling, only with the addition of a sufficient quantity of heat to com-
pensate for the loss by radiation, &c., and with the assistance of the
power requisite to compress the steara within the worm, this com-
pression can be effected either by means of a pump, or by a blast of

high steam; the action of a pump is too well understood to need any
explanation, I will therefore merely describe the mechanical action of
a blast of high pressure steam empli'yed as a substitute for a pump.

A blast of high pressure steam rushing through a tube of a greater
diameter than that of the blast itself, possesses the two valuable pro-
perties of producing a pressure at one end of the tube and a partial
vacuum at the other end thereof; when steam of about four atmo-
spheres is employed for the blast, and when the diameter of the tube
into which the blast rushes is about five times the diameter of the
blast itself, a pressure may be obtained at one end of the tube of about
S inches of mercury, and there will be found behind the blast a vacuum
nearly as powerful, — thus

"^

CE

tl

The above sketch will give a correct idea of the blast apparatus.

s, steam pipe when diameter = \.

i, tube through which the blast rushes diameter = 5.

a', vacuum gauge.

a, pressure gauge.
With steam of about 4 atmospheres the gauge a will mark about S
inches of mercury, and the gauge a' something less.

Now if the branch pipe b is connected to the steam chamber of an
evaporating pan in which the steam is produced under atmospheric
pressure only, the blast of high steam as above described, will absorb
from this steam chamber about four times its own volume (when re-
duced to about one-sixth of an atmosphere), and will compress this
mixture of high and low steam within the worm giving to the whole
a pressure of about one-sixth of an atmosphere.

By the above application the water in the evaporating pan will be
evaporated by the steam produced therefrom, and the whole value of
the blast, minus that quantity required to compensate for leakage, will
be thrown off with the condensed steam through a valve placed at
the extremity of the worm, and may be utilized in a separate vessel to
heat the liquid to be evaporated previous to its being admitted to the
evaporating pan.

The first experiments were made with a double acting pump which
drew the steam from the surface of the liquid as fast as it was gene-
rated, and forced it into the worm so as to determine an internal pres-
sure of about one twelfth of an atmosphere, the area of the piston was
TG square inches, and its greatest possible stroke 9| nches, but as the
pump was worked by hand the stroke was very irregular.

The pump made 800 strokes in 35 minutes, each stroke being nearly
complete ; had each stroke been complete, and supposinof that there
was no loss by the valves, we should have obtained from the valve at
the end of the worm.

9-875 X 2 X 7G X 800

1728

700

: 700 cubic feet of steam,

180U'

; 0'39 cubit feet of water,

or 0*39 X 62-5 = 24 16. avoirdupois of water.

The quantity of water really discharged from the valve was 2016.
avoirdupois, which was necessarily the real quantity evaporated from
the pan. The fuel consumed did not exceed a quarter of a pound, we
consequently evaporated SU 16. of water with 1 16. of coal; this ex-
periment was repeated several times with the same result in an eva-
porating apparatus heated externally by fire, and containing a worm
for the action of the steam, the surface of which amounted to 21*5
square feet.

An apparatus of this kind might be applied with great benefit at
sea to distill sea water, no machinery or steam boiler being required,
the apparatus being worked by hand, one man would obtain about 2-6t>
imperial gallons of distilled water every hour — the pump could be
worked in many different ways.

412

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[December

The pump might be advantageously empioyed for evaporations in
all situations where motive power can be disposed of, or where fuel is
expensive.

if you consider this communication worthy of a place in yo\ir Jour-
nal, I will at an tarly period send you an account of the experiments
made with the blast of high steam as a substitute for the pump.
1 remain, Sir,

Your obedient servant,

H. H. Edwards.
Park Village, East, Nov. 20, 1841.

EPISODES OF PLAN.

(CoHtinutd/rom page 34C.J

As we have laid down no plari at all for our "Episodes," — which
though not so divided, may be considered as so many separate papers
on the same general subject, and may therefore be treated desultorily,
without regard to strict connection with each other, — we shall now
allow ourselves to deviate a little from our course by bringing forward
an entire plan, as exemplifying a combination of episodical parts, all
studied for effect, into one uniform design.

Hardly need we say that the plan is that of a villa, or detached re-
sidence, nor is it by any means upon an extensive scale, — far less so,
indeed than many that are to be met with in publications containing
subjects of the same class. And if, unlike them, we confine ourselves
to the plan alone, without attempting to show any thing further, it is so
far an advantage that it compels us to dwell upon circumstances which
are almost invariably passed over without comment or remark of any
kind, in the publications just alluded to, as if the plan was matter of com-
paratively little consequence, and provided it be free from any very
obvioust defects and inconveniences — which, however, is not always
the case — study as to effect, variety, contrast may be dispensed with,
because, however poorly the architect may have performed his part,
the upholsterer will make amends when he comes to perform his.
The architect or designer himself is an unquestionable person, for it is
not to be expected of him that he sliou'.d anticipate answers relative
to all the JJ'/ii/s and tF/itirJhrea that his plan may suggest to other
persons ; or should explain the motives which have determined its
arrangement.

In most c;ises indeed, tliere is very little, if any thing, to describe or
explain, to note or remark upon, nothing more being attempted than
to divide the plan into a certain number of rooms, without any study
as to variety or effect. Scarcely ever is a new idea brought froward : on
the contrary a good one seems sometimes to have been stopped short
of, merely owing to the most obvious one being caught hold of at once,
without further consideration being given to the subject. Yet even
such crude and common place plans are not altogether without their
use — that is, to those who have capacity enough to make such use of
them — because they serve to show the defects that ought to be avoid-
ed, and to make evident the deficiencies that ought to be guarded
against. It is very true a house may — if considered merely with re-
gard to its principal object as a dwelling — be an exceedingly good and
excellent one, even though it should be utterly deficient in any beau-
ties of plan ; yet such also it may be though it should possess no other
beauty of any kind to recommend it. And if it be worth while to
study elegance of exterior form and .ippearance, it is surely equally
so to study beauty of plan, — not mere internal decoration alone, but
also piquant variety in the forms of the several apartments, and in
their distribution. Nevertheless, the reverse is the usual practice,
for far more attention is bestowed on embellishment, whether as to
furniture or any thing else, than on the other sort of effect, notwith-
standing that this last must be provided for in the plan itself, whereas
deficient decoration can be snjiplied at anytime.

Should it be said that all this is so obvious as to appear almost im-
pertinent, we ask why, if such be the case, architects sho\ild show
themselves so negligent of the ellects to be obtained from plans, and
why they do not urge upon their employers the paramount importance
of securing them, even should the additional cost that may be so in-
curred, occasion some matters of decoration to be postponed at the
time the building is erected ? These observations may, perhaps, be
very injudicious on our part, inasmuch, as the plan v^e here bring for-
Vfard, may be thought to fall far short of the standard we ourselves set
up. Must assuredly it is not for us to say that it affords a satisfactory
illustration of our own doctrine, that being a point we must leave
others to decide upon when we shall have explained, as we now pro-
ceed to do, what we have more particularly aimed at.

Hardly can it be objected either that the plan is deficient in com-
pactness, or that economy has been disregarded, for the front is no
ir#re than 58 feet, and returns 27 feet at the ends; which would ac-
cord with it in their elevations, while the rest of the exterior might be
left plain or nearly so, the plan being there contracted, so that the rear
portion of the house would not interfere with the principal architec-
tural mass, more especially were any sort of terrace wall or screen,
although only five or six feet high, to be erected for a short distance
on the lines I t, the ground behind them being on a somewhat lower
level, so that the windows of the offices in the basement would there
be just above it.

The style of the front is supposed to be Italian, and that part of the
exterior to have a comicione (indicated on the plan by the dotted
lines) which would of itself tend to mark out that portion as a distinct
composition there intended to terminate, its end elevations obviously
belonging to the front, and being independent of the rest of the sides
beyond them, where an intentional transition from decoration to plainness
takes place, the latter not at all interferring in this case with regularity
or consistency. Besides that much more than a single architectural
elevation is thus obtained, without continuing its return, for the entire
extent of the building, it is perhaps rather an advantage than the con-
trary,that the general outline is broken, and that formal box-like shape
avoided, wdiich generally gives such a disagreeable naked appearance
to a detached square house without wings or other accompaniments.

Although the rest of the exterior is distmct from the principal com-
position it will be seen that that regularity is kept up in it, the rear or
conservatory front (here supposed to face the west or south-west)
presenting a uniform elevation that might either be plain or decorated,
according as circumstances should dictate.

The principal or entrance front is exceedingly simjile in composi-
tion— though capable of being ornate in character, — it being astylar
and without breaks of any kind, and presenting only three openings in
width, the centre one of which forms a lofty arch to the niche-like
loggia or porch, which latter would afford a convenient shelter for
servants in attendance upon carriages.

From the loggia a we first enter a vestibule h, small in itself, but
presenting a striking effect in consequence of the staircase being seen
beyond it (on a somewhat higher level) through the columns enclosing
it, and forming that space into a perfect rotunda, covered by a dome,
through which the light streams down from above, and relieves the
columns. It may, perhaps, be asked if a good deal is not lost by thus
inclosing the staircase, — whether it would not be belter to make what
is now the staircase and corridor a single octagonal hall, either putting
the stancase in it, or giving up some other part of the plan to the
latter. That certainly might be done, but besides that it would ma-
teriallv alter the present airangement for the worse in many respects,
such a hall would be too ambitious a feature in a house of this size,
and while it would take off from the importance of the two principal
rooms, would cause the others to look quite diminutive: whereas now
there is with apparently less pietension, greater novelty of character,
and sufficient degree of effect, yet not so much as to interfere with
that of the chief afiartments. There is likewise what we consider to
be an agreeable and desirable sort of intricacy attending the arrange-
ment here adopted, there being contealment as well as display. It is
impossilile fur a stranger to understand from what he sees on first en-
tering, the situation, or number of the rooms, or how they communi-
cate with each other. They are approached in such manner as to ap-
jiear at a consider.ible distance, consequently the house seems more
extensive than it is, — certainly very much more so than would be the
case, were the rooms E and F to open immediately into the vestibule
6, — to say nothing of the much greater privacy and comfort secur^
by the arrangement here adopted. The privacy of the sitting rooms
is further increased by none of them b^ng made to communicate im-
mediately with the corridor, they being entered througu d d, two lob-
bies or small outer rooms — for their size hardly entitles them to be
called anterooms. Their smallness, however, would not prevent taste-
ful architectural character being bestowed upon them,— the less so as
tliere wuuUl be scarcely any occasion for the usu d articles of furniture
in them, but merely ornamental ones; on the other hand, it would by
contrast serve to give an air of spaciousness to the two larger rooms,
and even to render the others of good size in comparison with them.

The ilrawing-room, E, is the largest of all, the dining-room, F, being
made somewhat less in its jilan than the other, in order to obtain a
staircase for serving Uji dinner, which must else be brought through
the back staircase, corridor, and lobby. What, therefore, is lost as to
size is amply made up by increased convenience, and also by variety,
becausa, instead of being merely a duplicate of the drawing-room in
its plan, it assumes a very different character; and although columns
are introduced in order to define the two alcoves more markedly,
there is still a clear central space of 20 by 14 feet, which is quite

1841.J

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

413

40

sufficient for the accommodation of a comfortable dinner party. The
sideboard alcove is divided from the staircase behind it by a partition
carried up about seven feet from the floor, or half the height of the
room, forming a screen, surmounted either by dwarf columns or cary-
atides. Behind this screen there is also a retiring closet for gentle-
men, lighted by a small windovr towards the staircase, and provided
with proper sinks and water-pipes.

We now come to consider the remaining rooms, which are so ar-
ranged that until shown into them a stranger might not perhaps suspect
there was any thing of the kind, but suppose the rear part of the house
to consist merely of secondary rooms for domestic purposes. Should
he therefore happen to be quite unprepared for other sitting-rooms,
all the more agreeable is likely to be his surprise on discovering that
the doors on the other side of the lobbies open into rooms unusual,
and at first sight perhaps apparently rather irregular in plan, but after-
wards perceived to be perfectly symmetrical ; besides which a change
of view in a different direction from that from any of the other sides
of the house is here obtained. On entering H, another form of room
presents itself, not only different from any of the rest, but in a manner
combined with the conservatory, into which it projects. Therefore,
although too small in itself to be considered exactly as a distinct sit-
ting-room, this would be a very agreeable little summer boudoir, with
its windows thrown open to the conservatory. Between this and the
adjoining room I (corresponding in its plan with G), there might be
double doors kept locked,supposing I to be appropriated as the master's
morning or private room, as in that case it might be more desirable to
keep that as much apart as possible from the rest, but still in such

manner that it might be made to communicate with 'them, whenever
there should be occasion for throwing open the whole of the rooms to
company, so that they may all be passed through from the drawing-
room to the dining-room. For the reason above assigned there is no
window into the conservatory from this room I, as there is in G.

Having thus far given a specimen of the sort of explanatory com-
mentary which, we think, ought to be attached to all published plans,
we will not prolong our remarks at present, but leaving our readers to
supply as much more in the shape of criticism upon ourselves — either
favourable or unfavourable, as they may think proper, we merely add
a list of

References to the Plan.

A Porch.

B Vestibule, 13ft. 6 X lift. 3.

CCC Corridor.

DD Lobbies, 11X9.

E Drawing-room, 30x20.

F Dining-room, 25x20.

G Breakfast or Moming-roora, diagonal length 22, width 13ft. 2.

H Boudoir, 13x H.

I Library or Private Room, as G.

K Conservatory, 26 ft. diam., 8 ft. wide.

3 I

414

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

TDeckmber,

ON CONSTRUCTION.

It is our intention to give occasionally some examples of construc-
tion which will be found useful to the student. The annexed engrav-
ings show the construction of the Roof over the Polytechnic Institution
at Vienna; unfortunately the work (the AUgemehie Bauxeitmig), irom
which we take the drawing, contains but a meagre description of its
construction, without any reference to the scantling of the timbers ; we
can therefore only form out opinion of what they ought to be from the
geometrical view before us. It is stated that the roof stands remark-
ably firm ; the span is 56 feet, and the rise of the arch 18 ft. 6 in. above
the chord bar; the curvilinear ribs or principals are placed 12 feet
apart, and are 12 inches in depth, of pieces of timber ia 4 feet lengths
which are laid side by side in thicknesses so as to break joints ; we
should apportion three thicknesses of two inches each ; upon their
ribs are laid the purlins 6 by 5 inches, which carry the rafters 4 inches
deep by 2i inches placed 3 feet apart ; upon the rafters is laid the
copper covering. The roof is very much stiffened by the braces 6 by
3 inches on each side of the ribs, and horizontal ties of the same
scantling bolted to the ribs and feet of rafters; and also caulked down
to the pole plates, there are two plates G inches square, one lies on
the wall, and the other is supported by vertical posts under each
rafter; there are also two wall plates each 5 by 5 inches, the wall
plates and the foot of the curved ribs ought to be well secured to a
cross tie either of timber about 12 by 4 inches, or a wrought iron tie
li inch diameter. The tie beam would also answer the purpose of
girders to carry the floor — if it be desired to continue the curvilinear
form throughout the roof, horizontal ceiling joists 4 by 2 and 12 inches
apart might be notched and nailed on to the front edge of the ribs, the
laths could then be easily bent to the form of the curve and plastered

in the usual way; to give the room a pleasing effect, it may be
lighted by means of sky-lights in the upper part of the roof, and the
centre of the curved ceiling formed into circular sashes and glazed
with ground, stained or embossed glass.

Fig. 1 is a section of one half of the span of the roof drawn to a
scale of a quarter of an inch to the foot.

Fig. 2 is an enlarged view of the purlin secured to the ribs by the
iron straps Fig. 3.

A NEW SAFETY VALNE,

Sir — It appears to me that the comer in your Journal which was last
month occupied by " Funnel," has been filled up but in an indifferent way ; I
really can see no object in attempting to arrive at a simple end by means of
a very circuitous route ; what possible advantage can the complicated arrange-
ment of compensating bars, cylinders and radiating arms have over the beau-
tiful, and I may say perfect inveation already in use ? Mr. Funnel should
have fixed a cog-wheel at the end of each arm, and a cam to each leg by way
of giving his safety-valve a truly eccentric character, and on such he might
have grounded its merits, as it is one feels greatly at a loss to ascertain the
object of this funny discovery : however, as I hope to spared being levelled
to a Caudidus, so must I eschew the ways of that worthy, and by setting all
banter apart, must merely venture to suggest that Mr. Funnel would do well
to enter into such an explanation of his valve as would tend to estabhsh its
superiority, or else by screwing it down to oblivion, would acknowledge
tacitly or otherwise, that after all his invention is nothing more than what
our mutual friend of the Fasciculi might coll " a mare's nest."
Believe me. Sir, to be, with respect,

Pluc.

.Voiemier 22. 1841.

1841.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

415

RAILWAY FRICTION BAND BREAK.

Sir — The want of a better system of breaks for stopping or retard-
ing railway trains, has suggested to my mind a plan which I believe
to be new, and calculated to remove some of the defects existing in all
those now in use ; should you think the accompanying sketch and
description worthy a corner in your useful Journal, I think much good
would be done by directing the attention of mechanics to the subject.
I need scarcely say that in the arrangements of the levers in the dia-
gram, the object in view has been to show the principle clearly, rather
Oian to show the best application.
I am. Sir,

Your obedient servant,

George Spencer,
5, Hungerford Street, Strand, Mechanical Draughtsman,

November, 19, 1841.

S

In the construction of all the railway breaks in use, there appears to
me to be two radical errors; 1st. The breaks are applied to only a
small part of the wheel, and consequently its power is unnecessarily
limited.

2nd. The bearings of the break axles being on the carriages, and
the springs intervening between them and the wheel to be acted on,
the pressure or friction is never uniform, and the breaksman therefore
finds a difficulty in judging the amount of pressure necessary to stop
the train.

Now I think these objections may be obviated, by applying the fric-
tion band so commonly used in cranes; on this plan the momentum of
the train might be received in any quantity the breaksman might judge
proper.

I think having the break axle bearings on the wheel axles, even
with the present breaks would be a great improvement for the same
reason.

The diagram will be readily understood by reading the references
in the order of the letters.

reference.

a a, friction wheel and band; 6, tightening bar ; clever; li, lever
fulcrum ; e, bearing bar on axle shaft g ; //, supporting guides.

ON THE POWER OF STEAM ENGINES.

Sir — I am glad to find in your November number one modest advo-
cate for the introduction of the Wave principle, yet when a failure
does take place, as was the case with the Flambeau, we mnst be frank
and admit it, and not clothe it with difference of opinion in calculating
the horses power of steam engines.

If Y. takes the trouble to examine the calculation in my pre-
vious communication, he will find the mean pressure on the piston 14 tlj.
not 7, 7'1 or 7'3 as he would have it, without any reference to the
pressure on the boiler. I should like to know if 7, 7-1 or 7-3 would
hold good in the Cornish engines.

Again, I would ask if an engine made 27 strokes of 5 feet would

that amount to 220 feet of piston? I think not; 270 feet will be
about if, and Y. will find I only grant greatest speed on the Cyde at
this rate.

Again, I have no objections to Y. using 33,000 for his divisor'
deducting 25 per cent, on 44,000 I think he will find little difference.

Again, " the least steam assertion is granted, by the account of the
change of the boiler." I would ask again, would the Cornish boilers
supply steam the whole length of stroke? "but the effect of a new
and probably heavier boiler is curious, and an accurate statement of
the facts would be valuable." Y. might have omitted "probably'i
altogether, every one knows if more steam is wanted, more heating
surface must be given, consequently the boiler must be heavier, and
the effect of course greater draught of water, and I think Mr. Scott
Russell must have known this before he made the proposal. I think
Y. will find from this enough to convince him that the assertions made
in page 312 is not "based in any degree on the unsound foundation
of the difference stated."

I remain. Sir,

Your obedient servant.

H

November 12, 1841.

REVICW^S.

Heath's Picturesque Annual for 1842. Paris in 1841 : by Mrs. Gore.

Although some of them are not particularly fresh — rather the re-
verse— the architectural subjects contained in this new volume, are
ably treated in themselves, being from the pencil of Allom, one of the
first architectural draughtsmen of the day. It will, perhaps, be thought
that Paris itself is now rather an exhausted subject, and that there is
very little to be found but what has in some shape or other been ex-
hibited to the public. This, however, is so far from being the case
that we could mention several buildings, which we expected to find
here illustrated for the first time, but which seem to have quite escaped
the artist, notwithstanding that they are of cousiderable importance.
Surely the Hotel de Ville, the Ecole des Beaux Arts, with its screen
from Chateau Gaillon, the Hotel du Quai d'Orsay, Notre Dame de
Lorette, and several structures— some of them still in progress, others
recently completed, would have furnished more than the same number
of subjects for the pencil. It is not without cause therefore that we
feel disappointed at here meeting with many "old acquaintances,"
and hardly In a new dress, for the buildiugs are shown from nearly the
very same point of view as we have before seen them represented in
Pugin's Paris and other works. This might have been avoided, and
we regret it the more because Mr. Allom's pencil would have been more
worthily employed on edifices which are as yet little known, in com-
parison with some of those he has selected. We should have thought
that he would have confined himself to entirely new subjects, yet as
he did not, we are rather surprised he did not give us an interior of
the " Pantheon," by way of companion to that of La Madeleine, in
order to afford a comparison between them, as delineated and engraved
by the same artists. Beautiful as they are, their merits are of very
different kinds, and we are almost inclined to declare in favour of La
Madeleine, if only on account of being more novel in character. Its
plan is exceedingly simple, forming merely a nave or single vaulted
hall, without transept or even aisles, but divided into three compart-
ments, each of which is covered by pendentives and a segmental dome.
There is besides a spacious semicircular tribune or apsis at the north
end, raised a few feet above the rest of the floor, and covered by a
semidome. In one respect this interior is distinguished from almost
every other of its kind, namely, in being lighted entirely from above,
through the centre of each dome ; yet though there are only four aper-
tures of the kii;d, including that over the tribune, the church is found
to be sufficiently well lighted, while the eflVct is incomparably supe-
rior to that produced by side windows ; for great breadth and repose is
thus given to the architecture, whereas the other mode occasions a con-
fused spottiness. Greatly do we wish therefore that some of our own
architects would venture upon the innovation of lighting a church from
its roof alone, and getting rid of side windows altogether, more espe-
cially as so far from being ornamental they are made invariably the
reverse, with exceedingly mean-looking small panes of very ordinary
glass, and when ground glass is used the effect is precisely that of a
dense fog.

As Mrs. Gore does not trouble her readers with such dry matters as
the dimensions of buildings, or in fact with any thing amounting to
description of them, we may as well inform ours that those of the in-
terior of La Madeleine are 260 feet iu length by 52 in breadth. The

416

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[Dkcembkr,

exterior view of the same building, is by no means so interesting as
the other, — In fact it might very well have been dispensed with, it
being no more than a Corinthian peripteral temple, and having also
been shown some time ago, in one or two of our weekly publications.
We rather wonder that we do not here meet with the Colurine de
JuitUt, — not that it is a particularlv good subject in itself, but because
it is the newest thing of its kind in the French capital. However,
although their subjects might have been more judiciously chosen, the
plaits are by far the best part of the feast — vastly better than the
insipid hotchpotch which Mrs. Gore has diahtd-iip on her part.

Sporting Architecture. By George Tattersall. London: Ackermann,1841.
The Edinburgh Review has lately devoted a long article to sporting
literature, and the Athenaeum has made itself merry with a sporting
novel. After such an advent, we were prepared for any miracle, par-
ticularly when we remembered what important influence sporting le-
gislation has for centuries had upon the social system fabric; but in
what unlooked-for form the genius of sporting was next to be found
we could not say, whether lecturing upon sporting ffisthetics in our
older universities, places long haunted by the Newmarket Minerva, or
whether in the Useful Knowledge Halls of the Gower Street College,
it was not for us to divine. Imagine, then, our surprise, when we find
the new offspring of this union of Diana and Apollo laid at the doors
of our own Foundling Hospital, to wit, in the shape of young Tatter-
sall on Sporting Architecture. Sporting Architecture ! and why not?
when horses are better cared for than men, when the hygeiene of
puppies is far more studied than that of the starving thousands, why
should not sporting have its architecture as well as its painting and
its prose ? The numerous occasions on which it is necessary for the
builder to make provision for animal economy would alone induce us
to give our attention to the subject ; but when we have, in the heredi-
tary tastes of Mr. Tattersall, and in his professional skill as an archi-
tect, such weighty motives for listening to his themes, we should be,
indeed, inexcusable had we the adder's deafness. We can, however,
scarcely forbear from a smile when we think of the Choragic Monu-
ment of Lysicrates turned into a distance post, and the Erechtheum on
the top of a grand stand. With all these incongruities, we must look
upon sporting architecture, or architecture for horses and hounds as a
subject of considerable importance. In connection with military build-
ings the proper mode of constructing stables, must be carefully studied,
and when we are informed that a sum of 10,0U0Z. has in more than one
instance been laid out on a dog kennel, 70,00U/. on stables at Windsor,
and that no expense is spared that can preserve the health of the
stock, it behoves the architect to look about him. In its bearings, too,
upon farm architecture, and the building of railway stations, riding
houses, cattle markets, and slaughter houses, the work before us is of
interest, and in fact, whether in the stable attached to a private dwel-
ling house, or whether in buildings specially appropriated to the horse,
every professional man will find liis advantage iu adopting Mr. Tatter-
sail's volume as a work of reference. When we look into it we are
pleased to see the care the author has taken in availing himself of in-
formation from the best sources, and we are pleased with the attention
he has devoted to ventilation, drainage, soil and materials. Mr. Tat-
tersall is a man of taste, also ; we find his work well and usefully
illustrated, so that we look upon it as a good addition to our profes-
sional library. Utility is Mr. Tattersall's motto, and in a subject which
is generally treated ad ciiplandum, it does him great credit that he
should have so steadily fulfilled his promise.

Companion to the Almanac for 1842. Knight and Co.
The architectural portion of this new volume of the " Companion,"
which has just made its appearance so late in the month as barelv to
allow us to mention it — contains much interesting matter, both des-
criptive and critical. Among the buildings which are more fully
noticed, are, the Houses of Parliament, — Royal Exchange, — the struc-
ture in Threadneedle Street, — St. George's Hall and Assize Courts,
Liverpool (with plan and persjiective view), — Collegiate Institution,
do., (with view),— Surry Pauper Lunatic Asylum,— Savings Bank,
Bath (with view),— Streatham Church (with elevation), — St. Mary's
Southwark (with view), — Trinity Chapel, Po|)lar (with elevation and
section), — and St. Chad's, Birmingham.

A Hand Book for Plain and Ornamental Mapping. — Part II. By
Benjamin P. Wilme, C.E. and Surveyor. London: Weale, 1841.
Mr. Wilme's book is a collection of designs for executing the seve-
ral parts of a map, including ornamental titles, sections, hills, embank-
ments, drains, &:c., and may be advantageously used by the engineering
draughtsman.

ON EARTH WORK.

By Ellwood Morris (United States), Civil Engineer.

[The following extracts from the American Franklin Journal, show
that our transatlantic brethren are alive to the economical working of
earth work. We shall be glad to receive from some of our engineers
their observations on the increase or decrease of earth work and rock
when removed from cutting to embankment. — Editor.]

On the Coit of Excavating Earth by tneani of Scrapers or Scoops.

Of all machines known to American Engineers, and used upon our
public works for the excavation of earth, and its removal to short dis-
tances, the scraper, or scoop, is, within its proper sphere of influence,
by far the most economical.

This instrument is particularly well known to canal contractors,
much used by them in earth cuttings, and most frequently employed
in excavating the trunks of canals, where they are so laid out that the
cutting makes the bank, or nearly so ; but the scoop may be used with
success in all excavations of earth where the slopes do not exceed li
to 1, if the material to be taken out yields readily to the plough, and
is not required to be moved horizontally more than 100 feet, nor to
vertical heights exceeding 15 feet; there are doubtless instances
where both these limits may be surpassed, and the use of the scoop
still be highly economical, but such cases are not general, and the
practical scope of the utility of scoops may be regarded as confined to
the excavation of canal trunks, and the formation of low road embank-
ments from side trenches, for both of which purposes it is more ad-
mirably adapted.

This machine is drawn by two horses, managed by a boy, and usuallv
requires the ground to be first ploughed ; then by simply elevating
and guiding the handles a little, the driver causes it to load itself, for
the horses being in motion it turns in its clevisses, and inclining down-
ward, runs under the loose dirt like a plough; the handles being re-
leased, the loaded scoop moves upon two iron shods runners which
form the sides, and project below the bottom, and finally after reach-
ing the place of deposit, the handles being smartly elevated, the edge
of the scoop, which is armed with iron, takes hold of the bank, and the
horses moving on, it overturns and discharges its load ; in this over-
turned position, with the handles resting on the double tree, it returns
upside down to the place of excavation, and is there loaded, &c., as
before.

Although for successful scooping the ground usually requires loosen-
ing, and must not be so hard as to resist the plough; it is often the
case, especially in sandy material, that it is to soft that the scoop, by
its armed edge, is able to excavate it, and load itself, without any pre-
vious loosening of the earth.

All this will be rendered so evident to the reader, by an inspection
of the annexed isometrical sketch, showing a scoop, with its double
tree, and single trees, that any further description of the mode of ope-
ration seems to be entirely unnecessary.

The writer pursuing his object of acquiring, from actual experi-
ment, a knowledge of the cost of excavating materials and forming
embankments upon public works, early addressed himself to observe
the effect produced by scoops, and the results of numerous observa-
tions upon scooping earth to horizontal distances of from 30 to SO feet,
and heights of 5 to 15 feet, where the slopes are 2 feet base to 1 foot
rise, established in a satisfactory manner the following data :

1841.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

417

1. That taking averagp earth (yielding readily to the plough,) at
mean stages cf weather and seasons, a scoop load may be taken at one
tenth of a cubic i/ard mcnsurcd in excavation.

2. That the time lost in loading, unloading, and all other ways per
load (except in turning,) is, at an average, two-thirds of a minute.

3. That in every complete turn, or semicircle, described by the
horses, one-third of a minute is lost.

4. That if tlie mean horizontal distance of transportation of the
earth in a right line, he added lo the extreme height scooped, measur-
ing vertically from the buttom of the excavation to the top of the
bank, then fur every 70 feet of this aggregate distance, one minute
will be consumed by the horses iu going out and returning back.

5. That if the earth be all scooped io one side, as for instance, to the
tow-path bank alone, of a canal, two turns, or a complete circle, will be
made by the horses, for every load deposited in bank.

C>. That if the earth be scooped to both s/des of a canal, but one turn,
or a semicircle onhj, will be described by the horses, for each load put
in bank.

From the oth and 0th observations, it follows that clear of the time
needed to overcome the horizontal haul and vertical height, the con-
stant amount of time lost per load, will be : — In Double Scooping, 1
minute, and tn Side Scooping, l~ minute. Now if the sura of the mean
horizontal haul, and the extreme height scooped, both in feet, be put =
a; the number of hours wrought per day, zzz b; the number.of cubic
yards excavated and placed iu bank, per day, by each scoop, = .v.
Then the general formula to find .(,- in double scooping will be :

(it)

b

Vyy-r 1 y

. .f.

10

Transforming this equation by the rules of algebraic fractions, and
substituting for b the average number of hours commonly wrought per
day, = 10, we are able to reduce the formula to the following ;

III Double Scooping, — ^_ = .!•

And for side scooping the general formula will be :

GO

I.

10

Transforming which, by the rules of algebraic fractions, we have:
re,-. 4200

In Side Scooping, — — -j = .r II.

Now putting the cost per cubic yard of excavation put in bank clear
of aU profit, = y ; the daily wages of a scoop and driver, in cents, ^
c ; the cost per cubic yard, in cents, of loosening the earth, = rf; the
formula to find y, the cost in pence* per yard, either in double or single
scooping, will be :

.^i='J

III.

The actual number of cubic yards excavated and put in bank by
scoops, in several instances, having become accurately known to the
writer, the correctness of the formuls I. and II. will be tested by those
cases.

E.vaniplt I. Double Scooping.

In this case, 3o00 cubic yards of earth were excavated and put in
bank by 00 days work of scoops, or per scoop, per day, 40 cubic yards,
x; the mean horizontal haul was 2GA feet; and tlie extreme height
scooped, 8 feet; making the aggregate distance 34-i feet. Then by

4200

the formula (I.) we have .j-r;— .— ,=7; = 40-2 cubic yards = .r.

o4;s -j- /O

Here the calculated and actual day's work of the scoops is the same
within -nj of a cubic yard.

Example II. Single or Side Scooping.

In this case, 5000 cubic yards of earth were excavated and deposited
in bank by 17G days work of scoops, or per scoop per day, 2>)i cubic
yards, =: x ; the mean horizontal haul was 44 feet, and the extreme
height scooped, 11 feet; making the aggregate distance, 55 feet, ^= a.

'' We have adopted the English pence fur calculation, instead of the dollar
and cents, as given m the original paper by the auihor, allowing 04 pence for
the dcllar. — Editor.

Then by the formula (II.) we have

4200

2S'3 cubic yards =r .v.

aa + 933^

Here the ditterence between the real and calculated days work of a
scoop is 5 of a yard.

Conceiving it to be unnecessary to display at length anv more of
tlie examples, we will embody, in the following table, the results of
actual experiments, and compare them with tliose calculated by the
formula;.

No. of Experiments.

Kind of scooping iDouble

Mean horizontal haul ! 26 o

Extreme height scooped

Value of «

Number of cubic yards excavated
and put in bank

Days work of scoops employed . .

No. of cubic yards actually exca-
vated per day by each scoop . .

No. of cubic yards excavated per
day per scoop ; calculated hy
formula I. and II

Cost per cubic yard of the excava-
tion calculated by formula III.

8
34-5

5000
126

39-:

40-2

4|-rf.

Double
20-5

8
31'5

3000
90

40

40-2
4-}d.

Side.
44
11
55

5000
170

28-.')

28-3
off/.

4

1

5 j

, Side.

Side. 1

I 36

40 I

6

9 1

i -i^

. 49

5010

852

181

28-5

31

30

31

29-5

5irf.

Hd.

In calculating column 10 of the above table, the hire per day of a
scoop and drii'er, has been assumed to be 12s. 5!id., and the cost of
loosening, at 1 cent (•.34t/.) per cubic yard.

The near coincidence of the results in columns 8 and 9, shows how
closely the calculated number of cubic yards, excavated per day, in
each of the kinds of scooping, agrees with the real day's work of each
scoop, as actually ascertained in excavating 20,062 cubic yards of
earth; consequently we may regard the formulee which we have de-
duced, as being sufficiently coii/iniwd to Justify a full reliance upon them
in practice.

ON THE COMPRESSION OF EARTH, AND THE INCREASE Of ROCK IN EM-
BANKMENT, CO.MPARED WITH THE VOLUME IN EXCAVATION.

I. On the Compression of Earth in Bank.

It is well known to practical engineers, that when earlli is excavated
and formed into embankment, it occupies less space iu bank than in
the cut whence it came.

Although experience has sulficiently established this fact, yet a
contrary opinion is often entertained by persons who have not bestow-
ed much attention upon such art'airs ; and this idea is encouraged by
inadvertent paragraphs, which are sometimes met with in works of
high professional authority.*

Thus even in Professor JIahan's able treatise upon Civil Engineer-
ing, (page lis,) we find the following sentences: — "In determining
the relations between the volumes of the embankments, and the exca-
vations by which they are furnished, it must also be borne in mind that
earth, in its natural state, occupies less space than when broken up ;
and as the embankments, when first formed, are iu the state of earth
newly broken up, an allowance must be made according to the nature
of the soil. This allowance will generally vary between one-twelfth
and one-eighth ; that is, earth, when first broken up, will occupy from
one-twelfth to one-eighth more bulk than it does in its natural state."

Now, so far from this being the case with embankments of earth, it
is directly the reverse, and the fact is in practice, that the compression,
and not the expansion, of earth, when formed into bank, is usually
found to be from «h eighth to a tmlfth part of its volume in the natural
state.

Although it is evident that a subject of this nature does not admit
of a precise determination, because an almost endless variety exists in
the consistency, and hence in the compressibility of earths; still it is
quite possible to form an approximation which will not, in general, err
very far.

- The must common error upon ihis subject, which we meet with in books,
is the supposition that a certain amount of earth excavation, will forni the
same quantity of emb: nkmcnt ; which, in practice, can never be the case in
banks ihat arc ma:ic with cans.

Thus in ProTessor MiUington's excellent '• Elements of Civil Engineering,"
we tinil it stateil (at jir.go 184.) ihat by a particular arrangement ol levels.
•' one-half of the canal will be in excavatiun, and the remaining half in em-
bankment, and the soil that is dug out of one end will serve to lorm the em-
bankment at the other.'' The same idea runs through other works, nhich
we might quote if it were necessary.

3 K

418

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[DECEMBER,

A few years ago the writer made some observations upon embank-
ments formed from excavations, in three different cases, and upon a
tolerably large scale, where the accurate cnbic content, both of cut
and bank, was known, and the amount of the latter exceeded 39,000
cubic yards.

The details of these experiments, all of which refer to banks formed
inlayers by cart and scoop, are to be found in the following statement,
of which we may further observe, that one winter intervened between
the commencement and completion of each bank.

Number of the
embankment.

Earth exca-
vated to form
each embank-
ment.

Embankment
made by tlie

preceding

quantities of

earth.

Shrinkage or

compression

of the earth in

bank.

Rate of the '
compression of
the earth in

bank.

1*
2*
3

Cubic yards.

6970

25975

10701

Cubic yards.
6262
23571
• 9317

Cubic vards.

708

2404

1384

Cubic yards.
9-84
10-80
7-73

Total. 1 43616 ' 39150

1 1

4496

By these tabulated observations, we perceive that 43,G4l) cubic yards
of earth, transferred from its natural locality into the embankment of
a public work, suffered by the operation a diminution, or shrinkage, in
bulk, of 4,490 cubic yards, or oiie-ltnlh of its mass.

Some other observations, upon a smaller scale, indicated that the
compression which took place in grardly earth, when used for em-
bankment, amounted to about one-tnel/th of its bulk in the cutting.

Consequently, at least until more ample experiments are made,
these results seem sufficient to justify the assumption of the following
rates for the compression of earth in bank, viz.

In light sandy earth, \ of the volume in excavation.

In yellow clayey earth, -^ "

In gravelly earth, ^ "

In computations made for the purpose of equalizing the excavation
and embankment upon roads, canals, or railroads, a strict attention to
the above considerations is indispensably requisite ; for if they are
neglected, it will be found that excavations, which have been laid out
as sufficient to furnish the materials for a given embankment, will be
deficient in quantit}', and an unexpected resort to side cutting will be-
come necessary to complete the bank, as has been witnessed by the
writer in more than one instance.

In tracing out a canal, if the depth of cutting sought by the centre
line, as necessary to form the banks from the excavation of the trunk,
has been calculated without due allowance for the cotnpression of earth
in bank, the trunk of the canal will not supply material enough, and a
resort either to catting below' bottom, or to side trenches, will become
unavoidable, to make up the amount deficient.

//. On the Increase of Rock in Bank.

By careful observations made by the writer, it was found that the
excavation of 22,025 cubic yards of hard sand-stone rock, which quar-
ried in large fragments, formed 32,395 cubic yards of embankment ;
showing that in tills instance the increase of the rock in bank was
9,770 cubic yards, or about -^ of its volume measured in the cut.

In another case, it was noticed that the excavation of 16,982 cubic
3'ards of blue slate rock, that broke up into small pieces, formed 27,131
cubic yards of embankment; showing that here the increase of the
rock in bank amounted to 10,149 cubic yards, or nearly ^ of its mea-
sured bulk in the cutting.

From these observations, made upon the increase of near 40,000
cubic yards of rock-cutting carried into bank, it would seem that the
augmentation was about one half; but as in lime-stone, and other rocks,
it might be found to vary, both with their relative frangibility, and the
dimensions of their quarried fragments, more experiments upon this
point appear to be necessary to enable correct rules to be framed.

Philadelphia, September Is/, 1841.

Sparl- Protector. — The Gciman joumals state that an engineer of Vienna,
named Klein, has invented a method of preventing siarks and ashes from the
Jircs of the locomotive engines of railroads fnim tailing on the passengers in
open wagons, wiiliout, bortevcr, diminishing the current of air necessary for
the fire. The o.speriments made on the Vienna railway have been so saiis-
faetory that it has been resolved to adopt his apparatus, and to burn wuod
instead of coke, — M. Klein has taken out a patent tor his discovery.

I .• I'jnbankmcnts 1 and 2 v ere yellow clayey soil, and No. 3 light sandy soil.

fflNTS OX ARCHITECTUR.<U. CRITICISM.— Part 3.

It may appear quixotic, perhaps, to raise an opposition for the
sake of advancing to a poir.t, especially to men, who, from an esti-
mate of its worth, love their profession ; still, though it would pain
me so to insidt the enl;ghtened perception of many whose genius I
revere, I must even assume the attitude of Cervantes' Don, and fight
against impediments as they appear to stand betwixt criticism and
the truth. It is from a painful conviction that architecture is beset
by enemies in the guise of friends, whose opinions mostly discolour
what they touch; — it is from the spirit of common disquisition afloat
respecting her beautiful figures, that I have been so particidar in es-
tablishing her claims, and it is also that I may help to raise her to
that pinnacle which is her due, that one more part is devoted to con-
firm them.

Candidus, in his peculiar way, has long since taught us to infer,
how that many comment on architecture, who can remark on nothing
else, and if I affirm that many assume the airs of architectural con-
noisseurship whose coarse minds would famish on the delicacies of
poetry, I am not farther from the truth than the gentleman alluded to.
Let not then the man of taste question the benefit of any attempt,
however humble, which has for its object to inculcate purer notions
concerning an art whose monuments, above those of every other art,
embody the most extensive combinations, whether of beauty or of
grandeur.

In furthering my idea, then, the questionable character of proportion
invites regard, since to this the student of architecture first looks, as
he measures to be great. This measurement for beauty, which is
now the great feature in early tuition, and which sprang originally
from a desire to appreciate more fully what seemed so exquisite iu
design, first gave us those ideas of proportion we denominate classic.
Whilst, however, we were gaining acquaintance with the treasures of
antiquity, an evil was creeping insidiously in upon us, inasmuch as,
that beauty herself was becoming from habit systematic, and we our-
selves were in danger of ranking as engravers, rather than as artists,
whilst we reduced or transferred her objects. In spite of that love of
antiquity, which afl^ected us towards the adaptation of Athenian or of
Roman architecture, in spite of our admiration of parts for their in-
trinsic merit, an idea of proportion became engrafted on the mind,
which, as it pursued either one style or other, fixed upon that mind
first a prepossession towards certain division of parts, with their ar-
rangements, to the prejudice of other division of parts, with their
arrangements, until finally, this prepossession settled down into a con-
firmed choice for certain proportions, which were soon adhered to
inflexibly. The necessities of the art, too, requiring the easiest adap-
tation of form, inasmuch as it was (and is) dependent upon very many
contingent and urgent wants, led the architect to apply eagerly, as he
did with exactness, newly discovered beauties, especially when every
one admired, and when it was deemed creditable to his taste so to do.
Ideas of proportion were thus formed, so that with a reducing com-
pass, or a rule, symmetry was regulated, until amateurs, and would-be
amateurs, discovering a key to elegance, learned with very little
trouble how to commend or repudiate. Proportion soon became a
word narrowed in definition, as habit in practice and criticism applied
it ; and when the complacent regard of many for ancient examples,
became fanned into a stronger feeling, so as to produce a frown at
what was different, then the spirit of originality fled, and proportion
became sacrificed to a few favourite forms with rules to shape them,
whilst the word itself was a definition only of theii parts, or else ex-
planatory of the comparisons made between those parts, and others of
a natural figure. The consequence of all this was soon felt, for pro-
portion being seen the great concern of an architect — the principle he
seemed so to labour with, the spectator laughed to witness the ac-
couchement of ideas, ^^ Inch resembled iEsop's mouse in their little-
ness. The poverty of the art was next challenged by many ignorant
of its luxuriant beauties, and the professor was at last judged by a
low standard, when the poetry of design was found so easily contrived ;
from all this has sprung that race of pigmy critics, whose buzz is so
discreditable to our eloquently moving art.

It is against these and not against the artist, that I raise a feebie
voice, and it is to meet the simple conclusions drawn from their crude
notions of jiroportion, that I seek to generalize the word by extending
its signification. Proportion as a desideratum in architecture, we
say is evident, and we are inclined the more feelingly to assert this,
because the ancients, chastening their most beautiful designs into the
severity of fixed proportion, left little to the licence of unstudied art,
to affix or improve.

In considering proportion, it would matter little whether, according
to Burke, it be a mere negation, unless contrasted with deformity, or

l«!4l.l

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

419

whether, according to Allison, it is in itself a source of emotion. I
say, that it would matter little either way, provided that it be essentia!,
■were it not for certain notions entertained of it by many, wliich no-
tions, arising out of habit, or want of study, cause the word to be in-
correctly viewed in a composition. Proportion may be defined to be
the arrangement of parts in a form, inasmuch as, according to the
mutual fitness or disagreement of those parts, we have an idea of the
whole, or of its symmetry ; it is from this idea of the proportion, that
we speak of a figure as being well or ill-formed.

It is evident, therefore, that proportion to be entertained, must re-
quire our attention given to those parts, and it is evident also, that
pleasure to arise from them must vary as the power to perceive ex-
isting harmonies ; but it is also evident that the mind must at the
same time be thoughtfully engaged. Now, if great emotion be the
effect of a composition in art, and if severity of thought be opposed to
great emotion, which it is, proportion as fitness cannot be entertained
for its own sake in the composition of beauty. Allison has taken con-
siderable pains to confute the ideas of Burke upon this subject, by
showing the nature of satisfaction felt from the consideration of fitness
in a figure, and by arguing that if unpleasant associations (destructive
to ideas of the beautiful) connected with a figure be removed, that
then the fitness-of parts will produce emotion. But the very neces-
sity to have unpleasant associations removed before parts can be
balanced in the mind, argues in favour of Burke, since, if our emotions
in relation to beauty, being that beauty moves us and not we beauty,
proportion would first of all affect us, independently of associations,
were it a sharer in beauty's influence. There is undoubtedly a satis-
faction felt by the mind, in discerning the perfection of figure. The
anatomist might feel delight in theories, the very mention of which
would shock, but it is only satisfaction that is felt, arising out of the
effective exercise of our reasoning powers, or it may be extending
into a livelier feeling, from the pleasure of having conquered, when
by labour we have been able to discern the ingenuity or wisdom of
another. This delight is an emotion different from that engendered
by beauty, for it is an emotion resembling triumph. The spectator in
such a case can sift his own emotion, and is differently affected to him
who, viewing the beautiful, yields up his emotions and is conquered.
It is no argument either in favour of proportion as being necessary to
beauty, that the naturalist may deem a pig or a toad beautiful, be-
cause long study has prepared him for such a conclusion, and the
mind naturally delights in perceiving that which reminds it of passed
difficulties. In perceiving the harmony of contrivances, the naturalist
views with the eye of habit, and feels an emotion because the cause
of that appears which habit has made essential to his delight. Such
a man from habit would view the skeleton of a woman with estacy,
wliilst the poet, who feels the poetry of beauty more than any one,
■would shudder, or mournfully meditate on the decay of beauty which
he saw not. The one would see with satisfaction hollow cavities in
the skull, the other would be wandering with melancholy over soft and
oval features which were gone ; the one would perceive the delicacy
of bones and joints, the other would suggest to memory undulating
and retiring beauties now no more : — the anatomist would reason, but
the poet would feel. If proportion were minutely essential, our ideas
would be full of it whilst viewing a building, but the reverse of this is
the case. In buildings where the mind is encouraged to deep emotions,
the trivialities of parts could not be entertained, for if they were, an
admiration of them would change the character of deep emotion into
that of mere pleasure — the grand cause of the effect being that reason
is overbalanced ; and hence it is, that the moment the eye becomes
critical, then reason being restored, the impression is lost. In build-
ings, too, where the mind is more tranquilly engaged, and where the
emotion is more softened, if proportion were minutely essential, we
should seek out for every part to understand its relations, and be rest-
less unless we discovered all ; but how opposed is this to that law of
beauty which always conceals a part and never displays the whole of
her melting figure. If proportion were minutely essential, the design
would be only one of contrivances, like that of a machine, which sets
the mind thinking and perplexing itself before it can admire ; and if
we were to regard the design as we would a machine, our minds
would be led from ourselves, who ought to be solely affected, to dwell
on the ingenuity or skill of the contriver. It is only in severe and
chaste designs, where the mind has its pleasure tempered by expec-
tation, such as when a temple is erected to Minerva (and we contract
an evenness of thought), that the idea of proportion is consecutively
entertained, but the poetic sentiment is nevertheless sacrificed to this
exercise of comparison, for we are more as admirers of the goddess
than as beings affected by her power, our thoughts are not allowed to
repose on beauty, but our repose is checked by the demand of beauty
requiring us to admire — we are not allowed the languor of uncertainty,
but we must rouse ourselves to perceive the fitness of harmonies.

My remarks tend, then, to make proportion only indirectly essential
to a composition of beauty, and I am the more inclined to agree with
Burke, because it is the expression of form which pleases us and first
invites us to regard; and the only idea we have of fitness to (he beau-
tiful in figure, is the fitness of its expression, or of that wliich conveys
in one unbroken harmony, ideas of delicacy, ease, grace, &o. Objects
of beauty, too, although affecting to the mind, are also seen by a deter-
mination of sense, which, exquisitely acted upon by thc> most subtle
influence, catches the spirit of a figure. Beauties in architecture are
seen in this way. The beauty of the Grecian Ionic column for in-
stance, would never charm us as it does, however well proportioned,
unless a certain delicate softness of form were also apparent, which
we trace in circles, cavettos, volutes, and beads. Our Creator, who,
for wise purposes, has made us deeply sensitive to beautv, has given
us sensations which, to be perfect, require either the accord of all our
senses, or the quiescence of those unaffected; because, if one be dis-
turbed, then the other is affected, and hence, it is in the proportion of
the column, I love the sweeps and bends, because my eye wanders,
sinks and reposes, like the touch, which, perchance, resting on a form
of beauty, would wander, sink and repose. Besides, we sympathize
to a certain extent with the object, before we think it beautiful, by
giving it a personality. The poet is wooed by the gentle landscape,
and is kissed by a pensive moonbeam — an ideal embrace is traced oa
such a mind, under such influence, with all that softness which sense
in reality would feel ; hence objects cannot be deemed beautiful that
do not thus affect us, and hence the pig and the toad are both disgust-
ing, spite of their proportion.

Proportion to architecture is however essential, but I do not say
what are its degrees; the difficulty of explanation would be long and
tedious, and beyond the narrow limits allowed me, which limits con-
fine me to a prejudice confronting criticism, viz. that importance paid
to minute divisions, to which the general sentiment of a composition
is often sacrificed. Proportion in its most extended signification is
expressed by fitness, and, as applied to composition, it is the adapta-
tion of forms to some general idea, so that in their arrangement the
general idea may not be broken. It is the poetry of forms, and their
comparative magnitudes and altitudes, which is then lequired, assisted
by that relative position which makes proportion in one case to be no
proportion in another, and this leaves the mind open to that general
emotion which all feel, when buildings of ■beauty or of magnificence
appear to move or arrest them.

I do not mean, however, to say, that proportion in itself is not a
source of delight in composition, for the contrary is instanced in the
connoissenr, who, studying in Greece and Rome, has learned to ex-
amine critically and minutely, the exquisite parts of architectural
figure found there. Habit has made his eye nicely alive to minute
errors and delicate defects, or he feels an emotion in viewing their
absence in forms, which careful study has discovered to him admirable
in their fitness ; but he resembles the anatomist, whose scrutiny fur-
nishes his emotion. His delight is undoubtedly that of proportion,
but it is a delight which springs out of severity, or habit of thought,
and whilst this minuteness of thought engrosses him, it prevents the
sentiment of a composition from operating on his mind. A second
man might have studied the same figures, and as carefully, and yet
have only discovered an expression of beauty in them. He might, too,
before this, have seen the fitness of parts ; but let him recur back to
forms and figures, and he remembers them only by their expression,
which expression it is, which makes them beautiful or sublime : and
this remark is quite in accordance with taste, for, let a man be ever
so cultivated, it is the expression of form which, after all, must in-
fluence the emotion of beauty arising out of figure. An idea of grace
from difference of association, may be more refined in one man than
in another, and his idea of loveliness may require greater delicacy of
form to induce emotion; but, although the form which moves him is
more symmetrical than that which moves another, it is, after all, the
expression of the form which operates. Thus it is, that the asso-
ciation of the youthful artist with all the delicate cbasteness of
Greece, causes liira to perceive expressions of beauty which a man of
vulgar taste would lose. So that I do not quarrel with proportion,
but only with the idea that it is entertained for its own sake in a
composition of beauty. In speaking of figure, we say often, the form
of such a girl is faultless :— what do we mean ? We surely do not
conceive the anatomy of her frame — the very emotion which induces
such a remark prevents our reason from so working. What then do
we mean? We mean that there is every thing in her form to express
the delicate ease of beauty. An increased severity of mind in the
spectator always bears a ratio to the decrease of poetic sentiment;
hence it is, tha't an assemblage of few parts simply connected (deduct-
ing the accessories of situation) conti-ibutes to bestow on the rustic
habitation its powerful charm. Finally these, and the foregoing ob-

3 K 2

420

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[Deckmber

serv-:itions, lead to an idea, already half expressed, tliat proportion,
independently of tlie classification of forms, has its individuality in a
whole— that it has its expression and meaning always in the extremes
of a composition, and that those divisions which have no immediate
connexion with its terminations, come under the head of beauty's
accessories. If we look at a composition of the beautiful in nature,
we shall discover our eye wandering along its principal boundaries.
The idea of declension, which is an idea peculiar to bea\ity, w ill be
traced along the principal lines. The foreground of a picture will
conduct us perhaiis to a widening landscape, which lessens as the eye
advances, thence the eye will wander to a lake, lessening away, and
thence to the mountains, dying into the horizon ; and tliis we shall
find merely from those lines which suggest that unbroken idea of de-
clension which the lover of beauty seeks, and which these lines, form-
ing a pyramid on plan, show. Those who have watched the slight
pencillings of an artist, mav have discovered how this idea is sought
for in his sketch, which cannot be called the mere effort of memory,
because the same coincidence of idea is general, whilst nature has
her pictures in every degree of aspect. All this is the proportion of
a piece made up of lines, and is not to be confounded with the infinite
variety of undulations and curves of the landscape, confined within a
boundary, nor yet to be blended with the diversity of objects scattered
in lovely confusion around.

As the argument here ceases, it may be suggested by some little
critic or other, what has the gentleman proved by his labour? Has
he taught the profession to become immaculate, or does all his argu-
ment tend to prove only that our ideas upon a few points are incor-
rect? Should such an amusing chirp be heard, it is only an unwilling
argument in favour of my argument. Whenever our mind has been
the subject of consideration, the most careful and philosophic spirits
have exerted all their powers to detect the secret impulses which
move it, nor has it been deemed by men of mighty intellect, a frivolous
employment to exert every ingenuity to fix with certainty the causes
operating on one simple affection of the mind. Nor can we be too
careful in sifting and analyzing our minds, when we approach to con-
sider the compositions of art, since, according to our perception of
influences, so is our judgment, whilst, in proportion to the judgments
of criticism, we are to judge of the refinement or debasement of that
art. I can only add that proportion is essential, but it is a mere skele-
ton, hidden by the softest sjwin and concealed by the loveliest undu-
lation, whilst it is lost to sense amidst the lights and shades and flow-
ing dress of nature, and that architecture maintains her influence over
the mind, not from the mere adaptation of parts but from her tales
and pictures of sentiment.

Novi7nbtr, Frederick E.\ST.

COMPETITION DESIGNS IN ROME.

[Whatever is connected with competition designs at the present
moment, we consider is worthy the attention of the architect ; we
therefore with much pleasure give the following extract relative to
competition designs, from a very interesting work recently published
in Home by Count Hawks le Grice, entitled "Walks through the
Studii of the Sculptors at Rome."]

Large sums are annually expended by the Papal government on
public monuments, from the sumptuous mausoleum to the simple
statue ; and all the treasures of art preserved in the magnificent mu-
seums of Rome are liberally thrown open to the gratuitous inspection
and imitation of every artist, whatever be his creed or his country.
Nor are the best means of developing artistic talent neglected. Pub-
lic works are not given to a favoured few; they are placed under the
direction of the Academy of St. Luke, a corporate body composed of
the most distinguished artists in Europe, whose suffrages generally
unite in the choice of the most competent. Hence the correct taste
prevailing in every department. The most disinterested feelings are
found to actuate the members of the Academy; and it has not unfre-
quently h.appened that the successful candidate has been until then
one whose merit was known but to few. Such in truth was the first
step made by tlie great Canova towards the temple of Fame ; for until
his genius burst forth in his famous monument to Clement XIV. in
the ."^S. Apostoli, his name may be said to have been altogether un-
known to fame. We have still a more recent instance of tlie impar-
tiality with which merit is patronized in Rome even by private indi-
viduals. When the present Prince Torlonia, who is a most munificent
patron of the arts, signified his intention to erect a monument to his
late revered father, himself a princely patron, he invited all the artists
of Rome to send in designs, which he engaged to leave implicitly to
the Academy of S. Luke. The sum to be expended was considerable.

but the glory to be acquired was still greater. The artists therefore
entered the lists with no ordinary zeal ; overtures and intrigues were
not wanting; the patronage of the great was sought: but, to its
honour be it told, that, deaf to every indirect influence or selfish in-
terest, the Academy out voted itself, and resigned its own pretensions,
declaring with one voice a young sculjitor, 'till then unknown, the suc-
cessful candidate. The noble Prince could not help expressing the
apprehensions which he felt in entrusting to one of so little experience
a work of so much importance ; but the decision of the Academy was
irrevocable, and the I'rince, touched by their rectitude, not only acqui-
esced in their decision but advanced the necessary sums to enable the
fortunate candidate to commence the work.

Under the direction of this same Academy, whose members are
composed of artists of all countries without religious distinction, pre-
miums are awarded with the same liberal spirit ; and it is honourable
to this country as well as to our own that, at their annual distributions,
several English artists have been distinguished by ])rizes. The Aca-
demy has considerable funds ; but the Roman Government, without
assuming any right to influence its decrees, contributes largely to its
maintenance. Their President is chosen without reference to creed
or country ; and hence we find Thorwaldsen at one time, and the Che-
valier Don Sola at another time, their President. The professors of
the Academy, who are at the head of their profession, give gratuitous
education as well in the University as in the Orphanotrophia in paint-
ing, sculpture and architecture, and in the sciences necessary to their
full development ; and hence it cannot be matter of surprise that the
fine arts flourish in Rome. These instructions however are not con-
fined to Romans or Italians ; they are imparted gratuitously to persons
of every clime and creed. Such is the spirit of public beneficence
which animates the institutions of Rome, and prourits private indi-
viduals to their imitation. In our time, for instance, the immortal
Canova left behind him a tribute of munificent piety worthy of his
great name, by consecrating his large fortune, the fruit of a life of toil,
to the erection of a magnificent temple in his native country to the
Omnipotent, from whom all talent and knowledge flow as from their
source. He who promotes the arts must necessarily be hailed as a
benefactor to his country, for he contributes not only to its wealth
but also to its civilization.

" Ingenuas diilicisse fidpliter artcs
KmoUit mures, r.ec sinit esse t'eros."

Amongst such public spirited individuals must be numbered Canov.i,
as several of his benefactions in Rome attest; amongst them must be
numbered the present Prince Torlonia, who is in truth the Mecaenas of
his age; and amongst them stands pre-eminent the present reigning
Pontiff, Gregory XVI., who vies with a Leo X. in his munificent en-
couragement of the arts.

COMPETITION AFFAIRS :—PADDINGTON CHURCH.

There are some matters in respect to which it is exceedingly diffi-
cult to make any impression on the public, except by such repeated
hammering, that the very mention of them almost becomes a bore.
Architectural Competition is one of them, and has been so frequentlv
noticed of late, and apparently to so very little purpose, that many
may be disposed to ask " Cui bono ? " — what service is it to continue
remonstrating against abuses, when the exposure of them seems to
produce no effect whatever — neither the caution of decency on the
part of delinquents, nor co-operation on the part of the profession to
put down the malpractices complained of, so injurious to many of
them individually, and so discrcditalile to them as a body?" Such is
likely to be the plausible interrogation of easy indifference ; and the
advice couched in it is, no doubt, precisely that which the offenders
themselves would wish to see followed. " It is of no use," settles the
matter very comfortably.

The difficulty of putting down the abuses now so rife — the under-
hand manoeuvring and jobbing now practiced in so many instances,
that an honourably conducted competition may be considered an ex-
ception— this difficulty ought only to stimulate to greater energy, and
to strong and determined measures on the part of the honest members
of the profession. Or are we to suppose that these last are so insig-
nificant in number, and are left in such a terrible minority, that their
utmost united efforts for the correction of abuses would prore of no
avail ? If such be really the case, reform is altogether hopeless, and
it is indeed of no use to expose fraudulent practices of which nearly
all are more or less guilty, if the opportunity be afforded them. Still,
as the profession will hardly admit such to be the case, any attempt
to expose unfairness in competition may be supposed to be certain of
obtaining their approbation.

1841.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

421

The competition for the new church at Paddington does not appear
to have been an immaculate one, b.it on the contrary, so conducted as
to give rise to no little scandal. Among the competitors were several
of note— Wild, VuUiamy, &c., and the fortunate one was a young
architect of the name of Lindsay, whose design, which was in the
Grecian style, w^as approved of by the committee. Mr. Lindsay was,
however, doomed to be convinced practically of the truth of the pro-
verb, "Between the cup and the lip," for incredible as it niiiy seem,
the committee afterwards thought fit to rescind their decision very
cavalierly, entirely setting aside the whole affiiir of tlie competition,
and appointing Mr. Gutch, a surveyor, and, as is asserted, actually
one of the committee, as architect conjointly with Mr. Goldicutt.
They — or one of them, but which we are unable to say — then pro-
duced the present Gothic design, the expense of wiiich, it is under-
stood, will not be at all under £10,000, although the competitors were
limited in the first instance to £7,000; therefore it ought, at all
events, to be something very superior to what was originally contem-
plated. How far such be really the case, is what we have not the
means of judging; but if the published lithograph view may be relied
on as a tolerably ftiir representation of the building, we think the com-
mittee have made after all an exceedingly bid bargain. In regard to
style it is a mere jumble, while, looking at it merely as a composition,
it is poor, trivial, and insipid.

As to the manner in which the competition has been conducted, and
the original competitors treated, should there be any error or mis-
statement in our account of it, we shall be glad to be corrected, and
to be assured that whatever the adopted design may be in itself, there
was no kind of manoeuvring on the part of any one in the case.

Sill — Enough has already been said respecting the present system
of competition, it is now high time for the profession to do sometliing
in order to redress their grievances. A Society might be formed of
as many architects (I would not exclude those wjio practice surveying
also), as would join themselves together for mutual protection, binding
themselves not to compete for any building, the committee of which
would not conform to certain fair and impartial rules adopted bv the
society; there are no doubt many gentlemen in the profession well
qualified to organize such a society, and surely all honest architects
would join in the attempt to remove their liability to such dirty actions
as it is too well known often disgrace "respectable" committees.

I sincerely hope that the influential part of the profession will take
the matter up.

I am. Sir, your most obedient servant,

Parvo.

[We do not see the utility of any other Society than those already
established in the metropolis and various parts of England and Ireland ;
if they would do their duty, they might, in some measure, put an end
to the present deplorable state of competition. As far as we are con-
cerned, we shall be at all times happy to give a Iielping hand to im-
prove the system, but we must have the assistance of the Members of
the Profession, who ought to act in concert, and not as now, opposed
to each other. — Editor.]

ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF OBLIQUE ARCHES.

Sir — In your Journal for September 1841, Mr. Barlow in his reply
to Mr. Nicholson, has thought proper to make some severe observations
on the "Guide to Railway Masonry," published by that gentleman,
and as I think very unwarrantably ; Mr. B. only selects a small portion
of that work, and because the whole of the oblique arch is not con-
tained in his selection, he cannot award that merit to Mr. N.to which
he is entitled. To take Mr. B.'s proposition, viz.: "suppose it was re-
quired to construct an oblique arch of the following dimensions,
span = 10 = A. C. rise 2-.'> = angle 45^ = A. H. C— Width of bridge
10 ^ A. U." I will now endeavour to show, aided by the instructions
derived from the above publication, that the work can be correctly
accomplished. Having laid down the plan and development, &c. &c.
as per sketch, II Q G A and E F G A, then at page 10, Guide to Rail-
way Masonry, will be found nearly the following directions : divide the
straight line E A into nine equal parts, and let S U be respectively the
eighth and ninth parts of division from E, draw F v perpendicular to
A E meeting it in r, and as the point v falls between the eighth and
ninth point, but nearer to the ninth v, than to the eighth s, join
F and divide each springer line E F A G into nine equal parts,
&c. Thus it will appear from the above that Mr. N. was not so
"ignorant" of the fact, of the necessity in some cases of adjusting the

angle of intrado ; and I believe fliat the first time Mr. Buck mentions
the subject, is at page 9, and Mr. N. in his work, at page 10, showing
that both Mr. Nicholson and Mr. Buck considered all the instructions-
preceding these pages, to have been preliminary. It is rather singular
to find Mr. Barlow condemning Mr. Nicholson's "Approximations,"
when he in your Journal for October, arrives at the very same conclu-
sion. " I guess" your readers will understand his position. Certainly
no one can deny the "duty" of Mr. Barlow or Mr. C. to "expose
errors," &c. Great men should be actuated by great and generous-
actions, and not as it appears in Mr. Barlow's case, made the means of
suppressing the work of a worthy, intelligent and laborious old man.
Highly creditable will it be to Mr. Barlow should he be permitted to-
attain to the same venerable age; could he exclaim, I too have beerj
as useful to the artisan as a Nicliolson.

I am, Sir, vour's, &e.

M. Q.
rorA-,Oe/o6cr 8, 1841.

STEAM NAVIGATION TO THE PACIFIC BY THE ISTHMUS

OF PANAMA AND ALONG THE WESTERN COAST

OF SOUTH AMERICA.

(From Si/liman's American Journal.)

Some interesting pamphlets on the subject named in the title were
placed in our hands earlv in 1840 in Boston, by a brother of Mr. Wil-
liam Wheelwright, to whom mainly the world is indebted for an
undertaking which may be with prop'rietv ranked the first among the
enterprises by steam. Mr. Wheelwright has laboured several years
at this undertaking and is now on the eve of success. From himself
we have just received a communication, which, although not intended
for the public eve, contains many facts in which the world is interested,
and we therefore ventiirj to annex certain portions of his letter or
abstracts from if.

Takahiano, March 8, 1841.

TO r-ROFESiOl; SILLIMAN.

Dear Sir. — I had the honour of receiving your valued favour only
a dav or two since, having left the United States about the time it
was Written, to take up the superintendence of the Pacific Steara
Navigation Company, wliich I had previously formed in England.

422

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[Deckmber,

Two of our steam ships, of about 700 tons each, tlie Peru and Chile,
arrived in this port in 35 days from EngUind, passing through the
Straits of Magellan, from sea to sea, in thirty hours ; sails were em-
ployed when the winds were fair, otherwise steam, and the voyage
may be said to have been one of the most brilliant ever undertaken.
The field for steam navigation in these seas is so ample that our first
voyages came off most successfully, proving and fulfilling every state-
ment made ; unfortunately, however, the directors in England, neg-
lecting to send a supply of coal, as previously arranged, the operations
of the company liave ceased, for the present, and I am now engaged
in this place in mining for coal, an operation never before undertaken
in this country, and which of course presents a thousand difficulties.
My first object when I arrived here was to make a practical ex<imi-
nation, to ascertain tlie strength of the coal, and see its influence upon
our boilers and fire bars ; for this purpose I proceeded south, with the
double object of proving the coal and exploring Valdivia and the
island of Chiloe. After some unsatisfactory experiments, we finally
earae to such an arrangement of our fire bars as to produce a result
decidedly favourable ; the excess of expenditure over the best Welsh
coal was 27 per cent., which is nearly as good as Newcastle coal.
The formation of clinker is great, but it is not of an adhesive charac-
ter, and tlie fires are easily cleared ; the coal seems to possess no sul-
phur, and there is nothing disagreeable in the smoke ; the ashes are
■white and the coal free from smut. The coal lies in horizontal strata,
rjging or falling not more than ten or eleven degrees; is about three
to four feet wide, and is found most generally, cropping out on the
precipitous sides of hills; the upper stratum is generally soft; the
next stratum, which is what I now send you, is found from twenty to
forty feet beneath ; and I am now engaged in sinking a perpendicular
shaft for the purpose of finding a third stratum and still better coal.
Some two or three cargoes of this coal have been shipped, and spon-
taneous combustion has been produced, which set fire to the vessels ;
it must be considered that the coal first used was never mined, and
was taken merely from the surface. I have ascertained that in two
instances the vessels which have been set on fire had vegetable mat-
ter on board — the first was a cargo of wheat stowed over a deep bed
of coal ; the next, the coal was shipped in what are called here ckgitas,
made of grass. What influence they may have had in producing
spontaneous combustion it is not in ray power to say, and I should be
much obliged if you could account to me for its spontaneous ignition.
I cannot at present make any large deposit of this coal until I make
some experiments, and for this object I shall load one or two small
ressels with the coal, and watch it carefully, keeping it free from any
vegetable matter, and from water, and giving it all the ventilation in
my power; it is a great drawback upon my operations at present. On
board the steamers we have iron bunkers for about ten or eleven days'
fuel, and it causes me no anxiety in putting it on board. 1 had this
arrangement of our hunkers made with a view of using this coal.

On my voyage south, I found at Valdivia and Chiloe the same strata
of coal, and in a line of coast of more than 4U0 miles there does not
appear to exist the slightest difference in quality. It is perhaps
worthy of remark, that the coal found at Boca del Toro, on the Atlan-
tic side of the isthmus of Panama, and near Cherokee on the Pacific
side of the isthmus, is the same to all appearance as that found in this
district.

I am at present mining about fifty tons a week, but hope in the
course of a few days to open some more mouths, and mine in much
farther than I am doing at present; ray only fear is that in sinking a
shaft I shall be obliged to contend with a large quantity of water. As
it is a new thing and a work in which 1 have no knowledge, I am
obliged to adopt a common sense view of it, and work on as well as
I can, until miners can be sent me from England. The cost at the
pit's mouth will not exceed two dollars per ton ; should I get it lower
down, it will be necessary to clear it of water by a steam engine,
which will render it somewhat dearer. Notwithstanding our ope-
rations are paralyzed at present, I feel persuaded that by the end of
this year our line of intercourse to Panama will be completed, and our
communication with North America and Europe greatly facilitated,

I have no doubt that the coal beds here will bring about sooner the
steam intercourse westward from Europe to Australasia: this has been
a favourite plan of mine for several years, and 1 hope that the arrange-
ments which I made before I left England, patronized by >ir Edward
Parry, Captain Fitzroy, Mr. Montague and others, will soon go into
effect. Perhaps the greatest change ever ell'ected will be produced
by opening an intercourse westward from Europe to Asia, and making
America the stepping stone between them. The isthmus of Panama
is destined to become one of the most interesting spots in the world ;
a ship canal will be formed, and it will be formed, and it will become
the highway between the I'acific and Atlantic oceans. I have been
frequently on the isthmus, have passed often between the two seas,

have examined with much attention the facilities and obstacles which
it offers for the object proposed, and have satisfied myself of the per-
fect feasibility of establishing a communication between the two oceans.
On leaving England, I was requested to report upon my journev over,
and to examine the isthmus with care, as well as the river Chagres.
As it may, perhaps, be acceptable, I extract from the report such parts
as I conceive may prove interesting to you.

" Having prepared myself with the necessary apparatus, I com-
menced by sounding the Chagres bar, where I found at low tide 14
feet of water ; the river being then swollen IS inches, left ]'2i feet of
water, from thence upwards to the junction of the rivers Chagres and
Trinidad, (which you will find in the map in my pamphlet,) where
there are four and three fathoms close to bank, which vessels might
use as a pier to discharge goods. A little above the junction the
water shoals to seven or eight feet — the channel below is never less
than 300 to 40U feet, and often lUOO to 1200 feet ; a steamer of 500
tons, properly built, might navigate as high up as the Trinidad, with
perfect safety and ease; at this point it is also perfectly healthy;
from this junction the distance is 28 miles to the Rio Grande, which
empties into the Pacific about three quarters of a mile from the city
of Panama. Vessels of any size may enter this river, as the tide rises
in spring 22 feet; the space between the t%vo points has but a very
slight rise. I should say that it could not exceed 40 feet, for in pass-
ing over to Panama from Gorgona, I found there was not a hill to
ascend, and that a good carriage road could be formed without making
a single cut. While the land to the left towards Cruces was moun-
tainous and broken, that to the right seemed to decline to an unbroken
plane : hence, it appeared to me, that Lloyd's statement respecting
that line was strictly true.

" My impression is, that the first object, before thinking of a canal,
should be to make a good road from the junction of the rivers Trini-
dad and Chagres to the Rio Grande or Panama; by this means an
intercourse between the steamers on the Atlantic and the steamers on
the Pacific could be effected in three or four hours with perfect ease,
and a cargo even transported in that time."

As it regards steam navigation in the Pacific, I feel convinced that
it will gratify you to know, that the great work is going on. Even
the few voyages made between Chile and Peru have sho«ni, so pal-
pably, its advantages, that the stopping of the steamers has produced
a great sensation throughout the land ; it is impossible to form an es-
timate of what it will do for these countries — the governments of
Chile, Peru, and Bolivia, have granted every protection and continue
to give me every support ; and I am under the firm conviction that
when once perfected, its advantages will be found vastly beyond what
I have described them. I am very much indebted for the insertion in
the American Journal of Science, of my paper on iron steamboats. I
have made considerable efforts to bring fonvard that subject in Eng-
land; 1 have gone into its detail and examined with all minuteness
the whole subject, and 1 am perfectly convinced that not only all our
western waters will be navigated by steam vessels built of iron, but
that transatlantic steamers will and must be of iron. Mr. Brunei, the
celebrated engineer of England, wrote me a letter of thanks for the
paper, and promised to lay it before the board of directors of the
Great Western Company, and 1 have reason to believe that it was
mainly instrumental in bringing about the building of the great iron
steamer, which will shortly ply across the Atlantic, and show herself
as vastly superior to the Great Western, as the Great Western was
superior to others, when she commenced transatlantic navigation.

THE PUBLIC WORKS IN FRANCE.

The following remarks on the public works in France are taken
from a letter which lately appeared in the Cotistilulioimel, they present
a melancholy picture of the state in which various public works have
been left throughout France in consequence of the disastrous policy of
" arming against all Europe," at an expense which not even the greatest
financial prosperity could justify.

" The Count Daru has aptly characterized our actual situation — we
commence great works on every side, and finish none. The great
leading lines are scarcely sketched out, when the sums which should
be destined to their completion are exhausted in opening unproductive
branches. The interest of enormous capitals is lost, taxes are in-
creased, and there is no augmentation of revenue. The generation
which makes such generous sacrifices will derive no fruit from them.
Canals, destined to enrich the country, are at this moment in the actual
condition of lands purchased for their weight in gold, and yet shame-
fully remaining sterile. Each year we must recommence what was

1841.1

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

423

almost finished the preceding year; and, in place of diffusing wealth,
we everywhere organize ruin.

"The canal from the Marne to the Rhine, for example, has been
deplorably retarded. I am convinced, from a visit which I have just
made to the principal industrial establishment of the department of
the Meuse, of the disastrous consequences of this delay. I have seen
throughout that active and laborious country a true desolation reign-
ing. All the hopes which had been conceived of this grand and mag-
nificent communication vanish in the saddest disappointment, and each
contemplates with grief these immense works, created by an enormous
expenditure, which will be doubled by this fatal interruption.

" It was in the session of 1S3S that the Chambers voted the opening
cf this canal, which is the admirable work of the engineer Brisson.
The Director-General of the Ponts-et-Chaiissks declared that eight
years at the most would be required to open this canal to the industry
of the country, and, in effect, from thatijeriod down to the commence-
ment of 1S41 we must accord to the Administration the justice of ad-
mitting that nothing was neglected which could expedite the prompt
completion of the work. So extraordinary was the activity which
was therein exhibited that it might have been fearlessly aflSrmed its
termination would not be later than 1846. Unfortunately, however, at
the commencement of the present year, the Administration ordered a
general slackening of the works, not only for the current year, but also
for those which are to follow. Nay, more, it has announced that the
credits allotted for the work in 1842 will be still less than those of
1841. It is easy to conceive the injurious effect of this determination,
as well upon the unfinished works as upon tlie industry of the depart-
ment of the Meuse, which reckoned upon the prompt execution of this
undertaking to rescue it from the crisis which it has undergone, and
which threaten now to become prolonged. It will be sufficient for me
to make known the state of the works in this department, with the
Slims necessary to urge them forward in 1S42, with a slight degree of
activity, and to acquaint the reader with the sums actually voted last
session. This information I have derived from the best possible
sources, including the engineers themselves, to whose zeal and skill I
cannot render too high a public homage.

"Setting out from the limits of the department of the Meurthe, the
Marne-Rhine Canal is almost finished for a length of 17 kilometres
in the department of the Meuse. The prin'.-ipal work is the bridge-
canal on the river Meuse; this was commenced in November, 1840,
and all the arches are at this moment closed. To finish this portion
of the canal at the very most only the paltry sum of 300,000f. (12,000/.)
is requisite ; and this outlay would make it perfectly certain that in
the course of 1843 the canal would be opened to the industry of the
whole district, which would derive from it the greatest possible ad-
vantage. Well, this miserable sum it has been impossible up to this
day to obtain.

•' The interval between the Ornain and the Meuse, which is that
portion of the canal where the works will be most tedious and expen-
sive, has been commenced throughout its entire length. Besides the
cuttings, which, according to the adjudications, amount to nearly
2,000,000f., this portion comprises the' tunnel at Mauvage, which will
be about 5,000 metres in length. The difficulties which arise, as well
from the nature of the ground as from the great quantity of water
whicli is met there, give every reason to apprehend that if the works
are not carried on with the utmost activity the expense, which has
been valued at 9,000,000f., will become doubled. From the Mauvage
tunnel to Vitry le Francais, where the canal effects its junction with
the lateral canal at the Marne, the want of money alone prevents the
immediate termination of the enterprise. What have the Chambers
voted for the Marne-Rhine Canal for the current year, and for 1842 ?
A sum of 3,000,000f., to be distributed amongst four departments. A
million will be probably allocated to the department of the Meuse,
which absolutely requires four.

"The result will be, of course, an enormous loss to the state. To
finish tlie works twice the time must be employed, and perhaps twice
the capital. Inevitable injuries to all the portions that are not yet
finished, and indemnities to the contractors, who have engaged to ter-
minate within a given time the portions adjudged to eadi, and who,
having made all their preparations in consequence, have found them-
selves suddenly arrested in the execution of the works here, are the
first only and most obvious consequences of this ruinous system.

" The point at which the most immense loss will be sustained by
tlie Government, if the works are not resumed with pristine vigour, i's
the Mauvage tunnel. In point of fact all the wells, to the number of
17, several of them 120 metres in depth, are alreadv pierced, and the
galleries are commenced. The tunnel is formed of potter's clay, which
easily becomes diluted in water. If the work is for a moment sus-
pended at the end of four or five days the whole will be inundated :
the wells and galleries will be filled with a liquid slime, and it will be

more troublesome to repair what is done than it was to do it originally
Better never have commenced. And, yet so extraordinary wis the
activity at first displayed, that there was every reasonable expectation
of its being finished within three years, which would have caused a
saving of l,000,000f. But, with the miserable pittance accorded by
the Government to-day, no term can be foreseen either to the labour
or the expense. All must be arrested, all suspended. The payment
of the indemnities alone for the ground purchased will absorb the en-
tire credit. These, Sir, are facts of public notoriety which a great
number of persons engaged in manufacturing industry, agriculturists,
and good citizens, would have communicated to the Rlinister of Public
works, if, on his return from Alsace, he had visited, as we had gene-
rally hoped, this important portion of the Marne-Rhine Canal, But
these sad details will nevertheless reach him, and it is surely impossi-
ble that they could escape his patriotic solicitude.

" It was easy to conceive that the ' eventualities' of war would lead
to such results. Men do not reckon up sacrifices when the honour of
the country requires them ; but that the already brimming measure
should still be filled to overflowing, when it is loudly proclaimed upon
all hands that there is no longer any danger for the peace of Europe —
this is what confounds and amazes every man of sense. What sort of
peace is that which nips every amelioration in the bud, and disarms
nothing but useful public works ?"

To this powerful letter may be appended as a commentary the fol-
lowing paragraph from another portion of the same paper: — "So fre-
quent is the occurrence of accidents on every portion of the works
connected with the fortifications of Paris, that near each fort and de-
tached wall there have been established temporary hospitals, at which
surgeons are stationed from the different regiments employed at the
works."

ON LEVELLING INSTRUMENTS.

Sir — Having observed in the Journal of this month a description of
some improvements in Levelling Instruments, by Mr. T. Stevenson,
may I be allowed through the medium of your widely circulated
columns, to offer some observations on a subject which has engaged
much of my attention.

The real practical value of Mr. Stevenson's improvements must
very much depend upon the purpose for which they were designed.
In some particular scientific researches, where the greatest nicety is
required, and time little or no object, I can conceive a vernier adjust-
ment both for the level and staff may be desirable. But for engineer-
ing purposes, as it is found that any slight errors in reading within
the Y^Ti of a foot, which is the usual grjduation of the staff, are not
carried on and increased, but eliminated or rather balanced, in any
series of observations, it is surely needless to seek greater accuracy in
the scale, at the expense of much additional time and labour. And in
fact, without regard to the tediousness of the operation, and the greater
liability of casual mistakes, the delicacy of a vernier reading must be
wholly lost and cancelled in practice, until we can command at alt
times a perfectly still atmosphere, and a true constant of refraction;
and even with these it will be necessary to provide ourselves with a
vernier adjustment for the spirit bubble — cross wires which are true
mathematical lines " without breadth" — materials on which heat and
moisture have no effect, and at the same time a rod, absolutely rigid,
and perfect in graduation, before we can insure the nicety here sought
for in the reading of the staff alone.

The real chances of errof then in levelling operations consist, not
in the imperfection of the instruments so much as in our powers of
applying them — thus principally in the difficulty of securing at all
times a perpendicular line in a long staff, from the effects of the wind
or even its own weight in bending it, and at the same time the un-
steadiness of the holder in handling and turning it. The dependence,
indeed, under which he is placed to his staff-holder for correct results,
in spite of his utmost care and attention, must be painfully felt by
every accurate observer. To remedy, in part these uncertainties in
handling, I have lately had constructed, under my own observation, a
staff similar in graduation to those in general use, but differing in its
joints and fittings, the chief object having been to obtain a length of
rod tolerably unyielding, with a firm and immoveable basis.

I regret that I am obliged to speak from description only, and there-
fore liable to mistake; but if I rightly understand Mr. S, the whole
length of his rod when extended is twice 12i, or 25 feet, and that this
is packed into a box 3i feet long by 4 inches square. Considerable
ingenuity must be displayed in this arrangement, and great conve-
nience obtained for travelling, but it does not say much for the
strength of the staff, and with so many joints as must be necessary, I
should consider that it could scarcely support its own weight in the

424

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

Dkc

EMBEK,

perpendicular, iiuich less resist the slightest force of wind ; and I need
scarcely add how little adapted it must be for the accuracv which the
iiitlior appears to have sought in its construction.

Again: I l.elieve it is generally admitted that the chief deside-
ratum in a levelling instrument is a steady and secure basis, indepen-
dent as far as possible of the wind, or any accidental movement.
Now the ball-and-socket joint introduced by Mr. S, on which the
whole weight of the level must rest cannot be considered so tirni and
secure as the common table-plate usually employed, and I have invself
had more than one instrument of the usual construction pass through
my hands, which, from not being originally well balanced and centred,
has been considerably atl'ectcd in its adjustment by a simple revolution
on its axis — the additional weight of metal given to one side probably
acting unequally on the bearing surface at ditlerent points of the cir-
cuit. How greatly nuist the liability of such derangement be in-
creased when the support is thrown on the rounded surface of a ball,
instead of on a strong horizontal plate.

Tlie independence of the nature of the ground and the actual po-
sition of the legs, in setting up the stand is, however, a decided im-
provement in ilsci/, in the plan of Mr. Stevenson, both as regards the
economy of time and labour, ami the usual wear and tear, and conse-
quent irregular action of the levelling screws under tlie con)inou form.
In a level, which was submitted to the notice of the Institution about
a month before that of Mr. 8., I had endeavoured to obtain the same
object by placing a small circular spirit bubble in the head of the
stand itself, by which this may be brought to an approximate level,
previously to the instrument being placed upon it, and this may be
done upon any ground where there is standing room to use it. But
at the same time a wide and steady base was deemed of so much im-
portance, that I more than doubled the usual levelling surface of the
plate, by adopting a modification of the tripod-stand for the G inch
theodolites used by Col. Everest in the Indian survey.

Having had some experience in the use of engineering and astro-
nomical instruments, I have ventured to trouble you with these ob-
servations, not for the sake of depreciating the ingenuity of Mr. Ste-
venson's improvements, but because I deem it of some importance to
the profession that we should not be led to mistrust the accuracy of
the instruments in common use, and thus to refine on points which in
practice become non-essential, whilst we overlook what is of far more
importance for correct results — the handling of the tools on which all
our operations depend ;

And I am. Sir,

Your's, &c. &c.,

Yarmouth, Nor. 13. George Tow.nsend.

ON MEASURING DISTANCES BY THE TELESCOPE.

By Edmund Bowman.

[The following very interesting paper was read at the last meeting
of the British Association. We consider it well deserving the con-
sideration of the Profession, as such we have given the paper without
abridgment. — Editor.]

Many years ago having had the charge of a level belonging to a
celebrated engineer of the present day, while assisting him in taking
levels, &c. for a bridge over a river in the north of England, my
curiosity was excited (being quite a boy at the time) to know the
utility of a narrow transparent scale in the field of view of the telescope,
and which I afterwards conjectured was for the purpose of measuring
distances. Having a few years afterwards procured a telescope level,
and having made a reading staff, at that time quite a novelty, I tried
a few experiments to find out what proportion, if any, existedbetwecn
the distance of the object and the diameter of the field of view, when
1 found that, after the first 100 feet, the distances were nearly in pro-
portion to the diameter of the field of view, read oft' from the reading
staft'held at these distances from the level — this might be in the year
1830; it occurred to me that the reading stall; when properly divided
into feet, tentlis, and hundredths, furnishes, by its image in the focus
of the object-glass of the telescope, a much more correct micrometer
scale, than any screws or a slip of any transparent substance can fur-
nish. For instance, the diaphragm or focal aperture of a 20 inch
telescope is -39 inches, and at the distance of 10 chains it covers 13S0
parts or hundredths of a foot, or 13 and S-lOths feet; now, each of
these parts is distinctly perceptible, or at least appreciable, but to
divide i-.'Sths of an inch into 13^0 parts, so as to be equally accurate
and visible, and the figures likewise equally distinct, would, 1 think,
be no common task, be the artist who he might, and the substance
divided, what it would; but could even such a thing be done, the

reading-stall' would still be preferable (and in any case it would be ne-
cessary to have a stalFj as will appear on the perusal of this paper.

In the year IS 10, about Midsummer, having procured one of Trough-
ton's best levels, with a 20 inch telescope, I made several experiments
with it with the intention of finding out, by means of careful observa-
tions, the exact relation which the diameter of the field of view bore
to the distance measured, taking care, while making these observations,
to keep the eye-piece to one mark for viewing the image of the staff
and cross-lines stretched over the aperture of the diaphragm, and to
make the adjustment for focal distance of the object-glass^ as correct
as the eve could appreciate ; and having carefully observed the results,
and with these results, and interpolating between them, having made
a table of distances with their corresponding diameters or readings, I
then, with the level and staff alone, took observations, connected for
many miles, and after reducing the same by the above tables into dis-
tances, and summing up the whole, measured over the same ground
with the chain, when the agreement between the chain measure and
the telescopic measure was found very near, the difference not exceed-
ing t'le Trnrt'i P^'"' "^ the whole distance; and as part of this might
possibly arise from the rating of the telescopic measure, and the other
part from the inequalities of tlie ground, tlie truth might lie between
these two methods.

I have also tried this method with correct surveys done many years
ago, and have found it correct; field for field, fence for fence, all in
their correct places, and over many miles in direct distiince.

Now, since it would be very convenient, if the tables could be dis-
pensed with, and if each reading of the staft' either gave the actual
distance or a proportion that could be determined — with this view I
afterwards took a series of observations, with measured distances as
before, but with a smaller instrument, beginning with the nearest limit
of distinct vision, and proceeding by degrees to a distance of Jths of a
mile; then compiled a table as before, taking care to place a mark to
all those readings and distances which were actually observed and
measured ; upon comparing and examining these results, and those of
the former table, I obtained the idea that the readings can all be made
to bear a certain proportion to the distance by adding to each, be the
same great or small, a certain fixed quantity or constant, peculiar to
each instrument. The superior simplicity of this operation renders
the tables now no longer of any use.

The cause of the inequality of the readings is the aberration of focus
arising from the object or radiant point being at different distances,
and the object-glass itself not being at the centre of the station. At
first it occurred to me that it might be possible to enlarge and contract
the diaphragm containing the image by some contrivance, with the
view of keeping the image and the diameter of the diaphragm always iu
proportion to the inverse ratio of the distance, or what may perhaps be
generallv better understood, that the angular amount of the field of
view might remain the same for all distances: but this has the objec-
tion, that the screws or levers by which this contracting and expand-
ing would be cff'ected, would be liable to get out of order, from wear
and other causes, and no longer perform accurately, and even if they
did so, the readings would only be in proportion to the distance from
the object-glass, and not from the centre of the station or instrument.

By fixing the diaphragm and the object-glass at one invarialile dis-
tance, and producing distinct vision for the various distances by having
a lens or part of the object-glass williin the telescope, moveable by
screw adjustment two or three inches to or from the object-glass, all
objects beyond a distance of 10 or 20 feet might have their images
produced at the same distance from the object-glass ; this method also
would require reduction to the centre of the station as in the previous
case, and moveover the achromatism of the object-glass would only be
good at one point of its motion, and in no case be so good as with an
united or cemented object-glass.

But these two methods and others have been rejected for the more
simple and convenient one mentioned above, and which the following
paper proposes (o explain mure amply, both as regards its theory and
practice, and which method is simply to add a fixed qu intity to each
reading of the staff to make the said readings proporlional to their
respective distances, a small reading having thus an equal increase
with a large one; the objection that might be raised to this method is
this, that the accuracy of it evidently depends upon the distance be-
tween the object-glass and the focus or image of the object at the
diaphragm being jnecise, and as the telesco|)e, without alteration, is
used as it is, this point might admit of reasonable doubt, :is to extreme
accuiacy ; but these doubts have been entirely removed by the method
of determining the exact focal point for any distance, thus setting the
matter at rest with respect to accuracy, and leaving nothing more to
be desired.

For this method of determining distances, the telescopes upon the
levels, as at present constructed, are quite sufficient ; but if this meets

1841.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

425

the approbation of the scientific world, opticians will no ilonbt add the
convenience of a scale, upon the slide part of the tube, for aberration,
or determining the precise focal point for any distance : the fixed
quantity or constant also can be marked upon the tube ; attention being
paid to the diaphragm, both that it be truly circular, and the field of
view up to this circle distinct, 6cc., the advantages of these will appear
by-and-bye.
' Having made the experiments above mentioned in a public situation
close to a large town, and being at the time also connected with a
public undertaking, my doing";, of course, did not escape observation.
Some part of the pul)lic press has also favoured the idea, and as a sort
of cariosity has got abroad respecting the matter, perhaps these papers,
tending to' explain my ideas of the matter, may not be altogether un-
acceptable to the public; being quite aware of much that has been
written upon the subject of measuring distances by the telescope by
Sir David Brewster, and other gentlemen eminent for their scientific
knowledge. Yet, as the reading-staft' was then little known, and as
the practical surveyor, whose every day occupation such subjects must
necessarily be, has advantages in this respect over the amateur or
theorist, and more especially when theory does not deny him also her
assistance — with this apology, I hope that tliis attempt at elucidation
of what appears to the many, a complex subject, will meet with the
indulgence which it may merit; for my own part, I can state that it is
far from me to uphold or putf otf anything of this kind which has not
solidity for its foundation, and utility for its superstructure; on the
contrary, I think that I cannot do a better service than unfold my ideas
upon a subject which has been both pleasing and useful to me, and may
be to others likeviise.

Before I conclude these prefatory remarks, I beg leave to suggest
some of the advantages peculiar to this method, and in what opera-
tions it can be applied with advantage, leaving it to tlie reader to
supply all omissions in the list, whicli his practice or ingenuity may
suggest.

By this method of measuring distances, the reading-staif, with a
level having a good telescope, furnishes the surveyor with all the in-
struments required for accurately and expeditiously taking a plan and
section ; by this method the engineer is enabled to dispense v. ith the
assistance of the two chain-men in running a line of levels across a
country ; by this method the distance as well as the level is read off
from the same instrument, the service of two men and the carriage of
the heavy chain. Sec. are saved, which, in thinly peopled districts, or
where labour is both scarce and dear, are advantages not altogether
inconsiderable ; by this method facilities are given for running lines
of levels for either geological, railroad, canal, or road purposes. For
the amateur or for trial sections it is much adapted, for it is much
more pleasant to be dependent npon the hire of one man than of three
men, and, in many cases, the chain-men being strangers to the work,
are not good to depend upon; whereas, in the other case, all that is
required is the staft-holder, the engineer himself reads off the distance,
for which also he himself is thus enabled to vouch ; the distance taken
by this method is the true horizontal distance, whereas with the chain
in undulating or hilly ground, the distances taken are not the horizon-
tal, but have to be reduced to it by the application of tables, &c. This
method also has great advantages in taking levels and distances over
corn fields or ground covered with crops of any kind, over gardens,
rivers, bogs, or swamps, ever ravines and rocky ground, and over other
places, either not convenient, or difficult to go directly through from
various circumstances. The convenience of this method in the above
cases will be fully aporeciated by the practical surveyor ; in taking
soundings of rivers, &c., it might be attended with very considerable
advantage, as both insuring accuracy and light expense ; in marine and
military surveying, also, it might be applied with advantage, &c. &c.

On the Measurement of Distances by the Telescope, with loth Practical and
Theoretical Elucidations.

The method of taking distances is this; — if the survey is for a section, the
level is first taken in the usual way ; then for the distance take the numher
of feet, tenths, and hundredtlis subtended by the diameter of the diaphragm
of the ohject-glass; that is, the diapluagm upon which the cross lines or wires
are stretched ; and this is readily done by screwing up the top or bottom of
the said diameter to some primitive division of the staff, and then counting
the divisions from top to bottom, or from bottom to top of the field of view ;
then this quantity of divisions read otf from the staff, increased by a fixed
quantity or constant (each instrument has a constant peculiar to itself), will
make a sum or augmented reading which will be in every case either the
distance itself, or some determinable proportion of it, depending upon the
make of the instrument, &c.

The ratio of this proportion must he found by actual experiment, of which
the following is an example.

With one of Troughtou's 20-inch levels the reading at the distance of 10
chains from the centre of the instrument is 13-80 feet.

The constant for this instrument is '05 feet, therefore the quantity read off
must he increased by the addition of this and it becomes 13-85 feet; at one
chain distance the reading is 1-335 feet, and by the addition of the constant
it becomes 1-385 feet ; and at the distance of the -J^th part of a chain the
reading is -0885 feet, and the constant -05 feet added to this gives -1385 feet
for the augmented reading; it is evident that the augmented readings 13-85
feet, 1-385 feet, and -1385 feet are exactly in proportion to the distances 10
cliains, 1 chain, and -^i\\ of a chain. From these experiments it is evident
that the quantities read off with the addition of the constant -05 feet make
augmented readings which are proportional to, or make equal ratios with
their respective distances.

This constant (-05 in the above case) is dependent upon, or is a function of
the principal focal distance of the ohject-glass, and also of the distance of
the said object-glass from the centre of the instrument or station, of the dia-
meter of the diaphragm or field of view, and also of the divisions of the staff
or reading-rod.

The diameter of the diaphragm might he diminished Ijy two screws or
blunt points, projecting an equal distance into the field of view until the
number of divisions of the staff included between the aforesaid points, toge-
ther with a similarly contracted proportion of the fised quantity or constant
would make an augmented reading, the numerical amount of which would
he precisely the same as the number of Uuks in actual distance, and thus by
writing chains and parts instead of feet and parts, the augmented readings
would give the respective actual distances without any reference to proportion
whatever.

And by enlarging the diaphragm upon the same principle the augmented
readings in feet and parts might correspond to chains and parts, the chain in
this case being composed of 100 feet instead of 100 Unks of the commor
size.

In the actual experiments where 13-85 feet corresponded to 10 chains the
constant was -05 ; but when the diaphragm is contracted so that 10 feet cor-
respond to 10 chains in distance, or as each foot of the staff is divided into
100 parts, then 1000 such parts give a distance of 1000 links, and the fixed
quantity undergoing a corresponding reduction likewise, it will become "036
feet, hut for general purposes -04 feet will be quite near enough, for 1385 ;
1000 : : -05 : -036 or -04 nearly.

Having the augmented readings to correspond with the actual distances is
no doubt a very great convenience, and it ought to be attained in new in-
struments, though there is very little inconvenience in making a scale to suit
any proportion, the scale for parts being, as in the case al)ove, to the scale
for links in the proportion of 1385 parts for every 1000 links, and, for my
own part, I prefer keeping the diaphragm as it is, for the greater the angle
or number of divisions of the staff read, the less value each becomes with
respect to distance, and, consequently, any error arising from the staft* be-
comes of proportionately less value when reduced into distance.

The constant -05 in the above example is the correction arising from aber-
ration of focal distance, and the correction arising from the object-glass not
being in the centre of the station conjointly; and first, the correction arising
from the aberration of focal distance may be explained in the following man-
ner :—

Let OcB be the object-glass of the telescope, /and d the principal foci, oi
foci for parallel rays, or rays from verj' remote objects, and let t'D't' he sup-
posed to be very remote, let F be the focus for rays proceeding from an ob-
ject or radiant point D at no very great distance from the object-glass OcB,
hut beyond its principal anterior focus d. (See fig. 1.)^

Hr. 1.

v^-

:£..

Now by optics the formula for aberration is
Principal focal distance x principal focal distance
Distance of object from object-glass — principal focal distance
fc X cd

= Aberration

cV - cd

-Ff

4-26

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[December,

^ow cD — cd=d D, tlien/cx c(l=F/x dViod
therefore Ff '■ fc : : cd : dD and by composition
Ff/.fo : fc : : cd^dD : (Z /) or simply

Fc . fc : : cD : dD

Now tlic aperture of the diapliragm which limits the field of view is un-
changeable in diameter in any part of its motion, and it is endent that wliile
it is at/it subtends or includes the angle id or t'ct', and while at /'the an-
gle »c« or s'cs', and that wliile at F the diaphracm ought to be enlarged to
the size tsFxl, to include the same angle that the same diaphragm rfr does
at/, and to read oti' a portion of the image of the staff, which would bo al-
ways proportional to the distance, for the angle remaining the same, the tan-
gent varies as the radius, or the subtense of the angle as the distance.

Now because the number of divisions of any stalf s'lh' or I'DI' forming
the subtense of any fixed angle i'ct' is greater or smaller exactly in propor-
tion as the distance ^ ' ,.,i said staff from the angular point c is greater or
smaller, it is also e»k.rent that the diaphragm rfr or xfi will, while atf, show-
a larger angular proportion of the image of the staff than it does while at F,
and that the proportion will be as (Ft : sFs or as //■" to rf, but tF \ rf. :
Fc : fc and it has been shown that Fc '■ fc '. '. cD '. dD, therefore by in.
vertingWi) : cD.l : sFs : //7, and since //"j = sFs + 2.f/ then rf/) : cD: :
sFs '. sFs+2sl, that is to say, the distauce of the staff from the anterior
focus d of the object-glass is to the distance of the same staff from the object-
glass as the actual reading of the staff is to the reading augmented by a
cjuantity 2.«/'.

'Sow dD : cD-dD : : sFs : sFs+2sl-sFs.
or simply dD '. ed : '. sFs '. 2st.

That is to say, as the distance of the staff from the anterior focus of the
object-glass is to the principal focal distance, so is the actual reading of the
staff (xFs which is the only part of the image visible through the diaphragm)
to the quantity (2s/) which makes when added to sFs (the actual reading) an
augmented reading tFf,

Now dD . sFs : : cd : 2sf,or — = —
• sFs 2st

dD

Again dD : sFs : : cD : tFt, or — =

therefore — = =

c_D
sFs^iFt'
cd_Dc
~'27t~7Ft'

Now cD and dD may be any quantities whatsoever, and as fFl and xFs
\ar\- resj)ectively as cD and dD, therefore IF/ and sFs are also variable quan-
tities, and may be of any dimensions ; but cd, the princi])al focal distance, is
an invariable quantity, therefore 2st is also an invariable quantity, for it varies
as erf varies, the variation of which is nothing; therefore, the variation of
2sl is also nothing, or 26/ is a constant quantity.

To find practically this constant quantify 2s/ for any telescope and staff,
■which 2»/, when added to the reading, makes an augmented reading always
propoitional to the distance of the oljjcct from the object-glass of the teles-
cope. First adjust the eye-piece to distinct vision of the cross lines upon the
diaphragm, and mark the sliding part of the eye-piece, so that it may after-
wards be kept to the same point ; then on some clear night, observe carefully
some star or planet, and wheu by moving the slide of the object-glass a little
to and fro, the sharpest and most cleaily defined image of this star or planet
has been obtained, mark carefully this point upon the slide of the object-glass
as the adjustment for the ])rincipal focus, and as the highest limit of a scale
to be afterwards graduated upon this slide ; the telescope being kept at this
adjustment, the distance between the cross lines on the diaphragm and the
object-glass will be the principal focal distance /c or cd. (Fig. No. 1.)

Then the instrument being fixed in any convenient open place, measure
any distance cD, and observe the reading sFs, the image of part of the staff
seen over the diameter of the aperture of the diaphragm ; then as dD, that is
to say, the distance cD less the principal focal distance, is to the said reading,
so is the principal focal distance to the constant 2s/, which, when added to
the reading, makes an augmented reading, which is always proportional to
the actual distance of the object from the object-glass ; but as it would be
more convenient still to have a fixed quantity or constant to make the read-
ings when augmented by it always proportional to the distances from the
object to the centre of the instrument or station, and that such a quantitv
exists may be found out by accurate experiments, and may also be thus de-
monstrated.

Let .V be the centre of the instrument or station (see Fig. No. 2) ; let c be
the object-glass ; let d be the anterior princijial focus of the object-glass ; let
D be any distance beyond this focus ; and let rDr rcjjresent the portion of
the staff visible over the diameter of the diaphragm of the telescope, or as it
is called simply the reading ; it has been shown that the reading rDr varies
as the distance dD varies ; from the centre of the object-glass c, draw ct, ct
parallel to dr, dr. and from the centre of the instrument A' draw Xw, Xw
parallel to dr, dr, and produce Dr, Dr, to /, / and w, w, then by similar
triingles.

dU : rD: : cD : tD,novi2rD = rDr, and 2/Z) = /J[)/, and by transpos-
ing, &c., the above proportion (7iJ : cD : : 2rD : 2//) : : rDr : /fl/, but
it has been before shown that dn : cD '■ '. rDr, or the reading: to the read-
ing + a constant quantity; therefore //)/ = the reading + the constant, and it

is equal to r/>r -r 2/r, therefore 2/r is the constant corresponding with 2/s in
Fig. 1.

Fig. 2.

Again, by the construction (similar triangles. Fig. 2) it is evident also
that <//) : XD : : rDr : uJHc, or is dl) :~Xd+dD '. '. rDr : rZ)r+ 2icr,

and by subtraction dfl : Xd : : rDr : 2!tr, or -y^^-z — . now di) and riSr
' rDr 2wr

are variable quantities and vary as each other, but Xd is for the same instru-
ment an invariable quantity, and as 2wr varies as Xd varies, therefore 2wr is
also an invariable or a constant quantify, and it is the arooiuit which must be
added to the reading rDr to make a quantity ic/Jhi, which shall be propor-
tional to the distance of the object from the centre of the station, or by a
suitable construction of the diaphragm the quantity »c73h- shall be the actual
distance itself.

From the inspection of Fig. No. 2, it is evident that if the parallel lines b
produced beyond wDw, and lines w'D'uj', w"Jy"w" &e. be drawn parallel to
it, that the readings r'D'r', r"D"r", &c., will increase or diminish as the dis-
tances dD', dD", &c., while the quantity 2«r will remain constant and always
equal to 2w'r', 2ui"r", &c., which by the construction of the figure, are all
equal froiu the point d where the readings of the staff begin, or are at Zero.

Taking a practical example with the telescope of the 20 inch level before
mentioned, the distance cd measures 18"5 inches, or 2-33 links, the distance
Ac, or from the object-glass to the centre of the tripod, is 1-27 links, there-
fore the whole distance Xd is 3'6 links. Now, when the staff is held at 1000
Unks or 660 feet from the centre of the instrument, or 1000 — 3-6 = 996'4
Unks from the point d, the reading is 13-80 feet; now here f/n = 996-4,
A'/) = 1000, r/;r= 13-80 feet, and it is required to find w/)w and the con-
stant 2wr.

Now dD : XD : : rDr : u-Dtc, or

990-4 ; 1000 : : 13-80 : 13-S49 or 13-S.) nearly
and because wDw — rDr = 2wr, therefore

13-849 — 13-80 = -049 = 2(i')-, or the constant which equals "05 nearly, and
the augmented reading is 13-85.

Again, taking another example at the distance of 200 links, 2-"2 feet were
read off, now 200 -3-6 = 196-4 = <?/>, and 198-4 : 200: : 2-72 : 2-769
or 2-77 nearly and 2-769- 2-72 = -049 or -05 nearly, which is the constart
as in the former case, and the augmented reading ivDw in this case is
2-769 or 2-77 nearly.

Therefore -05 is the constant number to he added to each reading to make
augmented readings proportional to the actual distances, when this instrument
and staff" graduated into feet and decimal parts, &e. are used.

The scale for this instrument is, therefore, 1385 divisions, each Ihe-j-^tli
part of a foot, corresponding with 1000 links in distance, and therefore to
plot a section at the rate of 2000 links to the inch, the scale will have to be
a 27-7, instead of a 20 to the inch, when the divisions of the scale will plot
the readings in distance.

The diameter of the diaphragm of this telescope is '39 inches, but by fixing
screws or points on the circumference of this diaphragm, the diameter of tiiis
aperture might be contracted, so that the distance between the points of flie
screws might not exceed the proportion of 1000 divisions of the stafl'to lOOO
Unks in distance ; but as the advantages peculiar to each (that is, whether it
is best to keep the instrument as it is, and read off proportional distances
only, or reduce the diameter and read oft" actual distances,) have been treated
of before in this paper, it is quite unnecessary here to go over the subject
again.

A smaller level with an inverting 10 inch telescope, gives with the same
staff the constant quantify (from the centre of the station) -07 feet.

The principal focal distance of this telescope is 10-5 inches, the diameter
of the aperture of the diaphragm -53 inches, the distance of the objecf-glass
from the centre of the tripod 6-4 inches;* by this instrument 1000 hnks in

* Here it may be observed, that the distance between the object-glass a
the centre of the instrument OJght to be invariable, and that the increas

I841.J

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

427

distance are measured by 33'3 feet, ami of course under four or five chains
distance, the rending staff or ordinary dimensions will be very convenient ;
but with the 20 inch level erecting telescope, 1000 links in dist'irice are read
off by 13'S feet, therefore a 11 feet staff is very convenient for this telescope
for all distances under 10 chains, and by having a longer staff, or liy taking
a semi-diameter or other known proportion of the diapliragm, tlie lengtli of
the observed distance may be increased at pleasure, and be limited only by
the i)ower of tlie telescope to read the staff distinctly. Taking facility of
reading the staff and tlie consequent accuracyof the observations for ordinary
levelling operations into account, distances not e?;cccdtng from 3 to 5 chains
for the small 10 inch level, and from 7 to 12 chains for the large 20 inch
level described above, are the best and most convenient, as insuring speed
with most accuracy; but any distance, down to 12 feet by the small level
and 20 feet by the large level, can l)e found quite accurately ; at distances
smaller'than these, the range of the sliding tube is too short to admit of dis-
tinct vision, but it is not important to have this range increased, as distances
smaller than these are not often required, and when so, the levelling i-od fur-
nishes the ready means of ascertaining the amount by direct application.

The large telescope, with the erecting eye-piece, is decidedly superior for
the purpose of measuring distances to the smaller one ; but care must be
t,iken that the diaphragm of the object-g'ass is not at all intercepted l)y the
diaphragm of the eye-piece, which is nearer to the eye, and this can easily be
found out by illuminating the diaphragm of the eye-piece by a piece of white
paper, and then liy giving the eye-tube a motion in its slide to or from the
diaphragm of the object-glass. By this means the two diapliragins will be-
come apparent, and if, wlien the eye-tube is fixed at the proper adjustment
for viewing the cross-lines, the diaphragm in the eye-tube intersects in flie
smallest degree (for these circles are not always concentric) that of the ob-
ject-glass, or with t!ie cross lines, then the diameter of this latter must be
contracted by points or screws projecting at equal distances into the field of
^^ew, so far as to clear the inner circumference of lire diaphragm of the eye-
piece, and these screws, vrhen driven to their proper places, must he so firmly
fixed that they will not readily be disturbed. No doubt the fine lines of a
spider's web, or very fine wire, might answer the same purpose ; but as the
eye-tube in the generality of good telescopes of this sort has to be taken out
and replaced on every occasion of its use, it is difficult to divest the mind of
the possibility of tlie lines being disturbed Ijy this motion, whereas in the
case of tlie inflexible metal of the diaphragm no such objection can possibly
hold good ; moreover, the cross lines serve as a guide to find the true diame-
ter. 0))ticians have been in the habit of placing tivo parallel upright lines,
and at right angles to these a horizontal line, in the field of view of the tele-
scope, and some people have the idea that these may be used for the purpose
of distances, but besides the objection stated above they have two very serious
objections — the first is that they should have been horizontal for this purpose,
and the second is that they are much too close together and incluiJe much
too small an angle to give more than an approximation to the distance, and
it may he added, that they never were intended for anything of (he kind, but
probably only as a guide to keep the reading start' vertical while taking levels,
but in the case of extraordinarily long distances these cross lines may be ser-
viceable in taking semi-diameters, &c.

The constant quantity for the lO-incii level being "07, and for the 20-inch
level '05, and as these telescopes or levels are nearly of the smallest and
largest sizes used for general purposes, the constant in feet for a medium size
may be somewhere at about "00 feet.

In favour of this method of observing distances it may be mentioned that
■with the telescope of the 20-inch level, and witli no further adjustment for
focal distance of the object-glass than what appeared at each observation to
be distinct vision, distances can be taken of many miles by the accumuiation
of distances such as those required in levelling; that is to say, not often less
than 20 feet, often averaging 8 chains, and seldom so much as 20 chains,
with quite as much accuracy as Ijy the common method of the chain. The
superior accuracy of the measurements taken from the reading staft' during
the process of levelling a circuit of many miles and returning to the same
point, when, on balancing the numerous rises and falls, the near agreement
within an inch or so proves the accuracy of the work, also favours the idea
that this method of measuring distances is capable of great accuracy, for the
self-same staft" is used, and the vertical position is the most natural and least
difficult to find, and the level itself gives the telescope the horizontal direc-
tion. From all tliese causes, and from the perpetual inequality of the ground
in chaining, there can be no doubt that, on these heads at least, this method
has superior claims to the chain in point of precision, and as a further refine-
ment, will hs especially of great service to those telescopes whose defining
]iower is not of the first-rate description, and, for any telescope, removes all
doubts of want of precision.

Let the aberrations for focal length for every distance of the object be
graduated upon the slide of the large tube, from the principal focal mark be-
fore mentioned to the extremity of the slide. The aberration or distance
from this principal focal mark is found thus.

length of the focus for near objects ought to he obtained by having the lack
and slide adjustment beliind the centre, and not in front ; from this it appears
that those tubes which move at the object-glass, are not precisely adapted
for this method, inasmuch as the increased distance of the object-glass from
the centre of the station would, for the short distances, increase the length
of -Yr/, and of course the constant would have to undergo a similar increase,
•.vhicli would be absurd.

Without referring to (he former figures, the principal focal distance is gene-
rally called F, and the distance of the object from the object-glass is called
simply D, and these two being given, the aberration which is called e is found
by the formula in optics, which is this : — ■

F-

From this formula, a table of aberrations can be calculated for as many
distances as the short slide of the tube is capable of receiving, and of having
graduated upon it ; but what would be better still, instead of or in addition
to the scale for actual distances, would be to have a scale of readii>gs of the
staff; or in other words, the adjustment for focus should correspond with the
reading of the staff.

Now, it has been shown that the reading of the staft" varies as J)— Fvaries;
but D—f^ y. e = F'-; now F- is a constant quantity, and D—F^is a variable
quantity, therefore e is also variable, and as the product of these two variables
is always a constant quantity, it follows that e varies iaverscly, as D — F^
therefore also e varies inversely as the reading of the staff; that is to say,
when the rays are parallel and the distance infinite, and consequently the
reading infinite, tlien the aberration is Zero, or at the principal focal mark ;
again, when the reading is at Zero and D—F = 0, or D = F, or when the staff
is held at the principal anterior focus, then the aberration is infinite ; again,
taking the case when Z) — F=F, Iheue — F; for D — F a e = F-, tind also
Z)=2 F; that is to say, when the distance is twice the ))rincipal focal dis-
tance from the object-glass, the aberration e and focal distance i^are equal.

Now, because the aberration varies inversely as the distance D — F.

Whenfl-F=0,
When D-F=F,
WhenD-jF'=2F',

Wheni)-F=4F,

the aberration is

Infinite

the aberration is

F

the aberration is

F

2

the aberration is

F

4

the aberration is

F

100

the aberration is

Zero.

&c.
■F, will be proportional to Zero,

When J5-F=100F,

When D — F— infinity,
&c. &c.
Now, the readings, always varying as D

F F

F, 2F, iF, &c., and the aberrations for these readings to infinity, F, ' — '

&c. This furnishes a very ready method for graduating the sliding tube of
the telescope with the aberrations for the dift"erent readings which must be
marked thereon in figures.

Taking a practical example, the large telescope of the level (181- inches
principal focal length) when the slide is out 1'6 inches beyond the princijial
focus, or nearly its extreme length, making the augmented focal length 20'1
inches; then when the reading is properly taken for this adjustment, that is
to say, the staft' held at the requisite distance for distinct vision, the reading
is found to be •10 feet.

Then, since the reading varies inversely as the distance, the follow ing shows
how a table of aberrations for any reading may be constructed, thus —
When the reading The aberration at The aberration from

is -40 into the inverse principal focal point

ration of the reading

•40 feet 1-GOx ^

■50 do I'OO X

•60 do l'60x

•80 do 1-GOx fS .

1-00 do 1^00 X -5^.

1-60 do 1-60 X -^.

4-00 do l^GOx ,^ .

8-00 do V60x ^.

lG-00 do l-GOx-j^ii^.

32-00 do 1-60 X54^.

&o.
Now, the reading of 32 feet corresponds with a distance of 23 chains ; so
then at a distanct of little more than a quarter of a mile the aberration is
only the -^ part of an inch, and at 46 chains the -iff part of an inch. Be-
yond this distance, therefore, the principal focal mark will l-e quite near
enough without any further subdivisions ; for, although they can bo carried
to any wished for degree of minuteness, yet supposing that the ailjustnicut
for focal distance was not nearer than the -^Irn P^'' of ^" ''i'^''' *''^ ^''^^ °^
the image being exactly in proportion to the focal distance, and this distance
being supposed to be in error by the -^ part of an inch, then the -^ part
of an inch over a space of 18-5 inches is only the ttStt P^''' of "'^ whole,
and when the focal distance is 20 inches, the -j-^ part of an inch will be the
■iriyTjx; part ofthe whole, and thus the reading, and consequently the distance,
true to the .^ „'„ „ part of the whole.

For the sake of rendering the demonstration more simple, the scale above

3 L 2

4S gives

in inches.

gives . .

1-GO

gives . .

V28

gives . .

l^OGG

gives ..

-80

gives ..

^64

gives ..

•iO

gives ..

-16

gives ..

-08

gives ..

-04

gives ..

-02

428

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[December,

is shown how it can he ileduced from one observation alone ; but as one ob-
servation cannot have tlie accuracy which the mean of a greater number will
have, it will be better to observe correctly other readings also, such as 1-00,
2'On, ?yOO, 4-00, Sic, and mark these points likewise, and by taking the
mean of the whole, the scale can he made as accurate as it is possible to
graduate it. The smaller divisions of the scale can be filled up by the assist-
ance of the rule — " that the aberration varies inversely as the reading."

The tube of the telescope being thus graduated, and having found the best
adjustment for the eye-piece to view the cross lines, mark npon the slide of
the eye-piece this adjustment also, and let the eye-piece he always set to this
mark on every observation. As this adjustment is important, and though
mentioned before and understood to be done previously to taking the ob-
servations for the scale of aberrations, tlie repeating the caution here may
not be considered altogether uncalled for.

The telescope being levelled, is now prepared for taking distances ; the
staff being held at the distance required to be measured, the object glass of
the telescope is brought to as near the jiroper focus or distinct vision as the
eye of the observer can appreciate, the divisions of the staff counted and the
sum or reading taken; then, having got the reading, look at the slide of the
telescope, and if the focal adjustment points to the same figure as the read-
ing is, which it generally will do, then the reading first taken is correct, and
only requires the addition of the fixed quantity to make it the actual distance
itself; or in any case a proportional measure of the distance, if the divisions
of the staff do not correspond exactly with the divisions of the measure for
distance, but if they do correspond, then the augmented reading is the dis-
tance itself.

15ut if the slide shows a reading greater or less than that read off from the
stafl!', then the first adjustment for focus by the eye has not been sufficiently
precise, and the slide must be adjusted to the same figure as the reading of
the staff exactly, and tlien the reading observed again through the telescope
and taken ; and this approximating process can be repeated as often as re-
quired, but once will always insure sufiicient accuracy for ordinary purposes,
and even this once will, in many cases, not be necessary ; this corrected
reading, then, with the addition of the constant, will give the distance either
actual or proportional as the case may be.

15y this process, after the first correction if required, a degree of precision
will be attained so as to leave nothing more to be desired on this head ; and
by reiieating the process, the smallest imaginaiy quantity of error may be
got rid of, and tlius the uncertainty as to which is the true focal point for
any distance is removed, and all cause to doubt the accuracy of this method
obviated.

Take a practical example with a 20 inch telescope, by rendering the focal
distance precise to the -^ part of an inch; now there being 10,000 such
parts in 20 inches, the greatest error in distance will only amount to the
-j-jpijt; part of the whole distance, and in taking a great number of distances,
there is no reason to suppose that even these minute errors should be more
on one side of the absolute truth than on the other side. It follows that in
the aggregate of these distances, even such minute errors will vanish by mu-
tually comiterbalancing each other, this being the case then, even with the
adjustment for focus by the eye alone, and without the first approximating
process, a very near approach to the exact distance is obtained in the long
run, and by the approximating process, a degree of precision will be attained
far exceeding that by the common or direct process of the chain, and the
more especially on uneven ground.

PROJECTED RESTORATION OF HEREFORD CATHEDRAL.

In May last Mr. Cottingbam made a discovery in Hereford Cathedral
which, while it adds greatly to the interest of that venerable fabric, furnishes
a valuable addition to the instnictive and pleasing remains we possess of the
architecture of the 11th century. The discovery referred to was made on
taking down the modern Italian wainscot screen, of the Corinthian order,
erected by Bishop Biss 120 years ago, enclosing the whole of the ancient re-
mains of the east end of the choir. The screen, on being removed, was found
to have completely shut out the view of the Ladye Chapel, which must once
have possessed surpassing excellence. The beautiful drawing of the restora-
tion, just published by Mr. Cottingbam, presents to us an architectural gem
of the first water. It consists of a Norman arch, above which are three Go-
thic windows, and between the windows and the arch, a screen or belt. The
arch occupies nearly the whole width of the east end of the choir, and is very
massive ; it is decorated with foliage and zigzag mouldings. The arch is
supported by four columns, with rebated pilasters, the capitals being highly
enriched with foliage and sculpture, the latter presenting curious devices to
represent the security and triumphs of the Christian. The belt running above
the arch is composed of 24 semi-Normal columns. The three windows are
of the early pointed style, and have evidently been formed since the erection
of the building by cutting away the Norman groining to introduce the Gothic,
which at the time was rising in favour. The three w indows throw a flood of
light on the beauties of the choir. At the time of making the discovery Mr.
Cottingbam found in the wall, just above the belts, five apertures of the early
English age, completing the narrow walk all round the choir.

On looking into the Ladye Chapel from the high altar, a l)eautiful and un.
equalled effect is seen to result from the presence of two columns, wluc|,

stand in a line with the centre of the Norman arch, and support the early
English groining which connects the north and south transepts, the capital
of one being of the Norman, and that of the other of the early English age,
but both erected at the same time.

This discovery is highly important, as it adds to the proofs already obtained
that by slow degrees the heavy semi, circular Norman arch has passed into
the light and pointed Gothic. The evidence of this fact is quite clear on
comparing the upper with the lower part of Mr. Cottingbam 's drawing, and
also on noticing tbe difference between the capitals of the two pillars at the
entrance of the Ladye Chapel. It is much to be desired that the beautiful
restoration designed by Mr. Cottingbam may soon be reahzed, as it will fur-
nish to every admirer of cathedral architecture a treasure of unparalleled
beauty. The necessity for the extensive repair of the whole cathedral is but
too obvious. The tower, which has long been in danger of falling, is even
now in little better than a state of jeopardy, being shored up by a series of
timbers 13 inches square, so as to support the whole superincumbent weight,
wliile the defective piers are cut out and reinstated. It is gratifying to find
that the people of Hereford are fully sensible of tbe value of their venerable
cathedial, and that they nave wisely avoided allowing party politics to inter-
fere with the design of effecting its thorough and tasteful reparation. The
antiquarian skill and taste of the dean (Dr. Merewether), combined with the
zealous co-operation he receives from the canons of the cathedral, and from
the clergy and gentry of the neighbourhood, give a most encouraging prospect
of success, while the professional experience of Mr. Cottingbam is a voucher
for the restoration of the sacred structure to its pristine beauty and magnifi-
cence.

The work is one of more than local interest, it is important to the whole
kingdom. Our antique buildings cannot be regarded as an insignificant part
of our national wealth. They show that we are not of yesterday and they
link us to the past. There is, indeed, a share of sanctity in the feeling that
would prompt us to shield from the despoiling hand of time the monuments
of those ancestors from whom we have received our being, our social institu-
tions, and many of our sacred ijrivileges.

Let the appeal for the requisite funds, therefore, not be limited to the
county or the diocese ; let an opportunity of sharing in the work be afforded
to the taste and liberality of the country at large, and it will soon be found
that these time-honoured structures have friends everywhere throughout the
country, from John o'Groat's-house to the Land's-end.

Martyrs' Memori.'yL. — Those of our readers who live at a distance from
Oxford, and who take an interest in the completion of the Martyrs' Memorial,
will be gratified to learn that great progress has been made in the works dur-
ing the last three months, notwithstanding occasional impediments from the
unfavourable state of the weather. The cross has been raised to about two-
thirds of the height of the first stage or division of the shaft, which forms
the base of the niches for the statues ; and though much of the detail in the
ornamental carving is of necessity left for the present in a rough state, till
the upper portion of the cross is completed, yet sufficient is expressed to give
a very good idea of the rich eflfect which will be produced when the whole
is finished. At one time we were somewhat apprehensive lest the colour of
the stone should prove darker than we had been led to expect ; but we have
been assured by competent authority that this partial discolouring will readily
pass off as the stone becomes more exposed to tbe action of the atmosphere :
and this result has already taken place in the lower part of the base, which
was first laid down. Me believe a similar efl'ect may be observed in the new
Houses of Parliament, in which the same description of stone is being used ;
the upper courses, which have been recently laid, appear for some time dis-
coloured, while those in the lower part of the walls, having been longer ex-
posed to the air, have already nearly assumed their natural tone of colour.
Tbe exterior walls of the Martyrs' Aisle, as well as of the east end of the
centre aisle, which it was necessary to take down and rebuild, in order to
throw open the whole line of tbe Martyrs' Aisle in the interior of the church,
have been sufficiently advanced to enable the workmen to commence laying
the slates upon the roof. A considerable portion also of the ornamental
parts, the fiuials, pinnacles, and the pierced parapet, has been set up. The
general effect of this aisle, when completed, w ill be very striking ; and we do
not hesitate to say that it will be one of tbe most beautiful specimens of
ecclesiastical architecture in this city. The workmanship also appears to us
to be very well executed. The rebuilding of the east end of the centre aisle
has rendered it necessary to make extensive repairs to other parts of St. Mary
Magdalen Church. The gable of the adjoining aisle was found to be in so
defective a state that it was necessary to take it down without delay ; and it
has been rebuilt in a style corresponding in its general character with the
other new work, but it is not so much ornamented in detail as the other
gables. We understand also that the flat plaster ceiling of this aisle is to
be removed, in order to open to view a handsome wooden ceiling in panels,
which is above it. But these, as well as some other alterations to improve
tbe general character of the interior of the church, will be effected entirely
by separate subscriptions, laised specifically for this purpose, and which are
w'hoUy independent of the subscription to tbe Martyrs' Memorial. We regret
to add, that we understand the sum of 700/. is still wanting in order to meet
the engagements of the committee for the Martyrs' Memorial. We believe

1841.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

429

that some additional expense has been incurred in sinking the foundation of
the cross to a greater depth than was at tirst thought might he sufficient, in
order to ohtain a firmer basis, as well as in providing a more durable descrip-
tion of material for the foundation, according to a provision in the contract,
as what was to be obtained in this neighbourhood was not deemed sufficiently
good by the architect. — Oxford Herald.

NEW INVENTIONS AND IMPROVEMENTS.

CALOTYPE.

Abstract of the specification of a patent gi-anled to WilUam Henry Fox
Talbot. Esq., of LilcocU Abbey, Wilts, for improvements in obtaining pictures
or representations of objects.— Enrolment Office, Aug\ist 8, 1841. — The best
and smoothest writing paper is washed on one side with a camel hair brush
dipped in a solution of 100 grains of crystalhsed nitrate of silver in six ounces
of distilled water. The siile being marked, to know it again, the paper is
dried before a distant fire, or in the dark, after which it is dipped f(ir a minute
or two in a solution of 500 grains of iodide of potassium in a pint of water ;
the paper is then dipped in water and dried. It is now called iodised paper,
and kept in a portfolio for use. Immediately Ijefore using, this iodised paper
is washed on the marked side with the folbiwing mixture :— 100 grains of
nitrate of silver are dissolved in two ounces of distilled water, to whicli solu-
tion one-fourth of ils volume of acetic acid is added. A saturated solution of
crystallised gallic acid, ur the tincture of galls, is mixed with the foregoing
in equal volumes, forming gallo-nitrate of silver. After being washed with
this mixture, the paper is dipped into water, it is then dried lightly with

blotting paper, and finished by a distant fire. These operations should be
performed by candle-light. This paper, which the inventor calls •' Calotype
Paper," is used as follows :— A sheet of the paper is placed in a camera ob

scura. so as to receive the image formed in the focus of the lens. If the ob-
ject is very bright, or the paper is exposed a sufficient time, a sensible image
will appear on the paper when removed from the camera obscura. But when
the object is "invisible or dimly seen," it is brought out in the following
manner :— The paper is washed over with gallo-nitrate of silver, and held be-
fore a gentle fire until the picture is sufficiently distinct, which is then fixed
in the following manner:— The paper is first dipped into water and partly
dried with blotting paper, after which it is washed with a solution of 100
grains of bromide ot potassium in eight or ten ounces of water; after which
the picture is again washed with water and dr:ed. In the picture thus ob-
tained, the lights and shades are reversed, but another being taken from it
restores Iheir natural position. For this purpose a second sheet of calotype
paper— or the patentee prefers using common photographic paper — is jilaced
in contact with the picture, a board placed beneath and a sheet of glass above
them, pressed into close contact by screws. On placing them in the sunshine
for a short time, a picture with the lights and shadows in their natural posi-
tion is produced on the second paper, which is to be fixed as before directed.
After frequent copying in this manner, a calotype picture sometimes becomes
faint, to prevent which, it is to be washed by candle-light with the gallo-
nitrate of silver. A second improvement consists in a mode of obtaining posi-
tive calotvpe pictures, i. r., with the lights and shades in their natural posi-
tion, by a single operation. For this purpose a sheet of calotyne paper is
exposed to the daylight until its surface is slightly browned ; it is tnen dipped
into the solution of iodide of potassium, by which the browning is apparently
removed. On being taken out of this solution, the paper is dipped in water
and slightly dried ; it is then placed in the camera obscura and pointed at an
object for five or ten minutes. The paper is then removed, washed with
gallo-nitrate of silver, and warmed, when a positive image will be produced.
A third improvement con.sists in producing photogenic images on copper; a
plate of polished copper is exposed to the vapour of iodine, or bromine, or the
two combined, or eitlier of them combined with chlorine ; or the copper is
dipped into a solution of some of these substances in alcohol, ether, &c. On
this copper a photogenic image is formed in the usual manner, and exposed
to the vapour of sulphuietted hydrogen, when a dift'erent colour is produced
on those parts of the copper which have been acted upon by the light to that
which appears on the parts not so exposed ; consequently, a permanent
coloured photogenic image is obtained, which is not injured by further ex-
posure to light. A fourth improvement is as follows ; — A thin coating of
silver is given to a plate of steel or other suitable metal, which is made sensi-
tive to I'ght in the usual way; the plate is then placed horizontally and
covered with a solution of acetate of lead, through wuich a galvanic current
being m de to pass a coloured film is precipitated on the picture. A fifth
improvement consists in a method of obtaining very thin surfaces of silver
for photographic processes. A very thin plate of copper is first precipitated
on a polished plate of metal by the electrotype process, and a sheet of card
is cemented to the back of the layer ; w hen dry, the card and copper are re-
moveil. and the copper silvered by immersion in a suiiable solution of that
metal. A sixth and last improvement is in transfetring photogenic pictures
from paper to metal. For this purpose, the surface is rendered sensitive to
light, and the picture placed upon it with a plate of glass in front, kei)t in
contact bv screws, and exposed to tlie sun's rays, when the required transfer
is eftected ; which is to be afterwards fixed, and otherwise treated according
to the effect required. — Mech. Mag.

RAILWAY SIGNALS.
Abstract of a patent granted to Charles Hood, of Earl Street, Blackfriars,
for improvements in signals. Enrolment Office. August 1, 1841. — A suitable
receiver is filled with air condensed to about 45 lb. per square inch, by means
of a condensing syringe; this receiver is provided with a tube to which a
whistle is attached, similar to the steam whistle of locomotive engines, but
rather smaller. A stop-cock is placed upon the tube, between the whistle

and the receiver, on turning of which the condensed air passes through, and
sounds the whistle. This contrivance enables the guard of a railway train
to give a signal to the engine-driver, in case of accident of any kind. It is
also applicable to steam boats, or to railway stations, for giving signals at
night, or in foggy weather. A second signal apparatus consists of four
wedge-shaped leaves or panels, which are centred at their pointed ends, de-
scribing an arc of 4.5", and spreading out like a fan. These leaves are at-
tached to each other in such a manner, that on pulling a cord, the lowest
leaf is drawn up behind the second, the second leaf behind the third, and all
three behind the fourth ; lastly, the four are drawn up into a case, by which
they are concealed. Each leaf is painted a different colour, indicating some
arbitrary sign. The raising or lowering of these fan-like leaves niny be done
by hand, or by means of machinery, tor night signals, each leaf has a pane
of glass let into it. on which figures. &C., may be painted, to indicate fixed
intervals of time, when worked by clock machinery. On an engine-driver
approaching one of these signal stations, the colour or number of the leaf
that is visible will convey the intelligence desired — to stop, to proceed cau-
tiously, or any other signal. If no leaf is visible, no signal is to be commu-
nicated, and he will fearlessly continue his progress. The claim is — 1. To
the mode of giving signals by applying condensed air in apparatus, in com-
Ijination with whistles. 2. I'o the mode of giving telegraphic signals on
railways, by means of moveable leaves or panels, worked either by hand or
by machinery, or by both means conjointly, and combining therewith clock
movements, or other similar machinery, for producing a gradual and ascer-
tained velocity of motion in the leaves or panels of the telegraph, and for the
continuous sounding of an alarm bell, as described. — Ibid.

RAILWAY TURN TABLE.

Abstract of a patent granted to Elisha Oldham, of Cricklade, Wilts, rail-
road contractor, for certain improvements in ihe construction of turning-
tables to be used on railways. Petty Bag Office. August 8. 1841 .—The upper
platform of the table is composed of a strong iron framing, filled in with
wood, and supported at ils centre upon an upright pin or pivot, lubricated
by means of an oil-chamber immediately over it. At the extreme edge, or at
a point nearer to the centre, the platform is supported upon eight iron anti-
friction rollers, mounted in bearings upon a stationary cast iron framing.
The whole weight-of the carriage, S;c.. rests entirely upon the centre pin,
when the platlorm is properly balanced; but if the weight is unequally
placed, one side of the platform will be sustained by the anti-friction rollers.
The claim is to the arrangement of parts herein described, as applied to the
ccnstruction of turn-tables ; or any other arrangement in which the moveable
platfoi-m is supported on a pin or pivot at its centre, and assisted by station-
ary anti-friction rollers at its sides, in the manner described.— ii/rf.

DREDGING MACHINE.

Abstract of an American patent granted for improvements in the Dredging
Machine, for deepening Harbours, Rivers, Canals, &c., to William Easby,
City of Washington, D C. August 25, 1841.

This machine is intended to be worked by horses, that travel on a circular
platform, built on the deck of a large scow. The whole machine is made nar-
row enough to pass through a can.al lock, and in order to make the platform,
on which the horses travel, of sufficient size, a segment of the circle, called a
wing, is hinged on each side to the scow, so that in passing through a canal
lock, or any other narrow place, the wings may be turned up. The scoop is
to be worked by two barrels, or drums, placed one at the top, and the other
at the bottom, of a vertical shaft, in the middle of the platform— these drums
are, alternately, thrown in and out of gear by means of a vertical sliding
bolt, and a horizontal lever, worked by the attendant. The chain that draws
up the scoop passes around a roller at the end of the machine, and thence
around the barrel at the top of the shaft, and that which draws it down and
back, pisses under the platform, and winds on the lower barrel.

The scoop is attached by one of its sides to two long guide poles, that
slide in loops made in twocolliirs, turning loosely on the ends of a horizontal
windlass, which forms the axis around which the scoop swings, when drawn
up or let down. In letting down the scoop, the chain which is attached to
its bottom, is drawn in by throw ing the lower barrel into gear ; this causes
the guide poles of the scoop to slide in the loops, which brings it near to the
windlass, and after it has passed a vertical line its gravity causes it to sink.
The lower barrel is then thrown out cf, and the upper into gear; by this the
scoop is drawn along the bottom, and filled, and then, with its load, is drawn
up out of water. The stuff raised is discharged from it into a scow, or other
receptacle, by pulling a rope, or chain, which disengages a spring catch, by
which the hinged bottom is fastened. The bottom is closed as the scoop
strikes the water, m the operation of being drawn down to be re-filled. The
distance to which the scoop descends below the windlass, around which it
works, is regulated by a chain, which winds around it, and is attached to a
brace connecting the two guide poles together, near the scoop.

Claim— " What I claim as my invention, and desire to secure by letters
patent, consists in the arrangement of the barrels on the perpendicular shaft,
for winding and unwinding the main chains, in combination wuh the vertical
shding bolt aud lever, for throwing the barrels in. and out of gear, with the
shaft, by which the scoop, or bucket, is alternately raised, lowered, and
drawn back, whilst the animal, by which the mam shaft is turned, continues
to travel on the circular tracks w itbout interruption.' Also the combination
and arrangement of the parallel guide poles, chains, and windlass, for raising
the scoop, so as to draw it bick to its proper position, as described ; and this
I also claim in combination «ith the scoop and the apparatus lor^^" disen-
gaging the drop, or shutter, to discharge the load, as described. ' 1 also
claim "the arrangement uf the wings of the horse track, which can be raised,
and thereby reduce tlie width of the machine, .so that it may pass through a
canal lock, or any other narrow place, as described." — Franklin Journal.

430

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL

[December,

PF.OC3SDI3IGS OP SCISHTZFIC SOCIETIES.

INSTITUTION OF CIVIL ENGrSEERS.
June 8. — The President in the Chair.

The following weic elected : John Ball and Adalbert Morawski (of the
Grand Ducliy of Poscn), as .\ssociates.

" Description of Ste])heruion's Theatre Machinery." By J. B. Birch,
Grad. Inst. C. E.

In this communication the author describes a system of machinery which
was erected for the purpose of avoiding the confusion, mistakes, and noise,
consequent upon the number of men usually employed in the stage depart-
ment of a thcitre, and with a reduced number of meu to effect more per-
fectly all the operations required there.

The apparatus provides means for shifting simultaneously and without
noise, any numlicr of distinct pieces of scenery, bringing at the same time
into view other scenes to replace them. The general arrangement of the
machinery for effecting this is fully described.

The iuterior of the house between the basement and the roof, is divided
into four compartments, viz. :

1. A raised platform on which the gearing for working the stage traps is
placed. The trap frames are mounted upon rollers; they traverse on the
lower platform in every direction ; and when brought under the apertnres
in the stage, allow the traps to sink or rise steadily at any required speed.
' 2. The stage, with its traps of various dimensions, including a consider-
able portion formed to rise or fall by suitable machinery, and called the
sinking stage.

3. The lower flies or coiTidor, between wliich and the stage a-e placed
the wings or side scenes, and the Ijorder frames are suspended.

4. Tlie upper flies upon wliich is placed the machinery to communicate
motion to the whole, from the upper horizontal shaft, by means of bevel
gear, provided with double clutches to reverse the motion and shafts, on the
lower ends of wliich are the slow-motion wlieels and drums, au endless chain
is driven horizontally in either direction ; to this are attached the borders
representing clouds, foliage, arches, &c.

The side scenes or wing frames, the number of which is determined by
the depth of the stage, may be either flat, circular, or triangular, and receive
a rotary motion, combined with or apart from a forward r.nd backward
movement at pleasure, and can be placed at any desired angle to the au-
dience. At every change of the scene they revolve through 120' or \ of a
circle, and the scenes when removed from sight are replaced by those which
are to succeed them. The traversing frames revolve on a centre, and are
suspended from the border frames, or from the upper p.art of the theatre, for
crossing the stage in any direction, and at any given inclination. Several
improvements in the mode of lighting the stage and house have been intro-
duced with the machinerv- ; they are more fully referred to in the detailed
description which accompanies the ten elaborate drawings sent with this
communication.

" On the Combustion of Anthracite, and its value as 'a Fuel for Steam
Engine and otiier Furnaces." By Andrew Fyfe, M.D.

Anthracite, although known as a valuable fuel for particular purposes, is
so ditficnlt of combustion, that it has hitherto been very partially brought
into use; it has, however, become desirable to introduce it more jjeuerally,
and the author having been engaged in testing the value of Jlr. Bell's patent
fnmace, was induced to make some experiments on the use of anthracite in
conjunction with that system.

The objects sought to be obtained by the apparatus are, to insure a larger
amount of evaporation, by passing heated air, unmixed with the products of
combustion, through tubes in the boiler and surrounded by tlie water, thus
increasing the cva])orating surface ; and that the surplus caloric taken origi-
nally from the fuel, and not given out iu its passage through the water,
should be beneficially used in aiding the combustion beneath the boiler.

It has l)ec>n found in the manufacture of iron that anthracite could be ad-
vantageously used by means of heated air ; the author therefore considered
that the experiments upon this apparatus (the intrinsic merits of which he
does not at all discuss in this communication), afforded an advantageous
opportunity for ascertaining in what manner this fuel could be successfully
employed under steam boilers.

The anthracite supplied to tlie autliorwas unfortunately of inferior quahty,
analysis giving only of fixed carbon 71'4, and of volatile inflammable mat-
ter 13-3; the setting of the boiler required much alteration before snfticient
draught could be jirocurcd. The fuel was thrown on to the bars by hand,
which is the worst manner of using it, as from its density, and its being a
bad conductor of heat, it decrepitates when it tirst inflames, u.nless it is pre-
viously warmed — this was found to occur for a short time, but on the appli-
cation of the heated air the decrepitation ceased, and combustion went on
steadily. In ascertaining the amount of evaporation, the water at a tempe-
rature of ib was injected by hand from a vessel, the content of which was
measured, and the level in the boiler regulated by the float and index. The
fire was brought up to a certain intensity before commencing, and was left
in the same state at the end of the experiment; this mode of proceeding,
although objectionable with bituminous coal, is not so with anthracite, as it
does not swell during combustion so as to alter the bulk of the fire.

Results of t/ie e.rperimeHt.— the Tcsnhs of an experiment exleiniing over
8 J hours without interruption, are then shown in a tabular forra. In this
trial, 448 lb. of anthracite were thrown on the fire in four equal portions, at
intervals of two hours; 3560 1b. of water at 45" were pumped into the
boiler and evaporated under a pressure of 17 lb. per square inch. .Aiter
deducting 40i lb. of unconsumed coal which fell through the bars, the
amount of evaporation was lound to be 8' 73 lb. of water for each pound of
coal consumed. If the feed water had been at a temperature of 212' the
evaporation would have amounted to 1003 lb. During this trial tlie air ia
the tubes of the boiler never exceeded 430°, but on subsequent occasions it
was raised as high as 700".

This product of evaporation is below that obtained by other persons,
which the author attributes to the inferior quality of the specimens of an-
thracite, and the admission of cold air above the furnace bars when throwing
on the fuel, llis opinion is, that when anthracite is completely burned, the
practicil evaporative power will be found directly in proportion to the amount
of fixed carbon contained by it — that with the excejition of the loss of heat
which is always transmitted to the brick-work of the furnace, and of that
which is carried up the chimney to keep up the draught, the whole of that
evolved by the fixed carbon will be retained by the water; because from
good fuel there is little or no escape of gaseous matter, and hence the su-
perior efiicacy of anthracite. From the analysis of a number of specimens of
anthracite, the author found the quantity of fixed carbon to amount to 90
per cent. The evaporative power of these fuels, as fixed by Berthier's pro-
cess (la voie scche), would amount to 12'3 lb. of water for each pound of
coal consumed. He calculates that 6 lb. of anthracite will evaporate one
cubic foot of water under the ordinary circumstances of a steam engine
bailer, and taking the average specific gravity of bituminous fuel at 1280,
while that of anthracite is 1410, there is a dicTerence of nearly 10 per cent,
in favour of the latter, considering the space in which it can be stowed.
This is an important consideration for its use on board steam vessels, but it
is essential that its rate of combustion should be such as to raise steam
rapidly, its capabihties for which the author then proceeds to examine, and
deduces from the experiments that the combustion of the anthracite was
carried on so as to jiroduce a greater amount of evaporation in a given time,
than could be obtained fi'ora bituminous coal. This result is attributed in
some degree to the use of heated air.

The author recommends that the anthracite should be supplied to the
furnace by a hopper through the boiler,* wherein it is warmed before reach-
ing the fire bars, which obviates the inconvenience of decrepitation, and
insures regularity in the supply of steam.

Mr. Lowe saw no reason to doubt the results recorded by so accurate an
experimenter as Dr. Fyfe, which proved tliat anthracite was efficient just in
the proportion of the carbon it contained, bnt he was at a loss to reconcile
this with the opinion of Mr. C. W. Williams, who recommended the addition
of bituuiinous substances to pure carbon, as a means of increasing the calo-
rific power of fuel. He must repeat the oi)iiiion expressed by him on a for-
mer occasion, that the coal most free from elementary oxygen, would in
practice be found the most effective fuel. Neither could any fuel lie used
too dry or too hot. At the gas works under his charge, a considerable
economy had been effected by Mr. CroU's patent process of using the coke
as it was drawn from the retorts, and thrown in an incandescent state into
the furnaces,

June 15. — The President in the Chair.

The following were elected -. — Daniel Pinkney Hew ett and John Bou<tea(l
as Graduates ; and Gerrit Simons (of the Hague) as an Associate.

" Description of the new Sewer in the Valley of the Cowyate, Edinburgh."

By George Smith.

In this coMmunication the author first gives an account of a complete sys-
tem of drainage, designed by him as architect to the Commissioners for
improving the City of Edinburgh, and then descrilies the mode of construct-
ing the first sewer, which begins at the south back of the Canongate. passes
along the Cowgate, and through the Grass-market to the foot of the Bow.
This principal sewer is 950 feet long ; it was built in several sections ; the
upper portion was 4 feet high by 2 feet G inches wide, and increased at the
lower extremity to 5 feet high by 3 feet wide ; it was constructed of stone
with vertical sides, and large flat stones for both the siUs and the covers —
the dimensions of tlie branch drains varied in proportion to the quantity of
matter passing through them; they were situated opposite the cross streets,
and had a cesspool to each, with a malleable iron grating hinged to afford
access for cleansing them. The average depth of the excavations was 9 feet ;
a great portion of the work demanded great precaution in executing, on ac-
count of the narrowness of the streets, the frequent floods, the local impedi-
ments from the gas pipes, &c., and the soft character of the ground, as in
some places the foundation stones sunk deep into the mossy soil by their
own weight ; it has, however, proved very successful, and will doubtless in-
duce an extension of the sewage of the City of Edinburgh, which has been
too long neglected.

The paper was accompanied by two drawings of the construction of the
sewers, and the plan of the general system proposed, with the report to the
Commissiouers aud other explanatory documents.

■' Plaver's Patent,

1841.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

431

" On an uniform System of Screw Threads." Bv Josepli Wiitwjrtb,
Assoc. lust. C. E.

Tlie suliject considered in this paper, is tlie importance of having a con-
stant thread for a given diameter in all screws used in fitting up steam en-
gines and other machinery. It is argued, that uniformity of thread woidd
be productive of economy, hoth in the use of screwing apparatus, and in the
consumption of bolts and nuts. The rclitting shop of a railway or steam
packet company affords a striking instance of the advantage to he derived
from the application of this princij)le. If the same system of screw threads
ivere common to the dittercnt engines, a single set of screwing tackle would
suffice for any repairs. No attempt appears to have been hitherto made to
attain this important object. Engineers have adopted their threads without
reference to a common standard. Any such standard must be in a great
measure arbitrary, and hence its absence may be accounted for.

The author enters at some length into the consideration of the circum-
stances affecting the choice of a thread, with a view to show that it cannot
be determined by precise rules. The essential characters of the screw
thread are — pitch, depth, and form. The required conditions are — power,
strength, and durability. But the exact degree or proportion in which these
conditions are required, cannot be ascertained, and consequently the charac-
ters on which they depend cannot be fixed by calculation. An approxi-
mation may be made, but within a certain limit the decision is arbitrary.
The mutual dependence of the several conditions, and the relation subsisting
between the constituent characters, are noticed as having a tendency to
perplex in the choice of a thread. From the vagiieness of the principles
involved in the subject, a corresponding latitude was naturally to be expected
in the practical application of them, and accordingly, instead of that uni-
formity which is so desirable, there prevails a diversity so great as almost to
discourage any hope of its removal. The only mode in which this could be
effected, would he by a compromise; all parties consenting to adopt a me-
dium for the sake of common advantage. Tlie average pitch and depth of
the various threads used by the leading engineers, would thus become the
common standard, which would not only have the advantage of conciliating
general concurrence, but would in all probability approach very nearly to the
true standard for practical puiposes.

The author then proceeds to describe the mode adopted by Messrs. Whit-
worth and Co., some years since, in selecting their threads upon this princi-
ple. An extensive collection was made of screw-bolts from the principal
workshops throughout England, and the average thread was carefully ob-
served for ditFerent diameters. The ^ inch, 4 inch, and \\ inch, were par-
ticularly selected, and taken as the fixed points of a scale by which the in-
termediate sizes were regulated, avoiding small fractional parts in the num-
ber of threads to the inch. The scale was afterwards extended to 6 inches.
The pitches thus obtained for angular threads were the following : —

t

1 Diameter in

[ inches.

1

A

.

1

\

1

1"
8

7

7

H
6

1^
6

5

If

5

4i

2"

No. of threads |
to the inch. ,20 18 16

14

12

11 10

9

Diameter in
inches.

2}
4

2i
4

2|
35

3"

3i

3J
3J

3i

3}

3J4"

2|

4f

5"

2f

5i

n

5J

5i

2i

6"
2-h

—

No. of threads
to the inch.

3

3

Above the diameter of 1 inch the same pitch is used for two sizes, to avoid
small fractional parts. The proportion between the pitch and the diameter
varies throughout the entire scale. Thus the pitch of the i inch screw is
■^ of the diameter ; that of the i inch ^, of the 1 inch J, of the 4 inches
.jij, and of the 6 inches ^. The depth of the thread in the various speci-
mens is then alluded to. In this respect the variation was greater than in
the pitch. The angle made by the sides of the thread being taken as an
expression for the depth, the mean of the angle in 1 inch screws was found
to be about 55", which was also nearly the mean in screws of difterent dia-
meter. Hence it was adopted throughout the scale, and a constant propor-
tion was thus established between the depth and the pitch of the thread.
In calculating the former a deduction must be made for the quantity rounded
off, amounting to ^ of the whole depth, i. e. ^ from the top, and ^ from the
bottom of the thread. Making this deduction, the angle of 55° gives for the
actual depth rather more than J, and less than -j of the pitch.

It is observed that the system of threads thus selected has already been
widely extended, demonstrating the practicability and advantage of the pro-
posed plan. The author then notices the obstacles to general uniformity
arising from the inconvenience which any change would occasion, in existing
establishments, and also from the imperfect screwing tackle in general use.
He anticipates as an important result of a combined effort to introduce uni-
formity, that screwing tackle generally would be much improved, and the
efficiency and economy of bolts and nuts be thereby increased.

Me recommends also standard gauges of the diameters and threads, as
they would form a convenient adjunct to the screwing apparatus, and would
he applicable to other usefiJ purposes.

Mr. Field claimed for the late Mr. Mandslay the credit of the first attempt
to introduce uniformity of thread — it was well known how incessantly his
attention and skill had been devoted to this object, and with what success
his efforts had been attended. He would at the same time accord great
merit to Mr. W'hitworlh, not only for his present effort to introduce a very
desirable measure, hut also for the general excellency of the screwing tackle
made under his directions.

Mr. Seaward corroborated all that Mr. Field had advanced ; he had always
considered that to Mr. Maudslay the mechanical world was indebted for the
accuracy with which screws were now made. He considered the plan pro-
posed by Mr. Whitworth to be good, hut difficult of attainment in old-es-
tablished manufactories, where very extensive assortments of screwing tackle
already existed.

The President concurred in the opinion, that it was to Mr. Maudslay's
well-known talent and skill that the mechanical world was indeljted for the
great improvements in the form of the screw, and the mode of its manufac-
ture ; but it was to Mr. Whitworth that the Institution was indebted for
having brought the subject before the meeting ; he trusted that this example
would not he lost upon the numerous members, who could contribute so
largely to the interests of the meetings, by recording the facts which came
under their notice in the course of their diurnal employments.

" Jccount of the original construction and present state of the Plymouth
Breakwater." By William Stuart, M. Inst. C. E.

In the year 1806, the Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty instructed
the late Mr. John Rennie, C. E., and .Mr. Whidhy, then Master-Attendant
at Woolwich Dock, to make a survey of Plymouth Soimd, with a view to
the construction of a breakwater for sheltering vessels.

Their report was favourably received, but it was not until 1812 that the
works were commenced.

Their plan consisted of a pier or breakwater 1700 yards in length, the
centre part of which, 1000 yards long, was straight, with an extension at
each end 250 yards in length, placed at an angle of 20" with the main body.
The top to be 30 feet wide at the level of 10 feet above the low water of an
ordinary spring tide : — the slope towards the sea to be 3 feet horizontal to
1 foot perpendicular, and on the land side 1 foot 6 inches horizontal to 1
foot perpendicular.

By tlie middle of March, 1813, the work had been brought up in parts to
within 5 feet of low-water mark of spring tides — at this period 43,789 tons
of stone had been deposited — and in the month of March of the following
year sufficient shelter was afforded for ships of war to anchor in the Sound
instead of in Cawsand Bay.

It was then determined to raise the whole structure to the height of 20
feet above low-water spring tides ; great exertions were made to complete it
rapidly, and during the week ending on the 24th of May, 1816, the quantity
of stone de]>osited amounted to 15,329 tons, which was the largest quantity
ever conveyed within the same space of time.

Slight injury had frequently been received by the works whilst in progress,
but the storm of the night of the 19th of January, 1817, was the first which
materially affected them. The most destructive effects were, however, pro-
duced by' the storm of the 22nd and 23rd of November, 1824. On that
occasion the spring-tide rose 7 feet higher than usual ; and so great was its
power, that a length of 796 yards of finished work was completely over-
turned, and the remaining parts slightly injured.

It was observed, that the effects of this storm left the slope from low-
water mark upward at about 5 feet horizontal to 1 foot vertical. It was
therefore determined to adopt that angle of inclination for the exterior or
sea side, and a slope of 2 to 1 for the inside. The centre line of the break-
water was also removed 39 feet 6 inches towards the north, and the top
width was increased to 45 feet.

The works continued upon this scale until 1830, when a fore-shore was
added of a width of 50 feet at the toe of the south slope at the west end,
and of 30 feet at the east end of the main arm : for this purpose 600,000
tons of stone were deposited.

The extreme western erd of the breakwater was then, after more alte-
rations and extensions, terminated by a circular head, with an inverted arch
as a foundation for a light-house, now constructing under the direction of
Messrs. Walker and Burges.

In consequence of further injuries from storms in 1838, when large quan-
tities of stones of 16 or 20 tons' weight each were torn from below low
water, and carried completely over the top of the Breakwater, a further ex-
tension of the fore-shore was made, and a projecting buttress built to secure
the foot of the south slope, to afford additional security to the light-house,
and to prevent the stones from the fore-shore being carried over to the
north side.

From the time of its commencement in August, 1812, until the 31st of
March, 1841, there had been deposited upon this work 3,369,261 tons of
stone.

Cost. — The expenditure upon the whole work, when completed, will, it is
estimated, be within one million and a half sterling. The main body of the
work is composed of blocks of limestone from the quarries of Oreston, ad-
joining the harbour of Catwater. They were deposited from vessels con-

432

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[Dkcembkr,

structed for tlie purpose. In certain portions of tlie work the blocks have
been subsequently ranged from a ilivinp; bell. The buttress and the works
now in progress round the west end arc composed of granite masonry, dove-
tailed horizontally, and fixed vertically by iron lens cramps.

Subsefjuently to the reception of the plan of Messrs. Rennie and AVhidliy,
most of the leading engineers of the day were consulted, under whose di-
rections the author has superintended the execution of the work.

The communication is accompanied by six elaborate drawings by Mr.
Dobson, illustrating in detail the various stages of the work, and the mode
of construction.

Mr. Rendel could have wished that the account of this interesting work,
the most extensive of the kind in Great Britain, bad entered more fully into
details, not only of the difliculties met with and overcome, but of the pecu-
liarities of the construction ; there were many points connected with it of
great importance to engineers, lie would allude to one only upon which no
information was given ; tlie amount of interstice in the whole cubic content
as compared with the mass of materials employed ; an accurfite account had
been kept of the quantity of stone deposited, and knowing the cube of the
mass at a given period, be bad ascertained the amount of interstice or vacant
space in the old part of the works to be at one time 37 per cent. This great
deficiency of solidity had arisen from the employment of an excess of large
stone, or rather from a deficiency of small stone to fill the interstices between
the large stones.

June 22.— The President in the Chair.
Tlie following were elected : Joseph Colthurst, as a Graduate ; Colonel
George Ritso Jervis, B. E., Captain Henry Goodwyn, B. E., and William
Lamb Arrowsraith, as Associates.

"On the Construction and Use of Geological Models in connexion with
Civil Engineeriny." By Thomas Sopwith, F. G. S., M. Inst. C. E.

The author commences this paper with a review of the various methods
adopted for the representation of objects required in canning out the designs
of engineers, architects, and mechanics — whether as the means whereby such
designs are first studied, and afterwards matured — as guides for the resident
superintendents and workmen — or for being preserved as records of what has
been executed, and studies for those who may be engaged in similar under-
takings.

He then proceeds to elucidate the advantages peculiarly possessed by mo-
dels for demonstrating practical results in Geology and Mining, dividing the
subject into six heads, as follows :

1. On the application of modelling to geological and mining purposes.

2. On the materials to be employed.

3. On the mode of construction.

4. On the scales to be employed.

5. On the objects to be represented.

6. On the use of geological models, and the connexion of the subject with
civil engineering.

1. A large number of plans and sections is usually required to elucidate
with clearness the geology of a district, and the nature and extent of mining
operations; and few departments of practical science admit of greater im-
provement than the art of delineating mining plans in connexion with geolo-
gical features.

Much ingenuity has been exercised in representing the undulating surface
of countries either by the process called "relief-engraving, (proccde Collas)
or as in the Ordnance Maps of England and Wales, and Mr. Greenough's re-
cent edition of his Geological Map : but even in comparison with these a
model affords a more correct idea. Hence models in rebef are more pecu-
liarly applicable in all cases where it is desirable to comprehend at once the
relations of the several parts, and it is evidently still better adapted to explain
the geological conditions ; especially when it is required to show the relative
position of various rocks, their inclination, thickness, extent, and the disturb-
ances to which they have been subjected, which could only be understood by
comparing together a number of drawings.

To those interested in mining, therefore, the easiest mode of conveying
ideas is i)y modelling. This was illustrated by two models of the Forest of
Dean, and by reference to Mr. Jordan's model of the Dolcoath mine, now in
the Museum of Economic Geology.

Materiak for models. — 2. The first material for forming a model which
naturally occurs to the mind is clay, pins and wires lieing used to define the
principal elevations. Plaster of Paris lias occasionally been used, and is well
adapted for solid forms, where the edges are not exposed to injury; but its
brittleness and contraction in drying are objectionable. Papier Mache is a
more elegant and durable material, but the expense of the requisite moulds
prevents its general use. Coloured wax is adapted for small models not sub-
ject to be handled. Pottery appears to possess more requisites, but many
corresponding disadvantages. Of all the materials which the author has em-
ployed, he found none so generally useful as well-seasoned wood, whether for
the facility with which the requisite forms are attained, for durability, for
portraying different strata by various-coloured woods, or for comparative
economy.

Mode of construction. — 3. The mode of constructing geological models had
keen briefly alluded to by the author on a preceding occasion.* It is more

* Journal, Vol. III., page 347.

fully described in the present communication, and was illustrated by complete
models, and the detached parts for forming them purposely made on a large
scale.

The plan of the district being divided by lines at given distances apart, into
a certain number of squares, a series of thin slips of wood are made to inter-
sect each other, corresponding to the lines so drawn — upon these slips the
profile of the surface and the positions of the strata are delineated, when it is
intended that the model when complete shall he dissected ; the compartments
are then filled in with wood, and carved down to the lines upon the slips i
the several strata thus rest upon the subordinate beds, and can be detached
in a mass or in comjiartments ; these being geologically coloured, convey an
■accurate idea of the relative positions of the strata, and display with the ut-
most clearness the mining operations in each. This system is applicable to
any extent : and the operation of forming the model is so simple, that a skil-
ful workman at once comprehends and executes unerringly the instructions
given him by the engineer or surveyor, as the accuracy entirely depends upon
the profile which is drawn upon the slips. The author considers lime-tree or
plane to be the most suitable wood for the purpose ; but in the construction
of small models for showing peculiar geological features or disturbances of
strata, he uses various coloured woods : as an illustration of which he showed
a series of twelve models, which (with a printed description*) arc now in the
Museum of the Institution. These contain 579 pieces of wood, one of them
consisting of 130 pieces. By fitting the parallel layers of wood together, and
arranging them in conformity with sections of strata of tlie carboniferous
limestones and coal measures of the north of England, he illustrates the for-
mation of that district, and the nature of its dislocations, &c. better than can
be done by any number of plans and sections.

4. Scales to be employed. — Attention is drawn at some length to the pro-
portion to be observed between the horizontal and vertical scales, and the
relative merits of corresponding and dissimilar horizontal and vertical scales
fully examined, illustrating the positions by tv.o models nf the Forest of Dean,
in one of which the vertical is enlarged to three times that of the horizontal
scale ; while the other has the scales exactly alike. For tlie conventional
purpose of giving an idea of a country such as would be formed by a general
observer passing through it, the former model appeared best adapted ; but in
a scientific point of view the latter had a decided advantage, being based on
geometrical truth, aud conveying an exact knowledge of the real, but not of
the apparent relations of the surfaces, and other objects represented.

5. Objects to be represented. — Models had hitherto been chiefly used for
conveying impressions of tracts of the surfaces of countries, or for displaying
the minute tracery and proportions of buildings. The author's views have
been more especially directed to introducing the construction of models for
geological and mining purposes, for which he considers them peculiarly
adapted.

The series of models now presented to the Institution, contains examples
of various geological phenomena of regular stratification — interruption by
slips, faults, and dykes — the effects of denudations in exposing to view the
various strata — the deceptive appearance of the course of mineral veins on the
surface — the intersection of veins — and many other details which are inti-
mately connected with practical mining.

6. Models used in civil engineering. — The author then proceeds to describe
his view of the uses of such models, and the connexion of the subject with
civil engineering.

He considers that by them a practical knowledge of geology may be attained
by the civil engineer, and that such knowledge is indispensable for his guid-
ance in many of the works he is called upon to undertake in the exercise of
his profession. It is to an engineer that the merit is justly due of having, by
efficiently labouring to establish English geology on a firm basis, acquired the
title of " Father of Geology," which has been generally conceded to the late
Mr. William Smith.

The avocations of the civil engineer peculiarly qualify him for an observant
geologist ; and being called upon to visit so many diflferent districts, the re-
marks be might make would be replete with instruction. These observations
might be illustrated more efficiently by models than by any other means ; at
the same time they might be made to answer another purpose — that of de-
monstrating to the owners of mineral property tlie advantage or the futility
of commencing researches or mining speculations.

Plans do not admit of such certainty of definition as modelling, and no re-
gular system of planning mining districts has yet been generally practised, by
which the engineer can judge of the probable results of the operations which
he is often called upon to direct. .\s a record of mining operations, models
of this kind are pre-eminently valuable ; the exact position not only of the
mineral veins and the strata are clearly shown, but the quantities extracted
are registered, and a guide for future proceedings is established. The author
contends that it is a duty to secure, while it is in our power, sucli records of
mining operations as may enable us and our successors really to exhaust
whatever minerals can be worked with advantage.

.\s being in some degree connected with the subject under discussion. Dr.
Buckland described a mode used by Sir John Robison, for obtaining moulds
for plaster casts. The object, of which the mould was required, was immersed
in a mixture of common glue, dissolved in brewers' sweet wort of about the
consistency of thick cream, and allowed to remain until the mass became

* Description nf a series of Geological Models, &c. By Tbos. Sopi\ilh'
F.G.S., &c. 12mo. Newcastle, 1841.

1841.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

433

stirt": it was then released by cutting the mould open, when it would be found
to resume its original form like Indian rubber: holes were made in it for
pouring in the plaster of Paris, and for carrying oft" the air ; from such moulds,
casts of the most delicate objects could be taken.

He entirely concurred in the praise of the beauty and the utility of the
models which had been described, and lie hailed with much pleasure the co-
operation of engineers in the study of geology ; by their researches in the
science of dynamics, and their knowledge of the power of elastic vapours,
liuht might lie thrown upon the upheavings of the great mountain ranges;
whether that had been the work of time, or by the sudden development of a
mighty force, it w-as peculiarly the province of the civil engineer and the ma-
thematician to consider and to explain. The observation of the effects of
torrents, the causes of removal of masses of material, the disturbance of strata
in certain localities, and numerous other instances of the utmost interest to
the geologist, were even more important to engineers.

Mining modek. — In mining operations, where for want of accurate records
of previous workings, much expense was frequently incurred, accompanied
with loss of human life, the adoption of the models proposed by llr. Sopwith
was of the utmost importance ; he trusted that the keeping of such records
of present operations would be rendered compulsory by legislative enactment,
that proprietors of collieries would not be permitted by inattention to do ir-
remediable injury to the mineral and coal basins, which were the vital riches
of the country. If accurate models of all the coal districts were prepared,
similar to that of the Forest of Dean, a close estimate of the duration of the
supply of mineral fuel could be made : present expense would also be avoided,
by the best positions for sinking pits and erecting engines for draining being
fixed upon with greater certainty, the positions and extent of the beds or
veins of coal or minerals, tlie faults, dykes, slips, &c., would be shown for the
guidance of speculators ; in fact, these models would do much towards giving
a degree of precision to a branch of engineering, in which the greatest uncer-
tainty prevailed at present.

Thames Tunnel borings. — As an instance of the utility of a knowledge of
geology to the engineer, he might mention, that after the Thames Tunnel
had been commenced by Sir Isambard Brunei, upon an assurance from those
who made the borings that they had reached the London clay, it was found
that they were actually traversing the sands of the plastic clay ; hence arose
nearly all the ditficulties which the engineer had displayed so much skill and
perseverance in overcoming.

Artesian reel! at Paris — It was the adaptation of the science of geology to
engineering, which enabled Jlonsieur Arago to inspire the contractor for the
Artesian Well of the Abattoir de Grenelle, with the confidence that he should
eventually obtain the abundant supply of water which had from the com-
mencement been foretold — and which had now been realised.

In short, whether viewed in connexion with the labours of the mining en-
gineer as directing his proceedings with greater certainty, or giving a correct
knowledge of the properties of materials employed in the works of the civil
engineer, and for numerous other self-evident reasons, he considered the
study of geology to be indispensable for every member of the profession.

The Council of the Institution of Civil Engineers have awarded the follow-
ing Telford and Walker premiums for 1841 : —

A Telford Medal in Silver to John Frederick Bateman, M. Inst. C. E., for
his "Account of the Bann Reservoirs, County Down, Ireland."

A Telford Premium of Books, suitably hound and inscribed, to William La
Trohe Bateman, for the Drawings illustrating the ■' Account of the Bann
lieservoirs."

A Telford lledal in Silver to Samuel Seaward, M. Inst. C. E., for his Paper
" On the application of Auxiliary Steam Power to Sailihg Vessels upon long
voyages."

A Telford Medal in Silver to Benjamin Green, for his " Description of the
Arched Timber Viaducts on the Newcastle and North Shields Kailwav, &c.''

A Telford Medal in Silver to Thomas Sopwitb, .\I. Inst. C. E.,' for his
Paper upon " The construction and use of Geological Models iu connexion
with Civil Engineering."

A Telford iledal in Silver to Dr. Charles Schaf haeuti for his two Papers
on " -A new Universal Photometer," of his invention, and " On the circum-
stances under which the Explosions of Steam Boilers frequently occur."

A Telford Premium of Books, suitably bound and inscribed, to David Ste-
venson (Edinburgh), for his '■ Description of a Colter Dam, designed by him
for Excavating Rook in the Navigable Channel of the River Ribhfe."

A Walker Premium of Books, suitably bound and inscribed, to George
Clarisse Dobson, .\ssoc. Inst. C. E., for the execution of the Drawings illus-
trating the " .Account of the Plvmouth Breakwater, by William Stuart, JI.
Inst. C. E."

A Walker Premium of Books, suitably bound and inscribed, to Robert
Mallet, Assoc. Inst. C. E., for his " Description of the methods designed by
him for raising and sustaining the Sunken Roof of St. George's Church,
Dublin."

A Walker Premium of Books, suitably bound and inscribed, to Joseph
Cohhurst, Grad. Inst. C. E., for his two Papers " On the Position of the Neu-
tral .\xis in Rectangular Beams of Cast and Wrought Iron and Wood," and
" Experiments on the Force necessary to Punch Holes in V.'rought Iron and
Copper Plates of various thickness."

.■V Walker Premium of Books, suitably bound and inscribed, to George

Thomas Page, Assoc. Inst. C. E., for the Drawings illustrating the " Memoir
of the Montrose Suspension Bridge, by James Jleadows Rendel, M. Inst. C.E.''

A Walker Premium of Books, suitably bound and inscribed, to Samuel
Clegg, jun., for his "Description and Drawings of the Great Aqueduct at
Lisbon, over the Valley of -Vlcantara."

A Walker Premiun\ of Books, suitably bound and inscribed, to John Bran-
nis Birch, Grad. Inst. C. E., for the "Description and Drawings of Stephen-
son's Theatrical Machinery."

The Council invite communications on the following as well as other sub-
jects for Telford and Walker premiums : —

1. The alterations and improvements in Blackfriars Bridge.

2. .A Description of the Katwyk Dykes ; the Canal of the Helder ; or of
any similar Foreign Engineering works of equal importance.

3. The modes of Drainage adopted in the Lowlands of the United King-
dom, or works of a similar nature in Holland or in other countries.

4. On any of the principal Rivers of the United Kingdom : describing their
Physical Characteristics, and the Engineering works upon them.

5. The various kinds of Limes and Cements emploved in Encineering
Works.

6. The resistance to Aeriform Fluids in their passage through Pipes or
Conduits at different velocities.

7. The conveyance of Fluids in Pipes, under Pressure, and the circum-
stances which usually affect the velocity of their currents.

8. The means of rendering large Supplies of Water available for the pur-
pose of extinguishing Fires.

9. The construction of large Chimneys, as affecting their Draught ; with
examples and drawings.

10. The comparative advantages of Wire and Hempen Ropes.

11. The relative merits of Granite and Wood Pavements, derived from
actual experience.

12. The ascertained effects of any method for preserving Timber from de-
cay.

13. The Smelting and Manufacture of Iron, either with Hot or Cold Blast.

14. The Smelting and ilanufacture of Copper.

15. The comparative advantages of Iron and Wood, or of both materials
combined, as employed in the construction of Steam Vessels : with drawings
and descriptions.

IG. The sizes of Steam Vessels of all classes, whether River or Sea-going,
in comparison with their Engine Power : giving the principal dimensions of
the engines and vessels, draught of water, tonnage, speed, consumption of
fuel, &c.

17. The various mechanism for propelling Vessels, in actual or past use.

18. The causes, means of preventing, and methods of determining the
amount of priming in Steam Boilers.

19. The description of any Meter in practical use for accurately registering
the quantity of Water for supplying Steam Boilers, or for other purposes.

20. The explosion of Steam Boilers ; especially a record of facts and evi-
dence connected with any well-authenticated cases ; also a description, draw-
ings, and details of the Boilers, both before and after the explosion.

21. The various modes adopted for moving Earth in Railway Tunnels,
Cuttings, or Embankments, with the cost thereof.

22. On Stone Blocks and Timber Sleepers or Sills, with or without con-
tinuous Bearings, for Railways.

23. The results of experience as regards the consumption of Power for a
given efiect, on Railways having dirt'erent widths of Gauge with the advan-
tages or disadvantages attributable to any established width of Gauge.

24. Memoirs, and Accounts of the Works and Inventions of any of the
foUowii^ Engineers: — Sir Hugh Middleton; Arthur Woolf; Jonathan Horn-
blower ; Richard Trevithick ; and William Murdoch (of Soho)r

The communications must be forwarded to the Secretary on or before the
31st of May, 1842.

UNIVERSITY COLLEGE— CIVIL ENGINEERING.

The introductory lecture to this course was delivered by Professor Vig-
noles, at University College, on Wednesday last. The attendance of engi-
neers and students in the large lecture-room was numerous. The learned
lecturer stated that it had recently become his duty to attempt to form a
distinct class in the college, for the purpose of elucidating, to those desirous
of embracing the profession, the elementary principles of civil engineering;
and it was mainly with that end in view that the present course of lectures
had been undertaken. After a few introductory remarks upon the the na-
ture of civil engineering, which he defined as a combination of practical skill,
in conjunction with a well-grounded education on scientific principles, the
learned lecturer proceeded to observe, that the use and signification of the
term engineer was somewhat indefinite and obscure. In the middle ages,
and long after the commencement of the last century, it was used exclusively
as a military terra. It was likewise applied to architecture and hydraulics;
and even the term engineering, in the present day, was not less equally mul-
tiform in its application and meaning ; for even from the turncock of a water
company to the conductor of an engine, or the stoker of a steam-boat, all
included themselves under the denomination of engineers. Very different,

3 M

434

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

FDecember.

Lowever, was the province and tlie line of study wliich was requisite to
ijualify the young engineering graduate for this noble profession. Amongst
the more immediate brandies of study for this purpose were to be enume-
rated tliose of mechar.ical, topographical, and mineral engineering. An
intimate acqunintance with mathematics, a knowledge of natural and me-
chanical philosophy, of chemistry ami economic geology, were likewise
jiecessary in pursuing the business of civil engineering.

The stupendous aqueducts, constructed by the Romans, have been com-
monly stigmatized as but immense monuments of their ignorance of the sim-
plest principles of science, inasnuich as they seem constructed in utter disre-
gard of the now universally familiar fact, that water, if left to itself, will find
its level ; but the learned Professor showed that the defects in their construc-
iion were much more probably owing to the low state of the metallurgic arts
in ancient times, and the difficulty if not responsibility, of their providing
pumps, pipes, &c., of strength and capacity enough for sustaining the pres-
sure of large bodies of water. Modern engineers had, he thought, but little
superiority to boast of, in point either of scientific knowledge, or engineering
skill. Tlicre was, however, scarcely any one branch of the arts and sciences
from which an engineer might not draw important aids in the exercise of bis
profession. How chemistry might lend her helping hand, was strongly ex-
emplified by the highly philosophical researches of Mr. C. W. AVilliams into
the process of combustion, by which the long standing nuisance of smoke
seemed likely to be for ever extinguished, and a saving effected of not less
than 30 per cent, in the consumption of all fuel employed for engineering
purposes, llow a knowledge of jmeumatics might be tnmed to good account
was evidenced in the \'arions contrivances for storing and distributing the gas
■R'ith whicli our cities and towns are lighted, and would, he believed, be soon
still more strikingly manifested in the atmospheric railway ; for which we are
indebted to the same ingenious individual (Mr. C'legg) who invented the
greater part of our gas machinery. The Professor stated that he had himself
not only investigated with great care the principles of this new system of
railway transit, but witnessed several most successful trials made of it, and
liad no doubt whatever of its coming, ere long, into most extensive and pro-
fitable use. He cited these " modern instances," (liesides others which we
lave not space here to notice,) not so much because they were among the
most remarkable of their kind, as because they were among the most recent.
Although true it was that civil engineering was not made, as it ought to be,
a matter of regular study by all embarking in the practice of it, and true also,
that it had been hitherto almost wholly neglected as a distinct branch of
education in our universities and colleges, yet he felt botmd to acknowledge,
and did so with great pleasure, that there were other means and other chan-
jiels of acquiring information on engineering subjects, peculiar to the present
day, of which engineers did avail thf msclves to an extent which went a great
•way to make up — though they could never do so entirely — for the want of
early and systematic instruction. He referred particularly, and in terras of
great commendation, to the establishment of the Civil Engineers, to its inte- ■
resting and edifying weekly conversational meetings, and to the liberal and
extensive circulation of its Transactions. Of the value of such an institution
as a sort of storehouse for the communications of engineers on all subjects of
interest to their profession, it was impossible to speak too highly. He might
cite as an .ippropriate example of this, the account lately furnished to the in-
stitution by Mr. Clegg, jun., of the Portuguese viaduct of Alcantara — a work
as extraordinary for its magnitude as its expense, having cost no less than
about 120,000/. a mile. The scientific periodical press had also rendered
most important service to the engineering profession ; in particular the Me-
chanics' Magazine, and Ciril Engineer and Architect's Journal. Much valuable
information was to be gleaned from the periodical literature of the day, and
from such works as those of Smeatou, Tredgold, Rennie, the " Transactions
cf Civil Engineering," and other productions. Many were the striking
results which might be mentioned of the power of knowledge, where science
■was combined with skill, as might be illustri^ted in the labours of the Earl of
Eoss, better known in the scientific world as Lord Oxenstown, who, follow-
ing in the steps of Herschell, had constructed the wonderful reflecting teles-
cope. It was the business, he conceived, of a civil engineer, to be economi-
cal in his works, and to keep down every branch of expenditure as much as
possible.

THE LEVELLING STAFF.

Sir — Observing in this month's number of your excellent Journal, a notice
cf some "improvements" made in levelling instnmients,by Mr. T. Stevenson
— I cannot refrain from a few remarks on the too great disposition now
prevalent to " improve '' by complication, many instruments which we have
already liad much improved by being simplified. I allude more particularly
to the levelling stafl', wldch has been made almost perfect by the ingenious
method of " self-reading," and which when propi'rly used, in my humble
judgment renders any adjusting apparatus worse than useless.

Inventive ndnds when impressed with improving ideas are, in their
anxiety to bring them forth, prone to overlook many attendant circumstances
whicli more than neutralize the presupposed advantages, and such, I con-
ceive, is the case with Mr. Stevenson, for in the attempt to attain such
superlative accuracy by means of his adjusting screw aud clamp, in the

reading of the stafl!', a certain portion of both the observer's and holder's at-
tention is absorbed, which should he entirely devoted to obtaining the exact
reading when the staff is in the perpendicular position. A method which I
have adopted in practice, and which may not generally be known, ensures,
I may say, perfect accuracy, and allows the observer to be quite independent
of Lis assistant — is expeditious in the extreme — and may be practised in mo-
derately windy weather still ensuring the same accuracy of obsenation. It
consists in instructing the stall" holder to firmly and slowly move the staff to
and fro in the plane of the olwervcr, the base of the staff acting in its seat as
a hinge, — during this motion, the cross wire of the telescope is seen to travel
up and down, and up again on the face of the self-reading stafl' — the se-
quence of these being reversed in its return motion. The least reading
should be always taken down as it is at this point the staff is perfectly per-
pendicular. I have found this plan most satisfactory and easy in practice,
and I trust the judgment of any practical man will convince him of the supe-
riority of it over any complicated adjusting screws which may be applied,
and which tend greatly to increase the cx'pense of a most simple and cheap
instrument when properly made.

I am. Sir,

Your very obedient servant
Dublin, 18/A Kuv. 'Willl'^m Bewlet.

M'. B.'s IMPROVED R.\IL AND CIIAIU.

Sir — Surely your correspondent \V. B. must be one of those who walk
through the world with their eyes shut; it would be difficult otherwise to
reconcile the fact of his being " practically engaged in the construction of
railways for some years," and his calling the attention of your readers to
such an extremely impracticable thing as his " improved rail and chair."

W. B. starts with the astounding observation No. 1, "that the greatest
strength of the rails is not in the direction of the force they are intended to
bear." I can only say, if \V. B. has really seen this to be the case, it can but
have been on the hues on which he has been " practically engaged." Subse-
quently, he admits indeed that " this is assisted a little by placing the chairs
decUniug a little inwards ; but which is entirely at the mercy of the workmea
employed to lay the rails." Were this true, it would be a sweeping denua-
ciation of the whole profession ; but fortunately for engineers, it is not so ;
the observation reflects only on \V. B. himself. This important point is no
more left to " the mercy of workmen," than is the gauge itself of the line;
both are with the same accuracy adjusted with a template, and receive the
careful attention of engineers and inspectors.

Template.

Chairs and Rails inclined.

Had W. B. known what was done on all lines but his own, he would surely
in very fairness have placed the rails under his barrel in their true position,
however much, giving them a vertical direction might help out the argument
of his offspring.

In observations 2 and 3, W. B. complains '■ that there is invariably con-
siderable attrition between the rail and chair, and between the joints of the
rails," and " that the fixing of the rails is subject to failure from the loosening
of the key or wedge ;'' which said observations lead me to suppose that bis
practical engagement on railways must be of rather ancient date ; I shall
therefore take the liberty of informing him, that in most, if not all, the later
methods of laying rails, these inconveniences have been very nearly obviated ;
so perfect indeed, in most cases is the connection between the rail and chair,
that in instances of partial subsidence, the pins are much more frequently
seen drawn from the sleepers and blocks, or these lifted from their beds,thau
the rails parted company with, or loose even in the chairs. The latter part
of \V. B.'s tliird observation is rather a sly hit at himself. He complains of
" a wooden wedge having greater force to sustiiin than it is able without being
compressed," and yet he not only uses a wooden wedge himself, but actually
compresses it untd it fills a series of notches in the chair !

It is not a little singular that with all \V. B.'s acute perception of the diffi-
culties and dangers of rolling the usual " irregular forms of the present rails,"
as evinced in observation No. 4. and with all his practical experience, it did
not occur to him that there might be some sUght practical reasons to induce

IS41.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

435

the whole world to liattle with these iliiBculties, and adopt a flatheaded rail
in spite of them, instead of contenting themselves with the simpler form of
•ead that could be had without them.

Having disposed of the ot)servations, let us examine a few of tlie practical
advantages of his " improved rail and chair;" and it will materially assist in
the enquiry, if W. B., who has " practically proved the rail himself," will
favour us in your next with further information on the following trivial points.
As, on W. B.'s lines of railway, the position of the rails is " left entirely to
the mercy of the workmen," has he not found that the •' improved" may
possibly cut as sorry a figure by the chair not being placed perfectly straight,
as the present bungling methods may, by not being sufficiently declined r
Most things, I imagine, " left to the mercy of workmen," would have as good
a chance of being placed crooked as straight ; and then what might not be
the fatal consequence of the one-tenth less metal?

There is one point however on which the "improved" decidedly bears
away the palm from all the present disadvantageous methods that I have ever
seen ; which is, the next to impossibility of ever unfixing the line that has
once been laid with it. From the method of joining the rails, one faulty one
cannot possibly be removed without two others being also taken up, and some
fifteen chairs being removed from the sleepers ; just increasing the work in
the proportion of three to one of the present disadvantageous methods. I
say fifteen chairs removed from the sleepers, for assuredly V/. B. would not
attempt to remove the keys and the wooden wedges he has so neatly com-
pressed into the notches of the chairs ; these could not possibly be drawn to
release the rails without destruction.

Are \V. B.'s lines of railway in an unknown country of equable tempera-
ture, or has the "imjjroved" the additional practical advantage of being of
metal unaffected by such sublunary causes .- If not, what becomes in the
■winter time, of the " piece of tliin cast lead," so carefully inserted between
the joints .' What service it would do in any season, what noise it would
deaden where no noise occurs (except from a loose joint, of which, no one,
would accuse the " improved,") I leave to W. B. to explain v.ith the rest.

Your obedient servant,

H. A.

Sir — In the engraving of the improved chair, the ratcliets are shown acute,
and on enquiry I find the draftsman sketched them thus, although my direc-
tions were for the same to be drawn as shown in the models, or more obtuse,
and they should have been like a wave, as I distinctly state there are no
internal angles in the chairs, which would be futile if the ratchet or wave
was as shewn in diagrams, figs. 3 and 4, and in fact would prevent the with-
drawal of the wedge, whereas that shewn in the models I have repeatedly
proved will not prevent the wood wedge being drawn or driven out after
removing the iron key even without prejudice to its being re-used, ily rea-
son for having used the term ratchet was the attaining equal secimty as
given by common ratchets

The preceding correction may seem unnecessary as it would of cotirse be
seen by a practical man, and it requires but little penetration to see it is not
intended as shewn in diagrams Xos. 3 and 4, but for the benefit of those
who may not have seen the models I respectfully request your insertio!i of
the above explanation.

I am, Sir,

Your obedient servant,

W. B.

ON REVERSING ENGINES.

Sir. — Seeing a plan for reverting engines in your pages, signed Geo. Coe,
civil engineer, I take the liberty of sending you a few remarks, which I trust
you will give a place in your Journal.

The plan which Mr. Coe has given is similar to one of which I consider my-
self the inventor, only that I have but one-half tlie work which he has shown,
to answer the same purpose. He is silent on some of the most essential
points ; the lead of the eccentric for instance, if it be set right for going a-
head, would be far from being right for going astern ; the engine would be
what we call too late and not be able to pass its centres, which every practi-
cal man is quite aware would not move in a contrary direction.

He further states that one man would be able to manage any of tlie largest
marine engines that ever navigated the ocean, better than 4 or 6 or even 10
men on the present system. Now let alone what I have stated above, I will
take two engines of 100 horse power, which is far from being the largest
which we have navigating the seas. The steam ways that woidd be required
for cylinders of this power should contain 55 superficial inches, 16 inches by
Si inches nearly ; the valve that would be required to cover sufficiently, would
be 18 inches long and 19 inches broad, containing 112 superficial inches
working together. For two engines it will be double the area, excepting one
bar less will do, as the centre one acts for both engines, so that will make it
equal to 21 7 superficial inches working together. "The pressure which is on
a v4ve of this description will be immense, taking it at the lowest figure, say
15 lb. on each square inch, 12 lb. by a vacuum being formed in the condenser,
and 3 lb. of steam in the valve box or on the back of the valve, making it
equal to a weight of one ton nine cwt, to be moved by one individual, which

is quite impossible, unless multiplied by a long lever, which never can be done
to any advantage.

I have by me a working model which I exhibited at the Hull Mechanics'
Institution, on the 25ih of Februarv", 1841, and at that time I entered it at
the Patent Office, London ; I have since then made working sections. All
the different points which I consider in the sketch given in the Journal, as
deficient, I have adopted in fidl perfection, and proved by the working model
which answers instantaneously forward, backward and stop, with the greatest
ease, and can be attached to any engine at a trifling expense. An engine of
45 horse power is at the present time being made by Messrs, Overton and
Wilson, engineers, Hull, in wliich will be introduced my improvements. I
hope in a few weeks to see it in full play on the river Humber, where any
one will have an opportunity of judging of its importance.
I will send you a sketch of it as soon as time will allow me.
I am, cScc,

Thomas Stather,
Foreman to Jlessrs. Overton & Wilson, Hull,

And an Old Subscriber.
Hull, November 15, 1841.

Sir — Page 330 of your Journal for October last, contains an article pro-
fessing to be a new and advantageous plan to facilitate the reversing of steam
engines. Although the plan is to me perfectly new, and will I have no doubt
be found to change the action of steam very eft'ectually, I do not conceive its
peculiar advantage, either as to friction, weight, or cost in construction. On
the contrary, it would in the first place cause a very considerable amount of
friction, in consequence of the additional slide-valves on the opposite side of
the cylinder. Secondly, the boxes for these additional slide-valves, together
with the regulating valve-box and those massive pipes which form the com-
munications between it and the other valve-boxes, would add very largely to
the weight of our marine engines. Thirdly, these additional pipes, valve-
boxes, the moveable joints, levers. Jxc, necessary to connect the two pair of
double-faced slide-valves, and also those necessary to facilitate the changing
and adjusting of the reversing valve, all combined, would add very materially
to the cost of an engine.

However far the above inconveniences may oppose the practical application
of Mr. Coe"s system, it has an objection of still greater importance ; which,
objection I trust will apologise for my thus intruding upon your pages.

It is in practice found advantageous (and is now almost universally attended
to), to give the slide-valves of all reciprocating steam engines what engineers
term lead and cover; the importance of which is very clearly explained in
one of your late preceding numbers. Now the valves of Mr. Coe's present
system could not be adjusted to produce this effect for one direction without
destroying it when reversed. If then we are obliged to neglect the lead and
cover, why use the reversing valve and additional double-faced slide-valves
proposed by Mr. Coe, when we can obtain exactly the same result from one
common single-faced sUde-valve, with the addition of one simple lever merely
to change the direction of the motion produced by the fixed eccentric ?
With great respect, I am, &e..

Vesper.

P.S. Should Mr. Coe, or any other of your able correspondents, think it
worth their trouble to lay before the readers of your Journal a description of
a complete apparatus for working steam engines expansively, that is, capable
of cutting off the steam at any point between the commencement and termi-
nation of the stroke ; such an article would, I presume, be at the present
very acceptable.

Leeds, November 1, 1841.

ON THE THEORY OF BARS.

Sir — Mr. Brooks' letter in yotur Journal for the present month purports to
be a reply to mine of July last ; in my opinion it is not so. He accuses me
of an attempt " to go off on another tack," although he has no authority for
such an accusation ; but he flies off, not at a tangent, but in an eccentric
movement, and seizes with avidity the bonum magnum found in the Nautical
Magazine for 1837. So far from abandoning the law there by me pro-
pounded, I adhere to it without qualification or reservation, /. e. to the fact
that the rii/kt angle course of egress water charged with matter in suspension,
and causing a conflicting action with that water into which it falls, is the
cause of a bar.

He calls on me to adduce proofs of my proposition ; the columns of your
Journal and of others alreadv contain a number of facts, demonstrating the
accuracy of my thesis. He threatens, if I fail in " duty," to supply the omis-
sion by giving proofs " that many rivers are free from bar, notwithstanding
their rectangular direction, and of numerous rivers which have bars, although
their discharge is at an acute angle." It has been very properly observed
that " those who (Uscuss important subjects should be cautious in their choice
of facts."

To the first of these, the rectangular course of river water not causing a bar,
the exceptions are explained in ray Treatise, page 5. As to the second I
promptly admit that if a river do pass out in an acute angle, and be charged

3 M

430

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

De

C E M IS E R ,

with matter, and liave velocity adequate to cause a conflicting action ■with the
water of tlic ocean, then in that case a deposit or bar would ensue. But in
all my extensive and practical observations, I know of no river, nor is tliere
an instance to be found in our globe, where a river at its disemboguing ;;f>i»/
and where it mefls the tidal water of the ocean, and commences the conllict-
ing no/(0«,docs jiass out or meet the tide at an acute, but im-arinbly sA a right
angle. Surely no scientific or practical man can be so iminformed as not to
know that however meandering may be the interior cou'se of a river, ere it
arrives at the ocean, nalurnUy and necessarily, it must take a perpendicular
course into the sea, and continue that course till influenced by the ocean's
tide. In some places this i>erpendicular or right angle course into the sea is
by a long, in others by a short sea-reach.

Mr. Brooks has mistaken the fact, the important distinction between that
course or direction of the river water at its fall into, and until it absolutely
gets in contact with the tidal water: and that direction which it takes sub-
sequent to the joining of the two waters. It is the pressure of the larger
and heavier power of the sea tide, passing parallel with a coast, and conse-
quently crossing the month of a river at right angles, which forces the water
from a river to incline to the direction of the more powerful stream ; and
thus the river water takes an oblique or an acute angle of direction from its
uninfluenced course — but for this cause, a river would continue to advance
seaward in its perpendicular direction until it was exhausted, and disappeared
in the vast ocean.

We see then the cause why all bars are formed on the lee-side of the en-
trance to a harbour, if the ebb tide come from the right, the bar invariably
inclines towards the left, and rice versa.

In making these observations I beg it may be understood that they relate
onli/ to a coast where there are regidar passing tides.

I remain. Sir, your obedient servant,

Henry B.\rrett.

72, Broughion Street, Edinburgh,
November IT, 1S41.

DREDGE'S SUSPENSION BRIDGE.

Sir — An entire description of my patent suspension bridge would occupy
too much space in your Journal, and employ more time than I can at present
spare, and as an abridgment, would perhaps produce more cavilling thau
would be interesting to your readers, or necessary for the investigation of
truth, I will refer Mr. Fordham to a full mathematical description, which
will l)e published in a few days, by Mr. \Vcale, to four foot bridges in the
vicinity of the Regent's Park, and similar works in various parts of the king-
dom, so that as a mathematician, and man of science, be may be able to
read, see, and judge for himself, and from these evidences, form what opi-
nion he thinks fit, and I shall be most happy to see that opinion publicly
expressed through the medium of your pages.

I remain. Sir,

Your obedient servant

J. Dredge.

METHOD OF PREPARING AND APPLYING A COMPOSITION FOR

PAINTING IN IMITATION OF THE ANCIENT

GRECIAN MANNER.

BY EMM.V J.\NE HOOKER.

Pi'T into a glazed earthen vessel, four ounces and a half of gum-arabic,
and eight ounces , or half a pint (wine measMe) of cold spring water ; when
the gum is dissolved, stir in seven ounces of gum-mastich, which has been
washed, dried, picked, and beaten fine. Set the earthen vessel containing
the gum-water and gum-mastich over a slow fire, continually stirring and
beating them out with a spoon, in order to dissolve the gum-mastich : when
sufficiently boiled, it will no longer appear transparent, but will become
opaque, and stiff, like a paste. As soon as this is the case, and that the gum
water and mastich are quite boiling, without taking them off the fire, add five
ounces of white wax, broken into small pieces, stirring and beating the
different ingredients together, till the wax is perfectly melted and has boiled .
Then take the composition off the fire, as boiling it longer than necessary
would only harden the wax, and ])revent its mixing so well afterwards with
water. When the composition is taken off the fire and in the glazed earthen
vessel, it should be beaten hard, and whilst hot (but not boiling) mix with it
by degrees a pint (wine measure) or sixteen ounces more of cold spring
water; then strain the composition, as some dirt will boil out of the gum-
mastich, and put it into the bottles: the composition, if properly made,
should lie like a cream, and the eolo\irs, when mixed with it, as smooth as
with oil. The method of using it is to mix with the composition, upon an
c.irtlien pallet, such colours in powder as are used in painting with oil, and
such a quantity of the composition to be mixed with the colour as to render

them of the usual consistency of oil colour ; then paint with fair water. The
colours, when mixed with the composition, may be laid on, either thick or
thin, as may best suit your subject, on which account this composition is very
advantageous, where any particular transparency of colouring is required;
hut in most eases, it answers best if the colours be laid on thick, and they
require the same use of the brush, as if painting with body colours, and the
same brushes as used in oil painting. The colours, if grown dry, when
mixed with the composition, may be used by putting a little fair water over
them ; but it is less trouble to put some water when the colours are observed
to be getting dry. In painting with this composition, the colours blend
without difficulty when wet, and even when dry the tints may easily be
united, by means of a brush and a very small quantity of fair water. When
the painting is finished, put some white wax into a glazed earthen vessel over
a slow fiie, and when melted, but not boiling, with a hard brush cover the
painting with the wax, and when cold take a moderate hot iron, such as is
used for ironing of linen, and so cold as not to hiss if touched with anything
wet, and draw it lightly over the wax. The painting will appear as if under
a cloud till the wax is ])erfectly cold, as also, whatever the picture is painted
upon is quite cold; but if, when so, the painting should not ai>pear suflici-
ently clear, it may he held before the fire, so far from it as to melt the wax
but slowly ; or the wax may be melted by holding a hot poker at such a
distance as to melt it gently, especially such parts of the picture as should
not .ippear sufficiently transparent or brilliant ; for the oftencr heat is applied
to the picture, the greater will be the transparency and brilliancy of colour-
ing ; but the contrai-y effects would be produced if too sudden or too great a
degree of heat were applied, or for too long a time, as it woidd draw the was
too much to the surface, and might likewise crack the paint. Should the
coat of wax put over the painting when finished appear in any part uneven,
it may be remedied by drawing a moderately hot iron over it again as before
mentioned, or even by scraping the wax with a knife; and should the wax,
by too great or too long an application of heat, form into bubbles at parti-
cular places, by applying a poker heated, or even a tobacco-pipe made hot,
the bubble will subside ; or such defects may be removed by drawing any-
thing hard over the wax, which will close any small cavities.

When the picture is cold, rub it with a fine linen cloth. Paintings may
be executed in this manner upon wood, (having, first, pieces of wood let in
behind, across the grain of the wood to prevent its warping), canvas, card,
or plaster of Paris. The plaster of Paris would require no other preparation
than mixing some fiue plaster of Paris in powder with cold water the tliick-
ness of a cream ; then put it on a looking-glass, having first made a frame of
bees-wax on the looking-glass, the form and thickness you would wish the
plaster of Paris to be of, and when dry take it off, aud there will be a very
smooth surface to paint upon. Wood and canvass are best covered with
some grey tint mixed with the same composition of gum-arabic, gum-mastich,
and wax, and of the same sort of colours as before mentioned, before the
design is begun, in order to cover the grain of the wood or the tlireads of
the canvas. Paintings may also be done in the same manner with only gum
water and gum-mastich, and wax ; but instead of putting seven ounces of
mastich, and when boiling, adding five ounces of wax, mix twelve ounces of
gum-mastich with the gum water, prepared as mentioned in the first part of
this receipt ; before it is put on the fire, and when sufficiently boiled and
beaten, and is a little cold, stir in by degrees twelve ounces or three-quarters
of a pint (wine measure) of cold spring water, and afterwards strain it. It
would be equally practicable, painting with wax alone, dissolved in gum
water in the following manner. Take twelve ounces or three-quarters of a
pint (wine measure) of cold spring water aud four ounces and a half of gum-
arabic, put them into a glazed earthen vessel, aud when the gum is dissolved,
add eight ounces of white wax. Put the earthen vessel with the gum-water
and wax upon a slow fire, and stir them till the wax is dissolved and has
boiled a few minutes ; then tiike them off' the fire and throw them into a
basin, as by remaining in the hot earthen vessel the wax would become
rather hard ; beat the gum-water and wax till quite cold. .\s there is but a
small proportion of water in comparison to the quantity of gum and wax, it
would be necessary, in mixing the composition with the colours, to put also
some fair water. Should the composition be so made as to occasion the
ingredients to separate in the bottle, it will become equally serviceable if
shaken before used to mix with the colours.

I had lately an opportunity of discovering that the composition which had
remained in a bottle since the year 1792, in which time it had grown dry and
become as solid a substance as wax, returned to a cream-hke consistence, and
became again in as proper a state to mix with colours, as when it was first
made, by putting a little cold water upon it, and suffering it to remain a
short time. I also lately found some of the mixture composed of only gum-
arabic water and gum-mastich, of which I sent a specimen to the Society of
Arts in 1 792 ; it was become dry. and had much the appearance and consis-
tency of horn. I found, on letting some cold water remain over it, that it
becaiue as fit for painting with as when the composition was first prepared. —
The Art Vnion.

.■Inelegant painted uindow, designed ami e.xeculed I y Mr. Willement. of
London. "has just hem erected in St. Georges Chapel, Edgbaston, by the sub-
scriptions of the corgregation.

1841.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

437

ROADS AND CANALS IN INDIA.

TiiR progress of internal communication in Bengal is devolope;! at great
length in a report niaile in tlie mi. nth of August last to the Government au-
thor ties Ijy the military boaril, which, besides containing an account of what
has been done during the official year ending April. 1811. gives a general
review for the past twenty years. In this review we find the Grand Turk-
road from Calcntta, described as the main artery of commimication tlirough-
out Bengal and llindostan, e-\tendingto a length of770 miles, wilha general
breadth of thirty feet, increased in some places to forty. It has already
3,402 briilges of various e.Ktent of opening, has cost, exclusively of convict
labour, 1 228,000 rupees, and is likely to cost 10 lacs more during the three
years required for its completion. The road from Pooree to Bissenpore,
which connects Orissa with Bengal, and which is commonly known as the
Ju'"^ermath road, is held to be of the next importance, and has cost aljont
Is'dSts. or at the rite of 5,41.5r. the mile. The expense of the road from
Calcutta to Kishnagur is estimated at 2.700,000r., or 4,736r, the mile f i r the
seventy miles. The road from Sylhet to Gowhatty, the capiial of Assam,
across the Cassia hills, uasin aciive prrpavalinn, and in this line of communi-
cation the two torrents of the Bur-panee and the Boga-panee are to be
spanned with suspension-bridges. The Deccan road from Mirzapore to Jub-
bulporc. a distance of 239 miles, and commenced in 1824, had been completed
lately ; its cost in the 15 years, exclusive of the labour of convicts, hnd beai
8 lacs of rupees. Another road, small in point of expen^.e. but of groat im-
portance, was also in progress from the eastern frontier of Bengal, through
C'aehar. and across the Muniporc hills to the limits of the Burmese empire.
Besides these roads, which are stated to be the most prominent, a variety cf
districts roads have added greatly to the local conveniences of the peop'e,
and have proportionatelv occupied attention. The total outlay lor all the
roads to which allusion is made has been 57,34.223r,, and from'«l-.:ch there
is no return, A ti.U on a road is nnknonn.

The canals w hich fringe the eastern part of the city of Calcutta, and con-
nected with '.he Isamuttee river, are of the highest importancj to the welfare
of the citv. as the produce of all the eastirn districts is thus brought to it
with little or no risk. These have cost in the whole about IfU lacs of rupees,
■which now includes the erection of five suspen.sion bridges. To improve
Tolly's Niillah. seven suspension bridges have been tlirown across it at acost
of 179.381r. The canals west of the Jumna have been repaired at an e.ipense
of l,.56fc),500r,, which, with a further outlay on the Dooab Canal, west of the
Jumna.of .579,1 G4r,, makes, with other expenditure, a total outlay of 4,963, 288r.
in constructing and repairing canals in the presidency. The canals are very
productive of revenue, for the tolls on those in the vicinity of Calcutta are
said to yield on an average 121,800i-. a year, while the annual average charge
for their maintenance appears to be about 4o,000 rupees. Hence it is argued,
that the Government cannot do better than lay out funds for their extension
and improvement. In reference to these can.als it is remarked, that while
the toll remained at the vale of one rupee the 100 mauds, the proceeds were
]2G,000r., but when the Government liberally reduced the levy by one-half,
Ihey fell in the succeeding year to about 60,0d0r, This fall, it was'ultimately
discovered, arose mainly from the corruption of the native collectors, which
had been so far remedied by close observance, that in the last year (1.840) the
collection again rose to 122,000r., showing that the state receives the same
return as when the import was double its present amount. The canals east
andwest of the Jumna exhibit the most gratifying results, not only in respect
of the means they supply to the agricultural community for the irrigation of
upwards of 100,000 acres of land, but indirect money returns. The sum ex-
pended on the canals w es! of the Jumna by the British Government has been
l,566,500r,, and the annual amount levied as water rent is 2.58.82(ir.. or more
than 16* per cent. While the outlay has therefore been in the whole 1.5i
lacs of rupees, the returns up to the end of the year 1840 had been 2U lacs".
In restoring the Dooab Canal, the cost to the government was 5 lacs and
80,000r. Tlie direct return in rupees up to the end of 1840 has been 3 lacs
and 13,000r. At the end of the oflicial year, the whole sum expended by the
Government had been reimbursed to the public coffers, and an annual income
of 6,00'Jt, might be expended for the future. The tolls on the Nuddea river
produce a clear annual surplus of one lac and 12.000r. And now adverting
more particularly to what has been done during the official year of 1840, we
find that in the department of canals the Government has sanctioned an out-
lay of 23.000r. for deepening a canal in the Hedgelee district for the express
object of facilitating the transportation of salt. The other expenses in con-
nexion with canals have been incurred partly in reference to those near Cal-
cutta, and partly to those on the east and west of the Jumna. The former
appear to have cost in necessary repairs a sum of about 14.000r. independently
of an iron suspension bridge at Ooltadanga. over the Circular Canal, amount-
ing to 12.000r. On the Dooab Canal has been expenderl 71.300r, in the con-
struction of aqueducts, h ilh the view to the further extension of the benefits
of irrigation. The total amount of money expended in canals during the
year under consideration was2,57,S13r. ; the returns 4,69, 197r., being a clear
profit of 2.11,384r. The new roads were progressing steadily, tlie road
from Burdwar to Benares is completed, as far as regards earth work, to its
full height and width. On this undertaking there had been an outlay of
6,00,000r„ and it will require an equal outlay to complete it. The road from
Patua to Gya would have the benefit of a grant of 70,000r., .and for the road
to Darjech ng a revised estimate of 28,000r, Hould be appropriated. The
proposed road from Agra to Bombay had been negatived from the fact of the
enormous expense it would entail. The total outlay in public wo ks for that
period was 9,B9,686r,, which produced a return of 4.69, 197r., thus leaving
5,00,489r, as the dillerence between expenditure and return. On this the In-
dia journals remark that it is an expenditure of less than one per cent, on the
land revenues of these provinces, and that ho;\ever much the public may be
grateful for these improvements, it exhibits much niggardness as compared
with the revenue the Government authorities derives from the territory of
vhich they are the uselul and necessary embellishment. — Times.

COMMUNICATION FROM THE ATLANTIC TO THE PACIFIC OCEAN,
ACROSS THE ISTHMUS OF DARIE.M, OR PANAMA.

A project has been started for forming a road or railway communication
from Chagres to Panama, which probably will not exceed in length 42 miles,
and over a gross ascent between the two oceans of about 500 feet. It is
proposed to be constructed on the surface, (that is, without a tunnel) thereby
the danger arising from earthquakes will be much lessened.

It is stated that by this route, and using steam navigation across the Atlan-
tic and Pacific oceans, the passage from England to the colonics of New Zea-
land, Van Dieman's Land, and to .\ustralia generally, may be reduced from
Ave months to ten weeks, and also that the passage from England to the
coast of Chili and Peru, would be reduced to 35 or 40 days. The advantages
of a road or way across the isthmus will be very great, not only to England
but to the whole of Europe and America. Steam packets will shortly be
established between England and the Atlantic shore of the Isthmus ; steam
boats are already working along the coast of Chili and Peru, and there is
little doubt that a coiiijilete steam navigation will be effected within a short
time from Panama to New Zealand and other British colonies in New South
Wales.

It only remains, therefore, (to render this route perfect) to construct a
road or railway across the neck of land, and to show that every facility would
be atl'orded by the government of New Granada, in the execution of such a
work, that Congress is willing to grant extensive privileges on those parties
undertaking the project.

Pile-driving M-\chine. — .\n ingenious machine for driving a double
row of piles, has recently been imported from the United States. It was
built at Utiea, and has the national name " Brother Jonathan" inscribed on
it. It is now in operation at Smith's timber wharf, Pedlar's Acre, where it
can be seen driving the piles for the causeway and abutment on the Surrey side
of the New Hungerford Market Bridge, now in progress. The rams or "mon-
keys "are elevated to a height of 35 feet or thereabouts, along grooves in
perpendicular ladders, similar to the ordinary machine, by means of a loco-
motive steam engine of 10-horse power, fixed on a platform, on which the
whole of the machinery is jilaced. The power of the blow given by each of
these hammers exceeds 600 tons, and drives a pile of 27 feet long, and as
thick as the thickest piles used in embankments and for coffer-dams, nearly
its whole length into the earth in about eight minutes, or perhaps less. It
drives two piles at the same time. A circular horizontal saw is worked by
the engine, which, in a few seconds, cuts the tops of the piles even, and
enables the trucks, or small wheels on which the platform is supported, to
come forward as fast as the piles are driven, and cut them even at the top;
The power of this machine is astounding, and requires to be seen to be fully
estimated. It is an important applicatiou of steam power, likely to produce
verv- beneficial results in public works, iu the formation of sea b,anks, and in
all operations on a large scale where rapidity of execution and precision are
required. The machine was used in America for driving piles for railways ;
and travelled by its own power upwards of 200 miles, driving piles, and mak-
ing its own road through swamps and districts heretofore impervious. It is
patented in this country, and also in the United States. The machine has,
moreover, the power of drawing piles out of the earth as quickly as it drives
them in, and can be applied to the raising of blocks of stones, and all heavy
weights that require an extraordinary pow-er. It is almost indispensable for
all persons immediately connected with engineering and science to see it.
We hope next mouth to be able to give drawings and a description of the
machine.

REPORT FROM THE SELECT COMMITTEE ON FINE ARTS.

The report of the above committee, together with the minutes of evidence
taken by them, have been printed by order of the late House of Commons.
Amongst the witnesses examined were Mr. C. Barry and Sir Martin A. Shee.

We shall now proceed to give an abstract.

The committee commence by stating, that although the then approaching
dissolution compelled them to conclude their inquiry somewhat abruptly,
still they have obtained the opinions of stme distinguished professors and
admirers of art, who are unanimously of opinion that so important and na-
tional a work as the erection of the two Houses of Parliament afi'ords an op-
portunity which ought not to Le neglected of encouraging not only the higher
but every subordinate branch of fine art in this country. In this opinion the
committee state their entire concurrence, supported as it is by witnesses of
extensive information, and by artists of the highest ability. The committee,
however, in recommending that measures should be taken without delay to
encourage the fine arts, by employing them in the decoration of the new
Houses of Parliament, desire to express their decided opinion, that, to accom-
plish this object successfully, it is absolutely requisite that a plan should pre-
viously be determined upon, and that as soon as practicable, in order that the

438

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ArxCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[December,'

arcliitcct and llic artists lo be employed may work not only in conjunction
with, Ij'it in aid of, each other.

The committee are not. in the present stapre of the inquiry, prepared to
suggest llie details of a plan, but they think iliat a commission mifiht most
useiuily Ijc appointed to assist, liotli wiili information ,inil advice, some de-
parimcnt of tlic fiovernment, uliich, after mr.lure consideration, should be
solely reponsible for the execution of the plan best calculated to realize the
objects of the committee.

Whether, hoivever, a commission be appointed or not, the committee think
that it is most desirab'e that the advice and assistance of persrins should be
sought »ho are competent, from their knowledge of art, .md their accjuainl-
ance v.ith fn'cat public works, lio'h at home and abroad, to propose, in con-
junction with the architect, the most eflectual means of attaining the chief
object aimed at by the appointment of the committee, viz.. the encouragement
of the fine arts of this country. By taking this course, the arcliitect and the
other artists will be enabled to understand and assist each ollier's views : and
thus Ihe abi/ities of both would be e.xertcd for the decoration of so eminently
national a building, and, at the same time, encouragement, beyond the means
of private patronage, would be afforded, not only to ihe higher walks, Lut to
all branches of art.

The committee state that their attention has been called to one branch of
the fine arts hardly known in this country— namely, fresco painting, which
has lately been revived on the continent, and employed in the decoration of
public biiildinga. especially at Munich. The space which it demands for its
free development, and the subjects «hich it is peculiarlv fitted to illustra'e,
combine to point out national buildings as almost the only proper sphere for
the di.splr.y of Us peculiar cliaracteristics — grandeur, breadth, and simplicity.
The committee, aiier a careful consideration of the evidence, are disposed to
lecimmrnd tliat this style or mode of painting should be adopted. They
fully concur in the opinion of Mr. Eastlake, that England possesses artis-.s
equal to.the occasion, whose genius only wants that exercise and encourage'
ment which this great opportunity maybe made to afibrd. But the commit
tee suggest, that if fresco painting should be employed in the decoration of

certain portions of the new buildings, it would be a safe, and judicious plan to
give the artists an opportunity ol making some experimental cffc
iirst instance.

sperimental efforts in the

The committee then quote a passage from a valuable paper on fresco paint-
ing written by Mr. Eastlake, given in the Journal of last month.

\Vilh reference to another branch of the inquiry — the cost incident to an
extensive and well-devised plan for the public patronage and encouragement
of art — the committee, notwithstanding that tliey are aware that objections
are entertained by many to a large expenditure of the public money tor such
a purpose, are of opinion, independently of the beneficial and elevating in-
fluence of the fine arts upon a people, and every pecuniary outlay, either for
the purpose of forming or extending collections of works of art in this coun-
try, has been dirfctly instrumental in creating new objects of industry and
of enjoyment, and therefore in adding at the same time to the wealth of the
country.

The "commit tee state, that the collection of vases made by Sir W, Hamilton
led to the introduction of a new branch of manufacture in this country by
Mr. Wedgwood, which not only emjiloyed artists and artizars,but tended to
improve every branch of a great staple tra'e, and in its results elicited from
the hands ot comparatively ordinary workmen works almost rivalling their
origin als in texture, form, and beauty. The committee further remark, that
the colli ction of .Sir M', Hamilton's ancient Greek vases (for the purchase of
which a sum of £8.400 was granted by Parliament) was a great acquisition
to (he ct'Unlry, and ought to have opened the eyes of the Government to the
utility aiising from similar acquisitions. " The discovery of these vases (the
committee observe), and their communication to the public by engravings,
coinciding »ilh the discoveries of Hercu'aneum and Pompeii, may be con-
sidered an essentia] epoch in the history of the arts, and which contributed
greatly to their revival."

The Cfmmittee observe that the beneficial intluenceof artupon the charac-
ter of the people m'ly, it is hoped, be inferred Jrom the gradually increasing
numbers, of late years, who take an interest in the national collections.
Tliis act has been fully proved by the report of the select committee on
" national monumfnts and works of art,'' of w hich we, some time ago. laid
an abstract before our readers. •' The habit," says Reynolds, " of contem-
plating and brooding over the ideas of great geniuses till you find yourself
warmed by the contrast, is the true metnod of forming an artist-like mind.
It is im)Jossib!e, in he jiresence of those great men, to think or to invent in
a mer^n manner ; a state of mind is acquired that receives ideas only which
relish of grandeur and simplicity."

As then tlie collection ami exhibition of works ol art have not only tended
to Ihe moral elevation of the people, but have also given a fresh stimulus
and direction to their in.'ustry, so the committee is of opinion that a direct
encouragement of the higher branches of art on this occasion will have a
similar eliect in a still higher degree.

The committee then reter at some length to the evidence given by ilr. T.
Wyse. the late M.P. for the city of AVaterford, and one of the Lords of the
Treasury. W'c regret that our space will not allow us to enter into a detail
of it ; tfie evidence of Mr. Wyse goes to show the ell'ect produced upon a
nation and its industry by the pubhc patronage of the fine arts, which he
illusiiated by tlie example ot Bavaria. k:c.

The committee, after referring to the evidence of Mr. Dyce, thus conclude
their report : —

•• Your committee, from the abrupt termination of the session, and conse-
quently of their inquiry, have not had the opportunity to form any fa-r esti-
mate of the expense of carrying out the views here stated ; but they are,
however, of opinion, thtit judging from the manner in which great works
have been eflected on the continent, and by the adoption in the outset of a
well-considered plan for the employment of artists, and the application of
the arts, a moderate annual expenditure would accomplish very important
reailts, if not all that can le desired. They think that the very fact of a

determination by the house to take this opportunity of encouraging the arts,
and of associating them with our public anhitecture, our legislation, our
commerce, and our history, would aiOne stimulate and raise their character
and quality, and extend their beneficial iiiMuence over a still wider circle.
" I consider it." says Sir M. A. .Shee, "a most favourable opportunity for
calling forth the genius of our country, and promoting the fine arts to the
utmost extent of which they are capable; it is the only opportunity that has
occurred for many years, and if it b;' suffered to piss unheeded. I should say
that there is no hope i.i th s country for artists in the higher dejiartments of
the arts.''

" Whilst your commillee, in conclusion, regret that they could not investi-
gate the whole subject so fully as they desired, and as its importance de-
manded, they unanimously rccominen<l the evidence herewith presented to
the house to its favourable consider iti. n. with a view to its receiving the im-
meliate attention of the Government, and in Uie hope that our new Houses
of Parliament may hand down to jiosterity a memorial, as well as the genius
of our artists, as of the importance attached by the country to the nobler
productions of an ; and that the subjtcts embodied in such representa'ions,
whether by painting or sculpture, may serve to perpetrate lh^ events of the
past lustoiy, and the persons of our public benefactors, in the grateful re-
membrance of the people.''

U'liiteliall, Xoivmher 22. 1S41. — The Queen has been pleased to appoint His
P.oyal Highness Prince Albert, K.(;.. the Right Honour,. ble Lord Lyndhurst,
hisGrace the Duke of .Sutherland, KG., the most Honourable the Marquess
of Lansdowne. K.G.. the Right Honourables the Rarl oi I.,incoln. the Earl of
ShtewsLury. the Earl of Aberdeen. K.T., Lord John Kussell. Lord Francis
Egerton, Viscount Palmerston, G.C'.B., Viscount Melbourne. Lord Ashburton,
Lord Colborne, Charles Shaw Lefevre, Sir Robert Peel, Barf., Sir James
Robert GcLige Grabtim, Bart.; Sir Robert Harry Tnglis, Bart., Henry Gaily
Knight, Esq', Benj imin Hawes, jun., Esq.. Henry Hallam. Esq., Samuel
Rogers, Esq., George Vivian, Esq , and Thomas AVyse. Esq., Her Majesty's
Commissioners for inquiring into the best mode of promoting the Fine Arts
in the United Kingdom.

ON INCREASING THE EVAPORATING POM'ER OF BOIIJEES.

At the general monthly meeting of the Polytechnic Society, Liverpool
Mr. AVilliams read a paper on increasing the evaporating power of boilers
who was provided with a number of working models wherewith to illustrate
his viev, s, addressed the meeting in a very clear and scientific manner on
this important subject, developing a most interesting discovery of his own,
which (already practically tested) will be extremely valuable as effecting a
more rapid generation of steam, without increasing the size of the vessel, or
the requirement of addi'ional fuel. The question, he said, involved the im-
provement of our boilers by a very simple contrivance, wdiether as applied to
land engines, or to the a'lvancement of steam navigation. There were tivo
leading'considerations in the application of fuel, which were, unhappily, con-
founded : one the generation of heat ; and the other, its application. The
first appertained more pciuliarly to chemical science ; and the second, to me-
chanical appliance. The ubject in view was, to transmit the greatest possible
amount of heat for the generation of steam, with a given quantity of fuel.
Heat was imparted by two distinct media, namely, radiation and conduction.
By radiation, heat was conveyed to bodies not placed in contact, as was
evinced by placing the hand pretty close to the flame of a candle. 13y con-
duction, heat was conveyed by metal or other substances not consumable.
In the heating of boilers, both modes were necessarily operative. In radia-
tion, the evolved proceeded in direct lines, or radii, from the combustion to
the boiler or other tody exposed to it. If a thermometer were placed with
the ball near the candle, the mercury would rise by radiation : but if placed
immediately over the tlame. the heat would be greater, but diflerent in the
mode; for. in this case, it was not fairly radiation, but a compound medium,
radiation and the heated and ascending gas being combined. The speaker
then exhibited the model of a boiler, with its tortuous lUies. through which
the several gases parsed ; and exfiressed his conviction, that nine-tenths of
the heat in marine and land engine boilers was immediately received frfm
the furnace and flame-bed, and not from the gases, which might be made
available to the same end by an improved construction of boder. The general
opinion of parlies working steam engines was. that to increase the size of the
furnace would add to the heating of the whole boiler ; but this, lie considered,
was treating the boiler with great neglect, for the object could be accom-
plished without such increase of the furnace. The means of conducting heat
to water in boilers had been much neglected, reliance being almost solely
placed on increasiut; the length of the flues. His plan was to insert a number
of iron pins through the plates of the boiler, one end of them projecting into
the flue and the other intu the water in the boiler. These pins, exposed at
one end to the lieat in the flue, acted as powerful conductors, through the
boiler-plates, of the heat into the water. Hitherto, the auestion of the mere
surface of plate exjiosed to the flues had been alone considered; and the only
remedy for defective generation of steam was conceived to be an increase of
that surface. The conducting pins, however, were found to arrest the heat-
ing gases in their progress along the plates of the boiler, and greatly to has-
ten the generation of steam. A pin of half-an-inch in diameter projecting
three inches into the flue, gave a heating surface of U inches, and by its
cunducting power and interior projection (as we understood the speaker) that
half-inch gave as rr^ich heat as yj inches on the outer surface of the plate.
Air was a good conveyor, but a bad conductor of heat ; for it carried most of

1841.]

;the civil engineer and architects journal.

43!)

i out of the chimney. His object was to arrest the heat in its progress, and
give it out at tlic right jilace. The current of hea passing alun^ tlie plates
of the boiler rendered them only tranverse conductors ; hut the heated pins
Tv-ere longitudinal conductors. He also showed several iron pins that had long
been e.sperimentally in use in the boiler of a steam vessel wuh great success.
He had endeavoured to ascertain the proper lengths of which they should be,
so as to remain as durable conductors of h^^at. 0;ie of seven inciies in length
liad become slightly oxidized. Another, of 4 inches long.ivasso little aflecied
that the smallest mark of the hammer, which it originally bore, was distinctly
visible. He. therefore, considered about -1 inches to be the proper length.
13e further illustrated his invention by three evaporating pans, one of them
with pins projecting into the boiler aiid also into the flues, which he called
double conductors; another with jiins projecting into the flue only, called
si'gle conductors ; ami the third, a p'ain boiler, on i.he usual plan without
any such conductor. The first he had found the more powerful in producing
speedy evaporation ; though the second was scarce'y inferior. The third,
or plain boiler, was greatly behind either in evapova'i'ng power. A gas lamp
was affi.-;ed at one end of the double conducting pan. containing 22 lb. of
iva'er, and the evaporation appeared to be rapid. With 30 feet of gas the
eva[ioration was as i'ollows :

Evaporation. Waste Heat.

Common Pan 4 lb. 14 oz. iOti

Single Conductors 7 13 320

Double Ditto 8 5 284

Here we see the quantity evaporated is in an inverse ratio io the waste heat
by the chimney. He had tried them often with precisely the same results,
so that there could be no error.

He then combated, in a clear and comprehensive manner, an opinion ex-
pressed by Dr. Fyfe, of .Scotland, in a tract published by him, that anthracite
was the best fuel or coal for engine boilers. That opinion was fornded solely
on the fa!t that anthracite contained the greatest quantity of fixed carbcii,
or, in other wc.rds, left the greatest residue of coke. He difiered from the
deduction of the doctor, with whom he had corresponded on the subject.
That gentleman had begun at the wrong end j he should hive considered not
the fuel ali.ne, but the vessel in which it was consumed. He (Dr. V.) hacl
taken no mei-ns to ascertain the quantity of heat that escaped in the gases
or by the chimney. He had set clown the hydrogen at nought, be ause he
liad not hid the po« er of consuming it by the common furnace and boiler.
He (Mr. W.) felt certain that the connnon Scotch coal was superior, if pro-
perly em|doyed.

Mr. Williams's communication was listened to with great attention, and
te was frequently greeted by bursts of applause. Shortly before he concluded,
llr. Durance, engineer of the Liverpool and Manchester Railway, stated that
he had tried the pins on the lecturer's princi;!le in the boiler of one of their
stationary engines with great success. He had only 105 pins driven into the
boiler, arid the steam, which could not before be kept up, was now abundant.

The Chairman then invited discussion on the subject, and some doubts
were expressed and questions put as to the advantages of the invention, all
cf which were ably replied to oy Mr. Williams, and ended in the complimen-
tary acknowledgment of all who demurred, and the concurrence of all i\1jo
were present, that tlie invention constituted a valuable and immense practi-
cal improvement in the construction of engine boilers. — Liverpool Albion.

FINAL TRIAL OF THE DEVASTATION STEAM FRIGATE.

Commander Hastings Reginald Henry, and all the officers of this fine ves-
sel attended on Tuesday Nov. 2 on board, to make a final trial of her capa-
bilities previous to the engines being reported upon (o the Lords Commis-
sioners of the Admiralty. At 11 o'clock in the lorenoon Captain the Hon.
J. F. F. De Ros, R.N. and F.R.S. ; Captain the Hon. Edward Plunkett, R.N.,
and several scientific gentlemen : Messrs. Maudslay and Field, eni;ineers ;
and Mr Ewart, chief engineer of the Woolwich Dockyard, went on board,
and shortly afterwards the vessel was loosed from her moorings, ofi Wool-
wich, proceeded down the river to Long Reach, to the measured ground,
where the sjieed of steam-vessels is ascertained with the greatest correctness.

On this occasion the Devastation, lor the purpose of giving her a fair trial,
and testing her powers, had a cargo of 320 tons of coal put on board, and 61
tons of water in casks. Her draught of water was 13 feet 4 inches forward,
and 14 feet aft, which afforded her paddle-wheels a clepth of water sufficient
to propel her with greater velocity then on the former occasion, although the
strokes of the engine were only the same number, about 18 to 19 per minute.
She accomplished the measured mile against the tide in 5 minutes and 48
seconds, and w ith the tide and against the wind in 4 minutes and 42 seconds,
being nearly at the rate of 12 and l-.5ih statute miles on the average per
hour. Mr. Ewart. the chief engineer, whose duty it will be to report as to
the efficiency of the engine, and the speed of the vessel, expressed himseli in
the highest terms relative to the eas' and smoothness of her motion, and
added, that " he never timed any that could approach her in speeci liefore,
and he was of opinion she was decidedly the fastest; vessel in Her Majesty's
navy.''

The result of this trial is one of great importance to the country, and of
which it has reason to be proud, as the engines are the simplest, as they have
proved to be the most efficient, of any yet introduced to public notice, and
on that account our steam r.avy will be far superior to the steam navy of any
other country. Messrs. Maudslay and Field have done themselves great
credit by the liberality with which they undertook to fit this vessel, as a spe-
cimen of the advantages of their invention, and are deserving of the complete
success they have met with, and there can now be no doubt Iheir engineer
will be introduced into all the new powerful vessels built for Her Majesty's

service in lulure. The disconnecting rods were tried during this trip, and ia
one minute and a quarter one of the powerful paddle-wheels, 25 feet in dia-
meter, was detached from the engines, and the whole of their power applied
to the other wheel. In three quarters of a minute the stupendous lever of
the wheel was again attached, and the vessel sped through the water with
the greatest velocity. On returning up the river, she overtook the Manches-
ter and Duchess of Kent large s'eam vessels, and their crews appeared as-
tonished that the Devastation had got su tar a-head of them before they
arrived opposite Woolwich.

The Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty have very judiciously complied
with the application of Commander Henry, and ordered one of Porter s an-
chors, of 28 cwt., for the Devastation, and it was delivered at the dockyard
yesterday, fur the purpose of being tested. Commander Henry Boyej, ot the
'Vixen steam frigate, ol the same mould as the Devastation, iias obtained an
order to be supplied with one of PorLer's anchors of the same weight, to be
delivered in about a fortnight. ^

MISCELLANEA.

Kent.—'ihe ceremony of laying the first stone of a new church at Plaft, in
the parish of Wrotham, was performed on the 8th ult., in the presence of a
large concourse of spectators, by the daughter of the rector of Wrotham, the
Rev. Geo. Moore. The architects are Messrs. U hichwed and Walker, of
Maidstone. The church about to be erected is on .■>, site, the gift of — Lara-
bard, Esq., being part of three acres of land which it is contemplated to lay
out in a picturesque and a'lvantageous manner, in building a parsonage
h use, school rooms, and alms-houses, 'ihe church will be biiilt of Kentish
r.ag stone, in the early pointed style, and is cruc form on plan. The dimen-
sions wiih'n tiie walls (exclusive of the tower) are 78 feet from east to
west, and (iO ft. 0 in. from north to south, by 25 ft. 6 in. in width. It has a
tower at the west end 70 ft. ia height and 21 feet squiie, with an octangular
turret at the north-eastern angle, in which is a stone staircase, leading to the
varii.us floors, and roof, of the tower. The organ gallery (the only one iu
the church) is situate in the tower, and is lighted by a large 3-light windovv
in the western wall. The chancel has a corresponding window, under whicU
is a series of small pointed arches, and on either side a niche to serve as a
seat for the officiating m nister. The roof is an ornamental open timber-
framed roof, with hammer beams and moulded ribs running down, .and r.'sting
on stone moulded corbels. At the intersecuon ot the transepts, the trusses
are placed diagonally. The church will contain sitings for SOO persons,
120 in pews. 210 in tree seats, and 170 for children. The pews are placed in
the transepts, the free seats in the nave, and the children on raised seats, at
the west end of nave, and in the organ gallery. The ends of all the seals
next the aisles, are moulded and finished with a carved fiiiial. The pulpit
and reader's desk are placed at the south-east angle of the intersection of
the nave and transepts. The total cost of the church will not exceed £2500.

Trading Paper. — We have received from Mr. Dixon a sample of drawing
paper made perfectly transparent for the purpose of tracing off' drawings,
which will be a great acquisition to tbe jwofession. that was much wanted,
the ordinary tracing paper being too tiimsy for general use.

Sir Frnncis Ckmitrey. — We regret to announce that this highly talented
sculptor, died suddenly on the 2(jth ult.

The following is a summary of a comparative statement of houses inhabited,
&c., in Great Britain and islands in the British seas in 1801, 1811, 1821, 1831,
1841 :—

Houses Inhabited. Unirhibiled. Building.
1801.

England 1.467,870 53.965

Wales 108,053 3 511

Scotland 299,553 9,537

1811.

England 1,678.006 47,923 15,189

Wales 119,398 3.095 1,019

Scotland 304.093 11,329 2,341

1821.

England 1.951,973 66,055 18,289

Wales 136.183 3.652 985

Scotland 341,474 12,657 2,405

Islands in British Seas . . 13,763 427 9 8

1831.

England 2,326.022 113,885 23,462

Wales 155.522 6.030 1.297

Scotland 369;'593 12.719 2.568

Islands in British Seas .. 15,658 697 226

1841.

England 2,753.295 162.756 25,882

Wades 188,196 . 10.133 1,769

Scotland 503,3.57 24,307 2.760

Islands in British Seas .. 19,159 805 220

Tlic Foundation Stone of a New CImreh at Manchester.— "Oie committee of t'le
Ten Churches Association have commenced, on Pin Mill Brow, tbe erec.ijn

410

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[December,

of ar.iitlier neiv churcli. tcf be called the Cliiireh < f St. Silas. It is to he Uiilt
in tlie Norman St vie of arcliiteclure. «illi square towers, surinounted by i;ela-
gonai spires, circular windows, and clustered columns. Messrs. Starkie and
Co. are the architects. The dimensions of the church are 5fi feet by "JO, and
it is calculated to accommodate about 1,100 persons. One-half of the sittings
are to be free.

Opaiiiii! of the Shcffidd and Manchester Railway.— On the I7th ult. a portion
of tnis M'ne of railway extending from Manchester to Godley, a distance of
seven miles, was opened to the public. At present but a single line of rails
is laid, so that the train at one end leaves immediately after the arrival of
the train from the otlier, by which all danger of accident from collision is
avoided. The line, so far as it is yet open, after tlie first embankment and
the viaducts, is chiefly in cuttings. It was inspected by Sir Frederick Smith
last week, w ho ccrlified to the perfect stability of the works and its fitness
for opening. There are three engines at present on the line with their ten-
der^and three first-class, five second-class, and sis third-classcarriages.
Theengines were manufactured by Messrs. Kirtley and Co.. of Warrington,
and the carriages are from the manufactories of Messrs. Dunn and Son, Lan-
caster, Messrs. Allcard and Co., Warrington, and Mr. Bradley, of Shclheld.

Thames Tunnel.— .\ thoroughfare was ellected in this work on the 14th ult..
and made use of for the first time by the «hole of the directors and some of
the original subscribers, who hail as'scmbled upon the occasion. The shield
having been advanced to the shaft at Wapping, a considerable opening was
cut in the brickwork, and it was throu^'h this the jiarty who had met at
Rotherhithe were enabled to pass, thus opening the first subterranean com-
munication between the opposite shores of the river. Upon their arrival at
the shaft the party was greeted by the workmen with most hearty cheers.
Tlie engineer. Sir J. Bauuel, appeared highlv gratified at the happy result of
all his past an.xiety and arduous labour. Tfie shield will continue its advance
tmtil It has afl'i.rded space for tlie formation of the remainder of the tunnel,
wliich is expected to be completed in about three weeks.

LIST OF VIEViT PATENTS.

GRANTED IN EN'GLAND FROM 2nD NOVEMBER, TO 28tH NOVEMBER, 1841.

Six Months allowed for Enrolment.

William Golden, of Huddersfield, gun-maker, and John Hanson, of the
same place, lead-pipe manufacturer, for " certain improvements in fire-arms,
and in the t/nltcfs or other projectiles to le used therew/th.'^ — November 2.

Thomas JIacauley, of Curtain-road, upholsterer, for " certain improve-
ments in bedstejis, tr/iich are convertible into other useful forms or articles of
furniture." — November 2.

Robert Logan, of Blackheath, Esq., for ''improvements in obtaining and
preparini/ the fibres arid other products rf the cocoa nut and its husk." — No-
vember 2.

Robert Holt, of Manchester, cotton-spinner, and Robinson Jackson,
of Alanchcster, aforesaid, engineer, for " certain improvements in machinery
or apparatus for ttie production, of rotary motion, for obtaining mechanical
power, which said improvements are also applicable for raising and impelling
fluids." — November 2.

Moses Poole, of Lincoln's-inn, gentleman, for " improvements in ma-
chinery, used in the mamifacturc if bobbin-net or twist lace." (Being a
comniunicatioii.) — November 2.

Henrv Kirk, of Tavistock-sqnare, gentleman, for '• a substitute for ice
for skating and sliding purposes," — November 2.

William Bri^nton, of Neath, Glamorganshire, engineer, for "an im-
proved method or means of dressing ores and separating metals or minerals
from other substances." — November 2.

Jere.miaii Bvnner, of Birmingham, lamp-maker, for "improvements in
gas iHr)(er,v."— November 2.

Edward Robert Simmons, of Croydon, Esq., for " improvements in ap.
paratvs for preventing splasliiiig in walking." — November 2.

Henry King, of Webber-row, Westminster-road, engineer, for " certain
improvements in steam engines ami boilers." — November A.

Jules Lejit.ve, of North-place, tnmberland-market, manufacturing che-
mist, for " a means of condensing and collecting the sulplturous and metallic
vapours which are evolved in the treatment by heat of all kinds of ores." —
November i.

Job Cutler, of Ladypool-lane, Birmingham, gentleman, for " improve-
ments in the construction of the tubular fiu^s of steam, boilers." — November 6.
John Carr, of North Shields, earthenware manufacturer, and ,\aron
Ryles, of the same jilace, agent, for " an improved mode of operating in cer-
tain processes for ornamenting glass." — November 9.

Jebsf Ross, of Leicester, manufacturer, for "anew wool-combing appa-
ratus."— November 9.

Henry Davies. of Birniingham, engineer, for "certain improved ma-
cliinenj suitable for applying power to communicate locomotion to bodies re-
i/uiring to be moved on land or water." — November 9.

Jesse Smith, of Wolverhampton, lock-m,aker, for " improvements in the
construction of locks and latches, applicable fw doors and other purposes." —
November 9.

William Eeward Newton, of Chancerj'-lane, civil engineer, for '■ cer-

tain improvements in the production of ammonia." (Being a communication.)
November 9.

William Palmer, of Sutton-strect, Clerkenwell, manufacturer, for " im-
provements in the manufacture of candles." (Being partly a communication.)
— November 9.

John Garnett, of LiverpDol, merchant, and Joseph M'illiams, of Liver-
pool, aforesaid, manufacturing chemist, for "an improved method of manu-
facturing salt from brine." — November 9.

JoH.N BiRNELL, (the voungcr I of Wliitechapel, manufacturer, for " im-
provements in the manufacture of leaves or sheets of horn, commonly called
lantern leaves, and in tlie construction of horn lanterns." — November 9.

John Edwards, of Cow Cross-street, gentleman, for •' an improved strap
cr band, for driving machinery, and for other purposes." — November 9.

James Stewart, of Osnaburgh-street, St. Pancras, pianoforte maker, for
" certain improvements in the action of horizontal pianofortes." — November
11.

George Allarton, of West Bromwich, Stafford, surgeon, for " certain
improvements in the method ofballhig and blooming iron." — November 11.

John Peter Booth, of Hatton-garden, feather-merchant, for " certain
improvements in the manufacture of a substance, or compound fabric, ivhich
will be applicable to the making of rjuilts, coverlets, and wadding, for purposes
of clothing or furniture." — November 11.

Isaac Davis, of New Bond-street, optician, for " improvements in the
manufacture of sealing «».r, which compounds are applicable to other useful
purposes." — November 11.

Edward Joseph Francois Duclos de Boussois, of Clyne Wood,
Metallurgical-works, Swansea, for " improvements in the mamfacture of cop-
per."— November 11.

John Onion.s, of Field-lane, Barlaston, Stafford, engineer, for " improve-
ments in the manufacture of certain descriptions of nails, screws and chains."
— November IX.

James Young, of N"ewton-le-Willows, chemist, for " certain improvements
in the rnanufacture of ammonia and ttie salts of ammonia, and in apparatus
for combining ammonia, carbonic acid, and other gases with liquids." — No-
vember 11.

Isaac Dodds, of Sheffield, engineer, for " certain improvements in the
modes or methods of supplying gas for the purpose of illuminating towns and
other places." — November 13.

He-sry Mortimer, of Frith-street, Soho, gentleman, for " improvements
in covering ways and surfaces, and in constructing ai'ches." — November 16.

John Squire, of Albany-place, Rcgent's-park, engineer, for " certain im-
])rovements in the construction of steam boilers or generators." — November
16.

Robert Striling New all, of Gateshead, Durham, wire-rope manufac-
turer, for " improvements in the manufacture of flat bands." — November 16.

John Venables, of Burslem, in the county of Statford, earthenware
manufacturer, and Joh.v Tunnicliff, of the same place, bricklayer, for " a
new and improved method of building and constructing ovens used by potters
and cldna-manufacturers in the firing of their wares." — November 20 ; two
months.

William Manw.^ring, of York-street, Lambeth, engineer, for "certain
improvements in tlie manufacture of sugar ." — November 23.

Richard Gurney, of Trevinnion-house, Cornwall, for " a method of cut-
ting wood and incrusting the same in order to present a sure footing for horses
and ot/icr purposes." — November 20.

TO CORRESPONDENTS.

Communications on the Tractive Power of laddie Wheels — On Allantic Steam
Nuvigaiion — and on Steam 'Locomotion on Common Roads, will appear next
month.

The Fourth Report on both hanks of the River Hull, and al.io Mr. Denton's
su<;gcstionsfor a Bill for Drainage of Land, will he noticed in the ne.rt Journal.

A Constant Reader. — Tlie First I'olume of Bmff's Engineering Field Work
has bet n published.

E. Jf we can he furnished with Lists of Iron Steamers built by the various
Builders, similar to the one of Messrs. Fairbairu Sj Co., inserted some lime back
in our Journal, we shall be happy to publish them.

A Conespondenl who wishes to know what is the qualification requisite to be
admitted into the Institution of Civil Engineers, had better apply to the Secrctan/
in George Street, Westminster.

Communications are requested to he addressed to "The Editor of the Civi
Engineer and Architect's Journal," >Vo. 11, Parliament Street, Westminster.

Books for Review must be sent early in the month, communications on or before
the 20th (if with drntelngs, (arlier), and advertisements on or before the 2otk
instant.

The present Number completes the Fourth Volume ; the Inde.\, Title-page,
Sec., will be given with the next Number.

Vtls. I, II, HI. and IV', may be had, bound in cloth, prxe £1 each Volume.

INDEX.

Absorbing Wells, Boui'goin, 403.
Academy, Royal, architectural exhibition at, 20,
179,223,316.

professor of architecture at, 74,

110, 121, 15 4, 209, 232, 315, 353.
Act vide Bill.

Advice to engineering pupils, 390.
Air engine, Stirhng's, 352.
Anchors, Porter & Co.'s patent, 165.
Andrews, W., on railway wheels, 197.
Anonymous architects, 381. <.
Anti-corrosive iron tube works, 227.
Anti-dry-rot, Boucherie's process, 5G.

'■ Sir W. Burnett's process, 328, 367.

Antiquities, history of, 228.

of engineering, vide engineering.

Aqueduct at Lisbon, description of, 394.

ancient, 107, 216, 300, 372.

Arboretum, Derby, 69.

Arch, with diagrams, vide Bridge.

stonebeani, Lincoln cathedral, 97.

Roman, 300.

on curvature of, 122.

brick and tile, strength of, 393.

skew, with engravings, on construction of, 130,

290,360,305,421.
Architects, British, Roval Institute of, 25, 66, 97,

129, 169, 205, 237, 285.

of Ireland, Roval Institute of, 98.

of Paris, Institute of, 104, 247.

anonymous, 381,

Architectural criticism, hints on, 297, 371.
Architectural Society, 25, 237.

'- Oxford, 129.

Architecture, vide Building, Candidus, Competition,
Ecclesiastical.

as a tine art, its state and prospects in

England, by George Godwin, jun., 338.

BariT, 96, 178, 179, 315, 370.

beauty, 42.

Browii, Professor, 222, 237.

Burlington, Earl of, 40.

Campbell, 77, 122, 257.

capital, 258, 329, 330, with engravings.

Caryatides, 257.

column, 96.

corse, 129.

criticism, hints on, 297, 337, 371, 418.

decoration, 337.

decorators, 34, 37.

drawing, ancient, of a church door, 129.

entablatures, 77.

extravagance, 178.

form, 42.

fresco, 31, 35, 361, 362, 381.

Gaudy, 75.

German, 370.

Gothic, 74, 110, 154, 178, 209, 370.

Greek, 2.

Grellier, 75.

Ilosking 121, 122.

intercolumn. 20.

Italian, 37, 41.

Jones, Inigo, 18, 77.

keeping, 337.

Kent, 179, 231.

King's College, 244.

Klenze, 2.

Liverpool, 17, 40, 75, 119, 161.

moulding, 109.

Nash, 297.

note from Paris, by G. Godwin, jun., 405.

novelty, 2.

Palladio, 2, 40, 121, 145, 149, 222.

Paris, 406.

Percier, 41.

picturesque, 121.

practical knowledge, 121.

Professor of, at the Royal Academy, 7<,

121, 154, 209, 232, 315.

Pugin, 75.

Roman 117.

roofing, 45,

Samraicheli, 222.

Sansovino, 222.

Seaghola, 37.

-^ Soane, 297.

Squares, London, 74.

taste, 34.

triumphal arch, 39.

Versailles, 34.

Yitruvius, 121. -

AVightwick, 3.

INDEX.

■ Wilkins, 96, 149.
- Wishv, 129, 144.
-AVren, 121, 138.

Artesian wells, 5, 66, 131, 139, 176, 241, 344, 359,

402.
Arts, on the present state of, in Italy, 35.
Asliton-under-Lvne Town Hall, 33.
Asphalte, '■/'/■■ Bitumen.

Sevssell, 30, 140, 328, 3G8.

Augers, Ash's, 93.

Austin & Seeley's artificial stone works, with en-
gravings, 141.
Axles, vide Railways.

Balance, revolving, 24.
Bank, vide Buildings.

Barlow, W. H., on four and six-wheeled locomo-
tives, 90.

on construction of skew arches, 290, 360.

Barrett, Henry, vide also Harbours.

on South Eastern Harbours, 110.

Bars, flexure of, 98, vide also Beams.
Bartholomew, .Ufred, F.S.A., on fire-proof buildings,

409.

Bateman, report on Mersey and Irwell navigation,
135.

Bath, Italian, apparatus for warming, with engrav-
ing, 39.

Beams, with engravings, rirfealso Bars, experiments
for determining the neutral axes of, 354.

parallel strain of, 346.

tables of the strength of, 7?.

transverse strength of, 294.

Bellhouse, F. T., on St. Luke's church, Cheetham
Hill, 78.

Belvoir Castle, 276.

Bewlev, W., on the levelling staff. 434.

Bill, building, abstract of, 348.

drainage, abstract of, 85, 350.

railways, 83, 106, 148.

Biography, Bramah, F., 127.

'■ Ethelwold, St., 376.

Freund, 309.

Gutensohn, 177.

Hazledine, W., 48.

Oldham, J, 127.

Poisson, 54.

— ^— — Prinsep, 53.

■ Rickman, J., 127.

Rowles, H., 127.

Schinkel, K. F., 405.

Smith, W., 432.

Bitumen, Babvlonian, 146, 215.

Parisian, 212, 325.

Blast, 23.

Boat, Italian lake boat, with engravmgs, 39 ; vide
also Canal.

Bonnvcastle, C, on the power of fluids in motion,
117.

Boring, continental mode of, 208, vide also jMinmg.

Ash's tools, 93.

Bracket, with engravings, 141, 330.

Breakwater, Delaware, 100; floating, Tayler's 358;
Plymouth, 133, 322, 431.

Bricks, American, 265; ancient, 45, 146, 215, 362,
372 ; machine, Carville's, 55 ; manufacture of,
tlescription of, 340 ; strength of arches of, 393.

Bridge, Agly, 2; ancient, 44,45, 81, 107, 108, 146,
261, 299', 300, 339, 340, 372; Athlone, 402;
Banagher, 366 ; brick, Midland Counties Rail-
way, 130; cast iron, 62 ; curvature of arches of,
with engravings, 122 ; Dunhampstead, 394 ;
Eckington, 62 ; llaslar, 31 ; Holy Trinity ; Flo-
rence, with engravings, 122, 147.
Iron, .\ire, 103; Austerlitz, 91; construc-
tion of, 91 ; Erdre, 91 ; Mantes, 103 ; Pont des
Arts, 91 ; Southwark. 91 ; Windsor Park, 368.
London, 368; Martorell, 145; Middles-

borough Railway, 393 : observations on, -.8 ;
railway, Middlcsborougb, 393; Pope's, 336;
wooden, with engravings, 62 ; skew, Scotswood
road, 130; Springfield, 158— suspension, Clifton,
205; Dredge's, with engravings, 252, 294, 381,
436; Haslar, 31 ; India, 437; Isle of Bourbon,
205 ; Menai, 48, 167, 204 ; Montrose, 205, 355
—tension, 213 ; Whitadder, with engravings

331— timber, Calder, with engravings, 69; decay
of, 284 ; llulme Park, 69 ; latticework, with en-
gravings, 62; Redheugh, 130; Scotswood Road,
130;— Westminster, 171, 211, 287.
Bridgewater House, 179.
British Association, 23, 323, 358.
Bronze gate, St. Mark, Venice, with engravings,
256 ; historical sketch of the use of, 217, 259 ;
Italian, 38.
Brooks, W., vide Harbours, Reviews.
Brown, J., on competition, 186.
Bude hght, 403.
Builders' Benevolent Institution, 200.

legal claims, 311.

Building, notes on, ride Arch, Architecture, Beam,
Brick, Cement, Chimney, Granite, .Materials,
Roof, Stone, Tile, M'ood. '

act,abslract of, 318; American, 61; beams,

with engravings, 79, 294, 346, 354 ; bricks, 37,
45, 55, 146, 215, 265, 340, 362. 372, 393; hut-
tresses, with engravings, 89, 27.') ; carpentry, 37.
404 ; cement, 3, 29, 46, 146, 300, 372 ; center-
ins, 1 ; chimney, with engravings, 45, 50, 88,
14^1, 183, 264, '311, 328,403; dome, 118; en-
tablature, 77; factories, American cotton, 01;
fire-proof. .'i6, 409 ; floors, 61 ; plate glass, 404 ;
house painting, 37; joists, 61 ; mallet, carpenter's
404; masonry, Italian, 37 ; materials, 108, 181;
mortar, 46,340; moulding wood, 94; nails, 37, 56;
pavement, 37; plastering, 37 ; plaster ornaments,
287; roofing, with engravings, 45, 94, 249, 285,
409, 414; slating, 94; stables, 103; stone,
Paris, 407 ; strike, Houses of Pariiament, 367 :
tiles, 55 ; vaulting, Gothic, 285 ; Wales, 61 ;
woodstaining, 56.
Buildings, ride also Ecclesiastical Buildings, Rail-
way Stations ; — Assize Courts, Liverpool, 180;—
Bank, Branch of England, Liverpool, 18, 70, 77 ;
of England, 118; North and South Wales, Liver-
pool, with engravings, 17, 40, 75, 76, 119, 101 ;
Roval, Liverpool, 75; Union, Liverpool, 17, 76 ;
United States, 404 ;— Belvoir Castle, 276 ; Bridge-
water House, 179; British Museum, 31, 370;
Cemetery, St. James's, Liverpool, 76, 77 ; Cha-
teau de' Gaillon, with engravings, 331 ; Club
Reform, 10, 178 ; Corn Exchange, Sudbury, 232;
Crosby House, 375 ; Custom House, Liverpool,
77 ;— Elevations, Bank, North and South Wales,
Liverpool, 76 ; Kursaal Gebaude,Bruckenaii,177 ;
Lighthouse, Morant Point, 333 ; Lighthouse,
Sunderiand, 378; Lodge, Derby Arboretum, 71,
72; Main Entrance, Derby Arboretum, 71; Pa-
vilion, Derby Arboretumi 69; Town Hall, Ash-
ton-under-Lvne, 33; — Goldsmith's HaU, 337;
Heriot's Hospital, 257; Hotel de Cluny, with
engravings, 330 ; Hotel de la TremouiUe, 103 ;
Houses of Parliament, 31, 351, 367, 370,391,
437; Infant Orphan Asylnm, 347; Kremlin,
Moscow, 367 ; Kursaal Gebaude, Bruckenan,
with engravings, 177; Law Courts, new, 180;
Luxemburg, 55 ; Market, Fish, Liverpool, 18, 10.
llungcrford, 119; St. John's, Liverpool, IS, 77;
National Gallery, 96, 149; Palazzo Pitti, 37;
Palazzo Piccoloniini, 119; Pantheon. 117 ; Paris,
new, 55 ; — Plans, Dining-rooms, 143,289,345;
Kursaal Gebaud, Bruckenau, 177; Town Hall,
Ashtou-under-Lyne, 33; Villa, 413 ;— Plymouth
Theatre, 76 ; Polytechnic Institution, Vienna,
with engrayings,'4'l4 ; Post Office, 337; ditto,
DubUn, 337; Railway station, Aylesbun', 62;
ditto Liverpool, 1 7, 40, 75 ; ditto Versailles, with
engravings, 249; Reform Club, 10,178; Royal
Exchange, 119, 156, 365; St. George's Hall,
Liverpool, 180; — Sections: Kursaal Gebaude,
Bruckenau, 177; Lighthouse, Morant Point, 333 ;
Town HaU, Ashtou-under-Lyne, 33 ; — Sefton's
Lord, Belgrave Square, 337; Somerset House,
119; State Paper Oftice, 297; Sun Fire Ofiice,
307; Tailors' Asylum, 310; Tomb, Roman, 118;
Town Hall, Ashton-under-Lyne, with engravings,
33 ; ditto, Liverpool, 75 ; Wesleyan Centenary
Hall, 142 ; Wilton House, 19 ; Windsor Castle,
74,270, 278, 326; Winter Palace, St. Peters-
burgh, 367.
Bull, W., on dams, 233.

Burnett's, Sir William, anti-drv-rot pioceas, 328,

367.
Buttress, with engravings, 89, 275.

Calculating machine, 401.
Caledonian canal, report on, 397.
Calotype, 233, 286, 428.
Cameo cutting, 36.
Canal ride Hydraulic Engineering.

Abingd'on, 376; ancient, 43, 44, 45, 89, 90,

107, 108, 145,182,215,216,261,300,340,372;
Ardrossan, with engravings, 105, 106; banks,
notes on, with engravings, 105; Birmingham,
with engravings, 105; Calcutta. 437; Caledo-
nian, 397 ; Calder and Hebble, 69 ; Dooab, 437 ;
English, 105 ; Forth and Clyde, with engravings;
105,100; Gloster and Berkeley, 163; Indian, 437,
Lancaster, 105 ; L'Ourcq, with engravings, 105;
Manic and Rhine, 428 ; Mersey and Irwell, 98,
133 ; Nuddea, 437 ; Ombrone,"38 ; Paisley, 105,
106; Preston, with engravings, 105; propelUng
boats on, 23, 39, 44, 105 ; Red Sea, 89, 182,
340; St. Denis, 105; Tivoli, with engravings,
38 ; towing paths, notes on, with engravings,
105; Union, 105, 106; Winchester, 377.

Candidus's Note Book, 1, 34, 74, 121, 149, 178,
222, 257, 297, 337,369.

and the Professor of Architecture at the

Royal Academy, 74, 110, 121, 154, 209, 232,
315, 353.

■ and the ventilation folks, 297, 363, 370.

Capital, Gothic, with engravings, 330 ; St. Denis,
with engravings, 229 ; Ste. Chapelle, with en-
gravings, 330 ; St. Germain, engravings, 329 ;
St. Reniy, with engravings, 258.

Carbonic acid gas as a motive power, 317.

Carding machine, 62.

Carpenter's mallet, 404.

Cast iron tubbing, 292.

Cathedral ride Ecclesiastical Buildings.

Cement 3, ride also Lime, Mortar.

ancient, 146, 300, 372 ; Martin's, 29 ;

Smith's 124.

Centering, St. Malo, 1.

Chairs, railway. Great North of England, with en-
gravings, 184; Harper's, with engravings, 88;
Harris's, 236; improved, with engravings, 379,
434 ; Smith's, 124.

Chantrey, Sir F., 439.

Chapel, ride Ecclesiastical Buildings.

Chestnut trees, ancient, 40.

Chimney building, act relating to, 50 ; flues, 264,
311; gigantic, St. RoUox, 403; highest in the
world, 328 ; pots, substitute for, 45, 88 ; ditto,
forms of, with engravings, 141 ; slate, 183.

Chock, self-acting, with engravings, 405.

Chuck, Stevens's, 234.

Church, ride Ecclesiastical Building.

Clark, D., on the action of Central Forces, 182 ; on
the power of the screw, 219; on long and short
connecting rods, 303, 344 ; on the strain of
beams, 346.

Clarke, Hyde, C.E., Life of St. Ethelwold, Bishop
of Winchester, 376; on colour as applied in de-
coration, 408.

Clegrani, W., on the improvement of the Severn,
163.

Coal, i-ide Coke, Combustion, Fuel, Gas, Light,
Smoke.

analysis of, 64 ; Chili, 296, 428 ; combustion

of, 11, 24, 63, 64, 98 ; combustion of anthracite,
430, 439.

Coe, George, on reversing steam engines, 336, 435.

Cofferdam, Ribble, 235; Westminster Bridge, 171,
287.

Coke, consumption of, 123.

ovens. Cox's, 94.

Coles's patent socket axle-trees. 111.

College, Dublin, 24 7 ; King's, 244, 325 ; University,

433.
Colliery, Castle Comer, 292; Dutton, 293; Mar-
dvke, 292 ; mode of sinking through quicksand,
2'93 ; Shotton, 294.
Colour as applied in decoration, by Hyde Clarke,

408.
Column, July, 260 ; Place VendOme, 260.

INDEX.

Combustion, vide Coal, Fuel, Heat, Locomotive,
Smoke.

Competition 173, 337, 347, 390 t — Camberwell
Church, 390; Foidingbridge Church, 72; Infant
Orphan AsvUim, 367 ; Marseilles Exchange, 243 ;
Paddingtoii Church, 310, 420 ; Paris, 407 ; Rome
420; St. Andrews, Norwich, 174, 180; Shrews-
bury Church, 34 7; Sudbury Corn Exchange,
•232; Tailors Asjlum, 310, 347; Turnham Green
Church, 1 72; Versailles, 97; 'Wandsworth Church,
34 7.

Contract, case of a, 228.

Corbels, with engravings, 141, 330.

Corbett, Edward, on the architecture of Liverpool,
119.

Cornish engines, I'iJe Steam Engine, Cornish.

Cotton mills, 61.

Crane, Leslie's, 167.

Crockets, with engravings, 141, 330.

Croker, John, hint to English artists, 20.

Crosby House, account of, 375.

Crosses, with engravings, 141.

Cubitt, \V., C.E., on the improvement of the Se-
vern, 182.

Curtis, W. J., remarks on the Railways' Report, 313.

Cusson, J. R.. on the power of the screw, 172, 342.

Daguerreotype, 101, 247.

Dams, ancient, 45, 146; observations on, 283.

Daniell, Professor, on sulphuretted hydrogen in the
sea, 271.

Decoration, vide Fresco ; on colour as applied in, 408.

Denham, Capt., ll.M., 3.

Derby Arboretum, with engravings, 69.

Distillator, Robinson's, 361.

Dock, vide Hydraulic Engineering.

Egyptian, 89 ; Bristol, 209 ; Liverpool, 51,

243 ; Malta, 385 ; St. Malo, with engravings, 1 ;
Southampton, 87.

Draining vide Hydraulic Engineering.

absorbing wells, 403 ; Haarlem Lake, 31 ;

sewer, Cowgate, 430.

Draughtsmen, vide Surveying.

association of, proposed, 214 ; instru-
ments of, 198.

Drawing, ancient, of a door, 129; calotype, 233,
286, 428; daguerreotype, 101, 247; tracing
paper, 439.

Drawing machine, cotton, 62.

Dredge, J., C.E., on suspension bridges, 43G.

Dublin University, faculty of engineering in, 247.

East, Frederick, a few observations on Palladio,
145; hints on architectural criticism, 337, 371,
418 ; on the Palladian school of architecture, 179;
on the style of Burlington and Palladio, 40 ;
Campbell and Inigo Jones, 77 ; Inigo Jones, 18 ;
Wren, 138.

Ecclesiastical Buildings : —

Abbotsbury church, 25 ; Brixworth chmcli, 129 ;
Camberweil Church, 390; Chapter House. West-
minster, 403 ; Christ church, Albany street, 403 ;
Clifford church, 31 ; Cologne cathedral, 367 ;
Croyland abbey, 139; Drontheim cathedral, 144;
Foidingbridge church, 73 ; Hereford cathedral,
242, 428 ; Lee church, Blackheath, 11 ; Lincoln
cathedral, with engravings, 75,97; Madeleine,
Paris, 55, 407, 415; Montivilliers, Charles, Nor-
mandy, 129 ; Notre Dame, Paris, with engravings,
380,407; Notre Dame de Lorette, Paris, 407;
Paddington church, 310, 420; Piatt church,
Kent, 439; Risley church, 403; St. Agnes,
Rome, 119; St. Andrews, Norwich, 174; St.
Bride's, 119; St. Constance, Rome, 118; St.
Denis, Abbey, with engravings, .35, 329, 407 ;
St. George's chapel, Windsor, 320 ; St. George,
Edgbaston, 436; St. Geoige's, Dublin, 285 ; St.
Germain des Pres, with engravings, 329 ; St. Ger.
vais, with engravings, 330, 407 ; St. Luke,
Cheetham Hill, 78, 121 ; St. Luke, Chelsea, 75 ;
St. Luke, Liverpool, 17, 75 ; St. Mark, Horsham,
247; St. Mark, Venice, with engravings, 256;
St. Marv's, Wareham, 211 ; St. Mary Magdalen,
0.xford,'428 ; St. Martin, 119, 257 ; St. Pancras,
257, 403; St. Paul, London, with an engraving,
275; St. Paul, Rome, 37, 119; St. Silas, Man-
chester, 439; St. Stephen, Bristol, 129; St. Ste-

phen, Rotunda, Rome, 118. — Sainte Chapelle,
Paris, with engraving, 330 ; Shrewsbury church,
347; Temple Church. 26,403; Trinity Church,
Nottingham, 402; Turnham Green Church, 172;
Walton church, 75 ; Wandsworth church, 347;
M'eslevan chapel. Great Queen Street, 31 ; Win-
chester cathedral, 377 ; M'isby, 129, 144 ; Wool-
wich Scotch church, 403.
Education, engineering, 90, 126,182,244,247,325.
Edwards, H. H., on the evaporation of water, 411.
Electricitv of steam, 55.
Electric telegraph, 66, 237; Cooke and \^'heat-

stone's, with engravings, 237.
Electro-magnetic motive power, 208, 287,327,367.

printing, 327.

Embankment, 45, 90, 130, 181, 182, 242, 261, 319,

340, 395.
Engine drivers, 84, vide Railway.
Engineering, vide also Arch, Asphalte, Building, Col-
lege, Gas, Hydraulic, Locomotive, Machine, Ma-
terial, Mathematics, Marine Engine, Mining,
Pavement, Railway, Road Surveying, Steam,
Steam-engine, Tool, Tunnel, Water. •

aqueduct, Lisbon, 394 ; Athenian, 107,

181, 193, 339, 340; Babylonian, 44, 145, 215,
262 ; belts and shafts, comparison of, 61 ; Car-
thaginian, 107, 262, 340; causeway, 89 ; coffer-
dam, with engrarings, 171,235, 287: cutting,
with diagrams, 44, 233; Cyprian, 340; Cyzican,
339; dams, 45, 146, 283; drains, 130; dredging,
103, 429; Dublin, 247; earthquake countries,
building in, 372; eccentric rods, 9, 65, 66, 91,
187; Egyptian, 89, 181, 340; embankment, 45,
90, 130, 181, 182, 242, 261, 339, 340, 395 ; en-
gines assistant, 8 ; Greek, 108, 146, 181,339;
excavation, with engravings, 28, 233, 235, 416,
429; Hartley, 51, 243; Hazledine, 48; inclined
planes, 8, 15 ; Italian, 38; locomotive excavator,
233 ; Marseillese, 339 ; navigators, 28 ; paving,
Itahan, 38 ; paving, Roman, 300 : paving, wood,
with engravings, 307; Persian, 43, 145, 181;
Phenician, 107, 340, 372; piers, 45, 216; pile-
driving machine, 437 ; Prinsep, 53 ; quicksand,
sinking through, with engravings, 2, 293 ; retain-
ing walls, 395; Rhodian, 108, 146, 262, 339;
rivets, 56 ; roads, Italian, 38 ; rock excavation,
with engravings, 235; Roman, 299, 300, 340,
362, 372; Samian, 107; Saxon, 376; Scoop,
Morris's, 416; Screw, with diagrams, 172,219,
342, 431 ; Scythian, 107, 372 ; shaft, 2 ; shafts
and belts, 61 ; shield, 1 ; sinking through quick-
sand, with engravings, 2, 293 ; sluices, 45, 89,
182,340; tubbing, cast iron, with engravings,
292 ; Turkey, 334 ; Tuscan, 372 ; wheeling bar-
rows, 28.
Engineering festivals, 261 ; gods, 44, 108, 181, 216,
261, 340; honours and rewards, 33, 44, 108,
140, 181, 216, 261, 340.
Engineering interests, government conduct towards.

214; parliamentary prospects of, 312.
Engineering pupils, advice to, 390.
Engineering saint, 377.
Engineering Works of the .\ncients, 43, 89, 107,

145, 181, 215, 261, 299, 339, 372.
Engineers vide Mechanical Engineers.

ancient : — Aletes, 108 ; Alexander the

Great, 262, 340; Archimedes, 182, 217, 299;
Artachanis, 144; Bubaris, 44; Dedalus, 261,
372; Ethelwold, 377 ; Eupalinus, 107 ; Eurotas,
340; Hercules, 181,261, 300, 339; Mandroeles,
44; Memnon, 216; Menes, 90; Nilus, 182;
Nitocris, 45 ; Osiris, 181; Pheax, 261; Semi-
ramis, 215, 340; Talus 261; Thales, 44; The-
mistocles, 261 ; Uclioreus, 182 ; Vulcan, 201.

biographv of, Bramah, F., 127; Etiiel-

wold, 377 ; Hazledine, W., 48 ; Oldham, J., 127 ;
Prinsep, 53.
busts of, 104 ; female, 44, 215, 340; fes-
tivals of, 201; gods, 44, 108, 181, 216, 261,
340; kings, 90, 182, 262,340; knighted, 140;
military, 161, 182 ; punishment of, 44; pupils,
advice to, 390; saint, 377.
Engines, stamping. Cornish, 22.
Engraving, 35 ; upon metals, 154 :
engraving, 120.

metallic relief

Episodes of plan, with engravings, 73, 108, 142?

289,345, 413.
Etching club. 331.
Ethelwold, St., Bishop of Winchester, Life of, by

Hyde Clarke, 377.
Exhibition, vide Academy, Royal.

Fanblast applied to furnaces, 23.

Filtering, 23.

Fine Arts, vide Architecture, Bronze, Cameo Cutting,

Decoration, Drawing, Engraving, Fresco, Mosaic,

Sculpture, Painting in Italy, slate of, 38.
Finials with engravings, 141.
Fire proof, Leconte's process, 50.

slate, 185.

wood, 56.

Flaxman, 36.

Fleetwood-on-Wyre Harbour, 3, 211.

Foggo, G., on Perspective, 96.

Fonts, with engravings, 141.

Fordham, G. F., on Dredge's Suspension Bridge, 381.

Fountains, 141.

France, public works in, 422.

Fresco:— Eastlake, 392; France, 407; Haydon,361;

Houses of Parliament, 31 ; ditto, report on, 437 ;

Italy, 35 ; Latilla, 362.
Fuel, vide Coal, Combustion, Grant's, 207.
economv of in locomotives, 251,343, 373, 374,

410,439. ■
Furnaces, fanblast in, 23, vide Steam Engine.

Galvaxo-plastic easts, 328, advantages of 191.

Gas, on burning, 194; coals for, 191 ; companiesv
rating of, 367 ; history of, 191 ; retorts, with en-
gravings, 191 ; valves, syphon, Nimmo's, 379,
with engravings; waste of, 12 ; works Philadel-
phia, 100.

Gaseous fluids, law of, 23.

Gasometer, Antwerp, 225.

Geology, vide Mining, LandsUp, Sidmouth, 287;
London Basin, 6; Museum of Economic, 111;
Temperature of Strata, 25.

Gibb, J., on mortar used in ancient buildings, 46.

Glass, Italian, 39.

Godwin, George, jun., F.R.S., on architecture as a
fine art ; its state and prospects in England 338 ;
architectural notes from Paris, 406; proposal for
establishing a British Association for the Fine
Arts, 49.

Goldsmiths and Italians, 39.

Government conduct towards the engineering inte-
rests, 213.

Granite, vide Stone, Dartmoor, 322 ; Foggintor. 322 ;.
Haytor, 322 ; Pavement, wear of, 403.

Grant's fuel, 207.

Grass cloth, Chinese, 403.

Great Western Steam-ship Companv, 385.

Gregory, C. H., C. E., 8.

Haarlem, Lake, draining of 31.

Hakewell, A. W., on the architecture of Italy, 41.

Halicarnassian marbles, 86.

Harbour, vide Hydraulic Engineering.

Abervstnith, 401 ; Barrett and Brooks',

Messrs., controversy, 188, 220, 230, 315, 328,
389,435; Dover, 388 ; Ephesus, 339 ; Fleetwood
on Wvre, 3. 211 ; Folkstone, 159 ; Glasgow, 25 ;
Jackson, Colonel, 315; Ostia, 299; Plymouth,
134 ; Portsmouth, 103 ; Ramsgate,378; S't. Malo,
with engravings, 1 ; Samos, 107 ; South Eastern,
HI, 159; Sunderiand, with engraving, 243, 325,.
378 ; theories of. 189.

Hazledine, W-, biography of, 48.

Heat, vide Combustion.

Melloni on .ibsorption of, 47.

Herculaneum, 352.

Horner, G. J., on steam whistles,
184.

Horse, respiration of, 103.

Hotel de la Tremouillc, 103.

Houses, statistics of", 439.

Houses of Parliament, 31, 351, 367, 370, 391, 437,
vide Fresco.

Hosking, W. H.. C. E.. introductory lecture at King's
College, 91.

Hydraulic Engineering, vide Aqueduct. Breakwater,
Bridge, Canal, Dam, Dock, Draining, Embank-

, with engravings.

INDEX.

ment, Harbour, Lighthouse, Machine, Mill, Navi-
gation, River, Watei'.

ancient, •11,45,140,182, 217, 299; peat

for sea-defences, 394 ; recovery of land, Lynn, 365
seaweed for sea-defences, 357 ; Tivoli, 38 ; weirs
and dams, 283.

Hydraulic lime, 3, 372, vide Lime.

Hypsometer, 10.

Ice, artificial, 335.

India, public works in, 437.

Institute of Civil Engineers, proceedings of,

21, 125, 1G6, 203, 235, 234, 393, 430.

annual report, 125.

list of premiums, 433.

President's conversazione, 206.

Inventions, New and Useful, by Philotechnicos,

141, 1S5, 227.
Inventors, 372.
Iron, vide Turning, Zinkiiig.

case hardening, Robert's, process of, 234.

cramping, 181.

oxidation of, AUamand's process, 361.

working, origin of, 210, 261, 300, 301.

Iron and steel, Mushet's papers on, 150, 197, 262.

Iron mines, Billingley, 48.

Iron working, Italian, 37 ; origin of, 216, 261, 300,

301 J sidphur in coal, 65.
Italy, state of the arts in, 35.

Jackson, G. B. W., on setting out railways, 196.
Jacquard apparatus improved, 48.
Joint-stock companies, ancient, 193.

King's College, 244, 325.

Kursaal Gebaude, Bruckenau, 177.

Kyanizing, 284.

Laocoon, head of, 103.

Law, The Queen v. Bristol Dock Company, 209.

V. Grand Junction Railway, 30.

V. Walker, 325.

— — V. Sharp's Patent, 30.

Vignoles ». Lefroy, 352.

Lawrie, J. G., on economv of fuel in locomotives,
251,373,410.

Lecount, Lieut., on the History of the London and
Birmingham Railway, 65.

Levelling, tiide Surveying.

Lifeboat, Paterson's, 23.

Light, Bude, 403.

LiGHTHorsE: — Cadiz, 300; cast-iron, Goodwin
Sands, 367 ; Jamaica, with engravings, 328, 332 ;
Eddystone, 322; Goodwin Sands, 367; Majilin,
132'; Morant Point, with engravings, 328, 332 ;
Plymouth Breakwater, 134, 140; removal of,
with engravings, 243, 325, 378 ; South Foreland,
402 ; Sunderland, with engravings, 243, 325, 378.

Lime, 3, 30, 46, 124 ; varieties of, 362.

Lime works, Stephenson's, 211.

Liverpool, architecture of, 17,40, "5, 119, 161.

docks, 51, 243.

Lock, sea, 136.

Locomotive, vide Railway.

steam engine, .\merican, 202 ; assistant

on inclined planes, 8.

— . common road, Calvert's, 247; Coul-

thard's, 367 ; De Kidder's, 403 ; eccentric rods,
with diagrams, 9,05, 06,91, 187; economy of
fuel in, 251, 343, 373,374, 410; excavator, 233 ;
four and six wheeled, 90 ; Hawthorn's, 23 ; Hill's,
28; Panibour on, 12, 59; Parkes and De Pam-
bour, controversy between, 304,344,382; Par-
kins, 93 ; slide valve, with engravings, 251, 343,
373, 374; smoke, consumption of, 211; spark
protector, 418 ; wheels, Andrew's, 197; Gooch's,
29.
Lune navigation, plan for improvement of, 187.

Machine, vide Mill, Tool, Air Engine, Stirling's,
352 ; Brick, Carville's, 55.

calculating, 401; carding, 62; chuck,

Stevens's, 234; crane, Leslie's, 107; drawing
cotton, 62 ; dredging, with engraving, 410 ; Ja -
quard apparatus, 48 ; locomotive excavator, 233 ;
metal cutting and shaping, 234 ; moulding,
Hodgson's, 194 ; nail, Stocker's, 50 ; pile driving,
437; rivet, Stocker's, 50 ; Robinson's distillator,

361 ; scoop, with engraving, 416; stamping, 22 ;
stone cutting, 196 ; wood cutting, Bennett's, 93.

Machinerv, exportation of, 102,352; ditto theatre,
430.

.Mallet, carpenter's, 404.

Malta, biscuit baking apparatus at, 385.

Marble staining, 103.

Marini: Engine, vide Steam Boat, Steam Engine.

coiujiarison of long and short connecting

rods, with diagrams, 166, 219, 303, 344 ; duties
on, in Pranoe, 102; Fourdrinier's, 200 ; (iallaway's,
32 ; Maudslay's, with engravings, 366, 369 ; Sea-
ward's, Willi engravings, 58; Trcwhitt's, 121.

Marseilles Exchange, 243.

Martin, Joseph, on the centre of forces of bodies
revolving about fixed axes, 113.

Martyrs' .Memorial, Oxford, 428.

Materials, vide Anti-Dry-Rot, Asphalte, Brick, Ce-
ment, Fire Proof, Granite, Lime, Marble, Mortar,
Slate, Stone, Timber, AVood.

Mathematics, mixed ; arches, 97, 122, 290, 300,365 ;
beams, 79, 294, 340, 350; bridges, 122, 147,
381'', centre of forces, 113; central forces, action
of, 182; fluids in motion, 117 ; fuel, consumption
of, 251, 343, 373, 374 ; eccentric rods, 9, 05, 60 ;
gaseous fluids, law of, 23; railways, setting out,
196; screw, on the power of the, 172, 342 ; lo-
comotives, 12, 59.

Mechanical Engineers, Benevolent Institution for,
185, 245.

Melloni on the consistency of calorific absorption,
4 7.

Mersey and Irwell navigation debate, 98, 133.

iletals, cutting and shaping machine, 234.

Mill, vide Watermill.

cotton, American, 61 ; wheels, on setting out

teeth of, 167; W'hitelaw and Stirrat's water, 4,
48.

Mines, copper, Itahan, 37 ; Jamaica, 211 ; iron, Bil-
lingley, 48; temperature of the earth in, 24, 25.

Mining, vide also Collierj', Geology.

ancient, 107, 108', 181, 193 ; cast iron tub-
bing, with engravings, 292 ; Coniish, 324 ; Ethio-
pian, 215; modes of sinking through quicksands,
with engravings, 293; Spanish, 216, 299; stream-
work, 107 ; tribute work, 217.

Mole, ride Harbour.

Braantium, 146 ; Ephesus, 339 ; Eubca, 262 ;

3.'59 ; Samos, 107; St. Malo, with engraving, 1;
Tyre, 262, 344, 372.

Monument, Limerick, 123 ; Napoleon, 406; West-
plialian, 244.

Morris, E., on eartliwork, 416.

Mortar, ancient, 46, 340.

Mosaic work, Italy, 36.

pavement, Salzburg, 366.

Motive power. Beck's, 200.

carbonic acid gas, 31 7.

electro magnetic 208,287, 327, 367.

Pinkus's, 1 74.

Moulding machine, Hodgson's, 194.

Murray, J., on the removal of Sunderland Light-
house, with engravings, 379.

Mushet, D., papers on iron and steel, 150, 197, 262.

Nail Machine, Stocker's, 56.

Nailing deck plank, 103.

Nails, Italian, 37.

Napoleon monument, competition for, 407.

Nash's ancient halls, 311.

Navigation, vide also Canal, Hydraulic Engineer-
ing.

Calder, 283; Clyde, report on, 320; Forth,

229; Irwell, 98, 133; Lune, plan for improving,
187 ; Medway, 325 : Mersey, reports on, 98; 1 3,
Ribble, 235 ; Seine, 367 ; Severn, reports on, 102,
20 ,272,328; Shannon, 103,366; Thames, 132,
4 2; Wyre, 3, 211.

Niches, with engravings, 141.

Nimino, T. 11., on syphon gas valves, with engrav
ings, 379.

OnLiauE arch, vide Arch, Skew.
Observatory, moveable, 200.

Page's life preserver, 30.
Painting, .io, vide Fresco.

— ^— in imitation of the ancients, 430.
Palmer, H. S., C. E., on motion of shingle beaches,
151.

report on the Mersey and Irwell navigation,

133.
Palmer and Perkins' pistons and valves, 5.
Pambour, Count de, on Mr. Parker's theorv of steam,

304, 344, 382.
Panels, with engravings, 141.
P.;per, asparagus, 247.

beetroot, 247.

Papvrography, 55.

Park, Regent's, 175; Victoria, 212 ; Windsor, 368.

Parkes, Mr., C. E., theory of steam, 21, 253, 303,

304, 342, 382, 396.
Parliament. Houses of, 31, 351, 367, 370, 391.
Patents, list of, 32, 67, 104, 140, 176,212,248,
288, 328, 308, 404, 440.

subject matter of, 190.

Pavement, ancient. Chapter House, Westminster,
403 ; granite, wear of, 403 ; Lomax's. 357 : mo-
saic, Salzburg, 360 ; Polonceau's, 309 ; Roman,
3 72 ; wood, Rankin's 307.
Pearce, John Charles, on eccentric rods, 9, 65, 91,
I'ercier, M.. on the architecture of Italy, 41.
Perspective, Foggo on, 96.
Photometer, Schafhaeiitl's, 318.
Pier, vide Hydraulic Engineering.

Abervs'twith, 401 : Aglv, 2 -. ancient, 45, 21G

Cahercon,360 ; Chelsea, l'39, 287 ; Kilrusli,366
Kilteery, 366 ■. St. Malo, with engravings, 1.
Pimlico siateworks, 185.

carving and sculpture works, 227.

Pinkus, H., C. E., on a new motive power, 174.
Pinnacles, with engravings, 141.
Pistons, Palmer and Perkins's patent, 335.
Plaster casting, 56.
Plate glass flooring, 404.
Pneumatic marine preserver, 47.
Polvtechnic Institution, royal, 57, 287.
Porphyry, Cornish, 323.
Porticoes, table of, 19.
Power loom, 62.
Primrose Hill, 175.
Projectile, new, 98.

Propeller, Archimedean, 32 ; Carpenter's, with en-
gravings, 56, 158 : Daubeny's, 234 ; Ericcson's,
328; Rennie's, 32, 101, 210, 358: screw, 32;
Smith's, 32 ; trapezoidal, 32, 101, 210, 358.
Public safctv and convenience of the streets, 120.
Pyramids of Egypt, 89, 97, 182, ; Larissa, 146.
Quicksands, modes of sinking through, 2, 293.

Railway, vide Locomotive.

accidents, 120; prevention of, 381 ; as-
sistant engines on inclines, 8 ; axletrees, Coles's,
with engravings. 111; .\ylesbury, 02 : ballasting,
129 ; Ballochnev, 62 . Berlin and Hamburgh, 32 i
bill, 83, 100, 148 ; Birmingham and Gloster, 62,
123, 325, 394 ; Blackburn, 31 : Blackwall, 102,
287: Brandling junction, 62: Brazils, 306 ;
break, Spencer's, with engravings, 415 i bridges^
with engravings, 62, 336, 393: Brighton, 139,
287, 327 : Bristol and Exeter, 287 : ditto Gloster^
327 ; Cambridge, 102.— Carriage, Boydell's, 207 ;
detaching. Pope's plan, 234 : footboard, 62 ;
house, Versailles, 251 ; improvement of, 381 ;
resisting shocks, 29 ; wheel tire, with engraving,
99 : wheel tire, machine for setting, 318 . wheels;
Andrews's, 197,300; Smith's, 124 : chairs, 88 ■
Great North of England, with engravings, 184 ^
Harper's, with eng'ravings, 88 : Harris's, 236
improved, nith engravings, 379, 414 Smith's,
124. — Cheltenham and Great Western, 287;
chocks, self-acting, London and Birmingham,
with engravings, 405 ; coke, consumption of 123 ;
conference, 57 ; constants, report on, 323 : Crom-
ford and High Peak, 103 : Croydon, 327 ; curves,
20, 318; Dartmoor, 322; difTereiitial, 174;
drains, 130; Dundee and Newtylc, 130 ; Durham
and Sunderiand, 129 ; earth works, 130; Edin-
burgh and Dalkeith, 130 ,■ Edinburgh and Glas-
gow, 327 ; Eastern Counties, 30, 158 ; engine
drivers, 85 ; eneine house, Versailles, 251 ; filters,
327 ; fixed enghies, 129, 130, 396 ; Florence and
Leghorn, 211 ; Grand Junction, 102; Grayrig.

INDEX.

52 ; Great M'estein, 30, 212, 287 ; Great North
of England, 103, 160, I8i, 325 ; Greenwich 140,
184, 198, 287,327, 328: gauge, 112; guards's
whistle, 202; Hull and Selbv, 284; inclined
planes, 8, 15, 02, 129; Lickey, 62, 130, 290 ;
Kendal, 52 ; keys, wood, 236 ; Leeds and Selby,
130 ; length of, 112 ; Liverpool and Manchester,
396 ; London and Birmingham, 102, 129, 202,
395, 405 ; Lune, 52 ; JIanchester and Birming-
liam, 130, 139, 194 ; Leeds, 31, 139, 205 ; Mid-
land Counties, 130 ; Naples, 38 : Newcastle and
Carlisle, 130: North Shields, 284 : Oldham, 31 ;
Paris and Rouen, 157, 327 ; Saint Germain, 66 :
Versailles, 249 ; Pinkus's, 1 74 ; platelayer's gauge,
261; points, with engravings, 314; rails, 62;
improved, with engravings, 379, 434 ; screw, with
engravings, 160; shake of. 112; Smith's 124;
■weight of, 112: report of select committee on,
225 : remarks on, 313 ; on Scotch, 52 ; on con-
stants, 323 : rope traction, stopper, 130 ; Saint
Petershurgh and JMoscow, 307 : Scotch, 52 ; set-
ting out on sidelong ground, 196 ; Sheffield and
Manchester, 103, 440 ; Shuttleworth's system,
29 ; siding, Versailles, with engraving, 250 ;
signal light, Stevenson's, with engraving, 150;
signals, 30, 92, 403 ; ditto, Hood's, 429 ; slopes,
with engraving, 219: South Eastern, 130; sta-
tion, Ajlesbury, 62: Liverpool, 17, 40, 75;
Manchester and Birmingham, 139 : Versailles,
with engravings, 249 : stationary engines, 129, 130,
396; statistics of rails, &c., 112 ;"Stockton and
Darlington, 236; Hartlepool, 102; Taff Vale,
103; template, with engraving, 434: tickets,
205 ; train controller, Hancock and Pettit's, with
engravings, 159 ; turntable, with engravings, 219 ;
ditto, Oldham's, 429 ; Versailles, witli engra\ings,
249 ; viaducts, timber, 284 ; wagons, Brandling,
63 ; friction of, 14.

Bain gauge, Johnston's, 23.

' Thom's, 23.

Kefrigerator, Davison's, 167.

Beport on the Caledonian canal, 397 ; Mersey and
Irwell narigation, 133, 135 ; of the select com-
mittee on railways, 225 ; on railway communi-
cation to Scotland, 52; remarks on, 313 ; on
railway constants, 323 ; on steam engine fur-
naces, 233 ; on the smoke nuisance in large
towns, 380: on the Severn navigation, 102:
painting of the new Houses of Parliament, 437 ;
ventilation of the Houses of Parliament, 391 ; of
the Old Bailey, 270.

Eeviews : —

A New Treatise on Mechanics, 1 74 ; Aikin's
Illustrations of Arts and Manufactures, 362 ;
Austin on Competition, 173; Bartholomew on
Specifications for Practical Architecture, 1 6 ;
Brooks on Harbours, 1 74, 189, vide Harbours;
Britton's Toddington, 278 ; Buchanan, Millwork,
by Rennie, 130 ; Byrne on the Doctrine of Propor-
tions, 63 ; Clegg on Gas-lighting, 191 ; ClitFord's
Arithmetic Considerations, 212; Companion to
the Almanac, 10, 416 ; Conder on Railway Tran-
sit, 101 ; Davies's Map of London, 174 ; Deacon
on Perspective Drawing, 400 ; Denton on Model
Mapping, 400 ; Dollman's Vicars' Close, Wells,
212; Eller's Belvoir Castle, 276; Ellet on the
Laws of Trade, 131 ; Excursions Daguerrieunes,
63; Fairbairn on the strength of Iron, 131;
Francis's Designs for Churches and Chapels, 312 ;
Gandy and Baud's Windsor Castle, 63, 101 ;
Gauci's Jleuai Bridge, 101 : Goldicutt on the
Competition for the Nelson Monument, 173 ;
Gordon on Railway ilonopolies, 1 74 ; Gravatt,
Letter to the Bristol and Exeter Railway Share-
holders, 400 ; CJregoiT, C. H., on the manage-
ment of a Locomotive, 131 ; Jesse's Windsor,
228 ; Johbins, Brighton Railway Map, 174 ;
Lardner, Dr., on Electricity and Magnetism, 400;
Montgomery on the Cotton Manufacture of the
United States, 01 ; New Supplement to Euclid's
Geometry, 63 ; Ouse Valley Viaduct, 400 ; Page's
Decorator, 228 ; Pamhour on Locomotive Engines,
12, 59 ; Papers of the Corps of Royal Engineers,
99 ; Parker's New Quart Measure, 101 ; Parsey
on Perspective, 59 ; Peckston on Gas Lighting,

174, 191 ; Practical Enquiry into the Laws of
Excavation and Embankment, 2 ; Pugin on the
Principles of Architecture, 274 ; Quarterly Rail-
road Journal, 63 ; Riddle's Logarithms, 131 ; Ros-
coe's London and Birmingham Railway, 05, 99
Russell on Steam, 280 ; Schinkel, Werke der
Hohereii Baukunst, 11 ; Sopwith on Geological
Models, 312 ; Strickland on the Public Works of
America, 100; Tattersall on Sporting Architec-
ture, 416 ; Taylor on Harbours, 191 ; Trench, Sir
F., Letter to Lord Duncannon, 363 ; Trotter's
Logarithms, 101 ; Tvas's Map of England, 101 ;
Webster on Patents, 28, 63, 190 ; Whewell on the
Mechanics of Engineering, 190 ; Whishaw on
Railways, 28, 62, 129 : Wicksteed on the Relative
Power of the Cornish Engines, 391 ; Williams, C.
W., on the Combustion of Coal, 11, 63 ; Wilme's
Hand Book for Mapping, 416 ; Wyatville's Wind-
sor Castle, 278 ; Year Book of Facts, 101.

Rivet Machine, Stocker's, 56.

Roads, vkJe Pavement, Granite.

ancient, 40, 262, 300.

Indian, 437.

Italian, 38.

Rome at the Surrey Zoological Gardens, 206.

Roof, Polytechnic Institution, Vienna, with engrav-
ings, 414; sunken, raising and supporting, 285 i
Taafte's, 94 ; Versailles station, with engravings,
249.

Rooke, John, on the improvement of the Lune, 187.

on the standard of architectnral beauty and

symmetrical form, 42, 75.

Rope making, 248.

Royal Exchange, 119, 156, 365.

Scotch Academy, 98.

Rules for calculating the horse power of steam en-
gines, 389.

Saint Malo harbour, 1.

Scaling instrument, 27.

School of Design, Leicester-square, 90.

Screw, on the power of the, 172, 219, 342.

threads, on uniform system of, 431.

Sculpture, decorative historv of, in France, with en-
gravings, 258, 329 ; in Italy, 36.

Scutching machine, 62.

Sea lock, 136.

Sewer, Cowgate, 430.

Shaft, Agly, 2.

Shannon, improvements of, 103, 306.

Sheathing, copper, 360 ; lead, 357 ; wood, 318.

Shield, St. Malo, 1.

Ships, vide Steamboat, Sheathing.

Shipwreck apparatus, 125.

Skating on artificial ice, 335.

Skew arch, vide Arch.

Slate chimnies, 183 ; strength of, 185 ; works, Pim-
lico, 185.

Slating, Taaffe's, 9.

Smoke, vide Combustion.

consumption of, Williams, 11, 24, 211.

nuisance of, in large towns, report on, 386.

Societies, Meetings of, vide Architects, Institute.

Society of Arts for Scotland, 66.

Southampton Docks, 87.

Spencer, George, railway friction band break, 415.

Spencer, Herbert, tension viaducts, 213.

on transverse strength of beams, 294.

Spooling cotton, 62.

Stamping engines, Cornish, 22.

Stanley, E., on sinking through quicksands, with
engravings, 293.

Stathcr, W., on reversing engines, 435.

Statue of Rubens, 212.

Steam, electricity of, 54 ; percussive action of, with
diagrams, 21, 253, 303,304,342, 390; powers
of, 281 ; pressure of, with diagrams, 12, 281.

Steam-boat, vide Marine Engine, Propellers, Sheath-
ing, Steam Navigation, ■ Steam Power, Steam
Towing.

Acadia, 19; Admiral, 327; African,

32 ; Archimedes, 232 ; Atlantic, 255 ; Bohemia,
232 ; British Queen, 19, 139, 340 ; Canal, Tav-
lor's, 243 ; ChiU, 366 ; City of Dublin, 102 ;
Clyde, 172, 210 : collisions. Captain Tayler's plan
for preventing, 139 ; Cyclops, 59 ; Devastation

287, 401, 439 : feed apparatus, Penn's, 401 ; Fire
Fly, 328 ; Flambeau, .'jl2 ; forms and propor-
tions of, with engravings, 301, 346, 382 ; Forth,
211 ; fuel. Grant's, 207 ; General Steam Navi-
gation Company, 139; Germ, 388 ; Gorgon, 59 ;
Great Liverpool, 19; Great Western, 19 ; Ditto
Company, 385. Iron: — Albert, 175; Alburkah,
175; Blackwall, 210; Cairo, 366; Elberfeldt,
210; Liege, 218; Mammoth, 175; Phlegethon,
327 ; Princess Roval, 32, 247, 287 ; Quorra, 1 75
Satellite, 300 ; table of, Fairbairn's, 147 : twin.
32; Wilberforce, 175. — Kamtscbatka, 401 ; Lonl
donderry, 211 ; Maria Theresa, 328: Missouri,
139; Mongibello, 209 ; Nemesis, 67 ; New York,
102 ; Oriental 8, 19 ; paddle-wheels, disengaging,
Grantham's plan, 358 ; ditto, Truscott's plan for
reefing, 358 : power, proportion of to tonnage,
19, 203; President, 19, 139; Russian, 101;
safety bulkheads, 210: signals, Melvilles, 175 ;
St. Petershurgh, 337; Stvx, 210; Tav, 210;
Teviot, 210 ; Thames, 2I0'; Tweed, 210; twin.
32 ; velocity of, 203 ; war, 1 75.

Steam-engine, vide Locomotive, Marine-engine.

boilers, prevention of explosion in, 154,

319 ; powers of, 399 ; fuel for, 05 ; on increasing
the evaporating powers of, 438 ; Cornish, 21, 22,
31, 34, 324 : pumping, 31 ; explosions, account
of, 319; Fourdriaier's, 206 ; furnaces, Murray's
report on, 233, 312 ; Williams's, 234 ; piston.
Palmer and Perkins's, 335 : Pillbrow's condensing
cylinder, 316; power of, 415; reversing, 93;
ditto, Coe's plan, 336, 435; regulator. Hick's, 125;
rotary, Woolf 's, 50, 123 ; rules for calculating the
horse power of, 389 ; safety valve, new, 372,415 ;
valve, mercurial, M'Ewen's, 154 ; Palmer and
Perkins's, 335 ; slide, 93 ; throttle, 93 ; whistle,
Horner's, 184; Woolf's, 50, 123.

Steam Navigation, American, by Von Gerstner, 199.

Australian, 365 ; Chihan, report on,

290, 421 ; Elbe, 233 ; Euphrates, 363 ; Havannah,
305 ; JNIeuse, 248 ; random notes on, 1 70.

Steam organ, 247.

Steam power, auxiliarv on the use of, for sailing
vessels, 109, 175, 356.

Steam towing between Malaga and Gibraltar, 366.

Stephenson, Robert, C. E., 5.

Stephenson's theatre machinery, 430.

Stevenson, D., C. E„ on the building materials of
the United States, 265.

Stevenson, R., C. E., on the navigation of the Forth,
229.

Stevenson, T., on the improvement of levelling and
surveying instruments, 373, 423, 434.

Stone, vide Granite, Marble, Porphyry.

artificial, 141 ; cutting machine, 196; L'nited

States, 265.

Stop-cock, Orwell's, 235.

Storey, T., C. E., presentation of plate to, 325.

Streets, safetv and convenience of, 120.

Strength of beams, 79. 294, 346.

Sulphuretted hydrogen, in 271.

Surveying, double offset plotting scale, 146 ; earth-
quake, shocks of. 67 : Egyptian. 90; hypsometer,
10; level and stand, 354; levelhng staff, 357,
373, 423, 434 ; profile of roads, 22 ; scaling in-
strument, 27 ; telescope reflecting, 103 ; teles-
cope, measuring distances by, 424; theodolite,
double telescope, 317 : trigonometrical levelling,
66.

Survey of the Thames, 402.

Table of iron steamboats built by Messrs. Fairbairn,
147.

power required to punch plates, 168; speed

of steamers, 204 ; strength of beams, with dia-
grams. 79.

Telegraph, electric, with engravings. 66. 237.

Telescojie. on measuring distances by. 424.

Temple church. 26, 403.

Thames, high tides of. 404 ; survev of, 402 ; tunnel,
22,328,404.432.440.

Theatre machinery, 430.

Throstle, 62.

Tidewave, Glasgow, 25 ; Thames. 404.

Tile, arch, strength of, 393 : machine, Carville's, 55;
manufacture of, described, 341.

INDEX.

Timber, vide Wood.

chestnut, 40; sawing. 318; sheathing for

ships. 318 ; United States. 26T.

Tinning. Clarke's substitute for. 20.

Tivoli canal, with engraving, 38.

Tomb of the Great Captain, 165.

Tools, ride Machine.

auger. Ash's. 'J3 ; chuck, Stevens's, 234 ; mal-
let, improved, 404. |

Townsend, G., on levelling instruments, 423.

Tredgold on the steam engine, 99. I

Trees, chestnut, large. 40. [

Trinity church. Nottingham, 402.

Tubbing, cast iron, with engravings. 292.

Tunnel, ancient, 107, 216, 300 ; Beechvrood, 395 ;
Thames, 22. 328, 404, 43,2, 440.

Turning. Stevens's chuck, 234.

X'xivERsiTv College, 433. ]

Ventilation. 224. 297, 359, 363, 370 ; Houses of
Parliament. 351, 391 ; Old Bailey, 270.

Vienna, new city at, 372.

Viaduct, Spencer's, tension, 213 ; timber, Green's,

284 ; Venice. 307, 402.
Vignoles', Professor, inaugural lecture. 433.

Walker, J., on tlie improvement of the Severn. 164-

Warming buildings by hotwater, 37, 201, 268, 359.

Warping machine. 62.

Water companies, rating of. 367 ; filtering, 23 ;
supply of. to the metropolis, 5 ; wheels. Ameri-
can. 61 : Colebrook Dale, with engravings, 159 ;
Philadelphia. 100 ; Wliitelaw and Stirrat's. with
engravings. 4. 48 ; works, London and Westmin-
ster. 5; Philadelphia. 100; Southwark, 34;
Venice. 66.

Waves, height of. 103.

Weaving, cotton, 62 ; glass cloth. 251.

Wellington statue, I"5.

Wells, absorbing. 403 : Artesian, companv. 5 ; Paris
131. 241. 344 I Plymouth. 359; Roussillon. 2 |
Southampton. 176. 402 ; Surrey Lunatic Asvluni.
06; Thebes. 139; \ienna. 139.

Wesleyan Centenary Hall, 142.

' Wheels on setting out the teeth of, 107. vide Mill.
I WTiite. J., oil the architecture of Wisby, 144.
! Whitelaw and Stirrat's. water-wheel, with engrav-
ings. 4, 48.
Whitworth. J., apparatus for cutting metals, 234.
Wiers on rivers. 283.

^^'illiams, C. W.. C. E., steam engine boilers, 234.
Willow cotton, 61.

' Wilson, C. 11.. on the state of the arts in Italy, 35 ;
on moulding from monuments of art. 109.
Wilson. J. R., on Whitadder bridge, 331.
Windsor Castle, description of, 74, 276, 278, 326.
, Wire works, Italian, 37.
Wood, ride .\nti-dry-rot. Fire-proof, Timber.

! cutting machine, Bennett's, 93 ; hardening,

56 ; moulding machine, Hodgson's. 94 ; pave-
ment, Rankin's. 307 ; preservation of. Boucherie's
process, 50; sheathing for ships. 318; staining
of. Boucherie's process, 66.
Works, public, repair, of, 209.

ZiNKiNG process, report on, 353.

Arboretum, Derby, plan, 70.

Arches, skew, lO'cuts. 290, 365, 421.

Bank, North and South Wales, Liverpool, 2 cuts, 76.

Bath warmer, Italian. 39.

Beams, strength of. 8 diagrams. 70 ; ditto, trans-
verse strength of, 5 diagrams, 295 ; ditto, parallel
strain on, 346.

Boat, Italian, 39.

Bracket, 141, ditto. Chateau de (iaillon, 330.

Bridges, vide .\rch. Curvature of .\rcbes of, 122.

Dredge's, 3 diagrams, 2.'j 3. 294 ; tension,

Whitadder, 6 cuts, 331 ; timber, Calder, 2 cuts,
69.

Buttress, 2T5.

Canal, .\rdrossan, 105 ; Birmingham, 105 ; Forth
and Clyde, 105; L'Ourco, 105; Paisley, 105;
Tivoli, 38; Union. 105.

Capital, Gothic, 330 ; St. Denis, 2 cuts, 320 ; St.
Germain, 2 cuts, 329 ; SI. Remy, 258 ; Sainte
Chapelle, 2 cuts, 330 ; Vernegues," 258.

Central forces of bodies, 4 cuts, 113.

Chimneys. 29 cuts. 141.

Communion table, 141.

Corbel. 141 ; Hotel de Cluny, 330.

Crocket, 141 ; Clermont, 330 ; St. Gervais. 330.

Crosses, 4 cuts. 141.

Derby Arboretum, 5 cuts, 09.

Dock, St. Malo, plan I.

Dogs, 3 cuts, 141.

Eagle, 141.

Edward's evaporator, 411.

Elevation, Bank. North and South Wales, Liverpool,
2 cuts. 76; Kursaal Gebaude Bruckenau, 177;
lodge. Derby Arboretum. 2 cuts, 71. 72 ; main
entrance. Derby Arboretum, 69 ; Pavilion, Derby
Arboretum, 69 ; Sunderland lighthouse, 378 ;
town hall, Ashton-under-Lyne, 33.

INDEX TO PL.\TES .^ND ENGR.4.VINGS.

Electric telegraph. 16 cuts, 238.

Excavating scoop. 416.

Finials, 3 cuts. 141.

Fonts. 7 cuts. 141.

Fountains. 4 cuts. l4l.

Gas retorts, 2 cuts. 192.

Gas valves, Nimmo's, 379.

Gate, bronze, St. Mark, Venice, 5 cuts, 256.

Harbour, .St. Malo. plan, &c., I.

Kursaal Gebaude. Bruckenau, 3 cuts. 177.

Lighthouse, cast iron. Moiant Point. Jamaica. 2 en-
gra\ings, 383 ; Sunderland, removal of. 378.

Lion. 4 cuts, 141.

Locomotive, elevation of, 159 ; eccentric rods, 2
cuts. 9, 65 ; long and short connecting rods. 303 ;
slide valve. 251.

Lodge, Derby .\rl)0retum, 2 cuts, 71.

London basin, section of, G.

Marine engine, Maudslay's, 369 ; Seaward's, 2 cuts,
58.

Mill, water, Whitelaw and Stirrat's. 3 cuts, 4, 48.

Mining, boring through quicksand, 4 cuts. 293 ;
cast iron tubbing. 3 cuts. 292.

Niche, 141.

Ornaments, Notre Dame. Paris. 2 cuts, 330.

Owl, 141.

Panels, 9 cuts, 141.

Pavilion. Derbv .Arboretum, 09.

Pier, St. Malo,' plan, &c.. 1.

Pinnacle. 141.

Pistons. Palmer and Perkins. 5 cuts, 335.

Plan, dining room, 6 cuts. 143, 289, 345 ; Kursail
[ Gebaude. Bruckenau, 177 ; town hall, Ashton-
under-Lyne, 33 ; of a villa. 413.
i Propellers, Capt. Carpenter's, 2 cuts, 158.

Quicksand, boring through. 4 cuts, 293.
i Railway axletrees, Coles's, 111.; break, Spencer's.

415 ; chair. Harper's, 2 cuts. 88 ; Great North of
England. 4 cuts, 184; improved, 9 cuts, 379
434 ; London and Birmingham self-acting chock]
5 cuts, 405 •. plate layer's screw, 160; points
314 : siding, Versailles. 3 cuts. 250 ; signalhght
Stevenson's, 150; slopes, 219; station, Versailles
20 cuts. 249 ; templates, 434 ; train controller^
Hancock and Pettit's. 9 cuts, 159 ; turn-table,
Versailles, 250 ; wheel tire, 99.

Roof, Polytechnic Institution. Vienna, 3 cuts, 414 ;
I Versailles railway. 1 6 cuts, 249.
; St. Malo. port of, 3 cuts, 1.

.St. Paul's, buttresses, 275.

Seahorse. 141.

Section, Kursaal Gebaude. Bruckenau, 177 ; town
hall. .\shton-under-Lyne, .33.

Shingle beaches, motion of, 3 cuts, 152, 153.

Skew arch. 10 cuts, 290, 365, 421.

Sphinx. 3 cuts, 141.

Steam, percussive action of, 235 : pressure of, 13,
281.

.Steam boat, form and proportions of. 4 cuts, 331 ;
power of. 312.

Steam engine, boilers. MEwen's mercurial valve, 2
cuts, 155 ; long and short connecting rods, 2 cuts,
219 ; steam pipe. 411 ; whistle. Horner's, 184.

Sunderland lighthouse, removal of, 378.

Surveying, 2 cuts, 425.

Town-hall. Ashton-under-Lyne. elevation, section
and plan. 33.

Valves. Palmer and Perkins', 335.

Vases, 36 cuts. 141.

Verge board. 141.

Viaduct, new form of, 7 cuts, 213,

Water-wheel. Colebrook Dale. 6 cuts, 15.9.

Water-mill. M'hitelaw and Stirrut's. 2 cuts, 4, 48.

Wood pavement, Rankin's, G cuts. .308.

DIRECTIONS TO BINDER.

Plate 1.— Port of St. Malo

2. — Town Hall, .\shton-under-Lyne
3. — Wood Bridge over the Calder
4. — Twenty.one Sections of Towing-paths and Banks
of Canals

opposite page 1
33
69

105

Plate 5 & 6. — Kursaal Gebaude Briickenau
7. — New Form of Viaduct
8. — Maudslay's Marine Engine
9. — London and Birmingham Railway
Chocks

elf-acling

opposite page 177
213
369

405

i

I'

"

■t

1

93

1 1

it

'I

y

5 I

n

i\S

=^^}^

^-li.

Si

i:
^1

is

^'1

^

W

% 1

J

^

•^

fc^

^

03

z

ul

H
O

u

> «i

I- o

X OS
ul

a o

I •»

I-

t^^

>

s

(Sg

(Sg

■•^

[W]

o

[15.

M

^

153

z

i

H

(A

Ul

Z
<t
CO

_l

z
o

z
<

O

o

kl

(A

3

(A

<

-J
a.

O

<

ul

n

O

D

«r

1-

T

Q.

UJ

a

<

z
<
>
o

1-

>
ul

Z

&

I

T

ul

o

1^

'2 -°

a) ^

-a

g

O

C8

^ -73

-3 o
6 5^

^■-5 5
c o S

r'^ o

■MK ^ -*^

+;e fee

o

2 >

,o

5 O

i< t, o =

3

o

3

O
C

O
o

— . o >-

0) -=

a) •*-> -^ ^

o

O

o

-S

c/i
O

o

a
o

b

w
O

Z

1-4

o

H
Pi

»

Pi
O

Pi)
<! W

in

to

H

Z
H

H
>
O

in
K
H
<

o
o

Q

<

H

Q

..I

w a

^ K
O w
PJ ^

<^

in m

r-. W

W O

r S

NORTHEASTERN UNIVERSITY LIBRARIES

i

Hi

lil

nil!

il

nil!

Ill

III

il

111

3 9358 00828797 8

NORTHEASTERN UNIVERSITY LIBRARIES

3 9358 00828797 8