Tf

orb gies.

UREN RTOS y ie

)

SS
ee

i

COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

Y i ———
jee —in. Se

cin) ewe all its —_

~~

RTO FM
- EX LIBRIS 3%

ey A> GRIFFITH

.
Wess SS

E.P.from.a sketch by G.T. 1913.

Full particulars from Sole Agents for Australia:

DIERCKS & CO, PTY., LTD:

Melbourne: Sydney:
A.M.P. Buildings, 55 York Street.
465 Coilins Street.

AUSTRALIAN GENERAL ELECTRIC CO.

Electrical Engineers and Contractors.

Amongst the recent contracts awarded us is
that for the electrical equipment of the

*VICTORIAN STATE COAL MINES,
Wonthaggi, Vic.
and the electrical equipment of the

PORT KEMBLA COAL HANDLING
PLANT, N.S.W.

*See page 383.

Sole Representatives for

GENERAL ELECTRIC CO., U.S.A.

THE BRITISH THOMSON-HOUSTON CO. Ltd.
Rugby, England,
Manufacturers of every class of electrical
machinery, apparatus and supplies.
Large Stocks in Australia.

Address—

217 CLARENCE STREET, SYDNEY.
Telephone: Central 3495, 4397.
EQUITABLE BUILDING, MELBOURNE.
Telephone: Central 2647.

Quick Delivery.

sag ‘O'q petdnog ye11q ‘my OOL ‘ssIT[ag-UMO}JIAATIC

"2 bi ‘SNOLLV’TIVILSNI
‘SUOLVAANAD ONILHDIT
‘SHO.LOW pue
oe. aAMOd
pue IO}
Rctatshite) SHO LOVALNOO
WIND pue
jo SHHANIONGA
SYSYNLOVANNVA TVOIN LOY Ta
‘J99I3G ad100nN blz ; sis | | ; :a0yjQ AaupAg

NMOLIAZATS

‘ALIN ANVdWOD SYHOM HdVY99TIL pue ‘VHOWd VIN “dadand VION JHL

Sy tr Aa low

Coalfields & Collieries
of Australia

BY
F. DANVERS POWER

ILLUSTRATED

25/- NETT

CRITCHLEY PARKER

MELBOURNE SYDNEY LONDON NEW YORK

1912

Copyright, 1912,
by
Critchley Parker.

Se eae
JUL 1 1 1967

YG, 9
“ERsiTy oF a>

Printed in Australia.

PREFACE

Coal mining plays so large a part in the mining opera-
tions of the Commonwealth, and especially in those of the
leading State, that it is matter for surprise that no publication
has yet been devoted to its glorification. New South Wales
is distinguished among all the Australian States for the varied
character and extent of its mineral output; yet, great as is its
wealth in gold, silver, copper, lead, zinc, iron, tin, and
cement, the value (£3,010,000) of its coal output in 1910
was more than equal to that of its two chief metals, silver
(£1,405,000) and zine (£1,290,000), even though the latter
was largely the outcome of the treatment of ore mined years
ago. In the value of the State’s total mineral output to the
end of 1910, coal again takes first place, with a value of more
than £62,000,000; gold coming next, with nearly £58,000,000;
silver and silver-lead third, with over £52,000,000; and copper
fourth, with less than £11,000,000; tin, zinc, shale, iron, lead,
noble opal, and cement toiling far behind. The total New
South Wales production of coal has amounted to between 160
and 170 million tons, and there can be no doubt of the promi-
nence of this mineral among the factors of the mineral wealth
of the State.

Taking the whole of the Commonwealth, we find that coal
takes second place, being surpassed only by gold. The total
figures for 1910 are not available at time of writing, but those
for 1909 showed the value of the gold production to be
£12,605 ,000 to coal’s £3,084,000, copper’s £2,333,000, silver’s
£1,500,000 (approximately), and zine’s £1,042,000. In the

A

total figures also coal comes second, gold easily heading the
list with a value of £514,000,000, the value of coal won being
£67,000,000, that of copper £54,000,000, that of silver about
£45,000,000, that of tin £28,000,000, and that of lead about
£16,000,000. Although 89 per cent. of the entire Australian
coal output has come from New South Wales, and although in
1909 its percentage of the output was as much as 85, it is yet
evident from these figures that coal production plays a most
important part in the mining business of the whole of the con-
tinent. The subject is, therefore, a big one, and I know no
one better fitted to deal with it in the full equipment of a com-
plete knowledge of his subject than the author of this book.
Mr. Frederick Danvers Power, who is a Fellow of the
Geological Society, a member of the American Institute of
Mining Engineers, of the Institute of Mining and Metallurgy
(London), and of the Australasian Institute of Mining Engi-
neers (of which he was President in 1897 and 1904), received -
his scientific education in Swansea, London, and Clausthal,
and has supplemented all he learnt there by much travel in
various parts of the world. He came to Australia in 1884,
and has since had his residence in this country. For some
time he made Melbourne his headquarters, but later he
took up his residence in Sydney, where he became Lecturer
in Mining at the University—a position which he still holds.
He is widely known as the author of a very handy ‘‘Pocket-
book for Miners and Metallurgists,’’ and of many papers on
scientific subjects, a number of which have been printed in
the ‘‘Australian Mining Standard.’’ He acts as consulting
engineer for English mining and exploration companies, and
has a wide reputation for sane judgment and for the ‘‘con-
servative’’ character of the estimates he forms. This work
will hardly fail to add to his reputation as a keen judge of
mining methods, and a thorough master of his subject.

—Ep. Aus. Mining Standard.

VI.

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER I.

Introduction — Definitions—Classifications—Characteristic
Fossils—Decomposition of Organic Matter—Iron Tene
Marcasite—V arieties of Coal—Uses of Coal .

CHAPTER II.

Sampling—Ultimate Analysis—Proximate Analysis—Inter-
pretation of Analysis—Heating Power of Coals—Sizes of Coal

CHAPTER III.
Irregularities in Coal Seams... ... 20.0... 20. 6. eee

CHAPTER IV.

Ventilation—Gases met with in —_ Mines and their
Properties ... a iSO ZN rd Sea ee mie ee ae eo Se

CHAPTER V.
ereomeiand COAutGlda ic... .< Sug cos esac ases Sse oe

CHAPTER VI.
New South Wales Coalfields ...

CHAPTER VII.
Victorian Coalfields ... ...

CHAPTER VIII.
South Australian Coalfields ... ... ...

CHAPTER IX.
Western Australian Coalfields ... 2... 02. 20.0 ce. cee cee eee

. CHAPTER X.
Tasmanian Coalfields ... .. ... ... ... ..-

Vil.

1-18

19-38

39-42

43-47

48-59

60-64

65-67

68-70

71-72

73-75

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER XI.

New South Wales Mining Conditiann —Seuokun) “ee of
Pay — sees cine eee — OnE. ASR — Shipping
_o wears

a.
am

pies ga CHAPTER XII.

FLX PlOBLVOGS “Sec icc cw Soagh 325 eet ekrenp tees) Soy ee socene eae

CHAPTER XIII.

New South Wales Collieries—Western District, Lithgow
Valley, Hermitage, Great Cobar Ltd., W. and J. Hoskins,
Vale of Clwydd, Zig-Zag, Oakey Park, Irondale, Ivanhoe

CHAPTER XIV.

The Southern Coalfield—The Sydney Harbour Colliery, The
Metropolitan, Coal Cliff, South Clifton, North Bulli, Bulli,

76-91.

92-97

98-128.

South Bulli and Bellambi, Corrimal and Balgownie, Australian -

Coke Company, Mt. Pleasant, Osborne Wallsend, Federal Coke
Company, Mount Kembla, Mt. Lyell Coke Works, Wonga. Willi

CHAPTER XV.

The Newcastle Coalfield — Wallarah Colliery, Pacific,
Northern Extended, Rhondda, Northumberland, New Lambton,
Waratah, Purified Goal and Coke, Maryland, Co-operative,
Duckenfield, Seaham No. 1, Seaham No. 2, West ‘Wallsend, West
Wallsend-Killingworth, Newcastle A. and B. Pits, New Win-
ning or Sea Pit, Hetton Colliery, Stockton Borehole Colliery,
Dudley, Lambton B., Burwood Extended, The Maitland Field,
Greta Colliery East Greta, Heddon-Greta, Stanford-Merthyr,
ah a ge fe Neath, Abermain, Hebburn, » Aberdare, Aberdare

xtended ... . Sa? its

CHAPTER XVI.

General Remarks—<Analysis of N.S.W. Cole Bath
Apparatus—Labour Troubles—Coal Trade ... ... ... ... «..

CHAPTER XVII.

Victorian State Coal Mine Set ahem: tee Mr. ee H.
Broome, General Manager) ... ...

Vit.

129-240:

... 241-366

367

374.

LIST OF FIGURES.

1—Glossopteris browniana ... ... ... ...

2—Gangamopteris spathulata ... .

3—Phyllotheca australis ... ... ... ... 60. 0.
4—-Martiniopsia- suibradita--< + Bie oss. eke scan cen nado san iews
5—Spirifera vespertilio ... ... ... elie op ceie: Lagat ay yah ogee
6—Productus brachytherus ..

PAPE AGMINE NCOTORUR 0.02 sgnh oi fad cde ds bce eee Neew senses: lie
8—Cheenomya etheridgei ... ... ... recaps aparece Fae veces
SES IGEONORIGHI® OOUINOR oe cies ik 04 fesse asy cavites ent ese oes
. 10—Thinnfeldia odontopteroides kt gee cs s AP Peat aeine Pees

. 11—Podozamites lanceolatus ... ... ... ... ..- ;

; BR Sac bestia australis ... as een) eee maid
13—Teeniopteris GGAMITCOE Ss lass: Ss0. see Se Te 2 May

. 14—Thompson’s calorimeter ...

. 15—Normal Fault ... ... ...

16—Reversed Fault ... ..

. 17—Vertical Fault

ic. 18—Normal Fault, with sides dipping towards each other ...

. 19—Reversed Fault, with sides dipping from each other ..

ig. 20—Fold Fault, sides dip away from each other

. 21—Fold Fault, sides dip in same direction upwards . re.
. 22—Fold Fault, sides dip in same direction downwards... ...
. 23—Variations in Throw of a Fault in ane ncaa tu

ig. 24—Apparent Heave due to Throw oa ks

. 25—Throw does not show apparent outage

g. 26—Apparent Heave due to Throw ... ...

. 27—Section of Upper and Lower Bowen Series ...
28—Comparative Series of Vertical Sections in the Blue

Mountain and Saeney MOMSEN. Medel Retege tebe UE ORE ENT alt
. 29—Pyrmont Wharf . : ms

ig. 830—Belmore Basin ...

. 31—South Brisbane Loading “Appliance ent daelbaat
. 32—Galvanometer, with Testing Bee stie

. 33—Holes connected in Series ... ...

. 34—Electric Fuse ...

ig. 85—Magnetic Exploder Sgn tae

ig. 36—Western Coalfield of N.S.W. ... 00. cc. cee cee cee cee ane eee
e. 37—Entrance to Lithgow Valley Colliery Sp MR tas PPR Ge

ig. 38—Jockey ...

iz. 39—Method of ‘taking up ‘Slack Rope oe
fig. 40—Stables ... . ce

ig. 41—Tension Pulley eae f

42—Conveyor ... ...

2
Z
3
aa
4
5
6
5
6
7
7
8
9

Fig. 43—End Gate of Skip .. oes Ge ade

Fig. 44—Hillman’s Pat Safety Cage ... ... ...

Fig. 45—Diamond of L iron... . Ore tear

Fig. 46.—Ventilation Door, Elevation and Plan ...

Fig. 47—Shipper ... ... ... Sac tis

Fig. 48-—Signal Post .

Fig. 49—Geordie Turn-out . F

Fig. 50—Screens and Waggons . oxo’

Fig. 51—Steelyard 4x

Fig. 52—Steelyard .

Fig. 53—Steelyard .

Fig. 54—The Travelling Road .

Fig. 55—Diamond ... ... te

Fig. 56—Greaser ... Se ee eal wait Manish fei Sate"

Fig. 57—Travelling Tippler_ CS OPER er Pa ey tN AEE TAPS Se?

Fig. 58—Evan’s Hydraulic Pumping Engine .. Neer

Fig. 59—Arrangement of Rope at Top of Shaft . LRA ASE

Fig. 60.—Arrangement .of Pape at Bottom of Shaft. Plan and
Elevation ... Se oh Rigs Ee oe

Fig. 61—Automatic Signalling ..

Vig. 62—Tension, Pulley’ i.0 22 sso ages na hes) et oh ees

Fig. 638—Crossing ... i heen (oat cm aee hs Pen

Fig. 64—Under-carriage of. Skip Et a Sal fates sees

Fig. 65—End Tippler ... ... ity

Fig. 66—Automatic Discharging Skip iS

Fig. 67—Lowering Skip, ee 1 Tockey and. Tail Chain © bc

Fig. 68—Side Tippler ... :

Fig. 69—Southern Coalfield .

Fig. 70—Cornish Valve ..

Fig. 71—Headframes, Sydney Harbour Colliery .

Fig. 72—Bricking Cradle . save ae

Fig. 73—Cross-head . a

Fig. 74—Water Ring _ sone

Fig. 75—Iron Tubbing ... .

Fig. 76—Door over Shaft ..

Fig. 77—Signal Cord . ie tele

Fig. 783—Shoes of Headframe ... ...

rig. 79—Wooden Brattice ... ...

Fig. 80—Walker’s Fan ... fate

ig. 81—Meyer’s Variable ‘Expansion Géar i. Ss.

Fig. 82—Picking Belt, Bin, and Loading Tower .

Fig. ie beso of Guide Rope at Top ... ..

Fig. 84—Cheese Weights ... . ear A

Fig. 85—Guide Rope, Rubbing Bars, and Division n Rope seg te lag

Fig. 86—Becker’s Cap ... cer eae

Fig. 87—Opening Out of Bord .

Kig. 88—Welsh Bord Sram sig

Fig. 89—New Method . :

Fig. 90—Tippler ... Bh aoe ane cee ek

Fig. 91—Outcrop of Coal ‘at Coal Clift, “where Coal was First

LIST OF FIGURES.

Discovered in N.S.YV

g. 92—Switch ...

X.

; eee te at End of Jetty, ¢ Coal Cliff .
fi ai Clip’ . awe... ‘
95—Entrance Tunnel . ce ea bs he
; 96—Track Arrangement : at | Pit’s Bottom ... ... .
. vi-—Serew Clip 3.4.3 ‘

oo Oe We grhasrahe eeu

ss / elidel

4
sid

oa ue

Kagiso 25

LIST OF FIGURES.

Fig. 98—Screw Clip ... ey
Fig. 99—Creeper Chain ... ..
Fig. 100—Stop

Fig. 1388—Australian Coke Works . *

Fig. 189—The Quimby Screw Pump ... ...

Fig. 140—Branch Lines at Flat ... .. ary

Fig. 141—Fisher’s Friction Clutch . Swe

Fig. 142—Fisher’s Friction Clutch ... ...

Fig. 143—Fiat . :

Fig. 144—Bobbin ... ...

Fig. 145—Throw-off Switch .

Fig. 146—Throw-off Switch .

Fig. 147—Water Tub . Ween
Fig. 148—Wreck at Mt. Kembla, after the 1902 Explosion ewe,

Fig. 149—Goodman Low-vein Electric Chain Breast Machine ...
Fig. 150—The Pickquick Direct-current Cutter on Skids ... .

Vig. 151—Starting a Cut with the Seopa mes Pete
Fig. 152—Automatic Switch . Sete

Fig. 154—Sullivan Electric Chain Machine ... Sta, foes

Fig. 155—Jeffrey Shortwall Coal Cutter ... ...

: 101-—Block for Waggon . ENC EPS Mat ee ETS
. 102—Johnson, eS and Morris ‘Safety Lamp he eset
ic, 103—Coke Ovens ... ... Bee haz. auld tte ote
. 104—Weight of Roof . ona ess
. 105—Sullivan Long-w all Machine ... ...:

. 106—Welsh Bord System Meta eae as

. 107—Davis Water Gauge ... ... RE Te neg 6 ae gee
. 108—Hornsby Upright Water Tuke Boiler 3

. 109—Dragon Rope ... nb Re le ae
: 110—Hydraulic Ram for W orking Doors of Oven ... ... ..
. 111—Coke Ovens ... : : wieheve Vike
. 112—Coke Ram .... EL eee tiers tere deed
. 1183—Coke being Pushed out of Oven ... ... ... ss.

. 114.—-Foot Point ... ... ye reany lee

. 115—Sliding Weight . Bee aha 2 dita 3 Aaa bike Sea ee aes tea aece
g. 116—Fixed Weight Se he pe PRA Le TE SAE EE Spin ae PAW nd oe Bae Ete
r, 117—Foot of Incline ... ... . es ty
ig. 118—Hydraulic Rams... ... ... ... ...

. 119—Reavell Air Compressor bs tee BS

. 120—Little Hardy Coal Cutter .....:.

ig. 121—Little Hardy Fixed for Under r-outting .
. 122—Tippler ... ...

123—Black Truck .

id= Wetice tor ADOUNG oh illle oo. wk he rk pc ere eer eas
. 125—Hydraulic Ram .. ons ewes Sat

. 126—Hydraulic Ram for Lifting Oven Doors at ok
. 127—Corrimal and clued nie Air Shaft Head Frame ... .

g. 128—Fisher’s Clip .. : eee
. 129—Runaway eth tee ie SA NL. Caer
. 1830—Greaser for Skip Axles ... .

g@. 131—Self-acting incline ... sis hows

. 182—Roller and Bearings ... .

«, 133—Beranger’s Principle ... Sed Sea
ig. 134—Platform Weighing Machine, Digi hs) Ci aeoe ey,
. 185—Platform Weighing Machine, Section .. .

. 186—Pillar of Weighing Machine ...
«, 1387—Patent Self-indicating Pit Bank W eighing Machine..

XI.

LIST OF FIGURES..

. 156—The Petter Petroleum Engine and spc 2 a
. 157—The Aldrich Electric Pump - ee Bee ty
: 168—The McEwen Engine. ..°3.. Shs am ets
. 159—Wallarah Switchboard . nee Ptr oe, ta
. 160—The Geipel Rapidity Steam Trap .
gz, 161—Babcock and Wilcox Boiler ... ... ee
| 162—Babcock and Wilcox Feed-water Heater ...
g. 163—The *‘‘Sentinel’’ Feed-water Be scr oon and oil ‘Separator
. 164—Portable Electric Drill .
ig. 165—Dragbar ... .
- 166—Goodman Coal Cutter on “‘Trolly, ready for ‘Piitting «.
. 167—Boring a Shot Hole ... . i :
. 168—Section of Upper Seam, Rhondda ‘Colliery Rr ee ee
. 169—Mouth of Intake Heading, Rhondda ... ... GB PLS

70—Skips proceeding to Screens, Rhondda ...

\ ivi Sectional Arrangements of Stirling Boiler ... ..

72-—Jeffrey Electric Chain Breast Machine-ji22:: arakaee

: 173 teadunai Electric Chain Breast Machine ... ..
. 174—Irregularity of Surface due to Caving-in of Ground

between Pillars .

ig. 175—Goose Neck Hook .

. 176—Clip ... PRG, er salt Seale eo ons eae ae E
; 177—Pillar Extraction, “with fairly good Roof ... is
. 178.— Pillar Extraction, witha Bad. Root: os. wa ean we
. 179—Water Barrel and Pump .. . 2 eke RRO EEN tes tees
. 180—Coal Boxes ...
. 181—Norwalk Compound Straight | Line Compressor
. 182—Travelling Crane ... .. ts
. 1883—Headframe and Heapstead ..
. 184—Long Wall System ... ...
xy. 185—Stayner’s Nut... ... ....
. 186—Skip Detacher ... ...
. 187—Hopper Skip . i Sele 5 pce Sar duane
. 188-—-Pillar Drawing Mit ce ae.
ig. 189-—Walker’s Safety Hook . bse ur Peete
. 190—Frame used when Sinking Shaft Lining Si eae. aoe
. 191—Method of Forcing-down Cylinders otro cote
. 192—Trepan, Side Elevation ... ... ;
sy L93—Trepan,. Plann: 3a) culas, 2
. 194—Rock Drill . 4:
. 195—Avery Turntable W ‘eighing Machine .
. 196—Connection for Bridle Chain ... ... ... ...%...
. 197—Tate’s Water Balance Tippler ... . re
ig. 198—Headgear of Downcast Shaft, Lambton B. Colliery ae
. 199—Ormerod’s Safety Hook ... ... ... ... =
. 200—Upcast Shaft and Waddle Fan ... ...
. 201—Lamp Cabin... ... .. Sees
. 202—Jeffrey Conveyor ... ... ..... fern terd
ig. 203—Trough and Scraper . bi MERGE Brean ata
@. 204—‘‘ Alabama” Type Steel Roller Chain ease hase eae Ce ER
@. 205—Pithead Frame and Fan ... ... . STR Ae ag
. 206—Pillar Work ... 2.2... s.c002
. 207—Jig Cage ...
. 208. Tonle: noe “Tunnel, Cage ee 3;
g. 209—Unloading Top Deck of Cage aon
. 210—Pithead Frame, Heddon: titeba ince. cre
. 211—Furnace and Stack at Air Tunnel .

XII.

na
{

ey Sia, he a

LIST OF FIGURES.

. 212—Avery Self- poe Bt oes Machine ..
. 218—Check Brake ... ... Pas
. 214-—Coal Boxes . &

ig. 215—Tension Pulley .. P

. 216—Little Giant Piston "Air ov ee Ee o =e
. 217—Norwalk Compound Air Compressor i

. 218—Ingersoll-Serjeant Ses sae TVS tae

ig. 219—Sirocco Fan

. 220—Locomotive Built in "1858 . : SSS ie St
. 221—No. 9 Locomotive, Pelaw Main Ga Ch aetg wan Fees
. 222—Automatic Stoker ... ... Sth! pce on

_ 223—Entrance to Main Tunnel ... ... ... ...

ig. 224—-Slack Box ... ... ... 3

. 225—Bull or Dragbar ..

. 226—A.B.C. Fan for Induced Draught ..

ig. 227—Air Shaft .

. 298-—-Ambulance Waggon oe
ig. 229—Flexible Coupling ..

XIII.

Pace.
340

COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRAL IA

CHAPTER f,
INTRODUCTION.

Coal mining is generally looked upon as distinct to metal
mining, for although there may be many features in common,
yet they vary greatly in degree, and there are certain points
that require special knowledge, which favours treating coal
and metal mining as two different classes. Metals mostly
occur in deposits that incline to be vertical, while coal has
a tendency to be horizontal. Coal is comparatively low in
value, while metals are comparatively high, consequently the
former must be worked on a large scale, and cheaply. This
may cause one to pass by certain narrow seams as unprofitable,
and .to waste large quantities of coal in thicker seams rather
than go to the expense of outside supports. To get away large
quantities of material, sufficient transport appliances, both
underground and on the surface; must be supplied. Large
areas of eround must be secured to make it worth while to 20
to the expense of an adequate outlay on development and plant.
Ventilation demands special consideration, especially in
@aseous mines. The coal trade is influenced by a different set
of conditions to the metal market, and this has had its effect
on customs of coal mining. The coal miner objects to the
“dog watch,’’ as he terms the night shift, but the metal miner,
though he likes it no better, takes his turn at the night shift
as a matter of course. The collier wins his coal at a “tonnage

rate, while the metal miner, as a rule, works his ore on wages.

In many cases, the metal miner has more regular employment

than the coal miner, who is often dependent on shipping
orders.

Coal is a most important substance in the welfare of a
country, as on it depends so many industries; consequently,
other things being equal, that country which has the best coal
supply has an immense advantage over her neighbours. Even
a Boor coal is better than none at all, so those countries that

COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

have an inferior’ supply find it advisable to develop their re
sources in case they should be threatened by a coal famine,
owing to a shortage or stoppage of supply from elsewhere, due
to war, strikes, or other causes, for such an event would para-
lyse trade, by affecting freights by rail and steamships, besides
causing various factories and other industries to close down.
An inferior coal may be able to hold its own for certain purposes
on the home market, though unsuitable for export, for outside
coal is handicapped by freight; the inferior material may also
be used for making producer gas, which gives greater efficiency
than when employed for steam raising. Without a home
supply a country may be affected by events in another place,
where it otherwise has neither interest nor influence.

Fig. 1.—Glossopteris Fig. 2.—Gangamopteris
browniana. spathulata.

The coal of New South Wales is a long way ahead of that
produced in the other Australian States, both in quantity
and quality; in fact, itis the quality that enables it to compete
with coal from other States for their home consumption. New
South Wales has a further advantage over other parts of Aus-
tralia, inasmuch as coal is found for a distance of about 200
miles along her seaboard.

An idea of the relative quantities produced in the different
ee States will be obtained by comparing their outputs
ror 1909 :—

Tons.
New South Wales .. .. .. 7,019 879
Queesfsland *.\.” cae eee 696,332
Western Australia .. .... .. 214,302
Victoria -4° "SS ee 128,173

Taathania.* «3.34008 ee ee 66,162

CLASSIFICATION. ; 3

For convenience of classifying sedimentary rocks, the
deposits are arranged in groups or eras; systems or periods;
series or epochs; stages or ages, and beds. The second term in
each case relates to time. Thus we speak of the Mesozoic
group, Triassic system, Hawkesbury series, Narrabeen stage,
and Kstheria bed. |

When one speaks of coal measures it is intended to in-
clude not only the coal seams of that series, but also those
beds closely related to the seams, which consist chiefly of
shales and sandstones of fresh water origin.

The word seam is applied to a bed of coal. It need not
necessarily be confined to clean coal, but also includes any

Fig. 3.—Phyllotheca australis.

small bands of stone deposited about the same time, and inter-
bedded in the coal. When two seams occur so close together
that they may both be extracted from the same workings, they
are known as ‘“‘twin seams.’’ Coals occur from Palaeozoic to
Tertiary times, but certain periods appear to have been more
favourable to the formation of coal than others. For instance,
in Australia,the Permo-Carboniferous period is that in which
our most productive fields of bituminous coal occur, while the
brown coal is found in Tertiary strata.

4 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

The special conditions that went to form one seam may
be expected to recur, though possibly not in the same degree.
We rarely find a solitary seam of coal in a series of rocks
forming the coal measures, but we often find several seams of
various thicknesses and various distances apart.

The following are the commonest typical fossils of Aus-
tralian coal measures :—Permo-carboniferous.—Plants. G/los-

+. 4.—Martiniopsis subradiata.

sopteris browniana (Fig. 1). Vertebraria. Gangamopteris,
spathulata (Fig. 2), Noeggerathiopsis hislopi, Sphenopteris
lobifolia, Phyllotheca australis (Fig. 3), Inverterbrates. Mar-
tiniopsis subradiata (Fig. 4), Spirifera tasmaniensis, Spirifera
vespertilio’ (Fig. 5) Productus brachythaerus (Fig. 6), Dte-
lasma hastata, Eurydesma cordata (Fig. 7), Chaenomva ethe-

Fig. 5.—Spirifera vespertilio.

ridget (Fig. 8), Peltopecten illawarrensis, Pleurophorus
gregarius, Platyschisma oculum (Fig. 9), Conularia inornata,
Goniatites micromphalus, Stenopora crinita, Zaphrentis caino-
don, Triprachiocrinus.
Lower. Mesozoic.—Plants.—Taeniopteris daintreei ‘ (Fig.
Thinnfeldia odontopteroides (Fig. 10), Sphenopteris
australis (Fig. 12), Podozamites lanceolatus (Fig. 11).

THEORY OF COAL FORMATION, 5

(Figure 11 is after the classification of Seward, Figs. 7
and 9 after Mitchell, the plants after Feistmantel, and the rest
-after De Koninck).

The two chief theories as to the formation of coal are:—

(1) That the vegetable matter which went to form the coal
grew where it is now found. (2) That the vegetable matter
drifted to its present position. We must remember two im-
portant points when considering the formation of earlier coal
seams :—(1) That the climatic conditions and configuration of
the earth’s surface were different then to what they are Now;
and (2) that vegetation had not reached the same high state of
organism that we have now-a-days. It is admitted that in some
cases coal has been formed by drift material, such as might be
floated down some gigantic river, but drift packs are of com-
paratively rare occurrence, and coal formed by them would
break up more readily than when compacted in situ.

Fig. 6.—Productus Fig, 8.—Chenomya etheridgei.
brachytherus.

Observed facts fit in better with the idea that coal was
formed where the vegetation grew. We find roots of trees
firmly embedded in the under- clays of coal seams, and it is
easier to understand how thick seams were added to by growth,
rather than by accumulations of shifting rivers. Near Cathe-
rine Hill Bay jetty, the forms of stumps of large trees are to
be seen in situ ont the top of the 14ft. seam, the stems of which
pass a few inches into the conglomerate roof. Similar growths
are to be seen in cther places where that portion found in the
seam has been absorbed into the coal, while that in the roof
has been partly converted into chalcodony. The various
layers of coal and rock show that the coal basins became sub-
merged at intervals. We would expect to find coal due to drift-
wood more impure with sand and mud, than if it were formed in
situ, and the dimensions of the seams to be more irregular.
The margins of forest-covered swamps in the valley and

6 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

delta of the Mississippi are surrounded by dense growths of
reeds, which filter the water from all sand and mud. The strata
associated with coal consist chiefly of sandstones and shales.
The sandstones frequently show ripple marks, and current bed-
ding; the shales are generally laminated, indicating a slow and
tranquil deposition. Investigation strengthens the probability
that coal was generally deposited in fresh, and sometimes
estuarine waters. There are three successive phases that may
be distinguished in the formation of coal—first, the accumula-
tion of vegetable matter; second, the work done by chemical
action under water, including dehydration and deoxidation of
the cellulose, during which the mass shrinks from 10 to 30 per
cent. of the original volume of accumulated matter; and, third,
subsequent reactions underground. The following table gives

Fig. 7.—Kurydesma cordata. Vie. 9.—Platyschisma
oculum.
a fair idea of the relative proportions of carbon, hydrogen, and
oxygen in certain fuels :—

Fuel. Carbon. Hydrogen. Oxygen.
Wood fibre (cellulose) .. 52.65 5.25 42.10
Péat ie lek Ae. eee 5.96 33.60
LAGU hoe Sete as eee Het Diath
Brown eoal.9s 24 ae Vet 8 5.89 19.91
Bituminouscoal...... 76.18 5.64 18.08
Semi-anthracite .. .. .. 90.50 5.05 4.40
Anthracite.. ...... 92.85 3.96 3.19

The steady increase in the amount of residual carbon, and
the decrease in the amount of oxygen is plainly seen. Neither
vegetable matter at the one end nor anthracite at the other end
of the changes cake; while of bituminous coals, having a sim1-
lar ultimate composition, one may cake and the other not.

Vegetable matter is capable of decomposing in five differ-
ent ways, depending chiefly on the absence or presence of air
and water:—(1) Destructive distillation. Heat in the presence

DECOMPOSITION OF ORGANIC MATTER, 7

of air converts organic matter into gaseous products. Heat, in
the absence of air, will drive off volatile hydrocarbons, and
leave fixed carbon behind; but this is not coal.. (2) Mouldering.
When decomposition takes place with an insufficient supply of
oxygen to completely oxidize the organic matter, a residue,
rich in carbon, is left, suchas vegetable mould. (3) Peatifi-
cation. This is carried on under water. At first, the process

Fig. 10.—Thinnfeldia Fig. 11.—Podozamites
odontopteroides. lanceolatus.

is similar to mouldering, only with less air available. In the
second stage the oxygen is completely cut off. (4). Putrefac-
tion. This is decomposition under conditions of material tem-
perature when air is absent. (5). Dry rot.

Coal is undoubtedly due to a series of transformations of
vegetable matter. In some cases, its structure can be seen under
the microscope, or even with the naked eye, and the transfor-
mation, commencing with peat, can be followed in its various

—

2,

8 COALFIBLDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA. q

stages, though we may not be able to see the change actually
taking place. To borrow an illustration from the late Charles
Kingsley—bread does not look like wheat, yet it is chiefly
formed from it.

There are three ways by which we may ascertain how cer-
tain changes came about—by observation, by experiment, by

Fig. 12.—Sphenopteris australis.

deduction. "When possible, all three methods are employed in
the search after truth, so that one can check the other. It is,
of course, impossible for us to see coal made from vegetation

FORMATION OF COAL. 9

that grew millions of years ago, but we can observe certain
changes taking place in our peat swamps. Wemay learn much
from “experiment, although we cannot follow nature closely, so
far as the time element is concerned, and we have to assume,
to a certain extent, the conditions that then prevailed. Deduc-
tive reasoning, after all, throws most light on the subject, but
we must be careful not to confound facts with fancies.

So far as can be ascertained, the plants that went to form
our coal seams required damp places, such as reeds, mosses, and
ferns. Swampy plants spread out laterally in search of water
rather than vertically, for even a small thickness of peat ren-
ders respiration for plant life impossible.

With compression, and the elimination of
some of the oxygen and hydrogen, as carbon
dioxide and carburetted hydrogen, peat may
completely change its nature. In peat bogs,
we may see the moss growing at the surface,
while at the bottom it is so altered that it is
dificult to distinguish the vegetable matter.
Under a pressure of 6000 atmospheres, peat is
converted into a hard, black, brilliant sub-
stance, having the physical aspect of coal, and
showing no trace of organic structure. <Ap-
parently pressure and increased terrestrial
movements cause carbon dioxide and car-
buretted hydrogen to be given off, and as
these gases escape, the percentage of carbon
increases. In Pennsylvania, U.S.A., the
coal becomes more anthracitic as it passes
into regions that have undergone great plica-
tions. At Mons, France, the same seam that
yielded bituminous coal at the surface gradu-
ally passed downwards into anthracite. The
deepest collieries in New South Wales are
known to be the most fiery. A seam may be
of one kind of coal on one side of a parting,
and another kind on the other side.

Ordinary bituminous coal is generally made
up of layers of bright and dull coal. The Fig. 13.—
bright coal is supposed to be made up of peaty Tzeniopteris
material, while the dull is composed of qdaintreei.
sapropels, which is a mud formed by the
decay of vegetable matter, and its presence indicates
submergences due to floods. Bands of slate of vary-
ing thicknesses may also occur in coal seams, but a seam must
not be condemned on account of it partings, provided they can
he easily separated from the productive part of the seam. Some-
times when the coal is green, i.e., freshly mined, these bands

10 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

are not readily separated, but, say, an inch of coal clings to
each side of them. After exposure to the weather, however,
the parting may come clean away. Thin bands are not easily
separated, so go to increase the ash of coal. The fireclays
frequently found below coal seams are believed to be the old
soils on which the vegetation grew that is now preserved as
coal. The original soil has been deprived of its soda, potash,
lime, magnesia, and iron, by leaching, and as these constitute
the fluxes, the residue forms a fireclay.

Coal may vary considerably in its nature and value, accord-
ing to its position, as pressure has a great influence upon it.
With regard to outcrops, if the surface is badly cut up into
deep gullies, the more dirty coal is likely to be found under the
long and narrow points, since it withstands disintegration
better than good coal, which is more likely to be found in the
compact ground. The pressure of superincumbent strata is
likely to thicken a plastic bed at its outcrop, as there is little
resistance to balance it. This increase of thickness along a
line of outcrop in a gully tends to give the strata a local up-

ward tendency. Should the roof of the coal be sandstone, while

underfoot there is a considerable thickness of slate and clay,
then, as the latter are more plastic, and are swelled by the
action of the atmosphere, causing great pressure from below,
the coal is likely to be thinner at the outcrop than further in.
Tf slate forms both the roof and floor, the coal is not likely to
be thus affected. A soft, sooty material at the surface may
pass into a coherent, friable and pure material. Hard streaks in
coal are more pronounced at the surface, and may give it a dry,
dead appearance. Further under cover, such a coal may be-
come of fair quality, owing to the increase of volatile and
oily substances, and a proportional decrease in ash. A
black, friable, slaty material usually passes into an inferior
coal. As a general rule, individual coal seams become more
tender as depth is attained, and deep lying seams of bituminous
coal are more likely to be gassy than near the surface.

A peculiar spheroidal form of coal known as ‘‘coal apple’’
is of frequent occurrence in the Borehole seam, especially in
the Bullock Island, Stockton, and Australian Agricultural
Company’s collieries, at Newcastle, New South Wales. Such
forms have been noted in other parts of the world, and de-
scribed*, but so far their origin appears to be a mystery.
These coal apples occur both in anthracite and bituminous coal
seams. The size and shape of the apples vary; the former de-
pending, to a great extent, on how the specimen has been
trimmed down, the stucture becoming more perfect towards

*W.S. Gresley, ‘““Note on Anthracite ‘Coal Apples’ from
Pennsylvania’’ Trans. Am. Inst. Min. Eng., XXI., 824.

~=

oe

COAL APPLES. 11

the centre of a block of coal. These spheroidal bodies are not
nodules in the strict sense of the word, but are forms caused
by a system of jointing, producing overlapped joints after the
coal has acquired its ordinary jointing, for some apples show
a concentric structure through which the ordinary cleavage of
the coal passes. The more brittle the specimen, the more in-
distinct the grain. Sometimes composite apples occur in
which a smaller apple becomes enveloped by a larger one.
Professor Liversidge, of the University of Sydney, gives the
following analyses of a nodule, and a sample of the seam en-
closing it:

Coal apple. Seam.

arate sh bok 38® ys 2BabeO 81.06
Hydrogen... .. 2s. AST 5.81
Geyren’ eas, 8.236 6.52
SNL SS eae e) 190 1.14
MILEOMEN i eS 530 1.23
Rte (a acted ED 4.24
100.000 100.00

RpnePyS hor keg hud<cit es bee 1.24

The proximate analysis gave :—

Coal apple. Seam.

MEISUUIR . ecc ok Oko TSS 2.21
Volatile Hydrocarbon 32.41 36.70
Fixed Carbon .. .. 62.35 55.82
PT ee Res teas a ime SA he 4.15
BMRMEUG ns us ceases. OAD £2

The sample of the seam was that of the whole seam, and
as the composition of the several beds comprising it varied,
this may, to some extent, account for the difference in the
analysis. Anyhow, one cannot expect to draw fair conclusions
from one set of results. In other countries, the analysis of a
coal apple and the seam in which it was found appear to be
much the same; sometimes one being a little higher in carbon,
and sometimes the other. This looks as if the change was
purely physical, not chemical.

Most coals contain gases occluded in them, which are
given off on exposure to the atmosphere, sometimes with con-
siderable force, when they are known as “‘blowers.’’ In some
mines, one can hear the gases continuously fizzing out of the
face. The gases held by coal are methane, carbonic
dioxide, nitrogen, and oxygen. They are present in various
quantities and proportions. The quantity of occluded gases
in coal does not appear to influence its liability to explosions.
A dense coal may occlude more gas than a softer coal, but the
latter, on account_of its more porous nature, may readily yield
up the gases contained in it. Sometimes the gases are

12 COALFIELDS AND oe ig id es OF AUSTRALIA.

tapped from the seam beforehand, by means of bore-holes, and
may be conducted along pipes to the surface.

Pyrites, known as “‘brasses,’’ is of common occurrence in
coal seams. There are two forms of pyrites, having the same
formula, viz., iron pyrites, and marcasite, composed of two
parts of sulphur to one of iron; yet these two minerals vary in
other respects, both physically and chemically. Marcasite is
more readily decomposed, and in doing so generates consider-
able heat within a shorter period than iron pyrites. Ag the
‘‘brasses’’ of coal miners is often mareasite, it is highly prob-
able that the oxidation of this mineral may be an important
factor in some cases of spontaneous combustion.

A. P Brownt makes some interesting suggestions to ac-
count for the difference between pyrite and marcasite. He
writes :—‘‘In nature, it would seem that in most cases the sul-
phide of iron first formed is fe 8 (ferrous), but probably by
action of a ferric salt or carbonic acid (FICO) causing a loss
in iron, eS», results, and this is almost always pyrite. On
the other hand, where ferrous sulphate has been reduced by
the slow action of decomposing organic matter, the resulting

sulphide seems to be generally marcasite, which, if not in crys--

tals, may be recognised by its ready weathering to ferrous sul-
phate (FeSO;). This compound may, however, in many cases,
be a mixture of pyrite and marcasite, as much pyrite seems to
be.”’

Pyrites contains a large amount of ferric iron, while in
marcasite the iron apparently exists in the ferrous condition.
Mr. Brown then goes on to explain that if we look upon the
iron in mareasite as a dyad (FeliSs), the bonds of the sulphur
atoms are not all saturated with iron, so that a bond of each
has to combine with sulphur. Such combinations are weak,
and liable to oxidation more readily than when sulphur and
iron bonds are connected. He expresses the probable struc-
tural form of marcasite by the following graphic formula :—

Tron pyrites (Fe Ss), he looks upon as having a constitu-
noe formula (4 FeivS;, FeiiSs).

A

A) NGO ee

\
= Ss
ee eee

tA. P. Brown, ‘‘A Comparative Study of the Chemical Be-
havior of Pyrite and Mareasite.’? Proc. Am. Phil. Soe.
XXXII. 226.

wi Pees.

aol hen:

a
s
|
. <
=.
=

b=
i
.

"
ee
e

Pee ae

baie

2

Pe

a.

“a me

~ 4
pee
ie

fons ee,
t

Sur es ahd di oR Ree

SPONTANEOUS COMBUSTION, 13

He proposes the above structural formula, not as ex-
pressing the exact constitution of the compound, but as an
expression of the iron in the molecule, and as embodying in a
quantitative way the results of his investigation into its con-
stitution. It will be noticed that the sulphur of the Fe" Sy is
made to link entirely with iron. He considers the ferric iron
is most likely Feti; anyhow, he thinks that the simplest way
to regard it.

Vires may occur in coal seams from natural causes, even
in cases where the seam has never been worked. In 1838, Sur-
veyor-General Mitchell, referring to the so-called burning
mountain, Mount Wingen}, stated that there was evidence of
the fire having existed for a.considerable time previous to his
visit. This fire is still burning, its progress being indicated
by cracks taking place in the overburden on ahead, and a
subsidence of the ground behind the fire. This coal seam be-
longs to the Greta series of the Lower Coal Measures, and from
the fused condition of the rocks about it at Cessnock, it has
evidently been alight there also. This seam appears to be
very liable to spontaneous ba abi an for the Homeville Col-

liery, in the Maitland District, was sealed down for fourteen

years on account of a fire, and wher re-opened, it fired again.
The Greta and East Greta Collieries have also had cases of
fire. J. E. Carne|| writes:—‘‘On the edge of the Coal
Measures. south-east of portion thirty-eight, Parish Coco,
County Roxburgh, the second lowest coal-seam—about one
hundred and ten feet above the base of the Marangaroo Con-
elomerate—is on fire over a small area, probably having been
ignited by a burning root during a bush fire, or, possibly, by
decomposition of secondary pyrites by infiltration of water.”’

Coal, strictly speaking, is not a mineral, for the definition
of a mineral is a ‘‘natural homogeneous, inorganic substance,’
and coal is of organic origin. Nevertheless, as it occurs in
nature like a mineral, it is convenient to look upon it as
such. A satisfactory definition of coal has not yet been
made, for coal is not uniform in composition, or physical fea-

‘tures, and there is no sharp line between the different types

of coals, which run one into the other. For the sake of con-
venience, we may look upon coal as being a solid fuel, which
occurs in seams, formed by the fossilised remains of organic
matter. This would exclude oil and natural gas, since these

+*“‘Three Expeditions into the Interior of Australia.
I.p. 33 (London, 1838).
The Kerosene Shale Deposits of New South Wales,’’
136 Sydney (1903).

14 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

are not solid. It would not include kerosene shale, as this is
not employed as a fuel per se, but as a producer of oil or gas,
neither would it include asphalt, ozocerite, and such like sub-
stances,. which cannot be looked upon as fuels. Coal, in a
mineralogical sense, must not be ‘confused with coal
in a commercial sense, any more than “‘ore’’ in a
mineralogical sense, which means any metallic mineral, should
be confused with ‘‘ore’’ used in the technological sense, which
means any mineral or mineral compound from which metals or
metallic combinations can be obtained in an economic manner}
thus including the gauge, or matrix, as well as the ore proper.
A coal seam may be so impure that certain portions of it may
not be worth working, in which case only the commercial coal
is extracted; unless it is necessary to break down the inferior
coal for head room, when, being broken, the lesser price it
realises may go towards covering the expense of raising and
marketing it. Since coal mining is prosecuted with the object
of making money. it must be obvious that when a lessee agrees
to extract all the coal, it is understood to mean that quality of
coal on which a profit can be made, for it is not a custom of
the trade to mine, and place on the market a product for which |
there is no sale. ‘To force a lessee to mine, and pay a royalty
on worthless material, or that which would cost more than the
product was worth to clean it, would be shortsighed policy,
though it has been tried, for either the lessee would be ruined
in time, or else his coal would get such a bad name that his
output would be diminished, and, in consequence, the amount
of royalty paid per annum. It is neither fair nor equitable to
force a lessee to work an unpayable portion of a seam at the
expense of the good coal.

Coals being variable mixtures, do not lend themselves to a
strictly scientific classification. What consumers require is
some simple method of distinguishing different varieties,
typical examples of which are readily recognised, more especi-
ally those whose qualities render them valuable for certain
purposes, such as gas-making, steaming or coking. So
far, there has not been any special attempt to classify Austra-
lan coals. Turning to the work done in other countries,
classification, whether based on physical characteristics or
chemical composition, have neither of them proved satisfac-
tory. ‘The term bituminous includes a great variety of coals
that require subdividing. If we take the results of proximate
analysis, these include impurities which are largely a matter
of accident during the formation of the coal. If we take the
physical properties of coals, these give no adequate idea of
their composition. The classification adopted by the Pennsyl-
vanian Geological Survey was based on the fuel ratio, i.e.,

CLASSIFICATION OF COALS. 15

fixed carbon to volatile hydrocarbons, and from this they
adopted the following ratios :—

Anthracite... .. .. .. fuel ratio from 100 to 12
Semi-anthracite .. .. fuel ratio from 12 to 8
Semi-bituminous .. .. fuel ratio from 8 to 5
Bituminous... .. .....-fuel ratio from 5 to 0

This scheme classified all the bituminous coals together,
good and bad, but made no provision for lignites. Carbon is
the prominent element in coals. but its value depends on
whether it occurs as fixed or volatile hydrocarbon. <A classi-
fication according to fixed carbon is fairly satisfactory when
the amount of hydrocarbon is small, but hgnites and low grade
bituminous coals are apt to become confused lower down the
scale.

A classification according to the calorific value is fairly
satisfactory so far as the lower part of the scale is concerned,
but there is still some uncertainty about the division between
lignites and bituminous coals. Lignites are noted for their
large percentage of moisture, so Collin proposed (Bulletin No.
218. U.S.A. Govt. Surv. 1903) a moisture content of 10 per
cent. as a basis of separation between lignite and bituminous
coals; but it was found that certain bituminous coals contain
more than 10 per cent., while some lignite contained less. If
we turn to ultimate analysis and recalculate, excluding ash and
sulphur, there are hydrogen and carbon to consider. If hy-
drogen is taken as a basis there is still a difficulty in distin-
ouishing between coal and lignites. If carbon is taken, the
classification is satisfactory generally, but not in certain de-
tails where some coals appear to be misplaced. As neither of
these fuel elements alone appear to fit all cases, a classification
has been provisionally proposed by Mr. R. Campbell, based on
the carbon-hydrogen ratio. When taking these into con-
sideration they should not be added or multiplied, as these
processes would tend to equalise the results, but they should
be subtracted or divided, preferably the latter. Mr. Campbell
writes* ‘‘So far as I am acquainted with the character and
fuel value of the coals tested, the classification of coal accord-
ing to carbon-hydrogen ratio seems to be almost ideal. It is
not only correct in a general way, but in detail it seems to At
almost every case. True, the separation between bituminous
coal and lignite is not sharp and distinct, but it is highly prob-
able that there is no sharp distinction between these two
classes, and that the facts are best represented by a merging of

*“The Classification of Coals.’’ Trans. Am. Inst. Min.
Eng., XX XVI., 338 (New York, 1906).

16 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

values.’’ He then draws up the following table of proposed
groups of coal :—
Carbon-hydrogen ratio,
Group A, graphite)... 2.1 350.24 ee Ce On)
Group B, ; (anthracite): 35 see. 2tliae at Oe a oe

Group C, ear eet ere wr rere ea
Group D, (semi-anthracite).. .. ...... 26(?) to 23 (?)
Group E, (semi-bituminous) .. .. -- .. 23(?) to20
Group F, 5 a isha ed ie (oe beac Rea a ope senior
Group G, 5 ggber ig uted Late Se Gan 6 5 ROE ge 8 See Arm ya
Group H, (bituminous) ;.<°s. Boos ie 4 ee ee eee
Group I, GADD eS Bf vere lagi are ne hae cee ee
Group J, AORN Et ae eae 11.2 to 9.3
Group K, (peat). uk Rast Sewer ee
Group L, (wood cellulose) . +. T.2

Professor H. D. Rogers proposes the following as a commer-

cial clasification of coals: me
Volatile Matter Fixed Carbon

Per Cent. Per Cent.
Anthracite .....5is -*.-*V2belew) 26 90-94
Semi-anthracite .. .. .. below 10 84-90
Semi-bituminous .. between 12 and 18 (52-84
Bituminous. .-2 3.4 2. eabave, 18 75-80

Hydrogenous or gas coal, cannel, torbanite.

This classification, however, does not fit all cases; there is

no rigid division and some overlap.
Varieties of Coal.

Anthracite, hard or stone coal, is the hardest and most
lustrous of all coals. It gives great heat, burns with little
flame and no smoke. It is valued by man-of-war ships. Its
specific gravity varies between 1.3 and 1.7; it does not soil the
fingers, has a deep black color, but is sometimes iridescent,
when it is known as ‘‘peacock coal.’? The fracture is con-
choidal, lustre brilliant, and sub-metallic, or resinous to dull
“Dry coals’? are those wanting in oily constituents, in con-
tra-distinction to ‘‘fat’’ or gas coals.

Semi-anthracite.—This is neither so dense nor so hard as
true anthracite. Its contents of volatile hydrocarbon is
creater and it ignites more readily.

Semi-bituminous coal is generally not so hard as bitu-
minous coal, and its fracture is more cuboidal. The percent-
age of volatile matter is less. It kindles readily, burns with
a steady flame, and makes a good steam coal.

Bituminous, or soft coals may be further subdivided into
coking or caking and free burning coals. The term “‘bitu-
minous’? does not mean that these coals contain bitumen,
which as a rule they do not. Bituminous coal has a specific
gravity of 1.25 to 1.40, it is generally brittle, has a bright

i a d

VARIETIES OF COALS. 17

pitchy or greasy lustre, and burns with a more or less smoky
flame; on distillation it gives off gas. Some coals of similar
chemical composition may coke, while others will not. The
reason for this is not properly understood; even a coking coal
often loses that property on being weathered for a short time,
although its composition is apparently the same according to
analysis. This is probably due to the breaking down of cer-
tain hydrocarbons and a recombination of the elements.

Free-burning or cherry coals burn freely without soften-
ing or fusing together.

Splint, or splent, coal is a Scottish name, given to this
variety on account of its splitting or splenting up like slate,
but it breaks with difficulty on the cross fracture. It is a hard
laminated variety of bituminous coal and has a dull black color.
Being hard it carries well. It makes a hot fire and burns well
in an open grate. The so-called ‘‘splint’’ coal associated with
New South Wales kerosene shale is more correctly a “‘cannel.’
Some people are under the impression that the distinguishing
feature of splint coal is due to stony matter in it, but this is
not always the case, as proved by analysis.

Cannel Coal, kerosene shale and oil shale are closely
allied and frequently confounded. They are characterised by
their high ratio of volatile to fixed carbon. Cannel coal
derives its name from the fact that it burns with a bright flame
like a candle. I¢ is also known in Scotland as ‘‘parrot coal,’’
because it makes a chattering or crackling noise when burnt.
It is compact, with little or no lustre; breaks with a con-
choidal fracture; kindles readily, and burns with a dense
smoky flame. It¢ is rich in disposable hydrogen, and is mainly
used in the manufacture of gas. It consists of a preponder-
ance of ordinary carbonaceous and thoroughly macerated vege-
table matter.

Kerosene shale, or torbanite, is brownish-black to green-
ish-black in color; streak, yellowish to brown; lustre, dull to
satiny; texture, very fine; fracture, conchoidal, more especi-
ally across its plane of bedding; it is easily split. It consists
of a preponderance of spores, and thalli of algae. The New
South Wales kerosene shale excels that of all other countries
both in the number and extent of its deposits. The first-class
quality, yielding over 65-70 per cent. volatile hydrocarbon,
will stand the expense of export, while the seconds and dress-
ings are used locally. The Joadja shale yields 89.5 per cent.
volatile hydrocarbons, against 71.17 per cent., the highest
analysis shown from Torbane in Scotland. The lighter the
shale the better the quality. When distilled, the New South
Wales shale yields from 50 to 150 gallons of crude oil per ton,
containing over 60 per cent. re ned kerosene. the remaining
pts ‘being gwasolene, naphtha. paraffin, lubricating © oil,

18 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

ammonia and pitch. The gas producing capabilities of the
mineral are stated to have amounted to 18,000 cubic feet per
ton, with an illuminating power of 38 to 40 candles, each
burning 120 grains of sperm per hour.

Oil shales contain a preponderance of mineral matter.

Lignite strictly speaking should show a woody structure.
Brown coal is a name given to a structureless variety which
generally contains a lar ger proportion of carbon and less
oxygen than true lignite. The color is generally brown or a
brownish-black, but is sometimes pitch-black. It kindles
readily and burns rather freely with a yellow flame and com-
paratively little smoke, but gives only a moderate heat. The
ash is often very light, so is readily blown about. It is always
high in moisture, which ranges between 10 and 20 per cent.

Uses of Coal.

Good gas coal should have a low percentage of ash, say
5 per cent.; the sulphur should not be more than about 0.5 per
cent., while the volatile matter, which should be charged with
rich illuminating hydrocarbons, ought to be in the neigh-
borhood of 87 or 40 per cent. The coal should coke well, and
produce about 60 per cent. clean, strong, bright coke, after
earbonisation, which becomes a valuable product.

For household purposes a coal should maintain a mild,
steady combustion, and remain ignited at a low temperature
with a comparatively feeble draught. A smoky flame is objec-
tionable as producing soot. A very free or fiercely-burning
coal is not desirable, as the temperature cannot be regulated.
If the coal contains pieces of slate they are apt to fly out into
the room. The ash must not be so stony that it cannot pass
through the bars of the grate, nor so light that it blows about
the room. Sulphur is objectionable; it not only produces
stifling gases when the draught is bad, but it corrodes the
grate and tarnishes silver.

Coal for use in a blacksmith’s forge should possess a high

heating power. The amount of sulphur present should be

small, if any; the coal should also be low in ash. and it should
coke sufficiently to form an arch.

Coal may be looked upon as consisting of gas, fixed carbon
and impurities—water, sulphur and phosphorous. Coal, even
in the same seam, may vary considerably, as shown by
analysis, which have to be made oc casionally, either for the in-
formation of the manager, or for selling contracts. The
nature of coal may be influenced by the kind of plants that
went to form it, also by the pressure to which it has been sub-
jected. Besides the ordinary proximate and ultimate analysis
of a coal, one should note other characteristics. such as if it is
tender and breaks up too readily, whether it is liable to spon-
taneous combustion, etc.

~~

—— a a

ides

CHAPTER II.

SAMPLING.

Mr. R. Campbell, who was one of the committee
engaged onthe coal testing plant of the United States
Geological Survey, at the Louisiana Purchase Exposition, St.
Louis, Mo., in a paper read before the American Institute of
Mining Engineers in May, 1905, entitled ‘“‘The Commercial
Value of Coal Mine Sampling,’’ proposes that when sampling
a colliery, a fresh face of coal should be selected, free from
all powder stains and other impurities. A channel should
then be cut across the face of the coal from roof to floor
of such size as to yield at least five pounds’ weight of coal for
each foot of thickness of the coal seam. All material encountered
in such a cut should be included in the sample, except part-
ings over quarter of an inch in thickness, and all concretions
of pyrites, or other impurities, greater than two inches in maxi-
mum diameter, and half an inch in thickness. The sample
should be broken down on a cloth protected by boards, so
that it shall not become mixed with any dirt on the floor. The
sample may be sent to the laboratory as cut, or it may be
quartered down to a convenient bulk at the face: in the latter
case it is first reduced in size to about three-quarters of an
inch. The operation of pulverising and quartering should be
done as rapidly as possible, to prevent loss of moisture con-
tent, and the sample should be at once sealed in a glass jar or
tin. An analysis of such a sample will show the grade of coal
that may be obtained by careful mining and picking, but in
the majority of cases the commercial output of the mine will
contain more sulphur and ash than shown by such an analysis,
because the sampling is done more carefully than the mining
on a larger scale, but the value of the latter may be approxi-
mated by multiplying the analysis by certain coefficients. The
coefficients are obtained by adding together the percentage of
ash or sulphur, as the case may be, of a given number of sam-
ples taken from the strips as ordinarily mined, and dividing
this by the total ash or sulphur found in the same number of
specially taken mine samples. Since a sample is supposed to
represent what it is taken from in everything except bulk,

20 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

should a sample be incorrect it is misleading and valueless.
All coal seams are not equally good, even parts of the same
seam may vary in value, so it is quite possible to pick a sample
that will be much superior to what is mined on a large scale.
Analysis of samples taken years ago may not be representa-
tive of what is mined at the present day. The owners of a
mine that produces an inferor coal are not anxious to publish
the fact, though it soon becomes known in the trade; even
those who produce the better class of coal naturally prefer
to give prominence to their best results, Many published
comparisons of coals from different places are worthless, since
the samples were not taken under similar conditions. The
analysis of lump coal is nearly always better than the run-of- |
mine from the same seam.

Ultimate Analysis.*

To determine the carbon and hydrogen, an Erlenmeyer’s
combustion furnace is used, with 25 Bunsen burners. The
combustion takes place in a piece of combustion tubing, about
lm. long and 18mm. internal diameter: this allows the tube
to praject about 10 c.m. at each end of the furnace, which
projecting portions are protected from the heat by a closely
fitting circular shield of asbestos. Air and oxygen are passed
through the tube over the sample, but so as to eliminate any
carbon dioxide or moisture it may contain, it first has to pass
through a purifying train. The purifying reagents are
arranged in the following order: sulphuric acid, potassium
hydroxide, soda-lime, and granular calcium chloride. The end
ot the tube near where air and oxygen enter can be closed by
a rubber stopper, as there is no fear of volatile matter being
given off, since cool air passes through, but the other end is
closed with a closely-fitting, well-rolled cork. The rear, or cool
end of the tube, is empty for 25 c.m. inside the furnace, the
next 25 c.m. is filled with a loose layer of cupric oxide, with
a plug@ of acid-washed and ignited asbestos at either end, to
keep the wire-copper-oxide in place. After the copper oxide
comes 10 c.m. of coarse fused lead chromate, to retain any
sulphur products, this also being held in place by a plug of
asbestos. The absorption train consists of a six-inch Marchand
U tube, filled with granular calcium chloride, to absorb water
formed by the oxidation of the hydrogen; this is followed by
ordinary Liebig’s bulbs, containing potassium hydroxide, to
which is attached a three-inch U tube, containing soda lime

*E, W. Parker, J. A. Holmes, and M. R. Campbell. Report
on the operation of the Coal Testing Plant of the United States
oC Survey (Washington, 1906, published by author-
ity).

COAL ANALYSIS. 21

and calcium chloride, to absorb the carbon dioxide formed by
the oxidation of the carbon: the bulbs and U tube are weighed
together. A final guard tube, filled with calcium chloride and
soda lime, is fixed” on to the end. The gases formed during
combustion are drawn through the train by suction, a Marriott
bottle being used to secure a constant suction head. The oxy-
gen is supplied under a slightly greater pressure than the

aspirator, so that there shall be no fear of leaka ge of the com-
huctien gases into the g@asometer.

The sample of coal is well mixed and ground: 2-10ths of a
gram are weighed out into a platinum boat, about 70 mm. long
and 8 mm. deep, which is pushed into the rear of the combus-
tion tube up to the asbestos plug, which holds the copper oxide
in place. That part of the tube holding the boat is kept cool
till from 20 to 25 ¢.m. of the copper oxide is at a bright red
heat, and the lead chromate heated to a barely visible red.
The burners at the back of and under the boat are then turned
on very gradually, and the volatile products slowly driven off;
a siow rate of aspiration, one or two bubbles a second, being
kept up; care must be taken not to drive them off so rapidly
as to cause back pressure. If the combustion is too rapid,
the ash may fuse and retain unburnt coal. The ash must be
examined for unburnt carbon. The ignition is characterised
by considerable glowing. » Oxygen is passed through the train
for several minutes after the last evidence of combustion has
disappeared, or till it begins to bubble freely through the
potash bulbs. About 1200 c.c. air are then aspirated through
the train before weighing up. The absorption train is carefully
weighed, both before and after the combustion: 100 parts of
CO. represents 27.27 parts of carbon: 100 parts of water repre-
sents 11.11 parts of hydrogen.

Sulphur.—The total sulphur may be determined by
Eschka’s method. One gram of the finely powdered coal is
mixed by means of a glass rod in a 30 ¢.c. platinum crucible,
with half a gram of the Eschka mixture which consists of 1 pt.
dry sodium carbonate and two parts of the light porous variety
of magnesium oxide: this is afterwards cover ed with about half
a gram of the Eschka mixture. The crucible is then heated
over an alcohol lamp, which is moved about by hand; gas
must not be used on account of the sulphur it contains. At
first the flame is kept low, and is scarcely allowed to touch the
bottom of the crucible until the volatile matter has been burnt
out, which takes from 15 to 30 minutes: the heat is then in-
creased, and the contents of the crucible stirred with a plati-
Aon wire till all trace of unburnt carbon has disappeared.

As the complete burning of coke over an alcohol lamp is very
difficult, the final burning may be done in a gasoline muffle
furnace. The mixture is transferred from the crucible to a

22 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

beaker, where it is digested with 50 to 75 c.c. of water for 30
minutes; filter, wash the residue twice with hot water by de-
cantation, then wash on the filter, small portions of water being
used for each washing, till the filtrate amounts to 200 c.c.
Bromine water is then added, the solution being made slightly
acid with hydrochloric acid. The amounts generally used are
4 c.c. of water saturated with bromine, and 3 c.c. of concen-
trated hydrochloric acid. Heat the solution to boiling till the
bromine is expelled, then precipitate the sulphur with 22 c.c.
of a hot 5 per cent. solution of barium chloride, which is slowly
added from a pipette during constant stirring. The precipi-
tate is allowed to stand at a temperature a little below boiling
for two hours, or longer, before filtering. Test the ‘filtrate.
for acidity with litmus paper, and for excess of barium chlo-
ride with a drop or two of sulphuric acid added to a little in a
test tube. The preliminary washing of the precipitate is done
with hot water containing 1 ¢.c. hydrochloric acid per litre,
the final washing being made with hot water alone, and the
washing continued till it no longer reacts for chlorine when
tested with nitrate of silver. Ignite the filter paper and preci-
pitate in a porcelain crucible, using a low heat till the paper is
burnt off; then raise the heat sufficiently to bring the precipi-
tate to a dull redness, and continue heating for a few mo-
ments, cool and weigh as barium sulphate.

Per cent.
Bal3st = 8.8
ee) Se ey :
OO, 04 =" 2h5

253 100.0
If one gram of coal was taken, then
Weight of BaSO, ppt.—wt. of filter ash x 13.7
100 :
To determine the sulphur which remains in the coke, burn
2 grams of coke to an ash, heat the ash with 5 c.c. concen-
trated nitric acid and about half a gram of chlorate of potash,
evaporate nearly to dryness. Add 15 c.c. concentrated hydro-
chlorie acid and digest the solution for 15 minutes. Evaporate
to hard dryness. Moisten with 2 ¢.c. strong hydrochloric
acid, add 75 c.c. water and digest for 15 minutes. Filter off
the solution, wash with hot water and determine the sulphur
in the filtrate as sulphate of barium. The percentage of sul-
phur found in the ash deducted from the total sulphur in the
coal gives the percentage of hurtful sulphur emitted when the
coal is burnt.
Phosphorus.—It is only necessary to determine this sub-
stance in coke. Take 6.52 grams of coke and burn it to an
ash over a Bunsen burner or in a muffle furnace. Fuse the

S percent. =

COAL ANALYSIS. 23

ash with some sodium, carbonate and 0.2 grams of sodium ni-
trate: more nitrate than this attacks the platinum crucible.
Dissolve the fused mass in water, acidify,, and evaporate to
dryness. Take up with hydrochloric acid and determine the
phosphorous by weighing the yellow precipitate of phospho-
dodecamolybdate of ammonium obtained in the usual way.
As a check on the purity of the yellow precipitate, the phos-
phorous in the combined duplicates may be determined by the
magnesia method.

Nitrogen.—Kjeldahl’s method is the simplest and_ best
Take one gram of powdered coal and place it in an Erlen-
meyer’s flask with two grams of dried sulphate of copper and
20 c.c. of concentrated sulphuric acid, place a loose cover on
top of flask and heat over a Bunsen burner for about half an
hour, or till all frothing ceases. Then add 10 grm. sulphate
of potash and heat strongly till no unoxidised black particles
of coal remain, and the solution is clear. Cool and add water.
Close the neck of the flask with a cork in which there are two
holes, one fora thistle funnel which reaches to the bottom, the
other for a distilling bulb. The outer tube from the latter
is connected with a condenser which leads just under a known
quantity of deci-normal sulphuric acid contained in a flask.
Strong caustic soda solution is poured down the thistle
funnel till the contents of the flask is alkaline. Then distil
for about an hour; add hot water down the thistle funnel to
make up loss and distil for another half hour, by which
time all the ammonia will have been driven off and taken up
by the sulphuric acid in the receiving flask.. Use a drop or
two of methyl orange in the deci-normal sulphuric acid as an
indicator, for should the red colour change to yellow, thereby
indicating that there is not sufficient acid present, there will
be a loss of ammonia, thus making the analysis incorrect.
When the distillation is complete, the quantity of residual acid
is determined with standard ammonia. Each cubic centimetre
of the deci-normal sulphuric acid used up is equal to 0.0014
erm. nitrogen.

The ultimate analysis, which gives the percentages of the
elements of which the coal is composed, does not convey all
the information we require, so we have to fall back on the
proximate analysis, which gives us the percentage of moisture,
volatile hydrocarbons, fixed carbon, ash and _ coke. The
specific gravity, calorific power and other useful items may
also be supplied, which give a good idea of the general adapta-
bilities of a coal.

Proximate Analysis.

Moisture.—Weigh out 1 gram as quickly as possible into
a porcelain crucible, place in a double-walled air bath and dry
for an hour, the bath being kept at a temperature as near to

24 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

105 deg. C. as possible; the usual range is from 103 deg. to
108deg. C. At the end of this time put a cover on the crucible
and place it to cool in a desiccator containing calcium chlo-
ride. Weigh rapidly without the cover: the difference
between this and the original weight is taken as moisture.
The amount of hygroscopic moisture absorbed by the dry fuel
in 24 hours should also be noted.

Ash.—The one gram of sample taken for the determina-
tion of moisture is heated in a tilted porcelain or platinum
crucible with the cover off, so that there can be a free access
of air, either over a Bunsen burner or in a muffle furnace; first
at a low red heat, which is gradually raised as the carbon is
removed. It is better to use the moisture sample than the
coke from the determination of volatile hydrocarbons, as this
sample can be burnt so much quicker if properly handled. The
combustion may be hastened by stirring occasionally with a
platinum wire. Care must be taken not to allow fusion, for
fear the fused mass should include unburnt carbon. The ash
is allowed to cool in a desiccator and weighed. The process is
repeated till the weight is constant, the result being returned
in percentage. The colour and condition of the ash should be
noted. Ferruginous and calcareous ashes are fusible and
clinker on the fire bars: aluminous and siliceous ashes remain
pulverulent. Sometimes it is necessary to analyse an ash.

Volatile Hydrocarbons.—One gram of powdered coal is
placed in a 30 c.c. platinum crucible which is covered with a
well-fitting lid so as to keep the air out. The crucible is sup-
ported on a platinum or pipe-clay triangle, and exposed to the
full flame of a Bunsen burner for seven minutes. The distance
from the bottom of the crucible to top of the Bunsen burner
should be 17 c.m., the flame from the burner being 16 to 20
c.m. long. To prevent air currents from interfering, place a
cylindrical asbestos chimney 15 c.m. long and 7 ¢.m. in dia-
meter round the flame; by this means a uniform heat is
attained, and the lid of the crucible is heated to a visible red.
When cooled in a desiccator and weighed, the loss equals the
volatile hydrocarbon plus the moisture: the latter is deducte
and the result returned in per cent.

Fixed Carbon.—The residue left after driving off the
moisture and volatile hydrocarbons consists of the fixed carbon
and ash. The ash is a dilutant, and when deducted from the
combined weight of the two, gives the weight of fixed carbon,
which is expressed in per cent.

Coke.—All coals do not coke. The residue left by free
burning coals after driving off the moisture and volatile hydro-
carbons is in much the same form as the powdered coal when
first placed in the crucible. A true coke, which consists of
fixed carbon and ash, loses its original shape and forms a com-

COAL ANALYSIS. 25

pact mass of more or less strength. When coke is made in
quantity the product is firmer and more coherent than when
made on a small scale.

To determine the comparative strength of cokes use Rich-
ter’s method. The strength is expressed by the multiple of
Q.1 gram of powdered quartz that is necessary to mix with
1 gram of coal to weaken the resulting coke sufficiently to
enable half a kilo (1.11b.) to crush it. It is also necessary
to examine the physical properties of a coke, its hardness,
porosity, ete.

Specific Gravity.—The apparent specific gravity may be
determined as follows:—Select a suitable piece of dry coal,
free it from dust and suspend by a silken thread from the
pan of the balance: determine its weight in the air. Then
soak it in distilled water, brush off any air bubbles that cling
to the surface, and weigh the specimen again while immersed
in water, taking care that it hangs freely. This specific eravity
is then found by dividing the weight of the coal in air by the
difference in weight of ‘the specimen in air and water. Or
about 30 grams of dry and weighed coal may be placed in a
500 c.c. glass jar closed with a screw cap and rubber gasket.
In the middle of the screw cap is an opening ().6 e:m. in diam-
eter, and the cap is sprung so as to make this opening the
highest point. Fill the jar with water to a level across the
opening in the cap. Draw out 150 c.c. with a pipette, then
take off the cap and drop in two or three pieces of coal. Screw
the cap on again and take every Lrecaution to see that the
cap is screwed to exactly the same mark as before. Water
is then added from a burette till the opening in the cap is
filed. Taking 1 gram of water to equal 1 c.c., then the
apparent specific gravity is the weight of the cubic centimetres
displaced by the weight of the coal taken.

To find the actual specific gravity, weigh 3.5 grams of
dried and finely pulverised coal and place it in a 50 ¢.c. specific
gravity flask. Fill the flask about 2-5ths full of water; attach
to an appirator and gently boil on a water bath under a partial
vacuum for 24 to 38 hours. The flask is then detached, cooled,
filled with w ater and weighed, and the temperature of the
water taken as soon as weighed, so as to enable corrections
for temperature to be made.

A knowledge of the strength of a coal is’ valu-
able, for if soft, an undue proportion of sjack is
made while mining; and in subsequent handling and _ trans-
port, even the lumps become broken up and form much dust.
Too much dust in a coal causes an excessive loss of coal
through the fire bars, and may prevent the access of air neces-
sary for complete combustion. Should the coal be required
for coking, then its soft nature is rather an advantage, as

26 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

facilitating its disintegration. A coal which crumbles on ex-
posure to the weather, or which will not readily bear trans-
port must be used near its place of occurrence, and should
be used soon after it is mined.

Evaporative Power.—This is determined in Australia by
means of Thompson’s calorimeter, but for more accurate work
Mahler’s bomb calorimeter may be used.

Thompson’s calorimeter, Fig. 14, consists of a glass cylin-
der (a) closed at the lower end; (b) is a cylindrical copper
vessel called the condenser, open at the bottom
and also perforated with holes (b') near the
open end, the top of the condenser is closed
except for a tube with a stop cock (c) at the {|
upper end; (d) is a metal base to which (b) is a |
fixed by means of three springs attached to ne
(d). but not shown in the figure; a series of ;
holes are arranged round the circumference of
(d) to facilitate raising the apparatus through
the water; (e) is a copper cylinder called the
furnace, closed at the lower end only, which
fits into a metal ring or seat in the centre of
(d). Thirty grains of dry finely-powdered coal
is mixed with 10 to 12 times its weight of a
mixture made of 3 parts chlorate of potash and
1 part sodic nitrate, which, being hygroscopic,
must be kept dry: this mixture gives off
enough oxygen to burn the coal without any
access of air. The charge is placed in the
the furnace (e) and a touch cord, made by
passing a piece of string through a saturated
solution of nitre or nitrate of lead and dried at
212dee. F., is inserted for about an inch into
the material, leaving sufficient outside to burn

without touching the mixture while the ap- 7S
paratus is being subsequently dipped under Wie 44.
the water. The glass cylinder (a) is filled with Thompson’s
water up to the mark, and its tempera- Calorimeter

ture noted: the furnace with its charge

and touch cord placed in the socket of the

metal base (d), the touch cord ignited, and then the furnace is
immediately covered with the cylinder (b), the stop cock at
the end of the tube being turned off. The whole is lowered
into the water and kept there until combustion is completed,
hot gases bubbling up through the holes and warming the
water. When deflagration has ceased, the instrument is
moved up and down to stir the water, and the stop cock is
opened, when water fills the vessel. The temperature of the

EVAPORATIVE POWER OF COAL. 27

water is again taken, the highest reading being accepted.
The temperature of the water at the commencement should be
as near 60deg. I. as possible: if too hot, the gases are not
properly cooled before they escape. If the test is properly
conducted, the contents of the copper furnace ought to dissolve
out in water and only leave a white ash; but if there is any
black unburnt coal left, the ash and what remains of the coal
are collected, weighed and ignited in a platinum crucible, and
the loss deducted from the amount of fuel taken. A British
thermal unit is the quantity of heat necessary to raise Ilb. of
water one degree F. when at or near 39deg. F. It requires
967 B.T.U. to convert one unit of water at 212dege. F. into
steam at that temperature: in other words, the latent heat of
steam is 967deg. F. If each grain of fuel is burnt in the midst
of 967 grains of water, then since 30 grains of fuel are taken we
require 967 x 30, or 29,010 grains of water, so the glass cylin-
der is graduated to hold this quantity. By deducting the ori-
ginal temperature of the water in the cylinder from the tem-
perature after the experiment, we do not obtain the true heat-
ing power of the fuel, since the copper cylinders absorb a
certain amount of heat, and some more is lost by the imperfect
absorption of heat by the water. By careful comparative tests
with the bomb calorimeter it is found that a fair correction is
to add one-tenth of the increase of heat to the difference be-

tween the temperature before and after the test. For
example—

Temperature of water after experiment .... Tl deg. F.

Temperature of water before experiment... .... 60 deg. F

1k deg. Ff.

Pere IM nr 14a dete oF achat ek tose als LY deg: F.

Pvaporative Unite. yt shee ae oe Le. dedep. BP.

which signifies that 1lb. of coal would evaporate 12.1lb. of
water previously heated to 100 deg. C. or 212 deg. F. The
calorific power is better expressed in evaporative units than as
British thermal units, as the latter would give a large and un-
wieldy figure.

When the results of an analysis are obtaned, one should
be able to interpret them so as to determine the value of the
fuel for the purpose required.

Volatile Matter.—The amount and quality of the volatile
combustible matter decides whether the coal is suitable for the
manufacture of illuminating gas or not. There should not be
too much or too little volatile hydrocarbons in a coal required
for coking, otherwise the coke will be too spongy or the walls
of the cells will be too thick. Coals that give off too much gas

28 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

ignite easily, burn with a long yellow flame, and form much
soot, which makes it objectionable for railway and naval uses.
Besides volatile hydrocarbons, the volatile matter will contain
any moisture retained by clay present which is not expelled
at a temperature less than that necessary to decompose the
coal; it will also contain some sulphur, and if carbonate of lime
is present, carbonic dioxide.

Fixed carbon is the chief combustible constituent in coal,
for although an equivalent weight of the volatile hydrocarbons
when properly burnt will evaporate more water than the fixed
carbon, yet so much of the former is lost by improper furnace
construction and careless firing, that the steaming value of a
coal is in proportion to its percentage of fixed carbon. The
nature of a coal is not told by its percentage of fixed carbon,
but by its fuel ratio, as mentioned elsewhere.

Moisture.—Hygroscopic moisture in a fuel increases its
weight for transport; each per cent. of moisture means 22.4]b.
less fuel for each long ton of coal. If the fuel is sold by
weight, and no deduction is made for the water absorbed by it
then such water is paid for as fuel. Moisture is further harm-
ful inasmuch as it abstracts a certain amount of heat in order
to evaporate it; but, on the other hand, it is doubtful whether
water should always be looked upon as a non-fuel. for in many
cases its elements become disassociated, leaving the hydrogen
available for fuel purposes, as in the manufacture of water gas
when steam is passed over red-hot coke.

Though a coal may appear perfectly dry, it may still con-
tain a considerable quantity of water. That which is lost by
the coal when exposed to ordinary atmospheric conditions is
known as ‘‘pit water,’’ but that which it still retains is known

s ‘‘hygroscopic moisture.’’ When the hygroscopic moisture
is driven off, the coal becomes more tender and friable. The
contents of water in a coal is affected by the size of the coal.
When fine it contains less pit water, but more hygroscopic
moisture than when lumpy.

Ash is a dilutant to a fuel, and by adding to its weight
increases cost of freight and is paid for as if a fuel. One per
cent. of ash is equivalent to nearly 224lb. in a long ton. If
excessive, it gives more work to stokers, and carries away a
certain amount of heat through the fire bars; it also hinders
complete combustion by entangling particles of fuel. If
coking coal, the ash tends to weaken the coke, and may have
to be taken into consideration when calculating the slag of
a blast furnace. If the ash is readily fusible, it may form
clinkers on fire bars, and obstruct the free passage of air. A
rough idea of the percentage of iron in an ash may be obtained
by noting the colour of it; iron is objectionable, since it
makes the ash more fusible and increases its tendency to

mK

Sa a

Piet 4 See TE eet"

uh
. 2

—
ee ee

PROPERTIES OF FOREIGN SUBSTANCES. 20

clinker. For domestic purposes, where the temperature is
low, the quantity of an ash is of more importance than its
fusibility.

The percentage of ash may vary from two to thirty-six,
but the best fuel should not contain more than 7 per cent., the
medium more than 14 per cent., while that which goes over
14 per cent. is looked upon as poor. The proportion of ash is
somewhat more in slack than in lump coal from the same
seam.

When iron pyrites occurs in a coal, since 3 atoms of oxy-
gen replace 4 atoms of sulphur, the weight of the ash is less
than the weight of the mineral matter in the coal by 5-8ths,
the weight of the sulphur of the pyrites. Corrections for this,
however, are not made in proximate analysis.

Nitrogen in a state of chemical combination is always
found in coals, its percentage generally being between one and
two per cent.

Sulphur.—This element generally occurs in coals as iron
pyrites, but may also be present as gypsum, or even baryte
It is the sulphur of the pyrites that is hurtful for most econo-
mic purposes, for it is readily given off as sulphur dioxide, or
sulphuretted hydrogen, while the sulphur of gypsum and
baryte is fixed in the ash. When present in gas or household
coals, the sulphur tarnishes silver and silver prints; when used
for boilers it corrodes iron and copper, and it is bad for forge
work. DPyrites is also disliked by coal miners, for the nodules
are harder to work out than coal, and pyrites is often credited
with being the cause of spontaneous combustion in coal.

Phosphorous.—This has been found in the ashes of coals
combined with one or more of the bases present: as this tends
to pass into pig-iron when smelting iron ores, the absence
of phosphorous is an important matter when the iron is re-
quired for the Bessemer process of steel-making.

Coke is the residue left after driving off moisture and vola-
tile matter: it is therefore richer in ash than the coal from
which it is made. All the sulphur is not driven off by coking,
so it is often advisable to get rid of as much of this and also
of the ash present in the original coal as possible by washing,
since the presence of these substances may have an important
bearing on the production of a coke for blast furnace or foundry
purposes. Coke has, weight for weight, more carbon than the
fuel from which it was obtained; and also a higher calorific
value. Coal loses on an average about 1-3rd of its weight in
coking, and increases about 1-10th in bulk.

The specifie gravity of a coal is important, and may be due
either to combustible matter or impurities that form ash. The
specific gravity of anthracite is greater than that of bitumin-
ous coal, and in consequence it takes up 10 to 15 fer cent. less

30 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

bulk for the same weight, and so occupies less bunker room
on board ship. If the increased specific gravity of a coal is due
to non-combustible material, then, of course, it becomes dele-
terious. By means of the specific gravity of a coal, we can
ascertain the weight of a cubie foot of it, or how many cubic
feet go to the ton, and how many tons per acre an inch in
thickness represents. A seam of coal having a specific gravity
of 1.3 will contain about 130 tons per acre for every inch in
thickness. Allowing for moisture, pillars and waste, 100 tons
per acre per inch is a close approximation to the probable yield.
We must distinguish between the apparent and the actual
specific gravity: the former is the specific gravity of a piece of
coal, the pores of which are not filled with water; the latter is
the specific gravity of the coal with all the air driven out.

By specific gravity is meant the weight of a body as com-
pared with the weight of an equal bulk of the standard body
which is reckoned as unity. Pure water at 60deg. F. is taken
as unity. A cubic foot of distilled water weighs 62.521]b.

Heating Power of Coals.

In Great Britain and the United States of America the unit
of heat adopted is the British Thermal Unit (B.T.U.) This is
the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one
pound of pure water through one degree Fahrenheit at or near
39.1 deg. Fahr., the temperature of maximum density of
water.

On the Continent of Europe the French Thermal Unit or
calorie is employed, which is the quantity of heat required to
raise the temperature of one kilogramme of water one degree
Centigrade, at or about 4 deg. C. One French calorie equals
3.968 B.T.U., and 1 B.T.U. equals 0.252 calories. According
to the determinations of Favre and Silbermann, the complete
combustion of a kilogramme for calories, or a pound weight
for B.T.U. of the following substances develop the accom-
panying heats :—

*H to H;0 34,462 calories = 62,032 B.T.U.

C to COs 8,080 calories=14,544 B.T.U.
CO to COs 2,403 calories= 4,325 B.T.U.
S to SOs 2,220 calories= 3,996 B.T.U.

From these we are enabled to calculate the theoretical values of
any fuel from its chemical composition, due allowance being

made for the hygroscopic water present in the fuel. +Dulong —

*Chemistry, Theoretical, Practical and Analytical, as ap-

plied to the Arts and Manufactures, Div. IV., page 896
(London).
+Poole (H). The Calorific Power of Fuels (New York) 1898.

Pe)

HEATING POWER OF COAL. 31

stated that the heat generated by a fuel during combustion
was equal to the sum of the possible heats generated by its
component elements, less that portion of the hydrogen which
might form water with the oxygen of the fuel. The formule
he gave were:

X =8080C + 34500 [H—(O~=8)].
X3 =14500C + 62100 [H—(O =8)].

in which X=the heat of combustion sought in calories.
X1=the heat of combustion sought in B.T.U.
C=percentage of carbon in analysis of the fuel.
H=percentage of hydrogen in analysis of the fuel.
O=percentage of oxygen in analysis of the fuel.

When hydrogen and oxygen exist'in a compound in the
proper proportion to form water (i.e., 1 pt. of hydrogen to 8
pts. of oxygen). these constituents have no effect on the total
heat of combustion. It follows that only the surplus hydro-
gen above that required by the oxygen is to be taken into
account.

H—(O=8)=the quantity of hydrogen in the analysis of
the fuel less that supposed to form water with the oxygen.
In computing the total heat of combustion it is convenient to
substitute for the hydrogen the quantity of carbon which
would give the same quantity of heat, and this is done by
multiplying the weight of hydrogen by 62.0322 + 14,500 =4.28

making the formula :—

X1=14,500 (C+4.28 [H—(O ~)].

The theoretical evaporative power of llb. of the fuel in lbs. of
water evaporated from 212deg. F. is :—

E=X1+966.

966, or rather 966.1, is the number of B.T.U. required to
evaporate Ilb. of water at boiling point under a pressure of
one atmosphere. This corresponds to 536.7 calories, which are
necessary to evaporate one kilogramme of water under similar
conditions.

Dulong’s formula does not allow for the heat due _ to
sulphur; this, however, in an ordinary coal is a very small
’ percentage, and will only apply to that sulphur not left in the
ash, so it would have very little effect on the toal. If desired
to allow for the sulphur, then the formula would read :-—

X =8080C + 34,500 [H—(O + 8)]+22208.
where S=the available sulphur in the fuel.

The calorific power. computed by formule from the ulti-
mate analysis of a fuel is not quite correct when compared
with the results of calorimeters, for errors are apt to creep
into the analysis; various authorities differ slightly in thei

32 COALFIELDS AND COLLIBRiegS OF AUSTRALIA.

determination of the heat units developed by carbon, hydrogen
and sulphur when completely burnt; also the results of dif-
ferent formule vary. The difference between the calorific
power calculated from Dulong’s formula and that obtained by
Mahler’s calorimeter in careful hands is not so great as is
generally thought. N. W. Lord and F. Haas* made several
tests, and the results were so uniform that they could not be
credited to accident. ‘‘The maximum difference between the
heat calculated from the elementary analysis and the heat
developed in the bomb is 2 per cent. of the total calculated
heat, the minimum difference 0.1 per cent. The posible error
of an ultimate analysis may be placed at 0.5 per cent. on car-
bon, and 0.2 per cent. on hydrogen, especially with coals as
high in ash and sulphur as are many of the samples included
in our tests. This would lead to an error of about 108 units,
or nearly 1.4 per cent. on the calculated heat value.’

The ultimate analysis of a coal is much more difficult to
make than the calorimetric determination, so attempts have
been made to ascertain the relation between the fixed carbon
obtained by the more rapid proximate analysis and calori-

metric tests. These are naturally not so correct as when cal-.

culated from the ultimate analysis. W. Kentt states:
“Knowing the percentage of fixed carbon in the dry coal. free

from ash, we may in the case of all coals containing over 58

per cent. of fixed carbon predict their heating value within
a limit of errors of about 3 per cent. . Below 50 per cent.
of fixed carbon the law apparently does not hold good, as
shown by the tests of some lignites.’’ He then gives the fol-
lowing table of approximate heating-values of ‘coals, which
was constructed from the av erage curve from Mahler’s tests
on Kuropean coals :—

Per Cent. of Fixed Heating Value.
Carbon in Coal. Dry British
and Free from Ash. Calories. Thermal
. Units.
re oe 8200 A, 14,760
94 ra 8400 f 15,120
90 ss 8600 2, 15,480
87 En 8700 a 15,660
80 se 8800 Ay 15,840

*The Calorific Value of Corti Coals as Determined by
ore Calorimeter (T. Am. 1.M.E., Vol. XXVII., p. 259)
OF |

tTests of the Heating Power of Coals. Mineral Industry,
Vol. 1-(1892), p. 97.

De ee ee

HEATING POWER OF COAL. | 33

Per Cent. of Tixed Heating Value.
Carbon in Coal. Dry British
and Free from Ash. Calories. Thermal
Units.
72 Ss 8700 ae 15,660
68 es 8600 a 15,480
63 isp 8400 15,120
60 x 8100 Ef 14,580.
57 5a 7800 Af: 14,040
54 So 7400 e. 13,320
51 ap T000 a 12,600
50 6800 12,240

Lord and Haas deatal that the results “of their work did not
correspond to the above figures. The theoretical heating
value of coals varies between about 7000 and 16,000 B.T.U.,

depending on their nature.

In order to completely burn one pound of carbon, 2.66lb.
of oxygen are necessary; but as air, the usual source of
oxygen, only contains 21 per cent. of that element, it follows
that 12.66lb. of air must be provided to oxidise 1lb. of carbon.

Since a calorimeter burns all the fuel, it gives a better
result than is possible in a boiler, for a boiler does not take all
the heat out of the gases generated by the fuel: then there is
always an excess of air supplied to the fire which carries away
quantities of heat up the stack; also all the fuel is never
burnt in the fire box of a boiler, therefore some of the heat
is not developed. It will thus be seen that the value of a fuel
for heat-producing purposes depends largely on the efficiency
of the boiler, and a fuel that will do good work in one class of
boiler may not come up to expectations in another; if, how-
ever, the true heating power of a fuel is given as ascertained
by a calorimeter, it serves, other things being equal, as an in-
dication of the relative value of different fuels. There are
yet other points to be considered, such as the skill of
the stoker, and the size of the fuel. In the latter case, lump
coal, having the same thickness of bed on the fire bars as that
given to slack, will permit more air to pass through it than
the slack, and this excess of air lowers the temperature.
If, on the other hand, an insufficient supply of air is admitted,’
then there is a loss of heat by incomplete combustion. Some
boilers are so constructed that the proper amount of air cannot
be regulated and consequently a superior coal burnt in such
an apparatus may give a worse result than that of an inferior
coal burnt in a properly constructed boiler. It is not possible
to arrive at the value of a fuel by analysis alone. Analysis
may show the heating power of a fuel, the moisture, ash,
poate matter and fusibility of the ash: but it does not give

34 | COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

an idea in figures of the injurious effect of the moisture and
ash, what volatile matter is wasted in a given furnace, the
effect of the size of coal and what heat is lost by a low efficiency
of a boiler or improper manipulation of the fire.

The unavoidable losses of heat may be put down to the
heat lost by converting the moisture contained in the coal into
steam, also that in the air used in burning it, and in addition
heating the steam thus formed to the temperaure at which it
leaves the stack. Then there is the heat necessary to raise to the
stack temperature, the carbonic acid gas formed by burning
the carbon, the sulphurous acid gas from burning the sulphur,
the nitrogen of the air after the oxygen has been used up,
and the excess of air admitted into the furnace. Further
losses are made through the heat of the ashes removed from
the ashpit, as well as from the carbon remaining in the ashes,
and through radiation from boilers and walls, which may be
reduced by careful construction and covering, but can never
be entirely eliminated. The losses that may be more or less
avoided are :—

Ist. Those due to incomplete combustion as shown by the
presence of smoke and carbon mon-oxide in the flue gases, and
unconsumed coal in the ashes. The loss resulting from smoke
is absolute, it is not only so much fuel gone to waste, but has
required a certain amount of heat to raise it to the necessary
temperature to escape with the flue gases: the actual waste is,
however, comparatively insignificant and not nearly so much
as is generally supposed. The loss of efficiency due to the
escape of carbon mon-oxide on account of Ilb. of carbon is the
difference between 4400 B.T.U. when burnt to carbon mon-ox-
ide, and 14,650 B.T.U., when one pound of carbon is burnt
to carbon dioxide, or 10,100 B.T.U. more, i.e., 69.28 per
cent. The loss of coal in the ashes may be due to the original
small size of the coal, or the subsequent decrepitation, which
results in more or less of it dropping through the grate. This
may be somewhat reduced by skilful manipulation of the fire.
Small quantities of unconsumed hydrogen, or moist gas, may
also escape up the stack. ;

2nd. Loss from excess of air. Air is composed of :—
By volume. By weight.

Oxygen i ee 23.6
Nitrogen; < ::'... 0 geen 76.4
100.0 100.0

_ To burn Ib. of the following substances requires the cor-
responding weight or volume of air :—

pie ob glam ace eee tr a, a ee ee ee ee ee a

HEAT LOSSES. 35
Air in Air in
lbs. cub. ft.
at 62deg.

mvaroger to water 2.03. 0.0... << 33.9 444
Garbon to carbon mon- pasado Beye ee Aa a § 75
Carbon to carbon dioxide .. .... .. 11.3 148
Carbon mon-oxide to carbon dioxide.. 2.41 32
Marsh gas to water and carbon dioxide 16.9 San
Sulphur to sulphurous acid .. .... 4.25 56

For approximate calculation of the weight of air required for

combustion of coal the following formula may be used :—
Weight of air=12C +54 (H—(0 +8) ).

where C= carbon, H=hydrogen and O= oxygen in the fuel.

The O+8 gives the weight in pounds of hydrogen rendered

inert by the oxygen of the fuel, and which therefore has to be

deducted, for—

at) oe «16, therefore H' :'O +2 L : 8.

When we consider that the oxygen in the air is mixed with
nearly four times its volume of nitrogen, which tends to sepa-
rate it from the fuel, we cannot expect all the individual atoms
of oxygen to unite with their proportion of carbon or hydro-
gen in the fuel, so we have to add an excess of air. This
excess will vary greatly in different cases from between 50 to
300 per cent. The loss due to excess of air will depend on the
quantity of unused air that becomes heated and escapes, and
also upon the amount of moisture in the air.

3rd. The loss resulting from too great a temperature of
the escaping gases is one of the most important factors in fuel
efficiency. It is largely due to the design of the boiler, etc. ;
but is also influenced by the air supply and rate of combustion.
To keep the air supply as low as possible so as to obtain the
greatest efficiency, requires the greatest care and attention on
the part of the stoker; the fire would be apt to be dull and
there would be practical difficulties in maintaining it under
varying conditions of demand.

4th. Loss of heat by removing ashes at too high a tem-
perature. This can be greatly reduced with care.

5th. Loss by radiation. This may be lessened by increas-
ing the thickness of walls and covering all exposed portions of
the boiler.

A thin fire increases loss due to excess of air, but de-
creases that due to smoke and incomplete combustion. On
the other hand, a thick fire reduces the excess of air, but in-
creases the loss due to smoke and escaping combustible gases.

Different kinds of coals give best results when burnt under
conditions suited to them, consequently when several classes
of coal are being tested with a particular boiler, though the
comparative tests may be satisfactory so far as that boiler is

36 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

concerned, yet some of the coals may not show to their best
advantage, simply because the boiler is not ‘suitable for them.
To get the best effect out of coal, it must be burnt at a certain
rate per square foot of grate per ‘hour. In order to burn some
coals to the best advantage the grate area would be so large
as to put it out of the question for certain purposes, such as
locomotive work. Two coals may have the same theoretical
heating value, and yet the useful effect for steaming purposes
may be different, according to the ratio of fixed carbon to
volatile hydroc ‘arbons. Anthracite disintegrates slowly ; semi-
anthracite quicker, while with bituminous coal it is almost in-
stantaneous.

Different coals should be compared under the conditions
they are to be used, so that they shall be subject to similar
losses; otherwise it is impossible to make suitable allowances,
as in the case of locomotive tests for variations in grades,
curves, loads, number of vehicles, length of train. speed, stop-
pages, weather, quality of water, individuality of the engine-
driver, stoker, ete.

Coals may sometimes be mutually improved by blending
them in proper proportions. For instance, with two coking
coals, one may not contain sufficient volatile matter to fuse
properly, while another may contain so much as to make the
coke too porous. For steaming purposes one available coal
may burn too fiercely and have too much volatile hydrocarbon,
while another may burn too sluggishly; it may be cheaper
to mix these than to obtain a coal more suitable in itself from
a distance. The gas from one coal may help to keep the other
alight, and the coking properties of another may prevent much
small coal from falling between the fire bars.

To ascertain the calorific power of a coal when burnt under
a boiler, one must determine the quantity of water evaporated
in pounds. by one pound of fuel. The number of calories lost
in the gases, by radiation and drawn with the ashes, must also
be known. The total quantity of heat developed by the com-
bustion of the fuel must be determined in order to be able to

calculate the percentage of heat usefully employed. J. Holl-
day* says, draw all the fuel used to heat the water in the
boiler to 212 deg. F., and light up the fresh fuel with 20lb.

dry wood; this kindling wood need not be taken into consider-
ation, as the heat developed by it is more than balanced by the
loss of heat from the boiler during the operation of drawing
the fire. Each charge of fuel is car refully weighed—say 5001b.

of coal for each 25 sq. ft. of grate efully mix the fuel
beforehand to secure uniformity, and note how often the fur-

“Boiler Experiments and Fuel Economy (Min. and Pro.
I.C.E., Vol. xcii., page 336, [1887-88.] )

ee

- ==,

;
i
}

1
rs

SIZE OF COAL. 37

nave is charged, to show the comparative labour for each
kind of fuel. Carefully measure the quantities of fuel and
water (the latter in a tested water meter), consumed per square
foot of fire grate per hour, also the heating surface of the
boiler. A certain. proportion of the fuel drawn from the
fires at the end of the trial is assumed to be good, and its
weight deducted from the total fuel supplied. The level of the
water in the boiler should be the same at the end as at the be-
oinning of the test. The feed water should be kept as far as
possible at the same temperature to avoid subsequent correc-
tions, and the feed pump should work regularly. A trial
should continue for at least a day on account of irregularities
that may cause errors. For ultimate comparisons of fuels, the
results should be corrected for moisture in the steam and in the
fuel. Other tests are necessary to ascertain whether the
proper quantity of air has been admitted for combustion of the
fuel, determined by the chemical composition of the gases as
they leave the boilers.

We must remember that coal is seldom burnt as carefully
in practice as it is for tests. The engineer wants to get as
much steam as possible out of his boiler, and does not always
give the coal time to burn properly or economically, so when
comparing results, we must consider whether the coal is to be
made to fit the work, or the work to fit the coal. Also it must
be borne in mind that the returns from careful tests are no
criterion as to the work the coal will do when subject to care-
less everyday usage.

Size of Coal.

For commercial purposes, coal is classified according to
its size, but all collieries do not produce the same classes.
Shovel-filled, or ‘‘shandygaft,’’ is the run-of-mine coal as
broken at the faces. Fork filled, is coal filled into
skips at the face with a fork: such a fork has about 10 tines,
say an inch and a quarter apart. TF ork-filled coal has much of
the slack separated out, which slack is shoveled on one side
till required by the colliery owners. The miners are not paid
directly for this slack, but as compensation they are paid at a
higher rate for fork-filled coal. Since this might encourage
some men to fill in an undue proportion of slack with the
forked coal, in order to increase their tonnage, the allowable
percentage of slack in fork-filled coal is limited to ten per
cent. The weighmen, by experience, can soon tell if this is
exceeded, so if the skips of one man show that he is trying to
vain a point, they are put on one side and tested; if the percent-
age of slack has been exceeded then that miner has to seek
work elsewhere. Large, lump, round, or screened coal is that
which passes over bars placed #in. apart; though at some col-

38 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

lieries the distance apart is greater. It is cleaner than fork-
filled coal, as the slack has a better opportunity of being
separated. Lump coal is better for transport, for although it
breaks up to a certain extent during handling, still the pro-
portion of fine coal is not excessive. Lump coal has to be
broken up before being used, and in so doing a certain amount
of small coal is produced, so some users prefer unscreened, as
not only being cheaper, but saving time and trouble in break-
ing up the lumps. Slack, small, or fine coal are synonymous
terms for coal that passes through the screens. Nuts is a
name given to coal that passes between screen bars #in. apart,
and oven screens with 3-16in. mesh; it is chiefly made for
mechanical stokers. ‘‘Duft’’ is the coal that is left after the -
separation of the large coal and nuts; it is largely used at
some collieries for converting into coke. Bunker coal may be
unscreened, but more often it is small.

CHAPTER IIT.

[RREGULARITIES IN CoaL SraAms.

Coal seams may have their regularity interfered with by
causes prior to their formation; while they were being formed;
or subsequent to their formation. The first case is illustrated
by irregularities in the original floor. The second by wash-
outs in the seam due to ancient creeks; also by partings and
bands due to floods and submergence. The third case is illus-
trated by rolls, which may thin and thicken the coal locally,
due to earth stresses; also by faults and dykes, or laccolites.
The throw of a fault may be insignificant, or may be over.
two hundred feet, necessitating long stone-drifts, or even new
shafts, and a material alteration in the laying out of a mine.
In the case of intrusion by igneous rocks, the coal may be
coked or cindered over a considerable area. The difference be-
tween coked and cindered coal is that the former retains about
two or three per cent. of volatile hydrocarbons, while the:
latter is not much better than an ash. Cindered coal, besides
being worthless, has a further disadvantage, inasmuch as it is
often harder to work than the dyke rock itself. This dyke
rock in the Southern coalfield, so frequently met with in some
of the collieries, is generally considered to be a dolerite, but
it is so altered, and is usually bleached by the coal, that it has
not yet been properly determined.

In some districts coal seams are much disturbed by faults.
As seams are generally more horizontal than vertical, coal
miners look for the displaced portion overhead or underfoot,
and call it an up-throw or down-throw accordingly. Such
faults may be divided into two sorts, normal and reversed. The
former is shown in Fig. 15, where that portion of the seam on
the hanging wall side of the fault is lower down than that
on the footwall side. If the fault has a flat angle, it. may
have the effect of causing a considerable area parallel to the
strike of the fault to be wanting in coal, as at (a). With a re-
versed fault, as shown in Fig. 16, the seam on the hanging
wall side of the fault is higher than that on the footwall side ;
the seam overlaps itself, so that if a borehole be sunk through
the seam near the fault, it would appear as if there were two

49 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

a

Fig. 15.
Normal Fault.

Fig. 18.
Normal Fault, with sides
dipping towards each other.

Fig. 21.
Sides dip in same diree-
tion upwards.

ie

Fig. 24,
Apparent Heave
due to Throw.

Fig. 16. Fig. 17.
Reversed Fault. Vertical Fault.

Fig. 19. Fig. 20.

oS
Reversed Fault, with Sides dip away from
sides dipping from each other.

each other.

Fig. 23.
. .- * . vy, . . . S
Sides dip in same direc Variations in throw of a

tion downwards. Fault in folded strata.
Fig. 25. Fig. 26.
Throw does not Apparent Heave
show apparent due to Throw.

Heave,

FAULTS. 41

seams. It is naturally an important matter to know whether
to search for the lost portion of a seam above or below the line
where it is lost. Normal faults are of more frequent occur-
rence than reversed faults. <A rule to find the lost portion of
a faulted seam, when the fault is a normal one, is to follow
the larger angle made by the intersection of the seam with the
fault. Thus in Fig. 15. if the fault is first met with in the
roof look for the lost portion under foot on the other side of
the fault; or if the fault is first met with in the floor, search
for the lost portion overhead. With vertical faults (Fig. 17),
this rule is indefinite. Unfortunately one cannot tell by merely
observing a.fault at the point where it is struck, whether it is
a normal or reversed fault. If the latter, then this rule does
not hold good.

Sometimes a seam and adjoining beds are bent up on one
side of a fault and down on the other (Fig. 18), in which case
they wedge out, instead of being cut off straight. Miners take
this as an indication of what direction to go, in order to find
the lost portion of a seam, and follow the bent end near the
fault; but if the fault has taken place in a fractured fold, as in
Figs. 20, 21, and 22, even though normal, or if it is a reversed
fault (Fig. 19), this indication may lead one astray. The
safest rule is to note the relative positions of the
rocks faulted when they are sufficiently distinctive in
character. (Nig: 17). Here, again, one must be
cautious, for beds may be locally thickened or thinned
out so that they are not recognised; or may be con-
founded with other, but somewhat similar, beds. If the sedi-
mentary rocks contain an eruptive among them, it cannot be
relied on too much, on account of its liability to irregularities.

A series of parallel faults may cause the seam to out-
crop at the surface several times, which may at first lead people
to think each outcrop is a separate seam.

To distinguish between a true reversed fault and a fold
fault; fold faults are only found in regions of folding accom-
panied by other phenomena, such as harmonic second class
folds, cleavage, etc., and they always have the same strike as
the undisturbed folds. Fold faults are more frequent than
reversed faults, which are only local in character, and have
no relation to folds of the strata.. With fold faults the plane
of dislocation is generally steeper, and always dip in the same
direction as the strata, which is not necessary with true faults.

A fault plane may be occupied by broken country or clay,
or a dyke rock. In either case the coal near a fault is gene-
rally inferior to that further from it, being broken and dirty,
or if near a dyke coked or cindered. A fault does not have
the same displacement all along its course: its greatest dis-

42 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

placement is generally about the centre, and it dies out into
nothing at the ends; or if the fault cuts across folded country,
there may be neutral points along its strike where there is no
displacement. (See Fig. 23).

Where a seam is tilted up at an angle, and a fault cuts
across its strike the broken portions of the seam on the same
horizon may appear to have a lateral displacement. The seam
may really have been heaved to one side, or the difference in
position may be due to a throw. The effect of variations in —
the dip and direction of a seam that is thrown, on the lateral
position of the displaced parts when worn down to the same
level, may be seen by referring to Figs. 24, 25, and 26. The
probability is that pure throws and pure heaves seldom occur,
but that most faults are a combination of the two, in which
the effect of one may ke more pronounced than the other.

CHAPTER IV.

VENTILATION.

The ventilation of a colliery is of vital importance to those
working underground: Air is made up of approximately 79
per cent. of nitrogen by volume and 21 per cent. of oxygen;
but in nature it also contains a small amount of moisture and
from 0.03 to 0.04 per cent. of carbon dioxide. A cubic foot of
air is 775 times lighter than water. At 32deg. F. it weighs
0.080721lb.: it expands 1 volume in 460 for every degree Fah-
renheit.

1600 cubic ft. of air weighs 8llbs.

1000 cubic ft. of CO, weighs 124lbs.

1000 cubic ft. of CH, weighs 45-22lbs.

The amount of oxygen in the air diminishes more rapidly
in coal than in metal mines, as there is a larger surface ex-
posed to oxidation in Lroportion to the ventilation current.
The amount of air required by law in New South Wales is 100
cubic feet of air per minute for each man, boy and horse.

Air should not contain less than 0.5 per cent. of the nor-
mal amount of oxygen.

A man inhales about three times as much air when in
motion or at work than when at rest.

Carbon dioxide (COs) has neither taste, colour nor smell.
Among miners. it is known as ‘‘choke damp’’ or ‘‘black
damp,’’ but in mines the gas is never pure, aud is said to have
a smell; this, however, is due to the presence of hydrocarbons.
According to most authorities air containing more than 0.1 per
cent. of COs is unfit for respiration; the effects of it, however,
are not very noticeable until the proportion reaches 3. per
cent., when the depth of respiration is slightly increased. At
5 per cent. there is a marked panting while at rest. At 7 to 8
per cent. there is great oppression and painful panting. With |
10 per cent. the difficulty becomes severe, while a slight in-
crease of COs produces unconsciousness and death. When
the air extinguishes a lighted candle one should take it as an
indication that the air is unfit to support life. The amount of
COs that is. sufficient to extinguish a flame depends partly on
the nature of the illuminant and partly on the amount of

44 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

oxygen present, for an increase of COs displaces a certain per-
centage of oxygen; from 5 to 14 per cent. of COs is said to
extinguish a candle flame, and 58 per cent. will put out a
hydrogen flame. A man at work will produce 2.10 cubie ft.
CO, per hour. Choke damp, due to the oxidation of coal, may
continue to be given off long after any fire damp has been
drained away. It may also be formed by underground fires
with free access of air. Its presence is generally determined
by the failure of lights to burn well; it may also be tested by
aspirating air through lime or baryta water.

Carbon dioxide being incapable of supporting life is irre-
spirable, the arterial blood rapidly becomes venous; besides,
it is in itself a narcotic poison. A man who finds himself in an
atmosphere containing too much COs breathes deeper and
more frequently, the slightest exertion causes panting, he gets
a headache with great pressure in the temples, becomes giddy,
drowsy, loses muscular power; there is profuse perspiration and
nausea, singing in the ears and a pungent sensation in the
nose, and finally insensibility, culminating in death, if the
sufferer is not removed and resuscitated. It must be noted
that death need not result, even though a man has been un-
conscious for some time, if he is removed to fresh air and arti-
ficial respiration be resorted to.

Carbon monoxide (CO) or ‘‘white damp,’’ is a very in-
sidious poison. Its presence in collieries is due to incomplete
combustion during fires or explosions. It has a sweet, deli-
cate odor: it does not extinguish lamps ag it is inflammable,
but it is not explosive until the proportion of CO is over 15.
per cent.

Under ordinary conditions of breathing the oxygen of the
air is absorbed by the blood and forms an unstable chemi-
cal compound with the red colouring matter (hemo-
globin) of the corpuscles, which is utilised by _ the
body. Carbon monoxide is poisonous, its poisonous
character being due to its chemical avidity for hwemo-.
globin, which is stated to be 200 to 250 times greater
than that of oxygen. As soon as the blood is saturated with
CO, which forms carboxy-hemoglobin, and is very stable, it.
ceases to take up any further oxygen from the air. Experiment
shows that only 60 per cent. of inhaled CO is actually absorbed
by the blood. Bad symptoms are produced where only 0.05
per cent. is present in the air, while death results with from.
9.3 to 1 per cent. When CO accumulates in the blood to 30
per cent., it causes giddiness, swelling of the veins of the
forehead, palpitation, shortness of breath and weakness of
sight. At about 50 per cent. a man begins to lose power over
his legs, he becomes unconscious, and at 79 per cent. death
occurs. As helplessness comes before unconsciousness, a suf-

bd

SYMPTOMS OF CARBON MON-OXIDE POISONING. 45

ferer should take warning from the preliminary symptoms.
When 0.06 per cent. CO is present in the air it will cause the
blood to accumulate 30 per cent. after an hour and a half: 0.1
per cent- causes helplessness in about an hour: with 0.3 per
cent. the blood will be saturated in half an hour; with one
per cent. saturation of the blood takes place in five or six
minutes. Characteristic of death by carbon mon-oxide is the
rose-red life-like appearance of the corpse; before death, how-
ever, the skin is dusky except where more or less extended
patches of bright colour make their appearance on the body,
while the lips and extremities are blue. After death the eyes
are bright and staring, the pupils dilated, and the jaws fixed.
It takes a considerable time to get rid of carbon mon-oxide
from the blood, which is probably done by converting it into
‘rarbon dioxide; if a man has absorbed much into his system,
resuscitation may be impossible. The removal of carbon mon-
oxide from the blood proceeds five times as rapidly with pure
oxygen as with fresh air, according to Dr. Haldane*. The
amount of oxygen to be inhaled by a person necessarily de-
pends on the quantity of carbon mon-oxide absorbed. Dr.
Haldane recommends the breathing of oxygen for an average
of 10 minutes, which would consume about two cubic feet. A
rough method of obtaining oxygen in case of emergency is to
heat potassium chlorate, which readily yields up its oxygen.
Mice are sometimes kept at mines for the purpose of testing

for CO, as they are peculiarly susceptible to its poisoning ef-

fects, since a mouse respires 20 times quicker than a man, and
consequently exhibits symptoms of blood saturation more
rapidly. The white variety used for pets are generally kept,
as they are more delicate than the ordinary mouse and are
more readily observed with a bad hght. As soon as a mouse
becomes incapable of motion, due to the presence of carbon
mon-oxide, the air should be considered dangerous to man.
After damp is a mixture of the gases resulting from an
explosion, and consists of carbon dioxide, carbon mon-oxide,
nitrogen and water. There are more deaths due to suffocation
and poison by carbon mon-oxide in after damp than to injuries
by violence and burns the result of an explosion. A man suffers
severely when recovering from poisoning by after damp, and
may succumb days afterwards from the effects. Drs. D. Macaulay
and L. G. Irvinet lay great stress on the fact that “‘gassing”’ is
a shock to the system, and that shock is characterised by three
important symptoms. First, weakening of the heart’s action;

*Causes of Death in Colliery Explosions, and Underground
Fires. London, 1896. By authority.
+Safety Measures in Mining. (Joul. Chem. Met. and

Min. Soe. of South Africa, Nov., 1905.)

46 COALFIELDS. AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

second, general exhaustion of the nerve centres; third, lower-
ing of the body temperature. Under these conditions the
popular remedies for all cases of insensibility, viz. , treating
externally with cold water and internally with whisky, is
radically wrong. The lowering of the temperature of the
body is not only due to shock, but also to the fact that CO and
COs directly affect the oxygenation of the blood, so every
effort should be taken to raise the temperature of the body.
As alcohol has been proved to increase shock, its use should
also be avoided. In every case of gassing, where the act of
swallowing is voluntarily possible, an emetic should be at
once administered. The advantage of emptying the stomach,
and of emptying the lungs of mucus and of any unabsorbed
gas in their ultimate recesses, which the act of vomiting does
more effectively than any voluntary effort, more than counter-
balance any momentary depressing effect of the emetic. In
every case of gassing, which is so profound as to cause deep
coma and arrest the breathing, artificial respiration must be
started immediately and persevered in so long as there are any
indications of life:

Methane, light carburetted hydrogen, marsh gas or fire
damp.—Strictly speaking. fire damp is a mixture of gases, the
largest proportion beine CH,, with which is associated other
hydrocarbons, such as olefiant gas (C5H, i), hydrogen, carbon
dioxide, oxygen, and nitrogen. This gas is held in the pores
of the coal in more or less high tension, from which it issues
with a hissing noise. Blowers are more or less steady dis-
charges of gas from coal for a long time; in some places the
pressure from blowers has been measured and found to be as
high as 900Ibs. per square inch. In such cases of high pres-
sure a fall in the barometer can have but little influence, for
supposing the fall was equal to one inch of the water gauge,
which would be exceptional, this only means 5.2lb. per square
foot or 11-288ths of a pound on the square inch, so the effect
on the gas issuing from the coal can only be very trifling.
Atmospheric changes, however, affect fire damp in goaves.
We occasionally hear of cases "where death has occurred in
houses. due to an escape of gas. Methane is not an inherent
poison ; it is simply a non-supporter_ of life, causing suffoca-
tion; but illuminating gas contains in admixture about 5 > per
cent. of carbon mon-oxide, which is decidedly poisonous. In
coal mines the men are warned of the presence of small quan-

.tities of gas by the blue halo round the flame of their lamps.
Fire damp is ignited by a flame as both its constituent elements,

carbon and hydrogen, unite with oxygen: 7 to 8 per cent. in
air free from dust becomes explosive, “with 10 to 12 per cent.
the explosion attains its maximum, with 20 per cent. the mix-
ture no longer explodes, but extinguishes a flame plunged

ite pee

FIRE DAMP. 47

into it. The combustion of 1 cub. ft. of methane renders
about 40 cub: ft. of air unfit for respiration. The ignition of
fire damp has been variously determined as 650deg. C. and
780deg. C. Asa rule no ignition is produced by a glowing
iron or an occasional spark caused by striking a steel tool
against some hard substance, but a flame or electric spark, or
a series of sparks is necessary. This is said to be due to the
fact that the gas requires time to attain ignition temperature,
and that with limited heat the gas is first warmed, then
ascends before the ignition temperaure is reached.

CHAPTER V.

QUEENSLAND.

The total output of Queensland coal for 1909 was 756,577
tons, valued at £270,726, or 7/1? per ton. The three chief pro-
ducing districts are: Ist, ipawith and Darling Downs, with a
yield ‘of 642,864 tons; Wide Bay and Mary borough (Burrum)
with an output of 92 13; and the Rockhampton and. Central
district (Dew son Mackenzie), yielding 21,007 tons.

Some of the Queensland coal measures belong to the
Mesozoic area: these include the Styx and Burrum coalfields
of the Lower Trias-Jura series, and the Ipswich, Callide and
Stanwell coalfields of the Upper Trias-Jura series. The
Paleozoic coal measures are comprised in the Upper and
Lower Bowen series, the highest members of the Permo-Car
boniferous system. "The coalfields that belong to the Palo-
zoic coal measures are those of the Upper Bowen of Clermont
(Blair Athol) and Tolmies, and the Lower Bowen of the Daw-
son and Mackenzie Rivers.

The coal export trade of Queensland is very small and
irregular, the imports from New South Wales being greatly in
excess.

The Dawson-Mackenzie coalfields belong to the Lower
Bowen series. According to B. Dunstant there 3 is an immense
area of country on either side of the Central Railway Line,
north and south, which contains coal measures of great
economic value. Of the 7000 square miles of country which
have been examined, there are about 5000 square miles pos-
sibly coal-bearing, which by no means represents the limit of
the country supposed or known to be coal-bearing, as both to
the north and south of the area examined coal has. been found
in numerous places. To the south the extension of the Daw-
son coal measures might be continued close to the Western
Railway line, and to the north the measures might continue
uninterruptedly up the Isaac River to the Bowen River dis-

+Geology of the Dawson and Mackenzie Rivers, with Spe-
cial Reference to the Occurrence of Anthracitic Coal. (By
Authority, Brisbane, 1901.)

QUEENSLAND, COAL FIELDS. 49

trict. In the area of 5000 square miles of coal bearing country,
outcrops of anthracite coal occur in two localities 100 miles
apart. The anthracitic character of the coal has been caused
by the general contortion of the coal measures. The first coal
seam in the Dawson-Mackenzie valley was discovered in 1901,
about 40 miles south of the Central line. W. E. Cameron
writes* :—*‘The fact that coals of high steaming character
have been found at such widely separated parts (Walker’s
Creek being some 220 miles from the coal beds of the Dawson),
and that the beds are continuous between the two places, give
a promising forecast for the great resources of this portion of
Queensland in high class steaming coal.”’

The three chief properties on this field are the Bluff,
Mammoth and Dawson River. The Bluff colliery was the first
to become an active producer. There are several coal seams
in this field. One bore, sunk to a total depth of 520ft. 6in.,
struck 8ft. of soft coal at 52ft.; 14ft. of coal at 264ft.; 10ft.
of coal at 410ft-; 2ft. of coal at 422ft.; and 3ft. of coal at
429ft. At the Mammoth Colliery a seam 24ft. thick has been
struck.

The mean of several analysis right across the main coal
seam on the Dawson River, which was 10ft. thick, gave :—

Moisture. Vol. H. Carb. Fixed Carb. Ash. Sulphur. Sp. Grv.
3.79 12.98 78.45 4.84 trace. 1.42

Some of the Dawson-Mackenzie anthracite is very friable,
and does not carry well. It is rather slow in lighting, but is
smokeless, and gives an intense heat. The ash clinkers and
clogs the fire bars, making it impossible to keep up a full
head of steam, but being brittle it is easily removed. Tests
made by C. B. MacDonald, the Coal Inspector for the Queens-
land Railway Department, showed that 1lb. of this coal evapo-
rated 9-4 and 9.7lb. water at 212deg. Fahr. A trial of this
coal on H.M.S. ‘‘Wallaroo’’ required 4.11b. of coal per square
foot of grate surface per hour, and it took 3.2lb. coal to de-
velop 1 I.H.P.

The relation between the coal measures of the Upper and
Lower Bowen series is shown in the accompanying section,
Fig. 27, by B. Dunstan, taken from his report on the Geology
of the Dawson and Mackenzie Rivers.

. At Tolmies two coal seams known as the top and bottom
seam outcrop at the surface. The top seam being of inferior
quality has not been worked, but the bottom seam has been
prospected. These seams are of bituminous coal. and belong
to the Upper Bowen series. Analysis of the bottom seam by

*The Central Queensland (Dawson-Mackenzie) Coal Mea-
aha (Govt. Survey Rept. No- 200, Brisbane, 1903.)

ate
~
\ \\\ \" WN Wyo ee 8 YD SAM
\\\ \ RR » A \ Fae St ON, U3 A
QO eae
RTL SS ry °
AN \r NIRS
SSC Ae
SSE | INES
5 uamog asdaet = < a : snug Setl =\HEEEA 2 e
Sag | es
: ese g : a ND?
’ ; age
43979) 3NIHQ\ IAIN RIZNIWOV Ss ONVTATEV, FINA S21W 10) JONVY WV3q sags ate %D svISNOg UGE
( sa1as unos am) ;
NOILVWYO4 N3MOg Y3M0q oe Yadd( saiuas Ninagung
SNOIILIN) U3ddh snouasINO@kv)-OWdad NvINOAag a10qIW

JONVY Yawoog LNOWHN3T9

QUEENSLAND COAL FIELDS. 51

the Government Analyst, the samples being taken between
different bands of shale, are as follows:
Moisture. Vol. H. Carb. Fixed Carb. Ash.

te 21-1 43.6 28.2
aa 19:9 53.0 24.9
1.4 24.1 59.1 15.4

Coal was discovered at Blair Athol in the year 1864, while
a well was being sunk on the Blair Athol Freehold Block; but
for this, it is probable that coal would not have been dis-
covered, as there is absolutely no surface indication to show
that coal exists below.

*B. Dunstan says that, taking everything into con-
sideration, it is very probable the Blair Athol coal
basin contains at least five square miles as coal land, and
that future developments may indicate twice this area, as be-
ing possibly coal-bearing- The two coal seams already known
to occur are approximately about 1000 feet above sea level,
and vary in depth to about 120 feet below the surface. The
top seam averages about 4ft. 61m. in thickness; and the bottom
seam, 15ft. thick, is about 17ft. lower. These seams do not
appear to have suffered much local disturbance, alhough a
general elevation must have taken place over the whole district
to have brought the coal measures so many feet above sea level.

Analysis of coal from the top (A) seam and bottom (B)
seam are given below :—

Moisture. Vol. H. Carb. Fixed Carb. Ash. Sulp.
A. 5.6 32.4 57.5 4.5 trace.
B. 5 27 61 7 trace.

This coal does not coke satisfactorily: it also deteriorates
very much on exposure to the atmosphere. It has been used
for railway purposes for a considerable time: the coal burns
very freely and leaves but little ash, which is easily cleaned
from the fire bars, but the stokers complain that inferior coal
is mixed with the good coal, thus spoiling its value. Loco-
motive tests required 182lbs. Clermont coal per train ton mile-

Coal seams have been known to exist in the Nebo district
for many years. ‘Two prospecting shafts were sunk on coal in
the bed of Bee Creek in 1878, but no attempt has been made to
develop these coals; their distance from a port—the nearest
point of the coalfield being about 60 miles frem Mackay—and
the difficulties of transport across the coastal ranges, prevents
their being brought into market for the present.

So far no coal seams of workable thickness and quality
have been found in the Hazeldean and Black Rock Creek beds:
it is dirty and has been much disturbed and burnt by contem-
poraneous flows of basalt and subsequent intrusions of plu-

*The Permo-Carboniferous Coal Measures of Clermont and
Associated Formations. (By Authority, Brisbane, 1900).

52 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

tonic rocks. The geological age of these seams is a matter
of doubt; they are “probably equivalents of the Lower Fresh-
water series of the Lower Bowen Formation, which are Permo-
Carboniferous.
The Burrum coal basin belongs to the Lower Trias-Jura,
- The principal seams are the Bridge seam: about 220ft. lower is
the Lapham or Torbanlea (Beaufort?) seam, from about 2ft.
thick with 4in. band to 6ft. 2in. with a lft. 3in. band; some
35 to 40ft. lower is theBurrum seam, about 3ft. Tin. thick, also
with a band of varying thickness: 115ft. lower is the New or
Jewel seam, which is 2ft. 6in- of dirty coal; 95ft. below this is
the Watson seam, 4ft. thick; 270ft. lower the North Hartley
seam, 4ft. 2in.; and about 200ft. deeper, the Blenesk seam,
1ft. 6in. to 2ft. thick. All these seams have not been worked,
and some have been worked and abandoned; while others,
again, are good in some places but too small or dirty in
others. The Torbanlea seam is harder and better coal, especi-
ally for gas making purposes, than the Burrum seam. The
seams on the northern side of the Burrum River appear to
be more disturbed than those on the southern side, and they
are subject to several small faults. According to R. L. Jack
and R. Etheridge, jun.t: ‘‘This coal field extends along the
eastern coast line from Point Cartwr ight on the south at least
to Littabella Creek on the north, and stretches inland for an
average distance of 25 miles. Its area may be roughly esti-
mated at 3000 square miles.’
The following are analysis of coals from the Burrum Coal

Field, given by W. H. ene —

co Be eS ah iio ae Ole
Name of Seam. 2 3 = A a a] ; 5
aes =, 8 4 = S) ©
= ok oO r=) ®
Ss “ei jon
ss name Age
a8
Queensland Collieries’ ‘
Co.’s Seam ... ... 2.54 80.35 64.80 2.50 0.35 1.24 66.80
(grey)
Lapham or Torbanlea
Seam (Torbanlea
Colliery) bottom
BOAR. corks oe ot ade te See ea 28.0 - 61.60 8.00 0.40 1.31 69.60
(grey)
Ditto, top coal ... ... 2.295. 29.15 66.50 2.10 — 1.26 68.60
(grey)

Burrum Seam (Tor-
banlea Colliery) ... 2.
rz (reddish)
+tGeology of Queensland and New Guinea, p. 300 (Bris-
bane).

+The Burrum Coal Field (By Authority, Brisbane, 1886.)

75 98:00 65.55 $8.25 0.45 1.27- 68.60

on ae

QUEENSLAND COAL FIELDS. 53

The Burrum coal is a coking and gas making coal. Loeally
it is considered that the coal south of the Burrum River is
better suited for coke making than that on the north. At the
gas works, the amount of gas obtained in ordinary working
is 10.200 cubic feet per ton of coal. The coal being friable is
not very suitable for steaming purposes, as-it will not stand
handling. The iron in the clinker is heavy on the bars, and
the clinker sticks to the bars.

The Ipswich Formation consists of conglomerates, sand-
stones, and shales, with a probable thickness of some 2500ft.,
in which are 14 or 15 interbedded coal seams, which have been
worked at one time or another, estimated to cover an area of
about 12,000 square miles in south-eastern Queensland. The
Ipswich beds belong to the Upper Trias-Jura, and are known
to contain coal seams at many widely separated points over
this area, though they have been most extensively worked in
the neighbourhood of the town of Ipswich, which is twenty-
five miles south of Brisbane, by rail. There are several faults
of considerable throw around Ipswich, which generally run in a
N.W and S.E. direction, parallel with the axis of folding of
the Ipswich beds, with a down throw to the N.E. They have
no doubt been formed by the same movement which resulted
in the folding of the beds. The faulting and folding renders
mining more difficult than it otherwise would be, and also
renders any prediction from geological evidence as to their
existence in a workable condition, at points even a short dis-
tance apart, a matter of great uncertainty. According to W.
EK. Cameron,* from whose work much of the following informa-
tion has been obtained, the Ipswich coal may be divided into
four areas. (lst) North Ipswich, or Tivoli; (2nd), Blackstone
and Bundamba; (3rd), Swanbank and Cooneana; and (4th),
Dinmore.

The North Ipswich or Tivoli Coal Area.—Between the
basal conglomerates and the lowest worked seam in the North
Ipswich area are about 700ft. of carbonaceous and sandy shales,
with thin sandstones and conglomerates. They contain several
thin seams of coal that have been opened up at various points,
but none of which have so far proved of workable thickness.
Practically all the workable coal of this area has been obtained
between Mahi Creek on the west, to a little east of Sandy
Creek, measuring about three miles along the outcrop, and
about a mile and a half across: Seven seams outcrop, all of
which have been worked for coal. The perpendicular dis-

*Geology of the West Moreton or Ipswich Coal Field. (By
Authority. Brisbane, 1899). The West Moreton (Ipswich)
Coalfield, Second Report on, (By Authority, Brisbane, 1907).

54 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

tance between the lowest—the Benley—and the uppermost—
the Garden—seams, is about 900ft. The continuity of the
seams is broken by two large parallel faults running in a
N.W. and S.E. direction, with down throws to the N.E.,
known as the Tivoli and Bishop faults.

The Benley seam has 4ft. 3in. of workable coal,
with 6in. of stone; the coal is intermixed with a good deal of
sandy material. It is overlain by about 10ft. of shale, above
which there is another 3ft. of workable coal: below are 5ft. of
sandstone and thin coals, under which are another 4ft. of
workable coal.

The Bishop, or big seam, is 100 to 150ft. above the Benley
seam: it is 11ft. lin. thick, including two bands of stone; one
three inches, the other one inch thick.

The Boxwood seam, formerly thought to be the same as
the Bishop seam.

The Tivoli seam is about 120ft. above the Bishop seam: it
varies from 6ft. thick, including two bands of stone, 10 and 4
inches thick, to 2ft. 5in., including two bands, one lin., the
other half an inch thick.

The Waterstown, or Cuffe’s Lower Seam; is met with
about 240ft: above the Tivoli seam. It is 3ft. Tin. thick, in-
cluding two stone bands of one and two inches thick.

The Fiery, or Cuffe’s Upper Seam, so-called on account of
its burning with a bright flame, is about 50ft. above the
Waterstown seam, and is 3ft. 6in. thick. This, Mr. Cameron
considers, is the same as the Bell seam.

The Tantivy seam is about 230ft. above the Fiery seam.
The coal is rather dirty, but can be used for household purposes.

The Garden seam is from 100 to 150ft. above the Tantivy
seam, and is about 7ft. thick. The coal has a short fracture,
breaks up into small cubes, soils the fingers, and is full of
bright bituminous streaks.

The Coal Beds of Blackstone and Bundamba.—Coal seams
have been exposed over an area of about 12 square miles, lying
mainly to the south of the Brisbane to Ipswich railway line,
between Six Mile and Bundamba Creeks, and from there to
eight-miles east of Ipswich. At least seven well recognised
beds of coal have been found, of which six have been worked
at one time or another.

The Ipswich, or West Moreton coalfield, is at present the
chief producing coalfield of Queensland; it turns out more
than 75 per cent. of the total coal production of that State.
Owing to. the increased demand for this coal a few years ago, a
number of new Collieries started, especially along the southern
extension of the outcrop of the Aberdare seam. The demand,
however, was not equal to the possible output, with the result
that there was a glut on the market, prices went down, and

a

QUEENSLAND COAL FIELDS. 55

most of the pits were periodically idle. The Bundamba dis-
trict supplies over three-fourths of the coal turned out from
the West Moreton coalfield. The Aberdare seam furnishes
nearly 58 per cent. of the total production of the field, two-
thirds of its total coming from the four mines about Box Flat.
Another 213 per cent. is derived from the New Chum seam;
so these two seams provide the bulk of the coal from the
district. The cost of mining might be considerably decreased
were the areas held by one company greater, thus reducing the
aggregate cost of management, and laying out of the mines.

The West Moreton seam is 2ft. 3in. thick. Three hundred
and forty-five feet below this is the Aberdare seam, 13ft. 10in.
thick, including three stone bands 5in., 12in. and 6in. thick
respectively ; in addition there are smaller bands, leaving about
llft. of coal. As the seam is followed to the south, the lower
section of four feet of coal becomes thinner and of poorer
quality, while in the Aberdare mine, to the north, this section
was worked 5ft. in height, over a large area. The seam is
worked in two sections. In some cases the top 68in. are taken
down first, the bands of stone being picked out before filling.
The foot band in the floor is then left as a roof above the lower
rooms. In the other case, where the bottom coal, below a mix-
ture of coal and stone known as ‘‘The Badger,’’ is poor, the
top section is worked as before; then the band of stone is
stripped by yardage, after which the underlying coal, above
“‘the badger’? is lifted, that below ‘‘the badger’’ being left.
This seam furnishes the best steam coal in the district. The
Aberdare colliery was the first to open out on this seam, and
still takes the lead in output of any colliery in the State.
Other collieries working this seam are West Moreton, Bore-
hole, Fairbank, Box Flat, Bog Side, Mafeking, Bonnie Dun-
dee, New West Moreton, and Fernie Creek. The Box Flat col-
liery was the first to instal a coal-cutting machine on this field.

The Bluff, or Dirty seam, is from 116ft. to 185ft. below the
Aberdare, and consists of 30ft. of alternate stone and coal
bands. ‘The thickest band of coal is only about 2ft., and that
is of inferior quality. So far, this seam has not afforded a
workable section of coal in any portion of the field.

Stafford’s Four-foot-six seam is 296ft. below the Bluff. It
is easily recognised over the greater portion of the district from
the fact that it lies immediately under the first thick bed of
sandstone under the Aberdare seam. It generally shows about
four feet of clean coal at the bottom, above which are two
thin bands of stone, and two bands of coal, about 7 and 15in.
respectively. This seam was originally worked by the old
Rosehill, Borehole, and Braeside collieries, in workings long
since abandoned.

56 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

Other seams below Stafford’s Four-foot-six are known as
Bergin’s, Striped Bacon, Rob Roy, and Doby’s seams: They
have all been worked to some extent along the western fall
of the bed between Bundamba and Blackstone, but the work-
ings have been abandoned for some years. Lately two new
collieries have been opened up on coals occurring in these beds
on their eastern fall towards Six-mile Creek.

At Bundamba four seams, each from 3 to 4 feet of good
coal, have been met with, known as Braeside No. 1, Braeside
No. 2, Braeside No. 3, and Braeside No. 4, or hard coal: they
are 75, 40, and 140ft. apart respectively. Braeside No. 1 is
supposed to be identical with Bergin’s seam, in which case the
lower ones are, no doubt, the Striped Bacon, Rob Roy, and
Doby’s seams.

The Coal Beds at Swanbank and Cooneana.—Here there are
two seams, Swanbank No. 1, and Swanbank No. 2. The former
is considered by Mr. W. EK. Cameron, in his second report on
this field, to be a continuation of the Four-foot-six seam. It
has been worked to a small extent in the Swanbank Colliery.
The latter he looks upon as corresponding to the position of
Bergin’s seam about Blackstone. This seam has been worked
in the Swanbank and Denham collieries. At Perkins’ Free-
hold there is a seam 5ft. thick, including bands which are no
doubt the same as the Striped Bacon and Rhondda seams.

Coal Seams in the Neighbourhood of Dinmore.—This area
is bounded by Stafford’s Tunnel fault on the S.W., and the
Ebbw Vale fault on the N.E. There are three seams, New
Chum No. 1, New Chum No. 2, and New Chum No. 3. The
bottom coal of the New Chum No.1 seam is generally known
as the New Chum seam, and is the only one that has been exten-
sively worked in this district. It has been worked from a
number of vertical shafts in the Whitwood, Dinmore, New
Chum and Ebbw Vale mines. The New Chum No. | seam is
probably identical with the Striped Bacon and Rhondda
seams. ‘The section worked shows from 3ft. 8in. to 5ft. of
clean coal, separated by two bands of white stone with coal
between. Numerous faults have dislocated the seam, some of
them having over 100ft. displacement, which prove a very seri-
ous obstacle to the economical working of the coal.

The New Chum No. 2 seam, with about 5 feet of coal, has
been found by boring 74ft. below the New Chum bottom coal.
Apparently this has no representative on the Bundamba side.

The New Chum No. 3.seam is 68ft. below the New Chum

No. 2, and corresponds with the Braeside hard coal.

The old Aberdare seam is also found in this area, about
200ft. above the New Chum seam.

QUEENSLAND COAL. FIELDS. 57

The correlation of seams found in the different districts
has been no easy matter, owing to earth movements, and
changes in the strata and seams themselves.

Recently a commencement has been made to mine coal at
Mundah, a few milesfrom Brisbane. The seam is about 4ft.
6in. thick, of which about 3ft. is good ‘coal, mixed with two
bands.

The following analyses were made at the Government
Analyst’s office of samples from exhibits at the Queensland
International Exhibition of 1897 :—

Volatile Fixed
Locality Moisture Hydro- Carbon Ash Sulphur
carbon.
South of Bremer River,

Moreton District .. 1.65 30.52 60.52 7.20 1.101
North of Bremer River,

Moreton District .. 1.25 25.78 63.59 9.88 1.26

The coals from north of the Bremer River contain a higher
proportion of fixed carbon and ash than those from south of
the river. They cake well, giving an excellent coke, but are
nof, as a rule, so suitable for steam purposes. The coals from
south of the river have more volatile hydrocarbons, do not cake
well enough to give good coke, but are more suitable for
steaming purposes. The Ipswich coals are friable, and do not
bear carriage well; they also suffer from exposure to wet, so
that the harder varieties. though containing more ash, are
found in practice to be more economical, in consequence of the
smaller proportion of waste: but R. Wilson, who made several
tests with this coal, states that its friability does not seem to
interfere much with its steaming qualities. The tests carried
out on the Government s.s. ‘‘Otter’’? gave the following in-
formation :—

Amount of water Calorific Coal
evaporated perlb. value of consumed
of coal consumed each Ib. per
from and at 212 of coalas EHP.
deg. F. burned. per hour.
Aberdare seam (Blackstone) .. 8.027 7, 009.292 2.375
New Chum seam (Dinmore) .. 7.683 7,426.842 2.45
Waterstown seam (Ipswich) .. 7.0226 6,788.04 2.54
Bishop seam eter SSeS nay as 1,294.77 2.979
morrum Coal Field .. ...... 8 146 7,874.193 2.17]

According to A. C. Gregory* “The general character of
the coals found between W alloon and Warwick is that of
cannel coal. It does not cake in coking, gives a high per-
centage of gas, or oil and paraffin, according to its treatment

*Report on the Coal Deposits of the West Moreton and Dar-
ling Downs District, Brisbane: by Authority, 1876.

58 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

at a high or low temperature. Its hardness renders it very
suitable for export. It burns very freely, and leaves a soft,
white ash. From the small proportion of fixed carbon, and its
not caking, it does not produce good coke, but a charred coal,
which, however, burns well; consequently it is not well adapted
for blast furnaces, though well suited for reverberatory fur-
naces. As a steam coal it is best suited for stationary or
marine engines, the strong blast of locomotives being apt to
pin: through the tubes. It is a very high-class household
coal.”

An analysis of coal from Walloon shown at the Queens-
land International Exhibition of 1897 gave :—

Moisture Volatile Hydrocarbon Fixed Carbon Ash Sulphur
4.70 38.08 47.94 9.28... 1.60

The Stanwell coal field is a few miles 8.S.W. from Rock-
hampton; the town of Stanwell has a railway station on the
Central Queensland railway. D. Dunstant says that ‘‘ The
coal measures here occupy an area of about seventy square
miles, of which fifty would be quite useless for prospecting
purposes, the remainder being possibly coal bearing. The most.
important part of the measure is contained between Stanwell
and Bushley, but from this, the main area, branches spread out
in all directions.’’ Coal was first discovered here unexpectedly
by Mr. Petersen, while sinking a well in the bed of Quarry
Creek, on his selection. The coal found occurred in thin
seams, and was not too clean, so that there has been no en-
couragement to start mining on this field.

A hydrous or brown coal is found at Valentine Creek and
Waterpark Creek. W. E. Cameron? says that up to the pre-
sent thereisno evidence either stratigraphical or paleeontolo-
gical, to allow of the age of these beds being determined. On
the map accompanying the report they are put down provision-
ally as Trias-Jura. The coal is dull brownish-black, compact.
end finely laminated in structure, and breaks up on exposure
to the air into irregular lumps, with a subconchoidal fracture.
It ignites with difficulty, and burns with a smoky flame, giving
off a tarry odour. There are 63ft. of coal, with bands of sedi-
ment and black carbonaceous mud, alternating with each
other. Fully five-sixths of the strata passed through was coal,
some of which was much harder than others, notably two feet.

+The Mesozoic Coal Measures of Stanwell, and Associated
Formations (By Authority, Brisbane, 1898).

+The Coal Beds on Waterpark Creek, near Port Clinton (By
Authority, Brisbane, 1902).

ee ae a eee

en ie (ae

6 eS ye Oe ae ples = era a oa ld +" Ape =
‘a can i: = ii as Se) Go? gh
: |
Res QUEENSLAND COAL FIELDS. eg

wn a and five feet, 28ft. down. Raaiveis of Waterpark
al gave :—

EFrath ahatt‘on Valen- From outcrop on Water-

£3 tine Creek. park Creek.
ae : 10.25 ‘10.72
dro-
- eile com- 41.38 j 40.76 |
hon bustibles) 38.78 | 80.16 42.87 { 83.63
ee i 9.59 as 5.65
ee ree 1.16_ 7 1.20

ina

a

=

7
q
ay
*y
mh
*
coal 4
ava
y
*o
1

ij

sate i ah

x

CHAPTER VI.

New Sovurn WALES.

Coal was first discovered in New South Wales in August,
1797, at Coalcliff, north of Wollongong, and about a month
later it was discovered in the cliffs at Neweastle.

The total output and value of coal from the New Souta
Wales coalfields from the inception of coal mining to the end
of 1909 was 154,845,053 tons, worth £59,250,850. The largest
output was in 1908, when the tonnage amounted to 9,147,025.
The total output and value of coke from 1890 to 1909 was
2,223,900 tons, worth £1,602,807.

The total output and value of kerosene shale from 1865 to
1909 was 1,422,019 tons, worth £2,217,185.

The coal bearing rocks of New South Wales are classified
as follows :—*

: Maximum
Geological Age, Thickness. |

|

Character of Coal.

4. Tertiary, Eocene’ to Plio| About 10uft Brown coal or lignite.

cene........ |
2. Mesozoic, Triassic......... 2.500ft. Coal suitable for local use only.
3. Paleozoic— 13,000ft. (Good coal, suitable for gas making

and for household and steam
raising purposes.
Very inferior coal, with bands of

(a) Permo-carboniferous... |
| no value.

(b) Carboniferous................. 10,000.

|
|

_ _1. The Tertiary deposits of brown coal and lignite are of
limited extent in New South Wales, and occur mostly in the
deep alluvial leads. They have not been put to any commer-
clal use. By

_ 2. The Triassic coal measures are seen in the Clarence
River basin, which extends about 120 miles north and south,
while its greatest width is about 65 miles from east to west.
At least five coal seams have been discovered in the Lower
Clarence measures, varying in thickness from 2 to 37 feet,

_.*E. F. Pittman, ‘“‘The Mineral Resources of New South
Wales.”’ Published by authority: Sydney, 1901.

NEW SOUTH WALES COAL FIELDS. 4

but in every case they are largely made up of bands, and it is
a rare thing to find a layer of clean coal of more than one foot
in thickness between the bands. The percentage of ash is too
great to allow the fuel to be exported. But though of little
value in New South Wales, this coal basin extends to Queens-
land, where, at Ipswich, thick and valuable seams are worked
on an extensive scale. It is not known for certain whether
the Ipswich measures are equivalent to the Upper or Lower
Clarence series, though it is probable they are the latter.

3. Permo-Carboniferous Deposits.—These are the most
important productive coal seams of New South Wales. They
cover an estimated area of 24,000 to 28,000 square miles. Prof.
T. W. KE. David classifies these deposits as follows in descend-
ing order :—t

Thickness.
Upper or Newcastle coal measures .. .. .. .. .. .. 1200
Dempsey. series .. .. 2000
Middle, Tomago or East Maitland eal measures .. TOO
Upper Marine series .. .. . ear Se et OG
Lower or Greta coal- MUO RAIE eee Ce ett a aS E 130
Bor Maurine HOTICN: <2 cs ee oo cw Se ew 2S oe, 4800

The upper coal-measures are well developed in the neigh-
bourhood of Neweastle, in the northern coal field; Bulli, in
the southern or Illawarra coal field; and near Lithgow, in the
western coal field.

The following are the principal seams in the Upper coal-
measures near Newcastle in descending order :-—

The Wallarah or Bulli seam .. .......-. about 11ft. thick
The Great Northern seam ............ about 20ft. thick
The Fassifern seam .......-..«....-... about 24ft. thick
he Upper.Pilet seam .. 2.26) .. <2... about Th. thick
The Lower Pilot seam .. .. Fen vo vabout 10H: thick
The Australasian or C Edits seam. =.) 2 about: “ott: thick
The Yard seam .. . . .. about 3ft. thick
The Burwood or V Short tiie seam om 6ft. to 8ft. thick
The Nobbys seam .. . .. .- from dft. to 6ft. thick

The Dirty eee ep hts into two in places

from 6ft..to 10ft. thick

The Young W allsend seam .. .. about 10ft. thick
The Borehole seam... .- fron Att. tr 23ft., usually 8 to 9ft.
The Upper Sandgate seam .. ..... .. .. ‘about 63ft. thick
The Lower Sandgate seam .. .... .. -- about 114 ft. thick

t**Discovery of Glaciated Boulder at ye of Permo-
Carboniferous System, Lochinvar, N.S.W. Jour. Roy. Soc.,
N.S.W., Vol. xxxiii. (1899), p. 154.

62 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

In the Illawarra coal field the following seams occur in
descending order :—

The Bulli seam .. .. from 2 to 1lft. thick, usually 6 to it.
The Four feet <.°.. : .. about 4ft. thick
The rick 805 2h Seer as ahoust 14 ft. (several small seams)
The Eight feet .... oo a from st tor Sit, Thick
The Bottom .. ‘about Git. thick, including numerous bands

The Bulli seam is the only one that has been worked to
any consideable extent in the southern coalfield, the lower
seams, so far as prospected, being found to be slightly inferior.
It is the Bulli seam that was struck in the Cremorne bore near
Sydney.

The kerosene shale that occurs at Joadga Creek, Hartley
Vale, Katoomba, Capertee, etc., belong to the Upper coal-
measures.

The coal from the different districts varies considerably in
composition. That from Newcastle is most suitable for gas
making and household purposes, and contains the least amount
of ash. The coal from the southern and western fields is essen-
tially a steam coal. Some of the Southern coal makes good
coke, though it is rather high in ash, as the coal does not
lend itself to washing, the impurities being so finely dis-
seminated through it. Some of the western coal from Lithgow
also makes good coke after being washed.

The Dempsey series does not contain any productive coal.

The Middle or Tomago coal measures outcrop in the
neighbourhood of East Maitland and dip under the Dempsey
series and Upper coal-measures. The following are the prin-
cipal seams in descending order :—

The Top ot Donaldson’s seam .. .. .. from 4ft. to 6ft. thick
No. 2, Big Ben, or Tomago thick seam from 7ft. to 10ft. thick
No. 3 seam, -.2 Te OA a ee a 2 een br ele
No. 4 seam... .. 4 tC, a ORE IG, ee
No. 5 or Tomago thin. BOAR os G.. .. .- about 23ft. thick

Scotch Derry seam, probably an upper split of the
Rathluba seam .. about 9ft. to 10dft. thick, containing
numerous bands. .
The Rathluba seam .. from 4ft. to 11ft, usually about 5ft.
The Ironstone seam .. -- about 2ft. thick
The Morpeth seam .. from 4 to Sit. thick, with bands.
A rather dirty seam, scarcely workable.
Out of a total thickness of about 40ft. of coal in the
Middle coal-measures, about 20ft. have proved workable. It

is for the most part friable, and suitable rather for local use
than for export.

ae 4m FOE tm)

as
i.)

alle Wc i <atiteh con Tell ee ail ie

NEW SOUTH WALES COAL FIELDS. 63

The Lower or Greta coal measures occur between West
Maitland and Greta. There are two seams worked in these
measures, Viz.:— .

The Upper seam, varying between 14 and 32ft. thick.
The Lower seam, varying between 3 and 11ft. thick.

The average aggregate thickness of coal in these measures
has been estimated at about 20ft. The Greta seams are some-
times inclined at a considerable angle, as at East Greta,
where the dip is 45 degrees.

The Lower coal-measures have been recognised in the
extreme southern portion of the [llawarra coal-field; but so far
as prospected the seams do not appear to be workable under
present conditions.

The Ashford coal-field is a long narrow field, about a
quarter of a mile wide, north of Inverell, which appears to
belong to the Greta coal measures. It contains a 27ft. thick
seam, which dips at a high angle, and is much disturbed.
The quality of the coal appears to be good, but owing to the
field being in a somewhat remote part of the State, and not
connected with a railway, it remains unworked.

The Carboniferous coal measures occur in the neighbour-
pees of Stroud; the coal is, however, very inferior and of no
value.

The total contents of the New South Wales coal-fields of
Paleozoic age has been variously estimated ‘by different
authorities. The late Government Geologist, C. S. Wilkinson,
gives it as 78,000,000,000 tons of exploitable coal, in seams
not less than 2$ft. thick, within a depth of 4000ft., a deduction
of one-fifth being made for waste in the getting, ete. Accord-
ing to Prof. T. W. E. David,* in the gross quantity of coal, in
seams not less than 3ft. thick, and within a depth not greater
than 4000ft., there are between 130,000,000,000 and
150,000,000,000 tons. Mr. E. F. Pittman,t the present Govern-
ment Geologist, reckons there are at least 115,000,000,000 tons
of available coal, after deducting one-third of the gross quan-
tity of the coal for waste in getting, etc.

Professor David, who has made a special study of the New
South Wales coal-fields, considers? that as the coal in the
Cremorne bore, near Sydney, dips west at the rate of 110ft.
per mile, while the seams in the Blue Mountains dip east at
the rate of about 90ft. per mile (Fig. 28) the centre of the

*A ustralasian Association for the Advancement of Science,
1890, Vol. II., p. 461.

+Mineral Resources of New South Wales, p. 322.

Summary of our Present Knowledge of the Structure and
Origin of the Blue Mountains of New South Wales, Jour.
Roy. Soc. of N.S.W. (1896), xxx., 33.

64 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

basin is probably in the neighbourhood of Parramatta. The
Permo-carboniferous system of rocks is separated from the
Devonian by a strongly marked unconformity. After the
folding of the Carboniferous and Upper Devonian formations,
a great land building epoch in the history of the Australian
continent caused ranges to become established west of the
present site of the Blue Mountains; sediments derived from
the wearing down of the former then began to be deposited
in the shallow seas, extending from near Penrith to the con-
tinental shelf. These constituted the strata of the Lower
Marine Series (Permo-carboniferous), Prof. David continues,
“Swampy or lacustrian conditions succeeded, and the Greta
coal-measures were laid down over an area about two hundred
miles long, from north to south, and from thirty to forty
miles from east to west. A considerable subsidence ensued,
during which the waters of the Pacific penetrated to at least
as far inland as Mount Lambie, about seventy-two miles
inland from the present coast. The subsidence amounted to
a maximum of about five thousand feet in the Maitland
district, and two thousand five hundred feet in the Illawarra
district. The strata of this epoch belongs to the Upper Marine
Series. The cessation of the subsidence was accompanied by
voleanic eruptions, most extensively developed in the Kiama
neighbourhood, but represented also on a smaller scale by the
volcanic rocks near Rylston. Swampy conditions returned on
a larger scale than ever, and the Bulli-Newcastle coal measures
were formed in the Blue Mountains area, while in the New-
castle area, a middle group of coal measures (The Tomago
Series) was developed as well, being interstratified between
the top of the Upper Marine Series and the best of the
Dempsey beds, which underlie the Newcastle coal-measures.
The abundance of fossil trees referable to Azau carioxylon,t
many preserved in the form of stumps in situ in the formation
in which they grew, is clear proof that the conditions under
which the Neweastle-Bulli coal measures grew were terrestrial
rather than marine. The formation of ‘the last of the coal
seams of the Newcastle-Bulli series closes the history of the
Palzeozoic era in New South Wales.’’

For full details of the geology of the Northern coal-field,

the reader is referred to the excellent monograph by Prof.

T. W. E. David on ‘‘The Geology of the Hunter River Coal
Measures, New South Wales,’”’ recently published by the
Department of Mines and Agriculture.

tSince transferred by Mr. BE. A. N, Arber, of Cambridge
University, to the genus Dadoxylon.

4
-~
*
b
7
<
a

CHAPTER VII.

VICTORIA.

In Victoria bituminous coal occurs in the Mesozoic rocks,
while brown coal and lignite of the Tertiary era are found in
large quantities. So far no workable coal seams have been
found west of Port Phillip, notwithstanding several deep bore-

i

Cremorne x a = “
NL Borme es

eas
?
poe ee

}

Sr Rr fb miles ~ 0 8

N°i Bore
{AR Dep Mines (889. 1890)

- Moorebank. Liverpool

“Wo ualeg= === ===

k
=
4

nce

<2 P74 mnleg= 2 - e

Lithgow
fskhank Shaft

UPPER
DEVONIAN

66 COALFIELDS AND COLLIBPRIES OF AUSTRALIA.

holes that have been put down in the Mesozoic areas there.
Coal mining has been confined to South Gippsland, the total
output from which to the end of 1909 amounted to 3,054,987
tons, valued at £1,689,755. The output of coal for 1909 was
128,173 tons, valued at the pit’s mouth at £76,870, or 12/- per
ton. The principal mines, arranged in order of their pro-
duction, are the Jumbunna Coal Mine, Outtrim, Howitt and
British, Austral Coal, State Coal Mine, and Coal Creek Pro-
prietary.

The Victorian coal measures are generally much faulted
and subject to many variations of direction and rate of dip.
The coal seams are small, with the exception of the Mirboo
seam, which is about 56in. thick. The quality of Victorian
coal is not equal to that of the average New South Wales coal;
it also breaks up more readily, causing greater loss in carriage.
ae Victorian railways are the principal consumers of local
coal. |

Victoria is rich in Tertiary brown coals and lignites. Jas.
Stirling * states that at one locality, Maryvale, near Morwell,
a diamond drill bore, carried to a depth of 1010ft., passed
through seven beds of brown coal, three of which were 265ft.
6in., 227ft. 10in., and 166ft. lin. respectively. Two miles
south of Darnum 338ft. of brown coal was cut in a shaft at
60ft. from the surface. At Yarragon, several seams were cut
from lft. to 67ft. At Langridge Gully there is a seam 15ft.
thick; while at Narracan Creek Valley there is one 20ft. thick.
The Ferngrove seam is 40ft. thick. Between Moe and Morwell
there are seams 20, 53, 97 and 200 feet thick. At Hazelwood
there are seams 7, 10, 21 and 37 feet thick; while at Boolara
there is one 162ft. thick. Other deposits of brown coal, or
lignite, are known at Darlimurla, Tyers River, Toongabbie,
Thomson and Avon River Valleys, Calignee, Carrajung, Won
Wron, Mount Look-out near Bairnsdale, Bass River Valley
near Westernport, Port Phillip Bay (Mornington, Newport,
Altona Bay), Werribee River, Lal Lal, up to 82ft. thick, and
Dean’s Marsh.

The following are analyses of some of these coals :—

Volatile Fixed

Locality. Water. Matter. Carbon. Ash.
Nerragon 5.55 ..04 4. sabe 20.85 26.60 12.20
Fermprove is..s a5 Con Dee 35.11 34.55 5.80
Great Morwell Co... .. 28.00 30.17 36.95 4.87

Maryvale, near Morwell,

average of 382 samples 22.08 34.66 40.18 2.19

*Report. on the Brown Coals and Lignites of Victoria.
‘1001 ‘nies of Victoria. Progress Report, No. X., p. 78

a sg orn

ET ae eA OG 5 (8 i Nah NNN CP eR mer Ap

VICTORIAN COALFIELDS. 67
Volatile Fixed

Locality. Water. matter. carbon. Ash.
Mirboo, at Boolara .. 42.34 57.21 27.90 2.55
Lal Lal . ... -. 220380 15 t030 40 to 48 18 to 23

Dean’s Marsh .. .. .. 21.92 27.14 36.58 14.36

The destructive distillation of tar from the Great Morwell
Company’s coal gave :—

WV ater Ang ammonia...) aii ea ssa ss es 20.6
5 PL STL ca et a Aa a a 3.6
Carbolic oil .. .. . 14.0
Creosote ol] .. .. .. 6.0
Anthracene .. .. Oe peters se 10.7
Pitch and: coke .. .2 ~. 42.0

CHAPTER VIII.

Soutn AUSTRALIA.

South Australia can hardly be classed as a coal producing
sountry. The only coal find on which there has been any
attempt at mining, namely Leigh’s Creek, 3734; miles from
Adelaide, on the Great Northern railway line, is at present
idle. The coal measures are of Mesozoic age, being the
equivalent of the Ipswich coal measures of Queensland, which
are Trias-Jura. H. Y. L. Brown* writes: ‘‘The secondary
rocks which contain the coal bearing shales of Leigh’s Creek
appear to occupy deep basins, which have been eroded in the
softer parts of the older rocks, and which at one time formed
a chain of lakes of various sizes and irregular shapes, extend-—
ing northwards towards the region of Lake Eyre.’’ ks,
“The fossils are of a character indicating vegetable and
animal life of a kind which could have existed only in fresh
water.’’ The coal in its percentage of water resembles a
brown coal, but in other qualities it is more like a bituminous.
coal; it may be looked upon as intermediate between the two.
It breaks up very readily on exposure to the weather. Tests
made with this coal, both alone and mixed with Newcastle
(N.S.W.) coal, in the Government railway locomotives,
proved it to be unsuitable for that class of work; but it was
considered a useful coal for domestic requirements, as it gave |
little smoke and burnt out thoroughly. No. 1 bore, put down
on the edge of the basin, at 125ft. struck a 25ft. seam of coal;
at 150ft. was one foot of shale, and this was followed by brown
coal, shale and coal to 170ft., when blue clay-slate of Palzo-
zoic age was met with. No. 2 bore was sunk one and a half
miles from No. 1 bore, near the centre of the basin; at a
depth of 1496ft. 8in. a coal seam 47ft. 10in. was found; below
this, thin coal seams up to two and three feet were met with,
and at 1900ft. they bottomed on primary rock.

*Reports on the Coal-bearing Area in the Neighbourhood
of Leigh’s Creek, South Australia, 1891. By authority,
Adelaide.

VICTORIAN COALFIELDS. 69

The mean of several analyses taken at different depths of
the main seam struck in No. 2 bore is :—

Water at 212deg. F. Vol. Hydrocarbons. Fixed Carbon. Ash

17.45 26.99 41.48 14.12

At Kuntha Hill, 110 miles north of Hergott, three seams

have been proved, 2ft. 6in., 2ft., and 5in. thick. Analysis of
this coal gave :--

Water. Volatile matter, Fixed Carbon, Ash.

11.68 36.63 42.70 8.99

At Pidinga there is a 30ft. seam of lignite, but the quality
is not good enough for use as fuel.

CHAPTER IX.

WESTERN AUSTRALIA.

In this State coal is found of three different periods.

1. The Irwin River basin belongs to the Carboniferous.

period. The Carboniferous rocks occupy an area of about 200
square miles, but so far no workable coal seam has been dis-
covered; however, the bottom of the series has not been
reached by bore holes. The mean proximate analysis of six
samples of Irwin River coal gave :—
Moisture. Volatile Hydrocarbons. Fixed Carbon. Sulphur.
19.59 22.64 57.76 0.19
2. The Collie Coal-field.—The age of this coal has not
been definitely decided. The balance of paleontological
evidence is in favour of it belonging to the Carboniferous
period, but from the general physical aspect of the field it will
probably prove to belong to the Mesozoic era. Dr. R. L.
Jackt is inclined to believe they will turn out to be of
Cretaceous age, newer than the coal-fields of Ipswich and
Burrum, in Queensland. ‘‘The entire absence of igneous
dykes penetrating the coal-field argues the probability that it

was deposited after the cessation of volcanic activity, and -

therefore at a somewhat late epoch.’’ All the coal produced
in Western Australia comes from the Collie coal-field.

3. Lignites and brown coal of Tertiary and Post-tertiary
eras are found at Coolgardie and on the south coast. These
are of very poor quality.

The total output of coal from Western Australia—that is
from the Collie coalfield—to the end of 1909 amounted to
1,377,452 tons, valued at £708,725. The output for the year
ending 1909 was 214,302 tons, valued at £90,965. The Collie
coal-field lies south of Perth and east of Bunbury; the coal-
measures rest directly on granites, schists and other crystal-
line rocks. The coal-field is mostly bounded by faults, but
the measures themselves are very little disturbed, so far as
known, but for the ‘‘Wallsend fault,’’ which has an estimated
throw of 270 feet.

+Report of the Royal Commission on the Collie Coal-field
Perth, W.A., 1905, p. 7.

eet eet

WESTERN AUSTRALIAN COALFIELDS. 71

According to a generalised section compiled by Dr. Jack
the coal measures are 2012ft. 5in. thick, and include 24 coal

seams.
By alisend. COBL << 2 ces er oe S| Serer el AEE. EO 17ft,
Proprietary No. aM a etic a, dft. to Tit. 6in.
Proprietary No. i alma Te ee S.. .. 4ft. to 8ft.
Collie Burn No. 2 coal . ath vet eee ~ Gf. to 7ft. 10in.
Collie Burn No. 1 coal .. .. na edhe fens OER
Cardiff No. 2 or Boulder nes eR ae Greys ce
Cardiff No. 1 coal . SACS " Oft. to 12ft.

Only the very thick seams are worked, and only a portion
of these, owing to the uncertain nature of the roof, which, when
it falls, sometimes lets in water and running sand, so the top
of the seam is generally left as a roof.

A rough estimate given by Dr. Jack of the total amount
of coal available in the field is as follows :—

Tons.
Cardiff No. 1 seam .. . ne) oe oo, 6 dO dO Oe
Cardiff No. 2 or Collie- Boulder: séam ..« .. ... 17,547,840
Cole Burn No. 1 seam ...... .. -. .. 46,433,088
Collie Burn No. 2 seam .. .. .. .. ..--.. 988,966,640
MENTE TOE PORN fo. oc eke ee nw a ee Ra 50,683,968
ECROMORINYS 272 cil gy. ao .a-d) is yee Bd 138,843936

310,680,576

This is making a deduction for the top coal that has to be
left, also for the large proportion of coal required as pillars,
which, on account of the general tender character of the coal,
sometimes amounts to nearly 60 per cent. The coal of this
field is a hydrous semi-bituminous' non-coking coal, and
is inferior to the Newcastle coals of New South Wales. Were
it not that the Western Australian railways undertook to con-
sume a large proportion of the output, the probability is that
the seams would not have been worked. The coal is fragile,
partly owing to numerous partings of mother-of-coal in it,
and partly owing to spontaneous decrepitation accompanying
a loss of moisture on exposure to the air. An idea of the
nature of this coal will be given by the following proximate

analysis :—
Vol. Hydro- Fixed
Moisture. carbon. Carbon. Ash. Sulphur.

Caruin No. 1 .: ... 15.81 5 Geld 51.19 5.44 0.49
Cardiff No. 2 or
momider ... ..-... 18.2 28 .2 46.6 6.4 —

Collie Burn No. 1 15.72 30.0. 49.51 4.17 0.60
Collie Burn No. 2 14.0 20.9 59.5 2.6 -—
Wallsend (Proprie-
Mee ews. .. 14.36 27.05 51.64 6.66 0.31
The spe. gray. is about 1.5.

72 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA,

The heating value of Collie coal is only about one and a
half times that of wood growing in the neighbourhood. The
efficiency of Collie coal in stationary boilers is found to be
from 8.4 to 10 per cent. lower than that of Newcastle. On
locomotives, 100 tons of Newcastle coal was found to be equal
to from 142.5 to 170.5 tons of Collie coal.

CHAPTER X.
TASMANTA,

Both Permo-carboniferous and Mesozoic coals are found
and worked in Tasmania. From 1880 to 1909, inclusive,
1,119,387 tons of coal were produced in Tasmania, valued. at
£958,309. In 1909 the production was 66,1613 tons, valued at
£56,237. This is the largest output of coal from Tasmania in
any one year.

The different seams of coal worked produce coal of various
qualities, from semi-anthracite downwards; but, on the whole,
they are not of the highest quality, as will be seen from the
analysis given. The Permo-carboniferous coal is a sulphurous
gas, house and steam coal. The following coal basins are
recognised :—

1. The Mersey coal basin. Seams 18 to 20in. thick are
worked at Spreyton and Dulverton on a small seale.

2. Preolenna basin, on the north-west coast. Here three
seams of kerosene shale are met with; the top one, 20in. thick,
is the most important. There is also gas coal in seams up to
34ft. thick, but it is not worked.

3. Mount Cygnet basin. The Mt. Cygnet seam is 3ft.
Gin. to 3tt. 9in. The coal is dull, compact, high in ash, burns
slowly, and without much flame, but gives a strong heat in the
grate. This seam is looked upon as being younger than the
Mersey measures.

4. Southport coal basin. <A diamond drill bore was put
down for the Southport Coal Prospecting Association to a depth
of 612ft. 2in. in 1898. The rocks are regarded as Permo-
carboniferuus. Nothing of importance was found.

5. Mount Pelion and Barn Bluff Basin. The coal in this
basin is not worked. One seam, 17in. thick, of bright firm
black coal contains a considerable quantity of pyrites. A
second seam is split by a four-inch carbonaceous shale, the
upper portion being five inches and the lower 21 inches thick.

2. G. A. Waller. Report on the Recent Discovery. of
Cannel Coal in the Parish of Preolenna, and upon the New
Victory Copper Mine, near Arthur River, 1901. By authority.

3. W.H. Twelvetrees. Report on Gold and Coal at Port
Cygnet, 1902. By authority.

74 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

6. The Henty basin, on the west coast. Here there are
some insignificant seams, too small to work.

The Mesozoic coal is generally referred to the Trias: Jura.
The coal is used for steam and domestic purposes.

1. Fingal coal basin. The two largest collieries in Tas-
mania are in this basin, viz., the Cornwall, with an output
during 1909 of 29,885 tons, and the Mt. Nicholas Colliery, with
an output of 27,541 tons. The Mt. Nicholas seams are four to
nine feet thick. The Jubilee seam, 7ft. thick, on Mt. Nicholas,
is not being worked now; the above thickness includes about
18in. of partings.

2. Ben Lomond. Two seams are found at Mt. Rex, one
6ft. to 7Tft. thick, the other 12ft. thick, including five bands
aggregating 94in. This field is not worked.

3. Thompson’ s Marshes coal basin. This is really a con-
tinuation of the Fingal basin from the north, and the
Douglas River basin from the south. Three seams “have been
discovered at Thorndale, but are not being worked. The
lowest seam measures 2ft. 3in, to aft. Tin. thick, and con-
tains a half-inch parting. ‘The coal is black and dense, with a
dull lustre, and is free from pyrites. The intermediate seam
is a twin, the upper portion being separated from the lowe1
by a band of clay 4ft. 5in. thick; “the top coal measures 5ft.
Tin., and the lower 4ft. 9in.; the ash is high, and the coal
shows efflorescence of sul-hate of iron. The upper seam
measures, as far as exposed, 4ft. 2in.; it is not such good
coal as the other two seams.

4. Douglas River and Llandaff basin. The seams are
found from 2 to 10ft. thick, of fair Tasmanian quality; but
they are not being worked, mainly owing to the want of
facilities for fetching the coal to the coast, where there is a
suitable harbour in Cole’s Bay, the water being 6 to 14
fathoms deep. This coal-field is about 11 miles long by two
nae wide.

5). York Plains basin. A semi-anthracitic coal is being
worked here from a four-foot seam.

Colebrook basin, formerly known as Jerusalem. The
na are now idle.

7. Sandfly basin. The seams are four and five feet thick;
some of the coal is semi- -anthracitic. This is an important

Be oe Twelvetrees: on Coal ae Mount Bax 1905. By
authority.

3. W. H. Twelvetrees, Report on Coal Seams at. Thorn-
dale, near Thompson’s Marshes, and the Jubilee Colliery, near
St. Mary’s, 1901. By authority.

4. W. H. Twelv retrees, Report on the Coal-field of Llan-
daff, the Denison, and Douglas Rivers, 1901. By authority.

7. W. H. Twelvetrees, Report on the Sandfly Coal Mines,
1903. By authority.

TASMANIAN COAL FIELDS. 75

field, and the Sandfly Colliery, which is just beginning to put
out coal, promises to become one of the most important coal
mines of Tasmania.

8. Oatlands basin. At Mike Howe’s Marsh there is a seam
of impure coal 3ft. 6in. to 4ft. thick, which is not worked.

9. Ida Bay and Hastings fields. The coal here is soft
and earthy; it 1s not worked.

10. Recherche basin. At Moss Glen the seams are 6 to
7ft. thick, interspersed with bands.

At Catamaran are two seams, one from 4ft. to 6ft., the
other 7ft. thick. The upper seam is being worked.

11. Whale’s Head and South Cape Coal-field. Here Meso-
zolc seams are exposed on the sea coast, but are not worked.

12. Spring Bay Basin, on the East Coast, is of limited
area, and not worked.

Other coal basins of the upper measures in sundry parts
of Tasmania not worked are the following :—

Tasman Peninsula; Longford; Old Beach, and New Town,
both of the Derwent basin; Hamilton, and Eldon, the age of
which is uncertain.

ANALYSIS OF TASMANIAN COALS.

Fixed
Colliery. Basin. ait Gases. Ash. Moisture. see
Spreyton .. .. Mersey..... Permo-Carb... 36.5 46.6 4.0 12.9
Dulverton.. .. mersey...... Permo-Carb.. 40.5 44.4 5.8 9.3 SS
Mt. Cygnet .. Mt. Cygnet Permo-Carb... 63.9 13.2 22.0 0.9 2,
Mt. Nicholas.. Fingal ...... Mesozoic.. .. 57.5 28.4 9.3 4.3 0.54
Cornwall .. .. Fingal ....-Mesozoic.. .. 55.0 31.0 9.6 3.9 0.56
York Plains—
Upper seam York Plain Mesozoic .. .. 60.2 14.5 238 1.5
Middle seam York PlainsMesozoic .. .. 50.4 11.5 34.4 3.7
Sandfly—
Top of seam Sandadfly....... Mesozoic .. .. 46.5 23.0 28.0 2b
12in. below.. 53.1 29.9 15.6 1.4
Below preced-
Se Sige ta 54.3 25.4 17.6 RY f
Lower part
of seam...... 56.0 25.7 15.1 2.5 0.7
Semi-anthra-
cite, 3ft.
6in. lower
Sand fly
measures. . 80.0 8.0 9.0 2.2
Catamaran—
Upper seam Recherche...Mesozoic.. .. 67.8 24.5 3.7 4.0
Lower seam Recherche...Mesozoic .. .. 65.6 27.7 3.9 2.8

8 W. H. Twelvetrees, ' Boport on Country on the East
Shore of Lake Sorell, and on a Discovery of Coal near Oat-
lands, 1902. By authority.

10. W. H. Twelvetrees, Report on the Coal-field in the
Neighbourhood of Recherche Bay, 1902. By authority.

"10. W. H. Twelvetrees, Report on the Occurrence of Coal
near Catamaran River, Recherche Bay, 1902. By authority.

CHAPTER XI.

New Sourn Wares MintnG Conpirions.

The largest area of land leased by the Government in one
block for coal mining purposes is 640 acres. One can amal-
gamate two or more of such blocks together, so as to make a
workable area, and concentrate all mining on one block, if
desired. Although it is admitted that 640 acres is not suffi-
cient to encourage a company to lay out money on an expen-
sive plant, and there is nothing to prevent a would-be lessee
from taking up several such blocks adjoining one another, still
the Government insist on forcing those who wish to work on
Crown lands to go to the expense of pegging out and having
surveyed several comparatively small blocks when one large
block should suit the purpose. For the purpose of mining
under land reserved for coal mining, a charge of Is. 6d. pe1
acre per annum is made; but if the surface rights are also
required, then 2s. has to be paid for each acre on that par-
ticular block. When it is desired to mine for coal under land
not specially reserved for coal mining purposes, as is often
the case for 100ft. back from high water mark, the rent is

ds. per annum, but for mining under tidal waters the rent is.

ls. per annum. While coal is being won, a royalty of 6d.
per ton is charged on round coal, and 3d. per ton on small
coal, which, in comparison with the rent paid for mineral
leases. is very excessive. Should the amount paid in royalty
exceed the rent, then no rent is charged. There are also
certain labour conditions to be kept up, which vary somewhat.

Until the passing of the Land Act of 1884, which abolished
the power to take up mineral conditional purchases. known
as M.C.P.’s, anybody improving his land to the extent of
£2 per acre could become possessed of the rights to all minerals
on the property, with the exception of the royal metal, gold.
In some cases land was purchased under these conditions, and
the improvement money put into plant for the mine and
development work; so now they have neither rent nor royalty
to pay, thus having an immense advantage over their neigh-
bours who work on Government: land, or that leased from
private individuals. Landowners, who possess the mineral

Ceo See ee ee

- | eed ba rd fiber i. \

ae

ry

SHIFTS. a7

rights, but who do not wish to work the coal themselves,
make the most favourable arrangements they can with those
who want to mine their coal. One cannot amalgamate adjoin-
ing private and Government lands; the labour conditions must.
be earried out on the latter according to the terms of the lease.

It is customary in the New South Wales collieries to work
but one shift of eight hours a day, except for men engaged in
development work. If the development work is not sufficiently
far ahead, there may not be enough places opened up for men
to win coal to fulfil contracts; also steeply inclined seams
are not so readily developed as those that are more horizontal.
For these reasons, about 10 years ago, the East Greta Colliery
initiated three shifts a day, as is customary in metal mines,
and the same system was adopted by the newer collieries of
the Northern coal-field. The night shift, nicknamed the “‘dog-
watch,’ was objected to by the miners, though each man’s
turn only came round every three weeks. He com-
plained that he could not rest so well by day, especially in
the summer time, with the heat, flies, and noise about him.
His wife had to scheme so as to let the bread-winner sleep,
rushing out to stop the tradesmen calling, and sending the
children to play outside, away from her watchful eye. It is
generally admitted that men working on night shift do not
work so satisfactorily as on day shift, and on the southern
coal-field the miners are paid 1$d. per ton extra for all coal
hewn by them during the night shift. Another objection that
the miners have to this shift is that there are six men in a
party instead of two. Now the coal won is credited to the men
obtaining it, not as individuals, but as sets, and the more
men there are, the greater the difference there is likely to be
in their individual capacity for work; so that unless they agree
among themselves that the inferior men shall receive so much
less, and the superior men so much more, than one-sixth of
the total earned (a principle objected to by miners when work-
ing for wages, as they want all to be on a dead level), then
the better men get dissatisfied. It is generally inexpedient
to separate the work of the shifts working in the same bord,
for time would be wasted in cleaning up the coal from each
shift. The men are paid according to the coal sent to the
surface in skips; one shift might put in hours undercutting
and blasting down coal, which it would not have time to fill
into skips; unless the following shift belonged to the same
party, they would get credited for the coal the former shift
actually won. Under these circumstances, miners naturally
do not break down more than they can fill, and as they cannot
always gauge the quantity, they may often be left idle for
some time, rather than put in work for other men; besides, by
making the work suit the time, instead of the time suit the

78 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

work this may result in uneconomical methods, and inability to
take advantage of favourable conditions.

In many of the New South Wales mines they employ
what is known as the front and back shift; that is, one of
two mates comes on two hours before the other, while the
latter remains behind two hours after the former goes home.
This is done so that coal can be filled to keep the wheelers
going, for the miners only work eight hours, while the wheelers
work ten.

Personnel.

The positions and duties of officers and men employed at
a collhery naturally vary somewhat, according to circumstance,
such as whether it is pick or machine worked. In a large
colliery the work may be subdivided, whereas at a smaller
colliery one officer may carry out the duties of two or more
positions.

The general manager attends chiefly to the business part
of the colliery, and has his office at some central place. If
not located at a shipping port, it may be necessary to appoint
an agent to act as shipping manager. The colliery manager
has to hold a first-class certificate: he has full control of the
working of the colliery, and all officers and men employed in
or about it. The under-manager must Hold a_ second-class
certificate; he has daily supervision of the mine, and has respon-
sible charge of it, under the direction of the colliery manager.
A deputy is in charge of a certain portion of the workings,
and directs the men how and where they shall work, and
attends generally to their safety. A fireman’s duty is to test
the workings for gas before the miners go to their working
places, and see that everything is safe; this is often, but not
always done by a deputy. A surveyor may be fully employed
at one mine, or he may combine this duty with another, or
sometimes he does the surveying for several collieries. The
clerk attends to the correspondence, books and stores. The
mechanical engineer, who is often also the electrician, is in
charge of all the machinery.

The miner in a hand-pick worked mine holes or undercuts
the coal, props up the roof of his working places, sprags the
coal while holing, lays the rails in the bords, and fills the
broken coal into skips by shovel or fork, according to require-
ments. In machine-worked mines the coal-cutter is in charge
of a machinist, who has a man as second hand machine
assistant, and a boy as a third hand assistant, to help him.
The work of holing is followed up by a shooter and fillers, who
bore shot holes in the coal with an auger drill, charge and fire
them. The shooter brings down any loose coal that may hang
up, and makes the place safe for the filler. From ten to twenty
tons a day is considered a fair day’s work for one filler, depend-

YO ii

ae Ta

PERSONNEL. 79

ing on the size of the seam and dirt to be picked out. The
work of shooting down is the same, whether the coal has been
holed by pick or machine. Wheelers are lads who drive the
ponies that draw the skips to or from the working places and
the nearest collecting station. If the wheeler has a bad road
he is given the assistance of a helper-up, who puts in sprag's and
makes himself generally useful. Drivers are boys in charge
of a horse and set of skips on a main roadway, where difficul-
ties are not likely to be encountered. A set-rider is a man
who accompanies a set of skips, hauled on the main and tail
rope principle; he attends to any points on the track, and
signals to the engine driver in case of accident. Trappers are
boys sometimes employed to attend to the doors erected for
ventilation purposes in roadways along which hauling is done.
Flatters are men in charge of a flat or station underground
where shunting takes place. Clippers-on and clippers-off fasten
or unfasten clips connecting the skips with ropes when the
endless rope system of haulage is employed. The on-setter
has complete control of the pit bottom; he cages and uncages
the skips at the bottom, and gives the signal to the engine-
drivers to hoist. The banker-off or banksman attends to the
eaging of the skips at the surface. Water bailers are em-
ployed below in wet places where it is not always convenient
to put a pump, such as at the end of a leading heading that
is constantly going forward to the dip, Road-men are shiftmen
who lay the tracks. see that they are kept in order, look after
the timbering, and attend to various odd jobs below. Horse-
keepers attend to the pit horses, whether the stables are on
the surface or underground. A bricklayer is sometimes kept
at a mine to build any walling, put in brick stoppings, over-
casts, etc. Engine-drivers are in charge of various engines
for hoisting, hauling, fan driving, pumping, lighting, etc.
Stokers are required to attend to the boilers. There are
mechanics, blacksmiths, and carpenters, for various repairing
and constructional work. Lampmen attend to safety lamps,
when they are used. Where many horses are employed a har-
ness-maker is engaged to make and repair the harness. Screen-
men look after the tipplers and screening of the coal; while
weighmen weigh the skips and take their tally. The miners
generally engage and. pay a check weighman to look after
their interests. Shiftmen are those engaged on wages at
various jobs, and are rated as first and second class. These
include such men as stowers, dirt-fillers. timbermen, and
labourers. Top-men are any men employed about the surface.

Rate of Pay.

The rate of pay that colliery employes receive depends to
a great extent upon the price of coal, but there are many

80 COALFIELDS AND COLLIBRIES OF AUSTRALIA.

variations which modify the amount. These variations are
not unitorm all over New South Wales, for different customs
prevail in different districts, and even the conditions may
vary in collieries of the same district. The following remarks
may help to make these points clearer.

On the Southern coal-field there are two rates; one for
screened the other for unscreened coal, but both are based on
the average selling. price of the best screened coal, which is
determined half-yearly, in June and December, by an
accountant agreed to by the employers and _ employes’
union, or, should they fail to agree, then by an
accountant appointed by the Arbitration Court. The price
thus found is the basis of pay for the ensuing six months. In
the Maitland district the average selling price of best round
coal is also taken as a basis in most of the collieries, but in
the Neweastle district it is not the actual selling price, but the
declared selling price of the best round coal that is the basis.
Every September the employers meet and determine what the
nominal selling price of coal shall be for the ensuing twelve
months, commencing in January of the following year. This
price is adhered to, no matter whether a mine produces first,
second or third rate coal. Should the colliery proprietors sell
their coal for less than the declared value, the mex are paid
on the declared value all the same.

A minimum hewing rate is fixed, say about 2s. per ton,
when the price of coal is, say, 7s. Should the selling price
fall so low as co leave no profit, the proprietors still have to
pay the minimum rate or close down, for it is recognised that
the men must make a living wage; on the other hand, the
mine-owners do not wish to waste.a valuable asset by selling
their coal at a loss. Should the selling price go above the
figure decided on, then there is a sliding scale, on which the
men are paid; in the Southern district this is at present 2d.
in the shilling variation of the actual average selling price; in
the Northern districts they pay on 6d. or 3d. variations.

At one time the miners filled a good deal of coal by fork,
but now that there is a better market for slack, it is mostly
shovel-filled, and subsequently screened. Fork-filled coal is
paid for at a higher rate than shovel-filled, so as to allow for
the slack left behind. When the slack from fork-filled coal is
wanted, a miner is. paid only for filling it, and the miner who
made the slack has the right to fill it, if still working in that
cavil. When coal is screened, the men are paid in full for
the round coal, but are only given a nominal sum for the
slack. When coal is shipped unscreened, the miners are paid
the price of round coal for the gross weight, less, say,- 20

pint Sa eA Fee oe ea .

[ey wr eee ae

ae

&
=
e

aS ee
Yip RA RR e's ASE

i an ¥

CONDITIONS OF PAY. 81

per cent. for the proportion of slack present. Pillar coal.being
easier to work than coal in the whole, the tonnage rate paid
for it is somewhat less.

A standard height of seam is taken, say 5ft., and should
the seam fall below that standard the miners are paid so much
more for every inch below that height, for it is obvious that
there is just as much work to undercut a 5ft. as a 4ft. seam,
and yet the tonnage obtained would not be the same. Should
the seam be over the standard height, the men are not paid
any less, although it is admitted that a 6ft. seam is an ideal
one to work; but should the seam be still thicker, it is not so
convenient to break down, for the men have to work it in
two or more lifts.

Extra pay is given for what is known as a ‘“‘deficient
place;’’ that is, one which is not a fair average; but as the
nature of these places vary, it is a matter of adjustment be-
tween the manager and the men concerned.

Development work and difficult places are known as
**special places,’’ and they are carried on irrespective of trade.

In the Borehole seam there are two consistent bands
running through the coal; the price paid for hewing and filling
allows for these to be picked out by the miner. A certain
proportion of dirt gets filled in with the coal, but it is clear
that this must be limited, or else complaints will be made by
consumers. Boys generally overhaul the coal and pick out
pieces of band before it is sent away in the waggons. Should
it appear that a pair of men are sending up too much dirt, one
of their skips is tipped on to a special screen, and the dirt is
picked out by a man engaged for the purpose, who becomes
the best hated man at the mine. The dirt picked out is
either weighed or measured, according to custom; in the
latter case one and a half bobbinite cases, or, say, a cubic
foot, is allowed to pass, but if in excess of this, the man is
cautioned the first time, unless he can give some good reason;
if he persists in filling dirty coal, then he is suspended for a
day or more, according to the extent of the offence.

If extra bands occur, the miner is paid for sorting it
out. The quantity of extra dirt picked out is generall» agreed
upon between the manager and the men, but if the latter are
not satisfied, they can have it weighed at the surface.

A consideration is also paid the men working in wet
places, say, up to ls. per day extra. A wet place may be one
where the men have to stand in 3in. of water, or where water
is constantly dripping on their bodies from the roof.

Working places less than 18ft. wide are known as “‘narrow
places,” and a yardage rate is paid, in addition to the tonnage

82 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

rate, in order to compensate for the extra work of breaking
coal down from the sides, which for the same tonnage occurs —
more frequently than in wide places. The amount of yardage
paid varies according as the width is from 0 to 9ft., 9 to 12ft.,
12 to 15ft., or 15 to 18ft.

No deduction is made for moisture in the coal, this being
weighed as coal and credited to the mimer. It is reckoned that
if there is only a little water present it is as cheap to fill it
out with the coal as to employ a bailer to remove it. In such
cases it is as well not to have the skips close fitting,
otherwise too much water may find its way in, and be retained
by the skip. It is not much use drilling a hole or two in the
bottom of a skip, as thesecan be plugged up with bark,
paper, etc.

Machine-mined coal is filled into skips by special fillers,
for to take men from the machine would lay the machine
idle, and be putting highly paid men to do inferior work;
besides the output would be reduced, and the capital expended
on the machine and plant would be lying idle. Hand-mined
coal is filled into skips by miners. The top of the skip is
packed all round with large pieces of coal, which are not so
likely to fall when done by a practical miner as when done
by an inexperienced hand. When the top falls off through
bad packing, the miner is not credited with the full amount
originally placed on the skip, but if, through some accident,
such as a capsize, the coal falls out, this is known as a
“‘copt.’’ ‘‘upset,’’? or ‘‘broken skip,’’ the wheeler in charge
should mark it, and report it to the flatter, who initials it, or
places a special token on it, so that when it reaches the
surface the weighman, knowing it is no fault of the miner,
credits him with the average of other skips sent up by him.
In low places a skip cannot be loaded so full as where there is
no restriction in height. Each skip is marked with a token.
This consists of a small piece of leather, threaded on to a
long loop of marline. The loop is passed through two small
holes in the end or side of a skip, and the leather tag passed
through the loop and pulled tight. When the skip is fuil
of coal the token can be readily pulled out, but cannot be
replaced without partly unloading and reloading again, and
as this cannot be easily done while the skip is in transit, the
chance of one man stealing a skip load belonging to another
is minimised. However, sometimes a man runs short of tokens,
in which case he chalks his number on the skip. This custom
has its disadvantages, for it enables an unscruplous man to
draw out the token of arother and substitute his own chalk
mark. To prevent this, the token is sometimes hung inside
the akip, with a lump of coal against it, and more on the top;

CAVILLING. 83

but even this has been known to have been tampered with
when a miner has left a loaded skip overnight. Each party
of men takes a bundle of tokens to their working place, suffi-
cient for their daily requirements, the number on the token
representing that cavil.

Machine men are generally paid wages, but are some-
times paid tonnage rates. In the former case the wages vary
with the price of the coal. All wages men benefit by an
increase in the price of coal, but the interest of shiftmen and
wheelers varies in degree from that of the miners, according
to custom.

Wheeling may be done by contract or on wages. If the
former, and the mechanical haulage is not brought within a
reasonable distance of the working places, the price when
paid by tonnage may be. say, 2d. for the first 130 yards, and
+d. for every additional 30 yards. Wheeling from isolated
places, where work is not constant, is done on wages, as
when there is no wheeling to be done the lads can be put on
to other work.

Cavilling is a lottery, so far as the securing of places is

concerned. It is a North of England custom adopted in New

South Wales, the original idea being to average the advan-
tages and disadvantages of good and bad places, for the men
are paid the same tonnage rate in either case, except in what
are known as special places, when they are paid extra. A man
may draw a good place two or three times running and make
more than good wages, or he may be unfortunate and draw
bad places two or three times in succession, which do not pay
wages, however hard he works. Although the good and bad
may average out in the long run, still in the meanwhile an
improvident man who has been unfortunate in his cavilling
may be unable to make ends met. This has caused a certain
amount of discontent, and although cavilling is carried on at
the desire of the miners, they want it to be modified, so that
those working in bad places shall be paid a higher tonnage
rate. This is obviously unfair, unless those working in good
places receive a proportionately lower tonnage rate, to balance
matters. There are other objections besides the discontent
engendered among those who draw bad places. A man, no
matter how good a miner he may be, takes some days to
become thoroughly conversant with the peculiarities of a new
part of the mine, so that he can work with confidence, guard
against any local dangers, and take full advantage of any
special points. The consequence is that for a short time after
eavilling the output is diminished, which is unsatisfactory
both to the men who are paid by the ton, and the masters who
have contracts to carry out.

84. COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

Every quarter, the different working places to be cavilled
for are chalk-marked with a number; similar numbers are
written on paper and placed in a hat, or hurdy-gurdy, like-
wise the names of the men. Two miners, called scrutineers,
draw the papers in the presence of the undermanager. The
men generally work in pairs, but special cavils may require
four men. The special cavils are drawn first. The manager
has a right to object to a member of a special cavil if he does
not think the man is good enough for the work. Those men
who are drawn for any place work there till the end of the
quarter, or till the place is worked out, when, in the latter
case, they are given the next nearest vacant place. Should
several places be worked out about the same time, an interim
cavil is held. Sometimes places worked by machines are
cavilled for, but generally the men are paid wages. The
shooters and fillers, however, cavil for places.

Accident Relief Fund.

In New South Wales the Miners’ Accident Relief Act,
1900, and the Miners’ Accident Relief (Amendment) Act,
1901, applies to any mine in or about which fifteen or more
persons are employed. For each mine a committee is formed,
consisting of an Inspector of Mines, appointed by the Minis-
ter, three persons employed in or about the mine and ap-
pointed by persons so employed, and two persons appointed
by the owner or manager of the mine. Every person em-
ployed must subscribe 43d. for each week, or portion of a
week, during which he is employed; the mine-owners have
to subscribe 24d. for each man, while the Government donates
24d., making a total towards the fund of 9d. per week for
each man or boy employed about the mine. Should an
employe meet with a non-fatal accident he receives a weekly
sum of 12s., and should the disablement be permanent a
further allowance of 2s. 6d. per week is payable in respect
of each child (if any) of the person disabled, until such child
attains the age of fourteen years or dies. In case of fatal
accidents, a sum of £12 is paid for funeral expenses, the
widow (if any) of the deceased gets 8s. weekly while unmarried,
and 2s. 6d. in.respect of each child (if any) of the deceased is
paid to the widow or guardian of the child till the child
attains the age of fourteen years or dies. Provision is also
made to pay 8s. per week to the guardian of motherless
children until there is no child below the age of fourteen
years, or to the mother, sisters or father of the deceased if
they were dependent on the deceased at the time of his death.

As the existence of such a fund is liable to encourage
malingering with lazy men, certain precautions are made to

Po
@)
r
wi
\oa
a
x

VEND. 85

safeguard the fund, which exists for the benefit of the workers.
It is by no means certain that these precautions are sufficient,
and there are cases where the committee have grave suspicions
that the benefits of the fund have been abused; but when a
certificate from the local doctor, who is dependent on the
miners for his living, is produced, to prove the man is unfit
for work, the committee is helpless. One thing is noticed by
managers, viz., that more accidents are reported than formerly,
and that the men take longer to recover. No doubt a travelling
doctor, available for doubtful cases, would cure the victims
quicker.

Selling Agencies.

The Northern, Southern, and Western coal-fields each
have combinations bearing on the disposal of their output.
Some mines prefer to associate together, and have one selling
agency, while others prefer to find their own markets. The
advantages of a selling agency is that it saves each mine
time and trouble in searching for a market. It limits the
cutting down of prices, so the mine-owners get more for their
coal. It is not always easy for one mine to supply large
quantities right away on short notice, and the want of facili-
ties may oblige a mine to refuse a large extended contract;
but when several collieries combine together they can help
one another to fulfil such contracts, and consequently trade is
not lost. The mines belonging to such selling associations are
worked and managed by their owners; each mine is appor-
tioned a certain amount of the contracts obtained, according
to its capacity. If a buyer specifies coal from a particular
mine, then that coal is supplied, but so as to balance matters,
that mine is given a smaller proportion of other contracts.

The Northern coal-field has formed a vend, with the
object of regulating the coal trade. This affects all the large
Northern coal mines, except the Newcastle-Wallsend and
Burwood Extended collieries. Some years ago a somewhat
similar arrangement was come to, but some of the conditions
were broken, and those at fault refused to pay the stipulated
penalty. An attempt made to recover the penalty in the
Supreme Court was unsuccessful, as it was held that since
the agreement was in restraint of trade, it was therefore
illegal. After this, competition set in as before. Later on a
standard selling price for coal was adopted, so as to afford a
basis for a uniform hewing rate on which to pay the mines.
but the standard selling price was no criterion as to the actual
selling price.

The vend formed in October, 1906, to last for a year, had
many difficulties to overcome, for conflicting interests had to

86 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

be reconciled, not only for the present, but also for the future.
The average capacity of all the collieries was greater than the
average demand, and naturally the most difficult matter to
settle was the proportion each mine should contribute. If in
the proportion of the average output of each mine for the
previous three years, it placed those mines at a disadvantage
which were being developed and were rapidly building up a
trade, when compared with older established mines; so a
certain readjustment was necessary. Provision was made for
penalties to be paid by those companies who exceeded their
allotted output, the sum thus obtained to be paid into a
common fund, and the money so accumulated used to com-
pensate the owners of those mines who failed to get orders
for the tonnage allotted to them. Though the agreement can-
not be signed, as it is probably contrary to the provisions of
the Commonwealth Anti-Trust law, still the parties consider
themselves honorably bound to respect the arrangement, and
funds have been contributed to guarantee their observance.
As the coal from the various collieries is not of the same
quality, three classes are recognised. The first grade coal at
the commencement of 1907 had a standard selling price of
10s. per ton. All the Maitland mines, except one, and all
the Newcastle mines, except two, yield first grade coal. The
second grade coal has a standard selling price of 9s. 3d. per
ton. The third grade coal, which comes from the Teralba
mines, is valued at 3s. or 4s. less than the Newcastle coal.
The rates of compensation and penalty varies according to the
classification from 4s. per ton downwards.

By an agreement of this sort, individual competition be-
tween mines in the same district is lessened, and this enables
the mine-owners to demand a price, within limits, that will
give a fair interest on the outlay. For oversea coal there is
always foreign competition to be taken into consideration,
while for home consumption the product from other Aus-
tralian coal-fields will tend to keep prices within bounds. So
long as members of the vend can supply more than the
demand, it is naturally to their advantage to suppress com-
petition by those outside their ring; this they can easily do
if they exercise the power at their command by underselling
a competitor. Thus by selecting certain collieries to supply
coal of a similar quality at two or three shillings less than
the tender of the company they wish to fight, the other
members of the vend can make up the difference to their
friends, who secure the tender, from a general fund, to be
maintained by levies of so much per ton. In this way a loss
becomes light to the combine, which might ruin a single
company. To control the vend, boards are established, both
in Newcastle (N.S.W.) and London. In the past, prac-

SELLING AGENCIES. 87

tically all the foreign business has been transacted through
London, where the different collieries had their agents, who
attended to the chartering, etc.; now the individuals will have
to act according to the decision of the board instead of on
their own responsibility.

The vend has also agreed with four shipping companies,
viz., Howard Smith Proprietary Company, the Huddart,
Parker Proprietary Company, the Adelaide Steamship Com-
pany, and Messrs. McI]wraith, McEacharn and Company, that
they only shall be supplied with coal intended for consump-
tion in Victoria, South Australia, West Australia, and Queens-
land. This excludes Messrs. Scott Fell and Company, James
Patterson and Company, and the Melbourne Steamship Com-
pany, who, together with the favoured four, have had the
freighting of coal to other States largely in their hands.

The Southern Coal-Owners’ Agency represents the follow-
ing collieries:—Mount Kembla, Mount Pleasant, Osborne-
Wallsend (Mt. Kiera), Coal Clift, and the Metropolitan. In
the hands of a good business man and a man of. tact, this
agency should be the means of benefiting both the mine-
owners and miners, and indirectly the district, by opening ur
fresh markets and limiting competition. For some years
Scott Fell and Co. will have the control of the output from
South Clifton. G. S. Yuill and Co. dispose of the output from
the Bulli and Corrimal-Balgownie collieries; while the North
Bulli or Coledale and the South Bulli-Bellambi collieries each
act as their own agents.

The Lithgow Coal Association is the selling agency for
the five principal collieries at Lithgow, viz., Oakey Park, Zig-
Zag, Vale of Clwydd, Hermitage, ‘and Lithgow Valley. This
association not only provides most of the coal used in the
Western district, but is expanding trade by shipping coal
from Darling Harbour.

Shipping Facilities.

Some of the coal from the South Coast goes
to Sydney for shipment, and naturally all the coal
from the western field for export finds an outlet at Darling
Harbour. This coal is shipped from the Pyrmont wharves,
of which there are two, with four berths; two are 500ft. long,
und two 470ft. long, the depth of water at low tide being 25
to 28ft. There is a 15-ton steam crane at three of the berths.
A train of hopper trucks is run down near the ships, and two
trucks are drawn at a time by horses which fetch them opposite
the steam crane. It takes three minutes to hook on the body
of a truck, hoist, empty, and replace it. At this rate, as eaoh
truck is supposed to hold ten tons, they should load 200 tons
an hour, but 150 tons is nearer the actual mark. Fig. 29.

88 COALFIELDS AND COLLIBRIES OF AUSTRALIA.

Fig. 29.—Pyrmont Wharf.

The D style of trucks hold from 63 to 82 tons, generally
10 tons. From their nature the coal has to be shovelled out
of them, so they are only used for home purposes, not for
shipping coal,

The Coal Cliff colliery has a private jetty close to its mine,
and up to now all coal has had to be shipped from this jetty.
At high tide there are 18ft. of water, and at low tide 18ft.
This jetty accommodates the company’s 300 ton boats, which
are loaded by means of the usual shoots. The S.E. wind is
the one most dreaded here, as it brings in the heaviest sea; the
N.E. wind generally goes down with the sun.

The Bulli colliery’s jetty, which is but slightly protected
from the south, was destroyed in 1907, and is now in course
of re-erection.

The Bellambi, or South Bulli jetty, is owned by the Bel-
lambi Coal Company Limited; from this 500 tons per hour can
be loaded into vessels. At low tide the depth of water is 22ft.
The coal from the Company’s mines is mostly sent away by
sea. The company owns four steam colliers, the Malachite,
680 tons: Currajong, 500 tons; Werfa, 1180 tons; and the
Marjorie, 1250 tons. Besides their own coal, the company
also ships coal from other collieries at their jetty, and
inter-State steamers also load here. The trucks pass over

LOADING FACILITIES. 89

a Fairbanks platform scale on their way to the jetty, the
weight thus found being accepted by the buyers. There
are two tipplers for the trucks: one for the black trucks
only, which has a catch to work the trigger that. opens
the end door of the truck; the other at the end of the
jetty, that serves for either black or hopper trucks; as the
hopper trucks are longer than the black trucks, swing rails
are let down to allow the bottom of the truck to be over the
shoot leading to the ship’s hold. ‘There are two roadways
on this jetty; the upper one, for the loaded trucks, is 1630ft.
long, while the lower, which serves for the empties to return
on, is 1230ft. After the full trucks are left on the upper line,
they are hauled te the shoots by ropes attached to winches.
The jetty was being repaired at the time of my visit, a truss
being used to span the space, while a bent was being re-
newed, and this truss supported the sleepers and rails. The
legs of the bent are dowelled into the solid rock. The bunkers
for small coal at the jetty hold 700 tons. There is a very com-
plete water system laid on, with standpipes at convenient in-
tervals, in case of fire.

At Wollongong, the Belmore Basin (Fig. 30) has been
for the most part cut out of the rock; it has an area of about
three acres, and an average depth of 14 feet. Mostly coasters
load here, the coal being sent down shoots into the holds.

Fig. 30.—Belmore Basin.

90 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

Only small sailing craft and steamboats can enter this basin,
as no tugs are kept at Wollongong now. ‘The shoots into
which the hopper trucks are emptied are raised and lowered by
hand-worked crab-winches. The loading capacity is about
1300 tons per day.

Port Kembla is the best shipping port on the southern
coast. There are two jetties; that known as the Southern
Coal Company’s jetty, with three loading shoots, which is
leased by the North Bulli Colliery, has 35ft. of water during
low tide at its outer end. The Mount Kembla Coal Com-
pany’s jetty, with two shoots, has 24ft. of water. A break-
water is being built by the Public Works Department, which,
when completed, will be 2800ft. long; about 1450ft. of it has
been made. When this will be finished largely depends on
what funds are available. For some time the work has cost
more than it should, because the construction has been starved
for want of funds, and consequently some of the men who
must be kept on have not been fully employed. It will take
at least another four years to complete, as the last half is
the deepest. It is proposed later on to build a second break-
water, 3600ft. long, in an easterly direction, almost at right
angles to the one now being built. When completed, this will
leave an entrance 800 feet wide, and give an area to low water
of 223 acres; or of water 24 feet and over, 126 acres. Until
this harbour is completed, there will be risks of delays in ship-
ping, in addition to the extra cost of railage to Darling

Harbour.

The Wallarah Colliery has a jetty in Catherine Hill Bay,
at the end of which there are 25ft. of water at low tide.
There are four loading shoots on this jetty. The company
owns two colliers, the Wallarah of 750 tons, and the Illaroo
of 500 tons.

Newcastle Harbour is part of the Hunter River. There is
a bar at the entrance, where the water is only 22 feet deep.
Vessels of 8000 tons can be berthed at Newcastle. It is esti-
mated that, after allowing for time in moving ships, shunting
coal trucks, ete., 25,000 tons of coal can be shipped per day
at the port, when all appliances are in use. At Newcastle there
are 2066ft. along the dykes for berthing deep draft cargo
vessels. At Bullock Island there are 5550 feet set apart for the
shipment of coal. At New Basin wharf, where there is a travel-
ling crane, there are 600 and 700 feet. At Stockton there is a
length of 600 feet for the shipment of coal. The A.A. Com-
pany’s wharf at Newcastle is 1500 feet. McMyler coal dump-
ing machines are being erected at Newcastle, each of which
will be capable of dumping 500 tons of coal into a ship, as
against 100 tons by the present cranes.

NEW SOUTH WALES OUTPUT. 91

The output from the New South Wales coalfields for 1909
was as follows :—

Tons.
Deortneth Picid 2s si. <0... 4;801,361
pesmener Pield $s. «4. so...» 1,619,675
Qwenbern Vield ... i. 66.5 a ke 598,843
7,019,879

of which 4,393,603 tons were shipped to inter-State and foreige
ports.

Fig. 31 shows the gantry used at South Brisbane for load-
ing coal into vessels.

ey ee 4
Tria. i VARA §
hy ae 8

92 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

CHAPTER XII.

EXPLOSIVES.

In New South Wales the permitted explosives are the
same as those allowed in Great Britain. There are about sixty
of them, but only some seven are on the local market, and
most of them find little or no use.

The composition of those permitted explosives which are
pushed out here, as given in “‘Statutory Rules and Orders,”
issued by the Home Office, London, is as follows :—

Monobel.

Parts by weight.
not morethan not less than

Nitrate of ammonium .. .... Rae ee a ke

Nitro-glycerine.. .. 11 9

Wood meal (dried. at + 100deg. C.) 10 8

Moisture .. 2.0 0.5
Saxonite.

Parts by weight.

notmore notless notmore not less
than. than. than. than.

Nitro-glycerine.. .. 68 .. 58
Nitro-cotton...... 5% .. 93%

Nitrate of potassium a vow ee OF Serie
Wood. meal .:) .. 4. EUR eb
(halk. sai euge 1 ts cai see

Oxalate of ammonium—= := — ae <i Uee oye

The wood meal to contain not more than 15 per cent., and
not less than 5 per cent. by weight of moisture.

PERMITTED EXPLOSIVES. 93

Kolax.
Parts by weight.
not more than. not less than.

PtP SIVCeTING oe. ee Oe ue eee
Nitrate of potassium .... .. 12 OE Se tee ioe ace 2
Nitrate of barium .. . eae oe ieee +
Wood meal (dried at 100deg. ¢. SA FSS DA ney Rebar
Starch (dried at oe hae C.) ) Le cee Pn
Moisture .. .. Seale ev RE |
Bobbinite.
Parts by weight.
Second definition. not more than. not less than.
Nitrate of potassium .... .. pas ae sae
ES SRS re | bas ee 5 4855
Sulphur .. ..... ele Da ieee oe ae
Rice or maize starch pera, 9 -
Meee WAS. kk ers 3.0 2.0
Moisture .. .. 3 —_
This explosive i is made by Curtis and Hatvey..
Arkite.
Parts by weight.
not more than. not less than.
Mitro-giycerine .. 5... .... 7 aie ea be ame 29
MearMONCOLLON :. .... css) es + Baie oc ae 3
Nitrate of ooacelaag Sa ea ye Rete ters |
MCE SOA L. <a> es oe ee Bi 6
a eee | A kee
Cealate tot ammonium Be He Ge sey ee
Abbcite.
Parts by weight.
not more than. not less than.
Nitrate of ammonium... .... ange on ate
Nitro-glycerine .. .. ...... LE heey sean 8
Wood meal. eta te gad ak Rage eee mer
ee eB) bf 1.5
Carbonite.
Parts by weight.
not more than. not less than.
Nitro-glycerine .......... > of SN ge Naa NE Bay
Nitrate of barium .. .. .... 36 30
Nitrate of potassium .. .. .. ia aaa
Wood meal.... SETI Se ae Sse BO
Sulphuretted ‘benzol . YP es

Carbonate of sodium... .. ..
Carbonate of calcium .. .. ..

NS a SS)

94 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

Rippite.

Parts by weight.
not more than. not less than.

Nitro-glycerine..... .. ..... 6235: SER ie oe
Nitro-cotton. ci: 620s & ae on 4 2B i Saas tebe
Nitrate of potassium .... .. 20 18
Oxalate of ammonium .. .. .. Ld RO eee
Castor oil . 1 gee Pore! | Fe
Wood meal (dried 3 at 100dex. C38 3.0
Moisture 1 0
Excellite.

Parts by weight.
not more than. not less than.

Nitro-glycerine .. ........ 9
Nitrate of ammonium.... .. 84
Collodion cottons cos oo Pr;
Di-nitron toloul.. 3
Wood meal (dried at "100deg. Coy. 24
Castor oil. . 1
Moisture ee coe ee 2

The chief requirement of a safety explosive is that it shall
not produce a flame, which might ignite any fire-damp or fine
coal dust present. Of the above, monobel and saxonite find
most use in New South Wales collieries; monobel being em-
ployed for breaking down coal, as it has a slow rending action
favourable for producing lump coal, while saxonite is used
for blasting rock, as it shatters hard rock better. In wet
places saxonite is ‘sometimes used instead of monobel for coal,
as the nitro-glycerine in its composition makes it less liable
to be hurt by moisture, but anyhow the monobel cartridges
are dipped in a special wax to preserve the explosive from the
action of moisture. Monobel is light yellow in colour, and is
made into cartridges of various sizes, packed in cardboard
packets, containing 5lb., and ten of these packages are placed
in a wooden box. Its strength is reckoned to be at least
24 times that of blasting powder, which means that for the
same amount of work, less explosive and smaller holes are
necessary. This explosive is not ignited by a spark, it does
not require thawing in cold weather, and it does not give
headaches like those compounds containing large quantities
of nitro-glycerine. It is exploded by a sextuple, or No. 6
detonator. In a fiery mine, monobel is exploded by means of

S

EXPLOSIVES. 95

an electric shot firer. ow tension electric detonator fuses are
used; these are packed in cases of 1000, and have wires at-
tached 48, 54, 60, 72in. and upwards in _ length,
according to the depth of the hole. A_ broad red
line is made at one end of the cartridge, where there
is an excess of paper; this end is opened, a_ hole
is made in the explosive by means of a pencil, or small
pointed stick, deep and large enough to completely bury the
detonator when lightly pushed in; the loose paper is then
tied over the detonator-fuse-wires with a piece of twine to
prevent withdrawal of the detonator from the explosive. A
good flan is to reverse the cartridge, bend the wire round, and
give it a half hitch round the cartridge. The half hitch pre-
vents the detonator from being pulled out accidentally, and the
wire is led up the side of the hole, at the same time the de-
tonator is protected between two cartridges, and there is less
danger of a premature explosion due to careless stemming.

Fig. 32.—Galvanometer, with Testing Battery.

The tamping should be damp clay, the first two or three pieces
being pressed gently home, and the remainder rammed fairly
hard with a wooden rod, as this is less likely to damage the
wires than one tipped with copper. The electric fuses should
be stored in a dry place, and care should be taken not to kink
or twist the fuse wires in such a way as to cut the insula-
tion and render the fuse useless, this being especially import-
ant in wet ground. So as to prevent miss-fires, each fuse
should be tested before being used. This is done by placing
the fuse in an iron pot or pipe for protection in case of
accidental explosion; it is then connected to a galvanometer
(Fig. 32) by pressing the bared end of the fuse wires on to
the knife edge terminals of the galvanometer with the fingers,
care being taken that the ends of the wires do not touch each
other. If the needle moves, the fuse is good, but if it remains

96 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

stationary, the fuse is defective, and must be discarded. Each
fuse must be tested separately, and the galvanometer must
stand on a firm basis, so that it does not get shaken, when in
use. The ends of the fuse and cable wires should be bright
and clean; they are twisted together in such a way that they
are in close contact, and cannot be drawn apart when pulled
about. To ensure continuity of insulation, and obviate risk
of loss of current, which is very important in simultaneous
shot-firing, and in ‘wet eround, the joint may be covered with
prepared rubber taping, or some similar substance. Generally
when shooting down coal only one shot is fired at a time, so as
to reduce the amount of dust made. In cases where several
shots are fired at the time. the fuses are connected up in series
(Fig. 53). There are different types of exploders which are
practically small hand dynamos. The connection between the

Fig. 33.—Holes Connected in Series.

cable and the exploder is not made till everything is ready for
firing. As soon as the shots are fired, the cables should be dis-
connected. from the exploder, and freed from any rubbish that -
may have fallen on them, after which they are coiled up out
of the way. In case of a miss-fire, the tamping and charge
must not be drawn, but another hole must be drilled parallel
with, and at least a foot away from it. Before firing, the fuse
of the miss-shot should be attached by means of a piece of
string to some object, such as a prop, or the cable, which can
be readily found later. Immediately after firing, the shot-
firer must search the coal or stone with his hands only, for the
detonator, so as to avoid the risk of filling it out with the
broken material. The construction of a low tension fuse is
shown in Fig. 34. The thin iridium-platinum wire is made red
hot when the current passes through it, and this fires the
priming. Low tension fuses are cheaper, safer, and less likely
to deteriorate than high tension fuses, and have a further ad-
vantage, inasmuch as they can be readily tested without being

SHOOTING, 97

ae

-
‘
.
:

:

a

$3
$i

af
ae

Fig. 34.—Fuse. Fig. 35.—Magnetic Exploder.
A—Platinum Bridge.
B—Copper Wire.
C—Plug Holding Fuse.
D—Primary Composition.
E—Charge of Fulminate.

destroyed. One of John Davis and Sons’ magneto-exploders is
shown in Fig. 35. Exploders are classified according to the
number of shots they can fire at a time.

A five-foot seam in an eight-yard bord, when undercut,
may require three shots to fetch down the coal; one in the mid-
dle, and one on either side on the top, the holes being given an
upward slant. Thick seams require more shots to fetch down
the coal than thin seams; also more powder is required for
shooting when the holing is done in the top of the coal instead
of in the bottom. Custom requires that the shooters find their
own powder, but it is stored at the mine. Sometimes coal is
shot down without holing: this is known as ‘“‘shooting fast.’

98 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

CHAPTER XIII.

New Soutn Wares: Western District.

The coal lands in this district (Fig. 36) are either free-
holds belonging to the companies that work them, or are
leased from the Government.

The seam worked has better coal in the middle than top
and bottom, where it is dirty, though individual bands of coal
are good in the top and bottom coal. With the exception of
the colliery owned by the Great Cobar Limited, only the
middle coal is worked. The top coal makes a good roof, and
above that the true sandstone roof stands well. The coal con-
tains pyrites, not as nodules, but as films in partings and
cleavages, as if it had been painted on. In this form it offers
no difficulty in winning the coal. The facings in the coal do
not continue for any great distance, though occasionally a
main facing is met with, but these occur too far apart to be
systematically made use of. The coal is too jointy to ‘hele in
for more than fifteen to eighteen inches, and rarely three
feet. No shooting is required, and if powder was used, the
force of the explosive would be largely expended . in
the numerous joints. Rolls or washaways are found con-
fined to the coal, which do not extend to the roof or floor. The
mines are not wet, but the coal is moist, so no dust is formed.
The coal is not subject to fires, neither is firedamp found, so
naked lamps are used for lighting purposes. Those collieries
at the western end of the valley are worked from tunnels,
while those at the eastern end are worked from shafts.

Besides the seam of coal worked, which thins out at the
edge of the basin (first the top coal and then the rest of the
seam, giving place to a carbonaceous shale), there is a poor
splint coal, one to two feet thick, about 50ft. higher up, also
another seam about 250ft. higher still, but neither of these
seams are any good about Lithgow, though they become better
near Wallerawang.

The Lithgow Valley Colliery.

This colliery belongs to the Lithgow Valley Colliery Com-
pany, which also owns the Hermitage Colliery. They are
both under the management of Mr. J. Campbell, who has
been in the company’s employment for twenty-six years. For
the past twenty years he has been manager, that is since -
the death of the former manager, who was unfortunately
killed by fumes caused by-a fire in the Lithgow Valley Col-
liery, that was started by an underground boiler igniting the
coal near it. The miners played water on the fire and filled it

WESTERN COALFLELD. 99
SCALE

career ~ ~ ¥ 2 $ 50 120 CHaIne

3 NAA

e5
< mp] / S5
ce : aaek
32
H

56 86 ne
, obese cour
2 ae Whitey \
: ASTAGE | COLLIERY
Q CceLim ks 43 rea rd
x<— i T
—<—. Ss T
320~
a 96a | 205.1 9 8 “ge LAS Abearats
C |Broun 4% ka c :
Wace |. 852 | 5 jos S
44 o + > uv & if
Os $ ack cy < Noo Joe)“ me ee
S| = § SMe oe ae ES : wen ea
& WET att YE we § jae g 2a" fresornroeislae,
ant < s © fe A oy
an *: o* | 101 107, H 2 f Ss i
Oe = BW § ~ & 3x38 F Mackenste ||22! es
e aT tS s bed 57 SopHzs | % |
Ge Os lok 140 213 ed wells ON
BS mil SF Maes 200ac cirlae re 400 5
YAS YT So we} S|
Py SOL 40<< 5 Din me PO say wells do S
ay ee 232 2a0 jeai ft : . |
oe OLLISERY ‘03 fe 32 8 S [eso Lites] *0= | t= |
ae : = | fr 208
F R 220. ted 30. N yed 4
NOx v1 oe Lo < haya } j 3 a
Ba é e 10 S) A COLEY [= y jet Suen 2.) z35
¥ rh Si < 2028 [242 t AEE
S pss 5 ‘ es
: 3 x HS s aed a aaah We soon
Si ge Wiltorr 35 ee, < a =< _100ece at J Ay
ers bad | He
<< t 3 200ac & io <<
| Qv 2! go vi
Pe S20mern pe Ja® Si Sai “200 [202
¥ °, - } *» Le
See 5 i - a 2% nite a
° <~ i 84 Hed
8a. ~, |70 4 Mac ao
. fABreere |) LITHCBW VALLEY COLLY [EE 8 Mckoror |S
Yo 10 Bac Se gy rs |*9 3 Faggyrys Wilton 3 [20ecxe rds , ss
= & i We SA, F 8 oe |
> + ~.|4 Ww
S20nex rd 3 3 SS:r aw Ha 4750
207 206 2s? oor
Gull w @) 1 Oscar
Ds a bad Gna fos § Spee
CoPLim® | ge ac i te
bee ht 3 si (
[ese Jerse] 381.5 §
aos wa R [porn | Conte
208 178 Fae eee
E Geli |.J Blackman '76
44.2.0 Sa tle iohre Bi oy
30 WU Rishards
HERS HSa ce ra

Fig. 36.—The Western Coalfield.

100 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

out, but either the heat distilled off explosive gases from the
coal, or gases were formed by the, action of water on the red-
hot coal. It is well known that when making producer gas,
if the amount of air admitted is limited, the generation
of carbon dioxide (COs) commences at 750deg. F., and is
formed exclusively at about 1300deg. F. At a higher tem-
perature combustion takes place too. quickly to be ‘complete,
so the poisonous carbon monoxide (CO) is formed, while at
1800deg. F. this gas is exclusively generated. When
steam is added at a high temperature, it is decom-
posed into oxygen and hydrogen. Anyhow, an _ explosion
took place, and probably both the ab ove causes played

a part in it. That portion of the mine was_ sealed
off by an arched wall, with the convex portion turned
inwards. Since it has been re-opened no signs of a

fall has been discovered which could have caused a wind
blast; besides, this colliery, in common with the others in the
Lithgow Valley, is not a gassy mine, naked lhghts being used
in all of them; so the explosion must have been the result of
the fire.

The mine is worked from tunnels. There is one intake
and main haulage road (Fig. 37) over a mile long, and two
return air ways, one on either side of the intake, all driven

Fig. 37.—Entrance to Lithgow Valley Colliery.

60th wn > “ot

; /

LITHGOW VALLEY COLLIERY. 101

in the coal from the outcrop. The coal is extracted by the
pillar and bord method. The neck to a bord is made five yards

_wide for two yards, and in the next four yards it is gradually

widened out on either side to the full width of the bord.
namely, eight yards, or room for two men. The coal is found
to stand better than when widened out suddenly.

The ventilation is carried out by means of two furnaces,
one in each return airway, which terminates in a short stack.
An air passage between the furnace and coal _ prevents
the latter from catching alight. As this passage has no
connection with the stack, no air can be drawn through them
for ventilation purposes. The stoppings are of brick, built up
of two rows of stretchers side by side, which break joint, and
are bound together with two rows of headers in the total
height. The top of the stopping is only one brick thick.

The hauling is now done by an endless rope, which rests in
jockeys above the skips. The life of a tail rope is less than
that of an endless rope, as it is never out of the mine, and is
subject the whole time to moist air and gases, besides, it

HE
Fig 38.—Jockey.

winds up over itself on a drum, and so becomes crushed. The
oldest part of the present endless rope is four years old, but
two lengths have been added to it since. Twenty-pound rails
are laid, on which the skips run singly, not in sets, at a speed
of two and a-half to three miles per hour. Rollers are placed
between the rails for the rope to rest on when not lifted off
by the jockeys. This system is only good for straight roads
with light, even grade, as is the case in this mine. The skips
are released from the rope automatically, so no clippers-on or
clippers-off are required. If a skip gets off the track, the
rope is lifted out of the jockey and just runs on the top of the
coal, doing no great harm. Two jockeys are used (Fig. 38),

102 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

both being placed at the back of the skip, for at the other end
is a door, through which the coal is unloaded (Fig. 37). The
longer jockey is used when the skip is full, so as to keep the
rope above the coal. The shorter jockey is used when returning
empties, for if the longer one was employed, as the empty skip
is light, the greater leverage would tend to pull it over. The
endless rope being worked above the skips instead of below,
as is usual, it is easily raised out of the jockey automatically
by causing it to pass over a pulley, which takes the weight off
the jockey, so there is no fear of the skip being dragged to
the ‘‘cundy’’ or ‘‘conduct,’’ where the rope passes under the
roadway. For branches, the rope will be led into different dis-
tricts, connections being made at the flats. The hauling engine.
is a single cylinder on the second motion. A diagram showing
the method of taking up the slack of the rope is shown in Fig.
39. Iron cross-sprags are used to place between the spokes
of the skip wheels when there is so little room that the
sprags must be pushed in a certain distance to prevent them
from coming in contact with other objects; the guards are
also useful when the skips are travelling fast, as there is then
no danger of the boys pushing them too far in their haste.

A Brush motor, 450 volts, 15 amp., 1420 rev. per min., is
used for working a pump, electric hghts, and a’ corn cracker.
The electric signals are worked by a battery, bare galvanised

Vig. 39.—Method of Taking up Slack Rope.

iron wires being used so that they can be brought in contact
when desired to signal anywhere along the roadway. Besides
the two signal wires, there is a telephone wire and two pump
cables. The button insulators are screwed to a piece of wood,
which is nailed to wooden plugs driven into holes in the roof.
The pump is a three-throw plunger, driven by a dynamo pro-
ducing 350 volts, 13.2 amp., with 1230 r.p.m.

After passing through the screens, the slack is raised to a
storage bin by a bucket elevator; it is then conveyed along a
trough by scrapers, and is distributed to different parts of the
bin by drawing a slide from a spout to let it down where re-
quired. This is worked by a rope from the haulage engine,

LITHGOW VALLEY COLLIERY. 103

which is thrown in and out of gear as desired by a clutch. A
tension pulley is used in connection with this rope. The
stables (Fig. 40) is a brick building on the surface. That
the animals are well cared for is proved by the fact that there
is still one horse at work that has been hauling underground
for 22 years, another for 17 years, and others for 13 years.
The standard size for the horses is 14.3 hands. The animals
come out of the mine every day, and at week-ends are put in
a paddock. In the stable each horse has a stall to himself.
Chaff is sent down a spout from the loft overhead into the
manger of each stall, and there is a water trough in common

Mie, 40.—NStables.

between two stalls, which passes through the partition sepa-
rating the horses. The troughs are supplied with water from
a pipe, arranged along the top of the stalls. The floor on
which the horses stand is laid with wooden blocks, and slopes
outwards towards a drain. The company grows its own green
feed, but the chaff is bought. _The corn cracker is worked by
a 4-h.p. motor.

This colliery also owns brick and pipe works, with the
necessary crushing, grinding, mixing, and moulding ma-
_chinery; and various kilns. Both common and fire bricks are

104 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

made from material obtained on the company’s property. They
use a patent Sercombe kiln, with eighteen chambers for brick
burning.

The Hermitage Colliery.

This is one of the collieries of the Lithgow Valley Colliery
Company, and is under the general management of Mr. J.
Campbell. In many respects it is a duplicate of the Lithgow
Valley Colliery. The colliery is worked from tunnels driven
from the outcrop; the coal is extracted by the ordinary pillar
and bord system, but the winning of pillars has not yet been

Fig. 41.—Tension Pulley.

commenced. The hauling is done by an endless rope, which
rests in jockeys above the skips, but only one size of jockey
is employed, for as no end gate is on the skip, a place is pro-
vided at either end for the jockey, which can be changed from
one to the other according to which way the skip is travelling,
so there is not the same fear of the skip tipping up when
empty, as at the Lithgow Valley Colliery. The jockey con-
sists of an iron rod, with a hook on the top at one side, for
the endless rope to rest in. If this hook was in the centre of
the end of a skip the rope might slip through it, but, being on
one side, the rope, in’ its endeavour to keep a straight line,

——S ee Se —

a ee ge

wel:

HERMITAGE COLLIERY. 105

causes the jockey to turn on its vertical axis, and in doing so
the fork pinches the rope, thus gripping it firmly. The weight
of the rope on the coal also adds slightly to the hold. The
grip of a jockey is not strong enough for more than one skip
atatime. The endless rope is not spliced, but has its sections
connected together with 6in. sockets, the rope being swelled
in the socket by driving a steel wedge in the core. The haul-
ing engine was made at the Atlas Works, Sydney, and is a
‘slide valve, link motion, geared 6 to 1. The grip wheel has
one V-shaped groove. The tension pulley is mounted on a
trolly (Fig. 41), and runs on a track down hill at an angle
of lo degrees.

Fig. 42.—Conveyor.

Small doors are left in the stoppings now and again, so
that repairing timber can be passed through to the return air-
ways. Sliding doors are used for splitting the air. An Inger-
soll-Sergeant air compressor, having one steam cylinder, 12
by 14in., and one air cylinder, which takes air in through the
piston rod, is used for power to drive two pumps; one a Blake
with a double ram—one at either end,—the other a Snow
double-acting four-plunger pump. After passing over one of
Pooley’s weighing machines the skip is run into an end
tippler, the hooks of which hold the skip by the two front
wheels, not by the front axle; the band brake is worked by

106 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

foot. The screens are placed at an angle of 25deg., and are
stationary. The bars, which are lin. wide on top, half-an-
inch wide at bottom, and 2in. deep, are arranged lin. apart on
the top, and as the space widens below, there is no fear of
the coal clogging the bars. Also, the top of the bars, which
are most subject to wear, is the strongest. As large lumps of
coal might slide down quickly and carry slack with them be-
fore it has time to be screened, there are two: or three) rows
of three knives, each weighted in such a manner at the end
of a lever as to retard the rush of coal, though they eventually
give way to the pressure, and as soon as the pressure is re-
heved, the weight on the lever brings tha knives back into

place again. When not required, these knives can be held.

back. The screens are 4ft. wide by about 15ft. long. A
sheet iron brake is hung down to prevent the coal from over-
shooting when filling into D trucks. When slack is not being
filled direct into trucks, a sheet of iron is rigged up to guide
it into the boot of an elevator, similar ta that used at the
Lithgow Valley Colliery (Fig. 42}. The slack elevator is
worked from the endless rope, but as the latter only passes a
quarter of the way round the pulley, in wet weather it used to
slip, so filling pieces were bolted on to the pulley to give it a
better grip. The elevator pulley is arranged above the driving
pulley, and is put into gear by a common clutch.

Great Cobar Limited Colliery.

This is a small colliery worked by the Great Cobar Com-
pany in order to obtain coal for their own use. The whole
10ft. of the seam is extracted; any bands that can be picked
out are placed on one side. Horses draw the skip to the flat,
and as the road is high, big horses can be employed. An
engine plane is used to haul the skip up the incline to the
surface, and as the engine is located on one side of the in-
cline, the rope has to pass round a diverting sheave to direct
it down the roadway. The ventilation is carried out with the
help of a furnace. The motive power for the pump is com-
pressed air, used at 30lbs. per sq. in. The air compressor is
one made by Horwood, of Bendigo. It has a single steam
and a single air cylinder, and is provided with spring valves.

W. and J. Hoskin’s Colliery.

This is another small colliery, which only works coal for
use at the owner’s local iron works. Being located between
those collieries that can reach their seam by tunnels on the
one hand, and those that have to sink shafts on the other, this
colliery has a slope, which is worked as an engine plane, and
is about a mile long from the suface. Six skips are brought
in a set from the far end of the workings to the flat, and from

ew pees ell

VALE OF CLWYDD COLLIERY. 107

there a train of twelve skips is hauled up the incline. As
the roadways are low, the horses for gathering the skips below
cannot be more than 14.3 hands high. A furnace at the

7.

+
Fig. 43.—End Gate of Skip.

bottom of an air shaft serves to ventilate the mine. The skips
have an end gate, which swings on an iron rod on the top, as
shown in Fig. 43. It is only under exceptional circumstances,
such as when coal has to ba dumped in several places, that
this style of skip is advisable, for a gate is always a weak
point in a skip, while the first cost and subsequent repairs
will soon more than pay for tipplers.

Vale of Clwydd Colliery.

This colliery has been under the management of Mr. T.
Broughall for the past 18 or 19 years.

The coal has to be reached by shafts, of which, as usual,
there are two, the downcast and upcast. The hoisting is done
in the former, where a single truck cage is used, fitted with
Hillman’s safety catch (Fig. 44).

Fig, 44.—Hillman’s Patent Safety Cage.

108 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

The main shaft is 243ft. deep, and is oblong in shape,
being 12 by 6ft. in the clear. This is divided into three com-
partments—-two for hoisting purposes, and one for pipes and
hauling ropes. Side guides are used for the cages. A sliding
gate, to protect the mouth of the shaft, projects a little into
the shaft, so that it can be picked up by the top frame of the
cage as it ascends and comes level with the brace. The cage
rests on chairs at the surface, which are manipulated by the
enginedriver, who pulls a lever at his side, which he rests in
a notch when desired to pull the chairs out of the way so that
the cage can descend. When released, a counterweight brings
the chairs forward again. Skips are held in the cage by: a
balanced finger at both ends of an axle running with the
longer axis of the skip. The bearings for this axle rest on
cross-bars at either end of the cage above the skip. The
weighted end of the finger rests on its cross-bar when the
finger has to be raised. The winding engine is duplex, direct-
acting, Tangye’s M size. It has one drum, with two ropes.

Formerly the ventilation current was induced by a fur-
nace, but now they have a double Champion fan, 8ft. in dia-
meter and 4ft. wide. The top of the shaft is, of course, housed
in, to prevent short circuiting of the air. This is an open fan,
i.e., the foul air is expelled at the periphery, as in the case of
the Waddle fan, so it requires no stack above it. This fan
can be reversed without stopping it, by moving a wooden cas-
ing over the top when desired to blow down, instead of having
the casing underneath, as is done when using it as an exhaust.
The casing is turned by means of a sprocket wheel and chain.
This fan is being used as an exhaust, and at present is given
200 revolutions per minute, but can be worked up to 300 revo-
lutions. It is driven by a belt. In the fan-house is a steam
capstan for lowering heavy weights down the air shaft.

The headings are arranged 60-80 yards apart, and the
bords are driven off these to the rise. The bords are 4 yards
or 8 yards wide, depending on whether they are worked by one
or two men. The pillars are 22 yards apart from the centre to
centre, thus making the pillars 14 to 18 yards wide, according
to whether they are single or double bords. Pillars of 12 yards
are also left between the ends of the bords and the headings.
Air is brought up to the working face, as usual, by fastening
brattice cloth to props with clout nails. Where necessary to
divert the current in a working place, a drop sheet or curtain
of brattice cloth is tacked on to a batten across the passage.
This being made of two pieces, which slightly overlap in the
centre, horses and men can easily find their way past, though
the sheet forms a fairly good barrier to the passage of air.

The pillars are worked in eight-yard lifts, or strips taken
off across them, commencing at the far end on that side of the

ban -

Ss i ee a oe a, oe ee ee

bes

VALE OF CLWYDD COLLIERY. 109

pillar where the other pillars remain standing; this protects
the men as they work towards the broken ground. As work
proceeds the roof is supported by props, with lids or cap-
pieces. As successive lifts are taken off the pillar, the props,
both in the far bord and the pillar, are knocked out with a
hammer, to allow the roof to fall in, taking care always to
keep 16 yards of roof supported between the miners and the

Rail

Rope ee 4

Rail
Fig. 45.—Diamond of L Iron.

fallen ground. The top coal comes down easily close to the
props. The holing picks used are the standard double pointed
343lb. tool. Sullivan’s chain breast machines have now been
introduced into this mine. In places the headings are sup-
ported by old bridge rails resting on old double-headed rails,

| Te71 let |
ease a
A 8
z | ot Geena nasa Se EM emamceser 9 -) 2
z a
Elevation.

Plan.
Fig. 46.—Door.

110 COALFIELDS AND COLLIPRIES OF AUSTRALIA.

well wedged against the roof. The former serves as the bar,
the latter as legs. .

The endless rope system of haulage is employed. One
rope comes down the shaft and actuates two other ropes below,
which are thrown in and out of gear by Fisher’s friction
clutches. The driving engine is a geared duplex engine of
Tangye’s make. The empty skips go down one roadway, while
the full skips return by another. As the skips only travel one
way, there is no occasion to have double diamonds for replac-
ing skips on the rails when they become derailed. The dia-
monds in this mine are made, as shown in Fig. 45, of angle
iron, held down by means of bolts strong enough to withstand
a good shock. The skips open folding doors in the headings
by pushing against them. These doors (Fig. 46), when closed,
form an obtuse angle in favour of the direction in which the
skip is going. <A curved iron bar (KE), fastened at one end
and loose at the other, is attached to each door, and serves as
a buffer for the skip to push against. This shape causes least
friction, as the bar rubs against the sides of the skip. The
doors are closed again by means of weights attached to cords
passing over pulleys (D and C), the hinges being on the oppo-
site side of the doors to the weights, or in some cases the doors
are hung at an angle, so that they close of their own accord.

in

B D

Fig. 47.—Shipper.
The tension pulley for the endless rope runs on an incline in a
place where water does not accumulate. Instead of weighting
the trolly of the tension pulley, a skip of old iron is attached
to it, which serves the same purpose.

The track is laid with 18 and 20lb. rails, on ironbark
sleepers 4ft. by 6in., placed 3ft. apart. Where curves occur, in-
clined rollers, called Tommy Dodds, are arranged, to guide the
rope in the centre. Where the rope is apt to get off the rollers
a shipper shown in Fig. 47, devised by the manager, is used
to replace the rope easily. The projection (a) is inserted
under a rail on the opposite side to where the rope is; (b) rests
on the top of the rail; (c) is the hook to pick up the rope,
which swings on a pin that connects it to the lever (d).

The greaser consists of a wooden disc between two iron discs
of larger diameter; the groove left above the wooden disc is
filled with rope. This retains the grease-—that employed being
provided by the Vacuum Oil Company—better than an iron sur-

+
‘
>
a
.
4

ore

VALE OF CLWYDD COLLIERY. 111

face, it is Uheretore more suitable for slow haulage. The skips
are made to ring a bell, which gives notice to the men that
a set of skips is approaching the flat. The arrangement is
shown in (Fig. 48), where (C) is a vertical iron rod that can

Fig. 48.—Signal Post. Fig, 49.—Geordie Turn-out.

turn in bearings at either end; (B) is a projection hit by the
passing skip, and (A) isa lever attached to the bell wire.

As the full and empty skips all travel along the main
roadway in the same direction on a single track, when a flat is
reached from which cross-roadways branch to the w orking's
off which it is desired to divert some of the empties, the
selected skips are unclipped and switched into the cross-road-
way, which has’ two sets of rails, one for the empties going
in, the other for the full passing out. The latter return to the
main roadway automatically when set free to do so, and are
then clipped on to the main rope. Horses serve to collect the
skips, and there are good stables for them underground.

Geordie turn-outs are used for turning skips into the
several bords (Fig. 49). These are made of bar j iron, square in
cross-section, so as to be reversible when required for turns
in opposite directions. The two rails forming the crossing (a)
are welded together; (b) is known as the sweep-rail, (c) the
sweep-point, and (d) the straight point. These square rails
are fastened down with nails 4in, long by #in., provided with
a chisel point, which pass through holes in the rail.

Water is raised from the goaf, where it collects, by a
three-throw pump at the end of the main haulage. This is
worked by the main rope passing over the top of the pulley
that turns a chain, and sets the pump in motion. The main
pump at the pit’s bottom is one of Cameron’s patent, made by
Tangye, which is worked by steam.

rrr

112 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

There are three classes of weighing machines at this mine
—Pooley’s weighing machine, with a turn-table; a steelyard;
and a Billy fair-play. The last is not now in use. It consisted
of a large Salter’s spring balance, connected by rods to a box
made large enough to hold the slack from one skip. The bot-
tom of the box is on an axle, which is placed a little on one
side of the centre, so that it can be easily tipped up by means
of a lever attached to the axle. The slack that falls through
the screen collects in this bex, and the weight can be read on
the face of the dial of the spring balance. The bottom is then
turned up, and the contents emptied into a railway truck.

Fig. 50.—Screens and Waggons.

Hopper waggons are used for shipping coal, so that the bodies
can be readily lifted out by cranes. But the D class of
waggon is used for local consumption. To keep lump coal
from sliding down the screens too quickly, and carrying siack
with it, a series of so-called knives are placed between the
bars, and, sticking up, retard the rush of coal (Vig. 50). These
knives have their other ends weighted, and, when the pressure
becomes too great, the knives are forced down so that the coal
can get past; but the weight enables the knives to assume
their erect position as soon as the pressure is relieved. The

ee

VALE OF CLWYDD COLLIERY. 113

steelyard is suspended from a strong beam (Fig. 51). The
average tare of the skip is placed on the disc at the end of the
steelyard. The jockey, or sliding poise, on the main beam,
weighs up to l5cwt., while that on the auxiliary beam on the
side is divided into quarters, and weighs up to dcwt. The
poe (a) keep the frame, on which the skip is weighed,
_. steady.

Cut:
Pome
te i 2
S +: -— ==: > J
| es | | ves
Qc
T Bs
Tr
w
Tare.
1 a an Pe

Fig. 51.—Steelyard.

In principle the steelyard is a lever with arms of unequal
length, which rest on a fulcrum. In Fig. 52, (F) is the ful-
erum; (FP) a graduated scale divided into equal parts; (p) 18
a sliding counterpoise; (A) a hook on the shorter arm, from
which the thing to be weighed is suspended; (w) the pan for
various weights. The parts that vary are the position of the
counterpoise (p) and the weight on (W). The weight, multi-

A F : : ae i
“\ 3
Fig. 82.
'g , 1.
Fig. 53.

plied by its distance from the fulcrum, is equal to the resis-
tance multiplied by its distance from the fulcrum. Thus W
x ites = R x AF where R equals the thing to be weighed.

- 114 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

This principle of the lever holds good, though there are more
than two forces, as in Fig. 58, where W x PF = B-x BF +
Ax AR, Dive steelyard may have a sauskeetatted arm at-
tached parallel to the longer arm, which carries a second
counterpoise. The mechanical effect of this is the same as if
the second counterpoise were made to slide over the same arm
as the first. The main bar carries the hundredweight poise,
while the minor bar carries a slide which indicates quarters.
The counterpoise must, of course, be in proportion to the class
of weight used. W hen w eighing with such a steelyard as
shown in Fig. 51, the average tare of an empty skip is placed
on the dise (w) at the end re the larger arm; the hundred-
weight counterpoise is placed at the minimum we eight of a
skip load of coal; while the auxiliary counterpoise is shifted
about to obtain the exact weight of each load, and is the only
one it 1s necessary to read off.

The Zig Zag Colliery.

This colliery has been managed for about six years b ae
oie .
urie.

The hoisting shaft is 210ft. in depth, being 14ft. by Tft.,
divided into two hoisting compartments, and another compart-

=

Fig. 54.—The Travelling Road.

ZIG-ZAG COLLIERY. 115

ment for pipes and ropes. The upcast shaft is 189ft. deep, and
is surmounted by a brick stack 25ft. high. The brickwork
goes down to solid rock another 25ft.

This shaft is 9ft. in diameter. The travelling road
is an incline (Fig. 54) steps being cut in the rock
to assist the men in descending. This travelling road,
which is a hundred yards long, relieves the shaft, so
that the engine has nothing to do but hoist coal and
lower material. The record output for the downcast shaft
from 6 a.m. to 5.30 p.m. is 678 tons. The hoisting engine is
an old-fashioned single cylinder one, with a flywheel, built by
John Cochrane, of Barrhead. The indicator is one of the
vertical type, and a finger on it strikes a bell when nearing
the end of a trip. The skips are kept on the cage by catches,
which prevent the axles of a skip from going past them. A

_skip is run on the cage over one of these catches, the tail of

which, being heavier than the head, causes the latter to rise
up after the axle has passed it. At one side of the cage is a
pedal, and by putting his foot on this, the banksman depresses
the head of the catch, so that the front axle of the skip can
pass over it; the front axle also depresses the head of the
catch by means of a lever, thus keeping it down for the back
axle to pass over.

Ventilation is induced by a furnace. It has no side flues,
all the air passing over the fire. The furnace is 5ft. high, 8ft.
wide, and 12ft. long. Its arch is l4in. thick, built up of
headers set in loam, as this stands the fire better than lime

mortar.

Fig. 55.—Diamond.

Steam is conveyed down the main shaft to a receiver,
where any condensed water is separated, after which the steam
passes to a two-drum duplex engine of Tangye’s make, geared
23 t0 1. This drives the main and tail rope used for hauling
purposes, which travels at the rate of seven miles an hour. The
single line of rails has a gauge of 25in. Pulleys are bolted
on to timbers at the side of the roadway to support the tail
rope. The main tail rope is one mile twenty chains long, and
the cap of the rope is connected to the skip by a shackle.
There is only one branch line so far in connection with this

116 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

system, and that has a separate tail rope. A main rope has
lasted five years. The old main ropes are utilised as tail ropes.
At a junction, the rails are given a slight downward grade in-
bye, so that when the tail rope is unshackled the skip with but
little help will pass over the points without the rope. There
are 30 skips in a set, each averaging 19}ewt, of coal. Ata
curve, two bell sheaves are placed at either end, while drum
sheaves are in the middle. The drum sheaves are 18in. in
diameter, while the bell sheaves are 12in. in. diameter at the
bottom and Qin. diameter at the top. The object of the bell
sheaves is to cause the rope to keep down, as it is well known
that a circulating belt tends to climb the greater diameter.
At curves, also, a rail is fastened to a board at the side, so as
to keep the skips in an upright position. In case a truck
should become derailed, a diamond (Fig. 55) is placed he-
tween the rails just before a curve, and an iron plate outside

| |e ee

Vig. 56.—Greaser.

either rail, just opposite the diamond. The diamond is an
iron-bound block of wood pointed at either end. Ifa skip in
a set gets off the line, those on either side help to bring it
more or less in position. The ‘‘kip’’ near the pit’s bottom is
about five chains long—two chains up and three chains down.
It has a brick facing, capped with old railway sleepers,
which are checked for the main sleepers to fit in. The incline
is given a grade of lin 59. The greasers for lubricating the
skip axles.are smooth iron wheels mounted on carriage springs
(Fig. 56). The lower part of these wheels dip into troughs
of oil. As the axle of the skips come in contact with the

‘ a

ZIG-ZAG COLLIERY. 117

wheels of the greaser, the latter revolve slightly with the fric-
tion, while the spring, which is fixed at one end, but free to
move at the other, exerts the necessary pressure. ‘he spring
is 1jin, by §gin., and the greaser wheels are 12in. in diameter.
A pair of wheels are on one axle. The greaser wheels are
smooth, and have not semi-circular pieces cut out of their
periphery to fit the skip axles, for the latter require very little
grease, and as these skips travel faster than they would in the
case of an endless rope, the notches: would pick up too much
grease, and splash it about.

Fig. 57.—Travelling Tippler.

In the bords the usual bridge rails are used in lengths of
4ft. 6in. and 12ft. These are light, require no fishplates, and
are fastened to the sleepers with plate nails. Horses 15.1
hands high draw the skips from the working places to the rope
haulage. Naked lights are used, the lamp being the ordinary
small coffee-pot type, carried on the front of the cap, against
a piece of leather. In these Chinese oil is burnt, which is an
oil made from the arachis or peanut. After weighing the
skips they are run into a travelling tippler, which is an end
tippler mounted on a trolly (Fig. 57), that’ can be run over a
row of hoppers. The track is given a slight downward grade
for the full lode, so that the force required to move it about
equals that necessary to push the empty up again.

118 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERLES OF AUSTRALIA.

To drain the dip workings, an Evans’ hydraulic pumping
engine is used; while to raise the water to the surface, a Blake
steam pump is located near the bottom of the main shaft. The
construction of the hydraulic pumping engine can be seen by
' referring to Fig, 58. The motor cylinder (A) has two valves
(B and CU) above it; the piston rod (R) is a continuation of the
rod of the plunger. The water for motive purposes first enters
the chest of the auxiliary valve (B), from which. it passes
through a port into the chest of the valve (C). There is also
a communication with the main valve chamber (J), from which
the water passes into the cylinder (A), through the ports (b)
and (c). The exhaust water flows into the sump through the
port (d). The auxiliary valve is operated mechanically by the
arm (L), attached to the piston rod, which, while moving

Fig. 58.—Evans’ Hydraulic Pumping Engine.

alternately backwards and forwards, strikes in turn the lugs
(M.M.) attached to the rod (N) that actuates the rocker (QO),
connected with the far end of which is the link (Q), attached
to the valve stem (S). A small quantity of water under pres-
sure due to head is thus enabled to lift a larger quantity of
water a lesser height. The motive water presses equally on
either side of the valve (B), which, being moved mechanically
first on one side and then on the other, allows the water to
pass alternately down the ports (a and e) to the valve chest
(C), and from the latter to the water exhaust pipe. The area

ZIG ZAG COLLIERY. 119

of the motor piston is smaller than that of the pump piston.
The controlling valves of the motor cylinder are made of lig-
num vitae, as this wood is sufficiently lubricated by the water.
The pump will work without the auxiliary or jockey valve,
but in that case must move faster. The auxiliary valve makes
a dead centre almost an impossibility, so with it the pump can
work very slowly—so slowly that it can scarcely be seen to

move.
Oakey Park Colliery.

This colliery belongs to the Oakey Park Coal Mining and
Coke Company Limited, and has been managed by Mr. Robert
Hay for about sixteen years. The coal seam is reached by
means of two shafts. The downcast is used for hoisting both
men and coal, while the upcast is used solely for ventilation
purposes, the ventilation being carried out by means of a fur-
nace with side flues, and exhaust steam from the pumping
engine. Eventually a fan will be installed, and the upcast shaft
will be used for travelling purposes, so as to increase the hoist-
ing capacity of the downcast shaft. The shafts are circular in
cross-section, and are bricked up near the top, but lower down
the natural rock stands fairly well, though no doubt it would
save trouble in the future if the shaft had been lined originally
from top to bottom. Wooden buntons are let into the sides to
support the guides, and a heavy oblong frame of wood is placed
on the top of the brickwork to support the superstructure.
The cage only carries one skip at a time, the full skip pushing
the empty one out at the bottom when changing, and vice
versa at the top. The cages are provided with safety catches
of the serrated cam type; levers from the cam axles are con-
nected by chains to the draw-bar of the cage, by which means
the cams are kept off the guides. A spring attached to each
cam draws them together when the draw-bar is released. The
cages have shoes both on ends and sides. The end guides are
used when travelling through the shaft, for, being arranged
on the narrower sides, the cage has less play than if the cages
were guided from the longer sides, as is usual; but as these
end guides would be in the way of caging and uncaging the
skips, provision has to be made for changing to side guides
near the top and bottom of the shaft. About five feet below
the collar of the shaft side guides are fixed, and are continued
up the head frame. The ends of both end and side guides,
where the shoes first engage them, are bevelled off, so that the
shoes can embrace them easily, and as the cage slows down
at the end of a trip, there is no difficulty in changing from one
pair of guides to the other. The axles of the safety catches,
which are arranged for the end guides, pick up a lght iron
sliding gate as the cage reaches the surface, and on descend-
ing leaves it behind to protect the mouth of the shaft.

120 COALFIELDS AND COLLIEPRIES OF AUSTRALIA.

The main haulage roadway is the intake, while the travel-
ling road is the return airway. The main haulage has been |
properly graded, and is straight except where proximity to a
neighbouring property necessitates a curve. Track laying is
a very important matter in the economy of a mine, and when
properly done will pay for itself many times over by saving
useless wear and tear of plant and expenditure of unnecessary
power.

The coal won is about 53ft. of the middle coal, which is
fairly free from bands; the bother coal is 12 to 15in. , and the
top coal about 4ft., which is inferior, and interbedded with
bands. The ordinary bord and pillar system of working is
used to win the coal. The bords are of two widths, being four
yards for a single man and eight yards wide for two men; they
are driven 60 to 80 yards long on either side of a heading, no

Shaft.
Elevation.
Fig. 59.—Rope at Top of Shaft.

matter whether to the rise or dip. The pillars are about 2
yards wide. The neck of a four-yard bord is opened out to ‘ts
full width right away, but that of an eight-yard bord is com-
menced four “yards wide for four or five yards, after which it
gradually widens out on either side till a width of eight yards
is attained.

The system of haulage ompley ed is the endless rope, which
is set in motion by an old P. N. Russell and Co.’s engine,
working on the second motion; ee this engine will shortly be
removed to another part, and be replaced by a more powerful
one, which is now on the ground, this being necessary in order
to cope with the greater amount of work to be done. The
main haulage rope is gin. diameter, and has a circulating:
length of 2.400 yards. It travels at the rate of two miles an
hour, and four skips are clipped on at a time to make a set. =
The district ropes are #-in, diameter; they travel at the rate of

OAKEY PARK COLLIERY. 121

one mile per hour, so as not to crowd the main flat or
junction, and they only take two skips in a set.
The No..1 or eastern district rope has a circulating length of
1300 vards, while the No. 3 or western district has a total

Elevation.

ae any
) ES S + SSSED 4
Plan.

Fig. 60.—Rope at Bottom of Shaft.
length of 2700 yards. Screw dog-clips are used to fasten a set
to the rope, while coupling chains, made of three long links,
connect the different skips. Fig. 59 shows how the main rope
circulates at the surface between the engine and top of the
shaft, while Fig. 60 shows how the rope is guided in the diree-
tion required at the bottom of the shaft. The small idler (a)
is made out of two old skip wheels bolted together, as shown.

Beil
=f)

Rope

Plan.
Fig. 61.—Automatic Signalling.
Where the curve occurs on the main haulage-way, centre
sheaves, or ‘““I'ommy Dodds,”’ are used to keep ‘the rope in the
middle of the track ; these sheaves are placed vertically, and
rotate on a bolt fastened to a sleeper. A long-handled hook is

122 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERTES OF AUSTRALIA.

kept near this curve, in case the rope should get off the
sheaves and require to be lifted on again. When the skips ap-
proach this curve they are caused to go up a slight incline, so
that when the curve is reached they can run down by gravity
without requiring any pull from the rope to which they are
fastened. With this arrangement there is no occasion to tilt
up the inner rail, which would otherwise be necessary to coun-
teract the pull of the rope, which tends to go ina straight line.
When skips approach the pit’s bottom, at a given spot each
one strikes a lever, which pulls a cord, and rings a cow bell,
so as to give the putter-on due notice (Fig. 61). The greaser
used for lubricating the axles of the skips consists of a
rubber disc with iron cheeks bolted to it. No springs are used |
as with the ordinary iron greaser, and when the rubber gets
worn down the bearings are raised. The skips travelling slowly
do not knock the rubber about so much as to wear it unduly.

i Litt i = =
Se =a
4'.B"

we
| Fig. 62.—Tension Pulley.

The district ropes are worked from, the main rope, but the
speed is reduced by gearing from 2 to 1. Each district is
thrown in and out of gear by a common claw clutch. Working
one shift a day, a district rope lasts about four years. The ten-
sion pulley is mounted horizontally on a trolly, which runs up
and down on a side track, being kept taut by a box of old iron
(Fig. 62). At flats the curved rails are made of 14in. square
steel; these are more easily shaped than ordinary ‘‘T’’ rails,
and they serve for curves to either right or left by simply re-
versing them. The rail that crosses the track of the rope has
a groove cut through it, so that the rope can circulate without
undue wear and tear. As shown in Fig. 63, the turn-off on
the full track is provided with an automatic tongue switch,
worked by a weight. The branch from the empty main track
crosses over the full main track, and when in use portable
loose rails are placed over the latter to make the connection,
the loose rails being kept in place by dog spikes on the outside
of rails only. |

OAKEY PARK COLLIERY. 125

Horses are sent below in a horse-box, provided with double
doors at either end. The small upper door opens sideways, but
the lower door has its hinges on the bottom, so that it can
open downwards and serves as a stage for horses to walk over.

Fig. 63.—Crossing.

The box has shoes to engage the guides in the shafts, and it is
suspended from the bottom of the cage by a ring attached to
the top of the horse-box, which passes through a hole cut for
it in the floor of the cage. This is secured by passing a bar
through the ring so that it can rest on the rails in the cage.

The skips are built up on a rectangular wooden frame-
work (Fig. 64), underneath which a draw-bar is bolted, which
has a hook at either end. As all the pull is on the draw-bar,
the wooden structure is not strained. The skip wheels are
kept im their bearings by round iron bolted into position,
which is bent inward, so that the greasers can lubricate the
axle opposite the bearings. The bottom of the skip is made
1p of four planks, the sides and ends. being made of two

Sy

(

ee RE NRE St

Plan from Below.

Ce

i
me ¥ ; )
Side Elevation.

Fig, 64.—Undercarriage of Skip.

124 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

planks, which are 14in. wide and lin. thick. These planks are
bolted to angle iron at the corners, and are strapped with iron
on the sides; a rim of iron is fastened all round the outside
edge. The skips are weighed on one of Henry Pooley and Sons’
platform machines. When weighed, the skips are run into an
end tippler, the hooks of which catch the front axle of the
skip as the coal is tipped on to the screens (Fig. 65).

Water is raised from the dip workings by a pair of rams
worked from the return sheave of the main haulage by gear-
ing, which increases the speed from 1 ta 2. These force the
water to a water level, along which it flows to old workings,
which form a lodgment; from this it is pumped to the surface

Fig. 65.—End Tippler.

by the Tangye pumps. There are two Tangye pumps, one with
an Sin. plunger and 3ft. 8in. stroke, the other, which is held
in reserve, has a 6in. plunger and a 3ft. 2in. stroke.

The coal is classed as forked, slack, and shandy or shovel-
filled, This is the only colliery in the Western coalfield that
makes coke. Coke is more expensive to make here than on
the South Coast, as the coal is harder to break up, requiring
about 40 per cent. more crushing power, and it has to be
washed to reduce the quantity of ash, which causes a loss, be-
sides which the moisture has to be driven off, which takes time
and heat. The coke is good, and it is all consumed by W. &
J. Hoskins at the ironworks. To help equalise this extra

OAKEY PARK COLLIERY. 125

cost of making coke, the coal is cheaper to mine than on the
South Coast. The roof is good, whether it consists of top coal
or sandstone, and requires scarcely any timber, thus saving
the cost of timber and time in setting up. The workable coal
is a suitable height to extract, and, as the mines are not gassy,
the men can work with naked lamps, which give a better light
than safety lamps. The fine coal used for coking is hauled up
an incline in a skip. which has a sliding door at the lower end.
To this door is attached a pair of wheels which, when the
skip arrives near the end of its journey, runs on a short steepe”
incline outside the rails on which the skip proper runs (Fis:

‘ =H). YS

= Bem iniier sie. Casi Diggin slclehs ead

Olt) +

Vig. 66.—Automatic Discharging Skip.

66). This causes the door to slide up when over the Carr’s
disintegrator. The disintegrator breaks up the coal to a suit-
able size for coking, and by doing so the beaters, which were
originally circular in cross-section, wear to a triangular shape.
The powdered coal falls into one of a pair of sluices; one sluice
is cleaned up while the other is in use. The dirt collects in
the upper portion of the sluice, while the coarser coal, with
a small amount of dirt on the top, settles a little lower down,
and the finer washed coal occupies the lower section. The
sluice has an occasional riffle bar placed across it. A tram line
runs alongside the sluices, and the dirt is dug out or skimmed
off the top into skips, and run over the tip. The coal is sluiced

_ down into a washed-coal hopper to settle. There are four of

these hoppers, which have a capacity of about 27 tons each,
and each hopper has a separate branch from the sluice to itself.
These hoppers are V-shaped, and the water drains off from the
coal while in them. When fairly dry the coal is drawn off
through slide-gates into canisters, which convey it to the top
of the ovens. By washing the coal they get rid of about 10
per cent. of dirt. There are 32 old style of beehive ovens, in
which the needles of coke spring from the floor. Black ends,
which consist of improperly coked coal, are mostly found at
the bottom. Very little ash from burnt coke is found on the
top of a charge. There are also 40 improved type of beehive
oven, of an estimated capacity of 10 tons each per week, built
so that the finished product can be pushed out by aram. The
walls are built of good local machine-made common bricks,
and the roof of Lithgow Valley shaped fire bricks. The iron-
work for these were made by William Davies, of Wollongong.

126 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

Irondale Colliery.
This colliery belongs to Messrs. J. B. North and Sons,
and for three years has been under the management
of Mr. J. Fitzgerald. It is situated a few miles from Wallara-

Fig. 67.—Lowering Skip with Jockey and Tail Chain.

wang. ‘l'wo seams are worked—the dull seam, which is sup-
posed to be a continuation of the Lithgow seam, and varies
from five or six feet to over seven feet in thickness, but aver-
ages about six feet; and the bright seam, about 75ft. lower
down the hill, which is 4ft. thick. The latter is the better
ceal, but this is the only place where it is free enough from
bands to be worth working. The coal sticks to the roof, but
it is too jointy to blast. The roof, which is sandstone, is good;
the floor is grey shale. The floor of the bright seam has to be
hfted to make headroom in the roadways. This is done by
drilling holes about 3ft. deep with a ratchet and auger and
charging with powder. Thin bands of carbonate of iron, more
or less contaminated with clay, occur in the shales near these
coal seams. These are locally called ‘‘clay bands,’’ and where
exposed to the air become oxidised. On other land in this
district, belonging to the same owners, both ironstone and
limestone are found. The seams are worked from tunnels, and
the coal is lowered down the hill in skips on a gravity plane,
consisting of a double line of rails provided with an endless

IRONDALE COLLIERY. 127

rope. The speed is regulated by a brake at the top. The in-
cline for the upper seam has an angle of 14 degrees. The

Fig. 68.—Side Tippler.

skips have a jockey in front and a chain behind (Fig. 67).
The jockey alone would cause the down going skip to tip up,
so that it would run on the two front wheels only, therefore
the back is kept down by means of a 7ft. close-linked chain,
which has a hook at either end. One end is wrapped round
the rope about four times; then the hook, being close to the
rope and pointing down hill, is turned on its back, so that the
longer piece of chain can be hitched into it; the hook at the
other end of the chain is fastened to the back of the skip. One
or two skips may be sent down at a time. Should a skip acci-
dentally get away and break the chain of that in front, the
jockey will cause it to tip over and block any further accident.
The skips are weighed on a W. and T. Avery’s weighing-
machine. A side tippler is used to empty the skips (Fig. 68).
The skips are not held in position by the wheels or axles, for
should these become loose the skip might fall out at the top;
but angle iron is bolted on to the sides of the skips, which
catch in the side angles of the tippler. A wooden block at the
end of the tippler prevents the skip from going too far, as it
has to be drawn back, and is not pushed forward. The tippler
is eased down by a screw brake, which works in a path of a
half-circle at either end.

128 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

The Ivanhoe Colliery.

This colliery, which has been under the management of
Mr. W. Burns for three years, belongs to the Commonwealth
Portland Cement Company, who took it over in 1902. The
coal extracted is used at the company’s works. A little work
has been done on the upper seam, but it is not being con-
tinued. The ‘‘dull seam’’ is the one worked, and this is from
6ft. Gin. to Tit. Yin. thick. The roof, which stands well, is
sandstone, while the floor is shale. There is a persistent
band in the coal about 10in. from the roof. The lower coal is
first holed, broken down, and filled into skips; then the band is
taken down, and finally the upper coal. By this means the
coal is kept clean. The coal is a good steaming coal, and
burns to a white ash. Two men work in an eight yard bord.
The roadway is brought up in the middle of each bord, so that
one man can work on one side of it, and his mate on the other.
Two skips are at the face at a time; one for each man, and
they take it in turn to fill the front one. The skips are drawn
out to the surface by horses, and then sent down an incline
connecting the tunnel with the coal hoppers. The skips on the
self-acting incline are attached to a circulating endless rope
by a short linked chain. The speed is regulated by a brake
at the top of the incline. The skips have an end gate and
their contents are discharged into the hoppers by means of
an end tippler. The front end of the tippler is one
foot from its axle, while the rear end is two feet; when full the
skip tips over, and when empty the counter weight helps it to
right itself again. There are four hoppers, arranged in two
pairs, so that four railway trucks—two on each set of rails
—can be filled at a time. There is a spout at the bottom of
each hopper which is closed by a curved door, worked by
means of a lever, which can be padlocked in position, if desired,
by passing a pin through an iron bar and the lever handle, and
placing a padlock through a slot left for that purpose in the
pin.
The mine is dry, so there is no pumping to be carried out.
The ventilation is done by means of furnaces.

Cullen Bullen Colliery.

The original colliery of this name, which was the second
oldest colliery in the Valley, was purchased by the Lithgow
Coal Association and dismantled. A syndicate has secured a
few acres, which are being opened up, and a small trade is
being done with the coal won. At first the coal had to be
carted to the railway, preparatory to a horse tram being
laid down. :

The Portland Colliery.
This is a small concern, the coal being carted for local
consumption only.

CHAPTER XIV.

The Southern Coalfield, N.S.W.

The Southern Coal Field is in great contrast to most coal
fields so far as scenery is concerned. The surface works of the
various collieries are located in the scrub belt, rich in palms,
creepers, ferns, and other vegetable life. When walking along
a bush track where the trees meet overhead, and an occasional
glimpse of the South Pacific Ocean is caught in the near
distance, coal mining, with its accompanying noise and dirt,
is one of the last things to enter one’s mind. Yet it is going
on underfoot all the time.

Some idea of the dip of the coal basin may be obtained
by observing the level of the outcrop above the sea along
the South Coast. At Mount Kembla, which is the furthest
south productive colliery, the tunnels are about 800 feet above
sea level; at Mount Kiera they are about 715 feet; at Mount
Pleasant, 548; at Corrimal, 498; on reaching North Bulli (Cole-
dale) the outcrop is 300 feet above the sea; at South Clifton
(Scarborough) the seam is found outcropping 166 feet above
the sea, but although the travelling road has its entrance on
the face of the cliff, the coal is raised from shafts in order to
gain height, as the coal is sent away by rail. At Coal Cliff the
seams crop out at sea level, while at the Metropolitan Colliery
(Helensburgh) nine miles further north, it is 1100 feet deep.
The Sydney Harbour colliery, the deepest in the State, reached
coal at 2880 feet.

Of the five workable seams in the Illawarra series, opera-
tions have only been carried on in three. The Upper, or Bulli
seam, is the main one, which is being worked by all the col-
heries. The four-foot seam has been worked to a limited
extent at the Mount Pleasant and Bulli collieries, and a bed of
kerosene shale was worked some years ago at the base of
Mount Kembla.

180 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

The following data relating to porcholes sunk for coal are
of interest :—*

Height
Locality. above Total Date. Remarks.
sea. Depth.
Ft. Ft.
Camp Creek (Helensburgh) 336 — 1884 Struck 12ft. coal at

846ft.

Heathcote (near Waterfall) 4673 1586 1886 Ist seam 4ft. 8}in.,
struck at 1513ft.
2nd seam 6ft. lin.,

met with at 1577ft. ,
‘Holt Sutherland No. 8 7

(Dent’s Creek) ... ... ... 182 2307 1887 Ist seam 4ft. Qin., at >
2228ft. ; i
2nd seam 5ft. 3in., at 3
22963ft.
Moorebank Estate (Liver-
pool) ...0... 26 aoe eee see. 40. 26013, 1890. Ist seam lit. Sin, at
24934 ft.

2nd seam lft. 4in., at
2507ft. Zin.
3rd seam 6ft. 6}in., at

2583ft. 4in.
1st Robertson’s Point (Cre-
morne) ... ... ... ... .. «- 54 8005 1890 Coal 7ft. 3}in. cut at
2801ft. 9in.
2nd Roberston’s Point (Cre- ft. in.
morne) ... ... ... ... ... ««. 1389 74 2929 1892 Coal 10ft. 3in. at
2917ft.

Other boreholes that were not sunk deep enough, and were
abandoned for several reasons, are as follows :—

Locality. Total depth. Date.
Feet )
Newington (Parramatta River) .. .. 1812 1878 -
Holt- ee nat Seis ae 1 (Baten? : 2193 1879
Moore Park .. .. Motes ah) t) 1880
Narrabeen .. . iy, Sh ie SS 1883
Cooper Estate (Rose Bayi: .s «es 1700 1888

*T. W.-E. David and E. F. Pittman, ‘‘Notes on the Cre- a
morne Bore (Trans. Roy. Soc., N.S.W., 1893-4). . =

THE SOUTHERN COALFIELD, N.S.W.

Fig. 69.—Southern Coalfield.

132 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

In the Southern Coal Field there are two explosive gases
recognised, known as the top and bottom gases. The former
is ordinary fire damp. The latter collects in hollows, and can
be dammed back like water. Its composition has not yet been
properly investigated, but one analysis of a sample taken from
the Metropolitan colliery, made by Mr. W. M. Hamlet, returned

8.35 per cent. by volume of CO.

14.31 per cent. by volume of CO,

14.50 per cent.- by volume of O.

trace per cent. by volume of H.

7.64 per cent. by volume of CH,

55.20 per cent. by volume of N. ;

A map of the Southern Coal Field is given in Fig. 69,

which shows the relative positions and areas of the various
collieries.

The Sydney Harbour Colliery.

This property, comprising an area of 10,167 acres, under-
lies the Sydney Harbour, and belongs to an English-Australian
Company, known as the Sydney Harbour Colleries Limited.
The company holds a concession from the Crown at a low
annual rental, which will eventually merge intoa royalty of six-
pence per ton on large coal, and threepence per ton on small
coal, Two boreholes were sunk at Cremorne, on the North Shore
side of the harbour. The first, in 1890, reached a total depth
of 3005 feet, but struck coal at 2801ft. 9in.; the second, sunk
in 1892, reached a total depth of 2929ft., and struck 10ft. 3in.
of good coal at 2917ft.

A site was secured for the surface works having a water front-
age at Long Cove, Balmain, and work commenced eight or nine
years ago, under the supervision of Mr. J. L. C. Rae, was con-
tinued by Mr. B. Sokehill, and is now under the management
of Mr. W. E. Lishman.* The freehold is bounded by two
streets and a water frontage of 580ft., and, together with the
land reclaimed from the harbour, has an area of nearly five
acres. A sea wall has been built, the finished level of which
is nine feet above low water. The depth of water off this wall,
which is less than a hundred yards from the pit’s mouth, is.
26ft. at low tide.

oa ;
Since the above was written, this colliery has changed
hands, and is-now under the management of Mr. A. K. Broad-

head.

THE SYDNEY HARBOUR COLLIERY. 133

There are two shafts placed 168ft. apart from centre to
centre, their mouths being 80ft. above low water mark. The
ground round about has been levelled off and supported by
_ strong rubble retaining walls. The Birthday shaft, 29353ft.
deep, was the first to be sunk, this being let on contract to Mr.
T. Cater. It is the main winding and downcast shaft. The
Jubilee shaft, 29503ft. deep, is the upcast, but will also be
used for winding, if necessary.

Considerable disappointment was felt when coal was
struck in the Birthday shaft, for the seam at this point was
found to be split up. The upper seam, which was met with at
2880ft. from the surface, consisted of :—

2ft. 4in. bituminous and splint coal.
8ft. to 3ft. 2in. very dark, jointy, carbonaceous coal.
2in. inferior splint coal.
6in. to 8in. bituminous and splint coal.
This dipped 1 in 40, bearing N. Tddeg. E.

The middle seam came in 29ft. llin. lower, and consisted
of 1ft. 8in. bituminous coal, dipping 1 in 17, and bearing N.
47deg. E. The lower seam was met with at a further depth
of 15ft. 10in., or 2933ft. Tin. from the surface. This comprised :

3in. black shale.

3in. cannel coal.

Sin. carbonaceous clay shale, and thin layers of bitu-
minous coal.
The dip was 1 in 11, and the bearing N. 13deg. E. A borehole
sunk from the bottom of the shaft passed through a 9in. thick
band of splint coal at a depth of 2990ft. 33in., and a bed of
bituminous coal about a foot thick, at a depth of 3007ft.

The sinking was started with two steam cranes, one of 8
tons, the other of 7 tons capacity. The jibs acted as headgear
over the shafts, and enabled the material obtained from the
sinking to be easily spread around the shaft, thereby assisting
in levelling the ground and saving time in waiting till the
hoisting machinery could be erected. These cranes gave satis-
faction. though the speed of winding was rather slow, but the
depth for which they could be employed was limited by the
length of rope that could be coiled on the barrel in a single lap.
In the Jubilee shaft a depth of 125ft., that is from 29ft. below
the surface to 154ft., was sunk through hard sandstone by this
means during four weeks. Ata depth of 71ft. in the Birthday
shaft a tunnel has been turned off towards the quay wall, the
idea being that all heavy stores, such as pit timber and rails,
could be run in from the quay direct. This tunnel is 14ft. by
12ft. in the clear at the shaft, and is then reduced to 8ft. by
10ft., but has not been completed. Both shafts are 18ft. in
diameter, and there is a pillar of solid ground left round them,
having a radius of 375 yards.

134 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

For some of the following figures I am indebted to a paper
on “‘The Deep Sinking of Shafts at Sydney Harbour Colliery,’’
read by Mr. J. L. C. Rae before the Engineering Association
of N.S.W. on 15th October, 1900. A temporary sinking en-
gine was erected at each of the shafts, which is placed so close
to the shaft that there is room behind for the permanent en-
gine to be erected. The Birthday shaft engine consists of
a pair of horizontal, coupled, direct-acting, high-pressure
winding engines with 28in. diameter cylinders, and 5ft.
stroke. It is provided with Cornish equilibrium valve gear,

Fig. 70.—Cornish Valve.

link motion reversing gear, steam valves 8in. in diameter,
exhaust valves 9in. in diameter, and Cornish equilibrium throt-
tle valve. There is only one winding drum, which is 14ft. in
diameter, by 5ft. 6in. wide, with a splash board to prevent the
dressing from being thrown off the rope about the engine
room; it is provided with two brake flanges, one on either
side: these were originally rough, and fitted with wooden
blocks, on which a wrought iron brake strap, operated by the
enginedriver’s foot, worked half-way round the circumference.
This was subsequently altered, the flanges being turned while
in their present position, and fitted with brake blocks on long
levers of the Burns type, and the leverage increased, it now be-
ing 64 to 1. Am auxiliary drum was keyed on to the crank
shafting inside the main drum while sinking, on which that
part of the sinking rope not actually in use for the time being
was coiled. As sinking proceeded, this rope was paid out by

——a— oe, ee

THE SYDNEY HARBOUR COLLIERY. 135

drawing the keys of the internal drum, and turning it by
hand. The section of a Cornish double-beat valve, with the
valve raised, is shown in Fig. 70: the lower seat is the ring
(A), the upper, the plate (B), supported above (A) by the
wings (C), and bolted to the bridge piece (D). As
(B) exactly covers the opening, though at a higher
level, the valve when closed is entirely shielded from
the steam pressure below, so far as that power tends to lift or
depress the valve; the latter is, therefore, only the recipient
of horizontal pressure, consequently the valve is wholly bal-
anced; in other words. the rod (E) has merely to lift the dead
weight. Both the exhaust and steam valves are worked by
means of rockers.

The engine foundation is of brick, set in lime mortar,
and the whole is housed in a structure built of timber
and galvanised iron.

The Jubilee shaft engine is the same type as the Birthday
engine, only the cylinders are 30in. in diameter, and the wind-
ing drum 15ft. diameter, by 5ft. lin. wide. This will be part
of the permanent plant, at least until the output is so great
that both shafts will have to be used for hoisting purposes at
the same time. This engine is bolted down to solid rock.
The engine house is of brickwork set in cement mortar, and it

Fig. 71.—Headframes, Sydney Harbour Colliery.

136 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

has a concrete floor. The root trusses are on the queen-post
principle, the tie beams being of sufficient strength to be used
for lifting from in case of necessity. The distance from the
centre of the shaft to the centre of the drum is 10dft., thus
giving a long lead from the drum to the pit head pulleys, re-
ducing the side friction on the rope. .

The steel head frame over the Birthday shaft (Fig. 71)
was made in Nottingham, and contains 80 tons of steel lattice
work and plating; the main and back legs are 2ft. by 2ft., the
corner angles being 5in. by din. by 2in., and straps and dia-
gonals 24in. by gin. The tront legs are also 2ft. by 2ft., but
their corner angles are 4in. by 4in. by 3in. The foot of each
leg rests in a strong cast-iron shoe, set on and bolted
down to massive concrete pillars resting on solid rock. The
height to centre of puiley wheels is 70ft. 3in. above the pit’s
mouth. The pulley wheels are 18ft. in diameter, and will be
placed 7ft. 3in. apart. They are made in halves, and are put
together with bolts at the hub; and socket, tongue, and cotter
at the rim. While sinking, a 15ft. diameter pulley wheel was
arranged so that the rope passed down the centre of the shaft.
The large pulley was not used in sinking, as the smaller rope
employed would have worn a false groove in it which would
have been detrimental to the first larger rope used for per-
manent work. The detaching girders, in case of overwinding,
are O6ft. 3in. above the mouth of the pit, and are made strong
enough to sustain a treble-decked cage, carrying six skips,
each holding one ton of coal. At the same height are girders
to support two 6ft. pulley wheels for the capstan ropes.
These pulleys are arranged at right angles to the sinking pul-
ley, one at either side, but at a lower level, and are so placed
that all three ropes are in line; the capstan ropes then acted as
guides for the cross-head above the sinking bucket, as well as
supports for the bricking cradle. Four lightning conductors
are arranged on the top of the head frame.

Two pairs of capstan engines are erected back to back,
halfway between the downcast and upcast shafts. They are
coupled, horizontal, direct-acting, with 144in. diameter cylin-
ders, and 2ft. 6in. stroke, fitted with slide valves and link

motion reversing gear. The crank shaft is geared down to the -

third motion in the ratio of 9 to 1. The third motion shaft has
two drums keyed to it, each being 6ft. 44in.g@im diameter by
5ft. 6in. wide, set 8ft. apart, centre to centre, so as to corres-
pond to the centre of the capstan pulleys on the head frame,
and reduce the fleet angle. The foundations are of concrete and
solid rock, and the whole is in a building of brick set in cement
mortar. These engines will probably be altered to serve as
driving engines for the endless rope system of haulage which
it is intended to instal later on.

ini, Meissen

THE SYDNEY HARBOUR COLLIERY. 137

A nest of five boilers of the Lancashire type, 30ft. long by
8ft. in diameter, designed for a working pressure of 120lbs. per
square inch, are seated in brickwork. Provision is made for in-
creasing the number to 15, and a chamber has been built for a
Green’s economiser of 832 pipes. The reservoir for boiler water
holds 80,000 gallons, and is built up of concrete.

The feed water is pumped by Evans compound pump in
duplicate, the steam cylinders of which are 84in. and 12in.,
and the rams 8in. in diameter; both rams and pistons having
a 9in. stroke. The brick stack has a total height of 192ft., and
forms a land-mark from the Harbour. The square base is 42ft.
high, the upper portion is circular in cross section, and has
an inside diameter at the top of 8ft. 2in. It is surmounted by
four lightning conductors, and two tapes leading from them
are grounded in the tank at its base.

When sinking, six sump holes were put in at an angle,
so as to give lifting power to the shots, then while the broken
rock was being sent to the surface from the sump or advanced
hole formed, eight side holes were drilled vertically in the
bench left round the circumference of the shaft. Rack-a-rock
was the explosive used down to 650ft., after which gelignite
was employed. The shots were fired from the surface by
Nobel’s low-tension electric exploder of the rack-bar type. The
record sinking was 82ft. for the fortnight. As the rock had a
tendency to flake off on exposure to the air, it was necessary to
put in a temporary wooden lining till they were ready to build
the permanent brick one. Curbs of 6in. by 5in. hardwood,
made in 12 segments bolted together, were used at first, set
6ft. apart from centre to centre; behind these were 6in. by lin.
hardwood backing deals. Each curb was hung from the one
above by hanging deals and was further supported by iron
dowels let into the rock at regular intervals. Twelve hard-
wood punch props of 3in. by 3in. section were also set between
the curbs, one to each segment. Later an, the wooden curbs
gave place to rings of iron 3in. deep by 3in. thick which were
suspended from each other by iron rods 4ft. 6in. long, with
hooks at either end bent in opposite directions. The iron seg-
ments were bolted together, one end being slightlv bent so as

to allow the straight end of the adjoining segment to fit into it.
The backing deals were wedged against the walls by wooden
wedges 9in. long, 6in. wide, and 2in. thick at their upper
end. The brickwork was built up in sections of 100 to 150ft.,
according to the nature of the ground, and was started 25 to
o0ft. above the bottom of the shaft, so that it should not be
damaged by blasting. Walling curbs of ironbark or tallow-
wood, 12in. wide and 4}in. thick, were used for each section
of walling. These walling curbs are made up of 12 segments
which butt together, and are bolted to a cod-piece placed over

138 COALFIFLDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

the top of each joint by three ?in. bolts in each end. Butt
joints are better than scarfed joints, as they are easier to take
out later on, when the next section of walling reaches it from
below. The curbs are either set on beds dressed for them cut
in the side of the shaft, or if the rock is not strong enough,
18-20 two-inch iron dowels are let 2ft. or 3ft. into the side,
depending on the strength of the rock, and the curb rests on
them. Care must be taken to have the curbs set level and true
to the centre of the shaft. The brick work is built up solid for
not less than 6ft. high, after which the walling is carried up
as thick as possible without cutting any bricks. The bricks
should be hard, not affected by changes of temperature, and
must not absorb much water. The brickwork was started with
headers, the colonial bond being used, i.e., a row of headers
and then three rows of stretchers. The British bond of alter-
nate rows of headers and stretchers both keys and weathers
better. The brickwork is laid in cement mortar, made of 34

Fig. 72.—Bricking Cradle.

THE SYDNEY HARBOUR COLLIERY. 139

sand to 1 of cement. The space between the brickwork and
the rock was filled up with concrete, made of sieved engine
ashes and cement. The walling was carried on from a cradle
(Fig. 72) suspended from the capstan ropes. This cradle or
platform was a double-decker, the decks being 6ft. apart. The
framework was built up of 9in. by 3in. oregon pine, placed 2ft.
apart. The decks are provided with two hinged flaps, one on
either side, which can be raised to allow the cradle to pass be
tween the buntons; when down, the flaps are supported by the
oregon framework below,: which projects a little beyond the
hinges. There is a hole left in the centre of each deck for the
bucket to pass through; that in the upper deck is 6ft. square,
and that in the lower deck 8ft. 6in. square, the tapered opening
between the two being lined with tongued and grooved boards.
There is a cover to the hatchway in the upper deck. This bricking
cradle was kept in the shaft all the time sinking
was going on. Its weight was about 4 tons 15 ewt..
which was sufficient to keep the capstan ropes rigid
enough to serve as guides for the buckets. The com-
bined breaking strain of these ropes was. 864 tons, but
the maximum load on them, if the walling cradle was sus-
pended at a depth of 3000ft., and loaded with the customary

Fig. 73.—Cross-head.

140 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

complement of workmen, bricks, and mortar, was only about
14 tons at the pulleys. The use of guides in deep sinking is
not only safer. but admits of increased speed of hoisting.
Since the unfortunate accident, when a bucketful of men lost
their lives, presumably from the pendulum-like motion of the
bucket, possibly started by a slight movement by one of the
occupants, a cross-head, as seen in (Fig. 73) has been used,
and men when ascending or descending are strapped to the
bucket. |

The buntons are of ironbark, 14ft. 6in. long, 10in. deep,
and 6in. wide. They are built into the walling as work proceeds,
6ft. apart vertically from centre to centre, and 12ft. 9in. apart
horizontally. To each bunton is bolted two lines of steel rails
on which the shoes slide, which are attached to one side of the

4

ae

r

a
Sr
|| Se
aI
“t___J

Fig. 74.—Water Ring.

cage only. Where two lengths of rails butt together they are
dowelled so as to keep their ends true. While sinking, gas
was found in fissures and cavities of the strata 1000ft. above
the seam of coal, in some cases under such pressure as to cause
the floor to lift beneath the feet of the men engaged in sinking.

In the Birthday shaft no trouble was caused by water;
only about 500 gallons per hour was made. This all came
from above 700ft., and was collected in a garland, or water
ring. (Fig. 74). The garland consisted of steel plates, 8in.
wide by 4in. thick, fastened to walling curbs by coach screws.
The upper ‘edge of the plates was slightly dished to-
wards the centre of the shaft, so as to catch the

THE SYDNEY HARBOUR COLLIERY. 141

water running down the side of the brickwork. The brickwork
is shorn baek just above the curb, so as to form a channel for
the water. Two-inch down pipes lead the water to the bottom
of the shaft, from which, under ordinary working conditions,
it is filled with the muck; but should water accumulate, cwing
to a stoppage of sinking, then it was baled out in a 250 gallon
bucket, with a self-acting valve. They could only draw 80
buckets a shift. In the Jubilee shaft a feeder of water was
tapped at 600ft., which yielded 1200 gallons of water per hour,
and this had to be eventually dammed back with 53ft. of iron
tubbing.

The wedging curbs of the tubbing, which are cast hollow,
are 2ft. 6in. wide; they were made extra wide, as the rock was

& Be Ie Ree ex, Pas
as) ae ~ =
= ~ ‘ ry
Saar eons
é ia
3 i -_ —
xe ate “7
* "ie: \ .
yA ea" va?
+3 ar Paras Re as
6 Brickwork \:
ay a RES
ie et
1? A sare. Og
eR \
) ae | ‘
ene lL | | T
a ae. ,
Som ‘ <
eo AE ° ° © ° “ ROM
: es s, Me a -~
+N ok ate
aie Tad ° Pe) e . SAS
Sr | ——
~~ ee = > mi .
«! | re .
= ’ 1{ ° 2 pe se
tee 7 © Cee af
Apri; f a ote ee
aK, 5 fp aoe
ey i ° e x 0 a Speco
ate a xf Re Rai
ee a: PN Ss
palais Sees
pearWedoe s
if oor ie
2 ee Bears c.
me ~ ° 2 - o oe Seat aa kare
nn et a ‘ ‘ “
ae s Se hSre \.
n SS
- ° e ° = : a
? 2
, i
7 ¢ v +
" fe
é
is
,
: T I cot
i I
ay -
ki Brickwork

Fig. 75.—Iron. Tubbing.

142 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

knocked about, and it was necessary to get into the solid. The
curb bed must be cut perfectly level in rock impervious to
water. The Hawkesbury sandstone is treacherous, being full
of fissures and false beddings. Should the curb bed not be
properly shaped and levelled, endless trouble is caused: the
vertical joints are not plumb, and the thrust from the wedges
behind do not bring the joints up evenly. It will be noticed
from (Fig. 75) that the bottom wedging curb has a rib cast on
it 44in. from the inner end on the top, and a recess on the bot-
tom. The latter is unusual, but was allowed in this case for
fear it should be necessary to place another length of tubbing
immediately below it. The rib on the top of the curb is to
prevent the first ring of tubbing from being pushed too far
back. When the curb is laid it is wedged all round the outer
side with wooden wedges, care being taken not to push the
curb out of alignment. The wedges are driven in until a steel
chisel will not enter to make room for any more. The tubbing
proper is made up of 12 segments to a ring: each segment is
2ft. high, and is strengthened by ribs, flanges, and brackets,
und has a plug hole in the centre. The segments of each ring
break joint vertically, and between all joints wooden sheeting
is placed. As there was a pressure of 600ft., the lower half
of the tubbing was cast 3in. thick, and the upper half 2$in.

3

Fae
Cate

b=-24 bY:

ae de ee ee

Fig. 76.—Door over Shaft.

THE SYDNEY HARBOUR COLLIERY. 143

thick; the segments weigh 18 to 19cwt. each. As the lower
end of the bottom ring rests against the rib cast on the top of
the bottom wedging curb, it has no flange cast on it. Fora
similar reason there is no flange on the upper end of the top
ring. The space between the tubbing and the rock is packed
with pieces of wood and spear wedges. The holding down or
capping curb is cast flat on the top, and has a recess for the
top ring below. This is wedged in position in a similar manner
to the bottom curb, the rock being shorn back sufficiently to
enable the men to get at their work. Bricks are now built
up on the top of the holding-down curb. When the tubbing
is properly wedged, the plug holes, which till now have been
left open so as to relieve the pressure of water at the back,
are stopped by driving wooden plugs into them.

While sinking, the top of the shaft was protected bv a
- door that closed down flat over it. This door had rails fastened
to it, so that a trolly could be run underneath to receive the
body of a skip, or a skip itself could be raised from below
and lowered on the rails to be taken to the up. The door was in
two parts, and is opened by a worm and worm wheel worked

, Grad ls Enpine

O,

Block
a a p Clamp.

7,

Small
Drum

Signal Cora
down Shaft

Fig. 77.—Signal Cord.

by means of a hand winch. (Fig. 76). The arrangement by
means of which the signal cord is balanced and gradually let
out as sinking proceeds is shown in (Fig. 77).

The head frame of the Jubilee shaft is made of ironbark
timber. The sticks fit into cast-iron shoes, to which they are
bolted, the shoes in turn being bolted to concrete pillars
(Fig. 78). To prevent water from entering the shoes and rot-
ting the wood, pitch was placed inside the casting, and the
timber when stepped forced out the excess of pitch, then the
space was caulked with tow.

144 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

A pair of compound horizontal engines, with 8in. and
12in. diameter cylinders, and 2ft. stroke, drives, by means of
a belt, a Crompton dynamo of 230 volts, 112 amp., with 550
rev. per minute. ‘This is used for electric hghting, also for
driving the picking belt. |

While sinking, the shaft was divided into an upcast and
downecast compartment by a brattice of tongued and grooved
deal boards 6in. by lin., cut in sections at the surface ready
for use, to be fitted between the buntons, and were kept in
position by arris cleats top and bottom. (Fig. 79.) These
angular cleats were used so as to prevent stones. from lodging

Fig. 78.—Shoes of Headframe.

on the buntons. The junction of the wood and the brick
lining of the shaft was made tight by means of strips of brat-
tice cloth. The larger compartment was the downcast, and
the smaller, which was 12ft. square, was the upcast, and was
connected with the air drift at the surface. At first the ven-
tilation current was produced by means of a steam jet playing
into the drift near the top of the shaft; a temporary chimney
40ft. by 3ft. square connected with the drift, increasing the
height of the upcast column. To facilitate driving from the
Birthday shaft, while the Jubilee shaft was being sunk, a

THE SYDNEY HARBOUR COLLIERY. 145

small Walker’s fan was installed at the bottom of the upcast
portion of the Birthday shaft, having a capacity of 25,000 cubic
feet per minute, which was driven from the surface by an end-
less rope. The permanent fan is also one of Walker’s (Fig. 80),
24ft. in diameter, and 8ft. wide, provided with a Walker’s
shutter, and guaranteed to produce 400,000 cubic feet of air
per minute, with 44in. water gauge. The driving engine is a
compound horizontal, with 19in. and 25in. diameter cylinders,

Pig. -79.
Wooden
Brattice. Fig. 80.—Walker’s Fan.

and 4ft. stroke. It drives the fan with 11 cotton ropes, the
driving pulley being 18ft. in diameter, and the fan pulley 9ft.
in diameter. The engine is provided with Meyer’s cut-off valve
for both high and low pressure cylinders, so that steam can
be regulated in either cylinder should the other have to be
cut out for any reason. This gear consists of two valves, the
mpin valve, A.B., and the expansion valve, E.F. (Fig. 81).

146 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

The main valve regulates the point of admission, release and
compression, while the expansion valve is a variable one, since
the point of cut-off can be varied, and this can be done while the
engine is running. The two blocks, KE and F, are on a spindle
cut with both right and left hand threads, and by turning
this, the lap is altered by either bringing the blocks together
or separating them. If the blocks are brought closer to-
gether the cut-off will be later; if they are separated, then
the cut-off will be earlier. When E and F are close together
they are out of gear, and the cut-off is given by the main valve.
The. two valves moving in opposite directions give a quicker ~
cut-off; this decreases wire drawing. The spindle is turned
by means of the hand wheel G, which has a square hole in its
boss for the spindle. The boss is encircled by a screw carry-
ing a pointer H, the movement of which represents the altered
expansion to the eye.

a |
LL ELE 2

Fig. 81.--Meyer’s Variable aa ae Gear.

According to Professor David, the top coal seam at Cre-
morne is 2850ft. below sea level. Assuming that the seam con-
tinues at the same angle, 1.e., 110ft. per mile, then allowing for
soundings, if the seam outcrops below the ocean, it should
be met with about 18 miles east of Port Jackson heads. ‘‘It is
improbable, however, that the outcrop is nearer than ten miles,
or further than fifteen miles from the coast.’’ The seam which
was split up at Balmain improves at they drive east. About
half-a-mile east of the shaft, the top coal is 2ft. 3in. thick, slate
lft. 10in., and then the bottom coal lft. 4in. Now, at the end
of the winning, the seam is from 5ft. 6in. to 5ft. 9in. thick, the
coal getting thicker while the band is thinning out. At 1450
yards east, off Ballast Point, they have started to open out
on the longwall system, where the coal is 5ft. thick, with one
band. The two winnings are 8ft. wide, and 7ft. high. Until
work is sufficiently advanced for the endless rope system, all
haulage is done by horses.

This colliery is being equipped for an eventual output of
2000 tons per diem. The skips, on reaching the surface, will
first be weighed, so as to ascertain the weight of coal for which

THE SYDNEY HARBOUR COLLIERY. 147

the miner shall be paid, and will then be tipped on a side. tip-
pler similar to that of the Metropolitan colliery; the coal will
slide over a stationary screen, the slack falling between the
bars into a billy-fair-play, while the round coal passes on to
a picking belt. The slack is taken by a scraper conveyor to
the boot of a bucket elevator, which raises it into a shoot.
From the shoot the slack can be diverted either to a tip or into
another scraper conveyor, which takes it to the boiler house.
The scraper conveyor, tippler, and screen were provided by
Messrs. Morison and Bearby, of Carrington, near Newcastle.

-The round coal drops on to a double-headed flight picking
belt, mounted on two strands of Jeffrey’s malleable roller
chains. This belt is arranged at an angle of fifteen degrees;
is 120ft. from centre to centre, 4ft. wide, and is driven by a

Fig. 82.—Picking-Belt, Bin, and Loading Tower.

12 h.p. motor, located near the head of the belt, at a rate of
60ft. per minute. Boys can stand on both sides of the belt to
pick out stone. The capacity of the picking belt is 250 tons
per hour, and it delivers into a 750 ton bin. (Fig. 82), which
has four valves beneath it. A portable 10-ton Pooley weigh-
ing machine, with a dial face, can be placed under two adjoin-
ing valves, from which it is desired to draw coal. This machine

148 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

is for the purpose of noting the weight of coal shipped, and it
has a capacity of 300 tons an hour. Below the
weighing machine is a hopper from which the coal
is fed down a spout on to a double strand scraper
conveyor, mounted on two strand Jefirey steel thimble
roller chains. The conveyor is 3ft. 6im. wide,. and
travels at the rate of 75ft. per mmute, up an incline
of 38 degrees, to the top of a hardwood tower 50ft. above the
wharf level. It has a capacity of 300 tons an hour if neces-
sary, but that rate is not required, as the coal cannot be trim-
med so fast. There are three points on the tower from which
coal may be delivered, according to the height of the tide, and
the size of the vessel. The conveyor is driven from the top of

the tower by a small steam engine at the base of the bin,

through the medium of a rope, which has three turns round the
pulleys, and a tension wheel to take up the slack: by having
one continuous rope, on the American principle, instead of three
separate ropes, as is the usual English custom, each turn does
its fair share of work.

The Metropolitan Colliery.

The Metropolitan Colliery is situated at Helensburgh, about
28 miles south of Sydney. Operations started here in 1887, but.
the first five years were occupied in shaft sinking and equip-
ping the mine. This colliery has been worked constantly now
for many years. The area controlled by the Metro-
politan Coal Company of Sydney Limited is about 22,000
acres, which is the largest area held by any _ coal
mining company in New, South Wales. Some of the land
is leased from the Crown, and some from private individuals.
The present general manager, Mr. D. A. W. Robertson, has
been in charge for nearly 19 years, and great credit is due to
him for the way in which he has overcome the difficulties met
with. This colliery is admitted to be the most gassy mine
in New South Wales, yet there has never been an ex-
plosion, which speaks well for the care exercised by those
in charge. Subsequent developments have proved that the site
selected for the shafts and surface works would have been bet-
ter situated about two miles nearer Sydney. The shafts were
sunk in a gully which leads nowhere, and the only get-
away is by ashort private line connected to the main line about
a mile south of Helensburgh. Certain first costs were saved in
the sinking, but these were more than counterbalanced by the
fact that all the ground required for buildings had to be made,
also the shafts are so far apart that an entirely separate nest
of boilers was required for each. Below they were unfortunate:
enough to encounter a fault which limited developments at
first, but now they have three districts to work from, and have

06 ehig eo) Loe a ee es art a ne «

es |

THE METROPOLITAN COLLIERY. 149

30 to 35 years’ supply of coal opened up. Though stili de-
veloping, it is not necessary to do so at the same rate as for-
merly, for every foot of headings driven represents a larger
spread of coal.

The two shafts are each 1100ft. deep, are circular in cross-
section, and are lined with brickwork where necessary. The
downeast shaft is 16ft. in diameter, and the upcast shaft 15ft.
in diameter. Although the shafts are 1100ft. deep, some of
the workings, partly owing to ridges on the surface, and partly
owing to dip workings, have 1500ft. of cover. These are the
deepest colliery workings in New. South Wales if we except
the Sydney Harbour Colliery, which is scarcely in the produc-
ing stage yet.

The Bulli seam in this colliery is about 1lit. thick. Only
some 6ft. 6in. of the upper coal which is free from partings is
worked, though the lower coal is taken up in the headings.
This is good steam coal; though jointy, it is closer in grain,
harder, and higher in fixed carbon than that from the same
seam with less cover worked further down the coast. On
account of the jointy nature of the coal, it is so easily won
that less men are required for the same output than at most
other coal mines.

All the hoisting and travelling is done in the downcast
shaft, where the winding engine lifts a total load of seven
tons, including cages, chains, load and rope from cage at
bottom to pulleys, 1100ft. in 28 seconds; another 7 to 8 seconds
being required to discharge loaded skips and replace with
empties. The engine is capable of raising 1600 tons of coal in
eight hours, but the actual work accomplished has been 1500
' tons during that period. The winding engine has 34in. dia-
meter cylinders, and 5ft. 6in. stroke. It has double beat Cor-
nish valves and trip gear. The drums, which are placed
parallel, are 15ft. in diameter. The cages carry two skips each,
which are placed tandem ways, and held on the cages by stops;
when the latter are depressed, the on-coming skips are made to
push out those already in the cage, and take their places. The
guides are made of ropes consisting of six in. iron rods twisted
together, so that the whole is ]}in. in diametér. There are
three of these guides for each cage, two placed on the side
nearest the wall of the shaft, the other near’ the
middle of the opposite side, but not exactly opposite
the corresponding rope of the other cage (Fig. 85).
They are fixed at the top by passing the end of
each rope through a hole in a girder, doubling it over, and
clamping with three clamps (Fig. 83). At the bottom, the
guides are doubled through eye-bolts that hang loose in the
shaft, and are clamped in a similar manner as on the pit-head

150 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

frame. On the eye-bolts are strung cheese-weights (Fig. 84)
aggregating about 44 tons for each ‘guide, so as to give it suffi-
cient tension. Rubbing-bars are placed on the sides of the
cages next each other, and are 18in. apart when the cages are
stationary. Between the two cages are suspended two old wind-
ing ropes, their object being to prevent the cages from collid-
ing (Fig. 85). One peculiar feature noticed after adopting the
rubbing-bars was that the cages did not ascend in the same
position that they assumed when at rest, but canted over at an
angle. This was demonstrated by the wearing of the rubbing
bars against one division rope more than the other: fortunately
both cages canted over in the same direction, instead of to-
wards each other. Rope guides are not so satisfactory as steel |
rails, now that the latter can be made straight and even; for

@)

ie) fe)
Cage
\ (e} J
ie] ie]
i Sk fe] =
Cage
re) ‘e)

Fig. 83, Fasten- Vig. 84, Fig. 85.—Guide Rope, Rubbing
ing of guide Cheese bars and Division rope.
rope at top. weights.

not being firmly fixed, if steam is shut off suddenly it sets the
ropes dancing, and there is danger of the cages colliding when
half way. On account of the swaying of the cages, large shafts
are required where rope guides are used, for sufficient space
must be left between the cages, although buntons are not want-
ed. The deeper the pit the greater the flexibility of the ropes,
for they cannot be weighted so heavily as to secure the same
amount of rigidity that steel rails fastened to buntons possess,
and this flexibility is greatest in the middle of their lenyth,
where the cages pass. On the other hand, rope guides are cheaper

,THE METROPOLITAN COLLIERY. — 151

in first cost; they offer no resistance to ventilation, as
they require no intermediate supports, and take up little
space; unless fixed at the bottom, they are free to expand and
contract ; if properly oiled they last longer than wooden guides,
require less repairs, and are easily fitted up and secured.

The winding rope, which is 44 inches in circumference, is
capped with one of Becker’s caps. The ordinary way of cap-
ping by separating the wires and doubling them back over
some underlying metal or other material, so as to form a cone-
shaped knot at the end, destroys the unity of the wires which
is essential so that the rope shall yield a tensile strength pro-
portionate to its metallic area, and as the strain is exerted on
this tapered knot, which is naturally the weakest part, the
factor of safety, which is right enough for the main body of
the rope, may be inadequate for that portion of it inside the
cap, where the wires break one after the other, and cannot be

detected. W.H. Becker designed a cap with sliding interlock-

ing wedges hollowed out in the centre, which clamps the whole
of.the rope within it, and does not depend on a swelling at the
end, though in practice the end is turned over, as shown in Fig.
86. A rope can be capped in 15 minutes, so, if required, the
end of it can be examined daily.

' Of the three endless rope systems for hauling, two ropes,
each 3iin. in circumference cross the gully, and pass down
the upcast shaft direct to their work. A band rope,
liin. diameter, passes down the main shaft and
drives several drums at the bottom, which are _ put
in and out of gear by Walker’s friction clutches. This
clutch consists of three segments fixed to the drum: each seg-

ment is connected to those on either side by a left and right
-hand screw with large threads, so that a slight turn will cause
“them to come closer together or to go further apart, according

to the direction in which they are turned. A boss is fixed to
the drum shafting, so when the segments clutch this boss it
causes the drum and shafting to rotate: it is found that when
the ‘‘friction’’ is copper-lined it gives a better grip than other-
wise. The clutch is worked by means of a hand wheel at the
top of a fine threaded screw, and the motion is transmitted to
the segments by a system of levers. By having a fine thread,
the endless rope is started or stopped slowly, thus avoiding
shock. Of the drums in this underground chamber, one is for
a collecting rope that runs for about three hundred yards from
the pit’s bottom, it being unsuitable to have a gravity system
for such a distance, besides the collecting rope controls the
trafic better; another is for the main haulage, and like the
other main haulage ropes is of the best plough steel 34-inch
circumference; while a third is a driving rope for working two
secondary haulages in two headings. the rones of which are

152 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

24in, in circumference. In addition to these there are two
endless rope self-acting inclines. From a drum in the cham-
ber near the main shaft bottom already referred to, power is
transmitted by a band rope laid along the centre of the main
dip road to chambers fitted with friction drums at points one
mile, and one and a quarter miles distant from the shaft.
These drums in turn operate two secondary rope haulage sys-
tems, east and west, for the conveyance of coal, from points
where same is delivered by horses, to the main dip. The dip of

aTTIIIN ts
ee a eae eae i
om "~~.
— —— ¢

5
"% y}
Y

Fig. 86.—Becker’s Cap.

ihe coal is very irregular, hence the collecting work from the
working places by horses js unusually severe, and some 595

heavy draught horses are required. These horses are stabled-

underground in the vicinity of the air shaft. The stables are
brick lined, floored with wooden blocks, and lighted by elee-
tricity.

There are five main parallel headings: the three in the middle
are intakes, while the two on either side are returns. The

Iie

ii ie

THE METROPOLITAN COLLIERY. 153

centre heading is used for the main haulage, while the other
two intakes are for travelling roads. Cross-headings are
started about every quarter of a mile, or 440 yards.

The Welsh-bord system of extracting the coal was adopted
for the sake of better ventilation, but where the roof is
bad it is found advantageous to modify this. On account of
the depth at which the coal is found, and character of roof.
stronger props than usual are required, the minimum size be
ing seven inches in diameter, and on account of the large
amount of gas present, more air is required for ventilation
purposes, which are factors that had to be taken into consider
ation. The Welsh-bords are made ten yards wide, about 200
yards long, and have a pillar 50 yards wide between them. In

loyds
< 8yds >
ya

lig. 87.—Opening Out of Bord.

the ordinary pillar and bord, any waste is thrown on both
sides, while a roadway is kept open in the middle: with the
Welsh-bord system, the waste is stacked in the middle, and a
roadway left in either side. When starting a bord off a heading,
two passages are commenced, each four yards wide, and about
ten yards long, leaving a pillar eight yards in width between
them: one of these passages is continued straight on (Fig. 87),
the other off-sets towards the first; they are then carried on to-
wether for the full width of the bord. When extracting the
pillar it is attacked from one or both bords, in strips 10 to 20
yards wide (Fig. 88), a roadway and pair of men working
every five yards of width. One of the roadways in each bord
is abandoned for hauling purposes, whichever happens to he
in the worst condition, but it may still be used for ventilation
or inspection purposes, unless the roof proves too costly te

154 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA,

yo Or
As

I I

4

‘WS,

_
>

Sw PKR AN

cd

Wee 2 Aha! 4

So yds
Vig. 88.—Welsh Bord System.

maintain. Holes have to be made in the goaf to convey air to
the parallel road. The holes cannot be left as the bord ad-
vances, since the crush would often close them up; besides,
though closed by brattice, the air is apt to short circuit when
holes are made before they are required. It is noticed that the
roof becomes heavy about 30 yards ahead of where the pillar-
ing is taking place. With the modified method (Fig. 89) a
pair of four-yard headings are driven with a pillar of 24 yards

Fig. 89.—New Method.

THE METROPOLITAN COLLIERY. 155

between them, cut-throughs are made about every 44 yards
apart; between each pair of headings is a pillar 100 yards
wide. This method requires ‘narrow-work, but the expense of
supporting the roof is less, and the pillar between each pair of
headings is double the width of that left by the old method,
so they do not have to be put in so often, also there are no
small holes to be made through the goaf in the bords as with
the old method. The pillars are worked out on the same prin-
ciple as before; the wider they are taken out the less trouble
they cause. From two to four roadways are turned off from
the end of a heading on either side of a pillar, depending on
the width of the pillar strip to be extracted at one time; these
are extended as work proceeds, and when one strip is com-
pleted, the rails are taken up and used for the next strip. The
coal requires little or no holing, so is unsuitable for coal cut-
ting machinery. All the fillime into the skips 1s done by fork.
There is practically no water in the mine, so the workings are
very dusty.

Four hundred thousand cubic feet of air at five inches
water gauge pressure pass through the mine per minute, and
the return air contains 1} per cent. of fire-damp. There are two
Walker-Schiele fans, each driven from horizontal engines by
fifteen manilla ropes, but only one fan is worked at a time.
The bigger fan, 24 feet in diameter, by 8 feet wide, revolves
106 times per minute, and is driven by a compound engine
having 25in. and 36in. diameter cylinders with a three foot
stroke. The other fan is 20 feet by 7 feet wide, has 130 re-
with a 36in. diameter cylinder. Being driven at such
a high speed, the bearings of these fans have to be kept cool by
streams of water playing on them. ‘The air drifts are so
arranged that they can be put into communication with either
fan by means of doors. A large iron framework is built across
the drift on each side of the fan, and in this are three pairs of
iron doors, one above the other, that open towards the fan.
These are of such a size that they can be easily manipulated,
and as they move in the direction of the air current, they re-
quire no special fastening. Underground the fresh air from
the dewn-cast shaft passes along the intake headings, and re-
turns partly along the return headings, and partly along the
disused or partly disused workings. The aggregate amount of
air circulated by the two fans is not only the largest in Aus-
tralia, but is probably greater than that produced in any one
mine elsewhere.

The upeast shaft is housed in with brick walls, provided
with windows, and roofed with galvanised iron, so in case of
an explosion this would give way readily, and save the fans
from being disabled. The pit-head frame is of timber, the
sills of which are mounted on brick walls. An emergency
winding engine is located at this shaft, and single skip cages

156 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

are suspended ready in the shaft: the guide ropes are situated
at diagonal corners of the cage, two to each cage. The steam
power for this pit is provided by three Lancashire boilers. The
electric light is generated by two Siemens direct-current
dynamos, driven by two vertical engines of Tangyes’ make.
The larger of the two dynamos is 10kw., 45.5 amp., and 220
volts. The electric light is used at the surface, and also about
the pit’s bottom. At the main shaft is a steel pit-head frame
of English make. The full skips, after being weighed near
the pit’s mouth, are conveyed by means of a creeper-chain up
an incline to the tipplers. After being emptied, the skips are
conveyed along a level place by means of another creeper-
chain, and are then sent down a pair of rails curved first in one

Bere

Fig. 90.—Tippler.

direction horizontally and then in another, so as to gradually
break their impetus till they reach the mouth of the pit again.
A piece of angle iron is fastened to either side of the skips so
as to hold them in the tipplers. Mr. Robertson maintains that
it is not the speed at which a tippler revolves that breaks the
coal, but the drop the coal is given, for if a box of coal be
quickly and completely turned upside down on to the ground
the coal is not disturbed and shaken to the same extent as if it
were spilt from the height at which it started. Carrying out
this idea, Mr. Robertson devised a tippler that revolves on an
axle in such a way as to leave the skip open on the top. In
order to keep the coal in the skip till it reaches the screen, a

“THE METROPOLITAN COLLIERY. 157

curved sheet iron shield (Fig. 90) (a) is hinged at its upper
end in such a manner that it presses against the coal in the
skip, which it keeps in place until the skip is almost reversed ;
being on a hinge this shield can adjust itself to the height
of the coal above the sides of the skip, and swings back
into place as soon as the skip passes it. At the bottom of
this curved sheet is hinged a flat piece of sheet iron (b) to
guide the, coal on to the screen, the free end sliding up and
down on the screen according to the distance the shield is
pushed out of the perpendicular. In this way the coal may be
tipped quickly, and still be retained in the skip till upside
down, when it is delivered on to the stationary screen with the
least possible shock. There is a brake connected with the tip-
pler, because it is found that by its use the coal spreads, and is.
better screened when eased down than when dumped in one
heap; in the latter case the coal tends to slide down bodily,
which does not give the slack sufficient chance to pass between
the bars.

The main screens just separate the coal into round coal
and slack. The slack is raised in a bucket elevator to two
shaking screens worked together by means of an eccentric.
The upper screen has a half inch mesh, and the lower three-
sixteenths of an inch. It was found that the dust was separ-
ated better by getting rid of the larger pieces first. The over-
size from each screen is mixed and sold as ‘‘nuts’’ for use in
boilers fed by mechanical stokers. The slack that passes
through the bars of the main screens is collected in the box
of the. billy-fair-play, and weighed by a large spring halance
before being discharged through the movable bottom.

The mouth of the pit is protected by a sliding gate at each
entrance to the cage, which gates are lifted by the cage as it
ascends, and is lowered as it descends. To reduce the jar, the
shaft gate falls on rubber buffers. In order to steady the cage
and keep it in position, as it approaches the surface, angle
irons are fixed to guide the corners of the cages, also pieces of

bar iron at either end.
Electric signals are employed: for these Leclanche bat-

teries are used with relays.

Near the main shaft i is a nest of eleven Lancashire boilers
imported from England, nine of which are fitted with the Mel-
drum system of forced draft.

The Cambrian safety lamp is the one used by the miners;
in these is burnt a mixture of three parts of colsa oil to one part
of kerosene. This is found to be more sensitive than the colsa
oil alone, and does not crust the wick so much. The object de-
sired is to obtain a serviceable and at the same time a sensitive
oil. With colsa alone, one cannot determine less than three
per cent. of gas in the atmosphere; while with kerosene, one

158 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA. —

cau detect three-quarters of a per cent. The officials use
Hepplewhite-Grey lamps, and test for gas with the hydrogen
flame. It takes a man and three boys one minute to take to
pieces, clean, fill and put together again three lamps. One
boy takes the lamp apart; the man cleans and examines the
gauzes, for this he has two revolving brushes, one for the in-
side, the other for the outside of the gauze cylinders; a second
boy cleans the glasses, and a third boy fills the oil vessels and
pe the parts together. A fourth boy is employed on night
shift.

Only one shift is worked at this colliery. The front and
back shift system is not employed here as in the tunnel col-
lieries down the coast, for as the only means of ingress and
egress is by the cages in the shaft, it would necessitate the em-
ployment of extra engine-drivers; besides, the coal is so easily
won that it requires no preparation by holing and blasting to
fetch it down, so there is no occasion for a man to get the place
ready for his mate. After interviewing the exairining deputy
at. his station, the men proceed with their work at their own
discretion, and can have a snack when they please. The
wheelers, of course, have a fixed half-hour for dinner. The
men are searched for pipes, tobacco and matches before
descending in the cage, and at frequent intervals five or six
cages of men (16 in a cage) are searched immediately they
reach the pit’s bottom in the morning. A special search is
made at irregular intervals, when officers, working in pairs,
thoroughly search the clothing of every person throughout the
mine while at their working places: precautions being taken
that no previous warning is given.

The output from this colliery is practically absorbed by
inland consumers, the demand remaining unsatisfied. Fully
200,000 tons of this coal is taken annually by the Govern-
ment railways and tramways.

Coal Cliff Collery.

This colliery. which is situated at Clifton, is of special in-
terest, for it was here that coal was first discovered in New
South Wales, in August, 1797 (Fig. 91.). It is owned by
Messrs. EK, Vickery and Sons Ltd., and is managed by Mr. P.
J. Carrick, who has been in charge for the past ten years, but
has been employed at the colliery for twenty-seven or twenty-
eight years. The mine itself has been worked for about thirty-
two years.

The seam, which averages about six feet in the workings,
crops out on the side of the cliff close to the sea near the com-
pany’s jetty. The collieries south of this property can be
entered by means of tunnels, while north of this property the
only means of access to the workings is by pits.

COAL CLIFF COLLIERY. 159

The Coal Cliff collierv is worked from two tunnels, one
serves as an intake, the other as a return air-way. The work
ings are divided into two districts; the Western and the North-
ern. Cross-headings branch off from these tunnels seven and
a half chains apart, and bords are worked from each side of a
heading so as to meet those coming towards them from the
cross-headings on either side. When about to draw pillars,
reads are turned off to right and left from the bords to the
pillars on either side, a twelve foot lift is then taken off at a
time across a pillar. When about half the length of the pillar
has been extracted, the props are drawn and the roof allowed

Vig. 91.—Outcrop of Coal at Coal Cliff, where Coal was first
Discovered in N.S.W.

to fall in. This relieves the pressure on the coal ,thereby
keeping it in better condition.

Formerly this mine was ventilated by means of a furnace,
but this has been superseded by a seven foot Schiele fan,
travelling three hundred revolutions per minute, and producing
15,000 cubic feet of air per minute. The Schiele fan is one of
the smaller type of enclosed fans which is placed eccentrically
within its casing, the casing being made a gradually increas-
ing volute. The air enters equally from both sides. The
blades are made wider near the centre than towards their tips
where, on account of the greater circumference, the same

160 COALFIELDS. AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

quantity of air is able to pass through a narrower space. The
sides of the casing are made to taper with the blades: The
tips of the blades bend away from the direction of motion.
The fan is driven by a single cylinder horizontal engine of 10
horse power, supplied by H. P. Gregory and Co., of Sydney.

The water in the mine is partly fresh from surface drain-
age, and partly brackish. The Northern District is thirty
feet below the level of the sea, but several chains inland. There
are two pumps employed to drain the mine, one a single acting
23 in. plunger pump worked off the tail rope, which is given
a turn round a pulley; the other a geared ram having a 3 in.
delivery pipe. The latter pump, together with a Stephenson
Rocket oil engine for driving it, was supplied by Robt.
Stephenson, of Westminster. At first the porcelain ignition
tubes of .the engine gave trouble by breaking, but now the
blacksmith makes steel tubes which work well.

The skips are gathered by horses of 15 or 16 hands high,
but for any specially low places, ponies are used. The horses
are stabled at the surface. The skips are hauled in and out
of the mine by a main and tail rope system, at a rate of about
twelve miles per hour. The main rope is 3in. in circumfer-
ence, and the tail rope 24in. This system is employed in
beth the Northern and Western Districts, but as there is only
one engine for the two districts, onlv one district can be worked
at atime. The connection for either district is made a short
distance from the entrance to the mine, where the return line
for the empties of the Northern District cuts through the kip of
the Western District, the space being bridged over by loose
rails when it is required to draw out from the Western Dis-
trict. The ropes are wound up on drums by a duplex engine of
Tangyes’ make, K size, geared 3 to 1. The drums are thrown
in and out of gear by means of claw clutches, and strap brakes
are situated between the drums. ‘This engine is installed in a
chamber underground, where it is protected from the sea air.
Communication along the haulage ways and the engine-driver
is made by means of electric signals in the usual manner.
Steam for the various engines is generated in a Cornish boiler
at the surface. )

At present the colliery is dependent on water carriage,
both for its stores and as a means of transport for its coal, ex-
cept a limited amount of stores that is lowered down over the
clifi from the main road in a box which is worked up and down
an aerial rope by means of a friction winch that is usually
employed in hauling skips of slack to the top of a storage
hopper. Convenient as sea carriage may be as the jetty goes
straight out into the Pacific Ocean and has no protection from
the waves and sea breezes, there are times when the company’s
steam-boats cannot lay along side, but it is understood that

é
¥
¢
4
7

ee

COAL CLIFF COLLIERY. 161

there is a scheme on hand when by working from a pit, coal
can be raised to the level of the railway which cuts through
the property.

The coal on issuing from the mine is tipped on to short
stationary screens; the slack that passes between the bars is
hauled by ropes up an incline to the top of hoppers. The round
coal and any unscreened coal to be shipped is hauled to the end
?

~Rst :
eee Frat SEIS - - -Y <= ATES picky

x

Fig. 92.—Switch.

of the jetty by means of an endless rope, the terminal pulley
ot which is placed vertically under the decking. (Fig. 92.)
The trucks are caused to go up one end of a slight double in-
cline or kip made by placing beams on the decking, which serve
as longitudinal sleepers for the rails. When released from
the endless rope, the trucks run down by gravity to an end
tippler. (Fig. 93.) When emptied, the truck is switched

Fig, 93.—Tippler at End of Jetty, Coal Cliff.

162 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

on to a siding, along which it passes either to the slack hopper
to be refilled, or to one of several storage tracks according to
requirements. As one end of the kip crosses the outer rail
of the siding, in order to enable the empty truck to pass, a
groove is cut out of the timber of the kip while the rail above
it is hinged so that it can be slid out of the way, being kept
where placed by a counterweight; the full truck, as it goes
towards the tippler, pushes the rail back into placeagain. As
the ordinary screw clip would not be strong enough to hold the
large trucks on to the endless rope, a cam clip is employed, so
constructed that the heavier the load the tighter it grips. The
endless rope is placed in a U shaped piece of iron, and the foot
of a leg-shaped cam placed on the top of it; a pin which is
fastened to the apparatus by a light chain is then passed

Fig. 94.—Cam Clip.

through holes in the sides of the l! niece and the cam. (Fig.
94.) The rope is still free to circulate through the
clip, but when a chain fastened to the lever end of the cam
is hooked on to a truck, the weight of the truck causes the cam
to grip the rope firmly.

The South Clifton Colliery.

This colliery belongs to the South Clifton Coal Mining
Company, and has been under the management of Mr. John
Wilson for the past five years.

The seam varies from 4ft, 3in. to 5ft. Gin. in thickness,
't is practically free from bands, and carries very little
pyrites. The coal outcrops along the coast about 166ft. above
sea level. It has a strong sandstone roof that requires very
little support, and a shale floor. There is no distinct
facing, as is the case with the coal of the Newcastle district,
but this is not necessary, as the coal is readily broken down
by pick, without any holing. The Welsh bord system of
mining is employed, but the bords are not filled up between
the roadways, as there is no waste to fill with. The bords are
turned off at right angles to the headings, and are opened out
12 yards wide, the pillars left between being 35 yards wide.
No pillar extraction has been done by the present management.

SOUTH CLIFTON COLLIERY. 163

When necessary to blast down the coal, holes are bored with
augers, and charged with monobel; for shooting in_ rock,
saxonite is used.

Men enter the colliery from a tunnel driven in the side of the
cliff overlooking the ocean (Fig. 95); there are besides two
shafts which are circular and brick lined. The downcast shaft
is L50ft. deep, and is used for hoisting purposes; the upcast air
shaft is 120ft. deep. The cages in the downcast shaft run on
iron rail guides; these guides, two for each cage, are both
arranged near the outside of the shaft, so as to give more clear-

Fig. 95.—Entrance Tunnel.

ance in the shaft. The winding is done by a duplex engine,
with lft. 6in. diameter cylinders, and 3ft. stroke. There are
double drums 7ft. 6in. in diameter, with a brake path between
them. The engines are direct-acting, and occupy 12 seconds to
hoist a eage from the bottom; they are provided with link
motion reversing gear. Steam is shut off about half-way. The
rope is 4in. in circumference, and is 220ft. long from the pit’s
bottom to the drum. A dial indicator shows the position of the
cages in the shaft. The pit head frame is built up of squared
timber, on which is mounted pit head pulleys 10ft. 6in. in
diameter. Steam is generated in two Lancashire boilers 30ft.
long, by 7ft. diameter, and one Cornish boiler, under a pressure

164 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

of 65 to TO0lb. per square inch. Below, there are two intake
roadways, one from the downcast shaft, the other from the
travelling roadway; and there are two return roadways to the
upeast shaft.

The skips, which hold ldcwt. of coal, are made of tallow
wood sides one inch thick, the boards being 114in. wide. The
skips are 4ft. 4in. long, 3ft. 6in. wide, and 23in. high; the
boards are connected together by angle iron, and have a
wrought iron rim round the top. The bottom is of 3-16in. sheet
iron. The cast iron wheels, 11#in. diameter, are fixed on to
l3in. axles. To prevent skips from being filled so full that the
coal is knocked off against the roof in low places, a gauge is
erected, which consists of a horizontal piece of timber protected
by iron, placed across a track under which the skips are obliged
to pass. In the bords, short lengths of bridge rails are used.
These are lighter than solid rails, and being in short lengths
are easier to handle and bring close up to the face of the coal.

=

+

spring,

> Emphes

Se = Nv Eamptres od <= Fur
> 22
Empies <= a Ke

Fig. 96.— Track Arrangement at the Pit’s Bottom.

The air current is circulated by means of a 20ft. diameter
Walker fan, which is worked at a pressure of about 2.25 inches
water gauge, and supplies 60,000 to 80,000 cubic feet of air per
minute, the fan being given 80 revolutions per minute. It is
driven direct by a tandem compound engine, but only the high
pressure cylinder is used at present, the low pressure cylinder
being disconnected.

Haulage underground is carried out by means of the end-
less rope system. At the bottom of the pit the empty skips are
pushed off the cage by the full skips which replace them.
Kach empty skip then runs down a siding by gravity, at the
bottom of which it strikes a wooden spring, consisting of a
plank fixed at one end only. ‘This starts the skip down the
in-bye track to the place where it is attached to the endless
rope by clip (Fig. 96). The greaser for the skips is placed as
usual between the rails, but the pair of wheels that convey the
lubricating oil from the wooden trough to the skip axles have
a series of arcs of circles cut out of their periphery. into which
the skip axles fit and turn the greaser, so it does not require
any springs, as in the case of greasers that revolve by friction.

The endless hauling ropes are Lang’s lay, with an iron core.
The main rope is 3} inches in circumference, and passes down

Brno.

SOUTH CLIFTON COLLIERY. 165

the main shaft, being set in motion at the surface by a duplex
engine, with 12in. diameter cylinders, and 24in. stroke, pro-
vided with link motion reversing gear. The rope drum is
worked on the third motion, being geared 15 to 1, thus making
the rope travel at the rate of 14 miles per hour. The rope is
given four and a half turns round the drum, the face of which
is slightly inclined so that the rope is let on at the side with
the greater diameter, and passes off at the smaller diameter.
The tension pulley is arranged near the bottom of the pit, and
the trolley on which it is fixed is attached te weights hung on
a bail by means of a chain. There are three districts, each

©
Fig. 97.—Serew Clip. Fig. 98.—Screw Clip.

having a separate endless rope: the branch ropes are 24 inches
in circumference, and are driven by the main rope, which also
works a small geared pump. The branch ropes are put in and
out of gear by Fisher’s friction clutches. Three skips in a set
are fastened to the rope by one clip. There are two kinds of
screw clips, one worked by a spanner, the other by an iron
rod (Figs. 97-98). At the top of an incline, where it was found
the skips were liable to become derailed, high bar irons are
placed between the rails, bent towards each other in the direc-
tion of the oncoming skips: these serve to guide the skips on
to the rails again. .

OS ages C: |

ct Tr) 5:40 cn!
—- =) |) TT! ae
[aH 73) ‘; -

+

Fig. 99.—Creeper Chain.

_ At the pit’s mouth the empty skips are drawn up an in-
cline by a creeper chain, the links of which are 12in. long.
The single link every nine feet has a horn on it high enough to
catch the axle of the skip so as to pull it along (Fig. 99). The
creeper is driven by a sprocket wheel and chain arranged at its
lower end. The skips run down a short incline towards the
shaft, the wheels of alternate skips pushing a lever on opposite

166 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA,

sides which works points automatically, and directs the skips
to one or other of the compartments ready for the upcoming
cage. Just in front of the shaft is a stop between the rails of
each track to prevent skips going too far. This consists of a
hook which moves on a pin: the hook is high enough to engage
the axles of a skip, and is kept up by the greater weight of the
tail end. When desired to release a skip in order to cage it, a
lever worked by the foot depresses the hooked end by raising
the weighted end of the stop (Fig. 100). At the screen siding,

S
cs

Lever pedal

<a T Lever
stop 5 z

5 Upedat
Fig. 100.—Stop.

wooden blocks shod with iron are used to prevent trucks from
going too far (Fig. 101). When desired to allow a truck to

fo)

Fait.

(o <=
lig. 101.—Block for Waggon.

proceed, that block which supports the one across the rail is
pushed on one side.

A dynamo by Thos. Parker Ltd. of 220 volts, 25 amp.,
having 720 revolutions per minute, is used for electric lights
at the surface, pit’s bottom, and flats, it also provides the
motive power for machinery in, the shop, and a three-throw
pump underground.

Signals are given along the roadways by means of electric
wires 10 S.W.G. , and a battery of Leclanche cells. Communi-
cation between under eround and surface is made by ordinary

wall telephones, with no special protection against dirt.

On account of the low roof only ponies between 11.2 and
13.2 hands-high can be used. These walk into the mine
thr ough a tunnel, but do not come out again until it is neces-

.
3

SOUTH CLIFTON COLLIERY. 167

sary to give them a spell. The underground stables have
accommodation for 60 ponies, and are in charge of two hostlers.
According to the grade of the track leading to a gathering
station or flat, two ponies may be necessary to pull one full
skip, or one pony may draw one full skip.

The lamp cabin is a compact room with barred windows,
through which the men are handed their lamps. The safety
lamps used are of the bonetted deflector type, made by Messrs.
Ni. Johnson, Clapham and Morris Ltd. (Fig. 102). The oil
chamber is a brass casting, in one piece, the bottom not being
soldered on separately, as in lamps of other makes, such joints

O.
O-

O

|

'
\

Q
Fie, 102.—Johnson, Clapham and Morris Safety Lamp.

being weak points through which oil leaks. The wick used is
flat, and it is raised or lowered by turning the thumb screw
(Q), which causes the spindle (P) to revolve. This spindle
has a worm (M) at the top end, which engages with a wheel
that moves those (K) which works the wick up or down. With
such an arrangement there is no danger, as with the ordinary
pricker, which might drop down, and the top portion accident-
ally become pushed into the wick, then if the lamp be placed
on a flat surface the pricker is pushed up, and with it the wick

168 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

causing a flaring flame. There is a feed hole on the top of the
oil vessel at one side protected with a screw plug. Pure kero-
sene is used as the illuminant: this gives a sensitive flame for
ordinary gas testing, and does not give a charred wick, which
requires constant trimming. There is a movable ring to which
the hasp for locking the upper part of the lamp to the oil ves-
sel is attached, so should the screw get worn by constant use,
the lamp can still be screwed up tightly and properly locked.
Any part of a lamp is interchangeable with a similar part of
another lamp of the same make, as the lamps are all made to
template. A cone is placed round the wick to keep out dust
and hold the wick in place; the cone is nickel-plated so as to
act as a reflector. Above the glass are two gauzes, one inside
the other. These gauzes have what is known as a metallic
seam, that is the edges of the gauze are bent backwards on
themselves longitudinally, and are then clamped by a strip of
metal, the edges of which are bent round in the opposite diree-
tion, so as to fit in the hooks formed by the gauze. Should the
gauze become crushed, it can be opened out again without
splitting the seam, which often happens when the seam is wire
sewn in the usual way. The lamps are lighted by means of
electricity, which causes a platinum wire across the top of the
wick to become red hot. Being lghted just before the men
want them, there is no waste of oil, as there would be if the
lamps were lighted by match, and locked ready for the men.

A tell-tale board is placed in a position so that the men
have to pass it going to their work. Each man, before going
to his place, puts a metal disc stamped with his special number
on a certain peg: by this means the officials can tell who is
undereround. On returning from work the disc is removed to
another part of the board. Non-compliance with this regula-

tion makes a man subject to punishment. The men only work |

one shift. They start work at 7 a.m., knock off at 9 a.m. for
half an hour, to- have breakfast, then work till 12.30 p.m.,
when they take till 1 p.m. for dinner, after which they work
on till 5 p.m.

The coal is tipped on to shaking screens from a cylindrical
side tippler. The tippler is put in motion by means of a lever
which brings friction gear into action. The present friction
pulley has a rounded face, but the next tippler will be given a
V-shaped face, with a truncated point. The tippler itself re-
volves on wheels. ‘This class of tippler is slow, but for that
reason is more suited for soft coal, such as it has to deal with,
as then it is less likely to break up. The screens make four
sizes of coal—Ist, round; 2nd, large nuts; ?-2 in., 3rd, small
nuts, 3-2 m,; 4th, duff, or dust. The large coal, and some
unscreened bunker coal is sold, the small nuts and duff are
coked and sold to smelting works. The coal before going to

PrN le ease et ea er

SOUTH CLIFTON COLLIERY. 169 —

the coke ovens is reduced in a disintegrator, it is then conveyed
along a trough on the top of the rows of ovens by U-shaped
scrapers. hen desired to fill any particular oven, a slide is
withdrawn from the bottom of the trough, so that the fine coal
can pass down through a portable shoot and the crown of the
oven (Fig. 103). There is a bank of 24 beehive ovens, with a
flue in common, leading to a brick stack, and another of six
ovens, with short chimneys, one between each two ovens
placed back to back; 16 new beehive ovens were in course of
construction at the time of my visit. The ovens vary in size.

Fig. 103.—Coke Ovens.

A 5-ton oven will yield about three tons of coke, and takes
about 60 hours to burn. The coke is quenched by playing
water on it in the ovens, after which it is handled with 15-
tine forks, the tines being lin. apart.

North Bulli Colliery.

_ This colliery may be looked upon as the youngest produc-
ing colliery on the South Coast, but it is rapidly pushing its
way to the front under the supervision of Mr. T. Cater, who
is a large shareholder in the company.

170 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

At first, when the seam was thin, from 2ft. llin. to 3ft.
6in., the coal was extracted on the longwall system; but where
the seam increases to 4ft. 6in. and over, a change is made
to pillar and bord, as there is not sufficient stone to
support the roof when required. The face of the longwall is
semi-circular in shape, and stall-roads leading to it are
10 yards apart from centre to centre; they are kept open by
pack-walls built up of stone lifted from the bottom (which is
shale, and easier to work than the sandstone roof) in order
to obtain head room. The longwall method depends largely
fer its success on the travelling weight of the roof, which rolls
forward and bears down on the strip of undercut coal at the
face, causing it to fall. The rock overhead may be divided
into two parts according to its action: lst. the underweight
or fractured material (A) Fig. 104. below the arch, and the

Fig. 104—Weight of Roof.

overweight or solid strata (B) above the arch, which settles
on the packs behind, and keeps pace with the travelling or
underweight. The roof at North Bulli fractures 15ft. to
16ft. behind the face, and the overweight crushes the packs
to about half their original size. Though roof pressure
cannot be overcome, it can be regulated by constant work,
and a uniform line of face, so that it is just sufficient to
break down the strip of undercut coal. If too great, the roof
pressure will crush the coal, and may cause the roof to
break off short at the face. |The systematic timbering of a
longwall face is of great importance. The props should be
set in rows parallel to the general line of the working face;
never staggered. The regular drawing of the back timber
next the packs causes the underweight to settle forward on
the face of the coal. The settlement of the overweight is
regulated by. the proportion of packwalls, and the manner of
building them up. If the overweight settles too rapidly it

NORTH BULLI COLLIERY. 171

causes the underweight to bind, throws too much weight on
the face, and crushes the timbers. If the overweight settles
too slowly the progress of the underweight is retarded. The
distance between the timbers, and the number of rows, will
depend on the conditions of the seam, roof, floor, depth of
eover, etc.

The coal is undercut by Sullivan’s longwall machines,

Fig 105—Sullivan Long Wall Machine.

of which there are four, driven by electricity: the motor takes
280 volts, 105 amp. and has 1225 revolutions per minute. This
machine is similar to the Sullivan electric chain machine, the
chief difference being that though the cutter-bar is swung into
line with the machine when loading into a truck to flit to
another place, while at work it is placed at right angles to
the body of the machine. (Fie. 105.) The machine
advances as the cutting proceeds, along a chain, placed parallel
with the face, which is threaded through the machine and
jacked at the ends. A driving sprocket engages with this
chain, and so procures the forward motion, the machine sliding
along the floor on a sheet steel shoe without the intervention
of rails. This coal cutter uses about 15 b.h.p., and will cut
120 yards long, 5in. high, for a depth of 14 yards, in an eight-
hours’ shift. It is worked by a driver, an assistant and a
boy. The boy throws out the cuttings from the side of
the machine, while the assistant cleans it away from under the

172 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

machine, and places some in the cut to support the coal.
When the machine reaches the end of the face, it is placed
cn a truck and flitted back to commence a fresh cut.

Where the coal is thicker, and the pillar and bord method
is used, the coal is found to be harder, and does not make so

much slack; in fact, it has to be shot down. Carbonite is
used for shooting down coal, and saxonite for shooting in
rock. On either side of an intake heading is a _ return
heading, known respectively as right and left. These are

connected with the main heading by diagonally arranged
cut-throughs, placed about 24 chains apart, and made 4 yards
wide; those cut-throughs on opposite sides do not branch off
from the same point, but alternatel y as shown in Fig.106. The

Fig. 106.—Welsh Bord System.

Welsh bord system is used, and these bords are turned off from
both right and left headings, with necks 4 yards wide and 4
yards long. They are then widened out gradually on either
side till 18 yards wide, and are then driven straight on. A
track is laid along both sides ofthe bord, and any dirt is
thrown in the middle. The bords are made . indefinitely
long. The coal pillars between the bords are 77 yards
wide. Crosseuts are driven through the pillars at suitable
intervals, which serve the purpose of roadways. Waiting till
the bords are in to make these roadways, which shorten the

NORTH BULLI COLLIERY. 173

distance for conveying the coal, saves. much original driving
of narrow work. ‘The longwall cutter is used in the bords
with success; it doing better work than hand labour.

The endless-rope system of haulage is employed under-
eround, driven by a semi-portable boiler and engine situated
outside the mouth of the intake tunnel. The intake and re-
turn tunnels are about 50 yards apart, and are connected every
80 or 90 yards by stentons. The roadways are 12ft. wide and
Sft. high. Horses 11 to 14 hands high gather the skips from
the working places. The skips hold about ldcwt. of coal; they
have to be built low on account of the low roof. Four full
skips or ten empties go to a set. They wait for a larger
number of empties, so as to save time when clipping on, and
also to save the wear of the rope where the clips fasten.
Lang’s lay rope is used, it being found most suitable for
hauling purposes where drums and pulleys are comparatively
small, and where the ropes are subject to severe side friction.

On arriving at daylight, the skips are weighed on an
Avery’s. self-registering weighing machine, capable of
weighing up to 30cewt. They are then run into a side tippler
with a counter weight below, so as to right itself again after
the coal has been discharged. The tippler is regulated by a
brake, so as not to smash up the coal when dumping on to
the screens. A side tippler has an advantage over an end
tippler inasmuch as an empty skip need not pass out the same
way as it entered, but can be pushed out the opposite end
by a full skip; also a side tippler does not deposit the coal
in such a small heap as an end tippler. The screen is
stationary, but has a movable chute. The classes of coal
produced are: Ist, Best screened, 1.e., over #in.; 2nd, un-
screened, with or without the duff taken out; 3rd, nuts be-
tween $in. and ?in., and duff under }in. There is a self-
acting incline from the mine to the level of the railway;
the top portion has three rails, at the meeting there are four,
while the bottom length has two.

The workshops are fitted with lathes, drilling machines
and other necessary plant.

The ventilating current is produced bv a 10ft. diameter
Walker fan, into which the air passes from both sides. This fan
is given 150 revolutions per minute and delivers air with a pres-
sure of 1.3in. water. It is driven by a single cylinder engine pro-
vided with a Meyer’s cut-off valve, by means of two manila
ropes. The driving pulley has five grooves, and is geared 3 to
1. Both fan and engine were made by William Davies, of Wol-
longong. Provision is made for adding another engine to the
other end of the crank disc, so that by turning the connecting
and eccentric rods round, they can be connected to the dupli-
cate engine when necessary to use it. The fan is situated

174 COALFIELD,s AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

on one side of the return airway, and connected to it by a gal-
vanised iron air drift, so that in case of an explosion this struc-
ture being light would be blown away. thus acting as a safety
valve and saving the fan: and if destroyed, the drift could be
easily and cheaply reconstructed.

Davis’s water-gauge is used for reading the pressure of
the air. As 1 cub. ft. of water at 62deg. Fahr. and under
80in. barometric pressure weighs 62.355lb., the pressure per
square foot due to each inch in height equals 62.855 or

12
§.196lb., generally taken as 5.2lb. The ordinary U-shaped
gauge is difficult to read on account of the oscillations of the
water columns; also if one limb is broken the gauge is useless.
Davis’s gauge consists of two straight pieces of boiler gauge
glass sealed into a brass block im such a manner that they
can be readily renewed. (Fig. 107.) A small hole in the

Fig. 107—Davis’ Water Gauge.

brass block connects the two glasses, and in this is a thumb
tap, with which one can minimise the oscillation of the water
column due to the pulsation of the fan, and even stop the
connection altogether, so that the height of the water column
may be registered. As the pressure of a column is dependent
solely on the vertical height, any irregularity in the section
of the tube is immaterial. The scale behind the tubes is

NORTH BULLI COLLIERY. 175

divided into inches and decimals of an inch. the lines passing
across the whole width of each tube. The whole scale is
capable of being slid up and down to facilitate adjustment.

An electric three-throw pump is used, having a capacity
of 4000 gallons per hour.

The electric plant consists of a generator of 340 amp. and
250 volts, with no load, and 280 volts with full load. It
is used for coal cutters, pumping and lighting. This was the
first colliery on the South Coast to apply electricity to coal-
cutting machines. The generator is driven by a Fleming
side-crank engine, made by the Harrisburg Foundry and
Machine Works, Pennsylvania, Signalling is done by elec-
tricity generated by 10 Leclanche cells, and conveyed along
10 S8.W.G. galvanised-iron wires.

_Fig. 108—Hornsby Upright Water

Tube Boiler.

The boiler plant consists of a Hornsby and Sons tubular
boiler, anda colonial multitubular boiler at the mine; there is
also a Hornsby boiler at the coke works. The Hornsby is an up-
right water-tube boiler. (Fig. 108.) The tubes are assembled
in nests; those nearest the fire-box being inclined, while those
at the rear are vertical. A drum for holding water and steam
is arranged at the top. The flame and hot gases from the
fuel act directly on the tubes; the heating surface is large, and
as the heat acts on small quantities of water in one place,
steam can be raised rapidly. The constant rising of steam
from the internal surface of the tubes creates a powerful
circulation through the boiler, and tends to retard the deposi-

176 COALFIELD AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

tion of sediment in the tubes. Such boilers are suitable
for raising high pressure steam, and should an explosion take
place it is not so likely to be disastrous as with a non-tubular
boiler, for the part to give way will act as a relief to the

rest. The several parts are comparatively small, light, and
easily handled, The boiler is housed in brickwork, which

also forms the firebox or chamber.

The conveyors used at this mine are the disc type of
Jeffreys make, and are the first of their sort in Australia.
Onc, 750ft. long, conveys slack from the slack bins at the

Fig. 109—Dragon Rope.

screens down hill to the disintegrator shed, at the rate of

60 tons per hour. This replaces the self-acting incline
formerly used. The discs are 10in. in diameter, and are
placed every three feet on the cable. The cable used—in

this case lin. in diameter—is the ‘‘Dragon brand,’’ made
specially by A. Leschen and Sons Rope Co. It is made up
of six strands, each strand consisting of a triangular centre
with two layers of five wires. Owing to the peculiar lay of
the wires, as seen in Fig. 109, where different strands go in

NORTH BULLI COLLIERY. | 177

opposite directions, rotating or twisting is ‘prevented. The
rope has a comparatively large wearing surface, the flattened
shape of the strands bringing the greatest number of wires in
each strand in contact with the grooves of the sheaves, thus
greatly increasing the life of the rope.

Kach range of coke ovens has a conveyor of its own,
worked by electricity. The supports are above the ovens, and
being subject to heat the whole apparatus is constructed of
iron or steel. Kach oven has two feed holes, and there is a
valve in the bottom of the trough over each oven. When
desired to fillan oven, the valve is opened and a duff-box with

aaa

Fig. 110.—Hydraulic Ram for Working Doors of Ovens.

two spouts—one for each feed hole—which runs on rails is
placed beneath. The spouts are arranged on a turntable, so
that they can be moved out of the wav of the oven chimneys
when the canister is pushed from one place to another. When
desired to fill the further range of ovens, all the valves in the
trough above the first range are closed, in order that the duff
can be dragged to the end, where it falls into a bin, having
a capacity of 20 or 80 tons. So that an oven shall not be over-
charged, a smaller hopper, which has the capacity of an oven
charge, is filled, and its contents then run into the conveyor

trough.
L

178 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF - AUSTRALIA.

When the coke ovens now in course of construction are
completed, this colliery will own 107, with an aggregate
weekly capacity of 1200 tons. The ovens are charged twice
a week, one charge being left in three days, the other four.

The coke ovens are rectangular in cross-section, with an
arched roof. Each oven is Ldft. long, 6ft. 6imn. wide at,the
ram end, and 6ft. 9in. wide at the exit end. The height from

floor to crown of arch is 6ft. 4in. The ovens are 2ft. Zin.
apart, and have 2ft. 2in. cover overhead. They are built of

common brick lined with fire brick, the whole being well
braced with buck-staves and tie rods. There is one stack
having an inside area of 10 sq. ft. for each pair of ovens, con-

Fig. 111.—Coke Ovens.

nection being made by flues. each having its own damper.
There are two circular feed holes in the crown of each oven,
20in. in diameter, the bricks for which are wedge shaped, both
side and endways. The doors to the ovens consist of an iron
frame built up inside with bricks, holes being left for air,
which are stopped up temporarily when desired to restrict:
the admittance of air. The doors are raised and lowered by
means of an hydraulic ram (Fig. 110), which moves a rope
backwards and forwards as desired. A wire cord enables a
man on the top of a bank of ovens to open or close the valve

NORTH BULLI COLLIERY. (179

that admits water to the ram; a clamp is fastened to the rope
and connected with a door by chains. When the ram with a
pulley at the end is forced out it draws the door up. (Fig.
111.) A water-pipe is laid alongside a bank of ovens, and a
branch made for everv four ovens, to which a hose is con-
nected. The coke is quenched in the oven by inserting
« long iron pipe attached to the hose at one end and closed
at the other. Two rows of holes are drilled in the pipe in
such a manner that the jets of water issuing from them diverge
slightly. Water is only used on the coke outside the ovens
when not sufficiently cooled inside. The ram used for pushing

Fig, 112.~-Coke Ram.

out the coke was made by W. Davies and Son, of Lilleshall
Engineering Works, Wollongong. (Fig. 112.) It is driven
by a duplex engine having 9in. diameter cylinders, and is
treble purchase. The boiler is one of Ruston, Proctor. and
Co’s. The coke is pushed out on to rails over an incline
alongside a railway line. (Fig. 113.) <A charge consists
of 6 tons of coal, and they reckon on obtaining two-thirds of
the coal put in as coke.

180 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA,

The Austinmere and Bulli Pass Collieries.

These collieries are leased to the Southern Coal Miners’
Association, who allow them to remain idle. They are both
small locked in areas. Formerly so-called natural coke was.
supplied to the Sydney steam trams from the Bulli Pass mine.
The Austinmere Colliery was worked years ago, and turned out
a failure.

The Bulli Colliery.

The Bulli Colliery is about eight miles from Wollongong,
in a northerly direction, and 13 miles from the Bulli

Fig. 113.—Coke being pushed out of Oven.

jetty. It belongs to the Bulli Coal Co. Ltd., and is con-
trolled by Mr. Geo. Adams. The mine was commenced to be
opened out in 1863. It is worked from tunnels, but like
its neighbours it also has an air shaft.

Mention of the Bulli Colliery brings to the mind of the
public the greatest colliery disaster that has ever taken place
in Australia, bar one, viz., the Mount Kembla explosion, that
took place 15 years later. About half-past two in the after-
noon of 23rd March, 1887, an explosion took place, followed
a few seconds later by a second one of less intensity. These
resulted in the death of 81 persons. Apparently few if any

THE BULLI COLLIERY. 181

were killed by the actual explosion itself, for most of them

_died while in the act of escaping from the effects of poisonous

gases, as indicated by the positions and conditions of the
corpses. The total annihilation of life was due to the small
area opened up in the district where the explosion took place,
no wastes existing wherein the force of the explosion could
expend itself, it being confined to the narrow strip of working
where the men were ‘actually engaged.

According to the findings of the Royal Commission which
was appointed to inquire into this disaster. the accident was
caused by an explosion of light carburetted hydrogen gas that
had accumulated at the face or between the face and the last
stenton of No. 2 heading, in the Hill End district, and that
the immediate cause of the explosion was, in all probability,
the flame from an overcharged shot that had apparently been
fired in the coal on the top of a roll in the face of No. 2 head-
ing: also that the explosion was intensified. and the force in-
creased to distant parts of the district, by the presence in the
mine air of coal dust in a minute state of division.

Fire-damp was first seen in the Hill End district between
eighteen months and two vears prior to the explosion, having
been discovered when crossing a dyke in the main heading
incline plane, and since then it had heen reported in small
quantities. Fire-damp is by no means uncommon in the
neighbourhood of dykes, where the igneous rocks often burn
the coal in its neighbourhood to a cinder, and in others by
driving off some of the volatile hydrocarbons leave behind
so-called natural coke. There is a good deal of both cinder
and natural coke at Bulli. A considerable area of the Bulli
Colliery is subject to ‘‘rolls.”” These are rises in the floor,
which have a greater length than breadth; individually, the
same roll is seldom traced for anv great length, but where
one ends another may commence. Sometimes they occur
so frequently that a roll may serve as a pillar between each
bord. | Anyhow, they seriously interfere with the laying out
and winning of ‘that part of a colliery in which they occur.
These disturbances are solely confined to the horizon of the
upper or seven-foot seam; in the four-foot seam below, these
irregularities have not been found. Also the roof of ‘the
upper seam is slightly, if at all, affected. | As a rule these
uregularities do not cut off the whole thickness of the coal
seam. The mine was ventilated by means of a furnace,
but this does not appear to have had anything to do with the
explosion. The colliery is a dry one, the atmosphere is warm,
and the coal is friable and easily pulveri sed, so that during
work the air becomes charged with dust. The main road
used to be watered. but not the headings or working-places.
It is well known that most dust is made in the latter, where

182 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

men and horses are constantly trampling coal underfoot. In

the main haulage-ways the dust is not so disturbed. Then again, —

the top dust, which is very fine, and settles on the top of
timbers, is purer than that lying on the ground, which is more
or less mixed up with rock dust—it is not so readily watered,
but is easily reached by flame. Also porous dust is more
dangerous than dense dust. The enormous surface pre-
sented by coal in a minute state of division, to the action of
flame, induces instantaneous combustion, and distils off gas.
ut beside chemical properties, it would seem that coal dust,
anyhow at the inception of a coal mine explosion in which
it takes part, may act catalytically. The reason for catalytic
pkenomena is somewhat obscure, for certain effects are
brought about by the mere presence of a substance which it-
self undergoes no perceptible change. It has been shown
by experiment that an inert substance, such as magnesia, when
finely pulverised and suspended in air will assist the explosion
of an admixture of fire-damp and air. With regard to
watering coal dust, it is necessary that the dust be properly
moistened to be effective. We all know how a drop of water
falling on dust gets coated with the fine particles and rolls
about on the top of it, also if just sprinkled on the top of the
dust a moist crust may be formed. but the first footstep stirs
up the dust below it again. Very little dampness is necessary
to prevent dust from igniting so long as the whole of the
available dust is damp. In this mine we had the two main
sources of colliery explosions—fire-damp and coal dust—
moreover, the atmosphere was warm and dry. The heading
in which the explosion occurred rose as the miners advanced,
yet bratticing was not used in the space between the last
stenton and the face of the headway to drive out foul air, con-
sequently the lighter gas would tend to accumulate at the
face, where the air being stagnant would serve as a reservoir
for gas. One would naturally expect under the circum-
stances that extra precautions would have been taken to avoid
accidents, but instead there appears to have been carelessness,
and a total disregard of the most ordinary precautions by those
chiefly concerned. Safety-lamps were used in the danger
zone, presumably as a talisman, for it was the old-fashioned
Davy, with an insecure lock that was not always fastened, and
shots were sometimes fired by lighting touch-paper by tilting
the safety lamp so that the flame could ignite the touch-paper
tliough the gauze; not only this, but the fuse was sometimes
lit by the flame of a lucifer match. That men were allowed
to carry lucifer matches, and use tobacco in a district where
fire-damp was given off, shows lax discipline. and the wonder
is that an accident did not occur from causes other than an
overcharged shot. It is strange how some people will not
use a little forethought, but insist on experiencing everything

i
>
j
‘
:

w9

i A Ba

THE BULLI COLLIERY. 183

themselves and how familiarity with danger breeds contempt,
more especially in cases where serious consequences have not
been experienced by the individual. The shot holes appear
te have been generally tamped with small coal or dust, not
even properly damped. ‘This, as is well known, elongates the
flame produced by blasting, ‘especially in the case of blown
out shots, and as the miners frequently neglected to thoroughly
undercut the coal before firing a shot, they practically blasted
coal out of the solid, so that either a heavier charge had to
be used to break down the coal, or the tamping, offering less
resistance, was blown out. The stump left of the hole that is
supposed to have caused this great loss of life showed that
the charge did not do the work expected of it. The Com-
missioners consider that the disaster was largely due to the
absence of proper precautions in thoroughly undercutting the
coal and preparing shots, also probably to an error of judg-
ment in gauging the necessary amount of explosive required.
The danger of coal dust is now so well recognised that in
properly ‘appointed mines when necessary to fire several shots
in a dusty place, they are either fired simultaneously, or suffi-
cient time is allowed between shots for the dust to settle or
be carried away by the ventilating current.

The heat generated by exploding gun powder in a confined
space, such as a drill hole, is greater than that generated in
the retorts of gas works: ‘the temperature j in each particular
case varying with the quantity of powder in the charge, and
the°duration of the explosion. The amount of energy devel-
oped by an explosive substance is often overlooked. A single
peund weight of ordinary black powder when exploded de-
velops 360 “foot. tons. A pound of ordinary fine bituminous
coal suspended in the air, when converted into gas, as in the

case of a mine explosion, develops 4600 foot tons. Of the
e@ases, a pound of methane (23.4 cub. ft. at 60 degrees I’. and
29.925 bar. press.), develops in explosion 9146 foot tons: a
pound of carbon- monoxide (13.5 cub. ft.), 1682 foot tons, and
one pound of olefiant gas, 8302 foot tons.

The distribution of dust in a mine is more general than
cas, so a dust explosion tends to travel further, but having
to first convert the dust into carbon-monoxide, and then into
carbon-dioxide, the explosion is not so sudden. Carbon-mon-
oxide is also one of the gases given off by the explosion of
gunpowder. A trace of this gas in a dust-laden atmos-
phere is as explosive as a much larger quantity of firedamp,
and, what is more, it is ignited at a much lower temperature
than a mixture of marsh gas and air. It has been demon-
strated that a blown out shot is capable of igniting mixtures of
coal dust, marsh gas and carbon-monoxide with air. A small
local explosion, which in itself would be of little moment, may

184 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA,

become vastly extended by the presence of coal dust, and it
niakes a very small proportion of fire damp or carbon-mon-
oxide explosive that would otherwise be harmless. Speaking
generally, a gas explosion develops centres of greatest vio-
lence in those localities where gas issues from the strata or
tends to accumulate, and the centres of violence are more pro-
nounced than in a dust explosion. <A dust explosion feeds on
material scattered in its path, and follows those passages
that promise the largest supply of food in the form of
dust and oxygen. One of the characteristics of a dust ex-
plosion is the persistence with which it seeks the intake, and
advances against the current in its search for air. The flame

never enters far in the direction of the return air, because

it is extinguished by the products of its own combustion: gas,
on the other hand, is most likely to be found in the return
air ways. At the time of the Bulli disaster, the return air was
made to ventilate other headings instead of allowing it to
pass over the main tunnel direct to the return air way. Sec-
ondary or back explosions are generally attributed to com-
bustible gases developed from highly heated coal dust, which
remains unburnt, also to gas sucked out of the faces
of the coal by the partial vacuum resulting from the ex-
plosion, or liberated by falls of roof. As soon as fresh air
rushes in, it forms an explosive mixture with these gases,
and a second explosion is liable to occur. It is known that
dust explosions have taken place in certain flour mills, where,
so far as one is aware, there are not explosive gases, therefore” it
is quite possible that a pure dust explosion may occur in cer-
tuin coal mines: but, under existing conditions, it is doubtful
whether a pure dust or pure gas explosion ever takes piace
in a colliery, except on a minor scale, for one tends to create
the other.

The days of this colliery are nearly numbered, most of
the coal that is won being taken from pillars. The coal in
this colliery is much disturbed by voleanic intrusions, which
occur as dykes and laccolites. The hot rock has driven off
much of the volatile hydrocarbons, leaving a so-called natural
coke, which finds a limited market.

The main surface buildings are located at Old Bulli, and
from here the seam is reached by two tunnels. About a mile
further north is another tunnel, known as No. 3. There is no
rope haulage to the surface from this tunnel, the skips being
drawn out by horses. At Old Bulli the rails of each tunnel
have a different gauge, so where the lines have a common
course at the surface the track is laid with three rails. The
skips are run into end ‘kick-ups, which empty their contents
on to stationary screens. So that two skips shall not turn off
towards the same kick-up at one time a foot point is pushed

THE BULLI COLLIERY. 185

across the turn off and parallel with the main line (Fig. 114).
Underground at Old Bulli the different districts are served by
the main and tail rope system of haulage.

Railway trucks are filled at the screens and drawn to and
from the brow of the self-acting incline by an endless rope,
to which they are attached by a small screw clip. One hopper
truck or two black trucks pass up and down the incline at a
time. The trucks are a from running down the in-

= ae
aS <

Fig. 114.—Foot Point.

cline before the man in charge wishes, by means of block
stops, but there are no throw-off sw itches in case of accident.
The line eonsists of four rails for the top and middle sections,
and two rails for the lower section. The ropes are wound
round two drums mounted on one shaft; one rope goes over,
and the other under. The brakesman controls the speed by
‘means of alever. At the lower end, the line for the full truck
overlaps that of the empties on the flat, so when a full truck
starts from the top it first has the slack of the rope only to
+ake up, and then to haul the empty a short distance on nearly

I!

a ee
b |

Fig. 115.—Sliding Weight.

herizontal ground before having to draw it up the incline.
The No. 3 tunnel is also served by a self-acting incline, but
this has three rails for the top portion, four rails in the middle
where the sets pass, and two rails at the bottom. Where the
four rails merge into two, an automatic point with a sliding
we.ght (Fig. 115) is used, while at the bottom, where the two
rails branch into four, for the full and empties, another auto-
matic point, with a fixed weight. is employed (Fig. 116).
At the bottom of the incline, the full skips run along an upper

186 COALFIBLDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

line to the top of coal hoppers, while the empties run down a
lower line automatically (Fig, 117). The two ropes for this.
incline are wound round one drum, divided in the centre by
a flange. The speed is regulated in the usual way by hand

mye Se

Fig. 116.—Fixed Weight.

brakes. Six mine skips are sent down at a time. Coal is
filled from the hoppers at the bottom of the incline into rail-
way trucks. These can then be drawn by locomotives, either
to the main South Coast line or to the company’s jetty: the

Fig. 117.—Foot of Incline.

latter is now in course of being rebuilt, it having unfortun-
ately been destroyed by bad weather.

In conneetion with this colliery, there is a battery of 39
coke ovens. These ovens are 20ft. long, 4ft. wide at one
end, and 4ft. 6in. wide at the exit end. The small coal is

THE BULLI COLLIERY. 187

first passed over an inclined shaking screen made of punched
sheet iron, having a trough attached to it below to catch the
slack. The nuts are generally shipped, while the slack passes
through a Carr’s disintegrator prior to being coked. The
slack makes better coke than the nuts, as the latter frequently
contains pieces of stone which add to the ash. The coal dust
is elevated by a bucket elevator, to a hopper, from which it
is fed into cannisters that run along the top of the ovens
into which it is charged. The coke is pushed out of the
ovens by means of a hydraulic ram. The water is supplied
to this ram through mains from a four-throw vertical plunger
pump. When the water is not required by the ram it passes

Fig. 118.—Hydraulic Rams.

to an overhead tank. As the ram changes its position from
one oven to another, it is connected to another part of the
main water pipe by the hose. The ram is caused to travel
along its three rail track by an endless rope (put in motion
by gearing from the pump) which circulates beneath it, and
to which it is attached by a clip when desired. The doors
of the ovens are raised by small vertical hydraulic rams (Fig.
118), suspended from an overhead rail. and when raised. the
doors are hung from their lugs by hooks.

;
188 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.
South Bulli and Bellambi Collieries.

These two collieries are now owned by the Belambi Coal -

Company Limited, of Melbourne, and are managed by Mr.
A. EK. O. Sellers, who has been in charge for the past seven
years. ‘The South Bulli colliery was started by Messrs. Taylor
and Walker, in 1862. After driving a tunnel for five or six
chains, they came across a basaltic dyke, which had partly
cindered the coal next to it; this so disheartened them that
they abandoned mining operations. The property was next
taken up by Messrs. Saywell and Wilson, about 1885 or i886,
and they continued to work it till 1890, when the late Mr.
Kbenezer Vickery bought it. Hein turn ‘sold it to the present
holders, who, at that time, owned the Bellambi mine. In May,
1908, a further area of four square miles was taken up at the
back of the original property. The Bellambi colliery i is also
known by some as the ‘‘ Model’ or ‘‘Woonona’’ colliery.
When the improvements now being effected at the. South
Bulli are completed, this will be the “most modernised colliery
on the south coast. ;

The seam worked varies from five up to eleven feet in
thickness, averaging about eight feet. The roof-shale is
about twelve feet thick, and the floor-shale eight feet. The
ature of the roof and floor rocks appears to have had a decided
influence on the formation of the rolls, which in turn have
an important bearing on the laying out of the mine. The
eeneral direction of these rolls is N.W. and S.E. The same
roll has been traced for over half a mile, and may go still
further; others die out and commence again. They may run

parallel, but also merge one into the other. They occur at
ae pelae distances apart, and vary in height and width, as
a rule the rolls are more numerous and defined near the crop.
The coal is the most distrubed, soft coal being bent more
than the hard; the lower shale is also affected, and the roof
is sometimes slightly bent, the coal may even be forced into
it. The lower shale is fairly uniform, but the upper shale
varies in thickness, and becomes shallower towards the west.
The rolls are highest where the shaies are thickest; it is also
noticed that the thinner the coal, the shallower the rolls. These
rolls are not found in the northern part of the field. At Clifton
they have a sandstone roof, which is not so yielding as shale,
whilst at Helensburgh, w here they have shale, there is a much
eveater depth of cover than at Bellambi. When the rolls
are long and well defined, they show joints, known as “‘ grey
backs,’? which may dip in the same or opposite directions,
at varying angles. The junction between the coal and the
lower shale at a roll often has-a black polished skin like a
slicken-slide.- The rolls were formed earlier than the dykes,
which break up through them, while the faults are more

%
e
<
:
a
° .
J
4
&
+
2.
"
..
ld

eh ed

SOUTH BULLI AND BELLAMBI COLLIERIES. 189

recent than the dykes. It would appear that these rolls.
are purely local in their origin, and from facts collected in
connection with them. it would seem that the shales forming
the floor had swollen, possibly due to an access of water, and
in order to re-adjust itself to the altered conditions, formed
corrugations and contorted the coal, which, being soft and
fairly thick, took up the brunt of the force, transmitting
but little to the roof-shale. Gases may also have assisted in
developing the pressure.

Four tunnels are used at the South Bulli colliery; coal
is hauled out of two, while the other two are used for air and
travelling ways. Ata point a mile and a half from daylight,
four intakes come together, and from there onward four
roadways are carried forward. The haulage roads are twelve
feet wide and 7ft. 6in. to 8ft. high. Parallel roads are twenty
yards apart from centre to centre, and cut-throughs are made
between them about every forty yards. There is a solid bar-
rier of coal 55 yards wide, between the haulage ways and the
working places, which are only broken through every 20
chains for side roads. These side drifts are driven in such
a direction that they cross the stone rolls at right angles
in order that the bords driven off them can be put in parallel
to the stone rolls. As the roof is not good enough for ten
yard bords to justify the extra expense of timbering, the
bords are made eight yards wide. When extracting the pil-
lars, a skirting is first taken out parallel to the bord and
rock roll, and then the coal on the rock roll itself is mined.
For blasting the softer parts of the seam, bobbinite is used;
for ordinary pick ground, monobel} while for heavy shots,
e.g., over coal cutter holing, kolax is used. Saxonite is em-
pleyed for rock blasting.

A new tunnel is being driven in the four-foot seam below
the Bulli seam, underneath the old workings; this will save
straightening and repairing the old haulage ways, and will
enable the coal of the pillars overhead to be won in, the most.
economical manner.

The Bellambi workings are connected with those of the
South Bulli, but they have two tunnels of their own. The-
haulage is done by the main and tail rope system, and steam
power only is used at this mine.

Steam is generated at the power house in Lancashire:
boilers, the ashes from which fall through a plate in front
to skips below, which convey them to the waste heap. Feed-
water heaters are employed at this colliery; that for the haul-
age engine raises the feed-water to 170deg. F., while that at
the fan engine raises the temperature of the w ater to 206deg. F.

The old generating plant for 105 k.w. is one of the
General Electric Company’s, of New York, 60 cycle alterna-

190 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

tor, giving 2300 volts, which is direct coupled to a Harrisburg
engine. A Tyrrell regulator is used to regulate the voltage
during the varying loads of the three phase alternator. The
new plant of 350 k.w. consists of a Siemen’s alternator driven
by a Bellis and Morcom engine. This will give sufficient
pene to work all the haulage, both underground and on the
surface.

The cable, of which there are about 14,000 feet, and was
suppled by Siemens Bros., of London, is three phase, paper
insulated, jute compounded, lead covered, water resisting, and
steel armoured to render it pick proof, and covered externally
with rust resisting preservative. This cable is laid in a trench
cut nine inches deep at one side of the road. partly in the re-
turn air way, which is preferred if not too crooked, and partly
in the intake. Asa further protection from falls of roof, when
the water main and cable are in the same roadway, the former
is placed above the latter. When laid in a heading where men
travel, a white line is painted on the roof above it, and calico
notices are fixed every fifty or sixty yards, drawing the miners’
attention to it. The current is conveyed into the mine at
2300 volts, but this is stepped down by static transformers
to 220 volts before use. To connect the main secondary direct
current cable with the ‘trailing cable of the coal cutter, Mayor
and Coulson’s joint end boxes are used. There are gas-tight
boxes containing fuses and switch.

The three main cables pass down the air shaft and are
connected to others below in boxes. If anything goes wrong
with a cable in the shaft it can be detached at the box and
hauled to the surface for repairs. A Siemens’ lightning
arrester is fixed at the top of this shaft.

In the mine there is a motor generator set of 59 k.w. for
transforming the alternating current for the direct current
motor of the coal cutting plant. At present, a Goodman’s
electric coal cutter is used for working the harder coal, but
the plant is capable of driving five of these chain breast ma-
chines. The chain-bar of this machine is 6ft. long, and the
cutting width of the head 3ft. 6in. The machine will cut in
that depth and return in 3} minutes. The direct current
motor of the machine, together with its switch, is enclosed in
an ironclad case, which is absolutely gas proof, the starting
resistance being manipulated by an outside handle.

One and a half miles in from the side of the hill is located

a 100h.p. motor, three phase enclosed Siemens, belted to a
single ended Reavell air compressor with four cylinders,

which rung at 253 revolutions per minute, and is capable of |

compressing 358 cubic feet free air per minute to
70lb. per square inch. It is provided with a relief

lee ttt! od |

SOUTH BULLI AND BELLAMBI COLLIERIES. 19]

valve, unloading device, and an air filter to clarify

the air from dust. This air filter consists of a
cast-iron box, in which are placed two gauze trays of
very fine mesh, the space between being filled with cotton
wool. <A branch pipe taken from the water main to the lo-
cality of the compressor has a spray attached to it; in this way
the air drawn into the compressor is kept moist and cool, se
as to lessen any chance of an explosion taking place, due to
the heat developed by compression in the presence of coal dust.
The Reavell compréssor is a different type to that generally
seen at mines, and much more compact, as will be noticed by

referring to Fig.119. It has four cylinders (A) arranged radi-

ally in a circular shaped casing (B), each cylinder has a pis-
ton (C), and the connecting rods (D) are all driven by a crank-
pin in common. KEach cylinder is a separate single acting
compressor, and as they all deliver into one common delivery
passage (E), the supply of air is practically continuous. As
the machine is driven in the same direction all the time,
it can be run at a relatively high speed, and is, therefore, very
suitable for electric motive power. The cylinders pass
through an annular water-jacket (), which serves to keep them
cool. Water is circulated through this chamber by a small
centrifugal pump. A small balance or pilot piston (G) is
provided to minimise the side thrust on the piston. There
are no suction valves, the cylinders are filled with air at atmos-
pheric pressure at each stroke, instead of at a reduced pres-
sure due to the resistance of valve springs, thus increasing the
volumetric efficiency. The free air passes into the casing
through the passage (H). The piston has two ports arranged
on the top to correspond with two sets of ports in the head
of each connecting rod; one set is directly on the top, the
other a little on one side. The delivery valves fitted to the
outer end of each cylinder are shown at (1): the number of
such valves used for each cylinder varies with the size of the
machine. Following the course of the piston of one cylinder
commencing with the suction stroke, there is no partial

vacuum caused at the commencement of- the stroke, for the

little air left in the cylinder, being under compression, will
expand as soon as it has a chance. When the piston has
moved so far down that the hollow head of the connecting
rod comes abreast of the two ports (J) in the lower part of
the cylinder, free air is admitted to the cylinder through the
ports of the connecting rod and piston: at the bottom of the
stroke the piston covers the ports in the cylinder and the air
enters direct from the inner chamber. On the compression
stroke no air can escape through the connecting rod head,
for this is now turned in the direction where there is no port
to correspond to that in the piston, while at the end of the

AUSTRALIA.

or

COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIFS

i¥2

4
7,
4
,
> S
AS
Os
Ow
4,

> ven

Pa oy

Zs
Sty

47490 y3ive’~_f

W

LSNI asLvA

“* NOWONS

Fig. 119.—Reavell Air Compressor.

SOUTH BULLI AND BELLAMBI COLLIERIES. 193

- stroke, when the top set of ports do coincide with the piston
ports, no escape can take place because the connecting rod
head fits tightly inside the cylinder.

~ This quadruplex compressor is very simple in construction,
and is readily taken to pieces. The automatic unloading de-
yice shown at (K) is a bye-pass valve, which. forms a connec-
tion between the delivery and suction side of the compressor.

BH
Je r
Fig. 120.—Little Hardy Coal Cutter.

It is automatically controlled, so that when the air pressure
reaches the desired limit the bye-pass valve opens, thus re-
lieving the motor of the load. | As soon as the pressure falls to
a predetermined limit, this valve closes, and the compressor
commences to deliver air again. The air receiver between the
compressor and the air drills is 10ft. long by 3ft. diameter.

194 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

The Reavell compressor is provided to supply air for work-
ing Little Hardy Coal Cutters, and being located in the mine
near the pneumatic drills, a great length of piping is saved.
These cutters are of the rock drill type, but are specially fitted
for coal mining work, and can be used for holing and shearing
in hard coal headings. The internal construction of the

machine will be seen from Fig. 120 to be a reciprocating air

“

a 4 * Fe nl

See _

drill, the chief feature of which is the valve, which is thrown
over at the maximum attainable speed by live air at full pres-
sure, which acts on the whole surface of one end of the valve
piston, while the opposite end is open to complete exhaust.
With a pressure of 45lb., 450 to 500 blows per minute are
struck, while with 60lb. pressure from 650 to 700 blows per
minute are obtained. The valve is circular in cross section,

SOUTH BULLI AND BELLAMBI COLLIERIES. 195

and is free to assume any position in the valve chamber;
there are no tappets, guides or other mechanical connections
to affect its action. The coal cutter is fixed in position and

- held up to its work by means of a solid drawn steel tube

provided with a powerful jackscrew, toothed head and foot,
see Fig. 121, which shows a side view of the Little Hardy
fixed for undercutting. The machine is seated in a cone
cup forming part of a hinged clamp attached loosely to the
column. 'lhis clamp carries a worm (A), the teeth of which
mesh with those of a worm-wheel (B), bolted rigidly on the
column (C). By turning the worm handle, the coal cutter is
caused to move round the column, the forward movement into
the coal is obtained by the feed-screw (D) at the back of the
machine. ‘The cutter bar (E) generally has four prongs.
While working, the machine is swung to right and left by
the worm gear, and fed forward as necessary; in this way an
arce-shaped channel is cut, increasing in depth and width as
each successive length of cutter bar is inserted in the machine.
As soon as the desired depth is reached, the operator works
in gradually decreasing sweeps on right and left hand sides,
until the channel is of uniform depth at every point, and per-
fectly square at the sides and corners, using the longer cutter
bars where necessary. If, after the undercutting is finished,
it is desired to shear or nick the coal, the machine is fixed
near the centre of the column and is worked by a lever (F)
from top to bottom, though it can be worked by the worm gear
if desired. The coal cutter proper weighs 150lb., and the
total weight of a complete apparatus is under 3ecwt., includ-
ing column gearing, cutter-bars, air-drill, ete. The air
pressure should be from 45lb. to 601b. per square inch.. The
aaa can be flitted from one place to another by a man and
a boy.

At one time the colliery was drained by a Moore hydraulic
pump, whereby motion was conveyed from the surface to the
pumps below by means of water columns caused to oscillate
by hydraulic rams which were steam driven. This system
gave place, in 1904, to an electrically driven three-throw
single acting pump, with 8in. cylinders and 12in. stroke,
on account of the greater flexibility of the electric system.
The pump, and a 30 h.p. induction motor for driving it, are
located in a chamber underground, one and a half miles from
daylight. The motor, which is the short circuit rotor type,
with compensating starter, revolves 514 times per minute, and
is connected with the pump by belting. The pump shaft
revolves 45 times per minute, and raises 18,000 gallons per
hour against a head of 270ft., inclusive of pipe friction. The
pump was designed at the mine, and manufactured by Gon-

inan, of Wickham, N.S.W.

196 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

A small generator set of 8 h.p. capacity is used for
running lights... The travelling ways are lighted by means of
incandescent lamps for the first few hundred feet from day-
light, so as to give the men a chance to get their underground
eyesight more rapidly. Electric Jamps are also used at the
flats. The safety lamps carried by the miners are the Thomas
and Williams Cambrian type, fitted with electric ignition
apparatus. Re-lighting stations are provided below at suit-
able points. The batteries used for re-lighting the lamps are
accumulator batteries charged from a dynamo, and they are
kept in a wooden box enclosed in a brick chamber. The glass
of the Cambrian lamp is slightly greater in diameter than
that of some other makes, and does not get so hot. The
evauze, instead of being doubled, simply has a cap over the top,
(which is the part that first gets burnt out); this enablesair to
have access to the lamp easier, and in consequence it burns
better. This is just. as safe as the double gauze, for as soon
as the gauze shows signs of damage, it is discarded, the cap in
the meanwhile acting as an extra precaution. The gauzes
are more particularly examined twice a week. The lamp can
be cleaned by taking but two parts off. i.e., the oil vessel and
the shield, leaving the rings, glass and gauze undisturbed, so
there is less likelihood of the parts being mislaid, and time
is saved.

Formerly a Waddle fan was used at South Bulli, and a
Schiele fan having a capacity of 50,000 cub. ft. per minute at
ldin. water gauge at Bellambi, but now the ventilation is
carried out with the assistance of a Walker’s patent indestruc-
tible fan, 26ft. in diameter and 8ft. wide. the air entering
into it-from both sides. This is the largest fan in Australia,
and is driven by a compound engine capable of developing 550
h.p. under non-condensing conditions. The plant is guaran-
teed to produce 450,000 cubic feet of air per minute at a pres-
sure of 54in. water gauge. At present the fan only revolves
70 revolutions, and passes 250,000 cub. feet of air per minute,
that being sufficient to serve both mines. The bearings
of the fan are lubricated with heavy oil. but water pipes
are arranged in case it should be necessary to keep them cool.
The fan engine was made by Walker Bros.. of Wigan, Eng-
land. The high pressure cylinder is 23in. in diameter, and
the low pressure cylinder 38in. diameter, the stroke being
4ft. 6in. At present it runs at about 40 revolutions per
minute. It is provided with Meyer’s adjustable valves. The
steam valves are so arranged that either engine can be used
independently of the other.

‘In the important air-ways sometimes three doors are used
instead of two for an air-lock, as an extra precaution. |

At South Bulli the endless system of rope haulage is in
vogue. Originally a single continuous rope passed through

SOUTH BULLI AND BELLUAMBI COLLIERIES. 197

the different districts, but now a separate rope is used for each
district, driven by its own motor. The advantages of this
change are obvious; the waste of power in circulating a rope
where it is not required is saved, so a smaller driving engine
will do; the longer a rope the heavier and stronger it must be,
the elasticity increases with the length of the rope, and the
jerks are worse with a heavy than a light rope, thus making
the skips travel unsteadily; there are more bends in one
continuous rope than when a series of ropes are used, and if
a breakage occurs when the single rope method is employed,
the whole system is stopped, whereas if a district rope
breaks, there is only a local stoppage. With separate ropes,
when the main rope shows signs of wear, it may be put to
work in a district where the demands on it are not so great;
in this way the life of a rope may be extended. As_ electric
motors are used for the different districts, when one is not in
use, the electricity which would otherwise be consumed can
be used for other purposes, or the load on the engine at the
surface may be lightened.

Forty chains in from daylight is a 20 h.p. haulage motor
of the slip-ring rotor type, with a tramway style of controller
and outside resistance, for a branch line 960 yards long. One
mile thirty chains from daylight is a 75 h.p. motor, having
720 revolutions per minute, also of the slip-ring rotor type,
with external resistance and tramway type of starter. This
circulates a rope four and a half miles total length, which
is being extended all the time, and is capable of working
another two miles of rope or one mile of line. Both these
planis get their first reduction by belting; any further re-
duction is obtained by spur gearing. All the haulage gear
was built up at the company’s shops.

Where tommy-dodds are used at curves, and the line
has an incline, those on the up-track are connected by a cap,
which allow the pulleys a certain amount of play, at the same
time stiffening them.

The clips that connect the skips with the rope are the
ordinary screw pattern employed on the South Coast. They
are made of crucible seel.

The coal skips, as they come out of the mine, are now run
into tipplers similar to those employed at the Metropolitan
Colliery, Helensburgh. The on-coming full skip pushes the
empty one off, which then runs down an inclined track at the
bottom of which it bumps against an obstruction, and the
recoil shunts it on to a branch which leads to the mouth of a
tunnel, where it is clipped on to an endless rope.

A three-skip tippler (Fig. 122) is now in course of erec-
tion, which will be power-driven to ensure regular speed of
rotation. The tippler will be started and stopped auto-

J98 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

matically by the skips entering and leaving it, but will also
be under the control of a brakesman, This tippler, which is
12ft. 3in. in diameter, will not tip more coal per hour than
three of the present sort, but will do so at a slower speed,
with less damage to the coal.

Fig. 122.—Tippler.

There are two classes of trucks employed to convey coal
to the jetty, viz., the ‘‘black truck’’ and the ‘“‘hopper truck.’’
The former gets its name from the fact that it is tarred, in
contradistinction to the hopper truck, which is painted red.
The black truck is sometimes known as ‘‘Hudson’s,’’ after
Hudson Bros., of the Clyde engineering works, who used to
make them. They are box-shaped (Fig. 123), and have an end
door. This door swings from the top, and is kept closed by
two latches at the bottom; these latches can be opened, either
by hand, or automatically by a cam-shaped lever which is
pushed up by a bar on the tipplers, thereby releasing the door.
It was found that cast-steel wheels did not last so well as
built up wheels, which are now used. In the recently made
trucks the axles are lubricated by a pad placed in the axle
box, as seen in the figure, the protecting slide of which is
shown withdrawn. The brakes are worked by a hand lever
from one side.

The hopper-shaped trucks are constructed to empty into
shoots over which they run, the coal dropping through bot-
tom gates. It is therefore not necessary that the body should
have lugs by which it can be lifted, as when loading with
cranes.

—=

SOUTH BULLI AND BELLAMBI COLLIERIES. 199

The company owns six locomotives, four of which are in
ase at a time, the other two being held in reserve.

On the surface at South Bulli the gravity plane has a
capacity of 1700 tons every nine hours. The hopper trucks are
run singly on the incline; the black trucks two in a set. The
open rope is capped by threading it through a socket, untwist-
ing the strands, turning the wires back on themselves, and
drawing back into the socket as far as it will go. The narrow end
is then stopved up with clay, and an alloy made up of 60 per
cent. lead, 30 per cent. tin, 9 per cent, antimony, and 1 per

Fig. 123.—Black Truck.

cent. bismuth is poured in, at the wide end, to fill up the
spaces between the wires. The antimony is added to impart
hardness, and the bismuth to give fusibility. The socket is
then connected to the coupling chain with a pin.

The track is very uneven, having four different grades,
viz., 1:2.6, 1:4, 1:7, and 1:10; moreover, it does not run con-
tinuously in one direction, in consequence an overhead frame
has had to be erected to keep the rope within bounds. An ad-
ditional self-acting incline, to provide facilities for handling
the output from a new tunnel is being constructed, over which
the coal will be conveyed in skips to be screened at the foot..

200 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERTIES OF AUSTRALIA.

The rope used is 3 inches in circumference. The last rope
was in use for two years. ‘The rope passes round a nine-foot
diameter drum, having a brake path at either end. The speed
is regulated by a man who manipulates a band brake by a
downward movement, through a system of levers, ropes and
chains, from a ship’s steering wheel, so situated that he has a
good view of the trucks travelling up and down the incline.
This drum is supported on a framework well braced against
the downhill pull. Water plays upon the brake to prevent the
heat generated by friction from igniting the wearing blocks;
the quantity of water is regulated by the brakesman with his
foot. The steering wheel is five feet in diameter, and has a four-
inch drum, round which are wound two half-inch diameter flex-
ible wire ropes, one at each end. These ropes are attached to

Fig. 124.—Brake for Incline.

chains which pass over and under pulleys to the brake lever, as
show in Fig. 124. ‘To the upper side of the lever is another
chain with a weight attachedto the end passing overa pulley,
which serves to bring the lever up again, and lift the blocks off
the brake path when the pressure is relieved. The lever is con-
nected with the band brake by shafting with cranks on it, the

SOUTH BULLI AND BELLAMBI COLLIERIES. 201

proportion being 16:1, and as at the steering wheel the pro-
portion of leverage is 15:1, the total leverage on the brake 1s
240:1, less loss due to friction. The drum is made sufficiently
long to allow the length of each of the two ropes to be coiled
on ina single layer. The ropes are attached, one at each end
of the drum, one is wrapped over and the other under the drum,
and several spare laps of each rope are left on the drum when
either rope is extended down the incline.

The colliery possesses shops fitted up with three lathes, two
drills, a shaping machine, punching and shearing machine,
steam hammers, etc. Many of the apparatus are made, and all
the brass work is cast, on the premises. A _ boiler-maker is
kept on the spot, but only to do repairs.

Fig. 125.—Hydraulic Ram.

The present output of South Bulli is 1550 tons. per day.
but they can put out 1800 tons a day when they are able to get
the men. The Bellambi colliery has a daily output of 300 tons.

For storage purposes they have coal bunkers at the mine
capable of holding 560 tons; bunkers for small coal at the
jetty to hold 700 tons; 130 hopper ‘trucks that hold 7 tons 10
ewt. each 3250 black trucks, having a capacity of 5 tons each,
and 90 Bellambi black trucks holding 7 tons 1Newt. each, or a
total storage capacity of 4160 tons.

202 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.
The Broken Hill Proprietary Co.

The coke supply for this company is obtained from its own
works at Bellambi. It obtains the necessary coal from the
South Bulli and Bellambi collieries. There are two batteries
of ovens, one containing 60 and the other 40 ovens. These
ovens are 30 feet long, and somewhat higher than usual. The
coke is pushed out of the ovens by hydraulic rams (Fig. 125).
The oven doors are also raised by means of hydraulic rams
placed at one end of a battery of ovens (Fig. 126), which work
ropes backwards and forwards, to which any of the doors can
be attached by chains when required. The rope for moving

Fig. 126.—Hydraulic Ram for lifting Oven Doors.

the rams that push out the coke circulates past both batteries
of ovens. These ovens differ from the ordinary rectangular
ovens met with in Australia, inasmuch as they have flues both
in their walls and floor, through which the hot gases pass, thus
heating the ovens all round.

The Corrimal Balgownie Collieries Ltd.

The Corrimal Colliery was started in 1887-88, by Bertram,
in whose time the coal was drawn from the mine to the rail-
way by bullock teams. After working for about a year, it was
leased by the Southern Coal Company, of England. This
company worked it until 1891; when the present Sydney com-

CORRIMAL-BALGOWNIE COLLIERIES. 203

pany was formed. Formerly the Corrimal and Balgownie
Mines were two separate collieries, but they are now under
one ownership, and the workings are connected. Mr. W. B.
Pendleton has been in charge for the past five or six years.

The Balgownie Colliery has a main haulage and intake,
on the right hand side of which is a return airway, while on
the left hand side is another parallel heading which used
to be a second return airway, but is now used as an intake,
while the return air travels through old workings to the 14ft.
indestructible Walker’s fan, which provides 85,000 cubic feet
of air per minute, with 1.7in. water gauge. Since the shaft has
been connected with the workings the volume of air circulat-
ing exceeds 111,000 cubic feet per minute, and the water gauge
has been reduced to 1.5 inches. ‘This fan is driven by an
engine having a 16in. diameter cylinder, with a 23ft. stroke,
provided with a Meyer’s cutoff valve. Where the property
widens, there are four parallel headings, two intakes, and two
returns. The area of the airways is increased as the workings
are extended, for by so doing the speed of the current is
diminshed, and the friction*against the sides correspondingly
lessened.

There is only one tunnel at Corrimal, which 1s an intake.
The gate in front of it is hung up to the roof when work is
proceeding, but when the mine is idle it is let down. Being
made of iron bars, it interferes very slightly with the venti-
lation. Now that the air shaft is completed, it acts as an in-
take airway, but in the course of a year or two it will probably
become the only outlet for the ventilating current. The men
proceed to their work in both mines through the Balgownie

tunnel. All the coal (except that required for the Balgownie

boilers), is drawn through the Corrimal tunnel, as all the
conveniences of the self-acting incline happen to be near its
mouth. Two endless rope systems are worked from the Bal-
gownie tunnel; they run parallel for a short distance, when
one continues in a westerly direction, and the other turns off
northerly towards the Corrimal. The main haulage way has
two curves in it, both having a deflection of about 30 degrees.
The skips are conveyed by the main endless rope as far as the
branch rope, which takes them on to the old main and tail

rope that draws them out at Corrimal at the rate of about six

miles per hour. There is a 90ft. slide between Balgownie and
Corrimal, which has to be negotiated by the north and south
endless rope system, so the roadway had to be driven in rock
at a grade of 1 in 34. Horses of 15.3 hands are used for gather-
ing up the skips. At present the horses come to the surface
every day, but. later on, as the workings are extended, they
will be stabled underground.

The endless rope haulage engine was made at the Atlas
Works, Sydney, and was originally designed for a main and

204 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

tail rope system, but has been converted for its present pur-
pose. It is on the third motion, which reduces the speed and
surging of the rope. The rope, which is a Lang’s lay of 34in.
circumterence, is given four turns round a Fisher’s pulley,
1.e., a pulley with an inclined face, so that the diameter near
one flange is greater than the diameter near the other flange.
The rope passes on to the pulley at the side with the larger
diameter, and off at the smaller diameter. As the face of the
pulley gets worn down, it has other liners bolted on to it. Cast
iron liners get ground down too easily, so hard steel is used,
but they must not be made rough, as any roughness has to be
worn down by the rope. These pulleys are thrown in and out
of gear by Fisher’s clutches. The tension pulley is mounted
on a trolley that runs on an incline at the rear of the engine-
house. ‘The endless rope runs at the rate of 14 miles per hour,
and is dressed by drips from an oil drum suspended: above the
drum of the engine. Signalling can be done from any part of
the hauling roadway by means of the usual electric wires.
Bulb rails, weighing 26-301b. per yard, are used in the main
roadways, and bridge rails, weighing 16lb. per yard, in the
bords. ‘The present skips average l6cwt. of coal, but when
che roadways are increased in length, the sides of the skips
will be made higher, so as to lessen the chance of coal falling
out on to the track. The skip wheels are made of Miller’s
chilled iron, and are imported from Edinburgh; they are found
to give every satisfaction.

The bords are made 8 yards wide, and have 11 yard pillars
between. The greatest inconvenience caused by rolls in the
seams, which are met with in places, is having to lft the
bottom to make room for the skips, and also having to pay
more for coal under 5ft. in thickness. Headings from which
the bords are turned off are about 18 chains apart, but the dis-
tance varies according to the output required from the mine.
For the same reason, the bords are worked both to the rise and
dip, instead of only to the rise. The present area being worked
is so irregular, that the bords cannot be carried to their stand-
ard length on account of the cramped position. The colliery
cannot be properly opened out till they get into the back
country. The seam averages 7ft. thick; it is seldom under
dft., but may be 4ft. on the top of rolls; on the other hand it
is sometimes up to LOft. thick. The seam is remarkably free
from bands and sulphur. The roof is sandstone, and the floor
shaley ‘‘post.’’ In places rolls are fairly frequent in the floor,
but never in the roof; they average about 2ft. 6in. in height.
In rolling country, the bords are generally driven in the
troughs, while the crests ofthe rolls are left as pillars. The
pillars are éxtracted as soon as possible after the bords are
finished, and are worked in 5 to 8 yard lifts. The coal is all

—————

CORRIMAL-BALGOWNIE COLLIERIES. 205

hand worked. The holing pick has a straight head, 18in.
long. with diamond points, which is wedged to a 2ft. 6in.
handle. Monobel is the explosive used, the shots being fired
by means of electricity.

At Balgownie there are two Cornish boilers, and one
multitubular locomotive type of boiler, which deliver steam at
60lb. pressure. The feed water is injected into the boilers by
exhaust steam, assisted by a little live steam. The feed water
becomes heated to about 200deg. F., and about one-eighth of
its bulk is condensed steam. They have lately erected a small
Green’s economiser.

One hundred and thirty-eight chains from the main Bal-
gownie tunnel, an air shaft, 972ft. above the sea, has been
started on the top of the hill, in the water catchment area.
This shaft, which is 14ft. in diameter in the clear, will have
to be sunk 850ft. in order to reach the coal being worked.
The shaft is lined with 9in. brickwork, all laid as stretchers,
the space between the brickwork and the rock being filled
with ashes. The bricks for the lining are made on the spot.
The shaft is temporarily lined with boards, kept in place with
iron rings, which are wedged in position, and suspended from
each other by hooks. When the shaft has been sunk about
60ft. below the former section, a series of two-inch iron pins
are fixed in holes drilled for them round the shaft, and a
wooden curb is placed on them, which serves as a foundation
for the brickwork. These curbs are left in, and are not re-
moved when the next section of walling comes up from below.
The brickwork is done from a cradle suspended from two guide
ropes. The cradle weighs about two tons, and serves as a
weight to keep the guide ropes taut. The bottom of each
euide rope has a socket fastened to it, and this is connected to
the cradle by a bridle chain fastened to two eyebolts, which
pass through the woodwork of the cradle. This cradle is left
in the shaft all the time, a 7ft. square hole in the centre
allowing the bucket to pass through. The bucket has a run-
ner or cross-head above it, which slides up and down on the
guide ropes; this prevents the bucket from getting an undue
swing on it.

Three feeders of water were struck while sinking. Below
each, the brickwork was shorn back, and a garland inserted,
consisting of a wooden curb, with sheet iron in front. A pipe
from this leads to a lodgment cut in the rock. The first lodg-
ment is 141ft. from the surface; the second, 256ft.; and the
third 438f{t. The second lodgment is 33ft. long by 9ft. wide,
and 6ft. high. A brick dam is built about 5ft. high, which
consists of two 9in. walls curved slightly inwards, between
which clay is packed. The inner wall prevents the clay from
being washed away. The clay, for its part, is impervious

206 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

to water, and further serves to fill up any cracks that may
form in the outer wall.

The first water feeder, when struck, gave off 17,000
gallons per hour, and the second 8000 to 9000 gallons
per hour, while the third at first gave off some 4000
gallons per hour, but soon steadied down to a constant flow cf
860 gallons per hour; now the combined flow has been reduced
to 1850 gallons per hour. While sinking, there were two
steam pumps at the second lodgment, a single and a duplex
Knowles, neither of which was powerful enough to raise the
water to the surface, so the single pump was used to lft the

Fig. 127—Corrimal and Balgownie Air Shaft Head Frame.

water to the upper lodgment, from which the suction pipe of
the duplex pump started. By diminishing the head in this
manner, the duplex pump was able to raise all the water to
the surface. The water from the shaft flowed into a pond,
the water did not escape into the river, as it was all required
for brick-making purposes. Now the water from tle feeders
in the shaft is carried by some 9000ft. of piping, and delivered
at the surface through the daylight tunnel. Preparations are
being made for the installation of two Evan’s hydraulic
pumps at the bottom of the air shaft, both to be operated by

CORRIMAL-BALGOWNIE COLLIERIES. 207

the column of water in this shaft, and it is mtended that they
shall pump some 600 gallons per hour from a lower level, de-
livering it into the pipes leading to daylight. While sinking,
the shaft was divided into two compartments, a downcast and
upeast; the latter was formed by half-inch tongued and
grooved lining boards, nailed to 9ft. long buntons placed 6ft.
apart. The upcast compartment was carried up higher than
the mouth of the downcast, and the air was further heated
by the exhaust from the steam pump, which was led into it.
Round the mouth of the shaft is an 18in. thick brick wall,
16ft. square, built up from the solid rock. The brick cylinder
lining the shaft is built up inside this square, which has a few
gaps left in it when they touch, so as to tooth in the bricks of
the cylinder. The corners are filled in with concrete. The
head frame is made of wood (Fig. 127), the sills of which rest

Fig. 128
Fisher’s

Clip.

on the brick wall. The sinking engine, when finished with for
this purpose, will be compounded (by replacing one of the

cylinders with a larger one), and used for hauling purposes.

Steam is raised in two Babcock and Wilcox boilers. Room for
two more is provided should they be required in the future.
The clips used on the incline consist of two slightly

tapered jaws, threaded on to a ring at their narrow ends, and
kept together by a collar that encircles them, but which can
be slid up or down according to whether it is desired to loosen
or tighten the grip (Fig. 128). New clippers-on are apt to
make mistakes, and allow the skips to run down the incline
without properly fastening them to the rope. To prevent
danger under such circumstances, the runaway switch is con-
structed near the top of the incline on the full track side (Fig.
129). (A) is the main track, (B) the side track, which has a
grade uphill. The switch (f) is kept in position for the skips

208 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERTES OF AUSTRALIA.

to run into the side track by the carriage spring (g), rocker
(h), and rod (e).. If the clip is properly fastened to the rope,
before leaving the brow of the incline, it strikes the vertical
arm (d), which, through a system of levers, forces the points
back so as to leave the main track clear; (i) is a piece.of iron
so arranged as to prevent the coupling chain from knocking
against (d), which if it did would cause the skip to pass into
the main track, whether it was clipped to the rope or not.
The clip, if properly fastened, pushes (i) on one side, but if

; fixed
i rope
Vv

> =

d

Fig. 129—Runaway Switch.

loose it slides over (i) in the same manner as the coupling
chain, and, not coming into contact with the arm (d) does not
alter the position of the points: consequently the skip runs
on to the turn-out. | ,

A knocker off is arranged at the top of the incline on the
empty side, for automatically disconnecting the skip from the
rope. This consists of a forked lever mounted on an axle, and
placed at an angle of 60 degrees from the vertical; it is kept
in this position by a_ spiral spring. The rope circulates
through the forked portion of the knocker, and when a clip
comes along, the top of the knocker strikes the lower part of
the collar on each side, and pushes it up, thus allowing the
jaws of the clip to disconnect from the rope. The skip pushes
the knocker forward as it passes over it, after which the latter
returns to its original position, being pulled back by a spring.

The axles of the skips are lubricated by a chain greaser
worked by the endless rope (Fig. 1380). The endless rope
passes over a sheave (a) in the centre of the track, and causes
it to revolve by friction. At either end of the axle passing
through this sheave, 18in. apart, is a 6in. pulley (b). Four
and a half feet away on a parallel axle are two 12in. pulleys
(c), in line with the smaller ones, and connected to them by
chains (d): The pulleys are made out of a pair of old skip
wheels, with the treads towards each other, bolted together
through the flanges with 3in. bolts and nuts. These bolts

CORRIMAL-BALGOWNIE COLLIERIES. 209

serve as sprockets for the chains. The lubricant, which is kept
in a trough, is dipped out by the chains. The chains are held
up by the supports (e) and brush against the axles of the
skips, thus lubricating the bearings. Any excess of oil drops
into a trough on the upside of the incline, and flows back into
the oil well.

The drum at the top of oe incline is 5ft. 6in. in diameter,
with 6in. flanges, and the rope is wound round it 34 times.
The brake path is 7ft. in diameter. About 40 h.p. is developed
that has to be absorbed by the brakes. The brake-blocks are

LS Endless rope 3h tare,

- e d tb
ee ere a eS r?3
f E39 SS: et E=3 et
Endless rope. a
{ + a RS | +r. _]
TEEESFHE ~~ ===5--- ana oe eee

Fig, 130—Greaser for Skip Axles.

made from local ‘‘leather jacket’? wood, which is not so hard
as to get polished, nor so soft as to wear out too quickly.
When brake blocks are being renewed, small iron clamps are
bolted to the rope, and fastened to a wooden bearer across
the track so as to prevent the rope from shifting. The ten-
sion pulley at the bottom of the incline is 5ft. 6in. in dia-
meter. ‘The skips when they come out of the mine are sent
down to the screens and coal bins on a self-acting incline, for
about 33 chains, after which the coal is conveyed on a private
line a further distance of a mile to the Government railway.

The incline, which is sometimes made ground at others ina
cutting (Fig. 131), varies in grade, and at the foot inclines
in the “opposite direction, but the general gerade is 9 degrees.
There is a double track, of 2ft. gauge between rails, laid with
26lb. per yard rails. Cast iron rollers are placed 18ft. to 20ft.
apart to support the 3}in. circumference Lang’s lay endless
rope. ~The rollers are cas. diameter and 7#in. long, running
in wooden bearings (Fig. 1382). A frame two feet long is
made to keep the dirt back. About every 25ft. or so, a water
table is made to allow the surface water to drain off on one
side, the sleepers above and below the water table being
N

210 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

propped apart. ‘The sleepers are of wood, properly ballasted,
placed 3ft. apart, and to these the rails, which are fished
together at the joints, are dog-spiked. Every now and again
a sleeper is made longer than usual, so that it can be well

Fig. 131.—Self-acting Incline.

bedded in the ground to prevent the track from slipping down
hill. The rope is of the best plough steel, made up of six
strands with seven wires in each. The last rope was in use for
10 years. At the brow of the incline, as the ordinary rollers
would make too sharp a bend for the rope, 18in. diameter

Fig. 132.—Roller and Bearings.

sheaves are used. As these sometimes unfasten the clips
accidentally, a bobbin is attached to a sleeper close to the
sheave, so as to catch the axle of any runaway skip. Check
rails are placed parallel to the ordinary rails at the brow of
the incline, so as to prevent skips running off the line.

CORRIMAL-BALGOWNIE COLLIERIES. 211

The advantages of the endless rope system over the usual
open rope system employed with the gravity planes on the
South Coast, is that the weight of the rope on the up hill side
is always neutralized by the weight of the rope on the down
hill side; with the endless rope it does not matter if the trac!
undulates, so long as the general fall is sufficient; with long
inclines it is not necessary to have such a steep grade when
employing an endless rope, as with an open rope; also the con
veyance of coal is more uniform.

na r y

+ t x 21.

F “b ay WE
Fig. 133.

The empty skips weigh about 6cwt., and can hold 18cwt.
of coal; the maximum number of skips on the incline at a
time is 22 on each track, or a total weight of 26 tons 8cwt.
of full trucks, and 6 tons 12cwt. of empties.

Pooley’s weighing machines are now used for weighing
the skips of coal.

A platform weighing machine should work equally well
irrespective of the position of the load on the platform. Care

Fig. 134.—Platform Weighing Machine.—Plan View.

should be taken that the machine is level. These machines
are constructed on the Beranger principle. The platform
rests with one end over a lever as at (A) (Fig. 133), and the
other end on a second lever as at (a). These levers must
be similar, that is, the ratio of the arms (FA) to (FB) and
{fa) to (fb). If this ratio be 20 to 1, then every ton on the

212 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

platform will produce a presure of lewt. at (B). The lever
(FBX) produced to a point outside the machine is used to further
reduce this pressure, which can then be measured by means
of a steelyard. The proportion of the two levers being the
same, whatever point on the platform the load is placed, the
effect is the same; for the part that is not taken up by one
lever, is taken up by the other. If the proportion of (FA)
to (FB) was 1 to 4 and (fa) to (fb) 1 to 4, then the pressure
at (A) will be equal to quarter of itself at B, likewise with
the other lever. The instrument will therefore act as if a
weight equal to a quarter of the thing weighed was suspended
at {B): Pooley’s platform weighing machine, which is
largely used at collieries, is constructed as shown in Figs.

134 and 135. The short lever is first placed in position at:

: oT
oo
ee eo RS aT
rsa

PLATFORM.

fas 5 Aa
(oo SmorT LEVER Et

2 SES EERE WEEE ONE NRE TR IRAE NONE ES ERT AA ARN EOONNE:

PLATFORM WEIGHING MACHINE—SECTIONAL VIEW.

Fig. 135.

the end of the box nearest the pillar. It is suspended from
its fulerum links (A), which must be hung as shown, the

hooks facing inwards. Knife-edge bearings are used so as to

diminish the friction as much as possible. The long lever is.

now passed over the back rail of the short lever into the neck

of the box, its end centre (D) being the point of suspension. The.

long and short levers are connected together at each side by

coupling rings (B), and the stool with its bearings is made.

to rest on the centres (HK). The check links (C) are used to

prevent the stool bearings from binding against the jaws of

the levers. The pillar is next bolted to the neck of the box,

and the steelyard hung as shown in Fig. 186. The levers and

steelyard are then connected by means of a suspension rod.

Finally, the platform is placed on the box so that the planed

snugs rest dead upon the frame, and the machine is adjusted
as follows, and should be tested every morning. The weights

are removed from the plate of the counterpoise (C). The
poise (P) is put back to zero on the steelyard, ant the platform

el

CORRIMAL-BALGOWNIE COLLIERIES. 213

swept clean, then when the machine is put in action, if cor-
rect, the point of the steelyard will vibrate gently in the
guide. If it is not quite right it may be regulated by ad-
justing a small weight situated near the fulcrum. In the

of
. ‘

Fig. 136.

more modern machines this is concealed within the pillar to
protect it from interference, and is manipulated by the key (K)
through the hole (H). If, when the small weight is moved

214 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA,

as far as it will go towards the back end of the steelyard,
the machine is not properly adjusted, turn it back.as far as
it will go in the opposite direction, take out the plug
in counterpoise (C), and drop small shot into the cup until it
is just heavy enough to bring down the point of the steelyard.
So as to preserve the machine from wear, the platform should
be solid upon the frame and the centres be detached from their
bearings when not in use. This is done by manipulating a
lever. Pooley’s pit-bank weighing machine is made in many

sous HOY waxens:’

AND,
PATENTEES;

Zn +S
LIVERPOOL LONDON. ©
& BIRMINGHAM.

Fig. 137. Patent Self-indicating Pit-bank weighing machine

different styles, that generally in use indicating the weights
automatically, so that the weighman and check weighman can
readily read the figures (Fig. 187). The later machines go
further, and register the nett weight on a travelling band.
The platforms are sometimes provided with a turn table for
facilitating the disposal of the skip. . In these machines all
the sustaining points are suspended, not rigid; the knife-edges
are all in paralle) planes, and the levers all oscillate in one
direction, so there is a minimum chance of injury due to jar.

CORRIMAL-BALGOWNIE COLLIERIES. 215

The only wear or strain to which they are subject is during
the brief period of actual weighing. The great saving of time
and space as also the accuracy with which the weighing is
carried out, is so patent to those who have occasion to handle
large weights, that this type of machine has practically super-
seded the old beam scale formerly employed for this class of
work. ‘The tare of a number of empties having been found,
and the average struck, the steelyard is so weighted that when
an empty skip is on the platform, the index reads zero; con-
sequently, when a full skip is weighed, only the actual weight
of coal is indicated, which can be at once noted down without
any calculation.

Fig. 138.—Australian Coal Works.

The electric plant consists of a Westinghouse shunt-wound
direct current generator of 7Tkw. 31 amp. 225 E.M.F., full load
speed 1350. It drives two electric pumps, and also furnishes
some light. One pump is a reciprocating geared pump. The
other is a Quimby screw pump.

The Australian Coke Company.

These works are located at Unanderra, and are under the
charge of Mr. Walter Evans. The coal for coking purposes
is obtained from the Corrimal Balgownie Collieries. There

216 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

are 82 beehive ovens altogether, varying in capacity from 44
to 64 tons, which are drawn twice a week (Fig. 138). The
form of the beehive oven was probably originally copied from
the dome-shaped mounds made by charcoal burners, and its
appearance gave it the name of béehive. Beehive coke has
the name of being the best for metallurgical purposes; it has
its full cellular structure developed, assuring a maximum
calorific value. It has a bright, silvery coating, seen more
especially in the upper parts of a charge, due.to carbon de-
posited on the coke brought up by the hydrocarbon gases
from the coal lower down, through the incandescent section of
the coked coal. By quenching the coke in the oven, the
amount of moisture left in the coke is reduced to the least
possible quantity. The cost of labour, and waste of carbon, is
greater when coking in beehive ovens than in some other
varieties.
Mt. Pleasant Coal and Iron Company.

This colliery is under the management of Mr. T. Cook,
who has been in charge for the past 16 years; but the place
has been worked for some 40 years. ‘The word iron used in
connection with this company is on account of some unworked
clayband on the property. An attempt was made to treat
some of this iron a few years ago in a small blast furnace, the
ruin of which is to be seen at the foot of an incline. There
is but a very slight chance of this iron ever being worked at
a profit.

Being hedged in all round by other mines, this colliery
cannot expand towards the west, like its neighbours. The
present output of coal is 750 tons per diem, but when the
main and tail rope system of haulage now in use gives place
to the endless rope system, the output can be increased to
1000 tons. The coal is holed by pick.

The skips are drawn underground by means of a main
and tail rope which passes down the main haulage and intake
tunnel; the different districts have their own branch . tail ropes.
On arrival at daylight, the skips are weighed on a Pooley’s
weighing machine, and are then attached to another main and
tail rope system worked by a Mort’s Dock engine, which runs
along a somewhat crooked track for 14 miles to the head of
the incline. The worst part’ of this track is being straight-
ened, which should make a great difference in the friction to
be overcome, and also in the wear of the ropes and pulleys.
Thirty skips form a set on this line, and the rope travels at
the rate of about six miles an hour. An ordinary greaser is
placed on the track, but judging from the way the grease is
splashed about, the skips evidently travel too fast for such an
arrangement.» On reaching the end of the surface main and tail
rope line, the skips are emptied on to screens from end-tipplers,

;
4
= ,,

MT. PLEASANT COAL AND IRON COMPANY. 217

which grip the skips by the wheels. The coal is then loaded
into hopper trucks, wooden or iron, and drawn by horses to
the top of a self-acting incline, which is about three-quarters
of a mile long. ‘The line has three rails above and below the
passing, where of course there are four. The speed is regu-
lated by brakes having cast iron shoes instead of the customary
wooden blocks, and these brakes are manipulated by the usual
ships’ steering wheel by the man in charge. At the bottom
of the steep incline there is another incline, nearly flat, for
half a mile, having three rails at the top end, four in the
centre, and two at the lower end. At the bottom of this
incline is a Pooley’s weighing machine, and after that the
trucks are taken in charge by a small locomotive. The line
is continued for another one and a half miles to the Wollon-
gong basin, where most of the coal is shipped, but occasionally
some is shipped to Port Kembla or Darling Harbour.

On the south coast, where there are so many self-acting
inclines, the following notes, mostly abstracted from Alex-
ander Bowie’s paper on ‘‘Problems in Hauling and Hoisting’’*
may be of interest :—

Let (a) be the angle of inclination.

(C) the coefficient of friction of trucks and ropes.

(W) the weight in lbs. of the loaded truck.

(w) the weight in lbs. of the empty truck.

(r) the weight of the rope for the length of the in-
cline in lbs.

(C’) the coefficient of friction for the drum.

(f) the amount of resistance due to friction for drum
in lbs., or = 2 C! [(w + r) sina + C (w + r)

cos al.

The coefficient of friction is equal to the tangent of the
angle of inclination on which the force exerted by gravity is
exactly counterbalanced by the frictional resistance. This
angle is known as ‘“‘the angle of friction,’’ the ‘‘angle of re-
pose,’ or ‘‘the limiting angle of frictional stability.”’

When a waggon (W) is placed on an inclined plane, the
force with which it tends to move down the plane, disregard-
ing friction, is—

W sin a.

As the amount of friction equals the pressure multiplied by
the coefficient of friction, the amount of friction encountered
In moving a waggon (W) on an inclined plane is—
WC cos a.
sin a

When W sin a = WC cos a, or = tana = C

COs a

*“T. Am. I. M. E., 1901. Vol.XXXI., p. 265.

218 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

the force with which the waggon tends to move down hill is
exactly held in equilibrium by the amount of friction.
The force with which a loaded waggon tends to move down the
plane when the angle of inclination exceeds the angle of

friction is—
W sin a — WC cos a

and under the same conditions, the force with which the empty
waggon resists motion up the hill is—

W sina + WC cosa.

The smaller the difference between (W) and (w) the greater
the angle of slope required to make a self-acting plane.

One must also consider the weight of the rope and its
friction on the rollers of the incline, and the friction on the
periphery and axle of the drum round which the rope passes.

The principal factors in determining the coefficient of
friction for wheeled carriages moving on rails are the ratio
of the diameter of the wheel to that of the axle, the quality
of the lubricant, and the smoothness of the contact surfaces.
Take the coefficient of friction for the rope on the rollers as
being the same as that of the waggon, though it should really
be a little greater on account of the sag of the rope and the
roughness of its surface, the resistance offered by the rope
will be continually decreasing as the empty car ascends the
plane. The required angle of inclination will increase with
the length of the incline.

So long as W sina > (w + r) sina + C(W + w +1)
cos a, the conditions permit a self-acting plane, but when
W sin a is equal to or smaller than the second member of this
formula, no motion can be produced by gravity alone.

As the weights for steel ropes are nearly in proportion to
their respective safe working strengths, if the load is increased,
the weight of the rope in the same ratio must also be increased.
Therefore, the angle sought would be the same for any
number of waggons per trip as for one waggon. But if the
rope used for a one-waggon trip is stronger than necessary, so
that additional waggons can be put on without using a heavier
rope, then it may be possible to make the plane self-acting
by simply increasing the number of waggons in a set.

As the resistance of the empty waggon and rope to the
motion up the plane is—.

(w + r) sna +.C (w + 1r) cosa
the strain executed by the loaded car to move down must be at

least equal to this; hence the strain on the drum round which
the connecting rope passes must be at least

2[(w + r) sin a + C (w + r) cos al.

MT. PLEASANT COAL AND IRON COMPANY. 219

The tangent of angle of minimum grade of a self-acting
gravity-incline when all resistances of gravity and friction
are considered, equals—

C(W + w-+r)-x
cos &

W — (wet r)

If there is not much to spare above the necessary grade,
there should be a short piece of level track at the bottom of
the incline, and if necessary a heavier grade at the top, so that
the waggons can start easier. It is best practice to have the
grade as nearly uniform as possible. Anyhow, there should not:
be too sudden a change in level, or else the waggon, when
passing from a steep grade to a lighter one may have the
upper wheels lifted off the track by the rope. The frictional
resistance encountered in starting from a state of rest mav

Fig 139.—The Quimby Screw Pump.

be taken as at about twice the friction of motion. If the
grade is made greater at the top and lighter at the bottom, the
speed due to acceleration will diminish, as the motive force
varies with the size of the angle of inclination; the inertia
carries the waggons over the flat portion.

Ventilation is carried out with the assistance of a 14-foot.
Walker’s fan.

One of the pumps in this mine is a Quimby screw, driven
by electricity. The dynamo for this purpose is also used for
generating the light required about the place. The pump, as
shown in Fig. 139, consists of four screws mounted in pairs
on parallel shafts, and so arranged that in each pair the
thread of one screw. projects to the bottom of the space be-
tween the threads of the opposite screws. The screw threads

220 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

have flat faces and peculiarly undercut sides, the width of the
face and the base of the thread being one half the pitch. The
pump cylinder fits the perimeters of the thread, space enough
being left between the screws and the cylinder and between
the faces of the intermeshing threads to allow a close-running
fit without actual contact: There is no end thrust of the
screws in their bearings, because the back pressure of the
column of liquid is delivered to the middle of the cylinder,
and the endwise pressure upon the screws in one direction is
exactly counterbalanced by a like pressure in the opposite
direction. The suction connection opens into a chamber under-
neath the pump cylinders. ‘The water passes: through the
chamber to the two ends of the cylinder, and is forced from
there to the centre by the two pairs of intermeshing threads,
the discharge being in the middle of the top of the cyiinder
(D). The power to drive the pump is applied to one of the
shafts, the second shaft being driven by means of a pair of
gears (G). Having no valves, no internal packing, and no
small moving parts, the pump is not very liable to get out of
order, and as the screws are not in contact with the cylinders
or with each other, the consequent absence of wearing sur-
faces gives the pump great durability. The rotary motion
of all the moving parts and the continuous flow of water does
away with the churning effect produced by reciprocating
pumps.

The locomotive shed and workshops are erected on the
flat opposite the company’s coke works, which are at present
leased to Messrs. Figtree. There are 42 beehive ovens in this

plant.
The Osborne-Wallsend Colliery.

This colliery, commonly known as Mount Keira Colliery,
is situated near Wollongong; it has been managed by Mr. J.
C. Jones for the past six years on behalf of Messrs. EK. Vickery
and Sons, Ltd., the under-manager being Mr. Bissell. This
is the oldest colliery on the South Coast, having started opera-
tions fifty or sixty years ago.

There are three tunnels penetrating the mountain, all of
which are intakes, One is the main haulage tunnel, another
is the travelling road, while the third is only used for ventila-
tion purposes. The ‘stentons connecting two tunnels, when
no longer required. are generally stopped with four and a half
inch brickwor k, which is found sufficient if the roof is not too
heavy; but the wall is made thicker at the sides where the coal
is not so strong. An air shaft three hundred feet deep sunk
from the top of the mountain, is situated about two miles
N.W. from the entrance of the main tunnel; this serves as an
upeast, the air being sucked out by a 12ft. Walker fan. This
fan is driven by threeropesfromanengine. There isa pair of

oe

OSBORNE-WALLSEND COLLIERY. 221

single cylinder horizontal engines arranged end on, but only
one is used at a time, the other being held in reserve in case of
necessity. The air is split in the air drift so that it can be
drawn through the fan from both sides. The top of the air
drift is made of galvanised iron, which is purposely made
the weakest part, so that in case of an explosion, this will give
way and can be readily repaired, instead of the fan becoming
destroyed. When men are at work, the fan makes forty revolu-
tions per minute, using a pressure of one and one-tenth inch
water gauge; but when the mine is idle, it is only given twenty
revolutions.

There are two water rings in the shaft made by
building in ordinary wooden curbs, above which the brickwork.
is shorn back; on to the front of the curb is fastened a rim of
sheet iron to retain the water which is eventually led down the
side of the shaft in a pipe. There is a single cage in the air
shaft that runs on rope guides, the hoisting being done by a
geared duplex engine, which drives the single drum. Electric
signals and telephones are used throughout the mine.

The seam being worked averages 7ft. 6in. in thickness, but
in places it is subject to rolls where the floor rises up; the
root is seldom affected. The tops of the rolls are invariably
accompanied by so-called grey heads, which are joints, run-
ning in the same direction as the longer axis of the roll,
coated with a whitish substance.. By the trend of these grey
heads, the miners can tell how the rolls are running. They
are also known as “‘leaners,’’ as their faces incline towards
the axis of a roll.

The coal is worked by the ordinary bord and_ pillar
method. The bords are started with a four yard neck, and
are then widened out on either side to eight yards. If the
coal will not stand well, the pillars are worked out quickly.
When winning pillars, the coal is extracted in eight yard lifts.
A series of pillars are worked out at an angle so as to leave
strong ground behind the men for escape in case of necessity.
The holing is all done by pick, and the coal is shovel-filled.
When the coal has to be blasted down, monobel is used as the
explosive. Old double-headed rails resting in chairs set in the:
rock serve as collars in the return air-ways, where wood might
rot with damp and fungi.

Formerly the main and tail rope system of haulage was.
employed underground, but this has now given place to the
endless rope system. The effect of the great strain on the old
drums, due partly to the rope which is wound on hot during
the day and remains coiled up during the night, when it
cools and contracts, can be seen by the way it has had to be

222 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

yeinforced. The present system brings out four skips in a set,
at the rate of one and a half miles per hour, which experience
proves to be fast enough to prevent accidents; but on the sur-
face the endless rope system works quicker, from two to four
miles per hour. There are two main districts, the north and
south, each supplied with a separate haulage: the northern
rope also actuates one of the branches of the southern district
‘by means of gearing. There are four jigs, or underground,
‘self-acting inclines, which supply the mam southern rope
-where the seam becomes steep. There are four places along a

i

Fig. 140.

jig where skips may branch off to workings; the arrangement
of such flats is shown at Fig. 140. The drums at the top of
the jigs are provided with brake bands, top and bottom, which
have blocks of leather-jacket wood bolted to them. The end-
less rope is driven by a Tangye duplex horizontal engine, hav-
ing 20in. diameter cylinders, and a 3ft. stroke. This engine
works the two main endless ropes. The rope pulley has a steel
liner which is bolted inside the groove, and can be renewed
when worn. The face of the pulley is slightly inclined from
one side to the other, so that the rope which passes on to the
‘pulley at that side with the lesser diameter, after coiling round

OSBORNE-WALLSEND COLLIERY. 223

the pulley five times, takes off on the higher side. The tension
varies in all parts of the rope, being greatest where it passes
on to the driving pulley, and least where it passes
off it. Fisher’s friction clutches are used to throw the rope
systems into gear (Figs. 141 and 142). The rope pulley (f)
and brake path (kk) run loose on the main shafting (h), but a
driving drum (g) is keyed to the shafting, and revolves with
it. The clutch consists of three segments (a) which surround
the driving drum, and are bolted through oblong slots in the
arms of the pulley. The segments of the clutch are united to-

Fig. 141.—Fisher’s Friction Clutch (elevation).

gether by right and left hand screws (c, c), the clutch is put in or
out of gear by the ordinary fork (i) and lever (j) arrangement,
which brings a system of levers into play, and either forces
the segments to press on the driving drum, when the levers
are pushed towards it, or causes them to be withdrawn
when the motion is reversed. The segments are shod with
brass so as to get more adhesion, and save the wearing of the
driving drum and segments. As the segments are attached
to the rope pulley, when they grip the revolving driving drum,
they cause the rope pulley to become a part of the moving
body. When the clutch is thrown into gear, the friction slips
at first, thereby avoiding a strain on the machinery, and the
pulley moves slowly until the inertia of its load is overcome.
The endless rope system is suitable for undulating ground, as

224 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

the up and down grades help to balance one another; the uni-
form conveyance of single skips or small sets is better adapted
to colliery work than long trains, which require an accumula-
tion of skips at flats and at the surface; also as the engine is
running the whole time, power is more evenly used, and less
powerful engines are required than with the main and tail rope
system for equal distances. Ior the underground haulage,
screw clips are used. If they used Fisher’s clips, the thimble
would become pushed up while passing round the sheaves at
horizontal curves; besides they are found to be not strong
enough to hold four loaded skips at a time travelling up hill.
When a rail crosses the track of a rope, the rail is cut through
as far as the flange, so as to leave a space for the rope to pass

Vig. 142.—Fisher’s Friction Clutch.

through. At a kip, the rails are fastened to longitudinal
sleepers, so as to allow the rope to keep down out of the way.
At a horizontal curve a series of vertical sheaves, called
‘‘tommy dodds,’’ are arranged near the centre of the track, so
as to guide the rope. In one place where the track had a curve
when on an incline, they originally had a good deal of trouble,
as the rope used to rise. Now the grade is eased before rounding
the corner, so the rope tends to travel faster than the skip,
and this causes the clip to be pulled under the skip, and
drag it along, which has the effect of keeping the rope down
instead of allowing it to rise. In one place, where a single
track is laid along a heading over which both full and empties
run to serve ‘a horse track that branch off from it, an arrange-
ment is laid out, as shown in Fig. 143, where the empties are

OSBORNE-WALLSEND COLLIERY. 225

switched on to the branch horse track as required from one
end of a flat, while the full returns pass an automatic switch
on to the main track at the other end of the flat.

At the surface the coal is lowered down the mountain side
to the screens a mile away, along two series of self-acting in-
clines, worked with circulating endless ropes. From _ the
screens, the coal is conveyed by locomotive along a private

Full wad
Earatves

railway line for 14 miles, to the South Coast line, and a mile
further on to the Woollongong basin, from which most of the
coal is shipped. The locomotive can only take up 12 empty
waggons at a time, as the up grade is too steep for it to draw
more. On the self-acting incline, certain safety provisions have
been made in case of a break-away. On the up line, bobbins
are placed between the rails to catch the axle of a skip should
it go down hill instead of up. This bobbin consists of a bar of

a

Fig. 144—Bobbin.

iron through which a pin passses in such a manner that one
end is heavier than the other (Fig. 144). The consequence is
that the shorter end is raised up. The higher end, which has
a recess cut out to engage with the axle of the skip, is placed
pointing up hill. As the bar is free to move, the up-coming
skip simply depresses it when passing over, but the bar im-
Eee wtely rights itself, and is ready for action as soon as the

226 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

skip has passed. A block of wood is also used to throw skips

clear of the line in case of a break-away, as shown in Fig. 145.

The up-coming skip pushes the block ou one side, but as soon

as the wheels have passed, a weight draws it back again across

the rail. On the down line a throw-off switch is worked by

means of a set of levers by the man at the brow of the incline.
%

[eal
“Sr Ea

Fig 145—Throw off Switch.

If he sees a skip running away, he turns a lever (Fig. 146),
which causes a block of wood to be placed across the outer rail ;
when the skip comes up to this, it is thrown off the line. Some-
times the manipulation of one lever is made to work two throw-
off switches, some distance apart; the second one being used in
case the skip passed ihe first before it could be put into action.

\ coaiieenemmememnne Wire Cord

Lminanae Weve Cord:

Fig. 146—Thow off Switch.

The upper switch is not far from the brow of the incline, as a
skip is more likely to escape down hill before it is fastened to
the rope than it is to break away from the rope.

No pumps are used at this colliery. in fact the mine being
dusty the haulage-ways have to be watered. This is done by
means of a water-tub, which is a closed-in water-tight tank

OSBORNE-WALLSEND COLLIERY. 227

mounted on an under-carriage like an ordinary skip. A rod
has one end attached eccentrically to one of the wheels, while
the other is connected to a rocking arm which gives motion to
another rod that works up and down and _ communicates
motion to the handle of a semi-rotary pump. Water is forced
by this pump into perforated pipes, from which it is sprayed
on to the ground (Fig. 147).

- Fig. 147—Water Tub.

There is a saw-mill near the top of the hill, and a fitting
shop at the foot of the incline near the screens and Pooley’s
weighing-machine.

Federal Coke Company.

These coke works are managed by Mr. J. A. Figtree, and
consist of 40 ovens. These ovens, which are of the McLanahan
type—an improvement on the old Welsh oven-——were the first
of their sort to be erected in Australia, except two built for
experimental purposes by the Australian Coke Company, since
converted into ordinary beehive ovens, as they had no ram to
push out the coke, and the drauglit passing through the ovens
seriously inconv enienced the man drawing the coke at one end.

These rectangular ovens, except for their form, are to all
intents and purposes w orked as a beehive, till it comes to the
matter of drawing the coke, when a ram is employed to push
it out. Inthe case of the Federal Coke Company’s plant, this
isasteamram. ‘his ram saves much time and labour. The
ovens are 30ft. long, 74ft. wide at the ram end, and 8ft. wide
at the other end, while the height is 6ft. Being larger than
the ordinary beehive, they have a larger capacity, viz., 94
tons, but are also charged twice a week. They could be
charged three times a week, but it is found that by burning
slowly, with a larger charge, the coke is denser than when
Durning quicker with a shallower charge. There are two

228 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

charging ports in the crown of each oven. The grade of the
rails laid along the top of a bank of ovens should be one per
cent., so as to assist in handling the charging canisters. The
tirebricks are laid in loam or loam and clay, tor if lime mortar
was heated and then played on with water, it would slack.
The doors of the ovens are raised and lowered by overhead
hand winches.

The coal is obtained from the Mount Kiera colliery, and
after being tipped out is conveyed to the disintegrator shed by
a bucket elevator. The Carr’s disintegrator is 3ft. 6in. in
diameter, and is capable of treating 200 tons in eight hours.

No exact tests appear to have been made at the various
Australian coke works relative to the difference in
bulk and weight between the coal charged and_ the
coke produced. If a _ battery of ovens yields 65 per
cent. of coke, and by more careful work, either in
the construction of the ovens or in the supervision of
the process, this is increased one per cent., then there has been
an absolute saving of 1-65th, or 1.53 per cent. of the total value
of the coke formerly produced, less the cost of loading, for all
the other expenses remain the same. There are no by-product
ovens'in Australia. It is doubtful, however, whether, under
local conditions, the amount of volatile hydrocarbons would
produce sufficient by-products to pay interest on the necessary
plant. Good coke, besides the fixed carbon and ash, will con-
tain a little volatile matter and water, consequently the actual
results of coke burning are not quite the same as that shown
by laboratory tests.

The amount of ash in a coke may be increased above
that contained in the original coal, by the ash from
the coke burnt in the oven to give the necessary heat, by
handling coke in a dirty place, and from impure water used
for quenching. Some people claim that an increase of ash in
a coke, up to a certain limit, is an advantage, inasmuch as it
increases the hardness of the coke. But this only appears to
be true when the ash is a part of the structure, and not when it
is derived from outside sources; the latter being further ob-
jected to since it is paid for as coke, and so far from giving off
heat, requires not only heat, but fluxes to get rid of it, and

takes more handling. Commercial coke is the theoretical
yield less the loss in burning, and that of fine coke, or
‘“‘breeze.’’ in handling; it is, “how ever, increased by the ashes
and dirt gathered up. The loss i in burning commercial coke
should not be more than 3 to 5 per cent. below the theoretical
amount.*

"Catlett (C,). ‘Coking in Bee-Hive Ovens with Reference to
Yield” (T. Am. Inst. Min. Eng., xxxili., p 272, 1903).

FEDERAL COAL COMPANY. 229

If a beehive oven is not properly attended to, a
large amount of coke may be consumed _ that
might otherwise be saved with reasonable care and
attention. The burnt coke deposits ash on the re-
mainder, which retards the transmission of heat from
the hottest portion of the oven, just above the coke, to the
unburnt portion, towards the bottom, and, when watered, the
ash is washed down, thus increasing the total of the ash in
the coke below. Pretty feathery and stalactitic forms are
often seen, especially at the top of a charge; these are due
to carbon that has been deposited in the coke from the decom-
position of the gases distilled from the coal lower down.
To obtain a good yield of coke, the charging and
drawing should be done regularly, the coal properly
levelled down, and the coke watered to the best advantage.
Skill and care are required in controlling the admission or ex-
clusion of air to the oven, so as to secure a satisfactorv degree
of heat at the right time, and as nearly as possible to secure
this heat from the gases which are driven off during the process
of coking, and which would otherwise be entirely wasted.
Full control must be had over the air holes and small leaks
which might admit air when not wanted. It is not necessary to
have a large amount of air to burn out an oven; every cubic
foot of unnecessary air going into an oven causes a loss. An in-
crease of air does not necessarily mean increased temperature.
At first an excess of air may cool an oven before the gases,
which add to the heat by their combustion, are given off. For
the first few hours more gases may be given off than the ordin-
ary air holes can supply with air for perfect combustion, and the
products of combustion may have a difficulty in escaping.
Later on matters are reversed, and there would be an excess of
alr if it were not regulated, and as this tends to cool the
charge, one may have to burn some coke to obtain sufficient
heat to finish the operation. After drawing a charge, the
doors are lowered again and luted, in order to keep the oven
warm, so when a fresh charge is dropped in and levelled, the
heat stored in the walls is sufficient to start combustion.

‘The Mount Kembla Colliery.

This is the most southern productive colliery in New
South Wales. Coal extends further south, but up to the present
it has not been proved suitable for mining. This colliery is best
known to the public as having been the scene of the greatest
colliery disaster in Australia, which took place about 2 p.m. on
the 3lst July, 1902, whereby 95 men lost their lives, and 14
were injured. A monument, erected to the memory of those
who were killed, is to be seen in a street of Wollongong, and
will remind those in future generations of the dangers attend-

230 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA,

ing local coal-mining. The force of the blast from the main
tunnel wrecked the engine-house, which was situated right
in line with, and a few yards from, the mouth of the tunnel.
Fig. 148 shows the state of the surface after the explosion.

A Royal Commission was appointed to inquire into the
cause of the disaster. The centre of interest was the No. i
Right Main Level (the Eastern District of the mine). On
the right-hand—eastern—-side of this road, between the third
and fifth Right Rope Roads, there was an area of 35 acres
from which the coal had been extracted. and where the roof
had been allowed to fall, forming a goaf; this was known as
‘the 385-acre waste,’’ or ‘‘the 4th Right Goaf.’’ The last
portion of this area to be worked was that near the end of the
4th Right Rope Road, where, about a fortnight before the
disaster, the last pillars of coal were extracted, and the props
supporting the root were withdrawn, with the object of let-
ting it fall. A week before the accident, there was a fall of
24ft., but there still remained a space of more than 5dft. be-
tween the fallen mass and the roof above. So far as the
workings had penetrated in No. 1 Right District, the seam was
found to be rising towards the north. from a point near the 4th
Right. The coal in this mine was known to give off
firedamp. Mr. Ronaldson, a former manager of Mt. Kembla
colliery, admitted in evidence, given in 1895, before the Royal
Commission on the Coal Mines Regulation Bull, that gas was
given off rarely. Mr. W. Rogers, the present manager, stated
in his evidence at the inquiry that he knew the seam gave off
gas. The Chief Inspector of Coal Mines had also detected up
to 14 per cent. with the hydrogen lamp, and several miners
gave evidence that gas had fired after a shot, and at their
flarelamps. There is a certain amount of doubt as to whether
the gas noticed by the miners after a powder shot may not
have been largely carbon monoxide; bit from other evidence,
and the fact that the members of the Commission themselves
found firedamp in several widely distant parts of the mine,
there is little doubt that from the opening of the mine to the
present day, it has been capable of producing enough firedamp
to warrant the assumption that, given favourable conditions
for accumulation, a dangerous collection might be found in
almost any part of the workings.

Dr. Robertson, the consulting engineer to the Mount
Kembla Coal Company, did not think the evidences of force
he saw in the mine could be accounted for by the theory of a
eas explosion; it seemed to him that all the appearances could

be reconciled by the theory that.a great wind-blast was forced

out by a fallin the 35-acre goaf at the end of the 4th Right,
and that the damage was done by percussion throughout the
mine without any explosion; in fact, according to him, there

2

tY.

=
4
4

KEMBLA COLLIE

a i

MOL

‘UOISO[Axe ZOGI OY} 1oqyye viquIoy JUNOP, 4B Yoor—' gpl ‘Sia

232 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

was practically no evidence of flame or heat. He, however,
admitted in cross-examination that carbon monoxide played a
part in the after effects of his supposed wind-blast, and that
carbon monoxide, under the circumstances, could only be pro-
duced by the incomplete combustion of coal dust; but he
thought the heat produced by the compression of the air
was sufficient to cause the coal dust to distil with-
out flame. Assuming that an area of roof 44 yards square
fell in a block in a little under half a second from a height
of six feet, and that 50 per cent. of the air beneath the falling
roof escaped into the surrounding goaf, or into the space from
which the fall came, he reckoned that the velocity of air out
of the 4th Right would be 700 miles per hour. ‘The damage

done at a great distance from the 4th Right, such as the
overturning of skips at Price’s Flat, 32 chains away by road,
which could not have been caused by the direct force of the:
wind-blast, he accounted for by saying that the percussion pro-.
duced by the fall would operate at long distances, though there |
would be no direct forcible motion of the air. He did not >
see any smoke himself; but the smoke of which the witnesses |
had spoken would be caused by the distillation of the dust. |
He could not account for the heat observed by several wit-
nesses in the mine shortly after the disaster, except by the

disarrangement of the ventilation.

These remarkable views appear to have had little or no.
support by facts. As emanating from the consulting engineer,

they were given due consideration, but the Commission con-

sidered this wind-blast theory depended on too many assump- |

tions, some of which were quite untenable. It was assumed
that an area of roof 44 yards square fell in a body from a height

of 4ft. 6in. above the floor; that the time of falling was about.

half a second (the rate at which it would fall in vacuo); and
that it would drive out half of the air beneath it through an
opening 12ft. by 6ft. Allowance does not appear to have been
made for the fact that the time of the fall would be prolonged
by the resistance of the air beneath, which would be enormous
if the air were to be, according to the hypothesis, compressed
to such an extent as to raise its pressure from, say, 14lb. to
35lb. per square inch, for a resistance of only 28lb. per square
inch would balance a mass of rock of at least 24.6 feet in
height. The hypothesis, the Commission added, even if it
be possible, is certainly grossly improbable. Mr. Leitch, who
was under-manager of Mt. Kembla up to six weeks before the
disaster, gives the area which remained to fall as only 1242
square yards, not 44 yards square as assumed by Dr. Robert-
son. ‘This would be quite insufficient to develop the energy
requisite to support the wind-blast theory. Moreover, experi-
ence shows that the rock would not fall in a solid sheet, but
rather that it would crack and break up in numerous pieces.

; yee cine
a ae

MOUNT KEMBLA COLLIERY. 233

As to the evidence of heat; eye-witnesses saw flame burst from
the mine, and this is supported by the microscopical and
analytical examination of the coal dust taken from various
places, chiefly from the No. 1 Right Main Engine Road. These
show visible signs of coking, and taking the average Kembla
coal to contain 23 per cent. of volatile hydrocarbons, the loss of
this hydrocarbon due to distillation varied from 4.09 to 56.35
per cent. Mr. Mingaye, analyst and assayer to the Depart-
ment of Mines, concludes that the particles had been subjected
to a flame at a temperature represented by a cherry-red heat,
T00dege. to 8UU0dey. Kahrenheit. Some of those witnesses who
supported the wind-blast theory quoted the experiments made
by Professor Bedson, who found that a mixture of coal dust and
air would ignite at a temperature of 29ldeg. Fahrenheit; but
it must be remembered that in these experiments the heat was
applied gradually, so that there was time for firedamp to
be distilled from the very fine dust before the actual ignition
took place; then, even if one supposes 29ldeg. Fahrenheit was
attained by the sudden compression of air to 35lb. to the
square inch, which is highly improbable, the condition not
being the same, they cannot in fairness be compared. Besides,
the indications are that the ignition of an inflammable mixture
of firedamp and air took place about the junction of the 4th

Right Rope Road with the No. 1 Right Main Level, and there

being two openings at this point, any heat resulting from com-
pression would be very greatly lowered by re- expansion The
Commission, after carefully weighing all evidence, came to
the conclusion that a fall in the 35-acre waste drove an inflam-
mable mixture of firedamp and air down the 4th Right Rope
Road to the No 1 Right Main Level with sufficient force to

cross the Travelling Road without distributing itself in that

road to any great extent. The mixture driven into the Main
Level, with a tendency to travel rather outbye than inbye,
owing to the angle at which the 4th Right meets that road,
met the intake air current, which retarded its forward move-
ment, so that its centre came to be about the 4th Right Junc-
tion. The northern extremity of the mass spreading inbye
along the Main Level, reached a wheeler’s naked light at the
4th Left, which sent a flash of flame back, communicating the
ignition to the whole body, the explosion being made more
violent hy the presence of coal dust raised by the first blast.
Thus the centre of force showed itself at the centre of the ex-
plosive body, and not at the point of ignition. The firedamp
and air exploded, and in turn started a series of explosions of
coal dust in such quick succession as to be practically one in-
stantaneous explosion, receiving fresh accessions of force as
it reached fresh supplies of oxygen in the air-courses traversed.
‘These explosions of firedamp and coal dust generated a large

234 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

quantity of carbon monoxide, which is the deadly constituent
of afterdamp, and caused the death of most of the victims.
Not onty had firedamp been found generally in this col-
lery, but at the Bulli colliery, a few miles away, working
the same seam; a somewhat similar disaster had previously
taken place. The mine was dry and dusty, but there were no
proper watering applances for laying the dust. The dusts
of different coals vary in the degree with which they ignite,
and the force of the resulting explosion. That of Mount
Kembla had a relatively high explosive force, and according to
the tests made at the Home Oitice Testing Station, Woolwich,
in 1901, the dust was described as ‘‘violent explosion’ on

each occasion. Still, in spite of this, naked lights were |

used in the mine, and the ventilation was actuated by a
furnace at the bottom of the 400ft. deep upcast shaft. For-
tunately, this furnace was not damaged, so as soon as the
blast had exhausted itself, the ventilation currents returned
for the most part to their usual channels, except where the
roads were blocked by falls of roof, and as each tunnel was an
intake, the rescue parties were able to follow up as the after-
damp was drawn to the upeast. The deadly afterdamp, as is
usual in most colliery explosions, accounted for most of the
deaths. This insidious gas has its danger intensified, inas-
much as it cannot be seen or readily smelt or tasted, neither
does it extinguish a burning light like carbon dioxide, for it
is combustible. It is an accumulative poison, as little as
half to one per cent. proving fatal. It has a greater avidity
for the hemoglobin of the blood than oxygen, and, by_com-
bining with it, forms a bright red compound, known as carboxy-
hemoglobin, which gives to a corpse a life- like healthy appear-
ance. When the blood takes up about 50 per cent. of
saturation a man begins to lose power over his limbs, at 79
per cent, he dies. The process of recovery from carbon
monoxide poisoning is very slow and painful, and a patient

may die several days after having inhaled it. When enter-
ing a mine after an explosion, rescue parties should carry
cages containing white mice. Any small warm-blooded
animal would ‘do, but white mice are easily tamed.
handled and seen. Carbon monoxide reacts on a mouse
twenty times more rapidly than on a man, as its heart
beats so much quicker. As afterdamp 1s lighter than the
ordinary atmosphere, the cage containing the mouse should be
held above the head. When the mouse shows symptoms of

being poisoned, the men have time to escape. Ventilation by

furnace is not so efficient, for the amount of fuel consumed, as
by fan; neither is it so regular, as the coal is fed intermittently.
There is, besides, always the element of danger when using
furnaces in a colliery where firedamp is given off, though the
risk may be reduced by taking air for combustion from the in-

MOUNT KEMBLA COLLIERY. 235

take, and allowing the return air from the workings to pass
into the upcast shaft through a dumb drift or airway that
commences at a point inbye from the furnace; it then inclines
towards the shaft, which it enters at a point sufficiently high
above the furnace to prevent the ignition of the firedamp. The
amount of ventilation produced by a furnace varies as the
square root of the difference in temperature of the intake and
upeast. Itis a mistake to think that coal costs nothing be-
cause it is won in the mine that uses it; for the coal could be
sold if not used; therefore, it should be debited to the cost
of ventilation at the current market price.

The Mount Kembla colliery owns an area of 8,700 acres,
of which about 1200 acres have been worked out. ‘The output
is about 1100 tons per diem; but fell off during 1907. To-
wards the south, where the seam is thin, about 2ft. 10in., the
coal is worked by the longwall system; but where the seam
hecomes thicker, the bord and pillar method is used. Rolls
occur in the seam, but are not so high as at some other col-
lieries in the district, so do not interfere to the same extent
re direction of the roads, or with the shape and size of the
pillars.

_ Oil from shale was first produced here in 1865, but oper.
ations ceased within about a ‘year. In 1874 the property was
sold to the Mt. Kembla Coal and Oil Company, who worked
the shale for some ten years, and then left off owing to unre-
munerative returns. According to official figures, approxi-
mately 8711 tons of shale have been won from the Mount
Kembla deposits.

The large coal is shipped from Port Kembla, seven miles
distant from the mine. Some smalls go to Sydney for use
at the Power House, and some coal is used locally for coking
purposes. Since the disaster they have had to work more of
the thinner portion of the seam. The coal won produces more
ash per ton than that obtained from the thicker portion; also
the coal contains less bituminous matter, so requires greater
heat to coke it.

Two types of coal-getting machines are employed at this
colliery, both driven by electricity. The Goodman chain
breast machine is used in the bords; while Hurd’s pick-quick
machine is employed for longwall work. The Goodman
variety of machine is that known as the ‘‘low vein,’’ and is
only nineteen inches in extreme height; it is capable of giving
6ft. depth of undercut for a width of 3ft. 9in. It is prac-
tically the ‘‘standard machine’’ modified for work in low
seams. The machine shown in Fig. 149 differs slightly from
that at work in the Mount Kembla mine, for the latter has
rollers on either side at the motor end, so that the machine
can be more readily shifted sideways for a fresh cut. The
motor is enclosed in a perfectly flame-proof cast-iron casing.

236 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

The cutter is conveyed along the headings in a plain drop-end
truck drawn by a horse.

The pick-quick (lig. 150) is a bar machine constructed
for longwall work, for which purpose it is used in the thin por-
tion of the seam at Mt. Kembla. At this colliery the pick-
quick machines are direct current. flame-proof, mounted on

stands, and can undercut 4ft. 6in. deep, the height of the cut

Fig. 149—‘‘Goodman’’ Low-vein Electric Chain Breast
Machine.

being from 4in. to 54in. The gearing between the motor and
the bar is 2 to 1. Owing to the small diameter of the bar,
and the fact that it is close to the coal, it is less likely to be
jambed by the coal should the latter be tender, than
other types of coal cutters; also props. can be _ set
under the coal closer than with, say, a disc machine.
The bar is a tapered rod with a spiral thread formed on it;

Fig. 150—The Pick-quick Direct-current Cutter on Skids.

the cutters are arranged in the space between the thread. The
cutter picks have tapered shanks, and a feather is formed on
one side so as to fit the tapered and seated holes in the cutter
bar. For cutting in coal, the cutters are shaped to a point;
for cutting-in slate, they are dressed to a chisel shape, #in.
wide. The cutters must project a uniform distance above the

{ A a,

MOUNT KEMBLA COLLIERY. 287

thread of the bar. The thread and cutters may be arranged
with a left or right spiral, according to the direction it is
desired to work in; but in either case the bar must be rotated
in the proper direction, or else the coal cuttings will not be
filled out. The bar has a rotary and reciprocating movement
which gives a chipping and shearing action, and prevents
the bar from clogging, and the cutter bar from working in a
groove. ‘The spiral thread round the bar acts as am
Archimedean screw and conveys the cuttings away in a con-
tinuous stream. If the coal was not got rid of, it would
pack into a hard mass, which would have to be loosened by
hand. A cleaner-bar is placed 4in. behind the cutter,
which scrapes the cuttings close to the cutter bar. This

machine works well in coal, but the cost of repairs is consid-
erable when cutting into rock or pyrites. Two men are re-

Fig. 151—Starting a cut with the Pick-quick.

quired for each machine. ‘The bar can move both vertically
through an angle of 2Udeg., and horizontally for 180deg.
For good floors, skids are better than wheels, for it saves
the cost of track-laying, which, when the machine works
fast, is difficult to do quickly enough. On skids the machine
runs smvother and with less vibration than on wheels; the
machine also cuts closer to the floor. The power required
to shift the machine on skids is not so very great, as it is
exerted relatively slowly. -When starting a cut the bar lies
horizontally in line with the face of the coal; the bar is then
revolved and carried to line on its horizontal axis, as it cuts
into the coal, until the bar is at right angles to the track; it
then continues to cut the coal as the whole machine is pulled
forward (Fig. 151). The machine is self-propelling. A
longwall machine may be worked so that it always cuts in the
same direction, and on reaching the end of the face it is
flitted back to its starting point along roadways; or it may cut.
to and fro across the face. The first method is generally em-

238 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

ployed, especially when the face is long, and two or more
machines follow each other. Where the roof is strong there
is a temptation to increase the length of the face, so as to
reduce the cost of flitting per ton of output; where ‘the depth
of cut and thickness of seam yield a large output, the cost per
ton for flitting is very insignificant. When working the
machine to and fro, it has to wait before starting again till
the coal is cleared away.

Three endless ropes pass into the main tunnel, one
in the middle and one on either side for two districts. Near
where the rails branch off, the side ropes pass through forks
which work the switches when struck by the clip attached to
the skips. The mechanism of this automatic arrangement
may be seen by referring to Fig. 152. A wrought-iron plate

ee ae |
Lashes ee
faueont .

We FS SP rs
Fig. 152—Automatic Switch.

{A) is bolted through the holes (B) to sleepers between the
rails. Qn this rest two bars (C), each having a triangular-
shaped head; the lateral motion of these bars is “limited by the
staples (D) arranged near their ends. The two bars (C)
are connected by means of the lever (EK), which is secured to
the nlate (A) by the stud (1°). on which it can turn. Studs
(G) are screwed into the bars (C), which fit into slots cut in
the lever (EK). The fork (H) when struck by the clip,
pushes (C) forward and drops out of the way of the skip into
the rectangular hole (J) cut in the plate (A). The bar switch
(K) has two angle irons (L) secured to it for adjusting the
travel of the switch. The clippers-on, by attaching an
empty skip to the rope of the district for which it is in-
tended, are able to feed whichever district they desire from
the entrance of the tunnel, without further trouble; for when

ee ee ee

ee ee

MOUNT KEMBLA COLLIERY. 239

the clip strikes its fork, the bar to which it is connected is
pushed forward, the triangular head pushes against the angle-
iron attached to the bar sw itch, and directs the skip on to its
proper rails.

The coal is screened near the mouth of the tunnel, after which
it is conveyed in hopper waggons down a gravity plane, one at
a time. At the bottom, the waggons are collected to form a
train which is then drawn by locomotives to the main line, or
the jetty. The self-acting incline has three rails above and
two below the pass-by. The waggons are lowered down the
incline from two drums on one shafting; one rope passes over,
the other under its drum, and the speed is regulated by a
brake operated from a steering wheel.

The hopper waggons, instead of being drawn by horses,
as is usual, between the brow of the incline and the screens,
are attached to an endless rope that circulates on the outside
of the incoming and outgoing pairs of rails. A chain is
hooked.on to one side of the waggon; at the other end of the
chain is a long-handled clip, which is made to embrace the
endless rope, and is held by the man in charge as he walks
along and keeps it pressed against the rope so as to ensure
a good grip. ‘The clip can be readily detached at any point;
and, as the waggon does not get any great way on it, it is
easily stopped under any of thesliding doors fixed to the
bottom of the coal hoppers, or at the top of the incline, as the
case may be.

Mount Kembla is following the lead given by South
Bulli and Bellambi, and is taking steps to instal an up-to-date
electric power plant. This is being provided by Noyes Bros.,
of Sydney, and when complete will consist of a 220kw.,
2200 volt, three phase British Westinghouse alternator, w ith
belted exciter, coupled to a Belliss and Morcom high ’ speed
engine, running at 375 revolutions per minute and capable
of developing 365b.h.p. with 140lbs. of steam at the engine’s
stop valve. A motor generator set, consisting of a 55 b.h.p.,
200 volt, 710 r.p.m., British Westinghouse slip ring motor,
belted to a 40kw. British Westinghouse 500 to 550. volt,
compound wound, direct current generator. A 55 h.p. 200
volt, 710 r.p.m. British Westinghouse motor, for driving a
500 volt, direct current, surface generator, also two 40 h.p.,
220 volt, 710 r.p.m. haulage motors.

The alternator is already erected on the slope close to the
mouth of the tunnel. From there the power is carried into the
mine through three core paper insulated, lead sheathed, and
steel taped armoured cables, manufactured by the Callender
Cable and Construction Co. Ltd., of London. The cables are
buried direct in the ground. The total distance of high

240 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF ANSTRALIA.

tension transmission will be about 24 miles. On account of
the extent of the workings in this mine, it was found neces-
sary to adopt the high tension system, which will admit of
one of the motor generator sets being placed about two miles
from the mouth of the tunnel. This set will supply current
to the various coal cutters along the faces with very little
loss in voltage.

The Mount Lyeli Coke Works.

These works, which are under the management of Mr.
Tuxworth, are located at Port Kembla. They consist of 62
rectangular ovens, 24ft. long, and 3ft. wide at the ram end.
The walls are 5ft. Yin. high, and the spring of the arched
roof Tin. These ovens, and those at Bellambi, belonging to
the Broken Hill Proprietary Company, are the only ones with
side and bottom flues; there are two flues in each wall, and
two under the bottom of each oven, along which the gases
circulate. Instead of generating heat by burning the coke of
the oven, the heat derived from the combustion of gases is
utilised. Greater care is required in the admission of air to
coals which contain just a sufficient amount of volatile hydro-

carbons, than those with an excess of volatile matter. A
maximum yield of coke cannot be expected unless one has the
best conditions for retaining the heat, and a perfect regulation
of air. The coke is quenched in the oven by spraying water
on it through a loose perforated pipe connected to a hose. It
could be partly or wholly quenched outside the oven, but the
cloud of steam given off would retard operations. An
hydraulic ram is used to push the coke out on the coke wharf.
The doors of the ovens are raised and lowered by a small over-
head hydraulic ram, one on either side of a battery of ovens,
which can be run along into position where required. The
coal for coking is obtained from the Mount Kembla colliery.

Wonga Willi Colliery.

This property is being opened up by a local syndicate. It
is situated opposite Dapto, and is the furthest south of any
colliery in the Southern Coalfield, now that the South Kembla
Colliery (which was formerly w orked for about three years) is
abandoned. The Wonga Willi has only recently started, so
is still in the developing stage. The seam worked is not ‘the
Bulli seam operated by the other South Coast collieries, but
what is known as the “‘thick’’ or ‘‘dirty’’ seam, which is about
15ft. thick, and consists of several small seams. Only about
5)ft. of the best of it is extracted, and even this has several
bands in it.» This seam is below the ‘‘four-foot seam,’’ which
is, again, under the ‘‘Bulli’’ seam.

CHAPTER XV.

Ture Newcastle CoALFIELD.

The principal collieries of the Northern District work
seams either in the Upper (Newcastle) coal measures, or the
Lower (Greta) coal measures. There are, however, minor
collieries working in the Middle (Tomago) measures, near
East Maitland. In the Newcastle measures, the Wallarah
or Bulli seam is worked in the Wallarah colliery. The Great
Northern seam is worked in the Pacific, Northern Extended,
and Rhondda collieries. The Fassifern seam is worked in the
Northumberland colliery. The Burwood or Victoria Tun-
nel seam is worked in the Ebbw Vale and Waratah collieries,
The Young Wallsend seam in the Young Wallsend colliery;
and the Borehole seam in the Lambton, Maryland, Co-opera-
tive, Wallsend, Duckenfield, New Winning (A.A. Co.), Het-
ton, Newcastle A. and B., Seaham No. 1 and No. 2, West
Wallsend, West Wallsend-Killingworth, Teralba or Borehole,
Dudley, Burwood, Lambton B., and Burwood Extended col-
lieries. The first five mentioned as working the Borehole
seam are outcrop collieries. _ The Yard seam produced good
coal, and was formerly worked near Newéastle, but is no
longer mined. The Dirty seam has no commercial value at
present, so is not worked.

The Borehole seam, from which m@ést- of the coal in the
Newcastle district has been obtained,-besides the so-called
** penny bands,’’ have two well-known bands of inferior clayey
coal running through it. The upper one is known locally as the
. “morgen,” and the lower as the “‘jerry.”’. At the A.A.

Co.’s Sea pit, the upper part of the Borehole seam is sepa-
rated from the lower portion by a band of clay shale, 5 to
8in. thick. As the seam goes. west, this band becomes thicker,
splitting the seam into two. The upper portion is called the
Young “Wallsend seam, and the lower part retains the name
of the Borehole seam. At the Sea Pit, the Young Wallsend
peor is 3ft. thick, and the Borehole seam 16ft. 5in. At

242 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

the Stockton colliery, both seams were in most cases taken
out; stone drifts being driven to the top seam, and care be-
ing taken to leave the pillars of the lower seam directly below
those of the upper; but further west, the distance between
the seams being greater, each seam has to be worked sepa-
rately. About the Wallsend and Co-operative collieries,
there are 60 to 70ft. between the two seams. In some places
the Young Wallsend is too dirty to work. The Young Wall-
send colliery is the only place where it has been worked, and
here it is 47 to 60ft. above the Borehole seam. At Duckenfield,
the Young Walisend seam was tapped on the boundary of the
Young Wallsend colliery, where it was found to be thin and
dirty. From there to West Wallsend, Seaham, and Killingworth,
the lower seam improves; the jerry of the other collieries en-
tirely disappears, and the coal rests on the Waratah sandstone,
‘the true floor of the Borehole seam, which is used as a building
stone in the Newcastle district. At Seaham, the two seams
are 20ft. apart; at Killingworth they are .only divided by
3ft.; the Young Wallsend seam being 10ft. Tin. thick,
and the Borehole seam 8ft. 3in. At the Northumberland
colliery, the two seams are 60ft. apart. At the Pacific, the
Young Wallsend seam is 9ft. 10in., separated by 52ft. 2in. of
rock, from the Borehole, which is 4ft. Yin. thick. Proceed-
ing south from the Sea pit, towards Burwood and Lambton
B. collieries, the Borehole seam becomes thinner, 5ft. din.
to 5ft. 6in., and west of these collieries, at Teralba, there are
only 3ft. 6in. of workable coal.

Backs and facings are very well defined in the Newcastle
coal, and influence the mining. Dykes do not occur so fre-
quently as they do in the Southern coalfield. The dyke-rock
has not yet been determined, as it is so altered; but it is of a
basic nature, probably basalt. Crushes have occurred at the
Hetton, Stockton, A.A. Company, and Wickham and Bullock
Island collieries. In the case of the latter, an area of 70
acres was affected, but no water was admitted to the work-
ings.

The Stockton, Hetton, New Winning or Sea Pit, of the
Australian Agricultural Company, the A and B pits of the
Newcastle Coal Mining Company, and also the Dudley Coal
- Company, have all worked beyond high-water mark. The
Scottish Australian Mining Company also intend to work coal
under the ocean from their Burwood and Lambton B: pits.

A. A. Atkinson,* the New South Wales Chief Inspector
of Coal Mines, says that due consideration should be given

*W orking Coal Under the River Hunter, the Pacific Ocean
and its Tidal Waters, near Newcastle, in the State of New
South Wales (T. I. M. E., 1902). at

THE NEWCASTLE COALFIELD. 243

to the following matters in connection with the safe limit of
working coal under the ocean :—

(1) Character of the overlying strata, with special reference
to loose deposits of alluvium or beds of clay between the bed
of the ocean and the coal seam.

(2) Presence of faults and dykes in the strata.

(3) Dimensions of pillars to be left and the width of open-
ings to be made, or, in other words, the percentages of coal to
be left and worked respectively.

(4) The utility of leaving coal next to the roof in some
cases.

If there is a considerable bed of clay between the body of
water overhead andthe solid rock, this will tend to fill up any
joints and cracks, thus stopping infiltration. Should there
be, however, no clay, but only sand or shingle, then such a
stratum of loose material would be as bad as if the water
itself were immediately above the solid rock.

After proving the presence of faults and dykes, since the
strata in their vicinity are disturbed, any passage approach-
ing them should be reduced in size as much as possible, and a
pillar of coal left next to the fault or dyke, the size of the
pillar depending on local circumstances. The main point in
working coal under large bodies of water is to lay bare as
little as possible any fault or dyke met with. When working
under tidal waters or under the sea, the minimum width of
pillars allowed is 8 yards, and the maximum width of bords
or other excavation is 6 yards. The 8 yard pillars must re-
main unwrought. The coal workings must be carefully sur-
veyed every three months, and a record kept of all dykes and
fissures met with. In one road of every pair of winning-olf
or leading headings, a bore shall be kept going 10ft. in ad-
vance, for the purpose of foretelling the presence of any fis-
sure, washout, open joint, fault, dyke, or otherwise, and all
winning-off headings shall be driven at least 50 yards in ad-
vance of the working bords, when under tidal waters; or 100
yards in advance in the case of working under the sea. Coal
under the ocean should not be attacked until after a large goaf
has, if possible, been made by extensive coal-workings under
the mainland. The amount of cover of solid rock between
the coal seam being worked, and the body of water overhead
must be at least 120ft. The most accurate and trustworthy
information should be obtained, not only of the depth-and cha-
racter of the sea bottom, but also of the strata overlying thr
coal seam, which strata must be bored through, and proved to
have a minimum thickness of 30ft. at the face of the leading
headings as soon as they have been driven 100 yards.in advance
of the working bords. After the first borehole has been com-
pleted, other ‘boreholes must be put up in advance of it at

244 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA,

the face of the headings at distances not exceeding 20 yards.
The A.A. Company has decided not to work coal under a
less cover than 140ft., while the Stockton and Hetton col-
lieries have a thickness of rock overhead of 250 and 300ft.
respectively. The boreholes are generally made by a machine
with a serrated steel bit, which gives a lin. core. Boreholes
30ft. long generally cost about 2s. per foot. Where the
roof is bad and the coal thick and tender, leaving some coal
next to the roof has been found to have a strengthening effect.

On account of the unconsolidated alluvial material, often
heavily charged with water, found near the surface ‘at the
site of certain shafts, such as at the Hetton, Wickham, and
Bullock Island, and Stockton collieries, the eround had to be
secured by means of. cast-iron. tubbing. In the case of the
Stockton No. 3 shaft, this tubbing was continued to a depth
of 281ft.

The greatest distance driven under the ocean off the New
South Wales coast up to date for coal winning purposes is from
48 to 50 chains. It is most important that the sea should
not be allowed to break into a colliery, for not only would
the workings of that particular colliery be flooded, but those
of any adjoining colliery to the dip which might be connected
with it. Such an accident did actually occur on a compara-
tively small scale on 18th March, 1886, when the Ferndale
colliery and about 20 adjacent small collieries were inundated
with sea water and sand from a tidal stream named Tighe’s
Creek, and adjoining swamp, and irretrievably lost.

The Wallarah Colliery.

This colliery, situated at Catherine Hill Bay, is the
southernmost colliery of the Northern coal field. Other pro-
perties have been taken up still further south, but, so far, only
boring operations have been carried out on them. Originally
this property belonged to another company, who worked a
lower seam than that now operated on by the present com-
pany. The seam was attacked from a mine a few yards
south of the jetty, but being dirty coal, it was eventually
abandoned. ‘he Wallarah Coal Co. , an English corporation,
took the property over about nineteen years ago. Mr. Joseph
Sperring came out from England at that time, and acted as
under manager till ten or ‘eleven years ago, when he was
appointed manager. The seam at present being worked aver-
ages about 12ft. 6in. thick, but only 6ft. of the bottom coal is
worked. Both the top coal and the rock above make a good
TOOT.

Two districts, known respectively as the ‘‘B’’ and ‘“‘E,”’
are now being worked. Both are approached’ by

cation Se anc sgiriad lay ga ah

en ae La ee ee

THE WALLARAH COLLIERY. 245

means of tunnels. ‘‘B’’ is the older and “‘E’’ the newer
pit, and most of the plant is situated at the mouth of the
latter. The underground workings of the two pits are con-
nected. The haulage at both pits is an engine plane, but at
the ‘‘E’’ pit they are preparing to instal the endless-rope sys-
tem for the main haulage, though the engine-plane will still
be used for the first section, where the roadway is considerably
eurved. A set consists of 15 skips. The rollers to support
the rope between the rails are of iron bark timber, turned with
a shoulder at either end, which supports one edge of the iron
rings that bind them, while nails on the outside prevent the
rings from coming off. About 60 strong horses, from 14 to
15 hands high, are employed at the mine.

The coal is worked by bord and pillar. Bords worked by
pick are 8yds. wide, the pillars between being 12yds. wide;

ce

Fig. 154.—Sullivan Electric Chain Machine, showing ‘‘ pan”’
detached and in position for starting a side cut across the
face.

but those worked by machines are 12yds. wide, and the pillars
between l4yds. Very little pillar extraction has been carried
out, as there are so many places on the surface where water
flows, and the workings being shallow, should the roof cave
in, the amount of water admitted to them might cause con-
siderable inconvenience and expense. Since there was some
divergence of opinion as to which was the best class of
machine to employ for coal cutting, different mines favouring
the particular type they had adopted and were accustomed to,
at this colliery, four kinds of coal cutters were tried, namely,

246 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

the Sullivan electric chain machine, the Jeffrey chain breast
machine, the Jeffrey short wall coal cutter, and the Goodman
chain-breast machine.

The Sullivan, Fig. 154, is heavier, and requires more
power than the other machines. First of all the main pan is
jacked against the roof to prevent it from working _ back-

wards; the machine is then worked forward off the main pan,
at the same time putting in the sumping cut. When the
machine is completely on the front pan, the two pans are dis-
connected, and the main pan drawn out of the way. This
enables the machine to work in less space than ordinary chain
breast machines, and therefore it does not interfere to the
same extent with the props. The chain along which the
machine pulls itself is anchored at the far side of the bord and
jacked at the other. The anchor consists of a short piece of
plate iron bent in such a way that one end digs into the pillar
while the other end digs into the floor. A hook is connected
to the plate, and to this the chain is fastened. Being out of
the way, it does not interfere with the machine cutting close
up to the pillar. When the machine has made the sumping
cut 6ft. deep, it then cuts sideways for the width of the bord,
sliding on a rail placed near its forward end. This leaves the
back clear for a man to shovel the cuttings brought out by
the picks. When a cut has been completed, the machine is
placed on a trolly and drawn by a horse to another bord. Each
machine requires three men: one to drive it, another to shovel
away the cuttings, and the third to shift the rails, lubricate
and generally to assist. The trailer cable is clipped to the
main cable, the bare wires at the junction being covered by a
rubber sleeve.

The old type of Jeffrey machine, as also the Goodman
chain breast machine, work intermittently. As each cut is
only 2ft. 9in. wide, when the full depth of the cut has been
made, the machine ‘has to be withdrawn and moved sideways
for a fresh cut. The new type of Jeffrey machine (Fig. 155)
works right across like the Sullivan, but instead of a chain two
flexible galvanised iron ropes are threaded through the
machine and anchored at either side of the bord; one is to pull
on, the other to keep the machine straight on its course. This
machine makes a cut 6ft. deep, and is found to do excellent
work. When flitting from one place to another, it is mounted
on a_ self-propelling trolly. All the coal cutters are
driven by electricity. It is found advisable to have a large
number of coal cutting machines, even if they are not all in
use at once, for though when at work a machine may cut 20in.
per minute, it takes so long to shift the machines about that
the average is reduced to about 5in. per minute. It is found
when working machines on the tonnage rate that the men

-_ 6) oe
ey tls

THE WALLARAH COLLIERY. 247

will not stop for repairs unless absolutely obliged to do so,
but say the machine will last their shift, and pass it on to the
next party in that condition. The following shift does hkewise
if possible. The result is that the machines do inferior work,
and there is a tendency to wear the machine out quicker.
Ventilation is carried out by means of a 16ft. Walker’s
indestructible fan. This is driven by ropes from one of
Walker Bros., of Wigan, engines. A duplicate engine is ar-
ranged end on to the other, which is used when repairs have
to be undertaken. There used to be seven pumps driven by
Petter petroleum engines, but now only two are in use. There
are also three small electric three throw pumps, used for dip
workings, and one Aldrich electric pump, made at Allentown,
U.S.A., also a steam pump, which will soon be replaced by a

Fig. 155.—Jeffrey Shortwall Coal Cutter.

main electric pump. The vaporiser of the Petter petroleum
engine is first heated by a simple form of paraffin blow lamp
for five to ten minutes, after which the oil tap is opened and
the fly-wheel turned by hand (Fig. 156). This causes the
piston to move forward, and at the same time draws in a
charge of air and oil through the upper valve. The piston
then returns and compresses the mixture into the back part of |
the vaporiser, the oil having by this time become converted
into vapour or oil gas. The mixture explodes with the heat,
and drives the piston out with considerable force. At the.
end of the outward stroke the lower valve commences to open
and the piston returns, expelling the burnt vapour through
the exhaust pipe. The oil flows through a copper pipe to the
governor valve. This valve controls the supply of oil te the
engine, permitting more or less to pass as the load on the
engine varies, and is so constructed, that if from any reason »
the engine should stop or the governor band break, the oil

248 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

would be instantly cut off. The governor lever, which is con-
trolled by a centrifugal ball governor, rises and falls accord-
ing to the speed of the engine, and as it does, it opens or
closes the graduated oil inlet valve, and also at the same time
a throttle on the air inlet, thereby providing for the exact
proportion of oil and air being maintained whatever the load
on the engine may be. The absence of a continuous burn-
ing lamp entirely eliminates all danger of fire arising from
inflammable material coming in contact with a naked flame.
The Petter engine has an automatic tube ignition contained
in a small box attached to and forming part of the exhaust
outlet of the engine. The tube, which is made of a special

Fig. 156.—The Petter Petroleum Engine and Pump.

alloy, becomes red hot after the engine has been working for
about five minutes, and thereafter performs the duty of
igniting the vaporised oil and air. Being enclosed in a box,
and protected from the cool outer air, these tubes last very
much longer than those used in other types of engines. Under
ordinary conditions three-quarters of a pint of oil is used per
b.h.p. per hour.

The Aldrich electric pump (Fig. 157) in the ‘‘B’’ tunnel
has 5in. diameter plungers, 6in. stroke and a capacity of 100
gals. per minute. The motor that drives it revolves between
500 and 1000 times per min., and is 74h.p. The original
electric plant consisted of a multi-polar generator built by the
Goodman Manufacturing Co., of Chicago (U.S.A.) for 275

THE WALLARAH COLLIERY. 249

volts, 360 amp., with 250 r.p.m. and generating 100kw. This
was driven by one of McKwen’s engines rated for 187h.p.,
supplied with a Begtrup inertia governor (Fig. 158). <A long
bar called the inertia bar, with weights at each end, is pivoted
at the centre on a roller bearing to an arm of the governor
wheel. At the centre of the bar is a short extension, which
carries the eccentric pin. <A heavy coil spring is secured to
the middle of one end of the bar, and on the other end is an

Fig. 157.—The Aldrich Electric Pump.

air dash pot, which consists of a cylinder with a loose-fitting
piston, and connecting rod bolted to the inertia bar. The
weight in the spring end of the inertia bar is the greater.
Owing to the shape and relation of the various parts of the
governor, the weighted end is so acted on by centrifugal force
as to tend to swing it backwards towards the left hand stop.
This tendency to move backwards is counterbalanced by the
spring, the tension of which is such as to hold the inertia

250. COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

bar in equilibrium at the desired speed. The motion of the
governor shown is over from left to right. When starting up,
the positions of the governor parts are as shown. In this
position the eccentric pin travels in its greatest path, giving
the valve its widest opening and latest cut-off. As the speed
increases, centrifugal force, acting on the weighted end of
inertia bar, moves it backwards towards the left hand stop,
thereby reducing the travel of valve and cutting off steam
earlier. This backward movement of the inertia bar is con-
tinued until the travel of the valve reduces the cut-off to just
what is necessary to keep the engine rotating at the proper
speed to give even balance between centrifugal force acting
on the inertia bar, and the opposing tension of the spring.

Fig. 158.—The McEwen Engine.

Should a load be suddenly applied to the engine-there is a
check to the speed of the governor wheel, while the inertia
bar, by reason of its momentum, rotates forward sufficiently
to increase valve travel, and give late enough cut-off to carry
the load. Should the load be thrown off, the governor wheel
tends to increase its speed, thus causing the inertia bar to
swing backward and reduce travel and cut-off until equili-
brium is established as before. It will be seen that in this
way the speed of rotation under a steady load depends entirely
on the equilibrium between the centrifugal forces on the in-
ertia bar and the tension of the governor spring, while the
actual movement of the governor parts is effected by the in-
ertia of the weighted end. If the weights in the inertia bar

THE WALLARAH COLLIERY. 251

and tension of spring are so adjusted that the centrifugal
force increases faster than the tension of the spring, then the
engine will speed up under load. In this condition the engine
is liable to race, and it is to prevent racing that the dash-pot
is used. It is thus possible to adjust any engine so that it
will run faster under load than when running light, and still
regulate perfectly and with no tendency to race. On the other
hand the governor may be adjusted to run slower under load
than with no load. Perfect stability is obtained by the use
of dash-pots; at the same time they increase the ease with

Fig. 159.—Wallarah Switchboard.

which adjustments can be made. No difficulty is experienced
in adjusting these engines to govern within a limit of one
revolution, and the instantaneous variation of speed when the
entire load is thrown on or off is seldom more than one
per cent., while the action of the governor is unusually quick.
the engine returning to its standard speed within the space of
two seconds. ,

The new electric plant was supplied by Siemen Bros., and
consists of a direct current compound field generator, of 200
kw., 0-670 amp., 427-425 rev., and 270-300 volts. Iti is driven
by a W.H. Allen, Son and Co. vertical compound engine with
134 and 2lin. diameter cylinders and Qin. stroke. It has 425

252 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

revolutions per minute, and high pressure steam of i40lb. is
used. Marble switch boards, Fig. 159, are used for each unit.

Geipel rapidity type of steam trap for automatically re-
moving condensed water in the steam pipes is used with this
plant. These traps are suitable for both the highest and
lowest pressures, and can be adjusted to act for a wide range
of pressure. The valve is arranged in such a way that it is
held on its seat. by steam pressure, consequently a valve of a
much larger area can be used than if the valve closed against
steam pressure. The valve is of the rotating type, and is
separate from the valve spindle, so is not held fast by the fric-
tion of the stuffing box. Being provided with vanes, it is

caused to rotate while discharging, and consequently to grind

itself in at each discharge so that the seat is kept in good
order. There is no dribbling, but as soon as the trap commences
to discharge, the valve is forced well open. A sharp blow
through then occurs, until all water is discharged, when the trap

Fig, 160.—The Geipel Rapidity Steam Trap.
is suddenly shut. The trap consists of two tubes fixed at one
end but free to move at the other, where the valve is situated.
The upper or inlet tube is brass, while the lower or discharge
tube is of iron. In Fig. 160 the valve E is held normally on
a light spring G. When the trap is cold or full of water, the
valve is depressed from its seat by the valve spindle C, which
abuts against the end of the lever N. When steam enters the
brass tube the latter expands and moves the valve casing O
downwards. The steam pressure and light spring then close
and hold the valve tight until water has again entered the
brass tube and cooled it, upon which the brass tube contracts
and moves the valve casing upwards until the valve spindle C
impinges on the lever and forces the valve open. As soon as
the valve is open the rush of water, so to speak, forces or
wedges the valve downwards, thus making the large opening
which gives the rapid discharge. So rapid indeed is the dis-

5

7
-
‘
-
b

iJ

»

z

THE WALLARAH COLLIERY. 253

charge that an automatic throttling device has been found
desirable at high pressures, in order to avoid shock, strains,
and noise. This device consists of a movable bush P, con-
trolled by a spring Q; its action is automatic, so that when the
trap is discharging at low pressure, as for example when steam
is first turned on, the bush does not tend to throttle, but when
the pressure rises and there is an increased discharge, the fric-
tion thereof moves the bush in an upward direction against the
action of the spring’, thus reducing the aperture of the dis-
charge and consequently its velocity.

Steam is generated at the E. pit by two Babcock and Wil-
cox boilers, and two Cornish boilers, made by G. and C. Hos-
kins, of Sydney. The Babcock and Wilcox boiler (Fig. 161)

Fig. 161.—Babcock and Wilcox Boiler.

consists of a number of small steel tubes, whieh are set ut an
inclination, the higher point being over the grate. The ends
of these tubes are connected by zigzag chambers termed
headers. Adjoining headers fit closely together, and are so
constructed that the tubes are staggered. The top of each
header is connected by a tube to a collecting chamber, one of
which is at each end of a horizontal water and steam drum, ar-
ranged overhead. There are openings in the headers opposite
each water tube, which are closed by hand holes, the joints of
which are made by accurate metallic contact. The tubes are
lap welded, so there are no riveted joints, with their double
thickness of metal in parts that cause undue strains, owing to
unequal expansion. On account of the comparatively small
diameter of the tubes, they possess a relatively greater

254 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

strength. The tubes are expanded into the headers, and all
joints are kept away from exposure to the direct heat of the
fire. The water and steam drum is of sufficient capacity to
prevent any sudden fluctuation in pressure or water level.
At the lower end of the inclined tubes, the bottom of the
headers are connected by other tubes to a mud drum, which is
removed from the action of the fire, and which receives the im-
purities deposited from the water. The boiler is suspended
from wrought-iron girders, resting on iron columns entirely
independent of the brickwork. This prevents any straining
of the boiler from unequal expansion between it and the en-
closing walls, and permits the brickwork to be repaired or
remoyed, if necessary, without disturbing the boiler. The
combustion chamber, built round the boiler has soot doors

Nt

I
iu

|

Babcock and Wilcox Feed Water Heater.

Fig. 162.

left in it, and the direction of the draught is controlled by a
baffle wall built across it, so the combustion of the gases has
a chance to be completed before coming away to the stack.
The products of combustion from the grate rise up between
the tubes into that portion of the combustion chamber below
the steam and water drum. They then pass onwards between
the tubes under the baffle wall and up between the rear end
of the tubes towards the flue. The tubes, which are supported
between their ends by fire brick distance pieces, divide the
water into small volumes, which are quickly raised to a high
temperature. The mingled steam and heated water rise up-
wards to the steam and water drum, where the steam separates
and is drawn off in a dry state at the far end of the drum.
The water flows to the rear and down the lower end of the

THE WALLARAH COLLIERY. 255

tubes; in this way a continuous circulation is caused. As
the passages are large and free, this circulation is rapid, tend-
ing to make an equal temperature through the boiler, and
being in one direction there are no interfering currents. The
large water surface for the disengagement of the steam from
the water prevents foaming. The water space is so divided
into sections that should any section give out, a general ex-
plosion could not take place, but the destructive effects would
be confined to the simple escape of the contents. | With
large and free passages between the different sections, the
water line and pressure in all are equalised.

Outlet

Fig. 163.—The ‘‘Sentinel’’? Patent Multiple Feed-water Filter
and Oil Separator.

The exhaust steam is used to heat the feed water in one
of Babcock and Wilcox feed water heaters. (Fig. 162.) The
cold feed water enters a chamber at the top of the apparatus,
and passes down a nest of tubes to a lower chamber, where
the outlet pipe is raised above the bottom so as to be above
any sediment. The exhaust steam enters the shell round the
nest of tubes at the bottom, and escapes near the top.

_ A “Sentinel ’’ multiple feed-water filter and oil separator
is used. This apparatus, manufactured by Alley and Maclel-
lan Ltd., of Glasgow, is effective and compact, has a large

256 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERTES OF AUSTRALIA,

filtering area, and is easily cleaned. Experiment has proved
that the surface through which feed water is filtered should
be at least 250 times the area of the feed water pipe. The
filtering medium employed is cocoa-nut fibre, which has a
great affinity for oil, and being of a porous nature four plies
can be used round each mantle without fear of choking the
filter. There are six mantles, each of which passes over a
hollow support attached to a round table, which can be re-
volved by the spindle (E), Fig. 163. To pass the feed water
through the filter, the valves (A and B) are opened, and the
valve (C) closed. To pass the water direct to the boilers (C)
is opened and (A and B) are closed. |The drain cock is opened
once or twice a day for a few seconds to blow out the heavy
deposits that may lodge at the lower part of the filter. The

Fig. 164.—Portable Electric Drill.

scum cock on the top of the dome (D) is also opened occa-
sionally to blow off the light impurities that gather on the
surface. When the pressure gauge shows 20 per cent. above
boiler pressure, it is time the conte es were cleaned or changed.
In using this apparatus, before removing any of the filtering
mantles, open the valve (C) and close the valves (A and B),
run the filter dry by the sludge cock on the underside; remove
the dome (D), and each mantle can be remoyed and a new one
put in its place, as each tube carrier is moved round. To
clean the inside of the filter, first open the valve (C) and close
the valves (A and B), run the filter dry as before, fill it up
with clean ~cold water, which can be done with a
head of water through the sludge cock. Admit a little

THE WALLARAH COLLIERY. 257

live steam by a small cock on the side of the filter to boil
the water for a short time, putting a little sulphate of am-
monia or soda inside before starting; shut the steam off, re-
move the dome, and turn on cold water at the sludge cock,
when all the oil and dirt which has been adhering to the in-
side body of the mantles and filter will overflow at the opening
that the dome sits on. This operation performed about once a
week will help to make the mantles last longer, especially
when much oil is used.

The fitting shop contains two lathes and machines for
shearing, punching, drilling, and shaping; the blacksmith’s
shop two forges, the air for which is supplied by mechanically-
driven blowers; also a steam hammer. In the carpenter’s
shop is a band saw, drilling and morticing machine, and a
lathe. In the waggon repairing shed, portable electric drills
are used for drilling rivet holes in the plate iron. (Fig. 164.)
These are convenient to handle, easy to take apart, and all
parts being completely covered they are suitable for outdoor
work. In comparison to their capacity and stability, they
are very light. A saw-mill is in course of construction, and
a spacious store has just been completed.

The jetty is lighted up by electric lights, from a Siemen
Bros. 250-volt 0-20 amp., and 400-475 r.p.m. dynamo. The
hopper waggons are drawn along the jetty to the four shoots
by an endless rope of flexible galvanised iron driven by a two-
drum winch. ‘The rope passes over a vertical sheave at the
shore end, and two horizontal sheaves at the ocean end. A
vertical boiler supplies steam for the dynamo engine and
winch. The waggons are weighed on a Pooley weighbridge
near the jetty before being discharged into the ship’s hold.

Pacific Colliery.

This colliery has, in different stages of its existence, been
known as the Great Northern, the Northern, the Pacific Co-
operative, and the Pacific. The total thickness of the seam
is 19ft. 6in. In the first working, 7ft. 6in. is extracted; in
the second working, 6ft. is taken out. Two feet of top coal
is left, and 4ft. of bottom coal. The roof consists of a blue
shale, or conglomerate, and the floor is a very fine sandstone.
The seam is worked on the pillar and bord system, the pillars
being 8 yards and the bords 12 yards wide, i.e., they are in
the proportion of 2 to 3. Every eighth bord is made into a
**oanninge bord,’’ or wheeling road.

The mine is worked from tunnels. First an engine hauls
the skips for about half a mile along an engine plane, and then
the main and tail rope system takes up the haulage for another
half-mile. A drag-bar, consisting of a heavy, pointed iron
bar, is connected with a shackle to the last skip by a screw

258 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

bolt, so as to prevent the train of skips from running down
hill backw: ards, in case of accident. The engine plane rope is
capped, a chain attached, at the other end of which is a hook,
and fastened to the shank of this hook, is a link that passes
over the tip of the hook, and is prevented from coming off by
a cotter pin. ‘The hauling engine is situated near the tunnel,
‘and consists of a pair of 15in. diameter cylinders, with 2ft.
6in. stroke, and is geared two to one. |The main and tail rope
engine is a pair of 20in. diameter cylinder, with 3ft. stroke,
and is worked with 60lb. pressure of steam. Steam is gene-
rated in one Lancashire and two Cornish boilers.

Ventilation is carried out with the help of a Guibal fan
32ft. in diameter, and 12ft. wide, with air inlet on one side
only. When working the pit, it is given 30 to 35 revolutions
per minute. The fan engine has a 24in. cylinder and 3ft.
stroke; a spare engine in duplicate is arranged end on.

This is a colliery where machines are found to do cheaper
work than men; and machines have a further advantage in
lessening the number of men necessary to carry out the work,
and requiring a better class of men. Also machines enable
one to obtain a given quantity of coal out of fewer places than
with pick work, so that operations are easier to supervise, and
the colliery can be laid out accordingly. At the Pacific they
have four Sullivan electric chain machines, but only two are
worked at a time. These machines are worked 16 hours a
day,i.e., during afternoon and night shifts, and produce about
700 tons for the two machines. A shift’s work for one of
these machines is 3 to 4 bords, averaging 3} bords for 8 hours,
as against 45 tons per man, as was formerly the case when
hand picks were used. When undercut, three men (a firer
and two fillers) can handle 45 tons. Each machine has 33
picks, and on an average 40 to 50 of these have to be shar-
pened per day. ‘Thirty horse-power is required for each
machine. The motor was provided by the General Electric
Company, and works under 250-volt pressure. It is driven
by a Harrisburg Standard Buckeye engine, 13in. cylinder,
and 13in. stroke, controlled by a flywheel governor. The
workings are drained by three double-acting Tangye pumps,
driven by steam.

After screening the coal, the slack not required for im-
mediate shipment is raised to a coal-box for storage, up an
incline in a hopper skip. This hopper skip has a saddle-back
across it in the centre, and on either side of this on the bot-
tom is a sliding door. The skip is hauled up the incline over
the coal box by a pair of Tin. cylinder, 15in. stroke, engines,
geared 7 to 1: when the point is reached where it is desired that
the slack shall be emptied, the doors are automatically opened,
and the coal falls through. ;

NORTHERN EXTENDED COLLIERY. 259

Northern Extended Colliery.

This is one of the collieries belonging to the estate of the
late Mr. Andrew Sneddon, and is under the management of
Mr. D. Sneddon. It is situated near the Teralba railway
station. The Great Northern seam is being worked, which
is 15ft. thick; of this 12ft. Gin. is good marketable coal. At
present they take out 7Tft. 6in. of the centre coal. About
. 2ft. 6in. of bottom coal is inferior, so it is left in position. The
top coal is also left till later on, as it is awkward to mine, being
so high; besides, it helps to support the pillars, which are
thus made relatively shorter. The seam is subject to swal-
lows or depressions. These are fairly shallow, but the coal
and included bands, also the roof and floor, are affected, which
points to the irregularities having been caused subsequently
to the formation of the coal, for otherwise the coal would
have filled up the depressions in horizontal layers. The roof
is conglomerate, and the floor a fine-grained sandstone.

The workings are reached by a tunnel or main dip, Eight
or ten skips in a set are hauled up the roadways by direct
haulage. A drag-bar shaped like a Y (Fig. 165) is

VGCe=—=\_
oa

Vig. 165.—Dragbar.

hooked on to the back axle of the last full skip. The hooks
on each branch are double, so when the point of tthe bar
digs into the ground, it is not likely to become detached.
This bar drags behind on the ground, but in case of a break-
away, it sticks in the floor and overthrows the skip, thus avoid-
ing a worse accident. Where the road goes to the rise a jig
is used, the full skips as they descend drawing up the empties.
In this instance, also, 8 to 10 skips go to make up a set. At
the upper end of the jig, the pulley round which the rope
passes, as also the band brake, are arranged in a _ frame
let into the roof and floor. The skips are collected to the
top of the jig by horses. On account of the height of the seam,
heavy draught horses can be employed.

The winning heading to the dip is taken out in two work-
ings on account of the water present. First the top portion is
taken out as far as the position for the next bord; then the floor
is lifted. The bords are made 8 yards wide, and the pillars be-
tween are 9 yards.

- The coal is holed by machines—two Sullivan electric chain
machines, and one Goodman standard-chain breast machine,
also driven by electricity. They both cut well. The Sullivan

260 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

makes a 6ft. deep cut for a height of 4in. The Goodman
(Fig. 166) is more clumsy to move sideways, and requires more
labour. It makes a cut 7ft. deep and 4ft. wide. The picks
sometimes require to be changed two or three times a shift,
None of the machines are mounted on self-propelling trucks.
If the working places are close to one another, five bords may
be cut across per shift. All the cutting is done at night when
the roads are clear. Fig. 167 shows a man boring shot holes
with a rotary boring machine. There are two electric pumps,
a three-throw Worthington, and a centrifugal, both driven by
motors provided by the General Electric Company. The air
currents are induced in the mine by means of a furnace, the air

Fig. 166.—Goodman Coal Cutter on Trolly, Ready for Flitting.

passing over the fire, through the grate, and along drifts on
either side. The amount of air circulated is 50,000 cubic feet
per minute.

Steam is generated in a Babcock and Wilcox boiler. The
motor is one of the General Electric Company’s, built for 260-
250 volts, 220amp., driven by a Harrisburg standard engine,
controlled by a flywheel governor. |

Rhondda Colliery.

m . 7? . °
The Rhondda Colliery belongs to Messrs. William Laidley
1 . A “ae ps
and Co., and has been in existence for ten or eleven years, dur-

THE RHONDDA COLLIERY. 261

ing which time Mr. James Barr has been in charge. The seam
being worked is the Great Northern, a section of which is
shown in Fig. 168, but only the lower 7ft. 10in. are worked
at present. The coal is not so good as that from the Borehole
seam, but it breaks up into large blocks. The workings are
reached through a tunnel (Fig. 169). The first few yards,
in loose soil and rock, are bricked up; further in, timber sup-
ports are used, till the rock stands by itself.

This is a machine mine, the equipment consisting of two
Sullivan long-wall machines, and two Goodman chain-breast
machines, both driven by electricity. The Sullivan has the
advantage of working continuously across the face when once

Fig. 167.—Boring a Shothole.

the sumping cut is in, whereas the Goodman is only fed for-
ward, so has to be withdrawn for each cut. But there are
certain constructional features about the Sullivan machine
as put on the market which the manufacturers would do well
tc remedy, instead of leaving it for the users to alter. The upper
ball bearings of the armature shaft have had to be replaced by
ordinary brass bearings, as the halls were found to cut grooves
in the sleeve surrounding them; this caused the bearings to
become heated. The heavy armature being arranged verti-
cally, its weight has to be supported on the lower bearing,
which is about two inches in diameter; consequently much

262 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

mechanical heat is added to that generated by, the electricity.
This lower bearing being out of sight, its lubrication is apt
to be neglected. At Rhondda an automatic and more readily |
accessible lubricator has been attached. The two small studs
that support the lower bearing practically trail on the ground,
and tempt Providence to break them off by bumping against
obstacles, when they snap off; then the bedplate has to be
tapped for larger studs, and this is repeated till the limit is
reached. The bedplate is cast metal of irregular thickness,
and the strains set up in cooling tend to cause fractures. At
Rhondda they have had new bedplates made of cast steel.
One objection in working this machine is that when putting »

Conglomerate

N

= a Ss

VA
7.10" Now being worked

Fig. 168.—Section of Upper Seam, Rhondda Colliery.

in the sumpine or opening Gut, the cuttines are hemmed in
| g pening 2

by the sides of the pan, so that they cannot be shovelled out.

This obliges the machine to plough its way in, and causes

THE RHONDDA COLLIERY. 968

great strain. The Goodman machine has its armature ar-
ranged horizontally, and in consequence does not heat like the
Sullivan. Both the Goodman machines cut in 7ft. deep, but
one only cuts 3ft. 9in. wide, while the other cuts 4ft.

The present electric installation consists of a dynamo
built by the General Electric Company, which is compound
wound, and has four poles. It generates 220amp. at 250 volts,
and is belt driven from a horizontal Fleming engine. This
plant will shortly be substituted by a high tension plant. The
dynamo, which was built by Ernest Scott and Mountain, of
Newcastle-on-Tyne will generate 7T5kw. at 2200 volts. Direct-
driven motor transformers will be installed in the pit to re-
duce the voltage to 250, and there will be three branch cables
for the three districts.

Fig. 169.—Mouth of Intake Heading, Rhondda.

The new high-tension cable about to be laid will be sus-
pended from the roof. It is a three-core, lead-covered and
armoured, suitable for a normal pressure of 2200 volts. The
soft copper wire conductors are laid up in clover leaf pattern.
Each core is insulated with the best Manila paper, and the
interstices between the cores filled with spun jute, and the
whole covered with Manila paper. The paper and jute are
both thoroughly impregnated with resin oil. The cable is then
covered with a continuous sheath of pure lead, on which is a
layer of jute impregnated with preservative compound. This
is protected by two layers of galvanised ‘steel wire, laid in

264 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

opposite directions, the whole being covered with a layer of
compound-impregnated jute.

The low tension cable is a single core, bitumen insulated,
and single armoured cable; suitable for a normal pressure of
600 volts. The core is covered with a separator of paper, and
over this is placed a cover of vulcanised bitumen. This is
served with two layers of bituminised tapes laid on in oppo-
site directions. The armour consists of a single layer of gal-
vanised steel wires laid on in such a manner as to enclose the
cable in a continuous ring of steel.

The trailing cables are 100yds. in length. The cable con-
sists of two cores, each insulated with a layer of pure rubber,
then two layers of vulcanised rubber covered with a layer
of rubber-coated tape, and the whole vulcanised together. The
two cores are laid together, and covered with a double layer
of rawhide woven protection, which is more flexible than wire
-armour. Experiments are being carried out to make the raw-
hide distasteful to rats and mice. Where the trailing cables
are clipped on to the low tension cable, the wires of the armour
are cut and laid back over rings, which keep the wires in
place. The cable is grounded at intervals along its course;
but in case of a fault making the armour live, the cut armour is
connected with 7-16th galvanised steel wire.

The haulage is done by an endless rope (Fig. 170), driven
by one of Morrison and Bearby engines, with 18in. cylinders
and 3ft. stroke, geared down to 1in 13. At present the rope
only goes in about 400 yds., but it will shortly be extended, the
rest of the traction being done by horses. The skips are
clipped to the rope from 2 to 4 in a set; and after being
weighed on a Pooley machine, are run into a side tippler above
a shaking screen. The skips then run down hill till they are
picked up by a creeper chain, which carries them up to the
main track again. The creeper chain is kept taut by means
of a weighted pulley, which is suspended in a loop of it. The
slack that passes through the screen falls on to a mechanical
scraper, and is finally emptied into hopper waggons. The
large coal falls on to a steel picking belt, with wrought-iron
frame, so that boys can pick out pieces of band, the coal even-
tually being tipped into a shoot that guides it into waggons.
Provision has been made for erecting another picking belt
when it is required. The shaking screen, picking belt,
scrapers and creeper chain are actuated by an engine built by
Morrison and Bearby, having 12in. diameter cylinders and
18in. stroke. A throw-off switch is arranged on the outcoming
line between the tippler and the mouth of the tunnel. It con-
sists of a short length of rail, the lower end of which is fixed to
the adjoining rail, while the other end is forced inwards by
means of a weight at the end of a bell crank. The weight, how-

-

THE RHONDDA COLLIERY. 265

ever, is so slight that when a skip is proceeding towards the
tippler the wheels force it to return to its proper position.
Should a skip break away near the weighing machine and pass
down hill, it would run off the rails at the point where the
continuity of the line is broken.

The bords are made 8yds. wide, with 10yd. pillars, and are
50yds. long between cut throughs. A cut is then taken off for
2yds. deep on either side of the bords with the Sullivan ma-
chine, thus making the bord 12yds. wide, and the intervening
pillars 6yds. There is very little water in the mine, and this
is at present handled by a Knowles steam pump; but later on
a pump shaft will be sunk in the deepest known part of the
seam, and the pump will be removed.

Fig. 170.—Skips proceeding to the Screens, Rhondda.

Ventilation is carried out by means of a furnace, which is
cleaned out and banked up for the night. All the coal is
removed right up to the roof of the furnace chamber, and air
circulates on either side of the furnace, so that there is no
fear of the coal in the seam catching alight. Although this
is not a gassy mine, and naked lights are used, yet a man
tests every working face with a safety lamp before the miners
go to work, and makes marks to that effect to prove he has
been there.

Steam is generated in three Cornish boilers and one Stirling
boiler. The standard Stirling boiler consists of three upper or
steam drums, and one lower or mud drum, which are connected
together by three banks of tubes, and short circulating tubes

266 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

connect the three upper drums together (Fig. 171). All the
tubes are bent slightly, so as to allow them to enter the drums
normal to their periphery, and provide for expansion and con-
traction. The steam spaces of all the upper drums are con-
nected, while the water spaces of only the front and middle
drums communicate. All parts subject to pressure are of
wrought metal, and either spherical or cylindrical in form, so
as to mitigate the tendency to distortion under pressure. By
suitably disposed fire-brick baffle walls, the gases from the
grate are led up among the first bank of tubes, thence down
the middle bank, up the rear bank, and on to the chimney, so
they have every opportunity of giving up their heat to the
water. The feed water enters the boiler at the coolest point;

Vig. 171.—Sectional Arrangement of the Stirling Boiler, Side
Klevation.

that is, at the rear steam drum. The lime salts in the water
that are rendered insoluble by the heat. settle in the mud
drum, and can be blown off as required. The mud drum is
protected from the heat of the furnace by the bridge wall.
Every tube has an outlet to the steam drum equal to its full
area. The removal of one manhole door from the end of each
drum renders every part of the interior accessible for cleaning.
The tubes being only shehtly inclined from the vertical, there
is little opportunity for soot or dust to collect on the outside
surfaces of the tubes, and as the tubes are arranged in parallel
rows, they can be thoroughly cleaned on the outside by means
of a steam hose. The bent tube performs the same function
as the expansion loop or bend in a steam main, inasmuch as

<1 pope |

eA Ry =

yo 9 ate By

THE RHONDDA COLLIERY. 267

each tube may expand or contract independently of the others
without straining the boiler. The tubes are inclined at such an
angle as to admit of easy and rapid liberation, and ascent of
the steam generated in the tubes, and the circulation of water
is such as to maintain a uniform temperature in all parts;
thereby reducing strains and leaks due to unequal expansion
and contraction. On account of the bend in the tubes it is not
so easy to look through and ascertain whether they are clean
as if they had been straight; also the boiler would be improved
by having a larger water space in the upper drums.

Northumberland Colliery.

This colliery is owned by an English company, but is
leased to Mr. F. R. Croft, and was managed by
Mr. J. Rice for 12 years. The original company sunk two
shafts about 20 years ago, one for about 500ft., the other for
250ft., in order to cut a Ift. seam supposed to have been found

Fig. 172.—Jetirey Electric Chain Breast Machine.

by a bore. But as they did not get the coal, they usd a dia-
mond drill for a further 500ft., when they struck the borehole
seam, which at this place was found to be about 3ft. thick.
Besides these shafts a tunnel was driven into the side of the
hill on the Great Northern seam; and this is the one now being
worked. The seam is about 15ft. high, but only 7ft. to 7ft.
6in. of the coal is removed from the middle; the top and bottom
coal being left for roof and floor respectively. The seam has a
splendid roof of conglomerate.

There are two coal cutters at work in this colliery, one a
Jeffrey, the other a Goodman. The Jeffrey (Fig. 172), makes
a cut 6ft. deep and 3ft. 9in. wide, and is the lighter machine of
the two. The starter is at the rear of the machine, and a hand
wheel for revolving the chain when required to change picks is
at the side. The trolley on which the machine is mounted
when necessary to flit from one place to another is self-pro-
pelled by a chain from the machine, which passes round a

268 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

sprocket wheel on the trolley, that in turn is connected with,
and drives, the rear pair of wheels. A reversing switch enables
the trolley to move either backwards or forwards. The Good-
man machine (Fig. 173) makes a cut 7ft. deep and 38ft. Qin.
wide. It has side rollers at the end to assist in moving it
parallel with the face of the coal being cut. There is a handle
at the back for rotating the chain when desired to change the
picks. Sockets for the picks form short links in the chain, and
are at different angles, so as to give clearance. The pick points
are held in the sockets by set screws.

A Tangye engine 10in. x 10in. is used to drive a Siemens
Bros.’ generator. This is a direct-acting dynamo of 19.5kw.,
65.5 amp., and 260 volts. Besides providing electricity for the
coal cutters, it also provides the necessary power for a three-
throw electric pump.

r

Fig. 173.—Goodman Electric Chain Breast Machine.

Ventilation is carried out with the help of a furnace. Atl
the traction in the mine is done with horses, but the skips are
conveyed from the tunnel mouth to the screens for the first
section by gravity, and for the second by an endless rope. The
slack of the rope is taken up by a pulley, the bearings of which
slide up and down between vertical posts.

New Lambton Colliery.

The New Lambton and Ebbw Vale collieries are practically
one and the same, and belong to the New Lambton Land
and Coal Company of New South Wales. The New Lambton
worked a lower seam from a shaft, now disused; while the
Ebbw Vale works a top seam, 240 to 250ft. higher up, from a
tunnel. The tunnel and shaft are close together, and the
‘screens and weighing machines, which are located near the
shaft, are used for the coal now brought out from the tunnel.

ung
— >

NEW LAMBTON COLLIERY. 269

The skips are hauled out by an engine, sixteen to a set, and
run back by gravity. The last skip coming out has a dragbar
attached to the socket for the horse limber by a bolt and
cotter. Two pumps are worked from the surface by means
of endless ropes driven by geared engines similar to those used
for endless rope haulage, a tension pulley being employed to
keep the ropes taut. The coal is extracted by the usual bord
and sid system; the 8-yard bords being worked by one man
an each.

Waratah Colliery.

This éolliery belongs to the Caledonia Coal Company, who
work the Victoria Tunnel seam from a shaft, on the pillar and
bord system, the bords being eight yards wide, and the pillars
10 yards. They work 4ft. 6in. to 5ft. thick of coal, which is
mined by pick, no machine coal cutters being used. The coal
is conveyed out of the mine by the endless rope system of haul-
age, The drainage is done with an electrically driven centri-
fugal pump and steam pump of the Cameron type. The gene-
rator for driving the electric pump, and providing the lights, is
one manufactured by Ernest Scott and Mountain, built for 250
volts, 28 amp., and is direct-driven.

A Schiele fan is used for ventilation purposes, which is
belt-driven from a steam engine. These fans are encased in a
volute air chamber, so that the passage along which the air
travels after passing through the fan gradually increases in
area until it finally escapes. The blades of the fan are wider
towards the centre than at their tips, so as to compensate for
the increased area at the periphery.

The coal trucks, both box and hopper shaped, are made of
wood. Wood is easier to repair than iron or steel, and is not
affected in the same way, by the salty atmosphere of the coast.

Purified Coal and Coke Company.

This company obtains its coal from the Wallsend colliery.
The small coal is crushed in Cornish rolls, but if there is a
shortage of small coal, so that round coal has to be used, this is
given a preliminary reduction in a jaw breaker, and the pro-
duct is then raised to the rolls by a bucket elevator. The coal
that passes between the rolls is then elevated to four jigs. In
these, since the coal is lighter than the slate, it passes over
the tip in front, being assisted by a revolving paddle. The
slate sinks to the bottom and is allowed to pass out of the jig
by opening a valve periodically when the slate has collected
in sufficient quantity, which can be ascertained by feeling with
an iron tool. The valve cannot be left open all the time, as
the same quantity of dirt does not accumulate constantly.

270 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

The washed coal passes to a Carr’s disintegrator, to
which it is raised by a scraper elevator, the bottom of the
trough being made of perforated copper so that the coal
drains as it travels along. From the coal hopper, which
holds enough for a day’s work, the crushed coal is fed into.
canisters that are drawn backwards and forwards over the
ovens by an endless rope, which is capable of being reversed.
The canisters have a special hook on one side at either end;
a short chain is hooked on to the canister, and a clip at the
other end of the chain is fastened to the rope. When the
canister gets near the end of its trip the rope stops, but the

Fig. 174.—Irreeularity of Surface, due to caving in of ground
, om) oD ‘ é rn ~~
between Pillars.

inertia carries the canister further on, in consequence of
which the chain becomes automatically unhooked. There
are 70 ovens,-mostly of the round beehive pattern, having a
capacity of 7 tons each. The coal is reduced in weight to one-
half when converted into coke.
Maryland Colliery.

This colliery, formerly owned by the Co-operative Com-
pany, is now in the hands of the Sneddon family, and is
managed by Mr. D. Sneddon. The old workings of about 50

MARYLAND COLLIERY. 271

years ago had 8-yard bords, and 4-yard pillars. The latter not
being strong enough, the roof has collapsed, and the surface
in places looks lke a gigantic ploughed field. Fig. 174 gives
an idea of the appearance of the surface, at a place where
there is about 30ft. of cover. The direction and position of
the bords and pillars can be readily distinguished. The creek
has broken into and flooded a portion of the old workings.
Now both bords and pillars are made 6 yards wide. The fol-
lowing is a section of the seam :—

Roof, shale, does not stand well.
Little tops (coal: this
is left, as it makes

BanOG TOOL) ss. .sa6.. At.
Peony band «:. ..%. lin.
Big tops (coal) .. .. 2ft. second
Penny band .... .. lin. working.
ME ee orn. ty. Se srr extracted.
Penny band: ..4.- <: lin.} 8ft. coal |
USM praca ata 6 eer 9 | first
Floor hard sandstone. working.

The lower 6ft. of coal only is taken out when mining the
bords in the first instance; the upper 2ft. of coal is extracted
in the bords at the same time that the pillars are drawn. When
drawing the pillars, as the roof is tender, a strip of coal is taken
out right across the pillar at the far end. The roof falls close
up to the face in spite of the timber used to support it. When
this happens a stump is left for three yards, and then a four-
yard crosscut is put through the pillar, after which they start
to take out the stump; if the roof does not fall again, they go
ahead till it does, and then proceed as before.

The chief trouble in this mine is the water. Coffer dams
are built of timber and clay to about 6in. above water level, so
as to hold it back. The combined pumping capacity of all the
pumps in the mine, which can be put into commission in case
of emergency, is 150,000 gallons per hour.

The Co-operative Colliery.

This colliery, situated at Plattsburg, is owned by Messrs.
Laidley and Co., and has been managed by Mr. Jas. Barr for
the past 19 years. It is an old mine, and the miners are now
chiefly engaged in extracting pillars. The pillars are worked
in two lifts of 4 yards each. One lift is extracted in-bye the
other out-bye.

272 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

The seam is from 5 to 6ft, thick, and a section of it is as

follows :—

Coal, lft. 9in. to 1ft. 6in.
Band, lin.

Splint coal, 3in.

Coal, lft 54in. to 1ft. 3in.
Band, lin.

Coal, 2ft. 5in. to 1ft. 8in.

The main pump is a Knowles’ steam pump, located at the
bottom of a T0ft. shaft, and is capable of raising 60,000 gallons
per hour. There is also a 3in. electrically-driven pump, put in
by Crompton and Co., which is interesting as being the first
electric pump used in a New South Wales colhery.

There are five haulage engines, all working the main and
tail rope system, with the exception of one endless rope

Fig. 176.—Clip.

system, which has two branch loops working two districts; this
rope also formerly worked a pump. When on a main and tail
rope track a down grade is met with, the skips are lowered
by gravity on one rope, and hauled up a reverse grade by the
other. Formerly there were 14 miles of wire rope circulating
through the mine. On the surface the haulage from the tun-
nels to the railway line is 14 miles, done in two sections. A
goose-neck or knock-off hook (Fig. 175) is used at the hauling
end of a train of skips to connect the skips to the rope. The
clip used for connecting a set of skips to the endless rope,
when fetching them up to the main and tail rope system, is
shown in Fig. 176. This colliery has 67 beehive coke ovens,
but they do not find it necessary to wash the coal, as is done
at Wallsend.

Duckenfield Collieries.

There are two collieries situated at Minmi belonging to
Messrs. J. and W. Brown. One is known as the Duckenfield
or old tunnel; the other as Back Creek or new tunnel. The
newness, however, is only relative, for both collieries are fairly
old, and their workings are connected. Some of the coal is

cS ee ee ae ae Sod Se

ee ft .

DUCKENFIELD COLLIERIES. 273

won from bords, but most is obtained now-a-days from the
pillars. These collieries are under the management of Mr.
George Durie. ool

The seam worked is the Bore-hole, which is from 3ft.
Qin. to 4ft. Gin. thick. On account of being so low, the roof
has to be brushed to make headroom. It is worked on the
bord and pillar system; the bords being 8 yards and the
pillars six or eight yards wide. The method of extracting the
pillars depends principally on the nature of the roof. Cut-
throughs are made about 40 yards apart. If the roof is of
fairly good shale or sandstone, each alternate cut-through is
put in order, and a roadway made on the out-bye side of
the pillar to be extracted; the roof of the bord is supported
with props, and any loose rock in the way thrown on one side.
A pair of men then take out a cut four yards wide off the far

aN

+——_—_—_-—
{$$$ $<

—_)
Fie, 177.—Pillar Extraction, with fairly good roof.
end of the pillar, and rails are laid for the skips to run on.
The men then continue to work the face of the pillar as if it
was a bord, bringing the rails up to a convenient distance

as the work proceeds (Fig. 177).

Where the roof is bad and the bords fallen in, all the cut-
throughs have to be cleaned out and repaired. The pillar
is then worked forward from each side of the cut-throughs.
At first only four yards wide is worked, leaving a stump of
coal four yards in width, but the cut is gradually increased
till it is the full width of the pillar (Fig. 178). The object
is to extract half the length of the pillar between cut-throughs
from each starting point, but circumstances seldom permit of
this being accomplished. When a cut-through has fallen in,
the roof, at its sides, has to be supported on chocks. When
oe to extract the pillar of a district a commencement is

274 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

made with those furthest in-bye. These pillars are in different
stages of attack at the same time from one cut-through; that
furthest in-bye being of course most advanced.

The ventilation is carried out by means of three Schiele
fans, 5ft., 10ft. and 12ft. in diameter, respectively, and one
furnace.

The disposal of the water in the mine is as complicated
as the arrangement of the ventilation. This is on account of
the extensive workings, and various hollows, and the necessity
of not drowning out any particular pump, thus putting it out
of commission just when it is most wanted. By means of a
system of dams provided with gate valves, the flow of water
can be directed to different places; and if too much for the
pumps, it is diverted for the time being to old-dip workings,

Fig. 178.—Pillar Extraction with a bad roof.

where it can do no harm. The dams are built up of brick
laid in cement, are 14in. to 24in. thick, and are let about 4ft.
into the walls. Of course a suitable locality is selected, both
with regard to the workings and the soundness of the rock.
Some dams are only about 5ft. high, and any excess of water
flows over the top. Others completely stop the heading in
which they are placed, being built right up to the roof. The
dam is given a convex curve towards the impounded water, but
as there is no head to speak of, there is no necessity to make
the dams specially strong. The gate valves in connection
with the dams are 6in. in diameter, |
There are several Tangye pumps. Some are driven by
steam, one by oil, one by rope, and one by horse-power. The
latter, which has three 4in. rams, pumps water for a distance
of fully a mile against a head of 140ft. The rope driven pump

DUCKENFIELD COLLIERIES. 275

is double acting, and the rope passes into the mine for half
a mile. The oil pump is a three-throw.

At present the mechanical haulage all over the two col-
lieries is done by engine planes, the skips entering the mine by
gravity. One engine plane is 2300ft. long, another a mile,
while a third is a mile and a quarter; there are 28 Skips to a
set. A main and tail rope is about to be installed at No. 2
tunnel. The direct haulage is fed by self-acting inclines and
horses down below.

On the bank there are the usual weighing machines, kick
ups, shaking screens, and picking belt, also a slack storage
hopper. Between the two collieries is situated the workshops,
where local repairs are made; but the Brown’s main shops are
located at Hexham. Here they employ over a hundred men at
the saw-mill, pattern-makers’ shop, foundry, etc., making
waggons, repairing tug boats and locomotives. They find
wooden waggons last longer than those constructed of iron
or steel, as the latter rust with the sea air, and in case of a
smash a plank or two are easier to replace in a wooden waggon
than to mend one made of iron or steel.

This is really a naked light colliery, but safety lamps are
now used when extracting the pillars, except in some of the
shallow workings. Monobel is the explosive used to break
down the coal, it being fired by means of a Nobel’s low-tension
battery. No coal machines are used in these collieries, all the
holing being done by hand. There are 24 boilers, Lancashire
and Cornish, under steam at Minmi.

Seaham No. 1 Colliery.

This colliery is about 20 years old, and works the Bore-
hole seam from shafts. The downcast shaft, 460ft. deep, up
which the coal is hoisted, is 16ft. in diameter; while the air
shaft is 13ft. in diameter. Near Blue Gum Creek there is
another downcast, known as the Blue Gum shaft. At the lat-
ter shaft there is a Norwalk air compressor. This supplies the
motive power for working three pumps, all of the Worthington
type, also the Hardy punching machine. Only one of the
Hardy machines is used,-and it cuts two 4-yard places for a
depth of 5ft to 6ft.; 15 square yards being considered a fair
day’s work, without allowing for breakages. It is only rigged
up once for a 4-yard bord cut, when it is placed opposite the
middle of the face. The Little Hardy is found to be too light
for the work it is called on to do, consequently breakages are
frequent. The air hose is served with marline, which is given
a half hitch every turn, so as to prevent it from coming undone
in case it is severed.

_ . Horses draw the coal from the working places, a limber
being used to hook the horse on to a skip. The limber throws

276 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

all the weight on the horses hips, and as the frame is stiff it
sticks out straight behind, and does not knock against the
horses legs like a chain might. The horses are stabled below
ground. The main and tail system of haulage is used to the
shaft, the present main haulage being 1+ miles in, atter which
it is fed by an auxiliary haulage. The main rope is 2yin. in
circumference, and the tail rope 2in. The main and tail rope
engine, made by Messrs. R. and J. Morison and Bearby, con-
sists of a pair of 16in. diam. cylinders with 2ft. 6in. stroke. A
clutch fixes one or other of the drums, while the other runs
loose. Signals are given to the engine dri iven by means of elec-

Fig. 179.—Water barrel and pump.

tric bells. Safety lamps are used at this colliery, and when the
men are at work an iron rod about 5ft. high, stepped into a
wooden support, is used to hang the lamps on—two crooks be
ing arranged at the top, and one near the bottom.

Water pipes, with stand pipes about every 40 yards, are
laid along the main roadways. In pillar work, since a good
deal of dust accumulates i in the bords, the shot-firer sprays the
neighbourhood before fring. Monobel is the explosive used.
The apparatus. used consists of a barrel placed on its side
on a trolley, to which it is strapped (Fig. 179). Water
is forced out of it by a hand pump mounted on the end of the
trolley, and to which a short length of hose is attached with a

SEAHAM NO. 1 COLLIERIES. 277

nozzle at the other end. Where bailing has to be done in
dip workings, the water is conveyed away in a similarly-
arranged barrel. The air is circulated by a 30ft. diam. Waddle
fan, which is given 60-63 revolutions per minute.

The pit-head frame is constructed of steel. The steam
hoist made by Grant, Ritchie and Co., of Kilmarnock, is direct
acting, has slide valves, 26in. diam. cylinders and 5ft. stroke.
The drum is conical, having 12ft. and 19ft. diameters, and a
splash board at the back prevents the rope dressing from being
scattered about the engine room.

Shaking screens are used for screening the coal, but when
“shandygaft’’ is required, a sheet of iron is bolted on to the

a

Fig. 180.—Coal Boxes.

bars of the screen. If on passing over the picking belt, it is
suspected that more than 2U]b. of dirt to a skip are picked out,
it is put on one side and weighed, and if found to be in excess
of the amount allowed, the man responsible for the skip is
suspended, unless he can give a reasonable explanation. The
slack not required for immediate shipment is conveyed up an
incline in a hopper-skip to rectangular wooden coal boxes
(Fig. 180). -

__The boilers are of the Cornish type, 28ft. long by 5ft. 6in.
in diameter. The feed-water is heated by exhaust steam, and

278 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

fed to the boilers by hot-water feed pumps. The fitting-shop
contains the usual lathe, drill, shears, etc. ;

Seaham No. 2 Colliery.

This colliery belongs to the same company as Seaham
No. 1, and works the same seam. It was laid out by the super-
intendent, Mr. Fairley, and has been arranged for an output of
1200 tons per eight hours.

The main shaft j is 650ft. to the bottom of the sump, which
is 10ft. deep. It is 16ft. in diameter, while the up-cast shaft
is 14ft. in diameter. The pit-head frame is 7O0ft. high to the
centre of the 14ft. pulleys, and is made of wood. The guides
for the cages to run on are of 7O0ib. steel rails in 38ft. lengths,
fastened to buntons ev ery 9ft. by dogs. The individual rails
are connected by fish-plates, there being eight holes in each

rail. The rails are kept true by a dowel let into their heads.

There are two guides to each cage, and these are arranged on
the same side of it. In order to prevent overwinding, a King
and Humble’s safety hook is used. Two tons of coal are raised
every hoist.

At the air shaft there is a trolley that runs on rails over
the mouth of the pit. This is to receive the skip that is hoisted
up while sinking is going on. During this period a rider,
running on two guide ropes, prevents the skip from swinging
about unduly in the shaft. Eventually a cage will be installed.
Since the rope guides have to be paid out periodically as the
shaft is deepened, the rope is coiled up on a wooden reel on
the ground, and one end passes over a pulley and down the
shaft. The rope is lowered as required by a hand brake. So
that the strain due to the weight of the rope shall not come on
the reel, a clamp is made fast to the rope at the surface, and to
this a double sheave block is hooked; a single sheave block is
then fastened to some stable object, and a chain reeved
through both of them.

The sinking engines are both of the same type, made by
Messrs. R. and J. Morison and Bearby, of Newcastle, N.S.W.,
being duplex, geared, and with a single drum. One has 12in.
diam. cylinders, with a 24ft. stroke; the other has 14in.
evlinders. The winding engine, manufactured by Grant and
Ritchie, of Kilmarnock, has 28in. diameter cylinders and a
5ft. stroke. The drums are conical, with end diameters of
12 and 14ft. The foundation for the engine is made of iron
tanks filled with concrete, one for each engine, leaving a clear
space between for the drums and gearing.

The seam is 5ft 6in. to 5ft. 9in. thick, and is worked on
the pillar and bord system. The pillars are, 12 yards and the
bords 8 yards wide. The top coal being inferior, the holing

——_—$—$—$ $$$ $$ ————

SEAHAM NO. 2 COLLIERY. 279

takes place in that instead of in the bottom. A Little Hardy
coal cutter worked by compressed air is used for the headings
and narrow places; for the rest, pick work is used.

Compressed air is used, not only for the coal punchers,
but also for the pumps. A Norwalk straight line compound
air compressor is the type employed, driven by a single 20in.
diam. steam cylinder, the air cylinders being 174 and 24in.
diameter (Fig. 181). The steam and air cylinders being in
the same straight line, there are none of the cross-strains that
duplex compressors are subject to. The air is compressed to
90lb. per square inch, and the capacity of the machine is
1650 cubic feet per air per minute. The air valves have a
positive movement, and are of the Corliss pattern. The speed
at which the air compressor works is determined by the con-
sumption of the air, a uniform pressure being maintained in

Fig. 181.—-Norwalk compound straight line compressor.

the air receiver. This is done by means of an automatic regu-
lator, which shuts off or admits steam according to the pres-
sure of the air. The air pipes are spiral riveted, 6in. in
diameter, made by Messrs. Mephan, Ferguson, of Footscray,
Vic. There are two small air receivers below, one on either
side of the shaft.

The main pump, located at the bottom of the down-cast
shaft, is one of Kvans’ direct acting ram pumps, designed to
raise 10,000 gallons per hour. The cylinders are 20in. diameter,
the stoke 24in., and the rams, which are arranged horizontally,
are Tin. diameter.

A Waddle fan, 35ft. in diameter, induces the necessary air
eurrent. It has ten long vanes and ten shorter ones, all of
which are curved. This class of fan is peculiarly free from

280 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

vibration, owing to the air being discharged equally all round
the periphery. A register made by Shaeffer and Budenberg
Ltd. for indicating the number of revolutions made by the fan
is connected with it.

The pit horses are brought to the surface every day, where
they are provided with good stabling accommodation.

A Westinghouse generator of 185 E.M.F. and 46 amperes,
driven by a Junior automatic engine, provide the electric
lights.

: The boiler plant consists of three Lancashire boilers 8ft.
by 80ft., and two Cornish boilers 6ft. by 26ft. The mine water
being bad for boiler purposes, water is pumped from a dam
near the mine by means of a Stilwell-Bierce and Smith-Vaiie
Co.’s pump to an open feed water heater. The feed pump is
one of Gardner’s duplex double ram pumps. The shaking
screens are 15ft. long, and are given 70 to 80 strokes per
minute, the motion being imparted by a duplex engine.

There are two picking belts, 80ft. long by 4ft. 6in. wide,
made by Messrs. Poole and Steel, of Balmain, who also pro-
vided the machinery for driving them. The plates of the belt
are connected to three steel chains made of long links; there
is one chain at either side of the belt, and one in the middle.

West Wallsend Colliery.

This is one of the Caledonian Coal Company’s colheries,
and is under the management of Mr. A. E. Warburton.

The down-east shaft is 482ft. deep and 164ft. in diameter.

Kach cage runs on three wire rope guides, and are. separated
by two buffer ropes. The winding engine was made by Grant
and Ritchie, of Kilmarnock, and has cylindro-conical drums,
but only the conical portion is used, as the shaft is not deep
enough for the rope to wind on to the cylindrical part. The
drum is lagged with wood, but as the rope has worn grooves
into it, it is now practically a scroll drum. The boiler plant
consists of six tubular boilers, in which the tubes act as flues.
Skips full of slack are drawn to the boilers from the pit’s mouth
by means of a rope, and the ashes are removed in a similar man-
ner up a short incline, so that they can be emptied into a
hopper waggon.

No coal cutting machines are used in this mine, all the
coal being worked by picks.

A band rope passes down the air shaft, which works three
endless rope systems underground, the different systems being
put in and out of action by friction clutches.

The main pump is one made by Grant and Ritchie, and
has a single steam cylinder, but a double ram. The water
column passes up the air shaft.

WEST WALLSEND COLLIERY. 281

The electric plant consists of a small dynamo by Thomas
Parker Ltd., 30amp. and 105 volts, belt driven at the rate of
1220 revolutions per minute by a Tangye engine. It is used
for the electric lights during the day, and for a small pump
during the night.

A Guibal ventilating fan 30ft. in diameter and 10ft. wide,
provided with a Walker’s shutter, is used, and is worked with
a ldin. water gauge.

The pit-head frame and pit-top is a steel structure. The
full skips are weighed on a Pooley’s water balance weighing
machine, and run down grade to side revolving tipplers. A
creeper chain raises the empties to the proper level for caging

Fig. 182.—Travelling crane.

again. There are two picking belts. The slack, after passing
through the screens, is raised by means of scrapers to a smal)
hopper, from which it is filled into the hopper skip. There is
no occasion to hinge the rails up which the hopper skip passes
to the slack box, as is usually done, for they do not get in
the way of the railway waggons, which are made to pass round
a2 curve.

On the Thursday night of pay-week, each man is given a
pay slip with his number, name, and amount owing written
on it, which he brings already signed on the following day,

282 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

and gives in exchange for his money. The pay for each man is
counted out beforehand and placed in a tin cup kept on a rack
properly numbered. In this way there is no delay when paying
a number of men.

The company’s waggons are repaired on the premises.
Fig, 182 shows the overhead travelling crane used for lifting
the body of the waggon off its under-carriage.

West Wallsend-Killingworth Colliery.

This colliery belongs to the Caledonian Coal Company, and
adjoins the West Wallsend colliery, owned by the same com-
pany. It is reached by a private line from Cockle Creek. Most

Fig, 183.—Headframe and heapstead.

of the miners reside in the township of Killingworth that has
sprung up on the property. The mine is under the manage-
ment of Mr. A. KE. Kirk. Here, as at the neighbouring col-
lieries, the Borehole seam is being worked, but the Young
Wallsend seam has also been touched. This colliery, working
under similar conditions to the West Wallsend colliery, and
belonging to the same company, in most cases uses similar
machinery and methods. The dip of the seam being slight,
they are able to open out the bords, both to the rise and to
the dip.

WEST WALLSEND-KILLINGWORTH COLLIERY. 283:

The shafts are 62Uft. deep, the downcast being 16ft. in
diameter, while the upcast or air shaft is 15ft. in diameter.
The downeast shaft is surmounted by a steel head-frame, and
adjoining it is a wooden heapstead (Fig. 183). The hoisting
engine is one of Grant and Ritchie’s, with 29in. cylinders; the
drum is cylindro-conical, having 12ft. and 14ft. diameters.
The cage is suspended from the rope by six chains, one in each
corner, and two in the middle. Those in the middle hang
slightly loose, so as not to take any of the weight, being only
required in case of emergency should the others break, Chairs
are pushed forward under the cage by the banksman on the
arrival of a cage at the surface, but the chairs are pushed back
again out of the way by the off-going skips striking a trigger:
so as soon as the on-coming skips have pushed the others off
the cage, and taken their places, everything is in readiness for
the engine-driver to lower away.

The haulage underground, as in the case of the West
Wallsend, consists of three endless rope systems worked by a
strap rope from the surface and thrown in and out of gear by
clutches as required. Ventilation is carried out with the help
of a 35ft. diameter Guibal fan.

The number on a miner’s token varies with the place
where he is working, but the number of his lamp is always
the same, and a token is hung up on a peg when his lamp is
taken below. In this way the management can ascertain how
many and what men are at work, and where they are employed.

The side tipplers are put in motion by a wheel, which is
always revolving, but which is only brought in contact with
the rim of the tippler by means of a lever when desired to
turn it. A creeper chain is employed to return the empties to
the other side of the shaft for re-caging.

There are two shaking screens with slots for the slack to
pass through. Water plays on them in order to lay the dust.
There are also two picking belts, one for each screen. The
slack is taken by a scraper elevator to a certain point, from
which another similar conveyor takes what is required to the
boilers, while a third takes the bulk of the slack to hopper
waggons. The scraper-chains are worked by sprocket wheels.

The waggon rails below the picking belts are given a grade
of 1 in 80, so that they can be readily started. Instead of hav-
ing a travelling crane for removing the body of a waggon from
its under-carriage, as is commonly the case, a derrick is used.
The repairing shop contains two lathes, a screwing
machine, shears, steam hammer, punching machine, two drill-
ing machines, and two planing machines. The boiler plant
consists of six Cornish boilers, built by Hudson Bros., of

Clyde, N.S.W.

£84 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

The General Electric Company have supplied a continuous
current generator of 240 amp. and 250 volts, driven by a com-
pound engine, and intended for haulage, but at present it is
used for lighting purposes and for driving a centrifugal pump.

Newcastle A. and B. Pits.

This colliery belongs to The Newcastle Coal Mining Com-
pany Limited. Mr. J. Croft was manager for 19 years, but has
been succeeded by Mr. H. J. Thomas. .

The seam is from 3 to 10ft. thick. This is one of the only
two mines in the Newcastle district, where the longwall method
is worked; but the pillar and bord method is also used where
the seam is thicker than; say, 5ft. In the longwall workings, the
roof settles gradually without cracking or bumping. It
settles down as a whole, first bending about 20ft. from the

Fig. 184.—Long Wall System.

face, and finally settling about 50ft. from it. There are two
longwalls, one about 250yds., the other about 300yds., the
lengths being limited by local conditions. The main gate-
way is at right angles to the straght longwall face (Fig. 184) ;
cross gateways branch off from either side of the main gate-
way at an angle of 45deg. towards the face, those on the same
side being 50yds. apart, but they junction with the main gate-
way alternately with those on the other side. Branching off
from the cross gateways on the coal side, and running parallel
with the main gateway, are gob roads placed 80yds. apart,
which help to shorten the distance the coal has to travel to
the shaft. Packwalls are built on either side of the gate-
ways, and are made 4ft. thick; chocks are built in every
4yds. These get squeezed together as they take up the
weight of the roof, so that a roof originally 5ft. 6in. high

NEWCASTLE A. AND B. PITS. 285

comes down to within 2ft. of the floor. The coal cutting is
done by means of a Sullivan machine, which requires 30h.p.
to drive it. It makes a cut 6ft. deep and 4in. high, and is
flitted along the gateways on a self-propelling trolley.
Coal is shot down in some of the pillar workings, with
bobinite, and in the bord workings with ordinary blasting
powder. Naked lights are used below except in some of the
pillar workings, where safety lamps are employed. The open
lamps burn tallow, which the miners themselves provide.
When testing the depth of cover in those workings under
the ocean, boreholes have to be put up, and for that purpose
a serrated bit of tin. steel is used, having 8 teeth, set alter-
‘nately in and out, so as to give a clearance of #in. The ver-
tical portion of the teeth is 4in., while the bevel is lin. This
crown cuts out a core lin. in diameter. The core barrel is
made in two lengths, 2ft. Gin. and 5ft. At the end of the

Big. 185.—Stayner’s A Nut.

core barrel, an ordinary solid rod of square cross section is
screwed in; these rods are made in 2ft. 6in. lengths. The
rod is rotated by a ratchet worked by hand. Stayner’s
patent nut (ig. 185), is used with this appliance, which does
away with the necessity of unscrewing the feed screw, since
the nut can be caused to slide back when desired to add a
fresh length of rod. The bottom of the ratchet is fitted into
a small hole in an iron plate placed on the ground, so as to
give it sufficient support.

The main and tail rope system of haulage is used in the
main roadways, a set of 45 skips travelling at the rate of 14
miles per hour. Skips are gathered to the flats by ponies
and horses, varying from 12 to 15 hands high, according to
the place they have to work in. When a train of skips has
been pulled up on the kip, a knock off bar (Fig. 186), fixed
across the line, hits the devil, or detatcher, which is a bell
crank attached to the end of the leading skip, and draws out
the pin of the shackle that connects the end of the rope with

286 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA,

the front skip. An inverted V-shaped plank between the
rails throws the chain clear of the line, so there is no fear of
a loaded skip being derailed.

The shaft, which is 300ft. deep, is fitted with the usual
cage for holding two skips end on. ‘The cage runs on steel
rail guides, which engage shoes attached to the ends of the
cage, except when at the top and bottom of the pit where end
guides would be in the way of those running the skips on and
off the cages. The shoes being situated at the ends instead of at
the centre of the sides, keep the cage steadier when in motion.
The hoist is a duplex, horizontal, direct-acting engine, with
slide valves, and cylinders that are 26in. diameter, and a
4ft. 6n. stroke. The levers for manipulating this engine are
arranged at one side, instead of between the cylinders, as is
usual. The dial indicator is worked from the connecting rod
at the point where it is pinned on to the disc.

Knack oft bag

CIPITALITM TISAI aARAt~

Fig. 186.—Skip Detacher.

At the surface the skips are run into an end tippler, and
emptied on to a screen, which has a door across it to regulate
the quantity of coal that slides down. The slack falls into a
tray, which is weighed on an Avery machine. The round
coal falls into another tray, which is weighed on a similar
machine. Boys and men break up the lumps that show band
or brasses, and throw the dirt on one side before the coal is
emptied into waggons for the market. When not filled direct
into waggons, the slack is stored in wooden coal boxes.
There is a small hopper below the slack tray, which has double
the capacity of the hopper skip. The reason why this is
made to hold double the quantity is to allow room for the
slack to accumulate in case there is a delay, such as when the
hopper skip is engaged at another screen. The hopper skip

NEWCASTLE A. AND B. PITS. 287

(Fig. 187) has a sliding bottom, with a hooked bar attached
to it, that strikes an iron finger, which can be fixed to sleepers
over any part of the box required. The automatic device
consists of a piece of iron, bevelled on the up hill side, and
straight on the lower; this gradually pushes the door open,
and finally passes under it, as the door is not parallel with the
rails. On returning, the door passes over the projection
without touching it, and a boy pushes the door back before
filling the hopper skip again. The hopper skip is drawn up
an incline, over the coal boxes, by means of a rope wound up
by a special engine. As the lower portion of the incline
would be in the way of the waggons going under the screens
if it was left permanently down, it is made to draw up ona
hinge when not in use.

Fe ens

Fig. 187.--Hopper Skip.

The air current is induced by a Waddle fan 21ft. in dia-
meter, which makes 80 revolutions per minute, when the mine
is working, but the speed of the fan is reduced to 60 revolu-
tions per minute otherwise. Though comparatively small,
this fan has a greater capacity than a larger one of the older
type, for it is fitted with a trumpet-shaped rim, and the blades
are bent back so as to throw out the air, instead of being
turned the other way, which scooped some of the air back
again.

The colliery is unwatered by means of two electrically-
driven pumps and two steam pumps.

The generator was provided by the General Electric Co.,
and is built for 90 amp. and 560 volts. It is driven by an
Ames Iron Works engine. The cables underground are tied
to bobbin insulators, with marlin. In case of a fall of roof,
the marlin will give way first, and may thus save the cable.
At the entrance to a gateway the cable is bared, so that, the
trailing cable can be clipped on. When not in use, the bared
portion is protected by a wooden block clamped over it.

The steam plant consists of a Babcock and Wilcox boiler,
which generates high pressure steam (120lb.) for the electric
plant; there are also two Lancashire boilers and a nest of

288 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

egg-end boilers. The exhaust steam is led into an old boiler,
through which the feed water is circulated; any grease is then
filtered off through coke and bagging. A. Weir hot water
pump is used for feeding the boiler.

Electric signals are in use throughout the mine, and are
connected with the hauling engine house at the surface.
Communication by telephone may also be held between those
at the surface and pit bottom, and persons employed in the
different districts underground. An electric lighting plant
supplies lights for the offices, workshops, engine houses, and
also for the pit bottom. In the electrical workshop, the
armatures are re-wound, and other repairs effected to the coal-
cutting machines.

The workshops, where repairs to the machinery and
rolling stock of the colliery are carried out, contain
steel turning lathes, wood turning lathes, shaping and drilling
machines, and a large steam hammer.

The New Winning or Sea Pit.

The ‘Colonial’? Government was the first to work coal
in the Newcastle district, where it operated the ‘‘ dirty
seam,’’ the output averaged 3327 tons per annum between 1826
and 1828. This was eventually abandoned, and the Austra-
lian Agricultural Co., commonly known as the A.A. Co., was
given a grant of 2000 acres on 2nd May, 1833, but previous to
this, permission had been given the company to bore for coal.
Mr. Henderson was the company’s first colliery manager, and
he began to search for coal on 20th September, 1831. From
1832 to 1840, the company produced 123,000 tons of coal.
The retail business which the company had been carrying out
was given up on Ist January, 1846, as it barely paid. At
first, the ‘‘dirty’’ and ‘‘ yard’? seams were worked, but in
1848, a 10ft. seam of coal was found, at a depth of 145ft.,
now known as the “‘ bore hole’’ seam, and at the present day
this is the only seam worked. The following is a typical
section of the borehole seam :—

ets

CORE OLOoNOWoRS

Me

HOOF CRORE MUHOS

—

Top band of coal
Rani: acs Lae
Top lift coal >. 0.
Hane... Be able eee
Bottom lift coal .. ..
Morgan’ .6 si. To
Four-inch coal ..
Bands 2B Reae? a
Little tops .

Jérty Fé ths

Bottom coal

III.

Lom
—

NEW WINNING. OR SEA PIT. 289°
The inch bands are known as ‘‘ penny bands.’’ The morgan
and jerry are carbonaceous shales. The roadways and bords.
are driven in the middle coal, marked I., which is first taken
out. The second work consists of taking up the jerry, and.
putting that on one side, then the bottom coal is lifted.
Finally, the top coal, which stands better than the rock roof,.
is taken down. The morgan and jerry are left in the bords,.
and the men stand on this so as to reach the top coal, but if
there is not sufficient to enable the men to get near enough to:
their work, they stand on old grease barrels, which are easily
rolled about from one place to another. They also use short:
ladders to stand on sometimes, but these are more easily
damaged than the barrels. When removing the pillars, the-
bottom coal is left unworked.

In 1850, the A.A. Co. commenced shipping coal to South:
America. The miners went on strike in 1861, and having
been successful struck again in 1862, but on this occasion their:
places were filled by men brought from Melbourne.

Several shafts have been worked by this company. At
present the Sea Pit, which was sunk in 1888, is the main one.
Mr. R. Thomas has been manager of it for the past seven years.

The headings are driven parallel with the facings, and
are placed 70 yards apart. The different headings are known
by the names of the men who started them. The bords are-
turned off at right angles to the facings, and are made 6 yards
wide; the length or bord course is 33 yards, as cut throughs.
parallel to the headings are driven half-way between neigh-
bouring headings so as to shorten the distance necessary to con-.
vey the coal to the main roadways. The cut-throughs are driven.
after the bords, as that gives a slight advantage in their cost,
since that portion in the bord has been made in wide instead: of
narrow work, the latter having to be paid for at yardage rates.
The pillars between the bords are 12 yards wide. The miners get
paid at a higher rate for the middle coal than for either the
top or bottom coal. The top coal is paid for at 3 pence per
ton less than the middle coal, as it is already undercut, and’
only has to be dropped. The bottom coal is paid 2 pence per
ton less than the middle coal, because in this case there is no:
holing to be done, but as there is more dirt to be removed
than when dropping the top coal, the bottom coal fetehes 1
penny a ton more. Sometimes small faults, say, 3ft. throw,
occur in the coal, but as the seam is about 16ft. thick, the coal’
is not lost, and therefore does not require to be sought.
Where the throw is over 3in., the miners are allowed 14 penny
for each inch of throw. The miners are paid less for pillar
coal than bord coal, nevertheless the proprietors make less:
nest out of the former, on account of the timber that is lost.

290 COALFIELDS AND COLLIEKIES OF AUSTRALIA.

in the process of extraction. In pillar work only the coal
above the morgan is won. On account of the height of the
seam, the support for the drill used when boring shot holes has
an extension rod, but when this support cannot be used, a hole
is jumped in the face of the coal, and a square bar driven in,
which serves as a bracket to which the nut, the feed screw
of the drill works in, is attached. |

The work at present being carried on is mostly pillar
drawing. When a district has been prepared by doing the
first working in the middle coal, the miners proceed to take
down the upper coal in the bords and roadways, except oppo-
site the stooks left temporarily for support. The pillar be-
tween two roadways is then divided in half cross-ways by an
imaginery line, but the pillar is attacked from both roadways,

YIIG EY]

=

Bord < Bord
. .
c’ d ML € 42. 84s
L. | oy

mana = = 9 —~-— Pitter -----'- Tt. 4---
ae: oe Qt Lepr, i
: vi
Bord

Bord
Fig. 188.—Pillar Drawing.
the working from one being in advance of the other, so that
the different parties of men shall not meet half-way, and leave
a large unsupported space open, which might cause a disaster.
Hach half of a pillar is again divided by an imaginary line, but
this time it is halved lengthways, instead of across. The pillar
coal is then worked in two lifts, as shown in Fig. 188. The
lift (a) is taken out to the limit of the imaginary cross-line;
the men then turn round and work out (b), in strips of 3 to
4 yards wide, after which they extract (c) as far as the stook.
When the whole of the pillar has been extracted from both
ends, except the stooks, the coal is dropped from the roof of

the roadway (d), between the stooks, and finally the stooks
{e) themselves are tuken out. The top coal in the adjoining

RA saben. matitam me 3

NEW WINNING OR SEA PIT. 291

bord is then dropped, and preparations are made for drawing
the next pillar as in the previous case. The posts that sup-
port the roof temporarily are drawn as far as possible for
future use before the workings in which they stand are aban-
doned. By employing plenty of posts, less timber is lost
through crushing than if one is more sparing in its use. The
posts have lids or slabs wedged tightly between them and the
roof; the wedges may be driven in from any direction. If
the post is not quite long enough, one may use two lids, and
drive wedges in between them. Where the ground is ‘‘made,’’
i.e., the roof has fallen in, sole pieces are used for the posts
to rest on.

In many cases it is immaterial whether the surface of the
-ground above the workings of a colliery is allowed to subside
or not, but in other cases, where buildings, railroads, reser-
voirs, etc., are overhead, the workings must be properly sup-
ported. Much of the ground mined by the A.A. Co. underlies
the city of Newcastle, and on more than one occasion a sub-
sidence has taken place, much to the alarm of those who own
house property in the affected area. A Royal Commission
was appointed to enquire into the last subsidence, which took
place on 17th January, 1908, when damage was done to vari-
ous surface buildings, the obelisk reservoir, footpaths, gas
main, service pipes, sewer, etc. The creep area was about 100
acres, and under this about 65 acres of the yard seam has been
worked, partly by the Government in the early days, and
partly by the A.A. Co. This yard seam is 2ft. 10in. thick,
and lies 170ft. above the borehole seam. The borehole seam
under this area is practically worked out, except the pillars
left, which amount to 60 per cent. of the total seam. The
greatest depth of cover above the borehole seam in the dis-
turbed area is 450ft. | The Commissioners considered that the
third creep was a continuance of the first and second creeps,
‘and that the movement in the workings of the borehole seam
would not in itself have been sufficient to cause the damage,
‘but was intensified on the surface by the old excavation in the
yard seam. ‘The size of pillars it is advisable to leave in those
‘cases where the surface must be left intact is one that must
always be left to individual judgment, for one can never hope
to obtain sufficient reliable data to enable one to make exact
‘ealculations. The strength of the coal varies, even in the
same seam, some bands of which it is composed being softer
and more pliable than others, and such weak bands really de-
termine the strength of that particular coal. Then a pillar
which is strong enough in limited workings, may not be suf-
ficient to support all the weight thrown upon it when the
workings are extended, and lateral support is nil. The pre-
sence of dykes and faults, by interfering with the continuity

292 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

of the seam, and adjacent rocks, causes the overlying strata
to bear more heavily on the pillars that are left. When rock

is broken up to, say, the size of road metal, it occupies about.
one-third more space than it did before it became broken up. —
At first one might think that it would be a simple matter to

calculate at what height a crush of a certain amplitude would

cease to affect the overlying strata. But those accustomed to.
mining operations are aware that though some of the roof

may break up into slabs, and comparatively small pieces, the

rock overhead comes down in large bodies, consequently the-
effect of a crush may be far-reaching.

The main and tail rope system of haulage is used in the-
mine, a set of skips travelling at the rate of 8 miles an hour..
The driving engine is one of Tangye’s duplex engines, with |
Cornish valves, 32in. diameter cylinders, 4ft. stroke, and the-
drums are 6ft. in diameter. To guide the rope on to the
drum, there is a lever, with a sheave at one end, while at the-
other is a cord manipulated by the driver. ;

At the bottom of the shaft are four double 8}in. cylinder:
Worthington pumps, and a Tangye pump with a 12in. work--
ing barrel and a 4ft. stroke, worked by steam conveyed from:
the surface; the exhaust escapes up the fan shaft.

The fan is a 133ft. Schiele, with blades 4ft. wide, which
revolves 120 times per minute; it is belt driven from a
Walker’s engine, of which there is a spare duplicate. The
overcasts are made of wood, the joints are cemented over, and
the whole covered with a layer of 3in. of sand as a protection:
in case of fire.

There are two ambulance cabins below, which contain
stretchers and a box of first-aid appliances,

The men and horses enter the mine down a slope cut in:
the rock at an angle of one in six.

The winding engine is on the first motion, and was built
by the Grange [von Co., Durham, England. The cylinders:
are 26in. diameter, the stroke 4ft., and the drums 8ft. 8in.
in diameter. The valves are of the Cornish type.. Band’
brakes are arranged on the outside edge of the drum, but
there are also steam brakes. There is 2 white mark on the
top of the cage, and also on the side of the shaft frame, so
that drivers can see when the cage is in the proper position at.
the surface. Side rail guides are fixed in the shaft. They-
have a butt joint, and are kept in position by a_ stretcher-
plate bolted to the buntons, and clips to hold the rails are
bolted to the stretcher plate and bunton. A Walker’s safety
hook, for a load of 4 tons, is used in case of over-winding..
This hook differs from most other safety hooks in principle,.
inasmuch as with the Walker hook the load tends the whole
time to cause detachment, but is prevented from doing so by

NEW WINNING OR SEA PIT. 293

aring that encircles it. Fig. 189 shows the hook both closed
and open; (a, a'), are the two levers pivoted on (b), and held
in place by the collar (c), and copper rivets passing through
to a tongue piece. When the hook is pulled up through the
thimble, the collar (c) is pushed down, the copper rivets
sheared, the weight of the cage and load cause the Jaws to
pen, and the wings catch on the top of the thimble.

Fig. 189.—Walker’s Safety Hook.

The coal is tipped from an end tipple on to a shaking
screen, the top part of which is covered with sheet iron; then
there are some bars, and finally thick iron wire mesh. The
slack is weighed on a Billy Fair Play, and then stored in a
-coal box, to which it is taken by a conveyor, when there are
no trucks ready to train it away. The round coal is weighed
on two Avery machines. Beams are placed across the plat-
form of the machine, and rods from these pass down to a box
‘below, into which the coal falls from the end of the picking
belt. The tokens, as they are taken off the skip, are clipped
to a small carrier, and pushed along a wire leading to the
~weighing-room.

Hetton Colliery.

This colliery is situated at Carrington, a suburb of New-
castle, and is owned by the Hetton Coal Co. Ltd. It is about
‘24 years old, and has been for many years under the charge of
the present manager, Mr. A. Mathieson. The coal mined is
‘under the ocean and tidal waters, and one of the interesting
features of this colliery, as also that of the adjoining Stockton
colliery, now closed down, is in connection with shaft sinking
through quicksand and clay. The shafts are 280ft. deep, and
care tubbed from the surface to within 60ft. of the bottom.
‘The main shaft is 15ft. 10in., and the air shaft 14ft. in dia-
meter. The thickness of the cast iron segments which go to
form the rings is the same from top to bottom, namely, I}in.
There is a slight difference in the styles of the tubbing in the
‘two shafts. The segments for the main shaft were rough
«castings, with only a lin. face at the back, where the seg-
‘ments above and below were able to come in contact, the rest
of the joint being occupied by half-inch thick lining boards,

294 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

well soaked in red lead; the object of letting a portion of the
sron rest on iron was so as to keep the wood in place, and not.
to let all the weight come on the bracket of the casting. In ©
the case of the air shaft, there was a machine-planed face
three inches wide, and the joint was made with red lead, which
made a good fit. The ordinary segments were three feet
high, and were connected together with bolts from the inside
of the shaft, and as all the flanges and strengthening brackets.

were also cast on the inside, this left the outside smooth, so

€ jc

Fig. 190.—Frame used when sinking shaft lining.

that it could pass down through the strata without any ob-
struction. At the bottom of the tubbing was a shoe or cut-
ting edge. This was a ring similar to those above, only it.
was but one foot deep, and instead of a flange at the bottom
it was bevelled off. The successive rings were put together
on the surface, and forced down by weights piled on the top.
First, four pairs of vertical posts were put in position, as.
shown at (a), Fig. 190. These acted as guides to two hori-
zontal beams. (b), which were notched where they rested on
the tubbing. Small pieces of timber (c) were bolted on to

yp

HETTON COLLIERY. 295:

these beams at right angles to them, near the guide posts, to.
help keep them in place. Two long beams (d) were bolted

-on to the first beams at right angles, and on these were

stacked a heap of railway iron pig-sty fashion. The deeper
the tubbing sunk the greater the friction, and_ consequently
the greater the weight required, until eventually it reached
1000 tons. At about 50ft. from the surface in the downcast
shaft, the tubbing passed into clay, and the man in charge,
thinking it would be safe to add any further rings to the bot-
tom, inside the shaft, instead of to the top and forcing down
the whole lining, gave instruction for the water to be baled
out. Unfortunately, the tubbing was not down far enough
into the clay, so when the support of the water and sand from
the inside was taken. away, the tubbing burst, and quicksand
rose in the shaft. As the original tubbing could not be
driven down any further, it had to be telescoped. The smaller
diameter tubbing was forced down in a similar manner to
the other; only a square wooden frame was built on the top,
at the corners of which were posts 30ft. long. This enabled
the tubbing to be weighted at the surface; but fresh rings
were added inside the shaft above water level. It was only
found necessary to have 20ft. of the smaller diameter tubbing,.
and then the shoe was taken off and a bell-shaped ring added
from. below, so as to bring the shaft from there onwards to its:
original diameter, thereby minimising the friction of air due
to a constricted passage. The rest of the tubbing was put.
together from inside the shaft. It used to take six men a
shift of 10 hours to dig out three feet of clay, and put in a
ring of tubbing. When putting in the tubbing, not only
were the vertical joints of adjoining rings made to break
joints, but the different rings were begun and ended at various
places, so as not to have a continuous line of weakness in any
one part of the tubbing. The joint between the inner and
outer tubbing was made water-tight with cement. When
sinking the tubbing from above, the sand and water,was re-
moved by a bucket 2ft: in diameter and 4ft. long, with a
clack at the bottom 5in. square. This was worked up and
down till full, and then drawn to the surface. This sand-
pump was found to work better when a few inches of piping
of ample area was fixed below the clack. Later on, when
the rings were added to the lining from below, and loose sand
was met with, it was found advisable to use segments one-
eighth the size of those generally employed, as they were
easier to handle. When replacing the shoe, two segments
were taken out at first before a new one was inserted, after
which a segment of the shoe was taken out for every new seg-
ment put in, so as to leave room to work in easily. The
last new segment had to have one end pushed in at the back

296 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

before it could be drawn into place, since the outside of the
casting is of greater diameter than the inside,

A. A. Atkinson gives an account of the sinking of the
No. 8 pit of the Stockton colliery,* from which the following
is taken. The total depth of the shaft is 290ft. 4in. to the
‘bottom of the seam. The shaft is tubbed to a depth of 281ft.
Qin. The time occupied in sinking the shaft, including all
delays, was about 3 years and 8 months. The first 233ft. 9in.
were forced down from the surface; the rest were inserted by
undersetting. One hundred and thirty-five feet six inches of
the tubbing was 10ft. inside diameter, but the last 145ft. 8in.
was telescoped to 8ft. 10in. To start with, an excavation
22ft. deep was made, and supported in the usual way by piling
-and boarding. The object of this was to give greater facility
for building the rings and to enable a length of 21it. to be
forced down in one operation. All tubbing was made of liin.
thick cast-iron, and 3sft. high: the strengthening ribs ] 1-8in.
wide were placed on the inside, so that the outside could be
forced down through the alluvial with the least possible re-.

iff
Se in) ee

Fig. 191.—Method of forcing-down Cylinders.

sistance. The 10ft. diameter tubbing was constructed of
rings made of 8 segments, while the rmgs of the 8ft. 10in.
tubbing was composed of 6 segments. A strong framework
was erected at the top of the shaft to act as a guide to the
eylinders, and oblige it to sink down as vertically as possible;
it also permitted six rings to be fitted together at a time on
the surface. The bottom ring was provided with a cutting
edge, so as to force its way through the alluvial. In order
to obtain the necessary pressure ta force the cylinder down,
sand bags were piled up on a platform resting on the cylinder;
. this weight had to be properly distributed. The platform
was built up as follows:—Planks of soft wood were placed
next the iron to act as a cushion; on these, in three tiers, each
tier mereasing in length till the topmost one was about 40
ft., were placed balks of hardwood timber 14in. square.
Fig. 191. These main balks were arranged in pairs at the

*Working Coal under the River Hunter, the Pacific Ocean
and its Tidal Waters, near Newcastle, in the State of New
South Wales. (T.I.M.E., 1902.)

HETTON COLLIERY. 297

required distance apart, and the top tier was crossed by others
at right angles, leaving a square opening at the centre of the
shaft for the free passage of the sinking bucket. ‘These balks
were decked over, and on the decking were placed the bags of
sand, until the desired weight for the time being was obtained.
Safety chocks were built up to prevent the cylinder from slip-
ping down suddenly while the divers were working at the
bottom of the pit: (a) are guides to assist the cylinders to
sink down vertically. During the process of sinking the
cylinder, when the resistance of the strata was sufficient to
‘balance the loading, a 400gal. tank was fixed at the surface,
from which a pipe led down to the bottom of the shaft, as the
water was baled from the shaft, it was discharged into the

‘-—

iit

—

——

Fig. 193. Trepan—Plan.

‘tank, and returning through the pipe acted with sufficient
force to stir up the sand. This caused sand on the outside
“of the cylinder to have a downward movement, and by disturb-
ing the equilibrium, caused a further sinking of the tubbing.
In spite of the care taken to make the cylinder sink vertically,
when at a depth of 60ft., it was found to be 18in. from the
perpendicular, so the work of re-adjusting was performed by
‘securing the edge of the lower end to a powerful screw by
means of chains, and this was supplemented by shores kept
tightly wedged to the lower side. Water was then led down
from the 400gal. tank to stir up the sand, and in a short
time the cylinder was restored to a perpendicular position.

298 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA,

At a depth of about 149ft. 8in., a strong blue clay was en—
countered, and its resistance was sufficient to prevent the
further sinking of the cylinder by the above-mentioned
method, so a trepan, or chopper, was devised by the manage--
ment made of bar-iron, wood and boiler-plate, and was fitted
with four knives at each end, and two in the centre. Figs.
192 and 193. This was worked percussively, and cut up the
clay so that it could be filled into buckets by the divers.
Until this clay was met with, the water rose and fell in the
shaft at the same time as the tides. When a diver intended
to operate, the water was baled out to a minimum depth over
the diver of 60ft., this head of water being necessary to prevent
any inrush of alluvial while the diver was working on the
bottom. The diver worked under water from two to four
hours at a time, the period being generally lmited by the
rising of the water in the shaft to a maximum of 110ft. While
operating, the safety chocks were placed under the ends of:
the weight bearers to prevent any undue or sudden sinking of
the cylinder, resulting from the removal of the clay. Too.
much clay must not be taken out at a time, neither must it
be removed from too near the edges of the cylinder until the:
cylinder has been sunk furtherdown. At 135ft. Gin. the lateral
pressure and adhesiveness of the alternating clay-beds was so-
great that it was considered inadvisable to increase the
weights, which then amounted to 1400 tons loading, and’
approximately 162 tons l4ewt. of cylinder, for fear any addi-.
tional weighting might have seriously fractured the cylinder
and caused a collapse of the shaft, so it was decided to reduce
the diameter of the shaft by telescoping it. To get an idea:
of the strata to be passed through, two boreholes were put
down by churn drills. The shaft was then filled to the top-
with sand, and the work of telescoping commenced. At
165ft., a hard agglutinated mass of shingle 7ft. 6in. was met
with, which gave trouble, as the size of the stones were very’
variable, and consequently caused unequal resistance to the
downward movement of the cylinder. The inner or tele--
scoped portion of the tubbing was sunk from the surface in a
similar manner to the outer tubbing. A water-tight connec-
tion was made between the inner and outer lining by drilling:
holes through the cylinders, and running cement through
them till it solidified.

The winding engine at the Hetton colliery was made by
Davidson, of Durham, England, and has two 26in. diameter:
cylinders and 4ft. 8in. stroke. Besides the ordinary dial
depth indicator, there is a knocker indicator, which shows the
number of knocks that have been given on the face of a dial,
so that there shall be no mistake in case the engine driver
miscounted the knocks. At the end of the knocker line is:

HETTON COLLIERY. 299°

a rod, kept in tension by a weight; on the rod is a hinged
finger, which is stiff when anything presses on it from above,.
but which is pushed back when pressed against from below.
A horizontal axle has two wheels, and an indicator hand at--
tached to it. ‘The larger wheel has cams on its periphery, by
coming into contact with which the finger on the rod can turn.
it. The smaller wheel has a cord attached to it with a
weight at the end, which is the motive power that fetches.
the hand back to zero again. ‘Ten men are raised or lowered
at a time in a double cage, and six in a single cage.

The mechanical haulage below is on the main and tail rope-

system; there are two of these. The distance hauled is
14 miles, which takes 10 minutes to accomplish, _ Eighteen to
twenty sets of skips are run in and out a day. | The tail rope

is attached to the end of a set of 64 skips by a slip hook. As
a set of empties coming in approach the end of their trip,
a lad jumps on the buffer of the first skip, and pulls out the
pin that releases the hook, leaving the tail rope opposite the
last skip of the full set on a parallel line. The inertia of the
empties pulls the main rope opposite the first skip of the full
set. This is necessary, for the incoming set is pulled out to-
its full extent, while the empties, having been pushed one
against the other, are buffer tight, so that it would cause much
trouble and delay to manipulate the rope otherwise. The main.
and tail rope engine has a pair of 30in. cylinders, and a 5ft..
6in. stroke. ‘There is a clutch between the 7ft. drums, which
connects one drum with the shafting, while the other runs
free. The driver knows by the position of the ropes on the
drums when he can increase or must decrease the speed. The
skips are brought to the make-up station by horses. <A heavy
pointed iron rod known as a ‘‘ bull”’ is attached to the last:
skip of a set. This is kept from dragging on the ground by
a hook, which holds it on to the tail rope, but when the tail’
rope becomes slack, it digs into the ground, and prevents the-
set of skips from running backward down hill.

The electric plant consists of a compound-wound British
Westinghouse direct-current generator of 100kw., built to-
earry 200 amp. at 570 volts. This is belt-driven, at a speed
of 600 r.p.m. by a compound Westinghouse engine. ‘This.
plant is used for electric lighting and also for some pumps.

There are three electrically-driven triplex Gould pumps,,.
one with a capacity of 32,000gal. per hour, and the other two.
of 25,000gal. per hour. The larger one is connected with its.
motor by a rope drive; the others by gearing.

There are also several air-driven pumps, of Tangye and
Worthington make. ‘The air-compressor is a duplex Tangye,
with a 23in. diameter steam, and a 22in. diameter air cylinder.

“300 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

The Guibal fan is 30ft. in diameter, and 10ft. wide. It
is given 50 revolutions per minute. ‘This is driven by an
engine, built by J. 8S. Rodgers, of Neweastle, N.S.W., which
has a 20in. diameter cylinder.

Tallow is burnt in the small lamps used in the working
“places.

For testing the thickness of the rock overhead, between
the seam and the ocean, they use a Diamond Drill Co.’s
double-handed machine (Fig. 194), but instead of a bit set
with diamonds, they either use an auger or a serrated steel bit,
~which gives a core. The core bit is only used for hard ground,

Fig. 194.—Rock Drill.

cand for the last few feet of boring; the gear, regulating the
feed, can be changed as desired. A hand-pump is used to
pump the necessary water up through the drill. This machine
can be easily taken to pieces for convenient handling in con-
fined places. Originally this make of drill had the rods
coupled direct to the lower end of the spindle; now they are
made with the spindle or screw shaft of such a diameter as to

HETTON COLLIERY. 301

allow the passage of the rods and core barrel through it, and
carries at its lower end a chuck, which clamps the rods firmly-
to the spindle. After feeding the spindle forward through,
its full run, the chuck is released, and the spindle fed very
rapidly back to grip the rods higher up. For underground
work, extension screws may be fitted into the top of the two
parallel columns for jacking up against the walls of a tunnel,
in which case the back legs are removed. ‘To save pumping’
by hand, the pump may be mounted on one of the columns,
and be worked by an eccentric on the main crank shaft, as.
shown in the figure.

Stockten Borehole Colliery (Boolaroo).

This was formerly known as Black’s colliery, and was:
worked by the Sneddons. It now belongs to the old Stock-
ton Co., and is under the management of Mr. A. Hindley.

The borehole seam is thin in this part of the field, being
dit. 9in. to 3ft. 10in. thick, so is worked on the longwall sys-
tem. There are two shafts, about T50ft. deep, the downcast:
being 16ft. in diameter, and the upcast 14ft.

The air shaft is protected with light wooden roof-shaped.
doors, counterbalanced by weights connected to them by
ropes, so that in case of a gas explosion in the mine they can-
be easily blown open. While sinking, the usual lorry or
running bridge was used as a shaft cover, on to which the-
buckets were landed. Two wire-rope guides were used for:
the cross-head, while sinking, which terminated about 50ft.
from the bottom of the shaft. These rope guides were
lowered as required from reels, with the assistance of differen--
tial block and tackle, and when at the desired depth, they
were held By an iron clamp connected to an eyebolt, which.
was fixed in concrete,

The hoisting engine is duplex, with 22in, diamerer cylin--
ders and a 5ft. stroke. It has a conical wood-lagged drum,
with J2ft. 6in mean diameter. Cornish valves are used for:
both steam and exhaust, and are. actuated by .trip gear.
Cornish valves have a quicker admission and cut off than.
slide valves: the main objection to the Cornish type being the
hammer on the valve due to it dropping by its own weight,
and if the valve is badly packed, it may hang up, and become-
unreliable. The steam cylinders have spring relief valves at
their ends to let any water escape that may have collected by
the condensation of steam, thus saving damage to the cylinder:
in case the pet cocks are not properly attended to. They
have Cornish, Lancashire, and Babcock and Wilcox boilers for-
raising steam.

=3U2 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

The air compressor is a single stage compressor, made by
Oliver and Co., of Chesterfield, England; the steam and air
-cylinders, both of which are water-jacketed, are placed
parallel with each other. Spring valves are used for the air
inlet valves. .

For ventilation, they have one of Waddle’s patent fans
and engine. ‘The fan is trumpet-mouthed, and is 28ft. ex-
treme diameter. The engine cylinder is 22in. in diameter.

Water is pumped from 230ft. down, where there is a
lodgment: from the bottom of the shaft, the water is bailed.
An Evans’ pump is being installed. They have to use safety
lamps underground.

One of the most interesting features about this colliery is
the fact that the original steel head frame, when erected, was
found to be too short, as the coal could not be raised suffi-
-ciently high for screening and subsequent operations, so the
whole structure was raised bodily 14ft., and the additional
length added to the bottom. First of all, the back stays were
-disconnected, also the cross-stays at the top, which connected
them to the main structure, and they were supported in posi-
tion by a cross-beam placed under the back stays, and a jong
post in the middle. Bearers were placed on either side of the
four main legs, thus connecting them in pairs; and these
bearers were well bolted together. Other beams were placed
under the bearers, and at right angles to them. Hydraulic
jacks were then placed below, and the whole structure raised
evenly. Guy ropes were used to steady the head frame as it
was being raised. As the structure was lifted from the
ground, pig-sty timbering was placed beneath to support it.
~The angle iron of the original and added lengths were butted
together, and bolted to fish-plates, 2ft. 9in. long, placed on
the outside. On account of the splay of the legs, the concrete
base to which the legs were fastened by eight bolts, had to
be built further out than those used for the original shorter
‘head frame. The back stays were then lifted up, and con-
nected with the main structure, the extra length added to the
bottom of them, and fastened to concrete piers by six bolts.
The back stay supports were then connected up. The bottom
part of the built-up steel legs was filled with concrete raised
slightly in the centre, so as to prevent water lodging there. —

The pit-head pulleys were made strong enough for the
work required of them. The plummer blocks have large
bearing surfaces, the spindles of the pullies being large so as
to reduce the pressure per square inch of surface. Brasses °
are on the lower half of the plummer block only, where all
the wear is, there being no occasion to have any lining on the
_top. The spindle is lubricated automatically by means of a
loose steel ring, which encircles it, and is caused to revolve

STOCKTON BOREHOLE COLLIERY. 303

«on account of friction; the lower part of the ring dips into an
oil chamber, so when revolving it brings up some oil. The
oil, which finds its way out at the end of the spindle, falls into
a recess connected to the body of the plummer block by a
port. A tap enables the oil to be drawn off when it becomes
too thick. <A cap is placed over the outer end of the plummer
block to keep out the rain. The lubricant is replenished
once a month.

At the bank, the skips of coal are weighed on an Avery
turntable weighing machine, Fig. 195. The rails are given
a down grade to the tippler, of 1 in 60, so that the skips can
run down hill alone. The empties are taken up hill again by

Fig. 195.—Avery Turntable Weighing Machine.

a creeper chain. The side tipplers tip the coal on to a shak-
ing screen, placed at an angle of 1 in 4; from that the round
coal passes into a picking belt, while the slack falls into a
small hopper skip, and is carried up to the storage hopper.

Dudley Colliery.

This colliery belongs to the Dudley Coal Co., and is under
the management of Mr. G. Thompson. It has been working
for about 17 years on the bore hole seam, which is here 6ft.
‘3in. high and in which there are two bands of dirt; but only
eae Yin. are extracted, 6in. of dirty coal being left in the
roof.

The downcast shaft is 624ft. deep, and the upcast 553.
The cages run on rope guides, two on the outer side and one
on the inner side. There are besides two dead ropes between
the cages to prevent the latter swaying too much.

304 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

Operations are carried on under the ocean. A five chaim
barrier pillar of coal is left between the ocean and land work-
ings, the former extending for 700 yards past the barrier.
There are 131ft. of solid rock overhead, though the depth of

cover required by law is only 120ft. The ocean workings: —

have bore holes put in advance, not less than 15ft. in length,
and at every 20 yards driven, bores 30ft. high are put in the-
roof to test the rock overhead.

The mine is dry and dusty, and is worked with picks only,.
on the bord and pillar system. The picks weigh 24 to 34lbs.

At 9 a.m. on 21st March, 1898, there was an explosion,.
causing the death of all in the mine at the time, viz., 15 men,.
including the manager and two deputies. On account of the
fire that took place after the explosion, the mine was tempor-
arily sealed down from 24th March, to 17th June of that year.
The Court of Investigation found that the explosion was.
caused by the ignition of firedamp at a naked light, and that.
it was intensified by the agency of coal dust. Since then the
Cambrian safety lamp has been used, in which are burnt three-
parts of colsa and two parts of kerosene oil.

Prior to the explosion they worked with 8-yard bords and
8-yard pillars, but now they work with 8-yard bords and 12-
yard pillars, as it will be cheaper to work the larger pillars

ater on. Up to the present, no pillars have been worked.
Under the ocean they are compelled to have bords not wider
than 6 yards, and to have pillars at least 8 yards wide.

Air is circulated by means of a 30ft. Waddle fan. A
white mark is painted conspicuously on the fan, so that the
manager can see from a distance whether it is revolving at the
proper rate. This is the more necessary since the upcast and
downcast shafts are situated further apart than is usually the
case, and intervening trees somewhat obscure the view. The
fan is given 48 to 50 revolutions per minute, the pressure of
the air being one inch water gauge. The fan engine is duplicated
in case of accident. There is a lever by means of which the
valve can be pressed close against the valve seating of the
steam chest as they wear, thus preventing leakage of steam.

The haulage below is all done by horses. These are
stabled at the surface, and sent below every day. Gates are
put on the end of the cages when raising or lowering horses,,.
but there is no occasion to tie them up when once they be-
come accustomed to travelling in a cage. There is a well-
appointed saddler’s room at the surface, in which a saddler-
is employed mending and making harness.

_ The well-known Humble’s safety detaching hook is used’
in case of over-winding.

. The hoisting engine is duplex, worked on the first motion,.
with slide valves, cylinders 26in. in diameter, and a 4ft. 6in.

f
:
f.
x
=
'
?
4
w

DUDLEY COLLIERY. 305

stroke; the brake is worked by foot. The drums are conical
—not spiral—being 12ft. and 134ft. in diameter. The drums
are lagged with tallow wood, which has been previously
treated for three years by painting it over with a mixture of
sea-water and blue oil about once a week, until it is so hard
that an adze will hardly touch it. The engine driver is so
situated that he has a good view of the shaft, and the windows
of the engine-house are placed so high that the driver’s at-
tention cannot be distracted by watching anything that is going
on outside. There are four Cornish boilers coupled up to-
gether. The feed water is heated by pumping it into a
vessel into which the exhaust steam is led.

The coal is weighed on Avery weighing machines, cap-
able of weighing two tons. There are two jockeys on the
beam; one for the tare, the other for adjusting the weight.
The coal is tipped from an end tippler on to stationary screens.
There are two gates attached to a lever, for easing the coal
down on to the picking belt after a skip "full has been tipped
on to a screen.

Burwood Colliery.

This colliery originally belonged to the Burwood Coal
Company, who started sending coal to market in 1885
from the old pit, and continued mining operations till 1894,
when the Scottish Australian Mining Company took posses-
sion. It is now under the management of Mr. F. H. L. Crou-
dace, who has been in charge since 1896.

The borehole seam is worked at this colhery, which to
the north of the estate has the following section, commencing

at the top :—
Pea ree ieee en id oe ee “OEE oie
a ep ak ee lin.
CGMP Pre ete Pee eo ee a ae. GER:
Band .. .. .. .. -. ee we ee ee. lin.
fee Sy Oe Rie RPh Cae UEER a: © 3 eee hy
CMa gan?? hi Missa oe eee ty eae
Four-inch Coal . Fees th buy 5 ee MOLI Oe EK
SPORE cc's WF ike ag eee se + $0. Cin.
Little tops Pale ei eh ee: to 12in.
DSR he eters gee oo et. 40 4kt.
Sandstone .. ..
To the south of the estate the acokion is
ener ee eee ee, he ea ee wg ok ey EDS Bay.
IE Ne Pero hte roe cok Pe a oS lin.
Ee pts, og gt tre OER 2 Bim.
Re gt GO Secs eR tet of Ried ce lin.
35: eas ase oe SR

Ce which there is “nothing of commercial value.

306 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

It is all pick work in this mine; no machines are used.

There are two endless ropes; one running north for two
miles, the other south; they travel at the rate of two miles per
hour. The southern rope serves two districts. Later on they
will have a band rope down the shaft, and work each district
by its separate rope.

The colliery is unwatered by a Tangye pump, ulso by a
rope driven pump, which delivers water to the old Burwood
shaft.

The Walker’s fan is 24ft. in diameter and 7ft. wide. It
is run with cotton ropes, and geared 2 to 1. Cotton is found
to be more durable though more expensive in first cost than
manila rope. The engine that drives the fan is compound, so
arranged that one-half of it can work the fan if necessary. It
is driven with 100lbs. steam pressure, and makes 40 revolu-
tions per minute.

The shafts are both 15ft. in diameter, and 600ft- deep;
they are lined: with brick when in soft ground. A compensa-
ting balance is used between the safety detaching hook and

Fig. 196.—Connection for Bridle Chain.

the bridle chains which consists of a plate capable of moving
on a central pin (Fig. 196), so that it can equalise the strain
on the chains attached to it. The cages run on rope guides,
which are clamped at the top with three clamps. On account
of corrosion at the bottom of the pit, the ropes became too
short, so were lengthened from the top by means of rods.
_ The winding engine has a 10ft. drum, 24in. diameter ey-
linder, and 4ft. stroke.
The full skips at the surface are run into Tate’s water
balanced tipplers (Fig. 197). The skips are prevented from
running out at the far end of the tippler by long hooks which
catch in the front axles, and when tipped over sideways, the
skips are prevented from falling out by angle irons that keep
the wheels on the rails. The water-tank underneath the rails
is so weighted that it more than counterbalances the top part

o
7

4

‘a

BURWOOD COLLIERY. 307

of the tippler and empty skip, and consequently causes it
to right itself again, a brake being used to steady the tip-
pler.

oc Tee ee

= i
ae Wafer Tank, |

Fig. 197.

These tipplers tip the coal on to two picking belts, from
which the coal passes to shaking screens. The round coal
drops into waggons standing on 15-ton weighbridges, while
the slack is conveyed into storage bins.

Lambton B. Colliery.

This colliery, which was formerly known as the “‘Dur-
ham,’’ belongs to the Scottish Australian Mining Company,
and has been under the management of Mr. Sydney Croudace
since 1898. The nearest township is Dudley, which is reached
from Newcastle by coach, but workmen’s trains run _be-

tween Newcastle and the various mines of the district, morn-
ing and evening.

Tate’s Water Balance Tippler.

308 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

The seam being worked is the borehole seam, which here
is about five feet thick. This is the furthest south mine to
work the borehole seam extensively, as it gets thinner to the
south; and as the two bands in it continue, this makes the
seam relatively dirtier; besides, the coal itself is not so clean.
The whole of the seam is extracted with the exception of four
inches of dirty coal on the roof. There are very distinct main
cleats, or, as they are locally called, ‘‘jerry faces,’’ cutting
through the coal, and at times even continuing through the
roof and floor, and occasionally a slight dislocation will be
found at a “‘jerry face.’’ Minor cleats crossing the main cleats
are known as “‘grey backs.’’

The pits are located near the southern boundary of the pro-
perty, so that operations can be carried out to the rise. The
workings are laid out very regularly. The main intake goes
towards the ocean with a return airway on either side of it.
The mine is planned on the panel system; each district is
234 chains wide, and has a pillar of 16 yards between them.
Headings are driven parallel with the main cleavage. Cross-
cuts are driven across the cleavage at an angle, while the
bords are driven on the face of the cleavage. The bords are
6 yards wide, the pillars between them being 16 yards wide.
The bords are connected by headings every 40 yards, thus
making each pillar 40 yards by 16 yards. The pillars are
extracted in steps 10 yards behind each other, the most for-
ward one worked being in-by: the coal is worked in 8 yard
lifts. The pillars follow up about two headings behind the
working in the whole.

The Ingersoll pick or punch machine is used in a portion
of this mine, and eventually the coal will be worked entirely
by machines. The size of the machine used is ‘‘F4.’’ The
undercut is 12 to 15 inches high in front, and tapers towards
the back, which is 4ft. in. By making a wedge-shaped hol-
ing. the coal when blasted down falls forward as with ordinary
pick holing, and is much less trouble to fill than if the cut was
even all the way through, when the coal would tend to drop
down ina body. This machine is considered to be more suited
for this particular seam, as it can work round nodules of
brasses. The machine runner can tell by the way the coal
cuts, when he reaches a main cleat, but he keeps on for his:
full four feet deep, and trusts to the shots to break down the
coal to the best advantage. Should the coal break off from
a cleat before reaching the end of the undercut, possibly the
remaining coal may be so loosened that it can be brought down
by a few blows of a pick; if too solid, then the undercut
is so much towards the next round. One machine will work
five places from 6 to 7 yards wide in an eight hours’ shift. As

i OS sR

es a

LAMBTON B. COLLIERY. 309

soon as one cut across is finished, the machine is placed on a
trolly and conveyed to another face, while three holes are
drilled in the place just left, one in the middle and one at
each side, about 3ft. 9in. deep. The holes are drilled by a
hurdy-gurdy hand machine about six inches from the roof;
they are directed slightly upwards and sideways, so as to
give a lift to the shot. The coal being soft, the auger type of
drill works much quicker, and with less trouble, than the or-
dinary hammer and drill used for rock. <A nich is made in the

Fig. 198.—Headgear of Downcast Shaft.

roof about 18 inches from the face, into which one end of the
jack screw at the top of the standard fits. This standard is
made of two notched sides, and in these notches fit trunnions
fixed to the side ofa nut. A threaded rod (at one end of which
the cutter is attached, while at the other is a handle), passes
through this nut. The turn of the handle not only causes
the bit to cut, but gives the screwed rod a positive feed for-
ward. When drilled, the three holes are charged, the centre
one with 5oz. of monobel, and the two back ends with 4oz.
Only one shot is fired at a time; first the centre shot, and sub-
sequently the back ends in turn. The firing is done by an
electric battery, of which they have two types, one by Davis,
of Derby, the other by Nobel.

316 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

The pit top, including the pit head frame, tipplers,
‘screens and travelling belts are made of steel; but the bank is
not attached to the pit head frame. (Fig. 198.) The skips
are brought up two at a time, tandem ways, in a single deck
cage, which runs on wooden guides at its ends, except near
the top and bottom of the pit, when they are changed to the
sides. On arrival at the bank, horns fixed to the top of the
cage pick up two bars looped loosely round two small vertical
ropes, one after the other. When a cage is below, these bars
protect the mouth of the shaft. The lower portion of the rope
on which the bars slide has gas piping round it. The loops
of the lower bar are large enough to pass over this and rest
on collars, but those of the upper being smaller, rest on the

MITHIIT fi Bani
peeemme 310) LRM

Fig. 199.—Ormereod’s Safety Hook.

top of the piping, which thus serves to space the bars when at
rest. An Ormerod’s safety hook is placed above the bridle
chains of the cage, and as an extra safeguard, in case of over-
winding, serrated bars are fastened at each end of the sides
of the cage, which engage with the projecting arms of an
overhead chair, thus holding the cage up.

Ormerod’s safety hook is shown in Fig. 199 A, B, C, and
D. (A) shows a cross view of the hook,-and (B) a side view
of it, when in position for use, and under ordinary conditions
the plates are held in the position shown by the copper rivet
(p). In case of overwinding, the hook passes up through a
cast-iron thimble fixed at the top of the head frame below the
pit head pulley, and in doing so the wide portion at the bottom

halt athe a aie satel ch mea yet

' LAMBTON B. COLLIERY. 311

of the hook is compressed. -This shears the copper rivet, and
causes the head of the hook to widen out, at the same time
releasing the rope shackle as shown at (C), so that the hook
from which the cage is suspended rests on the top of the
thimble; in the meanwhile, the lower shackle, connected to
the bridle chains, slips down into a slot and locks the hook
in position, so that there is no chance of it slipping back
through the thimble unintentionally. To lower the cage and
hook again, the bolt of the rope shackle is passed through a
hole in the top of the middle plate, the pin (c) is removed,
and the rope wound up slightly, when it assumes the position
shown in (D), so that it can be lowered through the thimble.

Full skips come up in one cage while the empties descend
in the other. ‘Two stopblocks are placed between the rails of
the full track to prevent the skips from running back into
the shaft. The skips are then taken up a short incline by a
creeper chain, after which they shunt into a parallel line, run
into a side tippler, and pass on the empty line towards the
shaft. The skips are retained on this line by a squeezer till
the cage is ready for them. This consists of a frame made of
angle iron fixed at one end, but loose at the other. The bar
on either side of the frame is made to press on the tread of the
skip wheels by a weight, and can be lifted off to release the
skip by working a lever with the foot. A greaser for lubrica-
me ue axles of the skips is located on the creeper chain
track.

The steaming plants consists of a range of five high pres-
sure Lancashire boilers at the downcast shaft, 7ft. 6in. in
diameter; one is by Tangye, of Birmingham, the other four
by Adamson, of Manchester. They are all coupled together.
Besides the ordinary lever safety valve, these boilers are pro-
vided with dead weight valves, each disc weighing about
20lbs. At the upcast shaft, there are two 8ft. 6in. Lancashire
boilers, by Walker Bros. A Green’s economiser is erected
at the back of the main range of boilers, but it is not used,
for the work entailed in keeping them clean and in repair is
not compensated for by the saving of fuel, when it is cheap,
as at a colliery.

Berryman’s feedwater heater is found to be the most econo-
mical under the circumstances, though it is by no means per-
fect for high pressure intermittent engines such as the wind-
ing engines, as can be seen and felt by the shower of spray
that falls around it during winding. This heater consists of
a nest of inverted U-shaped tubes in a shell. The exhaust
steam passes through the tubes, so does not mix with the feed
water; consequently, there is no fear of grease and dirt from
the cylinders entering the boiler.

312 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

The main winding engine was made by the Grange Iron

Company Limited, of Durham, England, and is worked on the ~

first motion. The cylinders are 24in., and it has a dft. stroke.
The valves are of the Cornish type, as they act quicker, and
are easier on the hand than slide valves for large engines.
There is only one drum, 12ft. in diameter, but two ropes are
used on it. There is a band brake, the brake-path being lined
with wood.

The present air compressor has duplex air and duplex
steam cylinders; the former have spring valves, and are water-
jacketed. This machine was also made by the Grange Iron
Company, and is used for compressing air for the Ingersoll
punching machine. ‘There is no air receiver at the surface,
as there is a great length of main piping, at first 8in. cast
iron, and later 6in. diameter spiral riveted pipe, made by Me-
phan Ferguson, of Footscray, Victoria.

Some difficulty was experienced in sinking the two shafts,
on account of quick-sand having been encountered. The
downcast shaft, which is 430 feet in depth, had to have its
upper 60 feet tubbed in consequence, while the upcast was
tubbed for about 80 feet. There was trouble with the upcast
shaft, for the tubbing got out of plumb, and also collapsed,
when down a certain distance, so that a second tubbing had
to be telescoped inside it, which made the diameter of the
lowest portion of the shaft somewhat smaller than was ori-
ginally intended. The inner tubbing was allowed to come
above water level when finished, and the joint between the
two was cemented up. The tubbing was built up on the sur-
face, the different sections being bolted together on the in-
side, so that the outside was smooth to ship down. A shoe
was fastened to the bottom ring of the drum, and the cast-
iron lining was weighted on the top with sand bags. On pas-
sing through the watery strata, a seating was made in solid
rock. which was carefully levelled and cemented for the wedg-
ing crib to rest on. The space at the back of this wedging
crib was filled with blocks of wood and wedges driven in till
a watertight joint was made, and the crib was in the proper
position for the tubbing to connect up with it. The vertical
and horizontal joints of the tubbing were then wedged up,
and that section of the shaft was complete.

Each shaft has a 20ft. well hole, which is connected by a
drift; that serves as a water lodgment. The water is raised to
the surface by a Tangye steam pump with double 5-inch dia-
meter plungers, which is located in a chamber at the foot of
the upeast shaft.

At the bottom of the downcast shaft the brick walling
reaches to the floor of the roadway. A by-pass is made on one

wile AATe

LAMBTON B. COLLIERY. 313

side for the men to travel through, so that they shall not be
injured in case of anything falling down the shaft.

The roadways are timbered with caps and legs where sup-
port is necessary. Occasionally a cap piece will rest in notches
cut in the wall, but the shale fritters away on exposure to the
air, while the coal is unharmed, so frequently a place is cut
out in the shale, in order to allow a punch prop to rest on the
top of the coal, thus saving the timber of a full leg.

At present horses do all the hauling to the pit’s bottom.
One horse can draw five empty skips up hill, and any number
of full skips down hill. The horses are raised to the surface

Fig, 200.—Upceast Shaft and Waddle Fan.

and lowered in cages every working day. Some of the shale
has to be brushed down in the main roadways to give head
room, making the roadways seven feet in the clear. The
drivers are boys who drive a horse with a set of skips in the
main roadways. The wheelers are lads who drive a horse with
one skip to and from a flat and a face.

Preparations are being made to instal the main and tail
rope system of haulage.

Ventilation is induced by a Waddle fan 43 feet in dia-
meter, revolving 35 times per minute, causing one-inch water-

314 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

gauge pressure, but capable of going 60 revolutions per
minute. The driving engine was manufactured by the Wad-
dle Patent Fan and Engineering Company, of Llanelly,
Wales, and is a compound tandem, direct acting. The emer-
gency engine, which is placed in line with the main engine,
but on the other side of the fan, only has one cylinder. As
the fan must revolve in the same direction all the time, when
the emergency engine is coupled up to it, the connecting rod
works under and over, instead of over and under. The result
is that the upper guide bars become hot, owing to the greater
friction of the guide blocks attached to the crossheads when
worked that way. Waddle’s fan is known as an open running

Fig. 201.—Lamp Cabin.

fan; that is, it 1s open to the atmosphere all round the cir-
cumference. The blades and casing all revolving together.
The air is taken into the fan on one side only, and on that side
the casing is widened out. The blades, which are inclined
backwards, are alternately long and short. The long blades
reach the centre, and so as to give the maximum area for the
entrance of the air, they are increased in width as they near
the centre. On account of the large diameter, a high
perpheral speed is obtained with a comparatively small num-
ber of revolutions. As seen in Fig. 200, the fan is narrow,

“
-
on
>
P| ‘
4
a

*.

x

fae

£0 RIE lb

LAMBTON B. COLLIERY. 315

but there is no occasion to have it wide, since the air can
escape all round its circumference. The trumpet-shaped out-
let extending beyond the ends of the blade increases the ef-
ficiency of the fan, since less power is required to discharge
the air, for the area of the outlet being greater than that at
the tips of the blades, the velocity of discharge is gradually
reduced, and resistance varies with the square of the velocity.
It is better not to have a bearing on the intake side of the
fan, as it stops the free inlet of air. A Waddle fan can be
worked at a greater rate than a Walker fan, as the latter, if
driven too fast, would shake about and wear out the bearings.
There are two loose doors on the top of the air shaft, which

Fig. 202.—Jefftrey Conveyor.

act as a safeguard in case of an explosion, in addition to the
windows, which would naturally break. A large grating is
placed in front of the fan in the fan drift.

Cambrian safety lamps, an improvement on the Evan
Thomas lamp, are used at this colliery. The lamp cabin, with
the necessary appliances for cleaning, filling and locking the
lamp is shown in Fig. 201. When ready for use the lamps are
placed on four decker turn tables. The upper portion of each
lamp is suspended from a numbered hook above its corres-
ponding oil vessel, so that the wick can be readily lighted

316 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

before required by the men, and the flames will warm the
glass. The illuminant used is a mixture of colsa and kerosene
oils. The lamps are locked with the usual leaden rivet, a dozen
of these being cast at a time in one mould. Formerly they
tried Stoke’s alcohol lamp when testing for gas in the mine,
but now they use hydrogen with a Hebblewhite Grey lamp.

The coal is tipped on to two shaking screens with a billy-
fair-play below to weigh the slack. The round coal falls on
to a steel picking table, where the ‘‘chidder’’—slate and
brasses—is picked out and the balance weighed on a Pooley
machine. As each skip is tipped on to the screen, its token is
taken off and slid down a wire to a lad who places it on the

picking belt near the heap of coal to which it belongs. As the’

coals falls into a hopper waggon, the token is taken off and its
number noted by the weighman.

The Jeffrey conveyor used at this colliery is shown in
Fig. 202. It is used for slack only. The slack from the
screens is raised by a bucket elevator to a travelling belt of
steel that carries it to a shoot which directs it into a waggon,
but when there are no waggons, or if it is desired to store the
slack, the mouth of the shoot is closed, the slack fills it up,
and then the buckets of the conveyor that circulate round the
framework (to be seen crossing the picture in the near dis-
tance) are able to reach the coal and convey it to the top of
a tower from which it is fed on to another conveyor at right
angles to it. This conveyor travels towards a second tower,
partly shown in the foreground. There are several slide
valves in the bottom of the trough along which the buckets
travel; by pulling out the proper one, slack is made to fall in
any part of the open storage hopper desired. ‘This hopper is
excavated in the ground, and is V-shaped, and lined with
bricks. At its bottom a tunnel runs for its full length,
large enough for men to walk along in it. There are
doors in this tunnel which can be opened from the inside, so
when it is wanted to load the slack stored in the hopper, a door
of the tunnel is opened and the buckets scrape the slack along
till it reaches the far tower, when it is lifted up to be even-
tually emptied on to a short conveyor with a shoot at the end,
which is lowered over the waggon to be filled. The capacity
of this plant is 100 tons of slack per hour, loaded into wag-
gons from the storage. The buckets are triangular in cross-
section, for they have to act as scrapers when in a horizontal
position, and as vessels when in a vertical position. The
buckets are fastened to two strands of a roller chain. The
hopper is given an inclination lengthways to assist any rain-
water to flow towards the end, where a pump raises it to the
surface.

|

Pur
7 <
he

BURWOOD EXTENDED COLLIERY. 317

Burwood Extended.

This colliery suspended operations for many years, but
is now at work again, under the management of Mr. G. F.
Thomas. There are two seams, both of which have been
worked to a certain extent. The upper seam, 230ft. from the
surface, is the Victoria Tunnel or Burwood seam, which 1s
the most extensively worked of the two; while 269{t. deeper
is the Borehole seam, containing 4ft. 10in. of workable coal.
The upper seam consists of 2ft. Yin. to dit. of inferior coal
and clay, which makes a good roof; then comes the top coal,
which consists of 2ft. 6in. to 2ft. Tin. workable coal, followed
by a 2in. clay band. This is succeeded by a band of coal used
in the colliery boiler, and which is supplied at the rate of one
ton per month to each man employed at the colliery for house-
hold purposes. There is then another 2in. clay band, a band
of splint, and finally the lower workable coal, 2ft. 3in. thick.

The coal from this colliery is unscreened, and is mostly
used as a bunker coal, being good for steaming purposes.

They use three Jeffrey’s electric chain coal cutting ma-
chines, size 17A. They are fixed on their self propelling
trolleys, so as to make them high enough to cut into the
bottom of the splint coal. These are called six feet machines,
but it is considered good holing if they cut in five feet six
inches with a four inch kerf. The _ points’ are
fixed in the sockets of the chain with _ set
screws, so that they project l}in. They are set so as
to make a clearance top and bottom as well as in the centre.
As the machine works, it rakes out all the fine cuttings made.
Fair work for one machine in an eight hours’ shift is to hole
three 8-yard bords and one narrow place, e.g., a 4-yard head-
ing. The self-propelling truck consists of an iron frame
mounted on axles fitted with wheels. At the rear end of the
frame is shafting, resting in suitable bearings. This shafting
is driven by means of a chain and sprocket wheels by the
machine motor, and transmits motion to the axles of the
truck. The machine motor can be thrown in or out of gear
by means of a clutch, and when propelling the truck, the
cutting part of the machine is put out of action. The motor
is further equipped with a reversing switch, so can cause the
truck to travel backwards or forwards. ‘The coal above the
cut, as far as the bottom of the top coal, breaks away easily
with long handle picks and bars. Then the top coal is shot
down with bobinite, and when cleaned away, the bottom coal
is lifted with shots. |

The cages run on rope guides in the 20ft. diameter shaft.
Angle irons are arranged at the mouth of the pit, so as to en-
gage the corners of the cage and steady it when at rest. The

318 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

hoist is a duplex direct acting steam engine, with poppet
valves, made by Grant, Ritchie and Co., of Kilmarnock, in
1889. The drums are cylindro-conical, with the brake path
between; only the conical portion of the drums is used. The
driver stands on an elevated platform to work the engine.
There are five Cornish boilers. |
The engine used for driving the electric generator is a
McEwans type, manufactured by the Jefirey Manufacturing
Company. It has a 16in. cylinder and 16in. stroke, and is
provided with a patent fly-wheel governor. It is connected

Fig. 203.—-Trough and Scraper.

with the electric generator by means of leather belting. The
generator is 100k.w. continuous current, run at 500 r.p.m. It
has 275 volts, and 365 amp., with full load. It can slide on its
bed plate, so as to adjust the distance to suit the length of
the belt.

The Jeffrey conveyor at the Burwood Extended being in-
tended to fill ‘unscreened coal into a 1200 T. wooden hopper,
which is emptied through horizontal sliding gates into wag-
gons below, consists of a series of scrapers, not buckets, which

Fig. 204.—‘‘Alabama’’ Type.

pass along a steel trough (Fig. 203), and drags the coal, large

and small, along with them, as far as the valve which is opened

over the spot where it is desired to deposit it. The scrapers
are attached at either end to a steel roller chain of the ‘‘Ala-
bama’”’ type. (Fig. 204.) The steel trough, which is sup-
ported on a wooden structure, is placed below the lower part
of the roller chain, the scrapers or ‘‘flights’’ returning over-
head. The valves in the trough are about 11ft. apart, and are
worked by a rachet and pinion.

a

BURWOOD EXTENDED. 319

The Guibal fan is 35ft. in diameter and lOft. wide; the
tips of the vanes curve slightly like a scoop. The fan—the
casing of which can be seen in Fig. 205—runs at 33 revolu-
tions per minute, and supplies 99,000 cub. feet air per minute.
The fan engine was made by the Grange Iron Company Limi-
ted, of Durham, England, and is supplied with variable ex-
pansion.

Fig. 205—Pithead Frame and Fan.

The mine timber is classified according to their lengths,
and are stacked at the surface between posts on which are
marked their lengths, so there is no time wasted in sorting out
the length of prop desired when wanted for use.

The Maitland Field.

j The Greta seam, which is the next largest producer of coal
to the Borehole seam in the Northern coalfield, was first lo-
cated in the Cessnock to Homeville part of the Maitland dis-
trict, near where the Abermain colliery surface works are now
situated, by a geological survey party under Prof. David, in
1886. Now, this is “perhaps the most important of our coal-
fields, and contains the thickest known seam in New South
Wales, from 14ft. to 34ft. thick. This discovery resulted in a
large area of land being reserved in the interests of coal min-

320 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

ing. There are two seams worked in the Greta coal mea-
sures. The top seam is split in places. The East Greta col-
hery works the bottom Greta seam. The Heddon Greta col-
hery works the top or main Greta seam. At Stanford Merthyr
they work the lower split of the top seam, which splits up
again deeper down. The Pelaw Main colliery works the
middle and the bottom of the top seam. At Hebburn they
work both the upper and lower split of the top seam. Aber-
main works the whole of the top seam. Aberdare and Aber-
dare Extended also work the top seam.

The Greta coal yields from 40 to 42 per cent. of volatile
hydrocarbons, being the highest proportion of volatile hydro-
ee that any of that class of coal contains in New South

ales.

The following quotation from Prof. T. W. EK. David* will
be of interest :—

‘‘At a spot about one and a half mile further to the east-
north-east, known as the ‘Pinch,’ there is a natural outcrop of
the Greta coal measures on the north-west side of the Wol-
lombi to Maitland road. In this neighbourhood, traces of a
vast pre-historic fire in the Greta Coal Measures are to be
noticed at intervals. It has extended beyond the ‘Pinch’ in a
westerly direction, and in a north-easterly direction it has
spread through Cessnock along the outcrop to Pelaw Main and
Stanford Merthyr. It originated probably not far from Cess-
nock, in the ‘brassy top.’ Then it spread south-westerly and
north-easterly along the main seam. Between Abermain and
Hebburn, where the seam splits, it followed the lower, that is,
the main or middle seam, and kept along it to Pelaw Main and
Stanford Merthyr, near which the fire seems to have died out.
The fact that these splendid seams have been on fire in pre-
historic time, on a very large scale, is one which I should like
to impress very strongly on the proprietors and managers of
the collieries in this important coalfield. There can be little |
doubt, in my opinion, that the fire, which has extended over a
total distance of fully fifteen miles, along the outcrop, resulted
from spontaneous combustion. So intense has been the heat of
this great fire that, as already mentioned in an earlier des-
cription of the sections in this locality, large areas of sand-
stone and shale have been actually smelted by the great heat,
and a rock has resulted closely resembling a volcanic lava,
such as andesite or basalt; in fact, it was originally mapped
by me as volcanic ash and scoriae. . . . But the evidence
is of much wider significance, as a warning to colliery mana-

*The Geology of the Hunter River Coal Measures, New
South Wales. By authority, 1907, p.144, et seq.

THE MAITLAND FIELD. 321

gers and owners, of the great risk they run if they neglect to
take all possible precautions against outbreaks of fire through
spontaneous combustion in this part of the field. The fact
may once more be emphasised, that it is absolutely necessary,
in the interests of the safety of the collieries and those work-
ing in them, that the whole of the ‘brassy tops’ should either
be taken out of the mine to the surface when the seam con-
taining them is being worked, or, if any be left underground,
the areas where they stand should be securely walled off from
the rest of the workings. The former method of guarding
against risk from fire would be preferable to the latter.

“TJ would specially here emphasise the danger of work-
ing the lower seam of coal in such a way as to permit the over-
lying strata to collapse, and so produce cracks which admit air
to the overlying seam containing the ‘brassy tops.’ In this
case, there is a danger of spontaneous fire breaking out in the
‘brassy tops’ of the upper seam—a fire which may easily spread
downwards through the cracks and crevices of the broken rock
into the main seam. Something of this kind has already ac-
tually happened in the East Greta Mine (in 1903), but, thanks
to the energetic action taken by Mr. Azariah Thomas, the
manager, the portions of the lower seam, to which the fire
was communicated at that mine, through what was probably
spontaneous combustion in the upper seam, have now been all
safely and securely walled off.

‘A fire due to spontaneous combustion has also occurred
at the Heddon Greta Mine in this end of the Greta coalfield
(June, 1905), and the districts affected of the mine have been
walled off.

“At Stanford Merthyr also slight heating has been ob-
served in refuse mine material in the neighbourhood of a fault.
It should be stated, however, that there is no evidence to con-
nect the recent fire (29th October, 1905) at Stanford Merthyr
Colliery with spontaneous combustion. On the other hand,
there is a probability that the fires, both at the Old Greta Col-
liery and at the Anvil Creek Colliery, were the result of spon-
taneous combustion.’’

Mr. A. A. Atkinson, the Chief Inspector of Coal Mines,
draws attention to the following points :—* |

(1) The advisableness of laying out the workings in such
a way that. in the event of a fire, small districts may he sealed
off. instead of having to close the whole of the colliery.

(2) The necessity for the removal of all small coal, un-
necessary timber. and any other easily inflammable material,
from the workings.

*Ann. Rept. Dept. Mines, N.S.W. for 1903, p. 101, and
a p. Ls:

322 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

(3) The practice of building stoppings with small coal,
or other carbonaceous material, and timber is one which should
be discontinued entirely. These stoppings are usually put in
several feet thick, and this is conducive to heating. Such
a condition may eventually give rise to a fire, the result of
spontaneous combustion.

(4) Arrangements, where practicable, for an adequate sup-
ply of water, under pressure, in order to deal with an outbreak
of fire.

(5) The necessity of regarding all the seams in the Greta
Measures of the South Maitland Coalfields as being liable to
spontaneous combustion.

(6) The necessity of inspecting old workings. |

Mr. V. D. Lewes determined the ignition points of various
kinds of coal as follows:—Cannel coal, 370 degrees C.; Hart-
leport coal, 408 degrees C.; Lignite, 450 degrees C.; Welsh
steam coal, 477 degrees C. Prof. David, commenting on this
writes :-—*

‘* Now, as the Greta coal is essentially in places of a can-
nelly nature, passing here and there into true cannel, its low
ignition point would in itself render it liable to spontaneous
combustion. In the second place, comment has already been
made on the fact that the Greta seams, -of all the coal seams
of New South Wales, are the most liable to ‘perishing’ towards
the outcrop. This is so marked that a thirty-foot thick Greta
seam is usually so perished at its actual outcrop as to show a
thickness of only an inch or two of earthy carbonaceous mate-
rial to represent the whole seam. The remainder has
been removed by weathering—that is, by oxidation.
Neither the Tomago nor the Newcastle coal seams perish to-
wards their outcrops to the same extent as do the Greta
seams. The Greta seams are specially liable to oxidation, and
even in cases where the ‘brassy tops’ are not present, every pre-
caution against risks from spontaneous combustion should be
taken by mine managers.’’ ;

Greta Colliery.

This colliery is famous for its numerous fires. It is now
abandoned, and the machinery taken away. The downcast
shaft and tunnel are sealed, grass is growing on the stopping
of the former, and the observation pipes are plugged with
wood. The waste heaps, mostly composed of material filled
out during the various fires, are still burning, and it is not
safe to walk en them for féar of sinking down into the hot

*Op. Cit., p. 148.

——— - . , —,

di
.

=
3
i
7
%
‘
;
i

GRETA COLLIERY. 323

ashes. The gob stink, the smell of a newly lighted coal fire,
once experienced never to be forgotten, is noticeable in the
neighbourhood of these heaps.

This colliery was worked for 20 years. ‘There are two
seams, 14ft. apart, but only the No. 1 or top seam was worked.
This was extracted in two sections, and was made up as fol-
lows :—

Coal, brassy tops .. 1ft. din.

Band :: ... ie abs dat.
el se tars es i UE OM,
_ OE GRAN EA Ws igre corerabiae (2 1s ate
J) gee bft. Qin. O5ft. 5in. second working.

Indurated clay band
thickly studded
with plant im-
pressions locally
termed ‘‘ white
eMC rr. Gat een.
CGnkss 2.005 ealt Sete Om.
Biackstone band .. Oft. 6in.
Coal .. .. .. .. ... 46. Om. 94ft. Oin: first working.

14ft. din.

The top seam varies considerably in thickness, but may
be taken to average 14ft. 6in., the bottom seam being 3ft. Tin.
thick. The roof consists of a band of coarse conglomerate im-
mediately above the “‘brassy tops’’ for a few inches in thick-
ness, followed by extremely soft sandstone, which decomposes
into firm sand on exposure to the atmosphere. Mr. Jeffries,
the late mine manager, thinks this has much to do with the
ob fires, for, falling as it does, immediately after the ‘‘brassy
tops,’ it acts as a covering or blanket, and being a bad con-
ductor of heat, when chemical action occurs, the heat cannot
rise to the surface to be cooled by the ventilating current,
so the temperature gradually increases till the ignition point
is reached. ‘‘Brassy tops’’ are shales containing marcasite,
the latter decomposing into sulphate of iron, which weathers
white. ‘‘Brasses’’ also occur in the coal in places, more es-
pecially when the coal is broken up. It does not occur in
nodules, but is generally found in streaks predominating along
certain bedding planes. It is not continuous, showing prefer-
ence for the brittle black bituminous portion of coal. It also
occurs in vertical joints of the coal, so was evidently precipi-
tated after the coal was formed, not simultaneously with it.
Finely pulverised bituminous coals in contact with air begin
to oxidise between 120 and 155 degrees C. The ignition tem-

324 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

perature is about 330 degrees C, Coal naturally absorbs oxy-
gen from the air, and undergoes a process of slow combustion.
Marcasite, when decomposing, swells, breaks up the coal, and
thus exposes a large surface to oxidation. A gob fire starts
gradually; first there is an increase in temperature, followed
by an unmistakable smell of gob stink owing to the volatile
matter being distilled off, and a mist is formed.

' The downcast shaft is 15ft. in diameter and 420ft. deep,
and about half a mile distant is the upcast, which is rectangu-
lar in section, 10ft. by 534t., and 201ft. deep. There is also a
tunnel entrance 36 chains from the downcast shaft, which was
used as a travelling way for men and horses.

The coal was extracted on the bord and pillar system. The
bords averaged 24ft. wide, while the pillars varied from 12ft.
to 45ft. Cut-throughs connected the bords every 105ft. ‘The
first working was carried forward in the lower or 9ft. section
ot the top seam, until the cut-through was connected, wheu
they worked the top section hack in the reverse direction. The
‘‘brassy tops’’ were left standing, but they eventually fall.
sooner or later, for want of support. Fire damp had been occa-
sionally found in very small quantities, but it had been detected |
rising from the heated debris.

There have been eight fires in this mine altogether; seven.
due to spontaneous combustion, and one to a naked light. For
information concerning these fires I am largely indebted to
Mr. J. Jeffries, who was formerly in charge of this colliery,.
and has given an account of it in his paper entitled ‘“The
Occurrence of Underground Fires at the Greta Colliery, New
South Wales.’’ (Trans. Inst. Min. Eng., 1904-05, X XIX, p.
518). The first fire occurred in 1897, at a point where water
dripped from the roof on the fallen ‘‘brassy tops,’’ which ac-
celerated chemical action. Having been observed while in the
incipient stage, it was easily filled out. A few months after
the second fire, a creep occurred, resulting in the loss of a
district. Large volumes of water held in the strata were li-
berated, and as the pumping machinery was not sufficient to
keep the water down, it was turned into the dip working.
The creep cut off the ventilation from the greater portion of
the affected area, and as was also the case with subsequent
fires, direct attack was too slow to be effective, so it was at-:
tempted to isolate the area by building stoppings. These:
were built of brick, or brick and clay, also of timber and loamy
sand, when the crushed condition of the pillars made a tight
joint with brickwork impossible.

_ Mr. Jeffries writes that, ‘‘The experience gained in deal-
ing with these underground fires emphasises the difficulty of
coping with such evils by the sealing off process, and also the:

GRETA COLLIERY. 325

advisability of using every endeavour to overcome them by
direct attack, and the removal of the heated material to the
surface; for, unless the stoppings are limited in number, small
in sectional area, and the pillars crushed, absolute extinction
of the heated material cannot reasonably be expected.”’

A fire broke out on 5th December, 1900, resulting in the
loss of five lives. The district north and west of the down-
cast shaft had been largely worked, and were practically aban-
doned; also a large area east and south of the main south level
had been worked. Of previous fires, six had occurred south of
the big jig, and one on the north side of the downcast shaft;
the last, being due to a workman’s carelessness, was not a
true gob fire. The pit was sealed down on the 10th December,
1900, and re-opened in April, 1901, but after eleven days the
fresh air caused another outbreak. The fire caused heavy falls
of the roof. ‘The action of the flames could be traced on the
coal over the same area as the falls, i.e., over a distance of

‘spank Eze

The best way to attack an underground fire, when pos-
sible, is to fill it out. Sealing off is unsatisfactory, partly on
account of the slowness with which heat is conducted away
through the strata above and below, and partly on account of
the difficulty in shutting off the air. Experiments carried out
by Dr. J. S. Haldane and Mr. Meachan* showed that air might
be so bad as to extinguish a lamp, and yet be nearly as effec-
tive as pure air in producing heat by slow oxidation. Air con-
taining 17 per cent. of of oxygen will extinguish a lamp, but
the oxygen would have to be reduced to less than one per cent.
in order to really check heating.

The sealing of the Greta colliery was carried out as fol-
-lows :—

Bunton holes were cut in the solid rock of the shaft, 19ft.
from the surface. Hardwood buntons, 12in. deep by 5in. wide,
were put in, across which hardwood planks 2in. thick were
laid. These planks were cut to the circle of the shaft, and
covered with several layers of brattice cloth. Above this was
placed 4ft. in depth of plastic clay, and the whole was covered
with water for a depth of two feet. In the centre of the scaf-
fold was a rectangular door with an eye bolt at each corner,
to which chains were attached. A wire rope connected the
chains to a windlass, which was used for lowering and rais-
ing the door. The sealings were completed as far as possible,
with the exception of the doors, and these were lowered into
position simultaneously. A wrought iron pipe, one inch in

*Trans. Inst. Min, Eng., 1898, XVL., 457.

326 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

diameter, was carried for six feet below and through the seal-
ings to the surface, for observation purposes.

The opening at the tunnel was sealed with two brick stop-
pings nine inches thick, between which eight feet of sand
was placed and well rammed in. The roof, side and floor were
cut to a solid foundation, to allow a tight joint to be made
with the brickwork. There was no door in the tunnel stop-
ping. The stopping was not built too strong, as it was to be
pwled down again at a later stage.

After some months, the sealings were removed, and the
heated material filled out, but it had to be cooled first with
water. The sides of the pillars were found to be incandes-
cent to a depth of four feet, so an iron bar was driven into the
pillars for this depth, and the nozzle of a hose inserted. This
method of cooling proved very effective. Where large pieces of
‘‘brassy tops’’ had been under water for weeks, and the water
subsequently drawn off, it immediately commenced to heat,
some of it actually breaking into flame. This proves that a tem-
porary flooding of the mine was no good. If unsealed too soon,
though the flame may have been suppressed, and the external
portion of the heated matter cooled down, the internal parts
of the mass still remain heated, and only await the necessary
supply of oxygen for active combustion to develop again. The
process of cooling is very slow under non-conductive material
such as sandstone and conglomerate. The occurrence of large
falls of roof brought about a state of affairs favourable to spon-
taneous fires, as these falls covered up the brassy tops and
placed them outside the action of ventilation currents, while
at the same time there is sufficient oxygen present to cause
oxidation of the pyrites. Since the conglomerate falls in large
pieces, it adds to the trouble of filling out the ‘‘brassy tops,’”
for it has to be broken up smaller before it can be handled.
Mr. Jeffries further remarks* that, ‘‘Careful observation points.
to the fact that when the ‘brassy tops’. remain uncovered by

falls of stone or by the fine sand already referred to, no trouble —

is experienced; but in cases where blanketing or covering oc-
curs with substances of low conductivity; trouble will almost
certainly occur.”’

Jeffries recommends working the seam in panels, forming
the pillars where permissible to the rise and dip of the seam.
Also to work the pillars and brassy tops together; and when
once the pillars are attacked, to extract them as quickly as
possible.

Irregular work due to labour trouble would be liable to
cause great loss in working such a seam, not only to the col-

*Op. Cit., p. 532.

ed Ls

is ih An ligt 29

coe efaghbaned 6

GRETA COLLIERY. 327

liery owners, but also to the country, and might result in the
permanent closing down of a mine if a fire started when there
were not sufficient men to keep it under control.

East Greta Colliery

This colliery, which is the pioneer of the district, and is
about 18 years old, belongs to the Hast Greta Coal Mining
‘Company Ltd., who also own the Stanford Merthyr Collhery.
It is under the management of Mr. J. H. Rees, who formerly
acted as under manager. .

The seam being worked is the lower seam of the Greta
coal measures, which about here is from 12 to 13 feet thick,
the whole of it being worked, but in two operations.

The tunnels follow the seam:from the outcrop, and are
consequently fairly steep. No. 2 tunnel has an inclination
varying between 40 and 44 degrees, and is the full height of
the seam, so as to give suflicient head room. It is 2200 feet
deep on the slope. Levels are driven right and left every 160
yards on the incline, and are connected at the back or in
front of the shaft by undercasts or overcasts, according to cir-
cumstances, which are really horizontal passages along which
skips can pass the shaft.

The mine is divided into pannels, and as each pannel is
worked out it is sealed off.

The method of working is by bord and pillar. Near the
surface the bords are 8 yards wide, and the pillars are 8 yards
wide also; deeper down the pillars have to be stronger, so are
made 10 to 14 or 15 feet wide. 3 )

A. jig or self-acting incline is sunk between two levels.
They are driven down hill rather than up, as being safer, and
easier to ventilate. A 15 yard pillar is left on each side of a
jig. Through this each bord is driven, commencing with nar-
row work, and then opening out to the full width of eight
yards. The bord is taken out for a height of 7 or 8 feet, that
being convenient for timbering. At every 50 yards a cut-
through, 4ft. by 4ft., connects adjoining bords for ventilation
purposes, but these cut-throughs are not made continuous
through all the bords, it being found that ventilation in the
bords is facilitated by staggering them. These cut-throughs
have steps cut in them, or ladders, according to their steep-
ness, for men to travel on. A bord is carried on where pos-
sible to the limit of 20 chains, this distance being adopted as
over that the wheelers have to receive increased pay for trans-
porting the coal. At 20 chains the bord is driven narrow
again, and adjoining bords are connected by cut-throughs, 4ft.
by 4ft., in a continuous line; this is later on enlarged to Mft.

328 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

wide by 7ft. high, and timbered, thus forming another jig.
This enlarging of the end cut-throughs is termed stripping the
jig, aud is done by two men, one working on either side. A
shoot is placed at the bottom of this jig, and «he coal allowed
to roll down by gravity, but when the stripping is completed,
rails are laid, and a place prepared at the top for the brake
drums.

When the bords in a section have been driven, men com-
mence to drop the pillars and top coal. The pillar imme-
diately below the upper level is left as a support, but the top
coal of the first bord is dropped. Then, commencing a chain
from the jig instead of 15 yards, so as to protect the jig, the
pillar is taken out in four foot strips from the bord below, for
a height of seven feet. When eight yards have been worked,
several of the props of the first strip and the continuation of
them in the bord are drawn, only just sufficient being left to
temporarily support the roof. ‘The roof is then shot down by
placing blasting powder in holes made nearly vertically over-
head. After the first step has been worked, there is always a
free end to shoot against. A shot in the lowest portion of the
strip often fetches down the lot, but if 1t does not, more than
one hole has to be bored. If the roof is rotten, then the powder
is tied on to the timber, and the prop blown down, or the prop
may be rammed down by a long pole. It is intended to always
keep three rows of props at least between the second working
and the working face of the pillar, but sometimes the shooting
may fetch down the roof up to the face, in which case one has
to start on the pillar as if commencing afresh. 'The coal won
from the pillars shdes down to the track in the bord, when it
is filled into skips. As the roof will not allow the full width
of a pillar to be extracted, a rib is left, when signs of weak-
ness occur, but this is sometimes fetched down when dropping
the roof. The stone overhead is conglomerate, and generally
stands well, but sometimes falls with the top coal. If much
of the roof falls, they do not bother to sort out the coal, but
leave it where it falls. The bords are worked forward, and the
face at the top is in advance of the bottom, as this gives a
better grade for the miners to reach their work. The men
arrange a stand by placing a plank under and over two adja-
cent and parallel props, the projecting end serving as a sup-
port to stand or sit on (Fig. 206). If the coal of a pillar shows
signs of being tender, it is held by slabs resting against
props placed close to the pillar, and so as to prevent the posts
from falling, long sticks known as ‘‘needle timber’’ are placed
so that one end rests against the foot of a prop and the other
is let into a hitch in the roof, so arranged that it is a little
higher than the end resting against the prop. The pillars

EAST GRETA COLLIERY. 329

are worked backwards. Several pillars may be worked at the
same time, but the upper pillar is kept half a chain in advance
of that next below it. The coal is not undercut, as it is found
to be inconvenient to fix sprays, on account of the steep in-
clination, but it is shot down in the solid. This is, of course,
more expensive in explosives, but the men get a larger out-

Fig. 2U6.—-Pillar Work.

put in a given time, so they find they earn more in the long
run, besides there is less slack made.

All the transport of coal in the bords is done by hand,
that in the jigs by gravity, in the levels by horses which are
raised and lowered every day, and in the tunnels by steam.
The jigs between levels have four feet gauge rails for the cage,
and parallel with them 2ft. 2in. gauge rails for the dummy,
which is a small, narrow waggon filled with old iron to a
little more than counterbalance the cage, empty skips and
rope, so as to fetch them to the top of the incline. Near the
entrance to each bord a small chamber is cut out called a
‘coup over.’’ This is a place into which an empty skip can
be upset off the rails so as to make room for a full one, as only
a single line is laid in each bord. The jigs vary in angle ac-_
cording to the dip of the seam, consequently the cages have

330 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

to be made accordingly, and they have a label on them accord-
ing to the degree of angle they are made to suit. These jig
cages (Fig. 207) are horizontal platforms to carry one skip at
a time, mounted on a wedge-shaped under carriage properly
braced. The skips are kept on the platform by a finger catch.
A wooden chock is bolted to a sleeper a little way back from
the entrance to a bord, which, when placed across the rail
nearest to it, rests against another bolt, and thus blocks a

-

Fig. 207.—Jig Cage.

skip from running unchecked into the jig. This chock must
always be left in position, as accidents, sometimes of a fatal
nature, have been caused by neglecting to do so. If the chock
is found out of place, the man in charge is fined or prosecuted.

In the levels, alternate sleepers are made long, so that.
they reach right across the gutter; this is because the water
softens the coal, and the weight of the skips passing over the
rails, if supported entirely by short sleepers, would spread
the coal out.

When running skips on to platform cages at the lower
levels, as there are no chairs to support the cages, there is a

certain amount of spring in the rope to be taken into considera-

EAST GRETA COLLIERY. 331

tion, which causes the cage to be in a different position when
partly loaded to what it is when empty. To allow for this dif-
terence, a sheet of iron is used at the flat, so that a skip can be
pushed sideways before running it on to the cage. There is no
necessity to have such sheets at the upper levels, as there is
not so much spring in the shorter length of rope. The down-
hill side of the level near a flat is a little lower than the up-
hill side, so as to compensate for the inclination of the angle.

The levels are so arranged that any water gravitates to-
wards the tunnels, from which it is at present bailed, but
will shortly be raised by pumps. When sinking for another
lift, the water is dammed back in a portion of the lowest level,
and the tunnel continued in its proper direction, but a twelve
foot pillar is left between the bottom of the former lift and the
commencement of the new, which is finally broken through
when the new lift is completed. An electric winch is employed
for hoisting while sinking the new lift.

A new electric plant has been installed, which consists of
two thiee-throw Worthington pumps of the horizontal pressure
pattern, with pot valves. These raise 145 gallons per minute in
two lifts, each of 700ft. The upper pump is 6in. by 12in., and
the lower 6in. by 9in. These pumps are driven by belt from
a dynamo. The motor has 710 r.p.m., which is reduced to 41
r.p.m. at the pump.

The main winding engine was made by R. and J. Morison
and Bearby, of Newcastle; it is a duplex 22in. cylinder, with a
4ft. 6in. stroke. There is one 7ft. drum divided in the middle
by a brake path. The enginedriver has two electric pushes
worked by his feet, so that he can signal to the men working
at the tunnel both on the surface and underground.

A British-Westinghouse direct current generator com-
‘ pound wound, of 12.5k.w., 250 volts, with 400 r.p.m., is used
for electric lighting and for driving an electric winch.

The main tunnel is 10ft. 6in. high, 12ft. wide on top, and
13ft. wide at the sill inside timbers. It is supported by full
sets of round ironbark timber, not less than 8in. diameter,
placed 4ft. apart, and closely slabbed at the back and sides
with ironbark slabs 2in. thick. The legs are shouldered and
morticed into both cap anl sill, while the cap and sill have
15in. horns let into hitches in the sides, so as to keep them
from falling down hill. There are no distance pieces between
the sets. When additional sets are used for further support,
they do not have horns. At flats where levels branch off and
legs have to be omitted, the cap-pieces are picked up by strin-
gers, which rest on legs placed out of the way of the opening.
There are two lines of rails. These are not fastened to special
sleepers, as they would be shifted by the swelling of the bottom,

332 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

but are dogspiked to the sides of the sets. There is no occasion to
allow spaces between the rails for expansion and contraction,
as the temperature is fairly uniform throughout the year. The
rails are connected with fish-plates, and occasional rails have
holes in their flanges, through which they are spiked to the
sills and thus prevented from working bodily downwards. The
tunnel cage is a double decker (Fig. 208); the top deck is
covered in on top and at ends, and is used for men and horses,
as well as for skips. When horses are on board, wooden sides
are put on. ‘Two skips are on each deck, placed side by side,
and kept in position by both axle catches and finger bars. When

Fig. 208.—Double-deck Tunnel Cage.

skips are to be run off the cage, the finger bars are thrown
on one side and the axle catches propped up. The skips are run
in at the side of the cage on to angle iron rails. As all the
uncaging takes place at one spot, when the full skips have
been run off the upper deck, and the empty skips run on, the
enginedriver has to raise the lower deck into position. Under
the lower deck is a water tank. This is emptied automatically
by a fixed finger that strikes the lever attached to the valve of
the tank. The wheels of the cages have double flanges, so as to
help them keep the rails. Ten men travel in the covered

EAST GRETA COLLIERY. 333

cage at a time. The upper and lower decks are linked toge-
ther, such a joint preventing accidents, which used to happen
with stiff frames where the grade of the tunnel varies. The
mouth of the tunnel is protected by bars pivoted and counter-
balanced so that they can be easily raised. There is also a
horizontal door working on a hinge, one for each half of the
tunnel. These are so connected together with chains passing
over pulleys that when one is open the other is closed. The
banksman raises the door over the up-coming cage, and when
it reaches the surface the empty skips run on rails, fastened to:
the top of the closed doors, into the cage. (Fig. 209.)

_

Fig. 209.—Unloading Top Deck of Cage.

A second tunnel, known as the steam jig, is Tit. by Tft.,
and only has one pair of rails. Two ropes pass down it, which.
are wound up on two different engines. One is led down the
side of the tunnel and winds from No. 5 level to No. 4 level,
while the other winds from No. 4 level to the surface, and is
worked from a 5ft. drum, the engine being geared from 21 to
100.

The tunnels and jigs are sunk with self-tipping tanks
known as “‘alligators.’’ The bail to which the capping of the
rope is attached is fastened to the tank at a point below the-

334 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

centre of gravity, and the back wheels have a larger tread than
the front wheels. By having the rails horizontal at the sur-
face, and extra outer rails continued on the incline, the for-
ward wheels keep to the inner rails, while the back wheels run
on the outer rails, thus raising the bottom of the tank and
emptying its contents. When men are raised or lowered in this
tank, a chain is made to connect the bail with the lower side
of the alligator, so that there shall be no fear of it shifting
and precipitating the men. The alligators for jig sinking are
smaller than those for tunnel sinking. while those for sinking
small airways are smaller still, and do not run on rails, but
have runners attached like a sledge, and slide on the coal.

Ventilation is carried out by two 9ft. diameter Waddle
fans, and a three-quarter horse-power booster fan underground,
which is driven by electricity, to help the air current along.
The entrance to each bord is provided with a door to regulate
the air, and the cut-throughs are stopped up as fresh ones are
made. The end of the bords past the last cut-through divide
the intake from the return by brattice cloth, as usual. The
levels not being wide enough for the use of brattices, a large
galvanised iron pipe is suspended from the roof, leading from
near the fan up to the first cut-through, for a distance not ex-
ceeding 50 yards.

A fire occurred in one pannel of this colliery. | It was,
however, not due to spontaneous combustion of coal in the
lower seam, which is the one being worked, but was due to a
crush taking place and admitting air through the roof to the
top seam, where spontaneous combustion started.

Brick syphons are built in the lower stoppings of old
workings, so as to let out the accumulating water. Carbon
dioxide is found to emerge from the old bricked-in workings.

This company owns the railway line from West Maitland
to Stanford Merthyr, the A. A, Co. owns the branch from Aber-
dare Junction to Cessnock, but the traffic is attended to by the
East Greta company. The workshops at the colliery are used
mostly in connection with railway work.

A briquetting plant, belonging to a separate company, is
‘located near the East Greta colliery, but did not prove a com-
mercial success. 3

Heddon Greta Colliery.

This colliery belongs to the Heddon Greta Coal Mining
‘Company Limited, and is under the management of Mr. James
Barnes.

The mine is worked from tunnels, or rather slopes, at an
-angle of 33 to 38 degrees, some 1600ft. long. The head gear

aif
ae:

HEDDON GRETA COLLIERY. 335

is, in consequence, simple, as shown in Fig. 210, since the re-
sultant of forces comes chiefly on the vertical members.
The cage holds two skips, and has a tank for baling pur-
poses. On account of the inclination of the shaft, winding has
to take place from different levels. The main engine at No. 1
tunnel was manufactured by R. and J. Morison and Bearby,
of Newcastle (N.S.W.), and has 22in diameter cylinders, with
4ft. stroke, and a single 6{t. drum divided in the centre by a
brake path. The coal is worked for about 16ft. thick in two
workings. Above No. 2 level the bords and pillars are each

“Wi

Nee re
vi Le

Fig. 210.—Pit Head Frame.

8 eee wide, but below No. 2 level the pillars are 20 yards
wide.

The bifold safety lamp is used throughout this mine. These
have two round wicks and double gauzes, but no deflector.
They are made by Messrs. Abbott, Roby and Naylor, of
Wigan, England.

The ventilation is carried out by means of a furnace at the
surface. This is built at the foot of a stack (Fig. 211), into
which the air drift leads. A brick partition divides the up-
cast from the products of combustion for a short distance,
and then they meet higher up, to escape at the top of the

336 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

stack, the draught caused by the heated air ascending, be-
ing sufficient to draw the foul air out of the mine, so that
fresh air can replace it. Underground the overcasts are cut in
coal instead of in stone, as it is cheaper, besides giving some
remuneration in the form of coal.

That portion of the mine which has been sealed off on
account of the fire has solid brick stoppings from 9in. to 23in.

Fig. 211.—Furnace and Stack at Air Tunnel.

thick. Pipes are built into the stoppings at the highest points,
so that the temperature and pressure can be taken when de-
sired by means of thermometers and water gauges.

Stanford Merthyr Colliery.

This colliery belongs to the East Greta Coal Mining Com-
pany, and is managed by Mr. H. M. Williams. A portion of
it was formerly known as the Stanford Greta mine.

ce
ane

STANFORD MERTHYR COLLIERY. 337

The seam being worked is the bottom Greta seam; it is
from 19ft. 5in. to 23ft. thick, but 220 yards from the surface
it splits, the upper division being 12ft. to L5ft. thick, while the
lower division is 4ft. 6in. to 6ft. thick. The split starts with
dirty coal, which gradually turns into shale, and finally gives
place to sandstone and conglomerate.

The upper Greta seam is found on parts of the property,
but is not being worked.

The colliery is worked from tunnels. The main tunnel is
an intake, and used as a haulage road by endless rope from
No. 4 level to the surface. The little tunnel serves as an in-
take and travelling way, and in the bottom section, from the
fifth to the fourth level, where the seam becomes steeper, cages
are used for raising the coal. Where levels cross the tunnels,
overcasts are used, as they are in the coal, which is easier to
excavate than rock, and gives some return towards the cost
of construction. Undercasts are used at the deeper crossings
when the seam splits, as this enables the lower split to be
prospected.

In the steep portion of the little tunnel, where the cage
is used, the cage takes two skips, side by side, and as the long
rope has a spring in it which alters the position of the cage
When skips are run in and out of it, chairs were devised for the
cage to rest on.

The endless rope in the main tunnel travels at the rate
of 44 miles per hour. The engine that drives it is a strongly
built duplex engine, with 22in. cylinders and 3ft. 6in stroke,
geared 7 to 1, which uses 100lbs. steam pressure. The skips
are attached to the rope by Allan’s screw clips.

Jigs are sunk in advance of the workings with electric
winches, and are not constructed by stripping down cut-
throughs. The seam is not so steep as at Hast Greta, but
they use jig cages in places, though sometimes the driving
track has to be made flatter at the bottom end by raising the
track, so that the full cage can get a fair start. Jigs have
been worked by gravity, at as low an angle as 8 degrees, and
in one jig near the surface the empty cage has to be assisted
up by an electric hoist, as the angle is too flat for a dummy to
be effective. Boys work the brakes at the top of the jigs. Two
ropes are wound round one drum, which has a brake path in
the centre. The brake is a band fitted with wooden blocks.

The bords are turned off from one side of a jig, the first
12 yards being narrow work, 9ft. to 10ft. wide, then a cut-
through is made parallel to the jig, connecting the bords for
ventilation purposes. The bords are widened out to 8 yards.
The pillars left are strong enough to stand till worked, prior

333 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

to abandoning the mine; their width varies from 8, 10, 12, and
16 yards, depending on the depth of cover. ‘The tar end of a
bord does not break through to the next jig, but a pillar of
coal is left. The pillars of the top section are not worked for
fear of the ground caving, which might let surface waters
into the workings. ‘The mine is worked in panels, and when
one panel is worked out, it is sealed off. As carbon dioxide
is given off from the sealed panels, there is little chance of
fire being able to burn in such an atmosphere.

‘Che upper division of the lower seam is shot down in the
solid; but the lower division, not being so hard, will be un-
dercut. The props in the bords must have the smaller end at
least 4in. in diameter. There are four such props in a row,
placed 4ft. apart, centre to centre. The pillars on either side
of a bord are known as the upper and lower rib respectively. A
6ft. rib is left to support the fallen roof. After dropping the
top coal the roof is held up with long props, to the top of which
lids are nailed. The props are tightened up from the bottom.
‘These props serve as indicators, since they begin to speak when
the pressure of the roof becomes too great to be safe.

Horses draw the skips along the levels. The empties turn
off into the levels from the tunnel on the right hand side,
looking down hill, while the full are clipped on to the left hand
side of the endless rope. When required for any particular
level, a boy unscrews a clip and sprags the wheels of the
empties. On the full side of a level, the rails at the flat are
level, or dip slightly towards the tunnel. Monkey chocks are
placed between the rails, which hold the skips by their axles,
so that they cannot run away down hill. Should a stoppage
occur on the endless rope, the boy at each flat sounds a rail
hanging up if he is not the cause of the stoppage, and each
boy notes the delay, so that it can be accounted for and
checked.

When necessary to continue sinking a tunnel, the angle
is so slight that there is no occasion to build a pentice; the
entrance is simply narrowed. There are six electric hoists in
this mine used for sinking slants and jigs. They were made
by the General Electric Company, and are 6 h.p., 22.9 amp.,
and 230 volts. The drum gear and bedplates were made by
Morison and Bearby.

A fire and explosion took place in this colliery on Sunday,
29th October, 1905, by which six persons were killed and nine
injured. The electric bells started ringing at about 1.45 a.m..
but the man in charge did not suspect a fire till he saw volumes
of smoke coming out of No. 1 tunnel at twenty minutes to four
in the morning. The fire burst out of the main tunnel and
reversed the air current, though the fan which was working

7 Ag ait TB Ne © AS PR NN SE ENRY ORR D BMI NEA Fes OR hark td ‘

¥

>

Sead

mth m

STANFORD MERTHYR COLLIERY. 339

all the time sucked air in at the fan drift. An attempt was
made to cut off the supply of air to the flames by blocking the
‘little tunnel.’’ This was done by putting in a temporary stop-
ping of tongued and grooved boards fixed against posts, while
a brick stopping was being built. This reduced the force of
the flames, but the dispelled gases made an explosive mixture
which blew the stopping out and killed several men, at the
same time blowing off the roof of the air drift.. They then
stopped the ‘‘little tunnel’? and the air drift with cartloads of
earth, and finally with.a brick stopping. ‘Two inch boreholes
were sunk to the seat of the fire, down which water was poured.
The mine was re-opened on 26th June, or 238 days later, while
the colliery recommenced work on the 6th August, 1906. When
at first opening up after the fire, the necessary ventilation was
effected by three sets of 12in. diameter galvanised iron pipes
connected with the fan, which acted as a return air way. The
desire was to prevent the access of too much air, for fear of
re-heating the coal. The fire coked the coal on the walls, and
deposited tar on the roof in places. The timber being burnt
caused the roof to cave in.

The mine is unwatered in three lifts. At present a three-
throw belt driven vertical Tangye pump, 6in. by 8in., raises
water from the fifth to the fourth level. A three-throw belt
driven vertical Gould pump, 6in. by 8in., lifts the water from
the fourth to the third level, while a geared horizontal Wor-
thington pump, 64in. by 8in., mounted on a trolley, raises the
water from the third level to the surface. The Gould pump
does very good work; each valve has a separate cover, and
when a valve gets out of order it is easy to find out which it is
without having to undo several bolts. Moreover, it seldom
gets out of order. It is driven by a Westinghouse dynamo of
39 amp. and 240 volts. This pump has since been removed to
another place, and substituted by a Worthington pump, belt
driven from a General Electric Company’s shunt wound, con-
tinuous current motor of 80 amp., 240 volts, rated at 22 h.p.
The pump is a three-throw with 6in. diameter rams by Sin.
stroke. It runs at 42 r.p.m. of the crank shaft. and delivers
about 6700 gallons per hour, against a pressure of 210Ibs. per
square inch.

Evan Thomas’ Cambrian lamps are used throughout the
mine, in which they burn kerosene. The lamp room is very
complete: the cleaning brushes are turned by electricity. Re-
volving lamp stands are placed near the window, through
which they are handed to the miners, so that the lamp cleaner
can reach whichever lamp is required. Each lamp is num-
bered and given to the same man every day, so if a lamp is
damaged it is easy to trace who is responsible for it. |

340 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA,

A 2lft. diameter Waddle fan, with a trumpet mouth, is
used for ventilation purposes. It revolves 28 to 30 times per
minute when the mine is idle, and 36 to 38 times when men
are working. It is provided with a Harding patent indicator to.
record the number of revolutions the fan makes. The fan
only has one bearing, and that on the outside, so there is no
oceasion for anyone to go into the air drift for oiling purposes,.
and the air has free access to the fan.

There are also six Buffalo fans driven by electricity used
to help on the air current in places. These are mounted on
trollies for convenience in moving about.

Hig. 212.—Avery Self-Indicating Colliery Weighing Machine.

The skips are weighed on Avery machines, having a capa-
city of 2 tons, and capable of weighing 1000 tons each per day.
The platform, which is 4ft. by 3ft. 6in., has the usual system
of levers placed beneath it. This machine is so designed as to
be automatic and self-indicating, so there is no necessity for
the weighman to handle weights, poises or levers, when once
the machine is set. There is a steelyard with two gradua-
ted bars (Fig. 212), one a weigh bar graduated to 35 cwts. in
1 cwt. divisions, the other a tare bar marked by 7lb. divisions
up to 10 cwt. There is also a quadrant, which has a range

STANFORD MERTHYR COLLIERY. 341

from 0 to 7 ewt. in 14]1b. divisions. The dashpot is filled with
water, till the level of the water is just below the top of the
paddle. Under no circumstances should the water be allowed to
come above the paddle. One pound of washing soda should be
added to the water in order to prevent corrosion of the castiron
dashpot. If the pointer is found to be too long in settling, re-
move some of the water, and replace it with oil.

The machine is balanced while empty, and with the slides
at zero, by means of the balance ball. All the skips must be
brought to a uniform tare so that the poise on the tare-bar can

Fig. 213.—Check Brake.

be placed at the necessary mark. The poise on the weigh-bar
is then placed at some mark a little less than the minimum net
weight of coal likely to be in a skip. By this means the weight
of the empty skip and the minimum net weight of coal is fixed.
Any variations above this is automatically shown on the quad-
rant, and is added to the former minimum net weight set on
the weigh-bar. The whole machine is cased in wood secured
to the floor, so as to protect it from dirt, and also from being
tampered with.

342 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

A creeper chain takes the skips to the tippler. An occa-
sional pair of wheels are attached to the creeper chain, which

ib
k
i}

Fig. 214.—Coal Boxes,

run ina trough. At the foot of the incline is a chock working
on a hinge and weighted at one end; the chock is curved, and
on its back recesses are cut for the axles of the skips to rest

STANFORD MERTHYR COLLIERY. 343

in. At first the chock was used singly, but it was found to
slew the skips off the track, so now a pair are used together.
Ordinary chocks are placed on the incline in case a horn of
the creeper chain should break, and set the skips free. The
creeper chain is tightened by screwing up a sliding pulley; if
the chain stretches too much, a link is taken out.

The loaded skips are run into balanced side tipplers, where
they are held in place by angle iron fixed just above their
wheels. The empty skip is pushed off by the on-coming full skip,
and runs down an incline towards the mouth of the tunnel.
Two or three check brakes are placed along the line, so as to
control the speed of the skips. This brake is the invention of
Edward Davies, the company’s engineer. It consists of a bar
of angle iron arranged over each rail, so that it can come in
contact with the tread of the wheel. That end of the angle-
iron on the up side swings on a bolt, and is raised a little
higher off the ground than the top of the wheels, so that the
latter can pass under it easily, but the exit end is free and
weighted, so that it presses on the tread of the wheels that
pass underneath it. Such brakes may be made so that they
can be raised by hand (Fig. 213), and release the skip should
it be held fast.

From the tippler the coal falls on to a screen. A double
gate is arranged part of the way down each screen. It is kept
in place by weights, and can be opened by pulling arod. The
round coal is allowed to fall into a counterbalanced shoot.
When lowered, the shoot drops the coal into waggons, thus
saving shovelling. The slack falls through the screens into
slack boxes, from which it can be loaded into waggons, but if
there are no orders to be carried out, the slack is taken by
scraper conveyors up to storage slack boxes capable of holding
a little over 2000 tons. (Fig. 214.) The scraper conveyor is
kept down at the hollow by sprocket holding-down pulleys. The
creeper chain and scraper conveyor are worked by an old jig
rope, the different sections being thrown in and out of gear
by friction clutches. The tightening pulley and weight for the
rope is shown in Fig. 215. There are several horizontal slid-
ing gates in the bottom of the storage slack boxes, so that if
required a train of 40 waggons can be quickly loaded by pass-
ing underneath, men on platforms opening the gates with
lever handles. A scraper conveyor also takes coal to the Lan-
cashire boilers. The boilers have a bar in front of the fire-
box for tools to rest on when cleaning them out. There is a
special door at the back of the screen-box, through which the
miners obtain the supply of coal allowed them for domestic
purposes.

344 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

Electricity is used at this colhery for hoists, pumps and
lighting. Only low tension current, of 220 volts, is employed.
The cables are led down the little tunnel. The original elec-
tric plant consisted of a Westinghouse direct current, 4 pole
generator of 45k.w., driven by a compound Westinghouse en-
gine provided with a fly-wheel governor. ‘This has been
superseded by a Siemens Bros.’ direct current, 6 pole gene-
rator, compound wound, of 200k.w., driven by a Bellis and
Morecom engine of 300 h.p. It has a belt driven automatic
cylinder lubricator, a gauge for the pressure of oil on the bear-

Fig. 215.—Tension Pulley.

ings, the pressure ‘being kept at 15 to 20lbs., and another
gauge for the pressure of steam in the cylinder. A Worthing-
ton oil separator, condenser and heater, are used. ‘The oil is
separated in a vessel with baffle plates; then the steam passes
through 640 brass tubes, about 4in. in diameter, cooled by pit
water, which circulates round them. The condensed water
then goes to a heater warmed by exhaust steam from the con-
denser pump. In the power-houses are installed a Belliss-Sie-
men’s 200k.w. set, and a Westinghouse 45k.w. set; also a
switchboard made up of two generator panels and three feeder
panels, having two 200 amp. feeder circuits.

PELAW MAIN COLLIERY. 345

Pelaw Main.

This is one of the collieries belonging to Messrs. Jas. and
Alex. Brown. It is on a leasehold, and adjoins their freehold
property of Richmond Vale. Pelaw Main is about ten years
old, and employs some 800 hands. It is under the management

of Mr. R. Arbuckle.

Pelaw Main is at present worked from tunnels, but there
are also two shafts, one of which is used for conducting air
pipes from the air compressors to the machinery below; also a
steam pipe for a Blake pump at the bottom, and a main and
tail rope for hauling purposes. The other shaft will eventually
be used for ventilation purposes.

The seam is a very fine one to work, being 17 to 20ft.
thick, and remarkably free from shale bands. The roof is con-
glomerate. The coal is taken out in two workings. Were the
seams thicker, it would not be so easy to win. The mine is
worked on the triple entry system. The main intake heading
is in the centre, and on either side are the bord headings. The
bords break away from the latter, not at right angles,
as then on account of the facings it would be impossible to
keep the top coal up, but at a sight angle to the facings,
which also gives the bord a grade of about 1 in 12. At the
upper part of the mine the bords and pillars are both 8 yards
wide, but as the cover gets thicker the bords are made 6 yards,
and the pillars 10 yards. In the first working the bords are
made 7ft. 6in. to LOft. high, and in the second working the
coal is dropped from the roof. No attempt has been made to
win the pillars yet. Slants, at a greater angle to the facing
than the bords, are driven every 60 yards apart, which gives
the track a grade of from 1 in 15 to 1 in 18, which is con-
venient for wheeling. These slants, which cut up the bords
into lengths of 60 yards, lessen the distance for conveying coal
from the faces to the main heading. Where a dyke or fault
occurs this is used as a natural barrier, but otherwise a coal
barrier one chain thick is left every 300 yards. At the fourth
bord length, the far end of the bord is narrowed down, and a
brick stopping put in; bricks and mortar are kept in readiness
near the intake and return to each district, so that should a
at take place, that portion of the mine can be quickly sealed
Oo

The coal, which is hard to work with a hand pick, is
undercut by Ingersoll punches worked by compressed air.
There are 35 of these machines in use, worked by machine
men and their helpers, the latter shovelling the cuttings away
and helping to move the machine. : :

346 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

The borer then comes along with a No. 2 Little Grant air
drill. The cutting portion is an ordinary auger, such as is used
for boring holes in coal, but in this case it is revolved by com-
pressed air instead of by hand, and does it work very much
quicker. The operator holds the machine by two handles, in
one of which is the valve for turning the air on or off. The
handles serve to guide the machine, the forward motion is given
by pressing against it with the body. Boring is done by wages
men, who bore a hole 6ft. deep in 14 minutes. Fig. 216 gives

CH16 |

hr 2:

ee wet toa -

:

cs ae =

ts -

| | I x
Fig. 216.—‘‘Litile Giant’’ Piston Air Drills.

a section of the working portion of the machine. These drills
are of the balanced piston type, and consist of four single
acting cylinders arranged in pairs, each pair of pistons being
connected to opposite wrists of a double crank shaft. Each
piston of each pair travels in opposite directions at all parts of
the stroke, thereby insuring a smooth running machine. The
crank shaft revolves in an enclosed chamber designed to be
kept partly filled with the lubricant. This machine weighs

15lbs., makes 600 revolutions per minute with 90lbs. pres- —_
sure, and uses 20 cubic feet free air per minute.

PELAW MAIN COLLIERY. 347

When the holes are bored, the shot firer comes along,
charges and fires them as required, and fills the broken coal

ompressor.

a
)

217.—Norwalk Compound Air C

Fie.

into skips. Monobel is the permitted explosive used, except
when shooting in wet places or stone, when saxonite is em-

348 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

ployed. ‘The shots are fired by means of electricity, Nobel’s
low tension fuses and exploder being used.

Compressed air is used for the Ingersoll punches, the
Little Giant air drill, and a Tangye-Snow pump. There
are air receivers underground as well as on the surface; in
fact, each district has its own receiver. The main air pipe is
six inches in diameter, from which three-inch branch pipes are
led into the slants, one and a half inch pipes being provided
for each bord. The air is compressed in a Norwalk tandem
compound compressor, with mechanical valves, and provided
with an overhead intercooler, supplemented by two Ingersoll-

Fig. 218.—Ingersoll-Serjeant Compressor.

Sergeant single cylinder compressors. In the Norwalk com-
pressor the air and steam cylinders are arranged tandem. (Fig.
217.) The object of compounding the air cylinders 1s to aver-
age the resistance throughout the stroke, instead of having
an excessive maximum resistance at the end of the stroke, as
is the case with single compressors. By having the final pres-
sure in the intake cylinder comparatively light, the loss in
capacity due‘to clearance is reduced to the smallest amount;
moreover, the cylinders are water jacketed, which helps to

04

PELAW MAIN COLLIERY. 349

cool the air. The intercooler between the two air cylinders is
composed of a pipe containing copper tubes, that split the
air compressed in the low pressure cylinder into thin streams,
which are cooled by circulating water. By cooling the air that
has been heated by compression, the tendency to expand is
decreased, and therefore the high pressure cylinder can do
more effective work. The mechanical inlet and out valves
are of the Corliss pattern.

The Ingersoll-Sergeant is a straight line single air cylinder
compressor. It does not take up much space, every part of the
machine is very accessible, and the piston can be removed from
either cylinder in a short time. The air cylinder is completely
jacketed, including both heads, near where the air is in great-
est compression, and consequently is hottest. The free air enters
the cylinder through the piston. In Fig. 218, A is the circula-
ting water inlet; B the circulating water outlet; C the water-
jacketed drain pipe; D the oil hole for the automatic oil cup;
EK the air inlet, through piston inlet pipe; I air discharge; G
the pison inlet valve; H discharge valves; I water jacket. The
two inlet valves located in the piston, together with the tube,
are carried backwards and forwards with the piston. The large
ring air inlet valve admits a large area of opening with but
a small throw of valve, thus quickly opening a large supply
port. The movement of the valve is only about a quarter of
an inch. It is positive in its action. The valve on that face:
of the piston which is towards the direction of movement is
closed, while the one on the other face is open.

The haulage consists of two endless rope systems, one in
each tunnel. Each rope has a total length of from 34 to 4
miles, and has 2a loop branch. These ropes are driven by a pair
of R. and J. Morison and Bearby engines. Three skips are run
in a set, clipped to the rope with screw clips. Monkeys, which
are bars of wrought iron bent at right angle, and pivoted at
the bend, are arranged all the way down the incline on the up
track, so as to catch any skips that might break away. There
is also a main and tail rope system with two branches, worked
from the surface. Electric secondary haulage is being installed
for the branches. The axles of the skips are square where
they enter the hub of the wheels. They are fastened on by
driving in wooden wedges, and tightened by driving iron
wedges into the wood.

Electric wire signals are-used, and telephones are fitted
up throughout the colliery.

A belt driven Schiel fan, 12ft. 6in. in diameter, is used for
ventilating the colliery. A spare engine is provided, arranged
end on to the other. At the new air shaft, » Sirocco fan will

350 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

be installed. The blades of this fan are very numerous (Fig.
219), and their depth is very shallow in relation to the dia-
meter of the fan, while their axial measurement is very long.
The outer edges of the blades are curved forward in the direc-
tion of rotation, and the air passages between the blades are

open towards the inflowing air. The inlet and outlet open-

Fig. £19.—Sirocco Fan.

ings are of approximately equal diameter to that of the fan
itself, and very much larger in proportion than that of other
centrifugal fans. The volume of air discharged is greater than
that of other centrifugal fans of equal diameter. The fric-
tional resistance to the passage of a given volume of air is

PELAW MAIN COLLIERY. 351

less, consequently the efficiency in actual work done for the
power supplied is much more. The detrimental eddies which
occur in other fans are obviated by the construction of the
Sirocco. This fan has a double inlet, and is 190in. in dia-
meter. It is driven at 200 r.p.m., and is capable of exhausting
350,000 cubic feet of air per minute, against 54in. water gauge.
This requires 230 b.h.p. It is driven by ropes from a 3
phase, 50 period, 3300 volt motor, of 500 h.p. Ropes are bet-
ter than belts for driving fans, for if a rope breaks the others
will drive the fan till the men have time to get out of the mine
before it is necessary to stop for repairs. The bearing surfaces

Fig. 220.—Locomotive Built in 1858.

for the shafting of the fan are very wide, and lined with white
metal. They are fitted with leather washers at each end to
make them dust proof. The bearings are lubricated by auto-
matic ring lubricators. An adjustable sole plate is provided,
which is wedge-shaped. By screwing this in or out, the bear-
ings can be aligned in a very short time should the foundation
settle. It is also useful when the lower bush has to be re-
moved, for, by dropping the lower half of the bearing, the
bush can be slipped round the shafting and taken out. :

302 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

The coal, when raised, is tipped from revolving side tip-
plers, worked by friction gear, on to shaking screens. The
round coal passes to a travelling picking belt, which can be
thrown in and out of gear by a friction clutch. A Pooley’s
weighbridge is used for waggons.

This company is still running two small locomotives built
in 1856 for use in the Crimean war (Fig. 220), but they have
had cabs added. In comparison to this, their No. 9 is the
finest privately-owned locomotive in New South Wales. (Fig.
221.) It weighs 90 tons when ready for work, has 2lin. dia-

Fig. 221.---No. 9 Locomotive.

meter cylinders and it has eight wheels coupled. The front
wheels are bogies, and the back radial. This is a tank engine,
and was made by Kitson, of Leeds.

The Lancashire boilers are fitted with Triumph automatic
stokers. (Fig. 222.) Automatic stokers effect economy of fuel
and economy of labour. More perfect combustion is obtained
than by hand, and the evaporation is higher, more uniform,
and more easily regulated. The fire doors being kept closed,
less smoke is made than when frequently opened for hand feed-
ing; also cold air is prevented from playing on the hot plates
and damaging the boiler. The slack is brought to the boilers

PELAW MAIN COLLIERY. 303

by scraper conveyors, and is then fed slowly into the fire-box
and pushed gradually forward by the movement of the fire-
bars, which have a backward and forward up and down motion.

A vertical spindle at the side of each boiler has a worm on
either end. This spindle is driven from a horizontal shafting,
on which are a fast and loose pulley, by means of a worm and

ee RES

Fig. 222.--Automatic Stoker.

worm wheels. The top part of the spindle actuates a shovel at
the bottom of the coal box, four cams pushing the shovel
backwards in turn, while a spring forces it forward again. The
lower part of the spindle imparts motion to the fire-bars.

Neath Colliery.

The Wickham and Bullock Island Coal Company owns
this celliery, which is managed by Mr. Clem Jones. Here the
lower Greta seam is all in one. A bore struck coal on 3rd
October,.1905, at 286ft., where it was 26ft. thick without the
bands, or 27ft. 10in. including bands. Shafts were started the
first week in May, 1906, and the first train of coal was des-

patched to the Newcastle dyke on 26th February, 1907. This
ig a shaft mine. The main shaft is 14ft. in diameter in the
clear, 299ft. deep to the roof of the seam, and it is lined

354 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

from top to bottom with bricks. It has steel rail guides at the
sides for the cages to run on, so as not to obstruct ventilation
with centre buntons. The air shaft is 12ft. diameter in the
clear. It has one cage with four rope guides. The roof of
the air drift is made of planks covered with felt and lead on
the outside where exposed to the weather, so as to make it
air tight. Windows at this shaft are placed opposite each
other, to enable the driver to see the position of the cage at the
landing place. They have an iron Guibal-Walker fan, 16ft.
diameter, and 6ft. wide, open at both sides, and there is a fixed

Walker shutter at the exit end. Steam exhaust and water’

pipes occupy this shaft. When sinking the air shaft, much
trouble was experienced for a few weeks by a heavy flow of
water about 16ft. from the bottom. The. water is now kept
down with a Tangye pump 12in. by 5in. by 24in., and they
have a spare Tangye l4in. by 6in. by 24in. in case of emer-
gency. |

The main winding engine is a duplex 20in. diameter eylin-
der, 3ft. stroke, with an 8ft. drum, on which two ropes
are wound. The pit head frame is of wood, standing in cast-
iron shoes. |

The N.W. heading is about half a mile long, with a grade
of lin 14. The coal is mostly drawn by horses. There are
stables both underground and at the surface. .

The coal is worked in 8 yard bords, 14 yard pillars being
left between them. The pillars are taken out 7ft. to 10ft.
high; the top coal has not been dropped yet. Every two chains
cut-throughs are put in. At first all the hewing was done by
hand pick, but now they have one Jeftrey shortwall machine,
and two Jeffrey breast machines. Five more of the latter have
been ordered. Naked lights are used in this colliery.

The first electric plant they had was for lighting purposes,
and consisted of an 8? h.p. Siemens 220 volt. direct current, 4
pole motor, belt-driven from a vertical Tangye engine, Tin. by
Tin. They now have a 150k.w. Siemen’s generator, 500-550
volts, 420 r.p.m. direct coupled to a Bellis-Morcom engine,
with 13in. and 2lin. cylinders, and Qin. stroke, which uses
steam at 150lbs. ‘The steam is supplied by a Thompson boiler
30ft. long by 8ft. 3in. in diameter.

A Marcus conveyor, 62ft. long, the first to be installed in
N.S.W., for screening and cleaning purposes, is belt driven by
a 10 h.p. motor, which has 1060 revolutions per minute. The
conveyor speed is 61ft. per minute. After separation,
the coal is conveyed by a under trough for 22ft. to
the required position over the small coal waggon road. The
skips are returned to the shaft by a creeper chain travelling at
the speed of 50ft. per minute, motion being imparted to it

NEATH COLLIERY. 355

through spur gearing to a 5 h.p. motor. A three skip tip-
pler, 11ft. 6in. diameter, delivers the coal on to the conveyor
through a shoot.

Abermain Colliery.

This colliery, formerly known as the Silkstone Coal Mine,
is nine years old, and belongs to the Abermain Colliery Com-
pany Ltd. The manager is Mr. J. Jeffries.

The seam dips one in eighteen, and is worked from tun-
nels. (Fig. 223.) All the top seam is worked.

SESE: sooemmear peo

ABEL RMALN a

Fig. 223.—Entrance to Main Tunnel.

The more recent workings are laid out in panels of 200
yards. Originally all bords-were taken out on a level course,
but now levels are driven off the main places, and bords turned
off from them to the rise. The bords are 8 yards wide, and the
pillars 9 yards. No pillars have been worked as yet. Cut-
throughs are made every 44 yards. The pillar between a pair
of levels is one chain wide; the barrier pillar at the end of the
bord, which is not broken through, is 11 yards wide.

The coal is undercut by 15 Jeffrey electric chain breast
machines.

356 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

This is a naked light mine. The 30ft. diameter Waddle
fan is direct driven by a Morison and Bearby engine made in

duplicate. The fan has bearings in the air drift, as well as in
the engine room.

A Mather and Platt centrifugal pump raises 50,000 gallons
of water per hour against a head of 120ft. There are also five

electrically driven three-throw vertical Allantown pumps. One

is driven direct by a Verety standard motor of 5 h.p. The

others are belt driven from Westinghouse motors.

An engine plane is worked down the main dip tunnel as far
as the air shaft, and also serves a crosscut. The main hauling

engine, bult by Morison and Bearby, is geared; the drum be-

ing wide, has to have guide sheaves between it and the pit.

top, on account of the fleet angle. Another engine plane con-

tinues down the main dip tunnel, worked by a rope passing:

down the air shaft. The engine used is a small Morison and
Bearby, with two drums, so that it can be used for a main
and tail rope system if necessary, but just now only one drum
is used. The gearing is in front of the engine; some people
prefer this to having the gearing at the back, as any pull on
the drum has a tendency to make the cogs of adjoining wheels
mesh tighter together instead of pulling apart, when in the
latter case control of the drum might be lost. On the other

hand, front gearing sometimes gets in the way of the lower

rope.
About 22 skips are brought out in a set. The last skip has

a “‘bull,’’ or dragbar, so as to prevent the skips from running

down. hill in case the rope should part.

There is a throw-off at the top end of the flat between the

two engine planes, also at the bottom of the lower engine
plane. This consists of about 10ft. of 601b. iron rail with its
down hill end hinged to a plug let into the roof. The loose

end is held up by a catch attached to a chain and rope that’

pass round sheaves. The boy at the flat can tell by the sound
if the skips are running away, in which case he puts the throw-:
off into action by pulling the line when the loose end of the
rail falls down, and the skips rush up against it. The first two:
skips are generally smashed up, but the rest are saved.

At the pit top there are two shaking screens, three sta-
tionary screens, and two picking belts. The slack box with
the hopper truck, which is drawn up the incline by a rope
from an engine, Gan be seen in Fig. 224.

The boiler plant at the main entrance consists of three
Cornish and one Lancashire boiler; while at the air shaft there
are two Cornish boilers.

In the powerhouse, there are two Jeffrey compound wound
6 pole generators, one of 100k.w., the other of 80k.w., worked

a mite
ee eee as Mr:
. oe

Sen ee Z

~9™ A)

GE Te

A
-.

ABERMAIN COLLIERY. 357

in parallel. ‘The voltage is 250. These are driven by belts
from McEwan engines, which are 168 h.p. and 124 h.p. respec-
tively. These engines do excellent work, and require a mini-
mum of repairs.

Hebburn Colliery.

The township of Weston has grown up about this colliery,
which is one of those owned by the A. A. Company, whose
eeneral manager, Mr. R. A. Harle, looks after it. The colliery
is only six years old.

Fig. 224.—Slack Box.

Both the top and bottom split of the bottom seam are
worked. The top split is from 6ft. to 10ft. thick, while the
bottom split is 4ft. 6in. to 6ft. 6in. thick, and they are sepa-
rated by 20ft. to 50ft. of rock. Both splits are worked inde-
pendently, but are connected by stone drifts. The coal is ex-
tracted on the bord and pillar system, the pillars of both work-
ings being arranged one above the other. The mine is divided
into panels 20 chains square, with barrier pillars between, 14
chains wide. The bords are 6 yards wide, and the pillars 16
yards. There are only working bords and cut-throughs at pre-
sent. They have not commenced drawing the pillars, but when

308 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA,

they do will begin by taking out those of the top split first.
The bords are all worked up hill from one side of a heading
only, since the coal falls forward better. There is natural
drainage, and the full skips have a down hill run. The road
ways are given a grade of half an inch to the yard.

They use both the main and tail rope and the endless
rope systems of haulage. The main and tail rope works both
splits in the seam, and serves five districts altogether. It
brings the skips to the endless rope, which takes them to the
surface, and to the tumbler at the pit top. A Tangye engine,
20in. by 40in., geared 3 to 1, with 6ft. drums, and provided
with steam reversing gear, is used for the main and tail rope.
There are 35 skips to.a set, and the last skip has a ‘‘bull’’ or
drag bar attached. This ‘‘bull’’ is forked at the end near the
skip, and each arm has a double hook. (Fig. 225.) This end
is hooked on to the skip, while the pointed end is hung from the
tail rope, so as to keep it from knocking against the rollers.

) La

q.

11) ALD

Fig. 225.—Bull and Dragbar.

Should the main rope break, the tail rope becomes slack and
the ‘‘bull’’ falls, so that it can stick into the ground. The
skips travelling up hill must stop momentarily after the main
rope breaks before they start down in the opposite direction.
It is then, before the pace is accelerated, that the “‘bull’’ must
act.

The endless rope engine is a Robey llin. by 22in., geared
15 to 1, fitted with a Richardson patent cut-off gear, which does
not use more steam than absolutely necessary. The skips are
attached to the rope by Smallman’s clip, in which a wedge,
worked by a lever, forces the cheeks of the clip apart at the
top, and causes them to grip the rope below.

They work with 16 Jeffrey chain breast machines and one
Goodman, all electrically driven. This is the only pit in the
district to use safety lamps with coal cutters. Two of the Jef-
frey and the Geodman make 7ft. by 3ft. cuts, while 14 Jeffrey
make a 6ft. by 3ft. cut. The chief trouble with the electrical
part is burnt out starting boxes and damaged trailing cables;

HEBBURN COLLIERY. 359

the mechanical troubles are broken cutter chains and trolley
chains. Most of the breakages are due to carelessness on the
part of the men.

As chain breast machines require 12f{t. space to work in,
when the roof is tender, the coal has to be undercut by hand.
If not too bad, the roof may be supported by 12ft. slabs resting
on two posts.

Two single pole joint boxes are used at the entrance to
each going bord for connecting the trailing cable to the main.
Each pole having its own box, there is no possible chance of
accidental short circuiting. By suitable mechanism, the hole
through which the plug enters is closed by a door which can-
not open while the switch is closed. The main cable is car-
ried along the roof of the heading on the bord side, so that the
trailing cable shall not have to cross the rails and run the
risk of being damaged by passing skips.

To save a long detour of half a mile or a mile for the cables
from the workings of the upper split to those of the lower
split, a borehole, 24in. in diameter, was put down by hand for
16ft. It was lined with a 2in. tube, which was cemented in;
the cable was passed down this and fixed with bitumen.

The trailing cable is a twin, sometimes round in section
and covered with plaited greenhide as a protection; and some-
times it is flat in section, the cables being laid alongside each
other instead of being worked in with strands, as in the case of
the round cable. The flat cables do not coil up so well as the
round. | They are run through rubber hose for protection.

The old electric plant consisted of a McEwan engine which
drove a Jeffrey direct current generator for low tension. There
are equalising switches to equalise the power of the main and
spare generators. The recent installment consists of two Er-
nest Scott and Mountain generators, each of 100k.w., driven
by 14 ropes from a Robey and Co.’s compound engine, 18in.
and 28in, diameter cylinders, and 3ft. stroke. All the shaft
bearings for the dynamos are on the ball and socket principle,
which allows for a certain amount of give and take, and ad-
justs any irregularities in alignment. There are two slip rings
for self lubricating purposes in each bearing, and there is a
sufficient supply of oil to last the bearing for three months.
There is a flexible coupling between the rope pulley and each
motor. Both halves of the coupling have 6 bolts arranged in
a circle, but the circles are of different radii. A belt is worked
in and out between the bolts of the two halves, and the whole
covered with a steel shell. The coupling can be readily dis-
connected by slipping the shell on one side and pushing the
belt off. All the brushes on the dynamo can be adjusted simul-
taneously by a hand screw, or each brush can be adjusted

360 COALFIELDS. AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

separately if necessary. Any dust that settles in the dynamo
is cleaned out by means of compressed air, which can be
handled through a hose.

The boiler plant consists of a nest of Lancashire boilers,
Sft. 6in. in diameter and 30ft. long, in which steam is gene-
rated at a pressure of 120lbs. An A.B.C. fan is fitted to the
return flue of the boiler to create an induced draft. (Tig. 226.)
By using such a draft the stoker is able to thoroughly burn
the coal. When the fan is in commission, both flue doors are
opened.

Fig. 226.—A.B.C. Fan for Induced Draught.

A Capell fan, 12ft. in diameter by 9ft. wide, with double
inlet, is driven by a Robey engine, 22in. by d4in. , to ventilate
the mine. The engine is provided with a Richardson governor
and shut-off gear. With a 2in. water gauge, this fan will pass
220,000 cubic feet air.

An Ingersoll-Sergeant straight line single air compressor
is used to supply motive power for the pumps. The pumps are
6 to 7 Tangye, one Evans and one Mather and Platt four cham-
ber high lft centrifugal, which lifts the water 200ft.

The heapstead is “built on wrought iron girders supported
on cast-iron columns. The full skips are raised sufficiently

— a

Fert Re ee en eee

a

re 25

ABERDARE COLLIERY. 361

high by the endless rope so that they can gravitate to the tip-
pler, and after being tipped, they are pushed out by the next
skip, and gravitate to the empty line. Drop chocks, that can
be raised between the rails, are used on the empty or return
line in case of a run away, while monkey chocks are used on
the up line. The side tipplers were made by Head-Wrighton
and Co., of Stockton on Tees, England. The underside of the
tippler is weighted. It is set in motion by a friction wheel
which is brought in contact with it by means of a lever. This
was originally made self acting, but as a man had to be in
charge, it was found better to let him do the work, so as to
keep him fully employed. Each tippler is capable of dealing
with 3 tons per minute. From the tippler the coal passes to a
shaking screen, and the round coal falls on to a T0ft. by 4ft.
6in. picking belt. The small coal storage has a capacity of
4000 tons. The bottom portion is brick-lined, the Jeffrey elec-
trically driven run-a-round conveyor over it being supported on
a steel structure.

The company does all its own brass castings, and in the
shops they have a shaping machine, 2 drilling machines, punch
and shearing machine, steam hammer, and five forges with
forced draft. The shafting runs the full length of the shop,
and is driven by a Robey engine.

Aberdare Colliery.
This colliery belongs to the Caledonian Coal Company

~Ltd., for which Mr. D. McGeachie is superintendent. It is

situated at Weston, near Cessnock. The seam being worked is
32ft. thick, but only 8ft. 6in. of the lower coal is won. The
mine is laid out in panels a quarter of a mile square, with a
barrier pillar one chain wide between them. The coal is ex-
tracted on the bord and pillar system, the former being 8 yards
wide, and the latter 16 yards.

The seam is worked from brick-lined circular shafts about
500ft. deep. The downcast shaft has a steel head frame. There
are three rope guides for each cage, and two dead ropes are
hung between the cages to prevent them from swaying too
much. The guide ropes have their upper ends fastened by pass-
ing them through eye bolts at the top of the head frame, and
clamping them. ‘The hoist consists of a pair of engines, with
34in. diameter cylinders and 48in. stroke. These drive a
12ft. diameter drum with a brake path round the middle.
The driver’s seat is high up, and so situated that he has a
good view of the pit top.

A band rope driven from the surface by an engine passes
down the main shaft to a clutch room underground, where it

362 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

works two endless rope haulages, which travel at the rate of
1} to 1? miles per hour. The endless rope is fed by twe
jigs on a grade of 1 in 18, and a main and tail rope driver
from the surface, which passes down the air shaft. Electric
secondary haulage is about to be installed.

The air shaft (Fig. 227) has a wooden head frame, and is
provided with a cage that runs on two rope guides. There is
a special approach to the shaft for men, provided with an air
lock. The fan used is a 12ft. Capell fan, for which there is a
duplicate engine.

Fig. 227.—Air Shatt.

Seventy-five per cent. of the coal won is undercut by ma-
chines, of which there are 12 Sullivan shortwall machines,
and 4 Jeffrey chain breast machines. The pick and chise/
points of these machines after being shaped by the blacksmith
are finished off on an emery wheel.

Four Tangye three-throw pumps, Tin. by 6in., driven by
10 h.p. electric motors, are used. for pumping out the dip faces.
The new pump, a three-throw 9in. by 12in., will supplant the
present pumps, and will raise 22,000 gallons of water against

i

ABERDARE COLLIERY. 363

a head of 5U0ft. per hour. It will be rope driven from a 95 h.p.
electric motor, built by Scott and Mountain, of Newcastle-on-
Tyne.
: There are eight multitubular boilers by A. Goninan and
Co., and one Lancashire boiler by John ‘’hompson, of Wolver-
hampton, Hngland, designed with corrugated flues, for a
working pressure of 15Ulbs. This boiler is used for the power-
house only. l'eed water is pumped from a dam half a mile
away by an electrically driven 7in. by 6in. three-throw pump
controlled from the mine. ‘Two old egg end boilers are used as
treatment tanks for where they are obliged to use pit water,
and as water heaters where fresh water can be obtained.

The fitting shop is provided with a planing machine,
screwing machine, drilling machine, and lathe.

The blacksmith’s shop has four forges, the air for which
is supplied by a blower worked oft a belt by an electric motor.
There is also a shearing and punching machine, and a steam
hammer.

Other buildings include a carpenter’s shop, electric fitting
shop, store, etc.

The power-house contains an Ames high speed engine,
which belt drives a 500 volt continuous current generator made
by the General Electric Company. This is used to work a 95
h.p. motor direct coupled to a Worthington five stage turbine
pump, which is used for pumping from the sump at the bottom
of the shaft to the surface.

Two sets of Bellis and Morcom high speed engines are
direct coupled to British Thompson-Houston 100k.w. 250 volt.
generator, used to supply power for coal-cutting, pumping, and
hghting.

One set of Ernest Scott and Mountain’s high speed engines
are direct coupled to a 200k.w. 250 volt generator.

The three latter generators will be replaced by three sets
of high pressure, 2200 volts, 3 phase machines, and there
will be four sub-stations underground, each of 100k.w. Each
sub-station will consist of a 150 h.p., 2200 volt, three phase
motor, direct coupled to 100k.w., 250 volts generator, for low
tension distribution in the pit to coal cutters and pumps.

In the same building is an auxiliary winding engine for
the air shaft, and the main and tail rope engine.

The main low tension electric cable is passed down the
shaft, and is clamped to an old winding rope every 15ft., which
serves as a support.

__ The high tension cable is placed in an iron pipe on the far
side of the shaft. The pipe is clamped to the wall. At the top
of the shaft are boxes for connecting the shaft-cable with the
surface-cable. -

364 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

Every month the trailing cable is tested by passing it
through a shallow bath of water from one reel to another. An
electric main carrying 500 volts is connected with one end of
the trailing cable through a special high pressure voltmeter.
The other main is connected with an iron plate, and dropped
into the water tank; by this means a defective place may be
localised in the section being tested. If one exists, it is then
repaired and again tested. After the whole cable has been
treated in this manner, it is coiled up and placed in a large
metal-lined water tank for six hours, and then tested by con-
necting one end kept out of the water to the main cable, and

Fig. 228.— Ambulance Waggon.

the other end to the metal lining of the tank, and using an
ohm-meter. This must show a resistance of at least one
megohm.
~All about the surface works, as well as below, at suitable
distances apart, stand water pipes are arranged in case of fire.
At the pit top there is the usual creeper chain, two rota-
ting side tipplers for the coal, and an end tippler for the dirt
box. The shaking screen has oblong-shaped holes cut in steel
plates, and a shoot at the end provided with a gate. Scraper

‘ cut
4

as

ABERDARE EXTENDED. 365

conveyors take the slack to the slack box. An ambulance wag-
gon (Fig. 228), properly fitted up, is kept in readiness at the
mine in case of accidents.

The Aberdare Extended.

This colliery, situated at Cessnock, and adjoining the
Aberdare colliery, also belongs to the Caledonian Coal Com-
pany Ltd. It is under the management of Mr. Ernest Humble.

The coal seam here is 32ft. 9in. thick, but at present they
only extract 9ft. of the bottom coal.

The mine is opened up by two intake tunnels, with an in-
termediate return air-way between, and a back heading on the
outside of each intake. The bords are placed at an angle of
about 45 degrees to the back headings, so as to allow any water
to gravitate towards the headings. Flats or clipping stations
are placed every 100 yards. The bords are 8 yards wide, the

Fig. 229.-—Flexible Coupling.

pillars 15 yards, and the cut-throughs at right angles to the
bords are 4 yards wide.

The coal is undercut by three Sullivan machines, that cut
across the face, and one Jeffrey breast machine.

At present they are working with an engine plane, the
empties running into the mine by gravity, while the full skips.
are pulled out by steam, but this is only temporary, and will
be replaced by an endless rope system, the engine for which
is erected and has three Walker’s pulleys, one for the main,
the others for the two branches. All the ropes pass down the
main tunnel, This is a naked lamp mine.

The Capell fan is 10ft. in diameter, and open at both sides.
It is driven by ropes from two General Electric Company’s.
motors of 105 h.p. each. These motors are connected to the
shafting by a flexible coupling (Fig. 229), which takes up any
slight movement of the shafting, misalignment, or end thrust,

366 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA,

without transmitting any effect, beyond a purely rotative one.
These motors are not run dt their full capacity. Later on,
when the speed of the fan has to be increased, only one motor
will be used, the other being held in reserve, in case of a
breakdown.

There are two three-throw pumps, 7in. by 6in., also a
small 2in. three-throw pump, all electrically direct driven.
These are mounted on trollies, so that they can be hauled about
from one place to another. When the hft becomes too great
for these pumps, a turbine pump, now on the ground, will be
installed at a permanent sump, from which it will pump to the
surface.

The horses employed below are stabled at the surface,
where there is accommodation for 32 animals.

At the pit top, after weighing, the skips are run into a
side tumbler, of which there are wo, the full skips pushing the
empty one off at the other end. The coal falls into a shaking
screen made of four plates, in which there are oblong holes.
The large coal falls on to a picking belt, and then down a
shoot into waggons. The shoot has a swing door, which is let
down while filling the waggons; this not only bridges the space
between the shoot and the waggon, but does away with the
necessity of stopping the picking belt while changing wag-
gons. The slack falls into a small coal hopper, from which it
is elevated along a trough to a slack box. Out of this box the
fuel for the boilers is drawn, and the miners get their monthly
allowance of one ton per man. There is a slide door at the
bottom of the trough, where it passes over a line of rails, so
that waggons can be loaded with slack as required. Any dirt
brought out of the mine is tipped into a dirt box from an end
tippler. The side tumblers are set in motion by a man who,
by pressing on a lever with his foot, forces a revolving pulley
against the rim of the tumbler. Cae

The boiler house contains four Lancashire boilers; they are
30ft. long, and each tube is 3ft. 3in. in diameter. The boilers
are made for a working pressure of 120lbs. of steam, and are
each rated at 800 h.p. Two of the boilers were made by Goni-
nan and Co., and: two by J. Thompson, of Wolverhampton. Ar-
rangements are made whereby the dampers can be manipu-
lated from the front of the boilers. The water is fed in by two
Smith, Vaile pumps. i

The power-house encloses two sets of Bellis-Morcom high
speed engines, each direct coupled to a 100k.w. British Thomp-
son Houston 6 pole, 250 volt generator.

A stump cabin has been erected by the company, in which
the men can pay their dues to an officer of their union.

867

CHAPTER XVI.

GENERAL REMARKS.

There has been no systematic sampling of the various coal
seams in the different collieries. Analysis have been made
and published, which have been obtained from various sources,
interested and otherwise. Until this matter is taken in hand
and properly carried out by some independent person, the
comparison of Australian coals with those of other countries
must be accepted as approximate only. ‘The following are
the results of samples taken and analysed by representatives
of the Department of Mines, N.S.W. :—

Proximate analysis of coals from collieries of the Western
Coalfield. These coals are all from the Upper Coal

Measures.
: ; ot

e hake wes
—) ° a Oo:
; See ate 7S aa
Name of Colliery. o¢ of 5 s ye Bers

os bem es a wy wh
A aera ae a ce ¢ ce

mS Sb pe Z 3S an o Ags
ts ti ey < DOs “O mone

ilvanhoe Colliery, digit s

Fla : 3.95 26.11 56:01. 13.93 —0:580 1.400 — 2
1Trondale Colliery,

Piper’s Flat (b).. 3.95 26.17 55.25 14.63 0.590 1.508 — 11.4
1Culler. Bullen (c).. $25 34.15. 51.95 12.65 0.645. 1.348: 64.60. 12.1
1Lithgow Valley Col- _

liery, Lithgow (d) .. 2.25 33.20 53.385 11.20 0.713 1.358 — 124
hig pee oer Lith- x

w (e). LOG aoe) 82.800 A275. HO.3710: - 2.366" 2'65:05- 261251
2Cobar . . Copper Works 2. <

Colliery, Lithgow (f) 1.95 30.50 51.65 15.90 0.590 1.422 fe 11.3

Zig Zag Colliery, Lith-

PRO a) etieitaie. he aire ih ecbeatoy -O6G: 1860). (64.7 12:2
1Vale of Clwydd Col-

5
liery, Lithgow (h).. 0.90 34.75 51.15 13.20 0.576 1.357 64.35 11.8
1Oakey Park egos
Lithgow (i) . £90 <3S:80° 03.10 = ad A5' 7 0:830) 1-278" 64.30: 12:6
2Portland Colliery ( i) 6.06 20.26 50:70 13.98 0:672 1.4382 ae cs
*Hermitage a Nae

Lithgow (k).. . 2.26 28.01 57.23 12:5 0.603 1.417 — —

368 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

Remarks.--(a) No true eoke formed, mass fritted together, dull lustre, ash
nearly white, granular. (b) No true coke formed, mass fritted together, dull
lustre, ash nearly white, granular. (cc) Coke not much swollen, fairly bright,
firm, covered with cauliflower-like excrescences, ash white, granular, with some
flocculent patches. (d) No coke formed, only a well fritted cake left after
ignition, ash reddish tint, part granular, part flocculent. (e) Coke very little
swollen, bright and firm, ash very light grey, granular. (f) No coke formed,
only a_ partially fritted cake left after ignition, ash almost white, granular.
(g) Coke fairly swollen, firm and lustrous, numerous cauliflower-like excres-
cences, ash ‘white, granular. (h) Coke slightly swollen, firm and
lustrous, some cauliflower-like excrescences, ash very light grey, granular.’
(i) Coke fairly swollen, lustrous and firm, numerous cauliflower-like excres-
cences, ash, white, granular. (j) No true coke, ash nearly white, granular. (ik)
No true coke, ash white, semi-granular.

1The pene bed taken in 1899 by the then mine inspectors, and assayed in the
laboratory of the Department of Mines. See FE. F. Pittman. “The Mineral
Resources of New South Wales,” 1901, Sydney. By Authority.

“Assayed by W. A. Greig, and quoted by J. E. Carne in_ his “Geology and
Mineral Resources of the Western Coalfield.” By authority. Sydney, 1908.

Proximate analysis of coals from collieries of the Southern
Coalfield. These coals are all from the Upper Coal Mea-

sures.

a a ip

¢ = boa
= © 2 oSa_:
i = A a ns
Name of Colliery. og = = ey bo
ho oo Y = Op, S2°

2 = =

Sf Se os 4 SR), on Sass
we aS & = r= ob Oe et

AS ao na = = ic a sao
me Os = 2 5 fe 98 2685
ae po & = M phds| DO Hons

"Sydney Harbour Col-

liery, Balmain, 2nd
Cremorne Bore (a).. 0.66 17.57 71.09 10.68 0.724 1.846 81.77 13.0

13\Metropolitan Colliery, 2
Helensburgh (b) .. 4.27 1840 70.56 9.76 ~-0.384 1.402, 80.32 ~12:8
Siereicr: Colliery, Clif- 2
O80L 1:34. ° TE6OU Yio

n (e) 0.82 21.57 64.30 12.80

1 sgouth Clifton Colliery,
Scarborough (d) .. 0.96 22.68 66.87 9.47 0.420 1.3883 ° 76.385 12.6
13Bulli Colliery, Bulli (e) 0.78 23.79 64.96 10.51 0.665 1402 75.61 138.2

138S8outh Bulli Colliery, i
Bellambi ( fd: 0.96 22.68 66.87 9.47 0.420 1.38838 76.35 12.6
**Bellambi on ery, “Bel-
abi 0.78 24.3 64.43 10.48 0.599 1.388 74.86 13.0
2 *Corrimal Colliery,” Cor-
rimal, (h).. é 1.18 24.79 64.80 9:27. > 0.320) AL385.1 720s aes

13\Mount Pleasant " Col- o
liery, Wollongong (i) 0.95 24.00 65.55 9.49 0.855 1.3878 75.04 13.0

13O0sborne-Wallsend Col-
liery, Mt. Keira,
Wollongong (j) .. 0.93 24.24 65.06 9.75 0.466 1.3872 7482 13.0

Remarks.—(a) Coke fairly swollen, firm, dull lustre. () Coke not much
Swollen, dull lustre and fairly brittle, ash slightly reddish tinge, granular. (c)
Coke well swollen, with slight cauliflower-like excrescences, firm and lustrous,
ash grey, flocculent. (a) Coke well swollen, bright and firm, ash slight reddislr
tinge, flocculent. (e) Coke well swollen, with slight cauliflower-like excres-
cences, firm and lustrous, ash grey, flocculent. (f) Coke well swollen, with
cauliflower-like excrescences, firm and lustrous, ash yellowish tinge, flocculent.
(g) Coke well Swollen, firm and lustrous, ash grey, flocculent. (h) Coke well
swollen, bright and firm, ash almost white, flocculent. (i) Coke fairly well
swollen, firm and lustrous, ash grey, granular. (j) Coke well swollen, with
et cauliflower-like execrescences, firm and fairly lustrous, ash grey, floecu-
ent

1The samples were taken in 1899 by the then mine inspectors, and assayed in the
laboratory of the Department of Mines. See HE. F. Pittman. “The MineraTt
Resources of New South Wales,” 1901, Sydney. By authority.

“Assayed by W. A. Greig, quoted by J. E, Carne in his “Geology and Minerat
Resources of the Western Coalfield.” By authority. Sydney, 1908.

®Mean of two analysis.

my

COAL ANALYSIS. 369

Proximate analysis of coals from collieries of the Northern

Coalfields.

mn ; °o.,.
© = 5 eae F
a = 2 a
* lj ; ° = °
Nome of Colliery ee es & aT PRae
= Bi es ©
be @o — @ a ee es ESS
ho om 4 a Stan 8s ARS.
tS Pt & < Rh MO OD Hono
13Wallarah, Swansea (a) 0.97 32.67 57.45 $50. 0;822:" "1,383 12.3
4 htt Teralba (6): ss 3:21> 32:06. 62.25 12A4T 0.422 1.405 64.72 11:8
13Northern Extended,
Teralba (c) . SYS one | desOo the. 0.3438) ©1899) .-6544b. 12.1
: "Northumberland, "Fas-
sifern (d) . 2.54 30.54 50.69 16.22 0.452 1.412 — 11.4
'3Maryland, ’ Platts-
BUTS Ley op lice ee OOO: CObMeD 480 0.624 1.296 62.05 13.5
13Co-operative, New-
GUSH Aig oe ofoe eet 2O= 80.07 54.61 Sabi 0 ooo «= disete s6802 7 AS
13Waratah, Charles-
COSeE ba) soe ee sce LST) 82.8... 10d.00 9.70 0.446 1.346 65.25 12.6
13PDuckenfield, New-
1*Seaham, West Walls-
eastie: (hk). <. .. °.. 2:30 3461 52:95 10.13. 0.560 (1.314 - 63.08 12.45
— Ae Sr A alate eel ero | ieee eat SM «5 2 0.405 1.824 61.9 2
ee We Wallsend,
Carribean (j) LOT Spier | ano 9.05 0.5384 1.365 62.60 18.6
'3Killingworth, Cockle
Creek (k) .. 2.09 35.48 52.78 9.56 0.405 1.3815 62.39 13.2
'’Neweastle A and- B,
New castl OSE oh N22 Shae OO 6.02 0.489 1.308 61.22 13.0

SSA. 4. Co.’s- New Win-
ning, Newcastle (m) 1.64 37.88 55.05 5.93 0.418 1.297 60.98 13.6

*Hetton, Bullock feta

Newcastle 7 ie 1.91 37.41 54.03 6.65 0.481 1.252 60.68 13.5
13Dudley, Dudley (ase 18 (37.89! 53.05 8.70. 0.281. 1.3382 61:82 12.45
'8Burwood, Lambton (p) 1.80 36.20 55.20 6.80 0.424 1.309 62.0 2
Es: ‘Lambton B. Dur-

ham (q) (at Be: 230.62 + Det 9.17 O487 1.344 6465 12.7
1 2Greta. Goilicry: “(ry -.- 1.50 40.62. 49.93 7.9 1.87 1.302. .57/83 13.6
13AHast Greta (s) Mae detGe ) 40.457) (62.25 5.53 1.05 1284: “STIS 13.7
*Heddon Greta (t) w- sit 39,59 54.99 3.31 — 1.275 58.30 —
4Stanford Merthyr (uw) .. 2.21 40.76 50.95 6.08 0.26 1.288 57.03 —

Remarks.—(a) No coke formed, only a dull, loosely-coherent cake left after
ignition, ash yellowish, flocculent, part granular. (b) Coke well swollen, fairly
firm and lustrous, ash grey, granular. (c) Coke not much swollen, brittle and
dull, ash reddish tinge, granular. (d) No true coke formed, ash gray, floccu-
lent. (e) Coke well swollen, firm and lustrous, ash reddish tinge, flocculent.
(f) Coke well swollen, with cauliflower-like excrescences, firm and lustrous, ash
reddish tinge, granular. (g) Coke well swollen and firm, ash brownish, floceu-
lent. (hk) Coke well swollen, with cauliflower-like excrescences, firm and
lustrous, ash reddish tinge, granular. (4) Coke well swollen, firm and lustrous,
ash reddish tinge, granular. (j) Coke moderately swollen, bright in patches,
firm, ash reddish, granular. (k) Coke excellent, well swollen, with cauliflower-
like excrescences, firm and lustrous, ash grey in colour, floceculent or granu-
lar. (1) Coke well swollen, hard and bright, ash brownish, part granular, part
flocculent. (m) Coke well ‘swollen, with cauliflower-like excrescences, firm and
lustrous, ash reddish tinge, granular. (x) Excellent coke, well swollen, with
ecauliflower-like excrescences, firm and lustrous, ash slight" reddish tinge, part
granular, part flocculent. (0) Coke well swollen, (Deon with dark patches,
aSh reddish, granular, some portions flocculent. oke well swollen, hard
and bright, ash brownish, granular. (q) Coke tatty swollen, firm, ash light
brown, flocculent. (r) Coke well swollen, firm and lustrous, ash grey, granu-
lar. (s) Coke well swollen, with cauliflower-like excrsecences, firm and
lustrous, ash slight reddish tinge, granular. (t) Coke fairly lustrous and
well swollen, with cauliflower-like exrescences, ash light pink colour. (u) Coke
firm, bright, fairly well swollen, ash grey

1The samples were taken in 1899 by the shen mine inspectors, and assayed in the
laboratory of the Department of Mines. See HE. F. Pittman. “The Mineral
Resources of New South Wales,” 1901, Sydney. By authority.

*Mean of two samples.

*Prof. T. W. EB. David, “The Geology of the Hunter River Coal Measures,
New South Wales,” 1907, Sydney. By authority.

370 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

Many of our older collieries are equipped: with old-
fashioned machinery, which was good enough when first in-
stalled, but which is now out of date. Such collieries being
nearly worked out, it would not pay to replace the existing
machinery with that of a more modern design, in spite of the
fact that the latter niay do more effective work, and cost less for
upkeep. On the other hand, some proprietors have thought
to economise by removing old-fashioned machinery from a
defunct colliery to a younger one, forgetting that although the
wheels can turn round, they may consume more power in turn-
ing than modern practice permits. Keen competition at the
present day obliges one to look into small matters of economy
which, by accumulation, amount to a large figure by the
end of the year; thus the fact is forced on steam users that it
is cheaper to provide suitable feed water for boilers than to
execute repairs. Taking our collieries on the whole, however,
they compare very well with those in other parts of the world,
and some of our colliery managers who have travelled in Europe
and America in recent years are satisfied that, so far as
methods and equipments are concerned, Australian collieries
are not behind hand. Improvements are constantly being made,
for a colliery of any extent will generally stand the expense of
improvements so as to enable it the better to compete with
others in the trade. In cases, better sites might have been
selected for surface works, better grades for self-acting inclines
adopted, and other alternatives might have been made with
advantage; but such initial errors common to all mining dis-
tricts are gradually being rectified.

There are dangers peculiar to all industries, and coal min-
ing is no exception. Inrushes from the sea have to be guarded
against in some of the coastal collieries, while measures have
to be taken to prevent spontaneous combustion and explosions
of fire damp and coal dust in others.

Mechanical difficulties, such as sinking through quick-
sand, have been met with and overcome in certain instances.

Our coal trade is still hampered at times for lack of suffi-
cient rolling stock and for want of better loading appliances at
wharves.

We have heard a good deal lately about the necessity of hav-
ing breathing apparatus installed at collieries, so as to enable
men to penetrate poisonous gases. With the exception of one
or two outfits of an ancient type at Messrs. J. and A. Brown’s
collieries, I have been unable to learn that any such apparatus
are kept on our coalfields, and if they were, they would be no
good without a corps of men trained in their use. Some differ-
ent types have been brought out to Australia by agents, and
have been officially tested, but did not give satisfaction. After
the Courrierés disaster in France, breathing apparatus were

, v\

BREATHING APPARATUS. 371

used; they were not the means of saving any life; on the con-
trary, some of the rescue party lost their hives. A Royal Com-
mission was appointed in England to enquire into certain mat-
ters connected with the safety of mines, and, among other
things, went into the question of breathing apparatus. In
their first report, issued in 1907, the commissioners came to
the conclusion that there was not really any thoroughly suit-
able breathing apparatus so far brought to their notice, though
some of them were considered capable of being made effective.
They classified existing forms of breathing appliances into one
ot the following four types :—

““(.) The first and simplest consists of a helmet through
which a constant current of air is driven from a pump or com-
pressed air pipe connected with the helmet by a long length
of hose. This form of apparatus, which is similar in principle
to the ordinary diver’s helmet, is very useful when the wearer
has only a short distance to go from the fresh air supply, as
for instance, in many operations connected with underground
fires, but would evidently be of little use in rescue work after
explosions. About two cubic feet of air per minute are required
during work.’’

“*(ii.) In the second type (including the ‘‘Shamrock,’’ ‘‘Im-
proved Fleuss,’’ ‘‘Draeger,’’ ‘‘Weg,’’ and other apparatus), the
wearer breathes into and out of a bag provided with such
arrangements that the carbon dioxide in the expired air is
absorbed, and that highly-compressed oxygen from a steel
cylinder replaces that which is absorbed by the wearer. In
the three first-mentioned appliances the rate of supply of oxy-
gen from the cylinder is constant, and equal to about the
maximum rate of consumption during hard work. This affords
a certainty of there being sufficient oxygen at all times, but
necessitates much waste. In the ‘‘Weg’’ apparatus there is
an ingenious contrivance by which the rate of supply of oxy-
gen adapts itself to the rate of consumption, so that waste is
avoided.”’

“‘(j11.) In the third type (‘‘Pneumatogen”’ apparatus) the
expired air is passed through a cylinder containing superoxide
of sodium and potassium. This not only absorbs the carbon
dioxide, but also liberates at the same time sufficient oxygen to
make up what has been absorbed by the wearer. This appara-
tus is much lighter than the others, and thus presents obvious
advantages. Unfortunately, however, some serious attendant
disadvantages have not as yet been overcome.’’

‘““(iv.) In the fourth type (‘‘Aerolith’’ apparatus), the
wearer is afforded a supply of air by the evaporation of ‘‘liquid
air.’’? The apparatus is light and comfortable, but its use
would entail arrangements for making liquid air and maintain-
ing a constant supply to each place where the apparatus was

372 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

stored.’? A man at rest uses about 0.5 litre of oxygen per
minute, while severe exertion raises the consumption to 2
litres per minutes.

The greatest drawback to the Australian coal mining in-
dustry is the constant labour unrest, generally culminating in
strikes of one or other of the various unions into which the col-
liery employees combine. Men connected with coal mining
seem peculiarily susceptible to strikes, they are utterly callous
as to how their actions inconvenience the public and the coun-
try, and yet they appeal to the public for assistance. Coal
miners are far better paid than metal miners for the work they
do, but as the state of trade does not permit them to work full
time, they do not make so much for the year. Not being busi-
ness men, colliers believe those agitators who tell them that if
the masters liked to demand more for their coal, they
would be in a position to pay better wages. To a certain ex-
tent that might hold good for the home market, though then
manufacturers would have to charge more for the articles that
they produced with the expensive fuel, which in turn would
reflect on the colliers, so that when all is said and done, if the
workers do receive a higher rate of pay than in other countries,
the purchasing power of that money will be less in Australia,
so in the long run the workers are no better off; on the con-
trary, they are worse off, for, with such high rates, they con-
not hope to compete successfully with other countries. But
there is a limit to all things, and if the price of coal and coke
is too high, these articles will be imported into Australia from
abroad, which indeed has already been done. By forcing up
the price of coal, New South Wales has indirectly assisted the
coal mining industry of other places. Near at hand, in Vic-
toria, the State has started a coal mine to supply its wants,
and, in consequence, New South Wales has lost that market.
Rather than be dependent on the vagaries of the coal miners in
New South Wales, the Western Australia Government sup-
port the Collie coalfield. Recent strikes have given a fillip
to coal mining in New Zealand. But, in addition to this loss
in the home trade, the export trade has also suffered, for our
industrial troubles have helped on outside competitors, who
have not only secured fresh trade, but have captured some of
our markets; and every man knows it is easier to keep a cus-
tomer than to obtain a new one. The total output of coal in
New South Wales for the year 1909 was 7,019,879 tons, valued
at £2,618,596, being 2,127,146 tons, worth £734,497, less than
the previous year. Of the above tonnage, 4,393,603 tons, valued
at £2,234,117, was exported, as against 6,098,676 tons, valued
at £3,021,021, in 1908, showing .a decrease of 1,705,073 tons
and £786,904-in value. This fall off was mainly due to the
general strike of coal miners. Some of the trade may be won

aa
os

A Slowest oy

:

a ie a

EFFECT OF STRIKES. 373

back, but it is feared that most of it has been lost to Japan,
British India, China, Borneo, United States and Great Britain,
who now supply customers in the Philippines, Straits Settle-
ments, Java, India, Hongkong and South America, formerly
supplied by New South Wales. Co-operation has been tried
among miners, but collieries run on this principle have not
proved a success. Even State-owned mines have not been
proof against labour trouble, as witness those of Victoria and
New Zealand.

The over-sea trade is governed by conditions over which
Australians have no control. Ships can go to any part of the
world for freights, and at certain seasons of the year the de-
mand causes freights to go up, and an extra shilling per ton
may lose a coal contract to another country working under
more favourable conditions. Besides, foreign countries take
such a serious view of our labour troubles that they look else-
where for their coal supplies, which, if not so good, are at
least reliable. Then again, shippers do not care to charter
ships for Neweastle, not knowing how long they may be laid up
on account of some frivolous strike.

Strikes, by restricting the coal trade, lessens the demand,
make less work for the coal miner and those dependent on
him; hence the broken time worked. If the miner likes to limit
his earning capacity, that is largely his own affair, though in-
directly it also affects the welfare of the country, but unfortu-
nately there are many strikes, several of them being of a trivial
nature, run by mere boys, which affect others, such as those
who handle coal, tradespeople, etc., to say nothing of diminish-
ing railway profits, laying other industries idle for a time, and
throwing fellow unionists out of work. It is to be hoped that
the miners and others concerned in the coal industry will learn
to think and speak for themselves before the industry is ruined,
instead of allowing themselves to be led by irresponsible and
ignorant agitators. There are two sides to every question, and
each should be treated with respect. There are many things
one would like to happen, but they may not be feasible. Miners
would naturally like higher wages, but if the higher wages
killed the industry, the temporary advancement would be a
permanent injury; or a curtailment of the output might in-
crease the earnings of a few while throwing a large number
of their fellow men out of work. Nature seems to have been
generous to New South Wales so far as coal and seaboard are
concerned; it is the unreasonable action of.man that prevents
full advantage being taken of what is offered.

CHAPTER XVII.

History or Vicrortan State Coat MINEs.

By Geo. H. Broome (General Manager).

The Mines are situated about 86 miles south- east from

Melbourne, and three miles from Cape Paterson in what is
known as the Powlett basin.

In Victoria black coal has, so far; only been found in Pet
of Jurassic age. These rocks are usually some thousands of
feet in thickness, and although a number of deep bores have
been put down, it is only in the neighbourhood of Wonthaggi
that the underlying rock has been reached.

Although the Jurassic rocks extend over an area of about
5500 square miles, of which about 2200 square miles are
exposed at the surface, nearly all the localities where payable
black coal occurs may be found in an area about 50 miles long
by about 10 miles wide, running north-easterly from the
mouth of the Powlett River to Moe.

At the south-eastern end of this area is situated the
Powlett Basin and in it the State Mine Reservation, which
consists of an area of approximately 15 square miles in the
parish of Wonthaggi, while adjoining it on the east is the
ee Basin, which is at present withheld from mining
eases.

On the State Mine Reservation about 22,000,000 tons of

payable coal have already been proved to exist in seams ranging

tron 2ft. Gin. to 10ft. in thickness, and boring is still in pro-
gress to ascertain the extent of the field.

The Jurassic rocks consist of sandstones, mudstone and
false bedded sandy shales, leaf impressions being abundant
and marine fossils ‘entirely absent.

The coal, which is usually laminated, always rests on a
mudstone floor.

I a i ee

VICTORIAN STATE COAL MINES. 375

Any coal at a depth of less than 50ft. is usually very
friable, but all coal beyond that depth is much firmer, although
boring shows that it is not correct to assume that the greater

the depth the better quality of coal.
Three bores have gone down 1158ft., 2633ft., and 1380f¢.

respectively in search of lower seams, but without meeting
anything of a payable nature.

The coal-bearing rocks throughout the State Mine area
are marked by recent deposits of sands and clays, seldom
exceeding 30ft. in thickness. The surface consists largely of
dunes of blown sand and swamps, in which peat deposits are
now accumulating. From a study of the boring records it
appears that the present surface deposits now being formed
are of a somewhat similar character to some of those that were
deposited contemporaneously with the Wonthaggi coal seams.

The most important geological features from a mining
standpoint are the faults or vertical displacements that occur
throughout the Victorian coal measures. These faults may
vary considerably in displacement, sometimes dying out to
nothing at one or both ends, while the maximum vertical dis-
placement often exceeds 100ft., and in the main fault lines
considerably more. As far as the present workings are con-
cerned it has been found that the faults usually run approxi-
mately at right angles following the cardinal points of the
compass. These faults have the effect of cutting the coal area
into a series of plateaux.

Boring has been done at fairly close intervals ahead of
the State Mine workings, and the data obtained has been
utilised in constructing a model showing the lie of the coal.
By this means shaft sites can be selected and an idea formed
in advance of how the workings should be laid out. Over the
ground worked to date it has been found that the general rule
is'that the coal dips to the south, and when faults occur is
down thrown to the north, making a section resembling a saw
tooth. These faults act as natural boundaries to the area of coal
that can be profitably worked from each shaft, and as the
deepest coal yet found on the State Mine Reserve is only at a
depth of 500ft., shaft sinking is not a serious item, and it is
expected that by selecting shaft sites in suitable positions,
dead work will be reduced to a minimum,

The fault movements appear to be still in progress, and
can often be picked up on the surface, thus affording valuable
data for prospecting work.

376 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA,

Analysis of the Coal.

The following are the results of samples obtained and
analysed by the New South Wales Department of Mines:

Vol. Fixed

Sample. Moisture. H.C. Carb. Ash.
IN Gite ee oro cae 4.42 34.80 51.36 9°42
bs, Pe aes pia Nahe 4,81 34.94 51.52 8.73
DOA ae ak Oe 5.97 33.22 51.40 9.81

_ Specific Coke.
Sample. - Sulphur. _B.T:U.’s.. Gravity. per cent.
Novi tin ee 11,810 1.317 60.78
ING Gao tas, Reth= Seana 12,310 1.823 60.25
NO. (2-103 isin een we eoe 11,810 1.875 61.21

A few words in connection with the birth of the Victorian
State Coal Mines might be interesting. During the month of
November, 1909, the whole of the New South Wales coal
miners came out on strike, and as the strike seemed likely to
continue for some considerable time, the Minister of Mines,
the Hon. Peter McBride, with commendable promptitude,
called for reports from various officers of his department as to
how soon shafts could be sunk, coal mined, despatched to In-
verloch by bullock waggon, and shipped to Melbourne. From
four to five weeks was given as the time that the above work
could be accomplished, and the following officers were ordered
by the Minister to immediately start for the Powlett, and pro-
ceed with the work :—Mr. Stanley Hunter, M.I.M.E., and Mr.
D. C. MacKenzie, M.E., in charge of the work generally; Mr.
Geo. Falloon,. as secretary, and in charge of accounts and time-
sheets. These officers were ably assisted by the sterling
sevices of Messrs. D. H. Browne and J. MacKenzie, two
veteran mine managers of varied experience and tried ability.

Work was seriously commenced on the 22nd November,

1909. Three shafts were sunk in close proximity to an old
prospecting shaft on a shallow area of coal in Allot. 26.

Four of the drills working on the field were brought to the
shafts, and erected one over each shaft. These were ingeni-
ously converted into winding and pumping plants, and were
successful in raising 43,000 tons of coal in baskets before a
steam winding-plant was installed. Oil engines were used to
drive the converted drills.

In working the emergency mine, the coal was filled at the
face into baskets holding 2 ewt. A trolley holding two
baskets brought the coal ‘tothe various shafts, where it was
hauled to the surface, placed on another trolley, and wheeled
out to the dumps. The gauge of the trolley roads was 18in.

ee saa -

- athe} Saale es

VICTORIAN STATE COAL MINES. 377

Owing to the isolation of the field from railways and good
roads, it was only by the adoption of this primitive method
that the phenomenal development of the mines was made
possible.

To accommodate the workmen during the emergency period
‘“‘Canvas Town’’ had to be erected. The tents were strongly
built, and laid out in surveyed rows, with formed streets, strict
attention being paid to drainage, and other sanitary conditions.
Business people were supplied with sites on entering into a
guarantee to faithfully comply with the strict sanitary laws
laid down for the government of ‘‘Canvas Town.’’ A reticu-
lated water service was laid down, the water being pumped
from a swamp near the coast, through about two miles of pipes.
A double-pan sanitary service was also introduced, and_ it
speaks well for the whole arrangements that during the hot
summer of 1910 not one case of fever had to be dealt with.

Powlett River Camp, February, 1910.

Ten thousand tons of coal were dumped at grass, and 5000
tons were despatched by bullock waggon, by the time the rail-
way connection with Nyora reached the mines, 10 weeks, a
railway from Nyora to the coalfield, 27 miles in length, having
been constructed by the Railway Department in this time.

It is interesting to note that all through this period of
emergency mining, when hustle and bustle were the order of
the day, no serious accident of any kind occurred, which, con-
sidering that the roof in the shallow area was a very soft and
tender one, was a very creditable result.

378 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

The method of working adopted during this period was
stoop-and-room, the pillars or stoops being about 100ft. square
and the roadways 10ft. wide.

During the rush of emergency mining, great care was
exercised in the timbering methods adopted.

In the south side workings, where the cover was from 30
to 40ft., only 6ft. of the coal seam was mined, the remaining
2ft. being kept on for a roof, as it was found to have more
bind than the decomposed strata above it.

Split bars, 9in. x Tin. section, were put up to the coal roof
on legs of 8in. x 6in. section. The bar sets would average
about 4ft. centres, and where necessary were laced with slabs.
In the deeper workings in the north side, all the coal in the
first workings was taken out to a fair sandstone roof, which
was then timbered with the same care as in the south side.
In the present workings, especially in No. 5 main shaft, the
ordinary coal mine method of timbering with ‘‘prop and lid’
is usually found sufficient in the 15ft. bords.

The maximum output reached during the emergency
period was 400 tons per day.

Ventilation was chiefly natural, assisted by Root’s
blowers.

All labour was paid by the day, according to the following
scale :—

Coal miners, 10s. per day.

Hand wheelers, 6s. to 8s. per day.

Winch drivers, 8s. 4d. per day.

Deputies, lls. per day.

Skilled labourers, 7s. 6d. to 9s. per day.

Unskilled labourers, 7s. 6d. per day.

When the Government succeeded in getting their State
Coal Mines Bill through, arrangements were made to equip the
mines in accordance with modern principles, and No. 3 shaft
was made ready for winding. A pair of coupled horizontal
engines, with 14in. cylinders, were placed in position on good
concrete foundations.

Poppet legs, about TO0ft. in height, were raised over No.
3 shaft, and in June of 1910, the old basket system was super-
seded by the more modern method of winding with cages.

The tipple at this shaft is equipped with modern ap-
pliances, so as to reduce as far as possible the cost of handling
the coal.

These include a patent two-speed tippler (the invention of
the writer, who took charge of the operations in April, 1910),
and a modern séreening and’ conveyor plant. The tippler
works excellently, and is most adaptable for dealing with soft
coals. <A lever is touched to start the tippler, and the tippler

2
if
&

VICTORIAN STATE COAL MINES. 379

does the rest. ‘The first portion of the revolution, until the
coal is emptied out, is very slow; the speed for the remainder
of the revolution is much faster. The tippler comes automati-
cally to rest in a position to receive the next skip, when the
cycle is repeated.

The time taken for a complete revolution is 13 seconds.
The coal is passed over jigging screens and a jigging chute,
and is effectively screened and picked before it reaches the
railway trucks.

This description of No. 3 main shaft would not be com-
plete without reference to the excellent accommodation for the
miners, in the way of change-rooms, bath-rooms, and drying-
rooms.

The change-rooms are six in number, and are so arranged
that four are always locked, and only those two in connection
with the shift coming off are open. Pilfering is thus reduced
toa minimum. The bath-rooms are fitted with plunge baths,
shower baths, and wash basins. The floor is of concrete, and
an ample supply of hot and cold water is provided. ‘The

rying-room is divided into three compartments, one for each
shift, separated from each other by trellis work. Four-inch
diameter steam pipes are arranged in four horizontal rows in
each compartment, and the miners are always sure of dry
clothes to go to work in. An average of 640 miners use the
above arrangements daily.

In addition to No. 3 main shaft, there is another main
shaft, No. 5, the workings from which have developed up to
1000 tons per day. At present, old-fashioned gravity screens
are being used for screening, but the erection of a modern
self-acting tippler is being urged, and this would compare
favourably with anything of its kind in Australasia. Steel
hopper bins, with a total capacity of 1000 tons, are being
erected as an adjunct to the tippler.

The shaft is 150ft. deep, 193ft. long, and 153ft. wide.
Two skips side by side are put on each cage.

The pit bottom arrangements in this shaft are such that
the loaded skips are put on the cages on one side of the shaft
only, the empties all being taken off from the other side.

The coal is brought to the shaft bottom by a ‘‘main and
tail rope haulage,’’ and a self-acting incline; 20 skips form a
rake on the former, and 12 on the latter.

Near No. 5 shaft is situated No. 6, which is used for
pumping, lowering timber and_ ventilation. The pumping
plant consists of 1Gin. horizontal engine, with pumping cear,
all set on massive concrete foundations.

380 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA,

This plant works an 8in. Cornish lift of pumps on a 6ft.
stroke. The plant is much ahead of present requirements,
but is calculated to deal with any unexpected inrush of water.

A Cornish boiler, 30ft. long, and 64ft. in diameter, sup-
plies steam for the pumping plant.

Nos. 3 and 5 main shafts are so far the two principle wind-
ing shafts, and are dealing with the present output of 2000

con) to]
tons per day.

Two shafts, Nos. 9 and 10, are now being sunk. They
will be about 300ft. in depth when completed, and will jointly
tap an area estimated to contain 44 millions tons of coal.

These shafts are 143ft. by 12ft. in the clear, and will be
fitted up with cages holding two skips set tandem. As it is
anticipated that heavy surface water from the surrounding

— Be. Sid wiase 3
ee F Py a mit:

State Coal Mine, Powlett River.

swamps may ultimately find its way into the underground
workings, that contingency has been guarded against by in-
stalling a heavy set of Cornish pumps, capable of dealing with
500,000 gallons of water per day.

The pumping gear and.bob are set on massive concrete

foundations; and connected to a 22in. cylinder engine having a
oft. stroke.

VICTORIAN STATE COAL MINES. 381

A surface haulage worked by endless rope is now being
laid down.to connect these shafts with No. 5 shaft, where all
the coal will be screened.

The coal operated on so far averages about 6ft. thick, and
bord and pillar (modified) is the system of working adopted,
with the exception of one section, which is being prepared for
longwall machine-mining.

Nos. 3 and 5 shafts are ventilated by means of a ‘‘Capel’’
centrifugal fan (double inlet), 8ft. in diameter, capable of
passing 180,000 cubic feet of air per minute with a W.G. of
3in.

The men and ponies travel in and out of the mines by

means of a crosscut drive, which has been cut through to the
surface. This is a decided advantage, as the ponies can all
be stabled on the surface. The stables are of most modern
design, and are capable of housing 150 ponies. The washing
and hosing down shed extends the whole length of the build-
ings. The cost of feeding, including draught horses and hacks,
runs out at 5s. 5d. per head per week.
: A complete fire service, with hose stations, has been laid
down over the whole of the timber yard, and surface works.
One of the fitters, with good brigade experience, spends part.
of his time in schooling a mine brigade, and attending to the
various reels and hydrants.

The temporary backsmith shop is furnished with six
forges, and turns. out all the work necessary for the efficient
working of the mine.

Adjacent to the smithshop, there is a temporary plumbers’
shop and saw bench, both of which have been useful factors
in the quick development of the mines.

A brief description of the method of time-keeping and allo-
cation of expenditure might be interesting. A numbered
token is handed to each workman on going to work, and re-
turned by him when his shift is finished. Those men who
are not exclusively employed on one job, hand in a daily time-
card, showing the time employed on each branch of the work.
The accuracy of the records in the underground deputies and
surface foreman’s books is checked by means of the time
tokens issued. From the deputies’ time books, and the daily
time-cards, a dissection of wages expenditure is made daily,
and shown on a ‘‘Daily Labour Cost’’ return. This, in com-
mon with all the revenue returns, shows the cost, per ton, of
coal, under each sub-division of the expenditure. The totals
of the daily cost sheets give the fortnightly wages total.

All stores purchased are debited to Stores Account, and
issued on requisitions signed by foremen and other authorised
persons. The mine’s accountant is advised fortnightly by the

382 COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

storeman of the total amount of stores issued under each ex-
penditure heading. All expenditure is collected in the ledger,
and elaborate fortnightly returns are compiled.

Expenditure on capital and revenue is carefully distin-
guished, the capital returns showing the progressive cost of
each work, until completion.

The quick development at the State coal mines constitutes
a world’s record in coal mining. ‘The mines are now capable
of producing over 2000 tons of coal per day. Up to the 50th
June, 1911, the total output of coal raised was 452,000 tons,
and the aggregate total of distances driven in coal drives and
stone drives was 27.278 miles.

The total footage sunk up to the same date was :—

Main shafte>.-:5. 2200) fete. as Zee ofest
Timber and air ‘shatts oo. °.. jb | See
Pebalit ost ih ies reg error stig ts, a

The capital expenditure to date is only £89,000, to which,
however, must be added £35,000 for contracts in progress.

In keeping with the record development of the mines is
the wonderful progress of the town of Wonthaggi. The town
with its suburbs is estimated to contain a population of 8000,
and ranks next to Geelong in Victorian towns for size.

It is beautifully laid out, and when the roads are finally
metalled, and the young trees, which are looking very healthy
at present, have had time to grow, it will be a very agreeable
place to live in. ‘The residential portion of the town is away
from the business portion. This is a new departure from the
system adopted in laying out most Victorian towns. The
water scheme is most comprehensive, and assures a plentiful
supply of water for years to come. The water gravitates from
the large dam at Lance Creek, to a storage reservoir on the
top of McLeod’s Hill, in Wonthaggi. From this storage re-
servoir the water is reticulated over the lower portions of the
town. A steel storage reservoir is now being erected to pro-
vide a sufficient pressure to reticulate the higher portions of
the town. The whole scheme cost £60,000, and was carried
out under the direction of Messrs. J. M. and H. E. Coane,
consulting engineers, of Melbourne.

Spread over the residential portion of the town, and
adding greatly to the beauty thereof, stand 100 Government
cottages. These cottages were built for the convenience of
the miners, and cost over £20,000. Each cottage stands in a
+-acre allotment, and is substantially built of hardwood, with
plastered walls inside to a dado of alternate strips of white
and red pine. The cottages were designed by Mr. Stanley

ay in; > “

VICTORIAN STATE COAL MINES. 383

Hunter, and are of three classes, to suit the varying require-
ments of the miners. A feature of each cottage is a bath-
room, which, to a coal miner, is a most desirable comfort.

This article would not be complete without a reference to
the State brick works.

They are situated about }-mile from Nos. 9 and 10 shafts.

The brick-making machinery consists of one wire-cut
machine, one grinding mill, and two dry press machines, each

- capable of turning out 1200 bricks per hour. At present the

output of bricks per week is 100,000, most of which are being
used in building a modern Hoffman kiln.

A steam-driven electric power plant is now being in--
stalled at the mine, with the object of supplying power for
winding .and surface work at Nos. 9 and 10 shafts, and at any
future shafts that may be sunk, also for underground pumping,
hauling, ventilation, coal-cutting, lighting, etc., at all the
shafts. It is also proposed to supply light and power to the
township of Wonthaggi.

The generating plant will consist of two Browett-Lindley
three-cylinder high-speed vertical engines, of 750h.p., direct-
connected to two three-phase 5200-volt 50-cycle 500kw. genera-
tor of British Thomson-Houston manufacture, and one
exhaust steam mixed pressure turbine of 520kw. capacity. A
surface condensor with a capacity to handle the total steam
required for the generator of 2000h.p. will be situated imme-
diately under the turbine.

The steam for this plant will be supplied at a pressure of
150 lbs. per square inch from eight Lancashire boilers, with a
total output capacity of 2800h.p. The boilers will be fitted
with Perks Dane underfeed stokers and forced draught will
be employed.

The contractors for the electrical plant are the Aus-
tralian General Electric Company, and for the boiler plant
Messrs. Thompson and Co., engineers, of Castlemaine.

A workshop, comprising smith’s shop, machine shop, and
carpenter’s shop, has been erected adjacent to the power house,
and the following equipment is being installed :—

In the smith’s shop: Shears and punch, pneumatic
hammer and wheel press.

In the machine shop: Screw-cutting lathes, screwing
machines, radial drill, shaping machine, jig saw,
etc.

In the carpenter’s shop: A band saw, mortising
machine, multiple wood-boring machine, etc.

INDEX.

Abbcite ... -. «- 98 Anthracite ... 6, 9, 10, 14, 15,
Abbott, Roby ‘and Naylor ye ges 335 16, 29, ae

A.B.C. Fan, see Fan. Anvil Creek Colliery: S sams poe eee 321
Aberdare Colliery ... ... 319, 361 Arber, E. A. N. 25s aS
Aberdare Extended Colliery 319, 365 Ar buckle, R. vi cas en ee
Aberdare Seam 54, 55, 56, 57, 58 Area of Coalfields 49, =
Abermain Colliery . 319, 320, 355 53, 54, 58. ie te 60
Abermain Colliery Co. Ltd. 355 Arkite ... Sis ee Se ae ye a
Accident Relief Fund ... ... ... 84 Arris Cleat . 144
Actual Selling Price ... ... ... Seek AE ne nee es 24, 125, “228, 229
Actual Specific Gravity ... ... ... 30 Ashford Coalfield . 62
Adamson Boiler, see Boiler ... Asphalt ... ... 13
late UR BO ast ces co ay ee, mee 180 Atkinson, A. A: . 242, 996, 321
Adelaide Steamship Gore 87° Atlas Works ... ... ... 105, 203
Aerolith asian 3 Apparatus 371 Austinmere Colliery ... ... ... 180
After-damp ... .. . 45, 234 Australasian Seam .. 61
Age of Coal . Oo tally inh reene 3 Australian Agricultural Co. 10,

Wat ak 43 90, 242, 244, 288 2.0 J. 34
Air Compressors, Grange Tron Australian Coke Co. ... ... 215, 227
Co. be Mees ... «- .. S12 Australian General Elec. Co.
Horwood ... 106 (See General Electric Co.)
Ingersoll-Sergeant 105, "348, Average Selling Price ... ... ... 80
771 Pe RR Be Cee .. 3860 Avery, W. & T., see Weighing

Norwalk ... ... + 975, “979, 348 Machines.

Oliver and Co. ... 302 Avon River Brown Coal ... ... 66

Reavell ... ... : “190, 191, 192 Axle Catches ... 332

"TANGYVO..'.,4-isee ccs hav, nem ede cess OO. CASODEIO kee Wilcox Boiler, see
Air-drift . 144, 155, 174, 335 Boilers.

339, 340 ... ... ... ses eee ss. 854 Back Creek Colliery 4h nee 272
Air Hosé: 20. 6s as. sae ar ea 27S =e Baeking?s Deals... 6 sc ee ee
Arr Sack Sit 106; S02. Bagkes i 25 See aoe ... 2423
Air Receiver ... ... 279, 348 Badger Seate :..c/i4 150.
Aly SHAPE io kek O75, 278, 980 Bailer ... ... ... vats onl Dont tease eee
Aldrich Electric Pump, see Pump Baring i562. 277, 302, 331, 335
Allan’s Screw Clip ... .. So7.. palnain: 132
Allantown Pump, see ‘Pump .. Bands< ie ai 39, 81, "120, 128, 204
Allen, W. H., Son & Co. ...... 151 Bank ’ 975, 310
Alley & McClellan ... ... ... ... 955 Banker Off ... ... ... 79
Alligators ... . . 333, 334 Banksman ag.) 283, 333
Altona Bay Brown Coal ... ... BGT rcs. Zig’ heel isse asada ee
Amalgamation of Leases ... ... 71. “Barn Blot: Basin. |... 7.3... 4-6 See
Ambulance Cabin ... .. .. 292 Barnes, Jas. “hee: Sa Rev geene 334
Ames Iron Works, see Engines BaTOMetvery 2650/5 8.2 b aes ee
Aumonia:i<... 60 ae oe DS RAPE reel? Ave ject ade. cee ee
Analysis of Coal ... 49, 51, 52, Baryte irae i ee ee

57, 58, sty 67, 68, 70, 71, . Bass River Brown Coal ... ... 66

ORE: sy aera 369 “Battery, Leclanche ... ... ... .... 157

Proximate ...°... ary 18, 99, 33". Beaufort. Seam 5.2) 600 0s 0 Sc0s, van
Ultimate ... ... 15, 18, 20, 31, $2. Becker's Caps 5.0 x<:\i.s sane kav
OF ies Een Mee b Bedson; Prof. )ic. sce ese ctke ak eee

ae ee

INDEX. 385

Bee Creek . 51 Tangye ... ... .. 311
Beehive Oven, ‘gee ‘Coke ‘Oven SROMIDRON, ab 8. S55. 2035 354, 383
Begtrup Governor ... ... ... 249 Walker Bros. 311, 363, 366
Bellambi Coal Co. Ltd ... ... 188 Bonneted Deflector ‘Lamp, see
Bellambi Colliery ... 87, 188, 368 Lamp.

Bellis & Morcom, see Engines Bond . sae ssn
Bell Seam ... ...... ... ... ... 654 Bonnie Dundee Colliery <P Nate ts 55
MCI Ee os MORAINE W505 cp sno) neat, ee © DOOIATA |= ods 6.5 Biase oad eee
Benley Seam .. ... -§4 Boolaroo ... .. EE Sie +
Ben’ Lomond Coal Basin .... 74 Booster Fan, seo Fan... ... ...
Beranger’s Principle ... ... ... 211 Bord.’..: 120, 128, 159, 189, 221,
Bergin’s Seam ... 56 243, 265, 971, 982, 289, 308,
Berryman, see Feedwater Hones 337, ai 365

Bi-fold Lamp, see Lamp Bord Course ... 289
OS ee rere ee Bore Hole ... 130, “243, 24,
“Billy Fair Play ... 111, 112, 285, 298, 346

WET ORG 5. DOO nc deresed ssn ood OLG Borehole Colliery (Q.). Peete 55
Bin Storage . ... ... 102, 176 Borehole Colliery (N.S.W.) ... 241
Birthday Shaft 133, 134, Borehole Seam ... 61, 81, 241,

135, 136, 140, 144... 2... 145 242, 261, 267, 975, 282, 288,
Bishop ‘Fault ... ... re: See ti 291, 301, 303, 305, 308, 317, 319
Bishop Seam . ... .. 04, 58 Boring "Machine, ‘Rotary aadaeih 260
Bissell, Mr. . ty 220 ~=Bottom Gas ... ... Ose bene
Sseyeuons Coal 6, 9, 10, 14, Bottom Seam ... ... ... «+... 61

15 , 68 Ne eee me Fis Ree Tt oC ee, rrr Orman’ & |
Black Wns aC sii aast sec ae: Bowen River Series ... ¢. «=, 48, 49
Black Damp ... . I ia Ane ie mee Nh RUIOA OS AZO. Gane oicks b cages te ohn omens ee
Black Rock Creek . Ree itGas Plat. o-cost na 54, 55
Black’s Colliery . im Pins. | ROE NOOO DORI es! sx, is ceets ve Oe
Blacksmith ... . Gahan pce lake. row, A:

Blacksmith’s Coal ... ... ... .... 18 Bulli Seam .. . 61, 64, 130, , 149,
Blacksmith’s Shop .. a SO TALS is ns
Blackstone Coal Seams ... 038, 54, 56 Braeside Seams . me 55, 56
Blackstone Band Mob we Ome.) Brake... S faxes waves . 127, 128, 200
Blair Athol Coalfield ... ... 48, 51 Brake Blocks ... ... .. . 200, 209
Blake Pump, see hctan es Brakesman ... .. 185
Blasting Powder ... . Bes STORES 5.ck iss 25s ar 286, 308, 323
Blowers ... Poe len ee moe. ~besee Top: <.. 320; "391, 322,
Bluff Colliery. See hate eee 49 ates aM ep is! eT eegl” gaat y ee
Bluff Seam ... ; 55 Brattice ... ... 334
Bobbin ... . : . 210, 225 Cloth ... ... . 108, “154, 182
Bobbin Insulators .. 287 WVU 2 st A a : ee? eee
Bobbonite ... ... ... 93, "189, 285, 317 + Breakwater... 90
Bog Side Colliery ... .. 55 Breast Machine, see Coal Cutters.
BROUGTG Sole see cet 35, 36 ~=6©Breathing Apparatus Basal cain 370, 391
Adamson . 311 Breeze ... . oat 228
Babcock & Wilcox 207, “953 Bremer River 57
260, 287, DL ESTIONA ys as ont 138
Cornish ... 160, 253, 258, 265, VIGOR WORK B oe ois. cor og ee
275, 277, 280, 288, 301, 305, Bridge Bias 0... o..< x0 20D, TG
BRE Tibelied Cezie Sei ty, dregs obo. Bridge Seam: ... 52
Kgeg-end ... 288, 363 Bridle Chains .. . 205, 306, 310, 311
OT Ch. Aaa ae 426 | Brivht Seam....-.. 126
Hroskins:...5;. 2... .«. ...,... 2538- Briquetting Plant . .. 334
Lancashire ... 187, 156, 167, Bein Bond. oie iss paencevs 138
189, 258, 975, 980, 287, 301, British Thermal Unit . 27, 30, 32
311, 343, 352, 356, 360, 363, 366 British Thomson-Houston 363,
Multitubular ... ... d 980, 363 366, 383
Ruston, Proctor & Co. ... ++ 179 British Westinghouse ... 215,
se ; Si Mant GO BI, IOs GOL vee ke esp tes

386 INDEX.

Broken Skip =... «03... sin. te, SB Cappimg Cares. 44-5.)
Broughall, 'V. weaveas ets get oa, OT —Cap=piece)... 20 SRO ioe
Brown, A. PL 12 Capstan i., <.ch7 ni. 23 106 ie
Brown Coal . . 6, 18, 60, 65, 66, 68 | Carbon... 2: ie 6, 15, 20
Brown, J. eae 279, 345, ’370 Carbon Dioxide ... 9, ll, 28,
Brush Motor, see Motors. — - 43, 44, 183, 234, sr a ae 338
Brush, the Roof ... ... ... 273, 313 Carbon-hydrogen Ratio... ... 15, 16
Buffalo Fan, see feel Carboniferous Coal ....... 60, 63, 70
Bua oeete ... 856, 358 Carbon Mon-oxide ... 48, 44, 45,
Bulli Goal Co. Ltd. 180 97, 158, 184, 230, 232... 234
Bulli Colliery ... 87, “130, “180, Carbonite .2.... ... pe cee ee 94
BOR Nines cons eS 368 Carboxyhaemoglobin... ... ... 234
Bulli Pass Mine ...:... ... ... .... 180 Carburetted Hysroges ..« 92 46,181
Bullock Island . waa we | SO" 1@ardift-Seam 2° 7. 2...2 ieee eee
Bullock Island ‘Colliery ie sesee 10 Carne, J. E. ibs “Gea aaeH ae eee
Bundambe Coal Seam ... 53, 54, 56 Carpenter Ss hi eden ato on pice ee ae -
Bimker Coal vic... 2s eee: 38, 317 Carperter’s Shop. vai iis gy ee eee ;
Bunton ... 119, 139, 140, 144, Carrajung Lignite ... ... 66 i
150, 278, 992, 325, ise See 354 Carr’s Disintegrator, see Disin- i
Burning Mountain ............ 18 COerarver nas 65 c.t tine eee ;
Burn’s Brake ke ee ee Catalytic Action 4. <2 a. 32 nee L
Burns, W. ise) -oss ves AQB -Oatamaran Seams: «>... es eee 4
Burrum Coalfield . ica. 48,°82 -Catches.-for Skip oa: ...°.2 108, 115 :
Burrum:. Seam.) 1.9%. oF 53, 58 Cater, T. . . ... 133, 169
Burwood Coal Co. ... .. 805 Catherine Hill: Bay . . 9, 90, 244
Burwood Colliery 241, “942, 305, A os CBRE sis) sores ete ~ 80, 83, 84
Burwood Extended ... ... 241, 317 Centrifugal Pump, see Pump.
Burwood Seam ... ... ... 61, 241, 317 + Certificate, Managers’ ... ... ... 78
By-pass ... .. waa tae Lapa che DOMME ES De RORRSTTOO I cme cere 13, 319, 320, B34,
Cabin, Stump .. Sit RVR RSS. UES Cheenomya i wingtee ‘4, 5
Cable Flat ... ... ... ... ... .. 359 Chain Breast “Machine, see
High Tension ... ... ay 263, 363 Coalcutter.
Low Tension ... ... . 264, 363 Chairs for Cage ... 107, 283, 337
Round 359 -Champion Fan, see Fan
Trailing .. 190, 246, 264, 287, Check: Brakes 3.04/59. ace
. 858; SS eee 364. Check Batis *.3. 5.00.8 33 Se ee ee
Caize pte BEC 150, 286, 299, “310. 332 Check Weannes Ree ae 79, 214
Caking Coal, see Coking Coal Cherry Coal <3. ..0 sc; an Gee
Caledonian Goal Co. Ltd. 269, Chidder ... bs pee
280,282 - B61... ae 365 Chimney Ventilation ... ... ... 144
Calignee Lignite dae 66 Chocks ... 273, 284, 297, 298,
Callender Cable Construction 330, 342, 343
Ltd. SCE ROG OSE er damp Stes ee 532 oe
Calhide Coalfield . s 48 Cindered Coal. (.., ...... ~ 39, 41, 181
Calorig a) feo tes one 30, sai 32 Clarence River Coal Basin ... 60
Calorife Power. 0 in 5 97. 31, 36 Classification of Coals ... ... ... 14
Calorific Value ... ... . 15 Classification of Rocks... ... ... 2
Calorimeter ... ... .. “26, 31, 32 “Clas “Bends 3,2; rh atone ee
Cambrian Lamp, see “Lamp Clerk ... ieee -
Cameron Stn bah see Pump Clermont Coalfield ... ... .. 48,
Cameron, W. E. ... 49, 53, 54, 56, 58 Clip ... 121, 162, 164, 165, 173,
Campbell, J. ae re deta 98, 104 185, 187, 197, 207, 208, 210,
Campbell, M. sy ee 15, 19, 20 224, 239, 270, ee De 349
Camp Creek Bore «.. ... ..- ... 130 Clipper Off ... .. 79, 101
Candle ‘Power® <5.) juke cst! weccocl one 17, > itpper Oe 6 i ean “79, ‘101, 207, 238
Canister ... ..:.125, 177, 187, 270. Clutch Room... ..... in «phy ee
Cannel Coal ... ... 16, 17, 133, gaa: “Coal Apples o..%.. & 10
Capell Fan, see Fan Coal Box seen. Ay "958, 9977, 287
Capertee Shale . ses ces eee ase 61° Coal Cliff Colliery 87, 130, 159, 368
Capping EA ee ees ca DOL, 152" “Coal Creek Collteryuca io. at 66

Py ,

INDEX.

Coal Cutters, Disc ... .. 22°
Goodman 190, 235, 246, 259,

260, 261, 263, 267, 268 ... 358
Hurd’s ... . ; 235, 236
BUCOCTHOMO =o e3, 3h ~ 308, 345, 348
Jeffrey ... 246, 267, 317, 354,

355, 358, 362 . eee OO
Little Hardy BETA po ae 193, 275, 279

Sullivan ... 109, 171, 246, 258,
259, 261, 263, 265, 285, 362, 365
Coal, Definition of .

Coal Dust . 25, 168, 181, 182,

183, 184.

Coal, Formation of . PRO 6
Coal, Grade of ... ber
AOA) MO@ASUTES. 4.5 (005 6.50 see es 3
med “OPTION OF... Mie) iS Se 5
Coal, Output a ae S88. 91
Coal, Oversea 86
Coal, per Acre 30
Coal, Uses of ne Wee eset eats, Ea Ee
Cochrane, J., see Engine ...
Coffee ake Lamp, see Lamp ..

Cod-pi 137
Coke: D4. ‘09. 39, 61, 124, 169, 179, 216
Coked Coal ... ... 39, 180, 181, 184
Coking Coal . Mg 16, 27, 28
Coke Oven 125, 126, 169, 177,

178, 186, 202, 216, 220, 297,

228, 229, 240, yi ae Soa 272
Coke Wharf. AR 240
Colebrook Coal esi oc... 74
NS UOC gS ae eee Peerage = 3)
OMIe eur SORM: 3: ..5 0.26 0.0> 4l
Collie Coalfield ... ... ... 70, 37
Colliery Manager ................ 78
PRERENDER AE Soa os sal ce CO
Colonial Bond .. 138
Commonwealth Portland Ce-

ment Co. .. storie “nae y kee
‘Compensating Balance ... ... ... 306
WOON PSERION ~.. 5b ...) oe. tense ae 86
Condenser eth tintne ook od ot ae
POCO ne eee ee ae 4
DIORSIGCLMSION =50 See ig ees 81
Contract ... . aR ee ge!
‘Conveyor . . 102, 105, 147, 176,

264, 293, 316, 318. 343, 353,

See Mb eS 364
‘Cook, eae 216
‘Cooneana Coal Area ... ... ... 58, 56
Cooper Hstate Bore ... ... ... 132
‘Co-operation ... Gian. Varte
‘Co-operative Colliery by = 24).

242, 271 . ae aM 6!
‘Co- sephye Company ee “144, 270
‘Copt Lamar Hee: 82
Core 244

Corliss Valve, see oS “
Corrimal-Bolgownie Colliery 87,

387
bal, DOes, PRO os. sta ee ese
Cornish Boiler, see Boiler ... ...
Cornish Rolls ... .. uP
Cornish Valve, see “Valves oe
Cornwall Colliery Gas Winavets 74,
Counterpoise ... ... ... ... ... 87,
Coupling Chains ... ... ... ...
Coupling, Flexible 359,
Ware in ey cay ccs eek
Courrieres Disaster Le Paea oe
RAOMOE ES, eats Saf has eigen eee
TACO os se 88 seen 186, FSM
GIUMGR oe eo ort nts eTeuuten Mee:
Creep ... 291,

Creeper Ohain’ e 155, 165, 264,

281, 283, 303, 311, 340, 343, é

Cremorne Bore - 61, 63, 130, 132,
Cretaceous Coal
Crib Wedging - ;
Croft, F. R.
Croft, J. OS were
Crompton & Ooch
Cross Head
Cross Heading
Croudace, F. H. L.
Croudace,
Crosseuts ...
Crusted Ai ote er. ; F
Cuff’s Lower Seam
Cuff’s Upper Seam ...
Cullen Bullen Colliery
Cundy or Conduct .
Curbs 137, 138, 142,
Current Heading LER tae
Curtain ...
Cut Through | i 155, ‘172, 189,
265, 273, O74. 989, 324, 327,
334. 337, 354,
Curtis & Harvey ..
Dams. 3...
Darlimurta. Brown Coal
Darling Downs charade
Darling Harbour ... ... ... ... 87,
Darnum Brown Coal
David, T. W. E. 61, 68, 64,
132, 146, 319, 320,

Pr ee eo |

Weis: hs a6

een! jee. ere

Davies E.

Davies, W. _ 126, 173,

Davis, J. & “Sons, see Ex-
ploders.

Dawson-Mackenzie Coalfield 48,

Dead Weight Valve, see Valve

Dean’s Marsh Brown Coal ...

Declared Selling Price ...

Decomposition . 5

Deficient Place

Definition of iets
Mineral . ;
On».

De Koninck, “Mr.

49

66
80

388

Deltopecten ... .. -
Dempsey Series ... ... ... 61, 62, 64
Denham Colliery .. SO ass oe ee
Dent’s Creek Bore ... ’. . 180
Depuey. s6 stan. ees ae oe ee ee
Derwent Basin | eS a ec teh we
teh Syed Distillation Savtipee 6

CtOHALOTS.,... aih- oss 5, 96
BOVE) cee 8 as Ieee ee ee 285
Wevaeniawy.. 5. \és.%-s 5 ote a> Oe
Diamond . 110, 116
Diamond Drill Co. . 2o9
Dielasma ... be Tree 4
Dinmore Coal “Area ... 53, 56, 58
Dip of Coal Basin ... ... 129
Dip Workings ... ... 259, ‘O74, 277
Thvt Box Seo. eek ; 366
Dirty Cowles Bios Aveate le mee
Dirt. Fillers... «:: 79

Dirty Seam ... 61, “241, 288
Discovery of Coal in N.S.W. 60

Disintegrator ... 125, 169, 176,
ie PEO ist! Ran ake Nes eet cee ee
District. 3c 8s 5 ee Re ee
PiVOPS) wis sac Laon sr O88 Liss e ee eee
Doby’s Seam Siete a Nd Fe SRLS a
Dogspike . 123, 278
Dogwatch ... . Sa tleet MOS yoo Cao
Donaldson’s Seam ... ... ... ... | 62
Dor, Baal b: 2.52264. 148, 315, 333
Shoot . bP cies ks gtk See
Ventilation ... ... ... 110, 155, 334
Douglas River Basin ... ... ... 74
Dowels .. 1387, 138, 278
Downeast: 65 0.0), Yar ae ee eee
Downthrow ... .. 39
Draeger Breathing “Apparatus 371
Draft; “Indaced ..52..3.5 Ga. tess 360
Draghear.....* 259, 269. 356, 358

Dragon, Brand Rope, | see a
Driver ... ae . 48, 313
Drills, Churn SF oe
Electric ... 257
Dropping Pillars and ‘Top Coal 328
Drop Sheet ... . 108
Drum, Conical . 277, 278, 301, 305
Cylindrical . cds che wees Bey GOL
Cylindro- conical ... nee: 283, 318
Dry Godless - RNS fete mut S 5)
Dry Rot . sda aaa eee 7

Duckenfield Colliery . » 241,
242, 272. . leads Gace ee
Dudley Coal Co. .. Ses ea ee
Dudley Coney Ke 241, 242, 303, 369
DME 22 0e usin des, BO, LOGS Lee
Duff Box |... cect) heen ee eee
Dull Seam . toa Be 126, 128
Dulong’s Formula ... ... 30, 31, 32

Dulverton Coal *.. ...-.:.... 78; °75
Dumb-drift: 4, sae tee wee

INDEX.

Dummy ... 330, 336
Dunstan, a. . 48, 49, 51, 58
Durham Colliery .. 307
Durrie, Gs. eae Bs eee
Durrie, ais Sue OAR ein ers hee eee ee
Dust, Coal ..: . 233, 370

Distillation of Coal . . 232

Dyke 39, 188, 249, 243, 345
Rast, Greta Coal Mining Co.

walt, 1 OOO” ieee.

East Greta Colliery .
321, 327

319 sas 369
East Maitland Coal Measures 61
Ebbw Vale Fault ... . 56
Ebbw Vale Colliery (Q.) ey oe 56
See ee CoE, (N.S.W. pe.
Egg-end Boiler, see Boiler.
Kight-foot Sean 4.3. oes OL ae
Hidon Coal; Basin. ... .:) <2 °5 ae
Electric Fan, see Fan. |
Hléetricign’ +... 6 3.0 05 os) ca eee ee
Elevator, Bucket ... 102, 106,

1475 1 5T 208 eee Oe

Seraper- ... 0... 2, 270; Zab gee
Kndless Rope, see Rope ... ...
Engine, Ames Iron Works 287, pa

Allen ... . :

Bellis & Morcom .. 190, 239,

344, 354, 363 . f 366
Cochrane, 4 eS ae he 115
Fleming ... . ... 175, 263
Gregory, H. P., ‘& Go. o>) ee
Grant & Ritchie .. ae See 278, 280

Harrisnire i ts 190, 258, 260

McEwan ... ... ‘249, 318, 356, 359
Morison & Bearby «264

278, 331, 335, 338, 349, 356
Mort’s Dock . 216
Robey .:. ..- 358, 359, ~ 360, 361
Russell, P. N., & Co. 120
Scott & Mountain... ... ...... 363
Stephenson, R. ... a: joer
Tangye 108, 110, 115, 155, 160,

999, 268, 281, 292, 354, 358
Walker ... ... ... . 292
Westinghouse ... ... ... 999, 344

Bngine-drivet<.. 5). seek kos ee
Engine Plane ... 106, 245, 275, 365
Eschka’s Method ... ... ... ... 21
Eskbank Colliery ... ... 367

Etheridge, R, junr. ............ 52

Eurydesma is ry: Be
Evan’ s Hydraulic Pumping En-
gine, see Pump .. a ae
Evan Thomas Lamp, see e Lamp
yang; | Wik kas 215
Evaporative Power sh ne ce ae

Evaporation Unit ... .. eilss
PAEECONIGG » er eds STs aus ase ss
Exploders ... .. ay
Davis, J., & Sons FiNant's 97,
Nobel ... ... -+- 137, 275, 309,
Explosion ... 180, 181, 183, 184,

230, 233, 234, 804, 838,
Explosives ... .
ORS agg es uae ae
Facings ae “98, 162, 242, 289,
Fairbank Colliery ee ‘
Fairley, Mr. Pte

Fassifern Seam ... is ae

Fan, A.D.C ;
AIST Rae es ee
Buffalo ... . Sioa at eS
Capell . . 860, 362,
Champion age
Guibal ... 257, “981, 283, 300,
Schiele . 155, 159, 196, Si
274, 292,

Sirocco tea

Waddle ... 108, 196, 277, 979,
287, 302, 304, 313, 315, 334,

340 Sng
Walker’s ig “145, 164, ‘173,

196, 203, 220, 247, 306, 315,
Fan Drift ... .. a 315,
Fat Coal . Stew ah as
Fault Rules . :
Faults ... 39, “40, “AL, 188, "243,
Favre, ean
; Federal Bent Ca. eo kk: ‘4
Feedwater Heater ... ... ... 189,
Babcock and Wilcox ... ... ...
Berryman Sith cer ucts

Worthington ...
Feedwater Filter and Oil Sep-
arator ...
Feistmantel, Mr...
Ferndale Colliery aoe
Ferngrove Seam ...

Fernie Creek Colliery ees
Fiery Seam ... ... ..

Jip yn oe EY Sees. Sea ae ee
(UL es Dre eer 78,
Filling Out . 324,

Fingal Coal Basin ... ... ...

Finger Lio, a

Hime, Goal, 3.0 052...

Ee bs PD RR a eg

Fire-damp ... 46, 94, 98, 1382,
Sas sel oe sae fot vs

wee eee

Fireman ..

Fires . ere 99. 320, 322, 324,
325, 334...

Fisher’s Clip . 3 a

Fisher’s Friction Clutch . 110,
165, 209 . Poy tance

INDEX.

389
Fish Plates ... 278
Fitting Shop ... 257
Fitzgerald, J. ... ey hae
Fixed Carbon aaa kas ‘14, 15, ‘18, 24, 28
Flat ... 111, 121, 196, 229° 224,

225, 285, 313, A sant 365
Baber ges ee 79, 82
Fleet Angle ... ... . 136, 356
Fleming Engine, see “Engines
Fleuss Breathing appar atus ... 371
USE AT SS cs #- A ae 318
EG. .;. aie "938, “246, 267
Floor ... mie : 10
Fold Fault ier DE go gino ether ee © |
Forge Work ... ... 29
Fork Filled ..255:.4.: 87, 80, 124, 155
OSGHA: c,2c0 cee) Kes ; 4
Four-foot Seam 6l, 130
Four-foot-six Seam ... ... ... 56, 240
Free-burning Coal . 16
Freights ... 373
French Thermal Unit. SR Eclat 30
Front and Back Shifts ... ... 78, 158
Fuel Ratio ... .. 14, 28
Furnace Ventilation “101, 106,

107, 115, 119, 159, 234, 235,

265, 268, 974 . Le 335
Fuses... 2. Sale p . 95, 96, 348
Galvanometer Be Sat Pu ee ee, |i
Gangamopteris ... ier es
Ganning Bord ... ...... yarn
CARMEL Y ra net ta ashe ss Pe et 3
arden beni. Sst So sees ae Oe
Garland ts Be ee 140, 205
Cae Cigat cies ied Rote Fo
eee - kL, 18; 392,28¢
CoE ONR GS, Bho. Bene eas Oe eee
CRS or ess Beis gat IETS 45,- 46
Gates for Sereen ... prise iF)

Ma Fits... oss 108, 119
rie oy vce, a Ss ; eee y
Gateways, Cross ... ... . oS eee
Maine coe3 . 284, 285
Gauge, Coal . ... 164
Pressure ... . ite TS, 306
Geipel Steam Trap me or 252

General Electric Co. ... “189,
258, 260, 263, 284, 287, 339, 363, ¢

General Manager oe

Geordie Turn “Out . 111
Gippsland . ee A 66
Gienesk Seam tdteasss cud ee ee
SFIGRSODLOSIG: cess cou | wed ees ee ae
Goaf ... .. . 46, 111, 154, 155
AO SUOMER Tt Fras Mckee sak Os ch
Gohsshisikes <0 soosrghseds ns a Boop ee
PROM biheS % bse teas aca Aol

Goninan & Co.
Goodman Coal Cutter, ‘see “Coal
Cutters.

390 INDEX.

Goodman Manufacturing Co.... 247
Gooseneck Hook ... .:. 4... ... .... 272
Gould Pump, see Pump ... ...
Governor Fly Wheel ... ... 318, 344
Grange Iron Co. Ltd ... 292, 319, 319
Grant & Ritchie, see ‘Engines

and Pumps... .
Gravity Plane .. 127, 152, 173,

185, 199, 203, 209, 210, 217,

219, 225, 939 ... 274
Greaser . 110, 116, 117, "122,

123, 164, 208, 916 311
Great Cobar Ltd. Colliery” 98,

106 3 “867
Great Northern Colliery see 257
Great Northern Seam ... 61,

241, 259, 260 .

Green’s Economiser .
Gregory, A. C.
Gregory, H. P., & Co.,
Gresley, W. S. ..

_ Greta .. a 13
Greta Colliery. a “18, 321, 322, 369
Greta Measures ... 61, 63, 241,

. 267
136, 205, 311

“see » Engine

BIO B20) B22 eh ee es
Corey Backs ©. joss cs. ala eee
Grey Heads 30s: (eae eee
Guibal Fan, see Man. 3s ane
Guide for Cages vt) AUOS, bAOe hee
_ Rope ... 189, 140, 149, 150,

155, 270, 280, 301, 303, 306,

SE, BGl- 2.5 5-6 kis whet nk ee

Steel Rail ... 150, 163, 278,
BO; OD eres et Nie tses eke ec Oe
Wooden ... ... OA eat wee is aa
SFU DMN | ost Chk wien oe sbleks deen a ae eee
Flags Eee ae ser Oa OO
Haldane, J. 8. (eee A oe
Hamilton Coal Basin ... ... ... 75
Hamlet, W. M.°::. ... aoe dae ©!
Hanging Deal . Me ek ee
Hard Coal ... .. Baas
aes Patent Indicator new, B40

Hardy Punching acne. see

Coal Cutters . nba et aad
Harle, Bt: Aawns. oF cen he eee ee
Harness: Maker f..54;. 20. ee ae
Hartley Vale Shale ...... :..... 61
Harrisburg Foundry and Ma-

chine Works ... ete ek 190, 258
Hartleport Coal . Hy 322
Hasting’s Coalfield . Mp I Sap ee ss
Lc Po Bem ; eae Be Ya Sov tie eae a
Hazeldean ... ... oa hen MS
Hazelwood Brown Coal $Fch 6 66

Head Frame ... 186, 143, 155,

162, 207, 277, 278; 981. 283,

$02 3102 SEL Soa ee
Heading ... 108, 109, 152, 204,

289, 008, B45 ..0 Sa ccs 165

Head, W aesios & Pee sd re
Heapstead ieee 217 he eae
Heat Losses ... ... ... 33, 34
Heat: Umit 0... eis. oe
Heathcote Bore ... ... ....:. ... 180
ences SEMEN Tie NY ee tebe 42

Lar
fdkbes Colliery :.. 819, 320, 357
Heddon-Greta Coal M. Co. ’ Ltd. 334
Heddon-Greta Vorhery ves EDS

320, 334 . oi ale) ts
Helensburgh Bore. tee .«. 150
Mether-ng oi 3/2 hae ee 78
Henderson, Mr. ..: .. 503-25 ee
Henty Basin ... . . 74
Hermitage Colliery | 87, “98, “104, 367
Hetton Coal Co. Ltd. 241, 293
Hetton Colliery .. . 242, 244, » 298, 369
Hewing Rate ... .. 80
Hexham ... wee eee ee
Hillman’s Safety Catch ... ... 107
Hindley, H. ... ... 3
Horwood, see Air Compressor
Holding Down Curb... ... ... ... 148
Eoling 5 ee Seger 155, 198, 221
Homigay, dso st 0s tee 36
Holmes, J. A. oh.” Ge
Holt-Sutherland Bore ... ... 130, 132
Homeville Colliery ... 13
Hopper ... 117, 125, 128, 975, 303
Hopper, Coal . 239
Hopper Skip ... ... . 258, 277, “981, 286
Hornsby, see Boiler.

Horse ... 103, 105, 106, 107,

£125 107, 123, 128, 146, 152,
160, 173, 203, O45, 959, 264.
268, O75. 280. 985, 992, 304,

313. 330, 338, 354 Joh rdaeltene 366
Horse Box <i. °c. Ain
Horsekeeper (05/050 face 9 he
Horse Limber ... ... ... 269, 275
Hoskings, G@. & C. ... ... 106, 2538
Hostler ... pas Shoe
Household Coal . ck oes ee
Howard Smith Prop. Cg: eee
Huddart Parker vee C0 Ae
Hudson Bros. ... .. a | Oe
Humble, E. .. 3865
Hurd’s Pick ‘Quick, see Coal

Cutter.

Hurdy-gurdy Drill ... ... ... .... 309
Hydrogen are seut 6, 15, 20, 158, 316
Hydrogenous Coal xc) aw i ee
Hygroscopic Moisture ... ... 23, 28
Ida: Bay Coalfield. 4.2.25 ...c8 See
Ignition Temperature ... ... 183, 323
lilawarra Coalfield ... ... 62, 64, 130
Tliuminating ee 27

_. 933, 271, 274, 308

In-hve .

INDEX.

Indicator Dial
Knocker ... ...

163, 286, 298
WE oar reate =

Vertical . beeper ee ys ERO
Ingersoll Puncher, see Coal

Cutter.

Ingersoll-Sergeant, see Air

Cc Sunprener:
yr 2: Dee he eae ae . 173, 2338, 934
Entercooler ... 3. -.: eva TORO
Inverell . 62
Ipswich Coalfield . . 48, 53, 5A,

58, 60, 68 . . . 70
fedndale Colliery Fave hae 126, 367
Iron Pyrites ........... We > 99, 162
Ironstone ... ... fe : 127
MYGRSLONG OAM.) sr cst. os OZ
WeVING 0 ee Ghee Says. ase irene AO
Irwin River Basin.... ... ....... 7
Isaac River District ... ... ...
Ivanhoe ney. 1 ag oO De 128, 367
= ES SR <a 0 aes 52, 70, 71
Jaw "Breaker sk oo Reales
Jeffrey Coal Cutter, see Coal

Cutters.

Jeffries, J. 324, 326

Jeffrey Manufacturing Co. 318,
356, 359, 361, see Coal Cutters

OPEN 8S incre wie 241, 242, Sis 305
Jerry Face ... : 308
Jerusalem Coal Basin eee HeKe 74
PROINES Peay oo 0k o5 ta : 0, 88, 89
Jewel Seam ...

Jig ... 222, 259, 397, 328, 330,

333, 337 tae ws 362
Jigging Machine ... ... ... ... 269
Joadja Shale ... 17, 61
Jockey’s ... ‘101, 104, 127
Johnson, R. , Clapham & Morris

Ltd.

Jones, Clem . ne i wee wd cy
tones. .0-'C.. 220
Tubilee Shaft 188, “135, 143, 144
Jubilee Seam ... ... 74
Jumbunna Company... ......... 66
Katoomba Shale ... ....0 3... «.. 61
Kent, W. ee I TS 2 7.
ert: .. 317
Kerosene Shale ; aS: 17, 61, 73. 130
Kick-up, see End Tippler

Killingworth Py pixels 241,
249, 282, 369
116, ‘161, 162, 994, 285
282

Kjeldahl’ s Method . SONS eta Te

Knives for Screens ... ... 106, 112
WEIRTON ee. sos ike es as OO
Knock-off Bar ... ... 0) DRG
Knock-off Hook 272

Knowles’ ees see Pumps ...
SECS he ot ae eee a aR Rs

391
Kunthe Hill Coal i... <2.056 %..7- 68
Labour Conditions ... ... ... 76, 77
PMODITUSR os 5. fe alk) dcx dee ommre> >,
Laidley, W., & Gai schenbks 260, 271
Lal Lal Brown Goal ix. ese, 66
Lambton B. Colliery 241,

242, 307 ... 3869

Lamp, Bonetted Deflector 167
Bi-fold ... ... 335
ween ae 157, "196, “304,

339
Coffee ‘Pot . viene ek ote hae
BRS ect rate ese ones epee ees Nas ee
BURRS occ ashe cist Lee eomak 196
Evan. Thomas ..... ...~... 315, 339
Flare ... . ... 2380
Hebblewhite-grey_ vee tas 158, 316
Hydrogen ... . 230
Safety 2 0 L:. "195, ‘182, 265, 276
Stokes, Alcohol ... ... 316

Lamp Cabin ier ee he 167, 315

Panis? Mom cs re Gm ts eee aa Oe

Lancashire Boiler, ‘see Boilers

Langridge Brown Gaal)... sii 0

Lang’ s Lay Rope, see probe

Lapham emai cc. csc ines es pee ee

Lacent Heat of Steam Rt es 27

Leaners... . RIA re omme |

Leasing Conditions ... . 76

aaa Battery ... 157, 166, mest ey
ee 10

Leigh’ s Creek Coalfield ... ... ... 68

Leitch, Mr. 232

Bia eed ae i fox “327, 330, "835, 337

Lewes, V. D. 322

Leschen, A., & ‘Sons Prop. ‘Co. 176

Lids ... 109, 291, 338

Lifts ... 81, "105. 108, 109, 159,

204, peg Ss 290 . 308
Lightning Arrester ... Smee
Lightning Conductor ... ... ... 136
Lights, Naked . 117, 125, 284, 265
Lignite Punta ' f 15, 16, 18, 60,

65, 66, 69, 70 . 322
Ltmmabories tos eee Cal Sewn ae 137
Lining of Sith tk Ae 137
Lishman, W. 2B. 132
Lithgow. ... 62, 98
Lithgow Goal-owners’ Agency... 87
Lithgow Seam ... ae 3)
Lithzow Valley Colliery er,

98, 104 cf Sa ee
Little Giant Air Drill ... ... 346, 348
Little Hardy Coal Cutter, see

Coal Cut ter.

Liverpool Bore ... ite rere
Lawerenioe,! Al... roe eae ee
Living Wage ... . Wie ee ee
Llandaff Coal Nadine ors ee

Locomotives ... ... sta usee BOO, GOS

392 INDEX.

Lodgment, Water 124, 205, chee 312

Long Cove ... .. oe tee
Longtord Coal Reais kiosk
Longw: all ... 170, 235, 236, 284, 301
Longwall Machine 171, 178, 236, 261
Loose Rails ... ... . Shes eae
ond: aS Wiles. 9s ate ie 3. 82, 33
Lorry we sete mesg op bad aah Caen
Lower Greta Coal Measures ... 61
Lower Measures, see Lower
Greta.
Tahricatinge Oil. >< ...040 cae ee
Lubricator erne tn” Geis aR) Boe Ree
Dari. “eats ois ae eae ee
Macauley, D. ts. c wee ee
MacDonald, C. Bye cee ride} Sau ee
McEwan, see Engines.
McGeachie, D. 361
Mcllwraith, McEacharn & Co. 87
Mackay ... ime ast |
McLanahan Coke Oven ... ... .. 227
MeMyler Coal panne Ma-
chine ... ... {Wo Aes
Machine Assisvatit 2. 1205.0
Machine Runner ... ... ... ine 308
Machinist ... 78

Mafeking Colliery Pe eg 55
Mahler’s Bomb Calorimeter “26. 39
Maitland Field ... 13, 62, 64, 319
Mammoth Colliery ... ... 49

Marangaroo Conglomerate jaar bes
Marcasite . 3 . 11, 12, 324
Marcus Conveyor Rare ee es eens
Marine Series ... ... ... 61, 63, 64
Marsh’ Gass 03.4205 «2 So, BO
Martiniopsis ... .. re 4
Mather & Platt, see ¢ Pump.
Mathieson, A. toe lene
Maryborough Coalfie abd Sates

48
Maryland Colliery ... 241, 270, 369
Maryvale Brown ‘Coal ee a ake 66
Mayor & Coulson’s Joint End

Boxes e208 3 hg 190
Meachan, Mi occ. 5c eee eee
Mechanical Hnomeer 25 5.1. sx. 78
Mechanics cn, tas -5% osu ncaseee 79
Melbourne Steamship Co....... 87
Meldrum Forced Draft ... .... 157
Mephan Ferguson & Co. 279, 312
Mersey Coal Basin ... ... ... ... 438
Mesozoic Coal ... 48, 65, 66,

68, 70, 73, 74 ... . 75
Methane ... SERS 46, 234
Metropolitan Coal Co. of Syd-

ney Ltd. . ‘ 148
Metropolitan Colliery — At "gg,

130. 132, 147.°148, 197 ... 368
Meyer’s Cut-off Valve, see
Valves.
Wate! OS. de ee ee 45

Middle Measures, see Tomage
Miiler’s Chilled Lron Wheels .... 204

Miner ... 7s
Mineral Conditional “Purchase 76
Mineral, Definition of ... ... ... 13
Miners’ Accident Relief Fund

84. meee rete.
Mingaye, Mr. Se Pre
ERGY os) vic ns ts) i egereaee Pe ek
Mirboo Seam ... 45. ae
Mitchell, Suveyor- “General ... 18
Missfires ay ee Bo
Mount Cygnet Goal’ Stele 73, 79
Mount Kembla Colliery ... 87,

90; 120, 1500. se cepts 229
Mount Kembla ious Fe . 129,

BOO 5 DAS ash pra rele comes 368
Mount Lookout ‘Browz n Coal . 66
Mount Lyell Coke Works ... 240
Mount Nicholas Colliery ... ... 74, 75
Mount Pelian Coal Basin can gia
Mount Pleasant Colliery ... 87,

129, 130, 216 ib Acie
Mount Rex Seam . Pere Perret ee
Mount. Wrigen |... 25 cba oe
Model: Colliery... 2.60 a. 4c eee
Moe Brown Coal... ... , 66
Moisture ... i beget ‘23. 28
Monkey Ohooks > ca 338, "349. 361
Monobel . 92, 94, 95, 163, 189,

205, 221, ‘276. 294, 309 ... 347
Moorebank Estate Bore ... ... 130
Moore. Park Bore: 3.0 5. sts ee
Moreton District ... . 57
Morgan 241, 289, 290, 305
Morison & Bearby 147. see Engines.
Mornington Brown Coals. 66
Morpeth Seam. <.. 4.6) .:- 41-465, 1
Morwell Brown Coal t= O08 46
Moss Glen Seams ... ... ... ... 75
NMither- of ‘Coal: so. ee ee
Motor, Brush..:J9: 2s: <4 3.4 eee

General Electric Co. ... 260, 365
Scott & Mountain ... ... ........ 363
Verety 0) as ok dove Ria et eee
Westinghouse ... ... ... 239, 356
Mouldering:\ a cscs toe es 7
DU WIR bi costes ke es ae oe
Naked dbichte +. 45. ia ask eee
Narrabean. Mare oo. tt ad ee
Narracan Creek .. 66
Narrow Place 81, 155, 173, 979. 317
Naphtha ... 17
Natural Coke. ‘see Coked Coal
Neath Colliery a As 353
Nebo. Digtriet: Gs ak oe 51
Needle Timber (20 ios eee
New Basin Wharf . h 90

Newcastle. A & B. ‘Pits 941.
Da SBbes cso 5:

i ae or ;

ee ee

Ps

INDEX. 393

Newcastle Coalfield ... ... ... ... 241
Newcastle Coal Measures 61,

62, 64, 241 ... . 322
Newcastle Coal ‘Mining “Co.

Ltd. fe. 284
Newcastle Harbour. pid Free pak eee
New Chum Seams... ... 55, 56, 58
Newington Bore ... Meee h |
New Lambton Colliery catiees 268
8 Sa aa Land & Coal

oO ca
Newport Brown CGhinks 3s hs 66
New Seam... part yas ore a De
New South Wales ... ... ... 2, 60
Newtown Coal Basin ... ... ... 2

New West Moreton Colliery ...
New Winning ... 241, 242, 288, 369

Nick in ae Hi be
PUIUPOGON is ce cs fas aa 23, 29
Nobby’s Seah. Se
Nobel Exploder, sce Exploder
Noeggerathoipsis ie
Normal Fault... .:.. :.. 39, 40, 41

Nominal Selling Price ... 80
North Bulli Colliery 87, 90, 129, 169

Northern Colliery ... ... ... .... 257
Northern, District, N.S. W. ... 241
Northern Extended peers,

2 age 152 Se a a aE 369
North Hartley Seam ... ... 52
North Ipswich Coal Area... 88
North, J. B., & Sons: ... 0)... 126
Northumberland Colliery 241,

Me OE eek) kee. ae 369
Norwalk, see Air Compressor
Noyes Bros. ... 239
PNaMER IL Cine | cess. ss 38, 168, ‘173. 187
Oakey Park ioe Mining and

Coke Co. Ltd. ... 119
Oakey Park Colliery . 87, 119, 367
Oatlands Coal Basin ... ... ... 75
Observation Pipe ... ... ... ... 322
OQceluded Gases .. .. 4... ...°
Ocean Workings ... 242, 293, 304
OE nega ROO OR ir ag 0 304, 316
Oil Separator bo st 344
GD TN ee ee se 235
Old Beach Coal Basin ... ... ... 75
Oliver & Co., see Air Com-

pressor ... ite ete Wags
On Setter ... ... ee ae oe ey
Ore, Definition SECS eae ieee |
Origin of Coal . 5
Osborne- Wallsend 1 Colliery 87,

220 368
OS ees - 233. 271
Mutcrop ... .. Ao Korg tea est RE
Output of Coal ... 2, 47, 59

ot Losi DE” ce ccs 372

Outtrim, How itt & British Col-

liery ts 66

Ovens, see Ciske: Ovens.
Overcast ... ... 292, ee 336, 337
Overweight ss “tn TIO
Oxygen Aas’ et op 6, 11
Ozocerite ... ... ... dan gS aoe
Pacific” Colliery 241, 242,

257 Fé Fos siecle ae
Pacific Co- -operative Fir Oke ee ee
Pacewell feces). 490; 28a
Palaeozoic ... ... 3, 48, 63
Panel System .. - 308, 326, 327,

338, 357 ... 361
Paraffin a ote: ats asia ax Colt
Parker, E. eee enon 20
Parker, Thos., Ltd. i. “166, 281
Parramatta River Bore ... ... 132
Parrot Coal i725. ihe Se ae
PAPO aot. see ae oes of tBy Be
Patterson, Jas., & Co.-... ... 87
Poeseock Coake.s. 33.2862 seek 16
BOGE ocak. ol cy Sadinaeh Oy he
Peatification _ Aten fas Reeds se 7
Pelaw Main Colliery 319,

320 es Wen 1 as ees GS
Pendleton, W. B.. 203
Penny Band ... 241, 289
Pentice ... etre, See
Permitted Explosive: rn ee Sees 92
Permo-carboniferous ... 3, 4,

Ee eas gay occ, each ease A te
Personnel . 78
Petter Petroleum ‘Engine Be, 248
Petersen, Mr akc. 58
Phosphorous Suen tae ahs 18. 29. 29
Phyllotheca ... ... a 3, 4
Pidinga Lignite 4.0%... 3 69
Picking Belt ... 147, 264, 275;

277, 280, 281, 303, 305, 316.

352, Shee dt Sa, 366
Pick, Holing . “109, 205
Pick or Punching Machine ... 308
Pillar & Bord . ‘101, 108, 120,

172, 235, 245, 269, 278,

984. 304, 324, 327, 357, 361
Pillaring Ai 3 e ae . 158, 155
Pillars ... 108, 153, “155. "159,

192, 204, 221, 949, 9438. 259,

265, 989, 291, 308. 326, 327,

328 330 334 . gee 357

Barriet =... 3:: 304, 345, B55, 361
Pillar) WOrk vat. 30, 4. 81, 189, 298
PelOG em ae See ace, esl ane at Ow
ft 7) Wane a pee Dae
Pittman, E. F. 61, 63, 132
Pit Top Bis heed See) aes cae eee eee
Pit Wate cS bh a ees see
Pistysrhioma: 220s sed Shee ves 4256

Pleuropherts: 666055. as eh 08

394 INDEX.

Pneumatogen Breathing Ap-

parakus: tes Co Bae PA eee
Podozamites ... eee saat ef
Ponts. «i275 pes Sh we en ee oe
Poise,” Bleich se ae eee
Poole; SERS) rms: eat, Shige See Cota
Poole &, teed ade TA ae eee
Pooley’s W eighing Machine,

see W eighing “Machine ...
Pony .:. sak! oe os» LOD (I GBS 28a
Port Kembla .., ... 90, 217, 235, 240)
Portland Colliery ... ... 367
Port Phillip nae ooey Gace Rah eeee a ee
Posts: .; a Ce mati te 291
Powlett River pis obs ESPEN abs 374
Preclenna (05.2 ne 73
Prowse. (oe 1 eo 9
Produckai Anas os eens 4,5
Props 109, 137, 158, 329,

330 a
Proprietary Coal Seam ... ... 71
Pulley: ister’ ss (0.2 s.20 ins «ae. es

Pit Head . 136
Tension .. 103, 105, 110, “123,

165, 204, BOO sates 344

Lermiimel 2. 3 161

AMIS ok. cio eis ~ 102, 111, 175
Alarieh. occ 5. Sorc Oe
Alinatown oss Shine cee 356
TORRE rt) Fs tex. ae 105, 118, 345
RJAIMETON- 5.5052). yee. oe Wee oe
Centrifugal . 260, 269
Hvan’s .. 118, 137, 906, 279,

302 . 360
Gardner eueeaitag eee, 280
Gould)... 45 .. oe. 299, 339
Grant & Ritchie ... ... ... 280
Knowles ... . ... 206, 265, 272
Mather & Platt ... ... ... 356, 360
Moore, Hydraulic ... ... 2th, koe
Quimby osc) acta SAS ae
Sand -:.. oo ESF REO ee oe
Smith-Vailo=:c. .. betas 366
STIOW Sik.” ae ae aa eek ees
Steam ... Betas 287
Stilwell-Bierce & Smith-

Vaile o. 280
Tangve .. 111, 124, 258. 24.

992. 299, 306, 312, 339, 354.

a ieik oer we . 282
Weir. Hot Water ... ... ... 288
Worthington... ia 275,

292; 299. SSi, Sa s<) es ete
Punch Prop ; we 318
Purified Coal & Coke Co. ... 269
Putrefaction = Nabe te 7
Pittter ‘On: 5574 Sk eee
PPLE. alice’ oe ee ose eo eee ang eae
Qualite of Coal... 2. i ee
Quarry Creek oo Ee NN yet 58

Queensland . « Bae
Queensland Colliery Co.’s Seam 52
Quimby eee, see oe
Rack-a-rock ... .. > ad RE
Rae, J. L. C. 132, 134
Rails ... 101, 110, 115, iy, 122, $92
Rams ... - . 124, 126
Hydraulic Ba "178, “179, 187,
Be 3 ete 240
Steam ... . 227
Rands, W. ae 52
Ratchet and Auger tee 127
Rate of Haulage ... ... 101, 115, 120
Rate of Wages ... 79
Rathluba Seam ... . 62
Retur n Tunnel . 173
Reavell, see Air ‘Compressor
Recherche Coal Basin ....:<...cs. ae
TGS a RE ene oe Seo i
Register for Fan Revolutions 280
Relighting Station ... 196
Bent 35. sand bay i.
Rescue Party . ; wn BOO
Respiration ... ... ... 43, 47
Return Air-way ... 235
Reversed Fault ... ... ... “39, ‘40, 41
Rhondda Colliery ... ... ... 241, 260
Rhondda Seam .... 426 $e
Rib“ OF MOOR) sa0r os ee 329, 338
Richardson’s Cut-off Gear 358, 360
Richmond Vale Colliery ... ... 345
Richter’s ones : eee yes |
Rider ue: 278
Happrte. 2.050 <5 ees 94
Ripple Mak oc. 3 6
WRIGG! 9 hi ee ks ae
Hondo) asok Seite ek tcc ae eee
Robertson, Dic A: W. 4 0148, “166
Robertson. Ue ee eigen . 230, 232
Rohertson’s Point Bore ... ... 130
Robey, Engine, see Anais
Rob Roy Seam . oaheny 56
Rockhampton ... ... ... 48
Rodgers, J. S. ... .. 300
Rogers, H. D. ... Sr Lee
BVO SONG ie WNL. ohn eh, bias exes 230
Roller Chain ... . es ~ 816, 317
ROUOYE Jen tee ee 101, “909, 210, 245
Rolls ... 39, 98, 181, "188, 189,

204, ys ae 234
Ronaldson, Mr. Ao Pea:
Root: ©. sec .se ehh ROO s ee
Rope, Biandh><< cacti hee 165, 203

Capstan 32s ak, ce Ree
Collecting sod See

Cotton . Boe 306
Dead or Buffer ... 280, 303, 361
District)... vs 123, 165, 197, 238

Division. Us

INDEX.

Drive ... 145, 151, 155, 160,

173, 268, 74 Sess '3 1!
Dragon Brand ... ... ... Sn SAO
Endless ... 101, 110, 120, 127,

128, 136, 146, 151, 152, 161,

164, 178, 196, 203, 204, 210,

216, 291. 922° 225, 938, 939,

245, 257, 264, 268, 269. 270,

272. 280), 283, 306, 337, 358, 362
Lang’s Lay ie 164, 178, 204, 209
Main 120, 128, 164, 165
Main and Tail ... 101, 115,

160, 189, 203, 216, 221, 272,

974, 276, 285, » 292, 299, 313,

345, 358... Sea) keene
EAN Oe Coe 306
LIS ae eh ane 210
Strap or Band 151, 152, “280, 306
Winding mes . 151

Rose Bay Bore ... ... ys
Rosehill adsiaes Rtas he

Round Coal ... 37, 76, 80, 157, 168
Royalty ... ... Eide 75
MUONS RIS: oe sy Fee ae ny DOO
Run-away Switch ... ... ... .... 207
PL OE REINO ee Ss 37
Runner a 205
Running Bridge zka 301
Russell, ae. N., & Co. a ‘see En-

gines

Ruston, Proctor & Co., see

Boiler
Safety Catches ... ... ... 107, 119
Safety Detaching Hook, King

& Humble’s ... ... ... 278, 304
’ Ormerod’s diese SLO

1 ENE ge ee 292
Safety Explosive ... Rok on) ee
Safety Lamp, see Lamp
Salter’s Spring Balance ... ... 112
PAIRS aos cs. ses . 19
Sandily Basin ... 74, 75
Sandtly Colliery ... ... Soles ©
Sandgate Seams ... ey 61
Sand- Pump, see Pump
RBADPOREIS boy ce. c.k cach ans 9
Sawmill ... 257
Saxonite ... “92, “94, 163, 189, 348
Saywell & Wilson ... . 188
Schiele Fan, see Fan
Scotch Derry Seam ... 62
Scott.” Ernest, & Mountain,

see Engine and Motor, » 263,

269 = va OD
Scott. Fell & Go... . 87
Scottish Australian Mining Co.

242, 305 ; 307
Sereen. Shaking . a tor “168,

187. 264, 277. 280. 983, 293,

393. 307. 352. 356. 364. 366

395
Stationary ... 106, 147, 161,
Oi RAR ee ao Ree nA Maal 5
Screened Coal ... ... ... 37, 80, 173
Screenman ... nae, Wee, Tore ae
Seaham Colliery , 241. 242,
275 1 iam lnme Cae tee
Sealing a Mine ... ou; ete
325, 326 = 327
GU Ree Orsi Verea as cae ia ask “8, 20
Bea Pit! s. ‘241, 242, 288, 289
Second Working ... ... ... ... 271

Self-acting Incline, see Gravity

Plane
Sellers, A. E. O. .. 188
Selling Agencies ... .. 2
Semi-anthracite . 6, 14, ‘15, ‘16,
Semi-bituminous Coal ... 14. 15, 16
Sentinel Filter and Oil Sep-

APALOR Se ies Soe onc, eli asa
Sercombe Kiln ... ... ... ... ... 104
Ot eTIGOTS Bist id) cnn Secaieeek neces Oe
Sets of Skips ... 106, 111, 116,

120, 165, 178, 216, 222, 224,

245, 259, 264, 299 ... ... 358
Seward, tT est ve 5
Shaeffer & Budenberg, Toes 280
Shamrock Breathing Apparatus 371
Shandy-gaff ... ... ... , 124, 277
SCETEG Es) ec cess aes . 198, 194
Sheaves 116, 121
Shift Pecunia aves | bearers hci
Shittmienise (0 8.) ods aco ee Da
Shipper ... as 210 )aeag
Shipping Facilities a eas
Shipping meeneeer 78
Shoes of Cage . 119, 123, 140, 286

Tubbing .. 94. 295
Shooter, or Shot- firer aes f - aaa

84, 9 ay? are at ait cee ee
SHOOTING? <5. whee beoo ee 97, 98
Shooting Fast ee ah 97
Shortwall Machine .. . 246, “854, pnd
Shot, Overcharged .. 182
Shovel Filled Coal ... ig. 80,

124. 221
Siemens Bros. . ; 155, 1 190, “951,

257, 268, S44? >. 54
IPRA act as, ses ayo ae . 122, 143
Signal, Electric ... 102, 157,

. 160, 175, 204, 276, 988 ... 349

Sional Post. 2... aot aa

Silbermann, Mr. ... ... 30
Sirocco Fan, see Fan
Site for Works ... Scho ee
Riser er Coad < as yn. she arene gs a
Skips. ... 101, 104, 107, 110,
129123. 124. 125; 143, 164,
178, 204, 210, 216 . ie: is aaa
SITES whist see

ids Ne Pieces
Slack Box 281, 348, 356, 365

306 INDEX.

Slack ... 25, 37, 38, 80, 124,
BAP 257 067 (ot eee ee

Slant. oo c-cc.5, dae Ayes OOD IO ey ee
IORBETE 8 cal eae ous .< 209, 330
Sliding Sealant: 7 Gees Soke eae
Sip F400K 420.50 isk > caktaasen te eee
Slope ... 0... ais, wceebOSie ees
SRE LOOR = ccd Vedas aaa sta ees 125
Small ‘Goat... jessie iain Ogee
smaliman’s: Olin: ..< ...-1... ia Oe

Smith-Vaile Pump, see Pump
Snow Pump, see Pump

PIECE i? Fo 5, eae” Dye cas hae
GONE: A mee ries hice a Saaten eee
ION. 9 EP ee. > bourse) cag 259, 270
OOKED. 855 bu oes <giu ede tte one
BOE OORT os oie dn sk San dee
OREN: USS 25 ..h0r ase al eee
Solid, Shot in the... ... 330, 338
South Australia ... ... a, What AOS
South Brisbane ...........%.. ... 91
South Bulli Colliery Jaq Sa

199, 239 . a apie xk
South Cape Coalfield ... ... ... 75
South Clifton Colliery ... 87,

129, 162 . 368
South Clifton Coal Mining Co. 162
South Kembla Colliery ... ... 240
South Port Coal Basin ... .... 73

Southern Coal Company .. :
Southern Coalfield of N. ‘S.W... 129
Southern Coal-owners’ | Agency 87
Spear Wedges ... 143

Special “Places: «2 (se isi cus 81, 83
Specific Sey 25, 29, 30
POUT os ig tewc, Ponsa
Sphenopteris deal Ge Soa oat yy een ee
Spirifa ... Bee beea Nes koe Woke 4
Splash Board ... eae
Splent Coal, see Stiint Coal |

Splint Co 5 helen 17, 98, 138, 317
Splitting Air 105

Spontaneous Combustion | 320,
321, 322, 324, 326, 334 ... 370

SPag o2c87 cs? as 101, 276, 338
Spreyton Onl soo . 73, 75
Spring Bay Basin ... .. 75
Spring Relief Valve, see Valve
Squeeser veto 311
Stables ... 103, 111, 152, “167,

WG i, ; 354
Stack . Leb. Kha enso tes sie oe 335
Staffor @’s Sein 20. ey Pee 55
Stall Road) a: eee ene
Standard Height ed. ee eee ee 8]
Standard Selling Price ... ... 85
Stanford Greta Colli 1 eae 336
Stanford Merthyr Colliery 319,

B20. S21. Soe San 369

Stanwell Coalfield

mtarting = Bot 5.5 eo .4 eaten 522
State (Vic.) Coal Mine ... ... 374
Statutory Rules & Orders ... 92
Steam Coal ... °.. ke nie ee
Steam Pump, see Pump.
Steam ETS 9 ao Si ea 252
Steelyard . 112, 113, 114, 212, 215
Steering Wheel... ... . 200, 239
SiAmgaing > i324. 4. aaa 95
SLENOMOLA, 2. |>.. deste aes 4
Stenton ... » 181;°220
Stephenson, Robert. “see Engine.
Steyner’s Patent Nut... ... -.. 285
Stilwell-Bierce & Smith-Vaile
OG. ; 280
Stirling, Jaa 4 cof the oe
Stafford’s Tunnel Fault ... ... 56
SEGCKIOR | cs as ea

Stockton Borehole Colliery Sees: ft

Stockton Colliery ... 10, 242,

B44 DOG ane s0 wee ae, ee
Stockton Company ... ... ...°... 301
SUOREE teckuSse plae seeker yet ee ore?
Stoker Triumph Automatic ... 352
Stoke’s Alcohol soaps see ee
Stone Coal ... ... ... 16
Stone Drift ... ... ... 39, "949, 357
SiOGKH Ti coche Bue ee 290
PSOOWEY Yess Sey, toa “166, 185
Stoppings ... 101, 105, 322,

324, 326, 334, 336, 389, 345
Stower ... ee ae
Strength of ‘Coal . Aiea SCD eae

Cie cat ods gar Gan es
Strikes ........°:... +», 269; 372, oe
Stringer ... dai eas) SS ee
Striped Bacon Seam ... ... ante thee
Stripping a Jig... 3. ca i A ee
Stroud eal. “ave ase ee
Stump ... si See ie eke" 273
Styx ‘Coalfield Ne 48
Subsidence .. 291
Sullivan’s Coal Cutter, see Coal

Cutter
Sulphur ... ... 18, 21, 28, 29, 204
Sulphur Dioxide ... ... ... 29
Sulphuretted Hydrogen ... 29
Sumping Cut ... ... 246, 261, 262
Surveyor 22s ss as 78
Swallows ... . a, 259
Swanbank Coal Area ... ... ... 58, 56
Switelt.9.. 20 45; 128, 161, 938. 239
Switchboard . 252
Sydney Harbour Colliery 130.

132, 149. Fad aa ee ae
Syphon hadi Ski cite Sth Saat ee ee
Peonionterts 35555. oe ee ene ee
FAMPiNyd (ocr ea cc ke oes ee ee

Tangve, see Engine, Boiler.
Pump, Air Compressor.

Ad . —— - ee ae
0 ta plight ama aS ns

INDEX. 397

TAT Fs EAU rk a aeh ee Pees Gene OS
be 1h la te eee 114, 215
Tasmania ... *. pe ae oe
Tasman Peninsular Basin... 75
Taylor-& Walker: ...,¥.....--.. 2+»). 188
Telephones ... 288, 349
Telescoping Tubbing "997, Fis 312
Tell-tale Board ... . es. "AOS
Temperature of Ignition .. eid ane 233
Tender Roof RO ana Canin ae
Teralba Colliery ... ... ... 241, 242
Tertiary Coal ... ..< -:: 3, 60, 65, 66
Testing Battery ... .. Sige Oe
Testing Kv grOEeNe Power of

Ce ad as eee ee cae OO.

Thermometer ... ... =" ... 3836
Tie. pean... 00. Ati GE, 240
ies Ee BOO, OLE
Thinnfeldia ... .. EA tae Rt ee!
Third Hand Assistant ... ... ... 78
inomas; Avariah <... :., ;.. <«. 32)
ERM RNC ee ce eae one eg OEE
Thomas, H. J. bo Sua) eae
Thomas, R.: 289
Thompson’s Calorimeter ... ... 26
Thompson, : 3 303
Thompson, J., see Boilers.
Thompson’s Marshes Coal Ba-
stm 55: 74
Thompson River Lignite . ERs 66
Thorndale Seams ... ... ... ... 74
POW Ce avs a, os ses . 89, 42
Throw-off ... ... . . 264, 356
Tidal Waters... ...°:.. 76, 243, 293
Timberman ... .
Tippler, End . "89, 117. 124,

128, 173, 184, 216, 286, 993. .

305, ea 363
Side ... 128, 146, 156, “157,

168, 1738, 197, 264, ‘281, 283,

317, 3438. 357, 361, 363, 366
Tate’s Water Balance . 306
LS 7S eee ae oe err 198

ELVIS EPID. cay rove. 20d bes? asia. oh
Tivoli Seam 53,
Token ... 82, 83, 283, “993, 316
Tolmies Coalfield ... ... : 48, 49
Tomago Coal Measures ... OL:

}, 64, C2 he Bi al eRe eee
Tommy Dodd ... 110, 121, 197, 224
Tonnage Rate ...0.... .:. ... 81, 83
Toongabbie Lignite ... ... ... ... 66
Top Gas po aS AR 132
PRA UNIOE eae NG ogy oe Saw oot Oe
Torbanite ... .. 16 SF7
Torbanlea Seam ... ... ... a Ge 5
Track ... Ae Ad ven 120, 208
Trade, Coal ... ....... ... 372, 373
Transformers, Static ... ... ... 190
Transport ... aor 330

PERU EROS AST CY aca = SUA TSS hice ee
Travelling Belt, see Conveyor
‘ravelling Crane ©... 2: ...—....- 282.
Travelling Road ... ... ... 115, 196.
Travelling Weight ... ... . 170
Trepan .. ; 297, 298.
Trias-Jura Coal . . 48, 52, 53,
PUG er. Sta seek Ge 74
Triassic: Goal is... cn, 60°
EADIO AURWEY So's Seis” eae Soa 345.

Triprachiocrinus ...

285, 309, 317

Trolly 246, 267,
Trucks, Black ... 89, res Piet

OAT tasters 200-

PR anes tosis eats Bo ee 269°
oe eget ts "88, 106, 112
Hopper : 90, 112, 185,

198, 199, 360, 217, 239 ... 269

adidas x. te 198.
Tubbing . 141, 143, DAA, “293,

295, 296... ise rene tees
Trial eo cn ORE ens 123.
Turn-out ... ... .. 111, 123, 208
Tuxworth,, Mr: i... s.00 4, 25> Babe
Twelvetrees, Wi HE: TBS Thy 7
Twin Seam ... Feat a 3
Tyers River Lignite See ace Nien
Tyrrell Regulator ... sb sl yatee AO
Unanderra .. mpage 43.
Undercast ... .. deed FRE pete 327, 337
Underfed Stoker ~ Age GG
Undor-manadger 08..6 26 ce a
Underweight. Ct pe eee 25. DTG sks e
Unscreened Coal ... 38, 80, 173, 317
Upeensb so 3.0008 107, 234, 235, 278.
|g Se eae rae Wr igets. 54
Up-throw ... ... 39-

Upper } Measures, see Newcastle
Coal Measures

Uses of Coal be

Vacuum Oil Co. . :

Valentine Creek Brown Coal. 58, 59>

Vale of Clwydd Colliery ... 87, 367
Valves, Corliss . . 279, 349"
Wornishe 5.62: 134, ‘149, 999, 301
Dead Weight ... ... ....... 311
Meyer’s Cut- off . . 145, 146,
EIS AGO at eS Paar 35
Spring Relief ... 301
Varieties: of Coal ... ... ... 16

Vend .. 85, 87°
Ventilation . if 43, 144. 152, ‘O74

See also Fans and Furnaces
Verety Motor, see Motor
NGPCADPaTiMy ... iss. eons ee I ne 4

Vickery, E. . 188
Vickery, E., & Sons ‘Ltd. 220°
Victoria.) eee ek eat
Victoria Tunnel ‘Seam ree) as

393 INDEX.

Victoria Seam ... .. 4 ee wee
Victorian State Coal Mine Snes
Volatile Hydrocarbons 14, 15,

1G 17, Dee Qi, Benak raxe vas 320

Waddle Fan, see Fan

Waddle Patent Fan & fsa
eering Co. ... ... na 314

Wares” ...° 3): pe bs “79, 83

Waggon, see Trucks.

Walker ‘Bros, 196, see Boiler,
Fan, Engine

Walker Fan, see Fan

Walker Friction Clutch . 151, 365
Walker Shutter ... ... 145, 281, 354
Wallarah Coal Co. ... ... ... ... 244
Wallarah Colliery ... ... ... 90, 369
Wallarah Seam ... ... ws GL, al
Waller; 7G BE yt hest: S55 cht oe on Mae
Wallerawang Coal ... ... ... ... 98
Walling Curbs ... ... 188, 140
Wallon Cannel Coal ... ... ... 57
Wallsend (W.A.) Coal ... 71
‘Wallsend Colliery ... 241, 242,

244. 269

Waratah. ‘Colliery ey. 241, 269, 369

Warburton, A. E. Fe aie nga
Warwick Cannel Coal ... ... ... 57
Wash-away ... ... . Sie
Mashing: ‘Coal ©; =. wis kann spss eed
Washantte 20. 2a0 66 lan 39, 243
Water Balots 555s. aii sss aa eee
Water. Feeder .....0:5 46, 3 «a 206
Water Gauge ... ... ... 174, 336
Water-(Pipes so. ......-c.. Leon sete
Water Ring ... ... ... ... 140, 221
WE Mer Tale. 225. eness cee Sy wae
Water Tub .. 226
Waterpark Creek Brown Coal 58, 59
Waterstown Seam ... ... ... 54, 57
Watson BOR cc 2. ence eae
‘Wedges ... ..: ; 148, 291
Wedging Curb ... # bee TAD. a
Weg Breathing Apparatus ... 371
Weighbridge ... ... 307

Welghae Machine, Avery 128,
“986, 293, 303, 305 ... 340
Paickank : 89

Pooley . 105, “112, 124, 147,

PAR 212. 214, 216, 217, 227,

a57. 2964, 281, Ce 352
Weighman ... ... 1 Os 89, 214
Weights, Cheese ... ... . 4 pes ED
‘Weir Hot Water Pump, see

Pump
Well “Hole: .h 2a el ad eee

Welsh Bord System ... .33, 162, 172
Welsh Steam Coal ... 322
Werribee River Lignite . co ie

West Moreton Coal ...
West Wallsend Colliery ... 241,

242, 280, 282, 283 ... ... 369
Western Australia ... ... 3 Ras 70
Western District of N.S.W. 98

Westernport ... ... ... 66
Westinghouse, see British
Westinghouse
Westinghouse Engine, see En-
gine
Wet Place ... th ee
Whales Head Coalfield oer:
Wheeler ... ... 78, 82, 83, 313, 397
Wheeling Road . 257
White-damp lie, Saree cek, ek
White Stone ... .:. ... 5... 2 O20
Whitwood Colliery . 56
Wickham & Bullock Island
Coal Co. 353
Wickham & Bullock Island
Pouierys s iiecer ak ins ae 244
Wide Bay Coalfield . St see ae
Wilkinson, C. S. <y i a8 nee
Williams, ST ic, oa
Wilson, John 2. saree
Witeen. Ge os 57.
Windblast ... .. 100, 230, 232
Winning Heading wes «ee 240, 259
Winning Pillars ... ... %:. 153, 155
Wollongong ... 89, 90, 217, 220,
225... ‘3 229
Wonga Willi Colliery | re ee 240
Wonthaggi cas 1. hss yi s-onee Wee
Won Wron Lignite ee pe
Weeds Fibres ac.5. ash eis 6
Woonona Colliery ... ... ... ... 188
Wood: Cellutose ou 52 se ee
Working, First ... ... ... 290, 345
BOCONG: 5. sl wea. e ote Oee Bae
Whole ... ... 308

Worthington, see ‘Pump, Feed-
water Heater

Yardage. <..- 5. 81, 82, 289
Yard Seam ... ... . 61, 241, 988) 291
Yarragon Brown rates (eerie: 66
York Plains Coal Basin ... ... 75
Young Wallsend Colliery 241, 242
Young Wallsend Seam ... 61,

DAL, DAD oF AB ete - ise SL
Walls Ge Bake 6, 2 i Cee
DOPBPENTIS 2 sts Sante, ee oe 4

Zig Zag Colliery Eeteyys 87, 114, 367

a =i
baie

GLOSSARY. 399

GLOSSARY.

_ After damp.—The mixture of gases left after a colliery explosion,
consisting of carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, nitrogen, and water.

Air drift.—A drift connecting a ventilation shaft with the fan.

Air lock. — An intermediate passage closed at either end by a
door, placed between airways, along which currents of different pres-
sures are flowing. Persons desirous of passing from one airway to
the other can do so without interfering with the system of ventilation
or personal inconvenience.

Air receiver.—A strong vessel, into which air from a compressor is
delivered, which serves as a reservoir to equalise the pressure before
being consumed.

Air shaft. — A shaft used specially for ventilation purposes;
generally the upcast.

Alligator.—A self-tipping tank, used for raising rock or coal while
sinking stopes or jigs.

Anemometer.—An instrument used for determining the velocity of
a current of air.

Arris-cleat.—A strip of wood, having a triangular cross-section
used for keeping brattices in position.

Backing-deal.—Planks placed against the inside of shafts, the rock
of which requires support; the planks are kept in place by wedging
them against curbs. Generally used for temporary purposes prior to
bricking up.

Band.—A thin layer of rock in a seam of coal.

Band-or strap-rope.—An endless rope that transmits power from
the surface into the clutch-room underground, where the various dis-
trict ropes are thrown into gear.

Bank.—The surface round about the top of a shaft.

Bank of ovens.—A row of ovens for converting coal into coke.

Banker off—The man who attends to taking skips off the cage.

Banksman.—See Banker off.

Bar.—See Cap-piece.

Barrier pillar.—A long block of unworked coal left between twe
collieries, or between workings under water, and those under land, so
as to guard against accidents.

Basin.—A coal basin is a large basin-shaped depression, in which
coal seams occur.

Battery of ovens —See Bank of ovens.

Beehive oven.—A coke oven, having the appearance of a large old-
fashioned straw beehive.

Bell-sheave —A sheave in the shape of a truncated cone, used in
connection with the main and tail system of rope haulage at curves,
so as to keep the rope close to the ground.

Billy.—A name used in the Clermont district of Queensland for a
bed of quartzite that caps the coal measures.

Billy-fair-play.—A trough with a swinging bottom attached to a
spring balance for weighing slack when it passes through the screens.

Black-damp.—Chiefly carbon dioxide gas, due to the oxidation of

400 GLOSSARY,

coal; it is, however, never pure, and has a smell due to the presence of
hydrocarbons.

Black-ends.—Inferior coke, generally found on the outside of »
charge.

Black trucks.—A box-shaped truck, with end door, so-called hecause
it is made black with tar.

Blower.—A sudden stream or outburst of fire-damp from a face of
coal.

Blown-out shot.—A shot that has blown out the tamping of a hole
without breaking the coal or rock as intended.

Bobbin.—A catch placed between the rails of the up-line of an
incline to stop any run-a-way trucks. It consists of a bent iron bar,
pivoted in such a manner so that the down-hill end is slightly
heavier than the up-hill end, which is capable of being depressed by
an up-coming truck, but rises above the level of the truck axle, as
soon as the truck is past.

Bord.—A common bord isa long chamber driven at right angles

to the facing. A narrow bord is four yards wide or less. <A wide’

bord is over four yards in width.

Bord course.—A direction at right angles to the main cleat or
facing, i.e., the length of a bord.

Bord and pillar.—A system of mining coal in which it is first won
from bords or chambers, the roof being temporarily supported by pillars
of coal left between them, but which are in most cases subsequently
extracted.

Bottom gas.—A mixture of explosive gases collected in depressions
in coal mines, probably made heavy hy the presence of an excess of
carbon dioxide over fire damp.

Bowk.——An iron bucket used for raising rock, etc., while sinking.

Brace.—A permanent platform on the head frame of a shaft on
which men work.

Brakesman.—The man in charge of a brake which controls a gravity
plane.

Branch rope.—See District rope.

Brasses —A coal miner’ term for iron pyrites in coal.

Brassy tops.—The top part of the Greta seam, in which there are
large quantities of sulphide of iron.

Brattice.—A vertical division of hoards or cloth to separate the
intake from the return air currents.

Brattice trick.—A trick played on inspectors when measuring the
air in a mine, the quantity of air being reduced in some districts helow
is normal amount, in order to increase it in the district being tested.

Jsually effected by placing a piece of brattice cloth across one of the
return airways.

Breathing apparatus.—Apparatus connected with a mouth-piece or
helmet, which enables the wearer to penetrate places full of foul gases.

Breeze.—Fine coke.

Bridge rails.—Rails made in the form of an inverted U, generally
in short lengths, which are light to handle, and can be brought within
easy shovelling distance of the face.

Bridle chain.—Short chains between the cage and the hoisting rope.

Broken.—Working in the broken is the process of removing the
pillars in bord and pillar work.

Broken skip.—A skip from which some of the coal has fallen off in
transit.

Brown coal.—A_ structureless variety of lignite.

Brush.—To brush the roof is to take down some of the rock over-
head to make head room.

Buffer rope.—Ropes placed between the track of cages in a shaft

© eae Okey he

rn Al eg

GLOSSARY. 401

where rope guides are employed, so as to prevent the cages from
colliding.

Bull.—See Dragbar.

Bunton. Horizontal timbers or steel girders placed across a shaft
to support cage guides, pipes, etc.

Bye-pass. A-.short passage used to get past a place it is not
ndvisable te cross, e.g., a shaft.

Cabin.—A small room, either on the surface or underground, e.g.,
a lamp cabin, deputy’s cabin, or stump cabin.

Cage.—A movable platform, on which men and materials are raised
or lowered in shafts. .

Canch.—A thickness of stone necessary to be removed from top of
bottom, in order to make: head-room or to improve the gradient of
the road.

Candle-power.—A sperm candle, that burns at the rate of 120
erains per hour.

Canister.—(1) A tin for holding blasting powder; (2) a hopper-
shaped truck, from which coal is discharged into coke ovens.

. sortie coal.—So-called because it burns with a bright flame like
a candle.

Canvas.—A miner’s name for brattice cloth.

Carbonic dioxide.—A gas composed of one part of carbon to two
parts of oxygen by weight. It is the chief constituent of choke-damp.

Carbon monoxide.—A poisonous gas caused by incomplete com-
bustion, composed of one part of carbon and one part of oxygen. It
is the poisonous constituent of white-damp.

Carburetted hydrogen.—A gas composed of one part of carbon to
four parts of hydrogen. It is the chief constituent of fire-damp.

Cap.—(1) The pale bluish elongation of the flame of a lamp, due
to the presence of fire-damp; (2) the socket attached to the end of a
hoisting or hauling rope nearest to the cage or skip.

Cappice.—A horizontal stick of timber or bar of steel used for
supporting a weak roof.

Cavil —Lots drawn at stated periods by hewers to determine the
places in which they will work for the following term.

Chain-breast machine.—A coal cutting machine, so constructed that
a series of cutting points attached to a circulating chain work their
way for a certain distance under a seam; when the limit is reached,
the machine is withdrawn and shifted to one side, where another cut
is put in.

Chain pillars.—Pillars left to protect gangways and air courses,
with which they run parallel; they are broken up into a chain of smaller
pillars by stentons and bords.

Chairs.—The supports on which cages rest when at the surface.

Check-brakes.—An arrangement for automatically checking the
speed of skip running down an incline unattached to a rope.

Check-weighman. A man appointed and paid by the miners to
check the weighing by the company’s representative of coal broken by
various parties of men.

Cheese weights.—The circular cheese-shaped weights used to keep
guide ropes taut.

Cherry coal.—A coal that burns freely without fusing.

Chidder.—Slate and pyrites mixed.

Choke damp —See Black damp. .

Chocks.—Pieces of wood built up crossways in pairs, forming a
hollow column, which may be filled in with rock. Used for supporting
the roof. :

Cindered coal.—A very inferior natural coke, little better than ash.

Clay band.—An argillacious iron ore, sometimes found in coal
measures.

“Z

402 GLOSSARY.

Cleat.—The smooth vertical partings which run through a seam,
generally at right angles to one another, one set usually being more
pronounced than the other.

Clip.—A means for fastening skips to the rope in the endless rope
system of hauling.

Clipper-off—A boy who unfastens the clip Conmoctiay a skip to a
circulating rope.

Clipper-on.—A boy who fastens skips to a rope with clip.

Clutch room.—A chamber, generally underground, in which there
are friction clutches that control the different ropes of the various
districts being worked.

Coal.—A solid fuel, which occurs in seams, being the fossilised
remains of organic matter.

Coal apple.—A spheroidal form of coal occasionally found in certain
seams:

Coal box.—Large bins for storing coal.

Coal measures.—Seams of coal with their accompanying rocks of the
same age.

Coal-puncher or pick-machine.—A coal cutter of the rediptoos aul
type, used for undercutting and nicking coal.

Cod-piece.—A wooden “fish-plate used for connecting the segments
of a walling-curb.

Coffee-pot lamp.—An ordinary coal miner’s naked oil lamp, similar
in shape to a coffee-pot.

Coke.—The fixed carbon and ash of a coal sintered together.

Coking coal.—A bituminous coal capable of leaving a caked mass
when heated in an oven so as to drive off the volatile hydrocarbons.

Coke-wharf.—A platform on to which coke is pushed when dis-
charged from an oven.

Collar —A horizontal piece of timber or iron placed so as to sup-
port the roof of a gangway

Collar of shaft.—The first wooden fr ame round the top of a shaft.

Collecting rope.—An endless rope used for bringing skips from
where they are left by the main haulage system to the bottom of the
shaft, thus saving much handling and the construction of a kip.

Collier uv.—A coal mine, including the surface plant.

Consideration.—An extra payment given to men working under
unfavourable conditions, e.g., in a wet place.

Copt.—A capsized or “broken skip.”’

Cross-head.—A runner or framework that runs on guides. placed a
few feet ahove the sinking bucket in order to prevent it from swinging
too violently.

Coupling chains.—See Bridle chains.

Coup-over.—A small chamber, into which an empty skip can he
nue so as to allow a full skip to pass when there is only a single
ine

Cradle.—The platform on which men stand while lining the inside
of a shaft with bricks.

Creep.—The gradual rising of the floor or sagging of the roof in
mine workings; sometimes err oneously confused with a ‘‘crush.’

COreeper- chain.—A strong circulating chain, in which every few feet
a horn is inserted, which catches the axle ofa skip and draws it up
an incline.

Cross-cut.—A passage driven diagonally to the facing of the coal.

Cross-gateway.—A road kept through the goaf, which branches off
from the main gateway at an angle

Cross-heading.—A passage driven from one working place to
another for ventilation purposes.

Crossing.—The place where two or more lines of rails going in
different directions cross each other.

GLOSSARY. 403

Crush.—The breaking-up of coal, and the rock overhead, when
pillars or timber give way.

Cundy or conduct.—The passage under a roadway into which an
endless rope passes out of the way at the end of its track.

Curb or crib.—A ring made up of segments or wood or iron used
in connection with the lining of shafts. Walling or wedging curbs,
wedged tightly in position, are used as a foundation on which to start
brick lining or tubbing. A capping or holding-down curb is the top
curb of a section of tubbing. _

Curtain.—A piece of brattice cloth placed across a roadway, so as
to dissect the air current.

Cut-through.—A connection between bords, used for ventilation
and travelling purposes.

Dag.—A system whereby the earnings of members of the Coal-
miners’ Federation are practically equalised.

Dant.—A fine film of carbonaceous matter found on the joints of
<oal, sometimes called ‘‘Mother of coal.”’

Damp.—Gaseous mixtures in a colliery.

Dead rope.—See Buffer rope.

Declared selling price.—The nominal selling price of coal declared
by the mine-owners in the Newcastle district, N.S.W., every Septem-
ber, on which the payment to miners is based.

Deficient place.—A working place in which men cannot make fair
average wages, and for which they are given extra pay.

Deputy.—An underground official who is in charge of a certain
area in a colliery.

Devil.—An automatic arrangement for detaching a set of skips from
the main and tail rope system on their arrival at the kip.

Diamond —A pointed wooden or iron arrangement placed between
rails, just before a curve, where skips are liable to be derailed, so as to
enable them to mount the rails again. If the skips are travelling in
one direction only, the diamond is pointed at one end, if travelling
backwards and forwards on the same rails both endg are pointed.

Dip.—Working to the dip is when one works on a down grade.

Disintegrator.—A machine for breaking up coal into powder, prior
to converting it into coke.

District.—A certain area of a coal mine into which it is found
advisable to divide a colliery for convenience in working.

District rope.—A rope used for hauling skips in a district or sec-
tion of a colliery.

Division rope.—See ‘‘Buffer rope.’’

Dog.—See ‘‘Dragbar.”’

Dog-clip.—See ‘‘Clip.”

Dog-watch.—The night shift in a colliery.

Down-cast.—A shaft through which fresh air enters a mine.

Dragbar or back stay.—An iron bar fastened to the back of a skip
to prevent the latter running backwards down hill in case the hauling
rope breaks.

Draw.—To draw a pillar is to extract the pillar when working in
the broken.

Driver.—A boy in charge of a horse and set of skips on a main
roadway.

Dropping pillars and top coal.—The second working, consisting of
drawing the pillars, and in thick seams fetching down the upper por-
tion of the seam that was left temporarily in position.

Drop-sheet.—See ‘‘Curtain.”

Drum sheave.—A cylindrical drum placed vertically on the inside
of a curve, against which the main rope of a main and tail rope system
moves when rounding the curve.

Dry coal.—Coals wanting in oily constituents.

A404 : GLOSSARY,

D. truck.—A low side open truck, used for conveying coal for home
consumption, and from which the coal has to be shovelled.

Duff.—tThe fine coal left after separating the nuts.

Dumb-drift.—A passage connecting the return airway with the up-
cast shaft, when ventilation is carried out with the help of a furnace.
The connection is sufficiently high above the furnace so as to prevent the
heat from igniting any fire-damp that may be present.

Dummy.—A_ couter-balance used on jigs which runs on-a narrow-
gauge between the jig rails.

Dyke.—A wall or sheet of igneous rock, cutting through other
rocks.

Economiser.—A structure for making use of the waste heat from
boilers.

Endless rope haulage.—A system of haulage whereby skips are
clipped on to an endless circulating rope, the empties going in-bye and
the full out-bye.

Engine plane.—An incline on which one set of skips are hauled
up-hill by an engine, while the other set of skips run down-hill by
gravity.

ahr ge electric machine used for firing charged holes.

Face.—The place where hewers work.

Facing.—The main vertical joints often seen in coal seams; they
may le confined to the coal, or continue into the adjoining rocks.

alse-bedding.—Laminations in rocks at an oblique angle to the
proper bedding planes.

Fan.—A wheel provided with vanes which revolves, thereby in-
ducing an air current.

Fan drift.—A short tunnel connecting the top of the air shaft
with the fan.

Fast-heading.—See ‘‘Leading winning.”

Fat-or gas-coal.—Coals containing much volatile oily matter.

Fault.—A fracture through rocks causing their dislocation. Miners
not finding the same rock continuous on either side of the fracture are
said to be at fault.

Fault coal.—A name used for inferior coal in the Clermont district,
eee which occurs not only near faults, but also - away from
them.

Fence.—An obstruction, such as a bar or cross-sticks, placed across
an underground passage past which men have no right to travel.

Filler.—Men who fill the coal into skips.

Filling-out.—Shovelling into skips and taking to the surface. One
speaks of filling-out burning material when a small fire occurs in a mine.

Fine coal.—See ‘‘Slack.”’

Finger-bars.—Iron rods attached to a cage with the ends bent in
such a way as to keep the skips in the cage from running out while
being raised or lowered.

Fire-damp.—A mixture of gases composed chiefly of light carbu-
retted hydrogen and other hydrocarbons, with hydrogen, carbon di-
oxide, oxygen, and nitrogen.

Firemen.—Men who test workings for gas before miners go to their
working places.

Flat.—An underground gathering station or siding.

Flat-sheet.—A flooring of boiler plate at crossings and at the top-
and bottom of a shaft, to facilitate the handling of skips.

Flatter.—The man who attends to the shunting at a flat.

Fleet angle.—The angle made between the two ends of a winding
drum as a base, and the pit-head' pulley as the apex.

ne litting.—Conveying a coal-cutting machine from one place to:
another.

GLOSSARY. 405

Floor.—The rock below a coal seam.

Free-burning coal.—See ‘‘Cherry coal.’’

Fork-filled.—Coal filled into skips with a fork, having the tines
about l}in. apart. This separates the bulk of the slack from the
round coal, which should not have more than 10 per cent. of its weight
of slack left in it.

Front and back shift-—A system sometimes used, in which one of a
pair of mates comes to work two hours before the other, while the
other remains two hours after the first has gone home; the object
being to keep the wheelers going, who work 10 hours, against the
miners’ eight hours.

Gannon, ganning, or going bord.—Bords used for. wheeling pur-
poses. A travelling-way going in the direction of a bord.

Garland.—See ‘‘Water ring.’’

Gas coal.—Bituminous coal containing a large quantity of volatile
hydrocarbons.

Gassing.—The effect of inhaling noxious gases on the animal system.

Gateway.—A road kept through the goaf in longwall working.

Geordie turn-out.—A turn-out from a heading to a bord made of
iron bars of square cross-section instead of ordinary T rails, so that
the same turn-outs can be used to the right or left by simply reversing
them.

Gob, goaf, or goave.—That part of a mine from which the coal has
been extracted, and the roof. allowed to fall in, or the space stowed
with refuse.

Gob-road.—A roadway built through the gob.

Gob-stink.—The smell of incompletely burning coal given off by an
underground fire.

Gravity plane.—A tramline laid at such an angle that full skips
running down hill will pull up the empties.

Greaser.—An apparatus over which’skips pass, say, every mile,
which greases the axles.

Green coal.—Freshly mined coal.

Grey-back.—A local name at Lambton B. for minor cleats that
cross the main cleat.

Grey-heads.—Joints in the rolling country of the Southern Coal-
field of N.S.W., which run parallel with the longer axis of a roll; these
joints are generally coated with a whitish substance.

Grunching.—Shooting-fast, i.e., shooting in the solid. This
makes more slack than when the seam is holed; but with the consoli-
dated rate the slack is weighed as well as the round coal. .

Guides.—Wooden rods, steel rails or ropes, arranged in a shaft,
on which cages run, so as to keep them in their own particular path.

Hanging deal.—Planks used to suspend a lower curb from the one
above it, in cases where backing deals are necessary.

Hard coal.—Another term for anthracite.

Heading.—A passage driven with the facing of the coal, or head on.

Head frame.—tThe structure above a shaft, on the top of which
are fixed the pit head pulleys.

Heaystead.—The entire surface plant about a shaft.

Heave.—The displacement of a rock sideways by faulting.

Helper-uwp.—An assistant to a wheeler when the roads are bad.

Hewer.—tThe collier who mines the coal.

Hewing rate.—The rate of pay given miners for hewing coal.

Holding-down curb.—See Curb.

Holing.—(1) A horizontal] cutting in or below a seam of coal made
preparatory to breaking down the coal above it. (2) A connection
made hetween two or more roads underground.

Hopper.—aA bin for storing coal.

Hopper-truck.Trucks made with a smaller area on the hottom

406. GLOSSARY.

than on the top. The bottom is made to move en hinges, so that wher
run over a bin or lifted over the hold of a skip the contents can be
completely emptied. He

Hurdy-gurdy drill—An auger used for drilling holes in coal by
turning a handle.

Hydrogenous coal.—-Coals containing a large quantity of moisture,
e.g., brown coal.

Inbye.—Towards the working face from the surface.

Intake.—The passage through which fresh air is conducted to the
workings.

Jenkin.—A place cut in a pillar of coal at right angles to the
cleavage planes or in a bordways direction.

Jerry.—A carbonaceous shale found in the Borehole seam.

Jerry faces.—A local name at Lambton B. colliery for main cleats
in coal.

Jig.—An underground gravity plane for conveying coal to a level
below in a highly inclined seam.

Jigger.—A boy who attends to the brake of a iig.

Jockey.—A Y-shaped rope grip placed in sockets at the end of a
gens It is in this that the endless rope rests when used above the
skip.

Sides portion of a working face loosened by under-cutting
and nicking.

Kerf.—The undercut made while mining coal.

Kick wp.—An end tippler.

Kip.—A raised tenath of track on which skips are disconnected
from a hauling rope, so arranged that the skips can gravitate as re-
quired to the bottom of the hoisting shaft.

Lampmen.—Men who clean, repair, and refill lamp for colliers.

Lamy station.—Places underground where safety lamps are allowed
to be relighted, or may be exchanged when they become extinguished
or damaged.

' ees winning.—A heading going in advance of the ordinary
bords.

Heng aithes 4 a heads,’* whose faces incline towards the axis of
a roll.

Legs.—The vertical supports of a cap-piece.

Level.—A nearly horizontal passage running in the direction of the

strike of a seam.
_ laid.—A_ board placed on the top of a post, so as to give it a better
bearing against the roof.

Inft.—A slice taken off a pillar when winning it.
Lignite.—Brown coal, with a woody structure.

Little tops.—The name given to a thin band of coal occurring above
the ‘‘Jerry,’’ in the Borehole seam.

Tiving wage.—The amount of money that is considered necessary
to allow a man with a wife and family to live without privation.

Lodgment.—A place specially cut out or old workings to the dip,
where water is allowed to accumulate.

Longwall.—A system of winning coal in long faces without leaving
any pillars, except about shafts and the main roadways.

Loose rails.—Rails that can be lifted and placed across a_per-
manent Jine when desired to run skips across it.

Lorry.—See ‘Running bridge.’’

Lump coal.—All coal passing over the main screen.

Machinist.—The man in charge of a coal-cutter.

Main and tail rope haulage.—A system of haulage whereby a set
of skips connect two ropes, one known as the main, the other as the
tail-rope. The main rope hauls the full skip out, while the tail rope
draws the empties into the mine.

BR NT ti RN 5 at nh ay IN

a

ie

Por)

ae 1

GLOSSARY. 407

Marsh gas.—Light carburetted hydrogen.

Mineral conditional purchase.—An obsolete N.S.W. Act, whereby
anyone preps Orie his land to the extent of £2 per acre becomes pos-
wench the right to all minerals on the property, with the exception,
of gold.

Missfire.—A charge that does not explode when fired.

Monkey-chock.—See ‘‘Bobbin.”’

Morgan.—A band of carbonaceous shale occurring in the Borehole
seam.

Mother of coal.—See ‘‘Dant.’’

Mouth of pit.—The top of a shaft.

Naked light.—Any light that is not covered or protected in such
a way as to prevent the ignition of fire-damp.

Narrow place.—Working places that are less than six yards wide:
these are paid for by the yard in length.

Natural coke.—Coal that has been more or less coked by contact
with an igneous rock.

Needle timber.—Long sticks of timber, the lower end of which
rests against the foot of a prop in a steep seam, so as to keep it in
position, while the upper ed is let into a hitch in the roof.

Nicking.—A vertical cutting or shearing up the sides of a face of
coal so as to free the ends of the block that has been undercut.

Nominal selling price.—See Declared selling price.

Nuts.—Coal less than 3in. and over 3-16in.

Onsetter.—A man who has complete control of the pit bottom; he
cages and uncages the skips and signals to the engine-driver.

Outbye.—In a direction towards the entrance to a mine.

Overcast.—A passage through which one air current is conveyed
over another airway.

Overweight.—The settling down of the upper rocks when working
by the longwall system. It is regulated by the packwalls. If it settles
too quickly, it binds the underweight, causing the latter to throw too
much weight on the face.

Packwall.—A wall built up of rough stones. They are used, for
instance, on either side of a mine roadway through goaf to support the
roof, and keep the sides in place.

Panel.—A division or district of a colliery separated from other
districts by barrier pillars.

Parting.-—A thin stratified layer of foreign material in a seam.

Pass-bye.—(1) A passage round the working part of a shaft. (2).
That part of a single track where the lines are doubled, so that in--
going and out-going skips can pass one another.

Patent fuel.—Fine coal cemented together with pitch or tar, and
compressed into bricks.

Penthouse or pentice. — A protection built above men when
shaft sinking.

Permitted explosives.—Certain explosives allowed to be used in
fiery mines, which are mentioned periodically in ‘‘Statutory Rules and
eens issued by the Home Office, London, which are supposed tu

e safe.

Pick-or punch-machine.—A reciprocating machine, used for under-
eutting coal by repeated blows.

Picking belt.—A revolving belt made of sheet iron placed hori-
zontally or at an angle, used for conveying coal to a bin or waggon,
while boys pick out any shale or brasses. :

Pillars.—A solid block of coal left as a support or barrier, while
working a colliery, e.g., shaft pillar, chain pillar, barrier pillar, bord
and pillar, etc.

Pillaring.—The process of extracting pillars.

Pit.—(1) A shaft. (2) A coal mine.

408 GLOSSARY.

Pit-top.—The structures about the mouth of a snatt.

Pit water.—The moisture found in freshly mined coal, which is lost
by exposure to ordinary atmospheric conditions.

Place.-—The portion of a coal face allotted to a hewer.

Post.—(1) Clayey sandstone. (2) See ‘‘Prop.”

Primer.—tThe small plug placed on the top of a charge of high
explosive in which the detonator is embedded. :

Prop.—A vertical stick of timber used as a temporary support for
the roof.

Rake of skips.—A number of skips connected together that form a
set or train.

Rams.—(1) The plunger of a pump. (2) A mechanical device for
pushing hot coke out of an oven.

Regulator.—A door in a colliery by means of which the ventilation
of a district may be regulated.

Relighting station.—Places underground where safety lamps that

have become extinguished may be relighted.

Return tunnel.—A tunnel used as a return airway.

Rib.—-A narrow pillar of coal left as a support.

Rider.—See Cross-head.

Rise.—-Working to the rise is when one works on an up-grade.

Roadman.—Men who lay tracks, see that they are kept in order,
and who attend to various odd jobs below.

Roadway.—An underground passage, whether used for haulage
purposes or for men to travel to and from their work.

Rolls.—When earth stresses cause the floor of a seam to form wave-
like folds, which thins out the coal at their crests.

Roof.—The rock immediately above a coal seam.

Rope drive.—When ropes take the place of belts for driving
machinery.

Round coal.—Coal which passes over screens, with bars 3in. apart.

Rubbing bars.—Bars placed on the side of a cage nearest to the
other cage when rope guides are used. The buffer ropes are placed
outside the rubbing bars.

Run-away switch.—A switch by means of which a run-away truck
can be side-tracked.

Run-of-mine.—Coal as broken in the mine.

Runner.—See Cross-head.

Running bridge.—A platform on wheels which serves as a cover
oS See in process of sinking, and on which buckets or skips are
anded.

Safety catch.—An appliance attached to a cage so that should the
hoisting rope break, the catches grip guides, thus preventing the cage
from falling.

Safety detaching hook.—A self-acting device, which releases the
cage from its hoisting rope in case of an overwind.

Safety fuse.—A core of fine gunpowder encased in a tube of tape
and tar, used for exploding holes.

Safety lamp.—A miner’s lamp, protected in such a manner that the
heat of the flame is not communicated to the explosive mixture of gases
outside.

Sereen.—An apparatus for sizing coal.

Screened coal.—Coal that has passed over a screen and had the
slack separated from it.

Screen Men.—Men who attend to the tippler and screening of coal.

Scotches.—A sprag or brake for skip. :

_ Sealing a mine.—The air-tight closing of the entrances to a coal
mine, resorted to in time of fire.

Seam.—A hed of coal.

Second or back explosion.—Supposed to be due to the ignition of

GLOSSARY. 409

gases developed from highly heated coal dust, and gases sucked out of
the faces of coal by the partial vacuum resulting from the primary
explosion, or liberated by falls of roof.

Second working.—The extraction of pillars left by the first working.

Self-acting incline.—See Gravity plane.

Set.—(1) A set of skips, is a rake or row of skips connected _to-
gether to form a train. (2) The timbers which compose any framing,
whether for a roadway or a shaft. (3) To place a prop in position.

Set rider.—The man who accompanies a set of skips hauled by the
main and tail rope system, so that he can attend to any points on the
track, unfasten the rope, and signal to the engine-driver as required.

S aft.—A_ vertical or highly inclined pit sunk in connection with
aeaine operations.

Shaft pillars.—The solid block of ore left about a shaft in order
to protect it from being destroyed.

Shandy-gaff.—Shovel-filled coal.

Shearing.—See Nicking.

ohare .—The number of hours constituting a man’s ordinary daily
work.

Shiftmen.—Men engaged on wages at various jobs.

Shipper .—An instrument used for placing an endless rope on its
rollers in cases where it gets off them.

Shoes.—(1) The bottom wedge-shaped piece attached to tubbing
when sinking through quicksand. (2) Steel pieces fastened to the
ends or sides of cages, which slide on guides when the cage is in motion.

Shooter or shot firer.—The man who fires a charged hole after satis-
fying himself that the place is free from fire- damp.

Shooting fast.—Shooting in the solid, i.e., making powder do all
the work without holing or undercutting.

Shortwall machine.—A coal cutter “for use in bords, which, when
once the cutting part has made the sumping cut, is drawn across the
face automatically by ropes, undercutting as it proceeds,

Shot.—The explosion of a charged hole.

Shovel filled.—Run- of-mine coal as broken at the face.

Skip.—A coal miner’s truck.

Skirting.—A road driven next a fall of stone or next to an old
fallen place.

Slack.—¥Fine coal, which will pass between bars fin. apart.

Slack box.—A bin in which slack is stored.

Slant.—An inclined roadway.

Slip.—A small fault.

Slip hook.—A hook, generally on a hinge, which can be readily dis-
connected by withdrawi ing a cotter bolt that holds it in position.

Slope.—An inclined roadway, generally driven from the surface.

Small coal.—See Slack.

Speak.—Props are said to ‘“‘speak’’ when they give signs of weight
by cracking.

Spear-wedges.—Long wooden wedges, used for centering iron tub-
bing, and which help to pack up the space between the tubbing and
the rock.

Special places. —Development and difficult places, where coal can-
not be won so easily as in ordinary working places.

Splint or splent coal.—An inferior laminated dull- lookine coal con-
taining much ash.

Split.—(1) To divide an air current into two or more; also the
divided current itself. (2) When a coal seam is divided by a parting
into branches, it is said to split.

Spontaneous combustion.—Combustion started by natural means.

Sprag.—(1) A piece of wood or iron placed between the spokes of
skip wheels, which jambs against the bottom of the skip rnd pre-

410 GLOSSARY.

vents it from travelling. (2) A short wooden prop, placed in a slant-
ing position to support the upper part of a seam during or after
‘“‘kirving’”’ or undercutting.

Squeezer.—An apparatus used to check the progress of skips run-
ning loose on rails, by means of a weighted angle iron that presses on
the tread of the skip wheels.

Squib.—A tube of paper, a straw, or quill filled with fine-grained
gunpowder, at one end of which a slow match is fixed; used for firing,
shots.

Stall.—A narrow chamber or breast.

Stall road.—A roadway along which coal worked in a stall is con-
veyed to the main roadway.

Standard height.—A given height of seam, say, 5ft., below which
the miner is paid so much extra for every inch.

Standard selling price.—An assumed price, not necessarily the

actual selling price, adopted so as to afford a basis for a uniform

hewing rate.

Steam coal.—A hard, free-burning, non-caking coal.

Stem.—To tamp a hoie prior to blasting.

Stemming.—Material used in the operation of tamping a charged
hole; also the process of tamping itself. .

Stenton.—A connection made between parallel roadways for venti-
lation purposes.

Stint.—The amount of work to be done by a man in a given time.

Stone coal.—Anthracite.

Stone drift.—A passage driven in rock instead of coal.

Stone man.—A man who works in rock, in contradistinction to
one who works in coal.

Stook.—A block of coal a few yards square left to support the roof
in certain stages of pillar working.

pe pip device for blocking skips from proceeding when standing:
on rails.

Stopping.—An air-tight wall, built across a mine passage, in order
to direct the air current.

Stower.—Men.who stow away waste in old workings.

Straight point.—That straight portion of the inner main rail be-
tween the rails of a turn-out.

Stringer.--A beam of timber placed longitudinally.

Stripping a jig.—The forming of a jig by enlarging a cut-through
on an incline. .

Stump.—-The pillar left between the roadway and each bord turned
off from it.

Sulphur.—tlron pyrites.

Sumping-hole.—The first or opening cut made by a coal-cutter.

Sweep-point.—The curved rail of a turn-out that crosses the main
rails, and is moved against or from the outer main rail, according to
the track it is desired the skip shall run on.

Sweep rail.—The inner curve of a turn-out.

Switch.—(1) The movable tongue whereby skips are diverted from
one track to another. (2) An arm used for changing the course of
an electric current.

Tail sheave.—The return sheave for an endless rope or the tail
roe of the main and tail rope system, placed at the far end of a
1aulage.

Tamping.—See Stemming.

Tell-tale board.—A board studded with hooks on which colliers:
place a token on which their special number is stamped, before enter-
ing the workings, so that the officials can know who is below.

Tender roof.—A roof that requires to be well supported.

Tension pulley. — A pulley round which an endless rope passes,

GLOSSARY. 411

mounted on a trolley or other movable bearing, so that the slack of the
rope can be readily taken up by the pull of weights.

Thimble.—The iron ring placed a few feet below the pit-head pulley
which supports the safety detaching hook in case of an overwind.

Third-hand assistant.—A boy, who helps the machinist and his
assistant with a coal-cuiting machine.

Throw.-—The vertical displacement of a fault.

Throw-off switch.—A switch by means of which an obstruction 1s.
thrown across the rails of a track, causing the derailment of trucks.

Thrust.—The cutting up of the roof by the pressure of remaining
pillars of coal in a Saree workea coal mine.

Tipper.—The man who runs skips into a tippler.

Tipple.—The tracks, trestles. screens, etc., at the entrance to a
colliery where coal is screened and loaded.

Tippler.—An apparatus for tipping a skip up, so as to empty it of
its contents.

Token.—A metal or leather ticket stamped with a distinctive num-
ber fastened to a skip so as to indicate to the weighman what party
mined the coal.

Tommy dodd.—A series of small pulleys, with vertical axles placed
between the rails at a curve, so as to keep an endless rope in place.

Tonnage rate.—When miners are paid by the ton.

Top coal.—The upper portion of a thick seam, often left to be
extracted at the same time that the pillars are drawn.

Top-gas.—Fire-damp. —

Top man.—Any man employed about the surface.

Trailer cable-——A branch cable for conveying electricity to a coal-
cutter, one end of which is clipped to the main cable. It is capabk
of being paid out as the machine advances.

Trapper.—A lad whose business it is to open and close ventilation
doors in roadways along which hauling is done.

Travelling belt—A conveyor belt.

Travelling road.—An underground gangway, along which men
travel to and from their work.

Travelling weight.—See Underweight.

a lg composite tool for boring holes of large diameter in
rock.

Triple entry.—-A system of opening a mine by driving three main
parallel entries.

Tub.—See Skip.

Tubbing.—The lining of a circular shaft, generally of cast iron,
but sometimes of brick or timber, used to keep back water.

‘ Turn off.—The point where a branch line junctions with another
ine.

Turn out.—A siding or passing place for skips on a haulage road.

Twin seam.—Two seams of coal so close together that they can be
worked in conjunction or one following closely on the other.

_ Undercast.—An air passage carried under another air course which
is the more important roadway.

Underweight.—The travelling weight which rolls forward on the
face of the coal in longwall work, and breaks down the strip that has
been undercut.

Unscreened coal.—Run-of-mine coal.

Up-cast.—A shaft up which air ascends.

Up-set.—See Copt or Broken skip.

Vend.—A combination of colliery owners in the Newcastle district,
having for their object the regulation of the coal trade.

Viewer.—An old term for a general manager or mining engineer
of one or more collieries.

Walker shutter.—A shutter having a V-shaped cut in it, provided

412 GLOSSARY.

for large ventilation fans of the Guibal type, which by cutting off the
discharge of air gradually, reduces the vibration. Be

Walling curb.—A curb on which a wall is built for a shaft lining.

Washing coal.—Dressing coal in order to get rid of dirt associated
with it, so as to reduce the ash forming material.

Wash out.—The erosion of part of a seam by aqueous action.

Water baler.—A man who bales water out of dip workings in
places where it is not convenient to put in a pump.

Water gauge.-—An U-shaped glass tube, containing water, by means
of which the pressure of an air current can be measured.

Water-ring.—A trough let into the wall of a shaft in which water
collects, and is led down pipes to a pumping station.

Water table.—A horizontal surface drain placed across a track.

Wedging curb.—A ring of wood or cast iron securely wedged in
position at the bottom of a section of tubbing, so as to form a water-
tight joint.

Weighman.—A man who weighs the coal as it comes out of the

mine.
Well hole.—The sump, or portion of a shaft below the place where
skips are caged at the bottom of the pit; used for water to collect in.

Welsh-bord.—A bord in which the waste is stored in the middle,
and a roadway is kept open on either side.

Wet place.—A place is considered wet if men have to work con-
stantly in 3in. of water or more, or when water is constantly dripping
on them from the roof.

Wheeler.—Lads who drive horses that draw skips to and from
working places, and the nearest collecting station.

White-damp.—Carbon mon-oxide, a very poisonous gas.

White stone.—An indurated clay band in the Greta seam, thickly
strewn with plant impressions.

Whole-working.—Working in the whole, or first working of a seam,
by which it is divided up into pillars.

Wind blast.—A quantity of air driven out with considerable force
by a fall of roof.

Winning bord.—A bord from which coal is being won.

Winning-off.—A leading heading or drive in advance to win room
for bords. Any leading drift is termed a “Winning.”

Winning pillars.—Extracting coal pillars. ©

Working bord.—See Winning bord.

Working, first.—See Whole-working.

Working in the broken.—See Second working.

Yardage.—A price paid per yard for cutting coal, in addition to
the tonnage rate, in order to compensate for the breaking of coal more
frequently from the sides in narrow places. The amount of yardage
paid varies with the width of the working place.

ae a

7

ee ee ee

COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

Equipment.

sty. ot eZ

Jeffrey 17A Coal Cutter.

As Sole Agents for the world’s leading manufacturers, we
shall be glad to send specifications and estimates for any of the
following lines of machinery :—

Jeffrey Manufacturing Co.:

Coal Cutting Machines, Electric Locomotives, Picking Belts,
Screens, Coal Handling Equipments, Coal Washers.

Hy. Pooley & Son, Ltd.
Pitbank Weighing Machines,
Weighbridges.

Norwalk Air Compressors.

Aldrich Electric Mine Pumps.
Gardner Steam Pumps.

Saml. Osborn’s Wheels and Axles,
Steel Castings, etc.

Haigh’s Wood Working Machinery.

Jeffrey Picking Belt.

SWIM. DOLL e- Ce et

535 Kent Street, Sydney, 486 Collins Street, Melbourne.
XV.

COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

A

R. Johnson, Clapham & Morris

Limited.

Manchester, Sydney, Melbourne, etc.

Makers of Miners’ Safety Lamps, etc.

Large Stocks kept in Sydney of J.C.M. Deflector
and Cambrian Lamps, also of all spare parts.

XVI.

j
a

COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

PIONEER
LEATHER BELTING

An Australian Product with a reputation extending over

FIFTY YEARS.

The above Trade Mark stands for best possible value in
BELTING.

Raw Hide Gears and Leather Furnishings of every kind
for use with Machinery.

J. C. Ludowici & Son Ltd.,

PIONEER WORKS,
117 York Street, SYDNEY.

XVII.

COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

CAPE
EXMPEOSIV as

VV ORS Lar

South Africa,

BLASTING
GELIGNITE.

GELATIN,

LIG-DYNS.

Detonators and Fuse Supplied.

“NO CONNECTION WITH
ANY COMBINE.”

Special Explosives for

Coal Mining, Quarries, and varieties of Contractors’ work.

General Agents for Australasia :—

KNOX,? SCH LAPP 6 7G,
MELBOURNE,

AGENTS:
NOYES BROS. (Syd.), LTD. GEO. P: HARRIS, SCARFE & CO. LTD.
Sydney, N.S. Wales. Adelaide, South Aust., and Broken Hill.
SAMUEL ALLAN & SONS, LTD., GEO. P. HARRIS, SCARFE & CO. LTD.,
Cairns and Townsville, Queensland. Perth, West Australia.
LINDSAY, TULLOCH & CO..

Launceston, Tasmania.

XVIII.

COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

HIGH EXPLOSIVES.

By W. R. QUINAN.
With an Introductory Note by T. J. WRAMPELMETER.
250 Pages, Royal 8vo. a21/- Nett.

This book was written while the author was in the last stages of a
severe illness, to which he succumbed on August 15th, 1910, at Wah-
roonga, New South Wales. William Russell Quinan was born in
Maryland, U.S.A., in 1848. He graduated from West Point, the
Military Academy of the United States, in 1870, having distinguished
himself for proficiency in mathematics and the physical science. After
some years’ service in the Artillery, he resigned his commission in
1881, to devote himself to the development and manufacture of indus-
trial explosives. His first engagement was the California Vigorit
Powder Company. _ From 1883 until 1889, he was Superintendent of
the California Powder Works. In 1889, he was engaged by the late
Cecil Rhodes to build a dynamite factory in South Africa, and was
appointed General Manager of the Cape Explosives Works Limited.
He remained with this company until the end, and it was while in
Australia in its interest that the last illness overtook him. He was
a prolific inventor, amongst his novelties being the first successful
machine for packing dynamite into cartridges, and a crusher gauge for
the testing of high explosives.

COALFIELDS & COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA
By F. DANVERS POWER. ;
440 Pages. 229 Lillustrations. Demy 8vo. 25/- Nett.

The author deals exhaustively with the subject, not merely from a
geological point of view, but mainly with the actual working of col-
lieries in the various States of the Commonwealth. The methods of
mining employed in different localities and by the different companies
in one locality; the surface and underground machinery and plant;
electrical equipments, coal-cutters, air-compressors, and the latest
devices adopted to make operations profitable as well as safe; the rail-
way and trolley-track schemes, with detailed descriptions of rolling
stock, are fully described. The great collieries of New South Wales
naturally furnish the larger amount of the contents, but those of the
other States are made to contribute to the completeness of the work.
The illustrations include diagrams and photographs of machinery ;
railways, surface and underground; coking ovens and their plant; and
everything of which a more graphic idea is required than can be given
in words.

The Critchley Parker Publications.
XIX.

COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

AUSTRALIAN MINING STANDARD,
ENGINEERING AND ELECTRICAL RECORD.

Per copy, 6d. Annual subscription in Australasia, 26s.; Abroad, 30s.

This is something more than the leading Australian mining and engi-
neering weekly : it is the only one. It caters for the mining investor,
the mine manager, the metallurgist, the geologist, the mineralogist, and
every species of engineer. No one who wishes to keep pace with the
developments in Australian mining or with the developments in
mining and engineering practice can afford to be without it. The
very latest London quotations for the principal metals are cabled for
each issue; and, by means of a competent staff of local correspondents,
readers of the paper are kept au fait with the work done on all the
leading fields of Australia. The stocks attracting most attention on
°Change are dealt with by a writer specially qualified for the task,
and electrical and mechanical engineers find technical articles of the
highest value to them in the shape of monographs written specially for
the paper, and summaries of contributions made to the proceedings of
leading English and Continental scientific societies, furnished by an
exceedingly capable London correspondent. A space is also reserved
for financial matters, and Australian trade returns are published.

AUSTRALIAN MINING AND METALLURGY.
By DONALD CLARK, B.C.E., M.M.E.
600 Pages. Royal 8vo. at/- Nett.

The author’s wide experience and his eminence in his profession
rendered him specially fitted for the work of describing ‘‘Australian
Mining and Metallurgy’’—the multifarious methods employed in the
most important mines of each State for the reduction of ores, and the
recovery of their metallic contents, be they Gold, Silver, Lead, Tin,
Zinc, or what not. Descriptions of the principal mines—gold, silver,
copper, tin, etc.—in Australasia; characteristic geological formations,
the methods of working the deposits, peculiarities of treatment according
to the nature of the ores—their simplicity, complexity, refractoriness ;
concentration, sintering, precipitation; chlorination and cyanidation;
roasting, retorting, refining; the different patent processes Which experi-
ence has proved to be most suitable in various circumstances, are lucidly
explained. Metallurgical hints are scattered throughout the book, and
a special section is devoted to that part of the subject which will prove
of great value.

The Critchley Parker Publications.
XX.

— in ae <P ee ag By —

COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA,
+

GOLD REFINING.
By DONALD CLARK, M.M.E.,

134 Pages Demy 8vo. Lllustrated. 12/6 Nett.

“To present the essential points of all methods of gold refining
commonly practised, as well as those of historic interest,’’ was the
author’s purpose in this volume. ‘The fifteen chapters of which the
book consists deal with the Simpler Methods of Early Days; Amalga-
mation Process; Refining with Oxidising and Chloridising Agents;
Sulphur Refining; Refining with Cementation Processes, and by means
of Oxygen and Air; Miller’s Process and that adopted at the Mel-
bourne Mint; Parting with Nitric Acid (two chapters); Recovery of
Silver from Nitrate Solutions; Refining by Sulphuric Acid; Parting by
Electrolysis; Electrolytic Refining of Gold; Separation of Platinum
from Gold; Treatment of Cyanide Precipitates; Refining of Gold
Slimes by Nitric and Sulphuric Acid; the Nitre Cake Method of Puri-
fying Slimes.

THE AUSTRALASIAN
JOINT STOCK COMPANIES’ YEAR-BOOK.
By ROBERT LUCAS NASH,

Financial Editor of Sydney ‘‘Daily Telegraph,”

Author of ‘‘Investor’s Sinking Fund and Redemption Tables,” ‘‘Pro-
fitable Nattre of Our Investments,’? Eight Editions of
‘Fenn on the Funds’? (London), etc.

500 Pages, Demy 8vo. 1912 Edition. Price, 9/- Nett.

A Complete Official Record of all Australasian Investments—includ-
ing Government and Municipal Loans, Railways and Tramways, Bank-
ing, Insurance, Gas and Water, Shipping, Mortgage and Financial,
Land and Pastoral, Investment, Brewery, Trading, Manufacturing, and
other Companies; as well as Mining Companies of all descriptions—to

which both Australasian and British Capital has been subscribed.

ELECTRICAL PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA.

156 Pages. Royal ato. 2/6 Nett.

The wonderful progress of the applications of electricity to modern
life and industry in Australasia during the past few years has hitherto
been indicated in scattered pages of newspapers and isolated articles
in magazines; there has been no attempt to collect the details of electri-
cal development into one body, at all times easy of access and refer-
ence. That want is supplied in these pages. All the most represen-
tative installations, for whatever purpose—lighting, power, haulage, or
metallurgical work, are here described at length by experts. The more
or less complete systems of electric tramways of the several States; the
ever-increasing demands for electric lighting, which come now-a-days
from every moderately prosperous country township; the application of
electricity to various purposes in mining operations and in factories, are
duly recorded. Anyone wishing to know how much has been done in
utilising electrical power throughout Australia will find no other book
so comprehensive in scope as this.

The Critchley Parker Publications.
XXI.

COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

CRITCHLEY PARKER PUBLICATIONS.

Australian Mining and Metallurgy.
Donald Clark. 600 pages, royal octavo. 21/- nett.
Posted, 21/4; foreign, 22/0. (Size 10 x 7).

Metallurgy of Tin.
P. J. Thibault. 230 pages, demy octavo. 12/6 nett.
Posted, 12/2; foreign, 13/4. (Size, 9 x 6

Gold Refining.’
Donald Clark. 134 pages (plates), demy octavo, 12/6
nett.
Posted, 12/7; foreign, 13/1. (Size, 9 x 6.)

Coalfields and Collieries of Australia.
F. Danvers Power. 440 pages, 229 illustrations, demy
octavo. 25/- nett.
Posted, 25/3; foreign, 26/8. (Size, 9 x 6.)

West Australian eee Industry.
Issued under the authiries of the W.A. Government.
250 pages, crown folio. 5/- nett,
Posted, 5/2; foreign, 5/8. (Size, 144% x 10.)

New South Wales Mines and Minerals.
250 pages, crown quarto. 5/- nett.
Posted, 5/1; foreign, 5/7. (Size, 10 x aU)
Victoria, and its Mining Resources.
Issued under the authority of the Victorian Government.
84 pages, crown quarto. 2/6 nett.
Posted, 2/7; foreign, 2/9. (Size, 10 x 7%.)

Mining and Railway Map of Australia.
(In preparation.) Cloth 21/-.

Electrical Progress in Australasia.
156 pages, royal quarto. 2/6,
Posted, 2/7; foreign, 2/11. (Size, 12 x 9%.)

High Expieiies
W. R. Quinan. In the Press. 250 pages, royal octavo,
21/-. “Posted, 21/3; foreign, 22/4. (Size, 10 x 7.)

Ventilation of Mines.

Johann Sarvaas. 60 pages. 2/7 post free. (Size,

9% x 6%.)

Australasian Joint Stock Coy.’s Year Book.

R. L. Nash. 500 pages, demy octavo. 9/- nett.

Posted, 9/2; foreign, 10/3. (Size, 9 x 6.)
Power.

Issued under authority Sydney Municipal Council.

(In preparation.) 2/6 nett; post free,

Size is stated in inches.

SYDNEY: 12-14 O’Connell-street.
MELBOURNE: 376 Flinders Lane.
NEW YORK: 29 Broadway.
LONDON: 22 Henrietta-street, Covent Garden, W.C.

XXII.

COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

Babcock & Wileox Ltd.

Manufacturers of
Water Tube Safety Steam Boilers.
Chain Grate Stokers—Superheaters.
Conveyors—Bucket and Tray.
Electric Cranes,

étc., etc.

Have supplied Plants to --

Coal Cliff Collieries, N.S.W.
Corrimal-Balgownie Collieries, N.S.W.
Stockton and Borehole Collieries, N.S.W.
Mount Kembla Collieries, N.S.W.
Westport Coal Co., N.Z.
Westport. Stockton, N.Z.

Etc., etc.

And to all the leading Gold and Silver Mines
in Australasia.

If you want Economy, Durability, and
Safety, please communicate with us.

SYDNEY : MELBOURNE : BRISBANE :
421 Sussex Street. 9 William Street. N.Z. Chambers.

XXIIT.

COALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF AUSTRALIA.

"a
UNION ELECTRIC CO.

OF AUSTRALIA, LTD.

Sole Agents for
cr. ESS Sa se

Flame Arc.

Lamps. -.

t
‘

The leading Flame Lamp in Aus-

tralia and the world.

Six candle power per watt.

Gives 1500—3500 CeP.

Latest pattern 40 per cent. more

ww efficient than any other lamp.

Two years’ guarantee. Heavy Stocks in
SYDNEY: Wynyard Lane (3520 City.)
MELBOURNE: 33 William Street

~\\

(117 City.)
S y)

XXIV.

GOALFIELDS AND COLLIERIES OF oeeee

MenT

Egon Be ee ee

SM

The
Min
Min
5,00

licij

PP
{

PLEASE DO NOT REMOVE
CARDS OR SLIPS FROM THIS POCKET

UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO LIBRARY

og

O

PE

=

ee)

/

LEER R ELD ba G Ved .

bah Gds

SHV SREB US APM

mtr AeEL TY

PESTON AER
¢ emer, ah I i fee Py

ee Wve kh deb dds oy

Paw at

BRS NEKERLE RY ZEW AMPA DK Pee

are eee 5 ——

- SS Se

ee a
ey

E:
pat
af i
Bee
fa 3
ae
a
—
—
ed
os
te
c~“
ae
Fred
Sond
=
hes
—>
eo
La
i

We TARP D SR RBLARD

aS
——o
nS
pS

iH

WAU sit Ih b i

LEAD HERES E CASEIN BAAD ERD A ERIEDD WS EDN ALE th

Wb bbe be

ips) bib

PAID hi bby

vb

OO cael

GALA aLAgia:
NUIT

a oeatiaataiast as

Whye

y
rf
i
‘