COASTAL CONTROLS ON VERTICAL
SOUND SPEED DETERMINATION AND
CORRECTIONS TO ECHO SOUNDINGS

David Winston Yeaqer

NAVAL POSTGRADUATE SCHOOL

Monterey, California

THESIS

COASTAL CONTROLS ON VERTICAL

SOUND SPEED DETERMINATION AND

CORRECTIONS TO ECHO SOUNDINGS

by

David Winston Yeager

June 1979

Thesis Advisor A. B. Chace , Jr.

Approved for public release; distribution unlimited

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BEFORE COMPLETING FORM

2. OOVT ACCESSION NO.

J. RECIPIENTS CATALOG NUMBER

4. TITLE (and Subtulm)

COASTAL CONTROLS ON VERTICAL SOUND SPEED
DETERMINATION AND CORRECTIONS TO ECHO
SOUNDINGS

5. TYPE OF REPORT a PERIOO COVERED

Master's Thesis:
June 1979

• ■ PERFORMING ORG. REPORT NUMBER

7. AUTHORS

B. CONTRACT OR GRANT NUMBERS

David Winston Yeager, LCDR , NOAA

» PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME ANO ADDRESS

Naval Postgraduate School
Monterey, California 93940

10. PROGRAM ELEMENT. PROJECT. TASK
AREA * WORK UNIT NUMBERS

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IB. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES

IS. KEY WORDS (Continue an rawaraa aid* II na<»aaary and Idantlty my block numrnar)

Echo sounding, corrections to echo sounding, vertical sound speed
profiling, velocity corrections, hydrography, coastal sound speed
determination

20. ABSTRACT (Conllnuo on ravaraa aldo II nacaaaawy and Idmntltr ay kloek mmnbar)

Present methods for determining sound speed corrections for
echo soundings in continental shelf areas are time-consuming and
expensive. This study was undertaken to determine whether or not
sound speed correctors of sufficient accuracy could be deduced
from historical data.

Historical sound speed data for an east coast, shelf area
indicates that temporal and spatial variability exceeds acceptable

do , :%rn 1473

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EDITION OP t NOV SI IS OBSOLETE

S/N 0 10 2-014- 6601 I

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limits for sounding corrections, thus precluding the use of
historical data only for corrector determination.

Examination of temperature and salinity data indicates that
historical salinity values in the region are sufficiently stable
to allow acceptable sound speed corrections to be made derived
on the basis of in-situ temperature measurement and historically
derived salinity values. Expendable bathythermograph probes are
capable of meeting temperature requirements.

The constancy of the T-S relation in such regions may allow
salinity determination from water temperatures alone.

DD Form 1473

, 1 Jan 73
S/N 0102-014-6601

UNCLASSIFIED

"»«CU«I»V CtAMI^lCATIOK 0^ THIt **Otr"»«« Omf *««•»•*>

Approved for public release; distribution unlimited

Coastal Controls on Vertical
Sound Speed Determination and
Corrections to Echo Soundings

by

David Winston Yeager

Lieutenant Commander, NOAA

B.S., Auburn University, 1970

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the degree of

MASTER OF SCIENCE IN OCEANOGRAPHY (HYDROGRAPHY)

from the

NAVAL POSTGRADUATE SCHOOL
June 1979

NAVAL FOS I GRADUAL.
MONTEREY. CA 93940

ABSTRACT

Present methods for determining sound speed corrections
for echo soundings in continental shelf areas are time-consuming
and expensive. This study was undertaken to determine whether
or not sound speed correctors of sufficient accuracy could be
deduced from historical data.

Historical sound speed data for an east coast, shelf area
indicates that temporal and spatial variability exceeds
acceptable limits for sounding corrections, thus precluding
the use of historical data only for corrector determination.

Examination of temperature and salinity data indicates
that historical salinity values in the region are sufficiently
stable to allow acceptable sound speed corrections to be made
derived on the basis of in-situ temperature measurement and
historically derived salinity values. Expendable bathythermo-
graph probes are capable of meeting temperature requirements.

The constancy of the T-S relation in such regions may
allow salinity determination from water temperatures alone.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

I. INTRODUCTION 9

A. GENERAL 9

B. ACCURACY REQUIREMENTS 11

C. HISTORICAL TECHNIQUES _ _ _ _ 12

D. MEASUREMENT AND COMPUTATIONAL
REQUIREMENTS-SOUND SPEED EQUATIONS ----- 15

II. PROCEDURE AND METHODOLOGY ---- _____ 20

A. STUDY AREA ----------------- 20

B. DATA SOURCE --------------- 30

C. TECHNIQUES FOR SUMMARIZING

SOUND SPEED DATA ---- ______ 31

D. COMPUTER PROCESSING ------------- 34

E. PROCEDURE _____ ___ 40

III. DISCUSSION OF RESULTS ____ __ 46

IV. CONCLUSIONS 54

APPENDIX 1: COMPUTER PROGRAMS AND DOCUMENTATION - 58

APPENDIX 2: VELDAT , SALDAT AND TEMDAT RESULTS

AND SEASONAL PROFILES ------ -- 104

APPENDIX 3: SEASONAL STATION PLOT ---------- 122

BIBLIOGRAPHY --------------------- 126

INITIAL DISTRIBUTION LIST ----- _______ 129

FORM DD 1473 -- _____ - ______ 1

LIST OF TABLES
I. Temperature (°C) in the Western North Atlantic - - - 27
II. Salinity (0/Oo) in the Western North Atlantic - - - 27
III. Comparison of HIDAT Results with

TEMDAT and SALDAT Results -- _________ 45

IV. Summary of VELDAT RESULTS

Region l--------------------__ 47

V. Variability of Sound Speed Temperature

and Salinity -------------------- 51

LIST OF FIGURES

1. Schematic Representation of BS 3 Sounding

System Showing Swath Coverage ----------- 13

2. Index Map of Study Area -------------- 21

3. Surface Circulation in Study Area _-_____-- 24

4. R/V GILL Station Plan ____ 25

5. Water Mass Distribution -------------- 29

6. Sample NODCRD Output ---------------- 36

7. Sample Input Data Cards -_-___--___--- 38

8. Regional Division of Study Area ---------- 42

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to express my sincere appreciation to
LCDR A. B. Chace, USN, and CDR D. E. Nortrup, NOAA , as thesis
advisor and reader, for encouragement and guidance throughout
this project.

I am especially indebted to LCDR Alan Pickrell, NOAA, for
his invaluable assistance in developing programming for this
analysis .

I would also like to thank Dr. R. G. Paquette for his
kind assistance and permission to utilize existing computer
programs written by him. Further, I would like to extend my
appreciation to Mr. Henry Odum of the National Oceanographic
Data Center for his timely assistance in providing the data
tapes used in this study.

Finally, I would like to thank my wife for her patience
and understanding during this undertaking.

8

I. INTRODUCTION

A . GENERAL

The objective of this thesis was the application of basic
oceanographic principles to the solution of an operational
hydrographic problem. Depths determined by echo sounder are
based on an assumed speed of sound in seawater. Corrections
must be applied to such depths to account for the difference
between the assumed and actual speed of sound. Present prac-
tice dictates that in-situ measurement of the sound speed
profile in a working area be made and depth corrections com-
puted. The problem is to determine if temporal and spatial
sound speed variability in continental shelf areas is small
enough to allow use of historical salinity and temperature
data archived in the National Oceanographic Data Center's
(NODC) Oceanographic Station File to correct echo soundings.
Historical data was examined to determine whether or not
correctors of sufficient accuracy could be obtained from
historical data without resort to in-situ measurements.

Applicability of historical data (in the form of tempera-
ture and salinity measurements) has been widely discussed but
limits of applicability have not been well-documented (Mobley,
1977) .

This study was undertaken to examine the historical data
available, its variability within a sample coastal region, and
limitations on application in meeting National Ocean Survey
(NOS) hydrographic requirements.

Echo Sounders (or fathometers) do not measure depth
directly but rather measure the time delay between an outgoing
sound pulse and the return echo of this pulse. Depth is then
derived by dividing the round trip travel time by two and
multiplying this value by the assumed speed of sound in sea-
water. The fathometer makes this transformation electronically
or mechanically within the device itself and displays depth
of water beneath the transducer. The depth displayed is the
nominal or fathometer depth. True depth can be determined only
if the soundspeed profile through the water column is known
and used to calculate depth as in the following equation:

Jo

2At

V(Zt)dt (1)

"Where V(Z ) is the sound speed at the level Z where the
signal passes at the time 0<t<2At. Corrected depth is derived
from nominal depth by applying a correction according to some
standardized procedure" (Greenberg and Sweers, 1972).

Most echo sounders used in hydrographic surveying are
constructed with a calibrated speed of sound assumed in the
device. This speed is usually either 1463 meters per second
(800 fathoms per sec) or 1500 meters per second (820 fathoms
per second). Reference speeds are chosen to represent
realistic ocean values which are convenient for design. Echo
sounders in use by the National Ocean Survey at present are
calibrated with an assumed sound speed of 1463 meters per

10

second. This value is reasonably near the actual speeds en-
countered in most waters surveyed by NOS (Umbach, 1976).

Sound speed corrections are applied to bring standardized
values close to actual vertical column sound speeds for a
location (Umbach, 1976).

Field measurements are made during the course of a survey
in order to determine representative vertical sound speed pro-
files. These field measurements and their reduction are often
time consuming, expensive and result in considerable conjecure
regarding areas and times of corrector applicability.

B. ACCURACY REQUIREMENTS

The requirements for accuracy of echo soundings for hydro-
graphic surveys are based on standards agreed to by member
states of the International Hydrographic Bureau (IHB). Depth
measurement requirements are stated in Special Publication 44,
"Accuracy Standards Recommended for Hydrographic Surveys",
published by the IHB in 1968. These standards vary with depth
and may be summarized as follows (Umbach, 1976):

(a) 0-11 fathoms --------- l.o ft.

(b) 11-55 fathoms -------- 3.0 ft.

(c) Deeper than 55 fathoms - - - - 1% of depth

These standards represent the maximum allowable errors in
measurement of depth due to all sources, including variation
of sound speed in the water column. "Accuracies attained for
hydrographic surveys conducted by the National Ocean Survey
shall equal or exceed those given by the IHB (Umbach, 1976)."

11

The National Ocean Survey's requirements for accuracy in
determining the speed of sound for correcting echo soundings
are stated as follows: "The velocity of sound must be known
with sufficient accuracy to ensure that no sounding will be
in error by as much as 0.25% of the depth from this cause
alone. Therefore the mean velocity of sound must be known to
within ±4 meters per second" (Umbach, 1976). These standards
apply only to conventional echo sounding systems and survey
operations involving these systems. An implicit assumption

is that the sound pulse or "beam" is vertical.

3

Future systems under test by NOS such as the BS

(Bathymetric Swath Sonar System) will require greater accu-
racies. This is due to the fact that many beams are projected
at varying angles through the water column to attain swath
coverage. Figure 1 is a diagram of such a system. The longer
acoustic path lengths, as well as varying trajectories, makes
this technique more sensitive to sound speed error than
present vertical depth measurements. Accuracy requirements
for such a system have been stated as ±2 meters per second
(Mobley, 1977).

C. HISTORICAL TECHNIQUES

A brief review of historical techniques utilized by the
hydrographer for determination of sound speed is necessary in
order to properly appreciate the magnitude of the problem.

12

21 -Beam System

*?' Sport

BEAMS

-TRANSMITTED
QEAM

Figure 1
Schematic Representation of BS 3
Sounding System Showing Swath Coverage
(From Mobley, 1978)

13

There have been at least four common methods used to
determine either the sound speed profile or the correction in
depth units to be applied to soundings (Maunsell, 1976).

1) Bar checks or leadline comparisons in which the depth
recorded by the echo sounder is compared to the depth
of the reflecting surface of the "bar" lowered to a
known depth, or the leadline depth to the bottom.
This procedure has usually been limited to use in
shallow depths due to problems of manuevering the
bar under the transducer, and correct gauging of the
depths indicated by the leadline. This method gives
a correction to be applied to the nominal depths in-
dicated by the echo sounder. Sound speed may be
determined from depth differences provided that
draft of the transducer is known.

2) Direct measurement of salinity temperature and depth
by either Nansen casts, salinity, temperature and
depth sensors (STD) or the expendable STD (XSTD).
Sound speeds at various standard depths are then
computed using an equation relating salinity, tempera-
ture and pressure to speed, such as Wilson's 1960
equation .

3) Direct measurement of sound velocity as a function of
depth by lowering a sound velocimeter to various
depths and recording the speeds obtained at these
depths. These devices have been poorly utilized in

14

the past due to design limitations. The development
of an expendable Sound Velocimeter (XSV) makes this
device promising for the future.
4) Historical tables or atlases of sound speeds or salinity
and temperature data observed in the same area and
season as the operations. Tables such as Matthews
Tables (Matthews, 1939) and Heck and Service's Tables
(Heck & Service, 1924) have been in use for quite some
time with periodic efforts being made to improve upon
the accuracy of results obtained (Ryan, 1974). These
tables have not been generally applied to depths of
200 meters or less (Sherwood, 1974).
In general then, there have been a variety of methods employ-
ed, some utilizing direct measurement and others utilizing
historical information. All of the methods summarized have
been noted for deficiencies or disadvantages of one form or
another. Adequate direct measurements of the sound speed pro-
file in the operational area provide the best accuracy;
however, in terms of expense and efficiency, there may be
useable alternatives.

D. MEASUREMENT AND COMPUTATIONAL REQUIREMENTS - SOUND SPEED
EQUATIONS

Sound speeds in a fluid may be calculated with various
equations relating speed to density and elasticity of the
medium. The following equation extracted from "Fundamentals
of Acoustics" by Kinsler and Frey relates speed of sound in

15

a fluid to the isothermal bulk modulus (B ), the ratio of

3

specific heats (F) and density in kg/m (p.). Isothermal

bulk modulus is an elastic modulus measuring the difficulty
of compressing a liquid CKinsler and Frey , 1962).

=\j™

p0

T (2)

In the case of seawater, these properties are functions
of salinity, temperature and pressure (Ryan, 1974).

Standard practice within the National Ocean Survey has
been to use a form of Wilson's 1960 equation for the speed
of sound as a function of salinity, temperature and pressure
(Umbach, 1976). The usual case has been to calculate the in-
situ speed profile from oceanographic observations within a
project area. This empirical equation was developed as a
"best fit" to certain measured data. The 1960 equation was
an improvement over earlier versions in order to expand the
range of applicability. The equation is stated by Wilson
to fit data within the ranges of temperature from -4°c to

30°c, salinities from 0 °/00 to 37 °/ 00 and pressures be-

2 2

tween 1 kg/cm and 1000 kg/cm . This equation is said to

have achieved a standard deviation of 0.30 meters/second
from the mean for all data obtained (Wilson, 1960).

It has been noted by other researchers that significant
accuracy improvements have been achieved in determining sound
speeds utilizing equations that fit data limited to real

16

seawater conditions (LeRoy, 1969). One of the two equations
formulated by LeRoy in 1968 "fit Wilson's second equation for
seawater to within 0.1 meter/second in the domain described
and the other fits Wilson's corresponding data with a better
accuracy than does Wilson's equation" (L-eRoy, 1969). Other
equations such as those formulated by Frye and Pugh in 1971
also claim similar improvement (.lm/sec error estimate)
(Frye and Pugh, 1971).

These variations are discussed as a means of pointing
out possible error sources and improvements to techniques to
achieve desired accuracies in sound speed determinations.

Wilson's 1960 equation is stated in the Journal of the
Acoustical Society of America, October 1960 as follows:
V=1449 . 14+VT+Vp+Vs+VSTp

VT=4 . 5721T-4 . 4532X10~2T2-2 . 6045X10~4T3

+7.9851X10~6T4
Vp=l . 60272X10_1P+1 . 0268X10"5P2

+3.5216X10~9P3-3.3603X10~12P4 (3)

V =1. 39799 (S-35)+1.69202X10~3(S-35)2
o

V Tp=(S-35)(-l. 1244X10~2T+7. 7711X10~7T2

+7.7016X10"5P-1.2943X10?P2+3.1580X10"8PT
+1.5790X10~9PT2)+P(-1.8607X10"4T
+7.4812X10~6T2+4. 5283X10"8T3)
+P2(-2.5294X10~7T+1.8563X10~9T2)

+P3(-1.9646X10~10T) .

17

In this equation the units of temperature, pressure,

2
salinity, and sound speed are °C, kg/cm , parts per thousand,

and meters/sec, respectively. This equation is essentially
the same as that given in the NOS Hydrographic Manual with
the exception of the term containing variation of gravity
with latitude. This term is used if pressure is not measured
but computed from depth. The equation as stated in the Hydro-
graphic Manual is:

Vu = 1449 . M+V V WVOTP ( 4 >

"Where V is the speed of sound in meters per second, Vp is
a correction for pressure, V<£ is a correction for variation of
gravity with latitude, V ' is a correction for salinity, V_, is
a correction for temperature and V__p is a correction for the
combined effect of salinity, temperature and pressure" (Umbach,
1976). All terms in equation 4 are the same as those in
equation 3 with the exception of the V term. V may be deter-
mined by reference to tabulated values in Table 12C of Special
Publication 68, "Handbook of Oceanographic Tables" published
by the U.S. Naval Oceanographic Office in 1966.

It has been necessary to examine these equations in order
to determine the effects which small variations in temperature
or salinity have on the results attained.

As stated in the Hydrographic Manual, utilizing Wilson's
Equation, temperature measurement accuracies of ±1°C and salinity
measurement accuracies of ±lppt are required to satisfy sound
speed correction requirements (Umbach, 1976).

18

An analysis of the Wilson equation was performed by-
Testing Division, Office of Marine Technology (OMT), NOAA in
1976 to determine sensitivity of the equation to variations of
temperature and salinity CBivins , 1976). Their results were
stated as follows: "if corrections were made on the basis
of temperature measurement with a one sigma (la) accuracy of
±.l°c, a natural variability of ±3ppt (la) from the measured
salinity could be tolerated and the NOS sound speed accuracy
of ±4 meters per second would be satisfied" (Bivins, 1976).

This analysis pointed out that the most critical measurement
was temperature and if temperature accuracies of . 1°C were
met then salinity measurement errors within a larger range
than previously noted could be tolerated.

The accuracy requirements, as well as the OMT analysis
all bear on the acceptability of historical information for
this application. In fact, the requirements stated are the
criteria for acceptance or rejection of the technique proposed.

Sound speed corrections are computed within NOS by the
"Summation of layers" method (Umbach, 1976). Once temperatures
and salinities have been determined at standard depths, sound
speeds at mid-layer depths are computed by graphical or
numerical methods. These layer corrections are then summed to
produce the total sound speed corrections applicable to given
depths (Umbach, 1976). Layer thicknesses utilized in this
procedure are specified in the "NOS Hydrographic Manual" as
10 meters for depths to 200 meters.

19

II. PROCEDURE AND METHODOLOGY

A. STUDY AREA

The area selected for study was a coastal region off-shore
of Charleston, South Carolina. It was originally decided to
examine a one-degree "square" extending from latitude 32°N
to latitude 33°N and longitude 79°W to longitude 80°W. The
study area was subsequently enlarged slightly in order to add
additional data points near the northeast corner of the one-
degree square. Figure 2 is an index map showing the study
area.

The area was chosen on the basis of several factors:

First, it appeared to be representative of the oceano-
graphic environments characteristic of east coast survey areas.
The influx of estuarine waters in the nearshore area, bottom
topography, depth range and other physical features are similar
to those noted for shelf waters from Georgia to the Virginia
Capes .

Second, the size of the region selected was typical of
a one-year hydrographic project by a single coastal survey ship,
or a six-month project by two ships.

Third, examination of the Environmental Data Service's
"Key to Oceanographic Records Documentation No. 2, Temperature,
Salinity, Oxygen and Phosphate in Waters off United States"
showed the data density in this region to be representative
of that in nearshore regions along the East Coast. Some 300

20

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Nansen cast stations dating from 1966 to 1975 were included
within this area.

Finally, the area also corresponded to NODC data format
and limitations of existing computer programs for abstracting
and manipulating this data.

The area extends from shore approximately fifty-five NM
offshore (to the 200 meter curve). The majority of the region
has a depth range of eighteen to seventy-three meters (10 to
40 fathoms). Bottom topography is gently sloping until the
shelf break is encountered.

Surface circulation is seasonal in character and is in-
fluenced by the following factors: river run-off, horizontal
temperature gradients, wind and coriolis force effects on
tidal motions in restricted waters (Bumpus and Lauzier, 1965).

The region is mainly inshore of the Gulf Stream although
the Gulf Stream affects its circulation patterns (Gaskell,
1972). No systematic study of seawater movement has been
made, though several generalizations have been based on
limited data from drift bottles (Kuroda and Marland, 1973).

The surface circulation has been characterized as having
a prevailing northerly drift during the winter and spring
(Bumpus and Lauzier, 1965). The pattern becomes less well-
defined during the summer. During the summer transitional
period there is water movement both to the south and to the
north. The northerly movement is apparent in the very near
shore region and over the outer edge of the shelf. Between
these two motions is a southerly flow (Bumpus and Lauzier, 1965)

22

During the autumn, most of the region is under the influence
of a southerly drift, with the exception of the outer portion
of the shelf, where the flow is toward the northeast (Bumpus
and Lauzier, 1965). Current speeds are maximum during the
winter and autumn and a minimum during the summer months (U.S.
Naval Oceanographic Office, 1965).

Kuroda and Marland (1973) noted that the surface circula-
tion in this region is strongly dependent on the prevailing
winds .

Figure 3 is a diagram exhibiting the seasonal nature of
the surface currents in the area extracted from the American
Geographical Society's "Serial Atlas of the Marine Environment,
Folio 7".

Systematic study regarding water mass distribution or
temperature and salinity distribution is limited in this region
(Kuroda and Marland, 1973). The Bureau of Commercial Fisheries
R/V THEODORE N. GILL studied this region in 1953 (Kuroda and
Marland, 1973). Kuroda and Marland (1973) in "Physical and
Chemical Properties of the Coastal Waters of Georgia" summarized
the GILL data. Figure 4 is a station plan for the GILL cruises.

This data shows that the isotherms trend northeast and
southwest, paralleling the coastline and the approximate axis
of the Gulf Stream. Monthly minimum temperatures were observed
inshore and maximums generally seen in the offshore areas.
Minimum surface temperatures (10°-23°C) occurred in January and
February and maximum temperatures (27°-29°C) occurred in June
and July (Kuroda and Marland, 1973). Minimum and maximum

23

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R/V GILL Station Plan
Cross-hatched Region is Area of Present Study

(From Kuroda and Marland, 1973)

25

temperatures at depth occurred gradually later with a direct
depth relation (Kuroda and Marland, 1973). As an example,
minimum temperature at 50 meters may occur in February whereas
at 100 meters it occurs in March. The temperature at 200
meters at a point is nearly constant throughout the year.
Table I, extracted from Kuroda and Marland (1973) summarizes
the temperature distribution.

Isohalines are also shown to parallel the coastline (Kuroda
and Marland, 1973). Near shore, surface salinities exhibited
a seasonal change whereas offshore salinities showed little
seasonal effect and remained near 36°/ 00 (Kuroda and Marland,
1973).

Near the coast, the minimum salinities of 32°/ 00 were ob-
served in January and February, and the maximum value of 35°/ 00
occurred in summer and autumn (Kuroda and Marland, 1973). Of
particular interest are the near homogenous salinity values
(36°/00) observed throughout the area at a depth of 50 meters
(Kuroda and Marland, 1973).

Ranges for salinities at greater depths (100 to 200 meters)
were also small (35°/oo to 36°/00) (Kuroda and Marland, 1973).
Table II, also extracted from Kuroda and Marland, is a summary
of the salinity variations observed.

Analysis of the Temperature-Salinity diagrams for the R/V
GILL data by Kuroda and Marland revealed the presence of four
different types of water masses in the region.

The water mass present along the outer edge of the shelf
is equivalent to the North Atlantic Central Water (NACW) as

26

TABLE I

TEMPERATURE (°C) IN Till: WESTERN NORTH ATLANTIC

PERIOD*"^-^.

r

0 METERS

10 METERS

SO METERS

100 METERS

20C METERS

JAN. - FEB.

10-23
(12)

11-24

18-24

14-24

12-21

FEB. r MARCH

12-24

12-24

16-24

12-24

9-20

APRIL - MAY

19-26

19-26

16-26

13-24

10-20

JUNE - JULY

25-29
(27)

24-28

18-27

15-25

11-20

JULY - AUG.

27-29

27-29

19-23

14-26

9-21

AUG. - SEPT.

25-29
(27-23)

25-29
(27-28)

20-28

11-26

9-20

NOV. - DEC.

13-26

13-26

21-26

17-26

9-20

TABLE II

SALINITY (°/oo) IN THE WESTERN NORTH ATLANTIC

PERIOD""^---^

0 METERS

10 METERS

50 METERS

100 METERS

200 METERS

JAN. - FEB.

32-36

32.-36

36-36.5

36

35-36

FEB. - MARCH

33-36

34-36

36-36.5

35-36

35-36

APRIL - MAY

34-36

34-36

36

35-36

35-36

JUNE - JULY

34-36

34-36

36

35-36

35-36

JULY - AUG.

34-36

35-36

36

35-36

35-36

AUG. - SEPT.

35-36

35-36

36

35-36

35-36

1

NOV. - DEC.

35-36

35-36

36

35-36

35-36

27

described by Stommel (.1965) (Kuroda and Marland, 1973). This
type exhibited the highest temperature and salinities observed.
The water temperature above 100-200 meters showed large sea-
sonal change but relative constancy below this depth (Kuroda
and Marland, 1973) .

A type of water labelled "mixing water" by Kuroda and
Marland (1973), exhibited very similar properties to the NACW
previously described but temperatures were approximately 5°c
lower in winter and autumn. The salinities observed above 100
meters had almost identical values as the first type while at
200 meters there was a decrease of about .4°/00 (Kuroda and
Marland, 1973). The third water mass, described as shelf
water, was nearer shore. Salinities between 34.5°/00 and
36°/00 were characteristic and exhibited much seasonal change
(Kuroda and Marland, 1973).

A fourth water mass was identified as "coastal water" and
occurred very near the shore. This water mass exhibited large
seasonal changes of both temperature and salinity (Kuroda and
Marland, 1973). Convenience in analysis of regional conditions
was the primary purpose of Kuroda and Marland' s classification.
Figure 5 is a generalized map of the distribution of these
water masses, extracted from Kuroda and Marland (1973).

The suite of water masses described extend out to approxi-
mately 100 miles offshore, just inside the western edge of the
Gulf Stream. Each mass is continually interacting with the
others resulting in modification to the original character.

28

Figure 5
Water Mass Distribution

29

Seasonal distributions of these masses and their movement is
also described by Kuroda and Mar land (1973).

B. DATA SOURCE

The data utilized in this analysis was obtained from the
National Oceanographic Data Center (NODC) in October 1978.
A magnetic tape of all oceanographic station data (Nansen cast
and STD stations) for Marsden square 116 was furnished. A
total of approximately 300 stations were within the area of
interest. The data consisted of temperature, salinity and
sound speed (computed by Wilson's equation) for each station.
Additional information included: position, date, time, ship
identification and other meteorological chemical and optical
information wherever it was measured.

The magnetic tape furnished was in standard NODC format :
nine-track, 800 bits per inch, 80 character, full-blocked
records. Each station record consisted of a master record
containing positional and identification data and a detail
record containing the salinities, temperatures and sound
speeds obtained for each standard depth (to the maximum depth
of the cast). Standard depths for oceanographic observations
are a matter of agreement within the oceanographic community.
NODC files contain records (for depths to 400 meters) at the
following standard depths (in meters): 0, 10, 20, 30, 50,
75, 100, 125, 150, 200, 250, 300, 400 (NODC, 1974). Where
observations do not conform to the standard depths, inter-
polations are made utilizing a 3-point Lagrange interpolation

30

equation (NODC, 1974). Wherever salinity, temperature and
depth data are present and the values are not doubtful, sound
speeds are computed CNODC, 1974).

C. TECHNIQUES FOR SUMMARIZING SOUND SPEED DATA

The objectives were to examine and summarize the historical
sound speed data available and evaluate its suitability for
determination of correctors for echo soundings in the study
area.

Temperature and salinity variability was also examined
and its relation to sound speed variability noted. Several
methods for summarizing the sound speed variability in an
oceanic region have been devised by other researchers.

Russell (1975) developed a method for selecting typical
sound speed profiles from oceanographic station data with
application to interpretations of acoustic system performance.
The data was abstracted in groups representing estimates of
natural temporal and spatial populations. The study utilized
NODC data as well as available XBT data. In this method, the
ocean regions represented natural oceanographic domains. Each
domain exhibited similar physical properties and current
regimes .

Russell ' s (1975) study is limited in application. The
primary reason for this is difficulty in accessing data bases
other than those maintained by NODC. The study is further limited
because it is directed to deep water horizontal propagation.

31

The profiles generated are useful as pilot information but
the variability of these profiles within a region is not de-
fined with the precision required for application to the echo
sounding problem.

Audet and Vega (1974) developed a similar technique to
that of Russell (1975). The data utilized was exclusively
the NODC Oceanographic Station File.

In this technique, all profiles for a region are examined.
Three profiles which exhibit the smallest variations relative
to all other profiles are selected, the profile exhibiting the
least variability being selected as the model profile. The
other two profiles are compared to the model and the standard
deviation computed between the model and these two representa-
tive profiles. This study is of interest due to the methods
employed. However, the study was primarily concerned with
deeper oceanic regions and application to variable continental
shelf areas is inappropriate.

The HIDAT program in use by the U.S. Naval Fleet Numerical
Weather Central is used to characterize sound speed conditions
in ocean regions for forecasting performance of military acoustic
systems .

Output for the HIDAT program is a month-by-month summary
showing the temperature and salinity profile which is found
to be representative of a region. The representative profile
is an actual observed profile which shows the smallest standard
deviation from all other profiles in the region.

32

Standard deviations at standard depths are computed and
represent variance of the representative profile from the
four most similar profiles in the area.

The smallest region for which HIDAT information can be
generated is a one-degree latitude-longitude square.

The data base for HIDAT includes all NODC data as well
as extensive XBT data from other sources. This results in much
greater data density for an area. The HIDAT program is
similar to the system suggested by Audet and Vega (1974).

All three prior techniques were developed in response to
specific operational requirements. None of the three was
designed appropriately for echo sounding correction. Each
technique was concerned with selection of an actual profile
as the representative profile in a region. This is an impor-
tant design criteria in that it permits identification of the
sonic layer depth. Identification of the sonic layer depth
is important for horizontal acoustic propagation. This was
the application for each of the three studies examined.

The selection of an actual observed profile is unnecessary
for vertical echo sounding because minor changes in location
of the sonic layer depth have little effect on mean vertical
sound speeds. Further research and adaptation of these pro-
grams to the echo sounding problem might result in useful
techniques .

33

D. COMPUTER PROCESSING

All computer processing in this analysis was accomplished
utilizing the IBM 360/67 computer system of the W. R. Church
Computer Center at the U.S. Naval Postgraduate School (NPS).

In addition to the programs written to perform the required
analysis of NODC data, several existing programs for abstracting
and plotting NODC data were employed. These programs were
written by Dr. R. G. Paquette of the Department of Oceanography,
Naval Postgraduate School. All programs were written in
Fortran and complete listings and documentation are contained
in Appendix 1.

Initially, all station records from the NODC unlabelled
magnetic tape were transferred to a standard NPS labelled tape.
This resulted in a faster retrieval time and fewer errors
in reading the tapes. Although the NODC tapes were compatible
with tape drives at the NPS computer center, reading problems
may occur whenever magnetic tapes are read on a drive different
from the machine on which they are created. Transfer to
the NPS standard labelled tape eliminated the errors associated
with this problem.

A computer listing of all NODC station header records
for Marsden Square 116 was made. This listing was produced
using program NODCDUM, written by Dr. R. G. Paquette of the
Naval Postgraduate School. These records were examined to
locate all stations within the study area. The stations of
interest were all located within two adjacent blocks of
record numbers. This resulted from the format of NODC data

34

tapes. Within a Marsden Square, further blocking or sub-
division of records is made by one-degree latitude and longi-
tude squares.

A complete listing of the header and detail record for
each station within the study area was then produced on a
month-by-month basis. As an example, all stations observed
in a particular month Call years) were listed together for
ease in indexing. The program used to make this listing was
NODCRD, also written by Dr. Paquette. The record produced
was a hard copy printout of all stations observed each month.
The information in this listing consisted of both the header
record (position, date, year, country and ship identification
and NODC index numbers) and the detail record giving the type
of observation (Nansen or STD), temperature, salinity, density
(a ), oxygen content and sound speed at each standard depth
to the limit of observation. This listing served a reference
and index function throughout the study. A sample record for
one station is shown in figure 6.

Four punched data cards were produced for each station.
The first card was produced using NODPUNA. It contained
latitude, longitude, NODC reference number, month in which
the observation was made, and the sound speeds for each
depth to the limit of observation or 400 meters, whichever
was shallower. Speeds were recorded to tenths of meters per
second. The second card contained the same positional and
index information but observed temperatures were abstracted
to two decimal places instead of sound speeds. This card was

35

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36

produced using NODPUNC. The third data card was also similar
but salinities to two decimal places were abstracted for each
standard depth. NODPUNB was used to produce these cards. The
fourth data card was produced as input to a station plotting
program, CHARTPLT. This card contained latitude and longi-
tude of the station. The card was produced using NODPUN.
This additional card with positional information was produced
in order to avoid programming changes to accomodate a new
format. Samples of all four cards are shown in figure 7.

The programs used to produce the first 3 cards (NODPUNA,
NODPUNB, and NODPUNC) differed only in the record abstracted
(speed, temperature or salinity). The temperature, salinity
and sound velocity cards were used as input to the statistical
program written to summarize the data.

VELDAT was the basic statistical program written to summa-
rize the sound speed data. Slight modifications to this
program, particularly in input format, resulted in programs
SALDAT and TEMDAT. All three have the same basic functions,
and produce the same results. VELDAT was used to analyze
sound speed data, SALDAT for salinity data and TEMDAT for
temperatures .

Input to these programs were the appropriate data cards
previously described and shown in figure 7.

VELDAT output consisted of the mean sound speed profile
(at standard depths), the standard deviation at each standard
depth, number of samples included in the calculation and the

37

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38

location and values of maximum and minimum sound speeds.
Temperature and salinity data were similarly analyzed.

The values for sound speeds at each standard depth for
each station in the study area were input into VELDAT, grouped
by season. As an example, all stations observed in January,
February or March are examined together. Other seasons were
defined as: Spring (April, May, June); Summer (July, August,
September), and Autumn (October, November, December). This
seasonal breakdown followed the practice of other researchers
in the area (Kuroda and Marland, 1973).

Initially, sound speeds for each standard depth for all

stations in the area were averaged and the sample mean computed

The following equation represents the computation made in

VELDAT :

N

£ svd.

SVd = 1 = 1 N X (5)

SV, was the mean sound speed at a particular standard depth

V;

(d) over the entire area. ) SV, was the sum of all sound

i
speed values at a particular standard depth, and N was the

number of sound speed values found for a particular standard

depth. Where no value was found for a particular depth or a

zero value was encountered, this sample was not included and

N was not incremented.

A sample standard deviation was computed for sound speeds

at each standard depth utilizing the following equation:

39

q

£ Csv^-sv^

SSVd

N-l

(6)

Ssv, is the standard deviation of the sound speeds at a partic-
ular standard depth. SV, was the mean sound speed computed
for the particular depth in question and N was the number of
samples. The same procedure for dealing with blank or zero
values was used in this computation as in the computation for
mean sound speed. TEMDAT and SALDAT utilized the same equations
for producing mean temperatues and salinities as well as
standard deviations. Appendix 1 documentation includes input
or data format required, variable specifications for different
regions and modes of operation possible.

The procedure utilized to compute mean sound speeds and
standard deviations at standard depths was suggested by the
fact that present NOS practice dictates use of the "summation
of layers" method for determination of sound speed corrections
at depth. This method has been previously described in section
I.C. of this thesis.

E . PROCEDURE

Sound speed data cards for all stations were produced and
sorted by month. Variability of sound speeds over the entire
area on a monthly basis was examined initially. Lack of sub-
stantial numbers of observations during any particular month
precluded use of this technique for drawing meaningful conclu-
sions .

40

Three month seasonal groupings were then combined and
analyzed using VELDAT. The program output exhibited a larger
variability than could be tolerated under the accuracy require-
ments stated. The question of applicability of historical
data would have been quickly resolved had the variabilities
over the entire area been small enough to match the stated
accuracy requirements. However, this was not the case, the
varibility was too great; thus leading to a form of spatial
subdivision .

The locations of stations exhibiting the maximum and
minimum sound speed values revealed that grouping by area
might reduce the observed standard deviations. These results,
examined in view of the variation of physical properties of
the waters (Kuroda and Marland, 1973), suggested a sub-division
of the area into two regions. Since sound speed values should
be similar for waters with similar physical properties, the
objective of the sub-division was to separate the area into
two natural populations of sound speed profiles. This method
followed the procedure cited by Russell (1975), although his
study was concerned with sub-division on a much larger scale.

The division was made along a northeast - southwest trending
line approximately paralleling the 18 meter depth contour.
The near-shore region resulting from this division was expected
to exhibit much greater variations in sound speeds and hence
a greater standard deviation. The offshore region was expected
to show smaller variations of sound speed values. Figure 8 is
a map of the area showing the division made. Sound speed

41

00
CD

u

3

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42

analysis was then achieved for each of the regions using VELDAT
and the seasonal breakdown previously cited. A similar pro-
cedure was carried out in order to examine temperature and
salinity variability in the region. TEMDAT and SALDAT were em-
ployed to this purpose.

Graphic profiles were produced from the VELDAT output
showing the mean sound speed profile, and the maximum and mini-
mum profiles for the offshore region. Profiles were produced
for each season. Salinity and temperature profiles were also
produced on a seasonal basis. Profiles for the inshore region
were not produced due to the sparseness of data in the region.

Output from the statistical programs (VELDAT, TEMDAT, SALDAT)
are included in Appendix 2. Seasonal Profiles of sound speed,
temperature, and salinity are also included in Appendix 2.

Representative monthly temperature and salinity profiles
were requested from HIDAT at Fleet Numerical Weather Central .
The HIDAT output was used for comparison purposes with output
from TEMDAT and SALDAT. The comparison was employed to vali-
date results obtained in this analysis.

HIDAT salinity and temperature profiles were requested
for the entire one-degree square, extending from latitude 32°N
to latitude 33°N and from longitude 79°W to longitude 80°W.
Typical values for salinity and temperature at standard depths
for each month were the output for HIDAT. Data for the entire
square was requested due to the fact that a one-degree square
is the smallest subdivision possible with the HIDAT system.
Seasonal averages of salinities and temperatures for standard

43

depths to 100 meters were made of the HIDAT typical profiles
in order to compare the results with SALDAT and TEMPDAT output
The results of the comparison are summarized in Table III.

44

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45

III. RESULTS

VELDAT analysis of the inshore region (I) of the study
area produced little in the way of usable results. Data den-
sity in this region was so sparse as to render the results
statistically meaningless. Less than 50 stations (all months,
all years) were observed in region I.

Results of the analysis of region I exhibited standard
deviations in the range of 1.2 meters/sec to 8.6 meters per
second, depending on the season. Information was confined to
the upper 10 meters of the water column as there were no ob-
servations below this depth. Computations were based on a
maximum of 16 samples for any one season. Table IV is a
summary of VELDAT results for this region.

The results indicated for region I clearly show that lack
of adequate samples of historical data in the form of archived
STD and Nansen Cast observations precludes use of this method
to obtain velocity correctors for echo sounding.

In-situ observations would have to be made of temperature,
salinity and depth in this region in order to obtain velocity
corrections. This result is important in itself since it
identifies a region lacking in data.

Results of the analysis for region II are exhibited in
appendix 2. A plot of all stations observed is included as
appendix 3. Stations are plotted on a seasonal basis. The
results produced indicated that there was little information
with which to work for depths greater than 100 meters.

46

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47

However, the major portion of region II exhibits depths in
the range of 18 to 95 meters (.exceptions along the shelf
break noted) .

Winter mean sound speeds computed ranged from 1521.5 m/s
at the surface to 1517.9 m/s at a depth of 100 meters. Standard
deviations of sound speeds ranged from 4.4 m/s (at 75 meters)
to 5.7 m/s (at 100 meters).

Mean temperatures for the same period ranged from 19.24°c
at the surface to 17.46°c at 100 meters. Standard deviations
ranged from 1.89°c at the surface to a minimum of 1.53°c at 50
meters .

Mean salinities exhibited a spread that ranged from 36.29°/0

at the surface to 36.24°/00 at 100 meters with standard devia-
tions showing a maximum spread of from . 10°/oo (surface) to
. 32°/,, (20 meters) .

Results for the spring showed less variability. Mean
sound speeds for the spring ranged from 1524 m/s at the sur-
face to 1514.4 m/s at 100 meters. Standard deviations were
in the range of 4.2 m/s at the surface to 2.6 m/s at 75 meters.

Mean temperatures for this season ranged from 20.63°C at
the surface to 16.25°C at 100 meters. Standard deviations
were in the range of 1.75°c at 10 meters to .87°c at 75 meters.

Mean salinities ranged from 35.72°/o0 at the surface to
36.19o/0O at 100 meters. Standard deviations of .77°/00
(surface) to .15°/00 C50 meters) were observed.

The summer months exhibited the smallest variation in
sound speeds only in the upper 10 meters.

48

Summer mean sound speeds ranged from 1541.7 m/s at the
surface to 1515.6 m/s at 100 meters. Standard deviations
ranged from 1.7 m/s (surface) to 11.1 m/s (100 meters).

Mean temperatures ranged from 27.74°c at the surface to
16.94°c at 100 meters. Variability as exhibited by standard
deviations ranged from .78°c (surface) to 3.58°c (100 meters)

Mean salinities ranged from 35.60°/oo at the surface to
a maximum of 36.18°/00 (50 meters). Standard deviations
ranging from .53°/00 (surface) to . 21°/00 (50 meters) were
noted.

Autumn mean sound speeds ranged from 1533.9 m/s at the
surface to 1527.8 m/s at 100 meters. Standard deviations
ranging from 3.3 m/s (30 meters) to 13.8 m/s (100 meters)
were computed.

Mean temperatures for any particular depth during this
period ranged between 24.73°c (50 meters) and 21.17°c (100
meters). Standard deviations were in the range of 1.2°c
(50 meters) to 4.91°c (100 meters).

Mean salinities ranged from 36.25°/00 at the surface to
36.36°/00 at 100 meters. Standard deviations for any depth
fell in the range of .10°/,0 (20 meters) to . 34°/0o 100
meters ) .

The results indicate that sound speeds are least variable
during the spring. This corresponds to the period of when
temperatures throughout the column are least variable.

Near surface summer temperatures (1-10 meters) showed
the least variation for any particular period or depth but
variation increased substantially below 10 meters depth.

49

Salinities were least variable during the winter and fall,
but standard deviations of salinity were always less than
l°/oo- If a two sigma variation were examined, only two com-
puted salinity standard deviations would be in excess of
r/oo (surface and 10 meter depth during the spring).

Examination of the physical properties and seasonal nature
of waters in this region based on the R/V GILL data as
presented by Kuroda and Marland (1973) shows that these results
are as expected.

Table V is a summary of the Region II standard deviations
of sound speed, temperature and salinity on a seasonal basis
abstracted from the results exhibited in appendix 2.

The relation between temperature and sound speed is al-
ready well-documented. Sound speeds calculated with Wilson's
(1960) equation are more dependent on temperature than on
salinity and pressure effects combined. Therefore it is
reasonable to expect the largest variation of sound speed to
occur when temperature variation is a maximum. A l°c tempera-
ture increase will produce a corresponding increase in sound
speed of 4.5 m/s. Likewise, a l°/0o salinity increase produces
1.3 m/s increase in sound speed and 100 meters depth increase
will produce a 1.4 m/sec sound speed increase (Ingham, 1975).

The results obtained, indicate that sound speed variability
is much more sensitive to temperature variation than to salinity
variation. In addition, the results indicate that the greatest
variation in sound speeds does not occur at the surface but
at some depth below it, corresponding to the depth of greatest

50

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temperature change. The depth of greatest temperature change
varies between 75 and 100 meters depending on the season.
This boundary layer between the zone responding to climatic
and mixing effect and a lower zone of constant temperature
decrease is usually noted as the thermocline depth. However
the thermocline in this region is not well-defined. The motion
of this boundary layer in the vertical leads to the large
variability of temperatures observed at depths between 75 and
100 meters.

The comparison of results achieved during this study with
the averaged HIDAT results revealed that, in general, HIDAT
temperature averages were l°c to 2°c higher than TEMDAT
mean temperatures. HIDAT salinities agree with SALDAT mean
salinities to within .5°/00 for almost all cases.

The temperature variation noted is probably due to two
factors :

1) The HIDAT routine used considerably more data in
the form of XBT observations than the data base
for TEMDAT contained.

2) The HIDAT data is more heavily weighted toward
deeper (farther offshore) portions of the area.
This is also the region of higher temperatures
since isotherms parallel the coast and temperatures
increase offshore. The "weighting" is due to the
fact that XBT observations are not made in the
shallow (200 meters near shore coastal regions as
often as they are at depths greater than 200 meters).

52

The significance of the EIDAT comparison lies in the fact
that it was an independent selection scheme used to check re-
sults obtained in this study.

53

IV. CONCLUSIONS

The results of the VELDAT analysis for region I were
less than satisfactory. Low data density in this region pre-
cludes the determination of sound speed profiles with any
statistical certainty. Therefore, the use of historical sound
speed information for correction of echo soundings is pre-
cluded in this region.

In-situ measurement of temperature, salinity and depth or
sound speed directly would have to be made in this region in
order to correct echo soundings. Extrapolation of this result
to other near shore regions on the east coast of the U.S. was
not done. Nevertheless, a cursory examination of the number
of stations occurring in the near shore region of Marsden
Square 116, of which the study area is a portion, indicates
that low data density in these regions will be a limiting
factor.

Results of the analysis for the offshore region (II) allow
several conclusions to be drawn.

NOS accuracy considerations require that mean sound speed
be known to within ±4 m/sec. Considering the variability in-
volved in making measurements of parameters from which sound
speed is computed, it is the author's opinion that this require-
ment can logically be interpreted to include 95.5% of the
observations or a variability of two standard deviations (2a).

54

Table 5 shows the value in meters per second of a one-
sigma variation at each standard depth computed using VELDAT
for each season. This table also gives the value of a one
sigma variation for salinity and temperature at each standard
depth.

The results summarized in table 5 indicate that two stan-
dard deviations at any standard depth would exceed the required
±4 meter per second value for sound speed, with the exception
of the upper 10 meters during the summer.

Further, during the winter, all values for one standard
deviation exceed the ±4 m/sec requirement at all standard
depths.

Other seasons show values of one-standard deviation which
exceed the ±4 meter per second requirement for some portions
of the water column.

The variability of the historical data exceeds the ±4 m/sec.
criteria at the 2a level, hence the question of whether or
not historical information is adequate to develop echo sounding
corrections is answered as negative for this region.

Data generated as a result of this study indicated that
changes in present methods for in-situ determination of sound
speeds would be possible.

The salinity data presented indicates that this is the
least variable parameter affecting sound speed. Salinity data
shows that the greatest standard deviation observed was .77°/00,
and this was atypical. Standard deviations for the most part
were in the range of .l°/00 to . 5°/0O. •

55

The analysis of Wilson's (.I960) equation (Bivins, 1976)
indicates that a natural variability of 3°/00 in salinity
could be tolerated if temperature measurements were made with
sufficient accuracy C±.l°c).

If one sigma variation is in the range of .l0/oo to .80/«,0,
it is clear that if this were extrapolated to 2a to include
95.5% of the values, the variability would not exceed 3°/00.
Therefore temperature observations alone, and historically
determined salinities would appear to meet the stated accuracy
requirements. Such temperature observations could be made
with the XBT system, instead of the currently used Nansen
bottles with reversing thermometers and STD probes with in-
creased efficiency.

XBT's are presently available with resolution capabilities
of .01°C in temperature and 0.9 meters in depth (McDowell,
1978). This increased resolution over previous devices re-
sults from improved recorder design (McDowell, 1978).

Accuracy limits of the XBT have been quoted as "less than
. 2°C error 95% of the time" (Naval Oceanographic Office, 1978).
Accuracy of the depth measurements obtained by the XBT are
stated as less than 5 meters (Naval Oceanographic Office, 1978)

It has been suggested that accuracy improvements in XBT
measurements can be obtained by utilizing an improved "rate
of fall equation" for the probe (McDowell, 1978). Improved
factory selection of thermistors used in XBTs including cali-
bration could also increase repeatability of the measurements.
Further testing and definition of the accuracy that can be
obtained utilizing the XBT would be desirable.

Finally, the data base used in this study indicated that
near-shore data for the study area was sparse. This fact may
be characteristic of NODC files for near-shore coastal regions.
Further efforts to improve the NODC data base would result in
an improved determination of variability in the region.

Investigation of the T-S relation in these regions may
also prove useful for corrector determination. Where the T-S
relation proves sufficiently constant, salinity determination
may be made on the basis of water temperature alone. Further
study will be necessary to define this relationship and deter-
mine applicable regions.

The results obtained during this analysis, while not
statistically rigorous, present a general picture of sound
speed variability within a shelf region and answer the question
of applicability of historical information to the correction
of echo soundings.

57

APPENDIX 1:
Computer Programs

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Audet, J. and G. Vega. 1974. AESD Sound-Speed Profile

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Acoustic Environmental Support Detachment Technical
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the Bay of Fundy by Surface Circulation. Journal
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128

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Coastal controls on
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Coastal controls on
vertical sound speed
determination and cor-
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Coastal controls on vertical sound speed

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