ANT) THE LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PRESENTED BY PROF. CHARLES A. KOFOID AND MRS. PRUDENCE W. KOFOID COCOA AND CHOCOLATE COCOA AND CHOCOLATE Their History from Plantation to Consumer By ARTHUR W. KNAPP B.Sc. (B'ham.), F.I.C., B.Sc. (Lond.) Member of the Society of Public Analysts; Member of the Society of Chemical Industry ; Fellow of the Institute of Hygiene. Research Chemist to Messrs. Cadbury Bros., Ltd. LONDON CHAPMAN AND HALL, LTD. 1920 SB fa PREFACE ALTHOUGH there are several excellent scien- tific works dealing in a detailed manner with the cacao bean and its products from the various view points of the technician, there is no comprehen- sive modern work written for the general reader. Until that appears, I offer this little book, which attempts to cover lightly but accurately the whole ground, includ- ing the history of cacao, its cultivation and manufacture. This is a small book in which to treat of so large a subject, and to avoid prolixity I have had to generalise. This is a dangerous practice, for what is gained in brevity is too often lost in accuracy : brevity may be always the soul of wit, it is rarely the body of truth. The expert will find that I have considered him in that I have given attention to recent developments, and if I have talked of the methods peculiar to one place as though they applied to the whole world, I ask him to consider me by supplying the inevitable variations and •exceptions himself. The book, though short, has taken me a long time to write, having been written in the brief breathing spaces of a busy life, and it would never have been completed but for the encouragement I received from Messrs. Cadbury Bros., Ltd., who aided me in every possible way. I am particularly indebted to the present Lord Mayor of Birmingham, Mr. W. A. Cadbury, for advice and criticism, and to Mr. Walter Barrow for reading the proofs. The members of the staff to whom I am indebted are Mr. W. Pickard, Mr. E. J. Organ, Mr. T. B. Rogers ; also Mr. A. Hackett, for whom the diagrams in the manufacturing section were originally made by Mr. J. W. Richards. I am grateful to Messrs. A2 COCOA AND CHOCOLATE J. S. Fry and Sons, Limited, for information and photographs. In one or two cases I do not know whom to thank for the photographs, which have been culled from many sources. I have much pleasure in thanking the following : Mr. R. Whymper for a large number of Trinidad photos ; the Director of the Imperial In- stitute and Mr. John Murray for permission to use three illustrations from the Imperial Institute series of handbooks to the Commercial Resources of the Tropics ; M. Ed. Leplae, Director-General of Agri- culture, Belgium, for several photos, the blocks of which were kindly supplied by Mr. H. Hamel Smith, of Tropical Life ; Messrs. Macmillan and Co. for five reproductions from C. J. J. van Hall's book on Cocoa ; and West Africa for four illustrations of the Gold Coast. The photographs reproduced on pages 2, 23, 39, 47, 49 and 71 are by Jacobson of Trinidad, on pages 85 and 86 by Underwood & Underwood of London, and on page 41 by Mrs. Stanhope Lovell of Trinidad. The industry with which this book deals is changing slowly from an art to a science. It is in a transition period (it is one of the humours of any live industry that it is always in a transition period). There are many indications of scientific progress in cacao cul- tivation ; and now that, in addition to the experimental and research departments attached to the principal firms, a Research Association has been formed for the cocoa and chocolate industry, the increased amount of diffused scientific knowledge of cocoa and chocolate manufacture should give rise to interesting develop- ments. A. W. KNAPP. Birmingham, February, 1920. VI CONTENTS PAGE PREFACE .... v INTRODUCTION CHAPTER I < COCOA AND CHOCOLATE— A SKETCH OF THEIR HISTORY .5 CHAPTER II CACAO AND ITS CULTIVATION 17 CHAPTER III HARVESTING AND PREPARATION FOR THE MARKET 45 With a dialogue on " The Kind of Cacao the Manufac- turers Like." CHAPTER IV CACAO PRODUCTION AND SALE 81 With notes on the chief producing areas, cacao markets, and the planter's life # CHAPTER V THE MANUFACTURE OF COCOA AND CHOCOLATE 119 CHAPTER VI THE MANUFACTURE OF CHOCOLATE . . .139 vii CONTENTS PAGE CHAPTER VII BY-PRODUCTS OF THE COCOA AND CHOCOLATE INDUSTRY 157 (a) Cacao Butter, (b) Cacao Shell CHAPTER VIII THE COMPOSITION AND FOOD VALUE OF COCOA AND CHOCOLATE .165 (including Milk Chocolate) CHAPTER IX ADULTERATION, AND THE NEED FOR DEFINI- TIONS 179 CHAPTER X THE CONSUMPTION OF CACAO 183 BIBLIOGRAPHY 191 A List of the Important Books on Cocoa and Chocolate from the earliest times to the present day INDEX 205 via LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS PAGE Cacao Pods ..... 2 Old Drawing of an American Indian, with Choco- late Whisk, etc. 6 Native American Indians Roasting the Beans, etc. 9 Ancient Mexican Drinking Cups . . . .16 Cacao Tree, with Pods and Leaves . . -19 Cacao Tree, shewing Pods Growing from Trunk 20 Flowers and Fruits on main branches of a Cacao Tree ........ 21 Cacao Pods 23 Cut Pod, revealing the White Pulp round the Beans ........ 24 Cacao Pods, shewing Beans inside . . .25 Drawing of Typical Pods illustrating varieties 27 Tropical Forest, Trinidad 29 Characteristic Root System of the Cacao Tree . 31 Nursery with the Young Cacao Plants in Baskets, Java . 33 Planting Cacao from Young Seedlings in Bam- boo Pots, Trinidad ..... 34 Cacao in its Fourth Year 35 Copy of an Old Engraving shewing the Cacao Tree, and a tree shading it ... 37 Cacao Trees shaded by Kapok, Java ... 38 Cacao Trees shaded by Bois Immortel, Trinidad 39 Cacao Tree with Suckers . . . 41 Cutlassing ........ 43 Common Types of Cacao Pickers ... 46 Gathering Cacao Pods, Trinidad ... 47 Collecting Cacao Pods into a Heap ... 49 Men Breaking Pods, etc 51 Sweating Boxes, Trinidad 53 ix LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS PAGE Fermenting Boxes, Java ..... 54 Charging Cacao on to Trucks in the Plantation, San Thome 56 Cacao in the Fermenting Trucks, San Thome . 58 Tray-barrow for Drying Small Quantities . 63 Spreading the Cacao Beans on mats to dry, Ceylon 64 Drying Trays, Grenada 65 " Hamel Smith " Rotary Dryer ... 67 Drying Platforms with Sliding Roofs, Trinidad 68 Cacao Drying Platforms, San Thome ... 69 Washing the Beans, Ceylon .... 70 Claying Cacao Beans, Trinidad . . . 71 Sorting Cacao Beans, Java 73 Diagram : World's Cacao Production ... 80 MAP of the World, with only Cacao -Producing Areas marked . . . . . -83 Raking Cacao Beans on the Driers, Ecuador . 85 Gathering Cacao Pods, Ecuador .... 85 Sorting Cacao for Shipment, Ecuador . . 86 MAP of South America and the West Indies . 89 Workers on a Cacao Plantation .... 90 MAP of Africa, with only Cacao-Producing Areas marked ....... 92 Foreshore at Accra, with Stacks of Cacao ready for Shipment ...... 93 Carriers conveying Bags of Cacao to Surf Boats, Accra 95 Crossing the River, Gold Coast . . -97 Drying Cacao Beans, Gold Coast ... 98 Shooting Cacao from the Road to the Beach, Accra 99 Rolling Cacao, Gold Coast . . . . . ipo Rolling Cacao, Gold Coast . . . . . ibi Carrying Cacao to the Railway Station, Gold Coast 102 Wagon Loads of Cacao being taken from Depot to the Beach, Accra . . . . .103 The Buildings of the Boa Entrada Cacao Estate, San Thome ....... 104 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS PAGE Drying Cacao, San Thome . . . .105 Barrel Rolling, Gold Coast .... 106 Bagging Cacao, Gold Coast . . . .107 Surf Boats by the Side of the Ocean Liner, Accra 108 Bagging Cacao Beans for Shipment, Trinidad no Transferring Bags of Cacao to Lighters, Trinidad no Diagram showing Variation in Price of Cacao Beans, 1913-1919 ..... 113 Group of Workers on Cacao Estate . . . 1 1 5 Carting Cacao to Railway Station, Ceylon. . 118 The Carenage, Grenada . . . . .118 Early Factory Methods . . . . .120 Women Grinding Chocolate . . . .121 Cacao Bean Warehouse . . . . .123 Cacao Bean Sorting and Cleaning Machine . 124 Diagram of Cacao Bean Cleaning Machine . 125 Section through Gas Heated Cacao Roaster . 126 Roasting Cacao Beans . . . . .127 Cacao Bean, Shell and Germ . . . .129 Section through Kibbling Cones and Germ Screens . . . . . . . 131 Section through Winnowing Machine . . 132 Cacao Grinding . . . . . . 133 Section through Grinding Stones . . . 135 A Cacao Press ....... 136 Section through Cacao Press-pot and Ram-plate 137 Chocolate Melangeur . . . . . .141 Plan of Chocolate Melangeur . . . .141 Chocolate Refining Machine . . . .142 Grinding Cacao Nib and Sugar . . . .143 Section through Chocolate Grinding Rolls . . 145 " Conche " Machines 147 Section through " Conche " Machine . . . 147 Machines for Mixing or " Conching " Chocolate 148 Chocolate Shaking Table . . . . . 149 Girls Covering or Dipping Cremes, etc. . . 151 The Enrober 152 xi LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS PAGE A Confectionery Room 153 Factory at which Milk is Evaporated for Milk Chocolate Manufacture . . . . 155 Cocoa and Chocolate Despatch Deck . . .167 Boxing Chocolates . . . . . . 173 Packing Chocolates . . . . . . 177 Factory at which Milk is Evaporated for Milk Chocolate Manufacture . . . .181 Cacao Pods, Leaves and Flowers . . .187 xn INTRODUCTION IN a few short chapters I propose to give a plain account of the production of cocoa and chocolate. I assume that the reader is not a specialist and knows little or nothing of the subject, and hence both the style of writing and the treatment of the subject will be simple. At the same time, I assume that the reader desires a full and accurate account, and not a vague story in which the difficulties are ignored. I hope that, as a result of this method of dealing with my sub- ject, even experts will find much in the book that is of interest and value. After a brief survey of the history of cocoa and chocolate, I shall begin with the growing of the cacao bean, and follow the cacao in its career until it becomes the finished product ready for con- sumption. Cacao or Cocoa ? The reader will have noted above the spelling " cacao," and to those who think it curious, I would say that I do not use this spelling from pedantry. It is an imitation of the word which the Mexicans used for this commodity as early as 1500, and when spoken by Europeans is apt to sound like the howl of a dog. The Mexicans called the tree from which cacao is obtained cacauatl. When the great Swedish scientist Linnaeus, the father of botany, was naming and classifying (about 1735) the trees and plants known in his time, he christ- ened it Theobroma Cacao, by which name it is called by botanists to this day. Theo-broma is Greek for 1 Food of the Gods." Why Linnaeus paid this ex- traordinary compliment to cacao is obscure, but it has been suggested that he was inordinately fond of 2 COCOA AND CHOCOLATE the beverage prepared from it — the cup which both cheers and satisfies. It will be seen from the above that the species-name is cacao, and one can understand CACAO PODS (Amelonado type) in various states of growth and ripeness. that Englishmen, finding it difficult to get their in- sular lips round this outlandish word, lazily called it cocoa. In this book I shall use the words cacao, cocoa, and chocolate as follows : Cacao, when I refer to the cacao tree, the cacao pod, or the cacao bean or seed. By the single word, cacao, I imply the raw product, cacao beans, in bulk. Cocoa, when I refer to the powder manufactured from the roasted bean by pressing out part of the butter. The word is too well established to be changed, INTRODUCTION 3 even if one wished it. As we shall see later (in the chapter on adulteration) it has come legally to have a very definite significance. If this method of distin- guishing between cacao and cocoa were the accepted practice, the perturbation which occurred in the public mind during the war (in 1916), as to whether manu- facturers were exporting " cocoa " to neutral coun- tries, would not have arisen. It should have been spelled " cacao," for the statements referred to the raw beans and not to the manufactured beverage. Had this been done, it would have been unnecessary for the manu- facturers to point out that cocoa powder was not being so exported, and that they naturally did not sell the raw cacao bean. Chocolate. — This word is given a somewhat wider meaning. It signifies any preparation of roasted cacao beans without abstraction of butter. It practically always contains sugar and added cacao butter, and is generally prepared in moulded form. It is used either for eating or drinking. Cacao Beans and Coconuts. In old manuscripts the word cacao is spelled in all manner of ways, but cocoa survived them all. This curious inversion, cocoa, is to be regretted, for it has led to a confusion which could not otherwise have arisen. But for this spelling no one would have dreamed of confusing the totally unrelated bodies, cacao and the milky coconut. (You note that I spell it " coconut," not " cocoanut," for the name is derived from the Spanish '" coco," " grinning face," or bugbear for frightening children, and was given to the nut because the three scars at the broad end of the nut resemble a grotesque face). To make confusion worse confounded the old writers referred to cacao seeds as cocoa nuts (as for example, in The Humble Memorial of Joseph Fry, quoted in the chapter on history), but, as in appearance cacao seeds resemble beans, they are now usually 4 COCOA AND CHOCOLATE spoken of as beans. The distinction between cacao and the coconut may be summarised thus : Botanical Name Fruit Products Fatty Constituent Cacao. Theobroma Cacao Tree Cacao pod, containing many seeds (cacao beans) Cocoa Chocolate Cacao butter Coconut. Cocos nucifera Palm Coconut, which with outer fibre is as large as a man's head Broken coconut(copra) Coconut matting Coconut oil CHAPTER I COCOA AND CHOCOLATE— A SKETCH OF THEIR HISTORY Did time and space allow, there is much to be told on the romantic side of chocolate, of its divine origin, of the bloody wars and brave exploits of the Spaniards who con- quered Mexico and were the first to introduce cacao into Europe, tales almost too thrilling to be believed, of the intrigues of the Spanish Court, and of celebrities who met and sipped their chocolate in the parlours of the coffee and chocolate houses so fashionable in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Cocoa and Chocolate (Whymper). ON opening a cacao pod, it is seen to be full of beans surrounded by a fruity pulp, and whilst the pulp is very pleasant to taste, the beans themselves are uninviting, so that doubtless the beans were always thrown away until .... someone tried roasting them. One pictures this " someone," a pre- historic Aztec with swart skin, sniffing the aromatic fume coming from the roasting beans, and thinking that beans which smelled so appetising must be good to consume. The name of the man who discovered the use of cacao must be written in some early chapter of the history of man, but it is blurred and unreadable : all we know is that he was an inhabitant of the New World and probably of Central America. Original Home of Cacao. The corner of the earth where the cacao tree origin- ally grew, and still grows wild to-day, is the country 6 COCOA AND CHOCOLATE .watered by the mighty Amazon and the Orinoco. This is the very region in which Orellano, the Spanish adventurer, said that he had truly seen El Dorado, which he described as a City of Gold, roofed with gold, and standing by a lake with golden sands. In reality, El Dorado was nothing but a vision, a vision that for a hundred years fascinated all manner of dreamers and adventurers from Sir Walter Raleigh downwards, so that many braved great hardships in search of it, groped through the forests where the cacao tree grew, OLD DRAWING OF AN AMERICAN INDIAN ; AT HIS FEET A CHOCOLATE-CUP, CHOCOLATE-POT, AND CHOCOLATE WHISK OR " MOLINET." (From Traitez Nouveaux et Curieux du Cafd, du The, et du Chocolate. Dufour, 1693). A SKETCH OF THEIR HISTORY 7 and returned to Europe feeling they had failed. To our eyes they were not entirely unsuccessful, for whilst they failed to find a city of gold, they discovered the home of the golden pod. Montezuma — the First Great Patron of Chocolate. When Columbus discovered the New World he brought back with him to Europe many new and curious things, one of which was cacao. Some years later, in 15 19, the Spanish conquistador, Cortes, landed in Mexico, marched into the interior and discovered to his surprise, not the huts of savages, but a beautiful city, with palaces and museums. This city was the capital of the Aztecs, a remarkable people, notable alike for their ancient civilisation and their wealth. Their national drink was chocolate, and Montezuma, their Emperor, who lived in a state of luxurious mag- nificence, " took no other beverage than the chocolatl, a potation of chocolate, flavoured with vanilla and other spices, and so prepared as to be reduced to a froth of the consistency of honey, which gradually dissolved in the mouth and was taken cold. This beverage if so it could be called, was served in golden goblets, with spoons of the same metal or tortoise-shell finely wrought. The Emperor was exceedingly fond of it, to judge from the quantity — no less than fifty jars or pitchers being prepared for his own daily con- sumption : two thousand more were allowed for that of his household."* It is curious that Montezuma took no other beverage than chocolate, especially if it be true that the Aztecs also invented that fascinating drink, the cocktail (xoc-tl). How long this ancient people, students of the mysteries of culinary science, had known the art of preparing a drink from cacao, is not known, but it is evident that the cultivation of cacao received great attention in these parts, for if we * Prescott's Conquest of Mexico. 8 COCOA AND CHOCOLATE read down the list of the tributes paid by different cities to the Lords of Mexico, we find " 20 chests of ground chocolate, 20 bags of gold dust," again " 80 loads of red chocolate, 20 lip-jewels of clear amber," and yet again " 200 loads of chocolate." Another people that share with the Aztecs the honour of being the first great cultivators of cacao are the Incas of Peru, that wonderful nation that knew not poverty. The Fascination of Chocolate. That chocolate charmed the ladies of Mexico in the seventeenth century (even as it charms the ladies of England to-day) is shown by a story which Gage relates in his New Survey of the West Indias (1648). He tells us that at Chiapa, southward from Mexico, the women used to interrupt both sermon and mass by having their maids bring them a cup of hot choco- late ; and when the Bishop, after fair warning, ex- communicated them for this presumption, they changed their church . The Bishop , he adds , was poisoned for his pains. Cacao Beans as Money. Cacao was used by the Aztecs not only for the pre- paration of a beverage, but also as a circulating medium of exchange. For example, one could purchase a ' tolerably good slave " for 100 beans. We read that : : Their currency consisted of transparent quills of gold dust, of bits of tin cut in the form of a T, and of bags of cacao containing a specified number of grains." " Blessed money," exclaims Peter Martyr, " which exempts its possessor from avarice, since it cannot be long hoarded, nor hidden underground ! >: Derivation of Chocolate. The word was derived from the Mexican chocolatl. The Mexicans used to froth their chocolatl with curious whisks made specially for the purpose (see page 6). A SKETCH OF THEIR HISTORY 9 io COCOA AND CHOCOLATE Thomas Gage suggests that choco, choco, choco is a vocal representation of the sound made by stirring chocolate. The suffix all means water. According to Mr. W. J. Gordon, we owe the name of chocolate to a misprint. He states that Joseph Acosta, who wrote as early as 1604 of chocolatl, was made by the printer to write chocolate, from which the English eliminated the accent, and the French the final letter. First Cacao in Europe. The Spanish discoverers of the New7 World brought home to Spain quantities of cacao, which the curious tasted. We may conclude that they drank the prepar- ation cold, as Montezuma did, hot chocolate being a later invention. The new drink, eagerly sought by some, did not meet with universal approval, and, as was natural, the most diverse opinions existed as to the pleasantness and wholesomeness of the beverage when it was first known. Thus Joseph Acosta (1604) wrote : £ The chief use of this cocoa is in a drincke which they call Chocholate, whereof they make great account, foolishly and without reason ; for it is loath- some to such as are not acquainted with it, having a skumme or frothe that is very unpleasant to taste, if they be not well conceited thereof. Yet it is a drincke very much esteemed among the Indians, whereof they feast noble men as they passe through their country. The Spaniards, both men and women, that are accus- tomed to the country are very greedy of this chocholate." It is not impossible that the English, with the defeat of the Armada fresh in memory, were at first con- temptuous of this " Spanish ':i drink. Certain it is, that when British sea-rovers like Drake and Frobisher, captured Spanish galleons on the high seas, and on searching their holds for treasure, found bags of cacao, they flung them overboard in scorn. In considering this scorn of cacao, shown alike by British buccaneers and Dutch corsairs, together with the critical air of Joseph Acosta, we should remember that the original A SKETCH OF THEIR HISTORY n chocolatl of the Mexicans consisted of a mixture of maize and cacao with hot spices like chillies, and con- tained no sugar. In this condition few inhabitants of the temperate zone could relish it. It however only needed one thing, the addition of sugar, and the in- troduction of this marked the beginning of its European popularity. The Spaniards were the first to manufac- ture and drink chocolate in any quantity. To this day they serve it in the old style — thick as porridge and pungent with spices. They endeavoured to keep secret the method of preparation, and, without success, to retain the manufacture as a monopoly. Chocolate was introduced into Italy by Carletti, who praised it and spread the method of its manufacture abroad. The new drink was introduced by monks from Spain into Germany and France, and when in 1660 Maria Theresa, Infanta of Spain, married Louis XIV, she made choco- late well known at the Court of France. She it was of whom a French historian wrote that Maria Theresa had only two passions — the king and chocolate. Chocolate was advocated by the learned physicians of those times as a cure for many diseases, and it was stated that Cardinal Richelieu had been cured of general atrophy by its use. From France the use of chocolate spread into England, where it began to be drunk as a luxury by the aristocracy about the time of the Commonwealth. It must have made some progress in public favour by 1673, for in that year " a Lover of his Country " wrote in the Harleian Miscellany demanding its prohibition (along with brandy, rum, and tea) on the ground that this imported article did no good and hindered the consumption of English-grown barley and wheat. New things appeal to the imaginative, and the absence of authentic knowledge concerning them allows free play to the imagination — so it happened that in the early days, whilst many writers vied with one another in writing glowing panegyrics on cacao, a few thought it an evil thing. Thus, whilst it was praised 12 COCOA AND CHOCOLATE by many for its (:< wonderful faculty of quenching thirst, allaying hectic heats, of nourishing and fatten- ing the body," it was seriously condemned by others as an inflamer of the passions ! Chocolate Houses and Clubs. " The drinking here of chocolate Can make a fool a sophie." In the spacious days of Queen Elizabeth, tea, coffee, and chocolate were unknown save to travellers and savants, and the handmaidens of the good queen drank beer with their breakfast. When Shakespeare and Ben Jonson forgathered at the Mermaid Tavern, their winged words passed over tankards of ale, but later other drinks became the usual accompaniment of news, story, and discussion. In the sixteen-sixties there were no strident newspapers to destroy one's equanimity, and the gossip of the day began to be circulated and discussed over cups of tea, coffee, or chocolate. The humorists, ever stirred by novelty, tilted, pen in hand, at these new drinks : thus one rhymster de- scribed coffee as " Syrrop of soot or essence of old shoes." The first coffee-house in London was started in St. Michael's Alley, Cornhill, in 1652 (when coffee was seven shillings a pound) ; the first tea-house was opened in Exchange Alley in 1657 (when tea was five sovereigns a pound), and in the same year (with choco- late about ten to fifteen shillings per pound) a French- man opened the first chocolate-house in Queen's Head Alley, Bishopsgate Street. The rising popularity of chocolate led to the starting of more of these chocolate houses, at which one could sit and sip chocolate, or purchase the commodity for preparation at home. Pepys' entry in his diary for 24th November, 1664, contains : " To a coffee house to drink jocolatte, very good." It is an artless entry, and yet one can almost hear him smacking his lips. Silbermann says that A SKETCH OF THEIR HISTORY 13 11 After the Restoration there were shops in London for the sale of chocolate at ten shillings or fifteen shill- ings per pound. Ozinda's chocolate house was full of aristocratic consumers. Comedies, satirical essays, memoirs and private letters of that age frequently mention it. The habit of using chocolate was deemed a token of elegant and fashionable taste, and while the charms of this beverage in the reigns of Queen Anne and George I. were so highly esteemed by courtiers, by lords and ladies and fine gentlemen in the polite world, the learned physicians extolled its medicinal virtues." From the coffee house and its more aristo- cratic relative the chocolate house, there developed a new feature in English social life — the Club. As the years passed the Chocolate House remained a rendez- vous, but the character of its habitues changed from time to time. Thus one, famous in the days of Queen Anne, and well known by its sign of the " Cocoa Tree,">L was at first the headquarters of the Jacobite party, and the resort of Tories of the strictest school. It became later a noted gambling house (" The gamesters shook their elbows in White's and the chocolate houses round Covent Garden," National Review, 1878), and ulti- mately developed into a literary club, including amongst its members Gibbon, the historian, and Byron, the poet. Tax on Cacao. The growing consumption of chocolate did not escape the all-seeing eye of the Chancellors of England. As early as 1660 we find amongst various custom and excise duties granted to Charles II : " For every gallon of chocolate, sherbet, and tea made and sold, to be paid by the maker thereof 8d." Later the raw material was also made a source of revenue. In The Humble Memorial of Joseph Fry, of Bristol, Maker of Chocolate, which' was addressed to the Lords Commissioners of the Treasury in 1776 14 COCOA AND CHOCOLATE (Messrs. Fry and Sons are the oldest English firm of chocolate makers, having been founded in 1728), we read that " Chocolate . . . pays two shillings and threepence per pound excise, besides about ten shill- ings per hundredweight on the Cocoa Nuts from which it is made." In 1784 a preferential customs rate was proposed in favour of our Colonies. This they enjoyed for many years before 1853, when the uniform rate, until re- cently in force, was introduced. This restrictive tariff on foreign growths rose in 1803 to 55. lod. per pound, against is. lod. on cacao grown in British possessions. From this date it gradually diminished. High duties hampered for many years the sale of cocoa, tea and coffee, but in recent times these duties have been brought down to more reasonable figures. For many years before 1915 the import duty was id. per pound on the raw cacao beans, id. per pound on cacao butter, and as. a hundredweight (less than a farthing a pound) on cacao shells or husks. In the Budget of September, 1915, the above duties were increased by fifty per cent. A further and greater increase was made in the Budget of April, 1916, when cacao was made to pay a higher tax in Britain than in any other country in the world. In 1919 Imperial preference was introduced after a break of over sixty years, the duty on cocoa from foreign countries being fd. a pound more than that from British Possessions. Duty on Cacao. 1855-1915 1915 1916. I9I9- Cacao beans per lb. id. i|d. 6d. 4! d. foreign, 3fd. British Cacao butter per Ib. id. ijd. 6d. 4-^ d. foreign, 3fd. British Cacao shells per cwt. 2s. 35. ias. 6s. foreign, 55. British In considering this duty and its effect on the price of the finished article, it should be remembered that there are substantial losses in manufacture. Thus the beans are cleaned, which removes up to 0.5 per cent.; A SKETCH OF THEIR HISTORY 15 roasted, which causes a loss by volatilisation of 7 per cent. ; and shelled, the husks being about 12 per cent. Therefore, the actual yield of usable nib, which has to bear the whole duty, is about 80 per cent. It may be well to add that the yield of cocoa powder is 48 per cent, of the raw beans, or roughly, one pound of the raw product yields half a pound of the finished article. Introduction of Cocoa Powder. The drink " cocoa " as we know it to-day was not introduced until 1828. Before this time the ground bean, mixed with sugar, was sold in cakes. The bever- age prepared from these chocolate cakes was very rich in butter, and whilst the British Navy has always con- sumed it in this condition (the sailors generally re- move with a spoon the excess of butter which floats to the top) it is a little heavy for less hardy digestions. Van Houten (of the well-known Dutch house of that name) in 1828 invented a method of pressing out part of the butter, and thus obtained a lighter, more appetis- ing, and more easily assimilated preparation. As the butter is useful in chocolate manufacture, this process enabled the manufacturer to produce a less costly cocoa powder, and thus the circle of consumers was widened. Messrs. Cadbury Bros., of Birmingham, first , sold their " cocoa essence " in 1866, and Messrs. Fry and Sons, of Bristol, introduced a pure cocoa by press- ing out part of the butter in 1868. Growing Popularity of Cacao Preparations. The incidence of import duties did not prevent the continuous increase in the amount of cacao consumed in the British Isles. When Queen Victoria came to the throne the cacao cleared for home consumption was about four or five thousand tons, more than half of which was consumed by the Navy. At the time of Queen Victoria's death it had increased to four times this amount, and by 1915 it had reached nearly fifty 1 6 COCOA AND CHOCOLATE thousand tons. (For statistics of consumption, see P This brief sketch of the history of cacao owes much to " Cocoa — all about it," by Historicus (the pseu- donym of the late Richard Cadbury). This work is out of print, but those who are fortunate enough to be able to consult it will find therein much that is curious and discursive. ANCIENT MEXICAN DRINKING CUPS (British Museum) CHAPTER II CACAO AND ITS CULTIVATION O tree, upraised in far-off Mexico ! " Ode to the Chocolate Tree" 1664. HOW seldom do we think, when we drink a cup of cocoa or eat some morsels of chocolate, that our liking for these delicacies has set minds and bodies at work all the world over ! Many types of humanity have contributed to their production. Picture in the mind's eye the graceful coolie in the sun-satur- ated tropics, moving in the shade, cutting the pods from the cacao tree ; the deep-chested sailor helping to load from lighters or surf-boats the precious bags of cacao into the hold of the ocean liner ; the skilful work- man roasting the beans until they fill the room with a fine aroma ; and the girl with dexterous fingers pack- ing the cocoa or fashioning the chocolate in curious, and delicate forms. To the black and brown races, the- negroes and the East Indians, we owe a debt for their work on tropical plantations, for the harder manual' work would be too arduous for Europeans unused ta the heat of those regions. Climate Necessary. Cacao can only grow at tropical tempe* tures, and when shielded from the wind and unir;- paired by drought. Enthusiasts, as a hobby, have grown the tree under glass in England ; it requires a warmer tem- perature than either tea or coffee, and only after in- finite care can one succeed in getting the tree to flower 1 8 COCOA AND CHOCOLATE and bear fruit. The mean temperature in the coun- tries in which it thrives is about 80 degrees F. in the shade, and the average of the maximum temperatures is seldom more than 90 degrees F., or the average of the minimum temperatures less than 70 degrees F. The rainfall can be as low as 45 inches per annum, as in the Gold Coast, or as high as 150 inches, as in Java, pro- vided the fall is uniformly distributed. The ideal spot is the secluded vale, and whilst in Venezuela there are plantations up to 2000 feet above sea level, cacao can- not generally be profitably cultivated above 1000 feet: Factors of Geographical Distribution. Climate, soil, and manures determine the possible region of cultivation — the extent to which the area is utilised depends on the enterprise of man. The original home of cacao was the rich tropical region, far-famed in Elizabethan days, that lies between the Amazon and the Orinoco, and but for the enterprise of man it is doubtful if it would have ever spread from this region. Monkeys often carry the beans many miles — man, the \ master-monkey, has carried them round the world. First the Indians spread cacao over the tropical belt of the American continent and cultivated it as far North as Mexico. Then came the Spanish explorers of the New World, who carried it from the mainland to the adjacent West Indian islands. Cacao was planted by them in Trinidad as early as 1525. Since that date it has been successfully introduced into many a tropical , island. It was an important day in the history of Ceylon when Sir R. Horton, in 1834, had cacao plants brought to that island from Trinidad. The carefully packed plants survived the ordeal of a voyage of ten thousand miles. T1 >st recent introduction is, however, the most stri^ About 1880 a native of the Gold Coast' obtained some beans, probably from Fernando Po. In 1891 , the first bag of cacao was exported ; it weighed 80 pounds. In 1915, 24 years later, the export from the Gold Coast was 120 million pounds. CACAO AND ITS CULTIVATION 19 CACAO TREE, WITH PODS AND LEAVES The Cacao Tree. Tropical vegetation appears so bizarre to the visitor from temperate climes that in such surroundings the cacao tree seems almost commonplace. It is in appearance as moderate and unpretentious as an apple tree, though 20 COCOA AND CHOCOLATE somewhat taller, being, when full grown, about twenty feet high. It begins to bear in its fourth or fifth year Smooth in its early youth, as it gets older it becomes covered with little bosses (cushions) from which many flowers spring. I saw one fellow, very tall and gnarled, and with many pods on it ; turning to the planter I enquired " How old is that tree ? " He replied, almost CACAO TREE, SHOWING PODS GROWING FROM TRUNK. reverentially : " It's a good deal older than I am ; must be at least fifty years old." " It's one of the tallest cacao trees I've seen. I wonder - — ." The planter perceived my thought, and said : "I'll have it meas- ured for you." It was forty feet high. That was a tall one ; usually they are not more than half that height. The bark is reddish-grey, and may be partly hidden by brown, grey and green patches of lichen. The bark is both beautiful and quaint, but in the main the tree CACAO AND ITS CULTIVATION 21 owes its beauty to its luxuriance of prosperous leaves, and its quaintness to its pods. FLOWERS AND FRUITS ON MAIN BRANCHES OF A CACAO TREE (Reproduced from van Hall's Cocoa, by permission of Messrs. Macmillan & Co.)- The Flowers, Leaves and Fruit. Although cacao trees are not unlike the fruit trees of England, there are differences which, when first one sees them, cause expressions of surprise and pleasure 22 COCOA AND CHOCOLATE to leap to the lips. One sees what one never saw before, the fruit springing from the main trunk, quite close to the ground. An old writer has explained that this is due to a wise providence, because the pod is so heavy that if it hung from the end of the branches it would fall off before it reached maturity. The old writer talks of providence ; a modern writer would see in the same \ facts a simple example of evolution. On the same cacao tree every day of the year may be found flowers, young podkins and mature pods side by side. I say " found >: advisedly — at the first glance one does not see the flowers because they are so dainty and so small. The buds are the size of rice grains, and the flowers are not more than half an inch across when the petals are fully out. The flowers are pink or yellow, of wax-like appear- ance, and have no odour. They were commonly stated to be pollinated by thrips and other insects. Dr. von Faber of Java has recently shown that whilst self- pollination is the rule, cross fertilisation occurs between the flowers on adjacent or interlocking trees. These graceful flowers are so small that one can walk through a plantation without observing them, although an average tree will produce six thousand blossoms in a year. Not more than one per cent, of these will become fruit. Usually it takes six months for the bud to develop into the mature fruit. The lovely mosses that grow on the stems and branches are sometimes so thick that they have to be destroyed, or the fragile cacao flower could not push its way through. Whilst the flowers are small, the leaves are large, being as an average about a foot in length and four inches in breadth. The cacao tree never appears naked, save on the rare occasions when it is stripped by the wind, and the leaves are green all the year round, save when they are red, if the reader will pardon an Hibernianism. And indeed there is something contrary in the crimson tint, for whilst we usually associate this with old leaves about to fall, with the cacao, as with some rose trees, it is the tint of the young leaves. CACAO AND ITS CULTIVATION 23 CACAO PODS. The Cacao Pod. The fruit, which hangs on a short thick stalk, may be anything in shape from a melon to a stumpy, irregu- lar cucumber, according to the botanic variety. The intermediate shape is like a lemon, with furrows from end to end. There are pods, called Calabacillo, smooth 24 COCOA AND CHOCOLATE and ovate like a calabash, and there are others, more rare, so " nobbly " that they are well-named " Alli- gator." The pods vary in length from five to eleven inches, " with here and there the great pod of all, the blood-red sangre-tora" The colours of the pods are as brilliant as they are various. They are rich and strong, CUT POD, REVEALING THE WHITE PULP ROUND THE BEANS (CEYLON.) and resemble those of the rind of the pomegranate. One pod shows many shades of dull crimson, another grades from gold to the yellow of leather, and yet another is all lack-lustre pea-green. They may be likened to Chinese lanterns hanging in the woods. One does not conclude from the appearance of the pod that the contents are edible, any more than one would sur- mise that tea-leaves could be used to produce a re- freshing drink. I say as much to the planter, who smiles. CACAO AND ITS CULTIVATION/ 25 With one deft cut with his machete or cutlass, which hangs in a leather scabbard by his side, the planter severs the pod from the tree, and with another slash cuts the thick, almost woody rind and breaks open the pod. There is disclosed a mass of some thirty or forty beans, covered with juicy pulp. The inside of the rind and the mass of beans are gleaming white, like melting snow. Sometimes the mass is pale amethyst in colour. I perceive a pleasant odour resembling melon. Like CACAO PODS, SHEWING BEANS INSIDE. little Jack Horner, I put in my thumb and pull out a snow-white bean. It is slippery to hold, so I put it in my mouth. The taste is sweet, something between grape and melon. Inside this fruity coating is the bean proper. From different pods we take beans and cut them in two, and find that the colour of the bean varies from purple almost to white. Botanical Description. Theobroma Cacao belongs to the family of the Sterculiaceae, and to the same order as the Limes and Mallows. It is described in Strasburger's admirable Text-Book of Botany as follows : 26 COCOA AND CHOCOLATE ' Family. Sterculiaceae . IMPORTANT GENERA. The most important plant is the Cocoa Tree (Theobroma Cacao). It is a low tree with short-stalked, firm, brittle, simple leaves of large size, oval shape, and dark green colour. The young leaves are of a bright red colour, and, as in many tropical trees, hang limply downwards. The flowers are borne on the main stem or the older branches, and arise from dormant axillary buds (Cauliflory). Each petal is bulged up at the base, narrows considerably above this, and ends in an expanded tip. The form of the reddish flowers is thus somewhat urn-shaped with five radiating points. The pentalocular ovary has numerous ovules in each loculus. As the fruit develops, the soft tissue of the septa extends between the single seeds ; the ripe fruit is thus unilocular and many- seeded. The seed-coat is filled by the embryo, which has two large, folded, brittle cotyledons." The last sentence conveys an erroneous impression. The two cotyledons, which form the seed, are not brittle when found in nature in the pod. They are juicy and fleshy. And it is only after the seed has re- ceived special treatment (fermentation and drying) to obtain the bean of commerce, that it becomes brittle. Varieties of Theobroma Cacao. As mentioned above, the pods and seeds of Theo- broma Cacao trees show a marked variation, and in every country the botanist has studied these variations and classified the trees according to the shape and colour of the pods and seeds. The existence of so many classifications has led to a good deal of confusion, and we are indebted to Van Hall for the simplest way of clearing up these difficulties. He accepts the classi- fication first given by Morris, dividing the trees into two varieties — Criollo and Forastero : CACAO AND ITS CULTIVATION S- o CJ 1 Q 28 COCOA AND CHOCOLATE Extremes of Characteristics. Criollo. (Old Red, Caracas, etc.) Forastero. Grading from Cundeamor (bottle-necked) to Calabacillo (smooth). Pod walls. Thin and warty. Thick and woody. Beans. Large and plump. Small and flat. White. Heliotrope to purple. Sweet. Astringent. The cacao of the criollo variety has pods the walls of which are thin and warty, with ten distinct furrows. The seeds or beans are white as ivory throughout, round and plump, and sweet to taste. The forastero variety includes many sub -varieties, the kind most distinct from the criollo having pods, the walls of which are thick and woody, the surface smooth, the furrows indistinct, and the shape globular. The seeds in these pods are purple in colour, flat in appearance, and bitter to taste. This is a very convenient classi- fication. Personally I believe it would be possible to find pods varying by almost imperceptible gradations from the finest, purest, criollo to the lowest form of forastero (namely, calabacillo). The criollo yields the finest and rarest kind of cacao, but as sometimes hap- pens with refined types in nature, it is a rather delicate tree, especially liable to canker and bark diseases, and this accounts for the predominance of the forastero in the cacao plantations of the world. The Cacao Plantation. One can spend happy days on a cacao estate. " Are you going into the cocoa ? " they ask, just as in England we might enquire, " Are you going into the corn ? ): CACAO AND ITS CULTIVATION 29 TROPICAL FOREST, TRINIDAD. This has to be cleared before planting begins. Coconut plantations and sugar estates make a strong appeal to the imagination, but for peaceful beauty they cannot compare with the cacao plantation. True, coco- nut plantations are very lovely — the palms are so grace- ful, the leaves against the sky so like a fine etching — but " the slender coco's drooping crown of plumes " is altogether foreign to English eyes. Sugar estates are generally marred by the prosaic factory in the back- ground. They are dead level plains, and the giant grass 30 COCOA AND CHOCOLATE affords no shade from the relentless sun. Whereas the leaves of the cacao tree are large and numerous, so that even in the heat of the day, it is comparatively cool and pleasant under the cacao. Cacao plantations present in different countries every variety of appearance — from that of a wild forest in which the greater portion of the trees are cacao, to the tidy and orderly plantation. In some of the Trinidad plantations the trees are planted in parallel lines twelve feet apart, with a tree every twelve feet along the line ; and as you push your way through the plantation the apparently irregularly scattered trees are seen to flash momentarily into long lines. In other parts of the world, for example, in Grenada and Surinam, the ground may be kept so tidy and free from weeds that they have the appearance of gardens. Clearing the Land. When the planter has chosen a suitable site, an exer- cise requiring skill, the forest has to be cleared. The felling of great trees and the clearing of the wild tangle of undergrowth is arduous work. It is well to leave the trees on the ridges for about sixty feet on either side, and thus form a belt of trees to act as as wind screen. Cacao trees are as sensitive to a draught as some human beings, and these " wind breaks " are often deliberately grown — Balata, Poui, Mango (Trinidad), Galba (Grenada), Wild Pois Doux (Martinique), and other leafy trees being suitable for this purpose. Suitable Soil. It was for many years believed that if a tree were analysed the best soil for its growth could at once be inferred and described, as it was assumed that the best soil would be one containing the same elements in similar proportions. This simple theory ignored the characteristic powers of assimilation of the tree in question and the " digestibility " of the soil constituents. However, it is agreed that soils rich in potash and lime CACAO AND ITS CULTIVATION 31 32 COCOA AND CHOCOLATE (e.g., those obtained by the decomposition of certain volcanic rocks) are good for cacao. An open sandy or loamy alluvial soil is considered ideal. The physical condition of the soil is equally important : heavy clays or water-logged soils are bad. The depth of soil required depends on its nature. A stiff soil discourages the growth of the " tap " root, which in good porous soils is generally seven or eight feet long. Manure. The greater part of the world's cacao is produced without the use of artificial manures. The soil, which is continually washed down by the rains into the rivers, is continually renewed by decomposition of the bed rock, and in the tropics this decomposition is more rapid than in temperate climes. In Guayaquil, " not- withstanding the fact that the same soil has been cropped consecutively for over a hundred years, there is as yet no sign of decadence, nor does a necessity yet arise for artificial manure."* However, manures are useful with all soils, and necessary with many. Happy is the planter who is so placed that he can obtain a plentiful supply of farmyard or pen manure, as this gives excellent results. " Mulching " is also recommended. This con- sists of covering the ground with decaying leaves, grasses, etc., which keep the soil in a moist and open condition during the dry season. If artificial manures are used they should vary according to the soil, and, although he can obtain considerable help from the analyst, the planter's most reliable guide will be ex- periment on the spot. Planting. In the past insufficient care has been taken in the selection of seed. The planter should choose the large plump beans with a pale interior, or he should choose the nearest kind to this that is sufficiently hardy to thrive in the particular environment. He can plant * Bulletin, Botanic Dept., Jamaica, February, 1900. CACAO AND ITS CULTIVATION 33 34 COCOA AND CHOCOLATE (i) direct from seeds, or (2) from seedlings — plants raised in nurseries in bamboo pots, or (3) by grafting or budding. It is usual to plant two or three seeds in each hole, and destroy the weaker plants when about a foot high. The seeds are planted from twelve to fifteen feet apart. The distance chosen depends chiefly on the richness of the soil ; the richer the soil, the more ample PLANTING CACAO, TRINIDAD, FROM YOUNG SEEDLINGS IN BAMBOO POTS. room is allowed for the trees to spread without choking each other. Interesting results have been obtained by Hart and others by grafting the fine but tender criollo on to the hardy forastero, but until yesterday the prac- tice had not been tried on a large scale. Experiments were begun in 1913 by Mr. W. G. Freeman in Trinidad which promise interesting results. By 1919 the Depart- ment of Agriculture had seven acres in grafted and budded cacao. In a few years it should oe possible to CACAO AND ITS CULTIVATION 35 36 COCOA AND CHOCOLATE say whether it pays to form an estate of budded cacao in preference to using seedlings. There are no longer any mystic rites performed before planting. In the old days it was the custom to solemnize the planting, for example, by sacrificing a cacao-coloured dog (see Bancroft's Native Races of the Pacific States.) Shade : Temporary and Permanent. When the seeds are planted, such small plants as cassava, chillies, pigeon peas and the like are planted with them. The object of planting these is to afford the young cacao plant shelter from the sun, and to keep the ground in good condition. Incidentally the planter obtains cassava (which gives tapioca), red peppers, etc., as a " catch crop " whilst he is waiting for the cacao tree to begin to yield. Bananas and; plan- tains are planted with the same object, and these are allowed to remain for a longer period. Such is the rapidity of plant growth in the tropics that in three or four years the cacao tree is taller than a man, and begins to bear fruit in its fourth or fifth year. Now it is agreed that, as with men, the cacao tree needs protection in its youth, but whether it needs shade trees when it is fully grown is one of the controverted questions. When the planter is sitting after his day's wrork is done, and no fresh topic comes to his mind, he often re-opens the discussion on the question of shade. The idea that cacao trees need shade is a very ancient one, as is shown in a very old drawing (possibly the oldest draw- ing of cacao extant) beneath which it is written : "Of the tree which bears cacao, which is money, and how the Indians obtained fire with twro pieces of wood." In this drawing you will observe how lovingly the shade tree shelters the cacao. The intention in using shade is to imitate the natural forest conditions in which the wild cacao grew. Sometimes when clearing the forest certain large trees are left standing, but more frequently and writh better judgment, chosen kinds are planted. CACAO AND ITS CULTIVATION 37 Many trees have been used : the saman, bread fruit, mango, mammet, sand box, pois doux, rubber, etc. In the illustration showing kapok acting as a parasol for cacao in Java, we see that the proportion of shade trees to cacao is high. Leguminous trees are preferred be- cause they conserve the nitrogen in the soil. Hence in Trinidad the favourite shade tree is Erythrina or Bois COPY OF AN OLD ENGRAVING SHOWING THE CACAO TREE, AND A TREE SHADING IT. (From Bontekof's Works.} Immortel (so called, a humourist suggests, because it is short-lived). It is also rather prettily named, " Mother of Cacao." Usually the shade trees are planted about 40 feet apart, but there are cacao plantations which might cause a stranger to enquire, " Is this an Immortel plantation ? " so closely are these conspicuous trees planted. When looking down a Trinidad valley, richly planted with cacao, one sees in every direction the silver-grey trunks of the Immortel. In the early months 38 COCOA AND CHOCOLATE of the year these trees have no leaves, they are a mass of flame-coloured flowers, each " shafted like a scimi- tar." It well repays the labour of climbing a hill to look down on this vermilion glory. Some Trinidad planters believe that their trees would die without shade, yet in Grenada, only a hundred miles North as the steamer sails, there are whole plantations without a single shade CACAO TREES, SHADED BY KAPOK (Eriodendron Anfractuosum) IN JAVA. (Reproduced from van Hall's Cocca, by permission of Messrs. Macmillan &lCo.) tree. The Grenadians say : * You cannot have pods without flowers, and you cannot have good flowering without light and air." Shade trees are not used on some estates in San Thome, and in Brazil there are cocoa kings with 200,000 trees without one shade tree. It should be mentioned, however, that in these coun- tries the cacao trees are planted more closely (about eight feet apart) and themselves shade the soil. Pro- fessor Carmody, in reporting* recently on the result of a four years' experiment with (i) shade, (2) no * Bulletin Dept. of Agriculture, Trinidad, 1916. CACAO AND ITS CULTIVATION 39 I-H Cfl o i O 4o COCOA AND CHOCOLATE shade, (3) partial shade, says that so far partial shade has given the best results. No general solution has yet been found to the question of the advantage of shade, and, as Shaw states for morality, so in agriculture, " the golden rule is that there is no golden rule." Not only is there the personal factor, but nature provides an infinite variety of environments, and the best results are obtained by the use of methods appropriate to the local conditions. Form of Tree-growth Desired : Suckers. Viscount Mountmorres, in a delightfully clear ex- position of cacao cultivation which he gave to the native farmers and chiefs of the Gold Coast in 1906, said : "In pruning, it is necessary always to bear in mind that the best shape for cacao trees is that of an enlarged open umbrella," with a height under the umbrella not exceeding seven feet. With this ideal in his mind, the planter should train up the tree in the way it should go. Viscount Mountmorres also said that everything that grows upwards, except the main stem, must be cut off. This opens a question which is of great interest to planters as to whether it is wise to allow shoots to grow out from the main trunk near the ground. Some hold that the high yield on their plantation is due to letting these upright shoots grow. " Mi Amigo Corsicano said : ' Diavolo, let the cacao-trees grow, let them branch off like any other fruit-tree, say the tamarind, the ' chupon ' or sucker will in time bear more than its mother.' "* There seems to be some evidence that old trees profit from the "chupons" because they continue to bear when the old trunk is weary, but this is com- pensated for by the fact that the " chupons " (Portuguese for suckers) were grown at the expense of the tree in its youth. Hence other planters call them " thieves," and " gormandizers," saying that they suck the sap from the tree, turning all to wood. They follow the * "How Jose formed his Cocoa Estate.'' CACAO AND ITS CULTIVATION 41 CACAO TREE, WITH SUCKERS, TRINIDAD. advice given as early as 1730 by the author of The Natural History of Chocolate, when he says : <:< Cut or lop off the suckers." In Trinidad, experiments have been started, and after a five years' test, Professor Carmody says that the indications are that it is a matter of indifference whether " chupons " are allowed to grow or not. After hunting, agriculture is man's oldest industry, and improvements come but slowly, for the proving of a theory often requires work on a huge scale carried 42 COCOA AND CHOCOLATE out for several decades. The husbandry of the earth goes on from century to century with little change, and the methods followed are the winnowings of ex- perience , tempered with indolence. And even with the bewildering progress of science in other directions, sound improvements in this field are rare discoveries. There is great scope for the application of physical and chemical knowledge to the production of the raw materials of the tropics. In one or two instances notable advances have been made, thus the direct pro- duction of a white sugar (as now practised at Java) at the tropical factory will have far-reaching effects, but with many tropical products the methods practised are as ancient as they are haphazard. Like all methods founded on long experience, they suit the environment and the temperament of the people who use them, so that the work of the scientist in introducing improve- ments requires intimate knowledge of the conditions if his suggestions are to be adopted. The various De- partments of Agriculture are doing splendid pioneer work, but the full harvest of their sowing will not be reaped until the number of tropically-educated agri- culturists has been increased by the founding of three or four agricultural colleges and research laboratories in equatorial regions. There is much research to be done. As yet, however, many planters are ignorant of all that is already estab- lished, the facilities for education in tropical agri- culture being few and far between. There are signs, however, of development in this direction. It is pleasant to note that a start was made in Ceylon at the end of 1917 by opening an agricultural school at Peradenija. Trinidad has for a number of years had an agricul- tural school, and is eager to have a college devoted to agriculture. In 1919, Messrs. Cadbury Bros, gave £5000 to form the nucleus of a special educational fund for the Gold Coast. The scientists attached to the several government agricultural departments in Java, Ceylon, Trinidad, the Philippines, Africa, etc., have CACAO AND ITS CULTIVATION 43 done splendid work, but it is desirable that the num- ber of workers should be increased. When the world wakes up to the importance of tropical produce, agri- cultural colleges will be scattered about the tropics, so that every would-be planter can learn his subject on the spot. CUTLASSING. Diseases of the Cacao Tree. Take, for example, the case of the diseases of plants. Everyone who takes an interest in the garden knows how destructive the insect pests and vegetable parasites can be. In the tropics their power for destruction is very great, and they are a constant menace to economic products like cacao. The importance of understanding their habits, and of studying methods of keeping them in check, is readily appreciated ; the planter may be ruined by lacking this knowledge. 44 COCOA AND CHOCOLATE The cacao tree has been improved and " domesti- cated " to satisfy human requirements, a process which has rendered it weaker to resist attacks from pests and parasites. It is usual to classify man amongst the pests, as either from ignorance or by careless handling he can do the tree much harm. Other animal pests are the wanton thieves : monkeys, squirrels and rats, who destroy more fruit than they consume. The insect pests include varieties of beetles, thrips, aphides, scale insects and ants, whilst fungi are the cause of the " Canker " in the stem and branches, the " Witch- broom " disease in twigs and leaves, and the " Black Rot " of pods. The subject is too immense to be summarised in a few lines, and I recommend readers who wish to know more of this or other division of the science of cacao cultivation, to consult one or more of the four classics in English on this subject : Cocoa, by Herbert Wright (Ceylon), 1907. Cacao, by J. Hinchley Hart (Trinidad), 1911. Cocoa by W. H. Johnson (Nigeria), 1912. Cocoa, by C. J. J. van Hall (Java), 1914. 45 CHAPTER III HARVESTING AND PREPARATION FOR THE MARKET The picking, gathering, and breaking of the cacao are the easiest jobs on the plantation. " How Jose formed his Cocoa Estate'1 Gathering and Heaping. IN the last chapter I gave a brief account of the cul- tivation of cacao. I did not deal with forking, spray- ing, cutlassing, weeding, and so forth, as it would lead us too far into purely technical discussions. I pro- pose we assume that the planter has managed his estate well, and that the plantation is before us looking very healthy and full of fruit waiting to be picked. The ques- tion arises : How shall we gather it ? Shall we shake the tree ? Cacao pods do not fall off the tree even when over-ripe. Shall we knock off or pluck the pods ? To do so would make a scar on the trunk of the tree, and these wounds are dangerous in tropical climates, as they are often attacked by canker. A sharp machete or cutlass is used to cut off the pods which grow on the lower part of the trunk. As the tree fs not often strong enough to bear a man, climbing is COCOA AND CHOCOLATE out of the question, and a knife on a pole is used for cutting off the pods on the upper branches. Various shaped knives are used by different planters , a common and efficient kind (see drawing), resembles a hand of steel, with the thumb as a hook, so that the pod-stalk can be cut either by a push or a pull. A good deal of ingenuity has been expended in devising a " foolproof" picker which shall render easy the cutting of the pod-stalk and yet not cut or damage the bark of the tree. A good example is the Agostini f>icker,which was approved by Hart. The gathering of the fruits of one's labour is a pleasant task, which occurs generally only at rare intervals. Cacao is gathered the whole year round. There is, however, in most dis- tricts one principal (i) COMMON TYPE OF CACAO PICKER, harvest period, and '"I (2) AGOSTINI CACAO PICKER. a subsidiary harvest. HARVESTING AND PREPARATION 47 H § PH O 0 O I O 48 COCOA AND CHOCOLATE With cacao in the tropics, as with corn in^England, the gathering of the harvest is a delight to lovers of the beautiful. It is a great charm of the cacao plantation that the trees are so closely planted that nowhere does the sunlight find between the foliage a space larger than a man's hand. After the universal glare outside, it seems dark under the cacao, although the ground is bright with dappled sunshine. You hear a noise of talking, of rustling leaves, and falling pods. You come upon a band of coolies or negroes. One near you carries a long bamboo — as long as a fishing rod — with a knife at the end. With a lithe movement he inserts it between the boughs, and, by giving it a sharp jerk, neatly cuts the stalk of a pod, which falls from the tree to the ground. Only the ripe pods must be picked. To do this, not only must the picker's aim be true, but he must also have a good eye for colour. Whether the pods be red or green, as soon as the colour begins to be tinted with yellow it is ripe for picking. This change occurs first along the furrows in the pod. Fewer unripe pods would be gathered if only one kind of pod were grown on one plantation. The confusion of kinds and colours which is often found makes sound judgment very difficult. That the men generally judge correctly the ripeness of pods high in the trees is something to wonder at. The pickers pass on, strewing the earth with ripe pods. They are followed by the graceful, dark-skinned girls, who gather one by one the fallen pods from the greenery, until their baskets are full. Sometimes a basketful is too heavy and the girl cannot comfortably lift it on to her head, but when one of the men has helped her to place it there, she carries it lightly enough. She trips through the trees, her bracelets jingling, and tumbles the pods on to the heap. Once one has seen a great heap of cacao pods it glows in one's memory : anything more rich, more daring in the way of colour one's eye is unlikely to light on. The artist, seeking only an aesthetic effect would be content with this for the HARVESTING AND PREPARATION 49 •ffi < o g i ! § 50 COCOA AND CHOCOLATE consummation and would wish the pods to remain unbroken. Breaking and Extracting. There are planters who believe that the product is improved by leaving the gathered pods several days before breaking ; and they would follow the practice, but for the risk of losses by theft. Hence the pods are generally broken on the same day as they are gathered. The primitive methods of breaking with a club or by banging on a hard surface are happily little used. Masson of New York made pod-breaking machines, and Sir George Watt has recently invented an in- genious machine for squeezing the beans out of the pod, but at present the extraction is done almost universally by hand, either by men or women. A knife which would cut the husk of the pod and was so constructed that it could not injure the beans within, would be a useful invention. The human extractor has the advantage that he or she can distinguish the diseased, unripe or germinated beans and separate them from the good ones. Picture the men sitting round the heap of pods and, farther out, in a larger circle, twice as many girls with baskets. The man breaks the pod and the girls extract the beans. The man takes the pod in his left hand and gives it a sharp slash with a small cutlass, just cutting through the tough shell of the pod, but not into the beans inside ; and then gives the blade, which he has embedded in the shell, a twisting jerk, so that the pod breaks in two with a crisp crack. The girls take the broken pods and scoop out the snow-like beans with a flat wooden spoon or a piece of rib-bone, the beans being pulled off the stringy core (or placenta) which holds them together. The beans are put preferably into baskets or, failing these, on to broad banana leaves, which are used as trays. Practice renders these processes cheerful and easy work, often performed to an accompaniment of laugh- ing and chattering. HARVESTING AND PREPARATION 51 52 COCOA AND CHOCOLATE Fermenting. I allow myself the pleasure of thinking that I am causing some of my readers a little surprise when I tell them that cacao is fermented, and that the fer- mentation produces alcohol. As I mentioned above, the cacao bean is covered with a fruity pulp. The bean as it comes from the pod is moist, whilst the pulp is full of juice. It would be impossible to convey it to Europe in this condition ; it would decompose, and, when it reached its destination, would be worthless. In order that a product can be handled commercially it is desirable to have it in such a condition that it does not change, and thus with cacao it becomes necessary to get rid of the pulp, and, whilst this may be done by washing or simply by drying, experience has shown that the finest and driest product is obtained when the drying is preceded by fermentation. Just as broken grapes will ferment, so will the fruity pulp of the cacao bean. Present day fermentaries are simply convenient places for storing the cacao whilst the process .goes on. In the process of fermentation; Dr. Chittenden says the beans are "stewed in their own juice." This may be expressed less picturesquely but more accurately by saying the beans are warmed by the heat of their own fermenting pulp, from which they absorb liquid. In Trinidad the cacao which the girls have scooped out into the baskets is emptied into larger baskets, two of which are " crooked " on a mule's back, and carried thus to the fermentary. In Surinam it is con- veyed by boat, and in San Thome by trucks, which run on Decauville railways. The period of fermentation and the receptacle to hold the cacao vary from country to country. With cacao of the criollo type only one or two days fermenta- tion is required, and as a result, in Ecuador and Ceylon, the cacao is simply put in heaps on a suitable floor. In Trinidad and the majority of other cacao-producing HARVESTING AND PREPARATION 53 " SWEATING " BOXES, TRINIDAD. The man is holding the wooden spade used for turning the beans. areas, where the forastero variety predominates, from five to nine days are required. The cacao is put into the " sweat " boxes and covered with banana or plantain leaves to keep in the heat. The boxes may measure four feet each way and be made of sweet- smelling cedar wood. As is usual with fermentation, the temperature begins to rise, and if you thrust your hands into the fermenting beans you find they are as hot and mucilaginous as a poultice. Time. Temperature. 25° C. or 77° F. ° F. ° F. When put in After i day After 2 days After 3 days (After the third day the heat is maintained, but the temperature rises very little.) 30 ~ C. or 37° C. or f 47° C. or 115° The temperature is the simplest guide to the amount of fermentation taking place, and the uniformity of the temperature in all parts of the mass is desirable, as showing that all parts are fermenting evenly. The 54 COCOA AND CHOCOLATE cacao is usually shovelled from one box to another every one or two days. The chief object of this operation is to mix the cacao and prevent merely local fermenta- tion. To make mixing easy one ingenious planter uses a cvlindrical vessel which can be turned about on its axis. FERMENTING BOXES, JAVA. From the last box the beans are shovelled into the washing basin. (Reproduced from van Hall's Cocoa, by permission of Messrs. Macmillan & Co.) In other places, for example in Java, the boxes are arranged as a series of steps, so that the cacao is trans- ferred with little labour from the higher to the lower. In San Thome the cacao is placed on the plantation direct into trucks, which are covered with plaintain leaves, and run on rails through the plantation right into the fermentary. Some day some enterprising firm will build a fermentary in portable sections easily erected, and with some simple mechanical mixer to HARVESTING AND PREPARATION 55 replace the present laborious method of turning the beans by manual labour. The general conditions* for a good fermentation are : (1) The mass of beans must be kept warm. (2) The mass of beans must be moist, but not sodden. (3) In the later stages there must be sufficient air. (4) The boxes must be kept clean. Changes during Fermentation. No entirely satisfactory theory of the changes in cacao due to fermentation has yet been established. It is known that the sugary pulp outside the beans fer- ments in a similar way to other fruit pulp, save that for a yeast fermentation the temperature rises un- usually high (in three days to 47 degrees C.), and also that there are parallel and more important changes in the interior of the bean. The difficulty of establishing a^complete theory of fermentation of cacao has not daunted the scientists, for they know that the roses of philosophy are gathered by just those who can grasp the thorniest problems. Success, however, is so far only partial, as can be seen by consulting the best in- troduction on the subject, the admirable collection of essays on The Fermentation of Cacao, edited by H. Hamel Smith. Here the reader will find the valuable contributions of Fickendey, Loew, Nicholls, Preyer, Schulte im Hofe, and Sack. The obvious changes which occur in the breaking down of the fruity exterior of the bean should be care- fully distinguished from the subtle changes in the bean itself. Let us consider them separately:— (a) Changes in the Pulp. — Just as grape-pulp fer- ments and changes to wine, and just as weak wine if left exposed becomes sour ; so the fruity sugary pulp * For full details see the pamphlet by the author on The Practice of Fermentation in Trinidad. COCOA AND CHOCOLATE C/3 I £ ft I o U HARVESTING AND PREPARATION 57 outside the cacao bean on exposure gives off bubbles of carbon dioxide, becomes alcoholic, and later be- comes acid. The acid produced is generally the pleasant vinegar acid (acetic acid), but under some circumstances it may be lactic acid, or the rancid-smelling butyric acid. Kismet ! The planter trusts to nature to provide the right kind of fermentation. This fermentation is set up and carried on by the minute organisms (yeasts, bacteria, etc.), which chance to fall on the beans from the air or come from the sides of the receptacle. One yeast-cell does not make a fermentation, and as no yeast is added a day is wasted whilst any yeasts which happen to be present are multiplying to an army large enough to produce a visible effect on the pulp. Any organism which happens to be on the pod, in the air, or on the inside of the fermentary will multiply in the pulp, if the pulp contains suitable nourishment. Each kind of organism produces its own characteristic changes. It would thus appear a miracle if the same substances were always produced. Yet, just as grape-juice left exposed to every micro-organism of the air, generally changes in the direction of wine more or less good, so the pulp of cacao tends, broadly speaking, to ferment in one way. It would, however, be a serious error to assume that exactly the same kind of fermentation takes place in any two fermentaries in the world, and the maximum variation must be considerable. As the pulp ferments, it is destroyed ; it gradually changes from white to brown, and a liquid (" sweatings ") flows away from it. The " sweatings " taste like sweet 'cider. At present this is allowed to run away through holes in the bottom of the box, and no care is taken to preserve what may yet become a valuable by-product. I found by experiment that in the preparation of one cwt. of dry beans about i-J gallons of this unstable liquid are produced. In other words, some seven or eight million gallons of " sweatings " run to waste every year. In most cases only small quantities are produced in one place at one time. This, and the lack COCOA AND CHOCOLATE CACAO IN THE FERMENTING TRUCKS, SAN The covering of banana leaves keeps the beans warm. of knowledge of scientifically controlled fermentation,, and the difficulty of bottling, prevent the starting of an industry producing either a new drink or a vinegar. The cacao juice or " sweatings " contains about fifteen per cent, of solids, about half of which consists of sugars. If the fermentation of the cacao were centralised in the various districts, and conducted on a large scale under a chemist's control, the sugars could be obtained, or an alcoholic liquid or a vinegar could easily be pre- pared. The planter decides when the beans are fermented by simply looking at them ; he judges their condition by the colour of the pulp. When they are ready to be removed from the fermentary they are plump, and brown without, and juicy within. HARVESTING AND PREPARATION 59 (b) Changes in the Interior of the Bean. — What is the relation between the comparatively simple fer- mentation of the pulp and the changes in the interior of the bean ? This important question has not yet been answered, although a number of attempts have been made. As far as is known, the living ferments (micro- organisms) do not penetrate the skin of the bean, so that any fermentation which takes place must be promoted by unorganised ferments (or enzymes). Mr. H. C. Brill* found raffinase, invertase, casease and protease in the pulp ; oxidase, raffinase, casease and emulsinlike enzymes in the fresh bean ; and all these six, together with diastase, in the fermented bean. Dr. Fickendey says : " The object of fermentation is, in the main, to kill the germ of the bean in such a manner that the efficiency of the unorganised ferment is in no way impaired/' From my own observations I believe that forastero beans are killed at 47 degrees C. (which is commonly reached when they have been fermenting 60 hours), for a remarkable change takes place at this temperature and time. Whilst the micro-organisms remain outside, the juice of the pulp appears to penetrate not only the skin, but the flesh of the bean, and the brilliant violet in the isolated pigment cells becomes diffused more or less evenly throughout the entire bean, including the " germ." It is certain that the bean absorbs liquid from the outside, for it becomes so plump that its skin is stretched to the utmost/The following changes occur : (1) Taste. An astringent colourless substance (a tannin or a body possessing many properties of a tannin) changes to a tasteless brown substance. The bean begins to taste less astringent as the " tannin " is destroyed. With white (criollo) beans this change is sufficiently advanced injrwa-xiays-, but with purple ' (forastero) beans it may take^eyerTdays. (2) Colour. The change in the tannin results in the white (criollo beans becoming brown and the purple (forastero) beans be- * Philippine Journal of Science, 1917. 60 COCOA AND CHOCOLATE coming tinged with brown. The action resembles the brown- ing of a freshly-cut apple, and has been shown to be due to oxygen (activated by an oxidase, a ferment encouraging com- bination with oxygen) acting on the astringent colourless substance, which, like the photographic developer, pyrogallic acid, becomes brown on oxidation. (3) Aroma. A notable change is that substances are created within the bean, which on roasting produce the fine aromatic odour characteristic of cocoa and chocolate, and which Messrs. Bainbridge and Davies have shown is due to a trace (o.ooi per cent.) of an essential oil over half of which consists of linalool.* (4) Stimulating Effect. It is commonly stated that during ferment- tation there is generated theobromine, the alkaloid which gives cacao its stimulating properties, but the estimation of theobromine in fermented and unfermented beans does not support this. (5) Consistency. Fermented beans become crisp on drying. This development may be due to the " tannins " encountering, in their dispersion through the bean, proteins, which are thus converted into bodies which are brittle solids on drying (com- pare tanning of hides). The " hide " of the bean may be similarly " tanned " — the shell certainly becomes leathery (unless washed) — but a far more probable explanation, in both cases, is that the gummy bodies in bean and shell set hard on drying. We see, then, that although fermentation was prob- ably originally followed as the best method of getting rid of the pulp, it has other effects which are entirely good. It enables the planter to produce a drier bean, and one which has, when roasted, a finer flavour, colour, and aroma, than the unfermented. Fermentation is generally considered to produce so many desirable results that M. Perrot's suggestion*)* of removing the pulp by treatment with alkali, and thus avoiding fer- mentation, has not been enthusiastically received. Beans which have been dried direct and those which have been fermented may be distinguished as follows : * Journal of the Chemical Society, 1912. j- Comptes Rendus, 1913. HARVESTING AND PREPARATION CACAO BEANS 61 DRIED DIRECT. FERMENTED AND DRIED Shape of bean Shell Interior : colour „ consistence „ appearance ,, taste Flat Soft and close fitting Slate-blue or mud- brown Leather to cheese Solid More or less bitter or astringent Plumper Crisp and more or less free. Bright browns and purples Crisp Open-grained Less astringent Whilst several effects of fermentation have not been satisfactorily accounted for, I think all are agreed that to obtain one of the chief effects of fermentation, namely the brown colour, oxidation is necessary. All recognise that for this oxidation the presence of three substances is essential : (1) The tannin to be oxidised. (2) Oxygen. (3) An enzyme which encourages the oxidation. All these occur in the cacao bean as it comes from the pod, but why oxidation occurs so much better in a fermented bean than in a bean which is simply dried is not very clear. If you cut an apple it goes brown owing to the action of oxygen absorbed from the air, but as long as the apple is uncut and unbruised it remains white. If you take a cacao bean from the pod and cut it, the exposed surface goes brown, but if you ferment the bean the whole of it gradually goes brown without being cut. My observations lead me to believe that the bean does not become oxidised until it is killed, that is, until it is no longer capable of germin- ation. It can be killed by raising the temperature, by fermentation or otherwise, or as Dr. Fickendey has shown, by cooling to almost freezing temperatures. It may be that killing the bean makes its skin and cell walls more permeable to oxygen, but my theory is that when the bean is killed disintegration or weaken- ing of the cell walls, etc., occurs, and, as a result, the 62 COCOA AND CHOCOLATE enzyme and tannin, hitherto separate, become mixed, and hence able actively to absorb oxygen. The action of oxygen on the tannin also accounts for the loss of astringency on fermentation, and it may be well to point out that fermentation increases the internal sur- face of the bean exposed to air and oxygen. The bean, during fermentation, actually sucks in liquid from the surrounding pulp and becomes plumper and fuller. On drying, however, the skin, which has been ex- panded to its utmost, wrinkles up as the interior con- tracts and no longer fits tightly to the bean, and the cotyledons having been thrust apart by the liquid, no longer hold together so closely. This accounts for the open appearance of a fermented bean. As on drying large interspaces are produced, these allow the air to circulate more freely and expose a greater surface of the bean to the action of oxygen. Since the liquids in all living matter presumably contain some dissolved oxygen, the problem is to account for the fact that the tannin in the unfermented bean remains unoxidised, whilst that in the fermented bean is easily oxidised. The above affords a partial explanation, and seems fairly satisfactory when taken with my previous sug- gestion, namely, that during fermentation the bean is rendered pervious to water, which, on distributing itself through out the bean, dissolves the isolated masses of tannin and diffuses it evenly, so that it encounters and becomes mixed with the enzymes. From this it will be evident that the major part of the oxidation of the tannin occurs during drying, and hence the im- portance of this, both from the point of view of the keeping properties of the cacao, and its colour, taste and aroma. It will be realised from the above that there is still a vast amount of work to be done before the chemist will be in a position to obtain the more desirable aromas and flavours. Having found the necessary conditions, scientifically trained overseers will be re- quired to produce them, and for this they will need HARVESTING AND PREPARATION 63 to have under their direction arrangements for fer- mentation designed on correct principles and allowing some degree of control. Whilst improvements are always possible in the approach to perfection, it must be admitted that, considering the means at their dis- posal, the planters produce a remarkably fine product. FOR DRYING SMALL QUANTITIES. A simple tray- barrow, which can be run under the house when rain comes on. Loss on Fermenting and Drying. The fermented cacao is conveyed from the ferment- ary to the drying trays or floors. The planter often has some rough check- weighing system. Thus, for ex- ample, he notes the number of standard baskets of wet cacao put into the fermentary, and he measures the fermented cacao produced with the help of a bottom- less barrel. By this means he finds that on fermentation the beans lose weight by the draining away of the " sweatings, " according to the amount and juiciness of the pulp round them. The beans are still very wet, and on drying lose a high percentage of their moisture by evaporation before the cacao bean of commerce is obtained. 64 COCOA AND CHOCOLATE The average losses may be tabulated thus Weight of wet cacao from pod Loss on fermentation Loss on drying Cacao beans of commerce obtained 100 20 to 25 4° 35 to 4° SPREADING THE CACAO BEANS ON MATS TO DRY IN THE SUN, CEYLON. The drying of cacao is an art. On the one hand, it is necessary to get the beans quite dry (that is, in a con- dition in which they hold only their normal amount of water — 5 to 7 per cent.), or they will be liable to go mouldy. On the other hand, the husk or shell of the bean must not be allowed to become burned or brittle. Brittle shells produce waste in packing and handling, and broken shells allow grubs and mould to enter the beans when the cacao is stored. The method of drying varies in different countries according to the climate. Jose says: " In the wet season when ' Father Sol ' chooses to lie low behind the clouds for days and your cocoa house is full, your curing house full, your trees HARVESTING AND PREPARATION 5 8 G. O a *T3 V) C/3 CS 66 COCOA AND CHOCOLATE loaded, then is the time to put on his mettle the ener- getic and practical planter. In such tight corners, amigo, I have known a friend to set a fire under his cocoa house to keep the cocoa on the top somewhat warm. Another friend's plan (and he recommended it) was to address his patron saint on such occasions. He never addressed that saint at other times." In most producing areas sun-drying is preferred, but in countries where much rain falls, artificial dryers are slowly but surely coming into vogue. These vary in pattern from simple heated rooms, with shelves, to vacuum stoves and revolving drums. The sellers of these machines will agree with me when I say that every progressive planter ought to have one of these artificial aids to use during those depressing periods when the rain continually streams from the sky. On fine days it is difficult to prevent mildew appearing on the cacao, but at such times it is impossible. However, whenever available, the sun's heat is preferable, for it encourages a slow and even drying, which lasts over a period of about three days. As Dr. Paul Preuss says : * II faut eviter une dessiccation trop rapide. Le cacao ne peut etre seche en moins de trois jours. "* Further, most observers agree with Dr. Sack that the valuable changes, which occur during fermentation, continue dur- ing drying, especially those in which oxygen assists. The full advantage of these is lost if the temperature used is high enough to kill the enzymes, or if the drying is too rapid, both of which may occur with artificial drying. Sun-drying is done on cement or brick floors, on coir mats or trays, or on wooden platforms. In order to dry the cacao uniformly it is raked over and over in the sun. It must be tenderly treated, carefully " watched and caressed," until the interior becomes quite crisp and in colour a beautiful brown. Sometimes the platforms are built on the top of the fermentaries, the cacao being conveyed through a hole in the roof of the fermentary to the drying platform. * Dr. Paul Preuss, Le cacao. Culture et Preparation. HARVESTING AND PREPARATION 67 "HAMEL- SMITH" ROTARY DRYER. (Made by Messrs. David Bridge and Co., Manchester). The receiving cylinders, six in number, are rilled approximately three-quarters full with the cacao to be dried. These are then placed in position on the revolving framework, which is enclosed in the casing and slowly revolved. The cylinders are fitted with baffle plates, which gently turn over the cacao beans at each revolution so that even drying throughout is the result. The casing is heated to the requisite temperature by means of a special stove, the arrangement of which is such as to allow the air drawn from the outside to circulate around the stove and to pass into the interior of the casing containing the drying cylinders. The fumes from the fuel do not in any way come in contact with the material during drying. 68 COCOA AND CHOCOLATE DRYING PLATFORMS, TRINIDAD, WITH SLIDING ROOFS, In Trinidad the platform always has a sliding roof, which can be pulled over the cacao in the blaze of noon or when a rainstorm comes on. In other places, sliding platforms are used which can be pushed under cover in wet weather. The Washing of Cacao. 'In Java, Ceylon and Madagascar before the cacao is dried, it is first washed to remove all traces of pulp. This removal of pulp enables the beans to be more rapidly dried, and is considered almost a necessity in Ceylon, where sun-drying is difficult. The practice appears at first sight wholly good and sanitary, but although beans so treated have a very clean and bright appearance, looking not unlike almonds, the practice HARVESTING AND PREPARATION 69 G 0 •si II B -S H 3 5 i ^ 1 al si & i < OS Q 70 COCOA AND CHOCOLATE cannot be recommended. There is a loss of from 2 to 10 per cent, in weight, which is a disadvantage to the planter, whilst from the manufacturer's point of view, washing is objectionable because, according to Dr. Paul Preuss, the aroma suffers. Whilst this may be WASHING THE BEANS IN A VAT TO CLEAN OFF THE PULP, CEYLON. questioned, there is no doubt that washing renders the shells more brittle and friable, and less able to bear carriage and handling ; and when the shell is broken, the cacao is more liable to attack by grubs and mould. Therein lies the chief danger of washing. Claying, Colouring, and Polishing Cacao. Just as in Java and Ceylon, to assist drying, they wash off the pulp, so in Venezuela and often in Trin- idad, with the same object, they put earth or clay on HARVESTING AND PREPARATION 71 CLAYING CACAO BEANS IN TRINIDAD. the beans. In Venezuela it is a heavy, rough coat, and in Trinidad a film so thin that usually it is not visible. In Venezuela, where fermentation is often only allowed to proceed for one day, the use of fine red earth may possibly be of value. It certainly gives the beans a very pretty appearance ; they look as though they have been moistened and rolled in cocoa powder. But in Trinidad, where the fermentation is a lengthy one, the use of clay, though hallowed by custom, is quite un- necessary. In the report of the Commission of Enquiry (Trinidad, 1915) we read concerning claying that "It is said to prevent the bean from becoming mouldy in wet weather, to improve its marketable value by giving it a bright and uniform appearance, and to help to pre- serve its aroma." In the appendix to this report the following recommendation occurs : " The claying of cacao ought to be avoided as much as possible, and when necessary only sufficient to give a uniform colour ought to be used." In my opinion manufacturers 72 COCOA AND CHOCOLATE would do well to discourage entirely the claying of cacao either in Trinidad or Venezuela, for from their point of view it has nothing to recommend it. One per cent, of clay is sufficient to give a uniform colour, but occasionally considerably more than this is used. If we are to believe reports, deliberate adulteration is sometimes practised. Thus in How Jose formed his Cocoa Estate we read : "A cocoa dealer of our day to give a uniform colour to the miscellaneous brands he has purchased from Pedro, Dick, or Sammy will wash the beans in a heap, with a mixture of starch, sour oranges, gum arabic and red ochre. This mixture is always boiled. I can recommend the ' Chinos ' in this dodge, who are all adepts in all sorts of * adulter- ation ' schemes. They even add some grease to this mixture so as to give the beans that brilliant gloss which you see sometimes." In Trinidad the usual wTay of obtaining a gloss is by the curious operation known as :< dancing," which is performed on the moistened beans after the clay has been sprinkled on them. It is a quaint sight to see a circle of seven or eight coloured folk slowly treading a heap of beans. The dancing may proceed for any period up to an hour, and as they tread they sing some weird native chant. Somewhat impressed, I remarked to the planter that it had all the appearance of an incantation. He replied that the process cost ad. per cwt. Dancing makes the beans look smooth, shiny, and even, and it separates any beans that may be stuck together in clusters. It may make the beans rounder, and it is said to improve their keeping properties, but this remains to be proved. On the whole, if it is considered desir- able to produce a glossy appearance, it is better to use a polishing machine. The Weight of the Cured Cacao Bean. Planters and others may be interested to know the comparative sizes of the beans from the various pro- ducing areas of the world. Some idea of these can be HARVESTING AND PREPARATION 73 74 COCOA AND CHOCOLATE gained by considering the relative weights of the beans as purchased in England. Kind, Grenada Para Bahia . . Accra . . Trinidad Cameroons Ceylon . . Caracas . . Machala Arriba . . Carupano Average weight, of one Bean. 'o grammes o 'i '2 '2 '2 '2 3 4 •6 Number of Beans to the Ib. 45° 45° 410 380 380 380 380 35° 33° 300 280 The Yield of the Cacao Tree. The average yield of cacao has in the past generally been over-stated. Whether this is because the planter is an optimist or because he wishes others to think his efforts are crowned with exceptional success, or be- cause he takes a simple pride in his district, is hard to tell. Probably the tendency has been to take the finer estates and put their results down as the average. Of the thousands of flowers that bloom on one tree during the year, on an average only about twenty develop into mature pods, and each pod yields about ij ounces of dry cured cacao. Taking the healthy trees with the neglected, the average yield is from i^ to 2 pounds of commercial cacao per tree. This seems very small, and those who hear it for the first time often make a rapid mental calculation of the amazing number of trees that must be needed to produce the world's supply, at least 250 million trees. Or again, taking the average yield per acre as 400 Ibs., we find that there must be well over a million acres under cacao cultivation. At the Government station at Aburi (Gold Coast) three plots of cacao gave in 1914 an average yield of over 8 pounds of cacao per tree, and in 1918 HARVESTING AND PREPARATION 75 some 468 trees (Amelonado) gave as an average 7*8 pounds per tree. This suggests what might be done by thorough cultivation. It suggests a great oppor- tunity for the planters — that, without planting one more tree, they might quadruple the world's pro- duction. The work which has been started by the Agricultural Department in Trinidad of recording the yield of in- dividual trees has shown that great differences occur. Further, it has generally been observed that the heavy bearing trees of the first year have continued to be heavy bearers, and the poor-yielding trees have re- mained poor during subsequent years. The report rightly concludes that : " The question of detecting the poor-bearing trees on an estate and having them replaced by trees raised from selected stock, or budded or grafted trees, of known prolific and other good qualities is deserving of the most serious consideration by planters." The Kind of Cacao that Manufacturers Like* Planters have suggested to me that if the users and producers of cacao could be brought together it would be to their mutual advantage. Permit me to conceive a meeting and report an imaginary conversation : PLANTER : You know we planters work a little in the dark. We don't know quite what to strive after. Tell me exactly what kind of cacao the manufacturers want ? MANUFACTURER : Every buyer and manufacturer has his tastes and preferences and - — . PLANTER : Don't hedge ! MANUFACTURER : The cacao of each producing area has its special characters, even as the wine from a country, and part of the good manufacturer's art is the art of blending. PLANTER : What — good with bad ? MANUFACTURER : No ! Good of one type with good of another type. PLANTER : What do you mean exactly by good ? * For further information read The Qualities in Cacao Desired by Manufacturers, by N. P. Booth and A. W. Knapp, International Congress of Tropical Agriculture, 1914. 76 COCOA AND CHOCOLATE MANUFACTURER : By good I mean large, ripe, well-cured beans. By indifferent I mean unripe and unfermented. By abominable I mean germinated, mouldy, and grubby beans. Happily, the last class is quite a small one. PLANTER : You don't mean to tell me that only the good cacao sells ? MANUFACTURER : Unfortunately, no ! There are users of inferior beans. Practically all the cacao produced — good and indifferent — is bought by someone. Most manufacturers prefer the fine, healthy, well fermented kinds. PLANTER : Well fermented ! They have a strange way of showing their preference. Why, they often pay more for Guayaquil than they do for Grenada cacao. Yet Guayaquil is never properly fermented, whilst that from the Grenada estates is perfectly fermented . MANUFACTURER : Agreed. Just as you would pay more for a badly- trained thoroughbred than for a well- trained mongrel. It's breed they pay for. The Guayaquil breed is peculiar ; there is nothing else like it in the world. You might think the tree had been grafted on to a spice tree. It has a fine characteristic aroma, which is so powerful that it masks the presence of a high per- centage of unfermented beans. However, if Guayaquil cacao was well-fermented it would (subject to the iron laws of Supply and Demand) fetch a still higher price, and there would not be the loss there is in a wet season when the Guayaquil cacao, being unfermented, goes mouldy. I think in Grenada they plant for high yield, and not for quality, for the bean is small and approaches the inferior Calabacillo breed. Its value is maintained by an amazing evenness and an uniform excellence in curing. The way in which it is prepared for the market does great credit to the planters. PLANTER : They don't clay there, do they ? MANUFACTURER : No ! and yet it is practically impossible to find a mouldy bean in Grenada estates cacao. Evidently claying is not a necessity — in Grenada. PLANTER : Ha ! ha ! By that I suppose you insinuate that it is not a necessity in Trinidad, where the curing is also excellent. Or in Venezuela ? What's the buyer's objection to claying ? MANUFACTURER : Simply that claying is camouflage. Actually the buyer doesn't mind so long as the clay is not too generously used. He objects to paying for beans and getting clay. How- ever, it's really too bad to colour up with clay the black cacao from diseased pods ; it might deceive even experienced brokers. HARVESTING AND PREPARATION 77 PLANTER : Ha ! ha ! Then it's a very sinful practice. I don't think that ever gets beyond the local tropical market. I know the merchants judge largely by " the skin," but I thought the London broker . MANUFACTURER : You see it's like this. Just as you associate a certaini label with a particularly good brand of cigar so the planter's mark on the bag and the external appearance of the beans influence the broker by long association. But just as you cannot truly judge a cigar by the picture on the box, so the broker has to consider what is under the shell of the bean. One or two manufacturers go further, but don't trust merely to " tasting with their eyes " — they only come to a conclusion when they have roasted a sample. PLANTER : But a buyer can get a shrewd idea without roasting,, surely ? You agree. Well, what exactly does he look for ? MANUFACTURER : Depends what nationality the bean is — I mean whether it was grown in Venezuela, Brazil, Trinidad, or the Gold Coast. In general he likes beans with a good " break,"" that is beans which, under the firm pressure of thumb and forefinger, break into small crisp nibs. Closeness or cheesiness are danger signals, warnings of lack of fermentation, — so is a slate-coloured interior. He prefers a pale, even-coloured in- terior,— cinnamon, chocolate, or cafe-au-lait colour and .. PLANTER : One moment ! I've heard before of planters being told to ferment and cure until the bean is cinnamon colour. Why,, man, you couldn't get a pale brown interior with beans of the Forastero or Calabacillo type if you fermented them to rotten- ness. MANUFACTURER : True ! Well, if the breed on your plantation is purple Forastero, and more than half of the cacao in the world is, you must develop as much brown in the beans as possible. They should have the characteristic refreshing odour of raw cacao, together with a faint vinegary odour. The buyers much dislike any foreign smell, any mouldy, hammy, or cheesy odour. PLANTER : And where do the foreign odours come from ? MANUFACTURER : That's debatable. Some come from bad fermenta- tions, due to dirty fermentaries, abnormal temperatures, or unripe cacao.* Some come from smoky or imperfect artificial * Cameroon cacao sometimes has an objectionable odour and flavour, which may be due to its being fermented in an unripe con- dition, for, as Dr. Fickendey says : " Cameroon cacao has to be- harvested unripe to save the pods from brown rot." y8 COCOA AND CHOCOLATE drying. Some come from mould. Unfermented cacao is liable to go mouldy, so is germinated or over-ripe cacao with broken shells. Some cacao unfortunately gets wet with sea water. There always seems to me something pathetic in the thought of finely-cured cacao being drowned in sea water as it goes out in open boats to the steamer. PLANTER : You see, we havn't piers and jetties everywhere, and often it's a long journey to them. Well, you've told me the buyers note break, colour and aroma. Anything else ? MANUFACTURER : They like large beans, partly because largeness suggests fineness, and partly because with large beans the per- centage of shell is less. Small flat beans are very wasteful and unsatisfactory ; they are nearly all shell and very difficult to separate from the shell. PLANTER : When there's a drought we can't help ourselves ; we produce quantities of small flat beans. MANUFACTURER : It must be trying to be at the mercy of the weather. However, the weather doesn't prevent the dirt being picked out of the beans. Buyers don't like more than half a per cent, of rubbish ; I mean stones, dried twig-like pieces of pulp, dust, etc., left in the cacao, neither do they like to see " cobs," that is, two or more beans stuck together, nor . PLANTER : How about gloss ? MANUFACTURER : The beauty of a polished bean attracts, although they know the beauty is less than skin deep. PLANTER : And washing ? MANUFACTURER : In my opinion washing is bad, leaves the shell too fragile. I believe in Hamburg they used to pay more for washed beans ; although very little, I suppose less than five per cent.,' of the world's cacao is washed, but in London many buyers prefer " the great unwashed." However, brokers are con- servative, and would probably look on unwashed Ceylon with suspicion. PLANTER : Well, I have been very interested in everything that you have said, and I think every planter should strive to produce the very best he can, but he does not get much encouragement. MANUFACTURER : How is that ? PLANTER : There is insufficient difference between the price of the best and the common. MANUFACTURER : Unfortunately that is beyond any individual manu- facturer's control. The price is controlled by the European and New York markets. I am afraid that as long as there is so HARVESTING AND PREPARATION 79 large a demand by the public for cheap cocoas so long will there be keen competition amongst buyers for the commoner kinds of beans. PLANTER : The manufacturer should keep some of his own men on the spot to do his buying. They would discriminate carefully, and the differences in price offered would soon educate the planters ! MANUFACTURER : True, but as each manufacturer requires cacao from many countries and districts, this would be a very costly enterprise. Several manufacturers have had their own buyers in certain places in the Tropics for some years, and it is gener- ally agreed that this has acted as an incentive to the growers to improve the quality.* But in the main we have to look to the various Government Agricultural Departments to instruct and encourage the planters in the use of the best methods. * The Director of Agriculture, in a paper on The Gold Coast Cocoa Industry, says : " We are indebted to Messrs. Cadbury Bros., of Bourn ville, for a lead in this direction. They have several agents in the colony who purchase on their behalf only the best qualities at an enhanced price, and reject all that falls below the standard of their requirements." 8o, COCOA AND CHOCOLATE THE WORLD'S CACAO PRODUCTION. (Mean of 5 years, 1914-1918. Average world production 295,600 tons per annum.) Diagram showing relative amounts produced by various countries. The shaded parts show production of British Possessions. 8i CHAPTER IV CACAO PRODUCTION AND SALE When the English Commander, Thomas Candish, coming into the Haven Guatulco, burnt two hundred thousand tun of cacao, it proved no small loss to all New Spain, the provinces Guatimala and Nicaragua not producing so much in a whole year. John Ogilvy's America, 1671. WHEN one starts to discuss, however briefly, the producing areas, one ought first to take off one's hat to Ecuador, for so long the prin- cipal producer, and then to Venezuela the land of the original cacao, and producer of the finest criollo type. Having done this, one ought to say words of praise to Trinidad, Grenada and Ceylon for their scientific methods of culture and preparation ; and, last but not least, the newest and greatest producer, the Gold Coast, should receive honourable mention. It is in- teresting to note that in 1918 British Possessions pro- duced nearly half (44 per cent.) of the world's supply. Whilst the war has not very materially hindered the increase of cacao production in the tropics, the short- age of shipping has prevented the amount exported from maintaining a steady rise. The table below, taken mainly from the " Gordian," illustrates this : WORLD PRODUCTION OF CACAO. Total in tons (i ton = 1000 kilogrammes) 1908 194,000 *9J4 277,000 1909 206,000 I9I5 298,000 1910 220,000 1916 297,000 1911 241,000 1917 343,000 1912 234,000 1918 273,000 1913 258,000 I9I9 4 82 COCOA AND CHOCOLATE The following table is compiled chiefly from Messrs. Theo. Vasmer & Co.'s reports in the Confectioners' Union. CACAO PRODUCTION OF THE CHIEF PRODUCING AREAS OF THE WORLD. (i ton = 1000 kilogrammes). Country. 1914 I91S 1916 1917 1918 Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. Gold Coast* 53,000 77,300 72,200 91,000 66,300 Brazil 40,800 45,000 43, 7°° 55,°°° 41,900 Ecuador 47,200 37,000 42,700 47,200 38,000 San Thome 3M00 29,900 33,200 31,900 26,600 Trinidad* 28,400 24,100 24,000 31,800 26,200 San Domingo 20,700 20,200 2 1 ,OOO 23,700 1 8., 800 Venezuela 16,900 18,300 15,200 13,100 13,000 Lagos* 4,900 9,100 9,OOO i5>4<>0 10,200 Grenada* 6,100 6,500 5>5°° 5>5°° 6,700 Fernando Po 3,100 3,900 3,800 3>7°° 4,200 Ceylon* 2,900 3,9°° 3>5°° 3>7°° 4,000 Jamaica* 3,800 3,600 3,400 2,800 3, coo Surinam ,900 1,700 2,000 1,900 2,500 Cameroons ,200 2,400 3,000 2,800 1,300 Haiti ,100 i, 800 1,900 1,500 2,300 French Cols. ,800 1,900 i, 600 2,200 1,700 Cuba ,800 1,700 1,500 I,5OO 1,000 Java ,600 1,500 1.500 1, 600 800 Samoa ,100 900 900 I,2OO 800 Togo 200 300 400 1, 600 1,000 St. Lucia* 70O 800 700 6OO 500 Belgian Congo 500 600 800 800 900 Dominica* 45° 55° 300 3OO 300 St. Vincent* 100 100 75 5° 75 Other countries 3,200 3,000 3>5°° 3,5°° 3,5°° Total 275,900 296,100 295,400 344,000 275,600 Total British Empire 102,000 128,000 1 20 ,OOO 153,000 119,000 * British Possessions. CACAO PRODUCTION AND SALE 84 COCOA AND CHOCOLATE SOUTH AMERICAN CACAO. In the map of South America given on p. 89 the principal cacao producing areas are marked. Their production in 1918 was as follows : CACAO BEANS EXPORTED. Percentage of Country. Metric Tons.* World's production. Brazil 41,865 15*4 Ecuador 38,000 14*0 (Guayaquil alone 34,973 tons) Venezuela 13,000 5*0 Surinam 2,468 0*9 British Guiana .. 20 o'oi South American Total . . 95,353 tons 35'3T percent. ECUADOR. Arriba and Machala Cacaos. — In Ecuador, for many years the chief producing area of the world, dwell the cacao kings, men who possess very large and wild cacao forests, each containing several million cacao trees. The method of culture is primitive, and no artificial manures are used, yet for several generations the trees have given good crops and the soil remains as fertile as ever. The two principal cacaos are known as Arriba and Machala, or classed together as Guayaquil after the city of that name. Guayaquil, the commercial metropolis of the Republic of Ecuador, is an ancient and picturesque city built almost astride the Equator. Despite the unscientific cultural methods, and the imperfect fermentation, which results in the cacao containing a high percentage of unfermented beans and not infrequently mouldy beans also, this cacao is much appreciated in Europe and America, for the beans * These figures, and others quoted later in this chapter, are estimates given by Messrs. Theo. Vasmer & Co. in their reports. CACAO PRODUCTION AND SALE 85 O < 0 < U o o O T3 en ;» S | ^3 ffi ^ H 86 COCOA AND CHOCOLATE are large and possess a fine strong flavour and char- acteristic scented aroma. The amount of Guayaquil cacao exported in 1919 was 33,209 tons. An interesting experiment was made in 1912, when a protective association known as the Asociacion de Agricultores del Ecuador was legalised. This collects half a golden dollar on every hundred pounds of cacao, SORTING CACAO FOR SHIPMENT, GUAYAQUIL, ECUADOR. and by purchasing and storing cacao on its own account whenever prices fall below a reasonable minimum, attempts in the planter's interest to regulate the selling price of cacao. Unfortunately, as cacao tends to go mouldy when stored in a damp tropical climate, the Asociacion is not an unmixed blessing to the manu- facturer and consumer. CACAO PRODUCTION AND SALE 87 BRAZIL. Para and Bahia Cacaos. — Brazil has made marked progress in recent years, and has now overtaken Ecu- ador in quantity of produce ; the cacao, however, is quite different from, and not as fine as, that from Guayaquil. The principal cacao comes from the State of Bahia, where the climate is ideal for its cultivation. Indeed so perfect are the natural conditions that for- merly no care was taken in cacao production, and much of that gathered was wild and uncured. During the last decade there has been an improvement, and this would, doubtless, be more noteworthy if the means of transport were better, for .at present the roads are bad and the railways inadequate ; hence most of the cacao is brought down to the city of Bahia in canoes. Nevertheless, Bahia cacao is better fermented than the peculiar cacao of Para, another important cacao from Brazil, 'which is appreciated by manufacturers on account of its mild flavour. Bahia exported in 1919 about 51,000 tons of cacao. VENEZUELA. Caracas, Carupano and Maracaibo Cacaos. — Vene- zuela has been called " the classic home of cacao," and had not the chief occupation of its inhabitants been revolution, it would have retained till now the important position it held a hundred years ago. It is in this enchanted country (it was at La Guayra in Caracas, as readers of Westward Ho ! will remember, that Amyas found his long-sought Rose) that the finest cacao in the world is produced : the criollo, the bean with the golden-brown break. The tree which pro- duces this is as delicate as the cacao is fine, and there is some danger that this superb cacao may die out — a tragedy which every connoisseur would wish to avert. The Gordian estimates that Venezuela sent out from her three principal ports in 1919 some 16,226 tons of cacao. 88 COCOA AND CHOCOLATE THE WEST INDIES. In the map of South America the principal West Indian islands producing cacao are marked. Their production in 1918 was as follows : CACAO BEANS EXPORTED. Percentage of Metric Tons . World 's production . Trinidad (British) 26,177 9-7 San Domingo 18,839 70 Grenada (British) 6,704 2*5 Jamaica (British) 3, 000 n Haiti 2,272 o'8 St. Lucia (British) 500 o'2 Dominica (British) 300 o' i St. Vincent (British) .... 70 0*02 West Indies Total .... 57,862 tons 21*42 per cent. Br, West Indies 36,751 tons 13*6 per cent. TRINIDAD AND GRENADA.* Cacao was grown in the West Indies in the seven- teenth century, and the inhabitants, after the destruct- ive " blast," which utterly destroyed the plantations in 1727, bravely replanted cacao, which has flourished there ever since. The cacaos of Trinidad and Grenada have long been known for their excellence, and it is mainly from Trinidad that the knowledge of methods of scientific cultivation and preparation has been spread to planters all round the equator. The cacao from Trinidad (famous alike for its cacao and its pitch lake) has always held a high place in the markets of the world, although a year or two ago the inclusion of in- ferior cacao and the practice of claying was abused by a few growers and merchants. With the object of stopping these abuses and of producing a uniform cacao, there was formed a Cacao Planters' Associ- ation, whose business it is to grade and bulk, and sell on a co-operative basis, the cacao produced by its members. This experiment has proved successful, and * Cacao production in 1919 : Trinidad 27,185 tons ; Grenada 4,020 tons. CACAO PRODUCTION AND SALE 89 A MAP OF SOUTH AMERICA AND THE WEST INDIES. Only cacao-producing areas are marked. 9o COCOA AND CHOCOLATE in 1918 the Association handled the cacao from over 100 estates. We may expect to see more of these cacao planters' associations formed in various parts of the world, for they are in line with the trend of the times WORKERS ON A CACAO PLANTATION. (Messrs. Cadbury's estate in Trinidad.) towards large, and ever larger, unions and combinations. Trinidad is also progressive in its system of agricultural education and in its formation of agricultural credit socie- ties. The neighbouring island of Grenada is mountain- ous, smaller than the Isle of Wight and (if the Irish will forgive me) greener than Erin'sIsle.The methods of cacao cultivation in vogue there might seem natural to the Bri- tish farmer, but they are considered remarkable by cacao planters, for in Grenada the soil on which the trees grow is forked or tilled. Possibly from this follows the equally remarkable corollary that the cacao trees flourish without a single shade tree. The preparation of the bean receives CACAO PRODUCTION AND SALE 91 as much care as the cultivation of the tree, and the cacao which comes from the estates has an un- varied constancy of quality, not infrequently giving 100 per cent, of perfectly prepared beans. It is largely due to this that the cacao from this small island occu- pies such an important position on the London market. The cacao from San Domingo is known commer- cially as Samana or Sanchez. A fair proportion is of inferior quality, and is little appreciated on the European markets. The bulk of it goes to America. The production in 1919 was about 23,000 tons. AFRICAN CACAO. In the map of Africa the principal producing areas are marked. Their production in 1918 was as follows : CACAO BEANS EXPORTED. Metric Tons. Percentage of World's production. Gold Coast (British) 66,343 24-5 San Thome JQ,1^ 7'i Lagos (British) 10,223 3' 8 Fernando Po 4,220 r6 Cameroons ^250 0*4 Togo i ,000 0*4 Belgian Congo 875 0*3 African Total 103,096 tons 38*1 per cent. British Africa 76,566 tons 28*3 per cent. THE GOLD COAST (Industria floremus) Accrd^Cacao. The name recalls stories of a romantic and awful past, in which gold and the slave trade played their terrible part. Happily these are things of the past ; so is the " deadly climate." We are told that it is now no worse than that of other tropical countries. According to Sir Hugh Clifford, until recently Governor of the Gold Coast, the " West African Climatic Bogie " is a COCOA AND CHOCOLATE FERMAMDO r>of}(yittoria Cocoty SAN THOME'. MAP OF AFRICA — WITH ONLY CACAO-PRODUCING AREAS MARKED CACAO PRODUCTION AND SALE 93 94 COCOA AND CHOCOLATE myth, and the " monumental reputation for unhealthi- ness " undeserved. When De Candolle wrote con- cerning cacao, " I imagine it would succeed on the Guinea Coast, "* as the West African coast is some- times called, he achieved prophecy, but he little dreamed how wonderful this success would be. The rise and growth of the cacao-growing industry in the Gold Coast is one of the most extraordinary develop- ments of the last few decades. In thirty years it has increased its export of cacao from nothing to 40 per cent, of the total of the world's production. PRODUCTION OF CACAO ON THE GOLD COAST. Year. Quantity. Value. .£ 1891 o tons (80 Ibs.) 4 1896 34 tons 2,276 1901 980 tons 42,837 1906 8,975 tons 336,269 1911 3°>798 tons 1,613,468 1916 72,161 tons 3,847,720 1917 90,964 tons 3,146,851 1918 66,343 tons J ,796, 985 1919 177,000 tons 8,000,000 The conditions of production in the Gold Coast E resent a number of features entirely novel. We hear rom time to time of concessions being granted in tropical regions to this or that company of enterprising European capitalists, who employ a few Europeans and send them to the area to manage the industry. The inhabitants of the area become the manual wage earners of the company, and too often in the lust for profits, or as an offering to the god of commercial efficiency, the once easy and free life of the native is lost for ever and a form of wage-slavery takes its place with doubt- ful effects on the life and health of the workers. In defence it is pointed out that yet another portion of the earth has been made productive, which, without the initiative of the European capitalist, must have lain *De Candolle, Origin of Cultivated Plants, quoted by R. Whymper. CACAO PRODUCTION AND SALE 95 96 COCOA AND CHOCOLATE fallow. But in the Gold Coast the " indolent " native has created a new industry entirely native owned, and in thirty years the Gold Coast has outstripped all the areas of the world in quantity of produce. Forty years ago the natives had never seen a cacao tree, now at least fifty million trees flourish in the colony. This could not have happened without the strenuous efforts of the Department of Agriculture. The Gold Coast now stands head and shoulders above any other pro- ducing area for quantity. The problem of the future lies in the improvement of quality, and difficult though this problem be, we cannot doubt, given a fair chance, that the far-sighted and energetic Agricultural Depart- ment will solve it. Indeed, it must injustice be pointed out that already a very marked improvement has been made, and now fifty to one hundred times as much good fermented cacao is produced as there was ten years ago.* However, if a high standard is to be main- tained, the work of the Department of Agriculture must be supplemented by the willingness of the cacao buyers to pay a higher price for the better qualities. The phenomenal growth of this industry is the more remarkable when we consider the lack of roads and beasts of burden. The usual pack animals, horses and oxen, cannot live on the Gold Coast because of the tsetse fly, which spreads amongst them the sleeping sickness. And so the native, used as he is to heavy head-loads, naturally adopted this as his first method of transport, and hundreds of the less affluent natives arrive at the collecting centres with great weights of *" Towards this latter result Messrs. Cadbury Bros., Ltd., rendered great assistance. This firm sent representatives into the country, who proved to the natives that they were willing to pay an enhanced price for cocoa prepared in a manner suitable for their requirements. A fair amount of cocoa was purchased by them, and demonstrations were made in some places with regard to the proper mode of fermentation." (The Agricultural and Forest Products of British West Africa. Imperial Institute Handbook, by G. C. Dud- geon). CACAO PRODUCTION AND SALE 97 8 1 98 COCOA AND CHOCOLATE cacao on their heads. " Women and children, light- hearted, chattering and cheerful, bear their 60 Ibs. head-loads with infinite patience. Heavier loads, ap- proaching sometimes two hundredweight, are borne by grave, silent Hausa-men, often a distance of thirty or forty miles. " One day, not so many years ago, some more ingenious native in the hills at the back of the Coast, filled an old palm-oil barrel with cacao and rolled it down the ways to Accra. And now to- day it is a familiar sight to see a man trundling a huge barrel of cacao, weighing half a ton, down to the coast. The sound of a motor horn is heard, and he wildly turns the barrel aside to avoid a disastrous collision with the new, DRYING CACAO BEANS AT MRAMRA. weird transport ani- mal from Europe. Reproduced by permission from the Imperial Institute TV/T^*-^*. \K~~\~C U series of Handbooks to the Commercial Resources of IVlOtOr lOmCS naVC been used with great effect on the coast for -some seven years ; they have the advantage over pack animals that they do not succumb to the bite of the dreaded tsetse fly, but nevertheless not a few derelicts lie, or stand on their heads, in the ditches, the victims of over-work or accident. Having brought the cacao to the coast, there yet CACAO PRODUCTION AND SALE 99 SHOOTING CACAO FROM THE ROAD TO THE BEACH, ACCRA. 100 COCOA AND CHOCOLATE remains the lighterage to the ocean liner, which lies anchored some two miles from the shore, rising and falling to the great rollers from the broad Atlantic. A long boat is used, manned by some twenty swarthy natives, who glory — vocally — in their passage through the dangerous surf which roars along the sloping beach. The cacao is piled high on wood racks and covered with tarpaulins and seldom shares the fate of passengers and crew, who are often drenched in the surf before they swing by a crane in the primitive mammy chair, high but not dry, on board the hospitable Elder Demp- ster liner. SAN THOME (AND PRINCIPE). We now turn from the Gold Coast and the suc- cess of native ownership to another part of West ROLLING CACAO, GOLD COAST. Africa, a scene of singular beauty, where the Portuguese planters have triumphed over savage nature. Two lovely islands, San Thome and its little sister isle of Principe, lie right on the Equator in the Gulf of Guinea, about two hundred miles from the African mainland. A warm, lazy sea, the sea of the doldrums, sapphire or turquoise, or, in deep shaded pools, a radiant green, joyfully foams itself away against these fairy lands of tossing palm, dense vegetation, rushing cascades, and purple, precipitous peaks. A soil of volcanic origin is covered with a rich humus of decaying vegetation, CACAO PRODUCTION AND SALE 101 and this, with a soft humid atmosphere, makes an ideal home for cacao. The bean, introduced in 1822, was not cultivated with diligence till fifty years ago. To-day the two islands, which together have not half the area of Surrey, grow 32,000 metric tons of cacao a year, or about one- tenth of the world's production.* The income of a ROLLING CACAO, GOLD COAST. Reproduced by permission of the Editor of " West Africa." single planter, once a poor peasant, has amounted to hundreds of thousands sterling. Dotted over the islands, here nestling on a moun- tain side, there overlooking some blue inlet of the sea, are more than two hundred plantations, or rocas, whose buildings look like islands in a green sea of cacao * The Gordian's estimate for the amount exported in 1919 is 40,766 tons. 102 COCOA AND CHOCOLATE CARRYING CACAO TO THE RAILWAY STATION, NSAWAM, GOLD COAST. shrubs, above which rise the grey stems of such forest trees as have been left to afford shade. Here, not only have the cultivation, fermentation and drying of cacao been brought to the highest state of perfection, but the details of organisation — planters' homes, hospitals, cottages, drying sheds and the Decau- ville railways — are often models of their kind. Intelligent and courteous, the planters make delight- ful hosts. At their homes, five thousand miles away from Europe, the visitor, who knows what it means to struggle with steaming, virgin forests, rank encroach- ing vegetation, deadly fevers, and the physical and mental inertia engendered by the tropics, will marvel CACAO PRODUCTION AND SALE 103 at the courage and energy that have triumphed over such obstacles. Calculating from various estimates, each labourer in the islands appears to produce about 1,640 pounds of cacao yearly, and the average yield per cultivated acre is 480 pounds, or about 30 pounds more than that of Trinidad in 1898. WAGON LOADS OF CACAO BEING TAKEN FROM MESSRS. CADBURY'S DEPOT TO THE BEACH, ACCRA. As there is no available labour in San Thome, the planters get their workers from the mainland of Africa. Prior to the year 1908, the labour system of the islands was responsible for grave abuses. This has now. been changed. Natives from the Portuguese colonies of Angola and Mozambique now enter freely into con- tracts ranging from one to five years, two years being the time generally chosen. At the end of their term of work they either re-contract or return to their native land with their savings, with which they generally buy a wife. The readiness with which the natives volunteer for the work on the islands is proof both of the sound- ness of the system of contract and of the good treat- ment they receive at the hands of the planters. 104 COCOA AND CHOCOLATE THE BUILDINGS OF THE BOA ENTRADA CACAO ESTATE, SAN THOME. Unfortunately, the mortality of the plantation labourers has generally been very heavy, one large and well-managed estate recording on an average of seven years an annual death rate of 148 per thousand, and many rocas have still more appalling records. Against this, other plantations only a few miles away may show a mortality approximating to that of an average European city. In February, 1918, the workers in San Thome numbered 39,605, and the deaths during the previous year, 1917, were 1,808, thus showing on official figures an annual mortality of 45 per thousand. Comparing this with the 26 per thousand of Trinidad, and re- membering that most of the San Thome labourers are in the prime of life, it will be seen that this death rate represents a heavy loss of life and justifies the con- tinued demand from the British cocoa manufacturers CACAO PRODUCTION AND SALE 105 for the appointment and report of a special medical commission. The Portuguese Government is prepared to meet this demand, for it has recently sent a Commissioner, Dr. Joaquim Gouveia, to San Thome to make a thorough examination of labour conditions, including work, food, housing, hospitals and medical attendance, and to report fully and confidentially to the Portu- guese Colonial Secretary. DRYING CACAO AT AGUA IZE, SAN The trays are on wheels, which run on rails. If this important step is followed by adequate measures of reform there is every reason to hope that the result will be a material reduction in the death rate, as the good health enjoyed on some of the rocas shows San Thome to be not more unhealthy than other tropical islands. CAMEROONS. The Cameroons, which we took from the Germans in 1916, is also on the West Coast of Africa. It lags far behind the Gold Coast in output, although both com- menced to grow cacao about the same time. The io6 COCOA AND CHOCOLATE BARREL ROLLING, GOLD COAST. r Germans spent great sums in the Cameroons in giving the industry a scientific basis, they adopted the " estate plan," and possibly the fact that they employ contract / labour explains why they have not had the same pheno- menal success that the natives working for themselves have achieved on the Gold Coast. Various countries and districts which are respon- sible for about 97 per cent, of the world's cacao crop have now been named and briefly commented upon. Of other producing areas, the islands, Ceylon and Java, are worthy of mention. In both of these (as also in Venezuela, Samoa* and Madagascar) is grown the * Robert Louis Stevenson was one of the pioneers in cacao plant- ing in Samoa, as readers of his Vailima Letters will remember. CACAO PRODUCTION AND SALE 107 criollo cacao, which produces the plump, sweet beans with the cinnamon " break." Cacao beans from Ceylon or Java are easily recognised by their appearance, be- cause, being washed, they have beautiful clean shells, but there is a serious objection to washed shells, namely, that they are brittle and as thin as paper, so that many are broken before they reach the manufacturer. Ceylon is justly famous for its fine " old red " ; along with BAGGING CACAO, GOLD COAST. Reproduced by permission of the Editor of "West Africa." this a fair quantity of inferior cacao is produced, which by. being called Ceylon (such is the power of a good name), tends to claim a higher price than its quality warrants. CACAO MARKETS. From the Plantation to the European Market. It is mentioned above that on the Gold Coast cacao is brought down to Accra as head-loads, or in barrels, or in motor-lorries. These methods are exceptional ; in other countries it is usually put in sacks at the estate. Every estate has its own characteristic mark, which is io8 COCOA AND CHOCOLATE SURF BOATS BY THE SIDE OF THE OCEAN LINER, ACCRA. CACAO PRODUCTION AND SALE 109 stamped on the bags, and this is recognised by the buyers in Europe, and gives a clue to the quality of the contents. There is not as yet a uniform weight for a bag of cacao, although they all vary between one and two cwt., thus the bags from Africa contain ij cwts.> whilst those from, Guayaquil contain if cwts. In these bags the cacao is taken to the port on the backs of mules, in horse or ox carts, in canoes down a stream, or more rarely, by rail. It is then conveyed by lighters or surf boats to the great ocean liners which lie anchored off the shore. In the hold of the liner it is rocked thousands of miles over the azure seas of the tropics to the grey- green seas of the temperate zone. In pre-war days a million bags used to go to Hamburg, three-quarters of a million to New York, half a million to Havre, and only a trifling quarter of a million to London. Now London is the leading cacao market of the world. During the war the supplies were cut off from Ham- burg, whilst Liverpool, becoming a chief port for African cacao, in 1916 imported a million bags. Then New York began to gorge cacao, and in 1917 created a record, importing some two and a half million bags, or about 150,000 tons. Whilst everything is in so fluid a condition it is unwise to prophesy ; it may, however, be said that there are many who think, now that the consumption of cocoa and chocolate in America has reached such a prodigious figure, that New York may yet oust London and become the central dominating market of the world. Difficulties of Buying. Every country produces a different kind of cacao, and the cacao from any two plantations in the same country often shows wide variation. It may be said that there are as many kinds of cacao as there are of apples, cacao showing as marked differences as exhibited by crabs and Blenheims, not to mention James Grieves, Russets, Worcester Pearmains, Newton Wonders, Lord Derbys, Belle de Boskoops, and so forth. Further, no COCOA AND CHOCOLATE BAGGING CACAO BEANS FOR SHIPMENT, TRINIDAD. TRANSFERRING BAGS OF CACAO BEANS TO LIGHTERS, TRINIDAD. CACAO PRODUCTION AND SALE in whilst the bulk of the cacao is good and sound, a little of the cacao grown in any district is liable to have suffered from drought or from attacks by moulds or insect pests. It will be realised from these fragmentary remarks that the buyer must exercise perpetual vigil- ance. Cacao Sales. Before the Cocoa Prices Orders were published (March, 1918) the manner of conducting the sale of cacao in London was as follows. Brokers' lists giving the kinds of cacao for sale, and the number of bags of each, were sent, together with samples, to the buyers some days beforehand, so that they were able to decide what they wished to purchase and the price they were willing to pay. The sales always took place at 1 1 o'clock on Tuesdays in the Commercial Sale Room in Minc- ing Lane, that narrow street off Fenchurch Street, where the air is so highly charged with expert know- ledge of the world's produce, that it would illuminate the prosaic surroundings with brilliant flashes if it could become visible. On the morning of the sale samples of the cacaos are on exhibit at the principal brokers. The man in the street brought into the broker's office would ask what these strange beans might be. " A new kind of almond ? " he might ask. And then, on being told they were cacao, he would see nothing to choose between all the various lots and wonder why so much fuss was made over discriminating amongst the similar and distinguishing the identical. He might even marvel a little at the expert knowledge of the buyers ; yet, frankly, the pertinent facts concerning quality, known by the buyer, are fewer and no more difficult to learn than the thousand and one facts a lad must have at his finger ends to pass the London Matriculation ; they are valued because they are in- accessible to the multitude ; only a few people have the opportunity of learning them, and their use may make or mar fortunes. The judgment of quality is, ii2 COCOA AND CHOCOLATE however, only one side of the art of buying. We have to add to these a knowledge of the conditions prevail- ing in the various markets of the world, a knowledge of stocks and probable supplies, and given this know- ledge, an ability to estimate their effect, together with other conditions, agricultural, political and social, on the price of the commodity. The room in which the sales are conducted is not a large one, and usually not more than a hundred people, buyers, pressmen, etc., are present. Not a single cacao bean is visible, and it might be an auction sale of property for all the uninitiated could tell. The cacao is put up in lots. Usually the sales proceed quietly, and it is difficult to realize that many thousands of bags of cacao are chang- ing hands. The buyers have perfect trust in the broker's descriptions ; they know the invariable fair-play of the British broker, which is a by-word the world over. The machinery of the proceedings is lubricated by an easy flow of humour. Sometimes a few bags of sea- damaged cacao or of cacao sweepings are put up, and a good deal of keenness is shown by the individuals who buy this stuff. It is curious that a whole crowd of busy people will allow their time to be taken up whilst there is a spirited fight between two or three buyers for a single bag. Whilst the London Auction Sales are of importance as fixing the prices for the various markets, and reflect- ing to a certain extent the position of supply and de- mand, only a fraction of the world's cacao changes hands at the Auction Sales, the greater part of it being bought privately for forward delivery. Prices and Quotations. The price of cacao is liable to fluctuations like every other product, thus in 1907 Trinidad cacao rose to one shilling a pound, whilst there have been periods when it has only fetched sixpence per pound. On April 2nd, 1918, the Food Controller fixed the prices of the finest CACAO PRODUCTION AND SALE 113 ii4 COCOA AND CHOCOLATE qualities of the different varieties of raw cacao as follows : British West Africa (Accra) 655. per cwt. Bahia j Cameroons / San Thome 855. „ „ Congo I Grenada Trinidad } . Demerara 905. ,, ,, Guayaquil j Surinam Ceylon \ Java loos. ,, ,, Samoa The diagram on p. 1 13 shows the average market price in the United Kingdom of some of the more important cacaos before, during, and after the war. The most striking change is the sudden rise when the Govern- ment control was removed. All cacaos showed a sub- stantial advance varying from 80 to 150 per cent, on pre-war values. Further large advances have taken place in the early months of 1920. The Call of the Tropics. Many a young man, reading in some delightful book of travel, has longed to go to the tropics and see the wonders for himself. There can be no doubt that a sojourn in equatorial regions is one of the most edu- cative of experiences. In support of this I cannot do better than quote Grant Allen, who regarded the tropics as the best of all universities. " But above all in educational importance I rank the advantage of seeing human nature in its primitive surroundings, far from the squalid and chilly influences of the tail- end of the Glacial epoch." . . . " We must forget all this formal modern life ; we must break away from this cramped, cold, northern world ; we must find ourselves face to face at last, in Pacific isles or African CACAO PRODUCTION AND SALE 115 forests, with the underlying truths of simple naked nature." Many will recall ho\v Charles Kingsley's longing to see the tropics was ultimately satisfied. In his book, in which he describes how he "At Last " visited the West Indies, we read that he encountered a happy Scotchman living a quiet life in the dear little island I GROUP OF WORKERS ON CACAO ESTATE. Some are standing on the Drying Platform, which is the roof of the Fermentary. of Monos. " I looked at the natural beauty and re- pose ; at the human vigour and happiness ; and I said to myself, and said it often afterwards in the West Indies : ' Why do not other people copy this wise Scot ? Why should not many a young couple, who have education, refinement, resources in themselves, but are, happily or unhappily for them, unable to keep a brougham and go to London balls, retreat to some such paradise as this (and there are hundreds like n6 COCOA AND CHOCOLATE it to be found in the West Indies), leaving behind them false civilisation, and vain desires, and useless show ; and there live in simplicity and content ' The Gentle Life ' ? J: The Planter's Life. Few who go to the tropics escape their fascination, and of those that are young, few return to colder climes. Some become overseers, others, more fortunate, own the estates they manage. It is inadvisable for the in- experienced to start on the enterprise of buying and planting an estate with less capital than two or three thousand pounds ; but, once established, a cacao plantation may be looked upon as a permanent invest- ment, which will continue to bear and give a good yield as long as it receives proper attention. In the recently published Letters of Anthony Farley the writer tells how Farley encounters in South America an old college friend of his, who in his early days was on the high road to a brilliant political career. Here he is, a planter. He explains : " My mother was Spanish ; her brother owned this place. When he died it came to me." " How did your uncle hold it through the various revolutions ? " " Nothing simpler. He became an American citizen. When trouble threatened he made a bee-line for the United States Con- sulate. I'm British, of course. Well, just when I had decided upon a political life, I found it necessary to come here to straighten things out. One month lengthened itself into a year. I grew fascinated. Here I felt a sense of immense usefulness. On the mountain side my coffee- trees flourished ; down in the valley grew cacao." " I grow mine on undulations." " You needn't, you know, so long as you drain." " Yes, but draining on the flat is the devil." " Anyhow, I always liked animals — you haven't seen my pigs yet — and horses and mules need careful tending. A cable arrived one morning announcing an impending dissolution. I felt like an unwilling bridegroom called to marry an ugly bride. I invited my soul. Here, thought I to myself, are animals and foodstuffs- — good, honest food at that. If I go back it is only to fill people's bellies with political east wind." CACAO PRODUCTION AND SALE 117 " To come to the point, I decided to grow coffee and cacao. I cabled infinite regrets. The decision once made, I was happy as a sandboy. J'y suis,j'y reste, said I to myself, said I. Nor have I ever cast one longing look behind."* ( This is fiction, but I think it is true that very few, if any, who become planters in the tropics ever re- turn permanently to England. The hospitality of the planters is proverbial : there must be something good and free about the planter's life to produce men so genial and generous. There is a picture that I often recall, and never without pleasure. A young planter and I had, with the help of more or less willing mules, climbed over the hills from one valley to the next. The valley we had left is noted for its beauty, but to me it had become familiar ; the other valley I saw now for the first time. The sides were steep and covered with trees, and I could only see one dwelling in the valley. We reached this by a circuitous path through cacao trees. Approaching it as we did, the bungalow seemed completely cut off from the rest of the world. We were welcomed by the planter and his wife, and by those of the children who were not shy. I have never seen more chubby or jolly kiddies, and I know from the sweetness of the children that their mother must have given them unremitting attention. I wondered indeed if she ever left them for a moment. I knew, too, from the situation of the bungalow in the heart of the hills that visitors were not likely to be frequent. The planter's life is splendid for a man who likes open air and nature, but I had sometimes thought that their wives would not find the life so good. I was mistaken. When we came away, after riding some distance, through a gap in the cacao we saw across the valley a group of happy children. They saw us, and all of them, even the shy ones, waved us adieux. * Quoted from the New Age, where the Letters of Anthony Farley first appeared. n8 COCOA AND CHOCOLATE CARTING CACAO TO RAILWAY STATION, CEYLON. THE CARENAGE, GRENADA. CHAPTER V THE MANUFACTURE OF COCOA AND CHOCOLATE. The Indians, from whom we borrow it, are not very nice in doing it ; they roast the kernels in earthen pots, then free them from their skins, and afterwards crush and grind them between two stones, and so form cakes of it with their hands. Natural History of Chocolate, R. Brookes, 1730. Early Methods in the Tropics. AS the cacao bean is grown in tropical countries, it is there that we must look for the first attempts at manufacturing from it a drink or a food- stuff. The primitive method of preparation was very simple, consisting in roasting the beans in a pot or onv ^ a shovel to develop their flavour, winnowing in the wind, and then rubbing the broken shelled beans be- tween stones until quite fine. The curious thing is that on grinding the cacao bean in the heat of a tropical day we do not produce a powder but a paste. This is be- cause half the cacao bean consists of a fat which is liquid at 95&i 1,960 8,268 9,°53 During the war America appeared for the first time in her history as an exporter of cacao butter. Hitherto she was one of the principal importers, as will be seen in the following table : IMPORTS OF CACAO BUTTER. Tons (of 1000 kilogrammes) 1912 1913 United States i ,842 i ,634 Switzerland 1,821 1,634 Belgium 1,127 I>197 Austria-Hungary 1,062 1,190 Russia 955 1,197 England 495 934 The next table shows the imports (expressed in English tons) into the United Kingdom in more recent years : IMPORTS OF CACAO BUTTER. Year 1912 1913 1914 1915 1916 1917 Tons 477 912 1512 599 962 675 The wholesale price of cacao butter has varied in the last six years from 1/3 per pound to 2/11 per pound, and was fixed in 1918 by the Food Controller at 1/6 BY-PRODUCTS OF THE INDUSTRY 161 per pound (retail price 2/- per pound). The control was removed in 1919, and immediately the wholesale price rose to 2/8 per pound. Cacao Shell. Although I have described cacao butter as a by- product, the only true by-product of the combined cocoa and chocolate industry is cacao shell. I ex- plained in the previous chapter how it is separated from the roasted bean. As they come from the husking or winnowing machine, the larger fragments of shell resemble the shell of monkey-nuts (ground nuts or pea nuts), except that the cacao shells are thinner, more brittle and of a richer brown colour. The shell has a pleasant odour in which a little true cocoa aroma can be detected. The small pieces of shell look like bran, and, if the shell be powdered, the product is wonder- fully like cocoa in appearance, though not in taste or smell. As the raw cacao bean contains on the average about twelve and a half per cent, of shell, it is evident that the world production must be considerable (about 36,000 tons a year), and since it is not legitimately employed in cocoa, the brains of inventors have been busy trying to find a use for it. In some industries the by-product has proved on investigation to be of greater value than the principal product — a good instance of this is glycerine as a by-product in soap manufacture- but no use for the husk or shell of cacao, which gives it any considerable commercial value, has yet been dis- covered. There are signs, however, that its possible uses are being considered and appreciated. For years small quantities of cacao shell, under the name of " miserables," have been used in Ireland and other countries for producing a dilute infusion for drinking. Although this " cocoa tea " is not unpleasant, and has mild stimulating properties, it has never been popular, and even during the war, when it was widely advertised and sold in England under fancy names at 1 62 COCOA AND CHOCOLATE fancy prices, it never had a large or enthusiastic body of consumers. In normal times the cocoa manufacturer has no difficulty in disposing of his shell to cattle-food makers and others, but during 1915 when the train service was so defective, and transport by any other means almost impossible, the manufacturers of cocoa and chocolate were unable to get the shell away from their factories, and had large accumulations of it filling up valuable store space. In these circumstances they attempted to find a use near at hand. It was tried with moderate success as a fuel and a considerable quantity was burned in a special type of gas-producer intended for wood. Cacao shell has a high nitrogenous content, and if burned yields about 67 Ibs. of potassium carbonate per ton. In the Annual Report of the Experimental Farms in Canada, (1898, p. 151 and 1899, p. 851,) accounts are given of the use of cacao shell as a manure. The results given are encouraging, and experiments were made at Bourn ville. At first these were only moderately successful, because the shell is extremely stable and decomposes in the ground very slowly in- deed. Then the head gardener tried hastening the decomposition by placing the shell in a heap, soaking with water and turning several times before use. In this way the shell was converted into a decomposing mass before being applied to the ground, and gave excellent results both as a manure and as a lightener of heavy soils. On the Continent the small amount of cacao butter which the shell contains is extracted from it by volatile solvents. The " shell butter " so obtained is very in- ferior to ordinary cacao butter, and as usually put on the market, has an unpleasant taste, and an odour which reminds one faintly of an old tobacco-pipe. In this unrefined condition it is obviously unsuitable for edible purposes. Shell contains about one per cent, of theobromine BY-PRODUCTS OF THE INDUSTRY 163 (dimethylxanthine). This is a very valuable chemical substance (see remarks in chapter on Food Value of Cocoa and Chocolate), and the extraction of theo- bromine from shell is already practised on a large scale, and promises to be a profitable industry. Ordin- ary commercial samples of shell contain from 1*2 to i -4 per cent, of theobromine. Those interested should study the very ingenious process of Messrs. Grousseau and Vicongne (Patent No. 120,178). Many other uses of cacao shell have been made and suggested ; thus it has been used for the production of a good coffee substitute, and also, during the shortage of sawdust, as a packing material, but its most important use at the present time is as cattle food, and its most im- portant abuse as an adulterant of cocoa. The value of cacao shell as cattle food has been known for a long time, and is indicated in the following analysis by Smetham (in the Journal of the Lancashire Agri- cultural Society, 1914). ANALYSIS OF CACAO SHELL. Water 9*30 Fat 3-83 Mineral Matter 8'2o Albuminoids 18*81 Fibre 13*85 Digestible Carbohydrates 46-01 lOO'OO From these figures Smetham calculates the food units as 1 02, so that it is evident that cacao shell occupies a good position when compared with other fodders : FOOD UNITS. Linseed cake 133 Maize (new crop) 99 Oatmeal 117 Meadow hay 68 Bran 109 Rice husks 43 English wheat 106 Wheat straw 41 Cacao shells 102 Mangels . 12 1 64 COCOA AND CHOCOLATE These analytical results have been supported by practical feeding experiments in America and Ger- many (see full account in Zipperer's book. The Manu- facture of Chocolate}. Prof. Faelli, in Turin, obtained, by giving cacao shell to cows, an increase in both the quantity and quality of the milk. More recent experi- ence seems to indicate that it is unwise to put a very high percentage of cacao shell in a cattle food ; in small quantities in compound feeding cakes, etc., as an appetiser it has been used for years with good results. (Further particulars will be found in Cacao Shells as Fodder, by A. W. Knapp, Tropical Life, 1916, p. 154, and in The Separation and Uses of Cacao Shell, Society of Chemical Industry's Journal, 1918, 240). The price of shell has shown great variation. The following figures are for the grade of shell which is almost entirely free from cocoa : CACAO SHELL. AVERAGE PRICE PER TON. Year 1912 1913 1914 1915 1916 1917 1918 1919 Price 6s/- yo/- yo/- yo/- cpj- I28/- 284;- i6i/- PRICE PER FOOD UNIT. Julv, 1915. Jan., 1919. " s. d. s. d. English Oats 3 i i 3 8 Cotton Seed Cake 2 5 3 n Linseed Cake i 7 3 5 Brewers Grains (dried) i 6i 3 8| Decorticated Cotton Cake i 6 3 3! Cacao Shell 8J i 4! The above table speaks for itself ; the figures are from the Journal of the Board of Agriculture ; I have added cacao shell for comparison. CHAPTER VIII THE COMPOSITION AND FOOD VALUE OF COCOA AND CHOCOLATE Before the Spaniards made themselves Masters of Mexico, no other drink was esteem 'd but that of cocoa ; none caring for wine, notwithstanding the soil produces vines everywhere in great abundance of itself. John Ogilvy's America, 1671. THE early writers on chocolate generally be- came lyrical when they wrote of its value as a food. Thus in the Natural History of Chocolate, by R. Brookes (1730), we read that an ounce of chocolate contains as much nourishment as a pound of beef, that a woman and a child, and even a councillor, lived on chocolate alone for a long period, and further : ' Before chocolate was known in Europe, good old wine wTas called the milk of old men ; but this title is now applied with greater reason to chocolate, since its use has become so common, that it has been perceived that chocolate is, with respect to them, what milk is to infants." A more temperate tone is shown in the following, from A Curious Treatise of the Nature and Quality of Chocolate, by Antonio Colmenero de Ledesma, a Spaniard, Physician and Chyrurgion of the city of Ecija, in Andaluzia (printed at the Green Dragon, 1685) : So great is the number of those persons, who at present do drink of Chocolate, that not only in the West Indies, whence this drink has its original and beginning, but also in Spain, Italy, Flanders, &c., it is very much used, and especially in the Court of the King of Spain ; where the great ladies drink it in a morning before they rise out of their beds, and lately much used in England, as Diet and i66 COCOA AND CHOCOLATE Phisick with the Gentry. Yet there are several persons that stand in doubt both of the hurt and of the benefit, which proceeds from the use thereof ; some saying, that it ob- structs and causes opilations, others and those the most part, that it fattens, several assure us that it fortifies the stomach : some again that it heats and inflames the body. But very many steadfastly affirm, that tRo^ they shou'd drink it at all hours, and that even in the Dog-days, they find themselves very well after it. So much for the old valuations ; let us now attempt by modern methods to estimate the food value of cacao and its preparations. Food Value of Cacao Beans. In estimating the worth of a food, it is usual to com- pare the fuel values. This peculiar method is adopted because the most important requirement in nutrition is that of giving energy for the work of the body, and a food may be thought of as being burnt up (oxidised) in the human machine in the production of heat and energy. The various food constituents serve in varying degrees as fuel to produce energy, and hence to judge of the food value it is necessary to know the chemical composition. Below we give the average composition of cacao beans and the fuel value calculated from these figures : AVERAGE COMPOSITION AND FUEL VALUE OF FRESHLY ROASTED CACAO BEANS (NIBS). Co mposition . Energy-giving power Calories per Ib. Cacao Butter 54*0 = 2,282 Protein (total nitrogen 2-3%) 11-9 221 Cacao Starch 6' 7 1 _ Other Digestible CArbohydrates, etc. 18*7 1 47 0 . , f Theobromine ro btimulants { r^ & • LCanem 0^4 Mineral Matter 3-2 Crude Fibre 2' 6 Moisture 1-5 loo-o 2,975 COMPOSITION AND; ROOD VALUE 167 It will be seen from the above analysis that the cacao bean is rich in fats, carbohydrates and protein, and that it contains small quantities of the two stimulants, theobromine and caffein. In the whole range of animal and vegetable foodstuffs there are only one or two which exceed it in energy-giving power. If expressed COCOA AND CHOCOLATE DESPATCH DECK AT BOURNVILLE. in quite another way, namely, as " food units," the value of the cacao bean stands equally high, as is shown by the following figures taken from Smetham's result published in the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society, 1914 : " FOOD UNITS." Turnips 8 Carrots 12 Potatoes 26 Rice 102 Corn Flour 104 Wheat 106 Peas 113 Oatmeal 117 Coconut 159 % Cacao Bean 1 83 These figures indicate the high food value of the raw material ; we will now proceed to consider the various products which are obtained from it. 1 68 COCOA AND CHOCOLATE Food Value of Cocoa. AVERAGE COMPOSITION AND FUEL VALUE OF UNTREATED COCOA. Composition. Energy -giving power Calories per Ib. Cacao Butter ................ 28*0 = 1,183 Protein ...................... 18*3 340 Cacao Starch ................ io'2 ( _ g Other Digestible Carbohydrates, etc. 28*4 I ' c.. , Theobromine ...... re Stimulants Caffein .......... Q.5 Mineral Matter ................ 5-0 Crude Fibre .................. 4'o Moisture .................... 4-0 100*0 2,241 (" Soluble " Cocoa, i.e., cocoa which has been treated with alkaline salts, is almost identical in composition, save that the mineral matter is about 7' 5 per cent.). As cocoa consists of the cacao bean with some of the butter extracted — a process which increases the per- centage of the nitrogenous and carbohydrate consti- tuents— it will be evident that the food value of cocoa powder is high, and that it is a concentrated foodstuff. In this respect it differs from tea and coffee, which have practically no food value ; each of them, however, have special qualities of their own. Some of the claims made for these beverages are a little remarkable. The Embassy of the United Provinces in their address to the Emperor of China (Leyden, 1655), in mentioning the good properties of tea, wrote : " More especially it disintoxicates those that are fuddl'd, giving them new forces, and enabling them to go to it again.'' The Embassy do not state whether they speak from personal experience, but their admiration for tea is undoubted. Tea, coffee, and cocoa are amongst our blessings, each has its devotees, each has its peculiar delight : tea makes for cheerfulness, coffee makes for wit and wake- fulness, and cocoa relieves the fatigued, and gives a comfortable feeling of satisfaction and stability. Of COMPOSITION AND FOOD VALUE 169 these three drinks cocoa alone can be considered as a food, and just as there are people whose digestion is deranged by tea, and some who sleep not a wink after drinking coffee, so there are some who find cocoa too feeding, especially in the summer-time. These sufferers from biliousness will think it curious that cocoa is habitually drunk in many hot climates, thus, in Spanish- speaking countries, it is the custom for the priest, after saying mass, to take a cup of chocolate. The pure cocoa powder is, as we saw above, a very rich foodstuff, but it must always be remembered that in a pint of cocoa only a small quantity, about half an ounce, is usually taken. In this connection the following comparison between tea, coffee and cocoa is not without interest. It is taken from the Farmer *s Bulletin 249, an official public- ation of the United States Department of Agriculture : COMPARISON OF ENERGY- GIVING POWER OF A PINT OF TEA, COFFEE AND COCOA. Fuel Kind of Beverage Water °/ /o Protein o/ /o Fat 9°° 53>IO° 4I>3°° The above figures are compiled from the Bulletin of the Imperial Institute (No. I, 1919). The total im- ports for 1918 were 42,390 tons. This sudden and marked drop in the amount imported was due to short- age of shipping. There were, however, large quan- tities of cacao in stock, and the amount consumed showed a marked advance on previous years, being 61,252 tons. THE CONSUMPTION OF CACAO 185 The Board of Trade Returns for 1919 are as follow : CACAO BEANS IMPORTED INTO UNITED KINGDOM. From British West Africa 72,886 tons British West Indies 13,219 tons Ecuador 9,J53 tons Brazil 3,665 tons Ceylon 903 tons Other Countries . , 13,820 tons Total 1 13,646 tons Home Consumption 64, 61 3 tons It will be noted that the import of British cacao is over 75 per cent, of the total. Before the wrar about half the cacao imported into the United Kingdom was grown in British possessions. During the war more and more British cacao was im- ported, and now that a preferential duty of seven shillings per hundredweight has been given to British Colonial growths we shall probably see a still higher percentage of British cacao consumed in the United Kingdom. VALUE OF CACAO BEANS IMPORTED INTO THE UNITED KINGDOM (TO NEAREST £1,000). Total value of Cacao From British Possessions. Year. Beans Imported. Value. Per cent. 1913 £2,199,000 £1,158,000 52-7 1914 .... £2,439,000 £1,204,000 49*4 1915 •••• Z5>747>°°° Z3>546>°°° 61-7 1916 .... £6,498,000 £4,417,000 68*0 1917 .... £3,498,000 £3,010,000 86'o 1918 £3,040,000 £2,549,000 83*8 1919 .... £9,207,000 £6,639,000 72'! That the consumption of cacao is expected to grow greater yet in the immediate future is reflected in the prices of raw cacao, which, as soon as they were no longer fixed by the Government, rose rapidly, thus Accra cacao rose from 655. per hundredweight to over 905. per hundredweight in a few weeks, and now (January, 1920) stands at 1045. (See diagram p. 113). i86 COCOA AND CHOCOLATE World Consumption. The world's consumption of cacao is steadily rising. Before the war the United States, Germany, Holland, Great Britain, France, and Switzerland were the prin- cipal consumers. Whilst we have increased our con- sumption, so that Great Britain now occupies second place, the United States has outstripped all the other countries, having doubled its consumption in a few years, and is now taking almost as much as all the rest of the world put together. It is thought that since America has " gone dry " this remarkably large con- sumption is likely to be maintained. WORLD'S CONSUMPTION OF CACAO BEANS. (to the nearest thousand tons) i ton = 1000 kilograms. Country. USA Pre-war War Period Post-war I9I3- Tons. 68,000 51,000 30,000 28,000 28,000 10,000 7,000 6,000 6,000 5,000 3,000 2,000 2,000 I,OOO 1,000 5,000 Average of i9i4,5,6,&7. Tons. 103,000 28,000 25,000 41,000 35,000 14,000 2,000 1,000 7,000 4,000 4,000 5,000 2,000 2,000 2,000 8, ooo 1918 Tons. 145,000 p 2,000 62,OOO 39,000 18,000 ? 1,000 6,000 p 9,000 6,000 2,000 2,000 2,000 1 1 ,000 1919. Tons. 145,000 13,000 39,000 66,000 46,000 21,000 2,000 8,000 8,000 p p 6,000 p p p 26,000 Germany Holland Great Britain .... France Switzerland Austria Belgium Spain Russia Canada Italy Denmark Sweden Norway Other countries (estimated) .... Total.... 252,000 283,000 305,000 380,000 The above figures are compiled chiefly from Mr. Theo. Vasmer's reports. The Gordian estimates that THE CONSUMPTION OF CACAO 187 the world's consumption in 1918 was 314,882 tons. In several of our larger colonies and in at least one European country there is obviously ample room for increase in the consumption. When one considers the CACAO PODS, LEAVES AND FLOWERS. Reproduced by permission of Messrs. Fry & Sons, Ltd., Bristol. great population of Russia, four to five thousand tons per annum is a very small amount to consume. It is pleasant to think of cocoa being drunk in the ice- bound North of Russia — it brings to mind so picturesque a contrast : cacao, grown amongst the richly-coloured flora of the tropics, consumed in a land that is white with cold. When Russia has reached a more stable condition we shall doubtless see a rapid expansion in the cacao consumption. BIBLIOGRAPHY BIBLIOGRAPHY BOOKS ON COCOA AND CHOCOLATE ARRANGED IN ORDER OF DATE OF PUBLICATION. 1600-1700 RAUCH, Joan. Franc. DISPUTATIO MEDICO DICETETICA DE AERE ET ESCULENTIS, DE NECNON POTIL Vienna 1624 [Condemns cocoa as a violent inflamer of the passions. ] COLMENERO, Antonio de Ledesma. [Treatise on Chocolate in Spanish entitled :] CURIOSO TRATADO DE LA NATURALEZA Y CALIDAD DEL CHOCOLATE, DIVIDIDO EN QUATRO PUNTOS. Madrid 1631 Translated into English by Don Diego de Vades- forte 1640 Translated into French by Rene Moreau ^43 Translated into Latin by J. G. Volckamer 1644 Translated into English by J. Wadsworth 1652 'Translated into Italian by A. Vitrioli 1667 Moreau's translation edited by Sylvestre Dufour 1671 and 1685 and translated into English by J. Chamberlaine 1685 [for titles, etc., see under translators] DE VADES-FORTE, Don Diego. [The magnificent pseudonym of J. Wads- worth.] (Translated by.) A CURIOUS TREATISE OF THE NATURE AND QUALITY OF CHOCOLATE by Antonio de Ledesma Colmenero. London 1640 192 BIBLIOGRAPHY MOREAU, Rene. (Translated by) DU CHOCOLAT DISCOURS CURIEUX by Antonio de Ledesma Colmenero. pp. 59. Paris [VOLCKAMER, J. G. Translated by.] CHOCOLATA INDA, OPUSCULUM DE QUALI- TATE ET NATURA CHOCOLATAE by Antonio de Ledesma Colmenero. pp. 73. Norimbergae (In same volume with this is " Opobalsamum Orient- alae " and " Pisonis Observationes Medicae." Total pp. 224.) WADSWORTH, J. (Translated by.) CHOCOLATE: OR AN INDIAN DRINKE ETC. by Antonio Ledesma Colmenero. London 1&S2 STUBBE(S), Henry. THE INDIAN NECTAR OR A DISCOURSE CON- CERNING CHOCOLATA. pp. 184. London 1662 BRANCATIUS, Franciscus Maria. DE CHOCALATIS POTU DIATRIBE, pp. 36. Rome 1664 PAULLI, Simon COMMENTARIUS DE ABUSU TABACI . . . THEE. Argentorati (see 1746) 1665 VITRIOLI, A. (Translated by.) DELLA CIOCCOLATA DISCORSO. [From Moreau's translation of Colmenero's book.] Rome 1667 SEBASTUS MELISSENUS, F. Nicephorus. DE CHOCOLATIS POTIONE RESOLUTIO MOR- ALIS. pp. 36. Naples 1671 SYLVESTRE DUFOUR, P. [Edited by.] DE L'USAGE DU CAPHE, DU THE, ET DU CHOCOLAT. pp. 1 88. Lyon 1671 [The part on chocolate, pp. 59, is a revision of Moreau's translation of Colmenero's book, plus B. Marradon's dialogue on chocolate.] Translated into English byj. Chamberlaine (which see). 1685 BIBLIOGRAPHY 193 HUGHES, William. THE AMERICAN PHYSITIAN . . . WHERE- UNTO IS ADDED A DISCOURSE ON THE CACAO-NUT-TREE, AND THE USE OF ITS FRUIT, WITH ALL THE WAYS OF MAKING CHOCOLATE. London 1672 AUTHOR NOT GIVEN. DESCRIPTION AND MANAGEMENT OF THE COCOA TREE. Phil. Trans. Abr. II. pp. 59. 1673 BONTEKOE, Willem. Sundry short treatises in. Dutch on Cocoa and Choco- late, about 1679 AUTHOR NOT GIVEN. THE NATURAL HISTORY OF COFFEE, TEA, CHOCOLATE, TOBACCO AND ALSO THE WAY OF MAKING MUM. pp. 39. Printed for Christopher Wilkinson. London 1682 [Condemns chocolate on account of its containing " such a corrosive salt " as sugar. Mum is a peculiar kind of beer made from wheat malt.] MUNDY, Henry. OPERA OMNIA MEDICO-PHYSICA DE AERE VITALI, EbCULENTIS ET POTULENTIS CUM APPENDICE DE PARERGIS IN VICTU ET CHOCOLATU, THEA, CAFFEA, TOBACCO. Oxford 1680. Leyden 1685 SYLVESTRE DUFOUR, P. TRAITEZ,NOUVEAUX ET CURIEUX DU CAFE, DU THE ET DU CHOCOLAT. [The treatise on chocolate is compiled from the Spanish of Colmenero and B. Marradon.] pp. 403. a la Haye. 1685 (With additions by St. Disdier) pp. 404. a la Haye. 1693 Published by Deville. pp. 404. Lyon 1688 The above in Latin (by J. Spon), "TRACTATUS NOVI DE POTU CAPHE, DE CHIENSIUM, THE, ET DE CHOCOLATA." pp. 202. Paris 1685 A further Latin translation of the above, " NOVI TRACTATUS DE POTU CAPHE DE CHI- ENSIUM, THE, ET DE CHOCOLATA." pp. 188. Geneva 194 BIBLIOGRAPHY CHAMBERLAINE, J. (Translated by). THE MANNER OF MAKING COFFEE, TEA AND CHOCOLATE, pp. 116. London 1685 [A translation of Sylvestre Dufour's compilation, the part on Chocolate entitled " A Curious Treatise of the Nature and Quality of Chocolate," being- a translation of Colmenero's book.] BLEGNY, Nicholas de. LE BON USAGE DE THE, DU CAFFE, ET DU CHOCOLAT POUR LA PRESERVATION ET POUR LA GUERISON DES MALADES. pp. 358. Paris 1687 pp. 358. Lyon 1687 MAPPUS, Marcus. DISSERTATIONES MEDICAE TRES DE RECEP- TIS HODIE ETIAM IN EUROPA, POTUS CALIDI GENERIBUS THEE, CAFE, CHOCOLATA. pp. 66. Argentorati l&95 1701-1800 DUNCAN, Dr. WHOLESOME ADVICE AGAINST THE ABUSE OF HOT LIQUORS, PARTICULARLY OF COFFEE, TEA, CHOCOLATE, ETC. pp. 280. London 1706 AUTHOR NOT GIVEN [by De Chelus.] HISTOIRE NATURELLE DU CACAO ET DU SUCRE. pp. 227. Paris 1719 pp. 228. Amsterdam 1720 pp. 404. Amsterdam 1720 PP- 95- London 1724 BROOKES, R. [the above by De Chelus.] (Translated by). NATURAL HISTORY OF CHOCOLATE. pp. 95. Printed for J. Roberts, London 1724 pp. 95. Printed for Browne, London 172S pp. 95. Printed for J. Roberts, London 1730 ACT OF PARLIAMENT, George II, 1723. Relating to "LAYING INLAND DUTIES ON COF- FEE, TEA AND CHOCOLATE." London 1724 BRUGKMAN, F. E. RELATIO DE CACAO. Brunswick 1738 BIBLIOGRAPHY 195 BARON, H. T. AN SENIBUS CHOCOLATAE PUTUS? Paris 1739 PAULI, S. [PAULLI.] A TREATISE ON TOBACCO, TEA, COFFEE AND CHOCOLATE. Translated by Dr. James, pp. 171. London (see 1665) 1746 N.N. [pseudonym of D. CONCINA.] MEMORIE STORICHE SOPRA L'USO DELLA CIOCCOLATA IN TEMPO DI DIGIUNO ETC. Historical memoir on the use of chocolate upon fast days. pp. 196. Venice I74& STAYLEY, G. THE CHOCOLATE MAKERS OR MIMICKRY EXPOSED. An Interlude. Dublin. 1759 AUTHOR NOT GIVEN. OBSERVATIONS SUR LE CACAO ET SUR LE CHOCOLAT. pp. 144. Paris 1772 SMITH, Hugh. AN ESSAY ON FOREIGN TEAS, WITH OBSER- VATIONS ON MINERAL WATERS, COFFEE, CHOCOLATE, ETC. London 1794 1801-1900 PARMENTIER ON THE COMPOSITION AND USE OF CHOCO- LATE. Nicholson's Journal. London 1803 GALLAIS, A. MONOGRAPHIE DU CACAO, pp. 216. Paris 1827 MITSCHERLIGH, A. DER KAKAO UND DIE SCHOKOLADE. Berlin 1859 GOSSELIN, A. MANUEL DES CHOCOLATIERS. pp. 53. Paris 1860 MANGIN, A. LE CACAO ET LA CHOCOLAT. Paris 1862 196 BIBLIOGRAPHY HEWETT, G. (of Messrs. Dunn and Hewett.) CHOCOLATE AND COCOA, GROWTH AND PRE- PARATION, pp. 88. London 1862 COMPAGNIE GOLONIALE. CHOCOLATE: ITS CHARACTER AND HISTORY. pp. 37. Paris 1868 HOLM, J. COCOA AND ITS MANUFACTURE. Rivers, Lon- don. SINCLAIR, W. J. BEVERAGES, TEA, COCOA, ETC. (Health Lectures, Vol. 4). Manchester 1881 SALDAU, E. DIE CHOCOLADE-FABRIKATION. pp. 232. Vienna (see 1907) 1881 MORRIS, D. CACAO : HOW TO GROW IT. pp. 45. Jamaica 1882 (see 1887) TRINIDAD Agricultural Association. CURING OF COCOA DISCUSSED, pp. 6. 1885 BARTELINK, E. J. HANDLEIDING VOOR KAKAO-PLANTERS. pp. 68. Amsterdam 1885 English Translation, "THE CACAO PLANTERS' MANUAL." pp. 57. London 1885 BAKER, W., & Co. COCOA AND CHOCOLATE, pp. 152. Dorchester, Mass., U.S.A. (see 1891 and 1899) 1886 MORRIS, D. CACAO : HOW TO GROW IT. pp. 42. Jamaica 1887 (see 1882) ZIPPERER, P. DIE CHOCOLADE FABRIKATION. pp. 181. Ber- lin (see 1902 and 1913) 1889 BIBLIOGRAPHY 197 BANNISTER, R. CANTOR LECTURES ON SUGAR, COFFEE, TEA AND COCOA, pp. 77. London 1890 BAKER, W., & Go. THE CHOCOLATE PLANT AND ITS PRODUCTS. pp. 40. Dorchester, Mass., U.S.A. (see 1886 and 1899) I^9I HART, J. H. CACAO, pp. 77. Port of Spain, Trinidad (see 1900 and 1911) 1892 HATTON, J. COCOA, pp. 22. London 1892 HISTORIGUS. COCOA: ALL ABOUT IT. pp. 114. London (see 1896) 1892 GORDIAN, A. DIE DEUTSCHE SCHOKOLADEN UND ZUCKER- WAREN INDUSTRIE. Hartleben's Verlag. Ham- burg 1895 ROQUE, L. De Belfort de la. GUIDE PRATIQUE DE LA FABRICATION DU CHOCOLAT. Paris 1895 HISTORIGUS. COCOA : ALL ABOUT IT. pp. 99. London (see 1892) 1896 VILLON. MANUEL DU CONFISEUR ET DU CHOCOLAT. Paris 1896 GOLDOS, L. MANNUAL DE FABRICACION INDUSTRIAL DE CHOCOLATE, pp. 261. Madrid 1897 OLIVIERI, F. E. CACAO PLANTING AND ITS CULTIVATION, pp. 34. Port of Spain, Trinidad (see 1903) 1897 198 BIBLIOGRAPHY EPPS, James. THE CACAO PLANT, pp. n. (Transactions Croy- don Microscopical and Natural History Club) 1898 BAKER, W., & Go. COCOA AND CHOCOLATE, pp. 71. Dorchester, Mass., U.S.A. (see 1886 and 1891) 1899 HART, J. H. CACAO, pp. 117. Port of Spain, Trinidad (see 1892 and 1911) 1900 JUMELLE, H. LE CACOYER : SA CULTURE ET SON EXPLOI- TATION, pp. 211. Paris 1900 MENIER. HISTORIQUE DES ETABLISSEMENTS MENIER. (Printed for Exposition Universelle.) pp. 44. Paris 1900 MODERN WORKS, 1901-1920. (a) Cacao Cultivation. SMITH, H. Hamel. SOME NOTES ON COCOA PLANTING IN THE WEST INDIES, pp. 70 1901 WILDEMAN, E. de. LES PLANTES TROPICALES DE GRANDE CUL- TURE—CAFE, CACAO, ETC. pp. 304. Bruxelles 1902 PREUSS, Paul. EXPEDITION NACH CENTRAL UND SUD- AMERIKA. Berlin. French translation of part of the above, "LE CACAO, CULTURE ET PREPARA- TION" (from Bulletin Soci6te d'Etudes Coloniales). pp. 249 1902 EITLING, G. DER KAKAO, SEINE KULTUR UND BEREITUNG. pp. 39 1903 BIBLIOGRAPHY 199 OLIVIERI, F. E. TREATISE ON CACAO. pp. 101. Trinidad (see 1897) !903 KINDT, L. DIE KULTUR DES KAKAOBAUMES UND SEINE SCHADLINGE. pp. 157. Hamburg 1904 STEUART, M. E. EVERYDAY LIFE ON A CEYLON COCOA ESTATE, pp. 256. London 1905 CHALOT, C. and LUC, M. LE CACOYER AU CONGO FRANCAIS. pp. 58 1906 FAUCHERE, A. / CULTURE PRATIQUE DU CACAOYER ET PRE- PARATION DU CACAO, pp. 175. Paris 1906 PRUD'HOMME, E. LE COCOTIER. CULTURE, INDUSTRIE ET COMMERCE, pp. 491 1906 DE MENDONCA, Monteiro. BOA ENTRADA PLANTATIONS, SAN THOME. pp. 63. London JQQ? MOUNTMORRES, Viscount. MAIZE, COCOA, RUBBER, pp. 44. Liverpool 1907 SALDAU, E. DIE SCHOKOLADEN FABRIKATION. Vienna (see 1881) 1907 WRIGHT, H. THEOBROMA CACAO OR COCOA. pp. 249. Colombo 1907 RAFAELI, V., and MAXIMILIANO, E. HOW JOSE" FORMED HIS CACAO ESTATE, pp. 18. Trinidad 1907 TORAILLE, G. F. STOLEN FROM THE FIELDS. A TREATISE ON CACAO AND ITS CULTIVATION. Trinidad 1907 200 BIBLIOGRAPHY HUGGINS, J. D. HINTS TO THOSE ENGAGING IN THE CULTI- VATION OF COCOA, pp. 24. Port of Spain, Trinidad 1908 SMITH, H. Hamel. THE FUTURE OF CACAO PLANTING. pp. 95. London 1908 ATBE. EL CULTIVO LAS DISERSAS INDUSTRIAS DES COCO. pp. 42. Quito 1909 HART, J. H. CACAO, pp. 307. Duckworth, London (see 1892 and 1900) 1911 SMITH, H. Hamel. NOTES ON SOIL AND PLANT SANITATION ON CACAO AND RUBBER ESTATES, pp. 603. Bale, London 1911 CARVATHO, d' Almeida. A ILHA DE S. THOME E A AGRICULTURA PRO- GRESSIVA. (Includes Culturas de Cacoeiro.) pp. 228. Lisbon 1912 JOHNSON, W. H. COCOA : ITS CULTIVATION AND PREPARATION. pp. 186. (Imperial Institute.) London 1912 AUTHOR NOT GIVEN. CACAO CULTURE IN THE WEST INDIES, pp. 75. Havana. (Published by German Alkali Works, Cuba.) 1912 HENRY, Yves. LE CACAO, pp. 103. Paris 1913 SMITH, H. Hamel. THE FERMENTATION OF CACAO, pp. 318. Bale, London I9I3 MALINS-SMITH, W. M. PRACTICAL CACAO PLANTING IN GRENADA. (West India Committee Circular, April to December.) 1913 BIBLIOGRAPHY 201 HALL, G. J. J. van. COCOA, pp. 512. Macmillan, London I9I4 KNAPP, A. W. THE PRACTICE OF CACAO FERMENTATION. pp. 24. Bale, London J9:4 (b) Chocolate Manufacture. BESSELICH, N. DIE SCHOKOLADE. pp. 74. Trier. ZIPPERER, P. MANUFACTURE OF CHOCOLATE, pp. 277. Ber- lin, London and New York (see 1889 and 1913) 1902 DUVAL, E. CONFISERIE MODERNE 1908 BOOTH, N. P., GRIBB, C. H., and ELLIS -RICHARDS, P. A. THE COMPOSITION AND ANALYSIS OF CHO- COLATE. Reprinted from the A nalyst. pp. 15. London 1909 FRITSGH, F. FABRICATION DU CHOCOLAT. pp. 349. Paris 1910 FRANCOIS, L. LES ALIMENTS SUCRES INDUSTRIELS (Cho- colats, Bonbons, etc.) pp. 143. Paris 1912 WHYMPER, R. COCOA AND CHOCOLATE : THEIR CHEMISTRY AND MANUFACTURE, pp. 327. Churchill, London 1912 ZIPPERER, P. DIE SCHOKOLADEN-FABRIKATION. pp. 349. Berlin (see also 1889 and 1902) 1913 JACOUTOT, Auguste. CHOCOLATE AND CONFECTIONERY MANU- FACTURE, pp. xv, 211. J. Baker & Sons. London 202 BIBLIOGRAPHY (c) General. WINTON, A. L., SILVERMAN, M., and BAILEY, E. M. [ANALYSES OF CACAO AND COCOA.] Report Connecticut Agri. Expt. Station, U.S.A. pp. 40. 1902 HEAD, Brandon. THE FOOD OF THE GODS. pp. 109. London 1903 STOLLWERGK, W. DER KAKAO UND DIE SCHOKOLADEN IN- DUSTRIE. pp. 102. Jena U.S. CONSULAR REPORT NO. 50 (Dept. of Commerce and Labour.) COCOA PRODUCTION AND TRADE, pp. 51. Washington 1912 CASTILLO, Ledon. EL CHOCOLATE, pp. vi, 30. Mexico 1917 BULLETIN IMPERIAL INSTITUTE. COCOA PRODUCTION IN THE BRITISH EMPIRE. pp. 40-95. London T9!9 KNAPP, A. W., and McLELLAN, B. G. THE ESTIMATION OF CACAO SHELL (reprint from Analyst), pp. 21. London J9T9 The bibliography above is made as complete as possible as far as bound books in English are con- cerned. It also gives the more important continental publications. Should any errors or omissions have been made here or elsewhere, the author will be grate- ful if readers will point them out. BIBLIOGRAPHY 203 PERIODICALS. Only one or two of the important papers in current literature are mentioned. Much valuable material is to be found in the following : CACAO PRODUCTION The papers published by the various departments of agriculture (especially those of Trinidad, Grenada, Philippines, Java, Ceylon, Gold Coast, Kew, etc.), the Bulletin of the Imperial Institute, The West India Committee Circular, Tropical Life, West Africa, Der Tropenpflanzer , etc. STATISTICS The Gordian, Tea and Coffee Trade Journal. MANUFACTURE The Confectioners' Union. CHEMISTRY The Analyst, the Journal of the Society of Chemical Industry, and the Journal of the Chemical Society. INDEX 207 INDEX Asterisks denote illustrations. ACCRA, 74, 91, 114, 185 (see also Gold Coast) Acids produced by fermentation, 57 Adulterants, 163 Adulteration, cocoa, 179 — chocolate, 180 Agostini cacao picker, 46, *46 Agricultural colleges, 42 education, 90 Alcohol produced by fermentation, 52> 57 Alkaline treating- of cocoa, 173 Allen, Grant, 114 Altitude, cacao cultivation, 18 Alligator cacao, 24 Analytical composition — cacao bean, 1 66 cacao butter, 159 — cacao shell, 163 chocolate, 176 cocoa, 168 milk chocolate, 178 ARRIBA, 74, 84 (see also Guayaquil) Aztec, 5, 7, 8 Bacteria— fermentation, 57 Bagging cacao beans, *iO7, *no BAHIA, 74, 87, 114 Bainbridge and Davies, 125 Baker & Co., Walter, 121 Beans, 3, 167, ^129 — breaking machine, 130 breaking of, into fragments, 130 changes — fermentation, 57 characteristics of, 75 size and weight of, 74 use as money, 8 Bibliography, 191 Blending, 133 Booth, N. P., 75 180 Botanical description, 25 Bournville, 128, 144, 162 Boxing chocolates, ^173 BRAZIL, 38, 82. 84, 87, 185 Breaking cacao pods, 50, *5i Brill, H. C., 59 BRITISH GUIANA, 84 BRITISH WEST AFRICA, 185 also Gold Coast) Buying cacao, 109 By-products, 157, 161 Cacao beans, (see beans) Cacao butter, 135, 157, 159, 1 66, 168, 171, 176, 178 keeping properties, 158 melting point, 149, 158 pressing out of, 135 Cacao, cultivation, 17, 38, 116 definition, 2 explanation name, i introduction into Europe, 10 — keeping properties, 122 manufacturers' requirements, 75 picker, 46, *46 preparations, popularity of, 15 shell, (see shell) Cacauatl, i Cadbury Bros., 15, 154 Cadbury, Richard, 16 Caffein, 166, 168, 172, 176, 178 Cailler & Co. , 154 Calabacillo, 23, ^27, 76 CAMEROON'S, 74,82,91, 105, 114 CARACAS, 74, 87 Carmody, Professor, 38, 41 CARUPANO, 74, 87 Catch crop, 36 CEYLON, 18, 42, 52, 68, 70, 74, 81 82, 106, 114, 185 Chittenden, Dr., 52 Claying, 70, *7i, 76, 88 Clearing the land, *2g, 30 Clifford, Sir Hugh, 91 Climate, cacao cultivation, 17 Criollo, *27, 34, 52, 59, 87, 107 Chocolate, 176, 180 Chocolate, ancient usage, 10 — covering recipe, 150 covering, suggested legal defin- ition, 182 definition, 3 — derivation of word, 8 fascination of, 8 208 INDEX Chocolate, houses and clubs, 12 powder, 180 recipe, 140 suggested legal definitions, 18 1 sustaining value, 174 Chocolail, 7, 8 Chupons, (see suckers) Cocoa, 168, 169 definition, 2 digestibility of, 171 how to make, 170 origin of word, 3 powder, introduction of, 15 Coconuts, distinction between and cacao, 3 Colouring beans, 72 Colour, cacao bean, 25, 77 cacao butter, 158 cacao flowers, 22 cacao leaves, 22 cacao pods, 24, 48 changes during fermentation, 57, 59. 6l Columbus, 7 Composition (see analyses) Compressor, chocolate, 148 Conching, 145 Conche machine, *I47, *i^S CONGO, 82, 91, 114 Consumption, 15, 184 Britisli Isles, 184 —World, 186 Contract labour, Cameroons, 106 San Thom^, 103 Cortes, 7 Covering cieaies, *i5i CUBA, 82 Dancing, cacao beans, 72 De Candolle, 94 Decauville railways, $2 DEMERARA, 114 Diseases, cacao tree, 43 DOMINICA, 82, 88 Drying, 62, *63, 64, *64, *65, *68, *69, *85, *98, *io5 Dryers, artificial. 66, *67 Duty, 13, 185 Duty, cacao beans, 14, 185 cacao butter, 14 cacao shell, 14 Earle, Dr. Gastineau, 174 ECUADOR, 52, 81, 82, 84, 185 Enrobing machine, 152, ^152 Enzymes, 59, 6r, 66 Exports, cacao butter, 160 beans, 84 Extracting beans from pod, 50 Faber, Dr. von, 22 Faelli, Professor, 164 Fat (see cacao butter) Fermentation, 52, 76 changes during, 55 control of, 63 good effects of, 60 — loss of weight, during, 64 period of, 52 temperature of, 53, 55, 59, 61 Fermenting boxes, *54, *58 FERNANDO PO, 82, 91 Fickendey, Dr., 55, 59, 61 Flavouring chocolate, 146 Flowers, *2i, 22, 74 Flowers, percentage fruiting, 74 Food value, cacao bean, 166 chocolate, 173, 176 cocoa, 168 milk chocolate, 178 old opinions, 165 Forastero, ^27, 34, 53, 59, 77 Forster, J., 171, 172 Freeman, W. G. , 34 FRENCH COLONIES, 82 Fritsch, J., 173 Fruit, cacao, 21 Fry, J. S. & Sons, 14, 15, 122, 134 Fry, Joseph, 3, 13 Fungi, 44 Gage, Thomas, 8, 10 Gathering, 45, *47, ^49, ^85 Geographical distribution, 18 Germ, cacao, 59, ^129, 131 screens, * 131 separation of, 131 Germination, prevention of, 61 GOLD COAST, 18^42, 74;Si/8/e, 91^94-'! 07 (see also Accraj native industry, 94 Gordon, VV. J., 10 Gouveia, Dr., 105 Grafting and budding, 34, 75 GRENADA, 30, 38, 74, 76, 81, 82, 88, 90, 1 14 Grinding, 120, 134, *M3 mill, cocoa, '133, 134, *'35 machine, chocolate, 140, *M2, *'45 Grousseau & Viconge, 163 GUAYAQUIL, 32, 76, 84, 109, 114 (see also Arriba and Machala) HAITI, 82, 88 Hart, J. H., 34 Height, cacao tree, 20, 36 Historicus, 16 History, cocoa and chocolate, i INDEX 209 Home of cacao, 5 Husk, (see shell) Hutchison, Dr., 170, 175 Illipe butter, 159 Immortel, Bois, 37 Imports, cacao butter, 160 cacao bean, 185 Incas, 8 Insect Pests, 44 JAMAICA, 82, 88 JAVA, 18, 37, 42, 54, 68, 70, 82, 106, 114 Knapp, A. W., 75, 164 LAGOS, 82, 91 Leaves, cacao, 22, *i87 Linnaeus, i Linalool, 60, 125 Loew, Dr. O., 55 MACHALA, 74, 84 (see also Guaya- quil) MADAGASCAR, 68, 106 Manufacture, chocolate, 140 cocoa, 134 — early methods of, *g, 119, *I2O * 121, 129 loss on, 14 milk chocolate, *I55, *i8i Manufacturers' requirements, 75 Manure, 32 cacao shell as, 162 Map, Africa, ^92 South America, *8g World, *83 MARACAIBO, 87 Markets, cacao, 107 Mass, 134, 136 Melangeur, 140, *i4i, 144 MEXICO, i, 7, 18 Milk chocolate, 154, 178, 182 suggested legal definition, 182 —recipe, 155 Montezuma, 7 Mosses, cacao tree, 22 Moulding chocolate, 146 Mountmorres, Viscount, 40 Mulching, 32 Neumann, Dr. R. O., 171 Nib, 15, 120, 128, *J29, 130, 134 Nib, percentage shell, 133 yield of, 15 Nicholls, Dr. L., 55 Nursery, cacao, ^33 Odour, cocoa, 77, 146, 161 fermentation, 60 Orellano, 6 Packing chocolates, *I77 cocoa, 138 PARA, 74, 87 Perrot, Professor, 60 PERU, 8 Pests (see diseases) Peter, M. D., 154 Picker, cacao, 46, *$6 PHILIPPINES, 42 Plantation, cacao, 27, *io4 Planting, 32, *34, 37 Pod, *2,5, 23, "23, *25, *28, *i87 picking of, 46 yield of cacao, 74 Polishing beans, 72, 78 Pollination, cacao flowers, 22 Press cake, 138 cocoa, ^136, *i37 Pressing cocoa, 136 Preuss, Dr. Paul, 66, 70 Preyer, Dr. Axel, 55 Price, cacao, 86, 96, 112, *H3, 185 cacao butter, 160 cacao shell, 164 chocolate, 13 theobromine, 172 PRINCIPE, 100 Production of cacao, Africa, 91 British Possessions, 81, 82, 183 British West Africa, 91 British West Indies, 88 Gold Coast, 94 — increasing of, 75 San Thom£ and Principe, TOO —shell, 161 South America, 84 West Indies, 88 World, *8o, 81, 82 Pruning, 40 Pulp, cacao, *24, 25, 52, 55, 60 Rainfall, cacao cultivation, 18 Raleigh, Sir Walter, 6 Refining machine, *i42 Research Association, vi Revis and Bolton, 128 Richelieu, Cardinal, n Roaster, "126, 128 2IO INDEX Roasting, 1 19, 125 loss on, 127 Rocking tables, 149, "149 Root system, *3i Sack, Dr., 55, 66 Sales of cacao, 1 1 1 SAMANA, 91 SAMOA, 82, 106, 114 SANCHEZ, 91 SAN DOMINGO, 82, 88, 91 Santrre-tora, 24 ^ SAN THOME, 38, 52, 54, 82,91, £OO, 114 Schulte im Hofe, Dr. A., 55 Seed, selection of, 32 Shade, 36, *3y, *38, '39, 90, 102 Shaking- table, chocolate, 149, *i49 Shell, cacao, "129, 161, 163 butter, 162 coffee substitute, 163 as feeding- stuff, 162, 163 in finished cocoa, 180 — food units, 163 fuel, 162 manure, 162 removal of, 120, 128 separating- machine, 132, *i32 tea from, 161 Sherman, H. C., 176 Sieving cocoa, 138 Size, bean, 78 cocoa particles, 138 sugar particles, 144 Smalls, 132 Smetham, A., 163, 167 Smith, H. Hamel, 55 Snyder, Harry, 176 Soil, 30 Soluble cocoa, 168, 172 Sorting beans, *73, *86, 123 Sorting-cleaning machine, 124, '124, *I25 Stimulating properties, 60, 172 ST. LUCIA, 82, 88 Storing- cacao, 122, *123 ST. VINCENT, 82, 88 Suckers, 40, *4i Surf boats, *io8 SURINAM, 30, 52, 82, 84, 114 Sweat boxes, 53, *53 Sweatings, 57, 63 Taste, fermentation, 59 Temperature, cacao cultivation, 18 — covering chocolate, 151 fermentation, 53, 55, 59, 61 germination, 61 chocolate moulding, 149 — bean roasting, 128 Tempering machine, 149 Theobroma cacao, i, 26 Theobromine, in bean, 166 chocolate, 176 cocoa, 168, 172 fermentation, 60 milk chocolate, 178 shell, 162 TOGO, 82, 91 Transport of cacao, *56, *93, *95- 96, *97, *99, *ioo, *ioi , *io2, *io3, *io6, 107, *io8; *i 10 Tree, cacao, 19, *ig, *2O growth, 40 yield of, 74 TRINIDAD, 1 8, 30, 34, 37, 41, 42, 52, 68, 70, 72, 74, 75, 76, 81, 82, 88, 103, 114 Van Houten, C. J., 15 Varieties of cacao, 26 Vasmer, Theo., 183, 186 VENEZUELA, 18, 70, 76, 81,82,84, 1 06 Washing cacao beans, 68, *7o, 78, 107 Watt, Sir George, 50 Weight, bag of cacao, 109 loss on drying, 64 loss on fermentation, 64 loss on roasting, 128 WEST INDIES, 88 WEST INDIES, BRITISH, 88, 185 Wind-screen trees, 30 Winnowing machine (see shell separ- ating machine) Whisk, chocolate, *6, *i7o Yeasts, fermenting, 57 Yield, cacao pod, 74 cacao tree, 74 per acre, 74, 103 Tannin, 59 Tap root, *3i, 32 Zipperer, P., 149, 164 THE WESTMINSTER PRESS HARROW ROAD LONDON RETURN TO the circulation desk of any University of California Library or to the NORTHERN REGIONAL LIBRARY FACILITY Bldg. 400, Richmond Field Station University of California Richmond, CA 94804-4698 ALL BOOKS MAY BE RECALLED AFTER 7 DAYS 2 month loans may be renewed by calling f be recharged by bringing books to NRLF • Renewals and recharges may be mad< days prior to due date. DUE AS STAMPED BELOW 12,000(11/95) U.C. 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